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Both men seemed in good health , despite their ordeal ; Nansen had put on 21 pounds ( 9 @.@ 5 kg ) in weight since the start of the expedition , and Johansen 13 pounds ( 5 @.@ 9 kg ) . In honour of his rescuer , Nansen named the island where he had wintered " Frederick Jackson Island " . For the next six weeks Nansen had little to do but await the arrival of Windward , worrying that he might have to spend the winter at Cape Flora , and sometimes regretting that he and Johansen had not pressed on to Spitsbergen . Johansen noted in his journal that Nansen had changed from the overbearing personality of the Fram days , and was now subdued and polite , adamant that he would never undertake such a journey again . On 26 July Windward finally arrived ; on 7 August , with Nansen and Johansen aboard , she sailed south and on 13 August reached Vardø . A batch of telegrams was sent , informing the world of Nansen 's safe return .
= = = Drift ( second phase ) = = =
Before his departure from Fram , Nansen appointed Sverdrup as leader of the rest of the expedition , with orders to continue with the drift towards the Atlantic Ocean unless circumstances warranted abandoning the ship and marching for land . Nansen left precise instructions about keeping up the scientific work , especially the ocean depth soundings and the tests for the thickness of the ice . He concluded : " May we meet in Norway , whether it be on board of this vessel or without her . "
Sverdrup 's main task now was to keep his crew busy . He ordered a thorough spring cleaning , and set a party to chip away some of the surrounding ice which was threatening to destabilise the ship . Although there was no immediate danger to Fram , Sverdrup oversaw the repair and overhaul of sledges , and the organisation of provisions should it after all be necessary to abandon ship and march to land . With the arrival of warmer weather as the 1895 summer approached , Sverdrup resumed daily ski practice . Amid these activities a full programme of meteorological , magnetic and oceanographic activities continued under Scott Hansen ; Fram had become a moving oceanographic , meteorological and biological laboratory .
As the drift proceeded the ocean became deeper ; soundings gave successive depths of 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) , 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) and 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) , a progression which indicated that no undiscovered land mass was nearby . On 15 November 1895 Fram reached 85 ° 55 ′ N , only 19 nautical miles ( 35 km ; 22 mi ) below Nansen 's Farthest North mark . From this point on , the drift was generally to the south and west , although progress was for long periods almost imperceptible . Inactivity and boredom led to increased drinking ; Scott Hansen recorded that Christmas and New Year passed " with the usual hot punch and consequent hangover " , and wrote that he was " getting more and more disgusted with drunkenness " . By mid @-@ March 1896 , the position was 84 ° 25 ′ N , 12 ° 50 ′ E , placing the ship north of Spitsbergen . On 13 June a lead opened and , for the first time in nearly three years , Fram became a living ship . It was a further two months , on 13 August 1896 , before she found open water and , with a blast from her cannon , left the ice behind . She had emerged from the ice just north and west of Spitsbergen , close to Nansen 's original prediction , proving him right and his detractors wrong . Later that same day a ship was sighted — Søstrone , a seal hunter from Tromsø . Sverdrup rowed across for news , and learned that nothing had been heard from Nansen . Fram called briefly at Spitsbergen , where the Swedish explorer @-@ engineer Salomon Andrée was preparing for the balloon flight that he hoped would take him to the pole . After a short time ashore , Sverdrup and his crew began the trip south to Norway .
= = Reunion and reception = =
In the course of the expedition , rumours circulated that Nansen had reached the North Pole , the first as early as April 1894 , in the French Newspaper Le Figaro . In September 1895 Eva Nansen was informed that messages signed by Nansen had been discovered , " sent from the North Pole " . In February 1896 The New York Times ran a dispatch from Irkutsk , in Siberia , from a supposed Nansen agent , claiming that Nansen had reached the pole and found land there . Charles P. Daly of the American Geographical Society called this " startling news " and , " if true , the most important discovery that has been made in ages . "
Experts were sceptical of all such reports , and Nansen 's arrival in Vardø quickly put paid to them . In Vardø , he and Johansen were greeted by Professor Mohn , the originator of the polar drift theory , who was in the town by chance . The pair waited for the weekly mail steamer to take them south , and on 18 August arrived in Hammerfest to an enthusiastic reception . The lack of news about Fram was preying on Nansen 's mind ; however , on 20 August he received news that Sverdrup had brought the ship to the tiny port of Skjervøy , south of Hammerfest , and was now continuing with her to Tromsø . The next day , Nansen and Johansen sailed into Tromsø and joined their comrades in an emotional reunion .
After days of celebration and recuperation the ship left Tromsø on 26 August . The voyage south was a triumphal procession , with receptions at every port . Fram finally arrived in Christiania on 9 September , escorted into the harbour by a squadron of warships and welcomed by thousands — the largest crowds the city had ever seen , according to Huntford . Nansen and his crew were received by King Oscar ; on the way to the reception they passed through a triumphal arch formed by 200 gymnasts . Nansen and his family stayed at the palace as special guests of the king ; by contrast , Johansen remained in the background , largely overlooked , and writing that " reality , after all , is not so wonderful as it appeared to me in the midst of our hard life . "
= = Assessment and aftermath = =
The traditional approach to Arctic exploration had relied on large @-@ scale forces , with a presumption that European techniques could be successfully transplanted into the hostile polar climate . Over the years this strategy had brought little success , and had led to heavy losses of men and ships . By contrast , Nansen 's method of using small , trained crews , and harnessing Inuit and Sami expertise in his methods of travel , had ensured that his expedition was completed without a single casualty or major mishap .
Although it did not achieve the objective of reaching the North Pole , the expedition made major geographical and scientific discoveries . Sir Clements Markham , president of Britain 's Royal Geographical Society , declared that the expedition had resolved " the whole problem of Arctic geography " . It was now established that the North Pole was located not on land , nor on a permanent ice sheet , but on shifting , unpredictable pack ice . The Arctic Ocean was a deep basin , with no significant land masses north of the Eurasian continent — any hidden expanse of land would have blocked the free movement of ice . Nansen had proved the polar drift theory ; furthermore , he had noted the presence of a Coriolis force driving the ice to the right of the wind direction , due to the effect of the Earth 's rotation . This discovery would be developed by Nansen 's pupil , Vagn Walfrid Ekman , who later became the leading oceanographer of his time . From its programme of scientific observation the expedition provided the first detailed oceanographic information from the area ; in due course the scientific data gathered during the Fram voyage would run to six published volumes .
Throughout the expedition Nansen continued to experiment with equipment and techniques , altering the designs of skis and sledges and investigating types of clothing , tents and cooking apparatus , thereby revolutionising methods of Arctic travel . In the era of polar exploration which followed his return , explorers routinely sought Nansen 's advice as to methods and equipment — although sometimes they chose not to follow it , usually to their cost . According to Huntford , the South Pole heroes Amundsen , Scott , and Ernest Shackleton were all Nansen 's acolytes .
Nansen 's status was never seriously challenged , although he did not escape criticism . American explorer Robert Peary wondered why Nansen had not returned to the ship when his polar dash was thwarted after a mere three weeks away . " Was he ashamed to go back after so short an absence , or had there been a row ... or did he go off for Franz Josef Land from sensational motives or business reasons ? " Adolphus Greely , who had initially dismissed the entire expedition as infeasible , admitted that he had been proved wrong but nevertheless drew attention to " the single blemish " — Nansen 's decision to leave his comrades hundreds of miles from land . " It passes comprehension " , Greely wrote , " how Nansen could have thus deviated from the most sacred duty devolving on the commander of a naval expedition . " Nansen 's reputation nevertheless survived ; a hundred years after the expedition the British explorer Wally Herbert called the Fram voyage " one of the most inspiring examples of courageous intelligence in the history of exploration " .
The Fram voyage was Nansen 's final expedition . He was appointed to a research professorship at the University of Christiania in 1897 , and to a full professorship in oceanography in 1908 . He became independently wealthy as a result of the publication of his expedition account ; in his later career he served the newly independent kingdom of Norway in different capacities , and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 1922 , in recognition of his work on behalf of refugees . Hjalmar Johansen never settled back into normal life . After years of drifting , debt and drunkenness he was given the opportunity , through Nansen 's influence , to join Roald Amundsen 's South Pole expedition in 1910 . Johansen quarreled violently with Amundsen at the expedition 's base camp , and was omitted from the South Pole party . He committed suicide within a year of his return from Antarctica . Otto Sverdrup remained as captain of Fram , and in 1898 took the ship , with a new crew , to the Canadian Arctic for four years ' exploration . In later years Sverdrup helped to raise funds that enabled the ship to be restored and housed in a permanent museum . He died in November 1930 , seven months after Nansen 's death .
Nansen 's farthest north record lasted for just over five years . On 24 April 1900 a party of three from an Italian expedition led by the Duke of the Abruzzi reached 86 ° 34 ′ N , having left Franz Josef Land with dogs and sledges on 11 March . The party barely made it back ; one of their support groups of three men vanished entirely .
= The Monkey Suit =
" The Monkey Suit " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the seventeenth season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 14 , 2006 . In the episode , Ned Flanders is shocked after seeing a new display at the museum about evolution . Together with Reverend Lovejoy , he spreads the religious belief of creationism in Springfield , and at a later town meeting , teaching evolution is made illegal . As a result , Lisa decides to hold secret classes for people interested in evolution . However , she is quickly arrested and a trial against her is initiated .
J. Stewart Burns wrote " The Monkey Suit " , for which he received inspiration from the 1925 Scopes Monkey Trial . The episode features a few references to this legal case , as well as several references to popular culture . Many analysts have commented on the episode 's treatment of the creation – evolution controversy , a dispute about the origin of humanity between those who support a creationist view based upon their religious beliefs , versus those who accept evolution , as supported by scientific evidence .
Critics have given the episode generally positive reviews , praising it for its satire of the creation – evolution debate . " The Monkey Suit " has won an award from the Independent Investigations Group ( IIG ) for being " one of those rare shows in the media that encourage science , critical thinking , and ridicule those shows that peddle pseudoscience and superstition . " In 2007 , a scene from the episode was highlighted in the scientific journal Nature .
= = Plot = =
On the last day of summer vacation , Lisa brings the family to the museum to see a weaving exhibit as her summer activity , but they quickly discover that it has been canceled and replaced by a " History of Weapons " exhibit . Faced with an incredibly long line , Homer notices Ned Flanders and his children at the front of the line and cuts in front of them . Others start taking advantage of Ned ’ s kindness as well , until the Flanders family is stuck at the end . At the end of the day , they are still waiting , and are denied entry , as it is closing time for the weapons exhibit . They therefore decide to check out the evolution exhibit next door . Ned is horrified to hear that humans evolved from apes and that the creation account in the Genesis is characterized as a myth . Covering his children 's eyes , he drags them out of the exhibit .
Ned meets up with the church council to suggest promotion of creationism . The next day , he and Reverend Lovejoy blackmail Principal Skinner into introducing creationism in the school . Lisa is perturbed by this , and at a town meeting asks everyone to make a choice between creationism and Darwinism , as there is only one truth . The townspeople vote for creationism , much to her chagrin , and the act of teaching or learning Darwinism and evolution is made illegal . Lisa therefore decides to start holding secret classes for people interested in evolution . However , just as the first lesson is about to begin , she is arrested by Chief Wiggum . She asks why she 's being arrested when there are far worse crimes out there , and embarrassed he tells her they only have enough manpower to enforce the last three laws passed , even stating that it 's the worst law system there is . Lisa is brought to trial , which is dubbed Lisa Simpson v. God . Representing her is Clarice Drummond , a despised American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) lawyer , while on God ’ s ( i.e. , Ned 's ) side is Wallace Brady , a beloved , overweight , southern lawyer . The trial does not go smoothly for Lisa , as Professor Frink ( called by Clarice ) gives ambiguous answers regarding God 's existence , while a creationist scientist says that evolution cannot be real , as there is no proof of a " missing link " ( depicted in a picture as a savage hominid , holding a rock over his head ) .
With Lisa now facing a long jail sentence , Marge decides to help her out . She starts reading Charles Darwin 's The Origin of Species and becomes addicted to it . When the trial resumes , Marge tells Lisa that she now knows a way that she can help her . While Ned is being cross @-@ examined by Clarice , Marge gives Homer a cold beer . Homer , ecstatic at getting a beer , tries to open it unsuccessfully . The more he tries , the more primitive he gets , hooting and banging the bottle on the bench , disrupting the trial . Finally , Ned loses his cool and refers to Homer as a " big monkey @-@ faced gorilla . " Clarice then asks Ned to compare the picture of the " missing link " and Homer shaking the beer over his head , and asks if he truthfully believes Homer cannot be related to apes . Ned cannot and concedes victory to Lisa . Lisa kindly tells Ned that she fully respects religious beliefs , but she just does not think it is proper for the church to dominate the school , the same way that Mr. Flanders and Reverend Lovejoy do not want scientists taking over the church . Ned agrees and offers to take Lisa and his kids out for ice cream .
= = Production = =
" The Monkey Suit " was written by J. Stewart Burns and directed by Raymond S. Persi as part of the seventeenth season of The Simpsons ( 2005 – 2006 ) . Burns received inspiration for the episode from the Scopes Monkey Trial , a 1925 legal case in which high school science teacher John Scopes was accused of violating Tennessee 's Butler Act which made teaching evolution unlawful . Clarice Drummond , the ACLU lawyer who represents Lisa , is a reference to the ACLU lawyer Clarence Darrow who defended Scopes , while Wallace Brady is a reference to William Jennings Bryan , an attorney in the Scopes Monkey Trial . American actor Larry Hagman guest starred in the episode as Wallace Brady , while American actress Melanie Griffith played herself as the narrator of an audio tour at the museum . Burns did research for " The Monkey Suit " by reading Richard Dawkins ' book The Selfish Gene and watching Inherit the Wind ( a film based on the Scopes Monkey Trial ) . He also visited a natural history museum .
The opening of the episode , in which Bart rushes to do everything he planned on doing during summer vacation , was originally written and animated for the season fourteen episode " I 'm Spelling as Fast as I Can " ( 2003 ) but was cut . This episode came in short , and to fill in time , the sequence was added . Burns has said commented the episode " ended up being incredibly short because when you do an episode where there 's really just one good side of an argument [ creation vs. evolution ] , you don 't fill out as much time as you need to . " The opening sequence features a large number of allusions to popular culture , including references to The Natural ( 1984 film ) , Happy Days ( television sitcom ) , and Men in Black ( 1997 film ) .
= = Themes = =
" The Monkey Suit " is an episode that tackles the creation – evolution controversy , and according to Theresa Sanders in her book Approaching Eden : Adam and Eve in Popular Culture , " skewered antievolution legislation . " The authors of the book Chronology of the Evolution @-@ Creationism Controversy commented that the episode " caricatures creationism as an intellectual joke . " Burns has cited the episode as " a nice example of The Simpsons really taking one clear side " . However , as pointed out by Sanders , it " should be pointed out that though the Simpsons episode clearly sides with Darwin , evolutionists come in for criticism as well . When Ned and his sons go into the museum 's Hall of Man , one of the exhibits they see in support of evolution is a collection of dinosaur bones with the title ' Indisputable Fossil Records . ' The cartoon 's inclusion of the sign can be interpreted as mocking the pretension that science knows all and may not be questioned . " Sanders cited another scene as an example of this ; at the trial , Drummond asks Professor Frink if " this theory of evolution necessarily mean that there is no God ? " , to which he replies , " No , of course not . It just says that God is an impotent nothing from nowhere with less power than the undersecretary of Agriculture . " Sanders wrote that " His arrogance is clear , and equally clear is the show 's satirical presentation of science 's hubris . "
Ted Gournelos analyzed " The Monkey Suit " in his 2009 book Popular Culture and the Future of Politics : Cultural Studies and the Tao of South Park , writing : " More than anything , the episode is used to critique the demonization of evolutionary theory by religious propaganda , by an instructional video used in the school ( that shows a drunken Charles Darwin passionately kissing Satan ) as well as by the prosecuting attorney . This allows for a somewhat leftist discussion of the issue , but ultimately is unable to address the rise of Christian fundamentalism in the United States [ ... ] " . Gournelos noted that the episode focuses on the old Scopes Monkey Trial and does not address contemporary creation – evolution debates , adding : " Interestingly , The Simpsons continues to place creationism at a higher popular plain than evolution , as the jury and trial audience are obviously biased towards the creationists ( who , unlike in contemporary cases , are the prosecutors rather than the plaintiffs ) . " Gournelos concluded that the episode " pokes gentle fun at media rhetoric and the questioning of evolutionary theory [ ... ] , but is unable or unwilling to address the rise of intelligent design or contemporary court battles ( in Pennsylvania [ see Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District ] , Kansas [ see Kansas evolution hearings ] , and elsewhere ) that might encourage debate in its audience . "
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 14 , 2006 . During this broadcast , it was seen by approximately 8 @.@ 41 millions viewers , finishing forty @-@ sixth in the ratings for the week of May 8 – 14 , 2006 . Since airing , the episode has received generally positive reviews from critics . In a retrospective that was published on the twentieth anniversary of The Simpsons in 2010 , writers for BBC News selected " The Monkey Suit " as one of the show 's " 10 classic episodes " , one they said demonstrated that " the writers still have fire in their bellies . " TV Squad critic Adam Finley wrote that " Last night 's episode had some good moments , but it did feel like they were treading upon somewhat familiar ground and not saying anything especially new , " referring to the fact the issue of science and religion has been dealt with before on the show , " most notably in the ' Lisa the Skeptic ' episode in which the supposed skeleton of a dead angel is found . " In 2007 , " The Monkey Suit " won an award from the Independent Investigations Group ( IIG ) for being " one of those rare shows in the media that encourage science , critical thinking , and ridicule those shows that peddle pseudoscience and superstition . " J. Stewart Burns , the writer of the episode , was present at the awards ceremony to accept the award .
While reviewing the seventeenth season of The Simpsons , Jesse Hassenger of PopMatters noted that he thought the show had declined in quality compared to its earlier years , and added that the stronger episodes in the later seasons are that ones that " satirize topical issues " , giving " The Monkey Suit " as an example . Similarly , Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram staff writer Robert Philpot commented that " Even in its weak seasons , this show has always been good for at least one belly laugh per episode . Not this year [ season seventeen ] . Aside from an installment that took on the evolution -vs.-creationism edge and a couple of other bits , the satirical edge has really dulled , making the announcement that it will have at least two more seasons a cause for concern rather than celebration . " In the July 26 , 2007 issue of Nature , the scientific journal 's editorial staff listed among " The Top Ten science moments in The Simpsons " the scene from the episode in which " Flanders is flabbergasted that the science museum 's exhibit on the origins of man both highlights evolution and makes light of creationism — and , to top it all , has a unisex bathroom . "
= Horse =
The horse ( Equus ferus caballus ) is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus . It is an odd @-@ toed ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae . The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi @-@ toed creature , Eohippus , into the large , single @-@ toed animal of today . Humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC , and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC . Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated , although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses . These feral populations are not true wild horses , as this term is used to describe horses that have never been domesticated , such as the endangered Przewalski 's horse , a separate subspecies , and the only remaining true wild horse . There is an extensive , specialized vocabulary used to describe equine @-@ related concepts , covering everything from anatomy to life stages , size , colors , markings , breeds , locomotion , and behavior .
Horses ' anatomy enables them to make use of speed to escape predators and they have a well @-@ developed sense of balance and a strong fight @-@ or @-@ flight response . Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait : horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down . Female horses , called mares , carry their young for approximately 11 months , and a young horse , called a foal , can stand and run shortly following birth . Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four . They reach full adult development by age five , and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years .
Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament : spirited " hot bloods " with speed and endurance ; " cold bloods " , such as draft horses and some ponies , suitable for slow , heavy work ; and " warmbloods " , developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods , often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes , particularly in Europe . There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today , developed for many different uses .
Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non @-@ competitive recreational pursuits , as well as in working activities such as police work , agriculture , entertainment , and therapy . Horses were historically used in warfare , from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed , using many different styles of equipment and methods of control . Many products are derived from horses , including meat , milk , hide , hair , bone , and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares . Humans provide domesticated horses with food , water and shelter , as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers .
= = Biology = =
Specific terms and specialized language are used to describe equine anatomy , different life stages , colors and breeds .
= = = Lifespan and life stages = = =
Depending on breed , management and environment , the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years . Uncommonly , a few animals live into their 40s and , occasionally , beyond . The oldest verifiable record was " Old Billy " , a 19th @-@ century horse that lived to the age of 62 . In modern times , Sugar Puff , who had been listed in Guinness World Records as the world 's oldest living pony , died in 2007 at age 56 .
Regardless of a horse or pony 's actual birth date , for most competition purposes a year is added to its age each January 1 of each year in the Northern Hemisphere and each August 1 in the Southern Hemisphere . The exception is in endurance riding , where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal 's actual calendar age .
The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages :
Colt : A male horse under the age of four . A common terminology error is to call any young horse a " colt " , when the term actually only refers to young male horses .
Filly : A female horse under the age of four .
Foal : A horse of either sex less than one year old . A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling . Most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age , although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects .
Gelding : A castrated male horse of any age .
Mare : A female horse four years old and older .
Stallion : A non @-@ castrated male horse four years old and older . The term " horse " is sometimes used colloquially to refer specifically to a stallion .
Yearling : A horse of either sex that is between one and two years old .
In horse racing , these definitions may differ : For example , in the British Isles , Thoroughbred horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old . However , Australian Thoroughbred racing defines colts and fillies as less than four years old .
= = = Size and measurement = = =
The height of horses is usually measured at the highest point of the withers , where the neck meets the back . This point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy , unlike the head or neck , which move up and down in relation to the body of the horse .
In English @-@ speaking countries , the height of horses is often stated in units of hands and inches : one hand is equal to 4 inches ( 101 @.@ 6 mm ) . The height is expressed as the number of full hands , followed by a point , then the number of additional inches , and ending with the abbreviation " h " or " hh " ( for " hands high " ) . Thus , a horse described as " 15 @.@ 2 h " is 15 hands plus 2 inches , for a total of 62 inches ( 157 @.@ 5 cm ) in height .
The size of horses varies by breed , but also is influenced by nutrition . Light riding horses usually range in height from 14 to 16 hands ( 56 to 64 inches , 142 to 163 cm ) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms ( 840 to 1 @,@ 210 lb ) . Larger riding horses usually start at about 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 62 inches , 157 cm ) and often are as tall as 17 hands ( 68 inches , 173 cm ) , weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 100 to 1 @,@ 320 lb ) . Heavy or draft horses are usually at least 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) high and can be as tall as 18 hands ( 72 inches , 183 cm ) high . They can weigh from about 700 to 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 540 to 2 @,@ 200 lb ) .
The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire horse named Mammoth , who was born in 1848 . He stood 21 @.@ 2 1 ⁄ 4 hands ( 86 @.@ 25 inches , 219 cm ) high and his peak weight was estimated at 1 @,@ 524 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 360 lb ) . The current record holder for the world 's smallest horse is Thumbelina , a fully mature miniature horse affected by dwarfism . She is 17 in ( 43 cm ) tall and weighs 57 lb ( 26 kg ) .
= = = = Ponies = = = =
Ponies are taxonomically the same animals as horses . The distinction between a horse and pony is commonly drawn on the basis of height , especially for competition purposes . However , height alone is not dispositive ; the difference between horses and ponies may also include aspects of phenotype , including conformation and temperament .
The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at maturity is 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 58 inches , 147 cm ) . An animal 14 @.@ 2 h or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than 14 @.@ 2 h a pony , but there are many exceptions to the traditional standard . In Australia , ponies are considered to be those under 14 hands ( 56 inches , 142 cm ) , For competition in the Western division of the United States Equestrian Federation , the cutoff is 14 @.@ 1 hands ( 57 inches , 145 cm ) The International Federation for Equestrian Sports , the world governing body for horse sport , uses metric measurements and defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than 148 centimetres ( 58 @.@ 27 in ) at the withers without shoes , which is just over 14 @.@ 2 h , and 149 centimetres ( 58 @.@ 66 in ) , or just over 14 @.@ 2 ½ h , with shoes .
Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies . Breed registries for horses that typically produce individuals both under and over 14 @.@ 2 h consider all animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their height . Conversely , some pony breeds may have features in common with horses , and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14 @.@ 2 h , but are still considered to be ponies .
Ponies often exhibit thicker manes , tails , and overall coat . They also have proportionally shorter legs , wider barrels , heavier bone , shorter and thicker necks , and short heads with broad foreheads . They may have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers . Small size , by itself , is not an exclusive determinant . For example , the Shetland pony which averages 10 hands ( 40 inches , 102 cm ) , is considered a pony . Conversely , breeds such as the Falabella and other miniature horses , which can be no taller than 30 inches ( 76 cm ) , are classified by their registries as very small horses , not ponies .
= = = Genetics = = =
Horses have 64 chromosomes . The horse genome was sequenced in 2007 . It contains 2 @.@ 7 billion DNA base pairs , which is larger than the dog genome , but smaller than the human genome or the bovine genome . The map is available to researchers .
= = = Colors and markings = = =
Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings , described by a specialized vocabulary . Often , a horse is classified first by its coat color , before breed or sex . Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by white markings , which , along with various spotting patterns , are inherited separately from coat color .
Many genes that create horse coat colors and patterns have been identified . Current genetic tests can identify at least 13 different alleles influencing coat color , and research continues to discover new genes linked to specific traits . The basic coat colors of chestnut and black are determined by the gene controlled by the Melanocortin 1 receptor , also known as the " extension gene " or " red factor , " as its recessive form is " red " ( chestnut ) and its dominant form is black . Additional genes control suppression of black color to point coloration that results in a bay , spotting patterns such as pinto or leopard , dilution genes such as palomino or dun , as well as graying , and all the other factors that create the many possible coat colors found in horses .
Horses which have a white coat color are often mislabeled ; a horse that looks " white " is usually a middle @-@ aged or older gray . Grays are born a darker shade , get lighter as they age , but usually keep black skin underneath their white hair coat ( with the exception of pink skin under white markings ) . The only horses properly called white are born with a predominantly white hair coat and pink skin , a fairly rare occurrence . Different and unrelated genetic factors can produce white coat colors in horses , including several different alleles of dominant white and the sabino @-@ 1 gene . However , there are no " albino " horses , defined as having both pink skin and red eyes .
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
Gestation lasts approximately 340 days , with an average range 320 – 370 days , and usually results in one foal ; twins are rare . Horses are a precocial species , and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth . Foals are usually born in the spring . The estrous cycle of a mare occurs roughly every 19 – 22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn . Most mares enter an anestrus period during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period . Foals are generally weaned from their mothers between four and six months of age .
Horses , particularly colts , sometimes are physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months , but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three , especially females . Horses four years old are considered mature , although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six ; maturation also depends on the horse 's size , breed , sex , and quality of care . Larger horses have larger bones ; therefore , not only do the bones take longer to form bone tissue , but the epiphyseal plates are larger and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone . These plates convert after the other parts of the bones , and are crucial to development .
Depending on maturity , breed , and work expected , horses are usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four . Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track as young as the age of two in some countries , horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old , because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed . For endurance riding competition , horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar months ( five years ) old .
= = = Anatomy = = =
= = = = Skeletal system = = = =
The horse skeleton averages 205 bones . A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human is the lack of a collarbone — the horse 's forelimbs are attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles , tendons , and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso . The horse 's legs and hooves are also unique structures . Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human . For example , the body part that is called a horse 's " knee " is actually made up of the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist . Similarly , the hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel . The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot , and the fetlock ( incorrectly called the " ankle " ) is actually the proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones ( a single equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones ) and the proximal phalanges , located where one finds the " knuckles " of a human . A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks , only skin , hair , bone , tendons , ligaments , cartilage , and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the hoof .
= = = = Hooves = = = =
The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage , " no foot , no horse " . The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges , the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe , surrounded by cartilage and other specialized , blood @-@ rich soft tissues such as the laminae . The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of keratin , the same material as a human fingernail . The end result is that a horse , weighing on average 500 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) , travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe . For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions , some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier . The hoof continually grows , and in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed ( and horseshoes reset , if used ) every five to eight weeks , though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and regrow at a rate suitable for their terrain .
= = = = Teeth = = = =
Horses are adapted to grazing . In an adult horse , there are 12 incisors at the front of the mouth , adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation . There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing , the premolars and molars , at the back of the mouth . Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors , a type of canine teeth called " tushes " . Some horses , both male and female , will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molars , known as " wolf " teeth , which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit . There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the gums , or " bars " of the horse 's mouth when the horse is bridled .
An estimate of a horse 's age can be made from looking at its teeth . The teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are worn down by grazing . Therefore , the incisors show changes as the horse ages ; they develop a distinct wear pattern , changes in tooth shape , and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet . This allows a very rough estimate of a horse 's age , although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of tooth wear .
= = = = Digestion = = = =
Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material , consumed steadily throughout the day . Therefore , compared to humans , they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients . A 450 @-@ kilogram ( 990 lb ) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms ( 15 to 24 lb ) of food per day and , under normal use , drink 38 to 45 litres ( 8 @.@ 4 to 9 @.@ 9 imp gal ; 10 to 12 US gal ) of water . Horses are not ruminants , they have only one stomach , like humans , but unlike humans , they can utilize cellulose , a major component of grass . Horses are hindgut fermenters , Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria occurs in the cecum , or " water gut " , which food goes through before reaching the large intestine . Horses cannot vomit , so digestion problems can quickly cause colic , a leading cause of death .
= = = = Senses = = = =
The horses ' senses are based on their status as prey animals , where they must be aware of their surroundings at all times . They have the largest eyes of any land mammal , and are lateral @-@ eyed , meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads . This means that horses have a range of vision of more than 350 ° , with approximately 65 ° of this being binocular vision and the remaining 285 ° monocular vision . Horses have excellent day and night vision , but they have two @-@ color , or dichromatic vision ; their color vision is somewhat like red @-@ green color blindness in humans , where certain colors , especially red and related colors , appear as a shade of green .
Their sense of smell , while much better than that of humans , is not quite as good as that of a dog . It is believed to play a key role in the social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the environment . Horses have two olfactory centers . The first system is in the nostrils and nasal cavity , which analyze a wide range of odors . The second , located under the nasal cavity , are the Vomeronasal organs , also called Jacobson 's organs . These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and appear to primarily analyze pheromones .
A horse 's hearing is good , and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180 ° , giving the potential for 360 ° hearing without having to move the head . Noise impacts the behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise may contribute to stress : A 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet setting , or if listening to country or classical music , but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock music . This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21 decibels . An Australian study found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses listening to music , and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of ulceration than horses stabled where there was no radio playing .
Horses have a great sense of balance , due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed proprioception — the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times . A horse 's sense of touch is well developed . The most sensitive areas are around the eyes , ears , and nose . Horses are able to sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body .
Horses have an advanced sense of taste , which allows them to sort through fodder and choose what they would most like to eat , and their prehensile lips can easily sort even small grains . Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants , however , there are exceptions ; horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food .
= = = Movement = = =
All horses move naturally with four basic gaits : the four @-@ beat walk , which averages 6 @.@ 4 kilometres per hour ( 4 @.@ 0 mph ) ; the two @-@ beat trot or jog at 13 to 19 kilometres per hour ( 8 @.@ 1 to 11 @.@ 8 mph ) ( faster for harness racing horses ) ; the canter or lope , a three @-@ beat gait that is 19 to 24 kilometres per hour ( 12 to 15 mph ) ; and the gallop . The gallop averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour ( 25 to 30 mph ) , but the world record for a horse galloping over a short , sprint distance is 70 @.@ 76 kilometres per hour ( 43 @.@ 97 mph ) . Besides these basic gaits , some horses perform a two @-@ beat pace , instead of the trot . There also are several four @-@ beat " ambling " gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace , though smoother to ride . These include the lateral rack , running walk , and tölt as well as the diagonal fox trot . Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds , known collectively as gaited horses . Often , gaited horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits .
= = = Behavior = = =
Horses are prey animals with a strong fight @-@ or @-@ flight response . Their first reaction to threat is to startle and usually flee , although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their young are threatened . They also tend to be curious ; when startled , they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright , and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non @-@ threatening . Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed , agility , alertness and endurance ; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors . However , through selective breeding , some breeds of horses are quite docile , particularly certain draft horses .
Horses are herd animals , with a clear hierarchy of rank , led by a dominant individual , usually a mare . They are also social creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals , including humans . They communicate in various ways , including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying , mutual grooming , and body language . Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated , but with training , horses can learn to accept a human as a companion , and thus be comfortable away from other horses . However , when confined with insufficient companionship , exercise , or stimulation , individuals may develop stable vices , an assortment of bad habits , mostly stereotypies of psychological origin , that include wood chewing , wall kicking , " weaving " ( rocking back and forth ) , and other problems .
= = = = Intelligence and learning = = = =
Studies have indicated that horses perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis , meeting mental challenges that include food procurement and identification of individuals within a social system . They also have good spatial discrimination abilities . Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as problem solving , speed of learning , and memory . Horses excel at simple learning , but also are able to use more advanced cognitive abilities that involve categorization and concept learning . They can learn using habituation , desensitization , classical conditioning , and operant conditioning , and positive and negative reinforcement . One study has indicated that horses can differentiate between " more or less " if the quantity involved is less than four .
Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses , because they live in artificial environments that prevent instinctive behavior whilst also learning tasks that are not natural . Horses are animals of habit that respond well to regimentation , and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently . One trainer believes that " intelligent " horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that best fits with an individual animal 's natural inclinations .
= = = = Temperament = = = =
Horses are mammals , and as such are warm @-@ blooded , or endothermic creatures , as opposed to cold @-@ blooded , or poikilothermic animals . However , these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology , used to describe temperament , not body temperature . For example , the " hot @-@ bloods " , such as many race horses , exhibit more sensitivity and energy , while the " cold @-@ bloods " , such as most draft breeds , are quieter and calmer . Sometimes " hot @-@ bloods " are classified as " light horses " or " riding horses " , with the " cold @-@ bloods " classified as " draft horses " or " work horses " .
" Hot blooded " breeds include " oriental horses " such as the Akhal @-@ Teke , Arabian horse , Barb and now @-@ extinct Turkoman horse , as well as the Thoroughbred , a breed developed in England from the older oriental breeds . Hot bloods tend to be spirited , bold , and learn quickly . They are bred for agility and speed . They tend to be physically refined — thin @-@ skinned , slim , and long @-@ legged . The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses .
Muscular , heavy draft horses are known as " cold bloods " , as they are bred not only for strength , but also to have the calm , patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people . They are sometimes nicknamed " gentle giants " . Well @-@ known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale . Some , like the Percheron , are lighter and livelier , developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates . Others , such as the Shire , are slower and more powerful , bred to plow fields with heavy , clay @-@ based soils . The cold @-@ blooded group also includes some pony breeds .
" Warmblood " breeds , such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian , developed when European carriage and war horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds , producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse , but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed . Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders . Warmbloods are considered a " light horse " or " riding horse " .
Today , the term " Warmblood " refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage and show jumping . Strictly speaking , the term " warm blood " refers to any cross between cold @-@ blooded and hot @-@ blooded breeds . Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay . The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians , such as the Morgan horse .
= = = = Sleep patterns = = = =
Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down . In an adaptation from life in the wild , horses are able to enter light sleep by using a " stay apparatus " in their legs , allowing them to doze without collapsing . Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators . A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant eye out for danger .
Unlike humans , horses do not sleep in a solid , unbroken period of time , but take many short periods of rest . Horses spend four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest , and from a few minutes to several hours lying down . Total sleep time in a 24 @-@ hour period may range from several minutes to a couple of hours , mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each . The average sleep time of a domestic horse is said to be 2 @.@ 9 hours per day .
Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep . They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements . However , if a horse is never allowed to lie down , after several days it will become sleep @-@ deprived , and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing . This condition differs from narcolepsy , although horses may also suffer from that disorder .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide @-@ open terrain with sparse vegetation , surviving in an ecosystem where other large grazing animals , especially ruminants , could not . Horses and other equids are odd @-@ toed ungulates of the order Perissodactyla , a group of mammals that was dominant during the Tertiary period . In the past , this order contained 14 families , but only three — Equidae ( the horse and related species ) , the tapir , and the rhinoceros — have survived to the present day .
The earliest known member of the family Equidae was the Hyracotherium , which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago , during the Eocene period . It had 4 toes on each front foot , and 3 toes on each back foot . The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the Mesohippus , which lived 32 to 37 million years ago . Over time , the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished . All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial bones on the leg below the knee , known informally as splint bones . Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed . By about 5 million years ago , the modern Equus had evolved . Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft , tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material , then to grazing of tougher plains grasses . Thus proto @-@ horses changed from leaf @-@ eating forest @-@ dwellers to grass @-@ eating inhabitants of semi @-@ arid regions worldwide , including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America .
By about 15 @,@ 000 years ago , Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species . Horse bones from this time period , the late Pleistocene , are found in Europe , Eurasia , Beringia , and North America . Yet between 10 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 600 years ago , the horse became extinct in North America and rare elsewhere . The reasons for this extinction are not fully known , but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human arrival . Another theory points to climate change , noting that approximately 12 @,@ 500 years ago , the grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra , which was covered with unpalatable plants .
= = = Wild species surviving into modern times = = =
A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were ever domesticated . Therefore , most " wild " horses today are actually feral horses , animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those animals . Only two never @-@ domesticated subspecies , the Tarpan and the Przewalski 's Horse , survived into recorded history and only the latter survives today .
The Przewalski 's horse ( Equus ferus przewalskii ) , named after the Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky , is a rare Asian animal . It is also known as the Mongolian wild horse ; Mongolian people know it as the taki , and the Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag . The subspecies was presumed extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992 , while a small breeding population survived in zoos around the world . In 1992 , it was reestablished in the wild due to the conservation efforts of numerous zoos . Today , a small wild breeding population exists in Mongolia . There are additional animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world .
The tarpan or European wild horse ( Equus ferus ferus ) was found in Europe and much of Asia . It survived into the historical era , but became extinct in 1909 , when the last captive died in a Russian zoo . Thus , the genetic line was lost . Attempts have been made to recreate the tarpan , which resulted in horses with outward physical similarities , but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses .
Periodically , populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be relict populations of wild horses , but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic . For example , the Riwoche horse of Tibet was proposed as such , but testing did not reveal genetic differences from domesticated horses . Similarly , the Sorraia of Portugal was proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan based on shared characteristics , but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse breeds and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness .
= = = Other modern equids = = =
Besides the horse , there are seven other species of genus Equus in the Equidae family . These are the ass or donkey , Equus asinus ; the mountain zebra , Equus zebra ; plains zebra , Equus quagga ; Grévy 's zebra , Equus grevyi ; the kiang , Equus kiang ; and the onager , Equus hemionus .
Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus . The most common hybrid is the mule , a cross between a " jack " ( male donkey ) and a mare . A related hybrid , a hinny , is a cross between a stallion and a jenny ( female donkey ) . Other hybrids include the zorse , a cross between a zebra and a horse . With rare exceptions , most hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce .
= = Domestication = =
Domestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to 3500 BC . Two major sources of information are used to determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated horse spread around the world . The first source is based on palaeological and archaeological discoveries ; the second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to that from bones and teeth of ancient horse remains .
The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan , dating to approximately 3500 – 4000 BC . By 3000 BC , the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BC there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe , indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent . The most recent , but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c . 2100 BC .
Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present @-@ day horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in the bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological excavations . The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild stallions contributed to the domestic horse , while many mares were part of early domesticated herds . This is reflected in the difference in genetic variation between the DNA that is passed on along the paternal , or sire line ( Y @-@ chromosome ) versus that passed on along the maternal , or dam line ( mitochondrial DNA ) . There are very low levels of Y @-@ chromosome variability , but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA . There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in domestic herds . Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat color variation . In horses , this increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BC .
Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse , various hypotheses were proposed . One classification was based on body types and conformation , suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication . Another hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication . However , the lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses .
= = = Feral populations = = =
Feral horses are born and live in the wild , but are descended from domesticated animals . Many populations of feral horses exist throughout the world . Studies of feral herds have provided useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses , as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that live in domesticated conditions .
There are also semi @-@ feral horses in many parts of the world , such as Dartmoor and the New Forest in the UK , where the animals are all privately owned but live for significant amounts of time in " wild " conditions on undeveloped , often public , lands . Owners of such animals often pay a fee for grazing rights .
= = = Breeds = = =
The concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled , written breed registry has come to be particularly significant and important in modern times . Sometimes purebred horses are incorrectly or inaccurately called " thoroughbreds " . Thoroughbred is a specific breed of horse , while a " purebred " is a horse ( or any other animal ) with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry . Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring , such as conformation , color , performance ability , or disposition . These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods . Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication . An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin , who had a reputation for careful practices , keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines . These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition . In the 14th century , Carthusian monks of southern Spain kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in the Andalusian horse .
Breeds developed due to a need for " form to function " , the necessity to develop certain characteristics in order to perform a particular type of work . Thus , a powerful but refined breed such as the Andalusian developed as riding horses with an aptitude for dressage . Heavy draft horses developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons . Other horse breeds developed specifically for light agricultural work , carriage and road work , various sport disciplines , or simply as pets . Some breeds developed through centuries of crossing other breeds , while others descended from a single foundation sire , or other limited or restricted foundation bloodstock . One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds , which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation bloodstock for the breed . There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today .
= = Interaction with humans = =
Worldwide , horses play a role within human cultures and have done so for millennia . Horses are used for leisure activities , sports , and working purposes . The Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) estimates that in 2008 , there were almost 59 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 horses in the world , with around 33 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 in the Americas , 13 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 in Asia and 6 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 in Europe and smaller portions in Africa and Oceania . There are estimated to be 9 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 horses in the United States alone . The American Horse Council estimates that horse @-@ related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the United States of over $ 39 billion , and when indirect spending is considered , the impact is over $ 102 billion . In a 2004 " poll " conducted by Animal Planet , more than 50 @,@ 000 viewers from 73 countries voted for the horse as the world 's 4th favorite animal .
Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity ; to aid this process horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning , and a bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control . Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle , and occasionally , horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear . Many horses are also driven , which requires a harness , bridle , and some type of vehicle .
= = = Sport = = =
Historically , equestrians honed their skills through games and races . Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle . Many sports , such as dressage , eventing and show jumping , have origins in military training , which were focused on control and balance of both horse and rider . Other sports , such as rodeo , developed from practical skills such as those needed on working ranches and stations . Sport hunting from horseback evolved from earlier practical hunting techniques . Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers . All forms of competition , requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider , resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport . The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat .
Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions . Examples include show jumping , dressage , three @-@ day eventing , competitive driving , endurance riding , gymkhana , rodeos , and fox hunting . Horse shows , which have their origins in medieval European fairs , are held around the world . They host a huge range of classes , covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines , as well as " In @-@ hand " classes where the horses are led , rather than ridden , to be evaluated on their conformation . The method of judging varies with the discipline , but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse and rider . Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself , but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the game . Although the horse requires specialized training to participate , the details of its performance are not judged , only the result of the rider 's actions — be it getting a ball through a goal or some other task . Examples of these sports of partnership between human and horse include jousting , in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other , and buzkashi , a team game played throughout Central Asia , the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback .
Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry , watched in almost every nation of the world . There are three types : " flat " racing ; steeplechasing , i.e. racing over jumps ; and harness racing , where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small , light cart known as a sulky . A major part of horse racing 's economic importance lies in the gambling associated with it .
= = = Work = = =
There are certain jobs that horses do very well , and no technology has yet developed to fully replace them . For example , mounted police horses are still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd control . Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote , rugged terrain . Search and rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to locate people , particularly hikers and children , and to provide disaster relief assistance . Horses can also be used in areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil , such as nature reserves . They may also be the only form of transport allowed in wilderness areas . Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles . Law enforcement officers such as park rangers or game wardens may use horses for patrols , and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective .
Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world , an estimated 100 million horses , donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas . This number includes around 27 million working animals in Africa alone . Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses . In agriculture , less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of draft animals such as horses . Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging .
= = = Entertainment and culture = = =
Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work purposes . Horses are used , complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica , in various live action historical reenactments of specific periods of history , especially recreations of famous battles . Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes . Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse @-@ drawn carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events . Public exhibitions are another example , such as the Budweiser Clydesdales , seen in parades and other public settings , a team of draft horses that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before the invention of the modern motorized truck .
Horses are frequently seen in television , films and literature . They are sometimes featured as a major character in films about particular animals , but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical stories . Both live horses and iconic images of horses are used in advertising to promote a variety of products . The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry , in a variety of poses and equipment . The mythologies of many cultures , including Greco @-@ Roman , Hindu , Islamic , and Norse , include references to both normal horses and those with wings or additional limbs , and multiple myths also call upon the horse to draw the chariots of the Moon and Sun . The horse also appears in the 12 @-@ year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar .
= = = Therapeutic use = = =
People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from association with horses . Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination , increased self @-@ confidence , and a greater feeling of freedom and independence . The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of para @-@ equestrian events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports ( FEI ) . Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different physical , occupational , and speech therapy treatment strategies that utilize equine movement . In hippotherapy , a therapist uses the horse 's movement to improve their patient 's cognitive , coordination , balance , and fine motor skills , whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills .
Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not . " Equine @-@ assisted " or " equine @-@ facilitated " therapy is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with mental illness , including anxiety disorders , psychotic disorders , mood disorders , behavioral difficulties , and those who are going through major life changes . There are also experimental programs using horses in prison settings . Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates and help reduce recidivism when they leave .
= = = Warfare = = =
Horses have been used in warfare for most of recorded history . The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 4000 and 3000 BC , and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the end of the Bronze Age . Although mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war , horses are still seen today in limited military uses , mostly for ceremonial purposes , or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective . Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur .
= = = Products = = =
Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history , including byproducts from the slaughter of horses as well as materials collected from living horses .
Products collected from living horses include mare 's milk , used by people with large horse herds , such as the Mongols , who let it ferment to produce kumis . Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic tribes , who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling . Drinking their own horses ' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat . The drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares ( pregnant mares ' urine ) , and was previously a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy . The tail hair of horses can be used for making bows for string instruments such as the violin , viola , cello , and double bass .
Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous animals throughout the ages . It is eaten in many parts of the world , though consumption is taboo in some cultures , and a subject of political controversy in others . Horsehide leather has been used for boots , gloves , jackets , baseballs , and baseball gloves . Horse hooves can also be used to produce animal glue . Horse bones can be used to make implements . Specifically , in Italian cuisine , the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto , which is used to test the readiness of a ( pig ) ham as it cures . In Asia , the saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of kumis .
= = = Care = = =
Horses are grazing animals , and their major source of nutrients is good @-@ quality forage from hay or pasture . They can consume approximately 2 % to 2 @.@ 5 % of their body weight in dry feed each day . Therefore , a 450 @-@ kilogram ( 990 lb ) adult horse could eat up to 11 kilograms ( 24 lb ) of food . Sometimes , concentrated feed such as grain is fed in addition to pasture or hay , especially when the animal is very active . When grain is fed , equine nutritionists recommend that 50 % or more of the animal 's diet by weight should still be forage .
Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water , a minimum of 10 US gallons ( 38 L ) to 12 US gallons ( 45 L ) per day . Although horses are adapted to live outside , they require shelter from the wind and precipitation , which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate stable .
Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier , as well as vaccinations to protect against various diseases , and dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist . If horses are kept inside in a barn , they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well @-@ being . When turned outside , they require well @-@ maintained , sturdy fences to be safely contained . Regular grooming is also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin .
= Patience ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Patience " is the third episode of the eighth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on November 19 , 2000 . The episode was written and directed by series creator Chris Carter . " Patience " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode received a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 2 and was viewed by 13 @.@ 3 million viewers . The episode received mixed to negative reviews from critics .
The series centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) — following the alien abduction of her former partner , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , John Doggett , after having been assigned to the X @-@ Files , joins Scully to investigate a series of gruesome murders that appear to be the work of a bat @-@ like creature . This being their first case together , Scully and Doggett find that their investigative techniques are less than similar .
Carter was inspired to write " Patience " to emulate the " back @-@ to @-@ basics stand alones [ … ] of the earlier seasons " . The episode was the first The X @-@ Files entry to neither feature actor David Duchovny nor feature his name in the opening credits . Furthermore , the episode was crafted to be the first to test Doggett 's skepticism of paranormal activity .
= = Plot = =
In Burley , Idaho , an undertaker and his wife are brutally murdered by some sort of flying creature . Later , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , who has been assigned to the X @-@ Files , begin talking about the case . Scully explains about the death of the undertaker and his wife and notes that the cause of death being blood loss from human bite marks on their bodies .
Scully and Doggett arrive at the crime scene in Idaho and meet Detective Yale Abbott . He says they are less sure that the bites were made by a human and draws their attention to the strange footprint , believing that wild animals fed on the bodies after the fact . Scully points out that there is only one footprint , which looks ominously human , and that if it were left by an animal there would be more footprints leading to the bodies . Scully and Doggett check out the house and find prints leading upstairs and into the attic . Inside , Scully and Doggett find the missing fingers of the undertaker . They look like they have been regurgitated by something and the claw marks in the attic suggest something was hanging from the rafters . Meanwhile , elderly Mrs. McKesson is killed in her attic while looking at a photo album .
At the morgue , Scully explains that she studied the bite wounds and discovered that they are similar , but intrinsically different , than human bites ; the saliva on the regurgitated fingers has anti @-@ coagulants in it , which only bats have in their saliva . Doggett finds the evidence interesting , due to the newspaper article he brought Scully : in 1956 , a series of deaths was reported that ended when a group of hunters killed a man @-@ bat creature and brought it to the county morgue in part of Montana . The coroner said the creature was neither bat nor man . Then the coroner was killed a few days later and soon after a few more people were killed or disappeared .
Scully and Doggett join the investigation at McKesson ’ s home . Scully suggests a connection between the burned body of Ariel McKesson who disappeared in 1956 and her mother , the latest victim . Scully believes that the burned body should be exhumed to potentially learn the connection with the other deaths . Later , the gravediggers already have the coffin excavated when Detective Abbott shows up at the town cemetery . They tell him that they did not have to dig because somebody already dug the coffin up and scratched the lid up . While they drive off with the body , Abbott inspects a dead tree . The creature is within and it eviscerates Abbott .
The police are upset about Abbott ’ s death and blame Scully while Doggett reminds them that only the thing that killed Abbott and the others is to blame . Scully explains Ariel McKesson died of heart failure and then was burned to cover something up . She realizes that all the victims were people who came in contact with the body of Ariel McKesson : Abbott investigated the crime , her mother identified the body , the undertaker prepared the body , and Myron Stefaniuk pulled the body from the river . All but Myron Stefaniuk are now dead . Doggett and Scully find Myron and ask him about Ernie Stefaniuk , one of the hunters from 1956 , who he reveals disappeared along time ago . The two eventually track down Ernie Stefaniuk , who tells them that he hid on an island in the middle of the town 's lake with his wife , Ariel , for 44 years . Ernie says that the bat creature kills anyone with Ernie ’ s scent on them , so he had burned his wife ’ s body to try and cover up the scent . He informs them that it hunts only at night and Myron is in danger . Doggett goes back to find Myron only to be attacked and badly torn up by the creature at the river .
Ernie says Scully is now marked and the creature will go after her too . When his ground radar goes off , Scully goes outside . Ernie stays inside and is butchered by the bat creature . Scully returns to see it ravaging Ernie ; she manages to shoot it before being knocked down . Doggett appears and shoots the creature several more times , saving Scully . The creature disappears into the night while Scully helps the injured Doggett .
= = Production = =
" Patience " was written and directed by series creator Chris Carter . The episode , inspired by the " back @-@ to @-@ basics stand alones [ … ] of the earlier seasons " , was the first episode of The X @-@ Files to neither feature actor David Duchovny nor feature his name in the opening credits . After settling his contract dispute with Fox , Duchovny quit full @-@ time participation in the show after the seventh season . In order to explain Mulder 's absence , Duchovny 's character was abducted by aliens in the seventh season finale , " Requiem " , and as such , did not appear in " Patience " .
The episode 's main villain , the human @-@ bat hybrid , was inspired by the 1970s comic book villain , Man @-@ Bat , one of the arch @-@ nemeses of Batman . During the filming of the episode , live bats were used ; the type of bat used in " Patience " was the Egyptian Fruit Bat . Furthermore , the episode was the first to test Doggett 's skepticism of paranormal activity . As Robert Patrick explained , " [ ' Patience ' ] is where it starts to toy with my willingness to believe in the paranormal and strange happenings . You 've got a guy that 's a bat , which is sort of out of the norm . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Patience " first aired on Fox on November 19 , 2000 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 2 , meaning that it was seen by 8 @.@ 2 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 27 million households , and 13 @.@ 3 million viewers . The episode ranked as the 42nd most @-@ watched episode for the week ending November 19 . The episode subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on the BBC Two on July 28 , 2002 . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " More deadly than a man . More ruthless than a bat . A hungry predator waits in the darkness for its next prey ... Scully and Doggett . "
= = = Reviews = = =
" Patience " received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Jay Anderson , writing for What Culture , was positive toward the episode . While noting the show 's return to its " dark , creepy [ ... ] roots " in the eighth season , Anderson described the episode as an " early success at returning to the realm of the scary " . Anderson ranked the human bat as the eighth creepiest creature of the show . Television Without Pity writer Jessica Morgan rated the episode a D and criticized the episode 's references to Mulder 's absence , most notably the scene wherein Scully put Mulder 's nameplate away , asking , sardonically , " Is that supposed to be symbolic , I wonder ? " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two noted that , despite the fact that " a lot of [ the episode ] works [ … ] because the scenes between Doggett and Scully are so good " , the positive aspects of the episode were not " put to better use in a more exciting episode ; this particular case hardly stretched anyone 's deductive prowess . " Shearman and Pearson later wrote that if the episode had been " a Mulder and Scully adventure , this would have been bottom of the barrel stuff . "
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C + " and criticized both its monster , and its guest cast . Concerning the former , he wrote that it was " just ridiculous " and that its design was " bland and generic " . Concerning the latter , he wrote that the cast was filled with " actors hamming it up " . VanDerWerff did note that the episode was better " than its reputation " suggested , but that it still was " undone by some very strange story choices and a dumb monster " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris bluntly wrote , " if you 're looking for a suspenseful , bite @-@ your @-@ nails , monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week X @-@ Files episode … this isn 't it . " Furthermore , she criticized the villain , calling it " a dull monster in fake @-@ looking make @-@ up " .
= = = Awards = = =
" Patience " earned a nomination for an ASC Award by the American Society of Cinematographers for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography - Regular Series .
= First Massacre of Machecoul =
The Machecoul massacre is one of the first events of the War in the Vendée , a revolt against mass conscription and the civil constitution of the clergy . The first massacre took place on 11 March 1793 , in the provincial city of Machecoul , in the district of the lower Loire . The city was a thriving center of grain trade ; most of the victims were administrators , merchants and citizens of the city .
Although the Machecoul massacre , and others that followed it , are often viewed ( variously ) as a royalist revolt , or a counter @-@ revolution , twenty @-@ first century historians generally agree that Vendee revolt was a complicated popular event brought on by anti @-@ clericalism of the Revolution , mass conscription , and Jacobin anti @-@ federalism . In the geographic area south of the Loire , resistance to recruitment was particularly intense , and much of this area also resented intrusion by partisans of the republic , called " blue coats " , who brought with them new ideas about district and judicial organization , and who required reorganization of parishes with the so @-@ called juring priests ( those who had taken the civil oath ) . Consequently , the insurgency became a combination of many impulses , at which conscription and the organization of parishes led the list . The response to it was incredibly violent on both sides .
= = Background = =
In 1791 , two representatives on mission informed the National Convention of the disquieting condition of Vendée , and this news was quickly followed by the exposure of a royalist plot organized by the Marquis de la Rouerie . It was not until the social unrest combined with the external pressures from the Civil Constitution of the Clergy ( 1790 ) and the introduction of a levy of 300 @,@ 000 on the whole of France , decreed by the National Convention in February 1793 , that the region erupted .
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy required all clerics to swear allegiance to it and , by extension , to the increasingly anti @-@ clerical National Constituent Assembly . All but seven of the 160 French bishops refused the oath , as did about half of the parish priests . Persecution of the clergy and of the faithful was the first trigger of the rebellion . Those who refused the oath , called non @-@ juring priests , had been exiled or imprisoned . Women on their way to Mass were beaten in the streets . Religious orders had been suppressed and Church property , confiscated . On 3 March 1793 , most of the churches were ordered closed . Soldiers confiscated sacramental vessels and the people were forbidden to place crosses on graves .
Nearly all the purchasers of church land were bourgeois ; very few peasants benefited from the sales . To add to this insult , on 23 February 1793 the Convention required the raising of an additional 300 @,@ 000 troops from the provinces , an act which enraged the populace , who took up arms instead as The Catholic Army ; the term " Royal " was added later . This army fought first and foremost for the reopening of parish churches with the former priests .
In March 1793 , as word of the conscription requirements filtered into the countryside , many Vendéans refused to satisfy the decree of the levee en masse issued on 23 February 1793 . Within weeks the rebel forces had formed a substantial , if ill @-@ equipped , army , the Royal and Catholic Army , supported by two thousand irregular cavalry and a few captured artillery pieces . Most of the insurgents operated on a much smaller scale , using guerrilla tactics , supported by the local knowledge and the good @-@ will of the people .
= = Massacre = =
The irregular army raised in the countryside had not reached Machecoul , but the officials from the conscription officers had . On Monday , 11 March 1793 , a crowd arrived in the center of the town , from the surrounding countryside ; they started the chant Pas de milice ( no enlistments ) and surrounded the Republic 's conscription officers in the town . A nervous soldier opened fire and the enraged crowd retaliated . Between 22 and 26 soldiers were killed , including their lieutenant , Pierre @-@ Claude Ferré . The immediate victims also included the juring priest , Pierre Letort , who was bayoneted to death and whose body was mutilated , Pagnot the magistrate , and Étienne Gaschignard , the principal of the college . The National Guard was routed , and the rebels , including many women , seized those they called " patriots " — also called the " Blues " , or the people who supported the republican cause — and led them to prison in the old castle and the convent of Sisters of Cavalry . There they killed the guardsmen and some notable inhabitants , about 20 in total , although according to some testimony , as many as 26 were killed on the first day and 18 the next day . Alfred Lallié , another witness , gave 22 as the count of dead .
The situation then spiraled out of control . In the following days , the insurgents swelled to some six thousand men and women , and some of the republican adherents and their families fled to Nantes and other strongholds . On 19 March , many counter @-@ revolutionary suspects were rounded up and the republicans inflicted their own massacres : in La Rochelle , six non @-@ juring priests were hacked to death and their heads ( and other body parts ) shown throughout the city . About a week later , the insurgents from Machecoul seized the neighboring harbor town of Pornic ( approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the northwest ) on 23 March , this time joined by some of the irregular army that had been forming elsewhere , and sacked it . A republican patrol surprised the Vendeans , who were carousing on liberated cellars , and killed between 200 and 500 of them . The angry peasants returned to Machecoul and in reprisal killed another dozen prisoners on 27 March . In total , about 200 died ( not all in the battle ) , and when the survivors of Pornic returned to Machecoul , they pulled the detained " blue coats " out of the prisoner and shot them , a process that lasted over the next few weeks , into mid @-@ April .
Tales of brutality , some of which may have been true , abounded ; numbers of those killed escalated . Current research suggests that 150 were executed in the town overall , but contemporary republican reports put the figure at 500 . Despite the demonization of the insurgents , though , twenty @-@ two " blue coats " from the parish were saved by the request of their own neighborhoods ; others were even cleared by tribunals established to monitor executions , and overseen by the local jurist , René François Souchu . Souchu , a lawyer and judge by profession , directed the execution of approximately 50 republican officials and adherents on 3 April ; they were shot down and buried in a field outside of the city .
= = = Contemporary reports = = =
The most influential of the contemporary reports came from Citizen Boullemer , and was published in over 1000 pamphlets later in the year . Boullemer claimed to be among the few surviving eyewitnesses : " there arrived from all exits of the city , five to six thousand peasants , women and children , armed [ with ] guns , scythes , knives , shovels and pikes . They shouted , running the streets : peace ! peace ! " Boullemer 's account continues : they descended on Machecoul , confronted a detachment of the National guard that had come to enforce the levy . One hundred National Guardsmen and police defended the town against them . Louis @-@ Charles @-@ César Maupassant , a farmer , merchant and a deputy to the Convention , tried to harangue the attackers into quiescence , but could not be heard above the din . Most of the Republican troops and officials scattered before the threatening crowd . According to Louis Mortimer @-@ Ternaux , another eye @-@ witness , only three officers and five or six gendarmes remained at their posts . At that time , according to him , some national guardsmen who had tried to escape through an alley were ambushed by peasants , pursued , and finally brought down by the crowd at the feet of the deputy , Maupassant . The crowd then pulled him off his horse and killed him with a stroke of a shovel .
Boullemer 's wrote his sensational account well after the fact , in the safety of Rennes , where he was taken after being rescued by republican forces . Boullemer admitted that he had spent most of the six weeks of the upheaval at Machecoul in the safety of his granary , hiding from the peasants . His account of the terror , though lost nothing in the fact that he had seen little : the peasants in the town sounded the tocsin , he wrote , and others exploded from the surrounding fields . Within a short time the entire affair had become a wholesale massacre of republican troops , the constitutional priest , known radical sympathizers and anyone involved with the municipal administration . Prisoners had their hands tied behind their backs , and were linked with a rope passed under their armpits , in a so @-@ called rosary ; then they were dragged into fields and forced to dig their own graves before being gunned down . Patriots , those who supported the revolution , were hunted down , lashed to trees , and emasculated . Patriot women were raped and cut down in orchards . Boullemer placed the count of the dead at 552 .
= = View from Paris = =
From the Jacobin clubs , the Convention , and the streets and alleyways in Paris , this could only be viewed as insurrection . For them , the Revolution meant a France indivisible . Anything that divided France — anything that varied from the path set the revolutionary government — was dangerous to the success for the revolution itself . Any idea , an action , or thought that ran counter to the revolutionary ideology smacked of federalism or , worse , of royalist sentiment . The historians ' debate over federalism and the French Revolution reaches almost to the days of the Revolution itself . To be called a " federalist " in 1793 , 1794 , or 1795 , or any other time in the revolution , for that matter , was tantamount to being labeled as an anti @-@ revolutionary ; to be called anti @-@ revolutionary meant one was de facto a royalist . It was a convenient epithet : to be called a federalist alienated one from the principal radical goal of the revolution , which was to create a single , unified French Republic . Any notion of sectionalism — the possibility that a department or departments could establish for themselves a set of conditions and a government — must be labeled as anti @-@ revolutionary . For the moderate Girondins and the radical Montagnards , federalism meant the watering @-@ down of the Revolution , the violation of the civic body , and the loss of their dreams . If the peasants of the Vendée did not want to fight for the Revolution , if they preferred their priests and their ( dead ) king to their liberty , then they must be against the Revolution and , consequently , they must be severed from its benefits .
This uncompromising vision of revolutionary goals implied a plain and brutal truth : " convert heads or chop them off . " One deputy complained , " if there were only 30 @,@ 000 , it would be a simple matter of putting them all to the sword , but there are so many ! " Boullemer 's written description of the event was published as a pamphlet in November 1793 , and the representative on mission , Jacques Garnier , sent a thousand copies to the Convention , the Executive Council and to all departments ; it also served as a basis for the official report that François Toussaint Villers presented to the Convention .
= = Aftermath = =
There were other levy riots across France , when the departments started to draft men into the army in response to the Levy Decree but reaction in the northwest in March was particularly pronounced with large scale rioting verging on insurrection . By early April , in areas north of the Loire , order had been restored by the revolutionary government , but south of the river , in the four departments that became known as the Vendée Militaire , there were few troops to control rebels and what had started as rioting quickly took on the form of a full insurrection led by priests and the local nobility .
Evidence links these events to local dissatisfaction with the reorganization of the church into a government entity . The unrest began half way through Lent ; Easter that year occurred on 31 March 1793 , and , significantly , the initial violence was directed at the local priest Letort . Letort personified the revolution , and the republican government in Paris by taking the Civil Oath of the Clergy , essentially becoming a puppet of the republicans in Paris , at least in the eyes of the insurgents . The violence followed what Raymond Jonas called a singular pattern of logic : it targeted those who personified the revolution in their function or status : National Guard Lieutenant Ferré , such prominent townsmen as Deputy Maupassant , and the constitutional priest Letort . Yet , the local district administrator , the jurist Souchu , was left alone : apparently he was known for his anti @-@ republican sentiments and actually threw his lot in with the insurgents . After the furor in Machecoul died down later in the spring , the former pastor at Machecoul , the non @-@ juring priest François Priou , refused to celebrate at the now " liberated " church because the schismatic constitutional priest had profaned it . Instead , he said the Mass outside on a makeshift altar .
Class differences were not as great in the Vendée as in Paris or in other French provinces . In the rural Vendée , the local nobility seems to have been more permanently in residence and less bitterly resented than in other parts of France . Alexis de Tocqueville noted that most French nobles lived in cities by 1789 . An Intendants ' survey showed one of the few areas where they still lived with the peasants was the Vendée . Consequently , the conflicts that drove the revolution in Paris , for example , were also lessened in this particularly isolated part of France by the strong adherence of the populace to their Catholic faith .
= Ersatz Yorck @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Ersatz Yorck class was a group of three battlecruisers ordered for the Imperial German Navy in April 1915 . The name derived from the fact that the lead ship was intended as a replacement ( German : ersatz ) for the armored cruiser Yorck , lost to mines in 1914 . They were a slightly enlarged version of the Mackensen @-@ class battlecruiser , armed with 38 cm ( 15 in ) guns as opposed to the 35 cm ( 13 @.@ 8 in ) weapons on the preceding design . The boilers would have been trunked into a single massive funnel . The three ships were originally ordered as part of the Mackensen class but the design was changed when details of the British Admiral @-@ class battlecruisers became known to German intelligence . The vessels were ordered under the provisional names Ersatz Yorck , Ersatz Gneisenau , and Ersatz Scharnhorst . They were considered to be replacements for the armored cruisers Yorck , which had been sunk by German mines in 1914 , and Gneisenau and Scharnhorst , both of which had been sunk at the Battle of the Falkland Islands also in 1914 .
As with the Mackensens , the three ships of the Ersatz Yorck class were never completed . This was primarily due to shifting wartime construction priorities ; U @-@ boats were deemed more important to Germany 's war effort , and so work on other types of ships was slowed or halted outright . The lead ship , Ersatz Yorck , was the only vessel of the three to have construction begin , though she was over two years from completion by the time work was abandoned . With the hull incomplete , the ship could not be launched and towed to ship @-@ breakers ; as a result , Ersatz Yorck was broken up in situ .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Ersatz Yorck @-@ class ships were an enlargement of the previous Mackensen @-@ class ships . They were 227 @.@ 80 m ( 747 ft 5 in ) long , compared to 223 m ( 731 ft 8 in ) on the earlier vessels . Ersatz Yorck had the same beam as the earlier vessels , at 30 @.@ 40 m ( 99 ft 9 in ) , and the same draft of 9 @.@ 30 m ( 30 ft 6 in ) . The ships were planned to displace 33 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 33 @,@ 000 long tons ) at standard weight , and up to 38 @,@ 000 t ( 37 @,@ 000 long tons ) fully laden . This was approximately 2 @,@ 500 t ( 2 @,@ 500 long tons ) heavier than the Mackensens . The Ersatz Yorck @-@ class ships ' hulls were to have been constructed with longitudinal steel frames with the outer plating riveted on .
= = = Machinery = = =
As with all German battlecruisers that had been built , the Ersatz Yorck @-@ class ships would have been equipped with four sets of Parsons turbine engines , each of which drove a 3 @-@ bladed screw that was 4 @.@ 20 m ( 13 ft 9 in ) in diameter . The turbines were supplied with steam by 24 coal @-@ fired Schulz @-@ Thornycroft single ended boilers and 8 oil @-@ fired Schulz @-@ Thornycroft double ended boilers . Ersatz Yorck and Ersatz Gneisenau were intended to use Föttinger fluid transmission for their turbines , while Ersatz Scharnhorst 's turbines retained direct coupled geared transmissions . The ships were to have electrical power provided by diesel generators . The Ersatz Yorcks were intended to mount a pair of twin rudders alongside each other for steering .
The power plant was rated 90 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower and 295 revolutions per minute , the same as the preceding Mackensen @-@ class ships . Their slightly greater size reduced their speed somewhat , from 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) in the Mackensen @-@ class ships to 27 @.@ 3 knots ( 50 @.@ 6 km / h ; 31 @.@ 4 mph ) for the new vessels . The ships were designed to store 850 t ( 840 long tons ) of coal and 250 t ( 250 long tons ) of oil in purpose @-@ designed fuel bunkers . However , the areas of the hull between the torpedo bulkhead and the outer wall of the ship were also used for fuel storage . This additional space provided an increased total of 4 @,@ 000 t ( 3 @,@ 900 long tons ) of coal and 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) of oil . With fuel stores topped off , the ships were estimated to have been able to steam for 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at a cruising speed of 14 kn ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships ' main battery was to have consisted of eight 38 cm ( 15 in ) SK L / 45 guns in four Drh LC / 1913 twin gun turrets , placed in superfiring pairs fore and aft of the superstructure . These were the same " Langer Max " guns as those mounted on the Bayern @-@ class battleships . The guns could initially depress to − 8 degrees and elevate to 16 degrees ; this provided maximum range of 20 @,@ 400 m . The gun mountings were modified to allow elevation up to 20 degrees ; the range was correspondingly increased to 23 @,@ 200 m . The turrets could train 150 degrees to either side of the centerline . The main battery was supplied with a total of 720 shells or 90 rounds per gun . The guns had a rate of fire of around 2 @.@ 5 shells per minute . Post @-@ war tests conducted by the British Royal Navy showed that the guns on the battleship Baden could be ready to fire again 23 seconds after firing ; this was significantly faster than their British contemporaries , the 38 cm guns on the Renown class , which took 36 seconds between salvos . The guns fired 750 kg ( 1 @,@ 650 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shells with a 277 kg ( 610 lb ) RPC / 12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge . The shells were fired at a muzzle velocity of 800 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 625 fps ) . Each gun was expected to fire 300 shells before replacement was required .
The ships ' secondary battery consisted of twelve 15 cm SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns mounted in armored casemates along the central superstructure . Each gun was supplied with 160 rounds , and had a maximum range of 13 @,@ 500 m , though this was later extended to 16 @,@ 800 m . The guns had a sustained rate of fire of 5 to 7 rounds per minute . The shells were 45 @.@ 3 kg ( 100 lb ) , and were loaded with a 13 @.@ 7 kg ( 30 lb ) RPC / 12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge . The guns fired at a muzzle velocity of 835 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 740 ft / s ) . The guns were expected to fire around 1 @,@ 400 shells before they needed to be replaced .
The ships were also armed with eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) L / 45 Flak guns in single pedestal mounts . Four were arranged around the rear superfiring main battery turret and the other four around the forward conning tower . The Flak guns were emplaced in MPL C / 13 mountings , which allowed depression to − 10 degrees and elevation to 70 degrees . These guns fired 9 kg ( 20 lb ) shells , and had an effective ceiling of 9 @,@ 150 m at 70 degrees .
As was standard for warships of the period , the Ersatz Yorcks were equipped with submerged torpedo tubes . There were three 60 cm ( 24 in ) tubes : one in the bow , and one on each flank of the ship . The torpedoes were the H8 type , which were 8 m long and carried a 210 kg ( 460 lb ) Hexanite warhead . The torpedoes had a range of 6 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 yd ) when set at a speed of 36 knots ; at a reduced speed of 30 knots , the range increased significantly to 14 @,@ 000 m ( 15 @,@ 300 yd ) .
= = = Armor = = =
The Ersatz Yorck @-@ class ships were protected with Krupp cemented steel armor , as was the standard for German warships of the period . The armor layout was identical to the preceding Mackensen class , which was itself very similar to the armor scheme on the preceding Derfflinger @-@ class ships . They had an armor belt that was 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick in the central citadel of the ship , where the most important parts of the ship were located . This included the ammunition magazines and the machinery spaces . The belt was reduced in less critical areas , to 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) forward and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) aft . The belt tapered down to 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) at the bow , though the stern was not protected by armor at all . A 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) thick torpedo bulkhead ran the length of the hull , several meters behind the main belt . The main armored deck ranged in thickness from 30 mm thick in less important areas , to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in the sections that covered the more critical areas of the ship .
The forward conning tower was protected with heavy armor : the sides were 300 mm thick and the roof was 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The rear conning tower was less well armored ; its sides were only 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick and the roof was covered with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor plate . The main battery gun turrets were also heavily armored : the turret sides were 270 mm ( 11 in ) thick and the roofs were 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick . The 15 cm guns had 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) worth of armor plating in the casemates ; the guns themselves had 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick shields to protect their crews from shell splinters .
= = Construction and cancellation = =
Three ships were ordered for the new design . Ersatz Yorck , a replacement for the armored cruiser Yorck , was ordered from AG Vulcan in Hamburg , laid down in July 1916 under construction number 63 . After 1917 , work on the ship only took place in order to keep dockyard workers occupied . Construction was suspended to concentrate on the U @-@ boat program , and the hull frames that had been assembled were subsequently scrapped on the slip . Ersatz Gneisenau , a replacement for the armored cruiser Gneisenau , was ordered from Germaniawerft in Kiel under construction number 250 . Work was not started due to shifting priorities , though some material had been constructed . The diesel engines that had been built were subsequently installed on the first four Type U 151 U @-@ boats U @-@ 151 , U @-@ 152 , U @-@ 153 , and U @-@ 154 . Ersatz Scharnhorst , a replacement for the armored cruiser Scharnhorst , was ordered from Blohm + Voss in Hamburg under construction number 246 . Construction never began on her as well , due to shifting priorities . However , the design formed the basis for the Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships built by the Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s .
= Rameswaram =
Rameswaram , ( also spelt as Ramesvaram , Rameshwaram or Ramisseram ) is a town and a second grade municipality in the Ramanathapuram district in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu . It is located on Pamban Island separated from mainland India by the Pamban channel and is about 50 kilometres from Mannar Island , Sri Lanka . It is situated in the Gulf of Mannar , at the very tip of the Indian peninsula . Pamban Island , also known as Rameswaram Island , is connected to mainland India by the Pamban Bridge . Rameswaram is the terminus of the railway line from Chennai and Madurai . Together with Varanasi , it is considered to be one of the holiest places in India to Hindus , and part of the Char Dham pilgrimage .
It is said that this is the place from where the Hindu god Rama built a bridge across the sea to Lanka to rescue his wife Sita from her abductor Ravana . The Ramanathaswamy Temple , dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva , is located at the centre of the town and is closely associated with Rama . The temple , along with the town , is considered a holy pilgrimage site for both shaivas and vaishnavas .
Rameswaram is the closest point from which to reach Sri Lanka from India , and geological evidence suggests that the Rama Sethu was a former land connection between India and Sri Lanka . The town has been in the news over the Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project , Kachchatheevu , Sri Lankan Tamil refugees and capturing local fishermen for alleged cross @-@ border activities by Sri Lankan Forces . Rameswaram is administered by a municipality established in 1994 . The town covers an area of 53 km2 and had a population of 44 @,@ 856 as of 2011 . Tourism and fishery employ the majority of workforce in Rameswaram .
= = Legend = =
Rameswara means " Lord of Rama " in Sanskrit , an epithet of Shiva , the presiding deity of the Ramanathaswamy Temple . According to Hindu epic Ramayana , Rama , the seventh avatar of the god Vishnu , prayed to Shiva here to absolve any sins that he might have committed during his war against the demon @-@ king Ravana in Sri Lanka . According to the Puranas ( Hindu scriptures ) , upon the advice of sages , Rama along with his wife Sita and his brother Lakshmana , installed and worshipped the lingam ( an iconic symbol of Shiva ) here to expiate the sin of Brahmahatya incurred while killing of the Brahmin Ravana . To worship Shiva , Rama wanted to have the largest lingam and directed his monkey lieutenant Hanuman to bring it from Himalayas . Since it took longer to bring the lingam , Sita built a small lingam , which is believed to be the one in the sanctum of the temple . This account is not supported by the original Ramayana authored by Valmiki , nor in the Tamil version of the Ramayana authored by Tamil poet , Kambar ( 1180 – 1250 CE ) . Support for this account is found in some of the later versions of the Ramayana , such as the one penned by Tulasidas ( 15th century ) . Sethu Karai is a place 22 km before the island of Rameswaram from where Rama is believed to have built a floating stone bridge , the Ramsetu bridge , that further continued to Dhanushkodi in Rameswaram till Talaimannar in Sri Lanka . According to another version , as quoted in Adhyatma Ramayana , Rama installed the lingam before the construction of the bridge to Lanka .
= = History = =
The history of Rameswaram is centred around the island being a transit point to reach Sri Lanka ( Ceylon historically ) and the presence of Ramanathaswamy Temple . Tevaram , the 7th – 8th century Tamil compositions on Shiva by the three prominent Nayanars ( Saivites ) namely Appar , Sundarar and Thirugnanasambandar . The Chola king Rajendra Chola I ( 1012 – 1040 CE ) had a control of the town for a short period . The Jaffna kingdom ( 1215 – 1624 CE ) had close connections with the island and claimed the title Setukavalan meaning custodians of the Rameswaram . Hinduism was their state religion and they made generous contribution to the temple . Setu was used in their coins as well as in inscriptions as marker of the dynasty .
According to Firishta , Malik Kafur , the head general of Alauddin Khilji , the ruler of Delhi Sultanate , reached Rameswaram during his political campaign in spite of stiff resistance from the Pandyan princes in the early 14th century . He erected a mosque by name Alia al @-@ Din Khaldji in honour of victory of Islam . During the early 15th century , the present day Ramanathapuram , Kamuthi and Rameswaram were included in the Pandya dynasty . In 1520 CE , the town came under the rule of Vijayanagara Empire . The Sethupathis , the breakaway from Madurai Nayaks , ruled Ramanathapuram and contributed to the Ramanathaswamy temple . The most notable of them are the contributions of Muthu Kumara Ragunatha and Muthu Ramalinga Sethupathi , who transformed the temple to an architectural ensemble . The region was repeatedly captured several times by Chanda Sahib ( 1740 – 1754 CE ) , Arcot Nawab and Muhammed Yusuf Khan ( 1725 – 1764 CE ) in the middle of 18th century . In 1795 CE , Rameswaram came under the direct control of the British East India Company and was annexed to the Madras Presidency . After 1947 , the town became a part of Independent India .
= = Geography = =
Rameswaram has an average elevation of 10 metres ( 32 feet ) . The island is spread across an area of 61 @.@ 8 square kilometres and is in the shape of a conch . 74 % of the area has sandy soil due to the presence of sea and it has many islands surrounding it , the Palk Strait in the north west and Gulf of Mannar in the south East . The Ramanathaswamy Temple occupies major area of Rameswaram . The beach of Rameswaram is featured with no waves at all – the sea waves rise to a maximum height of 3 cm and the view looks like a very big river . Rameswaram has dry tropical climate with low humidity , with average monthly rainfall of 75 @.@ 73 mm , mostly from North East monsoon from October to January . The highest ever temperature recorded at Pamban station was 37 ° C and the lowest was 17 ° C.
Ramsetu Bridge is a chain of limestone shoals , between Rameswaram and Mannar Island , off the northwestern coast of Sri Lanka . Geological evidence suggests that this bridge is a former land connection between India and Sri Lanka . The bridge is 18 miles ( 30 km ) long and separates the Gulf of Mannar ( north east ) from the Palk Strait ( South West ) . It was reportedly passable on foot up to the 15th century until storms deepened the channel . The temple records record that Rama ’ s Bridge was completely above sea level until it broke in a cyclone in 1480 CE . The bridge was first mentioned in the ancient Indian Sanskrit epic Ramayana of Valmiki . The name Rama 's Bridge or Rama Setu ( Sanskrit ; setu : bridge ) refers to the bridge built by the Vanara ( ape men ) army of Rama in Hindu mythology , which he used to reach Lanka and rescue his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana . The Ramayana attributes the building of this bridge to Rama in verse 2 @-@ 22 @-@ 76 , naming it as Setubandhanam . The sea separating India and Sri Lanka is called Sethusamudram meaning " Sea of the Bridge " . Maps prepared by a Dutch cartographer in 1747 CE , available at the Tanjore Saraswathi Mahal Library show this area as Ramancoil , a colloquial form of the Tamil Raman Kovil ( or Rama 's Temple ) . Many other maps in Schwartzberg 's historical atlas and other sources such as travel texts by Marco Polo call this area by various names such as Sethubandha and Sethubandha Rameswaram .
= = Demographics = =
According to 2011 census , Rameswaram had a population of 44 @,@ 856 with a sex @-@ ratio of 969 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . A total of 5 @,@ 022 were under the age of six , constituting 2 @,@ 544 males and 2 @,@ 478 females . Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 6 @.@ 8 % and .03 % of the population respectively . The average literacy of the town was 73 @.@ 36 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . The town had a total of 10579 households . There were a total of 16 @,@ 645 workers , comprising 69 cultivators , 20 main agricultural labourers , 148 in house hold industries , 15 @,@ 130 other workers , 1 @,@ 278 marginal workers , 11 marginal cultivators , 26 marginal agricultural labourers , 44 marginal workers in household industries and 1 @,@ 197 other marginal workers . The total number of households below poverty lane ( BPL ) in 2003 were 976 , which is 10 @.@ 45 % of the total households in the town and these were raised to 3003 ( 29 @.@ 12 % ) in 2007 .
As per the religious census of 2011 , Rameswaram had 87 @.@ 4 % Hindus , 4 @.@ 36 % Muslims , 8 @.@ 13 % Christians , 0 @.@ 03 % Sikhs , 0 @.@ 01 % Buddhists , and 0 @.@ 07 % following other religions .
= = Municipal Administration and politics = =
According to the Madras Presidency Panchayat Act of 1885 , Rameswaram was declared a panchyat union during British times . It became a township during 1958 and was declared a municipality in 2004 . Rameswaram is a 3rd grade municipality having 21 wards , out of which 6 are General wards for women and one is reserved for SC ( Scheduled Caste ) women . The major sources of budgeted income for Rameswaram municipality comes from Devolution Fund of ₹ 17 million ( US $ 0 @.@ 3 million ) and property tax of ₹ 2 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 43 @,@ 000 ) . The major expense heads are for salaries of ₹ 06 million ( US $ 0 @.@ 1 million ) , operating expenses of ₹ 03 @.@ 7 million ( US $ 65 @,@ 000 ) and repair & maintenance expenditure of ₹ 02 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 42 @,@ 000 ) . The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments : General , Engineering , Revenue , Public Health , Town planning and the Computer Wing . All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner who is the supreme executive head . The legislative powers are vested in a body of 21 members , one each from the 21 wards . The legislative body is headed by an elected Chairperson assisted by a Deputy Chairperson .
Rameswaram comes under the Ramanathapuram assembly constituency and it elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years . The current MLA of the constituency is Dr. Manikandan from the AIADMK .
Rameswaram is a part of the Ramanathapuram ( Lok Sabha constituency ) – it has been realigned in 2008 to have the following assembly constituencies – Paramakudi ( SC ) , Ramanathapuram , Mudukulathur , Aranthangi , Tiruchuli ( newly created ) . The constituency was traditionally a stronghold of the Indian National Congress that won 6 times till the 1991 elections , after which it was won twice each by the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( ADMK ) and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) . The current Member of Parliament from the constituency is A. Anwhar Raajhaa from the AIADMK party .
India 's renowned scientist and former President of India , A. P. J. Abdul Kalam , was born in Rameswaram .
= = Economy = =
Being a pilgrimage town , the majority of the population is involved in tourism related industry consisting of trade and services . Service sector increased from 70 % in 1971 to 98 @.@ 78 % in 2001 , while the agricultural sector reduced from 23 % in 1971 to 0 @.@ 13 % in 2001 . Rameswaram is an industrially backward town – there has been no demarcation for industrial land due to | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
vice president from 1947 to 1964 . He was awarded a life membership in 1957 . He was elected Victorian State President of the Australian Legion of Ex @-@ Servicemen and Women in 1948 . He resigned in October after a dispute with the State Council over its suspension of two members for being communists , which Simpson opposed . Yet Simpson was no communist sympathiser ; far from it . He organised The Association , a clandestine right wing paramilitary organisation headed by Blamey which was established to counter a possible communist coup . The Association disbanded in 1950 .
= = Death and legacy = =
Simpson died of cancer in Heidelberg Repatriation Hospital on 23 August 1964 . He was survived by his wife and daughter . He was buried in St Kilda Cemetery after a funeral service at St Cuthbert 's Church in Brighton , Victoria . His pall bearers included Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring and Major General Alan Ramsay .
Simpson Barracks at Watsonia in Melbourne was named in his honour in 1986 . It is considered the home of the Royal Australian Corps of Signals , and contains the Defence Force School of Signals and the Royal Australian Corps of Signals Museum .
= Prince of Wales ( 1786 ship ) =
Prince of Wales was a transport ship in the First Fleet , assigned to carry convicts for the European colonisation of Australia . There is some ambiguity about her origins and she was probably launched in 1779 at Sidmouth and rebuilt at London in 1786 . Still , in 1787 she set sail for Australia , and reached Botany Bay in January 1788 . On a difficult return voyage in 1788 – 89 she became separated from her convoy , was taken eastward around the world instead of west and drifted helplessly off Rio de Janeiro for a day while her crew was incapacitated with scurvy .
After her return to Britain her owners deployed her as a whaler in the South Seas Fisheries . They then sold her and she became a privateer and letter of marque , before performing a voyage as a slave ship . During this voyage a French privateer captured Prince of Wales ; in a process that is currently unclear , she returned to British , albeit new , hands . Her new owners then employed her trading between London and the West Indies , the Mediterranean , and the West Indies again . She was last listed in 1810 .
= = Origins = =
Prince of Wales was a square @-@ sterned barque of 300 to 350 tons ( bm ) , 103 feet ( 31 m ) long and 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) wide and with a height between decks of 5 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) amidships and 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) fore and aft .
By one account , she was built in 1779 at Sidmouth as a West Indiaman with ship 's master James Johnston . By another account , she was built on the River Thames in 1786 , by the firm Christopher Watson and Co. of Rotherhithe , which had also built HMS Sirius . Both accounts give her owner as Cornhill merchant John Mather , who had previously purchased and disposed of Captain Cook 's Endeavour after that vessel had returned from Botany Bay .
It is possible to reconcile these accounts somewhat . There is no mention of Prince of Wales in Lloyd 's Register until 1787 , when she appears in the supplemental pages as being of 300 tons ( bm ) , launched in 1779 at Sidmouth , with master J. Mason , and owner John Mather . The reconciliation between the two origins may rest in the notation that she had been almost totally rebuilt in 1786 . It is therefore quite reasonable to suppose that she was launched at Sidmouth in 1779 and rebuilt at Rotherhithe in 1786 .
The entry in Lloyd 's Register , however , adds further confusion of a different sort . It reports that in 1786 Prince of Wales had been named Hannibal . The situation is more complex than that . If one works back from 1787 , the only thing that is clear is that vessels have been bought , disposed of , and renamed .
What appears to have occurred is a mixing of records and a confusion of names . One may conjecture that one vessel was the South Carolina @-@ built slaver Heart of Oak , launched in 1762 , repaired in 1784 , of 310 tons ( bm ) , and renamed Hannibal in 1786 . The other was the West Indiaman Hannibal , Sidmouth @-@ built , launched in 1779 , not yet rebuilt , and of 300 tons ( bm ) , and eventually renamed Prince of Wales . Unfortunately , Lloyd 's Register for 1785 is not readily available on @-@ line . Furthermore , in 1784 , although J. Mather apparently owned 17 vessels , including Heart of Oak , none was built in Sidmouth in 1779 . Nor is there any other vessel listed built in Sidmouth in 1779 . Full resolution of the issue may have to await primary research .
= = Voyage to Australia = =
The south London shipbroker William Richards contracted Prince of Wales in 1787 for the First Fleet voyage . Richards selected her after consultation with Royal Marine officers Watkin Tench and David Collins . Both officers would sail with the Fleet to Australia , Tench as a captain of marines , and Collins as judge @-@ advocate for the new colony . She was the second @-@ smallest of the First Fleet transports after Friendship , and the last to be contracted to join the voyage .
The Navy Board assigned Prince of Wales to the First Fleet on 2 March 1787 under the immediate command of ship 's master John Mason , and the overall command of naval officer and future Governor of New South Wales , Arthur Phillip aboard Sirius . She was the last transport added to the Fleet before it sailed .
She left Portsmouth on 13 May 1787 with a crew of around 25 , and was accompanied by the other vessels of the Fleet : five transports , three storeships and two Royal Navy vessels . The 24 @-@ gun post ship HMS Hyaena accompanied the Fleet through the Channel as fleet escort , departing when the ships reached Atlantic waters . Prince of Wales arrived in Tenerife on 5 June , where she was resupplied . A second resupply took place in August in the Portuguese port of Rio de Janeiro , including the delivery aboard Prince of Wales of quantities of fresh fruit and vegetables , seeds , and some rum for the marines . Prince of Wales then turned southeast with the Fleet , reaching Cape Town in October and entering the Great Southern Ocean on 13 November for the last leg of the voyage to Australia . The first death among the crew occurred on the night of 24 November when a seaman fell overboard from the topsail yard and could not be rescued . A week later a second seaman , Yorgan Younginson , drowned after being washed overboard in heavy seas .
By mid @-@ December the ship 's supply of flour and butter for the voyage had been exhausted and Philip authorised Mason to broach the stores set aside for the future colony in order to continue to feed the convicts . A month later , on 20 January 1788 , Prince of Wales reached Australia 's Botany Bay . Six days later she sailed for Sydney Cove as part of the relocation of the convict settlement to Port Jackson . Leaving Botany Bay she collided with Friendship , losing her mainmast staysail and topsail , but the damage was swiftly repaired and she was able to enter Port Jackson in line with her fellow transports . There she landed 49 convicts , 31 marines and 23 civilians .
= = = Convicts = = =
Prince of Wales carried 47 female convicts on departure from Portsmouth . After five days at sea , 2 males were also brought across from Scarborough , ringleaders of a failed mutiny . They remained aboard Prince of Wales for the remainder of the voyage to Australia .
Convict health was comparatively good during the voyage , with a report by Governor Philip showing only nine cases of illness aboard Prince of Wales by the time she reached Tenerife , the least for any First Fleet transport . Indeed , Phillip wrote to Admiralty advising that " the convicts are not so sickly as when we sailed , " though the women aboard Prince of Wales had no new clothing and were still in the ragged apparel they had worn in prison . There was no ship 's surgeon aboard but Chief Surgeon John White , periodically came on board from Sirius when weather and sailing conditions permitted . As the Fleet headed toward Rio in July , humid conditions and heavy rains generated a " plague of bugs " below decks with more than a hundred insects found in one small sleeping area alone . There were also reports of rats , fleas and lice , and an outbreak of scurvy in late December .
Despite this , serious illness remained rare and the first convict death was from accidental causes rather than disease . On 24 July the ship 's longboat fell from a boom and struck 22 @-@ year @-@ old Jane Bonner in the head ; she died from her injuries six days later . A second convict , John Hartley , died of unknown causes on 5 August . These two deaths compared favourably with those on other transports , particularly Alexander ; Alexander recorded 30 deaths , a consequence of overcrowding and an overflowing bilge .
Convict discipline was also well maintained , except for prostitution between the female convicts and the crew , which was rampant on Prince of Wales , Friendship and Lady Penrhyn . The first recorded punishment of a convict aboard Prince of Wales was in October 1787 , nearly nine months after she had sailed ; six lashes for a woman caught stealing from her fellows while they were " at prayer . "
= = = Marines = = =
The ship also carried a contingent of 31 marines of the New South Wales Marine Corps , comprising lieutenants Thomas Davey and Thomas Timins , five non @-@ commissioned officers , and 24 privates . Sixteen of the marines embarked with their wives , and there were six children . Discipline was poor . In June 1787 two marines were court @-@ martialed for disobeying orders ; one received 300 lashes . Later in the voyage , two sergeants refused to share a mess after one insulted the other 's wife . Drunkenness was also common . In June one drunken marine sergeant fell through an open hatchway and injured the pregnant wife of another marine , for which offence he was placed in legcuffs for two weeks and then transferred to Alexander . Then in late October , First Lieutenant James Maxwell , who had recently transferred aboard from Charlotte , was found incoherently drunk on duty and promptly returned to Charlotte .
Two more children were born to the wives of marines during the voyage . In October 1787 the wife of marine drummer Benjamin Cook died from an unspecified illness and was buried at sea after a brief ceremony .
James Scott , a Sergeant of Marines , wrote an account of the voyage in his journals , now held at the State Library of New South Wales
= = = Return to England = = =
Prince of Wales remained anchored in Sydney Cove for five months after her voyage , while her stores were unloaded . A shipboard inspection during this time found her hull was rotten with shipworm and on 23 May 1788 she was careened on the beach for repairs . In July she was released from government service and set sail for England on the 14th of that month , in convoy with her First Fleet sister ships Alexander , Borrowdale and Friendship , and under the overall command of Lieutenant John Shortland in Alexander .
The plan was that the convoy sail north to rendezvous at Lord Howe Island , then set a course broadly parallel to the Great Barrier Reef with the aim of reaching the Dutch port of Batavia . From there the convoy would sail west through the Sunda Straits to the Cape of Good Hope , then north through the Atlantic to England . This route was comparatively well mapped – the first part largely mirroring that of James Cook in his first voyage in the Pacific from 1768 to 1771 , and the remainder from Batavia being the traditional route of Dutch East Indiamen returning to Europe . Shortland estimated the voyage would take the convoy between six and ten months .
This navigation plan was abandoned when both Prince of Wales and Borrowdale lost sight of Alexander and Friendship during a severe storm in late July , and found themselves alone and off course by the time the weather cleared . The two lost ships anchored while their masters , John Mason in Prince of Wales and Hobson Reed in Borrowdale , consulted . Neither considered it likely they could reach the Lord Howe Island rendezvous . They were also reluctant to hazard the voyage to Batavia through the Great Barrier Reef without Alexander in the lead . Instead , they agreed to turn their ships southeast into the open ocean and to return to England by sailing the other way around the world , via Cape Horn and Rio de Janeiro and then northeast across the Atlantic to Europe .
The Pacific weather proved favourable but by August the two ships had lost sight of each other and continued their voyage separately . On 23 August Prince of Wales rounded Cape Horn alone and headed northeast and north on a path to Rio . Throughout the voyage her crew had been heavily reliant on a diet of salted meat and by early September scurvy had incapacitated the majority . Mason died from the condition on 9 October , and another 13 men were too ill to leave their bunks . When Rio was finally sighted on 13 October the crew were too sick to bring the ship to port . She drifted helplessly in the outer harbor until Rio 's harbourmaster sighted her the following morning and had additional seamen rowed out to assist . Twelve of Prince of Wales ' sickest crew members were hospitalised in Rio while the remainder recovered on board .
A resupplied Prince of Wales set sail from Rio on Christmas Day 1788 , completing an uneventful final leg to reach Falmouth in England on 25 March 1789 . Despite the delays of disease , weather and an unfamiliar route , she was the first of the Fleet to return home , two months ahead of Alexander which did not reach England until 28 May .
= = Whaler = =
Between 1790 and into 1793 @-@ 4 Mather & Co. employed Prince of Wales as a whaler in the South Seas Fisheries , under the command of Captain F. Bolton . In 1790 she left for the Brazil Banks and Africa Grounds , but returned in November . By 10 August 1791 she was " All well " at Walwich ( Walvis ) Bay . In April 1792 Prince of Wales returned to England ; she sailed again in July . She sailed around Cape Horn to Peru , but returned to England by late in 1793 .
= = Privateer = =
Mather & Co. sold Prince of Wales to Clayton Tarleton in 1793 . Tarleton armed her with twenty 6 @-@ pounder guns and placed her under the command of William Scales . Scales received a letter of marque on 1 March 1793 . The letter indicated that Prince of Wales had a crew of 100 men , many more than she needed to sail her , suggesting that Tarleton intended her to sail as a privateer .
Prince of Wales departed on a cruise and on 7 April she captured the French merchant vessel " Le Federatis " , which was sailing from Cap @-@ François to Bordeaux with a cargo valued at £ 40 @,@ 000 , or £ 32 @,@ 000 . Prince of Wales brought her prize into Hoylake a week later .
Plans changed , and Tarleton appointed Captain James Thomson ( or Thompson ) to command of Prince of Wales , with the intent of sailing her on the Liverpool @-@ Africa trade , i.e. , as a slaver . James Thomson received a letter of marque on 4 September 1793 . His letter indicated that he would have a crew of 40 men .
In late 1793 , Thompson sailed from Viana ( probably Viana do Castello , Portugal ) , for Dartmouth , in company with the Somme . On 8 October he captured the Maryland , which was sailing from Baltimore to Bordeaux with a cargo of coffee , sugar , and barrel staves . He sent her into " Montserrat " . In December he recaptured the Best , which had been sailing from Lancaster to the West Indies when a French man @-@ of @-@ war had captured her . Thompson brought Best into the Mersey .
On 1 January 1794 , Thomson spoke with a ship that was sailing for Botany Bay . The ship had encountered a French privateer , of 14 guns , which the British ship managed to drive off after an engagement that lasted almost two hours . Reportedly , Prince of Wales went on to recapture a British brig that a French 74 @-@ gun ship of the line had captured . Prince of Wales sent the brig into Oporto . However , this may have been the Best . Lastly , in early 1974 , Prince of Wales captured and brought in the Flugen , of Malmö , which had been carrying wine , brandy , and bale goods from Bordeaux to Saint @-@ Domingue .
= = Slaver and capture = =
Later in 1794 a new captain replaced Thomson . Radcliffe Shimmin received a letter of marque on 11 June 1794 . A database of slave voyages by Liverpool @-@ registered ships also names Shimmin as master of Prince of Wales .
Shimmin 's voyage was ill @-@ fated . Lloyd 's List reported that as Prince of Wales was approaching Barbados , having sailed from West Africa for the West Indies , she encountered a French privateer . The privateer , possibly built in Baltimore , was armed with 28 guns and carried a crew of 300 men . She captured Prince of Wales and took her into Saint Thomas , then a Danish colony , and hence neutral. the capture took place in late 1794 or early 1795 .
Unsurprisingly , there is no listing for Prince of Wales in Lloyd 's Register in 1796 .
= = British merchantman = =
What is perhaps more surprising is that Prince of Wales returned to British ownership . There is an entry for her in the supplemental ( i.e. , late addition ) pages for the 1797 volume . One suspects that the Royal Navy recaptured her in the West Indies , but so far evidence for the conjecture is lacking .
Barclay and Co. sailed Prince of Wales between the West Indies and London , and particularly Martinique and London , from 1797 to 1800 . They then sold her to Fairbridge & Co . Under the command of Captain " Farbidge " , she sailed between London and the Mediterranean between 1801 and 1805 . In 1806 Prince of Wales received a large repair and new deck and sides . Fairbridge also rearmed her with six 6 @-@ pounder guns . From 1805 or so , she was under the command of Captain Stoker , who then sailed in the London @-@ St Vincent trade . She was still listed as sailing in 1810 .
= = Lloyd 's Register = =
Lloyd 's Register is only as accurate as the information owners gave it , and there are discrepancies between the entries for vessels and information from other sources . That said , there is generally a strong correspondence between the information in Lloyd 's Register , and other sources , at least with respect to Prince of Wales .
= Garbage Museum =
The Garbage Museum was a waste @-@ management themed museum located in Stratford , Connecticut , United States . Constructed and opened in 1994 , the recycling facility and museum was constructed for a cost of $ 5 million and funded through a group of 19 local municipalities , collectively known as the Southwest Connecticut Recycling Committee . The museum was operated by the Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority which focused on empowering visitors with knowledge about waste management and allowed visitors to watch the sorting process of recyclables . The most iconic exhibit was Trash @-@ o @-@ saurus , a dinosaur sculpture made of garbage . Funding for the museum dropped in 2009 due to expiring contracts , but remained open until 2011 . The closure of the museum followed a failed fundraising campaign . In 2014 , the Connecticut General Assembly approved a measure to fund the museum by allowing the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection to award a grant of up to $ 100 @,@ 000 to the Connecticut Resource Recovery Authority .
= = Operation = =
The recycling facility and museum was constructed for a cost of $ 5 million and opened in 1993 . Funding for the museum was provided through a group of 19 local municipalities , known as the Southwest Connecticut Recycling Committee , which transported recyclables to the facility for processing . The museum was part of an active recycling operation that allows visitors to follow the recyclable materials through the sorting processes to the crushing and baling process before they are shipped to processors to be recycled into new products . The museum was overseen and operated by the Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority .
= = Exhibits = =
The museum 's goal was to empower its visitors to make good choices and be knowledgeable about waste management in the midst of a " waste crisis " . The center director of the museum , Valerie Knight @-@ Di @-@ Gangi said , " We 've created exhibits that encourage children to explore serious environmental issues , and do so in a fun way to have lasting impact and empower them to take responsibility for the environment . " The museum was operated by the Southwest Connecticut Regional Recycling Operating Committee which staffed the museum with " educational specialists who design [ ed ] and conduct [ ed ] the educational programs " .
The Garbage Museum was an operating recycling facility and featured a viewing area for the operation which processes around 60 @,@ 000 tons of recyclables from 20 local towns . Educational exhibits focused on the benefits of recycling drink cans and mining bauxite , the main source of aluminum , and reducing air pollution and water pollution . Another exhibit features a walk @-@ through tunnel depicting a compost pile . Interactive exhibits included a general store and a " Trash Bash " activity in which " imprison [ ed ] helmet @-@ wearing contestants ... answer questions . If the answer is wrong , others are given the green light to dump trash on them from an overhead opening . " There were also art exhibits made from recyclable material including a " life @-@ size mannequin made from crushed and colored milk containers strung together with pipe cleaners " . In 2004 , a new exhibit showcasing the trash @-@ to @-@ energy process was created by Mike Blasavage as part of a project funded by the Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority . The exhibit follows trash , represented as marbles , being transferred from bins to toy trucks , the trucks transfers the trash to the energy plant that generates energy to open and close a drawbridge .
A popular and unique exhibit was Trash @-@ o @-@ saurus , a 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) tall and 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long dinosaur made out of junk that was prominently on display in the Garbage Museum . The one @-@ ton sculpture was created by Leo Sewell of Pennsylvania and made of " no parking " signs , cell phones , license plates , and other materials . The sculpture represents the average amount of garbage and recyclables that a person in Connecticut discards each year . The exhibit was focused on the importance of recycling and had an interactive checklist of items to find the comprise the sculpture . In April 2011 , the museum celebrated the 16th birthday of the Trash @-@ o @-@ saurus with a birthday party .
= = Closure = =
In 2009 , the fate of the Garbage Museum became uncertain due to financial problems when the recycling plant 's contracts expired on June 30 and the commodity prices dropped due to the economic recession . The museum began fundraising efforts and started collecting $ 2 for entrance fees in September 2008 . The United States Internal Revenue Service also ruled that museum donations could be tax @-@ deductible increasing opportunities for fundraising . The Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority also applied for federal funding as a " shovel @-@ ready " project to upgrade and automate the recycling center 's operations . In 2009 , Nonnenmacher stated that the museum 's operational costs were between $ 200 @,@ 000 and $ 250 @,@ 000 per year . Interest in the museum also came from a group of East Haven High School students who produced a short documentary video about the Garbage Museum , it went on to win a state award and attract some international interest .
Prior to its close in 2011 , the operating budget was $ 341 @,@ 000 , which funded staffing , educational programs , and the museum 's heating and lighting . In July 2011 , Milford 's Board of Aldermen approved allocating $ 26 @,@ 000 via a $ 0 @.@ 75 tax per ton of municipal solid waste , then representing the latest addition to a $ 100 @,@ 000 fundraising drive . On August 25 , 2011 , the museum was closed after the Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority Board of Directors voted to close the Garbage Museum immediately . In 2013 , Connecticut State Senator Kevin C. Kelly introduced legislation to reopen the museum , but the amendment failed to garner support . In 2014 , the Connecticut General Assembly approved a measure to fund the museum by allowing the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection to award a grant of up to $ 100 @,@ 000 to the Connecticut Resource Recovery Authority via funding of the Municipal Tipping Fee Fund .
= The Boat Race 1950 =
The 96th Boat Race took place on 1 April 1950 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The Cambridge crew contained three Olympic silver medallists from the 1948 Summer Olympics ; six of their crew rowed for Lady Margaret Boat Club . In a race umpired by the Olympic medallist and former Cantabrigian rower Kenneth Payne , Cambridge won by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 15 seconds , taking the overall record in the event to 52 – 43 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1949 race by a quarter of a length , with Cambridge leading overall with 51 victories to Oxford 's 43 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by R. Beesly ( who had rowed for the Light Blues in the 1927 , 1928 and 1929 races ) , Roy Meldrum ( a coach for Lady Margaret Boat Club ) , Mike Nicholson ( non @-@ rowing boat club president for the 1947 race ) , Harold Rickett ( who rowed three times between 1930 and 1932 ) and R. H. H. Symonds ( who had rowed in the 1931 race ) . Oxford 's coaches were T. A. Brocklebank ( who had rowed for Cambridge three times between 1929 and 1931 and who had also coached the Light Blues in the 1934 race ) , R. E. Eason ( a Dark Blue in the 1924 race ) , Hugh " Jumbo " Edwards ( who rowed for Oxford in 1926 and 1930 ) and J. A. MacNabb ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1924 race ) . The race was umpired for the second time by the former British Olympian Kenneth Payne , who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races .
The Light Blues were initially considered " hot favourites " and were described by the rowing correspondent of The Manchester Guardian as " full of brilliant promise " while Oxford were " a collection of competent oarsmen who had to be moulded into a crew " . The Observer 's G. I. F. Thomson suggested that " it is anyone 's race " .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 8 @.@ 25 lb ( 79 @.@ 8 kg ) , 4 @.@ 75 pounds ( 2 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford saw three rowers return to the boat with experience of the event , including number five G. C. Fisk who was rowing in his third consecutive Boat Race . Cambridge 's crew contained five rowers who had taken part in the Boat Race previously , including Paul Bircher who was also making his third appearance in the race . Four of the participants in the race were registered as non @-@ British , two in each crew . Oxford 's Fisk and Calvert came from Australia , as did Cambridge 's Charles Lloyd , while Light Blue W. T. Arthur was South African .
The Cambridge crew contained three rowers who had won silver medals at the 1948 Summer Olympics : Paul Massey , Bircher and Lloyd were in the crew that came second in the men 's eight in London . Chris Davidge , the Oxford University Boat Club president , was forced to drop out of the race through illness . Five of the Oxford rowers were educated at Eton College ; six of the Cambridge rowers were studying at St John 's College and so rowed for Lady Margaret Boat Club .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . Umpire Payne started the race at 12 : 30 p.m. , with the Dark Blues making a slightly faster start ; after a minute they were about a canvas @-@ length ahead of their opponents . Although having the outside of the first bend , they had extended their lead to a quarter of a length by Craven Cottage . By the time the crews passed the Mile Post , Cambridge were leading by a quarter @-@ length which they extended to half a length by Harrods Furniture Depository . Cambridge 's stroke Crick increased his crew 's rate ; his opposite number Cavenagh responded to prevent the Light Blues going clear .
While the conditions were not too rough , both crews slowed their stroke rate , with Cambridge passing below Hammersmith Bridge still half a length ahead . As they passed The Doves pub , Oxford slowly began to gain , rating marginally higher . Cavenagh pushed on again before Chiswick Eyot but could not prevent the Light Blues extending their lead to nearly a length by the time the crews passed Chiswick Steps . Despite further spurts from Oxford , Cambridge 's " better stride " saw them pass below Barnes Bridge two and a half lengths ahead . Cambridge passed the finishing post leading by three and a half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 15 seconds , their fourth consecutive win in the slowest time since the 1947 race . The victory took the overall record in the event to 52 – 43 in their favour . The rowing correspondent for The Times noted that " Cambridge rowed far better than they have recently " while " Oxford surpassed what anyone could reasonably have expected from them . " The Manchester Guardian 's rowing correspondent declared that Cambridge 's crew was " generally acknowledged to be one of the best seen on the tideway " , and that " Oxford could not , short of shipwreck or piracy , win the race " . Writing in The Observer , G. I. F. Thomson noted of Cambridge that " all through practice they had shown more promising form and power , as well as unity " while Oxford had " made great strides ... and were never out of the running . "
= Sandsfoot Castle =
Sandsfoot Castle , also known historically as Weymouth Castle , is an artillery fort constructed by Henry VIII near Weymouth , Dorset . It formed part of the King 's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and defended the Weymouth Bay anchorage . The stone castle had an octagonal gun platform , linked to a residential blockhouse , and was completed by 1542 at a cost of £ 3 @,@ 887 . Earthwork defences were built around the landward side of the castle , probably in 1623 . Sandsfoot saw service during the English Civil War , when it was held by Parliament and Royalists in turn during the conflict . It survived the interregnum but , following Charles II 's restoration to the throne , the fortress was withdrawn from military use in 1665 .
By the early 18th century , Sandsfoot was in ruins , its stonework taken for use in local building projects . The clay cliffs on which the castle had been built had always been unstable and subject to erosion . The castle 's gun platform began to collapse into the sea and , by the 1950s , had been entirely destroyed . The ruins were closed to visitors on safety grounds , although civic gardens were planted alongside it in 1951 . Repairs were undertaken between 2009 and 2012 at a total cost of £ 217 @,@ 800 , enabling the site to be reopened to the public . Historic England considers Sandsfoot to be " one of the most substantial examples " of the 16th @-@ century blockhouses to survive in England .
= = History = =
= = = 16th century = = =
Sandsfoot Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
After 1533 , Henry broke with popes Pope Clement VII and Paul III in order to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon , and remarry . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , and Charles took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .
Sandsfoot Castle was built to protect the Weymouth Bay anchorage , being placed on cliffs overlooking the waterway , opposite Portland Castle on the other side . Sandsfoot was a blockhouse , intended to defeat enemy ships using a battery of heavy artillery , and had minimal protection against an attack from the land . It was completed by 1541 , run by a captain appointed by the Crown , and cost £ 3 @,@ 887 to build . There was probably an early agreement that the nearby village of Wyke Regis had a responsibility to support the castle , and in exchange they came to traditionally enjoy an exemption from taxes and militia duties . The antiquarian John Leland visited the castle soon after its construction , describing it as " a right goodlie and warlyke castle " with " one open barbican " , probably referring to the castle 's gun platform .
Coastal erosion quickly began to threaten the castle , causing what was reported as a " great gulf " on its seaward side , and repairs costing £ 383 were necessary by 1583 . During the invasion scare that accompanied the Spanish Armada of 1588 , the normal garrison of Sandsfoot was supplemented by another 50 men .
= = = 17th – 19th centuries = = =
Repairs were made to the castle between 1610 and 1611 by the captain , Sir George Bampfield , at a cost of £ 211 . A survey in 1623 carried out by Sir Richard Morryson showed the castle to be equipped with ten iron guns – one culverin , five demi @-@ culverins , two sakers , a minion and a falcon – and garrisoned by its captain , five gunners and three soldiers . It was in a poor condition , and one corner of the gun platform had been undermined by the sea ; Morryson 's team estimated the likely costs of repairs to amount to £ 459 .
During the English Civil War between the supporters of Charles I and Parliament , Weymouth was predominantly Parliamentarian in loyalty and the surrounding forts were held by their garrisons . Robert Dormer , the Earl of Carnarvon , entered Dorset with an army in 1643 and Weymouth surrendered , resulting in Sandsfoot Castle being controlled by the Royalists between August 1643 and June 1644 . During this period the castle may have been used as a Royalist mint . Robert Devereux , the Earl of Essex , then retook the county for Parliament ; Colonel William Ashburnham , the Royalist governor of Weymouth , retreated to Portland Castle without a fight . Devereux approached Sandsfoot and , after three hours of negotiations , the fort surrendered to him . In 1647 , Parliament ordered the garrison at the castle to be demobilised but this did not occur , and John Hayne was appointed as its new captain .
Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 and the next year a fresh order was given to demobilise the garrison at Sandsfoot . An argument then broke out between Humphrey Weld , the lieutenant @-@ governor of Portland and captain of Sandsfoot Castle , and Charles Stewart , the Duke of Richmond , over the control of the local defences . The village of Wyke Regis petitioned Weld in a bid to prevent the demobilisation , concerned that their traditional exemptions from militia service would be revoked by the Duke . Weld championed their case but was dismissed from his post as lieutenant @-@ governor , and the Duke occupied Sandsfoot with his militia . Weld appealed to the government and in 1665 a compromise was announced in which Weld would be reappointed to his role as lieutenant @-@ governor , while Sandsfoot would be declared redundant and be demolished . The order for its destruction was never carried out , and the castle was used as a storehouse until at least 1691 .
By 1725 , the castle had become ruinous . Early in the century , the remains of the castle was sold to the town of Weymouth , whose people reused some of the stone to construct their new town bridge . Local tradition in the 19th century maintained that several houses in Weymouth were also constructed using stone taken from the castle . In 1825 , the carved stone Elizabethan arms of the castle were moved to All Saints Church in Wyke Regis . Captains continued to be formally appointed , however , and Gabriel Stewart held the post as late as 1795 .
The majority of the gun platform collapsed into the sea as the cliffs eroded . It is uncertain precisely when this occurred ; in a prolonged historical debate over this during the late 19th and early 20th centuries , the historian Henry Symonds argued that the first falls occurred during the 18th century , W. Norman placed the main fall in 1835 , and T. Groves argued in favour of a more recent collapse in the second half of the 19th century . The ruined castle was drawn and painted by various artists in the 18th and 19th centuries , including Samuel Buck , J. H. Grimm , C. Sawyer and Edward Pritchard . The castle featured in Joseph Drew 's short novel " the Poisoned Cup " in 1876 .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
In 1902 , the Weymouth Corporation purchased the castle for the town from the Department of Woods and Forests for a total of £ 150 . During the Second World War the castle probably housed an anti @-@ aircraft battery as part of the defences created around Portland Harbour . Despite the construction of the Portland breakwaters nearby , the unstable clay cliffs remained vulnerable to erosion ; in 1930 the ruins were closed to the public due to safety concerns and the remaining embrasure of the gun platform collapsed during in the 1950s .
In 2009 , £ 23 @,@ 100 was awarded by the Heritage Lottery Fund for an initial survey of the site , which by now had been placed on English Heritage 's register of listed buildings at risk of decline , followed by a further £ 194 @,@ 700 in 2011 for substantial repair work . As part of the work , a three @-@ dimensional laser scan of the stonework was undertaken , and a steel and oak walkway was installed around the interior of the castle . The castle reopened to the public in 2012 , and the following year it was removed from English Heritage 's at risk register . The castle is protected under UK law as a grade II * listed building and as a scheduled ancient monument .
= = Architecture = =
Sandsfoot Castle was built from Portland stone with ashlar facings and a rubble core . It comprised a main blockhouse attached to an octagonal gun room , overlooking the sea . The two @-@ storey blockhouse is 42 by 32 feet ( 12 @.@ 8 by 9 @.@ 8 m ) across , with a gate @-@ tower on its landward side . It probably originally had four rooms for the accommodation and cooking facilities for the garrison , with staircases leading up to the first floor and down into its basement . The gate @-@ tower held a small room on the first floor and was designed to hold a portcullis . The one @-@ storey gun room was approximately 36 by 28 feet ( 11 @.@ 0 by 8 @.@ 5 m ) across with five embrasures for guns and a flat roof that also probably supported artillery . Both the gun room and the main block were probably protected by parapets .
The gun room has been lost to erosion , although the south @-@ western embrasure is still visible where it fell onto the beach below . The ashlar facings of the blockhouse have been largely robbed , although some elements remain , and the roof and floors have been lost . Historic England considers that the castle " represents one of the most substantial examples " of an unaltered 16th @-@ century blockhouse in England .
The castle originally had an outer ward , reached over a bridge , and stables , although these have been both been lost . Protective rectangular earthworks were constructed to protect the castle on the landward side , probably in 1623 , with two bastions in the north and west corners , and some form of stone structure along the earthworks . In the 18th century these earthworks were described as forming a " deep trench " and mid @-@ 19th century accounts suggested that they were around 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) deep . Now only 100 feet ( 30 m ) of the bank and ditch survives , with the earthworks approximately 10 metres ( 33 ft ) wide overall and 2 @.@ 2 metres ( 7 ft 3 in ) deep between the top of the bank and the base of the ditch . The north bastion still survives largely intact , although the west has been mostly destroyed . Outside the entrance to the earthworks are the Sandsfoot Gardens , civic gardens dating from 1951 , designed in a Tudor style with an ornamental pond .
= Salvia divinorum =
Salvia divinorum ( also known as sage of the diviners , ska maría pastora , seer 's sage , yerba de la pastora and just salvia ) is a psychoactive plant which can induce visions and other altered and spiritual experiences . Its native habitat is in cloud forest in the isolated Sierra Mazateca of Oaxaca , Mexico , where it grows in shady and moist locations . The plant grows to over a meter high , has hollow square stems , large leaves , and occasional white flowers with violet calyxes . Botanists have not determined whether Salvia divinorum is a cultigen or a hybrid ; native plants reproduce vegetatively , rarely producing viable seed .
Mazatec shamans have a long and continuous tradition of religious use of Salvia divinorum , using it to facilitate visionary states of consciousness during spiritual healing sessions . Most of the plant 's local common names allude to the Mazatecs ' post @-@ Columbian belief that the plant is an incarnation of the Virgin Mary , with its ritual use also invoking that relationship .
Its chief active psychoactive constituent is a structurally unique diterpenoid called salvinorin A , a potent κ @-@ opioid and D2 receptor agonist . Salvia divinorum is generally understood to be of low toxicity ( high LD50 ) and low addictive potential since it is a κ @-@ opioid agonist and a great deal of research has indicated that κ @-@ opioid agonist activation of the kappa opioid receptor as shown by salvia may , in fact , serve as a potent addiction treatment therapy .
Salvia divinorum remains legal in most countries and , within the United States , is legal in the majority of states . However , some have called for its prohibition . While not currently regulated by US federal drug laws , several states have passed laws criminalizing the substance . Some proposed state bills have failed to progress and have not been made into law ( with motions having been voted down or otherwise dying in committee stages ) . There have not been many publicized prosecutions of individuals violating anti @-@ salvia laws in the few jurisdictions in which it is prohibited .
= = History = =
Salvia divinorum is native to the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca , Mexico , where it is still used by the Mazatec , primarily to facilitate shamanic visions in the context of curing or divination . S. divinorum is one of several species with hallucinogenic properties that are ritually used by Mazatec shamans . Others include certain morning glory seeds ( Turbina corymbosa ) , psilocybin mushrooms , and various coleus species . In their rituals , the shamans use only fresh S. divinorum leaves . They see the plant as an incarnation of the Virgin Mary , and begin the ritual with an invocation to Mary , Saint Peter , the Holy Trinity , and other saints . Ritual use traditionally involves being in a quiet place after ingestion of the leaf — the Maztec shamans say that " La Maria ( S. divinorum ) speaks with a quiet voice . "
It is also used remedially at lower dosages as a diuretic , and to treat ailments including diarrhea , anemia , headaches , rheumatism , and a semi @-@ magical disease known as panzón de borrego , or a swollen belly ( literally , " lamb belly " ) .
The history of the plant is not well known , and there has been no definitive answer to the question of its origin . Speculation includes Salvia divinorum being a wild plant native to the area ; a cultigen of the Mazatecs ; or a cultigen introduced by another indigenous group . Botanists have also not been able to determine whether it is a hybrid or a cultigen .
= = = Academic discovery = = =
Salvia divinorum was first recorded in print by Jean Basset Johnson in 1939 while he was studying Mazatec shamanism . He later documented its usage and reported its effects through personal testimonials . It was not until the 1990s that the psychoactive mechanism was identified by a team led by Daniel Siebert .
Gordon Wasson tentatively postulated that the plant could be the mythological pipiltzintzintli , the " Noble Prince " of the Aztec codices . Wasson 's speculation has been the subject of further debate amongst ethnobotanists , with some scepticism coming from Leander J. Valdés , and counterpoints more supportive of Wasson 's theory from Jonathan Ott .
The identity of another mysterious Aztec entheogen , namely that of poyomatli , has also been suggested as being Salvia divinorum . Here too there are other candidate plants , notably Cacahuaxochitl ( Quararibea funebris ) , again suggesting that there is no consensus .
= = = Etymology = = =
The genus name , Salvia , was first used by Pliny for a plant that was likely Salvia officinalis ( common sage ) and is derived from the Latin salvere . The specific epithet , divinorum , was given because of the plant 's traditional use in divination and healing. it is often loosely translated as " diviner 's sage " or " seer 's sage " . Albert Hofmann , who collected the first plants with Wasson , objected to the new plant being given the name divinorum :
I was not very happy with the name because Salvia divinorum means " Salvia of the ghosts " , whereas Salvia divinatorum , the correct name , means " Salvia of the priests " , But it is now in the botanical literature under the name Salvia divinorum .
There are many common names for S. divinorum , most of them relating to the plant 's association with the Virgin Mary . The Mazatec believe the plant to be an incarnation of the Virgin Mary , so they take great care in handling the plant . The name " Ska Maria Pastora " , often shortened to " Ska Maria " or " Ska Pastora " , refers to " the leaf or herb of Mary , the Shepherdess . " Other Spanish names include " hojas de Maria " , " hojas de la Pastora " , " hierba ( yerba ) Maria " , and " la Maria " . A plant believed to be S. divinorum was referred to as " hoja de adivinacion " ( leaf of prophecy ) by the Cuicatec and Mazatec . S. divinorum is also known as la hembra ( " the female " ) , when it is included by the Mazatec as part of a family of similar religious hallucinogens . The others it is connected with are Coleus pumila , called el macho ( " the male " ) , and two forms of Coleus blumei which are called el nene ( " the child " ) and el ahijado ( " the godson " ) .
Some researchers see the lack of an indigenous Mazatec name as demonstrating a non @-@ Mazatec origin for the plant . Others point out that the Virgin Mary is not normally viewed as a shepherdess in Christianity , and that image may hint at a pre @-@ Hispanic Mazatec cultural reference to the plant .
= = = Recent history = = =
Salvia divinorum has become both increasingly well @-@ known and available in modern culture . The Internet has allowed for the growth of many businesses selling live salvia plants , dried leaves , extracts , and other preparations .
Medical experts , as well as accident and emergency rooms , have not been reporting cases that suggest particular salvia @-@ related health concerns , and police have not been reporting it as a significant issue with regard to public order offences ; in any case , Salvia divinorum has attracted negative attention from the media and some lawmakers .
Media stories generally raise alarms over Salvia divinorum 's legal status and are sometimes headlined with generally ill @-@ supported comparisons to LSD or other psychoactive substances . Parental concerns are raised by focusing on salvia 's usage by younger teens — the emergence of YouTube videos purporting to depict its use being an area of particular concern in this respect . The isolated and controversial suicide of Brett Chidester received much media attention .
Salvia divinorum was the subject of the first use of YouTube within drug @-@ behavioral research when scientists at San Diego State University rated randomly selected videos of salvia users to study observed impairment . Their findings corroborate reports that the most profound effects of smoking salvia appear almost immediately and last about eight minutes . Effects include temporary speech and coordination loss .
= = Botany = =
Salvia divinorum has large green ovate ( often also dentate ) leaves , with a yellow undertone that reach 10 to 30 cm ( 4 to 12 in ) long . The leaves have no hairs on either surface , and little or no petiole . The plant grows to well over 1 metre ( 3 ft ) in height , on hollow square stems which tend to break or trail on the ground , with the plant rooting quite readily at the nodes and internodes .
The flowers , which bloom only rarely , grow in whorls on a 30 @-@ centimetre ( 12 in ) inflorescence , with about six flowers to each whorl . The 3 @-@ centimetre ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) flowers are white , curved and covered with hairs , and held in a small violet calyx that is covered in hairs and glands . When it does bloom in its native habitat , it does so from September to May .
Early authors erred in describing the flowers as having blue corollas , based on Epling and Játiva 's description . The first plant material they received was dried , so they based the flower color on an erroneous description by Hofmann and Wasson , who didn 't realize that their " blue flowers , crowned with a white dome " were in fact violet calyces with unopened white corollas .
= = = Distribution and habitat = = =
Salvia divinorum is endemic to the Sierra Mazateca in the state of Oaxaca in Mexico , growing in the primary or secondary cloud forest and tropical evergreen forest at elevations from 300 to 1 @,@ 830 metres ( 980 to 6 @,@ 000 ft ) . Its most common habitat is black soil along stream banks where small trees and bushes provide an environment of low light and high humidity .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Salvia divinorum produces few viable seeds even when it does flower — no seeds have ever been observed on plants in the wild . For an unknown reason , pollen fertility is also comparatively reduced . There is no active pollen tube inhibition within the style , but some event or process after the pollen tube reaches the ovary is aberrant . The likeliest explanations are inbreeding depression or hybridity . All of the Mazatec populations appear to be clonal . The plant 's square stems break easily and tend to trail on the ground , rooting easily at the nodes and internodes .
= = = Taxonomy = = =
Salvia divinorum was first documented in 1939 , but it was many years before botanists could identify the plant due to Mazatec secrecy about the growing sites . Flowers were needed for a definitive identification of the species . In 1962 , the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann , and ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson , traveled throughout the Sierra Mazateca researching Mazatec rituals and looking for specimens of the plant . They were unable to locate live plants . Eventually , the Mazatec provided them some flowering specimens . These specimens were sent to botanists Carl Epling and Carlos D. Játiva , who described and named the plant as Salvia divinorum , after its use in divination and healing by the Mazatec . By 1985 , up to fifteen populations of the plant had been found .
Until 2010 , there were differing opinions on whether Salvia divinorum is an interspecific hybrid . The plant 's partial sterility was suggestive of a hybrid origin , though no two parent species have been found with an obvious affinity to Salvia divinorum . One other possibility for the plant 's partial sterility is that long @-@ term cultivation and selection have produced an inbred cultigen .
In 2010 , a molecular phylogenetic approach by DNA sequencing of Salvia divinorum and a number of related species strongly suggest that the species is not a hybrid . One earlier proposed parent was Salvia cyanea ( a synonym for Salvia concolor ) , which Epling and Játiva believed to be closely allied to Salvia divinorum . The 2010 study demonstrated Salvia divinorum 's closest relative to be Salvia venulosa — a rare and endemic Salvia that is native to Colombia , growing in shaded , wooded gullies at 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 4 @,@ 900 to 6 @,@ 600 ft ) elevation . It also showed that Salvia divinorum does not belong to the Salvia section Dusenostachys , as believed earlier . The genetic study also indicated that Salvia venulosa was likely misplaced into Salvia section Tubiflorae , and that it may not be related to other Colombia Salvia species , though further tests are needed .
The origin of Salvia divinorum is still a mystery , one of only three plants in the extensive Salvia genus ( approximately 900 species ) with unknown origins — the other two are Salvia tingitana and Salvia buchananii .
= = = Strains = = =
There are two commonly cultivated strains which are known to be distinct . One is the strain that was collected in 1962 by ecologist and psychologist Sterling Bunnell ( the Bunnell strain ) , colloquially mis @-@ attributed as the Wasson @-@ Hofmann strain . The other was collected from Huautla de Jiménez in 1991 by anthropologist Bret Blosser ( the Blosser or Palatable strain ) . There are other strains that are not as well documented , such as the Luna strain ( possibly Bunnell ) isolated from a Hawaiian patch of Salvia divinorum clones , featuring unusually serrated and rounded rather than ovate leaves .
= = = Cultivation = = =
= = = = Propagation by cuttings = = = =
Salvia divinorum is usually propagated through vegetative reproduction . Small cuttings , between two and eight inches long , cut off of the mother plant just below a node , will usually root in plain tap water within two or three weeks .
= = = = Flowering = = = =
Blooms occur when the day length becomes shorter than 12 hours ( beginning in mid @-@ October in some places ) , necessitating a shade cloth in urban environments with exposure to light pollution ( HPS ) .
= = Chemistry = =
The known active constituent of Salvia divinorum is a trans @-@ neoclerodane diterpenoid known as salvinorin A ( chemical formula C23H28O8 ) . This compound is present in the dried plant at about 0 @.@ 18 % .
Salvinorin A is not an alkaloid , ( meaning it does not contain a basic nitrogen ) , unlike most known opioid receptor ligands . Salvinorin A is the first documented diterpene hallucinogen .
Similar to many psychoactive herbs , Salvia divinorum synthesizes and excretes its active constituent ( salvinorin A ) via trichomes , of the peltate @-@ glandular morphology , located just beneath the cuticle ( subcuticular ) layer .
= = = Potency = = =
By mass , salvinorin A " is the most potent naturally occurring hallucinogen . " It is active at doses as low as 200 µg . Synthetic chemicals , such as LSD ( active at 20 – 30 µg doses ) , can be more potent . Research has shown that salvinorin A is a potent and selective κ @-@ Opioid ( kappa @-@ Opioid ) receptor agonist . It has been reported that the effects of salvinorin A in mice are blocked by κ @-@ Opioid receptor antagonists . However , it is an even more potent D2 receptor partial agonist , and it is likely this action plays a significant role in its effects as well . Salvinorin A has no actions at the 5 @-@ HT2A serotonin receptor , the principal molecular target responsible for the actions of ' classic ' hallucinogens , such as mescaline and LSD , nor is it known to have affinity for any other sites to date .
Salvinorin 's potency should not be confused with toxicity . Rodents chronically exposed to dosages many times greater than those to which humans are exposed show no signs of organ damage .
= = = Other terpenoids = = =
Other terpenoids have been isolated from Salvia divinorum , including other salvinorins and related compounds named divinatorins and salvinicins . None of these compounds has shown significant ( sub @-@ micromolar ) affinity at the κ @-@ Opioid receptor , and there is no evidence that they contribute to the plant 's psychoactivity .
= = = Other pharmaceutical action = = =
Salvinorin A is capable of inhibiting excess intestinal motility ( e.g. diarrhea ) , through a combination of κ @-@ opioid and cannabinoid ( mainly CB1 receptor ) receptors in inflamed but not normal gut in vivo . The mechanism of action for Salvinorin A on ileal tissue has been described as ' prejunctional ' , as it was able to modify electrically induced contractions , but not those of exogenous acetylcholine . Results from a small study by an assistant professor at the University of Iowa indicate that it may have potential as an analgesic and as a therapeutic tool for treating drug addictions .
A pharmacologically important aspect of the contraction @-@ reducing ( antispasmodic ) properties of ingested Salvinorin A on gut tissue is that it is only pharmacologically active on inflamed and not normal tissue , thus reducing possible side @-@ effects .
= = Ingestion = =
There are a few ways to consume Salvia divinorum . In traditional Mazatec ritual , shamans use only fresh Salvia divinorum leaves . Modern methods have been developed to more effectively absorb the active principle , salvinorin A. If enough salvinorin A is absorbed , an altered state of consciousness can occur . The duration of experience varies with the method of ingestion and the amount of salvinorin A absorbed .
= = = Traditional methods = = =
Mazatec shamans crush the leaves to extract leaf juices from about 20 to 80 ( about 50g / 2 oz to 200g / 7 oz . ) or more fresh leaves . They usually mix these juices with water to create an infusion or ' tea ' which they drink to induce visions in ritual healing ceremonies .
Chewing and swallowing a large number of fresh leaves is the other Mazatec method . Oral consumption of the leaf makes the effects come on more slowly , over a period of 10 to 20 minutes . The experience , from the onset of effects , lasts from about 30 minutes up to one and a half hours .
Doses for chewing vastly exceed doses used for smoking . By calculating the concentrations per leaf ( " an average concentration of 2 @.@ 45 mg per gram " of leaf ) , the average weight per leaf ( " about 50 g " per 20 leaves , or 2.5g / leaf ) , and the standard dose for chewing ( about 8 @-@ 28 leaves ) , the doses can range from about 50 mg to 172 mg .
= = = Modern methods = = =
Modern methods of ingestion include smoking or chewing the leaf , or using a tincture , as described in the following sections .
Salvia divinorum is becoming more widely known and used in modern culture . The National Survey on Drug Use and Health , an annual US based survey sponsored by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration ( SAMHSA ) , for 2006 estimated that about 1 @.@ 8 million persons aged 12 or older had used Salvia divinorum in their lifetime , of which approximately 750 @,@ 000 had done so in that year . The following year , 2007 , saw the annual figure rise from 750 @,@ 000 to 1 million US users .
= = = = Smoking = = = =
Dry leaves can be smoked in a pipe , or through the use of a water pipe to cool the smoke . The temperature required to release salvinorin from the plant material is quite high ( about 240 ° C ) . A cooler flame will work , but the direct application of a more intense flame , such as that of a torch lighter , is often preferred .
Some find that untreated dry leaf produces unnoticeable or only light effects . Concentrated preparations or extracts which may be smoked in place of untreated leaves , have become widely available . This enhanced ( or " fortified " ) leaf is described by a number followed by an x ( e.g. 5x , 10x ) , the multiplicative factors being generally indicative of the relative amounts of leaf concentrate , though there is no accepted standard for these claims . Other sources may use a system of color codes to form their own standards of potency ; for example , " green " , " yellow " , and " red . "
These grades of potency may be roughly indicative of the relative concentration of the active principle , ( salvinorin A ) , but the measure should not be taken as absolute . Overall extract potency will depend on the ( naturally varying ) strength of the untreated leaf used in preparing the extract , as well as the efficiency of the extraction process itself . Extracts reduce the overall amount of inhalations needed to ingest a given amount of active principle , thus facilitating more powerful experiences .
If salvia is smoked , then the main effects are experienced quickly . The most intense ' peak ' is reached within a minute or so and lasts for 1 – 5 minutes , followed by a gradual tapering off . At 5 – 10 minutes , less intense yet still noticeable effects typically persist , giving way to a returning sense of the everyday and familiar until back to baseline after about 15 to 20 minutes .
= = = = Quid chewing = = = =
The traditional method of chewing the leaves has continued in modern use . However , salvinorin A is generally considered to be inactive when orally ingested , as salvinorin A is effectively deactivated by the gastrointestinal system . Therefore , in what 's understood to be a modern innovation , the ' quid ' of leaves is held in the mouth as long as possible in order to facilitate absorption of the active constituents through the oral mucosa . ' Quid ' refers to the fact that at the end of this method the user spits out the leaves rather than swallowing them because ingesting the leaves has no known effect . Chewing consumes more of the plant than smoking , and produces a longer @-@ lasting experience .
= = = = Using a tincture = = = =
Less commonly , some may ingest salvia in the form of a tincture . This is administered sublingually , usually with the aid of a glass dropper . It may be taken diluted with water just before use , which may slightly reduce the intensity of its effects , but can also serve to lessen or avoid a stinging sensation in the mouth caused by the presence of alcohol . Tinctures vary in potency , and the effects can range from inducing a mild meditative state to bringing about a more intense visionary one .
When taken as a tincture the effects and duration are similar to other methods of oral ingestion , though they may be significantly more intense , depending on extract potency .
= = Immediate effects = =
Psychedelic experiences are necessarily somewhat subjective and variations in reported effects are to be expected . Aside from individual reported experiences there has been a limited amount of published work summarising the effects . D.M. Turner 's book Salvinorin — The Psychedelic Essence of Salvia Divinorum quotes Daniel Siebert 's summarisation , mentioning that the effects may include :
Uncontrollable laughter
Past memories , such as revisiting places from childhood memory
Sensations of motion , or being pulled or twisted by forces
Visions of membranes , films , various two @-@ dimensional surfaces , and fractal patterns
Merging with or becoming objects
Overlapping realities , such as the perception of being in several locations at once
There also may be synesthetic experiences . Glossolalia ( speaking in tongues ) has been reported by Reason .
A survey of salvia users found that 38 % described the effects as unique in comparison to other methods of altering consciousness . 23 % said the effects were like yoga , meditation or trance .
One firsthand journalistic account has been published in the UK science magazine New Scientist ( note : the dose for this experience was not reported ) :
The salvia took me on a consciousness @-@ expanding journey unlike any other I have ever experienced . My body felt disconnected from ' me ' and objects and people appeared cartoonish , surreal and marvellous . Then , as suddenly as it had began , it was over . The visions vanished and I was back in my bedroom . I spoke to my ' sitter ' — the friend who was watching over me , as recommended on the packaging — but my mouth was awkward and clumsy . When I attempted to stand my coordination was off . Within a couple of minutes , however , I was fine and clear @-@ headed , though dripping with sweat . The whole experience had lasted less than 5 minutes .
There have been few books published on the subject . One notable example is Dale Pendell 's work " Pharmako / Poeia — Plant Powers , Poisons , and Herbcraft " , which won the 1996 Firecracker Alternative Book Award and has a chapter dedicated to Salvia divinorum . It includes some experience accounts :
It 's very intense , I call it a reality stutter , or a reality strobing . I think that having been a test pilot , and flying in that unforgiving environment with only two feet between our wingtips , helped to prepare me for this kind of exploration .
Other users have written extensive prose and / or poetry about their experiences ; some describe their visions pictorially , and there exist examples of visionary art which are ' salvia @-@ inspired ' . Others claim musical inspiration from the plant : including " Salvia divinorum " by 1200 Micrograms , " Salvia " by Deepwater Sunshine , and " Flight 77 " by Paul Dereas .
= = = Cautionary notes = = =
Dale Pendell expresses some concerns about the use of highly concentrated forms of salvia . In its natural form salvia is more balanced and benevolent , and quite strong enough , he argues . High strength extracts on the other hand can show " a more precipitous , and more terrifying , face " and many who try it this way may never wish to repeat the experience .
The Salvia Divinorum User 's Guide recommends having a trip sitter present to those who are new to salvia , are experimenting with a stronger form , or are using a more effective method of ingestion .
The guide says that while the effects of salvia are generally quite different from those of alcohol , like alcohol , it impairs coordination . It also emphasizes that salvia is not a ' party drug.'
Salvia is not ' fun ' in the way that alcohol or cannabis can be . If you try to party with salvia you probably will not have a good experience . Salvia is a consciousness @-@ changing herb that can be used in a vision quest , or in a healing ritual . In the right setting , salvia makes it possible to see visions . It is an herb with a long tradition of sacred use . It is useful for deep meditation . It is best taken in a quiet , nearly dark room ; either alone , or with one or two good friends present .
= = = = Vaporization = = = =
Daniel Siebert cautions that inhaling hot air can be irritating and potentially damaging to the lungs . Vapor produced by a heat gun needs to be cooled by running it through a water pipe or cooling chamber before inhalation .
The vaporizers that have been reported effective for use with dried S. divinorum leaves are those that use a paint stripper “ heat gun ” as the heat source . These get very hot , and people have reported that they work quite well sometimes too well — for smoking dried S. divinorum leaves ; we have heard of several people using this type of vaporizer who had experiences that were too intense , including one report of someone passing out . Measuring an accurate dose with these devices can be quite tricky , and they are not recommended .
An experienced salvia user who is chewing a quid , may often choose to do it alone , and may be quite safe in doing so . But having a pleasant , sensible , sober sitter is an absolute must if you are trying vaporization , smoking high doses of extract @-@ enhanced leaves , or using pure salvinorin .
= = After @-@ effects = =
= = = Short term = = =
After the peak effects , normal awareness @-@ of @-@ self and the immediate surroundings return but lingering effects may be felt . These short @-@ term lingering effects have a completely different character than the peak experience . About half of users report a pleasing ' afterglow ' , or pleasant state of mind following the main effects . Researchers from the University of California and California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute conducted a survey of 500 salvia users which identified that they ' sometimes or often ' experience certain effects , including :
Other commonly reported effects include :
Feelings of calmness : 42 @.@ 2 %
Weird thoughts : 36 @.@ 4 %
Things seeming unreal : 32 @.@ 4 %
Floating feelings : 32 %
Mind racing : 23 @.@ 2 %
Feeling lightheaded : 22 @.@ 2 %
= = = Long term = = =
Differing studies suggest no consensus so far with regard to the long @-@ term effects of Salvia divinorum on mood . It is well @-@ established that some k @-@ opioid agonists can cause dysphoria in humans . One study using rats in forced @-@ swim tests has been used to suggest that Salvia divinorum may have " depressive @-@ like " effects , although this conclusion has been contradicted by subsequent research . However , a report has been published detailing an individual case of Salvia divinorum use as self @-@ medicated treatment for depression , and Baggott 's survey of 500 people with firsthand experience of salvia found that 25 @.@ 8 % of respondents reported improved mood and " antidepressant @-@ like effects " lasting 24 hours or longer . Only 4 @.@ 4 % reported persisting ( 24 hours or more ) negative effects ( most often anxiety ) on at least one occasion .
There has been one report of salvia precipitating psychosis . The authors state that they suspect this patient was genetically predisposed to schizophrenia , but their own clinical report shows no family psychiatric history , no personal psychiatric history , and no abnormal lab results .
It has been suggested that the long @-@ term effects of salvia use may include feelings of déjà vu .
The Baggott survey found little evidence of addictive potential ( chemical dependence ) in its survey population . 0 @.@ 6 % percent of respondents reported feeling addicted to or dependent on salvia at some point , and 1 @.@ 2 % reported strong cravings . About this the researchers said " there were too few of these individuals to interpret their reports with any confidence " .
Most users report no hangover or negative after @-@ effects ( e.g. withdrawal , comedown or rebound effect ) the next day . This is consistent with the apparent low toxicity of salvia indicated by research conducted at the University of Nebraska .
= = = Effects on addiction = = =
Salvia researcher Griffith said that from animal testing salvia appears to not be addictive , also the intensity of the experience creates a dysphoria that causes people not to return to the drug .
Thomas Prisinzano , assistant professor of medicinal and natural products chemistry at the University of Iowa , has suggested that salvia may help treat cocaine addiction :
You can give a rat free access to cocaine , give them free access to Salvinorin A , and they stop taking cocaine .
= = = Therapeutic potential = = =
Aside from individual reports of self @-@ medicated use in the treatment of depression , research suggests that Salvia divinorum , in line with the studied effects of other κ @-@ opioid agonists , may have further therapeutic potential .
Professor Bryan L. Roth , director of the National Institute on Mental Health 's Psychoactive Drug Screening Program , has said :
We think that drugs derived from the active ingredient could be useful for a range of diseases : Alzheimer 's , depression , schizophrenia , chronic pain and even AIDS or HIV .
Clinical pharmacologist John Mendelsohn has said :
There may be some derivatives that could be made that would actually be active against cancer and HIV [ ... ] At the present time , there are a lot of therapeutic targets that have many people excited .
An ABC news story which reported on this went on to suggest " the excitement could vanish overnight if the federal government criminalized the sale or possession of salvia , as the Drug Enforcement Agency [ sic ] is considering doing right now . " A proposed Schedule I classification would mean ( among other things ) that there 's no " currently accepted medical use " as far as the United States government is concerned . Scientists worry that such legislation would restrict further work . Mendelsohn said scheduling salvia could scare away a great deal of research and development into salvia 's therapeutic promise .
= = Controversy = =
The relatively recent emergence of Salvia divinorum in modern Western culture , in comparison to its long continuing traditions of indigenous use , contrasts widely differing attitudes on the subject .
Opinions range from veneration of the plant as a spiritual sacrament or " a gift from the gods " , to ' threat to society ' , to be banned as quickly as possible in order to " spare countless families the horror of losing a loved one to the relentless tentacles of drug abuse " .
= = = Media coverage = = =
Interest in Salvia divinorum has been escalating in the news media , particularly in the United States , where an increasing number of newspaper reports have been published and television news stories broadcast .
These stories generally raise alarms over salvia 's legal status , for example comparing it to LSD , or describing it as " the new pot " , with parental concerns being raised by particular focus on salvia 's use by younger teens .
Story headlines may also include ' danger ' keywords , such as " Dangerous Herb is Legal ... " or " Deadly Dangers Of A Street Legal High " .
Mainstream news coverage and journalistic opinion has widely been negative on the subject . In a local news report aired on ABC affiliate WJLA in Washington , DC on July 11 , 2007 , the anchors are seen to exchange expressions of incredulity when referring to a salvia story with the following introduction " Now , an exclusive I @-@ Team investigation of a hallucinogenic drug that has begun to sweep the nation . What might amaze you is that right now the federal government is doing nothing to stop it " .
In March 2008 a Texas news report aired with the story " A legal drug that teenagers are now using to get high could soon be banned here in San Antonio - all because of a Fox News 4 investigation " , going on to say , " The drug is legal in Texas , at least for now . But a News 4 investigation could lead to a new ordinance to protect your kids . "
Many salvia media stories headline with comparisons to LSD . However , while LSD and salvinorin A may have comparative potencies , in the sense that both can produce their effects at low dosages , they are otherwise quite different . The two substances are not chemically similar or related , as salvinorin A is found naturally in a single plant while LSD is chemically semisynthesized from lysergamides like ergotamine . They are ingested in different ways and produce different effects , which manifest themselves over different timescales . For example , the effects of salvia when smoked typically last for only a few minutes as compared to LSD , whose effects can persist for 8 – 12 hours .
= = = Brett 's law = = =
A particular focus of many US media stories is the long @-@ running coverage of the case of Brett Chidester , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old Delaware student who committed suicide in January 2006 by carbon monoxide poisoning .
Reportedly , some months before this , Brett 's mother Kathleen Chidester had learned about his salvia use and questioned him about it . Brett said that he had ceased his experimentation , but his parents did not believe that he was telling the truth . They have instead argued that salvia @-@ induced depression was largely to blame for his death . Some of Brett 's earlier writings about his salvia experiences have been used to suggest that it made him think " existence in general is pointless . " Some media stories have referred to these earlier written experience reports as if they were part of Brett 's suicide note . In any case , a law was soon passed in Delaware classifying the herb as a Schedule I controlled substance in that state . This legislation was nicknamed Brett 's law ( formally referred to as Senate bill 259 ) .
Although the Chidester story has been given continued exposure by US media , there has not been anywhere else , either before or since this controversial incident , any other reported cases involving or alleging Salvia divinorum as a serious factor in suicide , overdose , accidental , or any other kind of death . Regarding this , San Francisco attorney Alex Coolman has commented , " It 's remarkable that Chidester 's parents , and only Chidester 's parents , continue to be cited over and over again by the mainstream media in their coverage of the supposed ' controversy ' over the risks of Salvia divinorum . "
Kathleen Chidester has continued campaigning for " Schedule I " -like legislation beyond their home state of Delaware . For example , three years after Brett 's death , in written testimony in support of Senator Richard Colburn 's proposed Senate Bill to the Maryland State Legislature , saying , " My hope and goal is to have salvia regulated across the US . It 's my son 's legacy and I will not end my fight until this happens . "
= = = Usage shown on YouTube = = =
A reported concern has been the emergence of YouTube videos showing alleged salvia users laughing uncontrollably , apparently unable to perform simple tasks or to communicate . In an interview with California @-@ based newspaper the San Francisco Chronicle , published in June 2007 , Daniel Siebert was quoted as saying :
" Those videos are certainly not going to help the situation . They make salvia look like some horrible drug that makes people nuts and dangerous [ ... ] " and " The sad thing is it creates this public image where people don 't realize there are sensible ways to use something like this . "
The New York Times has reported that " in state after state [ ... ] the YouTube videos have become Exhibit A in legislative efforts to regulate salvia . "
Waco Representative Charles Anderson ( R ) , who is sponsoring one of several bills to ban salvia in Texas saying , " When you see it , well , it sure makes a believer out of you . " Anderson told colleagues at a legislative hearing about a video that depicts a salvia user behind the wheel of a car .
" What we really worry about , " said Mr. Anderson at the hearing , " is youngsters doing this and then getting in a vehicle or getting on a motorcycle or jumping in a pool somewhere . "
Michigan Representative Michael Sak ( D ) submitted a bill which proposed Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum and salvinorin A. He said that if people had questions about the deleterious effects of salvia , they should go on YouTube to watch the videos . A reporter questioned Sak as to whether he had ever seen a " Girls Gone Wild " video , and whether that would incite him to make alcohol illegal ( Sak replied that he hadn 't yet had a chance to review the material ) .
Nebraska Senator Vickie McDonald said :
" Anytime anything 's on YouTube it 's an issue , " and " Legislators , parents , grandparents , we need to be on top of these things , " [ ... ] " We need to protect our children ... "
Senator McDonald of Nebraska proposed Schedule I listing Salvia divinorum as part of their Controlled Substances Act , under which possession of salvia would have been considered a Class IV felony with a penalty of up to five years and trafficking would have fallen under a Class III felony with up to a 20 year penalty .
In Massachusetts , YouTube videos were shown by a retired police officer to public health and judiciary committees as evidence in favor of outlawing it there .
The issue has been raised of whether the salvia videos are in breach of YouTube 's own community guidelines , which ask users not to " cross the line " and post videos showing " bad stuff " like " drug abuse " . The question is considered as particularly problematical as the videos may be something of an enforcement grey area .
= = Legal status = =
At present Salvia divinorum remains legal in most countries . Countries where it is controlled in some manner include : Belgium , Canada , Denmark , Estonia , Italy , Japan , the United States , Russia , Spain , Sweden , Finland , and Romania .
The prohibitive degree of Salvia divinorum legislation varies widely from country to country . Australia has imposed its strictest ' schedule 9 ' ( US Schedule I equivalent ) , and Italy has also placed salvia in its ' Table I ' of controlled substances ( also US Schedule I equivalent ) . In Spain , there are controls focusing only on the commercial trade of Salvia divinorum , personal cultivation ( i.e. for non @-@ commercial use ) is not targeted .
Legislation may prove difficult to enforce . The plant has a nondescript appearance ; unlike many other drug plants , the leaves are non @-@ descript , and without a detectable odour . Salvia divinorum can be grown as an ordinary houseplant without the need of special equipment such as hydroponics or high @-@ power lights .
= = = UK legality = = =
In the United Kingdom , following a local newspaper story in October 2005 , a parliamentary Early Day Motion was raised calling for Salvia divinorum to be banned there . However , it only received 11 signatures . A second motion raised in October 2008 attracted 18 signatures , and it was reported that Mann had also written to Jacqui Smith , then Home Secretary . The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs , the independent body that advises UK government on drugs , was asked to investigate further .
= = = Australia legality = = =
Salvia divinorum is considered a Schedule 9 prohibited plant in Australia under the Poisons Standard ( October 2015 ) . A schedule 9 drug is outlined in the Poisons Act 1964 as " Substances which may be abused or misused , the manufacture , possession , sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research , or for analytical , teaching or training purposes with approval of the CEO . "
= = = US legality = = =
National legislation for amendment of the Controlled Substances Act to place salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum in Schedule I at the federal level in the United States was proposed in 2002 by Representative Joe Baca ( D- California ) . Those opposed to bill HR 5607 include Daniel Siebert , who sent a letter to Congress arguing against the proposed legislation , and the Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics ( CCLE ) , who sent key members of the US Congress a report on Salvia divinorum and its active principle , along with letters from an array of scientists who expressed concern that scheduling Salvia divinorum would negatively impact important research on the plant . The bill did not pass .
Although salvia is not regulated under the Controlled Substances Act , some American states , including Alabama , Delaware , Illinois , Louisiana , Michigan , Missouri , Ohio , Texas and others , have passed their own laws . Several other states have proposed legislation against salvia , including Alaska , California , Florida , Iowa , Maryland , New Jersey , New York , Oregon , and Pennsylvania . Many of these proposals have not made it into law , with motions having failed , stalled or otherwise died , for example at committee review stages .
Where individual state legislation does exist , it varies from state to state in its prohibitive degree .
Salvia divinorum has been banned by various branches of the U.S. military and some military bases .
= = = = Internet sale = = = =
Some internet vendors will not sell live salvia cuttings , leaf , or leaf products to states where its use is restricted or prohibited .
Per their drugs and drug paraphernelia policy , eBay does not permit sale of Salvia divinorum or derived products ( despite legality in most areas ) .
= = = Opinions and arguments = = =
Concerns expressed by some politicians on the subject of salvia reflect those of the media , with comparisons to LSD and particular focus on " protecting our children " being echoed ; and with legislative proposals following soon after news stories breaking .
Some arguments against salvia have been of a preventative nature , " We need to stop this before it gets to be a huge problem not after it gets to be a huge problem , " or of an imitative nature , " The Australians have clearly found a problem with it . There 's obviously a risk in people taking it . " Concerns about driving while under the influence of salvia have also been expressed .
Opponents of more prohibitive measures against salvia argue that such reactions are largely due to an inherent prejudice and a particular cultural bias rather than any actual balance of evidence , pointing out inconsistencies in attitudes toward other more toxic and addictive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine . While not objecting to some form of legal control , in particular with regard to the sale to minors or sale of enhanced high @-@ strength extracts , most salvia proponents otherwise argue against stricter legislation .
Those advocating consideration of Salvia divinorum 's potential for beneficial use in a modern context argue that more could be learned from Mazatec culture , where salvia is not really associated with notions of drug taking at all and it is rather considered as a spiritual sacrament . In light of this it is argued that Salvia divinorum could be better understood more positively as an entheogen rather than pejoratively as a hallucinogen .
= = = = Public opinion = = = =
Despite its growing notoriety in some circles , media stories generally suggest that the public at large are still mostly unaware of salvia , with the majority perhaps having never even heard of it .
Although published responses may not necessarily be representative of public opinion as a whole , some news agencies generally support reader and viewer feedback in connection with their stories .
= = = News references = = =
= = = = UK = = = =
= = = = US = = = =
= = Further research = =
= New York State Route 251 =
New York State Route 251 ( NY 251 ) is an east – west state highway | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
forces with details about the British troops located in the city . As a result , he was jailed . He was released by the British Juan Jaime Backhouse in order to restore religious practices ( the invaders did not attempt to enforce Protestantism in the population ) , but under military escort . The British would be defeated by Santiago de Liniers , and driven away from the viceroyalty .
= = = Primera Junta = = =
He returned to Buenos Aires in 1808 , and got the curacy of San Benito de Palermo . This was supposed to be a new jurisdiction split from the one of San Nicolás de Bari , but such change was never enforced , so he was actually in charge of both . He became involved with politics as well , joining the groups of Miguel de Azcuénaga and Nicolás Rodríguez Peña . Those groups sought to generate great political and social changes , and would lead to the May Revolution . He was selected to take part in the open cabildo celebrated on 22 May to decide the fate of Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros , as well as other twenty @-@ seven ecclesiastics . He was among the nineteen that voted for the removal of the viceroy , supporting the proposal of Cornelio Saavedra . He also supported Juan Nepomuceno Solá and Ramón Vieytes , who proposed the calling of deputies from the other cities of the viceroyalty .
His brother Manuel Silvestre Alberti signed the popular petition formulated on 25 May that aimed to draft the composition of the Primera Junta that would replace Cisneros in power . On that day Alberti moved to Azcuénaga 's house and from it he observed the events in the plaza , along with many other patriots gathered there . He was there when he came to know that he was chosen as a member of the new Junta . The reasons of Alberti 's inclusion in the Junta are unclear , as with all its members . A common accepted theory considers it to be a balance between Carlotists and Alzaguists , and Alberti in particular may have been elected to serve as chaplain of the government .
In the Junta , Alberti was aligned with most of the reformist proposals of Mariano Moreno , as well as Juan Larrea and Juan José Castelli . He signed most of the rulings that shaped the new political system , such as those related to popular sovereignty , representative and republican principles , separation of powers , publicity of the government actions , freedom of speech and the bases of political federalism . However , he did not support the actions of the Junta that contradicted his religious formation , regardless of the context . He refused to sign the death penalty for Santiago de Liniers , captured after the defeat of his counter @-@ revolution . He signed the harsh commands given to Castelli for the first Upper Peru campaign , but noticing next to his signature that he made an exception with the articles involving capital punishment . He was also concerned by the role of the church in the new political system and headed a dispute against the Cabildo about it . He considered that the Cabildo should not have any authority over the Junta in ecclesiastic topics , to prevent the former abuses of the absolutist governments .
Manuel Alberti worked in journalism as well , at the Gazeta de Buenos Ayres newspaper created by the Junta . The ruling that created this newspaper gave Alberti the duty of selecting the news reports to publish . This duty was exclusive of Alberti and not shared with the other members of the Junta . Some historians also consider that Alberti may be the real author of the newspaper 's editorials , as they were not signed and the style is not similar to other reports by Mariano Moreno , who is usually considered the author .
The first conflict between Alberti and Moreno was caused by the arrival of Gregorio Funes , dean of Córdoba with similar ideas to those of Cornelio Saavedra , president of the Junta . Moreno was keeping an internal dispute with Saavedra , and expected Alberti to write against Funes . He did not , and Moreno made harsh comments about it . Alberti would be further distanced from Moreno when the Junta voted for the incorporation of the deputies from other cities into the Junta . At first , both of them opposed the proposal , but Alberti ultimately voted accepting it , stating that he did so just out of political convenience . The Primera Junta was thus turned into the Junta Grande . Mariano Moreno , left in a minority group , resigned .
The inclusion of new deputies increased disputes within the Junta . He opposed both Saavedra and Funes , albeit in a more moderate manner than Moreno . Those fights affected his health , and he had a mild heart attack on 28 January 1811 . Fearing for his life , he wrote his will and received the Anointing of the Sick . Three days later he had another strong disagreement with Funes , and had another heart attack when he was returning to his house . He was buried in the cemetery of San Nicolás de Bari , as requested in his will . The death certificate states that he hadn 't been given last rites because his unanticipated death did not allow for time . Alberti was the first member of the Primera Junta to die .
= = Commemoration = =
All members of the Junta Grande assisted to Alberti 's funeral , even his political enemy Gregorio Funes . Domingo Matheu was the most affected one by his death , to the point of crying for it . Alberti was replaced in the Junta by Nicolás Rodríguez Peña , a decided morenist . Saavedra and Funes did not like him , but with the social commotion generated by Alberti 's death , they avoided to offer resistance to his nomination .
Alberti requested in his will to avoid pageantry or complex funerals , and inherited his properties ( house , farm , furniture , slaves , clothing , books , etc . ) to his siblings Juana María , Matilde , Casimira and Manuel Silvestre . His personal diaries are kept , but with some parts of them being lost due to poor keeping . Still , his personal bibliography is used by historians to reconstruct his influences and ideological background . It included many works of theology , studies of the Bible , scholastic theologists and juridical studies . Alberti 's remains were lost when the chapel was demolished to make way for an expansion of 9 de Julio Avenue .
The government of Buenos Aires name a street in his honor in 1822 . In 1910 , during the Argentina Centennial , a statue of him was erected in Barrancas de Belgrano , a neighborhood at the north of Buenos Aires . The district of Manuel Alberti , in Buenos Aires Province , is also named after him .
= Horses in the Middle Ages =
Horses in the Middle Ages differed in size , build and breed from the modern horse , and were , on average , smaller . They were also more central to society than their modern counterparts , being essential for war , agriculture , and transport .
Consequently , specific types of horse developed , many of which have no modern equivalent . While an understanding of modern horse breeds and equestrianism is vital for any analysis of the medieval horse , researchers also need to consider documentary ( both written and pictorial ) and archaeological evidence .
Horses in the Middle Ages were rarely differentiated by breed , but rather by use . This led them to be described , for example , as " chargers " ( war horses ) , " palfreys " ( riding horses ) , cart horses or packhorses . Reference is also given to their place of origin , such as " Spanish horses , " but whether this referred to one breed or several is unknown . Another difficulty arising during any study of medieval documents or literature is the flexibility of the medieval languages , where several words can be used for one thing ( or , conversely , several objects are referred to by one word ) . Words such as ' courser ' and ' charger ' are used interchangeably ( even within one document ) , and where one epic may speak disparagingly of a rouncey , another praises its skill and swiftness .
Significant technological advances in equestrian equipment , often introduced from other cultures , allowed for significant changes in both warfare and agriculture . In particular , improved designs for the solid @-@ treed saddle as well as the arrival of the stirrup , horseshoe and horse collar were significant advances in medieval society .
Consequently , the assumptions and theories developed by historians are not definitive , and debate still rages on many issues , such as the breeding or size of the horse , and a number of sources must be consulted in order to understand the breadth of the subject .
= = Breeding = =
During the decline of the Roman Empire and the Early Middle Ages , much of the quality breeding stock developed during the classical period was lost due to uncontrolled breeding and had to be built up again over the following centuries . In the west , this may have been due in part to the reliance of the British and Scandinavians on infantry @-@ based warfare , where horses were only used for riding and pursuit .
However , there were exceptions ; in the 7th century a Merovingian kingdom still retained at least one active Roman horse breeding centre . The Spanish also retained many quality horses , in part due to the historic reputation of the region as a horse @-@ breeding land , and partially due to the cultural influences related to the Islamic conquest of the Iberian peninsula between the 8th and 15th centuries .
The origins of the medieval war horse are obscure , although it is believed they had some Barb and Arabian blood through the Spanish Jennet , a forerunner to the modern Friesian and Andalusian horse . It is also possible that other sources of oriental bloodstock came from what was called the Nisaean breed ( possibly akin to the Turkoman horse ) from Iran and Anatolia , another type of oriental horse brought back from the Crusades . " Spanish " horses , whatever their breeding , were the most expensive . In fact , in Germany the word spanjol became the term for quality war horses . However , German literary sources also refer to fine horses from Scandinavia . France also produced good war horses . Some scholars attribute this to the strong Feudal society there , but an equally probable explanation is the historic influence of the Roman horse breeding traditions preserved by the Merovingians , combined with the addition of valuable Spanish and oriental bloodstock captured in the wake of the victory of Charles Martel over the Islamic Umayyad invaders at the Battle of Tours in 732 . Following this battle , the Carolingians began to increase their heavy cavalry , which resulted in the seizure of land ( for fodder production ) , and a change in tribute payment from cattle to horses .
As the importance of horse breeding to successful warfare was realized , planned breeding programs increased . Many changes were due to the influence of Islamic culture through both the Crusades and the Moorish invasions of Spain ; the Arabs kept extensive pedigrees of their Barb and Arabian horses via an oral tradition . Some of the earliest written pedigrees in recorded European history were kept by Carthusian monks , who were among those who bred the Spanish Jennet . Because they could read and write , thus kept careful records , monastics were given the responsibility for horse breeding by certain members of the nobility , particularly in Spain . In England , a common source of warhorses were the wild moorland ponies , which were rounded up annually by horse @-@ breeders , including the Cistercians , for use as campaign riding horses , or light cavalry ; one such breed was the Fell pony , which had similar ancestry to the Friesian horse .
It is also hard to trace what happened to the bloodlines of destriers when this type seems to disappear from record during the 17th century . Many modern draft breeds claim some link to the medieval " great horse , " with some historians considering breeds such as the Percheron , Belgian and Suffolk Punch likely descendants of the destrier . However , other historians discount this theory , since the historical record suggests the medieval warhorse was quite a different ' type ' to the modern draught horse Such a theory would suggest the war horses were crossed once again with " cold blooded " work horses , since war horses , and the destrier in particular , were renowned for their hot @-@ blooded nature .
= = = Types of horse = = =
Throughout the period , horses were rarely considered breeds , but instead were defined by type : by describing their purpose or their physical attributes . Many of the definitions were not precise , or were interchangeable . Prior to approximately the 13th century , few pedigrees were written down . Thus , many terms for horses in the Middle Ages did not refer to breeds as we know them today , but rather described appearance or purpose .
One of the best @-@ known of the medieval horses was the destrier , renowned and admired for its capabilities in war . It was well trained , and was required to be strong , fast and agile . A 14th @-@ century writer described them as " tall and majestic and with great strength " . In contemporary sources , the destrier was frequently referred to as the " great horse " because of its size and reputation . Being a subjective term , it gives no firm information about its actual height or weight , but since the average horse of the time was 12 to 14 hands ( 48 to 56 inches , 122 to 142 cm ) , thus a " great horse " by medieval standards might appear small to our modern eyes . The destrier was highly prized by knights and men @-@ at @-@ arms , but was actually not very common , and appears to have been most suited to the joust .
Coursers were generally preferred for hard battle as they were light , fast and strong . They were valuable , but not as costly as the destrier . They were also used frequently for hunting .
A more general @-@ purpose horse was the rouncey ( also rounsey ) , which could be kept as a riding horse or trained for war . It was commonly used by squires , men @-@ at @-@ arms or poorer knights . A wealthy knight would keep rounceys for his retinue . Sometimes the expected nature of warfare dictated the choice of horse ; when a summons to war was sent out in England , in 1327 , it expressly requested rounceys , for swift pursuit , rather than destriers . Rounceys were sometimes used as pack horses ( but never as cart horses ) .
The well @-@ bred palfrey , which could equal a destrier in price , was popular with nobles and highly ranked knights for riding , hunting and ceremonial use . Ambling was a desirable trait in a palfrey , as the smooth gait allowed the rider to cover long distances quickly in relative comfort . Other horse types included the jennet , a small horse first bred in Spain from Barb and Arabian bloodstock . Their quiet and dependable nature , as well as size , made them popular as riding horses for ladies ; however , they were also used as cavalry horses by the Spanish .
The hobby was a lightweight horse , about 13 to 14 hands ( 52 to 56 inches , 132 to 142 cm ) , developed in Ireland from Spanish or Libyan ( Barb ) bloodstock . This type of quick and agile horse was popular for skirmishing , and was often ridden by light cavalry known as Hobelars . Hobbies were used successfully by both sides during the Wars of Scottish Independence , with Edward I of England trying to gain advantage by preventing Irish exports of the horses to Scotland . Robert Bruce employed the hobby for his guerilla warfare and mounted raids , covering 60 to 70 miles ( 97 to 113 km ) a day .
= = Horses in warfare = =
.
While light cavalry had been used in warfare for many centuries , the medieval era saw the rise of heavy cavalry , particularly the European knight . Historians are uncertain when the use of heavy cavalry in the form of mounted shock troops first occurred , but the technique had become widespread by the mid @-@ 12th century . The heavy cavalry charge itself was not a common occurrence in warfare . Pitched battles were avoided if at all possible , with most offensive warfare in the early Middle Ages taking the form of sieges , or swift mounted raids called chevauchées , with the warriors lightly armed on swift horses and their heavy war horses safely in the stable . Pitched battles were sometimes unavoidable , but were rarely fought on land suitable for heavy cavalry . While mounted riders remained effective for initial attacks , by the 14th century , it was common for knights to dismount to fight . Horses were sent to the rear , and kept ready for pursuit . By the Late Middle Ages ( approx 1300 @-@ 1550 ) , large battles became more common , probably because of the success of infantry tactics and changes in weaponry . However , because such tactics left the knight unmounted , the role of the war horse also changed . By the 17th century , the medieval charger had become a thing of the past , replaced by lighter , unarmoured horses . Throughout the period , light horse , or prickers , were used for scouting and reconnaissance ; they also provided a defensive screen for marching armies . Large teams of draught horses , or oxen , were used for pulling the heavy early cannon . Other horses pulled wagons and carried supplies for the armies .
= = = Tournaments = = =
Tournaments and hastiludes began in the 11th century as both a sport and to provide training for battle . Usually taking the form of a melee , the participants used the horses , armour and weapons of war . The sport of jousting grew out of the tournament and , by the 15th century , the art of tilting became quite sophisticated . In the process , the pageantry and specialization became less war @-@ like , perhaps because of the knight 's changing role in war .
Horses were specially bred for the joust , and heavier armour developed . However , this did not necessarily lead to significantly larger horses . Interpreters at the Royal Armouries , Leeds , re @-@ created the joust , using specially bred horses and replica armour . Their horses accurately represented the medieval mount , being compactly built and not particularly tall .
= = = Types of war horses = = =
The most well @-@ known horse of the medieval era of Europe is the destrier , known for carrying knights into war . However , most knights and mounted men @-@ at @-@ arms rode smaller horses known as coursers and rounceys . ( A common generic name for medieval war horses was charger , which was interchangeable with the other terms ) . In Spain , the jennet was used as a light cavalry horse .
Stallions were often used as war horses in Europe due to their natural aggression and hot @-@ blooded tendencies . A 13th @-@ century work describes destriers " biting and kicking " on the battlefield , and , in the heat of battle , war horses were often seen fighting each other . However , the use of mares by European warriors cannot be discounted from literary references . Mares were the preferred war horse of the Moors , Islamic invaders who attacked various European nations from AD 700 through the 15th century . They also were preferred by the Mongols .
War horses were more expensive than normal riding horses , and destriers the most prized , but figures vary greatly from source to source . Destriers are given a values ranging from seven times the price of an ordinary horse to 700 times . The Bohemian king Wenzel II rode a horse " valued at one thousand marks " in 1298 . At the other extreme , a 1265 French ordinance ruled that a squire could not spend more than twenty marks on a rouncey . Knights were expected to have at least one war horse ( as well as riding horses and packhorses ) , with some records from the later Middle Ages showing knights bringing twenty @-@ four horses on campaign . Five horses was perhaps the standard .
= = = Size of war horses = = =
There is dispute in medievalist circles over the size of the war horse , with some notable historians claiming a size of 17 to 18 hands ( 68 to 72 inches , 173 to 183 cm ) , as large as a modern Shire horse . However , there are practical reasons for dispute over size . Analysis of existing horse armour located in the Royal Armouries indicates the equipment was originally worn by horses of 15 to 16 hands ( 60 to 64 inches , 152 to 163 cm ) , or about the size and build of a modern field hunter or ordinary riding horse . Research undertaken at the Museum of London , using literary , pictorial and archaeological sources , supports military horses of 14 to 15 hands ( 56 to 60 inches , 142 to 152 cm ) , distinguished from a riding horse by its strength and skill , rather than its size . This average does not seem to vary greatly across the medieval period . Horses appear to have been selectively bred for increased size from the 9th and 10th centuries , and by the 11th century the average warhorse was probably 14 @.@ 2 to 15 hands ( 58 to 60 inches , 147 to 152 cm ) , a size verified by studies of Norman horseshoes as well as the depictions of horses on the Bayeux Tapestry . Analysis of horse transports suggests 13th @-@ century destriers were a stocky build , and no more than 15 to 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 60 to 62 inches , 152 to 157 cm ) . Three centuries later , warhorses were not significantly bigger ; the Royal Armouries used a 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 62 inches , 157 cm ) Lithuanian Heavy Draught mare as a model for the statues displaying various 15th- and 16th @-@ century horse armours , as her body shape was an excellent fit .
Perhaps one reason for the pervasive belief that the medieval war horse had to be of draught horse type is the assumption , still held by many , that medieval armour was heavy . In fact , even the heaviest tournament armour ( for knights ) weighed little more than 90 pounds ( 41 kg ) , and field ( war ) armour 40 to 70 pounds ( 18 to 32 kg ) ; barding , or horse armour , more common in tournaments than war , rarely weighed more than 70 pounds ( 32 kg ) . For horses , Cuir bouilli ( a type of hardened leather ) , and padded caparisons were more common , and probably as effective . Allowing for the weight of the rider and other equipment , horses can carry approximately 30 % of their weight ; thus such loads could certainly be carried by a heavy riding horse in the 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 300 pounds ( 540 to 590 kg ) range , and a draught horse was not needed .
Although a large horse is not required to carry an armoured knight , it is held by some historians that a large horse was desirable to increase the power of a lance strike . However , practical experiments by re @-@ enactors have suggested that the rider 's weight and strength is of more relevance than the size of the mount , and that little of the horse 's weight is translated to the lance .
Further evidence for a 14 @-@ 16 hand ( 56 to 64 inches ( 140 to 160 cm ) ) war horse is that it was a matter of pride to a knight to be able to vault onto his horse in full armour , without touching the stirrup . This arose not from vanity , but necessity : if unhorsed during battle , a knight would remain vulnerable if unable to mount by himself . In reality , of course , a wounded or weary knight might find it difficult , and rely on a vigilant squire to assist him . Incidentally , a knight 's armour served in his favour in any fall . With his long hair twisted on his head to form a springy padding under his padded @-@ linen hood , and his helm placed on top , he had head protection not dissimilar to a modern bicycle or equestrian helmet .
= = Transportation = =
Throughout the Middle Ages it was customary for people of all classes and background to travel , often widely . The households of the upper classes and royal courts moved between manors and estates ; the demands of diplomacy , war and crusades took men to distant countries ; priests travelled between churches , monasteries and formed emissaries to Rome ; people of all classes went on pilgrimage , or travelled to find work ; others travelled as a pastime . Most people undertook small journeys on foot and hired horses for longer journeys . For the upper classes , travel was accompanied by a great deal of pomp and display , with fine horses , large retinues and magnificent cavalcades in order to display their wealth as well as to ensure personal comfort . For example , in 1445 , the English royal household contained 60 horses in the king 's stable and 186 kept for " chariots " ( carriages ) and carts .
During much of the Middle Ages , there was no system of interconnected roads and bridges . Though parts of Europe still had remnants of Roman roads built before the collapse of the Roman Empire , most had long fallen into disrepair . Because of the necessity to ride long distances over uncertain roads , smooth @-@ gaited horses were preferred , and most ordinary riding horses were of greater value if they could do one of the smooth but ground @-@ covering four @-@ beat gaits collectively known as an amble rather than the more jarring trot .
Mule trains , for land travel , and barges , for river and canal travel , were the most common form of long @-@ distance haulage , although wheeled horse @-@ drawn vehicles were used for shorter journeys . In areas with good roads , regular carrier services were established between major towns . However , because medieval roads were generally so poor , carriages for human passengers were rare . When roads permitted , early carriages were developed from freight wagons . Carriage travel was made more comfortable in the late 14th century with the introduction of the chariot branlant , which had strap suspension .
The speed of travel varied greatly . Large retinues could be slowed by the presence of slow @-@ paced carts and litters , or by servants and attendants on foot , and could rarely cover more than fifteen to twenty miles a day . Small mounted companies might travel 30 miles a day . However , there were exceptions : stopping only for a change of horses midway , Richard II of England once managed the 70 miles between Daventry and Westminster in a night .
For breeding , war and travel purposes , it was also necessary to be able to transport horses themselves . For this purpose , boats were adapted and built to be used as horse transports . William of Normandy 's invasion of England in 1066 required the transfer of over 2000 horses from Normandy . Similarly , when travelling to France in 1285 – 6 , Edward I of England ferried over 1000 horses across the English Channel to provide the royal party with transport .
= = = Riding horses = = =
Riding horses were used by a variety of people during the Middle Ages , and so varied greatly in quality , size and breeding . Knights and nobles kept riding horses in their war @-@ trains , saving their warhorses for the battle . The names of horses referred to a type of horse , rather than a breed . Many horses were named by the region where they or their immediate ancestors were foaled . For example , in Germany , Hungarian horses were commonly used for riding . Individual horses were often described by their gait ( ' trotters ' or ' amblers ' ) , by their colouring , or by the name of their breeder .
The best riding horses were known as palfreys ; other riding horses were often called hackneys , from which the modern term " hack " is derived . Women sometimes rode palfreys or small , quiet horses known as jennets .
= = = Harness and pack horses = = =
A variety of work horses were used throughout the Middle Ages . The pack horse ( or " sumpter horse " ) carried equipment and belongings . Common riding horses , often called " hackneys " , could be used as pack horses . Cart horses pulled wagons for trading and freight haulage , on farms , or as part of a military campaign . These draught horses were smaller than their modern counterparts ; pictorial and archaeological evidence suggests that they were stout but short , approximately 13 to 14 hands ( 52 to 56 inches , 132 to 142 cm ) , and capable of drawing a load of 500 to 600 pounds ( 230 to 270 kg ) per horse . Four @-@ wheeled wagons and two @-@ wheeled carts were more common in towns , such as London and , depending on type of vehicle and weight of the load , were usually pulled by teams of two , three , or four horses harnessed in tandem . Starting in the 12th century , in England the use of oxen to pull carts was gradually superseded by the use of horses , a process that extended through the 13th century . This change came because horse @-@ drawn transport moved goods quicker and over greater distances than ox @-@ drawn methods of transport .
= = Agriculture = =
The Romans had used a two @-@ field crop rotation agricultural system , but from the 8th century on , a three @-@ field system became more common . One field would be sown with a winter crop , the second with a spring crop , and the third left fallow . This allowed a greater amount of spring crop of oats to be grown , which provided fodder for horses . Another advance during the Middle Ages was the development of the heavy mouldboard plough , which allowed dense and heavy soils to be tilled easily ; this technology required the use of larger teams of draught animals including oxen and horses , as well as the adoption of larger fields . Particularly after the 12th century , the increased use of both the horse collar and use of iron horse shoes allowed horsepower to be directed more efficiently . Horse teams usually were four horses , or perhaps six , as compared to eight oxen , and the lesser numbers compensated for the fact that the horses needed to be fed grain on top of pasture , unlike oxen . The increased speed of horses also allowed more land to be ploughed in a day , with an eight ox plough team averaging half of an acre per day , but a horse team averaged a full acre per day .
For farm work , such as ploughing and harrowing , the draught horse utilized for this purpose was called an affrus ( or stott ) , which was usually smaller and cheaper than the cart horse . While oxen were traditionally used as work animals on farms , horses began to be used in greater numbers after the development of the horse collar . Oxen and horses were sometimes harnessed together . The transition from oxen to horses for farm work was documented in pictorial sources ( for example , the 11th @-@ century Bayeux tapestry depicts working horses ) , and also clear from the change from the Roman two @-@ field crop @-@ rotation system to a new three @-@ field system , which increased the cultivation of fodder crops ( predominantly oats , barley and beans ) . Horses were also used to process crops ; they were used to turn the wheels in mills ( such as corn mills ) , and transport crops to market . The change to horse @-@ drawn teams also meant a change in ploughs , as horses were more suited to a wheeled plough , unlike oxen .
= = Equestrian equipment and technological innovations = =
The development of equestrian technology proceeded at a similar pace as the development of horse breeding and utilisation . The changes in warfare during the Early Middle Ages to heavy cavalry both precipitated and relied on the arrival of the stirrup , solid @-@ treed saddle , and horseshoe from other cultures .
The development of the nailed horseshoe enabled longer , faster journeys on horseback , particularly in the wetter lands in northern Europe , and were useful for campaigns on varied terrains . By providing protection and support , nailed horse shoes also improved the efficiency of draught horse teams . Though the Romans had developed an iron " hipposandal " that resembled a hoof boot , there is much debate over the actual origins of the nailed horseshoe , though it does appear to be of European origin . There is little evidence of nailed @-@ on shoes prior to AD 500 or 600 , though there is speculation that the Celtic Gauls were the first to nail on metal horseshoes . The earliest clear written record of iron horseshoes is a reference to " crescent figured irons and their nails " in a list of cavalry equipment from AD 910 . Additional archaeological evidence suggests they were used in Siberia during the 9th and 10th centuries , and had spread to Byzantium soon afterward ; by the 11th century , horseshoes were commonly used in Europe . By the time the Crusades began in 1096 , horseshoes were widespread and frequently mentioned in various written sources .
= = = Riding technology = = =
The saddle with a solid tree provided a bearing surface to protect the horse from the weight of the rider . The Romans are credited with the invention of the solid @-@ treed saddle , possibly as early as the 1st century BC , and it was widespread by the 2nd century AD . Early medieval saddles resembled the Roman " four @-@ horn " saddle , and were used without stirrups . The development of the solid saddle tree was significant ; it raised the rider above the horse 's back , and distributed the rider 's weight , reducing the pounds per square inch carried on any one part of the horse 's back , thus greatly increasing the comfort of the horse and prolonging its useful life . Horses could carry more weight when distributed across a solid saddle tree . It also allowed a more built up seat to give the rider greater security in the saddle . From the 12th century on , the high war @-@ saddle became more common , providing protection as well as added security . The built up cantle of a solid @-@ treed saddle enabled horsemen to use lance more effectively .
Beneath the saddle , caparisons or saddle cloths were sometimes worn ; these could be decorated or embroidered with heraldic colours and arms . War horses could be equipped with additional covers , blankets and armour collectively referred to as barding ; this could be for decorative or protective purposes . Early forms of horse armour , usually restricted to tournaments , comprised padded leather pieces , covered by a trapper ( a decorated cloth ) , which was not particularly heavy . Mail and plate armour was also occasionally used ; there are literary references to horse armour ( an " iron blanket " ) starting in the late 12th century .
The solid tree allowed for effective use of the stirrup . The stirrup was developed in China and in widespread use there by 477 AD . By the 7th century , primarily due to invaders from Central Asia , such as the Avars , stirrups arrived in Europe , and European riders had adopted them by the 8th century . Among other advantages , stirrups provided greater balance and support to the rider , which allowed the knight to use a sword more efficiently without falling , especially against infantry .
The increased use of the stirrup from the 8th century on aided the warrior 's stability and security in the saddle when fighting . This may have led to greater use of shock tactics , although a couched lance could be used effectively without stirrups . In particular , Charles Martel recognized the military potential of the stirrup , and distributed seized lands to his retainers on condition that they serve him by fighting in the new manner .
A theory known as The Great Stirrup Controversy argues that the advantages in warfare that stemmed from use of the stirrup led to the birth of feudalism itself . Other scholars , however , dispute this assertion , suggesting that stirrups provided little advantage in shock warfare , being useful primarily for allowing a rider to lean farther to the left and right on the saddle while fighting , and simply reduce the risk of falling off . Therefore , it is argued , they are not the reason for the switch from infantry to cavalry in Medieval militaries , nor the reason for the emergence of Feudalism .
There was a variety of headgear used to control horses , predominantly bridles with assorted designs of bits . Many of the bits used during the Middle Ages resemble the bradoon , snaffle bit and curb bit that are still in common use today . However , they often were decorated to a greater degree : the bit rings or shanks were frequently covered with large , ornamental " bosses . " Some designs were also more extreme and severe than those used today.The curb bit was known during the classical period , but was not generally used during the Middle Ages until the mid @-@ 14th century . Some styles of snaffle bit used during the Middle Ages had the lower cheek extended , in the manner of the modern half @-@ cheek or full cheek snaffle . Until the late 13th century , bridles generally had a single pair of reins ; after this period it became more common for knights to use two sets of reins , similar to that of the modern double bridle , and often at least one set was decorated .
Spurs were commonly used throughout the period , especially by knights , with whom they were regularly associated . A young man was said to have " won his spurs " when he achieved knighthood . Wealthy knights and riders frequently wore decorated and filigreed spurs . Attached to the rider 's heel by straps , spurs could be used both to encourage horses to quickly move forward or to direct lateral movement . Early spurs had a short shanks or " neck " , placing the rowel relatively close to the rider 's heel ; further developments in the spur shape lengthened the neck , making it easier to touch the horse with less leg movement on the part of the rider .
= = = Harness technology = = =
A significant development which increased the importance and use of horses in harness , particularly for ploughing and other farm work , was the horse collar . The horse collar was invented in China during the 5th century , arrived in Europe during the 9th century , and became widespread throughout Europe by the 12th century . It allowed horses to pull greater weight than they could when hitched to a vehicle by means of yokes or breastcollars used in earlier times . The yoke was designed for oxen and not suited to the anatomy of horses , it required horses to pull with their shoulders rather than using the power of their hindquarters . Harnessed in such a manner , horse teams could pull no more than 500 kg . The breastplate @-@ style harness that had flat straps across the neck and chest of the animal , while useful for pulling light vehicles , was of little use for heavy work . These straps pressed against the horse 's sterno @-@ cephalicus muscle and trachea , which restricted breathing and reduced the pulling power of the horse . Two horses harnessed with a breastcollar harness were limited to pulling a combined total of about 1 @,@ 100 pounds ( 500 kg ) . In contrast , the horse collar rested on horses ' shoulders and did not impede breathing . It allowed a horse to use its full strength , by pushing forward with its hindquarters into the collar rather than to pull with its shoulders . With the horse collar , a horse could provide a work effort of 50 % more foot @-@ pounds per second than an ox , because it could move at a greater speed , as well as having generally greater endurance and the ability to work more hours in a day . A single horse with a more efficient collar harness could draw a weight of about 1 @,@ 500 pounds ( 680 kg ) .
A further improvement was managed by altering the arrangement of the teams ; by hitching horses one behind the other , rather than side by side , weight could be distributed more evenly , and pulling power increased . This increase in horse power is demonstrated in the building accounts of Troyes , which show carters hauling stone from quarries 50 miles ( 80 km ) distant ; the carts weighed , on average , 5 @,@ 500 pounds ( 2 @,@ 500 kg ) , on which 5 @,@ 500 pounds ( 2 @,@ 500 kg ) of stone was regularly loaded , sometimes increasing to 8 @,@ 600 pounds ( 3 @,@ 900 kg ) – a significant increase from Roman @-@ era loads .
= = Horse trades and professions = =
The elite horseman of the Middle Ages was the knight . Generally raised from the middle and upper classes , the knight was trained from childhood in the arts of war and management of the horse . In most languages , the term for knight reflects his status as a horseman : the French chevalier , Spanish caballero and German Ritter . The French word for horse @-@ mastery – chevalerie – gave its name to the highest concept of knighthood : chivalry .
A large number of trades and positions arose to ensure the appropriate management and care of horses . In aristrocratic households , the marshal was responsible for all aspects relating to horses : the care and management of all horses from the chargers to the pack horses , as well as all travel logistics . The position of marshal ( literally " horse servant " ) was a high one in court circles and the king 's marshal ( such as the Earl Marshal in England ) was also responsible for managing many military matters . Also present within the great households was the constable ( or " count of the stable " ) , who was responsible for protection and the maintenance of order within the household and commanding the military component and , with marshals , might organise hastiludes and other chivalrous events . Within lower social groupings , the ' marshal ' acted as a farrier . The highly skilled marshal made and fitted horseshoes , cared for the hoof , and provided general veterinary care for horses ; throughout the Middle Ages , a distinction was drawn between the marshal and the blacksmith , whose work was more limited .
A number of tradesmen dealt with the provision of horses . Horse dealers ( frequently called " horse coursers " in England ) bought and sold horses , and frequently had a reputation as dishonest figures , responsible for the brisk trade in stolen horses . Others , such as the " hackneymen " offered horses for hire , and many formed large establishments on busy roads , often branding their horses to deter theft .
= = Women and horses = =
It was not uncommon for a girl to learn her father 's trade and for a woman to share her husband 's trade , since the entire family often helped run medieval shops and farms . Many guilds also accepted the membership of widows , so they might continue their husband 's business . Under this system , some women trained in horse @-@ related trades , and there are records of women working as farriers and saddle @-@ makers . On farms , where every hand was needed , excessive emphasis on division of labour was impracticable , and women often worked alongside men ( on their own farms or as hired help ) , leading the farm horses and oxen , and managing their care .
Despite the difficulties of travel , it was customary for many people , including women , to travel long distances . Upper @-@ class wives frequently accompanied their husbands on crusade or to tournaments , and many women traveled for social or family engagements ; both nuns and laywomen would perform pilgrimages . When not on foot , women would usually travel on horseback or , if weakened or infirm , be carried in a wagon or a litter . If roads permitted , women sometimes rode in early carriages developed from freight wagons , pulled by three or four horses . After the invention of better suspension systems , travel in carriages became more comfortable . Women of the nobility also rode horses for sport , accompanying men in activities that included hunting and hawking .
Most medieval women rode astride . Although an early chair @-@ like sidesaddle with handles and a footrest was available by the 13th century and allowed women of the nobility to ride while wearing elaborate gowns , they were not universally adopted during the Middle Ages . This was largely due to the insecure seat they offered , which necessitated a smooth @-@ gaited horse being led by another handler . The sidesaddle did not become practical for everyday riding until the 16th @-@ century development of the pommel horn that allowed a woman to hook her leg around the saddle and hence use the reins to control her own horse . Even then , sidesaddle riding remained a precarious activity until the invention of the second , " leaping horn " in the 19th century .
It was not unknown for women to ride war horses , and take their part in warfare . Joan of Arc is probably the most famous female warrior of the medieval period , but there were many others , including the Empress Matilda who , armoured and mounted , led an army against her cousin Stephen of Blois , and Stephen 's wife Matilda of Boulogne in the 12th century . The 15th @-@ century writer Christine de Pizan advised aristocratic ladies that they must " know the laws of arms and all things pertaining to warfare , ever prepared to command her men if there is need of it . "
= Billy Meredith =
William Henry " Billy " Meredith ( 30 July 1874 – 19 April 1958 ) was a Welsh professional footballer . He was considered one of the early superstars of football due to his performances , notably for Manchester City and Manchester United . He won each domestic trophy in the English football league and gained 48 caps for Wales , for whom he scored 11 goals and won two British Home Championship titles . His favoured position was outside right , and his key skills were dribbling , passing , crossing and shooting . A dedicated and extremely fit professional , his habit of chewing on a toothpick during games made him instantly recognisable .
In 27 seasons in the Football League from 1892 to 1924 ( not including the four seasons lost to the First World War and the 1905 – 06 season in which he was banned for bribing an opposition player ) , he scored 176 goals in 740 league and cup appearances . He played for Chirk , before joining Northwich Victoria in 1892 . His career took off when he signed with Manchester City in 1894 and turned professional in January 1895 . He captained the team to the club 's first major honour , a 1 – 0 victory over Bolton Wanderers in the 1904 FA Cup Final . He moved to Manchester United in May 1906 after being banned for bribing Aston Villa half @-@ back Alex Leake £ 10 to lose a match . There he won the league title in 1907 – 08 and 1910 – 11 , the FA Cup in 1909 , as well as two FA Charity Shields . He also helped to set up the Players ' Union , which was a fore @-@ runner of the Professional Footballers ' Association . He returned to Manchester City in 1921 at the age of 47 and played a further 32 games before retiring in 1924 , making him the oldest ever player for City , United and Wales . He later ran the Stretford Road Hotel and helped to coach the short @-@ lived Manchester Central .
= = Early life = =
Meredith was born in 1874 in Chirk , a small mining town in Denbighshire , North Wales , just south of Wrexham . He started work at Black Park Colliery as a pit pony driver at the age of 12 . His family were Primitive Methodists , and Meredith himself remained a lifelong teetotaller . He spent eight years working in the mines , and worked during a tough time for the industry , enduring a 25 % pay cut which led to strike action in 1893 ; this experience helped to shape his political views , which would become significant later in his life . An interest in football was kindled by his elder brothers . Elias , the eldest , was a train driver for the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway . His work allowed him to take Meredith to watch professional teams such as Everton . Football was a keen pastime for the miners , and the standard of amateur teams from towns and villages in north east Wales was high as a result ; Chirk won the Welsh Cup five times between 1887 and 1894 , with miners making up a large proportion of the team . All the Meredith brothers played football , but Sam , two years older than Billy , was the first to make an impression . He left Chirk to attempt a professional career , and went on to play for Stoke City as a full @-@ back .
Meredith made his debut for the Chirk first team in September 1892 . The club played in The Combination , a league which contained a mixture of town clubs and reserve teams of clubs from big cities . At the end of his first season Meredith played in the 1893 Welsh Cup final , which Chirk lost 2 – 1 to Wrexham . Meredith formed a solid understanding with inside @-@ right William Owen , a former Wales international . Chirk withdrew from The Combination and entered only the Welsh league in 1893 due to low attendances caused by the coal miners ' strike . In an attempt to make ends meet , Meredith not only played for Chirk , but accepted an offer to play for Football League club Northwich Victoria as well , who gave him a small fee on top of his expenses . Northwich were a struggling side , who withdrew from the Football League at the end of the 1893 – 94 season after finishing bottom of the Second Division . The club won just three league matches ; Meredith featured in each win . Back at Chirk , Meredith gained his first honour as part of the team that beat Westminster Rovers to win the 1894 Welsh Cup .
= = Club career = =
= = = First spell at Manchester City = = =
Meredith 's performances for Northwich gained the attention of several other clubs in the Football League . Bolton Wanderers full @-@ back Di Jones , a former Chirk player , spoke with him about a possible move , but Bolton secretary J.J. Bentley felt Meredith was too inexperienced and his frame too slight . Lawrence Furniss , an official at Ardwick , had first noticed him while refereeing a Northwich match . Meredith also played in both meetings between the clubs that season . Later in 1894 , Ardwick , by then known as Manchester City , vigorously pursued Meredith 's signature . Two club officials travelled to Wales to meet the player . One was secretary @-@ manager Joshua Parlby , the other either Furniss or chairman John Chapman . The pair were met with suspicion . Anecdotes by contemporary figures suggest they were initially chased away by locals , and were only allowed to speak to Meredith after they bought drinks for his mining colleagues . Meredith did not wish to abandon life in Chirk . His mother was particularly against the idea : " It is all very well for you gentlemen to leave your big cities and come to our villages to steal our boys away ... Our boys are happy and healthy , satisfied with their work and innocent amusements ... if Billy takes my advice he will stick to his work and play football for his own amusement when work is finished . " Meredith did eventually sign for Manchester City , but as an amateur . He continued to work at the pit for at least a year , commuting back and forth for matches .
Meredith made his Manchester City debut in November 1894 in a 5 – 4 loss to Newcastle United . The following week he played his first home match for the club at Hyde Road , and scored two goals against Newton Heath – who later became Manchester United – in the first Manchester derby to take place in the league . Newton Heath won the match 5 – 2 . He turned professional in January 1895 , and ended the 1894 – 95 season with 12 goals in 18 appearances , just three strikes behind top @-@ scorer Pat Finnerhan , who had played an extra 12 games .
In his first full season at Manchester City , Meredith finished as top scorer . He was appointed club captain in his second season at the club , aged just 21 . The club finished as Second Division runners @-@ up in 1895 – 96 , but were denied promotion after heavy defeats to West Bromwich Albion and Small Heath in the test matches . After the departure of strike partner Pat Finnerhan to Liverpool in March 1897 , Meredith remained as City 's star player .
His new partner for the 1897 – 98 season was William Smith ( known as " Stockport Smith " to differentiate him from another William Smith in the team ) , whilst Billie Gillespie was placed at centre @-@ forward . Meredith provided Gillespie with many crosses into the box , picking up numerous assists as Gillespie outscored Meredith by 19 goals to 12 . Meredith also acted as a mentor for the slightly younger Gillespie , steering him away from drinking sessions by taking him along on fishing trips . The final match of the season saw Meredith score his first hat @-@ trick for the club in an emphatic 9 – 0 win against Burton Swifts .
City dominated the Second Division in the 1898 – 99 season , and won promotion as champions . Helping them to keep them in winning ways in the close season was late signing Jimmy Ross , a veteran forward who Meredith considered to be his " favourite hero " . Meredith claimed 30 goals in 35 games , including hat @-@ tricks against Grimsby Town , Loughborough , Darwen and Barnsley .
Meredith scored City 's first goal in the First Division on the opening day of the 1899 – 1900 season in a 4 – 3 defeat to Blackburn Rovers at Ewood Park on 2 September . Seven days later he claimed two goals in a 4 – 0 home victory over Derby County , and " led the field that day " by dribbling the ball almost the whole length of the pitch before launching a powerful shot that settled into the corner of Jack Fryer 's net . The Athletic News reported that " for real brilliance the right @-@ wing [ Meredith and Ross ] took the biscuit " .
First Division defences managed to limit Meredith 's contribution in the 1900 – 01 campaign by singling him out for rough treatment , though Liverpool manager Tom Watson felt compelled to write a letter to Manchester City denying that a Liverpool director had stated that " all that the opposition had to do was watch Meredith – the rest are no good " . He finished the season with just seven goals in 35 appearances .
Meredith found the net eight times in 38 games in the 1901 – 02 campaign , as City were relegated back out of the First Division . The club 's secretary , Sam Ormerod , selected 29 different players as the club slumped to defeat in 13 of the opening 20 games . Ormerod was forced to step down , as new business figures took control behind the scenes and began to sign promising young Scottish players . New manager Tom Maley was more willing than his predecessor to confront Meredith over his tendency to stray out of position and attempt to dominate the City attack .
City won immediate promotion as Second Division champions in 1902 – 03 , with Meredith scoring 22 goals in 37 appearances and claiming a hat @-@ trick against Chesterfield Town . Maley managed to find him a suitable inside @-@ right partner in Jimmy Bannister , who was unselfish in his play and willing to feed the ball through to Meredith . He also played Sammy Frost at half @-@ back , who was able to win the ball and bring Meredith into the play , and signed outside @-@ left Frank Booth to balance the attack . Maley encouraged teamwork , meaning there was less pressure on Meredith from opposition defenders .
Meredith was partnered with George Livingstone for the 1903 – 04 campaign , who was able to supply him and the rest of the team with quality passes . Drawn against a strong Sunderland outfit in the First Round of the FA Cup , Meredith was the " raider @-@ in @-@ chief " as City claimed a 3 – 2 victory at Hyde Road . City then defeated Woolwich Arsenal and Middlesbrough to reach the semi @-@ finals . There they faced The Wednesday at Goodison Park , and Meredith scored one goal ( bundled in by Gillespie ) and claimed two assists as City won the game 3 – 1 . Their opponents in the final at Crystal Palace were mid @-@ table Second Division outfit Bolton Wanderers , and Meredith was cautiously optimistic before the match , stating " We ought to win ... if we play anything like our normal game the cup is ours ... but this is the cup final and , well , anything might happen . " With just over 20 minutes played , Livingstone found Meredith with a long ball , who then beat goalkeeper Dai Davies to score the only goal of the game ; Bolton supporters long maintained that Meredith had been offside . As captain , Meredith was handed the trophy by Prime Minister Arthur Balfour .
He scored nine goals in 36 games in the 1904 – 05 season , as City came within two points and two places of champions Newcastle United . The season ended in controversial circumstances at Villa Park , and with a 3 – 2 defeat to Aston Villa ending any hopes of winning the league , Sandy Turnbull and Villa captain Alex Leake exchanged blows . The Football Association launched an investigation into the violence , and the findings shocked the sporting world as Meredith was suspended for the entirety of the 1905 – 06 season for ( unsuccessfully ) attempting to bribe Alex Leake . No evidence was taken from Meredith , who denied the charge , and the evidence was not made public . The club , fearful of FA sanctions , refused to pay Meredith during the campaign . He was transfer listed in May 1906 after he claimed that he had only attempted to bribe Leake on the orders of manager Tom Maley and that illegal payments were common practice at Hyde Road . The FA acted on his information , and fined Manchester City £ 900 for illegal payments and suspended numerous players , boardroom members and staff members .
You approve of the severe punishment administered by the Commission AGAINST ME and state that the offence I committed at Aston Villa should have wiped me out of football forever . Why ME ALONE ? when I was only the spokesman of others equally guilty .
= = = Manchester United = = =
In May 1906 , while still serving his ban , Meredith moved to Manchester United . He joined on a free transfer and received a £ 500 signing @-@ on fee from United ; Manchester City reluctantly accepted the transfer as they had previously signed an undertaking promising Meredith a benefit match , and he was willing to forego on the agreement if the club instead granted his transfer . He returned from suspension on 1 January 1907 , and marked his debut at Bank Street with an assist for Sandy Turnbull to score the only goal of the game against Aston Villa . In addition to Turnbull , Meredith was joined at United by former City teammates Jimmy Bannister and Herbert Burgess . This new forward line made the team into a powerful force , as they already possessed a dominant half @-@ back line in captain Charlie Roberts , Dick Duckworth and Alex Bell . They ended the 1906 – 07 season in eighth place in the First Division .
Manager Ernest Mangnall signed Jimmy Turnbull , and the forward line of Meredith , Bannister , Jimmy Turnbull and Sandy Turnbull were dominant in the 1907 – 08 campaign . United won the title with a nine @-@ point margin over second @-@ placed Aston Villa , and secured the 1908 FA Charity Shield ( the first ever Charity Shield ) with a 4 – 0 win over Queens Park Rangers at Stamford Bridge .
United slipped to a disappointing 13th @-@ place finish in 1908 – 09 . Meredith was suspended for the month of January in punishment for kicking a Brighton & Hove Albion player in an FA Cup match . The club reached the 1909 FA Cup Final , knocking out Brighton , Everton , Blackburn Rovers , Burnley and Newcastle United . Their cup final opponents at Crystal Palace were Bristol City , captained at centre @-@ half by Billy Wedlock – England captain and staunch opponent of the Players ' Union . A Sandy Turnbull goal settled the tie , which was described as quite a boring game ; Meredith himself dismissed reports of the match , stating " it was a good game for dashing , keen , thrilling football , great goalkeeping and narrow escapes at either end " . Meredith and his teammates celebrated the victory with music hall stars such as George Robey .
United finished fifth in 1909 – 10 and exited the FA Cup at the First Round with a defeat to Burnley at Turf Moor . However the club continued to advance under the generous chairmanship of John Henry Davies , and Old Trafford was opened in February 1910 .
Harold Halse was to partner Meredith at inside @-@ right for the 1910 – 11 season , but proved too much of a " free @-@ spirit " and was replaced by Jack Picken , a " plodder [ who ] understands what Meredith requires " . A defeat at Villa Park in the penultimate game of the season left United needing to beat third @-@ place Sunderland and hope that Aston Villa failed to beat Liverpool . United were a goal down when Meredith provided Enoch West with a cross which West sent into the net for the equalising goal . Four more goals came and they won the game 5 – 1 and left the field as champions of England for the second time .
Meredith played in the 1911 FA Charity Shield , as United beat Swindon Town 8 – 4 at Stamford Bridge . However the 1911 – 12 campaign ended in a disappointing 13th @-@ place finish and Mangnall left the club to manage rivals Manchester City . Meredith 's Benefit match was played on 7 September 1912 , between Manchester United and Manchester City , and the Welsh FA also donated the proceeds of two trial matches to the fund . There were 39 @,@ 911 spectators and a total of £ 1 @,@ 400 was raised .
New manager John Bentley led United to a fourth @-@ place finish in 1912 – 13 . He dropped Meredith to blood a young Jackie Sheldon . By this time , Meredith made headlines primarily due to his squabbling with the club over them stalling payment of his benefit matches and his dissatisfaction at being dropped . The club dropped to 14th spot in 1913 – 14 , and only avoided relegation on the last day of the 1914 – 15 season after bribing Liverpool to lose 2 – 0 at Old Trafford ; Meredith this time played no part in the resulting bribery scandal . He instead claimed to be baffled as to why his teammates refused to pass to him during the game .
During the First World War he actually played a match against United , making a guest appearance for Port Vale , with Vale recording a 5 – 2 victory at the Old Recreation Ground . Frustrated with the club for delaying payments over his benefit match , he also played as a guest for Manchester City . After the war ended he demanded a free transfer , and was repulsed that the club demanded a transfer fee , stating that the transfer market was a " degrading business " for players . On 7 May 1921 , at 46 years , 281 days , he became United 's oldest ever player when he took to the field in a league game against Derby County .
= = = Return to Manchester City = = =
In 1921 he returned to Manchester City on a free transfer . He played 25 first team games in the 1921 – 22 season , helping City to record a derby victory over rivals Manchester United . He featured once in the 1922 – 23 campaign , playing the club 's final game at Hyde Road . He played four FA Cup and two First Division games in the 1923 – 24 season . Mangnall , now his manager at City , shocked Manchester when he selected Meredith for the cup game with Brighton & Hove Albion at the Goldstone Ground , but was vindicated with a 5 – 1 victory ; Meredith also scored a goal , though this was due to a poor mistake from the Brighton goalkeeper . He played both games against Cardiff City in the next round , a 0 – 0 draw at Maine Road and 1 – 0 win at Ninian Park , and claimed an assist in the goal that settled the tie . His last match was against Newcastle United in the semi @-@ finals at the age of 49 years and 245 days , making him City 's oldest ever player ; the game ended in a 2 – 1 defeat .
= = International career = =
Meredith won his first cap for Wales in a 2 – 2 draw with Ireland on 16 March 1895 in Belfast . He won 12 caps in the 1890s , but was forced to miss six games as his club would not let him play in games that clashed with league fixtures . Wales could compete with Ireland , but were regularly beaten by Scotland and England . On 26 March 1900 , Wales played for the first time in South Wales , at Cardiff Arms Park , and Meredith scored a goal to earn the Welsh a celebrated 1 – 1 draw with England . After serving his suspension , he returned to Wales for the British Home Championship title victory in 1907 , the nation 's first success in the competition . In those three games , he scored against Ireland in a 3 – 2 victory , and captained Wales to a 1 – 0 win over Scotland and a 1 – 1 draw with England . Wales were denied a late penalty against the English , and Meredith was later recorded to have said " never mind , little Wales will win some day [ against England ] . May I be there at the death . "
After draws with Ireland and Scotland , Meredith " wept unashamedly " as he helped Wales to beat England 2 – 1 at Highbury to claim the 1920 British Home Championship . It was only his second victory against the English in 20 attempts , and it marked the last of his 48 caps . Though his record number of caps was later surpassed , at 45 years and 229 days he remains the oldest player to win a Wales cap . He was actually chosen by the selectors for 71 consecutive matches , but only made 48 appearances as his clubs regularly refused to release him for international duty .
= = Style of play = =
Meredith was able to avoid injury throughout his career , despite the extremely physical nature of the game during the period . This was due in part to his extraordinary balance and agility , which allowed him to avoid clumsy challenges , and the toughness he had built up from spending his adolescence working in the mines . A model professional , he spent his spare time improving his game with extra training sessions and maintained peak physical fitness by avoiding alcohol and tobacco . His " gimmick " was to chew on a toothpick during matches , and this unusual trait was picked up on by cartoonists of the time .
Writing a 1947 critique of Stanley Matthews , Meredith criticised the lack of direct play on show in the 1940s and stated that when he was playing that " I knew what was expected of me – to beat the wing @-@ half and the full @-@ back , take the ball down to the corner flag and centre " . His ball control skills were unparalleled , leaving opposition players unable to tackle him . He also was an extremely accurate passer and crosser of the ball . His dribbling and crossing gave him a large advantage over rival wingers , who relied solely on speed to beat opposition full @-@ backs . In addition to wing @-@ play , he was also highly skilled at sending in long @-@ range shots across the face of the goal , and could be relied upon to meet crosses from his left @-@ winger with a powerful volley .
Meredith had to deal with extremely physical defences , and was often boxed into the corner of the pitch by as many as four players . As his talents became widely regarded , more well organised defences would designate him with a man @-@ marker , to try and isolate him from his teammates . This often left him reliant on an unselfish inside @-@ right partner willing to fetch and carry the ball for him without expecting much in terms of goals or glory in return . A hard @-@ working wing @-@ half would also improve Meredith 's effectiveness by winning the ball and sending him a pass down the flank . The best teams he played in also had a centre @-@ forward able to make the most of his accurate crosses .
= = Players ' Union = =
Meredith organised the first meeting of the Players ' Union ( PU ) in December 1907 . Meredith had previously been involved with the Association Footballers ' Union ( the " AFU " ) , the first attempt by football players in England to organise a trade union . The Players ' Union , like the AFU before it , sought the relaxation of restrictions on transfers and wages . Others made the argument that a free market wage structure would ruin the amateur principles the sport was founded on , but Meredith felt that these words rang hollow considering that club directors and shareholders made vast profits . At the first annual meeting in December 1908 , the PU stated their aims as to allow unlimited wages , the right to transfer from club to club , and for players to take a percentage of any transfer fee .
With the union threatening strike action , particularly at international matches , in April 1909 the Football Association insisted that all players agree to leave the union and pledge loyalty to the FA . Manchester United refused to issue the revised contracts to its players , and FA suspended the entire squad . The club then refused to pay the players in lieu of their suspension , and so the players instead took away ornaments from the club 's office before Mangnall persuaded them to return the items . The players continued to train , and captain Charlie Roberts came up with the name of Outcasts F.C. The FA organised a meeting of 200 players , excluding the Outcasts , but a rambling speech from chairman Charles Clegg failed to win them over , and an agreement was reached where the PU would be recognised by the FA .
In October 1909 , the Union balloted its members over the organisation 's membership of the General Federation of Trade Unions ( GTFU ) . The result of the vote , a decisive " no " to GFTU support , effectively supported the FA 's position that professional footballers were fundamentally different from workmen in other industries . Meredith resumed league football in November 1909 , bemoaning his view that " many players refuse to take things seriously and continue to live a kind of schoolboy life " .
= = Personal life and legacy = =
He married Ellen Negus in 1901 , and the couple had two daughters . He was a supporter of the Liberal Party . He ran businesses throughout his career , with little success , and was declared bankrupt in July 1909 after his outfitting shop was damaged by fire.Harding 1998 , p . 135 During the 1910s he ran a public house ( despite being a teetotaller ) and later pursued an interest in the film industry by buying shares in numerous Stretford cinemas in the 1930s . He also starred in 1926 picture The Ball of Fortune , playing himself as a football trainer ; the film received generally positive reviews . In 1928 , together with former colleague Charlie Roberts he became a coach for the ambitious but short @-@ lived Manchester Central . Meredith 's son @-@ in @-@ law , former City captain Charlie Pringle , was a player . He retained a passion for football , and spent much of his retirement discussing the game with former colleagues and regulars at his hotel , the Stretford Road Hotel , which he ran from 1930 to 1945 . He rarely missed the chance to attend a Wales game in the 1920s and 1930s .
Meredith died in Withington , Manchester in April 1958 at the age of 83 , two months after the Munich air disaster , which claimed the lives of eight Manchester United players . After he spent many years in an unmarked grave , the Professional Footballers ' Association , the Welsh FA , Manchester City and Manchester United all agreed to cover the cost of upkeep on a new headstone . Meredith is honoured in the hall of fame at the City of Manchester Stadium . It was announced in August 2007 that Meredith was one of the 10 new inductees for 2007 to the English Football Hall of Fame .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club statistics = = =
= = = International statistics = = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Chirk
Welsh Cup ( 1 ) : 1894
Manchester City
Second Division ( 1 ) : 1898 – 99
FA Cup ( 1 ) : 1903 – 04
Manchester United
First Division ( 2 ) : 1907 – 08 , 1910 – 11
FA Cup ( 1 ) : 1908 – 09
FA Charity Shield ( 2 ) : 1908 , 1911
= = = National team = = =
Wales
British Home Championship ( 2 ) : 1907 , 1920
= Jean Abraham Grill =
Jean Abraham Grill ( 21 July 1736 – 12 March 1792 ) , sometimes called Johan Abraham Grill , was a Swedish merchant , supercargo , director of the Swedish East India Company ( SOIC ) and ironmaster at Godegård with several factories .
Grill journeyed to China twice as the representative for the SOIC . He lived in Canton ( now known as Guangzhou ) as well as Macao for a total of almost ten years , doing trade for the company during the arrival of three Swedish ships . In China he lived the life of an adventurer ; survived a shipwreck , traded with other East Asian countries together with his partner Michael Grubb and smuggled opium from India to China .
He returned to Sweden in 1768 , a wealthy man and lived the rest of his life in Swedish high society , writing minor essays about his travels as member of the Royal Swedish Academies of Sciences and Music . He married Lovisa Ulrika Lüning and bought the Godegård Manor and several ironworks , which he renovated and improved . When Grill died in 1792 , his wife took over his business and ran the ironworks and factories .
His most notable legacy is the notes , correspondence , accounts , cargo lists and books he kept during his life . They are preserved in the Godegård Archive and in the Gothenburg University Library .
= = Early life = =
One of the Grill family , Jean Abraham Grill was the eldest son of merchant Abraham Grill , the Younger ( 1707 – 68 ) and Anna Maria Petersen ( 1713 – 54 ) . He was born in Helsingør where his father was the Swedish consul at that time . In 1746 , the family moved to Gothenburg where his father had started a trading house . When Jean Abraham was 14 years old , he started working as an apprentice in his fathers office , and three years later he became a clerk at the Swedish East India Company ( SOIC ) . Through his fathers mediation he was appointed to second assistant on the ship Sophia Albertina for its journey to Canton ( now known as Guangzhou ) between 1755 and 1756 .
Being ambitious , Grill aimed for the higher positions in the SOIC , and to achieve that he had to learn more and gain more experience . So when he returned to Sweden from China , he decided to go abroad again as soon as possible . He started out at the trading office of Kristian Holm , Swedish consul to France , in Montpellier where he worked for about six months . He stayed in France for five years , and in 1758 , he was employed by the Mallet & Blancheney firm in Marseille . Grill 's letters to his family during those years indicates that he enjoyed his time in France and was interested in style and his own appearance . His initial plans had been to set up a business in Marseille , but his family , especially his uncle Claes Grill , advised against it . Claes had started out as a merchant in the European market , but he soon moved on to the more lucrative Canton trade and encouraged his nephew to do the same .
= = In Canton = =
Grill followed his uncle Claes ' advice and went to Canton as third supercargo on the Fredric Adolph in 1761 , during the second carter of the SOIC . On 3 September 1761 , the ship ran aground at the Pratas Islands in the South China Sea . The ship 's captain , Daniel Shierman , did what he could to lighten the ship and tried to get it afloat again , but to no avail . Seven hours later the ship was a wreck , resting on the rocks and everyone aboard went into the boats . Twenty men stayed behind to guard the ship , while 122 men , including Grill , immediately set off for the nearest port . Five days later they landed on the Chinese mainland , in the " province of Catsi " [ sic ] , where they eventually got permission from the Chinese authorities to proceed to Canton . In Canton they met with the men left to guard the ship , now 17 in number , who had arrived two weeks earlier . Three expeditions with divers , one of them led by Grill , went to recover the cargo from the wreck . They managed to salvage about two @-@ thirds of the silver , tin , iron , coral , lead and copper from the cargo , plus one cat and a dog .
After the shipwreck , Grill remained in Canton as resident supercargo for seven years . As such he was the company 's representative in Canton , contacting Chinese merchants as well as buying goods and cargo for the ships . He was supercargo for the arrival of three more ships of the SIOC : the Stockholms Slott ( outward journey ) in 1762 , the Stockholms Slott ( resident supercargo in Canton ) in 1765 and the Cron Prins Gustaf ( journey home ) 1768 . One of his tasks in Canton was to make sure that the Swedish factory at the Thirteen Factories was in good order and maintained . The Swedes rented factories or houses from the mandarins at other locations as well , but the one on 13 : e Faktorigatan ( the 13 : th Factory street ) operated as their main building . Grills records of the Swedish factory are detailed and provide good insight into life in Canton at that time .
He also started a successful private company in partnership with the older and more experienced Michael Grubb , one of the directors of the SOIC and founder of the first Swedish trading office in Canton . They traded in Canton and Macao , which technically was against the rules and regulations in the charter of the SOIC . Grill took advantage of the fact that his father was a director of the SOIC , and until his father 's death shipped his own goods on board SOIC ships . From Europe the ships brought objets d 'art , corals from the Mediterranean Sea , expensive clocks and other mechanical automatons known to the Chinese as sing @-@ songs . Such goods were appreciated by the Emperor and the rich mandarins .
The Grubb @-@ Grill company used Chinese junks to trade with India , Java , Indochina , Philippines and Japan . From these places they traded in Japanese silk , pigments , spices , gold and silver treads , pearls and lacquerware . The most profitable product in that trade was opium , the smuggling of which became Grill 's own private business . During his time in Canton he smuggled " considerable quantities " from India to Macao . It is documented that he in 1767 received a shipment of 150 chests of opium sent from Madras ( now known as Chennai ) by Jacob Hahr , another supercargo . Consequently , Grill became Sweden 's first major drug runner .
The resident supercargo was responsible for buying goods such as tea , porcelain , silk , arrack , sago and miscellaneous for the next ship arriving from Sweden . The SOIC traded mainly with the Chinese merchant Puankhequa , who had his factory next to the Swedish , and judging from their letters , Puankhequa and Grill became friends . Grill was entrusted with funds from the SOIC for buying tea and other goods during off @-@ season when the price was at its lowest . He bought most of the tea from Puankhequa , and several contracts are preserved . However , he did not buy the tea from the Chinese merchant on the SOIC 's behalf but instead bought it through his own company and sold it on to the SOIC at a slightly higher price . After some time the SOIC became suspicious and director David Sandberg was sent to Canton to investigate the matter in 1766 . Grill and his companions , Grubb and Hahr , had to sign an agreement not to misuse their position within the SOIC . In 1768 , Grill was ordered to return home as supercargo on the ship Cron Prins Gustaf . Even so , Hahr stayed behind in Canton , continued their business and was able to transfer Grill 's share of the profit through international bank notes .
By 1770 , Grill was a partner in the Carlos & Claes Grill Trading house , and as such he became a director in the third charter of the SOIC in 1778 .
= = Science and music = =
Grill wrote a number of essays for the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences about his observations and experiences in Canton , and in 1773 , he became a member of the academy . In 1774 , Grill became its preses or president . He was also an accomplished flute player , and on 16 June 1772 , he was elected as member no . 46 of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music .
Grill was also interested in porcelain . Part of his orders may have been just a way to get his money transferred from China to Sweden after he was ordered to return home in 1768 , but he also ordered his own armorial dinner service .
= = Ironmaster and estate owner = =
When Grill returned to Sweden in 1768 , he first lived in Stockholm where he occupied himself with trade . He owned a malmgård ( suburban manor ) at Ersta in the south part of Stockholm , where he established a crucible steel factory with the help of Bengt Andersson Qvist in 1770 .
Grill married Lovisa Ulrika Lüning ( 1744 – 1824 ) in Stockholm in 1772 . They had ten children . She was the daughter of wholesaler Johan Christian Lüning and Margaretha Sabbath . In 1775 , Grill sold the manor and the steel factory to Qvist and moved to Godegård where he had bought the manor and the ironworks from the estate of Jean de Geer . In doing so he followed the pattern of other supercargos who made their fortunes abroad during a short period of time in the East India trade and on their return invested their money in Swedish factories and farms .
Aside from renovating the factories in Godegård ( the largest ironworks in Östergötland ) he also had an English park planned and built at his manor in Godergård . The park had an orangery , canals , bridges and pavilions and was modelled after the larger park at Drottningholm Palace with its Chinese Pavilion . The Godegård estate also included Mariedamm with the Trehörnings blast furnace and the De Geersfors manufacturing house . Grill also bought the Bona estate in Västra Ny , where he built a wrought iron factory and the Medevi seat farm in 1779 , ( sold the following year ) . In 1782 , he bought the Flerohopp ironworks .
Grill established a small scale trade monopoly at Godegård in 1775 . Before he became owner of the ironworks , the farmers around Godegård had refined the wrought iron from the factory into large quantities of nails using small trip hammers . The nails were sold in Askersund . As a trader Grill would not abide this . First he decreed that the farmers had to buy all their goods at the ironworks ' general store . Second , he forbade the farmers and tenant farmers to sell nails to the merchants at Askersund , at that time a center for nail trade . In this way Grill assumed control over all nail trade himself .
Jean Abraham Grill died on 12 March 1792 , in Norrköping under " mysterious circumstances " and was interred in the Grill family grave at the Godegård Church . When Grill died , his wife Lovisa Ulrika took over and ran the ironworks and factories until their children succeeded her .
= = Archives = =
Throughout his life Grill kept meticulous notes of his business . Some of these are in the Gothenburg University library , and most of them , along with Grill 's letters and correspondence , are now in the Godegård Archive in the Nordic Museum . Most of the 7 @,@ 000 documents in the archive have been digitized following a request from the Macau Historical Archives in 2003 . They are available online , including documentation , letters , cargo lists , provisions for the ships and accounts for the Swedish factory in Canton during Grill 's time with the SOIC .
= Metabolism =
Metabolism ( from Greek : μεταβολή metabolē , " change " ) is the set of life @-@ sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms . The three main purposes of metabolism are the conversion of food / fuel to energy to run cellular processes , the conversion of food / fuel to building blocks for proteins , lipids , nucleic acids , and some carbohydrates , and the elimination of nitrogenous wastes . These enzyme @-@ catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce , maintain their structures , and respond to their environments . The word metabolism can also refer to the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms , including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells , in which case the set of reactions within the cells is called intermediary metabolism or intermediate metabolism .
Metabolism is usually divided into two categories : catabolism , the breaking down of organic matter , for example , by cellular respiration , and anabolism , the building up of components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids . Usually , breaking down releases energy and building up consumes energy .
The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways , in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical , by a sequence of enzymes . Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves , by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy . Enzymes act as catalysts that allow the reactions to proceed more rapidly . Enzymes also allow the regulation of metabolic pathways in response to changes in the cell 's environment or to signals from other cells .
The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which poisonous . For example , some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient , yet this gas is poisonous to animals . The speed of metabolism , the metabolic rate , influences how much food an organism will require , and also affects how it is able to obtain that food .
A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways and components between even vastly different species . For example , the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms , being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacterium Escherichia coli and huge multicellular organisms like elephants . These striking similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in evolutionary history , and their retention because of their efficacy .
= = Key biochemicals = =
Most of the structures that make up animals , plants and microbes are made from three basic classes of molecule : amino acids , carbohydrates and lipids ( often called fats ) . As these molecules are vital for life , metabolic reactions either focus on making these molecules during the construction of cells and tissues , or by breaking them down and using them as a source of energy , by their digestion . These biochemicals can be joined together to make polymers such as DNA and proteins , essential macromolecules of life .
= = = Amino acids and proteins = = =
Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined together by peptide bonds . Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism . Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions , such as those that form the cytoskeleton , a system of scaffolding that maintains the cell shape . Proteins are also important in cell signaling , immune responses , cell adhesion , active transport across membranes , and the cell cycle . Amino acids also contribute to cellular energy metabolism by providing a carbon source for entry into the citric acid cycle ( tricarboxylic acid cycle ) , especially when a primary source of energy , such as glucose , is scarce , or when cells undergo metabolic stress .
= = = Lipids = = =
Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals . Their main structural uses are as part of biological membranes both internal and external , such as the cell membrane , or as a source of energy . Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene or chloroform . The fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol ; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid esters is called a triacylglyceride . Several variations on this basic structure exist , including alternate backbones such as sphingosine in the sphingolipids , and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate as in phospholipids . Steroids such as cholesterol are another major class of lipids .
= = = Carbohydrates = = =
Carbohydrates | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
are aldehydes or ketones , with many hydroxyl groups attached , that can exist as straight chains or rings . Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules , and fill numerous roles , such as the storage and transport of energy ( starch , glycogen ) and structural components ( cellulose in plants , chitin in animals ) . The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose , fructose , and most importantly glucose . Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways .
= = = Nucleotides = = =
The two nucleic acids , DNA and RNA , are polymers of nucleotides . Each nucleotide is composed of a phosphate attached to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar group which is attached to a nitrogenous base . Nucleic acids are critical for the storage and use of genetic information , and its interpretation through the processes of transcription and protein biosynthesis . This information is protected by DNA repair mechanisms and propagated through DNA replication . Many viruses have an RNA genome , such as HIV , which uses reverse transcription to create a DNA template from its viral RNA genome . RNA in ribozymes such as spliceosomes and ribosomes is similar to enzymes as it can catalyze chemical reactions . Individual nucleosides are made by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose sugar . These bases are heterocyclic rings containing nitrogen , classified as purines or pyrimidines . Nucleotides also act as coenzymes in metabolic @-@ group @-@ transfer reactions .
= = = Coenzymes = = =
Metabolism involves a vast array of chemical reactions , but most fall under a few basic types of reactions that involve the transfer of functional groups of atoms and their bonds within molecules . This common chemistry allows cells to use a small set of metabolic intermediates to carry chemical groups between different reactions . These group @-@ transfer intermediates are called coenzymes . Each class of group @-@ transfer reactions is carried out by a particular coenzyme , which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it , and a set of enzymes that consume it . These coenzymes are therefore continuously made , consumed and then recycled .
One central coenzyme is adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) , the universal energy currency of cells . This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions . There is only a small amount of ATP in cells , but as it is continuously regenerated , the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day . ATP acts as a bridge between catabolism and anabolism . Catabolism breaks down molecules and anabolism puts them together . Catabolic reactions generate ATP and anabolic reactions consume it . It also serves as a carrier of phosphate groups in phosphorylation reactions .
A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in cells . In human nutrition , most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification ; for example , all water @-@ soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells . Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( NAD + ) , a derivative of vitamin B3 ( niacin ) , is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor . Hundreds of separate types of dehydrogenases remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD + into NADH . This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that need to reduce their substrates . Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell , NADH and NADPH . The NAD + / NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions , while NADP + / NADPH is used in anabolic reactions .
= = = Minerals and cofactors = = =
Inorganic elements play critical roles in metabolism ; some are abundant ( e.g. sodium and potassium ) while others function at minute concentrations . About 99 % of a mammal 's mass is made up of the elements carbon , nitrogen , calcium , sodium , chlorine , potassium , hydrogen , phosphorus , oxygen and sulfur . Organic compounds ( proteins , lipids and carbohydrates ) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen ; most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water .
The abundant inorganic elements act as ionic electrolytes . The most important ions are sodium , potassium , calcium , magnesium , chloride , phosphate and the organic ion bicarbonate . The maintenance of precise ion gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH . Ions are also critical for nerve and muscle function , as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cell 's fluid , the cytosol . Electrolytes enter and leave cells through proteins in the cell membrane called ion channels . For example , muscle contraction depends upon the movement of calcium , sodium and potassium through ion channels in the cell membrane and T @-@ tubules .
Transition metals are usually present as trace elements in organisms , with zinc and iron being most abundant of those . These metals are used in some proteins as cofactors and are essential for the activity of enzymes such as catalase and oxygen @-@ carrier proteins such as hemoglobin . Metal cofactors are bound tightly to specific sites in proteins ; although enzyme cofactors can be modified during catalysis , they always return to their original state by the end of the reaction catalyzed . Metal micronutrients are taken up into organisms by specific transporters and bind to storage proteins such as ferritin or metallothionein when not in use .
= = Catabolism = =
Catabolism is the set of metabolic processes that break down large molecules . These include breaking down and oxidizing food molecules . The purpose of the catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions . The exact nature of these catabolic reactions differ from organism to organism and organisms can be classified based on their sources of energy and carbon ( their primary nutritional groups ) , as shown in the table below . Organic molecules are used as a source of energy by organotrophs , while lithotrophs use inorganic substrates and phototrophs capture sunlight as chemical energy . However , all these different forms of metabolism depend on redox reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from reduced donor molecules such as organic molecules , water , ammonia , hydrogen sulfide or ferrous ions to acceptor molecules such as oxygen , nitrate or sulfate . In animals these reactions involve complex organic molecules that are broken down to simpler molecules , such as carbon dioxide and water . In photosynthetic organisms such as plants and cyanobacteria , these electron @-@ transfer reactions do not release energy , but are used as a way of storing energy absorbed from sunlight .
The most common set of catabolic reactions in animals can be separated into three main stages . In the first , large organic molecules such as proteins , polysaccharides or lipids are digested into their smaller components outside cells . Next , these smaller molecules are taken up by cells and converted to yet smaller molecules , usually acetyl coenzyme A ( acetyl @-@ CoA ) , which releases some energy . Finally , the acetyl group on the CoA is oxidised to water and carbon dioxide in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain , releasing the energy that is stored by reducing the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( NAD + ) into NADH .
= = = Digestion = = =
Macromolecules such as starch , cellulose or proteins cannot be rapidly taken up by cells and must be broken into their smaller units before they can be used in cell metabolism . Several common classes of enzymes digest these polymers . These digestive enzymes include proteases that digest proteins into amino acids , as well as glycoside hydrolases that digest polysaccharides into simple sugars known as monosaccharides .
Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings , while animals only secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their guts . The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by active transport proteins .
= = = Energy from organic compounds = = =
Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units . Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells once they have been digested into monosaccharides . Once inside , the major route of breakdown is glycolysis , where sugars such as glucose and fructose are converted into pyruvate and some ATP is generated . Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways , but the majority is converted to acetyl @-@ CoA and fed into the citric acid cycle . Although some more ATP is generated in the citric acid cycle , the most important product is NADH , which is made from NAD + as the acetyl @-@ CoA is oxidized . This oxidation releases carbon dioxide as a waste product . In anaerobic conditions , glycolysis produces lactate , through the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase re @-@ oxidizing NADH to NAD + for re @-@ use in glycolysis . An alternative route for glucose breakdown is the pentose phosphate pathway , which reduces the coenzyme NADPH and produces pentose sugars such as ribose , the sugar component of nucleic acids .
Fats are catabolised by hydrolysis to free fatty acids and glycerol . The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation to release acetyl @-@ CoA , which then is fed into the citric acid cycle . Fatty acids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates because carbohydrates contain more oxygen in their structures . Steroids are also broken down by some bacteria in a process similar to beta oxidation , and this breakdown process involves the release of significant amounts of acetyl @-@ CoA , propionyl @-@ CoA , and pyruvate , which can all be used by the cell for energy . M. tuberculosis can also grow on the lipid cholesterol as a sole source of carbon , and genes involved in the cholesterol use pathway ( s ) have been validated as important during various stages of the infection lifecycle of M. tuberculosis .
Amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules , or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy . The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase . The amino group is fed into the urea cycle , leaving a deaminated carbon skeleton in the form of a keto acid . Several of these keto acids are intermediates in the citric acid cycle , for example the deamination of glutamate forms α @-@ ketoglutarate . The glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose , through gluconeogenesis ( discussed below ) .
= = Energy transformations = =
= = = Oxidative phosphorylation = = =
In oxidative phosphorylation , the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the protagon acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP . This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain . In prokaryotes , these proteins are found in the cell 's inner membrane . These proteins use the energy released from passing electrons from reduced molecules like NADH onto oxygen to pump protons across a membrane .
Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient . This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase . The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate , causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate – turning it into ATP .
= = = Energy from inorganic compounds = = =
Chemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism found in prokaryotes where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds . These organisms can use hydrogen , reduced sulfur compounds ( such as sulfide , hydrogen sulfide and thiosulfate ) , ferrous iron ( FeII ) or ammonia as sources of reducing power and they gain energy from the oxidation of these compounds with electron acceptors such as oxygen or nitrite . These microbial processes are important in global biogeochemical cycles such as acetogenesis , nitrification and denitrification and are critical for soil fertility .
= = = Energy from light = = =
The energy in sunlight is captured by plants , cyanobacteria , purple bacteria , green sulfur bacteria and some protists . This process is often coupled to the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds , as part of photosynthesis , which is discussed below . The energy capture and carbon fixation systems can however operate separately in prokaryotes , as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy , while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds .
In many organisms the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation , as it involves the storage of energy as a proton concentration gradient . This proton motive force then drives ATP synthesis . The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from light @-@ gathering proteins called photosynthetic reaction centres or rhodopsins . Reaction centers are classed into two types depending on the type of photosynthetic pigment present , with most photosynthetic bacteria only having one type , while plants and cyanobacteria have two .
In plants , algae , and cyanobacteria , photosystem II uses light energy to remove electrons from water , releasing oxygen as a waste product . The electrons then flow to the cytochrome b6f complex , which uses their energy to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast . These protons move back through the membrane as they drive the ATP synthase , as before . The electrons then flow through photosystem I and can then either be used to reduce the coenzyme NADP + , for use in the Calvin cycle , which is discussed below , or recycled for further ATP generation .
= = Anabolism = =
Anabolism is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules . In general , the complex molecules that make up cellular structures are constructed step @-@ by @-@ step from small and simple precursors . Anabolism involves three basic stages . First , the production of precursors such as amino acids , monosaccharides , isoprenoids and nucleotides , secondly , their activation into reactive forms using energy from ATP , and thirdly , the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as proteins , polysaccharides , lipids and nucleic acids .
Organisms differ in how many of the molecules in their cells they can construct for themselves . Autotrophs such as plants can construct the complex organic molecules in cells such as polysaccharides and proteins from simple molecules like carbon dioxide and water . Heterotrophs , on the other hand , require a source of more complex substances , such as monosaccharides and amino acids , to produce these complex molecules . Organisms can be further classified by ultimate source of their energy : photoautotrophs and photoheterotrophs obtain energy from light , whereas chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs obtain energy from inorganic oxidation reactions .
= = = Carbon fixation = = =
Photosynthesis is the synthesis of carbohydrates from sunlight and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . In plants , cyanobacteria and algae , oxygenic photosynthesis splits water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic reaction centres , as described above , to convert CO2 into glycerate 3 @-@ phosphate , which can then be converted into glucose . This carbon @-@ fixation reaction is carried out by the enzyme RuBisCO as part of the Calvin – Benson cycle . Three types of photosynthesis occur in plants , C3 carbon fixation , C4 carbon fixation and CAM photosynthesis . These differ by the route that carbon dioxide takes to the Calvin cycle , with C3 plants fixing CO2 directly , while C4 and CAM photosynthesis incorporate the CO2 into other compounds first , as adaptations to deal with intense sunlight and dry conditions .
In photosynthetic prokaryotes the mechanisms of carbon fixation are more diverse . Here , carbon dioxide can be fixed by the Calvin – Benson cycle , a reversed citric acid cycle , or the carboxylation of acetyl @-@ CoA . Prokaryotic chemoautotrophs also fix CO2 through the Calvin – Benson cycle , but use energy from inorganic compounds to drive the reaction .
= = = Carbohydrates and glycans = = =
In carbohydrate anabolism , simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch . The generation of glucose from compounds like pyruvate , lactate , glycerol , glycerate 3 @-@ phosphate and amino acids is called gluconeogenesis . Gluconeogenesis converts pyruvate to glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate through a series of intermediates , many of which are shared with glycolysis . However , this pathway is not simply glycolysis run in reverse , as several steps are catalyzed by non @-@ glycolytic enzymes . This is important as it allows the formation and breakdown of glucose to be regulated separately , and prevents both pathways from running simultaneously in a futile cycle .
Although fat is a common way of storing energy , in vertebrates such as humans the fatty acids in these stores cannot be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis as these organisms cannot convert acetyl @-@ CoA into pyruvate ; plants do , but animals do not , have the necessary enzymatic machinery . As a result , after long @-@ term starvation , vertebrates need to produce ketone bodies from fatty acids to replace glucose in tissues such as the brain that cannot metabolize fatty acids . In other organisms such as plants and bacteria , this metabolic problem is solved using the glyoxylate cycle , which bypasses the decarboxylation step in the citric acid cycle and allows the transformation of acetyl @-@ CoA to oxaloacetate , where it can be used for the production of glucose .
Polysaccharides and glycans are made by the sequential addition of monosaccharides by glycosyltransferase from a reactive sugar @-@ phosphate donor such as uridine diphosphate glucose ( UDP @-@ glucose ) to an acceptor hydroxyl group on the growing polysaccharide . As any of the hydroxyl groups on the ring of the substrate can be acceptors , the polysaccharides produced can have straight or branched structures . The polysaccharides produced can have structural or metabolic functions themselves , or be transferred to lipids and proteins by enzymes called oligosaccharyltransferases .
= = = Fatty acids , isoprenoids and steroids = = =
Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl @-@ CoA units . The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acyl group , reduce it to an alcohol , dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group . The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups : in animals and fungi , all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional type I protein , while in plant plastids and bacteria separate type II enzymes perform each step in the pathway .
Terpenes and isoprenoids are a large class of lipids that include the carotenoids and form the largest class of plant natural products . These compounds are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate . These precursors can be made in different ways . In animals and archaea , the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl @-@ CoA , while in plants and bacteria the non @-@ mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate as substrates . One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is steroid biosynthesis . Here , the isoprene units are joined together to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol . Lanosterol can then be converted into other steroids such as cholesterol and ergosterol .
= = = Proteins = = =
Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids . Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty , but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids , so nine essential amino acids must be obtained from food . Some simple parasites , such as the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae , lack all amino acid synthesis and take their amino acids directly from their hosts . All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis , the citric acid cycle , or the pentose phosphate pathway . Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine . Amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha @-@ keto acid , which is then transaminated to form an amino acid .
Amino acids are made into proteins by being joined together in a chain of peptide bonds . Each different protein has a unique sequence of amino acid residues : this is its primary structure . Just as the letters of the alphabet can be combined to form an almost endless variety of words , amino acids can be linked in varying sequences to form a huge variety of proteins . Proteins are made from amino acids that have been activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond . This aminoacyl @-@ tRNA precursor is produced in an ATP @-@ dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase . This aminoacyl @-@ tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome , which joins the amino acid onto the elongating protein chain , using the sequence information in a messenger RNA .
= = = Nucleotide synthesis and salvage = = =
Nucleotides are made from amino acids , carbon dioxide and formic acid in pathways that require large amounts of metabolic energy . Consequently , most organisms have efficient systems to salvage preformed nucleotides . Purines are synthesized as nucleosides ( bases attached to ribose ) . Both adenine and guanine are made from the precursor nucleoside inosine monophosphate , which is synthesized using atoms from the amino acids glycine , glutamine , and aspartic acid , as well as formate transferred from the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate . Pyrimidines , on the other hand , are synthesized from the base orotate , which is formed from glutamine and aspartate .
= = Xenobiotics and redox metabolism = =
All organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they cannot use as foods and would be harmful if they accumulated in cells , as they have no metabolic function . These potentially damaging compounds are called xenobiotics . Xenobiotics such as synthetic drugs , natural poisons and antibiotics are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic @-@ metabolizing enzymes . In humans , these include cytochrome P450 oxidases , UDP @-@ glucuronosyltransferases , and glutathione S @-@ transferases . This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic ( phase I ) and then conjugate water @-@ soluble groups onto the molecule ( phase II ) . The modified water @-@ soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted ( phase III ) . In ecology , these reactions are particularly important in microbial biodegradation of pollutants and the bioremediation of contaminated land and oil spills . Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms , but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms , and can degrade even persistent organic pollutants such as organochloride compounds .
A related problem for aerobic organisms is oxidative stress . Here , processes including oxidative phosphorylation and the formation of disulfide bonds during protein folding produce reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide . These damaging oxidants are removed by antioxidant metabolites such as glutathione and enzymes such as catalases and peroxidases .
= = Thermodynamics of living organisms = =
Living organisms must obey the laws of thermodynamics , which describe the transfer of heat and work . The second law of thermodynamics states that in any closed system , the amount of entropy ( disorder ) cannot decrease . Although living organisms ' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law , life is possible as all organisms are open systems that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings . Thus living systems are not in equilibrium , but instead are dissipative systems that maintain their state of high complexity by causing a larger increase in the entropy of their environments . The metabolism of a cell achieves this by coupling the spontaneous processes of catabolism to the non @-@ spontaneous processes of anabolism . In thermodynamic terms , metabolism maintains order by creating disorder .
= = Regulation and control = =
As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing , the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells , a condition called homeostasis . Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments . Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled . Firstly , the regulation of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals . Secondly , the control exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway ( the flux through the pathway ) . For example , an enzyme may show large changes in activity ( i.e. it is highly regulated ) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway , then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway .
There are multiple levels of metabolic regulation . In intrinsic regulation , the metabolic pathway self @-@ regulates to respond to changes in the levels of substrates or products ; for example , a decrease in the amount of product can increase the flux through the pathway to compensate . This type of regulation often involves allosteric regulation of the activities of multiple enzymes in the pathway . Extrinsic control involves a cell in a multicellular organism changing its metabolism in response to signals from other cells . These signals are usually in the form of soluble messengers such as hormones and growth factors and are detected by specific receptors on the cell surface . These signals are then transmitted inside the cell by second messenger systems that often involved the phosphorylation of proteins .
A very well understood example of extrinsic control is the regulation of glucose metabolism by the hormone insulin . Insulin is produced in response to rises in blood glucose levels . Binding of the hormone to insulin receptors on cells then activates a cascade of protein kinases that cause the cells to take up glucose and convert it into storage molecules such as fatty acids and glycogen . The metabolism of glycogen is controlled by activity of phosphorylase , the enzyme that breaks down glycogen , and glycogen synthase , the enzyme that makes it . These enzymes are regulated in a reciprocal fashion , with phosphorylation inhibiting glycogen synthase , but activating phosphorylase . Insulin causes glycogen synthesis by activating protein phosphatases and producing a decrease in the phosphorylation of these enzymes .
= = Evolution = =
The central pathways of metabolism described above , such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle , are present in all three domains of living things and were present in the last universal ancestor . This universal ancestral cell was prokaryotic and probably a methanogen that had extensive amino acid , nucleotide , carbohydrate and lipid metabolism . The retention of these ancient pathways during later evolution may be the result of these reactions having been an optimal solution to their particular metabolic problems , with pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle producing their end products highly efficiently and in a minimal number of steps . The first pathways of enzyme @-@ based metabolism may have been parts of purine nucleotide metabolism , while previous metabolic pathways were a part of the ancient RNA world .
Many models have been proposed to describe the mechanisms by which novel metabolic pathways evolve . These include the sequential addition of novel enzymes to a short ancestral pathway , the duplication and then divergence of entire pathways as well as the recruitment of pre @-@ existing enzymes and their assembly into a novel reaction pathway . The relative importance of these mechanisms is unclear , but genomic studies have shown that enzymes in a pathway are likely to have a shared ancestry , suggesting that many pathways have evolved in a step @-@ by @-@ step fashion with novel functions created from pre @-@ existing steps in the pathway . An alternative model comes from studies that trace the evolution of proteins ' structures in metabolic networks , this has suggested that enzymes are pervasively recruited , borrowing enzymes to perform similar functions in different metabolic pathways ( evident in the MANET database ) These recruitment processes result in an evolutionary enzymatic mosaic . A third possibility is that some parts of metabolism might exist as " modules " that can be reused in different pathways and perform similar functions on different molecules .
As well as the evolution of new metabolic pathways , evolution can also cause the loss of metabolic functions . For example , in some parasites metabolic processes that are not essential for survival are lost and preformed amino acids , nucleotides and carbohydrates may instead be scavenged from the host . Similar reduced metabolic capabilities are seen in endosymbiotic organisms .
= = Investigation and manipulation = =
Classically , metabolism is studied by a reductionist approach that focuses on a single metabolic pathway . Particularly valuable is the use of radioactive tracers at the whole @-@ organism , tissue and cellular levels , which define the paths from precursors to final products by identifying radioactively labelled intermediates and products . The enzymes that catalyze these chemical reactions can then be purified and their kinetics and responses to inhibitors investigated . A parallel approach is to identify the small molecules in a cell or tissue ; the complete set of these molecules is called the metabolome . Overall , these studies give a good view of the structure and function of simple metabolic pathways , but are inadequate when applied to more complex systems such as the metabolism of a complete cell .
An idea of the complexity of the metabolic networks in cells that contain thousands of different enzymes is given by the figure showing the interactions between just 43 proteins and 40 metabolites to the right : the sequences of genomes provide lists containing anything up to 45 @,@ 000 genes . However , it is now possible to use this genomic data to reconstruct complete networks of biochemical reactions and produce more holistic mathematical models that may explain and predict their behavior . These models are especially powerful when used to integrate the pathway and metabolite data obtained through classical methods with data on gene expression from proteomic and DNA microarray studies . Using these techniques , a model of human metabolism has now been produced , which will guide future drug discovery and biochemical research . These models are now used in network analysis , to classify human diseases into groups that share common proteins or metabolites .
Bacterial metabolic networks are a striking example of bow @-@ tie organization , an architecture able to input a wide range of nutrients and produce a large variety of products and complex macromolecules using a relatively few intermediate common currencies .
A major technological application of this information is metabolic engineering . Here , organisms such as yeast , plants or bacteria are genetically modified to make them more useful in biotechnology and aid the production of drugs such as antibiotics or industrial chemicals such as 1 @,@ 3 @-@ propanediol and shikimic acid . These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product , increase yields and reduce the production of wastes .
= = History = =
The term metabolism is derived from the Greek Μεταβολισμός – " Metabolismos " for " change " , or " overthrow " . The first documented references of metabolism were made by Ibn al @-@ Nafis in his 1260 AD work titled Al @-@ Risalah al @-@ Kamiliyyah fil Siera al @-@ Nabawiyyah ( The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet 's Biography ) which included the following phrase " Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment , so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change . " The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans several centuries and has moved from examining whole animals in early studies , to examining individual metabolic reactions in modern biochemistry . The first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by Santorio Santorio in 1614 in his book Ars de statica medicina . He described how he weighed himself before and after eating , sleep , working , sex , fasting , drinking , and excreting . He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called " insensible perspiration " .
In these early studies , the mechanisms of these metabolic processes had not been identified and a vital force was thought to animate living tissue . In the 19th century , when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast , Louis Pasteur concluded that fermentation was catalyzed by substances within the yeast cells he called " ferments " . He wrote that " alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells , not with the death or putrefaction of the cells . " This discovery , along with the publication by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828 of a paper on the chemical synthesis of urea , and is notable for being the first organic compound prepared from wholly inorganic precursors . This proved that the organic compounds and chemical reactions found in cells were no different in principle than any other part of chemistry .
It was the discovery of enzymes at the beginning of the 20th century by Eduard Buchner that separated the study of the chemical reactions of metabolism from the biological study of cells , and marked the beginnings of biochemistry . The mass of biochemical knowledge grew rapidly throughout the early 20th century . One of the most prolific of these modern biochemists was Hans Krebs who made huge contributions to the study of metabolism . He discovered the urea cycle and later , working with Hans Kornberg , the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle . Modern biochemical research has been greatly aided by the development of new techniques such as chromatography , X @-@ ray diffraction , NMR spectroscopy , radioisotopic labelling , electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations . These techniques have allowed the discovery and detailed analysis of the many molecules and metabolic pathways in cells .
= Bangla Desh ( song ) =
" Bangla Desh " is a song by English musician George Harrison . It was released as a non @-@ album single in July 1971 , to raise awareness for the millions of refugees from the country formerly known as East Pakistan , following the 1970 Bhola cyclone and the outbreak of the Bangladesh Liberation War . Harrison 's inspiration for the song came from his friend Ravi Shankar , a Bengali musician , who approached Harrison for help in trying to alleviate the suffering . " Bangla Desh " has been described as " one of the most cogent social statements in music history " and helped gain international support for Bangladeshi independence by establishing the name of the fledgling nation around the world . In 2005 , United Nations Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan identified the song 's success in personalising the Bangladesh crisis , through its emotive description of Shankar 's request for help .
" Bangla Desh " appeared at the height of Harrison 's popularity as a solo artist , following the break @-@ up of the Beatles and the acclaim afforded his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass . It was pop music 's first charity single , and its release took place three days before the Harrison @-@ sponsored Concert for Bangladesh shows at New York 's Madison Square Garden . The single became a top ten hit in the United Kingdom and elsewhere in Europe , and peaked at number 23 on America 's Billboard Hot 100 . The recording was co @-@ produced by Phil Spector and features contributions from Leon Russell , Jim Horn , Ringo Starr and Jim Keltner . The Los Angeles session for the song marked the start of two enduring musical associations in Harrison 's solo career , with Keltner and Horn .
Backed by these musicians and others including Eric Clapton and Billy Preston , Harrison performed " Bangla Desh " at the UNICEF concerts , on 1 August 1971 , as a rousing encore . In a review of the Concert for Bangladesh live album for Rolling Stone magazine , Jon Landau identified this reading as " the concert 's single greatest performance by all concerned " . The studio recording appeared on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison , which remained its only official CD release until September 2014 , when it was included as a bonus track on the Apple Years 1968 – 75 reissue of Harrison 's Living in the Material World album . Artists who have covered the song include Stu Phillips & the Hollyridge Strings and Italian saxophonist Fausto Papetti .
= = Background = =
By the spring of 1971 , George Harrison had established himself as the most successful ex @-@ Beatle during the former band members ' first year as solo artists ; in the words of biographer Elliot Huntley , he " couldn 't have got any more popular in the eyes of the public " . Just as importantly , writes Peter Lavezzoli , author of The Dawn of Indian Music in the West , Harrison had " amassed such good will in the music community " during that time . Rather than looking to immediately follow up his All Things Must Pass triple album , he had spent the months since recording ended in October 1970 repaying favours to the friends and musicians who had helped make the album such a success . These included co @-@ producer Phil Spector , whose wife , Ronnie Spector , Harrison supplied with songs for a proposed solo album on Apple Records ; Ringo Starr , whose " It Don 't Come Easy " single he produced and prepared for release , following the original session for the song in March 1970 ; Bobby Whitlock , singer and keyboard player with the short @-@ lived Derek and the Dominos , whose eponymous debut solo album featured Harrison and Eric Clapton on guitar ; and former Spooky Tooth pianist Gary Wright , whose Footprint album ( 1971 ) Harrison also guested on , along with All Things Must Pass orchestrator John Barham .
Another project was a documentary on the life and music of Ravi Shankar , Howard Worth 's Raga ( 1971 ) , for which Harrison had stepped in at the last minute to provide funding and distribution through Apple Films . With Harrison also serving as record producer for the accompanying soundtrack album , work began with Shankar in Los Angeles during April 1971 and resumed in late June , following Harrison @-@ produced sessions in London for the band Badfinger .
A Bengali by birth , Shankar had already brought the growing humanitarian crisis in Bangladesh to Harrison 's attention , while staying at the ex @-@ Beatle 's house , Friar Park , earlier in the year . The state formerly known as East Pakistan ( and before that , East Bengal ) had suffered an estimated 300 @,@ 000 casualties when the Bhola cyclone hit its shores on 12 November 1970 , and the indifference shown by the ruling government in West Pakistan , particularly by President Yahya Khan , was just one reason the Bengali national movement sought independence on 25 March 1971 . This declaration resulted in an immediate military crackdown by Khan 's troops , and three days later the Bangladesh Liberation War began . By 13 June , details of the systematic massacre of citizens were beginning to emerge internationally via the publication in London 's Sunday Times of an article by Anthony Mascarenhas . Along with the torrential rains and intensive flooding that were threatening the passage of millions of refugees into north @-@ eastern India , this news galvanised Shankar into approaching Harrison for help in trying to alleviate the suffering . " I was in a very sad mood , having read all this news , " Shankar later told Rolling Stone magazine , " and I said , ' George , this is the situation , I know it doesn 't concern you , I know you can 't possibly identify . ' But while I talked to George he was very deeply moved ... and he said , ' Yes , I think I 'll be able to do something . ' "
As a result , Harrison committed to staging the Concert for Bangladesh at Madison Square Garden , New York , on Sunday , 1 August . Six weeks of frantic activity ensued as Harrison flew between New York , Los Angeles and London , making preparations and recruiting other musicians to join him and Shankar for the shows . While conceding that Harrison was no " natural sloganeer " in the manner of his former bandmate John Lennon , author Robert Rodriguez has written : " if any ex @-@ Fab had the cachet with his fan base to solicit good works , it was the spiritual Beatle . "
= = Composition = =
Foreign journalists had been deported from East Pakistan shortly before the Pakistani army 's Operation Searchlight , and even after Mascarenhas ' first @-@ hand observations had been published , Shankar and Harrison were concerned that the mainstream media in the West were showing a reluctance to report all the facts . That summer , it also emerged that America was supporting General Khan 's military offensive , both financially and with weaponry – despite the Blood telegram in April , in which officials at the US Consulate in Dacca advised their State Department of the " genocide " taking place and accused the US Government of " moral bankruptcy " . Realising the need to create greater awareness of the situation in Bangladesh , and particularly the refugee camps of India that had become " infectious open @-@ air graveyards " with the outbreak of cholera , Harrison quickly composed a song for the cause . " Bangla Desh " was " written in ten minutes at the piano " , he would later recall . The title translates as " Bengal nation " , and the fact that Harrison spelt it as two words is indicative of how little the new country name had been acknowledged by the Western media at this time .
As with the concerts , Harrison made a point of steering clear of the politics behind the problem , his lyrics focusing instead on the human perspective . At the suggestion of Leon Russell , who had participated in the recent Ronnie Spector and Badfinger sessions , Harrison began the song with a brief verse outlining his own introduction to the Bangladesh crisis :
My friend came to me with sadness in his eyes
Told me that he wanted help before his country dies
Although I couldn 't feel the pain , I knew I had to try
Now I 'm asking all of you to help us save some lives .
These lines refer to Shankar 's request for help , and " [ in ] deference to the Shankar context " , musical biographer Simon Leng suggests , Harrison set the opening verse as a rock version of Indian music 's traditional alap – " a slow introductory statement of the main ideas " . Lyrically , the remainder of the song concentrates on the uncompromising message " We 've got to relieve Bangla Desh " as thousands of refugees , particularly children , fell victim to the effects of famine and disease .
Bangla Desh , Bangla Desh
Where so many people are dying fast
And it sure looks like a mess
I 've never seen such distress
Now won 't you lend your hand , try to understand
Relieve the people of Bangla Desh .
The final verse @-@ chorus reflects a point that former US Fund for UNICEF president Charles Lyons has identified as a perennial obstacle when addressing global issues of poverty – that the problems appear to be too big and too distant for individuals to be able to solve :
Now , it may seem so far from where we all are
It 's something we can 't reject
That suffering , I can 't neglect ...
In this verse , the line " Now won 't you give some bread to get the starving fed " contains a " clever pun " , Harrison biographer Ian Inglis notes , whereby the word " bread " is used to refer to both money and food .
= = Recording = =
With little time to begin rehearsing for the New York shows , the " Bangla Desh " single was rush @-@ recorded in Los Angeles . Sources differ over the venue and date : the Record Plant West seems the most likely studio , with sessions taking place on 4 – 5 July and horn overdubs perhaps on 10 July . Phil Spector again co @-@ produced , but as with the recording details for the sessions , the exact line @-@ up of musicians is a matter of conjecture . According to Simon Leng , who consulted Klaus Voormann and Jim Horn for his book While My Guitar Gently Weeps , the line @-@ up comprised Harrison , Leon Russell ( piano ) , Horn ( saxophones ) , Voormann ( bass ) , Starr , Jim Keltner ( both on drums ) and Billy Preston ( organ ) . Leng and Beatles author Bruce Spizer credit a " horn section " led by Jim Horn , which could include regular partner Chuck Findley and even the rest of the six @-@ piece section , christened " the Hollywood Horns " , that would go on to perform in New York on 1 August .
The recording begins with Harrison 's emotive introduction backed by what Lavezzoli describes as a " rolling piano figure " from Russell . Following the words " help us save some lives " , the piano sets up the song 's " driving groove " , Lavezzoli continues , as the rhythm section and Harrison 's electric guitar join in , creating the same musical blend of gospel and rock that Harrison had adopted on much of All Things Must Pass . In a review for the NME in August 1971 , Derek Johnson wrote of " Bangla Desh " : " Opens almost like a sermon , then the beat come is ... as George wails fervently to a backing of a solid rhythm section and handclaps . " The track retains an " urgent ' live ' mood " , Leng notes , although it is possible that Starr 's contribution was overdubbed after the main session , due to his filming schedule for the Western movie Blindman ( 1971 ) , in Spain . The song features solos shared between Russell , Horn ( on tenor sax ) and Harrison ( slide guitar ) , and fades out with the ensemble playing in double time , similar to a fast gat section ( or drut ) used in Hindustani classical music .
" Bangla Desh " marked the first occasion that Harrison worked with Horn , who would go on to become a regular collaborator . Already a veteran of the LA music scene by 1971 , Horn recalls his " jaded " mindset before meeting Harrison , but describes the session as a " real turning point " in his career , " because we were doing something for a cause " . It was also the first time that Keltner played on a George Harrison session , the two musicians having already worked together on Lennon 's Imagine album ( 1971 ) . The " Bangla Desh " session was the beginning of a lifelong friendship , with the pair remaining " as brothers " , Keltner has said , until Harrison 's death in 2001 . Together with Clapton , Preston , Bob Dylan and the group Badfinger , all these musicians joined Harrison and Shankar on stage at Madison Square Garden .
Ravi Shankar cut a benefit disc of his own at this time , the Harrison @-@ produced Joi Bangla EP . The A @-@ side featured two vocal compositions sung in Bengali – the title track ( which translated to mean " Victory to Bangladesh " ) and " Oh Bhaugowan " – while on the reverse was a six @-@ minute recital of " Raga Mishra Jhinjoti " , featuring Shankar , sarod master Ali Akbar Khan , and Shankar 's regular tabla player , Alla Rakha .
= = Release = =
At Harrison 's urging , Capitol Records , Apple 's distributor in the United States , set all four of its manufacturing plants to producing copies of the " Bangla Desh " single ; one @-@ sided , white label promo discs were also rushed through to ensure immediate radio play for the song . For the US picture sleeve , designer Tom Wilkes chose a suitably topical image , incorporating headlines and text from New York Times articles about the Bangladesh crisis . The articles made mention of vultures being the " happiest creatures " amid the chaos in Dacca , and India 's " wait and see " policy regarding events in East Pakistan . The front of the picture sleeve was topped with the line " ( We 've Got to Relieve ) " before the words " Bangla Desh " , leading a number of publications to include the parenthetical text as part of the official song title . Boxed off at the foot of the front sleeve were details of the George Harrison – Ravi Shankar Special Emergency Relief Fund ( care of UNICEF 's New York headquarters ) , to which proceeds of the single would go and further donations were encouraged . The back cover of the US sleeve was taken from a UPI news agency photograph – an " emotional " image showing a mother comforting her starving child . This photo was also used in the aid project 's magazine advertising campaign , as well as for the front of the single 's picture sleeve in Denmark and Japan .
Backed with the well @-@ regarded " Deep Blue " , the " Bangla Desh " single was issued on 28 July 1971 in the United States ( as Apple 1836 ) , with a UK release following two days later ( R 5912 ) . It peaked at number 10 on Britain 's national singles chart and number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 in America ; the other US chart compilers , Cash Box and Record World , placed the single at number 20 and number 13 , respectively . " Bangla Desh " attracted sustained airplay in the days leading up to the concerts , and lent the relief project an authentic social and political significance . A Bangladeshi academic , Professor Farida Majid , would later write : " To the utter consternation of [ US President ] Nixon and [ Secretary of State ] Kissinger , George Harrison 's ' Bangla Desh ' hit the chart . It was a thrilling moment in the midst of all the sad news emanating from the battlefront . Even the Western journalists covering the civil war in East Pakistan were not yet using the word ' Bangladesh ' . " The studio recording was also played at the Concert for Bangladesh shows , following Shankar 's opening set , over footage of the refugees and scenes from the war .
= = = Reissue = = =
Despite the song having been a hit – and its status as the first @-@ ever pop charity single , fourteen years before Band Aid and USA for Africa – " Bangla Desh " was mostly ignored by record @-@ company repackagers following 1971 . Over a period of 43 years , the studio version received an album release only on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison , which was issued on CD in 1987 . The song has since been included as a bonus track , remixed by Paul Hicks , on the 2014 reissue of Harrison 's Living in the Material World album , part of the eight @-@ disc Apple Years 1968 – 75 box set .
= = Reception and legacy = =
On release , Billboard magazine described " Bangla Desh " as " a musical appeal to help our fellow @-@ man " that " should find immediate and heavy chart action " . In his contemporary review for the NME , Derek Johnson considered the song to be " [ n ] ot so strong melodically as ' My Sweet Lord ' , but still nagging and insistent " , and added : " one can immediately detect the despair and pity in [ Harrison 's ] voice as he sings of the appalling plight of the East Pakistanis ... his lyric is bound to cause some heart @-@ searching . " A wave of public goodwill accompanied the single 's release in 1971 , as was the case with the two benefit concerts , the subsequent live album , and the 1972 concert film . Simon Leng has identified genuine friendship as being key to the success of Harrison and Shankar 's relief project : the friendship between the two of them that saw the ex @-@ Beatle become involved , and the friendships Harrison had cultivated with Dylan , Clapton and Starr that ensured their participation . Leng notes that the opening lyrics to " Bangla Desh " ( " My friend came to me ... " ) could equally have applied to Harrison 's efforts to enlist the reluctant Dylan and heroin @-@ sidelined Clapton .
In his concert review for The Village Voice , Don Heckman described " Bangla Desh " as " a song which expresses far better than words what kind of man Harrison is " . Heckman went on to compare Harrison 's philanthropy with the activities of two of his former bandmates , saying : " I have no quarrel with John Lennon 's endless clattering around inside his psyche , or Paul McCartney 's search for sweetness and light , but at the moment I have to have stronger feelings about George Harrison 's active efforts to do something about the misery in the world around him . How surprising that the most introspective of the Beatles should be the one who , in the long run , takes the most effective actions . "
Away from its context as a song designed purely to bring attention to the Bengalis ' cause , as Harrison himself described it , " Bangla Desh " has often been viewed by commentators as a rushed and underwhelming composition . Robert Rodriguez qualifies this opinion , however : " As a single , the song was possibly not the most commercial of records , but as a call to service , it could scarcely have been improved upon . " " Bangla Desh " ' s standing as rock music 's first charity single is not overlooked , with Ian Inglis stating : " ' Bangla Desh ' serves as a model for the charity singles that would become commonplace in the decades ahead , although , in this instance , the power of Harrison 's song lies not in its assembly of famous performers but in its literal and absolute commitment . " On this point , Leng deems the song as having " as much raw energy as anything [ Lennon 's ] Plastic Ono Band ever offered " . In The Dawn of Indian Music in the West , Peter Lavezzoli writes : " Harrison 's lyric and vocal were concise and powerful , a direct call for action in a specific crisis . As such , ' Bangla Desh ' remains one of the most cogent social statements in music history . "
In his interview for the 2005 reissue of Saul Swimmer 's Concert for Bangladesh film , UN Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan acknowledged Harrison and Shankar as " pioneers " in their efforts for the people of Bangladesh , and credited the song 's opening verse for personalising the crisis by showing " the man behind the music " . Thirty @-@ three years before this , on 5 June 1972 , UNICEF officially recognised Harrison and Shankar with its annual Child Is the Father of the Man award .
In 2004 , " Bangla Desh " was played during the final episode of the BBC television series Himalaya with Michael Palin , in which Palin travels south from Bhutan to Bay of Bengal and reflects on Bangladesh 's struggle for independence . Writing for Blender magazine in April that year , Paul Du Noyer described the song as a " fine 1971 single " . In the 2005 " Beatles Solo " edition of NME Originals , Adrian Thrills rated " Bangla Desh " second among Harrison 's " ten solo gems " ( behind " What Is Life " ) , referring to it as a " jazz @-@ blues @-@ rock shuffle " that " set the template for Band Aid " . Writing in The Cambridge Companion to the Beatles in 2009 , Michael Frontani said that with his Bangladesh relief effort , Harrison " pioneered the whole idea of the charity album and single , as well as of the rock concert fundraiser " . While bemoaning the song 's omission from the 2009 Harrison compilation Let It Roll , Jon Cummings of popdose.com described " Bangla Desh " as " no great artistic achievement " within itself , but " a key moment ... in the evolution of pop @-@ music activism " .
The song is featured in Bruce Pollock 's 2005 book The 7 @,@ 500 Most Important Songs of 1944 – 2000 . In 2010 , AOL Radio listeners placed " Bangla Desh " at number 10 in a poll to decide the ten best post @-@ Beatles Harrison songs .
= = Live version = =
Harrison played " Bangla Desh " as an encore at both of the Madison Square Garden shows on 1 August 1971 , with the evening performance being selected for inclusion on the Concert for Bangladesh triple live album . After the familiar introduction to the song , the band " threw their full weight behind Harrison " , Lavezzoli writes , " playing the darkest and heaviest music of the show " . On release that December , Jon Landau of Rolling Stone identified the song as " the concert 's single greatest performance by all concerned " , and added that by the close of the show , the lyrics to Harrison 's single were " no longer an expression of intent but of an accomplished mission – help has been given , people have been reached , an effort has been made and results will be felt " .
In his album review for Melody Maker , Richard Williams wrote that the live version of " Bangla Desh " " roars and rages to a stunning close " . Played at a faster tempo than the studio recording , it features what Spizer terms a " blistering " saxophone solo from Horn , and a vocal by Harrison that Leng describes as " astonishingly powerful " and " a pure act of zeal " . As shown in the concert film , following his brief guitar solo towards the end of the song , Harrison repeats the line " Relieve the people of Bangla Desh " before exiting the stage to great applause , as the band plays on without him . In his book on the Beatles ' first decade as solo artists , Rodriguez views this live performance as perhaps Harrison 's " high water mark of public esteem " .
Although he was reportedly eager to repeat the experience of these New York shows , Harrison never played " Bangla Desh " in concert after 1971 and he did not perform live again until his 1974 North American tour with Shankar . By that point , the Bangladesh Liberation War had long ended , with India 's defeat of the Pakistani army in December 1971 , but Bangladesh was now experiencing a devastating famine that would account for up to 1 @.@ 5 million lives . During a concert in Los Angeles on 11 November , Harrison responded to requests for the song " Bangla Desh " with a suggestion that the audience instead chant " Krishna , Krishna , Krishna " and use the positive power of mantra to help the Bangladeshi population .
= = Cover versions = =
Harrison biographer Alan Clayson has written of the " triumph " of the Bangladesh concerts leading to a host of imitators and tribute acts replicating the shows ' programme , among which was a French band 's cover version of " Bangla Desh " . Another example was the Tribe 's Bangla Desh ( 1972 ) , a full album of highlights from the concerts , including Harrison 's " Bangla Desh " , " My Sweet Lord " and " Here Comes the Sun " . The previous year , Stu Phillips & the Hollyridge Strings released an easy listening version of " Bangla Desh " on their Beatles tribute album The George , John , Paul & Ringo Songbook ( 1971 ) . Another 1971 cover version , re @-@ released in 2002 on the compilation When They Was Fab – A Tribute to the Solo Beatles , was recorded by the Top of the Poppers .
Following Jim Horn 's prominent contribution to the original Harrison recording , Italian saxophonist Fausto Papetti recorded the song for his 1972 album 14a Raccolta . Alternative band B.A.L.L. covered " Bangla Desh " on their 1988 album Bird , as part of their parody of early 1970s rock stars such as the former Beatles .
= = Personnel = =
The following musicians are believed to have played on the studio recording of " Bangla Desh " .
George Harrison – vocals , electric guitar , slide guitar , backing vocals
Leon Russell – piano
Jim Horn – tenor sax , baritone sax , horn arrangement
Billy Preston – organ
Klaus Voorman – bass
Ringo Starr – drums , handclaps *
Jim Keltner – drums
Chuck Findley – trumpet *
* denotes unconfirmed credits .
= = Chart performance = =
= Anna Akhmatova =
Anna Andreyevna Gorenko ( 23 June [ O.S. 11 June ] 1889 – 5 March 1966 ) , better known by the pen name Anna Akhmatova ( / ɑːkˈmɑːtɔːvə / ; Russian : Анна Ахматова , IPA : [ ɐxˈmatəvə ] ) , was a Russian modernist poet , one of the most acclaimed writers in the Russian canon .
Akhmatova 's work ranges from short lyric poems to intricately structured cycles , such as Requiem ( 1935 – 40 ) , her tragic masterpiece about the Stalinist terror . Her style , characterised by its economy and emotional restraint , was strikingly original and distinctive to her contemporaries . The strong and clear leading female voice struck a new chord in Russian poetry . Her writing can be said to fall into two periods – the early work ( 1912 – 25 ) and her later work ( from around 1936 until her death ) , divided by a decade of reduced literary output . Her work was condemned and censored by Stalinist authorities and she is notable for choosing not to emigrate , and remaining in Russia , acting as witness to the events around her . Her perennial themes include meditations on time and memory , and the difficulties of living and writing in the shadow of Stalinism .
Primary sources of information about Akhmatova 's life are relatively scant , as war , revolution and the totalitarian regime caused much of the written record to be destroyed . For long periods she was in official disfavour and many of those who were close to her died in the aftermath of the revolution . Akhmatova 's first husband , Nikolai Gumilev was executed by the Soviet secret police , and her son Lev Gumilev and her common @-@ law husband Nikolay Punin spent many years in the Gulag , where Punin died .
= = Early life and family = =
Akhmatova was born at Bolshoy Fontan , near the Black Sea port of Odessa . Her father , Andrey Antonovich Gorenko , a naval engineer , and her mother , Inna Erazmovna Stogova , were both descended from the Russian nobility . She wrote :
No one in my large family wrote poetry . But the first Russian woman poet , Anna Bunina , was the aunt of my grandfather Erasm Ivanovich Stogov . The Stogovs were modest landowners in the Mozhaisk region of the Moscow Province . They were moved here after the insurrection during the time of Posadnitsa Marfa . In Novgorod they had been a wealthier and more distinguished family . Khan Akhmat , my ancestor , was killed one night in his tent by a Russian killer @-@ for @-@ hire . Karamzin tells us that this marked the end of the Mongol yoke on Russia . [ ... ] It was well known that this Akhmat was a descendant of Genghiz Khan . In the eighteenth century , one of the Akhmatov Princesses – Praskovia Yegorvna – married the rich and famous Simbirsk landowner Motovilov . Yegor Motovilov was my great @-@ grandfather ; his daughter , Anna Yegorovna , was my grandmother . She died when my mother was nine years old , and I was named in her honour . Several diamond rings and one emerald were made from her brooch . Though my fingers are thin , still her thimble didn 't fit me .
Her family moved north to Tsarskoye Selo , near St. Petersburg when she was eleven months old . The family lived in a house on the corner of Shirokaya Street and Bezymyanny Lane ; ( the building is no longer there today ) , spending summers from age 7 to 13 in a dacha near Sevastopol . She studied at the Mariinskaya High School , moving to Kiev ( 1906 – 10 ) and finished her schooling there , after her parents separated in 1905 . She went on to study law at Kiev University , leaving a year later to study literature in St Petersburg .
Akhmatova started writing poetry at the age of 11 , and was published in her late teens , inspired by the poets Nikolay Nekrasov , Jean Racine , Alexander Pushkin , Evgeny Baratynsky and the Symbolists ; however , none of her juvenilia survives . Her sister Inna also wrote poetry though she did not pursue the practice and married shortly after high school . Akhmatova 's father did not want to see any verses printed under his " respectable " name , so she chose to adopt her grandmother 's distinctly Tatar surname ' Akhmatova ' as a pen name .
She met a young poet , Nikolay Gumilev , on Christmas Eve in 1903 . Gumilev , encouraged her to write and pursued her intensely , making numerous marriage proposals starting in 1905 . At 17 years old , in his journal Sirius , she published her first poem which could be translated as " On his hand you may see many glittering rings " , ( 1907 ) signing it " Anna G. " She soon became known in St Petersburg 's artistic circles , regularly giving public readings . That year , she wrote unenthusiastically to a friend , “ He has loved me for three years now , and I believe that it is my fate to be his wife . Whether or not I love him , I do not know , but it seems to me that I do . ” She married Gumilev in Kiev in April 1910 ; however , none of Akhmatova ’ s family attended the wedding . The couple honeymooned in Paris , and there she met and befriended the Italian artist Amedeo Modigliani .
In late 1910 , she came together with poets such as Osip Mandelstam and Sergey Gorodetsky to form the Guild of Poets . It promoted the idea of craft as the key to poetry rather than inspiration or mystery , taking themes of the concrete rather than the more ephemeral world of the Symbolists . Over time , they developed the influential Acmeist anti @-@ symbolist school , concurrent with the growth of Imagism in Europe and America . From the first year of their marriage , Gumilev began to chafe against its constraints . She wrote that he had " lost his passion " for her and by the end of that year he left on a six @-@ month trip to Africa .
She had " her first taste of fame " , becoming renowned , not so much for her beauty , as her intense magnetism and allure , attracting the fascinated attention of a great many men , including the great and the good . She returned to visit Modigliani in Paris , where he created at least 20 paintings of her , including several nudes .
She later began an affair with the celebrated Acmeist poet Osip Mandelstam , whose wife , Nadezhda , declared later , in her autobiography that she came to forgive Akhmatova for it in time . Akhmatova 's son , Lev , was born in 1912 , and would become a renowned Neo @-@ Eurasianist historian .
= = Silver Age = =
In 1912 , the Guild of Poets published her book of verse Evening ( Vecher ) – the first of five in nine years . The small edition of 500 copies quickly sold out and she received around a dozen positive notices in the literary press . She exercised a strong selectivity for the pieces – including only 35 of the 200 poems she had written by the end of 1911 . ( She noted that Song of the Last Meeting , dated 29 September 1911 , was her 200th poem ) . The book secured her reputation as a new and striking young writer , the poems Grey @-@ eyed king , In the Forest , Over the Water and I don ’ t need my legs anymore making her famous . She later wrote " These naïve poems by a frivolous girl for some reason were reprinted thirteen times [ ... ] And they came out in several translations . The girl herself ( as far as I recall ) did not foresee such a fate for them and used to hide the issues of the journals in which they were first published under the sofa cushions " .
Her second collection , The Rosary ( or Beads – Chetki ) appeared in March 1914 and firmly established her as one of the most popular and sought after poets of the day . Thousands of women composed poems " in honour of Akhmatova " , mimicking her style and prompting Akhmatova to exclaim : " I taught our women how to speak , but don 't know how to make them silent " . Her aristocratic manners and artistic integrity won her the titles " Queen of the Neva " and " Soul of the Silver Age , " as the period came to be known in the history of Russian poetry . In Poem Without a Hero , the longest and one of the best known of her works , written many decades later , she would recall this as a blessed time of her life . She became close friends with Boris Pasternak ( who , though married , proposed to her many times ) and rumours began to circulate that she was having an affair with influential lyrical poet Alexander Blok . In July 1914 , Akhmatova wrote “ Frightening times are approaching / Soon fresh graves will cover the land " ; on August 1 , Germany declared war on Russia , marking the start of " the dark storm " of world war , civil war , revolution and totalitarian repression for Russia . The Silver Age came to a close .
Akhmatova had a relationship with the mosaic artist and poet Boris Anrep ; many of her poems in the period are about him and he in turn created mosaics in which she is featured . She selected poems for her third collection , Belaya Staya ( White Flock ) , in 1917 , a volume which poet and critic Joseph Brodsky later described as writing of personal lyricism tinged with the “ note of controlled terror ” . She later came to be memorialised by his description of her as " the keening muse " . Essayist John Bayley describes her writing at this time as " grim , spare and laconic " .
In February 1917 , the revolution started in Petersburg ( then named Petrograd ) ; soldiers fired on marching protestors , and others mutinied . They looked to a past in which the future was " rotting " . In a city without electricity or sewage service , with little water or food , they faced starvation and sickness . Her friends died around her and others left in droves for safer havens in Europe and America , including Anrep , who escaped to England . She had the option to leave , and considered it for a time , but chose to stay and was proud of her decision to remain . :
She wrote of her own temptation to leave :
At the height of Akhmatova 's fame , in 1918 , she divorced her husband and that same year , though many of her friends considered it a mistake , Akhmatova married prominent Assyriologist and poet Vladimir Shilejko . She later said “ I felt so filthy . I thought it would be like a cleansing , like going to a convent , knowing you are going to lose your freedom . ” She began affairs with theatre director Mikhail Zimmerman and composer Arthur Lourié , who set many of her poems to music .
= = 1920s and 1930s = =
In 1921 , Akhmatova 's former husband Nikolay Gumilev was prosecuted for his alleged role in a monarchist anti @-@ Bolshevik conspiracy and on 25 August was shot along with 61 others . According to the historian Rayfield , the murder of Gumilev was part of the state response to the Kronstadt Rebellion . The Cheka ( secret police ) blamed the rebellion on Petrograd 's intellectuals , prompting the senior Cheka officer Yakov Agranov to forcibly extract the names of ' conspirators ' , from an imprisoned professor , guaranteeing them amnesty from execution . Agranov 's guarantee proved to be meaningless . He sentenced dozens of the named persons to death , including Gumilev . Maxim Gorky and others appealed for leniency , but by the time Lenin agreed to several pardons , the condemned had been shot . Within a few days of his death , Akhmatova wrote :
The murders had a powerful effect on the Russian intelligentsia , destroying the Acmeist poetry group , and placing a stigma on Akhmatova and her son Lev ( by Gumilev ) . Lev 's later arrest during the purges and terrors of the 1930s was based on being his father 's son . From a new Marxist perspective , Akhmatova 's poetry was deemed to represent an introspective " bourgeois aesthetic " , reflecting only trivial " female " preoccupations , not in keeping with these new revolutionary politics of the time . She was roundly attacked by the state , by former supporters and friends , and seen to be an anachronism . During what she termed " The Vegetarian Years " , Akhmatova 's work was unofficially banned by a party resolution of 1925 and she found it hard to publish , though she didn 't stop writing poetry . She made acclaimed translations of works by Victor Hugo , Rabindranath Tagore , Giacomo Leopardi and pursued academic work on Pushkin and Dostoyevsky . She worked as a critic and essayist , though many USSR and foreign critics and readers concluded she had died .
She had little food and almost no money ; her son was denied access to study at academic institutions by dint of his parents ' alleged anti @-@ state activities . The impact of the nationwide repression and purges had a decimating effect on her St Petersburg circle of friends , artists and intellectuals . Her close friend and fellow poet Mandelstam was deported and then sentenced to a Gulag labour camp , where he would die . Akhmatova narrowly escaped arrest , though her son Lev was imprisoned on numerous occasions by the Stalinist regime , accused of counter @-@ revolutionary activity . She would often queue for hours to deliver him food packages and plead on his behalf . She describes standing outside a stone prison :
One day somebody in the crowd identified me . Standing behind me was a woman , with lips blue from cold , who had , of course , never heard me called by name before . Now she started out of the torpor common to us all and asked me in a whisper ( everyone whispered there ) : ' Can you describe this ? '
And I said : ' I can.'
Then something like a smile passed fleetingly over what had once been her face .
Akhmatova wrote that by 1935 every time she went to see someone off at the train station as they went into exile , she 'd find herself greeting friends at every step as so many of St Petersburg 's intellectual and cultural figures would be leaving on the same train . In her poetry circles Mayakovsky and Esenin committed suicide and Marina Tsvetaeva would follow them in 1941 , after returning from exile .
Akhmatova was a common @-@ law wife to Nikolai Punin , an art scholar and lifelong friend , whom she stayed with until 1935 . He also was repeatedly taken into custody , dying in the Gulag in 1953 . Her tragic cycle Requiem documents her personal experience of this time ; as she writes , " one hundred million voices shout " through her " tortured mouth " .
= = 1939 – 1960 = =
In 1939 , Stalin approved the publication of one volume of poetry , From Six Books ; however , the collection was withdrawn and pulped after only a few months . In 1993 , it was revealed that the authorities had bugged her flat and kept her under constant surveillance , keeping detailed files on her from this time , accruing some 900 pages of " denunciations , reports of phone taps , quotations from writings , confessions of those close to her " . Although officially stifled , Akhmatova 's work continued to circulate in secret . Akhmatova 's close friend , chronicler Lydia Chukovskaya described how writers working to keep poetic messages alive used various strategies . A small trusted circle would , for example , memorise each other 's works and circulate them only by oral means . She tells how Akhmatova would write out her poem for a visitor on a scrap of paper to be read in a moment , then burnt in her stove . The poems were carefully disseminated in this way , however it is likely that many complied in this manner were lost . " It was like a ritual , " Chukovskaya wrote . " Hands , matches , an ashtray . A ritual beautiful and bitter . "
During World War II , Akhmatova witnessed the 900 day Siege of Leningrad ( now St Petersburg ) . In 1940 , Akhmatova started her Poem without a Hero , finishing a first draft in Tashkent , but working on " The Poem " for twenty years and considering it to be the major work of her life , dedicating it to " the memory of its first audience – my friends and fellow citizens who perished in Leningrad during the siege " . She was evacuated to Chistopol in spring of 1942 and then to greener , safer Tashkent in Uzbekistan , along with other artists , such as Shostakovitch . During her time away she became seriously ill with typhus ( she had suffered from severe bronchitis and tuberculosis as a young woman ) . On returning to Leningrad in May 1944 , she writes of how disturbed she was to find " a terrible ghost that pretended to be my city " .
She regularly read to soldiers in the military hospitals and on the front line ; her later pieces seem to be the voice of those who had struggled and the many she has outlived . She moved away from romantic themes towards a more diverse , complex and philosophical body of work and some of her more patriotic poems found their way to the front pages of Pravda . She was condemned for a visit by the liberal , western , Jewish philosopher Isaiah Berlin in 1945 , and Official Andrei Zhdanov publicly labelled her " half harlot , half nun " , her work " the poetry of an overwrought , upper @-@ class lady " , her work the product of " eroticism , mysticism , and political indifference " . He banned her poems from publication in the journals Zvezda and Leningrad , accusing her of poisoning the minds of Soviet youth . Her surveillance was increased and she was expelled from the Union of Soviet Writers .
Berlin described his visit to her flat : It was very barely furnished — virtually everything in it had , I gathered , been taken away — looted or sold — during the siege .... A stately , grey @-@ haired lady , a white shawl draped about her shoulders , slowly rose to greet us . Anna Akhmatova was immensely dignified , with unhurried gestures , a noble head , beautiful , somewhat severe features , and an expression of immense sadness .
Akhmatova 's son Lev was arrested again at the end of 1949 and sentenced to 10 years in a Siberian prison camp . She spent much of the next years trying to ensure his release , to this end , and for the first time , she published overtly propagandist poetry , “ In Praise of Peace , ” in the magazine Ogoniok , openly supporting Stalin and his regime . Lev remained in the camps until 1956 , well after Stalin 's death , his final release potentially aided by his mother 's concerted efforts . Bayley suggests that her period of pro @-@ Stalinist work may also have saved her own life ; notably however , Akhmatova never acknowledged these pieces in her official corpus . Akhmatova 's stature among Soviet poets was slowly conceded by party officials , her name no longer cited in only scathing contexts and she was readmitted to Union of Writers in 1951 , being fully recognised again following Stalin 's death in 1953 . With the press still heavily controlled and censored under Nikita Khrushchev , a translation by Akhmatova was praised in a public review in 1955 , and her own poems began to re @-@ appear in 1956 . That same year Lev was released from the camps , embittered , believing that his mother cared more about her poetry than for him and that she had not worked hard for his release . Akhmatova 's status was confirmed by 1958 , with the publication of Stikhotvoreniya ( Poems ) and then Stikhotvoreniya 1909 – 1960 ( Poems : 1909 – 1960 ) in 1961 . Beg vremeni ( The flight of time ) , collected works 1909 – 1965 , published 1965 , was the most complete volume of her works in her lifetime , though the long damning poem Requiem , condemning the Stalinist purges , was conspicuously absent . Isaiah Berlin predicted at the time that it could never be published in the Soviet Union .
= = Last years = =
During the last years of her life she continued to live with the Punin family in Leningrad , still translating , researching Pushkin and writing her own poetry . Though still censored , she was concerned to re @-@ construct work that had been destroyed or suppressed during the purges or which had posed a threat to the life of her son in the camps , such as the lost , semi @-@ autobiographical play Enûma Elish . She worked on her official memoirs , planned novels and worked on her epic Poem without a hero , 20 years in the writing .
Akhmatova was widely honoured in the USSR and the West . In 1962 she was visited by Robert Frost ; Isaiah Berlin tried to visit her again , but she refused him , worried that her son might be re @-@ arrested due to family association with the ideologically suspect western philosopher . She inspired and advised a large circle of key young Soviet writers . Her dacha in Komarovo was frequented by such poets as Yevgeny Rein and Joseph Brodsky , whom she mentored . Brodsky , arrested in 1963 and interned for social parasitism , would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature ( 1987 ) and become Poet Laureate ( 1991 ) as an exile in the U.S.
As one of the last remaining major poets of the Silver Age , she was newly acclaimed by the Soviet authorities as a fine and loyal representative of their country and permitted to travel . At the same time , by virtue of works such as Requiem , Akhmatova was being hailed at home and abroad as an unofficial leader of the dissident movement , and reinforcing this image herself . She was becoming representative of both the Soviet Union and Tsarist Russia , more popular in the 1960s than she had ever been before the revolution , this reputation only continuing to grow after her death . For her 75th birthday in 1964 , new collections of her verse were published .
Akhmatova was able to meet some of her pre @-@ revolutionary acquaintances in 1965 , when she was allowed to travel to Sicily and England , in order to receive the Taormina prize and an honorary doctoral degree from Oxford University , accompanied by her lifelong friend and secretary Lydia Chukovskaya . Akhmatova 's Requiem in Russian finally appeared in book form in Munich in 1963 , the whole work not published within USSR until 1987 . Her long poem The Way of All the Earth or Woman of Kitezh ( Kitezhanka ) was published in complete form in 1965 .
In November 1965 , soon after her Oxford visit , Akhmatova suffered a heart attack and was hospitalised . She was moved to a sanatorium in Moscow in the spring of 1966 and died of heart failure on March 5 , at the age of 76 . Thousands attended the two memorial ceremonies which were held in Moscow and in Leningrad . After being displayed in an open coffin , she was interred at Komarovo Cemetery in St Petersburg .
Isaiah Berlin described the impact of her life , as he saw it :
The widespread worship of her memory in Soviet Union today , both as an artist and as an unsurrendering human being , has , so far as I know , no parallel . The legend of her life and unyielding passive resistance to what she regarded as unworthy of her country and herself , transformed her into a figure [ ... ] not merely in Russian literature , but in Russian history in [ the Twentieth ] century .
In 1988 , to celebrate what would have been Akhmatova 's 100th birthday , the University of Harvard held an international conference on her life and work . Today her work may be explored at the Anna Akhmatova Literary and Memorial Museum in St. Petersburg .
= = Work and themes = =
Akhmatova joined the Acmeist group of poets in 1910 with poets such as Osip Mandelstam and Sergey Gorodetsky , working in response to the Symbolist school , concurrent with the growth of Imagism in Europe and America . It promoted the use of craft and rigorous poetic form over mysticism or spiritual in @-@ roads to composition , favouring the concrete over the ephemeral . Akhmatova modeled its principles of writing with clarity , simplicity , and disciplined form . Her first collections Evening ( 1912 ) and Rosary ( 1914 ) received wide critical acclaim and made her famous from the start of her career . They contained brief , psychologically taut pieces , acclaimed for their classical diction , telling details , and the skilful use of colour . Evening and her next four books were mostly lyric miniatures on the theme of love , shot through with sadness .
Her early poems usually picture a man and a woman involved in the most poignant , ambiguous moment of their relationship , much imitated and later parodied by Nabokov and others . Critic Roberta Reeder notes that the early poems always attracted large numbers of admirers : " For Akhmatova was able to capture and convey the vast range of evolving emotions experienced in a love affair , from the first thrill of meeting , to a deepening love contending with hatred , and eventually to violent destructive passion or total indifference . But [ ... ] her poetry marks a radical break with the erudite , ornate style and the mystical representation of love so typical of poets like Alexander Blok and Andrey Bely . Her lyrics are composed of short fragments of simple speech that do not form a logical coherent pattern . Instead , they reflect the way we actually think , the links between the images are emotional , and simple everyday objects are charged with psychological associations . Like Alexander Pushkin , who was her model in many ways , Akhmatova was intent on conveying worlds of meaning through precise details . "
Akhmatova often complained that the critics " walled her in " to their perception of her work in the early years of romantic passion , despite major changes of theme in the later years of The Terror . This was mainly due to the secret nature of her work after the public and critical effusion over her first volumes . The risks during the purges were very great . Many of her close friends and family were exiled , imprisoned or shot ; her son was under constant threat of arrest , she was often under close surveillance . Following artistic repression and public condemnation by the state in the 1920s , many within literary and public circles , at home and abroad , thought she had died . Her readership generally did not know her later opus , the railing passion of Requiem or Poem without a Hero and her other scathing works , which were shared only with a very trusted few or circulated in secret by word of mouth ( samizdat ) .
Between 1935 and 1940 Akhmatova composed , worked and reworked the long poem Requiem in secret , a lyrical cycle of lamentation and witness , depicting the suffering of the common people under Soviet terror . She carried it with her as she worked and lived in towns and cities across the Soviet Union . It was conspicuously absent from her collected works , given its explicit condemnation of the purges . The work in Russian finally appeared in book form in Munich in 1963 , the whole work not published within USSR until 1987 . It consists of ten numbered poems that examine a series of emotional states , exploring suffering , despair , devotion , rather than a clear narrative . Biblical themes such as Christ 's crucifixion and the devastation of Mary , Mother of Jesus and Mary Magdelene , reflect the ravaging of Russia , particularly witnessing the harrowing of women in the 1930s . It represented , to some degree , a rejection of her own earlier romantic work as she took on the public role as chronicler of the Terror . This is a role she holds to this day .
Her essays on Pushkin and Poem Without a Hero , her longest work , were only published after her death . This long poem , composed between 1940 and 1965 , is often critically regarded as her best work and also one of the finest poems of the twentieth century . It gives a deep and detailed analysis of her epoch and her approach to it , including her important encounter with Isaiah Berlin ( 1909 – 97 ) in 1945 . Her talent in composition and translation is evidenced in her fine translations of the works of poets writing in French , English , Italian , Armenian , and Korean .
= = = Cultural influence = = =
Translations of some of her poems by Babette Deutsch and Lyn Coffin are set to music on the album The Trackless Woods by Iris DeMent .
= = Honours = =
1964 Etna @-@ Taormina prize
1965 honorary doctorate from Oxford University in 1965 .
= = Selected poetry collections = =
= = = Published by Akhmatova = = =
1912 Vecher / Вечер ( Evening ) .
1914 Chetki ( Rosary or literally Beads )
1917 Belaya Staya ( White flock )
1921 Podorozhnik ( Wayside grass / Plantain ) . 60 pages , 1000 copies published .
1921 Anno Domini MCMXXI
Reed – 2 Volume Selected Poems ( 1924 – 1926 ) was compiled but never published .
Uneven – compiled but never published .
1940 From Six Books ( Publication suspended shortly after release , copies pulped ) .
1943 Izbrannoe Stikhi ( Selections of poetry ) Tashkent , government edited .
Iva not separately published
Sed 'maya kniga ( Seventh book ) – not separately published ;
1958 Stikhotvoreniya ( Poems ) ( 25 @,@ 000 copies )
1961 Stikhotvoreniya 1909 – 1960 ( Poems : 1909 – 1960 )
1965 Beg vremeni ( The flight of time Collected works 1909 – 1965 )
= = = Later editions = = =
1967 Poems of Akhmatova . Ed. and Trans . Stanley Kunitz , Boston
1976 Anna Akhmatova Selected Poems . D.M. Thomas Penguin Books
1985 Twenty Poems of Anna Akhmatova ( trans Jane Kenyon ) ; Eighties Press and Ally Press ; ISBN 0 @-@ 915408 @-@ 30 @-@ 9
1988 Selected Poems Trans . Richard McKane ; Bloodaxe Books Ltd ; ISBN 1 @-@ 85224 @-@ 063 @-@ 6
2000 The Complete Poems of Anna Akhmatova ( trans . Judith Hemschemeyer ; ed . Roberta Reeder ) ; Zephyr Press ; ISBN 0 @-@ 939010 @-@ 27 @-@ 5
2004 The Word That Causes Death 's Defeat : Poems of Memory ( Annals of Communism ) ( trans . Nancy Anderson ) . Yale University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 10377 @-@ 8
2006 Selected Poems ( trans D. M. Thomas ) ; Penguin Classics ; ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 042464 @-@ 4
2009 Selected Poems ( trans . Walter Arndt ) ; Overlook TP ; ISBN 0 @-@ 88233 @-@ 180 @-@ 9
= Isaac =
Isaac ( / ˈaɪzək / ; Hebrew : יִצְחָק , Modern Yitshak , Tiberian Yiṣḥāq , ISO 259 @-@ 3 Yiçḥaq , " [ he ] will laugh " ; Ancient Greek : Ἰσαάκ Isaak Arabic : إسحاق or إسحٰق ʼIsḥāq ) as described in the Hebrew Bible and the Qur 'an , was the second son of Abraham , the only son Abraham had with his wife Sarah , and the father of Jacob and Esau . According to the Book of Genesis , Abraham was 100 years old when Isaac was born , and Sarah was past 90 .
According to Genesis , Abraham brought Isaac to Mount Moriah , where , at God 's command , Abraham built a sacrificial altar to sacrifice Isaac . This event served as a test of Abraham 's faith . At the last moment , Abraham was stopped by the angel of the Lord .
Isaac was one of the three patriarchs of the Israelites . Isaac was the only biblical patriarch whose name was not changed , and the only one who did not move out of Canaan . Compared to Abraham and Jacob , the Bible relates fewer incidents of Isaac 's life . He died when he was 180 years old , making him the longest @-@ lived of the three .
= = Etymology = =
The anglicized name Isaac is a transliteration of the Hebrew term Yiṣḥāq which literally means " He laughs / will laugh . " Ugaritic texts dating from the 13th century BCE refer to the benevolent smile of the Canaanite deity El . Genesis , however , ascribes the laughter to Isaac 's parents , Abraham and Sarah , rather than El . According to the biblical narrative , Abraham fell on his face and laughed when Elohim imparted the news of their son 's eventual birth . He laughed because Sarah was past the age of childbearing ; both she and Abraham were advanced in age . Later , when Sarah overheard three messengers of the Lord renew the promise , she laughed inwardly for the same reason . Sarah denied laughing when Elohim questioned Abraham about it .
= = Genesis narrative = =
= = = Birth = = =
It was prophesied to the patriarch Abraham that he would have a son and that his name should be Isaac . When Abraham became one hundred years old , this son was born to him by his first wife Sarah . Though this was Abraham 's second son it was Sarah ’ s first and only child .
On the eighth day from his birth , Isaac was circumcised , as was necessary for all males of Abraham 's household , in order to be in compliance with Yahweh 's covenant .
After Isaac had been weaned , Sarah saw Ishmael mocking , and urged her husband to cast out Hagar the bondservant and her son , so that Isaac would be Abraham 's sole heir . Abraham was hesitant , but at God 's order he listened to his wife 's request .
= = = Binding = = =
At some point in Isaac 's youth , his father Abraham brought him to Mount Moriah . At God 's command , Abraham was to build a sacrificial altar and sacrifice his son Isaac upon it . After he had bound his son to the altar and drawn his knife to kill him , at the very last moment an angel of God prevented Abraham from proceeding . Rather , he was directed to sacrifice instead a nearby ram that was stuck in thickets . This event served as a test of Abraham 's faith in God , not as an actual human sacrifice .
= = = Family life = = =
When Isaac was 40 , Abraham sent Eliezer , his steward , into Mesopotamia to find a wife for Isaac , from his nephew Bethuel 's family . Eliezer chose the Aramean Rebekah for Isaac . After many years of marriage to Isaac , Rebekah had still not given birth to a child and was believed to be barren . Isaac prayed for her and she conceived . Rebekah gave birth to twin boys , Esau and Jacob . Isaac was 60 years old when his two sons were born . Isaac favored Esau , and Rebekah favored Jacob .
Isaac is unique among the patriarchs for remaining faithful to his wife , and for not having concubines .
= = = Migration = = =
At the age of 75 , Isaac moved to Beer @-@ lahai @-@ roi after his father died . When the land experienced famine , he removed to the Philistine land of Gerar where his father once lived . This land was still under the control of King Abimelech as it was in the days of Abraham . Like his father , Isaac also deceived Abimelech about his wife and also got into the well business . He had gone back to all of the wells that his father dug and saw that they were all stopped up with earth . The Philistines did this after Abraham died . So , Isaac unearthed them and began to dig for more wells all the way to Beersheba , where he made a pact with Abimelech , just like in the day of his father .
= = = Birthright = = =
Isaac grew old and became blind . He called his son Esau and directed him to procure some venison for him , in order to receive Isaac 's blessing . While Esau was hunting , Jacob , after listening to his mother 's advice , deceived his blind father by misrepresenting himself as Esau and thereby obtained his father 's blessing , such that Jacob became Isaac 's primary heir and Esau was left in an inferior position . According to Genesis 25 : 29 @-@ 34 , Esau had previously sold his birthright to Jacob for " bread and stew of lentils " . Thereafter , Isaac sent Jacob into Mesopotamia to take a wife of his mother 's brother 's house . After 20 years working for his uncle Laban , Jacob returned home . He reconciled with his twin brother Esau , then he and Esau buried their father , Isaac , in Hebron after he died at the age of 180 .
= = = Family tree = = =
= = Burial site = =
According to local tradition , the graves of Isaac and Rebekah , along with the graves of Abraham and Sarah and Jacob and Leah , are in the Cave of the Patriarchs .
= = Jewish views = =
In rabbinical tradition , the age of Isaac at the time of binding is taken to be 37 which contrasts with common portrayals of Isaac as a child . The rabbis also thought that the reason for the death of Sarah was the news of the intended sacrifice of Isaac . The sacrifice of Isaac is cited in appeals for the mercy of God in later Jewish traditions . The post @-@ biblical Jewish interpretations often elaborate the role of Isaac beyond the biblical description and primarily focus on Abraham 's intended sacrifice of Isaac , called the aqedah ( " binding " ) . According to a version of these interpretations , Isaac died in the sacrifice and was revived . According to many accounts of Aggadah , unlike the Bible , it is Satan who is testing Isaac as an agent of God . Isaac 's willingness to follow God 's command at the cost of his death has been a model for many Jews who preferred martyrdom to violation of the Jewish law .
According to the Jewish tradition , Isaac instituted the afternoon prayer . This tradition is based on Genesis chapter 24 , verse 63 ( " Isaac went out to meditate in the field at the eventide " ) .
Isaac was the only patriarch who stayed in Canaan during his whole life and though once he tried to leave , God told him not to do so . Rabbinic tradition gave the explanation that Isaac was almost sacrificed and anything dedicated as a sacrifice may not leave the Land of Israel . Isaac was the oldest of the biblical patriarchs at the time of his death , and the only patriarch whose name was not changed .
Rabbinic literature also linked Isaac 's blindness in old age , as stated in the Bible , to the sacrificial binding : Isaac 's eyes went blind because the tears of angels present at the time of his sacrifice fell on Isaac 's eyes .
= = Christian views = =
The early Christian church continued and developed the New Testament theme of Isaac as a type of Christ and the Church being both " the son of the promise " and the " father of the faithful " . Tertullian draws a parallel between Isaac 's bearing the wood for the sacrificial fire with Christ 's carrying his cross. and there was a general agreement that , while all the sacrifices of the Old Law were anticipations of that on Calvary , the sacrifice of Isaac was so " in a pre @-@ eminent way " .
The Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church consider Isaac as a Saint along with other biblical patriarchs . Along with those of other patriarchs and the Old Testament Righteous , his feast day is celebrated in the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Byzantine rite of the Catholic Church on the Second Sunday before Christmas ( December 11 – 17 ) , under the title the Sunday of the Forefathers .
= = = New Testament = = =
The New Testament states Isaac was " offered up " by Abraham his father , and that Isaac blessed his sons . Paul contrasted Isaac , symbolizing Christian liberty , with the rejected older son Ishmael , symbolizing slavery ; Hagar is associated with the Sinai covenant , while Sarah is associated with the covenant of grace , into which her son Isaac enters . The Epistle of James chapter 2 , verses 21 @-@ 24 , states that the sacrifice of Isaac shows that justification ( in the Johannine sense ) requires both faith and works .
In the Epistle to the Hebrews , Abraham 's willingness to follow God 's command to sacrifice Isaac is used as an example of faith as is Isaac 's action in blessing Jacob and Esau with reference to the future promised by God to Abraham In verse 19 , the author views the release of Isaac from sacrifice as analogous to the resurrection of Jesus , the idea of the sacrifice of Isaac being a prefigure of the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross .
= = Islamic views = =
Isaac ( Arabic : إسحاق [ note A ] ʾIsḥāq ) is revered by Muslims to be a prophet of Islam . Islam considers Isaac as a prophet of Islam , and describes him as the father of the Israelites and a righteous servant of God .
Isaac , along with Ishmael , is highly important for Muslims for continuing to preach the message of monotheism after his father Abraham . Among Isaac 's children was the follow @-@ up Israelite patriarch Jacob , who too is venerated an Islamic prophet .
Isaac is mentioned fifteen times by name in the Qur 'an , often with his father and his son , Jacob . The Qur 'an states that Abraham received " good tidings of Isaac , a prophet , of the righteous " , and that God blessed them both ( 37 : 12 ) . In a fuller description , when angels came to Abraham to tell him of the future punishment to be imposed on Sodom and Gomorrah , his wife , Sarah , " laughed , and We gave her good tidings of Isaac , and after Isaac of ( a grandson ) Jacob " ( 11 : 71 @-@ 74 ) ; and it is further explained that this event will take place despite Abraham and Sarah 's old age . Several verses speak of Isaac as a " gift " to Abraham ( 6 : 84 ; 14 : 49 @-@ 50 ) , and 24 : 26 @-@ 27 adds that God made " prophethood and the Book to be among his offspring " , which has been interpreted to refer to Abraham 's two prophetic sons , his prophetic grandson Jacob , and his prophetic great @-@ grandson Joseph . In the Qur 'an , it later narrates that Abraham also praised God for giving him Ishmael and Isaac in his old age ( 14 : 39 @-@ 41 ) .
Elsewhere in the Qur 'an , Isaac is mentioned in lists : Joseph follows the religion of his forefathers Abraham , Isaac and Jacob ( 12 : 38 ) and speaks of God 's favor to them ( 12 : 6 ) ; Jacob 's sons all testify their faith and promise to worship the God that their forefathers , " Abraham , Ishmael and Isaac " , worshiped ( 2 : 127 ) ; and the Qur 'an commands Muslims to believe in the revelations that were given to " Abraham , Ishmael , Isaac , Jacob and the Patriarchs " ( 2 : 136 ; 3 : 84 ) . In the Qur 'an 's narrative of Abraham 's near @-@ sacrifice of his son ( 37 : 102 ) , the name of the son is not mentioned and debate has continued over the son 's identity , though many feel that the identity is the least important element in a story which is given to show the courage that one develops through faith .
= = = Qur 'an = = =
The Qur 'an mentions Isaac as a prophet and a righteous man of God . Isaac and Jacob are mentioned as being bestowed upon Abraham as gifts of God , who then worshipped God only and were righteous leaders in the way of God :
And We bestowed on him Isaac and , as an additional gift , ( a grandson ) , Jacob , and We made righteous men of every one ( of them ) .
And We made them leaders , guiding ( men ) by Our Command , and We sent them inspiration to do good deeds , to establish regular prayers , and to practise regular charity ; and they constantly served Us ( and Us only ) .
And WE gave him the glad tidings of Isaac , a Prophet , and one of the righteous .
= = Academic = =
Some scholars have described Isaac as " a legendary figure " while others view him " as a figure representing tribal history , or " as a seminomadic leader . " The stories of Isaac , like other patriarchal stories of Genesis , are generally believed to have " their origin in folk memories and oral traditions of the early Hebrew pastoralist experience . " The Cambridge Companion to the Bible makes the following comment on the biblical stories of the patriarchs :
Yet for all that these stories maintain a distance between their world and that of their time of literary growth and composition , they reflect the political realities of the later periods . Many of the narratives deal with the relationship between the ancestors and peoples who were part of Israel ’ s political world at the time the stories began to be written down ( eighth century B.C.E. ) . Lot is the ancestor of the Transjordanian peoples of Ammon and Moab , and Ishmael personifies the nomadic peoples known to have inhabited north Arabia , although located in the Old Testament in the Negev . Esau personifies Edom ( 36 : 1 ) , and Laban represents the Aramean states to Israel ’ s north . A persistent theme is that of difference between the ancestors and the indigenous Canaanites … In fact , the theme of the differences between Judah and Israel , as personified by the ancestors , and the neighboring peoples of the time of the monarchy is pressed effectively into theological service to articulate the choosing by God of Judah and Israel to bring blessing to all peoples . ”
According to Martin Noth , a scholar of the Hebrew Bible , the narratives of Isaac date back to an older cultural stage than that of the West @-@ Jordanian Jacob . At that era , the Israelite tribes were not yet sedentary . In the course of looking for grazing areas , they had come in contact in southern Philistia with the inhabitants of the settled countryside . The biblical historian , A. Jopsen , believes in the connection between the Isaac traditions and the north , and in support of this theory adduces Amos 7 : 9 ( " the high places of Isaac " ) .
Albrecht Alt and Martin Noth hold that , " The figure of Isaac was enhanced when the theme of promise , previously bound to the cults of the ' God the Fathers ' was incorporated into the Israelite creed during the southern @-@ Palestinian stage of the growth of the Pentateuch tradition . " According to Martin Noth , at the Southern Palestinian stage of the growth of the Pentateuch tradition , Isaac became established as one of the biblical patriarchs , but his traditions were receded in the favor of Abraham .
= = = Documentary hypothesis = = =
Form critics variously assign passages like Genesis chapter 26 , verses 6 @-@ 11 , to the Jahwist source , and Genesis chapter 20 verses 1 @-@ 7 , chapter 21 , verse 1 to chapter 22 , verse 14 and chapter 22 , verse 19 to the Elohist . According to the compilation hypothesis , the formulaic use of the word toledoth ( generations ) indicates that Genesis chapter 11 , verse 27 to chapter 25 , verse 19 is Isaac 's record through Abraham 's death ( with Ishmael 's record appended ) , and Genesis chapter 25 , verse 19 to chapter 37 , verse 2 is Jacob 's record through Isaac 's death ( with Esau 's records appended ) .
= = In art = =
The earliest Christian portrayal of Isaac is found in the Roman catacomb frescoes . Excluding the fragments , Alison Moore Smith classifies these artistic works in three categories :
" Abraham leads Isaac towards the altar ; or Isaac approaches with the bundle of sticks , Abraham having preceded him to the place of offering .... Abraham is upon a pedestal and Isaac stands near at hand , both figures in orant attitude .... Abraham is shown about to sacrifice Isaac while the latter stands or kneels on the ground beside the altar . Sometimes Abraham grasps Isaac by the hair . Occasionally the ram is added to the scene and in the later paintings the Hand of God emerges from above . "
= Yugoslav destroyer Dubrovnik =
Dubrovnik was a flotilla leader built for the Royal Yugoslav Navy by Yarrow Shipbuilders in Glasgow between 1930 and 1931 . She was one of the largest destroyers of her time . Resembling contemporary British designs , Dubrovnik was a fast ship with a main armament of four Czechoslovak @-@ built Škoda 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) guns in single mounts . Intended to be the first of three flotilla leaders built for Yugoslavia , she was the only one completed . During her service with the Royal Yugoslav Navy , Dubrovnik undertook several peacetime cruises through the Mediterranean , the Turkish Straits and the Black Sea . | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
s Comet ' s popularity affected online media as well ; " Rise of the Phoenix King " , a Nick.com online game based on Sozin 's Comet , generated almost 815 @,@ 000 game plays within three days . A video game loosely based on the third season , Avatar : The Last Airbender – Into the Inferno , was released on October 13 , 2008 .
Joaquim Dos Santos won the " Best Directing in an Animated Television Production " caption in the 2008 Annie Awards for his directing in " Into the Inferno " . Additionally , music editor and composer Jeremy Zuckerman and the sound editing team were nominated a Golden Reel award for " Best Sound Editing in a Television Animation " for their work in " Avatar Aang " .
= Magnus Carlsen =
Sven Magnus Øen Carlsen ( Norwegian : [ sʋɛn ˈmɑŋnʉs øːn ˈkɑːɭsn ̩ ] ; born 30 November 1990 ) is a Norwegian chess grandmaster , and the current World Chess Champion .
Carlsen is a former chess prodigy . He became a Grandmaster in 2004 , at the age of 13 years , 148 days . This made him the third youngest grandmaster in history .
In November 2013 Carlsen became World Champion by defeating Viswanathan Anand in the World Chess Championship 2013 . On the May 2014 FIDE rating list , Carlsen reached his peak rating of 2882 , which is the highest in history . He successfully defended his title in November 2014 , once again defeating Anand . The same year , he also won the World Rapid Championship and the World Blitz Championship , thus holding all three world championship titles . In 2015 Carlsen won the inaugural Grand Chess Tour , a series of three supertournaments featuring the 10 best chess grandmasters in the world .
Carlsen was known for his attacking style as a teenager , but he has since developed into a more universal player . He does not rely on opening preparation as much as other top players , and plays a variety of openings in order to make it more difficult for opponents to prepare against him . Carlsen 's positional mastery and endgame prowess have drawn comparisons to those of former world champions Bobby Fischer , José Raúl Capablanca , Vasily Smyslov , and Anatoly Karpov .
= = Childhood = =
Carlsen was born in Tønsberg , Norway , on 30 November 1990 , to Sigrun Øen and Henrik Albert Carlsen , both engineers ( sivilingeniør ) by profession . The family spent one year in Espoo , Finland , and then in Brussels , Belgium , and in 1998 returned to Norway and settled in Lommedalen , Bærum . They later moved to Haslum . Carlsen showed an aptitude for intellectual challenges at a young age : at two years , he could solve 50 @-@ piece jigsaw puzzles ; at four , he enjoyed assembling Lego sets with instructions intended for children aged 10 – 14 . His father taught him to play chess at the age of 5 , although he initially showed little interest in the game .
The first chess book Carlsen read was Find the Plan by Bent Larsen , and his first book on openings was Eduard Gufeld 's The Complete Dragon . Carlsen developed his early chess skills by playing by himself for hours at a time — moving the pieces around the chessboard , searching for combinations , and replaying games and positions shown to him by his father . Simen Agdestein emphasises Carlsen 's extreme memory , claiming that he was able to recall the areas , population numbers , flags and capitals of all the countries in the world by the age of five . Later , Carlsen had memorised the areas , population numbers , coat @-@ of @-@ arms and administrative centres of " virtually all " Norwegian municipalities . Carlsen participated in his first tournament — the youngest division of the 1999 Norwegian Chess Championship — at the age of 8 years and 7 months , scoring 6 ½ / 11 .
Carlsen was later coached at the Norwegian College of Elite Sport by the country 's top player , Grandmaster ( GM ) Simen Agdestein , who in turn cites Norwegian football manager Egil " Drillo " Olsen as a key inspiration for his coaching strategy . In 2000 , Agdestein introduced Carlsen to Torbjørn Ringdal Hansen , an International Master ( IM ) and former Norwegian junior champion , as Ringdal served a one @-@ year siviltjeneste ( an alternative civilian service programme ) at the college . Over the course of this year , Carlsen 's rating rose from 904 in June 2000 , to 1907 . Carlsen 's breakthrough occurred in the Norwegian junior teams championship in September 2000 , where Carlsen scored 3 ½ / 5 against the top junior players of the country , and a performance rating ( PR ) of about 2000 . Apart from chess , which Carlsen studied about three to four hours a day , his favourite pastimes included football , skiing , and reading Donald Duck comics . Carlsen also practiced ski jumping until the age of ten . His personal best is 21 metres .
From autumn 2000 to the end of 2002 , Carlsen played almost 300 rated tournament games , as well as several blitz tournaments , and participated in other minor events . In October 2002 , he placed sixth in the European Under @-@ 12 Championship in Peñiscola . In the following month , he tied for first place in the World Under @-@ 12 Championship in Heraklio , placing second to Ian Nepomniachtchi on tiebreak . After this , he obtained three IM norms in relatively quick succession ; his first was at the January 2003 Gausdal Troll Masters ( score 7 / 10 , 2345 PR ) , the second was at the June 2003 Salongernas IM @-@ tournament in Stockholm ( 6 / 9 , 2470 PR ) , and the third and final IM norm was obtained at the July 2003 Politiken Cup in Copenhagen ( 8 / 11 , 2503 PR ) . He was officially awarded the IM title on 20 August 2003 . After finishing primary school , Carlsen took a year off to participate in international chess tournaments held in Europe during the fall season of 2003 , returning to complete secondary education at a sports school . During the year away from school , he finished in a tie for third in the European Under @-@ 14 Championship and placed ninth in the World Under @-@ 14 Championship . Both events were won by Sergei Zhigalko .
= = Chess career = =
= = = 2004 = = =
Carlsen made headlines after his victory in the C group at the Corus chess tournament in Wijk aan Zee . Carlsen obtained a score of 10 ½ / 13 , losing just one game ( against the highest @-@ rated player of the C group , Duško Pavasovič ) . As a result of the victory , he earned his first GM norm , and achieved a PR of 2702 . Particularly notable was his win over Sipke Ernst in the penultimate round , when Carlsen sacrificed material to give mate in just 29 moves . The first 23 moves in that game had already been played in another game — Almagro Llanas – Gustafsson , Madrid 2003 ( which ended in a draw ) — but Carlsen 's over @-@ the @-@ board novelty immediately led to a winning position . Carlsen 's victory in the C group qualified him to play in the B group in 2005 , and it led Lubomir Kavalek , writing for the Washington Post , to give him the title " Mozart of chess " . Agdestein said that Carlsen had an excellent memory and played an unusually wide range of openings . Carlsen 's prowess caught the attention of Microsoft , which became his sponsor .
Carlsen obtained his second GM norm at the Moscow Aeroflot Open in February . On 17 March , in a blitz chess tournament in Reykjavík , Iceland , Carlsen defeated former World Champion Anatoly Karpov . The blitz tournament was a preliminary event leading up to a rapid knockout tournament beginning the next day . In that event , Carlsen was paired with Garry Kasparov , then the top @-@ rated player in the world . Carlsen achieved a draw in their first game and lost the second one , and was thus knocked out of the tournament .
In the sixth Dubai Open Chess Championship , held 18 – 28 April , Carlsen obtained his third and final GM norm . This caused him to become the world 's youngest GM at the time , as well as the third @-@ youngest GM in history ( after Sergey Karjakin , who earned the title at the age of 12 years and 7 months and Parimarjan Negi ) . Carlsen played in the FIDE World Chess Championship , thus becoming the youngest player ever to participate in one , but was knocked out in the first round by Levon Aronian .
In July , Carlsen and Berge Østenstad ( then the reigning Norwegian champion ) tied for first in the Norwegian Chess Championship , each scoring 7 / 9 . A two @-@ game match between them was arranged to decide the title . Both games were drawn , which left Østenstad the champion because he had superior tiebreaks in the tournament .
= = = 2005 = = =
In the Smartfish Chess Masters event at the Drammen International Chess Festival 2004 – 05 , Carlsen defeated Alexei Shirov , then ranked No. 10 in the world , as well as the co @-@ winner of the tournament . In the semifinals of the Ciudad de León rapid chess tournament in June , Carlsen played a four @-@ game match against Viswanathan Anand , who was ranked No. 2 in the world at the time and had won the 2003 World Rapid Chess Championship . Anand won 3 – 1 .
In the Norwegian Chess Championship , Carlsen again finished in shared first place , this time with his mentor Simen Agdestein . A playoff between them was played between 7 and 10 November . This time , Carlsen had the better tiebreaks , but the rule giving the title to the player with better tiebreak scores in the event of a 1 – 1 draw had been revoked previously . The match was closely fought — Agdestein won the first game , Carlsen the second — so the match went into a series of two @-@ game rapid matches until there was a winner . Carlsen won the first rapid game , Agdestein the second . Then followed three draws until Agdestein won the championship title with a victory in the sixth rapid game .
At the end of 2005 , Carlsen participated at the Chess World Cup in Khanty @-@ Mansiysk , Russia . In the knockout tournament , he upset the 44th @-@ ranked Zurab Azmaiparashvili in round one , and proceeded to defeat Farrukh Amonatov and Ivan Cheparinov to reach the round of 16 . There , Carlsen lost to Evgeny Bareev , but then won against Joël Lautier and Vladimir Malakhov before losing again to Gata Kamsky . Thus , Carlsen finished in tenth place and became the youngest player to be an official World Championship Candidate . In October , he took first place at the Arnold Eikrem Memorial in Gausdal with a score 8 / 9 and a PR of 2792 .
= = = 2006 = = =
Carlsen qualified for a place in the Corus B group due to his first @-@ place finish in Corus group C in 2004 . His shared first place with Alexander Motylev with 9 / 13 ( + 6 − 1 = 6 ) qualified him to play in the Corus group A in 2007 .
At the traditional international ' Bosna ' tournament in Sarajevo 2006 , Carlsen shared first place with Liviu @-@ Dieter Nisipeanu ( who won on tiebreak evaluation ) and Vladimir Malakhov ; this could be regarded as Carlsen 's first “ A ” elite tournament win , although it was not a clear first .
Carlsen was close to winning the 2006 Norwegian Chess Championship outright , but a last @-@ round loss to Berge Østenstad dropped him into another tie for first place with Agdestein . It also prevented Carlsen from beating Agdestein 's record as the youngest Norwegian champion ever . Nonetheless , in the playoff held from 19 – 21 September , Carlsen won 3 – 1 . After two draws at standard time controls , Carlsen won both rapid games in round two , securing his first Norwegian championship win .
Carlsen won the Glitnir Blitz Tournament in Iceland . He achieved a 2 – 0 win over Viswanathan Anand in the semifinals and achieved the same score in the finals . He scored 6 / 8 in the 37th Chess Olympiad and achieved a PR of 2820 .
In the Midnight Sun Chess Tournament in Tromsø , Carlsen finished second behind Sergei Shipov . In the Biel Grandmaster Tournament , he placed second , beating the tournament winner Alexander Morozevich twice .
In the NH Chess Tournament held in Amsterdam in August , Carlsen participated in an " Experience " vs. " Rising Stars " Scheveningen team match . The " Rising Stars " won the match 28 – 22 , with Carlsen achieving the best individual score for the Rising Stars team ( 6 ½ / 10 ) and a 2700 PR , thus winning the right to participate in the 2007 Melody Amber tournament .
With a score of 7 ½ / 15 , Carlsen placed 8th out of 16 participants at the World Blitz Championship in Rishon LeZion , Israel . In the rapid chess tournament Rencontres nationales et internationales d 'échecs in Cap d 'Agde , France , he reached the semifinal , losing there to Sergey Karjakin . In November , Carlsen achieved a shared 8th place of 10 participants in the Mikhail Tal Memorial in Moscow with two losses and seven draws . He finished ninth in a group of 18 participants in the associated blitz tournament , which was won by Anand .
= = = 2007 = = =
Playing in the top group of the Corus chess tournament for the first time , Carlsen placed last with nine draws and four losses , scoring 4 ½ / 13 . In the prestigious Linares chess tournament , Carlsen played against the following top @-@ rated players : Veselin Topalov , Viswanathan Anand , Peter Svidler , Alexander Morozevich , Levon Aronian , Peter Leko , and Vassily Ivanchuk . Despite being rated significantly lower than any of them , he finished in second place on tiebreaks with 7 ½ / 14 , having scored four wins , seven draws and three losses , and achieving a PR of 2778 .
Carlsen played for the first time in the Melody Amber blind and rapid chess tournament in Monte Carlo in March . In the 11 rounds , he achieved eight draws and three losses in the blindfold games , as well as three wins , seven draws and one loss in the rapid games . This resulted in a shared ninth place in the blindfold , shared second place in the rapid ( behind Anand ) , and a shared eighth place in the overall tournament .
In May and June , he participated in the Candidates Tournament for the FIDE World Chess Championship 2007 , facing Levon Aronian in a six @-@ game match at standard time controls , which Carlsen drew ( + 2 − 2 = 2 ) by coming from behind twice . The four @-@ game rapid playoff was drawn as well ( + 1 − 1 = 2 ) , with Carlsen winning the last game to stay in the match . Eventually , Aronian eliminated Carlsen from the tournament after winning both tiebreak blitz games .
In July and August , Carlsen won the Biel Grandmaster Tournament with a 6 / 10 record and a PR of 2753 . His score was matched by Alexander Onischuk and they played a match to break the tie . After drawing two rapid and two blitz games , Carlsen won the armageddon game . Immediately after the Biel tournament , Carlsen entered the open Arctic Chess Challenge in Tromsø , but his fourth @-@ place result with + 5 = 4 was a slight underperformance in terms of rating . In the first round , Carlsen , surprisingly , conceded a draw to his classmate Brede Hagen ( rated 2034 ) after having a lost position at one point . A game which attracted some attention was his sixth @-@ round win over his father , Henrik Carlsen .
Carlsen reached the semifinal round of the World Chess Cup in December , after defeating Michael Adams in the round of 16 and Ivan Cheparinov in the quarterfinals . In the semifinal , he was eliminated by the eventual winner , Gata Kamsky , scoring ½ – 1 ½ .
= = = 2008 = = =
In the top group A of the Corus chess tournament , Carlsen scored 8 / 13 , achieving a PR of 2830 . Carlsen won five games , lost two and drew six , sharing first place with Levon Aronian . At the Linares chess tournament , Carlsen had another 2800 + PR , scoring 8 / 14 . He finished in sole second place , ½ point behind the winner World Champion Viswanathan Anand .
In March , Carlsen played for the second time in the Melody Amber blind and rapid chess tournament , held in Nice for the first time . In the 11 rounds he achieved four wins , four draws and two losses in the blindfold , and three wins , two losses , and six draws in the rapid . This resulted in a shared fifth place in the blindfold , shared third place in the rapid and a shared second place in the overall tournament .
Carlsen was one of 21 players in the six @-@ tournament FIDE Grand Prix 2008 – 2009 , a qualifier for the World Chess Championship 2012 . In the first tournament , in Baku , Azerbaijan , he finished in a three @-@ way tie for first place , with another 2800 PR . Carlsen later withdrew from the Grand Prix cycle despite his initial success , criticizing how FIDE was " changing the rules dramatically in the middle of a [ World Championship ] cycle " .
Carlsen won a rapid match against Peter Leko held in Miskolc , Hungary , scoring 5 – 3 . In June , Carlsen won the annual Aerosvit chess tournament , finishing undefeated with 8 / 11 in a category 19 field and achieving a PR of 2877 , his best PR at that point in his career . Playing in the category 18 Biel Grandmaster Tournament , Carlsen finished third with 6 / 10 , with a PR of 2740 .
In the Mainz World Rapid Chess Championship , Carlsen finished in second place after losing the final to defending champion Anand 3 – 1 . In the qualification round Carlsen scoring 1 ½ – ½ against Judit Polgár , 1 – 1 against Anand and 1 – 1 against Alexander Morozevich . In the category 22 Bilbao Masters , Carlsen tied for second with a 2768 PR .
= = = 2009 = = =
Playing in Group A of the Corus chess tournament , Carlsen tied for fifth with a 2739 PR . In the Linares chess tournament , Carlsen finished third with a 2777 PR . Carlsen tied for second place with Veselin Topalov at the M @-@ Tel Masters ( category 21 ) tournament in Sofia , Bulgaria . He lost to eventual winner Alexei Shirov in their final game , dropping him from first .
Carlsen won the category 21 Nanjing Pearl Spring tournament , 2 ½ points ahead of second @-@ place finisher Topalov , the world 's highest @-@ rated player at the time . He scored an undefeated 8 / 10 , winning every game as white ( against Topalov , Wang Yue , Leko , Teimour Radjabov , and Dmitry Jakovenko ) , and also winning as black against Jakovenko . By rating performance , this was one of the greatest results in history , with a PR of 3002 . Chess statistician Jeff Sonas has declared it one of the 20 best tournament performances of all time , and the best chess performance of all time by a teenager .
In the Tal Memorial , played from 5 to 14 November , Carlsen started with seven straight draws , but finished with wins over former FIDE World Champion Ruslan Ponomariov and Peter Leko . This result put Carlsen in shared second place behind former World Champion Vladimir Kramnik and equal with Ivanchuk . After the Tal Memorial , Carlsen won the World Blitz Championship , played from 16 to 18 November in Moscow , Russia . His score of 28 wins , 6 draws and 8 losses left him three points ahead of Anand , who finished in second place .
Carlsen entered the London Chess Classic as the top seed in a field including Kramnik , Hikaru Nakamura , Michael Adams , Nigel Short , Ni Hua , Luke McShane and David Howell . He defeated Kramnik in round one and went on to win the tournament with 13 / 21 ( three points were awarded for a win , and one for a draw ; using classical scoring he finished with 5 / 7 ) and a PR of 2844 , one point ahead of Kramnik . This victory propelled him to the top of the FIDE rating list , surpassing Veselin Topalov .
Based on his average ranking from the July 2009 and January 2010 FIDE lists , Carlsen qualified for the Candidates Tournament that would determine the challenger to World Champion Viswanathan Anand in the World Chess Championship 2012 . In November 2010 , however , Carlsen announced he was withdrawing from the Candidates Tournament . Carlsen described the 2008 – 12 cycle as " [ not ] sufficiently modern and fair " , and wrote that " Reigning champion privileges , the long ( five year ) span of the cycle , changes made during the cycle resulting in a new format ( Candidates ) that no World Champion has had to go through since Kasparov , puzzling ranking criteria as well as the shallow ceaseless match @-@ after @-@ match concept are all less than satisfactory in my opinion . "
In early 2009 Carlsen engaged former World Champion Garry Kasparov as a personal trainer . In September their partnership was revealed to the public by Norwegian newspapers .
Responding to a question in an interview with Time magazine in December 2009 as to whether he used computers when studying chess , Carlsen explained that he does not use a chess set when studying on his own .
= = = 2010 = = =
Carlsen won the Corus chess tournament played 16 – 31 January with 8 ½ points . His ninth @-@ round loss to Kramnik ended a streak of 36 rated games undefeated . Carlsen appeared to struggle in the last round against Fabiano Caruana , but saved a draw , leaving him half a point ahead of Kramnik and Shirov .
In March it was announced that Carlsen had split from Kasparov and would no longer use him as a trainer , although this was put into different context by Carlsen himself in an interview with the German magazine Der Spiegel , in which he stated that they would remain in contact and he would continue to attend training sessions with Kasparov . In 2011 , Carlsen said : " Thanks to [ Kasparov ] I began to understand a whole class of positions better . ... Kasparov gave me a great deal of practical help . " In 2012 , when asked what he learnt from working with Kasparov , Carlsen answered : " Complex positions . That was the most important thing . "
Carlsen shared first place alongside Ivanchuk in the Amber blindfold and rapid tournament . Scoring 6 ½ / 11 in the blindfold and 8 / 11 in the rapid , Carlsen accumulated 14 ½ from a possible 22 points . In May it was revealed that Carlsen had helped Anand prepare for the World Chess Championship 2010 against challenger Veselin Topalov , which Anand won 6 ½ – 5 ½ to retain the title . Carlsen had also helped Anand prepare for the World Chess Championships in 2007 and 2008 .
Carlsen played in the Bazna Kings Tournament in Romania on 14 – 25 June . The tournament was a double round robin involving Wang Yue , Boris Gelfand , Ruslan Ponomariov , Teimour Radjabov , and Liviu @-@ Dieter Nisipeanu . He finished with 7 ½ / 10 and a 2918 PR , winning the tournament by two points ahead of Radjabov and Gelfand . Carlsen then played in a rapid tournament 28 – 30 August at the Arctic Securities Chess Stars tournament in Kristiansund , Norway . The field featured World Champion Viswanathan Anand , female world No. 1 Judit Polgár , and Jon Ludvig Hammer . In the preliminary round robin , Carlsen scored 3 ½ / 6 to qualify for the final , second behind Anand . In the final , Carlsen defeated Anand 1 ½ – ½ to win the championship . Following this event , Carlsen suffered setbacks in his next two tournaments . In the 39th Chess Olympiad from 19 September to 4 October , he scored 4 ½ / 8 , losing three games , to Baadur Jobava , Michael Adams , and Sanan Sjugirov ; these were his first losses with the black pieces in more than a year . His team , Norway , finished 51st out of 149 teams .
Carlsen 's next tournament was the Grand Slam Masters Final on 9 – 15 October , which he had qualified for automatically by winning three of the previous year 's four Grand Slam chess events ( 2009 Nanjing Pearl Spring , 2010 Corus , 2010 Bazna Kings ) . Along with Carlsen , the finals consisted of World Champion Anand and the highest two scorers from the preliminary stage held in Shanghai in September : Kramnik and Shirov . The average Elo of the participants at the time was 2789 , making the Grand Slam Final the strongest chess tournament in history . In the first round , Carlsen lost with black to Kramnik ; this was Carlsen 's second consecutive loss to Kramnik , and placed his hold on the world No. 1 ranking in serious jeopardy . In his second round , Carlsen lost with the white pieces to Anand ; this was his first loss as White since January 2010 . Carlsen recovered somewhat in the latter part of the tournament , achieving a win over Shirov , and finishing with 2 ½ / 6 . The tournament was won by Kramnik with 4 / 6 . Carlsen finished this tournament with a rating of 2802 , two points behind Anand at 2804 who temporarily ended Carlsen 's reign at world No. 1 . These setbacks called into question from some whether Carlsen 's activities outside chess , such as modelling for G @-@ Star Raw , were distracting him from performing well at the chessboard . Carlsen said he did not believe there was a direct connection .
Carlsen 's next tournament was the Pearl Spring chess tournament on 19 – 30 October in Nanjing , China , against Anand , Topalov , Vugar Gashimov , Wang Yue , and Étienne Bacrot . This was the only tournament in 2010 to feature Anand , Carlsen and Topalov , at the time the top three players in the world , and was the first tournament in history to feature three players rated at least 2800 . With early wins over Bacrot , Wang Yue , and Topalov with white , Carlsen took the early lead , extending his winning streak with white in Nanjing to eight . This streak was halted by a draw to Anand in round seven , but in the penultimate round Carlsen secured first place by defeating Topalov with black . This was his second victory in the tournament over the former world No. 1 ; his final score of 7 / 10 ( with a PR of 2903 ) was a full point ahead of runner @-@ up Anand .
In the World Blitz Championship , held in Moscow on 16 – 18 November , Carlsen attempted to defend his 2009 title . With a score of 23 ½ / 38 , he finished in third place behind Radjabov and winner Levon Aronian . After the tournament , Carlsen played a private 40 @-@ game blitz match against Hikaru Nakamura , winning with a score of 23 ½ – 16 ½ .
Carlsen won the London Chess Classic on 8 – 15 December in a field comprising World Champion Anand , Vladimir Kramnik , Nakamura , and British players Adams , Nigel Short , David Howell , and Luke McShane . Carlsen had a rocky start , losing his games to McShane and Anand in rounds 1 and 3 , but winning with white against Adams and Nakamura in rounds 2 and 4 . He joined the lead with a win over Howell in round 5 , and managed to stay in the lead following a harrowing draw against Kramnik in round 6 , before defeating Short in the last round . Since the tournament was played with three points for a win , Carlsen 's + 4 − 2 = 1 score put him ahead of Anand and McShane who scored + 2 = 5 ( a more traditional two @-@ points @-@ for @-@ a @-@ win system would have yielded a three @-@ way tie , with Carlsen still on top , having the better tiebreaker due to four games with black — Anand and McShane played only three times with black ) .
= = = 2011 = = =
Carlsen competed in the GM @-@ A group of the Tata Steel Chess Tournament ( formerly called Corus Chess Tournament ) on 14 – 30 January in Wijk aan Zee in an attempt to defend his title ; the field included World Champion Viswanathan Anand , Levon Aronian , former World Champion Vladimir Kramnik , Alexander Grischuk , Hikaru Nakamura , Ruslan Ponomariov , among others . Despite losing games with white against Anish Giri and reigning Russian champion Ian Nepomniachtchi , Carlsen finished with 8 / 13 , including victories over Kramnik and tournament winner Nakamura . Although Carlsen 's performance raised his rating from 2814 to 2815 , Anand 's 8 ½ / 13 score elevated his rating to 2817 , making him the world No. 1 for the March 2011 FIDE rating list .
The first tournament victory of the year came in the Bazna Kings tournament , a double round robin played in Mediaș , Romania on 11 – 21 June . Carlsen finished with 6 ½ / 10 , equal with Sergey Karjakin but with a better tiebreak score . Carlsen won his White games against Nakamura , Nisipeanu , and Ivanchuk and drew the rest of the games .
The Grand Slam Chess Final was held as a double round robin with six players , in São Paulo ( 25 September – 1 October ) and Bilbao ( 5 – 11 October ) . Although Carlsen had a slow start , including a loss against bottom @-@ ranked Francisco Vallejo Pons , he finished + 3 − 1 = 6 , equal with Ivanchuk ( whose + 4 − 3 = 3 finish was equal due to three points for a win ) . Carlsen then won the blitz tiebreak against Ivanchuk . The other players were Anand , Aronian , Nakamura , and Vallejo Pons .
Another tournament victory was achieved in the Tal Memorial in Moscow 16 – 25 November as a round robin with ten players . Carlsen won two games , against Gelfand and Nakamura , and drew the rest . Although he finished equal on points with Aronian , he placed ahead since the tiebreak was determined by the number of black games ; Carlsen had five black games , while Aronian only had four .
In the London Chess Classic , played 3 – 12 December , Carlsen 's streak of tournament victories ended when he finished third , behind Kramnik and Nakamura . Carlsen won three games and drew five . Although he did not win the tournament , Carlsen gained rating points , rising to a new personal record of 2835 .
= = = 2012 = = =
At the Tata Steel Chess Tournament held on 14 – 29 January in Wijk aan Zee , Carlsen finished in a shared second place with 8 / 13 , behind Aronian , and equal with Radjabov and Caruana . Carlsen defeated Gashimov , Aronian , Gelfand , and Topalov , but lost against Karjakin . At the blitz chess tournament at Tal Memorial , held in Moscow on 7 June , Carlsen shared first place with Morozevich . In the main event ( a category 22 ten @-@ player round robin ) , he won two games and drew seven . He finished in first place , ahead of Radjabov and Caruana .
Carlsen then went on to finish second in the Biel Grandmaster Tournament , with 18 points , just one point behind Wang Hao using the 3 – 1 – 0 scoring system . As in the Tal Memorial earlier in 2012 , Carlsen managed to finish the tournament without any losses ( + 4 − 0 = 6 ) . He also defeated the winner Wang in both of their individual games . In the exhibition blitz tournament at Biel before the GM tournament , Carlsen was eliminated ( + 1 − 2 = 0 ) in the first round by Étienne Bacrot . Bacrot deprived Carlsen of a win in the classical tournament by holding him to a draw in the final round . Carlsen would have won the classical tournament on the traditional 1 – ½ – 0 scoring system , with 7 / 10 .
The Grand Slam Chess Final was again held as a double round robin with six players , in São Paulo and Bilbao . Carlsen started with a loss against Caruana , but after three wins in the second ( Bilbao ) round , finished + 4 − 1 = 5 , equal first with Caruana , and ahead of Aronian , Karjakin and Anand . Carlsen won the tournament by winning both tiebreak games against Caruana .
From 24 to 25 November , Carlsen took part in the chess festival " Segunda Gran Fiesta Internacional de Ajedrez " in Mexico City . As part of it , Carlsen took on an online audience ( dubbed as " The World " ) with the white pieces and won . He then took part in the knockout exhibition event " Cuadrangular UNAM " . Carlsen first beat Lázaro Bruzón 1 ½ – ½ , thus qualifying for a final against Judit Polgár ( who had in turn beat Manuel León Hoyos 1 ½ – ½ ) . Carlsen lost the first game , but won the second one , and in the tiebreak defeated Polgár 2 – 0 .
Carlsen won the London Chess Classic in December with five wins ( over McShane , Aronian , Gawain Jones , Adams and Judit Polgár ) and three draws ( against Kramnik , Nakamura and Anand ) . This win , the third time Carlsen had won the tournament in the past four years , increased his rating from 2848 to a new record of 2861 , breaking Kasparov 's 13 @-@ year record of 2851 . By rating performance , this was one of the best results in history , with a PR of 2994 .
= = = 2013 = = =
Carlsen played in the 75th Tata Steel Chess Tournament from 11 to 27 January in Wijk aan Zee . In the 13 @-@ round tournament , he scored 10 points ( + 7 − 0 = 6 ) , winning clear first 1 ½ points ahead of second @-@ place finisher Aronian . On 1 February , Danish GM Peter Heine Nielsen joined the team of assistants who helped Carlsen prepare for the Candidates Tournament in March . Before this , Nielsen was on Viswanathan Anand 's team .
Carlsen played in the 2013 Candidates Tournament , which took place in London , from 15 March to 1 April . He finished with + 5 − 2 = 7 , and won the tournament on tiebreak over Vladimir Kramnik . As a result , he earned the right to challenge Anand for the World Champion title .
In May , Carlsen played in the first edition of Norway Chess tournament . He finished second , scoring 5 ½ / 9 ( + 3 − 1 = 5 ) , half a point behind Sergey Karjakin .
Carlsen played in the Tal Memorial from June 12 to June 23 . He finished second , with 5 ½ / 9 , half a point behind Boris Gelfand . Carlsen ended the tournament with + 3 − 1 = 5 , losing to Caruana but beating Anand , Kramnik and Nakamura . Later that month , Carlsen played a four @-@ game friendly rapid match against Borki Predojević , which he won 2 ½ – 1 ½ .
In the Sinquefield Cup , held in September , Carlsen finished first , scoring + 3 − 0 = 3 , a point ahead of Nakamura .
= = = = World Chess Championship 2013 = = = =
Carlsen faced Anand in the World Chess Championship 2013 in Chennai , India , from 9 to 22 November . Carlsen won the match 6 ½ – 3 ½ by winning games five , six and nine and drawing the remainder . Thus , Carlsen became the new world chess champion .
= = = 2014 = = =
From 29 January to 4 February , Carlsen played in the Zurich Chess Challenge , winning the preliminary blitz event ( + 2 − 1 = 2 ) and the classical event ( + 3 − 0 = 2 ) . He performed less well in the rapid event ( + 1 − 2 = 2 ) , which counted towards the overall standings , but retained enough of a lead to win the tournament . The other players in the event were Aronian , Nakamura , Caruana , Gelfand and Anand .
Carlsen played a game for his club Stavanger in the final team match for promotion to the Norwegian Premier League on 22 March . His win over Vladimir Georgiev helped his team to a 3 ½ – 2 ½ win over Nordstrand .
Carlsen won the Vugar Gashimov Memorial in Şəmkir , Azerbaijan , played from 20 – 30 April . He played in the A group along with Caruana , Nakamura , Karjakin , Shakhriyar Mamedyarov and Radjabov . Carlsen started the tournament with 2 / 2 , beating Mamedyarov and Nakamura . He then drew Karjakin , only to lose two games in a row for the first time in four years , losing to Caruana with black and then with white to Radjabov . In the second half of the tournament , Carlsen scored 4 / 5 , beating Mamedyarov and Nakamura again , and securing the tournament victory by beating Caruana in the final round , finishing with + 5 − 2 = 3 .
On 8 May Carlsen played an exhibition game at Oslo City against the people of Norway , assisted by a grandmaster panel consisting of Simen Agdestein , Leif Erlend Johannessen , and Jon Ludvig Hammer . Each of the panel members proposed a move and the public could then vote over the proposed moves . Each panel member was allowed three chances to let chess engine Houdini propose a move during the game . Norway 's moves were executed by Oddvar Brå who was disguised in a red spandex suit for the occasion . The game was drawn when Carlsen forced a perpetual check .
Carlsen placed second ( to Sergey Karjakin ) in the second edition of Norway Chess , a ten @-@ player round robin , from 2 June to 13 June . Other players in the event were Aronian , Caruana , Topalov , Svidler , Kramnik , Grischuk , Giri and Agdestein .
Carlsen won FIDE World Rapid Championships held in Dubai from 16 June to 19 June . He went on to claim the World Blitz Championships two days later , becoming the first player to simultaneously hold the title in all three FIDE rated time controls .
Carlsen played nine games for Norway in the 41st Chess Olympiad , scoring five wins , two draws , and two losses ( against Arkadij Naiditsch and Ivan Šarić ) .
Carlsen placed second to Fabiano Caruana in the Sinquefield Cup , a six @-@ player double round robin in Saint Louis , Missouri from 27 August to 7 September . Billed as the strongest chess tournament ever held , the remaining 4 players in the event were Levon Aronian , Hikaru Nakamura , Veselin Topalov , and Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave . He lost to Fabiano Caruana in Round 3 and defeated Levon Aronian and Hikaru Nakamura in Rounds 5 and 7 , respectively . He finished the tournament in second place , with 5 @.@ 5 / 10 ( + 2 @-@ 1 = 7 ) , behind Caruana .
= = = = World Chess Championship 2014 = = = =
Carlsen faced Anand in a match for the title of World Chess Champion in November 2014 , as Anand qualified by winning the 2014 Candidates Tournament . The rematch was held from November 7 to 23 in Sochi , Russia . After 11 of 12 games , Carlsen led 6 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 , thereby defending his World Champion title .
= = = 2015 = = =
In January , Carlsen won the Tata Steel Chess Tournament , which was played mainly in Wijk aan Zee on 9 – 25 January . Carlsen had a poor start to the tournament with two draws and a loss in the third round to Radosław Wojtaszek , which left him in tenth place among the fourteen players . However , a string of six wins in a row thrust Carlsen into clear first place . Drawing the final four games was sufficient to win the tournament with 9 points out of 13 , half a point ahead of Anish Giri , Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave , Wesley So and Ding Liren . In February , Carlsen won the 3rd Grenke Chess Classic in Baden @-@ Baden after a five @-@ game tiebreak with Arkadij Naiditsch . Carlsen finished equal first with Naiditsch on 4 @.@ 5 / 7 , beating Michael Adams , Anand , and David Baramidze , and losing to Naiditsch in their classical encounter . This tournament victory meant that Carlsen began 2015 by winning two out of two tournaments . Carlsen continued his streak in April , winning Shamkir Chess with a score of 7 / 9 , beating Mamedyarov , Caruana , Vachier @-@ Lagrave , Kramnik , and Rauf Mamedov , going + 5 @-@ 0 = 4 . With a performance rating of 2981 , this was Carlsen 's third best tournament result ever . His performance was only bested in Nanjing 2009 ( 3002 TPR ) and London 2012 ( 2993 TPR ) . Carlsen had a poor result in the Norway Chess event of 15 – 26 June . In the first round he obtained a winning position against Topalov after pressing in a long endgame , only to lose on time when he mistakenly thought that he would receive 15 minutes of extra time at move 60 . He was then outplayed by Caruana in the second round , missed a win against Anish Giri in round 3 , and lost to Anand in round 4 . He won against Grischuk in round 5 , drew against Nakamura and Vachier @-@ Lagrave in rounds 6 and 7 , and defeated Aronian in round 8 , but he lost the last round against Jon Ludvig Hammer , leaving him tied for seventh and eighth place . Carlsen finished 2nd place at the 2015 Sinquefield Cup with 5 points , one point below tournament winner Levon Aronian . He defeated the 2014 Sinquefield Cup 's winner Fabiano Caruana , French # 1 Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave , and wild @-@ card Wesley So , but lost to Veselin Topalov and Alexander Grischuk .
In October , Carlsen successfully defended his title in the FIDE World Rapid Championships held in Berlin , as the first world rapid champion to do so in history , going + 8 @-@ 0 = 7 . He reached the highest live rapid rating in history after the tournament , and was at that point ranked # 1 in all three disciplines simultaneously . However , Carlsen quickly lost his # 1 blitz spot after he had a weak second day in the World Blitz Championship , causing him to lose his title to Alexander Grischuk . In November 2015 , Carlsen participated in the European Team Chess Championship , playing for the Norwegian team . He started off poorly , scoring 0 @.@ 5 points out of 3 games - losing to Levon Aronian , drawing against Sune Berg Hansen , and losing again to Yannick Pelletier due to a blunder . He finished the tournament strongly , scoring victories against Peter Leko and Radoslaw Wojtaszek , the latter of whom he had lost to earlier in the year . However , his performance was not enough to earn his team a medal , and he lost 16 rating points during the event . In December 2015 , Carlsen participated in the final leg of the Grand Chess Tour , the London Chess Classic . He scored + 2 @-@ 0 = 7 in the event , defeating Hikaru Nakamura ( and inflicting Nakamura 's 12th classical loss to Carlsen ) and Alexander Grischuk . In the 3 @-@ way tiebreak between Anish Giri and Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave , he was the top seed , meaning he faced the winner of the two @-@ game match between Giri and Vachier @-@ Lagrave . He eventually won against the match , the Classic , and the overall inaugural Grand Chess Tour , earning him $ 75 @,@ 000 for the London Chess Classic and the Grand Chess Tour bonus prizes . In late @-@ December 2015 , Carlsen won first place at the 2nd edition of the Qatar Masters Open , defeating Grandmaster Yu Yangyi in a tie @-@ break after both players had finished on a + 5 score . This concluded his final tournament for the 2015 year .
= = = 2016 = = =
From January 15 to 31 , 2016 , Carlsen participated in the 78th Tata Steel Chess Tournament , held in Wijk Aan Zee , The Netherlands . Carlsen won the tournament by scoring 9 points out of 13 ( + 5 @-@ 0 = 8 ) , earning him his 5th Wijk Aan Zee title .
In the 2016 World Chess Championship in New York City , Carlsen will face Sergey Karjakin for the World Chess Championship . The match will take place from 11 – 30 November .
On April 29th , 2016 , Magnus Carlsen won the 4th edition of the Norway Chess Tournament , after scoring a final round victory against Pavel Eljanov .
In July 2016 , Carlsen won the 9th edition of the Bilbao Masters Final , scoring 17 points out of 10 games ( + 4 @-@ 1 = 5 ) . Wins were awarded with 3 points , a draw with 1 point and losses with 0 points .
= = Honours = =
Carlsen won the Chess Oscars for 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 and 2013 . The Chess Oscar , conducted by the Russian chess magazine 64 , is awarded to the year 's best player according to a worldwide poll of leading chess critics , writers , and journalists . The Norwegian tabloid Verdens Gang ( VG ) has awarded him " Name of the Year " ( Årets navn ) twice , in 2009 and 2013 . VG also named him " Sportsman of the year " in 2009 and in the same year he won the Folkets Idrettspris , a people 's choice award from the newspaper Dagbladet . In 2011 , he was given the Peer Gynt Prize , a Norwegian honour prize awarded annually to " a person or institution that has achieved distinction in society " ; the following year , he repeated as winner of Folkets Idrettspris . In 2013 , Time magazine named Carlsen one of the 100 most influential people in the world .
= = Playing style = =
Carlsen had an aggressive style of play as a youth , and , according to Agdestein , his play was characterised by " a fearless readiness to offer material for activity " . Carlsen found as he matured that this risky playing style was not as well suited against the world elite . When he started playing in top tournaments he was struggling against top players , and had trouble getting much out of the opening . To progress , Carlsen 's style became more universal , capable of handling all sorts of positions well . Carlsen opens with both 1.d4 and 1.e4 , as well as 1.c4 , and , on occasion , 1.Nf3 , thus making it harder for opponents to prepare against him . Evgeny Sveshnikov has criticised Carlsen 's opening play , claiming in a 2013 interview that without a more " scientific " approach to preparation , his " future doesn 't look so promising " .
Garry Kasparov , who coached Carlsen from 2009 to 2010 , said that Carlsen has a positional style similar to that of past world champions such as Anatoly Karpov , José Raúl Capablanca , and Vasily Smyslov , rather than the tactical style of Alexander Alekhine , Mikhail Tal , and Kasparov himself . According to Carlsen , however , he does not have any preferences in playing style . Kasparov said in 2013 that " Carlsen is a combination of Karpov [ and ] Fischer . He gets his positions [ and ] then never lets go of that bulldog bite . Exhausting for opponents . " Carlsen has also stated that he follows in the traditions of Karpov and Fischer , but also mentions Reuben Fine as a player who " was doing in chess similar to what I am doing . " Anand has said of Carlsen : " The majority of ideas occur to him absolutely naturally . He 's also very flexible , he knows all the structures and he can play almost any position . ... Magnus can literally do almost everything . " Kasparov expressed similar sentiments : " [ Carlsen ] has the ability to correctly evaluate any position , which only Karpov could boast of before him . " In a 2012 interview , Vladimir Kramnik attributed much of Carlsen 's success against other top players to his " excellent physical shape " and his ability to avoid " psychological lapses " , which enables him to maintain a high standard of play over long games and at the end of tournaments , when the energy levels of others have dropped . Tyler Cowen gave a point of view on Carlsen 's playing style : " Carlsen is demonstrating one of his most feared qualities , namely his ' nettlesomeness , ' to use a term coined for this purpose by Ken Regan . Using computer analysis , you can measure which players do the most to cause their opponents to make mistakes . Carlsen has the highest nettlesomeness score by this metric , because his creative moves pressure the other player and open up a lot of room for mistakes . In contrast , a player such as Kramnik plays a high percentage of very accurate moves , and of course he is very strong , but those moves are in some way calmer and they are less likely to induce mistakes in response . "
Carlsen 's endgame prowess has been described as among the greatest in history . Jon Speelman , analysing several of Carlsen 's endgames from the 2012 London Classic ( in particular , his wins against McShane , Aronian , and Adams ) , described what he calls the " Carlsen effect " :
... through the combined force of his skill and no less important his reputation , he drives his opponents into errors . ... He plays on for ever , calmly , methodically and , perhaps most importantly of all , without fear : calculating superbly , with very few outright mistakes and a good proportion of the " very best " moves . This makes him a monster and makes many opponents wilt .
= = Rating = =
= = = Rating achievements = = =
In the January 2006 FIDE list , at the age of 15 years , 32 days , he attained a 2625 Elo rating , which made Carlsen the youngest person to surpass 2600 Elo ( the record has since been broken by Wesley So , Wei Yi and John M. Burke ) . In the July 2007 FIDE list , at the age of 16 years , 213 days , Carlsen attained a 2710 Elo rating , which made him the youngest person to surpass 2700 Elo ( the record has since been broken by Wei Yi at the age of 15 years , 9 months ) . On 5 September 2008 , after winning round 4 in the Bilbao Grand Slam chess championship , Carlsen , just 17 years , 280 days old , briefly became No. 1 on the unofficial live ratings list . Carlsen 's September – October 2009 victory in the Nanjing Pearl tournament raised his FIDE rating to 2801 , making him at age 18 years , 336 days , the youngest player ever to break 2800 . The youngest before him was Vladimir Kramnik at age 25 . Before Carlsen , only Kasparov , Topalov , Kramnik , and Anand had achieved a 2800 + rating . After the Tal Memorial ( November 2009 ) he became No. 1 on the unofficial live chess rating list with his new peak rating of 2805 @.@ 7 , 0 @.@ 6 point over the No. 2 ranked player , Veselin Topalov .
The FIDE rankings from January 2010 , which took into account the 16 games played at the Tal Memorial and the London Chess Classic , were enough to raise Carlsen 's rating to 2810 . This meant that Carlsen started 2010 by being , at the age of 19 years , 32 days , the youngest ever world No. 1 , and also the first player from a Western nation to reach the top of the FIDE rating list since Bobby Fischer in 1971 . The press coverage of this feat included an interview and article in Time magazine .
The March 2010 FIDE rating list showed Carlsen with a new peak rating of 2813 , a figure that only Kasparov had bettered at that time . On the January 2013 FIDE rating list , Carlsen reached 2861 , thus surpassing Garry Kasparov 's 2851 record from July 1999 . On list from May 2014 , Carlsen achieved an all @-@ time high record of 2882 .
= = Head @-@ to @-@ head record versus selected grandmasters = =
( Rapid , blitz and blindfold games not included ; listed as + wins − losses = draws as of 23 Jul 2016 . ) Players who have been undisputed World Champion in boldface
= = Notable games = =
All links in this section lead to an external site .
Carlsen – Garry Kasparov , Reykjavík Rapid ( 2004 ) , Queen 's Gambit Declined : Cambridge Springs Variation ( D52 ) , ½ – ½ At the age of just 13 years , Carlsen had serious winning chances in a rapid game against Garry Kasparov , ranked No. 1 in the world at that time , and considered by many to be the greatest chess player of all time .
Carlsen – Veselin Topalov , M @-@ Tel Masters ( 2009 ) , Semi @-@ Slav Defense : General ( D43 ) , 1 – 0 This was Carlsen 's first win against a 2800 + player .
Carlsen – Boris Gelfand , Tal Memorial ( 2011 ) , Slav Defense : Quiet Variation . Schallopp Defense ( D12 ) , 1 – 0 The No. 1 Israeli player and future World Championship challenger creates a seemingly decisive rook invasion into White 's back rank , but Carlsen vanquishes his threats . Carlsen called it " one of the most interesting games I have played in recent times " .
Carlsen – Hikaru Nakamura , London Chess Classic ( 2011 ) , Italian Game : Classical Variation . Giuoco Pianissimo ( C53 ) , 1 – 0 Facing the No. 1 American player , Carlsen demolishes Black 's pawn structure .
Carlsen – Viswanathan Anand , Bilbao Masters ( 2012 ) , Sicilian Defense : Canal Attack . Main Line ( B52 ) , 1 – 0 Playing against the then World Champion in a game he considers one of the best in his career , Carlsen sacrifices a pawn to leave Black with a cramped position , leading to his resignation at move 30 .
Carlsen 's complete PGN chess game collection can be downloaded from [ 1 ]
= = Beyond chess = =
Carlsen modelled for G @-@ Star Raw 's Autumn / Winter 2010 advertising campaign with actress Liv Tyler . The campaign was shot by Dutch film director and photographer Anton Corbijn . The campaign was coordinated with the RAW World Chess Challenge in New York , an event where Carlsen played an online team of global chess players who voted on moves suggested by three GMs : Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave , Hikaru Nakamura , and Judit Polgár . Carlsen , playing White , won in 43 moves . Film director J. J. Abrams offered Carlsen a role in the movie Star Trek Into Darkness as " a chess player from the future " , but he had to decline , unable to get a US work permit in time for shooting . In 2012 , Carlsen was featured in a 60 Minutes segment , and appeared as a guest on The Colbert Report . He was also interviewed by Rainn Wilson for SoulPancake . Carlsen was selected as one of the " sexiest men of 2013 " by Cosmopolitan . In August 2013 , Carlsen became an ambassador for Nordic Semiconductor .
As of 2012 , Carlsen is the only active chess professional with a full @-@ time manager . Espen Agdestein , brother of Carlsen 's former trainer Simen , and a FIDE Master and twice member of the Norwegian team at the Chess Olympiads , began working as an agent for Carlsen in late 2008 . His work consisted initially of finding sponsors and negotiating media contacts , but since 2011 , he has taken over management tasks formerly performed by Carlsen 's father Henrik . Carlsen reportedly earned roughly US $ 1 @.@ 2 million in 2012 , the bulk of which was from sponsorships .
In October 2013 , Carlsen started his majority @-@ owned company , Play Magnus AS . Based in Oslo , Norway , Play Magnus ' first product is an iOS app that allows a user to play a Magnus Carlsen @-@ tuned chess engine at 21 different ages ( from ages 5 to 25 ) . The chess engine was created using a database of thousands of Carlsen 's recorded games from the age of 10 . Carlsen 's goal is to use Play Magnus as a platform to encourage more people to play chess .
In 2008 during a Q & A session with Nettavisen , when Carlsen was asked whether he had a form of autism spectrum disorder , he replied " well , isn 't that obvious ? " In December 2013 , in an interview with Norwegian tabloid Verdens Gang , he clarified that he had meant " obviously not " , and said that he considers himself to have " normal social skills and to be functioning normally . "
In February 2014 , Carlsen appeared in G @-@ Star Raw 's Spring / Summer 2014 campaign along with actress and model Lily Cole .
= = Books and films = =
Valaker , O ; Carlsen , M. ( 2004 ) . Lær sjakk med Magnus [ Learn Chess with Magnus ] . Gyldendal Norsk Forlag . ISBN 978 @-@ 82 @-@ 05 @-@ 33963 @-@ 7 .
The Prince of Chess , a film about Magnus Carlsen ( 2005 ) . Directed by Øyvind Asbjørnsen .
Opedal , Hallgeir ( 2011 ) . Smarte trekk . Magnus Carlsen : Verdens beste sjakkspiller [ Smart Moves . Magnus Carlsen : The World 's Best Chess Player ] . Kagge . ISBN 978 @-@ 82 @-@ 489 @-@ 1050 @-@ 3
Mikhalchishin , Adrian ; Stetsko , Oleg . ( 2012 ) . Fighting Chess with Magnus Carlsen ( Progress in Chess ) . Edition Olms . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 283 @-@ 01020 @-@ 1 .
Crouch , Colin ( 2013 ) . Magnus Force : How Carlsen Beat Kasparov 's Record . Everyman Chess . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 78194 @-@ 133 @-@ 1 .
Kotronias , Vassilios & Logothetis , Sotiris ( 2013 ) . Carlsen 's assault on the throne . Quality Chess . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 906552 @-@ 22 @-@ 0 .
Magnus ( 2016 ) . Directed by Benjamin Ree .
= Louis Antoine de Saint @-@ Just =
Louis Antoine Léon de Saint @-@ Just ( French pronunciation : [ sɛ ̃ ʒyst ] ; 25 August 1767 – 28 July 1794 ) was a military and political leader during the French Revolution . The youngest of the deputies elected to the National Convention in 1792 , Saint @-@ Just rose quickly in their ranks and became a major leader of the government of the French First Republic . He spearheaded the movement to execute King Louis XVI and later drafted the radical French Constitution of 1793 .
He became a close friend of Maximilien Robespierre , and served with him as one of the commissioners of the powerful Committee of Public Safety . Dispatched as a commissar to the army during its rocky start in the French Revolutionary Wars , Saint @-@ Just imposed severe discipline , and he was credited by many for the army 's subsequent revival at the front . Back in Paris , he supervised the consolidation of Robespierre 's power through a ruthless and bloody program of intimidation . In his relatively brief time on the historical stage , he became the enduring public face of the Reign of Terror and was dubbed the " Angel of Death " by later writers . Saint @-@ Just organized the arrests and prosecutions of many of the most famous figures of the Revolution .
Saint @-@ Just was arrested in the violent episode of 9 Thermidor and executed the next day with Robespierre and their allies . In many histories of the Revolution , their deaths at the guillotine mark the end of the Reign of Terror .
= = Early life = =
Louis Antoine de Saint @-@ Just was born at Decize in the former Nivernais province of central France . He was the eldest child of Louis Jean de Saint @-@ Just de Richebourg ( 1716 – 1777 ) , a retired French cavalry officer , knight of the Order of Saint Louis , and of the 20 @-@ years younger Marie @-@ Anne Robinot ( 1736 – 1811 ) , the daughter of a notary . He had two younger sisters , born in 1768 and 1769 . The family later moved north and in 1776 settled in the village of Blérancourt in the former Picardy province , establishing themselves as a countryside noble family living out of the rents from their land . A year after the move , Louis Antoine 's father died leaving his mother with the three children . She saved diligently for her only son 's education , and in 1779 he was sent to the Oratorian school at Soissons . After a promising start , Saint @-@ Just acquired a reputation as a troublemaker , augmented by infamous stories ( almost certainly apocryphal ) of how he led a students ' rebellion and tried to burn down the school . Nonetheless , he earned his graduation in 1786 .
His restive nature , however , did not diminish . As a young man , Saint @-@ Just was " wild , handsome , [ and ] transgressive " . Well @-@ connected and popular , he showed a special affection toward a young woman of Blérancourt , Thérèse Gellé . She was the daughter of another wealthy notary , a powerful and autocratic figure in the town ; he was still an undistinguished adolescent . He is said to have proposed marriage to her ; she is said to have desired it . Though no hard evidence exists regarding their relationship , official records show that on 25 July 1786 , Thérèse was married to Emmanuel Thorin , the scion of a prominent local family . Saint @-@ Just was out of town and unaware of the event , and tradition portrays him as brokenhearted . Whatever his true state , it is known that a few weeks after the marriage he abruptly left home for Paris – without an announcement , but not without gathering up a pair of pistols and a good quantity of his mother 's silver . His venture turned short when his mother had him seized by police and sent to a reformatory ( maison de correction ) where he stayed from September 1786 to March 1787 . Chastened , Saint @-@ Just attempted to begin anew : he enrolled as a student at the School of Law , Reims University . After a year , however , he drifted away from law school and returned to his mother 's home in Blérancourt penniless , without any occupational prospects .
= = = Organt = = =
At a young age Saint @-@ Just had shown a fascination with literature , and during his stay at the reformatory he used his time to begin writing a lengthy poem . He published it anonymously more than two years later , in May 1789 , at the very outbreak of the Revolution . The 21 @-@ year @-@ old Saint @-@ Just thereby added his own touch to the social tumult of the times with Organt , poem in twenty cantos . The poem , a medieval epic fantasy , relates the quest of young Antoine Organt . It extols the virtues of primitive man , praising his libertinism and independence while blaming all present @-@ day troubles on modern inequalities of wealth and power . Written in a style mimicking Ariosto , it gave a juvenile foreshadowing of his own political extremism . Spiked with brutal satire and scandalous pornographic episodes , it also made unmistakable attacks upon the monarchy , the nobility , and the Church .
Contemporaries regarded Organt as something of a salacious novelty and it was quickly banned , but censors who tried to confiscate it discovered that few copies were available anywhere . It did not sell well and resulted in a financial loss for its author . The public 's taste for literature had changed in the prelude to the Revolution , and Saint @-@ Just 's taste changed with it : aside from a few pages of an unfinished novel found amidst his papers at the end of his life , Saint @-@ Just devoted his future writing entirely to undecorated essays of social and political theory . With his previous ambitions of literary and lawyerly fame unfulfilled , Saint @-@ Just directed his focus on the single goal of revolutionary command .
= = Early revolutionary career = =
Blérancourt 's traditional power structure was reshaped by the events of 1789 . The notary Gellé , previously an undisputed town leader , was challenged by a group of reformists who were led by several of Saint @-@ Just 's friends , including the husband of his sister Louise . Their attempts were not successful until 1790 when Blérancourt held its first open municipal elections . Mandated by the National Constituent Assembly , the new electoral structure allowed Saint @-@ Just 's friends to assume authority in the village as mayor , secretary , and , in the case of his brother @-@ in @-@ law , head of the local National Guard . The jobless Saint @-@ Just , despite not meeting the legal age and tax qualifications , was allowed to join the Guard .
Saint @-@ Just immediately exhibited the ruthless disciplinarianism for which he would be famous . Within a few months he was the commanding officer , at the rank of lieutenant @-@ colonel . At local meetings he moved attendees with his patriotic zeal and flair : in one much @-@ repeated story , Saint @-@ Just brought the town council to tears by thrusting his hand into the flame of a burning anti @-@ revolutionary pamphlet , swearing his devotion to the Republic . He had powerful allies when he sought to become a member of his district ’ s electoral assembly , and he initiated correspondence with well @-@ known leaders of the Revolution like Camille Desmoulins . In late 1790 , he wrote to Robespierre for the first time , asking him to consider a local petition . The letter was filled with the highest of praise , beginning : “ You , who uphold our tottering country against the torrent of despotism and intrigue ; you whom I know , as I know God , only through his miracles ... ” Through their correspondence , the two developed " a deep and mysterious friendship that would last until the day [ they ] died . "
= = = L 'Esprit de la Revolution = = =
While Saint @-@ Just waited for the next election , he composed an extensive work , L 'Esprit de la Revolution et de la constitution de France , published in the spring of 1791 . His writing style had shed all satire and now adopted the stern and moralizing tone of classical Romans so adored by French revolutionaries . It revealed an unexpectedly moderate set of principles deeply influenced by Montesquieu , and remained fully confined to a paradigm of constitutional monarchy . He expressed abhorrence at the violence in the Revolution thus far , and he disdained the character of those who partook in it as little more than " riotous slaves " . Instead , he heaped his praise upon the people 's representatives in the Legislative Assembly , whose sober virtue would guide the Revolution best . Spread out over five books , L 'Esprit de la Revolution is inconsistent in many of its assertions but still shows clearly that Saint @-@ Just no longer saw government as oppressive to man 's nature but necessary to its success : its ultimate object was to " edge society in the direction of the distant ideal . "
The new work , like its predecessor , attracted minimal readership . On 21 June 1791 , just days after it was published , all attention became focused on King Louis XVI 's ill @-@ fated flight to Varennes , and Saint @-@ Just 's theories about constitutional monarchy were made suddenly irrelevant . Yet the episode had another effect – it fostered a public anger toward the king which simmered all year until finally a Parisian mob attacked the Tuileries Palace on 10 August 1792 . In response , the Assembly declared itself ready to step down ahead of schedule and called for a new election , this one under universal male suffrage . The timing was excellent for Saint @-@ Just , who turned the legal age of twenty @-@ five before the end of the month . The fear inspired by the invasion of the Tuileries made most of his opponents retire from the scene , and Saint @-@ Just was elected as one of the deputies for the département of Aisne . He left for Paris to join the National Convention as its youngest member .
= = = Deputy to the Convention = = =
Among the deputies , Saint @-@ Just was watchful but interacted little at first . He joined the Parisian Jacobin Club but he remained aloof from Girondins and Montagnards alike . He waited until 13 November 1792 to give his first speech to the Convention , but when he did the effect was spectacular . What brought him to the lectern was the discussion over how to treat the king after Varennes . In dramatic contrast to the earlier speakers , Saint @-@ Just delivered a blazing condemnation of the king . He demanded that " Louis Capet " should be judged not as a king or even a citizen , but as a traitor , an enemy who deserves death . " As for me , " he declared , " I see no middle ground : this man must reign or die ! He oppressed a free nation ; he declared himself its enemy ; he abused the laws : he must die to assure the repose of the people , since it was in his mind to crush the people to assure his own . ”
The young deputy 's speech electrified the Convention . Saint @-@ Just was interrupted frequently by bursts of applause and towards the end of his speech he uttered his eerily universal observation , " No one can reign innocently . " Robespierre was particularly impressed – he spoke from the lectern the next day in terms almost identical to those of Saint @-@ Just , and their views became the official position of the Jacobins . By December , that position had become law : the king was taken to a trial before the Convention , sentenced to death , and executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793 .
= = Constitution of 1793 = =
Because the first French Constitution had included a role for the king , it was long since invalid and needed to be updated for the Republic . A large number of drafts had been circulating within the Convention since the king 's execution , and Saint @-@ Just submitted his own lengthy proposal on 24 April 1793 . His draft incorporated the most common assertions of the others : the right to vote , the right to petition , and equal eligibility for employment were among the basic principles that made his draft tenable . Where he stood apart from the rest was on the issue of elections . Saint @-@ Just dismissed all complex systems of voting and eligibility and supported only the classical style of a simple majority of citizens in a nationwide vote . Amid a flurry of proposals by other deputies , Saint @-@ Just held inflexibly to his " one man one vote " plan , and this conspicuous homage to Greco @-@ Roman traditions ( which were particularly prized and idealized in French culture during the Revolution ) enhanced his political cachet . When no plan gained enough votes to pass , a compromise was made which tasked a small body of deputies as official constitutional draftsmen , and Saint @-@ Just was among the five elected members . In recognition of the importance of their mission , the draftsmen were all added to the powerful new Committee of Public Safety .
The Convention had given the Committee extraordinary authority to provide for state security ever since the outbreak of the French Revolutionary War in early 1793 . Committee members were originally intended to serve for periods of only thirty days before replacements were elected , so they needed to work quickly . Saint @-@ Just took charge of the issue and led the development of the French Constitution of 1793 . Before the end of his first term , the new document was completed , submitted to the Convention , and ratified as law on 24 June 1793 .
The new constitution remained a showpiece for Saint @-@ Just but little more . However much he may have wanted to see it implemented , emergency measures for wartime were in effect . The war had called for ( or provided cover for ) a moratorium on constitutional democracy . It gave supreme power to the sitting Convention , with the Committee of Public Safety at the top of its administrative pyramid . Robespierre , with Saint @-@ Just 's assistance , fought vigorously to ensure that the government would remain under emergency measures – " revolutionary " – until victory .
= = Committee of Public Safety = =
= = = Proscription of the Girondins = = =
During the time that Saint @-@ Just was working on the constitution , dramatic political warfare was taking place . The sans @-@ culottes – deemed " the people " by many radicals , and represented by the Paris Commune – had grown antipathetic to the moderate Girondins and on 2 June 1793 , in a mass action supported by National Guardsmen , they surrounded the Convention and exacted the arrest of the Girondin deputies . The deputies – even the Montagnards , who had long enjoyed an informal alliance with the sans @-@ culottes – resented the intimidation but they were compelled to make some obeisance . The Girondin leader Jacques Pierre Brissot was indicted for treason and scheduled for trial , but the other Brissotins were imprisoned ( or pursued ) without formal charges . The Convention debated their fate and the political disorder lasted for weeks . Saint @-@ Just had previously remained silent about the Girondins , but now clearly stood with Robespierre who had been thoroughly opposed to most of them for a long time . When the initial indictment by the Committee was served , it was Saint @-@ Just who delivered the report to the Convention .
In its secret negotiations , the Committee of Public Safety was initially unable to form a consensus concerning the jailed deputies , but as some Girondins fled to the provinces and attempted to incite an insurrection , its opinion hardened . By early July , Saint @-@ Just was able to address the Convention with a lengthy report in the name of the Committee , and his damning attack left no room for any further conciliation . The Girondins ' trials must proceed , he said , and any verdicts must be severe . The proceedings dragged on for months , but Brissot and twenty of his allies were eventually condemned and sent to the guillotine on 31 October 1793 . Saint @-@ Just used their situation to gain approval for intimidating new laws , culminating in the Law of Suspects ( 17 September 1793 ) which gave the Committee vast new powers of arrest and punishment .
= = Military commissar = =
Saint @-@ Just made the proposal that deputies from the Convention should directly oversee all military efforts , which was approved on 10 October 1793 . Amid worsening conditions at the front in the fall of that year , several deputies were sent to the critical area of Alsace to shore up the disintegrating Army of the Rhine . Results were not sufficiently forthcoming , so at the end of the month Saint @-@ Just himself was sent | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
to Islam . After dropping out of teacher 's college , in 1936 he began working as a teacher , and later headmaster , at a Muhammadiyah @-@ run elementary school . After the Japanese occupied the Indies in 1942 , Sudirman continued to teach , before joining the Japanese @-@ sponsored Defenders of the Homeland as a battalion commander in Banyumas in 1944 . In this position he put down a rebellion by his fellow soldiers , but was later interned in Bogor . After Indonesia proclaimed its independence on 17 August 1945 , Sudirman led a break @-@ out then went to Jakarta to meet President Sukarno . Tasked with overseeing the surrender of Japanese soldiers in Banyumas , he established a division of the People 's Safety Body there . On 12 November 1945 , at an election to decide the military 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief in Yogyakarta , Sudirman was chosen over Oerip Soemohardjo in a close vote . While waiting to be confirmed , Sudirman ordered an assault on British and Dutch forces in Ambarawa . The ensuing battle and British withdrawal strengthened Sudirman 's popular support , and he was ultimately confirmed on 18 December .
During the following three years Sudirman saw negotiations with the returning Dutch colonial forces fail , first after the Linggadjati Agreement – which Sudirman participated in drafting – and then the Renville Agreement ; he was also faced with internal dissent , including a 1948 coup d 'état attempt . He later blamed these issues for his tuberculosis , which led to his right lung being collapsed in November 1948 . On 19 December 1948 , several days after Sudirman 's release from the hospital , the Dutch launched an assault on the capital . Sudirman and a small contingent escaped Dutch forces and left the city , making their headquarters at Sobo , near Mount Lawu . There Sudirman commanded military activities throughout Java , including a show of force in Yogyakarta on 1 March 1949 . When the Dutch began withdrawing , in July 1949 Sudirman was recalled to Yogyakarta and forbidden to fight further . In late 1949 Sudirman 's tuberculosis relapsed , and he retired to Magelang , where he died slightly more than a month after the Dutch recognised Indonesia 's independence . He is buried at Semaki Heroes ' Cemetery in Yogyakarta .
Sudirman 's death was grieved throughout Indonesia , with flags flown at half @-@ mast and thousands gathering to see his funeral convoy and procession . He continues to be highly respected in Indonesia . His guerrilla campaign has been credited with developing the army 's esprit de corps , and the 100 @-@ kilometre ( 62 mi ) long route he took must be followed by Indonesian cadets before graduation . Sudirman featured prominently on the 1968 series of rupiah banknotes , and has numerous streets , museums , and monuments named after him . On 10 December 1964 he was declared a National Hero of Indonesia .
= = Early life = =
Sudirman was born to Karsid Kartawiraji ( father ) and Siyem while they lived with Siyem 's sister Tarsem , one of three women married to the sub @-@ district head Raden Cokrosunaryo , in Rembang , Bodas Karangjati , Purbalingga , Dutch East Indies . According to the family 's records , Sudirman – named by his uncle – was born on a pon Sunday in the month of Maulud in the Javanese calendar ; the Indonesian government later established 24 January 1916 as Sudirman 's birthday . As Cokrosunaryo was in a better financial situation , he adopted Sudirman and gave him the title Raden , reserved for Javanese nobility ; however , Sudirman was not told that Cokrosunaryo was not his birth father until he was eighteen . When Cokrosunaryo retired from his position as chief in late 1916 , Sudirman went with the family to Manggisan , Cilacap , where he was raised . In Cilacap Karsid and Siyem had another son , Muhammad Samingan . Karsid died when Sudirman was six , at which time Siyem left the boys with her brother @-@ in @-@ law and went back to her village at Parakan Onje , Ajibarang .
Sudirman was raised with stories of heroic deeds and taught the etiquette and ways of the priyayi , or noble caste , as well as the work ethic and simplicity of the wong cilik , or commoners . For his religious education , he studied Islam under Kyai Hajji Qahar with his brother ; Sudirman was a religious child , and always prayed on time . He was soon entrusted with performing both the adhan and iqama , or calls to prayer . When he was seven years old , Sudirman was enrolled at a school for natives ( hollandsch inlandsche school ) , where he was an average student . The family , although it had enough to live by , was not rich . During his tenure as sub @-@ district head , Cokrosunaryo had not accumulated much wealth , and in Cilacap he became a distributor of Singer sewing machines .
In his fifth year of school , Sudirman asked to leave his studies , concerned with the ridicule he faced at the government @-@ run school ; this request was at first refused , but Sudirman was transferred to a junior high school run by Taman Siswa in his seventh year of school . In his eighth year , Sudirman transferred to Wirotomo Junior High School after the Taman Siswa School was found to be unregistered and closed under the Wild School Ordinance . Many of Sudirman 's teachers at Wirotomo were Indonesian nationalists , which influenced his views of the Dutch colonists . Sudirman studied diligently at school ; his teacher Suwarjo Tirtosupono later recalled that Sudirman would already be studying second @-@ term lessons while the class was still in term one . Although he performed poorly in Javanese calligraphy , Sudirman was strong in mathematics , science , and writing in both Dutch and Indonesian . Sudirman also became more religious under the guidance of his teacher Raden Mohamad Kholil ; his classmates named him " hajji " because of his devotion to his prayers , and Sudirman took up preaching to other students . Aside from his studies and religious activities , Sudirman also served in the school 's musical troupe and on the football team , on which he was a defender . Although Cokrosunaryo 's death in 1934 left the family poor , Sudirman was allowed to continue his studies without paying until he graduated later that year ; after his step @-@ father 's death , Sudirman also devoted more time to studying the Sunnah and prayer . By age 19 , Sudirman had become a pupil teacher at Wirotomo .
While at Wirotomo Sudirman was a member of the Wirotomo Student Union , drama club , and band . He helped establish a branch of the Hizboel Wathan , an organisation similar to the Boy Scouts , which was run by the Islamic establishment Muhammadiyah . Sudirman became the leader of the Cilacap division after graduating from Wirotomo ; he was tasked with deciding and planning his groups ' activities . He emphasised the need for religious studies , insisting that the contingents from Cilacap attend Muhammadiyah conferences throughout Java . He taught the younger members about the history of Islam and the importance of morality , while with older members he enforced near @-@ military discipline .
= = Teaching = =
After graduating from Wirotomo , Sudirman spent a year at a Muhammadiyah @-@ run teacher 's college in Surakarta , but later dropped out owing to a lack of funds . In 1936 he returned to Cilacap to teach at a Muhammadiyah @-@ run elementary school , having been trained by his teachers at Wirotomo ; that year he married Alfiah , a former schoolmate and the daughter of the rich batik merchant Raden Sastroatmojo . After the marriage Sudirman lived at his father @-@ in @-@ law 's house in Cilacap so he could save money for his own home . The couple went on to have three sons , Ahmad Tidarwono , Muhammad Teguh Bambang Tjahjadi , and Taufik Effendi , and four daughters , Didi Praptiastuti , Didi Sutjiati , Didi Pudjiati , and Titi Wahjuti Satyaningrum .
As a teacher , Sudirman taught his students lessons on morality using examples from the lives of the prophets and traditional wayang stories . One of his students later recalled that Sudirman was an even @-@ handed and patient teacher who would mix humour and nationalism in his lessons ; this made him popular with the students . A hard @-@ working teacher despite poor pay , within several years Sudirman had become headmaster despite not having a teacher 's certificate . As a result , his monthly wages quadrupled from three gulden to twelve and a half . As headmaster , Sudirman worked on numerous administrative duties , including finding middle ground between feuding teachers . A coworker later recalled that Sudirman was a moderate , democratic leader . He was also active in fundraising , both for the needs of his school and the construction of others .
During this time Sudirman also continued to serve as a member of the Muhammadiyah Youth Group . Within the group he was known as a keen negotiator and mediator , working to resolve issues between members ; he also preached at the local mosque . He was elected as Chair of the Banyumas District of the Muhammadiyah Youth Group at the end of 1937 . In this role he enacted policies facilitating members ' studies and activities , both religious and secular . He was later put in charge of Youth Group activities throughout Central Java and spent much of his free time travelling and preaching Islam , putting an emphasis on self @-@ awareness . Alfiah was also active in Muhammadiyah @-@ sponsored activities through the group 's branch for women , Nasyiatul Aisyiyah .
= = Japanese occupation = =
When World War II broke out in Europe , it was expected that the Japanese , who had already made aggressive moves against mainland China , would try to invade the Indies . In response , the Dutch colonial government – which had previously limited military training for native Indonesians – began teaching the populace how to deal with air raids . To co @-@ ordinate the preparations , the Dutch formed Air Raid Preparation teams . Sudirman , respected in the community , was asked to lead the Cilacap chapter . Aside from teaching local citizens the safety procedures for dealing with an air raid , Sudirman established watchposts throughout the area . He and the Dutch would also have passing aircraft drop materials to simulate a bombing run ; this was intended to improve response time .
After the Japanese began occupying the Indies in early 1942 , winning several battles against Dutch and Dutch @-@ trained forces of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army ( Koninklijk Nederlands Indisch Leger , or KNIL ) , on 9 March 1942 Governor @-@ General Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer and head of the KNIL General Hein ter Poorten capitulated . This brought drastic changes in the governance of the archipelago and reduced the quality of life for non @-@ Japanese in the Indies , many of whom suffered from widespread human rights violations at the hands of the Japanese . In Cilacap , Sudirman 's school had been closed and turned into a military outpost ; this was part of a widespread effort to close private schools . After Sudirman convinced the Japanese to reopen the school , he and the other teachers were forced to use substandard supplies . Sudirman was also involved in several social and humanitarian organisations during this period , including as chair of the Indonesian People 's Cooperation . This brought him greater recognition among the people of Cilacap .
In early 1944 , after a year as a representative at the Japanese @-@ run regency council board ( Syu Sangikai ) , Sudirman was asked to join the Defenders of the Homeland ( Pembela Tanah Air , or PETA ) ; the Japanese occupation government had established PETA in October 1943 to help repel any Allied invasion , and were focused on recruiting younger men , those who had " not yet been ' contaminated ' " by Dutch rule . After a few days of hesitance , caused in part by a knee injury he had occurred as a youth , Sudirman agreed to begin training in Bogor . Owing to his standing in the community , Sudirman was made a commander ( daidanco ) and trained with other persons of that rank . Trained by Japanese officers and soldiers , the cadets were armed with confiscated Dutch equipment . After four months of training Sudirman was put in charge of the battalion stationed at Kroya , Banyumas , Central Java , not far from Cilacap .
Sudirman 's time as a PETA commander passed uneventfully until 21 April 1945 , when PETA troops under the command of Kusaeri began to rebel against the Japanese . Ordered to stop the rebellion , Sudirman agreed to do so only if the PETA rebels would not be harmed , and places harbouring them not razed ; this condition was accepted by the Japanese commander , and Sudirman and his troops began searching for the rebels . Although Kusaeri 's men initially shot at the commander , after Sudirman used a loudspeaker to tell them they would not be harmed , they backed down . Kusaeri surrendered on 25 April . This garnered support for Sudirman within the occupation forces , although several high @-@ ranking Japanese officers expressed concern over Sudirman 's support for Indonesian independence . Sudirman and his men were soon sent to a camp in Bogor , ostensibly for training ; however , they were tasked with hard labour as a way to prevent a further uprising , and rumours circulated that the PETA officers would be killed .
= = National revolution = =
= = = Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief = = =
After news of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki reached the Indies in early August 1945 , followed by the proclamation of Indonesian independence on 17 August , it was evident that Japanese control was weakening . Sudirman led a break out from the camp in Bogor . Although his fellow internees wanted to attack the Japanese soldiers , Sudirman convinced them against it . After ordering the others to their hometowns , Sudirman made his way to Jakarta and met with President Sukarno , who asked him to lead resistance against Japanese forces in the city . Unfamiliar with Jakarta , Sudirman refused , instead offering to lead forces in Kroya . He left for his former command on 19 August 1945 . At the same time , Allied forces were in the process of retaking the Indonesian archipelago for the Netherlands . The first British forces arrived on 8 September 1945 .
In late August , Sukarno established the People 's Safety Body ( Badan Keamanan Rakjat , or BKR ) , which united troops from the former PETA , Heihō , and KNIL . The BKR served mostly as a police organisation , partly because the political leadership were intent on using diplomacy to garner international recognition of the new country and partly to avoid appearing overly aggressive to the Japanese forces still in the archipelago . Sudirman and several of his fellow PETA soldiers formed a BKR branch in Banyumas in late August , after stopping at Kroya and discovering that his battalion had been disbanded . In a meeting with the Japanese commander for the region , Saburo Tamura , and the resident of Banyumas , Iwashige , Sudirman and Iskak Cokroadisuryo forced the Japanese to surrender and hand over their weapons while a crowd of armed Indonesians encircled the Japanese camp . Many of these weapons were later used by Sudirman 's BKR unit , making it one of the best equipped in the country ; surplus weapons were distributed to other battalions .
As the newly independent nation did not yet have a professional military , on 5 October 1945 Sukarno passed a decree establishing the People 's Security Army ( Tentara Keamaanan Rakjat or TKR , now known as the Tentara Nasional Indonesia ) . Most officers were former KNIL officers , while rank @-@ and @-@ file soldiers were mostly PETA and Heihō . As the decreed Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Armed Forces , Soeprijadi , failed to come forward , chief of staff Lieutenant General Oerip Soemohardjo served as an interim leader . That October British @-@ led forces , tasked with disarming Japanese troops and repatriating Dutch prisoners of war , arrived in Semarang , then made their way south to Magelang . When the British began rearming repatriated Dutch prisoners and seemed to be preparing a military base in Magelang , Sudirman – now a colonel – sent some of his troops under Lieutenant Colonel Isdiman to drive them away ; the mission was successful , and the European soldiers withdrew to Ambarawa , midway between Magelang and Semarang . On 20 October Sudirman was put in command of the Fifth Division , after Oerip began dividing Java into different military commands .
On 12 November 1945 , at the first general meeting of Army leadership , Sudirman was elected leader of the Army following two deadlocked votes . In the third round , Oerip had 21 votes to Sudirman 's 22 ; the division commanders from Sumatra voted unanimously for Sudirman and swayed the ballot in his favour . Sudirman , aged 29 at the time , was surprised at his selection and offered to relinquish the leadership position to Oerip , but the meeting did not allow it . Oerip himself , who had lost control of the meeting prior to the vote , was glad to no longer be in charge of the entire Army . Sudirman kept Oerip to serve as chief of staff under him . In accordance with his new role , Sudirman was promoted to general . After the meeting , Sudirman returned to Banyumas to await confirmation as leader of the TKR and began developing strategies on how repel Allied advances . The Indonesians feared that the Dutch , through the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration ( Nederlandsch Indië Civil Administratie , or NICA ) , would attempt to retake the archipelago ; soldiers of the Dutch @-@ British alliance had landed in Java in September , and a large battle had occurred in Surabaya during late October and early November . This instability , as well as Sukarno 's uncertainty about Sudirman 's qualifications , led to a delay in Sudirman 's confirmation .
While waiting for his appointment to be confirmed , in late November Sudirman ordered the Fifth Division to attack Allied forces stationed in Ambarawa , once again with Isdiman in charge ; the city was considered strategically important owing to its military barracks and training facilities dating from the colonial period . This assault was countered by an air strike and the use of tanks , which forced the division to retreat ; Isdiman died in the battle , killed by a strafing P @-@ 51 Mustang Sudirman then led the Division in another assault against Allied forces ; the Indonesian troops were armed with a variety of weapons , ranging from bamboo spears and confiscated katanas to rifles , while the British were armed with modern equipment . Sudirman led from the front , wielding a katana . The Allies , whose air support had been cut off when guerrilla soldiers attacked Kalibanteng Airfield in Semarang , were forced onto the defensive and holed up in Willem Fortress . On 12 December Sudirman led a four @-@ day siege , which resulted in the Allied force withdrawing to Semarang .
The Battle of Ambarawa brought Sudirman greater attention at a national level , and generally silenced whispers that he was unfit for military command because of his lack of military experience and previous employment as a schoolteacher . Ultimately , Sudirman was chosen as his loyalty was undoubted , while Oerip 's former pledge of loyalty to the Dutch led to him being viewed with suspicion . Sudirman was confirmed as commander @-@ in @-@ chief on 18 December 1945 . He was replaced as head of the Fifth Division by Colonel Sutiro , and began to focus on strategic problems . This was done partly by establishing a board of advisors , which gave the general advice on both political and military issues . Oerip handled many of the military matters .
Together , Sudirman and Oerip were able to reduce the differences and mistrust between former KNIL and PETA troops , although some troops were reluctant to be subordinated to a central command , instead choosing to follow their popularly @-@ selected battalion commanders . The government renamed the Army twice in January 1946 , first to the Peoples ' Salvation Army ( Tentara Keselamatan Rakjat ) , then to the Army of the Republic of Indonesia ( Tentara Repoeblik Indonesia , or TRI ) . This was followed by the formal establishment of a navy and air force in early 1946 . In the meantime , the Indonesian government had moved from Jakarta – now under Dutch control – to Yogyakarta in January ; delegates led by Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir spent much of April and May unsuccessfully negotiating for Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty . On 25 May Sudirman was reconfirmed as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the expanded military , after its reorganisation . At the ceremony , Sudirman swore to protect the republic " until he shed his last drop of blood . "
The leftist Minister of Defence Amir Sjarifuddin , who had received greater power in the reorganisation , began collecting socialist and communist troops under his direct control , as well as leftist paramilitary units ( laskar ) that were funded by and loyal to the various political parties . The minister instituted political education programmes in the army , which were meant to spread leftist ideology . This use of the military for political manoeverings disappointed both Sudirman and Oerip , who were at the time busy ensuring equal treatment for soldiers from different military backgrounds . However , rumours among the populace had spread that Sudirman was preparing for a coup d 'état ; although an attempt did occur in early July 1946 , Sudirman 's role , if any , is not certain . In July Sudirman addressed these rumours through a speech broadcast on Radio Republik Indonesia ( RRI ) , stating that he , like all Indonesians , was a servant of the State , and that , if he were offered the presidency , he would refuse it . In his later career he stated that the military had no place in politics , and vice versa .
= = = Negotiations with the Dutch = = =
Meanwhile , Sjahrir continued to work on negotiations with the Allied forces . On 7 October 1946 , Sjahrir and the former Dutch Prime Minister , Wim Schermerhorn , agreed to work towards a ceasefire . The discussions were to be moderated by the British diplomat Lord Killearn and involved Sudirman . He took a specially commissioned train to Jakarta , departing on 20 October . However , he ordered it to return to Yogyakarta when Dutch troops refused to allow him and his men to enter the city with their weapons , feeling that such an order violated his sense of honour ; the Dutch apologised , construing the events as a misunderstanding . Sudirman took another train in late October , arriving at Gambir Station in Jakarta on 1 November , where he was greeted by large crowds . The discussions in Jakarta resulted in the drafting of the Linggadjati Agreement on 15 November ; the agreement was ratified on 25 March 1947 , despite heavy opposition from Indonesian nationalists . Sudirman was vocally against the agreement , which he found to be detrimental to Indonesian interests , but considered himself obliged to follow his orders .
In early 1947 , with the Linggadjati Agreement granting relative peace , Sudirman began work on consolidating the TKR with various laskar . As part of a committee , Sudirman began reorganising the military ; they reached an agreement in May 1947 , and on 3 June 1947 the Indonesian National Armed Forces ( Tentara Nasional Indonesia , or TNI ) was formalised ; it consisted of TKR forces and various laskar groups , which Sudirman had included only after realising the extent of their manipulation by the political parties . However , the ceasefire obtained through the Linggadjati Agreement was not long lasting . On 21 July 1947 the Dutch forces – which had occupied areas left by the British during their withdrawal – launched Operation Product , and quickly gained control of large swaths of Java and Sumatra ; the national government in Yogyakarta remained untouched . Sudirman called the army to fight , using the code " Ibu Pertiwi is calling ! Ibu Pertiwi is calling ! " , and later delivered several speeches over RRI in an unsuccessful attempt to encourage soldiers to fight against the Dutch . However , the Indonesian soldiers were unprepared and their lines crumbled quickly .
Pressured by the United Nations , which had looked at the situation in the former East Indies with disdain , on 29 August 1947 the Dutch established the Van Mook Line , which divided Dutch and Indonesian @-@ controlled areas . Along this line a ceasefire was called . Sudirman recalled the Indonesian guerrillas hiding in Dutch @-@ held lands , ordering them to return to Indonesian @-@ held areas . To keep their spirits up , he referred to the withdrawal as a hijrah , reminiscent of Muhammad 's migration to Medina in 622 AD , implying that they would return . Over 35 @,@ 000 troops left western Java at this order , travelling to Yogyakarta by train and ship . This boundary was formalised by the Renville Agreement on 17 January 1948 ; among the signatories was Amir Sjarifuddin , by then also serving as prime minister . Meanwhile , Sjarifuddin began rationalising the army , cutting back on the number of troops . At the time the regular army consisted of 350 @,@ 000 men , with a further 470 @,@ 000 in the laskar .
In this programme , by presidential decree Sudirman was no longer commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the military starting on 2 January 1948 . He was demoted to lieutenant general , while Chief of the Air Force Soerjadi Soerjadarma was intended to be commander @-@ in @-@ chief . Shortly afterwards , Sjarifuddin was ousted in a vote of no confidence for his involvement in the Renville Agreement , and the new prime minister , Mohammad Hatta , worked to implement the rationalisation programme . This led to a several months @-@ long debate between pro- and anti @-@ rationalisation groups . Sudirman served as a rallying point and driving force for soldiers , including numerous older commanders , who were against the programme . Sudirman was formally reinstated on 1 June 1946 , upon which he effectively rescinded the command to rationalise . He chose Colonel Abdul Haris Nasution as his deputy , but remained a lieutenant general .
As the rationalisation programme was winding down , Sjarifuddin began gathering soldiers from the Socialist Party , Communist Party , and members of the All Indonesia Centre of Labour Organizations for a would @-@ be proletarian revolution in Madiun , East Java , which occurred on 18 September 1948 . Sudirman , ill at the time , sent Nasution to deal with the revolution ; Sudirman also sent two other officers as peace feelers before the attacks . Although the revolutionary leader Muso was amenable to peace , Nasution and his soldiers had quashed the uprising by 30 September . Sudirman visited Madiun not long after the battle , later telling his wife that he had been unable to sleep there for all the bloodshed .
This rebellion , and ongoing political instability , sapped Sudirman of much of his remaining strength . On 5 October 1948 , after celebrations of the military 's third anniversary , Sudirman collapsed . After being examined by numerous doctors , he was diagnosed with tuberculosis . At the end of the month he was brought to Panti Rapih Hospital and had his right lung collapsed , in hope that it would stop the spread of the disease . During his time at the hospital , he delegated most of his duties to Nasution . However , the two continued to discuss plans for the war against the Dutch , and Sudirman continued to receive status reports . They agreed that guerrilla warfare , which had been applied on raids into Dutch @-@ held territory since May , would be best suited for their needs ; towards this goal , Sudirman issued a general order on 11 November , with Nasution handling most of the preparations . Sudirman was released from the hospital on 28 November 1948 .
Although he continued to issue orders , Sudirman only returned to active duty on 17 December ; in light of the growing tension between the Dutch and Indonesian forces , he ordered the TNI soldiers to maintain an increased level of awareness ; he also ordered large @-@ scale military exercises as a in an unsuccessful attempt to convince the Dutch that the TNI was too strong to attack . Two days later , after a nighttime announcement that they were no longer bound by the Renville Agreement , on 19 December the Dutch launched Operation Kraai , an attempt to capture the capital at Yogyakarta . By 07 : 10 local time ( UTC + 7 ) , the airfield at Maguwo had been taken by paratroopers under the command of Captain Eekhout . Sudirman , upon becoming aware of the attack , had an order read over RRI which stated that soldiers should fight as they had been trained – as guerrillas .
He then went to the Presidential Palace in central Yogyakarta , where the government leaders were discussing an ultimatum which stated that the city would be stormed unless the leadership accepted colonial rule . Sudirman urged that the president and vice @-@ president leave the city and fight as guerrillas , actions they had previously promised , but this suggestion was rejected . Although his doctors forbade it , Sudirman received permission from Sukarno to join his men . The central government evacuated to the Kraton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat at the urging of Sultan Hamengkubuwana IX , but were captured and exiled .
= = = Guerrilla warfare = = =
Sudirman first went to his official home and gathered sensitive documents , which he burned to prevent them falling into Dutch hands . His convoy , consisting of Sudirman , a small group of soldiers , and his personal doctor , then made their way south , towards Kretek , Parangtritis , Bantul . There they were received by the district head at 18 : 00 . After several days in Kretek , during which time Sudirman sent undercover troops into the Dutch @-@ occupied city for reconnaissance and to ask his wife for jewellery to sell and help fund the guerrilla movement , he and his group travelled east along the south coast to Wonogiri . Before the Dutch attack it had already been decided that Sudirman would be able to better control the guerrillas from eastern Java , where there were still several bases . Meanwhile , Alfiah and the children were ordered to stay in the Kraton . Aware that he was being pursued by the Dutch , on 23 December Sudirman ordered his troops to continue to Ponorogo , where they stopped at the home of Mahfuz , a kyai and Islamic religious leader ; Mahfuz gave the general a cane to help him walk , although Sudirman was , and continued to be , carried on a litter . They then continued east .
Outside of Trenggalek , Sudirman and his group were stopped by TNI soldiers belonging to 102 Battalion . These soldiers , who were told that Sudirman – who was in civilian clothes and unrecognised by the troops holding them – was a prisoner , refused to allow the group to pass ; they were suspicious as Sudirman 's convoy carried maps and notes on Indonesian military movements , things which may have belonged to spies . When the group 's commander , Major Zainal Fanani , came to check the situation , he realised that Sudirman was with them and apologised . Told that his men were right to guard their areas diligently , Fanani called a post in Kediri and ordered that a car be sent to pick up the general and his troops . After a time in Kediri , they continued further east ; as they left the city on 24 December , Dutch planes attacked Kediri .
The constant Dutch attacks led Sudirman , perhaps at the suggestion of one of his men , to change his clothes and give his old outfit to one of his soldiers , Second Lieutenant Heru Kesser – who bore a resemblance to Sudirman . Kesser was ordered to head south with a large company of soldiers , remove the clothes , and furtively return north , while Sudirman waited in Karangnongko . The diversion was successful , and on 27 December Sudirman and his men made their way to Jambu Village . Arriving on 9 January 1949 , Sudirman met with several government ministers who had not been present during the Dutch attack on Yogyakarta : Supeno , Susanto Tirtoprojo , and Susilowati . With the politicians , Sudirman made his way to Banyutuwo , ordering some of his soldiers to linger back and hold off Dutch ground troops . In Banyutuwo , they held for over a week . However , on 21 January , when Dutch forces approached the village , Sudirman and his entourage were forced to leave , fighting their way out in heavy rain .
Sudirman and his troops continued to make their way through the jungles and forests , eventually arriving at Sobo , near Mount Lawu , on 18 February . During the journey , Sudirman used a radio set to convey orders to local TNI troops if he believed that the region was secure . Feeling weaker because of the physical hardships he had faced , including travelling through the forests and a lack of food , and believing the area to be safe , Sudirman decided that Sobo would serve as his guerrilla headquarters . The local commander , Lieutenant Colonel Wiliater Hutagalung , served as his go @-@ between with the other TNI leaders . Aware that international opinion , which was beginning to condemn Dutch actions in Indonesia , could bring Indonesia greater recognition , Sudirman and Hutagalung discussed possible terms of action , before agreeing on a large @-@ scale assault . Meanwhile , the Dutch began to spread propaganda claiming that they had captured Sudirman ; this claim was intended to break the morale of the guerrillas .
Sudirman ordered Hutagalung to begin planning a full @-@ scale assault , in which TNI soldiers – in uniform – would attack the Dutch and show their strength in front of foreign reporters and United Nations investigative teams . Hutagalung , together with officers under his commander Colonel Bambang Sugeng and government officials under Governor Wongsonegoro , spent several days discussing ways to ensure the attack could be successful . The discussion may have resulted in the General Offensive of 1 March 1949 , which saw TNI soldiers attack Dutch outposts throughout central Java . Troops under Lieutenant Colonel Suharto retook Yogyakarta for six hours before withdrawing , a successful show of force which caused the Dutch to lose face internationally ; they had previously declared the TNI eradicated . However , who truly ordered the offensive remains uncertain : Suharto and Hamengkubuwana IX claimed responsibility , while Bambang Sugeng 's brother reportedly overheard him ordering the assault .
Under increased pressure from the United Nations , on 7 May 1949 Dutch – Indonesian negotiations resulted in the Roem @-@ Royen Agreement , a controversial measure which guaranteed Dutch withdrawal from Yogyakarta , among other points ; The Dutch withdrawal commenced in late June , and the Indonesian leadership began returning to Yogyakarta from exile in early July . Sukarno ordered Sudirman to return to Yogyakarta as well , but Sudirman refused to let the Dutch withdraw without a fight ; he considered the TNI to now be strong enough to defeat the dispirited Dutch . Although he was promised medicine and support in Yogyakarta , Sudirman refused to return to the political leadership , whom he considered acquiescent to the Dutch . He only agreed to return after receiving a letter , although sources disagree on its sender . On 10 July , Sudirman and his group returned to Yogyakarta , where they were greeted by thousands of civilians and warmly received by the political elite there . The reporter Rosihan Anwar , who was present when the letter was delivered , wrote in 1973 that " Sudirman had to return to Yogyakarta to avoid any perceptions of a rift among the republic 's top leaders " .
= = Post @-@ war and death = =
In early August Sudirman approached Sukarno and asked him to continue the guerrilla war ; Sudirman did not expect the Dutch to abide by the Roem @-@ Royen Agreement , based on the failings of the previous agreements . Sukarno disagreed , which was a blow to Sudirman . When Sudirman threatened to resign his post , blaming the government 's inconsistency for his tuberculosis and Oerip 's death in November 1948 , Sukarno threatened to do so as well . As he thought that such a resignation would have a destabilising effect , Sudirman stayed his hand , and a Java @-@ wide cease fire came into effect on 11 August 1949 .
Continuing to suffer from tuberculosis , Sudirman was checked into Panti Rapih hospital , where he stayed until October , when he was transferred to a sanatorium in nearby Pakem . As a result of his illness , Sudirman made few public appearances . Sudirman was transferred to a home in Magelang in December . In the meantime , the Indonesian and Dutch governments held a several @-@ month @-@ long conference which resulted in Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty on 27 December 1949 . Sudirman , despite his illness , was reconfirmed that day as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the TNI , now serving the newly established Republic of the United States of Indonesia . On 28 December , Jakarta once again became the nation 's capital .
Sudirman died in Magelang at 18 : 30 on 29 January 1950 ; this was reported in a special broadcast over RRI . Upon receiving news of his death , the Sudirman family home received numerous visitors , including the entirety of the 9th Brigade , which was stationed nearby . The following morning Sudirman 's body was brought to Yogyakarta . As the funeral convoy passed , led by four tanks and consisting of eighty motor vehicles , thousands of mourners stood at the sides of the streets . The convoy was organised by members of the 9th Brigade .
The viewing , held at the Great Mosque of Yogyakarta in the afternoon , was attended by numerous political and military elite from both Indonesia and foreign countries ; this included Prime Minister Abdul Halim , Minister of Defence Hamengkubuwana IX , Minister of Health Johannes Leimena , Minister of Justice Abdoel Gaffar Pringgodigdo , Minister of Information Arnold Mononutu , Chief of the Air Force Soerjadi Soerjadarma , Colonel Paku Alam VIII , and Suharto . The viewing was closed with a 24 @-@ gun salute . Sudirman 's body was brought to Semaki Heroes ' Cemetery on foot , with a crowd of mourners 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) long trailing behind . He was interred next to Oerip , after another gun salute . His wife filled in the first scoop of dirt , followed by the government ministers . The national government ordered flags to be flown at half @-@ mast throughout the country , and Sudirman was promoted to full general . Major @-@ General Tahi Bonar Simatupang was selected as the new leader of the armed forces . Sudirman 's memoirs were published later that year ; a series of his speeches were also published in 1970 .
= = Legacy = =
An obituary in the Yogyakarta @-@ based daily Kedaulatan Rakjat wrote that Indonesia had lost a " brave and true hero " . Colonel Paku Alam VIII , in charge of the Yogyakarta area , told the national news agency Antara that all Indonesians , especially the armed forces , had " lost a father figure who did uncountable deeds for his country " . The Indonesian Muslim leader Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah , writing soon after Sudirman 's death , described the general as a " symbol of the strength of spirit shown by Indonesian heroes , " while the Muslim politician Muhammad Isa Anshary described Sudirman as a " son of the revolution , as he was born in the revolution , and raised by the revolution . " In a radio speech , Hatta described Sudirman as impossible to control and hard @-@ headed , but ultimately intent on doing what was right for the country ; Hatta noted that , although Sudirman often did not like the government 's position , he would generally obey his orders . However , Hamengkubuwana IX noted that KNIL trained soldiers such as Abdul Haris Nasution and Tahi Bonar Simatupang were disappointed in Sudirman because of his background and poor knowledge of military techniques .
Modern opinions in Indonesia tend to be laudatory . Sardiman , a professor of history at Yogyakarta State University , writes that Sudirman was as lively a speaker as Sukarno , who was known for his fiery speeches , and a devoted , incorruptible leader . The Indonesian historian and former Minister of Education and Culture Nugroho Notosusanto described Sudirman as " his only idol " , citing the general 's guerrilla period as the origin of the army 's esprit de corps . The general 's guerrilla campaign is emphasised in biographies of him because , during that period , the army had a greater role than the exiled political leadership ; beginning in the 1970s , all military cadets had to retrace the 100 @-@ kilometre ( 62 mi ) long route prior to graduation , a " pilgrimage " meant to instill a sense of struggle . Sudirman 's grave is also a pilgrimage destination , both for the military and general public . According to Katharine McGregor of the University of Melbourne , the Indonesian military has elevated Sudirman to a saint @-@ like status .
Sudirman received numerous awards from the national government posthumously , including the Bintang Sakti , Bintang Gerilya , Bintang Mahaputera Adipurna , Bintang Mahaputera Pratama , Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipurna , and Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipradana . On 10 December 1964 Sudirman was declared a National Hero of Indonesia by Presidential Decree 314 of 1964 . Oerip was declared a National Hero by the same decree . He was promoted to General of the Army in 1997 .
According to McGregor , the military increasingly used Sudirman 's image as a symbol of leadership as it gained more political power . An image of Sudirman was featured on every denomination of the 1968 series of rupiah . He featured as a major character in several war films , including Janur Kuning ( Yellow Coconut Leaf ; 1979 ) and Serangan Fajar ( Dawn Attack ; 1982 ) .
Numerous museums have been dedicated to Sudirman . His childhood home in Purbalingga is now the Sudirman Museum , while his official home in Yogyakarta is now the Sasmitaloka Museum to General Sudirman . The house in Magelang where he died is also now the Sudirman Museum , established on 18 May 1967 and containing artefacts belonging to the general . Other museums , including the Monument Yogya Kembali in Yogyakarta and the Satriamandala Museum in Jakarta have rooms dedicated to him . Numerous streets are named after Sudirman , including a major street in Jakarta ; McGregor states that nearly every city in the country has a General Sudirman Street . Statues and monuments to him are spread throughout the archipelago , most of which were built after 1970 . Jenderal Soedirman University in Banyumas , established in 1963 , is named after him .
= Jekyll ( TV series ) =
Jekyll is a British television drama serial produced by Hartswood Films and Stagescreen Productions for BBC One . The series also received funding from BBC America . Steven Moffat wrote all six episodes , with Douglas Mackinnon and Matt Lipsey each directing three episodes .
The series is described by its creators as a sequel to the novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde , rather than an adaptation of it , with the Robert Louis Stevenson tale serving as a backstory within the series . It stars James Nesbitt as Tom Jackman , a modern @-@ day descendant of Dr. Jekyll , who has recently begun transforming into a version of Mr. Hyde ( also played by Nesbitt ) . Jackman is aided by psychiatric nurse Katherine Reimer , played by Michelle Ryan . Gina Bellman also appears as Claire , Tom 's wife .
Filming took place at various locations around southern England in late 2006 . The series was first transmitted on BBC One in June and July 2007 , receiving mainly positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
Doctor Tom Jackman ( James Nesbitt ) , a married father of two , has abandoned his family without explanation to live in a heavily fortified basement flat . He hires psychiatric nurse Katherine Reimer ( Michelle Ryan ) to help him with his unusual case . After explaining a set of elaborate security procedures to Reimer , he straps himself into a secured metal chair and undergoes a psychological transformation .
Reimer observes that Jackman 's alter ego exhibits rage , heightened senses , greatly superior strength and speed , and a more playful and flirtatious manner . She assures this persona she will keep his secrets just as she keeps Jackman 's , but asks for guarantees he will not harm her . After being informed of the novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde , Jackman 's alter ego takes Hyde 's name for his own and the two agree to form an uneasy truce . While they share a body , neither remembers what the other did while dominant . They use a micro cassette recorder to leave messages for each other .
Jackman began transforming into the violent , lecherous Hyde recently . Fearing for his family 's safety , he chose to isolate himself from them , but he cannot bring himself to cut off all contact , and visits his wife Claire ( Gina Bellman ) . During one such visit , Hyde assumes control and learns about Jackman 's family .
Miranda Callendar ( Meera Syal ) , a detective employed by Claire , learns about Hyde and informs Jackman that Jekyll and Hyde was not fiction , but a fictionalized version of actual events . Callendar shows Jackman a picture of the real Doctor Jekyll who lived in Edinburgh , Scotland in the 19th century . Jackman is startled to see that Jekyll looks exactly like him , and that he died at around Jackman 's current age ; and Callendar speculates that he is a descendant of the original Doctor Jekyll , except for the fact that Doctor Jekyll had died without children .
Jackman is also being stalked by a private security team led by an American named Benjamin ( Paterson Joseph ) . Unbeknownst to him , the team works for his former employers at the biotechnology firm , Klein and Utterson , and is directed by his friend Peter Syme ( Denis Lawson ) .
When Benjamin 's team puts Jackman 's children at risk , Hyde asserts himself , killing Benjamin and several of the men , and hospitalizing others . At the hospital he is approached by Sophia , an elderly woman who claims to be his mother , but before he can question her she disappears .
Jackman confronts Peter Syme , who attempts to drug him . This provokes Hyde to appear and take Syme and Claire hostage . Claire argues that they need to find a cure for Jackman 's condition . Syme insists that Klein and Utterson have had a cure for a long time . Jackman is captured and locked inside a metal coffin .
Reimer and Callendar confront Syme , claiming they know the truth about Jackman . Callendar theorizes that Klein and Utterson have access to cloning technology and that Jackman is Jekyll 's clone . Syme denies this and orders them taken away to be killed .
Syme reveals to Claire that the treatment Jackman is undergoing will stabilize into one persona : If it is Hyde , he will be kept for research in order to synthesize the potion that turned the original Jekyll into Hyde ; If it is Jackman , she is free to take him home . When the box is opened , Hyde is dominant .
In a flashback triggered by genetic memory , Hyde has a vision of a meeting between Jekyll and Robert Louis Stevenson , the author of Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde . Stevenson agrees to write a fictional version of Jekyll 's case but reveals that he knows the truth : there is no potion . Instead , Jekyll was transformed into Hyde by his love for Alice , a maid within his household . Flashbacks into Jackman 's own life show his Hyde first manifesting fully during a seaside holiday with Claire , after the pair were accosted by hooligans .
Enraged by further threats to Jackman 's family , Hyde escapes from Klein and Utterson . Ms. Utterson , a ruthless redheaded American woman at the head of Klein and Utterson , takes Claire and her sons hostage at a private estate , locking the twins in miniature versions of the same coffin used on their father .
Tom 's alleged mother , Sophia , appears on the premises and helps Claire escape her locked bedroom . She tells Claire how Klein and Utterson had indeed tried to clone Doctor Jekyll but had been unsuccessful . Claire meets several of the failed attempts in the lowest basement of the building . They are disfigured and in a near @-@ vegetative state . Sophia explains that Jackman is a descendant of Doctor Jekyll , ( who died a virgin ) , through Mr Hyde , and by chance a perfect natural genetic duplicate , " a perfect throwback , a chance in a million " . Klein and Utterson had discovered this and had him under surveillance for almost his entire life , from when he was six @-@ months @-@ old . In order to trigger his transformation into Hyde , they created a clone of Alice , the maid whom Jekyll had loved . This clone is Claire herself .
Hyde tries to rescue Jackman 's family from Klein and Utterson , killing Syme and many other personnel . In the end there is a stand @-@ off , with Jackman and Claire 's sons held hostage and suffocating . The Hyde personality is apparently killed when he is shot with multiple bullets and then manages to avoid ' sharing the damage ' by taking the wounds onto himself while allowing Jackman to assume his undamaged , healthy form , leaving Doctor Jackman as the only personality .
Six months later , Jackman has tracked down Sophia , the woman who claimed to be his mother . When he questions her about his father , she reveals that she is the descendant of Hyde , the one through whom he had inherited the family curse from , and that it 's " never over " . As Jackman watches horrified , the powerless , tired , grey @-@ haired Sophia transforms into her own version of the Hyde persona , the feral , red @-@ headed Ms Utterson .
= = = Episodes = = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Jeffrey Tayor of Stagescreen Productions had the idea of a modern version of Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde in the mid @-@ 1990s . He attempted to get it produced in the United States three times , but all three attempts fell through for various reasons . He returned to England from the west coast of the United States and joined with Hartswood Films when Elaine Cameron was scouting for ideas for a supernatural thriller . Cameron then approached Steven Moffat for a script , and a six @-@ part series was commissioned by the BBC 's Jane Tranter and John Yorke in November 2005 . BBC America signed on to provide co @-@ production funding in March 2006 . The producers regularly met with Moffat for brainstorming sessions . Cameron 's assistant took notes from these conversations , after which they would look over the notes and start the process again . The producers invited Moffat to " write anything " , with the intention of cutting the material back later . However , they were reluctant to cut material once they saw it on the page . The first episode starts with Jackman already knowing about his alter ego . Because the plot of Jekyll begins after the story has developed for the characters , Nesbitt says that the show feels like it is a second series .
Moffat explicitly describes the series as a sequel , rather than an adaptation , stating the Jekyll of the original story really existed , and Jackman is his " modern @-@ day descendant dealing with the same problems " . As Jekyll and Hyde is such a well @-@ known phrase , Moffat labored over what to call the series , eventually deciding upon Jekyll because that word " carries the name Hyde " . The final episode replaces the title " Jekyll " with " Hyde " . Producer Elaine Cameron says the one word title gives the series a " very modern feel " . Moffat initially named the character Jekyll rather than Jackman , but found it cumbersome to constantly explain that the book had not been written in this alternate universe . Instead he chose a version where the book exists , but changed the name to Jackman . Otherwise , Cameron felt , the character would appear stupid by not realising what was happening when turning into Hyde .
The scene between Tom and Katherine was expanded slightly in the sixth episode to keep their relationship active to facilitate a second series . However , no further episodes were commissioned . In an August 2007 interview , Moffat told Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger that he had a sequel written for the miniseries " should the BBC be interested " . Following Jekyll , Moffat became a co @-@ writer on Sherlock .
= = = Casting = = =
James Nesbitt and his agent attended a meeting with Jane Tranter in late 2005 regarding the 2006 series of Murphy 's Law . At the conclusion of the meeting , she offered him a script for Jekyll , suggesting that he might like the role . Nesbitt took the script role as a way of putting a distance between his previous work . The casting of Nesbitt as Tom Jackman and Hyde was publicised on 12 December 2005 , but filming was not scheduled to begin until September 2006 , increasing Nesbitt 's anticipation to play the roles . Writer Steven Moffat said that the dual @-@ role required a very skilled actor , and a well @-@ known actor was necessary because it was such an expensive show to produce . The production team decided Nesbitt 's two characters would be mainly differentiated over a change in performance rather than by extensive make @-@ up because they wanted Hyde to be able to walk around in public without attracting attention .
Michelle Ryan , known for her long @-@ running role as Zoe Slater in the soap opera EastEnders , was revealed by tabloid newspaper The Sun to have been cast as " Jekyll 's sultry assistant " ( Katherine Reimer ) in August 2006 . Ryan believed herself to be too young for the part , though that aspect had already been written into the character . To prepare , she consulted the Royal College of Psychiatry . Ryan dyed her hair red for the role to help differentiate her from Tom Jackman 's wife . Denis Lawson was cast as Peter Syme . The actor consulted his post @-@ graduate son for information on Syme 's job .
Moffat initially doubted Gina Bellman 's suitability for the role of Claire Jackman because he associated her too much with Jane Christie , the character she had played in his sitcom Coupling . Moffat did not imagine the character to be as beautiful as Bellman , but her audition was so good that he revised his vision of the character . Bellman originally auditioned for the role of Katherine , but the producers wanted someone younger to play that role . However , Bellman said that she talked herself out of the role by arguing that there should be an age gap between Katherine and Claire to avoid Katherine becoming a threat to the wife . Bellman approached her role as if Claire had become caught up in Tom 's mid @-@ life crisis , an angle that impressed the producers .
Meera Syal was attracted to her role because Miranda was not a clichéd private detective and she thought the humour was " fresh " . During the second filming block , Mark Gatiss briefly joined the cast , playing the small but important role of Robert Louis Stevenson in flashback scenes in episode five .
Other roles included Paterson Joseph as Benjamin Maddox , and Linda Marlowe as Ms Utterson .
= = = Production = = =
The series was filmed in two blocks of three episodes . The first three were directed by Douglas Mackinnon and the second three episodes by Matt Lipsey . It took an hour of make @-@ up each day to turn Nesbitt into Hyde ; a hairpiece lowered his hairline and prosthetics were added to his chin , nose and ear lobes . He also wore black contact lenses to make Hyde " soulless " . After many debates , the producers decided that Hyde 's imminent arrival would be indicated by the flash of a black eye . The eye imagery evolved during filming , and did not appear in the script .
Filming began in September 2006 with the zoo sequence from the second episode , in which Benjamin 's team have set Tom up to force out Hyde by placing his son , Eddie , in the lion 's den . Writing the sequence at a late stage in the production , Moffat wanted to compare Hyde 's natural instinct to kill to that of a lion . This was shot on location at Heythrop Zoo , a private zoo in Chipping Norton run by Jim Clubb , whose firm Amazing Animals specialises in training animals for cinema and television . The Norman Foster @-@ designed building in Chertsey , Surrey , which then housed the European Headquarters of video game designer and publisher Electronic Arts , was used as The Klein & Utterson Institute . A large country estate near Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames and in Bognor Regis was used for some of the scenes whilst on the run and in flashbacks . A disused Boys ' school in Gloucestershire , and the Hammer House in Wardour Street , Soho were used in episode six . Filming concluded on 20 December 2006 .
The schedule was tight for a complex production . The production team had twelve days to shoot each episode , which director Douglas Mackinnon says was the biggest challenge of the project . The required amount of material was shot for most of the episodes . However , an extra twenty minutes of material was filmed for episode six . Director Matt Lipsey recalls that the team struggled to cut the extra material whilst maintaining the integrity of the episode . Lipsey credits Moffat for not " being precious " over his material during the editing process , and points out that his willingness to cut superfluous material means that he is taken seriously when he argues for something to be retained .
The music was composed by Debbie Wiseman . The orchestra featured approximately 18 pieces . Some cues featured the vocals of Hayley Westenra to foreshadow the importance of a female voice .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
Jekyll was broadcast on BBC One on Saturday nights from 9 p.m. A two @-@ week break occurred between showings of the third and fourth episodes because the Live Earth benefit concert was broadcast during its timeslot on 7 July . The series began airing on BBC America from 4 August , as part of a " Supernatural Saturday " programming strand . In Australia , Jekyll began broadcasting on ABC1 , Sundays at 8 @.@ 30 p.m. from 2 March 2008 with a double episode back @-@ to @-@ back each week . In Canada , Jekyll began broadcasting on Showcase , beginning at the end of August 2007 and on BBC Canada , Wednesdays at 10 : 00 p.m. from 26 March 2008 . Also in Hong Kong , Wednesday at 11 : 55 p.m. from 11 February 2009 on TVB Pearl . In the Netherlands , Jekyll was broadcast in the summer of 2009 on Sci @-@ Fi Channel .
Certain edits were made to the United Kingdom broadcasts in order to remove language unsuitable for Saturday night BBC One audiences . For example , a line spoken by Hyde in episode one was changed from " Who the fuck is Mr Hyde ? " to " Who the hell is Mr Hyde ? "
James Jackson of The Times rated the first episode four out of five stars , calling Nesbitt 's performance as Hyde " as entertainingly [ over the top ] as a dozen Doctor Who villains , with a palpable sense of menace to boot " . The conspiracy plot is praised as a storyline that distinguishes this series from other adaptations . The Daily Telegraph 's Stephen Pile criticised the script for " veering between Hammer horror and larky humour " and for being " cheesy " . He also criticised Hyde 's gravity @-@ defying hijinks and mistook Michelle Ryan for a model . In the same newspaper , James Walton called the first episode a combination of " a good yarn with several nicely thoughtful touches " . David Cornelius of DVDTalk was full of compliments for the series , summing up its review with the statement " six episodes , 300 minutes , not a single one of them wasted . ' Jekyll ' is this year 's finest television event " . The Australian Broadcasting Corporation , commenting on the series being part of their 2008 line @-@ up , said " This classic horror tale has been given a modern make @-@ over that will leave you on the edge of your seat and begging for more . James Nesbitt is outstanding as the new Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde " . Nesbitt was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Mini @-@ Series or Motion Picture Made for Television for his roles . Paterson Joseph received a mention in the nominations for the 2008 Screen Nation awards .
= = Home release = =
The BBFC rated all episodes as a 15 certificate on 11 June 2007 . Jekyll : Season One was released for region 2 on 30 July 2007 by Contender Home Entertainment . It includes uncut episodes , including restoration of some swearing cut from the BBC broadcasts . As DVD Verdict says about this uncut version , " the language is saucier , the violence a bit more bloody , and the sex more primal . " The disc contains audio commentaries on two episodes : producer Elaine Cameron , writer Steven Moffat and first @-@ block director Douglas Mackinnon comment on episode one , while executive producer Beryl Vertue , second @-@ block director Matt Lipsey and actress Gina Bellman comment upon the sixth episode . The set also contains two documentaries : " Anatomy of a Scene " focuses upon the production of the zoo sequence in episode two , while " The Tale Retold " covers the evolution of the series . The first Region 1 release occurred in the United States on September 18 , 2007 , although the Region 1 Canadian release was delayed until October 9 , following the Canadian broadcast of the series on Showcase , which commenced at the end of August 2007 .
= István Szabó =
István Szabó ( born February 18 , 1938 ) is a Hungarian film director , screenwriter , and opera director .
Szabó is the most internationally famous Hungarian filmmaker since the late 1960s . Working in the tradition of European auteurism , he has made films that represent many of the political and psychological conflicts of Central Europe ’ s recent history , as well as of his own personal history . He made his first short film in 1959 as a student at the Hungarian Academy of Theatrical and Cinematic Arts , and his first feature film in 1964 .
He achieved his greatest international success with Mephisto ( 1981 ) , which won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film . Since then , most of Szabó 's films have been international co @-@ productions filmed in a variety of languages and European locations . He has continued to make some films in Hungarian , however , and even in his international co @-@ productions , he often films in Hungary and uses Hungarian talent . Szabó became involved in a national controversy in 2006 when the Hungarian newspaper Life and Literature revealed that he had been an informant of the Communist regime ’ s secret police .
= = Life = =
Born in Budapest , Szabó is the son of Mária ( née Vita ) and István Szabó , the latter of whom was a doctor from a long line of doctors . Szabó came from a family of Jews who had converted to Catholicism , but were considered Jews by the Arrow Cross Party ( Hungarian Nazis ) . They were forced to separate and hide in Budapest sometime between October 1944 , when Nazi Germany occupied Hungary and installed the Arrow Cross in power , and February 1945 , when the Soviets defeated the German Army in Budapest .
Szabó survived by hiding at an orphanage , but his father died of diphtheria shortly after the German defeat . Memories of these events would later appear in several of his films .
In 2006 the Hungarian newspaper Life and Literature revealed that Szabó had been an informant of the Communist regime ’ s secret police . Between 1957 and 1961 , he submitted forty @-@ eight reports on seventy @-@ two people , mostly classmates and teachers at the Academy of Theatrical and Cinematic Arts . According to historian Istvan Deak , only in one case did Szabó 's informing cause significant damage , when an individual was denied a passport .
After the article was published , over one hundred prominent intellectuals , including some of the people Szabó had denounced , published a letter of support for him . Szabó ’ s initial response to the article was that informing had been an act of bravery intended to save the life of former classmate Pál Gábor . When this claim turned out not to be true , Szabó admitted that his true motive had been to prevent his own expulsion from the Academy .
= = Career = =
= = = Pre – 1964 = = =
As a child , Szabó wanted to be a doctor like his father . By the age of 16 , however , he had been inspired by a book by Hungarian film theorist Béla Balázs to become a film director . Upon graduation from high school , he became one of 11 applicants out of 800 who were admitted to the Academy of Theatrical and Cinematic Arts . At the Academy , he studied with the famous director Félix Máriássy , who became something of a father figure to Szabó . Among his classmates were Judit Elek , Zsolt Kézdi @-@ Kovács , Janos Rozsa , Pál Gábor , Imre Gyöngyössy , Ferenc Kardos , and Zoltán Huszárik . While at the Academy , Szabó directed several short films , culminating in his thesis film , Koncert ( 1963 ) , which won a prize at the International Short Film Festival Oberhausen . Thanks to János Herskó , head of the Hunnia Film Studio at which he apprenticed , Szabó was given his first opportunity to direct a feature film at the age of 25 , rather than being required to spend ten years working as an assistant director .
The beginning of Szabó ’ s career coincided with the beginning of a “ new wave ” in Hungarian cinema , one of several new wave cinemas that occurred around this time throughout Western and Eastern Europe . The Eastern European new waves were caused by political liberalization , the decentralization of film industries , and the emergence of films as valuable commodities for export to Western European markets . The resulting films were more formally experimental , politically anti @-@ establishment , and , especially in the case of Szabó , psychologically probing than the films of the previous generation . Hungarian filmmakers in particular experienced a significant increase in freedom of expression due to the reforms of the Kádár government .
= = = Hungarian films , 1964 – 1980 = = =
Szabó 's first feature film , The Age of Illusions ( 1964 ) , is a partly autobiographical film about the struggles of Szabó ’ s generation in starting a career , encountering the obsolescence of the older generation , and establishing romantic relationships . The appearance of a poster for François Truffaut 's The 400 Blows in the background of a scene suggested Szabó 's artistic compatibility with Truffaut and the French New Wave . The film won the Silver Sail for Best First Work at the Locarno International Film Festival and a Special Jury Prize for Best Director at the Hungarian Film Festival .
Father ( 1966 ) is a coming of age story that displays Szabó ’ s increasing fascination with history and memory . The main character copes with the childhood loss of his father against the backdrop of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and memories of the Arrow Cross dictatorship . The film won the Grand Prix at the 5th Moscow International Film Festival and the Special Jury Prize at Locarno , and established Szabó as the most internationally famous Hungarian filmmaker of his time , as well as an auteur in the European film tradition . In 2000 , Father appeared as number 11 on a list of the 12 best Hungarian films according to a group of Hungarian film critics .
Lovefilm ( 1970 ) focuses on a young man ’ s relationship with his childhood sweetheart , told through flashbacks that include the Arrow Cross dictatorship and 1956 , and rendered in an experimental , fragmented form . This experimental tendency in Szabó ’ s films reached its apotheosis in 25 Fireman Street ( 1973 ) , which began as a short film , Dream About a House ( 1971 ) . 25 Fireman Street takes place during the course of a long , hot night in Budapest , during which the residents of a single apartment building are plagued by dream @-@ memories of pain and loss spanning thirty years , including both World Wars , the Arrow Cross dictatorship , the Communist takeover , and 1956 . While the film won the top prize at Locarno , Szabó was upset by its lack of success at the box office and at film festivals . Attributing this lack of success to the film 's complex structure , he decided to give his next film a simpler structure .
In Budapest Tales ( 1976 ) , Szabó traded his earlier , complex narrative structures , characterized by flashbacks and dreams , for a more linear one . At the same time , he traded the literal representation of history for an allegorical one . The film follows a disparate group of people who come together on the outskirts of an unnamed city at the end of an unnamed war to repair a damaged tram and ride it into the city . Allegorically , the film was interpreted by critics variously as representing Hungarian history specifically or universal human responses to war and reconstruction more generally .
Szabó 's first four full @-@ length films featured the actor András Bálint in roles based on Szabó himself . While Bálint also appeared in Budapest Tales , this was Szabó 's first feature film that did not contain a significant amount of autobiographical material . He did not make another autobiographical film until Meeting Venus , eighteen years later .
Budapest Tales was even less successful than 25 Fireman Street at the box office and festivals . According to author David Paul , this may explain why Szabó shifted gears even more dramatically in his next film , Confidence ( 1980 ) , in which historical events are represented straightforwardly , and are filtered through neither memory nor allegory . The film focuses on the relationship between a man and woman who are forced to share a room as they hide from the Arrow Cross toward the end of the Second World War . It garnered a Best Director award for Szabó at the Berlin Film Festival and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film at the 53rd Academy Awards .
= = = International co @-@ productions featuring Brandauer , 1981 – 1988 = = =
Szabó ’ s next three films constituted a new phase in his career — moving away from Hungarian productions , in Hungarian , written by Szabó alone , and featuring Bálint , and moving toward international co @-@ productions , in German , written by Szabó in collaboration with others , and featuring Austrian actor Klaus Maria Brandauer . The informal trilogy — Mephisto ( 1981 ) , Colonel Redl ( 1985 ) and Hanussen ( 1988 ) — features Brandauer in a series of roles based on historical figures who , as represented in the films , compromised their morals in order to climb the ladder of success within a context of authoritarian political power . In Mephisto , based on a novel by Klaus Mann , Brandauer plays an actor and theater director in Nazi Germany , a role based on Mann ’ s former brother @-@ in @-@ law Gustaf Gründgens . The film won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film , and the award for Best Screenplay at the Cannes Film Festival , and greatly increased Szabó ’ s international prestige .
In Colonel Redl , Brandauer plays Alfred Redl , counter @-@ intelligence chief of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire who was blackmailed into espionage for the Russians in order to prevent the revelation of his homosexuality . The film won top awards in Germany and the UK , but provoked a scandal in Austria , where several periodicals accused the film of bringing the country into disrepute . In Hanussen , Brandauer plays the real life clairvoyant performer Erik Jan Hanussen , whose growing fame brings him into increasingly close — and dangerous — contact with the Nazis .
= = = 1991 – present = = =
After his Brandauer trilogy , Szabó continued to make international co @-@ productions , filming in a variety of languages and European locations . He has continued to make some films in Hungarian , however , and even in his international co @-@ productions , he often films in Hungary and uses Hungarian talent .
Meeting Venus ( 1991 ) , the first of several English @-@ language films directed by Szabó — and his first comedy — is based on his experience directing Tannhäuser at the Paris Opera in 1984 . Niels Arestrup plays a Hungarian directing the opera at an imaginary pan @-@ European opera company , and encountering a multitude of pitfalls that symbolize the challenges of a united Europe . An inside joke was that the multinational characters were all named with translations of " Taylor " , which is the meaning of " Szabó " .
With Sweet Emma , Dear Böbe ( 1992 ) , Szabó returned to a strictly Hungarian subject — this time , however , focused on a contemporary , rather than historical , social problem . The film follows two young , female teachers of Russian facing the obsolescence of their specialty after the fall of the socialist government , as well as a variety of types of sexual harassment in the new Hungary . The film won the top prize at the Berlin Film Festival .
Sunshine ( 1999 ) — a three @-@ hour historical epic , and an English @-@ language , international co @-@ production — was viewed by many critics as Szabó ’ s most ambitious film , and , along with Mephisto , his most important . Hungary ’ s Jews had figured in either a marginal or coded fashion in several of Szabó ’ s earlier films , produced during the socialist period when discourse around the history of the country ’ s Jews was more circumscribed . In Sunshine , for the first time , Szabó focused explicitly on this aspect of Hungarian history , which he himself had experienced as a child during the Arrow Cross dictatorship . Ralph Fiennes plays three generations in the Sonnenschein family as they experience the trials of twentieth @-@ century Hungarian Jewish history , from the late Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire through the Holocaust to the 1956 Revolution .
Several characters are based on real people , including the Zwack family , with their successful liquor business , the Olympic fencer Attila Petschauer , and the Jewish police official Ernö Szücs . The film won European Film Awards for Best Screenwriter , Best Actor , and Best Cinematographer . It received a rating of 74 % Fresh from review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes .
An example of an extremely positive review was that of Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , who called it “ a movie of substance and thrilling historical sweep . ” A. O. Scott of the New York Times had a more mixed reaction , writing that , by the end , “ the movie has accumulated sufficient power and momentum to erase the memory of its earlier awkwardness . It shows such sympathy for its characters , and approaches its subject with such intelligence , that it 's easy to forgive the clumsy editing , the haphazard insertion of black @-@ and @-@ white newsreels , and the hyperventilating sexual ardor that seems to be a Sors family curse . ”
In Taking Sides ( 2001 ) , Szabó returned to thematic territory he had explored in Mephisto . Stellan Skarsgård plays real life German conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler , and Harvey Keitel a U.S. Army investigator interrogating Furtwängler about his collaboration with the Nazis . The film won several awards at the Mar del Plata Film Festival in Argentina , including Best Director .
Being Julia ( 2004 ) , based on a novel by W. Somerset Maugham , stars Annette Bening as a famous British actress experiencing a series of romantic and professional rivalries . Bening won a Golden Globe Award for her performance .
In 2005 , Szabó was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 27th Moscow International Film Festival .
Rokonok ( 2006 ) was a Hungarian production based on a 1932 novel by Zsigmond Móricz about political corruption . Sándor Csányi plays a newly elected attorney general whose relatives ( rokonok ) come out of the woodwork looking for favors . It was entered into the 28th Moscow International Film Festival .
The Door ( 2012 ) , an English language production based on a Hungarian novel by Magda Szabó ( no relation ) , focuses on the relationship between an affluent novelist ( Martina Gedeck ) and her poor , mysterious maid ( Helen Mirren ) . It opened the 13th Tbilisi International Film Festival , and won the Michael Curtiz Audience Award at the Hungarian Film Festival of Los Angeles .
Szabó ’ s frequent collaborators have included actors András Bálint , Klaus Maria Brandauer , Péter Andorai , and Ildikó Bánsági ; cinematographer Lajos Koltai ; and screenwriters Péter Dobai and Andrea Vészits .
= = = Themes = = =
Several interconnected themes run through Szabó ’ s films , the most common being the relationship between the personal and the political or historical . On the personal level , his first three feature films deal with coming of age issues , but political / historical events form the backdrop of these issues and continually rupture the attempts of the characters to lead their private lives . In an interview in 2008 , Szabó said , “ My mother once told me , ‘ We had a nice childhood and our youth was beautiful , but our life was destroyed by politics and history . ’ ” The political / historical events most commonly depicted are the dominant traumatic events of mid @-@ 20th century Hungarian and Central European history — Nazism , the Second World War , and , in Hungary — or , more accurately , Budapest — the Arrow Cross dictatorship and the Holocaust , the Communist takeover , and the 1956 Revolution . Szabó himself has frequently referred to this theme as the search for security .
A related theme is the moral compromises individuals make in order to succeed in immoral political systems . In an interview about Taking Sides , Szabó said , “ I don 't think that life is possible without making compromises . The question is only one of limits : how far to go . When one crosses the line , then the compromise starts to be a bad , even deadly , one . ” This theme is dominant in the Brandauer trilogy and , as Istvan Deak points out , may be related to Szabó ’ s own collaboration with the Communist secret police .
Another closely related theme is the arts — most often theater , but also music and film itself . In several of Szabó ’ s films — most famously in Mephisto — artists become caught up in conflicts around politics , role @-@ playing , and identity .
= = = Style = = =
Szabó ’ s early films — culminating in | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ended to the number @-@ one position two weeks later , where it stayed for three consecutive weeks . " 4 Minutes " was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for the shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , " 4 Minutes " made its debut at number 14 on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and ascended to the top ten , finally peaking at number three . The song has been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for shipment of 7 @,@ 500 copies .
In the United Kingdom , " 4 Minutes " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number seven . The song became Madonna 's 60th UK top @-@ ten single . It debuted on the airplay charts at number 19 , with first week tallies of 564 plays and 27 @.@ 10 million listeners . The song rose to the top of the chart on April 20 , 2008 ( for the week ending date April 26 , 2008 ) , with sales of 40 @,@ 634 copies , thus giving Madonna her 13th British number @-@ one single . It remained at the top for four weeks . According to the Official Charts Company , it was the ninth best @-@ selling song of 2008 and has sold 530 @,@ 000 copies there as of 2016 , being certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . " 4 Minutes " was also number one on Billboard 's European Hot 100 Singles for four weeks . Overall , " 4 Minutes " reached number one in 21 countries worldwide .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by French duo Jonas & François in London , United Kingdom . It featured choreography by Jamie King , who worked on Madonna 's Confessions , Re @-@ Invention and Drowned World tours as well as her video for the single " Sorry " ( 2006 ) . Japanese hip hop dancing duo Hamutsun Serve also made an appearance in the video . Before its release , Rolling Stone said that in the video Madonna and Timberlake act as if they were " superheroes " while they evade multiple obstacles . In the video , Madonna wore a cream colored corset , glistening black boots and styled her hair in platinum blond waves while Timberlake wore mainly denims and a scarf around his neck . Regarding the idea behind the music video , Madonna said that " it was conceptualistic " . She explained that the video was shot like a march past ; " It 's a movement , and we want to take everybody with us . " About the idea of a black screen devouring everything , Madonna said ,
None of us did [ understand the concept of the black screen ] . It was just , you know , it 's very conceptual . We basically gave the song to the two French directors [ Jonas & François ] and they came up with the only concept that I thought was interesting , with this black sort of amorphous graphic line slowly eating up the world . I just liked that as a concept .
The video used soft focus , gentle lighting and airbrushing looks on Madonna . It starts with Timbaland chanting the opening line in front of a giant timer screen that counts down from four minutes . As he sings , a black geometric patterned screen comes from behind and engulfs all of the musical devices present . Madonna and Timberlake enter a house but run away from it after finding the screen there , which starts eating the hands and legs of the inhabitants of the house , thus showing their insides . After a number of shots showing Madonna and Timberlake jumping on and over cars to escape from the screen , they finally move into a supermarket . The screen follows them , consuming the long lines of stalls and the people present there . As the second chorus starts , they arrive in front of the screen where Timbaland is singing . After choreographed dancing , Madonna performs a back arch as the timer reaches zero time . The last " tick @-@ tock , tick @-@ tock " sound is heard , Madonna and Timberlake dance again on a long stage ; the black screen approaches them from both sides . The video ends with both of them kissing , and the black screen devouring them . Timberlake 's bones and ribs , and Madonna 's cheeks are seen in the last shot .
Regarding the video , Madonna said it was like " [ g ] oody goody gum drops " , referring to the candy @-@ oriented theme of the album . Virginia Heffernan from The New York Times called the video heart @-@ pounding , and compared its momentum with the music video of " Thriller , " In the Air Tonight " and " Shadows of the Night " . However , Eric Wilson from the same newspaper commented that the video did not yield a breakout Madonna look compared to her videos from the 1980s . Singer Miley Cyrus created her own version of the video and posted it on her YouTube channel . Madonna responded to it in her own video and said , " All you people out there who are making videos to my new single , ' 4 Minutes , ' keep up the good work , nice job . " " 4 Minutes " was nominated for an award at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards in the " Best Dancing in a Video " category , but lost to the Pussycat Dolls ' single " When I Grow Up " .
= = Live performances and covers = =
The song was performed during the Hard Candy Promo Tour and Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2008 – 09 ) . At the promotional tour , " 4 Minutes " was performed as the third song of the setlist . Madonna wore a shiny black outfit with black tails , Adidas track pants and high @-@ heeled , lace @-@ up boots for the performance . Justin Timberlake made an appearance alongside Madonna , at the Roseland Ballroom in New York , to perform the song . As Timbaland appeared on the video screens , the beat of the song started . The four side @-@ stage video screens began to glide across the stage , and swiveled around to reveal Timberlake behind one and Madonna behind the other . They performed the song in a similar choreography from the music video .
During " 4 Minutes " performance on the Sticky & Sweet Tour , Madonna wore a futuristic robotic outfit designed by Heatherette . She coupled it with metallic plates on her shoulder and a wig with long curled hair . Madonna and her dancers emerged from behind backdrops , on which Timbaland and Timberlake appeared , to perform their lines . An apparent duet between Madonna and Timberlake ensues , with Timberlake singing and dancing his part from the screens . He joined Madonna in person , for the show at Los Angeles 's Dodger Stadium on November 6 , 2008 , the same show in which Britney Spears appeared alongside Madonna to perform " Human Nature " . They performed " 4 Minutes " in similar fashion to the promotional tour choreography . Timbaland sang his part of the song in person on November 26 , 2008 at Dolphins Stadium in Miami Gardens , Florida . " 4 Minutes " was also used as mashups during the performance of songs like " Vogue " and " Hung Up " .
" 4 Minutes " was used in the film Get Smart ( 2008 ) , in a scene and its film credits . It was one of the songs covered by the cast of Glee during the April 20 , 2010 episode " The Power of Madonna " . The fictional character Kurt Hummel , portrayed by Chris Colfer , sang Madonna 's parts while Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) sang Timberlake 's . In the episode , the song is performed during a routine by the high @-@ school cheering squad , accompanied by the school band . The version was released both as a digital downloadable single and on the EP , Glee : The Music , The Power of Madonna . " 4 Minutes " cover charted on the Hot Digital Songs of Billboard at number 55 on May 8 , 2010 , while reaching number 89 and number 70 on the Billboard Hot 100 and Canadian Hot 100 , respectively .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – writer , vocals , background vocals , executive producer
Justin Timberlake – writer , vocals , producer
Timbaland – writer , vocals , producer , drum programming , recording
Danja – writer , producer , keyboard instrument
Demacio " Demo " Castellon – programming , mixing , scratching and recording at Sarm West Studios ( London ) and The Hit Factory Studios ( Miami )
Marcella Araica – mixing , scratching
Ron Taylor – protools editing
Credits and personnel adapted from Hard Candy album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Greed ( film ) =
Greed is a 1924 American silent film , written and directed by Erich von Stroheim and based on the 1899 Frank Norris novel McTeague . It stars Gibson Gowland as Dr. John McTeague , ZaSu Pitts as his wife Trina Sieppe and Jean Hersholt as McTeague 's friend and eventual enemy Marcus Schouler . The film tells the story of McTeague , a San Francisco dentist , who marries his best friend Schouler 's girlfriend Trina . Shortly after their engagement , Trina wins a lottery prize of $ 5 @,@ 000 , at that time a substantial sum . Schouler jealously informs the authorities that McTeague had been practicing dentistry without a license , and McTeague and Trina become impoverished . While living in squalor , McTeague becomes a violent alcoholic and Trina becomes greedily obsessed with her winnings , refusing to spend any of them , despite how poor she and her husband have become . Eventually McTeague murders Trina for the money and flees to Death Valley . Schouler catches up with him there for a final confrontation .
Stroheim shot more than 85 hours of footage and obsessed over accuracy during the filming . Two months were spent shooting in Death Valley for the film 's final sequence and many of the cast and crew became ill . Greed was one of the few films of its time to be shot entirely on location . Stroheim used sophisticated filming techniques such as deep @-@ focus cinematography and montage editing . He considered Greed to be a Greek tragedy , in which environment and heredity controlled the characters ' fates and reduced them to primitive bête humaines ( human beasts ) .
During the making of Greed , the production company merged into Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , putting Irving Thalberg in charge of the production . Thalberg had fired Stroheim a few years earlier at Universal Pictures . Originally almost eight hours long , Greed was edited against Stroheim 's wishes to about two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours . Only twelve people saw the full @-@ length 42 @-@ reel version , now lost ; some of them called it the greatest film ever made . Stroheim later called Greed his most fully realized work and was hurt both professionally and personally by the studio 's re @-@ editing of it .
The uncut version has been called the " holy grail " for film archivists , amid repeated false claims of the discovery of the missing footage . In 1999 Turner Entertainment created a four @-@ hour version of Greed that used existing stills of cut scenes to reconstruct the film . Greed was a critical and financial failure upon its initial release , but by the 1950s it began to be regarded as one of the greatest films ever made ; filmmakers and scholars have praised it for its influence on subsequent films .
= = Plot summary = =
John McTeague is a miner working in Placer County , California . A traveling dentist calling himself Dr. " Painless " Potter visits the town , and McTeague 's mother begs Potter to take her son on as an apprentice . Potter agrees and McTeague eventually becomes a dentist , practicing on Polk Street in San Francisco .
Marcus Schouler brings Trina Sieppe , his cousin and intended fiancée , into McTeague 's office for dental work . Schouler and McTeague are friends and McTeague gladly agrees to examine her . As they wait for an opening , Trina buys a lottery ticket . McTeague becomes enamored with Trina and begs Schouler for permission to court Trina . After seeing McTeague 's conviction , Schouler agrees . Trina eventually agrees to marry McTeague and shortly afterwards her lottery ticket wins her $ 5 @,@ 000 . Schouler bitterly claims that the money should have been his , causing a rift between McTeague and Schouler . After McTeague and Trina wed , they continue to live in their small apartment with Trina refusing to spend her $ 5 @,@ 000 .
Schouler leaves the city to become a cattle rancher . Before he goes he secretly reports McTeague for practicing dentistry without a license in order to ruin his former friend . McTeague is ordered to shut down his practice or face jail . Even though she has saved over $ 200 in addition to the original $ 5 @,@ 000 from the lottery ticket , Trina is unwilling to spend her money . Money becomes increasingly scarce , with the couple forced to sell their possessions . McTeague finally snaps and bites Trina 's fingers in a fit of rage . Later he leaves to go fishing to earn money , taking Trina 's savings ( now totaling $ 450 ) .
Trina 's bitten fingers become infected and have to be amputated . To earn money she becomes a janitor at a children 's school . She withdraws the $ 5 @,@ 000 from the bank to keep it close to her , eventually spreading it on her bed so she can sleep on it . McTeague then returns , having spent the money he took and asks Trina for more . The following day McTeague confronts Trina at the school . After a heated argument McTeague beats Trina to death and steals her $ 5 @,@ 000 .
Now an outlaw , McTeague returns to Placer County and teams up with a prospector named Cribbens . Headed towards Death Valley , they find a large quantity of quartz and plan to become millionaires . Before they can begin mining , McTeague senses danger and flees into Death Valley with a single horse , the remaining money and one water jug . Several marshals pursue him , joined by Schouler . Schouler wants to catch McTeague personally and rides into Death Valley alone .
The oppressive heat slows McTeague 's progress . Schouler 's progress is also beginning to wane when he spies McTeague and moves in to arrest him . After a confrontation , McTeague 's horse bolts and Schouler shoots it , puncturing the water container . The water spills onto the desert floor . The pair fight one last time , with McTeague proving the victor ; however , Schouler has handcuffed himself to McTeague . The film ends with McTeague left in the desert with no horse , no water , handcuffed to a corpse and unable to reach the remaining money .
= = = Sub @-@ plots = = =
Von Stroheim 's original edit contained two main sub @-@ plots that were later cut . The point of these sub @-@ plots was to contrast two possible outcomes of Trina and McTeague 's life together . The first depicted the lives of the junkman Zerkow and Maria Miranda Macapa , the young Mexican woman who collects junk for Zerkow and sold Trina the lottery ticket . Maria often talks about her imaginary solid gold dining set with Zerkow , who becomes obsessed by it . Eventually , believing she has riches hidden away , Zerkow marries her . He often asks about it , but she gives a different answer each time he mentions it . Zerkow does not believe her and becomes obsessed with prying the truth from her . He murders her and after having lost his mind , leaps into San Francisco Bay .
The second sub @-@ plot depicts the lives of Charles W. Grannis and Miss Anastasia Baker . Grannis and Baker are two elderly boarders who share adjoining rooms in the apartment complex where Trina and McTeague live . Throughout their time at the apartment complex , they have not met . They both sit close to their adjoining wall and listen to the other for company , so they know almost everything about each other . They finally meet and cannot hide their long @-@ time feelings for each other . When they reveal their love , Grannis admits he has $ 5 @,@ 000 , making him just as rich as Trina . But this makes little difference to them . Eventually , they marry and a door connects their rooms .
= = Cast = =
Gibson Gowland as Dr. John McTeague , a dentist
ZaSu Pitts as Trina Sieppe , McTeague 's wife
Jean Hersholt as Marcus Schouler , McTeague 's friend
Prologue
Jack Curtis as McTeague 's father
Tempe Pigott as McTeague 's mother
Florence Gibson as a hag
Erich von Ritzau as Dr. ' Painless ' Potter , a travelling dentist
Sieppe Family
Chester Conklin as Hans ' Popper ' Sieppe , Trina 's father
Silvia Ashton as ' Mommer ' Sieppe , Trina 's mother
Austen Jewell as August Sieppe , Trina 's younger brother
Oscar Gottell as Max Sieppe , Trina 's younger brother
Otto Gottell as Moritz Sieppe , Trina 's younger brother
Joan Standing as Selina , Trina 's cousin
Max Tyron as Uncle Rudolph Oelbermann , Trina 's uncle
Subplots
Dale Fuller as Maria Miranda Macapa , Zerkow 's wife
Cesare Gravina as Zerkow , a junkman
Frank Hayes as Charles W. Grannis , proprietor of the Modern Dog Hospital
Fanny Midgley as Miss Anastasia Baker , Grannis ' neighbor and later wife
Friends and Neighbors at Polk Street
Hughie Mack as Mr. Heise , the harness maker
E. ' Tiny ' Jones as Mrs. Heise
J. Aldrich Libbey as Mr. Ryer
Reta Revela as Mrs. Ryer
S.S. Simon as Joe Frenna
Hugh J. McCauley as the photographer
William Mollenhauer as the palmist
Others
William Barlow as the Minister
Lon Poff as the man from the lottery company
James F. Fulton as Cribbens , a prospector
James Gibson as a Deputy
Jack McDonald as the Sheriff of Placer County
Erich von Stroheim as the balloon vendor
= = Production = =
= = = Background and writing = = =
Greed is based on the American author Frank Norris 's 1899 novel McTeague : A Story of San Francisco . Stroheim 's interest in McTeague can be traced back to January 1920 , when he told a journalist that he wanted to film the novel . He had himself lived in San Francisco in the early 1910s , living there in poverty like that of the story 's characters . He eventually moved to Los Angeles and worked his way up in the film industry under pioneering director D. W. Griffith . By 1919 he had become a successful director at Universal Film Manufacturing Company , although one with a reputation of going over budget and over schedule .
Upon the appointment of Irving Thalberg as general manager at Universal , Stroheim 's excesses were no longer tolerated . After Thalberg 's shutdown of his 1921 picture Foolish Wives ( which had been shooting nonstop for eleven months ) , and after six weeks of filming Merry @-@ Go @-@ Round , Stroheim was finally fired from the studio on October 6 , 1922 . This was a step unprecedented in Hollywood and heralded a new era in which the producer and the studio held artistic power over actors and directors . However , by this time Stroheim had received several offers of contracts with other studios , even before being fired from Universal . He had met with executives of the Goldwyn Company on September 14 , 1922 , less than a month before , and he formally signed with them in late November .
Stroheim chose his new studio because of the level of artistic freedom he was offered , which he had been denied at Universal under Thalberg . Since March 1922 Goldwyn had been run by Abe Lehr , who publicly promised that " each director will have his own staff and will be given every facility in putting into production his own individuality and personality . " Stroheim signed a one @-@ year , three @-@ feature deal with Goldwyn on November 20 , 1922 . The deal stipulated that each feature would be between 4 @,@ 500 and 8 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 400 and 2 @,@ 600 m ) long , cost no more than $ 175 @,@ 000 and be completed in fourteen weeks . It also promised von Stroheim $ 30 @,@ 000 for each completed film .
Lehr initially wanted Stroheim to film a big @-@ budget version of The Merry Widow , which the producer saw as a guaranteed hit . Stroheim convinced Lehr to let him make Greed first , promising low costs . A press release of February 1923 said that although Stroheim had " run rather freely to large sets in the past , [ he ] seems to have reformed — or surrendered — for it is announced that he will not build any sets at all . "
Stroheim wrote a highly detailed 300 @-@ page script that contained camera movements , composition and tint cues . Among the changes that he made to Norris 's novel was giving McTeague the first name of John and omitting Norris 's anti @-@ Semitism . McTeague had been filmed once before as Life 's Whirlpool , a five @-@ reel short by William A. Brady 's World Pictures , starring Broadway star Holbrook Blinn as McTeague , which had been released in 1916 . Film critics disliked this version and Stroheim later criticized Blinn 's performance . According to film historian Kevin Brownlow , Life 's Whirlpool was also shot on location in Death Valley .
Stroheim was known for his meticulous perfectionism and attention to detail , as well as his insolence towards studio executives . Working on Greed , Stroheim set out to make a realistic film about everyday people and rejected the Hollywood tropes of glamor , happy endings and upper @-@ class characters . Before shooting began , Stroheim told a reporter :
It is possible to tell a great story in motion pictures in such a way that the spectator forgets he is looking at beauteous Gertie Gefelta , the producer 's pet and discovers himself intensely interested , just as if he were looking out of a window at life itself . He will come to believe that what he is gazing at is real — a cameraman was present in the household and nobody knew it . They went on in their daily life with their joys , fun and tragedies and the camera stole it all , holding it up afterward for all to see .
In early January 1923 Stroheim arrived in San Francisco , where he scouted locations and finished writing the shooting script . While researching for Greed , he attended society functions in town and met many friends of Frank Norris , including his brother Charles and his sister @-@ in @-@ law Kathleen . To capture the authentic spirit of the story , Stroheim insisted on filming on location in San Francisco , the Sierra Nevada mountains , the Big Dipper Mine in Iowa Hill , and Death Valley . He rented some of the actual buildings that had inspired scenes in the novel . Other locations included Cliff House and San Francisco Bay .
Norris had similarly scouted settings for his novel and chose the upstairs of a building on the corner of Polk and California street as McTeague 's dentist office , as well as many of the saloons and lunch counters in the area . Stroheim discovered that many of the locations that Norris had described , such as Polk Street , had been destroyed in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake , but he was able to find suitable period locations on Hayes and Laguna streets . For authenticity , Stroheim had no sets built in San Francisco and only redecorated existing locations , such as saloons , butcher shops , and wooden shacks , thus saving on construction costs .
Despite the strict conditions of Stroheim 's initial contract , Goldwyn approved the lengthy shooting script before filming began . Production Manager J. J. Cohn later explained that " they thought they could control him when the time comes . "
= = = Casting = = =
With the exception of Jean Hersholt , all of the main actors in Greed were regulars of Stroheim 's earlier films , a group dubbed the " Stroheim Stock Company . " Gibson Gowland had previously appeared in Blind Husbands and returned to the U.S. from Scotland for the role of John McTeague . Cesare Gravina , who played the junkman Zerkow , and Dale Fuller , the lottery @-@ ticket seller Maria , had both appeared in Foolish Wives and would later appear in The Merry Widow . Other actors in Stroheim 's Stock Company included Sidney Bracey , Mae Busch , George Fawcett , Maude George , Hughie Mack and George Nichols .
Trina was the most difficult role to cast , and ZaSu Pitts was hired at the last minute , after Stroheim had rejected both Claire Windsor and Colleen Moore . Pitts had previously acted only in comedic roles ; Greed was her first dramatic part . The actress later appeared in both The Wedding March and Hello , Sister ! Stroheim said that Pitts was " the greatest psychopathological actress in the American cinema " and that " she should not be in comedy , for she is the greatest of all tragediennes . "
Stroheim had met casually with Jean Hersholt to discuss the role of Marcus Schouler , but he was initially reluctant to cast him . However , after Hersholt adjusted his appearance and wardrobe to more closely resemble Schouler , Stroheim changed his mind on the spot . With the exception of Gowland , Stroheim shot extensive screen tests of all the other actors at Goldwyn with cinematographer Paul Ivano . A scene from the Goldwyn film Souls for Sale is thought to be behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of Stroheim directing Greed , but it actually depicts him directing Hersholt during one of these screen tests .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began in San Francisco on March 13 , 1923 , and lasted until late June . Despite the initial contract between von Stroheim and Goldwyn , Lehr agreed to double the film 's budget to $ 347 @,@ 000 three days after shooting began . Von Stroheim had already worked twenty @-@ hour days for over two months of pre @-@ production and collapsed on set after a few days of filming . He remained in good health for the remainder of the shoot . This was not the only mishap on set ; during scenes shot at San Francisco Bay , Cesare Gravina got double pneumonia , making von Stroheim bitterly ashamed that Gravina 's entire performance was later cut from the film , despite the actor 's dedication to the role . Hersholt was knocked out by Gowland during the picnic scene in which McTeague and Schouler fight , and Pitts was almost run over by a trolley . In late May , Lehr visited von Stroheim on the set and praised the footage that he had seen , saying that " it has atmosphere , color and realism that could not possibly have been reproduced in the studio . "
One scene that von Stroheim re @-@ shot at the studio 's insistence depicted a younger McTeague in his apprenticeship with Potter . In the scene McTeague is too embarrassed to examine the teeth of a young woman and Potter has to take over . A thinly disguised ZaSu Pitts portrayed the woman so that the audience would see a resemblance to Trina , but the studio insisted that the scene was confusing and von Stroheim agreed to re @-@ shoot it . Von Stroheim also conceded his original vision when shooting the bar confrontation between McTeague and Schouler . The director wanted to have a knife thrower actually throw a real knife at Gibson Gowland 's head . Von Stroheim was overruled by Gowland himself , who refused to allow such a dangerous stunt . A special @-@ effect shot was used instead .
After filming in San Francisco wrapped in late June , the production traveled to Death Valley . Most Hollywood films that required desert scenes settled for the local Oxnard dunes north of Los Angeles , but von Stroheim insisted on authenticity . Death Valley had no roads , hotels , gas stations , or running water and was occupied by tarantulas , scorpions and poisonous snakes . The nearest populated area to the shoot was 100 miles ( 160 km ) away and insurance coverage was denied . Filming in Death Valley lasted for two months during midsummer , allowing actors Gowland and Hersholt time to grow the beards necessary for the sequence . Some members of the production reported temperatures between 91 and 161 ° F ( 33 and 72 ° C ) , but the highest temperature officially recorded in Death Valley during the period was 123 ° F ( 51 ° C ) . Of the 43 members of the cast and crew who worked on the Death Valley sequence , 14 became ill and were sent back to Los Angeles .
While shooting , crew members would collapse of heat exhaustion every day . Hersholt spent a week in the hospital after shooting was completed , suffering from internal bleeding . Hersholt claimed to have lost 27 pounds ( 12 kg ) , and was covered in blisters by the end of filming . Despite the hardship Hersholt said that he considered it the best role of his career . In order to motivate Hersholt and Gibson during the scene where they fight , von Stroheim yelled at them , " Fight , fight ! Try to hate each other as you both hate me ! " Throughout filming , von Stroheim brought musicians on set to help create mood for the actors . He continued to use this for the Death Valley scenes with a harmonium and violin player . A theme , inspired by the music of Ruggero Leoncavallo , was composed and played throughout production . Other music used included the popular songs " Nearer , My God , to Thee , " " Hearts and Flowers , " " Oh Promise Me , " and " Call Me Thine Own . "
Filming moved to Placer County , California , on September 13 and continued for less than a month . The Big Dipper Mine had been closed for ten years , so von Stroheim convinced the Goldwyn Company to lease and renovate it for filming . While first visiting Placer County during pre @-@ production , von Stroheim had met Harold Henderson , a local resident and fan of Norris whose brother had worked in the mine in the 1890s . Von Stroheim hired Henderson to oversee the renovation of the mine and other locations in Iowa Hill . Von Stroheim also wanted to restore the local cemetery for a newly invented scene depicting McTeague 's mother 's funeral , but the Goldwyn Company turned down this proposal . Inside the mine , von Stroheim usually shot at night between 9 pm and 6 am . Cinematographer William H. Daniels later said that von Stroheim insisted on descending 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 900 m ) underground for realism , even though the setting would have looked exactly the same at 100 feet ( 30 m ) . Filming was completed on October 6 , 1923 , after 198 days . Despite his original contract stipulating that all films be under 8 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 600 m ) , von Stroheim shot a total of 446 @,@ 103 feet ( 135 @,@ 972 m ) of footage for the film , running approximately 85 hours .
= = = Style = = =
Stroheim 's biographer Arthur Lennig compared the director 's visual style to that of D. W. Griffith but felt that " unlike Griffith , who viewed scenes as though through a fourth wall , Stroheim shot from many sides and from different angles ; he also used deep @-@ focus , meaningful foregrounds and effective camera movement . " Greed 's lighting included high contrast , chiaroscuro techniques with pools or shafts of lights illuminating an otherwise dark space . Examples of this technique include the scene where McTeague begs Trina for money in a pool of moonlight and the merry @-@ go @-@ round scene in which characters alternate between appearing only as dark silhouettes and being fully lit .
Daniels was especially proud of the wedding scene , which has a funeral procession visible through the window and was difficult to light properly . Greed has often been praised for its use of deep @-@ focus cinematography , seventeen years before its more @-@ famous application in Citizen Kane . Daniels sometimes used incandescent lights instead of studio arc lights , due to the constraints of his locations . He later said that Stroheim " was one of the first to insist on no make @-@ up for men , on real paint on the walls which were shiny , real glass in the windows , pure white on sets and in costumes ... everything up to then had been painted a dull brown " to mask the scratches on worn @-@ down film prints . Although not officially credited , Ernest B. Schoedsack worked on the picture as a camera operator .
Stroheim favored " Soviet @-@ style " montage editing . Greed often uses dramatic close @-@ ups and cuts instead of long takes . One exception to this is the scene in which Schouler becomes angry with McTeague and breaks his pipe , which was shot in one long , unbroken take . Stroheim also used symbolic cross @-@ cutting for dramatic effect , such as his use of animals in the film and a shot of a train when McTeague and Trina first kiss . In 1932 film theorist Andrew Buchanan called Stroheim a montage director , stating that " each observation would be captured in a ' close @-@ up ' and at leisure , he would assemble his ' shots ' in just the order which would most forcibly illustrate the fact . " In the 1950s film critic André Bazin praised Stroheim 's use of mise en scène and noted his " one simple rule for directing . Take a close look at the world , keep on doing so and in the end it will lay bare for you all its cruelty and ugliness . "
Despite Stroheim 's reputation as a perfectionist , Greed contains anachronisms . In the scenes on Polk Street , the main characters are clothed in 1890s fashions , but the extras wear 1920s clothing . Stroheim did his best to avoid such historical mistakes ; he shot only those buildings that were from the era Greed was set in , and he kept motor vehicles out of sight while filming . Daniels stated that , despite his desire for authenticity , Stroheim sometimes had walls knocked out of real locations to achieve a desired camera position .
= = = Themes = = =
Frank Norris 's novel belongs to the literary school of naturalism founded by French author Émile Zola . McTeague depicts the fate of its lower @-@ class characters in terms of heredity and their environment , with the belief that " man 's nature , despite free will , is determined by genetic and environmental factors " and that heredity controls fate , despite efforts at upward mobility . This literary style was influenced by Charles Darwin and portrayed characters whose higher states of being , the rational and compassionate , are in conflict with their lower states , the bête humaine ( human beast ) . McTeague was first published in 1899 and was inspired by an October 1893 murder case in which Patrick Collins , a poor husband with a history of beating his wife Sarah , finally stole her money and stabbed her to death at her San Francisco workplace . Sarah Collins worked at the Lest Norris kindergarten , which was financed by Norris 's family .
Von Stroheim did not see Greed as political and told a journalist that he considered it to be like a Greek tragedy . Despite the characters ' struggles with poverty and class , von Stroheim followed the naturalist technique of portraying characters whose lives are driven by fate and their inner nature . Von Stroheim employed variations of this theme in his other films , which often involved a commoner falling in love with an aristocrat or royal .
One of the cinematic techniques by which von Stroheim portrayed naturalism was animal symbolism . In Greed McTeague is associated with a canary , only briefly mentioned in the novel . Von Stroheim altered Norris 's original ending and has McTeague release the canary in Death Valley . McTeague buys Trina a female canary as a wedding gift and early in their marriage von Stroheim cuts from a shot of them kissing to birds fluttering wildly in their cage . Another scene with animal imagery includes cross @-@ cutting between a cat attempting to pounce on the canaries in the scene where Schouler bids goodbye to McTeague and Trina without telling them that he has informed on McTeague . Dogs , cats and monkeys are associated with various supporting characters . Von Stroheim also used the naturalist technique of giving characters specific objects , gestures or phrases that repeat throughout the film as a visual leitmotif . For example , Trina tugs on her lips and McTeague fiddles with his birdcage .
Throughout his career von Stroheim used grotesque imagery and characters . This is most apparent in the wedding @-@ banquet scene , which includes a midget , a hunchback , a woman with buck teeth and a boy on crutches . The wedding guests violently and crudely devour their meal like animals . This scene was unlike any other in films of that period , which treated meals with dignity and a sense of communion . Other instances of grotesque imagery include Trina 's fingers becoming infected and amputated . Von Stroheim contrasted love scenes between McTeague and Trina with their ugly , lower @-@ class environment , such as the sewer with the dead rat and a garbage truck driving by as they kiss .
As in his other films , von Stroheim used Christian imagery and symbols , such as crosses and churches . Trina first shows signs of greed on Easter Sunday and is murdered by McTeague on Christmas Eve . Christmas Eve was often depicted in von Stroheim 's films and was close to the date of his father 's death . Lennig asserted that the character of McTeague 's father ( who was only briefly mentioned in the novel ) is based on von Stroheim 's own father , while McTeague 's mother is a tribute to von Stroheim 's mother , to whom Greed is dedicated . Von Stroheim stated that he considered all of his good qualities to have come from his mother and all of his bad qualities to have come from his father .
= = Editing = =
= = = Initial editing = = =
Editing Greed took almost a year and von Stroheim 's contract did not include payment for his post @-@ production work . He and his chief film cutter Frank Hull worked on the film for several months before completing a rough cut . Von Stroheim was indecisive during editing . He felt restricted by his contract 's limitation on the length of the film . Von Stroheim colored certain scenes with gold tinting by using the Handschiegl Color Process , in which individual frames are hand colored with stencils . Von Stroheim credited himself in the beginning titles with " Personally directed by Erich von Stroheim . "
Other than studio personnel , only twelve people saw the original 42 @-@ reel version of Greed at a special screening in January 1924 ; they included Harry Carr , Rex Ingram , Aileen Pringle , Carmel Myers , Idwal Jones , Joseph Jackson , Jack Jungmeyer , Fritz Tidden , Welford Beaton , Valentine Mandelstam , and Jean Bertin . After the screening Jones , Carr and Ingram all agreed that they had just seen the greatest film ever made and that it was unlikely that a better film would ever be made . Carr wrote a review of the advance screening where he raved that he " saw a wonderful picture the other day — that no one else will ever see ... I can 't imagine what they are going to do with it . It is like Les Miserables . Episodes come along that you think have no bearing on the story , then 12 or 14 reels later it hits you with a crash . For stark , terrible realism and marvelous artistry , it is the greatest picture I have ever seen . But I don 't know what it will be like when it shrinks to 8 reels . " Jonathan Rosenbaum suggested that Carr was most likely referring to a cut sequence early in the film that introduced all of the characters who lived in McTeague 's building . The forty @-@ minute scene depicted what the tenants did on a Saturday afternoon , and established cinematic atmosphere without furthering the plot . Rosenbaum compared the cut sequence to novels of the 19th century and to the first few hours of Jacques Rivette 's Out 1 . Jones publicly praised the advance screening and compared Greed to The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari and Dr. Mabuse the Gambler . However , Welford Beaton of The Film Spectator disliked the 42 @-@ reel version and criticized its excessive use of close @-@ ups .
Many sources claim that the 42 @-@ reel version was only ever intended to be a rough cut , and that Von Stroheim chose to cut it down to 24 reels by March 18 , 1924 , with the intention of screening it with intermissions over two nights . The director had difficulty cutting the film down , telling his friend Don Ryan , " I could take out sequences and thus get the job over in a day . That would be child 's play . But I can 't do it . It would leave gaps that could only be bridged through titles . When you do such a thing you have illustrated subtitles instead of a motion picture . " Von Stroheim later claimed that at this time the Goldwyn Company wanted him to shoot a scene of McTeague waking up in his dentist chair , showing the entire film to have been a bad dream . While von Stroheim was editing the 24 @-@ reel cut June Mathis , who was the head of the Goldwyn Story Department , had made her own 13 @-@ reel version of Greed by January 21 , 1924 . She ordered even more cuts to be made on January 29 , but then left for Rome in early February to oversee the production of Ben @-@ Hur and was uninvolved in the film 's editing for several months .
After having completed the 24 @-@ reel cut of Greed , von Stroheim told Goldwyn executives that he could not cut another frame . Goldwyn producers thought that this version was still too long and told him to cut it to a more manageable length . Von Stroheim then sent the film to his friend , director Rex Ingram , who turned it over to his editor , Grant Whytock . Whytock had worked with von Stroheim on The Devil 's Pass Key and was familiar with the director 's style and tastes . Whytock initially proposed that it be split in two , with one 8 @-@ reel film ending with the wedding and a second 7 @-@ reel film ending at Death Valley . Whytock eventually cut the film down to 18 reels . His only major cut was the entire subplot of Zerkow and Maria , which he thought was " very distasteful . " Otherwise he simply cut down scenes and cut out 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 400 m ) of quick " flash " shots that only lasted a few frames . However , Whytock 's version of Greed retained the prologue and other subplots , as well as much of the humor that was later cut out of it .
Whytock and Ingram screened their version of Greed to studio executives , who responded favorably to it but worried that the tragic ending would be hard to sell to the public . Ingram then sent the 18 @-@ reel version to von Stroheim and told him , " If you cut one more frame I shall never speak to you again . " On April 10 , 1924 , the Goldwyn Company officially agreed to merge with Metro Pictures , putting von Stroheim 's nemesis Thalberg directly in charge of Greed . Von Stroheim and Louis B. Mayer had a lengthy confrontation over the film 's editing , which according to both men ended with von Stroheim claiming that all women were whores and Mayer punching him . Mayer disliked the film because of its lack of glamor , optimism or morality and considered it to be a guaranteed flop .
= = = Studio editing = = =
MGM executives screened Greed at full length once to meet contractual obligations . Idwal Jones , a San Francisco critic , attended the all @-@ day screening and wrote that while some of the scenes were compelling , Stroheim 's desire that " every comma of the book [ be ] put in " was ultimately negative . MGM then took control and re @-@ edited it . The studio ordered June Mathis to cut it down further ; she assigned the job to an editor named Joseph Farnham . Farnham was a well @-@ known " titles editor , " who patched scenes together using title cards to keep continuity . His contributions to Greed include the notorious title cards " Such was McTeague " and " Let 's go over and sit on the sewer , " which were snickered at for years . Eventually Farnham reduced Greed to 10 reels , totaling 10 @,@ 607 feet ( 3 @,@ 233 m ) . Von Stroheim said that the film " was cut by a hack with nothing on his mind but his hat . " He later bitterly lamented that Greed was made before the financial success of Eugene O 'Neill 's four @-@ hour play Strange Interlude in 1928 . Von Stroheim angrily disowned the final version , blaming Mathis for destroying his masterpiece .
One week before Greed 's release the New York State Motion Picture Committee ( which censored films ) demanded several more cuts on moral grounds . These cuts included the administration of ether in the dental scenes and certain instances of foul language . Although these cuts were made to prints that were screened in New York State , the footage was kept in many other prints .
= = = Difference between von Stroheim 's cut and MGM 's cut = = =
The main cuts to Greed were the elimination of its two sub @-@ plots and other entire sequences , while individual scenes were often not touched . Commenting about the cuts made in the film to the Los Angeles Times , Thalberg stated :
This whole story is about greed — a progressive greed . It is the story of the way greed grew in Trina 's heart until it obsessed her . I found that the junk dealer 's greed was so much greater than hers that it almost destroyed the theme . His intense greed drowned out Trina 's greed just as a steam whistle drowns out a small street noise . Instead of hurting the picture , throwing out this junk dealer 's story made the picture stronger .
Thalberg also stated that he " took no chances in cutting it . We took it around to different theaters in the suburbs , ran it at its enormous length , and then we took note of the places at which interest seemed to droop . "
Individual scenes or sequences that were cut include McTeague and Trina 's early , happy years of marriage , the sequence showing McTeague and Trina eventually moving into their shack , the family life of the Sieppe family before Trina 's marriage , the prologue depicting McTeague 's mother and father at the Big Dipper mine and McTeague 's apprenticeship . Other cuts included the more suggestive and sexual close @-@ up shots depicting McTeague and Trina 's physical attraction to each other , the scenes after McTeague has murdered Trina and roams around San Francisco and Placer County , additional footage of Death Valley , additional footage of Trina with her money , and a more gradual version of Trina 's descent into greed and miserly obsession .
= = Reception = =
= = = Release and critical reviews = = =
Greed premiered on December 4 , 1924 , at the Cosmopolitan Theatre in Columbus Circle , New York City , which was owned by William Randolph Hearst . Frank Norris had once worked for Hearst as a foreign correspondent during the Spanish – American War and Hearst praised Greed , calling it the greatest film he had ever seen . Hearst 's newspapers promoted the film , but MGM did very little advertising . At the time of the release von Stroheim was in Los Angeles , having begun production on The Merry Widow on December 1 . In May 1926 Greed was released in Berlin , where its premiere famously caused a riot at the theater that may have been instigated by members of the then @-@ fledgling Nazi party .
Greed received mostly negative reviews . The trade paper Harrison 's Report said that " [ i ] f a contest were to be held to determine which has been the filthiest , vilest , most putrid picture in the history of the motion picture business , I am sure that Greed would win . " Variety Weekly called it " an out @-@ and @-@ out box office flop " only six days after its premiere and claimed that the film had taken two years to shoot , cost $ 700 @,@ 000 and was originally 130 reels long . The review went on say that " nothing more morbid and senseless , from a commercial picture standpoint , has been seen on the screen for a long , long time " and that despite its " excellent acting , fine direction and the undoubted power of its story ... it does not entertain . " In its December 1924 – January 1925 issue , Exceptional Photoplays called it " one of the most uncompromising films ever shown on the screen . There have already been many criticisms of its brutality , its stark realism , its sordidness . But the point is that it was never intended to be a pleasant picture . " In the February 1925 issue of Theatre Magazine , Aileen St. John @-@ Brenon wrote that " the persons in the photoplay are not characters , but types — they are well selected , weighed and completely drilled . But they did not act ; they do not come to life . They perform their mission like so many uncouth images of miserliness and repugnant animalism . " Mordaunt Hall of the New York Times gave the film a mostly positive review in regards to the acting and directing while criticizing how it was edited , writing that MGM " clipped this production as much as they dared ... and are to be congratulated on their efforts and the only pity is that they did not use the scissors more generously in the beginning . " In a Life Magazine article , Robert E. Sherwood also defended MGM 's cutting of the film and called von Stroheim " a genius ... badly in need of a stopwatch . " Iris Barry of the Museum of Modern Art ( MoMA ) disliked the tinting , saying " a not very pleasing yellow tinge is smudged in . " A March 1925 review in Pictureplay magazine stated , " perhaps an American director would not have seen greed as a vice . "
A more favorable review came from Richard Watts , Jr. of the New York Herald Tribune , who called Greed " the most important picture yet produced in America ... It is the one picture of the season that can hold its own as a work of dramatic art worthy of comparison with such stage plays as What Price Glory ? and Desire Under the Elms . " The April 20 , 1925 , edition of The Montreal Gazette claimed it " impresses as a powerful film " and described the " capacity audience " screening as " one of the few pictures which are as worthy of serious consideration ... which offer a real and convincing study of life and character and that secure their ends by artistic and intellectual means rather than by writing down to the level of the groundlings . " The review went on to describe the direction as " masterly , " citing " its remarkable delineation of character development and the subtle touches which convey ideas through vision rather than the written word , an all too @-@ rare employment of the possibilities of the cinema play as a distinct branch of art capable of truthful and convincing revelation and interpretation of life 's realities . " A review in Exceptional Photoplays stated that " Mr. von Stroheim has always been the realist as Rex Ingram is the romanticist and Griffith the sentimentalist of the screen , and in Greed he has given us an example of realism at its starkest . Like the novel from which the plot was taken , Greed is a terrible and wonderful thing . "
= = = Box office = = =
Greed was a financial disappointment . On its initial run , it earned $ 224 @,@ 500 in the United States , $ 3 @,@ 063 in Canada and $ 47 @,@ 264 in other markets . In total it earned $ 274 @,@ 827 . Von Stroheim 's biographer Arthur Lennig stated that according to MGM 's records the final cost of Greed was $ 546 @,@ 883 . Another biographer , Richard Koszarski , stated that its final cost was $ 665 @,@ 603 : $ 585 @,@ 250 for the production , $ 30 @,@ 000 for von Stroheim 's personal fee , $ 54 @,@ 971 for processing and editing , $ 53 @,@ 654 for advertising and $ 1 @,@ 726 for Motion Picture dues .
Arthur Lennig asserted that MGM 's official budget for Greed was suspiciously high for a film with no stars , no built sets , a small crew and inexpensive film stock . Lennig suspects that MGM averaged the film 's cost with the more expensive The Merry Widow in order to prevent von Stroheim from getting a percentage of the more profitable film . The Merry Widow ended up being a hit and earned more profits than Greed had lost ; it cost $ 614 @,@ 961 but earned $ 996 @,@ 226 on its initial run .
= = Legacy = =
In his final years , von Stroheim said that " of all my films , only Greed was a fully realized work , only Greed had a total validity . " In 1926 a British foundation of Arts and Sciences requested a copy of the original version of Greed to keep in their archive , but their request was denied by MGM . Henri Langlois screened the studio version of Greed for von Stroheim in 1950 . Von Stroheim said , " It was for me an exhumation . It was like opening a coffin in which there was just dust , giving off a terrible stench , a couple of vertebra and a piece of shoulder bone . " He went on to say that " It was as if a man 's beloved was run over by a truck , maimed beyond recognition . He goes to see her in the morgue . Of course , he still loves her but it 's only the memory of her that he can love — because he doesn 't recognize her anymore . "
In the early 1950s Greed 's reputation began to grow and it appeared on several lists of the greatest films ever made . In 1952 at the Festival Mondial du Film et des Beaux Arts de Belgique , Greed was named the fifth greatest film ever made , with such directors as Luchino Visconti , Orson Welles and Billy Wilder voting for it . Later in 1952 Sight and Sound magazine published its first list of the " ten greatest films ever made . " Greed was tied for 7th place on that list , with such critics as Andre Bazin , Lotte Eisner , Curtis Harrington , Penelope Houston and Gavin Lambert voting for it . In 1962 it was tied for 4th on the same list . Since 1972 it has failed to reach a spot on the top ten . The Cinémathèque royale de Belgique released a list of " the most important and misappreciated American films of all time " in 1978 . Greed was third on its list after Citizen Kane and Sunrise : A Song of Two Humans . In a University of Southern California list of the " 50 Most Significant American Films " made by the school 's Performing Arts Council , Greed was listed as number 21 . In 1991 Greed was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . "
Among those who have praised Greed over the years are Sergei Eisenstein ; Joseph von Sternberg , who said , " We were all influenced by Greed " ; Jean Renoir , who called it " the film of films " ; and Ernst Lubitsch , who called von Stroheim " the only true ' novelist ' " in films . More recently Guillermo del Toro called it " a perfect reflection of the anxiety permeating the passage into the 20th century and the absolute dehumanization that was to come . " and Norbert Pfaffenbichler said that " the last shot of the movie is unforgettable . " Jonathan Rosenbaum has stated that Greed was a major influence on the style and content of many films . Stroheim 's shots filming the sun predated Akira Kurosawa 's better @-@ known uses of the technique in Rashomon ( 1950 ) . Rosenbaum compared specific shot set @-@ ups in Greed to shots in King Vidor 's The Crowd , Jean Renoir 's Le Crime de Monsieur Lange , Orson Welles 's The Magnificent Ambersons , Howard Hawks ' To Have and Have Not and Michelangelo Antonioni 's L 'Avventura . In addition , he likened certain plot elements or characters in Greed to John Huston 's The Treasure of the Sierra Madre ( 1948 ) , Alfred Hitchcock 's Rear Window ( 1954 ) , Claude Chabrol 's Les Bonnes Femmes ( 1960 ) and Elaine May 's Mikey and Nicky ( 1975 ) . Rosenbaum singled out Stroheim 's influence on May , an American director , with Mikey and Nicky centering on the disintegration of a friendship over money and sex , and including grotesque elements and characters caught between innocence and corruption . Rosenbaum also asserts that Orson Welles ' use of satirical caricatures in all of his films is in " the spirit of von Stroheim . "
The two films most commonly compared to Greed are Huston 's The Treasure of the Sierra Madre and Welles ' The Magnificent Ambersons . Rosenbaum believes that besides Huston 's film ending with gold being lost in the desert and similarities between Trina 's descent into madness with Fred C. Dobbs own obsessions , the two films have little else in common . The Magnificent Ambersons and Greed both have characters who struggle with class differences that lead to their downfall . Ambersons was famously edited down drastically by its studio and the cut footage is now lost . Rosenbaum goes on to state that Greed influenced the methods in which novels are adapted into films and filmmakers like Welles , Huston and Bill Forsyth followed von Stroheim 's example by re @-@ arranging the plot and adding new scenes to their films while still remaining faithful to the intentions of the original novels . The 1994 Jonathan Lynn film Greedy pays tribute to the film by giving the main characters the last name McTeague .
Attempts to reconstruct the uncut version of Greed without use of the lost footage first began in 1958 . At the Brussels International Exposition , the Cinémathèque royale de Belgique named Greed as one of the twelve greatest films ever made and simultaneously published von Stroheim 's original , uncut script for Greed , which came directly from von Stroheim 's personal copy preserved by his widow Denise Vernac . This publication led to three separate books that all used von Stroheim 's script in order to reconstruct the original version of the film and compare it to the released version : a French book edited by Jacques @-@ G. Perret in 1968 and two versions edited by Joel Finler and Herman G. Weinberg , both in 1972 . Weinberg 's book utilized 400 individual stills and production photos to reconstruct the uncut version of Greed , the first time that images from the uncut version were publicly available .
In 1999 , Turner Entertainment ( the film 's current rights holder ) decided to recreate , as closely as possible , the original version by combining the existing footage with over 650 still photographs of the lost scenes ( many of which had been used in Weinberg 's book ) , in accordance with an original continuity outline written by von Stroheim . All materials were provided by the Margaret Herrick Library . This restoration runs almost four hours . It was produced by film preservationist Rick Schmidlin and edited by Glenn Morgan . Schmidlin restored many characters and sub @-@ plots from the original version . A new musical score was composed by Robert Israel . The reconstruction cost $ 100 @,@ 000 to produce . Schmidlin called the finished product " a reconstruction of Von Stroheim 's lost narrative . " It premiered at the 1999 Telluride Film Festival and was later screened at the Venice Film Festival and the Pordenone Silent Film Festival before being aired on Turner Classic Movies in December 1999 . Film critic Todd McCarthy called the restored version of Greed a triumph . Roger Ebert called Greed a masterpiece and said that the restored Schmidlin cut illustrates the " prudish sensibilities [ that ] went into MGM 's chop job . " Rosenbaum praised the project , but claimed it could only be considered a " study version . " The re @-@ construction won a special citation from the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards .
= = Myths and misconceptions = =
Stroheim was known to exaggerate events from his life and create myths about himself , such as his fictitious aristocratic origins and military record in Austria . He claimed that shortly after having moved to the US in the early 1910s , he had found a copy of McTeague in a motel in New York and had read it in one sitting . He also said that wanting to adapt the book inspired him to make a career in filmmaking . Georges Sadoul later stated that Stroheim had first read the novel in 1914 , while living in poverty in Los Angeles .
Claims that Stroheim 's original cut was a completely unabridged version of McTeague are not accurate . Stroheim 's 300 @-@ page script was almost as long as the original novel , but he rethought the entire story and invented new scenes , as well as extensively elaborating existing ones . In the Norris novel , McTeague 's back story in Placer County and relationships with his father , mother and Potter were remembered as a flashback and took two paragraphs . In Stroheim 's original Greed , this sequence took up the first hour of the film and was not a flashback . Stroheim also modernized the novel 's time span to between 1908 and 1923 , a quarter @-@ century later than the novel .
Greed has sometimes been said to be over 100 reels long . Stroheim said that his initial edit was 42 reels , although several of the people who saw this cut remembered it as being anywhere from 42 to 47 reels . Grant Whytock remembered the edited version that Stroheim initially sent to him as between 26 and 28 reels . MGM 's official studio files list the original cut of the film at 22 reels . As recently as 1992 , former MGM Story Editor Samuel Marx erroneously claimed that the original version of Greed was 70 reels .
June Mathis is credited with co @-@ writing the script due to her work on the 10 @-@ reel version . Mathis was the head of the Story Department at MGM and her contract stipulated that she would receive writing credit for all MGM films . She did not actually write any part of the screenplay . She is also said to have changed its title from McTeague to Greed during post @-@ production ; however , a publicity still of the cast and crew taken during production clearly indicates that it was titled Greed before the MGM merger even took place . The film 's working title was " Greedy Wives , " a joke on Stroheim 's previous film Foolish Wives ; this working title was never considered as the film 's actual title .
The original version of Greed has been called the " holy grail " for film archivists . Various reports of the original version proved to be unfounded . Among these " sightings " are a claim that a copy existed in a vault in South America that was only screened once a year for invited guests on New Year 's Eve . Another claim was that a copy in the possession of a Texan millionaire was sold to Henri Langlois of Cinémathèque Française . Other claims include that a film society in Boston held a private screening of a print found by a World War II veteran in Berlin from a tip by Emil Jannings , that David Shepherd of the American Film Institute had found a copy at a garage sale , and that the head of a film society in Redwood City , California , owned " the longest existing version of Greed ( purchased in Europe ) . " Stroheim himself once stated that Benito Mussolini owned a personal copy of the film . Stroheim 's son Joseph von Stroheim once claimed that when he was in the Army during World War II , he saw a version of the film that took two nights to fully screen , although he could not remember exactly how long it was .
There were also reports that MGM had retained a copy of the original version . Iris Barry of the Museum of Modern Art claimed that a copy was locked in the MGM vaults , although Thalberg denied it . It was also reported that John Houseman had a private screening at MGM and that MGM owned two copies stored in a vault in a Utah salt mine . Lotte Eisner once claimed that in the 1950s and 1960s , several cans of films labeled " McTeague " were found in MGM 's vaults and destroyed by executives who did not know that it was footage from Greed . MGM executive Al Lewin said that several years after the film 's release Stroheim asked him for the cut footage . Lewin and editor Margaret Booth searched MGM 's vault but could not find any missing footage .
= BabyFirst =
BabyFirst is a media company that produces and distributes content for babies through television , the internet and mobile apps . The content is intended to develop a baby 's skills , such as color recognition , counting and vocabulary . There are about 90 BabyFirst TV shows and 41 apps for mobile devices . As of 2014 , the network is distributed to 81 million homes , and is based in Los Angeles , California .
BabyFirst was founded in 2004 by Guy Oranim and Sharon Rechter . Its first broadcast was through DirecTV in 2006 . It was founded by Regency Enterprises , Kardan , and Bellco Capital . Distribution expanded through agreements with the Echostar Dish Network , Comcast , AT & T U @-@ verse and others . It also developed a premium BabyFirst YouTube channel , and mobile apps . One app developed with AT & T U @-@ verse allows babies to interact with the television programming by drawing on a mobile device .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
BabyFirst was founded in 2004 by Guy Oranim and Sharon Rechter . The network was launched on May 11 , 2006 on DirecTV and was later made available through EchoStar 's Dish Network that June . It was made available through EchoStar 's Dish Network that June . The BabyFirst network is based in Los Angeles and was initially funded by Regency Enterprises ( a Hollywood movie studio ) , Kardan ( a holding company ) and Bellco Capital ( a private fund ) . BabyFirst was controversial when it was introduced , because it was the first 24 @-@ hour channel for children six months to three years in age . However , the channel was popular among parents and grew quickly .
= = = Distribution expansion = = =
In 2007 , BabyFirst obtained agreements to distribute the channel in the United Kingdom through the BSkyB satellite network as well as in Mexico through Sky Mexico and Cablevision . A French version was introduced with CanalSat in 2007 . By the end of 2007 , it had arranged broadcasting agreements throughout Europe , the Middle @-@ East and Canada among others .
BabyFirst also started broadcasting in ten territories in the Asia Pacific , such as China and Korea . In October 2008 , SingTel started distributing the channel to the Singapore audience . It was also being broadcast in Africa and Latin America . In May 2008 , it signed a distribution agreement with Time Warner Cable . In 2009 , HBO Asia became the exclusive distributor for the channel in Asia . A bilingual Latin / English channel , BabyFirst Americas , was launched with Comcast in 2012 . A premium BabyFirst YouTube channel was introduced in June 2013 .
In the early 2000s , the Federal Trade Commission responded to a complaint by the Campaign for a Commercial Free Childhood alleging that BabyFirst 's advertising that it helped babies develop skills was misleading . The FTC did not impose any sanctions . As of 2014 , it has 81 million viewers and is broadcast in 33 countries , in ten languages .
= = = Recent history = = =
In 2013 , former ABC Network President Steven McPherson and Rich Frank , the former chairman of Disney Channel became investors and board members as the company worked to develop new content and improve advertising revenues . In May 2014 , BabyFirst and AT & T U @-@ verse released a co @-@ developed second @-@ screen app for mobile devices that allows children to interact with the television programming through tablets or smartphones .
= = Programming = =
BabyFirst 's television channel provides 24 @-@ hour programming for babies . About 90 percent of the 90 shows BabyFirst produces are original content created at BabyFirst 's studios . It produces and broadcasts short videos three to five minutes in length that are either live @-@ action or animated .
The New York Times described the content as " decidedly unhurried " and said it makes extensive use of bright colors and upbeat music . Programming development is guided by child psychology experts and is designed to encourage a child 's skills development , such as counting , vocabulary and color recognition . The BabyFirst logo in the corner changes colors to indicate the skills a segment is intended to develop . Late @-@ night programming is intended to lull viewers to sleep .
There are also 41 BabyFirst apps for mobile devices . An app available to AT & T U @-@ verse viewers allows children to draw on a mobile device and have the drawing appear on the television screen .
Some experts argue that exposing children to television at such an early age is taking technology too far or that parents are using BabyFirst as a digital babysitter . Parents in @-@ turn refute that argument , claiming that experts have lost touch with the realities of raising a child . BabyFirst suggests the programming is intended to be watched by parents and their children together in an interactive way . The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends against exposing children under the age of two to television , while a 2003 study by the Kaiser Family Foundation found that most children under two years of age are already watching TV . According to The Washington Post , very little is known about whether young children watching television has a negative or positive effect on them .
= John Michael Wright =
John Michael Wright ( May 1617 – July 1694 ) was a portrait painter in the Baroque style . Described variously as English and Scottish , Wright trained in Edinburgh under the Scots painter George Jamesone , and acquired a considerable reputation as an artist and scholar during a long sojourn in Rome . There he was admitted to the Accademia di San Luca , and was associated with some of the leading artists of his generation . He was engaged by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria , the governor of the Spanish Netherlands , to acquire artworks in Oliver Cromwell 's England in 1655 . He took up permanent residence in England from 1656 , and served as court painter before and after the English Restoration . A convert to Roman Catholicism , he was a favourite of the restored Stuart court , a client of both Charles II and James II , and was a witness to many of the political maneuverings of the era . In the final years of the Stuart monarchy he returned to Rome as part of an embassy to Pope Innocent XI .
Wright is currently rated as one of the leading indigenous British painters of his generation , largely for the distinctive realism in his portraiture . Perhaps due to the unusually cosmopolitan nature of his experience , he was favoured by patrons at the highest level of society in an age in which foreign artists were usually preferred . Wright 's paintings of royalty and aristocracy are included amongst the collections of many leading galleries today .
= = Early years and Scottish connections = =
John Michael Wright , who at the height of his career would interchangeably sign himself " Anglus " or " Scotus " , is of uncertain origin . The diarist John Evelyn called him a Scotsman , an epithet repeated by Horace Walpole and tentatively accepted by his later biographer , Verne . However , writing in 1700 , the English antiquarian Thomas Hearne claims Wright was born in Shoe Lane , London and , after an adolescent conversion to Roman Catholicism , was taken to Scotland by a priest . A London birth certainly seems supported by a baptismal record , dated 25 May 1617 , for a " Mighell Wryghtt " , son of James Wright , described as a tailor and a citizen of London , in St Bride 's Church , Fleet Street , London .
What is known is that , on 6 April 1636 , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Wright was apprenticed to George Jamesone , an Edinburgh portrait painter of some repute . The Edinburgh Register of Apprentices records him as " Michaell , son to James W ( right ) , tailor , citizen of London " . The reasons for this move to Scotland are unclear , but may have to do with familial connections ( his parents may have been London Scots ) or the advent of plague in London . During his apprenticeship , Wright is likely to have lodged at the High Street tenement near the Netherbow Gate that served as Jameson 's workplace . The apprenticeship was contracted for five years , but may have been curtailed by Jameson 's imprisonment in late 1639 . There is no record of any independent work by Wright from this period ( his earliest known painting being a small portrait of Robert Bruce , 1st Earl of Ailesbury , painted in the early 1640s during his time in Rome ) .
It is also possible that Wright met his wife during his Scottish residency . Nothing is known of her , except from a statement of thirty years later which describes her as " related to the most noble and distinguished families of Scotland . " If this is accurate , it may explain how Wright was later able to find aristocratic patronage . All that is known for certain is that Wright had at least one child by her , a son , Thomas .
= = Rome and the Netherlands = =
There is evidence to suggest that Wright went to France following his apprenticeship , however his eventual destination was Italy . It is possible that he arrived in Rome as early as 1642 in the entourage of James Alban Gibbes ( a scholar of English descent ) , but he was certainly resident there from 1647 . Although details of his time there are sketchy , his skills and reputation increased so much so that by 1648 he had become a member of the prestigious Accademia di San Luca ( where he is recorded as " Michele Rita , pittore inglese " ) . At that time , the Accademia included numbers of established Italian painters as well as illustrious foreigners including the French Nicolas Poussin and Spaniard Diego Velázquez . On 10 February that year he was elected to the Congregazione dei Virtuosi al Pantheon , a charitable body promoting the Roman Catholic faith through art , which hosted an annual exhibition in the Pantheon .
Wright was to spend more than ten years in Rome . During that time became an accomplished linguist as well as an established art connoisseur . He also became prosperous enough to build up a substantial collection of books , prints , paintings , gems and medals , including works attributed to Mantegna , Michelangelo , Raphael , Titian and Correggio . He acquired some forty paintings – perhaps as much through dealing as collecting . Richard Symonds , the amateur painter and royalist , catalogued Wright 's collection in the early 1650s ( and interestingly designated him as " Scotus " ) .
= = = Antiquarian for Leopold of Austria = = =
In 1654 , after a decade in Rome , Wright travelled to Brussels where his abilities were recognised by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria then governor of the Spanish Netherlands . Leopold employed him not as an artist , but as an advisor on antiquities . As the younger brother of the Emperor Ferdinand III and cousin of Philip IV of Spain , the Archduke had the wherewithal to amass a large collection of paintings and antiquities . Moreover , in the spring of 1655 , the Archduke was enjoying a period of cordial relations with Oliver Cromwell , then Lord Protector of England . ( Indeed , the two had been exchanging gifts of horses , and Leopold had provided Cromwell with choice tapestries and other artefacts for the refurbishment of the Palace of Whitehall . Cromwell also received an embassy from the Habsburgs congratulating him on his new office . )
Since the execution of Charles I in 1649 , Leopold had been purchasing artworks from the royal collections and those of various aristocrats , and , against this background , commissioned Wright to travel to London and acquire further specimens . A passport was issued to him as " ' Juan Miguel Rita , pintor Ingles , qua va a Inglaterra a procurar pinturas , medalas , antiguedades , y otras costa señaladas , que le hemosencargado ... " to allow him to travel to England . The passport is dated 22 May 1655 , and signed by the Archduke at Brussels , indicating that Wright had left Italy for Flanders by this time . ( The addition of the saint 's name name , John , probably marks his conversion to Roman Catholicism at some time prior . )
As one on an official mission , Wright would probably have offered greetings to Leopold 's ambassador extraordinary in London , the Marqués de Lede , and to Alonso de Cárdenas , the regular Habsburg ambassador , who had also been engaged since 1649 in art procurement for the Spanish Monarch . The lack of records means that the timing and duration of this visit remain uncertain . However , de Lede left in late June , and de Cárdenas a few weeks later – as relations between Cromwell and the Habsburgs deteriorated – so Wright probably arrived back in Flanders , with any acquisitions he had made , just in time to learn of the Archduke 's impending departure – and that of his huge art collection – from Brussels in the autumn of 1655 .
However , after the relocation of his patron to Vienna , Wright again visited London . On 9 April 1656 he passed through Dover , and the register of visitors indicates :
Michael Wright Englishman landed at Dover the 9th present out of the Pacquet boat from Dunkerque and came to London on the 12th and lodgeth at the house of Mrs Johnston in Weldstreet in the parish of Gyles in the fields in Middlesex and saith that having exercised the Art of Picture drawing in France & Italy & other parts the greatest part of his life , he intendeth shortly to returne to Italy where he left his family
Perhaps tactfully , the record glosses Wright 's employment in Flanders , ( euphemistically referred to as " other parts " ) as England and the Habsburgs were now at open war , and it fails to mention his membership of the Accademia di San Luca , which would have identified him as a Roman Catholic .
= = England = =
Whatever his intentions , Wright did not return to Italy , rather he was joined in England by his family soon after . Despite his Roman Catholicism and the strong Protestantism of the Protectorate ( 1653 – 1659 ) , Wright seems to have been able to find prestigious work . Indeed , Waterhouse speaks of him engaging in " the most deliberate and unblushing toadying to Cromwell " in his 1658 painting of a small posthumous portrait of Elizabeth Claypole , Oliver Cromwell 's daughter ( now in the National Portrait Gallery ) . This is an allegorical portrait depicting Elizabeth as Minerva , leaning on a carved relief representing the goddess springing from the head of Jove with the motto " Ab Jove Principium " – an allusion to Cromwell himself , whose cameo portrait she holds . Seemingly , he was also willing to work the other side of the political divide : in 1659 he painted Colonel John Russell who was a player in the " Sealed Knot " conspiracy to restore Charles II to the throne . That particular portrait is regarded by at least one critic as Wright 's " masterpiece " .
After the restoration of Charles II in 1660 , Wright 's Roman Catholicism became less of a handicap , due to the King 's preference for religious toleration . Never a good businessman , Wright encountered some financial difficulties and King Charles granted him the privilege of disposing of his collection of Old Masters by means of a lottery . The King himself acquired 14 of the paintings . By the early 1660s Wright had established a successful studio in London , and was described by diarist John Evelyn as " the famous painter Mr Write " . Later , the Great Plague of London ( 1665 ) drove Wright out to countryside , where he painted at least three members of the Catholic family of Arundell of Wardour .
Ironically , in the next year , the Great Fire of London ( 1666 ) was to be of benefit to him , when he received one of the City of London 's first new artistic commissions to paint twenty @-@ two full length portraits of the so @-@ called ' Fire Judges ' ( those appointed to assess the property disputes arising from the fire ) . These paintings , completed in 1670 , hung in London 's Guildhall until it was bombed during World War II ; today only two ( those of Sir Matthew Hale and Sir Hugh Wyndham ) remain in the Guildhall Art Gallery the remainder having been destroyed or dispersed .
= = = Royal patronage = = =
Charles II , who promoted a number of Roman Catholics at court , granted Wright a measure of royal art patronage . In 1661 , soon after the coronation , he painted a formalised portrait of the monarch , seated in front of a tapestry representing the Judgement of Solomon , wearing St. Edward 's Crown , the robes of the Garter , and carrying the orb and sceptre . Wright was also commissioned to paint an allegorical ceiling for the King 's bedchamber at Whitehall Palace , and he was further appointed in 1673 to the office of " picture drawer in ordinary " , allowing him to exercise his right to sign his pictures " Pictor Regis " . However , to his disappointment , he did not receive the coveted office of King 's Painter , which was held in the 1660s by Sir Peter Lely alone . In contrast to Wright 's sympathetic realism , and carefully observed landscape backgrounds , Lely had a more glamorous style , favoured by the court , and based on Van Dyck 's pre @-@ Civil War style . This prompted the diarist Samuel Pepys to remark , after an enjoyable visit to Lely 's studio , " thence to Wright 's the painters : but Lord , the difference that is between their two works " .
Unlike Lely , who was knighted , Wright never received significant recognition from King Charles . However , at least one admirer thought he did deserve it . In 1669 , Wright and the miniaturist Samuel Cooper had met Cosimo III de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany . Cosimo later called at Wright 's studio where he commissioned a portrait of the Duke of Albemarle from Wright . On 3 March 1673 , perhaps some time after Wright had painted his state picture of Charles II ( now in the Royal Collection ) , a strange letter was sent from an obscure " Mairie Lady Hermistan " ( evidently a fellow Roman Catholic ) to Cosimo , asking him to intercede with the King to grant Wright a baronetcy . However , nothing came of the request .
As antipathy towards Catholics intensified in London from the late 1670s , Wright spent more time working away from court . He painted six family portraits for Sir Walter Bagot of Blithfield in Staffordshire in 1676 / 7 . In 1678 , he removed to Dublin for a number of years , perhaps due to the anti @-@ Catholic hysteria generated by Titus Oates 's Popish Plot . Here , still styling himself " Pictor Regis " , he painted " The Ladies Catherine and Charlotte Talbot " , which is today in the National Gallery of Ireland . He also painted two full @-@ lengths portraits of costumed chieftains , the " Sir Neil O 'Neill " ( c . 1680 ) , now in the Tate Collection , and the " Lord Mungo Murray " ( c.1683 ) , now in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery . Sir Neil O 'Neill was a fellow Roman Catholic , also in exile in Dublin . Wright portrayed him in the dress costume of an Irish chieftain , with suit of rare Japanese armour at his feet . The significance of this armour is that it is thought to be a coded symbol of a triumph over the persecutors of Roman Catholicism , of whom , at that time , the Japanese were notorious . The portrait of Mungo Murray ( the 5th son of the Royalist Marquis of Atholl ) is notable for being considered one of the first instance of Scottish tartan being portrayed in art .
= = = Roman embassy = = =
In 1685 , when the openly Roman Catholic James II ascended the throne , Wright was able to return to royal service . However , significantly , James did not employ Wright as an artist , but gave him the " time consuming and futile post " of steward on a diplomatic embassy . He was appointed as steward to Roger Palmer , 1st Earl of Castlemaine husband of Barbara Villiers , the late King 's mistress . Wright 's knowledge of Rome and of the Italian language may have played a part in this , as Castlemaine was dispatched , in 1686 , on an embassy to Pope Innocent XI to demonstrate that England could become a player on the Roman Catholic side in impending European conflicts . Wright 's role in the embassy was to oversee the production of elaborate coaches , costumes and decorations for the procession , which secured a papal audience in January 1687 . He also arranged a stupendous banquet for a thousand guests in the Palazzo Doria Pamphilj , complete with sugar sculptures and a large state portrait of James II . While in Rome , Wright published an illustrated Italian account of the embassy , dedicated to the Duchess of Modena and , on his return , an English version was published in October 1687 , dedicated to her daughter Queen Mary .
= = = Final years = = =
Wright 's career came to an end in 1688 with the expulsion of King James II during the Glorious Revolution . He seems to have accepted the inevitable end of his royal favour with the accession to the throne of the Protestant William of Orange . He lived on , in relative poverty , for a further six years until 1694 . In March of that year , he made a will leaving his house in St Paul 's parish to his niece Katherine Vaux . His collection of drawings , prints and books were left to his nephew , the painter Michael Wright ; however a codicil to the will stated that the books were to be sold on behalf of his son Thomas , who was then abroad . The books were auctioned on 4 June and on 1 August 1694 , John Michael Wright was buried at St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields .
= = Artistic legacy = =
Much of the scholarly appreciation of Wright 's work is fairly recent . In 1982 , an exhibition of his work : ‘ John Michael Wright – The King ’ s Painter ’ – in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery – led to a renewed interest in his contributions , and the catalogue ( edited by Sara Stevenson and Duncan Thomson ) re @-@ wrote and uncovered much of the known biographical details . New works continue to be discovered and previously known ones re @-@ attributed to him . Wright is now viewed as amongst the most successful of seventeenth @-@ century Britain 's indigenous artists , and is rated alongside contemporaries such as Robert Walker and William Dobson . One modern exhibition catalogue described him as " the finest seventeenth century British @-@ born painter " . Certainly , he was one of the few who painted the elite aristocracy of his day , and was responsible for some of the most magnificent royal portraiture surviving . This achievement is particularly significant in an age where even British patrons had tended to favour foreign artists like Holbein and Van Dyck , and would continue to favour immigrants such as Lely and Kneller . Indeed , part of the reason for Wright 's success is recognised as being his unusually cosmopolitan training : no prior British artist had so much exposure to European influence . During his Italian sojourn , and his participation in the Accademia di San Luca , not only had Wright collected works attributed to continental giants like Michelangelo , Raphael and Titian , he had also been influenced by , and even copied , much of their tone and style .
In his field and day , Wright was certainly eclipsed by his rival the more prolific Lely , to whom he is often compared . One critic , Millar , observes that any comparisons undertaken would " ruthlessly expose Wright 's weaknesses and mannerisms " but that positively " they would also demonstrate his remarkable independence , his unfailing integrity and charm , the sources of which must partly lie in his unusual origins , fragmented career and attractive personality " . Millar suggests that a particularly useful comparison can be made between Lely and Wright 's respective portrayals of the Duchess of Clevland ( Barbara Villiers ) ( above ) . Whereas Lely portrayed her as a " full @-@ blown and palpably desirable strumpet " , the more seriously minded Wright , who was not really in sympathy with the morality of the new court and its courtesans , rendered a more puppet @-@ like figure .
However , even if Lely was considered the more masterly and fashionable of the two in seventeenth @-@ century Britain , Wright is generally accepted as portraying the more lively and realistic likenesses of his subjects , a fact that reinforces Pepys 's observation that Lely 's work was " good but not like " . Neither should Wright 's realism be confused with a prudishness ; as can be seen , for example , in his portrait the lady , thought to be Ann Davis ( right ) . The picture , with the sitter 's clothing left undone and her modesty barely preserved by a red drape , has been described as exhibiting a fresh – even risky – reality : erotic by contemporary standards . Whereas Wright 's contemporaries might have used the ‘ disguise ’ of presenting the sitter in the guise of a classical goddess to protect against accusation of salaciousness , Wright 's portrait rather depends on his realism , notably in his flesh tones , and depth .
= On the Internet , nobody knows you 're a dog =
" On the Internet , nobody knows you 're a dog " is an adage which began as a cartoon caption by Peter Steiner and published by The New Yorker on July 5 , 1993 . The cartoon features two dogs : one sitting on a chair in front of a computer , speaking the caption to a second dog sitting on the floor listening to the first . As of 2011 , the panel was the most reproduced cartoon from The New Yorker , and Steiner has earned over US $ 50 @,@ 000 from its reprinting .
= = History = =
Peter Steiner , a cartoonist and contributor to The New Yorker since 1979 , said the cartoon initially did not get a lot of attention , but later took on a life of its own , and that he felt similar to the person who created the " smiley face " . In fact , Steiner was not that interested in the Internet when he drew the cartoon , and although he did have an online account , he recalled attaching no " profound " meaning to the cartoon ; it was just something he drew in the manner of a " make @-@ up @-@ a @-@ caption " cartoon .
In response to the comic 's popularity , he stated , " I can 't quite fathom that it 's that widely known and recognized . "
= = Context = =
The cartoon marks a notable moment in the history of the Internet . Once the exclusive domain of government engineers and academics , the Internet had by then become a subject of discussion in general interest magazines like The New Yorker . Lotus Software founder and early Internet activist Mitch Kapor commented in a Time magazine article in 1993 that " the true sign that popular interest has reached critical mass came this summer when the New Yorker printed a cartoon showing two computer @-@ savvy canines " .
The cartoon symbolizes an understanding of Internet privacy that stresses the ability of users to send and receive messages in general anonymity . Lawrence Lessig suggests " no one knows " because Internet protocols do not force users to identify themselves ; although local access points such as a user 's university may , this information is privately held by the local access point and is not an intrinsic part of the Internet transaction .
A study by Morahan @-@ Martin and Schumacher ( 2000 ) on compulsive or problematic Internet use discusses this phenomenon , suggesting the ability to self @-@ represent from behind the computer screen may be part of the compulsion to go online . The phrase can be taken " to mean that cyberspace will be liberatory because gender , race , age , looks , or even ' dogness ' are potentially absent or alternatively fabricated or exaggerated with unchecked creative license for a multitude of purposes both legal and illegal " , an understanding that echoed statements made in 1996 by John Gilmore , a key figure in the history of Usenet . The phrase also suggests the ability to " computer cross @-@ dress " and represent oneself as a different gender , age , race , etc . On another level , " the freedom which the dog chooses to avail itself of , is the freedom to ' pass ' as part of a privileged group ; i.e. human computer users with access to the Internet " .
According to Bob Mankoff , The New Yorker 's cartoon editor , " The cartoon resonated with our wariness about the facile façade that could be thrown up by anyone with a rudimentary knowledge of html . "
= = In popular culture = =
The cartoon has inspired the play Nobody Knows I 'm a Dog by Alan David Perkins . The play revolves around six different individuals unable to communicate effectively with people in their lives who find the courage to socialize on the Internet , protected by their anonymity .
The Apple Internet suite Cyberdog was named after this cartoon .
A cartoon by Kaamran Hafeez published in The New Yorker on February 23 , 2015 features a similar pair of dogs watching their owner sitting at a computer , with one asking the other , " Remember when , on the Internet , nobody knew who you were ? "
= I Am God =
" I Am God " is the eighteenth episode of the second season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fortieth episode overall . Written by Diane Ruggiero and Cathy Belben and directed by Martha Mitchell , the episode premiered on UPN on April 11 , 2006 .
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a high school student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica experiences persistent and vivid nightmares of the students who died in the bus crash , and she attempts to piece together the clues she 's gotten from these dreams . Meanwhile , Logan ( Jason Dohring ) and Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) are forced to work together on a science experiment .
During the filming of " I Am God " , several press members , primarily bloggers , were allowed to visit the show 's set , an event that was the first of its kind for Veronica Mars . Bloggers had been an important source of the show 's fandom and press coverage , and the event was set up by UPN executives as a public relations project . The episode also features a guest appearance by Kayla Ewell and the first appearance by James Jordan . The episode received 1 @.@ 76 million viewers in its original US airing , and it received mixed reviews from television critics , with reviewers divided on the use of dream sequences as well as the episode 's emotional impact overall .
= = Synopsis = =
Veronica has a dream of the students who died in the bus crash , which takes place in " Normal Is the Watchword " , before she visits the guidance counselor , Rebecca ( Paula Marshall ) , who talks to her about her problems , and Veronica tells her about her nightmares . Veronica lists the bus crash victims and asks Rebecca about a janitor named Lucky ( James Jordan ) , whom Meg used to talk about a lot . Veronica describes some more dreams and tells Rebecca that she met with a student named Rhonda , who handed her a phone with a voice recording of Dick on the bus . Veronica recounts a dream encounter with her father , in which she discovered a piece of paper with the words “ I am God ” and pictures of nine coffins . Veronica talks to Logan about Lucky , the janitor , and Logan says that Veronica met Lucky before .
Veronica talks to Dick about his relationship with Betina . Veronica talks to one of Betina ’ s friends , who says that Dick mistreated her , and Betina ’ s goal was for Dick to get her pregnant so she could get him in trouble . Veronica asks Keith about whether or not he has resumed a relationship with Rebecca , and Veronica gets into Stanford University . Veronica is pushed into second place at the Kane scholarship after Angie . Rebecca denies having a relationship with Keith , while Angie also gets into Stanford . Wallace points out Rhonda ’ s sister to Veronica , but she doesn ’ t give Veronica any information . Veronica asks Keith to dig into the financial records of the bus crash victims . Veronica learns that none of the families had very much money , except for Rhonda ’ s family , who got a $ 2 million bailout from Woody ( Steve Guttenberg ) .
Keith meets with Principal Clemmons and finds Veronica in the closet . Veronica talks to Mr. Wu about one of his students , Peter , who had feelings for Mr. Wu . However , Mr. Wu is not gay . That night , Veronica has a dream about Peter , who “ asks ” her why he would even want to go to a baseball stadium . Veronica talks to Beaver , who was pushed into a wall by Cervando , a PCHer who died in the bus crash . Keith solves a case for Principal Clemmons about students who get diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder from the same doctor for better grades . Angie wins the experiment competition , and we learn that Angie was one of the students who was diagnosed with GAD for money . Principal Clemmons revokes exceptions for GAD students . Veronica has a dream about Cervando , who says that the perpetrator was probably in the vicinity of the bus crash . Veronica learns that the “ I am God ” image is actually an album cover . Keith tells Veronica that the perpetrator was probably targeting Dick and Beaver . Veronica has another , more frightening dream .
In science class , Logan gets paired with Wallace and Dick gets paired with Angie Dahl ( Kayla Ewell ) . Logan and Wallace perform their experiment half @-@ heartedly , and afterwards , they decide to continue working with each other . In the end , they receive a passing grade .
= = Production = =
" I Am God " was written by Diane Ruggiero and Cathy Belben and directed by Martha Mitchell , marking Ruggiero 's eleventh writing credit for the series , Belben 's third and final writing credit ( after " Blast from the Past " and " Ahoy , Mateys ! " ) and Mitchell 's first and only directing credit for the show . Despite being credited , Duncan ( Teddy Dunn ) , Weevil ( Francis Capra ) , and Jackie ( Tessa Thompson ) do not appear in the episode . During the filming of " I Am God " , UPN and Warner Bros. set up a " Veronica Mars Press Day " , on which several members of the press visited the show 's set and wrote about their visit . Bloggers had been important to press coverage of Veronica Mars ; because of this , Joanna Massey , UPN 's senior vice president for media relations , decided to set up this event as a public relations project . On organizing the event , Massey elaborated :
Once we sent out the invitations , there was instantly a lot of ( Internet ) chatter about why we invited certain people . Then there was chatter leading up to the trip , and there was chatter when everyone got back . And they instantly posted all of their photos , which I love . And then they will blog again when the episode runs . With the traditional media , when do you get that kind of coverage ?
Series creator Rob Thomas also appreciated bloggers ' contributions to Veronica Mars , stating " Sometimes I think bloggers are our journalists . [ … ] I feel like the bloggers made the show . In a way , a day like ( the press day ) is preaching to the choir , but I don 't know that we 'd exist without them . ” This was the first time that non @-@ cast or crew members visited the set . After reaching Kearny Mesa , San Diego , where the show primarily films , the bloggers toured the set and talked with cast and crew members . One press member expressed that Ryan Hansen , Thomas , and Kristen Bell were especially kind and receptive to the visitors .
On his role in the episode , Jason Dohring , who plays Logan , elaborated , " I think what 's funny is that he always gets what 's coming to him . Like a terrible thing happens to him , but he 's like that to other people . So it 's like in real life … what goes around comes around . " The episode features a guest @-@ starring appearance by Kayla Ewell , who would eventually become most known for her role on The Vampire Diaries . The episode also features a guest appearance by James Jordan , as Lucky , the janitor . In season 3 , Jordan would become the first actor to have two different roles on Veronica Mars when he was cast as Tim Foyle , a teaching assistant .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " I Am God " was watched by 1 @.@ 76 million viewers , ranking 111th of 116 in the weekly rankings . This marked a sharp decrease in 1 @.@ 09 million viewers from the previous episode , " Plan B " , which received 2 @.@ 85 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed reviews . Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club was very positive towards the episode , writing " ' I Am God ' is probably the strangest episode since ' Nobody Puts Baby in a Corner ' , but unlike that one 's somewhat random focus , ' I Am God ' is intently pointed at one thing : the bus crash . " While hoping that it had come earlier in the season , the reviewer wrote that " its intense style and emotional stakes put it on the shortlist of best Veronica Mars episodes . " Price Peterson of TV.com praised the dream sequences for their beauty , but criticized them for their complexity . " Man , I just could not get enough of the dream @-@ flashbacks in which Veronica talked to the dead students . So beautiful and well @-@ done . On the other hand , my poor brain is starting to have a hard time keeping all the facts straight . "
Others were more negative towards the episode . Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B " , criticizing Paula Marshall 's reappearance , declaring her a " show killer . " BuzzFeed ranked the episode as the second @-@ worst episode of Veronica Mars , writing that the dream sequences " [ looked ] like Bonnie Tyler videos and bad erotic movies from the ' 80s . " Reviewer Alan Sepinwall gave a mixed review , praising Logan and Wallace 's interactions and Kristen Bell 's performance , but criticizing the fact that the episode came so late in the season . " Had this been the season 's fourth or fifth episode , it would have been fine . As the fifth @-@ to @-@ last episode , it felt like exactly what it was : a belated correction for a season @-@ long problem . " He also felt that " Keith 's subplot was missing a scene or two . "
= June 1941 uprising in eastern Herzegovina =
In June 1941 , Serbs in eastern Herzegovina rebelled against the authorities of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) , an Axis puppet state established during World War II on the territory of the defeated Kingdom of Yugoslavia . As the NDH imposed its authority , members of the fascist Ustaše ruling party began a campaign of persecution against Serbs throughout the country . In eastern Herzegovina , the Ustaše perpetrated a series of massacres and attacks against the majority Serb population commencing in the first week of June . Between 3 and 22 June 1941 , spontaneous clashes occurred between NDH authorities and groups of Serbs in the region .
The German invasion of the Soviet Union began on 22 June . Over the next two days , the sporadic revolts by Serbs against the NDH in eastern Herzegovina erupted into mass rebellion , triggered by Ustaše persecution , Serb solidarity with the Russian people , hatred and fear of the NDH authorities , and other factors . Serb rebels , under the leadership of both local Serbs and Montenegrins , attacked police , gendarmerie , Ustaše and Croatian Home Guard forces in the region . In the first few days , the rebels captured gendarmerie posts in several villages , set up roadblocks on the major roads and ambushed several military vehicles . On the night of 26 June , the rebels mounted a sustained attack on the town of Nevesinje in an attempt to capture it , but the garrison held out until the morning of 28 June when NDH troops broke through the rebel roadblocks .
On 28 June , the rebels ambushed a truckload of Italian soldiers , prompting the Italian Army commander in the NDH to warn the NDH government that he would take unilateral action to secure communication routes . A further gendarmerie post was destroyed by the rebels , and in the evening the rebels captured the village of Avtovac , looting and burning it , and killing dozens of non @-@ Serb civilians . The following day an Italian column cleared the rebels from Avtovac and relieved the hard @-@ pressed NDH garrison in the town of Gacko . From 3 July , an NDH force of over 2 @,@ 000 fanned out from Nevesinje , clearing towns , villages and routes of rebels . The rebel forces did not put up any significant opposition to the clearing operation , and either retreated into nearby Montenegro , or hid their weapons in the mountains and went home . By 7 July , NDH forces had regained full control of all towns and major transport routes in eastern Herzegovina .
= = Background = =
The Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) was founded on 10 April 1941 , during the invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers . The NDH consisted of most of modern @-@ day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina , together with some parts of modern @-@ day Serbia . It was essentially an Italo – German quasi @-@ protectorate , as it owed its existence to the Axis powers , who maintained occupation forces within the puppet state throughout its existence . In the immediate aftermath of the Yugoslav surrender on 17 April , former Royal Yugoslav Army troops returned to their homes in eastern Herzegovina with their weapons . This was a significant security concern for the fledgling NDH government due to the proximity of the border with Montenegro , the close relationship between the people of eastern Herzegovina and Montenegro , and widespread banditry in the region . On the day after the surrender , the commander of the NDH armed forces , Vojskovođa ( Marshal ) Slavko Kvaternik issued a proclamation demanding the surrender of all weapons to NDH authorities by 24 April .
On 24 April , the NDH created five military command areas , including Bosnia Command and Adriatic Command , both of which were initially headquartered in Sarajevo . Each of the five military commands included several district commands . Adriatic Command included the districts of Knin and Sinj in the Dalmatian hinterland , and Mostar and Trebinje in eastern Herzegovina . The NDH began to mobilise soldiers for the Home Guard , with six battalions identified to join Adriatic Command . The battalions were mobilised from areas outside of eastern Herzegovina , and were to be ready by 20 May . The aggressive actions of the Ustaše fifth column during the Axis invasion made Serb civilian leaders in eastern Herzegovina apprehensive about the NDH , and they attempted to obtain Italian protection , and urged the Italians to annex eastern Herzegovina to the neighboring Italian @-@ occupied territory of Montenegro . A collaborationist " Interim Advisory Committee " of Montenegrin separatists was advocating the establishment of an " independent " Montenegrin state , and a similar committee of separatist Serbs was formed in eastern Herzegovina . A delegation from that committee arrived in Cetinje in Montenegro on 6 May to ask for Italian protection . Similarly , a delegation of Muslims from eastern Herzegovina travelled to Sarajevo , the historic Bosnian capital , to urge the NDH authorities to link eastern Herzegovina to that city .
Due to the poor response to the demand for the surrender of weapons , the deadline was extended several times until a date of 8 July was fixed . On 17 May , courts @-@ martial were established to try those that were arrested in possession of weapons , and those found guilty were immediately executed by firing squad . The precedent for this brutal repressive measure against Serbs had already been established by the Germans . It was clear from the outset that the NDH weapons laws were not being enforced as strictly against Croats as they were against Serbs . Securing the border between eastern Herzegovina and Montenegro was considered a high priority due to concerns that the Montenegrin Federalist Party had revived Montenegrin claims to parts of the NDH that had been promised to the Kingdom of Montenegro in the 1915 Treaty of London .
The Italians handed over the administration of eastern Herzegovina to the NDH government on 20 May 1941 , following the signing of the Treaties of Rome , which ceded formerly Yugoslav territory along the Adriatic coast to Italy . The Italians did not immediately withdraw all their troops from the region . The NDH moved quickly to establish its authority in the towns and districts of eastern Herzegovina , which included appointing mayors and prefects , the creation of local units of the Ustaše Militia , and deploying hundreds of gendarmes , Croatian Home Guards and Ustaše Militia units from outside eastern Herzegovina . These forces were brought in to maintain order . The academic Professor Alija Šuljak was appointed the Ustaše commissioner for eastern Herzegovina .
On 20 May , the recently formed Home Guard battalions began to deploy into the Adriatic Command area . On 27 May , 6 officers and 300 gendarmes of the Sarajevo @-@ based 4th Gendarmerie Regiment were deployed into parts of eastern Herzegovina . They established platoon strength posts in Nevesinje , Trebinje , Gacko and Bileća , with their headquarters also in Bileća . The Dubrovnik @-@ based 2nd Gendarmerie Regiment established posts in Stolac and Berkovići . The headquarters of Adriatic Command was transferred to Mostar in late May , and General Ivan Prpić was appointed as its commander .
By 29 May , the battalions of Adriatic Command were in their garrison locations : the 6th Battalion at Mostar , the 7th Battalion at Trebinje , and the 10th Battalion in the Dubrovnik area . The other two Adriatic Command battalions were deployed to Knin and Sinj far to the west . The 18th Battalion was allocated as a reserve and was garrisoned in Mostar . Main Ustaše Headquarters was tasked to recruit one battalion for duties within the Adriatic Command area . Home Guard battalions had a standard structure , consisting of a headquarters company , three infantry companies , a machine gun platoon and a communications section , while battalions of the Ustaše Militia consisted of a headquarters , three companies and a motorised section . Even after the establishment of NDH authorities in eastern Herzegovina , Italian forces maintained their presence in the region . The 55th Regiment of the 32nd Infantry Division Marche remained garrisoned in Trebinje , with the 56th Regiment based in Mostar . The 49th MVSN Legion ( Blackshirts ) were also stationed in Bileća . The Italians maintained a troop presence in Nevesinje until 17 June , and conducted almost daily motorised patrols throughout eastern Herzegovina .
The NDH authorities established new administrative sub @-@ divisions , organising the state into counties ( Croatian : velike župe ) and then districts ( Croatian : kotar ) . Eastern Herzegovina was covered by the counties of Hum and Dubrava . Hum County included the districts of Mostar and Nevesinje , and Dubrava County included the districts of Bileća , Gacko , Stolac , Ravno and Trebinje . The Župan ( county prefect ) of Hum was Josip Trajer with his seat in Mostar , and the Župan of Dubrava was Ante Buć , based in Dubrovnik .
According to the Yugoslav census of 1931 , the population of eastern Herzegovina comprised 4 per cent Croats , 28 per cent Muslims , and 68 per cent Serbs . According to Professor Jozo Tomasevich , the estimated population of the districts of Bileća , Gacko and Nevesinje was only around 1 @.@ 1 per cent Croat , so in those areas nearly all the NDH government appointments and local Ustaše units were staffed by Muslims , an ethnic group that made up about 23 @.@ 7 per cent of the local population . The poor Muslim peasants of eastern Herzegovina largely sided with the Ustaše . The NDH government immediately tried to strengthen their position by vilifying the Serbs , who , according to Tomasevich , comprised around 75 per cent of the population .
= = Prelude = =
The Ustaše began to impose the new laws on the Serb population of the NDH . On 28 May , a group of ten young Ustaše students from the University of Zagreb arrived in Trebinje and began removing signs written in the Cyrillic script used by Serbs . On 1 June , in several towns and villages in eastern Herzegovina , Serbs were shot and businesses belonging to Serb merchants and others were seized . On that day , the Ustaše students in Trebinje shot nine Serbs and arrested another fifteen , apparently due to their links to the inter @-@ war Chetnik Association . Differences began to appear between the brutal treatment of Serbs by the Ustaše and the more careful approach of the other NDH authorities such as the Home Guard , who were aware of the potential danger created by Ustaše methods . In early June , the NDH authorities began operations to confiscate weapons from the population , meeting with immediate resistance . On 1 June , the residents of the village of Donji Drežanj , near Nevesinje , refused to co @-@ operate with weapons collectors . In response , the Ustaše killed a number of Serbs and burned their homes .
On 3 June , there were several incidents in which armed villagers spontaneously retaliated against the local authorities . That afternoon , 20 Ustaše were entering Donji Drežanj to confiscate firearms when they were attacked by a group of armed villagers . The villagers withdrew after a short firefight , with one of their number being captured . Reinforcements from the Home Guard and gendarmerie soon arrived , along with more Ustaše who burned another 20 houses and shot a woman . On the night of 4 / 5 June , a group under the control of the Ustaše commissioner for the Gacko district , Herman Tonogal , killed 140 Serbs in the village of Korita , near Bileća , and threw their bodies into a nearby sinkhole . Another 27 Serbs from the village were killed between this massacre and 9 June , and over 5 @,@ 000 head of livestock were stolen and distributed to Muslim villages in the Gacko area for the exclusive use of the Ustaše . The estimated number of Serbs killed at Korita vary from 133 to 180 .
In the immediate aftermath , Serbs and Montenegrins from the local area attacked villages , and Adriatic Command sent the 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion from Bileća to reinforce the Ustaše . After a brief clash near Korita , during which the Ustaše and gendarmerie lost one killed and several wounded , the rebels withdrew across the nearby border into Montenegro . The 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion spent the night in the village of Stepen before establishing itself as the Avtovac garrison the following day . Due to its exposure to fire from rebels overlooking their location , the gendarmes were unable to re @-@ occupy their post in Stepen , which meant that the Stepen – Korita road was no longer secure . On 8 June , the district office in Gacko reported to Adriatic Command that they had taken 200 Serbs as hostages and issued a proclamation to the population to cease fighting and surrender their weapons . As this proclamation met with no response , on 10 June the Ustaše Commissioner for Bosnia and Herzegovina , Jure Francetić , had 19 hostages shot ( one escaped ) . On 12 June , the gendarmerie in Ravno shot four people on the orders of the Ustaše commissioner for Ljubinje . Such actions led to Serb peasants leaving their villages to seek safety in more remote areas , and Muslim villagers became increasingly nervous about their Serb neighbours .
In mid @-@ June , the commander of the 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion at Bileća wrote to Adriatic Command complaining about the activities of the Ustaše , referring to them as " armed scum and animals " who were dishonouring " honest Croats " . When the Italians heard that the Ustaše had burned two villages across the border in Montenegro , they sent an intelligence officer to Gacko to investigate the unrest . He did not accept the explanation of the gendarmerie commander in Gacko , who claimed that the violence was caused by " personal hatred and revenge " , and met with rebels . The rebels did not attack him or his security escort , and told him that the reason behind the rebellion was that " Croats and Turks are beating us and throwing us into a pit " . He concluded that the cause of the unrest was the attempt to disarm the Serb community .
On 17 and 18 June , Tonogal and Lieutenant Colonel Aganović , gendarmerie commander for eastern Herzegovina , made an attempt to calm the situation by visiting villages east of the Gacko – Avtovac road to re @-@ establish peace in the area . They received a written message from four villages that they did not acknowledge the NDH authorities , and wanted the message to be passed on to the Italians . The residents of the villages of Jasenik and Lipnik were willing to talk and return to work , but they asked that the gendarmerie not visit their villages , as this would tempt the Montenegrins to attack . Aganović assessed that while this was probably true , their request was insincere . The gendarmerie commander in Bileća believed that the reason for the rebellion was that the local Serbs were wedded to the idea of Greater Serbia , and did not accept that their villages were part of the NDH . This approach essentially meant that local Serbs wanted the NDH authorities to leave them alone and not impose on their lives . According to the historian Davor Marijan , this was a poor choice that gave the Ustaše an excuse to take radical action .
The response of the NDH authorities to resistance had been to burn down the villages where this had occurred , and there were mass shootings of Serbs , which escalated the level of violence even further . In late May and June , 173 Serbs had been rounded up , tortured and killed in Nevesinje , and in early June , another 140 Serbs had been killed at Ljubinje . In response , Serbs attacked Ustaše officials and facilities , and conducted raids themselves , killing Muslim villagers .
= = Uprising = =
The NDH authorities only had weak forces in eastern Herzegovina at the time the mass uprising occurred , roughly equal to two Croatian Home Guard battalions , as well as gendarmerie posts in some towns . This was barely adequate to guard important locations , and was insufficient for offensive action . Deployed forces consisted of one company of the 10th Battalion in Trebinje , the headquarters and a reinforced company of the 7th Battalion in Bileća ( the balance of the battalion being divided between Gacko and Avtovac ) , and a company of the 6th Battalion in Nevesinje . The remainder of the 10th Battalion was deploying to Trebinje at the time the rebellion broke out .
= = = 23 – 24 June = = =
The first indication that the situation had changed significantly was on 23 June , when a group of 200 Ustaše clashed with a group of rebels they estimated to number between 600 and 1 @,@ 000 . After an extended firefight near the village of Stepen , 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of Korita , during which they suffered several casualties , the Ustaše also burned down four villages . They then entered two Muslim @-@ majority villages in the area and arrested 13 Serbs who had not been involved in the earlier fighting . The arrested Serbs were transported north to Avtovac and shot . That night , all adult Serbs above the age of 16 in Gacko , 4 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 8 mi ) northwest of Avtovac , were arrested , and 26 were immediately shot . The rest were transported 50 km ( 31 mi ) west to a camp in Nevesinje . Over the period 23 – 25 June , 150 Serbs from the village of Ravno , 30 km ( 19 mi ) southwest of Ljubinje , were arrested and killed at the gendarmerie post , and the remainder of the population fled to the hills .
On 23 and 24 June , spontaneous mass gatherings occurred at several villages in the Gacko and Nevesinje districts . These rallies were prompted by the news of the German invasion of the Soviet Union , and those attending them voted to fight against the Ustaše . Professor Marko Attila Hoare states that the full @-@ scale uprising resulted from the Ustaše retaliation against attempts of the Serbs of eastern Herzegovina to defend themselves , combined with the launching of the German invasion on 22 June . At dawn on 24 June , the area of Nevesinje descended into full @-@ scale revolt , with around 400 armed rebels engaging the Home Guard garrison . By 24 June , the uprising had reached a massive scale across eastern Herzegovina , with between 1 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 000 armed rebels in total , including some Montenegrins .
= = = 25 June = = =
On the morning of 25 June , the company of the 6th Battalion at Nevesinje reported that rebels were gathering to attack the town ; Nevesinje 's Ustaše commissioner claimed that the rebel force numbered 5 @,@ 000 , and were led by a former Yugoslav Army colonel . About 10 : 00 , the town was attacked from the south and southwest . In response , the Home Guard despatched two more companies of the 6th Battalion from Mostar to Nevesinje . That morning , reports also arrived from Bileća and Stolac that rebels were approaching the village of Berkovići from the north , and had captured the gendarmerie post at Gornji Lukavac . About 11 : 30 , the Ustaše commissioner for Stolac reported that 3 @,@ 000 Montenegrins had gathered between Nevesinje and Stolac , and he requested the immediate supply of 150 rifles for his men . A rebel attack on the gendarmerie post in the village of Divin near Bileća was repulsed around midday . A platoon of Home Guard reinforcements and weapons for the Ustaše arrived at Stolac in the afternoon , and Bileća was held throughout the day .
Reports of the uprising reached Kvaternik during 25 June , but he dismissed them and the reports of 5 @,@ 000 rebels , cancelling Adriatic Command 's redeployment of the 21st Battalion from Slavonski Brod as well as a request to the Italians for air reconnaissance support . He stated that the suppression of the uprising could be handled by local forces . Loss of communication with Nevesinje resulted in rumours that the town had fallen to the rebels . The gendarmerie post at Fojnica ( near Gacko ) was captured on the afternoon of 25 June , with the survivors escaping to Gacko . Newspapers reported rumours that Gacko and Avtovac had fallen to the rebels . Having already despatched a reinforced company towards Nevesinje from Sarajevo earlier in the day , Adriatic Command ordered the rest of the battalion to follow . The initial company group had already reached Kalinovik some 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) from Nevesinje , and the rest of the battalion was expected to spend the night of 25 / 26 June there before arriving in Nevesinje around noon on 26 June . Kvaternik received an updated report on the situation in eastern Herzegovina during the night , and Prpić travelled from Sarajevo to Mostar to take control of operations , to find that information about the situation in eastern Herzegovina was unclear , but suggested that NDH forces could be facing serious difficulties .
= = = 26 June = = =
On the morning of 26 June , the company of the 6th Battalion that had been sent from Mostar continued towards Nevesinje , but almost immediately came under fire from a rebel group . With the assistance of Ustaše , the Home Guard were able to hold their ground , but they were unable to break through to Nevesinje . That afternoon , two aircraft of the Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatske , ZNDH ) from Sarajevo conducted an armed reconnaissance over eastern Herzegovina , and discovered that NDH forces still held Nevesinje . They observed barricades across the Mostar – Nevesinje road , and strafed a group of 50 rebels north of Nevesinje near the village of Kifino Selo . Prpić bolstered the force on the Mostar – Nevesinje road with the 17th Battalion , recently arrived from Sarajevo , and sent his deputy , Colonel Antun Prohaska to command it . The 17th Battalion joined that force at 20 : 00 . About 17 : 00 , the company of the 11th Battalion reached Nevesinje from Kalinovik , and a further company of the battalion was despatched from Sarajevo , along with the battalion commander .
In the southern part of the area of operations around Stolac , the situation was significantly calmer than around Nevesinje , although a group of 200 Ustaše at Berkovići were falsely claiming that they were being surrounded by rebels at night . Despite this claim , they had suffered no casualties . Regardless , Prpić sent them ammunition and a platoon of the 18th Battalion . At 19 : 00 on 26 June , Francetić arrived at Prpić 's headquarters in Mostar to be briefed on the situation . He resolved that he would travel to Berkovići the following day and take personal command of the Ustaše unit there .
Around Gacko and Avtovac in the north , the day had been quiet . When the commander of the 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion at Gacko reported rebels gathering near the town , Prpić sent a truck @-@ mounted platoon with an ammunition resupply . The platoon was ambushed en route , with 14 Home Guardsmen being captured . Gacko was reinforced later in the day from troops in Avtovac . On the night of 26 June , the Nevesinje garrison was subjected to a sustained attack by the rebels , but held out .
The NDH authorities in Trebinje heard rumours that the Serbs could start an uprising there on 28 June , the feast day of Saint Vitus , and warned NDH forces in the region to be prepared for a revolt . As a result of these reports , the Poglavnik ( leader ) of the NDH , Ante Pavelić , issued orders threatening that anyone who spread these rumours would be court @-@ martialled . On the eve of the feast day , both the gendarmerie and Ustaše took several hostages in case the rumours were true . Later , the gendarmerie released their hostages , but the 19 hostages held by the Ustaše were killed . In contrast to the actions of the Ustaše , the Home Guard units in the area tried to calm the situation down .
= = = 27 – 28 June = = =
On the morning of 27 June , Prpić launched a three @-@ pronged assault to clear the routes to Nevesinje . Prohaska commanded the push east along the Mostar – Nevesinje road by a force close to two battalions , Francetić led his unit of Ustaše north from Berkovići through the mountains via Odžak to approach Nevesinje from the south , and two companies of the 11th Battalion thrust southwest along the road from Plužine . Once this task was complete , the NDH forces were to vigorously pursue the rebels and destroy them .
The Prohaska group deployed with one company on the road , and elements of the 17th Battalion and 70 Ustaše on the left flank . Their attack commenced about 10 : 00 , and although they faced strong resistance from the rebels , aided by strafing and bombing by ZNDH aircraft , they reached villages on the outskirts of Nevesinje after fighting that lasted until dawn on 28 June . One Home Guard battalion halted and took up a defensive stance , and the commander was threatened with dismissal by Prpić before he resumed the attack . Francetić 's Ustaše unit also faced heavy fighting , and had to call for ammunition resupply on two occasions . One of the resupply vehicles was ambushed by rebels between Stolac and Berkovići , and some ammunition was finally delivered by passenger car during the night . Elsewhere , rebels attacked Gacko and Avtovac , and one ZNDH aircraft was shot down by rebel machine gun fire near Avtovac . That night , Prpić telephoned Kvaternik and advised him that the imposition of martial law was necessary to restore order to Herzegovina . Army Chief of Staff General Vladimir Laxa was immediately appointed by Pavelić to control both Hum and Dubrava counties , which incorporated much of eastern Herzegovina .
On 28 June , Laxa became the overall commander of all NDH authorities in Hum and Dubrava counties , which included Ustaše , Home Guard , civil administration , gendarmerie and police . Military courts were established to deal with those resisting the NDH authorities . Armed guards were posted at the entrance to towns and villages , and any armed civilians were to be disarmed and brought to military authorities . Laxa issued an order that gave the rebels until 2 July to submit to the authorities . On that day , after the Prohaska group broke through to Nevesinje from Mostar , Prohaska sent a company of the 6th Battalion to Kifino Selo to meet the two companies of the 11th Battalion advancing from Plužine . Despite ZNDH air support , the company of the 6th Battalion was attacked by rebels near the entrance to Kifino Selo and the majority broke and ran . Prohaska had to send reserves to block the road between Nevesinje and Kifino Selo , and the companies from the 11th Battalion began to reconnoitre the rebel positions towards Odžak .
Also on that morning , the 200 Home Guard troops and about 50 armed locals in Avtovac were attacked from three directions by rebels . They recovered from their initial surprise and held the town during the day , but in the evening a renewed assault caused them to withdraw from Avtovac and retreat to the villages of Međuljići and Ključ . Upon capturing Avtovac , the rebels looted the village , burned down a large number of Muslim homes and killed 32 Muslim civilians , mostly women , children and the elderly . Gacko was also attacked by the rebels , with eight soldiers killed , and one officer and 12 soldiers wounded . Also on 28 June , two Italian Army trucks driving from Bileća to Avtovac were ambushed by rebels , who killed three soldiers and wounded 17 . Around 18 : 00 , the Italian command advised Kvaternik that they would be clearing the route from Bileća via Gacko to Nevesinje on an unspecified future date . During the fighting around Gacko , several ZNDH aircraft were forced to land due to pilot casualties and engine trouble . ZNDH air support operations were suspended due to lack of fuel and spares for the aircraft .
There was no improvement in the situation around Stolac , and an Ustaše unit made up of armed civilians proved to be of such low combat value that Laxa spoke to Francetić and criticised its performance . South of Bileća , rebels destroyed the gendarmerie post in a village , killing seven gendarmes . Dozens of gendarmes were sent from Trebinje to assist them , but they were stopped by rebels and withdrew into a village schoolhouse . In the afternoon a platoon of the 10th Home Guard Battalion was sent north from Trebinje to support the gendarmes , but they were attacked near the village of Mosko , and withdrew into a defensive position . They were reinforced by a second platoon during the night , and were given orders to clear the road from Trebinje to Bileća on the following morning ahead of the Italians .
= = = 29 – 30 June = = =
At dawn on 29 June , the rebels attacked the Ustaše in a village on the Mostar – Nevesinje road . Prohaska demanded help from Mostar , and planned to send a force from Nevesinje to assist . From Mostar , a company of the 21st Battalion was despatched to relieve the Ustaše , who had managed to hold off the rebels | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
of the persons contemplated in the sonnet , there is general consensus as to Sonnet 86 's role within the Rival Poet subsection of the Fair Youth sonnets . As Joseph Pequigney notes , " Sonnet 86 is written in the past tense , as distinct from the present tense of the eight previous sonnets , to signal the end of the episode , " that is , the Rival Poet series of sonnets . As the final sonnet in the series , it is also the sonnet in which Shakespeare claims his ultimate victory over the rival poet , the situation " resolved in Shakespeare 's favor " as he relentlessly mocks his opponent . Though he admits to having experienced a poetic hesitation , Shakespeare maintains that it was not the Rival Poet who caused it . Katherine Duncan @-@ Jones writes : " Undaunted by the splendour of his rival 's verses , the speaker quails only at [ his rival 's ] appropriation of the young man 's favour . "
= = = Quatrain 1 = = =
The sonnet begins with the speaker rhetorically asking whether it was the " great verse " of his rival poet that had prevented the speaker from expressing his own " ripe thoughts . " According to Duncan @-@ Jones , " the speaker claims to be unable to voice his thoughts of love ; they are ready for utterance ( ripe ) , but remain buried ( in @-@ hearsed ) in his brain because he is intimidated by his rival . " However , as Harold Bloom contends , this intimidation is apparently not caused by the artistic skill of his rival . In the opening lines of the sonnet , " [ Shakespeare ] charmingly suggests an inhibition through jealousy , not of superior poetic powers , but of encountering the Fair Young Man 's portrait in a rival 's verses . " The significance behind the apparent flattery of this rival 's art seems open to interpretation . Kenneth Muir writes : " Whether " the proud full sail of his great verse " is sincere admiration or a hint that it is bombastic is still debated , " though contemporary scholars tend to gravitate toward the latter , more sarcastic interpretation . Pequiney , amongst others , asserts that this verse is a derogatory adversion to the ostentatious craft of his opponent , belittling the rival 's delusions of grandeur .
= = = Quatrain 2 = = =
As noted above , many of the alleged clues as to the identity of the rival poet have been discovered within this quatrain . While Duncan @-@ Jones and Minto interpret references of the poet " by spirits taught to write " as allusions to George Chapman , other scholars have posited poets from Marlowe to Gervase Markham as contenders . Eric Sams , for one , relies heavily on these descriptions of spiritual communication to reinforce his argument for Barnes as the Rival Poet , noting Barnes ' scandalous occultism in 16th century England . In addition to these claims ( which assume the existence of a historical counterpart ) , there are also scholars who argue that the significance of the spirit is overstated and that it simply refers to poetic inspiration . As these diverse interpretations attest , a definitive identification of the Rival remains far from determined . Bloom writes , " Nearly every contemporary with Shakespeare has been put forward , including Christopher Marlowe , Ben Jonson , Samuel Daniel , and Edmund Spenser " . Structurally , this quatrain both extends and answers the question previously advanced by the sonnet 's speaker . He again asks whether it was the spirit of his rival that extinguished the speaker 's inspiration , then responds that it was certainly not . Within this response , Shakespeare simultaneously attacks the merit of the Rival 's output , " underscoring his " spiritual " composition , not to say his quackery , " while thoroughly rejecting its influence on the speaker 's own poetry . An accurate reading of the eighth line ( " Giving him aid , my verse astonished . " ) must take note that the word " astonished " is herein found with its earliest definition : " bereft of sensation ; stunned , benumbed , " in describing the status of the speaker 's " verse . "
= = = Quatrain 3 = = =
In the third quatrain , after again questioning the integrity of his rival 's work , Shakespeare continues to affirm his fearlessness in the face of his rival 's poetry . Lines nine and ten lend themselves to the same ambiguous interpretation found in the previous quatrain , with many scholars reading them as a reference to a specific poet . Of the " affable familiar ghost " found in line nine , Duncan @-@ Jones writes : " The phrase seems to carry an allusion to some well @-@ known relationship between a poet and his Muse or inspiring genius , such as Chapman 's with the spirit of Homer . " Shakespeare , however , mocks this relationship , stating that the Rival has been " gulled " by whatever spirit he may be communicating with and even this creative alliance is unable to claim the victory of the speaker 's silence . The final line of the quatrain ( " I was not sick of any fear from thence . " ) sets the stage for the couplet , alluding to the fact that , while his fear did not come from " thence , " i.e. , the rival poet , there is indeed a fear that has disrupted his poetic output .
= = = Couplet = = =
The couplet of Sonnet 86 finally allows the reader a glimpse of the speaker 's true vulnerability . It is here that he sets aside his attack on the Rival Poet in order to admit the true cause of his work 's impediment . Pequigney writes " Shakespeare finishes the episode by acknowledging what had long been evident , that the focus and cause of the contention was centered on the youth , not on literary laurels . " Bloom calls this couplet " a climactic , if dispiriting , close for the speaker , " as it demonstrates that while the speaker may have defeated the Rival Poet on the grounds of artistry , there is still competition between the two for the favor of the Fair Youth . In terms of the Rival Poet 's identity , Sams uses the penultimate verse to strengthen his argument for Barnes , reading line 13 as a reference to Barne 's 1593 work Parthenophil and Parthenophe . Sams writes : " One phrase in Sonnet 86 echoes Barnes , namely " when your countenance filled up his line . " Barnes 's sonnet to Henry Wriothesley , 3rd Earl of Southampton includes the actual words " your countenance . " Thus Southampton 's favour is solicited for the love − lyrics of Parthenophil and Parthenophe , so " that with your countenance graced they may withstand " envy and criticism . The word " countenance " has indeed " filled up " Barnes 's line — to overflowing , since it adds an extra syllable . " Shakespeare 's verse , on the other hand , conforms to a traditional iambic scansion . This interpretation also reads this line as a final blow against the Rival Poet , demonstrating Shakespeare 's superior mastery of the sonnet form .
= New York State Route 47 =
New York State Route 47 ( NY 47 ) was a 19 @.@ 34 @-@ mile ( 31 @.@ 12 km ) long state highway around Rochester in New York , in the United States . It formed a semicircle through the inner suburbs of Rochester , following expressways west and east of the city and surface streets south of Rochester . The western terminus of the route was at an interchange with NY 104 west of the city limits in Greece . The eastern terminus was at an intersection with Culver Road in Irondequoit mere yards from Lake Ontario . In between its western and eastern extents , NY 47 met Interstate 490 ( I @-@ 490 ) twice . The limited @-@ access highway portions of the route were known as the Rochester Outer Loop ( or Outer Loop ) in contrast to the Inner Loop around downtown Rochester .
NY 47 was originally routed along surface streets through the city when it was assigned c . 1937 . It began at NY 31 in Gates and followed Howard Road and Brooks Avenue southeast into Rochester , where it continued eastward on Genesee Park Boulevard and Elmwood Avenue . NY 47 remained on the latter through Brighton to an area known as Twelve Corners . At this point , the route turned north onto Winton Road and followed that street through the eastern fringe of the city to Irondequoit , where NY 47 ended at a junction with U.S. Route 104 ( US 104 , now NY 404 ) . The Outer Loop was constructed in stages , beginning with the portion of the Sea Breeze Expressway north of Ridge Road in the early 1950s . From that point on , construction progressed in a generally clockwise fashion around the city .
By the late 1960s and early 1970s , the Outer Loop was complete from NY 383 to US 104 west of the city and from modern I @-@ 590 exit 1 to the lakeshore east of Rochester . NY 47 followed the loop from US 104 south to NY 383 and from Elmwood Avenue north to modern NY 590 exit 8 ; north of that point , the expressway was part of US 104 and NY 18 . NY 47 was extended northward along the remainder of the Sea Breeze Expressway in 1970 . On March 18 , 1980 , the NY 47 designation was removed and replaced with several others , primarily I @-@ 390 , I @-@ 590 , NY 390 , and NY 590 .
= = Route description = =
NY 47 followed a half @-@ circle routing around the city of Rochester , beginning northwest of downtown in the town of Greece and proceeding generally counterclockwise around the city before ending northeast of downtown at the Lake Ontario shoreline in Irondequoit . The limited @-@ access highway portions of NY 47 were named the " Rochester Outer Loop " ( or " Outer Loop " ) in contrast to the Inner Loop around downtown Rochester . This moniker remains in use to this day , now referring to the designations that have since replaced NY 47 along the loop . Conceptually , NY 104 completes the Outer Loop along the north side of the city . However , only the section east of the Genesee River is expressway , leaving NY 104 from modern NY 390 to the Veterans Memorial Bridge as the only at @-@ grade portion of the loop . The at @-@ grade portion of NY 47 along Scottsville Road and Elmwood Avenue was known as the " Rochester Bypass " prior to the completion of the Outer Loop . The alignment described within this section is of NY 47 upon its removal in 1980 .
= = = Western expressway = = =
NY 47 began at an interchange with NY 104 ( now the interchange between NY 390 and NY 104 ) in Greece one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of the Rochester city limits . Although , at the time , the freeway terminated just north of the interchange , the interchange itself was roughly complete , with only ramps to and from future NY 390 north of the interchange missing . NY 47 followed the modern NY 390 alignment south to I @-@ 490 , where NY 47 continued onto what is now I @-@ 390 . The routings of NY 47 and current I @-@ 390 were identical to NY 383 ( Scottsville Road ) in Chili , where NY 47 was forced to grade level via a partially constructed interchange , as modern I @-@ 390 had yet to be constructed in the area southeast of NY 383 .
= = = At @-@ grade = = =
Off the expressway and now at @-@ grade , NY 47 turned north onto NY 383 , forming a short concurrency with NY 383 into Rochester . At Elmwood Avenue , NY 47 and NY 383 departed Scottsville Road and proceeded eastward on Elmwood Avenue . Two blocks to the east , at an intersection with South Plymouth Avenue , NY 383 split from NY 47 , following Plymouth Avenue into downtown Rochester . NY 47 remained routed on Elmwood Avenue , crossing the Genesee River and passing north of Strong Memorial Hospital prior to intersecting NY 15 ( Mount Hope Avenue ) in the shadow of Mount Hope Cemetery . East of NY 15 , NY 47 progressed along Elmwood Avenue , intersecting several local streets before entering Brighton .
Within Brighton , NY 47 continued on Elmwood Avenue through " Twelve Corners " , intersecting NY 31 ( Monroe Avenue ) at the location , to what is now I @-@ 590 . At the northbound entrance ramp of the modern interchange between I @-@ 590 and Elmwood Avenue , NY 47 separated from the latter , entering the freeway . While what is now I @-@ 590 was constructed and open from Winton Road to I @-@ 490 , it had no signed designation between Winton and Elmwood .
= = = Eastern expressway = = =
NY 47 followed modern I @-@ 590 northward through Brighton to the Can of Worms , where NY 47 met I @-@ 490 for the second time . Due to the way the interchange was designed at the time , traffic continuing on NY 47 across I @-@ 490 had to merge with I @-@ 490 traffic for roughly 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) before exiting I @-@ 490 onto the other portion of NY 47 . North of I @-@ 490 , NY 47 followed the length of what is now NY 590 through Brighton , Rochester , and Irondequoit to Culver Road at the Lake Ontario shoreline .
= = History = =
= = = Original alignment = = =
When NY 47 was first commissioned in the Rochester area c . 1937 , it was routed along previously unnumbered roadways , with its northwest terminus located at the intersection of NY 31 ( Lyell Avenue ) and Howard Road in Gates . NY 47 took Howard Road south , passing through Gates Center and intersecting NY 33 before crossing the then @-@ New York Central Railroad main line ( now the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Rochester Subdivision ) at @-@ grade . The route remained on Howard Road until the intersection of Howard Road and Chili Avenue ( NY 33A ) , which also included Brooks Avenue at this juncture of time . NY 47 turned east onto Brooks Avenue and proceeded toward the Greater Rochester International Airport , joining the current routing of NY 204 at Beahan Road ( now Old Beahan Road ) .
NY 47 followed the entire alignment of NY 204 to what is now I @-@ 390 and continued on Brooks Avenue into Rochester to Genesee Park Boulevard . Route 47 turned south onto the street , which circles around the southwestern quadrant of the city , and followed its length to Genesee Street , where it turned south for a short distance before resuming its eastward alignment on Elmwood Avenue . The route remained on Elmwood Avenue into Brighton , where it turned north onto South Winton Road at Twelve Corners . At Highland Avenue , NY 47 reentered Rochester and became North Winton Road at East Avenue ( NY 96 ) . The route remained on Winton through Rochester and Irondequoit before terminating at Empire Boulevard ( then US 104 , now NY 404 ) just west of Irondequoit Bay .
= = = Expressway realignments = = =
= = = = East of Rochester = = = =
In the early 1950s , construction began on the Sea Breeze Expressway , a mostly limited @-@ access highway linking the Lake Ontario shoreline to the proposed I @-@ 490 east of Rochester . The first portion of the road , a divided highway extending from East Ridge Road in Irondequoit to Culver Road just west of the Irondequoit Bay Outlet , was opened to traffic by 1954 as a realignment of NY 18 . Construction on a limited @-@ access extension south to Empire Boulevard ( three blocks west of NY 47 's western terminus ) began at some point between 1956 and 1958 and was completed by 1960 as a realignment of US 104 . Another extension of the highway south to the partially complete I @-@ 490 in Brighton was completed c . 1961 and largely became part of a rerouted NY 47 by the following year . At the time , NY 47 left the expressway at Blossom Road and followed it west to Winton Road , where it rejoined its original routing .
By 1964 , construction was underway on a new expressway leading south from I @-@ 490 at the Can of Worms to Elmwood Avenue east of Twelve Corners . The highway was completed c . 1965 , at which time NY 47 was realigned to follow the Sea Breeze Expressway and the new expressway south through the Can of Worms to its end at a partial interchange with Elmwood Avenue ( now I @-@ 590 exit 3 ) . It continued west on Elmwood Avenue to Twelve Corners , where it reconnected to its old alignment at Winton Road .
= = = = West of Rochester = = = =
The first realignment of NY 47 west of the city occurred c . 1962 when it was rerouted between Chili and Elmwood Avenues to bypass the then @-@ Rochester – Monroe County Airport to the south . Instead of turning east onto Brooks Avenue as it did prior to 1962 , the route continued south on Beahan Road to Scottsville Road ( NY 383 ) , where it turned to overlap NY 383 north to Elmwood Avenue . At the time , Beahan Road connected directly to Scottsville Road ( via modern Old Beahan Road ) as the primary runway southwest of the airport had yet to be extended to its present length . By 1962 , construction was underway on a new limited @-@ access highway paralleling NY 47 ( Howard Road ) to the east between NY 31 and NY 33 . Within two years , work had begun on an extension of the highway south along the Erie Canal to Scottsville Road . Farther east , construction was underway on a new highway leading south from I @-@ 490 to Elmwood Avenue east of Twelve Corners .
All of the limited @-@ access highway between NY 31 and NY 383 opened to traffic c . 1965 . NY 47 was reconfigured to begin a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) to the east of Howard Road at modern NY 390 exit 21 and follow the new highway southeastward to its temporary end at what is now I @-@ 390 exit 17 east of the airport . At this point , NY 47 joined its pre @-@ 1965 routing and followed NY 383 northeastward into the city limits . By 1968 , construction was underway on a northward extension of the expressway to US 104 in Greece . It was completed and opened to traffic by 1971 .
= = = Extensions and deletion = = =
NY 47 was officially extended on both ends on January 1 , 1970 , to terminate at Lake Ontario on opposite sides of Rochester . In Greece , the designation officially followed what is now NY 390 north to the Lake Ontario State Parkway ; however , the portion between US 104 and the parkway had yet to be constructed . To the east in Irondequoit , NY 47 was stretched northward along the Sea Breeze Expressway to Culver Road , resulting in overlaps with both US 104 and NY 18 . At the time , the overlap with US 104 existed only between Empire Boulevard and the Keeler Street Expressway , which became the new alignment of the route through Irondequoit after its completion in 1969 . The overlap with US 104 was eliminated entirely the following year when that route was realigned onto a new expressway alignment between NY 47 and Webster that traversed Irondequoit Bay via the newly built Irondequoit Bay Bridge . The overlap with NY 18 was eliminated c . 1973 when NY 18 was truncated to its current eastern terminus in Kodak Park .
On March 18 , 1980 , the NY 47 designation was eliminated and split into four other routes . From NY 104 in Greece to I @-@ 490 , NY 47 became NY 390 . The section from I @-@ 490 south to NY 383 was designated as part of I @-@ 390 ; however , it would not connect to the existing portion of I @-@ 390 south of Rochester until 1981 , when the interchange between I @-@ 390 and I @-@ 590 was completed . The segment of NY 47 from Elmwood Avenue north to the Can of Worms became part of I @-@ 590 , which continued southwest along the freeway to Winton Road . From the Can of Worms to Lake Ontario , NY 47 was redesignated NY 590 .
Off the expressways , the former alignments of NY 47 now carry several designations . Howard Road , bypassed by the 1960s realignment in Gates , is still maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation as NY 940L , an unsigned reference route 2 @.@ 37 miles ( 3 @.@ 81 km ) in length . Beahan Road , also bypassed by the same 1960s rerouting , was reconfigured into its current alignment by 1971 due to an expansion by the airport . The section of Beahan Road that carried NY 47 is currently maintained by Monroe County as part of County Route 164 ( CR 164 ) , the county 's unsigned designation for all of Beahan Road . The portion of NY 47 on Elmwood Avenue from the Rochester city line to I @-@ 590 is also maintained by Monroe County as part of CR 87 . Lastly , the segments of Winton Road outside of the Rochester city limits are now part of CR 98 . The remainder of c . 1980 NY 47 and the former alignments of the route are currently locally maintained .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Monroe County .
= Battle of Nanking =
The Battle of Nanking ( or Nanjing ) was fought in early December 1937 during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War between the National Revolutionary Army of China and the Imperial Japanese Army for control of Nanking ( Nanjing ) , the capital of the Republic of China .
Following the outbreak of war between Japan and China in July 1937 the Japanese government at first attempting to contain the fighting and sought a negotiated settlement to the war . However , after victory in the Battle of Shanghai expansionists prevailed within the Japanese military and on December 1 a campaign to capture Nanking was officially authorized . The task of occupying Nanking was given to General Iwane Matsui , the commander of Japan 's Central China Area Army , who believed that the capture of Nanking would force China to surrender and thus end the war . Chinese leader Chiang Kai @-@ shek ultimately decided to defend the city and appointed Tang Shengzhi to command the Nanking Garrison Force , a hastily assembled army of local conscripts and the remnants of the Chinese units who had fought in Shanghai .
Japanese soldiers marched from Shanghai to Nanking at a breakneck pace , rapidly defeating pockets of Chinese resistance . By December 9 they had reached the last line of defense , the Fukuo Line , behind which lay Nanking 's fortified walls . On December 10 Matsui ordered an all @-@ out attack on Nanking , and after less than two days of intense fighting Chiang decided to abandon the city . Before fleeing , Tang ordered his men to launch a concerted breakout of the Japanese siege , but by this time Nanking was largely surrounded and its defenses were at the breaking point . Most of Tang 's units simply collapsed , their soldiers often casting off their weapons and uniforms in the streets in the hopes of hiding among the city 's civilian population .
Following the capture of the city Japanese soldiers massacred Chinese prisoners of war , murdered civilians , and committed acts of looting and rape in an event known as the Nanking Massacre . Though Japan 's military victory excited and emboldened them , the subsequent massacre tarnished their reputation in the eyes of the world . Contrary to Matsui 's expectations , China did not surrender and the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War continued for another eight years .
= = Prelude to the battle = =
= = = Japan 's decision to capture Nanking = = =
The conflict which would become known as Second Sino @-@ Japanese War started on July 7 , 1937 with a skirmish at Marco Polo Bridge which escalated rapidly into a full @-@ scale war in northern China between the armies of China and Japan . China , however , wanted to avoid a decisive confrontation in the north and so instead opened a second front by attacking Japanese units in Shanghai in central China . The Japanese responded by dispatching the Shanghai Expeditionary Army ( SEA ) , commanded by General Iwane Matsui , to drive the Chinese Army from Shanghai . Intense fighting in Shanghai forced Japan 's Army General Staff , which was in charge of military operations , to repeatedly reinforce the SEA , and finally on November 9 an entirely new army , the 10th Army commanded by Lieutenant General Heisuke Yanagawa , was also landed at Hangzhou Bay just south of Shanghai .
Although the arrival of the 10th Army succeeded at forcing the Chinese Army to retreat from Shanghai , the Japanese Army General Staff had decided to adopt a policy of non @-@ expansion of hostilities with the aim of ending the war . On November 7 its de facto leader Deputy Chief of Staff Hayao Tada laid down an " operation restriction line " preventing its forces from leaving the vicinity of Shanghai , or more specifically from going west of the Chinese cites of Suzhou and Jiaxing . The city of Nanking is 300 kilometers ( 186 miles ) west of Shanghai .
However , a major rift of opinion existed between the Japanese government and its two field armies , the SEA and 10th Army , which as of November were both nominally under the control of the Central China Area Army led by SEA commander Matsui . Matsui made clear to his superiors even before he left for Shanghai that he wanted to march on Nanking . He was convinced that the conquest of the Chinese capital city of Nanking would provoke the fall of the entire Nationalist Government of China and thus hand Japan a quick and complete victory in its war on China . Yanagawa was likewise eager to conquer Nanking and both men chafed under the operation restriction line that had been imposed on them by the Army General Staff .
On November 19 Yanagawa ordered his 10th Army to pursue retreating Chinese forces across the operation restriction line to Nanking , a flagrant act of insubordination . When Tada discovered this the next day he ordered Yanagawa to stop immediately , but was ignored . Matsui made some effort to restrain Yanagawa , but also told him that he could send some advance units beyond the line . In fact , Matsui was highly sympathetic with Yanagawa 's actions and a few days later on November 22 Matsui issued an urgent telegram to the Army General Staff insisting that " To resolve this crisis in a prompt manner we need to take advantage of the enemy 's present declining fortunes and conquer Nanking ... By staying behind the operation restriction line at this point we are not only letting our chance to advance slip by , but it is also having the effect of encouraging the enemy to replenish their fighting strength and recover their fighting spirit and there is a risk that it will become harder to completely break their will to make war . "
Meanwhile , as more and more Japanese units continued to slip past the operation restriction line , Tada was also coming under pressure from within the Army General Staff . Many of Tada 's colleagues and subordinates , including the powerful Chief of the General Staff Operations Division Sadamu Shimomura , had come around to Matsui 's viewpoint and wanted Tada to approve an attack on Nanking . On November 24 Tada finally relented and abolished the operation restriction line " owing to circumstances beyond our control " , and then several days later he reluctantly approved the operation to capture Nanking . Tada flew to Shanghai in person on December 1 to deliver the order , though by then his own armies in the field were already well on their way to Nanking .
= = = China 's decision to defend Nanking = = =
On November 15 , near the end of the Battle of Shanghai , Chiang Kai @-@ shek convened a meeting of the Military Affairs Commission 's Supreme National Defense Council to undertake strategic planning , including a decision on what to do in case of a Japanese attack on Nanking . Here Chiang insisted fervently on mounting a sustained defense of Nanking . Chiang argued , just as he had during the Battle of Shanghai , that China would be more likely to receive aid from the great powers , possibly at the ongoing Nine Power Treaty Conference , if it could prove on the battlefield its will and capacity to resist the Japanese . He also noted that holding onto Nanking would strengthen China 's hand in peace talks which he wanted the German ambassador Oskar Trautmann to mediate .
Chiang ran into stiff opposition from his officers , including the powerful Chief of Staff of the Military Affairs Commission He Yingqin , the Deputy Chief of Staff Bai Chongxi , the head of the Fifth War Zone Li Zongren , and his German advisor Alexander von Falkenhausen . They argued that the Chinese Army needed more time to recover from its losses at Shanghai , and pointed out that Nanking was highly indefensible topographically . The mostly gently sloping terrain in front of Nanking would make it easy for the attackers to advance on the city , while the Yangtze River behind Nanking would cut off the defenders ' retreat .
Chiang , however , had become increasingly agitated over the course of the Battle of Shanghai , even angrily declaring that he would stay behind in Nanking alone and command its defense personally . But just when Chiang believed himself completely isolated , General Tang Shengzhi , an ambitious senior member of the Military Affairs Commission , spoke out in defense of Chiang 's position , although accounts vary on whether Tang vociferously jumped to Chiang 's aid or only reluctantly did so . Seizing the opportunity Tang had given him , Chiang responded by organizing the Nanking Garrison Force on November 20 and officially making Tang its commander on November 25 . The orders Tang received from Chiang on November 30 were to " defend the established defense lines at any cost and destroy the enemy ’ s besieging force " .
Though both men publicly declared that they would defend Nanking " to the last man " , they were aware of their precarious situation . On the same day that the Garrison Force was established Chiang officially moved the capital of China from Nanking to Chongqing deep in China 's interior . Further , both Chiang and Tang would at times give contradictory instructions to their subordinates on whether their mission was to defend Nanking to the death or merely delay the Japanese advance .
= = The road to Nanking = =
= = = China 's defense preparations = = =
On November 20 the Chinese Army and teams of conscripted laborers began to hurriedly bolster Nanking 's defenses both inside and outside the city . Nanking itself was surrounded by formidable stone walls stretching almost fifty kilometers ( 31 miles ) around the entire city . The walls , which had been constructed hundreds of years earlier during the Ming Dynasty , rose up to twenty meters ( 65 feet ) in height , were nine meters ( 30 feet ) thick , and had been studded with machine gun emplacements . By December 6 all the gates into the city had been closed and then barricaded with an additional layer of sandbags and concrete six meters ( 20 feet ) thick .
Outside the walls a series of semicircular defense lines were constructed in the path of the Japanese advance , most notably an outer one about sixteen kilometers ( 10 miles ) from the city and an inner one directly outside the city known as the Fukuo Line , or multiple positions line . The Fukuo Line , a sprawling network of trenches , moats , barbed wire , mine fields , gun emplacements , and pillboxes , was to be the final defense line outside Nanking 's city walls . There were also two key high points of land on the Fukuo Line , the peaks of Zijinshan to the northeast and the plateau of Yuhuatai to the south , where fortification was especially dense . In order to deny the Japanese invaders any shelter or supplies in this area , Tang adopted a strategy of scorched earth on December 7 , ordering all homes and structures in the path of the Japanese within one to two kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 miles ) of the city to be incinerated , as well as all homes and structures near roadways within sixteen kilometers ( 10 miles ) of the city .
The defending army , the Nanking Garrison Force , was on paper a formidable army of thirteen divisions , including three elite German @-@ trained divisions plus the super @-@ elite Training Brigade , but in reality most of these units had trickled back to Nanking severely mauled from the fighting in Shanghai . By the time they reached Nanking they were physically exhausted , low on equipment , and badly depleted in total troop strength . In order to replenish some of these units , 16 @,@ 000 young men and teenagers from Nanking and the rural villages surrounding it were speedily pressed into service as new recruits . An additional 14 @,@ 000 fresh soldiers were brought in from Hankou to fill the ranks of the 2nd Army . However , due the unexpected rapidity of the Japanese advance , most of the new conscripts received only rudimentary training on how to fire their guns on their way to or upon their arrival at the frontlines . No definitive statistics exist on how many soldiers the Nanking Garrison Force had managed to cobble together by the time of the battle , but among leading estimates are those of David Askew who says 73 @,@ 790 to 81 @,@ 500 , those of Ikuhiko Hata who estimates 100 @,@ 000 , and those of Tokushi Kasahara who argues in favor of about 150 @,@ 000 .
But during this period Japan 's Navy Air Service was launching frequent air raids on the city , eventually totaling 50 raids according to the Navy 's own records . The Navy Air Service had struck Nanking for the first time on August 15 , and after winning air supremacy over the city on September 19 it began bombing the city night and day with impunity , hitting both military and civilian targets . In the face of Japanese bombs and the ongoing advance of the Japanese Army , the large majority of Nanking 's citizens fled the city . By early December Nanking 's population had dropped from its former total of more than one million to less than 500 @,@ 000 , a figure which included Chinese refugees from rural villages burned down by their own government 's scorched earth policies . Most of those still in the city were very poor and had nowhere else to go . Foreign residents of Nanking were also repeatedly asked to leave the city which was becoming more and more chaotic under the strain of bombings , fires , looting by criminals , and electrical outages , but those few foreigners brave enough to stay behind strived to find a way to help the Chinese civilians who had been unable to leave . In late @-@ November a group of them led by German citizen John Rabe established the Nanking Safety Zone in the center of the city , a self @-@ proclaimed demilitarized zone where civilian refugees could congregate in order to hopefully escape the fighting . The safety zone was recognized by the Chinese government , and on December 8 Tang Shengzhi demanded that all civilians evacuate there .
Among those Chinese who did manage to escape Nanking were Chiang Kai @-@ shek and his wife Soong Mei @-@ ling , who had flown out of Nanking on a private plane just before the crack of dawn on December 7 . The mayor of Nanking and most of the municipal government left the same day , entrusting management of the city to the Nanking Garrison Force .
= = = Japan 's march on Nanking = = =
By the start of December Japan 's Central China Area Army had swollen in strength to over 160 @,@ 000 men , though only about 50 @,@ 000 of these would ultimately participate in the fighting . The plan of attack against Nanking was a pincer movement which the Japanese called " encirclement and annihilation " . The two prongs of the Central China Area Army 's pincer were the Shanghai Expeditionary Army ( SEA ) advancing on Nanking from its eastern side and the 10th Army advancing from its southern side . To the north and west of Nanking lay the Yangtze River , but the Japanese planned to plug this possible escape route as well both by dispatching a squadron of ships up the river and by deploying two special detachments to circle around behind the city . The Kunisaki Detachment was to cross the Yangtze in the south with the ultimate aim of occupying Pukou on the river bank west of Nanking while the Yamada Detachment was to be sent on the far north route with the ultimate aim of taking Mufushan just north of Nanking .
General Matsui , along with the Army General Staff , envisaged making a slow and steady march on Nanking , but his subordinates refused to play along and instead raced eagerly with each other to be the first to get to the city . Soon all units were roaring to Nanking at the breakneck pace of up to forty kilometers ( 25 miles ) per day . For instance , the 10th Army captured the key town of Guangde on November 30 three days before it was even supposed to start its planned advance , and the SEA captured Danyang on December 2 more than five days ahead of schedule . In order to achieve such speeds , the Japanese soldiers carried little with them except weaponry and ammunition . Because they were marching well ahead of most of their supply lines they had to purchase or loot their food from Chinese civilians along the way .
During their advance the Japanese overcame initially light resistance from the already battered Chinese forces who were being pursued by the Japanese from Shanghai in a " running battle " . Here the Japanese were aided by their complete air supremacy , their abundance of tanks , the improvised and hastily constructed nature of the Chinese defenses , and also by the Chinese strategy of concentrating their defending forces on small patches of relatively high ground which made them easy to outflank and surround .
On December 5 , Chiang Kai @-@ shek paid a visit to a defensive encampment near Jurong to heckle his men to keep up the fight , but he was forced to beat a hasty retreat when the Japanese Army burst onto the battlefield guns blazing . On that day the rapidly moving forward contingents of the SEA occupied Jurong and then arrived at Chunhuazhen , a key point of Nanking 's outer line of defense which would put Japanese artillery in range of the city . Here China 's 51st Division flung its main force into the fighting and repeatedly repulsed Japanese attacks before cracking on December 8 when the main force of the SEA arrived . The SEA also took the fortress at Zhenjiang and the spa town of Tangshuizhen on that day . Meanwhile , on the south side of the same defense line , armored vehicles of Japan 's 10th Army charged the Chinese position at Jiangjunshan and Niushoushan defended by China 's 58th Division . Valiant Chinese soldiers armed with hammers jumped onto the vehicles and banged repeatedly on their roofs shouting " Get out of there ! " , but after darkness fell on the battlefield the 58th Division was finally overwhelmed on December 9 after suffering , according to its own records , 800 casualties .
By December 9 Japan 's forces had reached Nanking 's last line of defense , the daunting Fukuo Line . At this point General Matsui had a " summons to surrender " drawn up which implored the Chinese to send military envoys to Nanking 's Zhongshan Gate to discuss terms for the peaceful occupation of the city , and he then had a Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 21 scatter thousands of copies of the message over the city . On December 10 a group of Matsui 's senior staff officers waited to see if the gate would be opened , but Tang Shengzhi had no intention of responding .
Later that day Tang proclaimed to his men that , " Our army has entered into the final battle to defend Nanking on the Fukuo Line . Each unit shall firmly defend its post with the resolve to either live or die with it . You 're not allowed to retreat on your own , causing defense to collapse . " The American journalist F. Tillman Durdin , who was reporting on site during the battle , saw one small group of Chinese soldiers set up a barricade , assemble in a solemn semicircle , and promise each other that they would die together where they stood .
= = Final battle for Nanking = =
At 1 : 00 pm on December 10 General Matsui ordered all units to launch a full @-@ scale attack on Nanking . That day the SEA assaulted China 's super @-@ elite Training Brigade on the peaks of Zijinshan , which dominate Nanking 's northeast horizon . Clambering up the ridges of the mountain , the men of the SEA had to painstakingly wrest control of each Chinese encampment one by one in bloody infantry charges . Advancing along the south side of Zijinshan was no easier as General Matsui had forbidden his men from using artillery there due to his deep conviction that no damage should come to its two famous historical sites , Sun Yat @-@ sen Mausoleum and Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum .
Also on Nanking 's eastern side but further south , other units of the SEA faced the difficult task of fording the large moat standing between them and three of the city gates , Zhongshan Gate , Guanghua Gate , and Tongji Gate , though the speed of Japan 's earlier advance played in their favor as key Chinese units slated to be deployed here were not yet in position . That evening Japanese engineers and artillerymen closing in on Guanghua Gate managed to blow a hole in the wall . A Japanese battalion launched a daring attack through the gap and planted a Japanese flag on a portion of the gate , but was immediately pinned down by a series of determined Chinese counterattacks . The Chinese brought up reinforcements , including tanks , and they poured down grenades and even flaming , gasoline @-@ soaked lumber onto the Japanese battalion , which was only saved from annihilation by timely bursts of concentrated artillery fire from the rest of their division . The battalion succeeded in holding its position for the rest of the battle despite losing eighty of its eighty @-@ eight men .
At the same time Japan 's 10th Army was storming Yuhuatai , a rugged plateau situated directly in front of Zhonghua Gate on Nanking 's southern side . The 10th Army 's progress was slow and casualties were heavy as Yuhuatai was built like a fortress of interlocking pillboxes and trenches manned by three Chinese divisions , including the German @-@ trained 88th Division , though the Chinese were also apt to counterattack and some Japanese units were forced to spend more time defending than attacking . Close to every single man that the 88th Division had deployed on Yuhuatai was killed in action , including four of its three regimental commanders and both of its brigade commanders , but in the process the Japanese were made to suffer 2 @,@ 240 casualties including 566 dead . Yuhuatai was finally overrun at noon on December 12 .
Behind Yuhuatai the 88th Division had stationed its barely trained new recruits atop Nanking 's Zhonghua Gate . The Japanese had already tried the previous night to infiltrate a " suicide squadron " bearing explosive picric acid up to this gate to blow a hole in it , but it got lost in the morning fog and failed to reach the wall . At noon on December 12 a team of just six Japanese soldiers made it across the moat in a small boat and succeeded in scaling the wall at Zhonghua Gate on a shaky bamboo ladder and raising the Japanese flag there . Five of them were killed by gunfire but the last man grabbed a Chinese machine gun and held the position singlehandedly . Soon after another Japanese team set a fire in front of the gate to create a smokescreen . By 5 : 00 pm more and more Japanese troops were crossing the moat and swarming Zhonghua Gate by fording makeshift bridges so rickety their engineers had to hold them aloft with their own bodies , and with the help of some well aimed Japanese artillery fire from atop Yuhuatai parts of the wall finally crumbled . Meanwhile , just west of Zhonghua Gate , other soldiers also of Japan 's 10th Army had punched a hole through Chinese lines in the wetlands south of Shuixi Gate and were launching a violent drive on that gate with the support of a fleet of tanks .
At the height of the battle Tang Shengzhi complained to Chiang that , " Our casualties are naturally heavy and we are fighting against metal with merely flesh and blood " , but what the Chinese lacked in equipment they made up for in the sheer ferocity with which they fought , though this was partially due to strict orders that no man or unit was to retreat one step without permission . Over the course of the battle roughly 1 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers were shot dead by other members of their own army for attempting to retreat , and on Yuhuatai Japanese soldiers noticed that many Chinese pillboxes were chained from the outside to prevent their occupants from fleeing .
Nonetheless , the Japanese were gaining the upper hand over the hard @-@ pressed and surrounded Chinese defenders . On December 12 the SEA captured Peak # 2 of Zijinshan and from this vantage point unleashed a torrent of artillery fire at Zhongshan Gate where a large portion of the wall suddenly gave way . After sunset the fires that blazed out of control on Zijinshan were visible even from Zhonghua Gate in the south which was completely occupied by Japan 's 10th Army on the night of December 12 to 13 .
= = = Collapse of the Nanking Garrison Force = = =
Unbeknownst to the Japanese however , Chiang had already ordered Tang to abandon the defense . In spite of his earlier talk about holding out in Nanking to the bitter end , Chiang telegraphed an order to Tang on December 11 to abandon the city . Tang prepared to do so the next day on December 12 , but startled by Japan 's intensified onslaught he made a frantic last @-@ minute bid to conclude a temporary ceasefire with the Japanese through German citizens John Rabe and Eduard Sperling . Only when it became clear that the negotiations could not be completed in time did Tang finally finish drawing up a plan calling for all his units to launch a coordinated breakout of the Japanese encirclement . They were to commence the breakout under cover of darkness at 11 : 00 pm that night and then muster in Anhui . Just after 5 : 00 pm on December 12 Tang arranged for this plan to be transmitted to all units , and then he crossed the Yangtze River , escaping through the city of Pukou on the opposite bank of the river less than twenty @-@ four hours before it was occupied by Japan 's Kunisaki Detachment .
By the time Tang slipped out of the city , however , the entire Nanking Garrison Force was rapidly disintegrating with some units in open flight . Furthermore , contact had already been lost with many units who thus never received Tang 's message and continued to hold their positions as ordered , though even those that did receive it had little luck at slipping through the Japanese lines . China 's 66th and 83rd Corps made a bid to evade the Japanese as planned through a gap to the east but immediately ran into their own minefield . After that they were attacked in flight by Japanese units and lost two divisional chiefs of staff in combat . Though the two corps had started the battle at least 11 @,@ 000 men strong , only 600 of them escaped Nanking . Near dawn on December 13 a portion of China 's 74th Corps was also annihilated in a bid to break through Japanese lines along the Yangtze River south of Nanking .
One of the few units that did manage to get out of Nanking was China 's 2nd Army led by Xu Yuanquan situated just north of Nanking . Though Xu never received Tang 's order to abandon the defense , on the night of December 12 he had heard that Nanking had been captured and so decided to withdraw on his own accord . During the night he managed to evacuate most of his unit across the Yangtze River just before Japanese naval units blockaded the river .
By contrast , a massive crowd of thousands of Chinese soldiers and civilians from the south side of Nanking , who were fleeing in panic and disarray from the advance of Japan 's 10th Army on the same night , were prevented from reaching the harbor at Xiaguan by Chinese barrier troops who fired on the crowd for retreating without permission and managed to hold it back . At 9 : 00 pm a fleeing Chinese tank unit , which had also not received Tang 's parting message , charged the barrier troops and burst through their blockade , only for the crowd to then find that there were hardly any boats remaining in the harbor . The crowd fought to clamber aboard what few craft were available , but these soon became so overloaded that they sank midway . The rest of the Chinese soldiers took to the Yangtze 's rough and frigid waters en masse while clinging to logs and pieces of scrap lumber , though most were quickly swallowed up by the river . Furthermore , by this point the Japanese encirclement of Nanking was virtually complete and many who were attempting to brave the Yangtze soon found themselves being fired upon from both sides of the river . Others who saw this turned back to the city in despair .
Many of these tens of thousands of Chinese soldiers who could not escape the city responded by casting off their uniforms and weaponry , switching to civilian clothes often by stealing them from passersby , and then desperately seeking sanctuary in the Nanking Safety Zone by mingling with civilians . The American journalist F. Tillman Durdin " witnessed the wholesale undressing of an army that was almost comic . " " Arms were discarded along with uniforms , and the streets became covered with guns , grenades , swords , knapsacks , coats , shoes and helmets ... In front of the Ministry of Communications and for two blocks further on , trucks , artillery , busses , staff cars , wagons , machine @-@ guns , and small arms became piled up as in a junk yard . "
= = Mopping @-@ up operations and the Nanking Massacre = =
The fighting in Nanking did not end entirely on the night of December 12 – 13 when the Japanese Army took the remaining gates and entered the city . During their mopping @-@ up operations in the city the Japanese continued for several more days to beat back sporadic resistance from Chinese stragglers . Though Mufushan , just north of Nanking , was taken by Japan 's Yamada Detachment without much bloodshed on the morning of December 14 , pockets of resistance outside Nanking persisted for several more days .
Meanwhile , the Japanese units on mopping @-@ up duty in Nanking had decided that the former Chinese soldiers hiding in the city were a possible security risk and therefore carried out a thorough search of every building in Nanking and made frequent incursions into the Nanking Safety Zone in search of them . Japanese units attempted to distinguish former soldiers from civilians by checking if they had marks on their shoulders from wearing a backpack or carrying a rifle . However , the criteria used were often arbitrary as was the case with one Japanese company which apprehended all men with " shoe sores , callouses on the face , extremely good posture , and / or sharp @-@ looking eyes " and for this reason many civilians were taken at the same time . What happened to the Chinese soldiers and civilians who were captured varied greatly from unit to unit , though many were summarily executed in an event that came to be known as the Nanking Massacre , which the foreign residents and journalists in Nanking made known internationally within days of the city 's fall . Though the Japanese also committed random acts of murder , rape , looting , and arson during their occupation of Nanking , military historian Masahiro Yamamoto notes that very few of the corpses buried in and around Nanking after the fall of the city were women or children , suggesting that the large majority of the victims of the massacre were adult Chinese men taken by the Japanese as former soldiers and massacred . Estimates for the total death toll of the Nanking Massacre vary widely .
The Japanese Army 's mopping @-@ up operations and the large @-@ scale massacres that accompanied them were over by the afternoon of December 17 when General Matsui entered Nanking for the victory parade . By the end of December most Japanese soldiers had left Nanking , though units of the Shanghai Expeditionary Army stayed on to occupy the city . The Nanking Self @-@ Government Committee , a new municipal authority formed from local Chinese collaborators , was inaugurated on January 1 , 1938 , but it was not until February 25 that all restrictions on the free movement of civilians into and out of the city were lifted .
= = Aftermath and assessment = =
News of the massacre was tightly censored in Japan , where Nanking 's capture provoked a frenzy of excitement among the citizenry . Mass celebrations of every sort , either spontaneous or government @-@ sponsored , took place throughout the country , including a number of resplendent lantern parades which were still vividly remembered by onlookers several decades later . F. Tillman Durdin noted even before Nanking had fallen that " Events in the field have renewed the belief of the Japanese people in the invincibility of their arms . "
The conquest of Nanking had been quicker and easier than the Japanese had foreseen ; they lost only 1 @,@ 953 soldiers in battle , plus 4 @,@ 994 wounded . Japan 's casualties were undoubtedly dwarfed by those of China , though no precise figures exist on how many Chinese were killed in action . The Japanese claimed to have killed 84 @,@ 000 enemy during the campaign whereas a contemporary Chinese source claimed that their army suffered 20 @,@ 000 casualties , but Masahiro Yamamoto notes that the Japanese usually inflated their opponent 's body counts while the Chinese had reason to downplay the scale of their loss . Ikuhiko Hata estimates that 50 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers were killed in combat during the entire battle whereas Jay Taylor puts the number at 70 @,@ 000 and states that proportionate to the size of the force committed , such losses were greater than those suffered in the devastating Battle of Shanghai . On the other hand , Chinese scholar Sun Zhaiwei estimates Chinese combat losses at 6 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 men .
An official report of the Nationalist Government argued that an excess of untrained and inexperienced troops was a major cause of the defeat , but at the time Tang Shengzhi was made to bear much of the blame and later historians have also criticized him . Japanese historian Tokushi Kasahara , for instance , has characterized his battlefield leadership as incompetent , arguing that an orderly withdrawal from Nanking may have been possible if Tang had carried it out on December 11 or if he had not fled his post well in advance of most of his beleaguered units . However , Chiang 's very decision to defend Nanking is also controversial . Masahiro Yamamoto believes that Chiang chose " almost entirely out of emotion " to fight a battle he knew he could only lose , and fellow historian Frederick Fu Liu concurs that the decision is often regarded as one of " the greatest strategical mistakes of the Sino @-@ Japanese war " . Still , the historian Jay Taylor notes that Chiang was convinced that to run from his capital city " without a serious fight ... would forever be regarded as a cowardly decision . "
In spite of its military accomplishment , Japan 's international reputation was blackened by the Nanking Massacre , as well as by a series of international incidents that occurred during and after the battle . Most notable among them were the shelling by Japanese artillery of the British steamship Ladybird on the Yangtze River on December 12 , and the sinking by Japanese aircraft of the American gunboat Panay not far downstream on the same day . The Allison Incident , the slapping of an American consul by a Japanese soldier , further increased tensions with the United States .
Furthermore , the loss of Nanking did not force China to capitulate as Japan 's leaders had predicted . Even so , buoyed by their victory , the Japanese government replaced the lenient terms for peace which they had relayed to the mediator Ambassador Trautmann prior to the battle with an extremely harsh set of demands that were ultimately rejected by China . On December 17 in a fiery speech entitled , " A Message to the People Upon Our Withdrawal from Nanking " , Chiang Kai @-@ shek defiantly declared that ,
The outcome of this war will not be decided at Nanking or in any other big city ; it will be decided in the countryside of our vast country and by the inflexible will of our people ... In the end we will wear the enemy down . In time the enemy 's military might will count for nothing . I can assure you that the final victory will be ours .
The Second Sino @-@ Japanese War was to drag on for another eight years and ultimately end with Japan 's defeat in 1945 .
= Eagle Boys =
Eagle Boys is an Australian fast food chain specialising in Italian American cuisine , in particular pizza . With more than 160 stores throughout Australia , it is the third largest pizza chain in Australia , with 12 % of the share of the country 's pizza market recorded in June 2015 .
Eagle Boys was founded in Albury , New South Wales by businessman Tom Potter in 1987 . Since 1992 , Eagle Boys national headquarters have been located in Annerley , Queensland . In 2007 NBC Capital , a Queensland @-@ based venture capital group , bought Eagle Boys from Potter . At the chain 's peak , in 2013 , more than 340 Eagle Boys stores were operating across Australia . Outlet numbers fell drastically between the end of 2013 and the end of 2014 to around 170 . In July 2016 , administrators were bought in to identify restructuring options ahead of a potential sale of the business , although the move did not extend to franchisee @-@ operated outlets .
= = Major Competitors = =
Eagle Boys ' major competitors are Pizza Hut , Domino 's Pizza Enterprises , ( trading as Dominoes Australia ) , Pizza Capers and Crust Gourmet Pizza Bar ( referred to simply as Crust )
= = Stores = =
More than 340 Eagle Boys stores were operating across Australia at the pizza chain 's peak , in 2013 . Outlet numbers fell drastically between the end of 2013 and the end of 2014 to around 170 . At July 2014 , Eagle Boys was the third largest pizza chain in Australia , with 12 % share of Australia 's pizza market .
As at April 2016 , Eagle Boys stores could be found in New South Wales , Northern Territory , Queensland , Victoria , South Australia and Western Australia . The stores have a strong regional emphasis with most outlets located in non @-@ metropolitan areas , including Bathurst , Shepparton and Mareeba .
= = History = =
= = = 1987 – 2007 : the first 20 years = = =
The first Eagles Boys store opened in Albury , New South Wales in 1987 , a venture spearheaded by businessman Tom Potter in partnership with his mother , Barbara Potter , who guaranteed a $ 70 @,@ 000 loan to enable him to open the store . The store was initially called " Beagle Boys " after the Disney Beagle Boys , but Potter dropped the ' B ' after a few months in operation , worrying that the naming may have been a copyright infringement . Potter went on to build the business and become CEO of the chain .
In 1989 Potter started recruiting franchisees . Eagle Boys ' national headquarters were opened in 1992 in the Brisbane suburb of Annerley .
Eagle Boys set up in New Zealand in 1996 when Stallone 's Pizza owner Gavin Cook agreed to merge with Eagle Boys to provide an established base in the South Island . Rapid expansion saw the Eagle Boys chain grow to 54 national outlets in the country by early April 2000 . In 2000 , all New Zealand stores were sold to Restaurant Brands for NZ $ 28m and converted to Pizza Hut outlets .
The company developed an express system " Eaglexpress " between 1999 and 2002 , to serve two minute " express " pizzas ( limited range of four ) between 5 : 30 and 8 : 00 pm , which was achieved by constantly remaking their four most popular pizzas and keeping them in a warmer for sale . Unsold pizzas were discarded after 30 minutes . Between 2002 , when the Eaglexpress concept was launched , and 2003 , sales at the chain rose by around 40 % . The chain came to see the Eaglexpress two @-@ minute pizza service and the its drive @-@ through services as a " beachhead " to compete with its biggest fast @-@ food competitors including Hungry Jack 's and KFC .
= = = 2007 : handover to NBC Capital = = =
In March 2007 , Tom Potter handed his control of Eagle Boys on to NBC Capital , a Queensland @-@ based venture capital group . He retained some shares in the company , and worked in a consultancy role advising the chain on operations for 12 months . By 2008 , Potter retained less than 10 % of the vote for corporate decision making and was no longer involved in operations .
In late 2007 , Eagle Boys began trialing an online ordering system and announced plans to enable customers to order online from all of its stores by February 2008 . By the end of 2008 , the system was fully implemented .
= = = 2008 – 2013 : five years of fast growth = = =
In July 2008 , Eagle Boys entered into a deal to acquire the Pizza Haven chain across Australia . The deal saw Eagle Boys move into Sydney and South Australia for the first time . Between July 2008 and June 2009 , Eagle Boys opened 56 stores — the fastest growth the chain had experienced in its history .
In February 2010 , Eagle Boys was named in BRW Magazine 's Fast Franchise list for the first time . By March 2011 , Eagle Boys had more than 25 stores in Sydney . It had also overtaken Pizza Hut to become the second largest pizza maker in Australia . However , Pizza Hut regained second position by July 2014 .
CEO Todd Clayton departed Eagle Boys in 2012 , he had been in the role since NBC Capital acquired a majority stake in 2007 . At the time , the founder of NBC Bruce Scott stepped in as CEO .
In July 2013 , Eagle Boys commenced operations in Papua New Guinea . Worldwide , stores numbered over 330 by September 2013 .
= = = 2014 : media reports franchising issues = = =
On 3 October 2014 the Sydney Morning Herald reported that former franchisees asserted that the current franchisor , NBC Capital , had stopped print and media advertising since purchasing the business . The number of stores was reported to have halved from 340 locations . Franchise owners told media they were concerned at changes to the advertising mix , including the reduction of offline advertising activities .
= = = 2015 – 16 : plans for new growth = = =
To capitalise on the benefits of cloud computing , Eagle Boys shifted its ordering system to Microsoft Azure in 2015 . Through providing improved website performance and uptime and providing more sophisticated performance metrics , the new hosting system should support more online orders , which the Eagle Boys IT chief says are worth 1 @.@ 5 times the orders which are made in @-@ store or by telephone .
In May 2015 , Eagle Boys announced it was aiming to expand with a plan for 50 outlets in India by the end of 2015 . The same month a franchisee opened an Eagle Boys store in Suva , Fiji .
Eagle Boys appointed Nick Vincent as the new CEO in October 2015 , replacing Bruce Scott . Vincent had previously been the company 's general manager of retail , since April 2014 .
= = = Administrators appointed in 2016 = = =
On 15 July 2016 Eagle Boys Pizza appointed administrators to identify restructuring options ahead of a potential sale of the business . The administrators , SV Partners , took control of the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the business , and will attempt to find potential buyers and negotiate a sale . Eagle Boys announced that trade would continue as normal at franchisee @-@ operated outlets during the administration .
Fairfax Media outlets tipped Domino 's and Retail Food Group ( the owner of Pizza Capers and Crust ) as possible buyers . However , Retail Food Group confirmed it was not in discussions with the owners or administrators of the Eagle Boys franchise system in a statement on 19 July 2016 .
= = Marketing = =
In 1992 , Eagle Boys registered its " pink glow " — the pink look of its logo — with IP Australia , the Australian Government intellectual property office . A customer survey in support of the company 's application found people strongly associated the pink glow with Eagle Boys stores . The distinctive colour scheme was designed to create a fun and upbeat feel .
In 2007 , Eagle Boys launched the " Vote 1 Full Size Large Pizza " campaign bringing to task its competitors for selling smaller pizzas . Domino 's had reduced the size of their large pizzas in mid @-@ 2007 and Pizza Hut had changed their sizing in late 2006 . The campaign produced a sales uplift of over 27 % .
In 2009 , the pizza chain announced a $ 7 million advertising campaign , called the " Real " campaign , that reinforced its " Bigger , Better " slogan . The campaign involved the VW " Real Mobile " driving around Australia offering Eagle Boys pizza and recording testimonials for a TV commercial . Later in the year , Eagle Boys launched another campaign comparing its pizzas to those of its competitors , this time built around the " blind taste test " which found almost half of test subjects preferred Eagle Boys pizzas to those of pizzas from Domino 's and Pizza Hut combined .
In 2010 , Eagle Boys launched a multimillion @-@ dollar campaign " 31 New Menu Items – Each One Delicious ” . The campaign was the first to use Eagle Boys ' new phone name 1300 EAGLE BOYS . New pastas were among the 31 new menu offerings , Desserts were also included , among them a chocolate fudge mousse that received a Gold Medal at the 2010 Royal Queensland Food and Wine Show . The menu was tested over a 12 @-@ month period ahead of the launch . Eagle Boys told media it expected a 15 % spike in sales on the back of the launch . A gluten " friendly " base was also on the menu for the first time , with an Eagle Boys spokesperson claiming it was more transparent than claiming it could offer a gluten @-@ free base — only food prepared in a gluten @-@ free kitchen can make the claim that it is truly offering a gluten free range . The chain also announced it would scale back its social media spend .
In 2011 , the chain released advertising " Our large pizzas are bigger than theirs " in another attempt to demonstrate their large pizza offered effectively an extra slice of pizza to their closest rival , Domino 's . Domino 's chief executive , in response , told media that " value is not in the size of a pizza . " Eagle Boys recorded a 20 % jump in sales in the first week of the campaign compared to the previous week . The pizza chain also announced it would be supporting the Cerebral Palsy Alliance , with a plan to donate more than $ 200 @,@ 000 over three years to the charity , starting with $ 1 from every dessert sold during Cerebral Palsy week in August 2011 . In July 2011 , Eagle Boys received Halal accreditation for its Bexley store .
Rebranding in 2013 as part of the " making pizza happy " campaign involved introducing a new logo along with new pizza boxes and uniforms . The iconic eagle was dropped from the logo at time , with management citing pressure its client base to drop to eagle . The company introduced a " happy bell " to ring when customers were having a good time — aiming for a happier feeling for the in @-@ store experience . The campaign was rolled out in stages , beginning in Far North Queensland , a decision an Eagle Boys spokesperson said was designed to pay homage to the chain 's regional heritage .
By 2014 , around one @-@ third of the pizza chain 's marketing budget was directed to digital spend . That year , the chain released a campaign leveraging off the release of Australian film Fat Pizza vs. Housos . It also announced a partnership with streaming company Quickflix , offering customers an exclusive deal on a one DVD and streaming bundle package . In 2014 the chain also donated more than 600kg of potatoes to food rescue charity OzHarvest .
2015 saw Eagle Boys launch the first " store of the future " in Bundaberg . The concept store , with a design including exposed brickwork and recycled timber , was developed based on research carried out on customer preferences and behaviours .
In March 2016 , Eagle Boys launched a trial of " Virtual Drivethru " at several of their stores in the Townsville area . The technology enables customers to order their pizzas online , drive to the store and alert store team members that they have arrived by pushing a button so that staff can deliver their order to their customers ' cars .
= Wood thrush =
The wood thrush ( Hylocichla mustelina ) is a North American passerine bird . It is closely related to other thrushes such as the American robin and is widely distributed across North America , wintering in Central America and southern Mexico . The wood thrush is the official bird of the District of Columbia .
The wood thrush is a medium @-@ sized thrush , with brown upper parts with mottled brown and white underparts . The male and female are similar in appearance . The song of the male is often cited as being the most beautiful in North America .
The wood thrush is an omnivore , and feeds preferentially on soil invertebrates and larvae , but will also eat fruits . In the summer , it feeds on insects continuously in order to meet daily metabolic needs . It is solitary , but sometimes forms mixed @-@ species flocks . The wood thrush defends a territory that ranges in size from 800 to 28 @,@ 000 m2 ( 960 to 33 @,@ 490 sq yd ) . The wood thrush is monogamous , and its breeding season begins in the spring ; about 50 % of all mated pairs are able to raise two broods , ranging in size from two to four chicks .
= = Taxonomy = =
The only member of the genus Hylocichla , the wood thrush was described by German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1789 . The generic name is a direct translation of its common name , derived from the Greek words hyle / ύλη " woodland " and cichle / κιχλη " thrush " or " fieldfare " . The specific name comes from the Latin mustela " weasel " . It is closely related to the other typical American thrushes of the genus Catharus , and is sometimes merged into that genus . It has been considered close to the long @-@ distance migrant species of that genus , as opposed to the generally resident nightingale @-@ thrushes , but this appears to be erroneous . The wood thrush also appears to be fairly closely related to the large Turdus thrushes , such as the American robin .
= = Description = =
The adult wood thrush is 18 to 21 @.@ 5 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 to 8 @.@ 5 in ) long , with a wingspan of 30 to 40 cm ( 12 to 16 in ) and a body mass of 48 to 72 g ( 1 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 5 oz ) . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 9 @.@ 6 to 11 @.@ 6 cm ( 3 @.@ 8 to 4 @.@ 6 in ) , the bill is 1 @.@ 6 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 63 to 0 @.@ 79 in ) and the tarsus is 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) . It is distinctly larger than the Catharus thrushes with which the species is often sympatric but slightly smaller than the common American robin . The longest known lifespan for a wood thrush in the wild is 8 years , 11 months . The crown , nape , and upper back are cinnamon @-@ brown , while the back wings , and tail are a slightly duller brown . The breast and belly are white with large dark brown spots on the breast , sides , and flanks . It has white eye rings and pink legs . Other brownish thrushes have finer spotting on the breast . The juvenile looks similar to adults , but has additional spots on the back , neck , and wing coverts . The male and female are similar in size and plumage .
= = = Vocalizations = = =
The wood thrush has been reported to have one of the most beautiful songs of North American birds . American naturalist Henry David Thoreau wrote :
Whenever a man hears it he is young , and Nature is in her spring ; wherever he hears it , it is a new world and a free country , and the gates of Heaven are not shut against him .
While the female is not known to sing , the male has a unique song that has three parts . The first subsong component is often inaudible unless the listener is close , and consists of two to six short , low @-@ pitched notes such as bup , bup , bup . The middle part is a loud phrase often written ee @-@ oh @-@ lay , and the third part is a ventriloquial , trill @-@ like phrase of non @-@ harmonic pairs of notes given rapidly and simultaneously .
The male is able to sing two notes at once , which gives its song an ethereal , flute @-@ like quality . Each individual bird has its own repertoire based on combinations of variations of the three parts . Songs are often repeated in order . The bup , bup , bup phrase is also sometimes used as a call , which is louder and at a greater frequency when the bird is agitated . The wood thrush also use a tut , tut to signal agitation . The nocturnal flight call is an emphatic buzzing heeh .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The wood thrush 's breeding range extends from Manitoba , Ontario and Nova Scotia in southern Canada to northern Florida and from the Atlantic coast to the Missouri River and the eastern Great Plains . It migrates to southern Mexico through to Panama in Central America in the winter , mostly in the lowlands along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts . It generally arrives on the U.S. Gulf Coast during the first week of April . Fall migration usually begins in mid @-@ August and continues through mid @-@ September . Migration takes place at night , allowing them to find their direction from the stars and orient themselves by detecting the Earth 's magnetic field .
The wood thrush prefers deciduous and mixed forests for breeding . It prefers late @-@ successional , upland mesic forests with a moderately @-@ dense shrub layer . Robert I. Bertin ( 1977 ) found that this thrush favors areas with running water , moist ground , and high understorey cover . The breeding habitat generally includes trees taller than 16 m ( 52 ft ) , a fairly open forest floor , moist soil , and leaf litter , with substrate moisture more important than either canopy cover or access to running water . The wood thrush can breed in habitat patches as small as 0 @.@ 4 hectares ( 0 @.@ 99 acres ) , but it runs the risk of higher predation and nest parasitism . The wood thrush 's breeding range has expanded northward , displacing the veery and hermit thrush in some locations . In recent times , as a result of fragmentation of forests , it has been increasingly exposed to nest parasitism by brown @-@ headed cowbirds , as well as loss of habitat in the winter range .
= = = Conservation status = = =
The wood thrush has become a symbol of the decline of Neotropical songbirds of eastern North America , having declined by approximately 50 % since 1966 . Along with many other species , this thrush faces threats both to its North American breeding grounds and Central American wintering grounds . Forest fragmentation in North American forests has resulted in both increased nest predation and increased cowbird parasitism , significantly reducing their reproductive success . A study by the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology was the first large @-@ scale analysis that linked acid rain to this thrush 's decline . Continued destruction of primary forest in Central America eliminated preferred wood thrush wintering habitats , likely forcing the birds to choose secondary habitats where mortality rates are higher . In spite of this , the wood thrush is still considered to be of least concern .
= = = Vagrancy = = =
The wood thrush has been recorded twice as a vagrant in Europe , in Iceland at Kvísker in Öræfi East Skaftafellssýsla by Björnsson Hálfdán on 23 October 1967 and on Wingletang Down , St Agnes , Isles of Scilly , England on 7 October 1987 .
= = Behavior = =
The wood thrush is primarily solitary , but occasionally forms mixed @-@ species flocks in the winter . Its breeding territory ranges from 800 to 8 @,@ 000 m2 ( 960 to 9 @,@ 570 sq yd ) in size , and are used for nesting , gathering nest materials , and foraging . Some wood thrushes also defend a feeding territory in the winter . Territorial interactions are usually settled without physical contact , but in high @-@ intensity encounters or nest defense , physical interactions with the feet or bill have been observed . Defense behaviors in response to nest predators include wing flicks , tail flicks , and raising the crest , sometimes escalating to dives and strikes .
This species has also been observed displaying a behavior known as " anting . " Anting occurs when a bird picks up a single ant or group of ants and rubs them on its feathers . The purpose of this behavior is unknown , but it is thought that the birds may be able to acquire defensive secretions from the ants possibly used for some medicinal purposes , or that it simply supplements the birds ' own preen oil .
= = = Diet = = =
Soil invertebrates and larvae make up most of the wood thrush 's omnivorous diet , but it will also eat fruits in the late summer , fall , and late winter . It occasionally feeds on arboreal insects , snails , and small salamanders . The young are fed insects and some fruit . After breeding and before migration , the wood thrush will switch from insects to fruits with high lipid levels . In the summer , low fruit consumption and lipid reserves require the bird to feed on insects continuously in order to meet its metabolic needs .
The wood thrush forages mainly on the forest floor , flipping leaves over with their bills to reveal insects . It can be observed hopping around in leaf litter and on semi @-@ bare ground under the forest canopy . Fruits are swallowed whole .
= = = Predation = = =
Eggs and chicks are vulnerable to chipmunks , raccoons , blue jays , American crows , black rat snakes , brown @-@ headed cowbirds , common grackles , southern flying squirrels , gray squirrels , least weasels , white @-@ footed mice , domestic cats , great horned owls , and sharp @-@ shinned hawks . Adults are primarily taken by hawks and owls .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Wood thrushes are monogamous . Breeding pairs form in mid @-@ April to early @-@ May , and usually last throughout the breeding season . Most thrushes find a new mate each year , and mate guarding and extra @-@ pair copulations have not been observed in this species .
Some male wood thrushes arrive at the breeding grounds several days before the earliest females while other males arrive at the same time as the females , establishing territories ranging in size from 0 @.@ 08 to 0 @.@ 8 hectares ( one @-@ fifth of an acre to two acres ) . The female typically leads silent circular flights 1 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) from the ground , with the male chasing . Six or more flights generally take place in succession . The pairs will perch together and feed each other in between flights . The male begins to sing at dawn and dusk a few days after arriving at breeding grounds . Early in the breeding season , the male sings from high perches in the tallest trees , but as the season progresses , it sings somewhat shorter and less elaborate songs from lower perches . Each day 's singing begins and is most intense just before sunrise . The male may sing throughout the day but especially at dusk . The song season is usually over by the end of July .
Typically , the female chooses the nest site and builds the nest . However , there has been some indication that the male is able to influence the selection of the nest site by perching nearby and singing . Usually , though , the female chooses whether or not to accept or reject the nest site suggested by the male . The nest is usually sited in a dense patch of vegetation in a tree or shrub that provides concealment and shade . It is usually made of dead grasses , stems , and leaves , and lined with mud , and placed in a fork at a horizontal branch . The nest is not reused . Usually , two broods are attempted , although three to four separate nests may be built before a pair succeeds . Two to four pale blue eggs are laid at the rate of one per day . The eggs are incubated by the female only for 11 to 14 days , with the average being 13 days . Like all passerines , the chicks are altricial at hatching , mostly naked with closed eyes . The female broods the chicks during the first four days after hatching . Both parents feed the nestlings and remove fecal sacs from the nest . The chicks fledge 12 – 15 days after hatching , but the parents continue to feed them until they become independent and leave the parents ' territory at 21 – 31 days old .
The young wood thrush is able to begin breeding the next summer . Most females lay their first eggs in mid @-@ May , but older females may begin laying sooner . Pairs usually attempt to rear a second brood no later than late July , with the last of the young fledging around mid @-@ August . About half of all wood thrush pairs successfully raise two broods .
= Kristen Bell =
Kristen Anne Bell ( born July 18 , 1980 ) is an American actress and singer . She began her acting career starring in stage productions and attended the Tisch School of Arts in New York . In 2001 , she made her Broadway debut as Becky Thatcher in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and starred in the Broadway revival of The Crucible the following year . In 2004 , she had a supporting role in the film Spartan and received praise for her first leading performance in Gracie 's Choice .
Bell gained critical acclaim for her first major role as the title character in the teen noir drama television series Veronica Mars ( 2004 – 07 ) . For her performance she awarded a Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television . She reprised the eponymous role in the 2014 film continuation of the series . During her time on Veronica Mars , Bell appeared as Mary Lane in the 2005 film Reefer Madness : The Movie Musical , a reprise of the role she had played in the New York musical upon which the film was based . In 2007 , Bell joined the cast of the sci @-@ fi series Heroes , playing the character Elle Bishop , for which she was nominated for a Saturn Award .
In 2008 , she had her breakout film role as the title character in Forgetting Sarah Marshall . She has since appeared in a number of comedy films , such as Couples Retreat ( 2009 ) , When in Rome ( 2010 ) , and You Again ( 2010 ) . Bell garnered further recognition for voicing Princess Anna in the 2013 Disney film Frozen and the 2015 short film Frozen Fever . She also starred as the female lead on the Showtime series House of Lies . Bell married actor Dax Shepard in 2013 , with whom she has two daughters .
= = Early life and family = =
Kristen Anne Bell was born on July 18 , 1980 and was raised in Huntington Woods , Michigan , a suburb of Detroit . Her mother , Lorelei ( née Frygier ) , is a registered nurse , and her father , Tom Bell , works as the television news director for CBS Television in Sacramento . Her parents divorced when she was two years old , and she has two half @-@ sisters , Sara and Jody , from her father 's second marriage . Bell is of Scottish , Polish , German and Irish descent .
Bell stated that she did not like her first name at the age of four . Bell 's mother convinced her to go by her middle name of Anne instead ; she used the name Annie until high school . Bell once broke both her wrists at the same time playing street hockey with friends .
Just before her freshman year of high school , Bell 's parents decided to pull her from the public school system . She then attended Shrine Catholic High School in nearby Royal Oak , where she took part in the drama and music club . During her time at the school , she won the starring role in the school 's 1997 production of The Wizard of Oz , as Dorothy Gale and also appeared in productions of Fiddler on the Roof ( 1995 ) , Lady Be Good ( 1996 ) , and Li 'l Abner ( 1998 ) . In 1998 , the year she graduated , Bell was named the yearbook 's " Best Looking Girl " by senior class vote .
Shortly after her high school graduation , Bell moved to New York City to attend New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts , majoring in musical theater . In 2001 , during her senior year , Bell left a few credits shy of graduating to take a role in the Broadway musical version of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer .
= = Career = =
= = = 1992 – 2003 : Early work = = =
In 1992 , Bell went to her first audition and won a dual role as a banana and a tree in a suburban Detroit theater 's production of Raggedy Ann and Andy . Her mother had established her with an agent before Bell was 13 , which allowed her to appear in newspaper advertisements for several Detroit retailers and television commercials . She also began private acting lessons . In 1998 , she appeared with an uncredited role in the locally filmed film Polish Wedding .
In 2001 , Bell left New York University to play a role as Becky Thatcher in the short @-@ lived Broadway musical of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer . That same year , she made her credited film debut in Pootie Tang . Her one line in the film was cut and her appearance exists only as a scene shown during the credit sequence . Additionally , she auditioned for the television series Smallville for the role of Chloe Sullivan , a part eventually won by Allison Mack . In 2002 , she appeared in the Broadway revival of The Crucible with Liam Neeson , Angela Bettis and Laura Linney . Bell then moved to Los Angeles , California in 2002 because of her friendship with writers Kevin Murphy and Dan Studney , and appeared in a handful of television shows as a special guest , finding trouble gaining a recurring role in a television series . Bell had " tested like eight times and booked nothing and every show [ she ] tested for got picked up , " including auditions for Skin and a Norm Macdonald series .
= = = 2004 – 06 : Veronica Mars and other roles = = =
In 2004 , Bell appeared in the Lifetime television film Gracie 's Choice , which received one of the network 's highest ratings . She made her debut in a theatrically released film , with David Mamet 's Spartan , as Laura Newton , the kidnapped daughter of the U.S. President , acting alongside Val Kilmer . Bell also guest @-@ starred on the HBO drama Deadwood in a two @-@ episode story arc ( " Bullock Returns to the Camp " and " Suffer the Little Children " ) .
At 24 , she won the role of the title character in UPN 's drama Veronica Mars , which was launched in the fall of 2004 . Created by Rob Thomas , the series starred Bell as the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old anti @-@ establishment high school student / detective . Bell drew on the parallels between the character of Veronica and her own life , since Bell 's parents had divorced and her best friend had also died . The series earned acclaim from television critics , as did Bell 's performance . Some critics asserted that her performance was overlooked , and deserved consideration for an Emmy Award .
Aside from working on Veronica Mars , Bell starred in Reefer Madness : The Movie Musical , reprising the role she played in the short @-@ lived 2001 off @-@ broadway musical . The musical was a spoof of the 1936 exploitation film of the same name . Reefer Madness : The Movie Musical debuted on the Showtime network on April 16 , 2005 . Also in April , Bell starred as Gracie in Fifty Pills , an entry for the Tribeca Film Festival . She appeared in a short independent film called The Receipt and the horror film Roman , which was directed by her The Crucible co @-@ star Angela Bettis . Released on August 11 , 2006 , Pulse starred Bell as the lead Mattie . A remake of the Japanese horror film Kairo , the film grossed US $ 27 @.@ 9 million worldwide , ; however it garnered negative response from critics . Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter commented , " despite the starring presence of Kristen Bell , [ the ] young actress has far less interesting material to work with here than she does as [ the character ] " Veronica Mars . " "
= = = 2007 – 2011 : Film breakthrough = = =
Veronica Mars continued on UPN for a second season ; for the third season , the show was renewed and appeared on the newly created The CW . On January 19 , 2007 , CW Entertainment President Dawn Ostroff announced that while she was pleased with the gradual improvement of Veronica Mars 's ratings , the series would be put on hiatus after February sweeps to air a new reality series , Pussycat Dolls Present . On May 17 , 2007 Ostroff announced the cancellation of the series . A two @-@ hour series finale aired in the United States on May 22 , 2007 , and on June 11 , 2007 Thomas officially announced in an email to TV Guide 's Michael Ausiello that Veronica Mars had been canceled by the CW . A Veronica Mars feature film and comic book series continuation had been discussed , and for a short time there was talk of another collaboration between Bell and creator Thomas that would be unrelated to the Veronica Mars series .
Following the cancellation of Veronica Mars , Bell voiced interest in appearing on Heroes because she was a fan . On July 29 , 2007 , during a train ride back to Los Angeles from the San Diego Comic @-@ Con with Heroes actors Zachary Quinto and Masi Oka , and writers from the series , the writers had mentioned that if she " ever want [ ed ] to come on Heroes , give us [ writers ] a call , " to which Bell said she would " love to . " Meanwhile , there were discussions about a role on Lost , but Bell turned down the role of Charlotte Staples Lewis . Bell portrayed Elle Bishop on Heroes , a " mysterious young lady " with an " awesome power " . She did not have to audition for the role of Elle , who made her first appearance in an October 2007 episode , and appeared in at least thirteen episodes during the run of the series . The casting of Bell , Heroes creator Tim Kring explained , " was not easy to pull off " , but because of the large ensemble cast of the series and multiple story arcs , " we found a way to jump into a small window in [ Bell 's ] schedule . " . Bell lent her voice to the CW series Gossip Girl : she voiced the title character in every episode of the series , appearing in person only for a surprise cameo in the final episode , portraying herself .
Shortly after the cancellation of Veronica Mars in early 2007 , Bell filmed on location in Hawaii for a starring role as the title character in the Judd Apatow comedy Forgetting Sarah Marshall . She regarded the improvisational comedy in the film as " a lovely experience " . The film , written by and also starring Jason Segel , was released theatrically on April 18 , 2008 , and is considered to be Bell 's star @-@ making role . Bell lent her voice and likeness to the video game Assassin 's Creed which was released on November 13 , 2007 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 and April 8 , 2008 for the PC . Bell reprised her role of Lucy in Assassin 's Creed II released on November 17 , 2009 , and again in Assassin 's Creed : Brotherhood , released on November 16 , 2010 . In the spring of 2006 , she finished filming the Star Wars @-@ themed comedy Fanboys , which had its release date pushed to January 14 , 2008 . This was due to additional funding given to director Kyle Newman to shoot new scenes , however , the busy schedules of the actors only allowed for filming in September 2007 , thus moving the release date to accommodate that . Bell also starred in the 2009 comedies Serious Moonlight , alongside Meg Ryan , and Couples Retreat , which chronicles four couples who partake in therapy sessions at a tropical island resort . Jason Bateman played her husband . She also provided the voice for Cora in Astro Boy . On March 31 , 2008 , Bell began shooting the Mark Steven Johnson @-@ written Disney film When in Rome in locations in Rome and New York ; the film was released in 2010 . Bell reprised her role as Sarah Marshall for a cameo appearance in the film Get Him to the Greek , a spin @-@ off sequel from Forgetting Sarah Marshall , released June 4 , 2010 .
She co @-@ starred with singers Christina Aguilera and Cher in the film musical Burlesque which was released on Thanksgiving in 2010 . Bell had a cameo in the slasher horror film , Scream 4 , which was released on April 15 , 2011 .
= = = 2012 – present : Frozen and future projects = = =
In 2012 , Bell starred in the family drama film Big Miracle . She has also appeared in the music video for " Madder Red " by Brooklyn experimental rock band Yeasayer . Bell portrayed " Mary Magdalene " in The Truth & Life Dramatized Audio New Testament Bible , a 22 @-@ hour , celebrity @-@ voiced , dramatized audio New Testament which uses the RSV @-@ CE translation .
Bell stars as Jeannie van der Hooven , the female lead on the Showtime series House of Lies , which premiered on January 8 , 2012 . Bell starred in The Lifeguard , written and directed by Liz W. Garcia , which began filming in July 2012 , and was released in August 2013 . She also voiced Anna in Frozen , which was released on November 22 , 2013 . In 2013 , for multiple episodes , Bell played Ingrid de Forest , an Eagleton City Councilwoman , on Parks and Recreation .
On March 13 , 2013 , it was confirmed that a Veronica Mars film would finally be coming to fruition . Bell and series creator Rob Thomas , launched a fundraising campaign to produce the film through Kickstarter and attained the $ 2 million goal in less than ten hours . The main cast members of the series all reprised their roles in the feature film . Production of the film took place during summer 2013 , and it was released theatrically and on video @-@ on @-@ demand on March 14 , 2014 .
In September 2014 , Bell starred with her husband , Dax Shephard , in a commercial for the Samsung Galaxy Tab S. It was so popular ( with over 20 million YouTube views ) that they did another for the holiday season . The ad agency McKinney was behind both . In 2016 , Bell voiced the sloth Priscilla in the animated comedy film Zootopia and starred as Claire in the comedy film The Boss . She will appear in the 2016 comedy film Bad Moms , and the 2017 action comedy CHiPs . Bell will also star as the main character , Eleanor , in the NBC comedy series The Good Place , which is set to premiere in the fall of 2016 .
= = In the media = =
In 2006 and again in 2013 , Bell was selected " World 's Sexiest Vegetarian " on PETA 's yearly poll . She was placed No. 68 on Maxim 's 2005 " Hot 100 " list , No. 11 in Maxim 's 2006 " Hot 100 " list , and No. 46 in Maxim 's 2007 " Hot 100 " list in which she was stated to have " single @-@ handedly saved the CW from becoming the worst network ever . " In 2006 , Maxim also placed Bell at the top of the " Fall TV 's Criminally Sexy Investigators " List . In 2008 , she was featured at No. 59 on Ask Men 's Top 99 Women of 2008 List . Reflecting on her admitted popularity with " geeks " , Bell was voted the fourth sexiest woman on TV by the staff at Wizard magazine .
Bell stated she never thought of herself as womanly because " I always play and look and act 10 years younger than I am , " however , she said , " Something magical happened when I turned 25 — I looked in the mirror and was like , You might not get carded for an R @-@ rated movie anymore . Like I didn 't have a little stick figure anymore . " Bell has said that many of her characters are tomboys because she was " not homely enough to play the nerdy girl and not nearly pretty enough to play the pretty girl " .
Bell has been associated with the idea that " nerdy is the new cool " , and she explained , " what was previously perceived as nerdy is now viewed as original . What I like about nerdiness , geekiness , is it doesn 't really matter what you 're into — it just means you 're not a follower . " She has also said , " I love nerds . Comic @-@ Con junkies are the tastemakers of tomorrow . Isn 't that funny ? The tables have turned . " Vanessa Juarez of Entertainment Weekly commented that Bell 's roles on Veronica Mars , Heroes and as a Star Wars fanatic in Fanboys have " solidif [ ied ] her placement at the center of the geek universe " , while Rodney Rothman stated , " I guess she 's cornered the market on losers . " Bell 's work is often compared to Sarah Michelle Gellar 's portrayal of the title character on the cult television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter stated that Bell was " arguably the television successor [ to Gellar 's portrayal of Buffy ] when it comes to fighting bad guys . " Bell is sometimes confused with Lauren Conrad from the show The Hills . " Yeah , sometimes fans yell , ' Hey , Lauren ' to me , but usually from a distance , " said Kristen .
Despite " new celebrity " status , Bell claimed that she was not concerned because " no one ever recognizes me anyway " . As Bell explained , " I hang out with Hayden quite a bit — they never take pictures of me . I just step to the side , and I push myself in front of her when she wants to get out of it , or put her in the car . " Bell was a recurring guest on The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson , appearing in interviews as well as sketches . On The Late Late Show , she shows a humorous hostility towards Craig 's robot skeleton sidekick Geoff Peterson , claiming that she had wanted to be Craig 's sidekick on his show and taking it upon herself to cut Geoff down every chance she gets . Both Bell and Geoff Peterson appeared with Ferguson during the five Late Late Shows filmed in France .
In January 2011 , it was announced that Bell would be the new face of Neutrogena .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships and family = = =
In 2007 , Bell ended a five @-@ year relationship with former fiancé Kevin Mann . She later told Complex magazine that dating " makes me want to vomit . And not out of grossness — OK , a little bit out of grossness , but just nerves ... I 've always been a serial monogamist . "
Bell began dating actor Dax Shepard in late 2007 . The couple announced their engagement in January 2010 . They decided to delay marriage until the state of California passed legislation legalizing same @-@ sex marriage . They co @-@ starred in the 2010 film When In Rome and in the 2012 film Hit and Run . After section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act fell on June 26 , 2013 , Bell asked Shepard to marry her through Twitter , which he accepted . They were married at the Beverly Hills County Clerk 's Office on October 17 , 2013 . They have two daughters : Lincoln Bell Shepard ( born March 28 , 2013 ) and Delta Bell Shepard ( born December 19 , 2014 ) .
= = = Beliefs , interests and charity work = = =
At age 11 , Bell became a vegetarian . In an interview with PETA , Bell stated , " I have always been an animal lover . I had a hard time disassociating the animals I cuddled with — dogs and cats , for example — from the animals on my plate , and I never really cared for the taste of meat . I always loved my Brussels sprouts ! " By 2012 Bell became vegan with her husband after watching the documentary Forks Over Knives . During her time in Michigan , Bell fostered animals from Michigan Humane Society and she now supports the San Diego @-@ based Helen Woodward Animal Center . Bell often attends fund raisers for the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and other non @-@ profit organizations dedicated to protecting animals . She has a Welsh Corgi @-@ Chow Chow mix named Lola , a Welsh Corgi @-@ Chihuahua mix named Shakey , and a black Labrador Retriever named Sadie , who was 11 years old when she was rescued from Hurricane Katrina and adopted by Bell in 2005 .
Bell has also become a strong advocate of vaccination . Though initially skeptical she has since stated " I think it 's really important to acknowledge that we have something called the herd immunity , where there are people that cannot get immunizations because of autoimmune diseases or cancer treatments , " and that " If we don ’ t get the vaccinations to keep them safe , then they 're screwed . " Citing scientific research , she shares her belief that it is her duty to not only protect her children , but other children , too - especially those who may suffer from autoimmune diseases or cancer .
She and many of those who worked on Veronica Mars , including personal friend Ryan Hansen , are involved with the charity organization Invisible Children , Inc . The goal of the organization is to create awareness regarding the plight of Northern Ugandans who are caught in the midst of a civil war between the government and Joseph Kony 's Lord 's Resistance Army . Bell has also done a public service announcement for Do Something 's Healthy Living Campaign . In 2014 , Bell launched a Prizeo campaign offering fans a chance to win a date with her in return for donating to Invisible Children .
Bell supported and campaigned for Barack Obama during the 2008 United States presidential election . Along with Rashida Jones , she visited college campuses in Missouri to discuss the candidates and encourage voter registration . Bell showed support for the Writers Guild of America in the writer 's strike , appearing in the picket lines in December 2007 stating , " the writers are just looking for some fairness . "
Bell also has a strong liking of Tommy Wiseau 's 2003 cult film The Room . She hosts parties at her house for The Room , attended cinema screenings of it , and has said that " there is a magic about that film that is indescribable . "
= = = Depression and anxiety = = =
In May 2016 , Bell revealed that she has struggled with and received help for depression and anxiety . She said , " It ’ s important for me to be candid about this so people in a similar situation can realize that they are not worthless and that they do have something to offer . "
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = = Web series = = =
= = Theatre = =
= = Soundtrack appearances = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Ratatouille ( film ) =
Ratatouille ( / rætəˈtuːiː / ; French pronunciation : [ ʁatatuj ] ) is a 2007 American computer @-@ animated comedy film produced by Pixar and released by Buena Vista Pictures Distribution . It is the eighth film produced by Pixar , and was co @-@ written and directed by Brad Bird , who took over from Jan Pinkava in 2005 . The title refers to a French dish , " ratatouille " , which is served at the end of the film , and is also a play on words about the species of the main character . The film stars the voices of Patton Oswalt as Remy , an anthropomorphic rat who is interested in cooking ; Lou Romano as Linguini , a young garbage boy who befriends Remy ; Ian Holm as Skinner , the head chef of Auguste Gusteau 's restaurant ; Janeane Garofalo as Colette , a rôtisseur at Gusteau 's restaurant ; Peter O 'Toole as Anton Ego , a restaurant critic ; Brian Dennehy as Django , Remy 's father and leader of his clan ; Peter Sohn as Emile , Remy 's older brother ; and Brad Garrett as Auguste Gusteau , a recently deceased chef . The plot follows Remy , who dreams of becoming a chef and tries to achieve his goal by forming an alliance with a Parisian restaurant 's garbage boy .
Development of Ratatouille began in 2000 when Pinkava wrote the original concepts of the film . In 2005 , Bird was approached to direct the film and revise the story . Bird and some of the film 's crew members also visited Paris for inspiration . To create the food animation used in the film , the crew consulted chefs from both France and the United States . Bird also interned at Thomas Keller 's French Laundry restaurant , where Keller developed the confit byaldi , a dish used in the film .
Ratatouille premiered on June 22 , 2007 , at the Kodak Theatre in Los Angeles , California , with its general release June 29 , 2007 , in the United States . The film grossed $ 623 @.@ 7 million at the box office and received positive reviews . The film later won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature , among other honors .
= = Plot = =
Remy is an idealistic and ambitious young rat , gifted with highly developed senses of taste and smell . Inspired by his idol , the recently deceased chef Auguste Gusteau , Remy dreams of becoming a cook himself . When an old woman armed with a shotgun sees his clan , they are forced to abandon their home ; the gunshots cause Remy to be separated from his family . He ends up in the sewers of Paris and eventually finds himself at a skylight overlooking the kitchen of Gusteau 's restaurant .
As Remy watches , a young man named Alfredo Linguini , is hired as a garbage boy by Skinner , the restaurant 's devious current owner and Gusteau 's former sous @-@ chef . When Linguini spills a pot of soup and attempts to recreate it with disastrous results , Remy falls into the kitchen and uses other ingredients to complement the soup to perfection . Linguini catches Remy and is confronted by Skinner . As Skinner argues with Linguini , the soup is accidentally served and proves to be a success . Colette Tatou , the staff 's only female chef , convinces Skinner to retain Linguini , who is assumed to be the soup 's creator . After Skinner catches Remy in the act of escaping , he orders Linguini to take the rat far away and kill it . Linguini then discovers Remy 's intelligence and passion for food , so he keeps him .
On Linguini 's first day as a chef , he and Remy find a way to communicate ; Remy guides Linguini like a marionette by pulling on his hair while hidden under Linguini 's toque blanche , while Skinner assigns Colette to train his new cook .
Suspicious , Skinner learns that the boy is Gusteau 's illegitimate son and the rightful heir to the restaurant , which threatens his use of the restaurant 's reputation to establish a packaged food franchise he started after Gusteau died . Remy discovers the evidence of Linguini 's inheritance and , after eluding Skinner , gives it to Linguini , who deposes Skinner as owner . The restaurant continues to thrive , and Linguini and Colette develop a budding romance , leaving Remy feeling left out . Meanwhile , Remy reunites with his father , Django , and his brother , Emile , who take him back to their new lair . Though thrilled that his family and clan are safe , he tells him that he cannot stay . In an attempt to rid his son from his like of humans , Django shows Remy a window display of dead rats , poison , and traps , but Remy leaves .
France 's top restaurant critic Anton Ego , whose previous review cost Gusteau 's one of its stars , announces he will be re @-@ reviewing the restaurant the following evening . After an argument with Linguini , Remy leads his clan in a raid on the restaurant 's pantries . Linguini catches them and throws them out . Now aware of Remy 's skills , Skinner captures him in an attempt to use him to create a new line of frozen foods . However , Remy is freed by Django and Emile . He returns to the restaurant , only to find Linguini is unable to cook without him . Linguini apologizes and reveals the truth to the staff , but they leave , believing that Linguini has lost his mind . Colette later returns after recalling Gusteau 's motto , " Anyone can cook . "
Django arrives with the rest of the clan , offering to help after seeing his son 's determination . Remy has the rats cook , while Linguini serves as waiter . For Ego ( and Skinner ) , Remy and Colette | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Firefighters combated the fire on the tanker in boats , but their efforts were hindered due to unsettled weather from Elena , as well as unsafe water to travel through . The fire caused three deaths and 13 injuries , and damage related to the incident totaled $ 27 million ( 1979 USD , $ 76 million 2007 USD ) .
Two Sperry Technicians that were dispatched to repair the radar on the ship were crossing the gangplank at the time of the explosion and were killed . Their names are David Strout and Don Wampler .
= Michigan State University =
Michigan State University ( MSU ) is a public research university in East Lansing , Michigan , United States . MSU was founded in 1855 and became the nation 's first land @-@ grant institution under the Morrill Act of 1862 , serving as a model for future land @-@ grant universities . The university was founded as the Agricultural College of the State of Michigan , one of the country 's first institutions of higher education to teach scientific agriculture . After the introduction of the Morrill Act , the college became coeducational and expanded its curriculum beyond agriculture . Today , MSU is the eighth @-@ largest university in the United States ( in terms of enrollment ) and has approximately 540 @,@ 000 living alumni worldwide .
MSU pioneered the studies of packaging , hospitality business , botany , supply chain management , criminal justice , music therapy , and communication sciences . Michigan State frequently ranks among the top 30 public universities in the United States and the top 100 research universities in the world . U.S. News & World Report ranks many of its graduate programs among the best in the nation , including African history , criminology , industrial and organizational psychology , educational psychology , elementary and secondary education , osteopathic medicine , nuclear physics , rehabilitation counseling , supply chain / logistics , and veterinary medicine . MSU is a member of the Association of American Universities , an organization of 62 leading research universities in North America . The university 's campus houses the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory , the W. J. Beal Botanical Garden , the Abrams Planetarium , the Wharton Center for Performing Arts , the Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum , the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams , and the country 's largest residence hall system .
The Michigan State Spartans compete in the NCAA Division I Big Ten Conference . Michigan State Spartans football won the Rose Bowl Game in 1954 , 1956 , 1988 and 2014 , and a total of six national championships . Spartans men 's basketball won the NCAA National Championship in 1979 and 2000 , and has enjoyed a streak of seven Final Four appearances since the 1998 @-@ 1999 season . Spartans ice hockey won NCAA national titles in 1966 , 1986 and 2007 .
= = History = =
= = = Agriculture school = = =
The Michigan Constitution of 1850 called for the creation of an " agricultural school , " though it was not until February 12 , 1855 , that Michigan Governor Kinsley S. Bingham signed a bill establishing the United States ' first agriculture college , the Agricultural College of the State of Michigan . Classes began on May 13 , 1857 , with three buildings , five faculty members , and 63 male students .
The first president , Joseph R. Williams , designed a curriculum that required more scientific study than practically any undergraduate institution of the era . It balanced science , liberal arts , and practical training . The curriculum excluded Latin and Greek studies , since most applicants did not study any classical languages in their rural high schools . However , it did require three hours of daily manual labor , which kept costs down for both the students and the College . Despite Williams ' innovations and his defense of education for the masses , the State Board of Education saw Williams ' curriculum as elitist . They forced him to resign in 1859 and reduced the curriculum to a two @-@ year vocational program .
= = = Land Grant pioneer = = =
In 1860 , Williams became acting lieutenant governor and helped pass the Reorganization Act of 1861 . This gave the College a four @-@ year curriculum and the power to grant master 's degrees . Under the act , a newly created body , known as the State Board of Agriculture , took over from the State Board of Education in running the institution . The College changed its name to State Agricultural College , and its first class graduated in the same year . As the Civil War had just begun , there was no time for an elaborate graduation ceremony . The first alumni enlisted to the Union Army . Williams died , and the following year , Abraham Lincoln signed the First Morrill Act of 1862 to support similar colleges , making the Michigan school a national model .
= = = Co @-@ ed college = = =
The college first admitted women in 1870 , although at that time there were no female residence halls . The few women who enrolled boarded with faculty families or made the arduous stagecoach trek from Lansing . From the early days , female students took the same rigorous scientific agriculture courses as male students . In 1896 , the faculty created a " Women Course " that melded a home economics curriculum with liberal arts and sciences . That same year , the College turned the old Abbot Hall male dorm into a women 's dormitory . It was not until 1899 that the State Agricultural College admitted its first African American student , William O. Thompson . After graduation , he taught at what is now Tuskegee University . President Jonathan L. Snyder invited its president Booker T. Washington to be the Class of 1900 commencement speaker . A few years later , Myrtle Craig became the first woman African @-@ American student to enroll at the College . Along with the Class of 1907 , she received her degree from U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt , commencement speaker for the Semi @-@ Centennial celebration . The City of East Lansing was incorporated that same year , and two years later the college officially changed its name to Michigan Agricultural College ( M.A.C. ) .
= = = Big Ten university = = =
During the early 20th century , M.A.C. expanded its curriculum well beyond agriculture . By 1925 it had expanded enough that it changed its name to Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science ( M.S.C. ) . In 1941 the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture , John A. Hannah , became president of the College . He began the largest expansion in the institution 's history , with the help of the 1945 G.I. Bill , which helped World War II veterans to receive an education . One of Hannah 's strategies was to build a new dormitory building , enroll enough students to fill it , and use the income to start construction on a new dormitory . Under his plan , enrollment increased from 15 @,@ 000 in 1950 to 38 @,@ 000 in 1965 .
In 1957 , Hannah continued MSU 's expansion by co @-@ founding Michigan State University – Oakland , now Oakland University , with Matilda Dodge Wilson . Hannah also got the chance to improve the athletic reputation of M.S.C. when the University of Chicago resigned from the Big Ten Conference in 1946 . Hannah lobbied to take its place , gaining admission in 1949 .
Six years later , in its Centennial year of 1955 , the State of Michigan renamed the College as Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science . Nine years after that , the University governing body changed its name from the State Board of Agriculture to the MSU Board of Trustees . The State of Michigan allowed the University to drop the words " Agriculture and Applied Science " from its name . Since 1964 the institution has gone by the name of Michigan State University .
= = = Oakland University = = =
In 1957 , the donation of 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) in Pontiac Township , Oakland County , Michigan prompted creation of Michigan State University – Oakland . That campus became the independent school , Oakland University , in 1970 .
= = = Global leader by 2012 = = =
Since the end of the Hannah era in 1969 , Michigan State has shifted its focus from increasing the size of its student body to advancing its national and global reputation . In September 2005 , president Lou Anna Simon called for MSU , one of the public ivy institutions , to become the global model leader for Land Grant institutions by the year 2012 . Her plans include creating a new residential college and increasing grants awarded from the National Institutes of Health past the US $ 100 million mark . While there are over 100 Land @-@ grant universities in the United States , she has stated she would like Michigan State University to be the leader .
Michigan State , the University of Michigan and Wayne State University created the University Research Corridor in 2006 . This alliance was formed to transform and strengthen Michigan 's economy by reaching out to businesses , policymakers , innovators , investors and the public to speed up technology transfer , make resources more accessible and attract new jobs to the state .
= = = Sexual assault investigation = = =
On May 1 , 2014 , Michigan State University was named one of fifty @-@ five higher education institutions under investigation by the Office of Civil Rights “ for possible violations of federal law over the handling of sexual violence and harassment complaints ” by Barack Obama 's White House Task Force To Protect Students from Sexual Assault . " The investigation at Michigan State involves its response to sexual harassment and sexual assault complaints involving students , " according to one reporter . It was later reported in the same paper that " An investigation by the U.S. Department of Education into how Michigan State University handles sexual assault complaints was spurred by an incident in Wonders Hall in August 2010 , a spokesman said . "
= = Campus = =
MSU 's sprawling campus is in East Lansing , Michigan . The campus is perched on the banks of the Red Cedar River . Development of the campus started in 1856 with three buildings : a multipurpose building called College Hall , a dormitory later called " Saints ' Rest " , and a barn . Today , MSU 's contiguous campus consists of 5 @,@ 200 acres ( 21 km2 ) , 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 km2 ) of which are developed . There are 556 buildings : 100 for academics , 131 for agriculture , 166 for housing and food service , and 42 for athletics . Overall , the university has 22 @,@ 763 @,@ 025 square feet ( 2 @,@ 114 @,@ 754 @.@ 2 m2 ) of indoor space . Connecting it all is 26 miles ( 42 km ) of roads and 100 miles ( 160 km ) of sidewalks . MSU also owns 44 non @-@ campus properties , totaling 22 @,@ 000 acres ( 89 km2 ) in 28 different counties .
= = = North campus = = =
The oldest part of campus lies on the north bank of the Red Cedar . It includes Collegiate Gothic architecture , plentiful trees , and curving roads with few straight lines . The College built its first three buildings here , of which none survive . Other historic buildings north of the river include the president 's official residence , Cowles House , and Beaumont Tower , a carillon clock tower marking the site of College Hall , the original classroom building . To the east lies Eustace – Cole Hall , America 's first freestanding horticulture laboratory . Other landmarks include the bronze statue of former president John A. Hannah , the W. J. Beal Botanical Garden , and the painted boulder known as " The Rock " , a popular spot for theatre , tailgating , and candlelight vigils . On the campus 's northwest corner is the University 's hotel , the Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center . The university also has a museum , initiated in 1857 . MSU Museum is one of the Midwest 's oldest museums and is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums .
= = = South campus = = =
The campus south of the river consists mostly of post @-@ World War II International Style buildings , and is characterized by sparser foliage , relatively straight roadways , and many parking lots . The " 2020 Vision " Master Plan proposes replacing these parking lots with parking ramps and green space , but these plans will take many years to reach fruition . As part of the master plan , the University erected a new bronze statue of The Spartan in 2005 to be placed at the intersection of Chestnut and Kalamazoo , just south of the Red Cedar River . This replica replaced the original modernist terra cotta statue , which can still be seen inside Spartan Stadium . Notable academic and research buildings on the South Campus include the Cyclotron and the College of Law .
This part of campus is home to the MSU Horticulture Gardens and the adjoining 4 @-@ H Children 's Garden . South of the gardens lie the Canadian National and CSX railroads , which divide the main campus from thousands of acres of university @-@ owned farmland . The university 's agricultural facilities include the Horse , Dairy Cattle , Beef Cattle , Sheep , and Poultry Teaching and Research Farms , as well as the Air Quality Control Lab and the Diagnostics Center for Population and Animal Health .
= = = Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center = = =
The Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center doubles as a 4 @-@ star hotel and a business @-@ friendly conference center . It is on the northwest corner of Michigan State University 's campus , across from the Brody Complex , on Harrison Road just south of Michigan Avenue . The hotel 's 160 rooms and suites can accommodate anyone staying in East Lansing for a business conference , sporting event or an on @-@ campus visit , but it originally was a dormitory . Besides a lodging facility , the Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center is a " learning laboratory for the 300 – 400 students each year that are enrolled in The School of Hospitality Business and other majors . " The Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center strives to facilitate education by hosting conferences and seminars .
= = = Dubai Campus = = =
MSU runs a small campus at Dubai Knowledge Village , Dubai , United Arab Emirates . It first offered only one program , a master 's program in human resources and labor relations . In 2011 , it added a master 's program in Public Health . In April 2012 , MSU Dubai announced it hopes to begin in 2013 two programs in law : a LL.M program as well as a Master of Jurisprudence program .
Previously , MSU established an education center in Dubai offering six undergraduate programs , thereby becoming the first American university with a presence in Dubai International Academic City . The University attracted 100 students in 2007 , its first year , but the school was unable to achieve the 100 @-@ 150 new students per year needed for the program to be viable , and in 2010 MSU closed the program and the campus .
= = Academics = =
= = = Admissions = = =
Michigan State offers a rolling admissions system , with an early admission deadline in October . MSU is considered " more selective " by the U.S. News & World Report . Its admissions are difficult ; for 2009 's entering class , the 25th / 75th percentiles for the SAT were 1030 and 1240 / 1600 , and its 25th / 75th percentiles on the ACT were 23 and 27 / 36 .
For Fall 2014 , MSU received over 33 @,@ 000 freshman applications , which is a record for the school , and admitted 66 @.@ 1 % applicants . Incoming freshman had an average high school GPA of 3 @.@ 66 .
MSU has the seventh largest student body in the U.S. For the fiscal year of 2009 – 10 , the Office of the Registrar conferred 11 @,@ 140 degrees . The student body is 55 % female and 45 % male . While 89 % of students come from all 83 counties in the State of Michigan , also represented are all 50 states in the U.S. and about 130 other countries .
In 2011 – 2012 , 5 @,@ 898 international students enrolled at MSU . The top five countries represented : China , Korea , India , Taiwan and Canada . According to a Brookings Institution report analyzing foreign student visa approvals from 2008 @-@ 2012 , MSU has the third @-@ highest enrollment of Chinese international students in the United States , with roughly 4 @,@ 700 Chinese citizens enrolled during the period of the study .
MSU has about 4 @,@ 500 faculty and 6 @,@ 000 staff members , and a student / faculty ratio of 19 : 1 . Listed as a Public Ivy , Michigan State is a member of the Association of American Universities . Michigan State University Ombudsman is the longest continually operating ombudsman office at a college or university in the country . MSU 's study abroad program is the largest of any single @-@ campus university in the United States with 2 @,@ 461 students studying abroad in 2004 – 2005 in over 60 countries on all continents , including Antarctica .
MSU has six faculty members elected to the National Academy of Sciences ( NAS ) ; Martin Bukovac ( 1983 ) , James Dye ( 1989 ) , Pamela Fraker ( 2007 ) , Richard Lenski ( 2006 ) , Michael Thomashow ( 2003 ) , and James Tiedje ( 2003 ) .
= = = Rankings = = =
Michigan State ranks 99th in the world in 2015 , according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities . In its 2015 @-@ 16 rankings , Times Higher Education World University Rankings also ranked it 99th in the world . The 2015 QS World University Rankings placed Michigan State University at 164th internationally . In its 2016 edition , U.S. News & World Report ranked it as tied for the 29th @-@ best public university in the United States , tied for 75th nationally and tied for 82nd globally .
The university has over 200 academic programs . U.S. News ranked MSU 's graduate @-@ level programs in elementary teacher 's education , secondary teacher 's education , industrial and organizational psychology , and nuclear physics first in the nation for 2016 . U.S. News also ranks MSU third nationally for graduate education in African history and fourth nationally for graduate education in Educational Psychology .
The Eli Broad College of Business was ranked No. 42nd among undergraduate institutions nationally by Businessweek . Ninety @-@ four percent of the school 's graduates received job offers in 2014 . The 2016 U.S. News ranked Michigan State 's undergraduate supply chain management / logistics program in the Eli Broad College of Business 1st in the nation . In addition , the Eli Broad College of Business undergraduate accounting program is ranked 13th , the master 's accounting program is ranked 15th , and the doctoral program is ranked 11th , according to the 2013 Public Accounting Report 's Annual Survey of Accounting Professors . The MBA program is ranked 19th in the U.S. by Forbes magazine .
The College of Communication Arts and Sciences was established in 1955 and was the first of its kind in the United States . The college 's Media and Information Studies doctoral program was ranked No. 2 in 2007 by The Chronicle of Higher Education in the category of mass communication . The communication doctoral program was ranked No. 4 in a separate category of communication in The Chronicle of Higher Education 's 2005 Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index , published in 2007 . The college 's faculty and alumni include eight Pulitzer Prize winners and a two @-@ time Emmy Award winning recording mixer .
Other programs of note include criminal justice , hospitality business , packaging , political science , dietetics and communications . The Sustainable Endowments Institute awarded Michigan State with an overall grade of " B " on the 2009 Campus Sustainability Survey , including " A " s in the categories of Administration , Transportation , Endowment Transparency , and Investment Policies .
= = = Collections and Museum = = =
The Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum is the university 's contemporary art museum . Michigan State University Libraries comprise North America 's 29th largest academic library system with over 4 @.@ 9 million volumes and 6 @.@ 7 million microforms .
= = = Research = = =
The university has a long history of academic research , and in 2013 – 14 spent $ 528 million toward it . In 1877 , botany professor William J. Beal performed the first documented genetic crosses to produce hybrid corn , which led to increased yields . MSU dairy professor G. Malcolm Trout invented the process for the homogenization of milk in the 1930s . In the 1960s , MSU scientists developed cisplatin , a leading cancer fighting drug . Albert Fert , an Adjunct professor at MSU , was awarded the 2007 Nobel Prize in Physics together with Peter Grünberg .
Today , Michigan State continues its research with facilities such as the U.S. Department of Energy @-@ sponsored MSU @-@ DOE Plant Research Laboratory and a particle accelerator called the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory . The U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science named Michigan State University as the site for the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams ( FRIB ) . The $ 730 million facility will attract top researchers from around the world to conduct experiments in basic nuclear science , astrophysics , and applications of isotopes to other fields .
In 2004 , scientists at the Cyclotron produced and observed a new isotope of the element germanium , called Ge @-@ 60 In that same year , Michigan State , in consortium with the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the government of Brazil , broke ground on the 4 @.@ 1 @-@ meter Southern Astrophysical Research Telescope ( SOAR ) in the Andes Mountains of Chile . The consortium telescope will allow the Physics & Astronomy department to study galaxy formation and origins . Since 1999 , MSU has been part of a consortium called the Michigan Life Sciences Corridor , which aims to develop biotechnology research in the State of Michigan . Finally , the College of Communication Arts and Sciences ' Quello Center researches issues of information and communication management .
= = = = Big Ten Academic Alliance = = = =
Michigan State University is a participant in the Big Ten Academic Alliance . The Big Ten Academic Alliance ( BTAA ) is the academic consortium of the universities in the Big Ten Conference . Engaging in $ 10 billion in research in 2014 @-@ 2015 , BTAA universities provide powerful insight into important issues in medicine , technology , agriculture , and communities . Students at participating schools are also allowed " in @-@ house " borrowing privileges at other schools ' libraries . The BTAA uses collective purchasing and licensing , and has saved member institutions $ 19 million to date . Course sharing , professional development programs , study abroad and international collaborations , and other initiatives are also part of the BTAA .
= = = Endowment = = =
MSU 's ( private , non @-@ Morrill Act ) endowment started in 1916 when the Engineering Building burned down . Automobile magnate R.E. Olds helped the program stay afloat with a gift of $ 100 @,@ 000 . There was a time when MSU lagged behind peer institutions in terms of endowments . As recently as the early 1990s , MSU was last among the eleven Big Ten schools , with barely over $ 100 million in endowment funds .
This changed dramatically in the 2000s ( decade ) , when the University started a campaign to increase the size of the endowment . At the close of fiscal year 2004 – 2005 , the endowment had risen to $ 1 @.@ 325 billion , raising the University to sixth of the 11 Big Ten schools in terms of endowment ; within $ 2 million of the fifth @-@ rated school . The rapid increase in the size of the endowment will help to improve outdated facilities , such as the Music Building , which the College of Music hopes to soon replace with money from its alumni fundraising program .
= = Colleges = =
MSU has over 200 academic programs offered by 17 @-@ degree @-@ granting colleges .
= = = Residential colleges = = =
MSU has several residential colleges , based on the Oxbridge " living @-@ learning " model . By putting classes in student dormitories , these colleges improve student access to faculty and facilities . MSU 's first residential college , Justin Morrill College started in 1965 with an interdisciplinary curriculum . MSU closed Morrill College in 1979 , but today the university has three residential colleges , including the recent opening of the Residential College in Arts & Humanities ( RCAH ) located in Snyder and Phillips halls .
Established in 1967 , James Madison College is a smaller component residential college featuring multidisciplinary programs in the social sciences , founded on a model of liberal education . James Madison College is housed in Case Hall . Classes in the college are small , with an average of 25 students , and most instructors are tenure track faculty . James Madison College has about 1150 students total , with each freshman class containing about 320 students . Each of Madison 's four majors — Social Relations and Policy , International Relations , Political Theory and Constitutional Democracy , and Comparative Cultures and Politics — requires two years of foreign language and one semester of " field experience " in an internship or study abroad program . Although Madison students make up about 4 % of MSU graduates , they represent around 35 % of the MSU 's Phi Beta Kappa members .
Also established in 1967 , Lyman Briggs College teaches math and science within social , historical and philosophical contexts . Many Lyman Briggs students intend to pursue careers in medicine , but the school supports over 30 coordinate majors , from human biology to computer sciences . Lyman Briggs is one of the few colleges that lets undergraduates teach as " Learning Assistants . "
MSU 's newest residential college is the Residential College in Arts & Humanities . Founded October 21 , 2005 , the college provides around 600 undergraduates with an individualized curriculum in the liberal , visual and performing arts . Though all the students will graduate with the same degree , MSU encourages students in the college to get a second degree or specialization . The university houses the new college in a newly renovated Snyder @-@ Phillips Hall , the location of MSU 's first residential college , Justin Morrill College .
= = = Professional schools = = =
The Michigan State University College of Law is an independent , non @-@ profit corporation affiliated with the public institution . Founded in Detroit in 1891 as the Detroit College of Law , the law school moved to East Lansing in 1995 becoming an integral part of the university . Students attending MSU College of Law come from 42 states and 13 countries . The law school publishes the Michigan State Law Review , the Michigan State Journal of International Law , the Journal of Medicine Law , and the Journal of Business & Securities Law . The College of Law is the home of the Geoffrey Fieger Trial Practice Institute , the first trial practice institute in the United States . The Intellectual Property and Communications Law program was ranked seventeenth nationally , in 2006 .
The Eli Broad College of Business has programs in accounting , information systems , finance , general management , human resource management , marketing , supply chain management , and hospitality business . The school has 2 @,@ 066 admitted undergraduate students and 817 graduate students . The Eli Broad Graduate School of Management , which Businessweek magazine in 2012 ranked 35th in the nation and 14th among public institutions , offers three MBA programs , as well as joint degrees with the College of Law . The opening of the Eugene C. Eppley Center for Graduate Studies in Hotel , Restaurant and Institutional Management brought the first program in the United States to offer a Master of Business Administration degree in Hotel , Restaurant and Institutional Management to MSU .
The Michigan State University College of Nursing grants B.S.N. , M.S.N. , and PhD degrees .
The Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine was the world 's first publicly funded college of osteopathic medicine . It has a long @-@ standing tradition of retaining its alumni in Michigan to practice – more than two @-@ thirds of the college 's graduates remain to practice in Michigan . In 2008 , the Michigan State University Board of Trustees approved a resolution endorsing the expansion of the College of Osteopathic Medicine to two sites in southeast Michigan , a move board members and college officials say will not only improve medical education in the state , but also address a projected physician shortage .
According to U.S. News & World Report 's 2016 rankings , the College of Osteopathic Medicine ( D.O. degree ) ranked tied for 12th among U.S. medical schools for primary care , and the College of Human Medicine ( MD degree ) was ranked 70th among the U.S. medical schools for primary care .
The College of Human Medicine graduates students with a Doctor of Medicine ( M.D. degree ) and is split into seven distinct campuses located in East Lansing , Kalamazoo , Flint , Saginaw , Marquette , Traverse City and Grand Rapids . Each campus is affiliated with local hospitals and other medical facilities professionals in the area . For example , the Lansing campus includes Sparrow Hospital and McLaren – Greater Lansing Hospital . The College of Human Medicine has recently gained attention for its expansion into the Grand Rapids area , with the new Secchia Center completed in the Fall of 2010 , that is expected to fuel the growing medical industry in that region .
Though Michigan State has offered courses in veterinary science since its founding , the College of Veterinary Medicine was not formally established as a four @-@ year , degree @-@ granting program until 1910 . In 2011 , the Michigan State University College of Veterinary Medicine was ranked No. 9 in the nation . The college has over 170 @,@ 000 square feet ( 16 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office , teaching , and research space , as well as a veterinary teaching hospital .
= = = Other academic units = = =
In recent years , MSU 's music program has grown substantially . Music major enrollment increased more than 97 % between 1991 and 2004 . In early 2007 , this growth led the university board of trustees to spin the music program off into its own college unit : The MSU College of Music . The new college faces many new challenges , such as working with limited space and funding . Nevertheless , MSU 's music college plans on continued success , placing an annual average of 25 graduate students in tenure stream university positions .
The College of Education at Michigan State University offers graduate and undergraduate degrees in several fields , including counseling , educational psychology , special education , teacher education and kinesiology . The graduate school has several programs ranked in the top five in the country by U.S. News & World Report for 2016 : elementary teacher education ( 1st ) , secondary teacher education ( 1st ) , curriculum and instruction ( 3rd ) , educational psychology ( 4th ) , and higher education administration ( 4th ) . The College of Education is housed in Erickson Hall .
Founded in 1956 , the MSU Honors College provides individualized curricula to MSU 's top undergraduate students . Though the college offers no majors of its own , it has its own dean and academic advisers to help Honors students with their educational pursuits . High school students starting at MSU may join the Honors College if they are in the top 5 % of their high school graduating class and have an ACT score of at least 30 or an SAT total score of at least 1360 . Students can also be admitted after their first semester , generally if they 're in the top 10 % of their College in GPA . Once admitted , students must maintain a 3 @.@ 20 GPA and complete eight approved honors courses to graduate with Honors College designation on their degree . If membership is relinquished , it cannot be reclaimed .
After three years of planning , The College of Engineering launched the first stages of its Residential Experience for Spartan Engineering , formally known as the Residential Option for Scientists and Engineers ( ROSES ) , the new program is in Wilson Hall after being housed in Bailey Hall for a number of years . The Residential program essentially combines with a brand new academic component , Cornerstone Engineering , where freshman engineering students not only get an overview of the engineering field ( s ) but get a hands @-@ on experience along with it . Global Engineering is a new subject that is of interest for not only the Cornerstone Engineering and Residential Experience programs but the entire College of Engineering at MSU . Engineering in today 's society has shown to have a monumental impact on the global economy due to advancements in education , interdependence on economics with infrastructure , computers , transportation , technology and other manufactured goods as well as Michigan State University 's study @-@ abroad program being ranked No. 1 in the nation , allowing for students to experience education and learn cultures in hundreds of countries . The newly established Cornerstone Engineering and Residential Experience programs for College of Engineering have started programs abroad for more courses in engineering including Study abroad seminars .
MSU offers a 30 credit graduate program for Masters in Educational Technology in 3 different formats ; completely online , hybrid in East Lansing , Michigan , or overseas .
= = Athletics = =
Michigan State 's NCAA Division I @-@ A program offers 12 varsity sports for men and 13 for women . Since their teams are called the Spartans , MSU 's mascot is a Spartan warrior named Sparty . The university participates in the Big Ten Conference in all varsity sports , including the new Big Ten hockey conference , featuring 6 teams . The current athletic director is Mark Hollis , who was promoted to the position on January 1 , 2008 . Hollis replaced Ron Mason , who served as head hockey coach from 1979 to 2002 , retiring with a record total of 924 wins , and a 635 – 270 – 69 record at MSU .
In 1888 Michigan State University ( then as known as Michigan Agricultural College ) along with Olivet , Albion and Hillsdale Colleges was a founding member of the nation 's oldest athletic conference , the Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( MIAA ) . MAC left the conference in 1907 .
= = = Football = = =
Football has a long tradition at Michigan State . Starting as a club sport in 1884 , football gained varsity status in 1896 . MSU football teams won the Rose Bowl in 1954 , 1956 , 1988 , and 2014 . They won national championships in 1951 , 1952 , 1955 , 1957 , 1965 and 1966 . The Spartans accounted for four of the top eight selections in the 1967 NFL Draft , the only time a college football program has accomplished such a feat .
Today , the football team competes in Spartan Stadium , a renovated 75 @,@ 005 seat football stadium near the center of campus . The current coach is Mark Dantonio , who was hired on November 27 , 2006 . He led the team in its first season to a 7 – 6 record . In 2010 , the Spartans finished 11 – 2 ( 7 @-@ 1 in conference play ) and were Co @-@ Big Ten Champion along with Wisconsin and Ohio State . In 2011 , the Spartans finished 1st in the Legends Division of the Big Ten with a 7 – 1 ( 11 – 3 ) conference record , logging back @-@ to @-@ back 11 win seasons for the first time in Spartan history . In 2014 , MSU achieved an 11 @-@ 2 overall record with losses only to the University of Oregon Ducks and The Ohio State Buckeyes , and ended the season ranked # 5 .
MSU 's traditional archrival is the University of Michigan , against whom they compete annually for the Paul Bunyan Trophy . Their overall record against the Wolverines currently stands at 32 – 67 – 5 and 23 – 34 – 2 since 1953 when the Paul Bunyan Trophy was established and MSU joined the Big Ten Conference .
= = = Men 's basketball = = =
MSU 's men 's basketball team has won the National Championship twice : in 1979 and again in 2000 . In 1979 , Earvin " Magic " Johnson , along with Greg Kelser , Jay Vincent and Mike Brkovich , led the MSU team to a 75 – 64 win against the Larry Bird @-@ led Indiana State Sycamores . In 2000 , three players from Flint , Morris Peterson , Charlie Bell and Mateen Cleaves , led the team to its second national title . Dubbed the " Flintstones " , they were the key to the Spartans ' win against the University of Florida . On December 13 , 2003 , Michigan State and Kentucky played in the Basketbowl , in which a record crowd of 78 @,@ 129 watched the game in Detroit 's Ford Field . Kentucky won 79 – 74 . The basketball team plays at the Jack Breslin Student Events Center under head coach Tom Izzo , who has a 403 – 166 record as of February 2012 ( 70 @.@ 8 % winning percentage ) . The student spirit section at Breslin is called the Izzone . Izzo 's coaching has helped the team make seven Final Fours since 1999 , winning the title in 2000 , and eighteen consecutive NCAA tournament appearances ( beginning in 1998 ) . In 2009 the Spartans made it to the National Championship game and lost 89 – 72 to North Carolina .
= = = Men 's ice hockey = = =
The Michigan State University men 's ice hockey team started in 1924 , though it has only been a varsity sport since 1950 . The team has since won national titles in 1966 , 1986 and 2007 . The Spartans came close to repeating the national title in 1987 , but lost the championship game to the University of North Dakota . They play at MSU 's Munn Ice Arena . Former head coach Ron Mason is college hockey 's winningest coach with 924 wins total and 635 at MSU . The current head coach is Tom Anastos . The MSU men 's ice hockey team competes in the Big Ten conference . They formerly competed in the Central Collegiate Hockey Association . Michigan State leads the CCHA in all @-@ time wins , is second in CCHA Conference championships with 7 , and is first in CCHA Tournament Championships with 11 . Along with the University of Michigan ( U @-@ M ) and the Ohio State University , it was one of three Big Ten schools in the CCHA . As with other sports , the hockey rivalry between MSU and U @-@ M is a fierce one , and on October 6 , 2001 , MSU faced U @-@ M in the Cold War , during which a world record crowd of 74 @,@ 554 packed Spartan Stadium to watch the game end in a 3 – 3 tie . In the 2006 – 2007 season , the Men 's Ice Hockey team defeated Boston College for its third NCAA hockey championship .
= = = Men 's cross country = = =
Between World War I and World War II , Michigan State College competed in the Central Collegiate Conference , winning titles in 1926 – 1929 , 1932 , 1933 and 1935 . Michigan State also experienced success in the IC4A , at New York 's Van Cortlandt Park , winning 15 team titles ( 1933 – 1937 , 1949 , 1953 , 1956 – 1960 , 1962 , 1963 and 1968 ) . Since entering the Big Ten in 1950 , Michigan State has won 14 men 's team titles ( 1951 – 1953 , 1955 – 1960 , 1962 , 1963 , 1968 , 1970 and 1971 ) . Michigan State hosted the inaugural NCAA cross country championships in 1938 and every year thereafter through 1964 ( there was no championship in 1943 ) . The Spartans won NCAA championships in 1939 , 1948 , 1949 , 1952 , 1955 , 1956 , 1958 and 1959 .
= = = Wrestling = = =
MSU Spartan Wrestling won their only team NCAA Championship in 1967 . The current Spartans Head coach is Tom Minkel in his 25th season . The team competes on campus at the Jenison Field House . Spartan Wrestling has over 50 Big Ten Conference Champions , over 100 All @-@ Americans , and 11 individual wrestlers have NCAA Division I Wrestling Championships . Notable former Spartan wrestlers include Rashad Evans and Gray Maynard .
= = Student life = =
East Lansing is very much a college town , with 60 @.@ 2 % of the population between the ages of 15 and 24 . President John A. Hannah 's push to expand in the 1950s and 1960s resulted in the largest residence hall system in the United States . Around 16 @,@ 000 students live in MSU 's 23 undergraduate halls , one graduate hall , and three apartment villages . Each residence hall has its own hall government , with representatives in the Residence Halls Association . Yet despite the size and extent of on @-@ campus housing , the residence halls are complemented by a variety of housing options . 58 % of students live off @-@ campus , mostly in the areas closest to campus , in either apartment buildings , former single @-@ family homes , fraternity and sorority houses , or in a co @-@ op .
In 2014 there were approximately 50 @,@ 085 students , 38 @,@ 786 undergraduate and 11 @,@ 299 graduate and professional . The students are from all 50 states and 130 countries around the world .
= = = Greek life = = =
With over 3 @,@ 000 members , Michigan State University 's Greek Community is one of the largest in the US . Started in 1872 and re @-@ established in 1922 by Lambda Chi Alpha Fraternity , Alpha Gamma Rho Fraternity , and Alpha Phi Sorority ; the MSU Greek system now consists of 55 Greek lettered student societies . These chapters are in turn under the jurisdiction of one of MSU 's four Greek governing councils : National Panhellenic Conference , North American Interfraternity Council , National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council , and Independent Greek Council . National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council is made up of 9 organizations , 5 Fraternities and 4 Sororities , that were founded on Historically Black College and Universities ( HBCU 's ) . The Interfraternity Council and the Women 's Panhellenic Council are each entirely responsible for their own budgets , giving them the freedom to hold large fundraising and recruitment events . MSU 's fraternities and sororities hold many philanthropy events and community fundraisers . For example , in April 2011 the Greek Community held Greek Week to raise over $ 260 @,@ 000 for the American Cancer Society , and $ 5 @,@ 000 for each of these charities : Big Brothers Big Sisters , The Listening Ear and previous charities include : the Make @-@ a @-@ Wish Foundation ( MSU Chapter ) , Share Laura 's Hope , The Mary Beth Knox Scholarship , and the Special Olympics , in which fraternity and sorority members get to help each other participate .
= = = Student organizations = = =
The Associated Students of Michigan State University ( ASMSU ) is the all @-@ university undergraduate student government of Michigan State University . It is unusual amongst university student governments for its decentralized bicameral structure , and the relatively non @-@ existent influence of the Greek system . The structure has since changed to a single General Assembly as part of reorganization in the late 2000s . ASMSU representatives are nonpartisan and many are elected in noncompetitive races . Their mission is to enhance the individual and collective student experience through education , empowerment , and advocacy by education to the needs and interest of students . Some services they offer include : free blue books , low cost copies and printing , free yearbooks , interest free loans , funding for student organizations , free legal consultation , and iClicker and graphing calculator rentals .
Students pay $ 18 per semester to fund the functions of the ASMSU , including stipends for the organization 's officers and activities throughout the year . Some students have criticized ASMSU for not having enough electoral participation to gain a student mandate . Turnout since 2001 has hovered between 3 and 17 percent , with the 2006 election bringing out 8 % of the undergraduate student body .
Student @-@ run organizations beyond student government also have a large impact on the East Lansing / Michigan State University community . Student Organizations are registered through the Department of Student Life , which currently has a registry of over 800 student organizations . The Eli Broad College of Business includes 27 student organizations . The three largest organizations are the Finance Association ( FA ) , the Accounting Student Association ( ASA ) , and the Supply Chain Management Association ( SCMA ) . The SCMA is the host of the university 's largest major specific career fair . The fair attracts over 100 companies and over 400 students each year .
= = = Activism = = =
Activists have played a significant role in MSU history . During the height of the Vietnam War , student protests helped create co @-@ ed residence halls , and blocked the routing of Interstate 496 through campus . In the 1980s , Michigan State students convinced the University to divest the stocks of companies doing business in apartheid South Africa from its endowment portfolio , such as Coca @-@ Cola . MSU has many student groups focused on political change . Graduate campus groups include the Graduate Employees Union and the Council of Graduate Students . Michigan State also has a variety of partisan groups ranging from liberal to conservative , including the College Republicans , the College Democrats and several third party organizations . Other partisan activist groups include Young Americans for Freedom and Young Americans for Liberty on the right ; Young Democratic Socialists , Students for Economic Justice , Young Communist League and MEChA on the left . Given MSU 's proximity to the Michigan state capital of Lansing , many politically inclined Spartans intern for state representatives .
= = = Sustainability = = =
The MSU Office of Sustainability works with the University Committee for a Sustainable Campus to " foster a collaborative learning culture that leads the community to heightened awareness of its environmental impact . " The University is a member of the Chicago Climate Exchange , the world 's first greenhouse gas emission registry , and boasts the lowest electrical consumption per square foot among Big Ten universities . The University has set a goal of reducing energy use by 15 % , reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 % , reducing landfill waste by 30 % by 2015 .
The university has also pledged to meet LEED @-@ certification standards for all new construction . In July 2009 , the University completed construction of a $ 13 @.@ 3 million recycling center , and hopes to double their 2008 recycling rate of 14 % by 2010 . The construction of Brody Hall , a residence hall of Michigan State University Housing , was completed in August 2011 and qualified for LEED Silver certification because the facility includes a rain water collection tank used for restroom fixtures , a white PVC roof , meters that will monitor utilities to make sure they are used efficiently , and the use of recycled matter and local sources for building materials .
The Environmental Steward 's program support 's president Simon 's " Boldness by Design " strategic vision to transform environmental stewardship on campus within the seven @-@ year time frame . Environmental stewards promote environmental changes among co @-@ workers and peers , be points of contact for their department for environment @-@ related concerns , and be liaisons between the Be Spartan Green Team and buildings .
The Student Organic Farm is a student @-@ run , four @-@ season farm , which teaches the principals of organic farming and through a certificate program and community supported agriculture ( CSA ) on ten acres on the MSU campus . The certificate program consists of year round crop production , course work in organic farming , practical training and management , and an off @-@ site internship requirement .
= = = Media = = =
MSU has a variety of campus media outlets . The student @-@ run newspaper is the The State News and free copies are available online or at East Lansing newsstands . The paper prints 28 @,@ 500 copies from Monday through Friday during the fall and spring semesters , and 15 @,@ 000 copies Monday through Friday during the summer . The paper is not published on weekends , holidays , or semester breaks , but is continually updated online at statenews.com. The campus yearbook is called the Red Cedar Log . Red Cedar Review , Michigan State University 's premier literary digest for over forty years , is the longest running undergraduate @-@ run literary journal in the United States . It is published annually by the Michigan State University Press .
MSU also publishes a student @-@ run magazine during the academic year called Ing Magazine . Created in 2007 by MSU alumnus Adam Grant , the publication is released at the beginning of each month and publishes 7 issues each school year . MSU also publishes a student @-@ run fashion and lifestyle magazine called VIM Magazine once a semester .
Electronic media include three radio stations and one public television station , as well as student @-@ produced television shows . MSU 's Public Broadcasting Service affiliate , WKAR @-@ TV , the station is the second @-@ oldest educational television station in the United States , and the oldest east of the Mississippi River . Besides broadcasting PBS shows , WKAR @-@ TV produces its own local programming , such as a high school quiz bowl show called " QuizBusters " . In addition , MSU has three radio stations ; WKAR @-@ AM plays National Public Radio 's talk radio programming , whereas WKAR @-@ FM focuses mostly on classical music programming . Michigan State 's student @-@ run radio station , WDBM , broadcasts mostly alternative music during weekdays and electric music programming nights and weekends .
= = People = =
The current president of the University is Lou Anna Simon who took over on January 1 , 2005 , after being appointed by MSU 's governing board , the Board of Trustees . The Board receives its mandate from the Michigan Constitution as MSU is a state @-@ owned school . The constitution allows for eight trustees who are elected by statewide referendum every two years . Trustees have eight @-@ year terms , with two of the eight elected every other year . As of 2007 , the Board is made up of three Republicans and five Democrats .
= = = 19th century = = =
Important College leaders in the 19th century include John C. Holmes , who kept the Agriculture School from being a part of the University of Michigan and is widely credited with being the prime mover for the school 's founding ; Joseph R. Williams , the first president ; and Theophilus C. Abbot , the third president who stabilized the College after the Civil War . Also of importance was botany professor William J. Beal , an early plant ( hybrid corn ) geneticist who championed the laboratory teaching method . Another distinguished faculty member of the era was the alumnus / professor Liberty Hyde Bailey . Bailey was the first to raise the study of horticulture to a science , paralleling botany , which earned him the title of " Father of American Horticulture " . William L. Carpenter , a jurist who was elected to the Third Judicial Circuit of Michigan in 1894 , and member of the Michigan Supreme Court from 1902 until 1904 . Other famous 19th @-@ century graduates include Ray Stannard Baker , a famed " muckraker " journalist and Pulitzer Prize winning biographer ; Minakata Kumagusu , a renowned environmental scientist ; and William Chandler Bagley , a pioneering education reformer .
= = = 20th and 21st centuries = = =
There are currently around 442 @,@ 000 living MSU alumni worldwide giving the school one of the largest number of alumni of any institution of higher learning . Famous MSU alumni include former Michigan governors James Blanchard and John Engler , U.S. Senators Debbie Stabenow and Tim Johnson , U.S. Ambassador to Brazil Donna Hrinak , Prime Minister of South Korea Lee Wan @-@ koo , Consumer Financial Protection Bureau Director Richard Cordray , former Jordan prime minister Adnan Badran , billionaire philanthropists Tom Gores , Andrew Beal and Eli Broad , Chief Justice of the Texas Supreme Court Wallace B. Jefferson , trial lawyer Geoffrey Feiger , former Food and Drug Administration official Peter Rheinstein , Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning novelist Richard Ford , Teamsters president James P. Hoffa , Quicken Loans founder and billionaire Cleveland Cavaliers owner Dan Gilbert , Sergeant at Arms of the U.S. House of Representatives Wilson Livingood , former Michigan U.S. Senator and Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham , former Vice President of the Republic of Liberia Harry Moniba , and former U.S. Ambassador to Italy Peter Secchia .
Alumni in Hollywood include actors such as James Caan , Anthony Heald , Robert Urich and William Fawcett ; comedian Dick Martin , comedian Jackie Martling , film directors Michael Cimino and Sam Raimi , and film editor Bob Murawski , as well as screenwriter David Magee Puerto Rican comedian Sunshine Logroño ( who has played the occasional Hollywood movie ) was a graduate student at MSU .
Composer Dika Newlin received her undergraduate degree from MSU , while lyricist , theatrical director and clinical psychologist Jacques Levy earned a doctorate in psychology . The university has also produced such jazz luminaries as pianist Henry Butler , vibraphonist Milt Jackson , and keyboardist / composer @-@ arranger Clare Fischer .
Journalists include NBC reporter Chris Hansen , AP White House correspondent Nedra Pickler , NPR Washington correspondent Don Gonyea , and veteran Michigan Capitol correspondent and PBS 's Off the Record host Tim Skubick . Novelist Michael Kimball graduated in 1990 . Novelist and true crime author R. Barri Flowers , who in 1977 a bachelors and in 1980 a masters in criminal justice , was inducted in 2006 into the MSU Criminal Justice Wall of Fame . Author Erik Qualman graduated with honors in 1994 and was also Academic Big @-@ Ten in basketball . Susan K. Avery , the first woman president and director of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution , received an MSU bachelor 's degree in physics . In addition , two of the Little Rock Nine attended Michigan State , including Ernest Green , the first black student to graduate from Little Rock Central High School , and Carlotta Walls LaNier . The University awarded an honorary degree to Robert Mugabe in 1990 , but revoked it in 2008 .
Spartans formerly or currently in the NBA include Earvin " Magic " Johnson , Greg Kelser , Jay Vincent , Steve Smith , Scott Skiles , Jason Richardson , Mateen Cleaves , Alan Anderson , Zach Randolph , Morris Peterson , Charlie Bell , Johnny Green , Maurice Ager , Shannon Brown , Draymond Green , Denzel Valentine and Deyonta Davis .
On the American Football League 's All @-@ Time Team are tight @-@ end Fred Arbanas and safety George Saimes .
In the National Football League , MSU alumni include Carl Banks , who was a member of the Giants teams that won Super Bowls XXI and XXV . Banks was a standout in their Super Bowl XXI victory in which he recorded 14 total tackles , including ten solo tackles , as well as being part of the NFL 's 1980 's All @-@ Decade Team Morten Andersen , Plaxico Burress , Andre Rison , Derrick Mason , Muhsin Muhammad , T. J. Duckett , Flozell Adams , Julian Peterson , Charles Rogers , Jim Miller , Earl Morrall , Wayne Fontes , Bubba Smith and Drew Stanton . Former MSU quarterback Jeff Smoker now plays in the Arena Football League .
Former Michigan State players in the National Hockey League include All Star Defensemen Duncan Keith , Rod Brind 'Amour , Anson Carter , Donald McSween , Adam Hall , John @-@ Michael Liles , Justin Abdelkader , Corey Tropp , brothers Kelly Miller and Kip Miller , as well as their cousins , brothers Ryan Miller and Drew Miller .
Former Michigan State players in Major League Baseball include Hall of Fame inductee Robin Roberts , Kirk Gibson , Steve Garvey and Mark Mulder . Olympic gold medalists include Savatheda Fynes and Fred Alderman . The Spartans are also contributing athletes to Major League Soccer , as Kevin Reiman , Doug DeMartin , Dave Hertel , Greg Janicki , Kenzo Webster , Rauwshan McKenzie , John Minagawa @-@ Webster and Ryan McMahen have all played in Major League Soccer . In addition , Alex Skotarek , Steve Twellman and Buzz Demling played in the North American Soccer League , with Demling playing in the 1972 Summer Olympics and the United States Men 's National Soccer Team in the 1970s .
Ryan Riess , 2013 World Series of Poker Main Event Champion , is a 2012 graduate of MSU .
Miss Michigan 2015 , Emily Kieliszewski , is a 2013 graduate of MSU . Miss America 1961 , Nancy Fleming , is also a graduate of Michigan State .
NCAA Gymnastics Champion and former Sesame Street Muppet performer Toby Towson is an MSU graduate .
Verghese Kurien was an Indian social entrepreneur known as the " Father of the White Revolution " for his Operation Flood , the world 's largest agricultural development programme . He earned a Master of Science in Metallurgical Engineering from Michigan State University in 1948 .
= Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Justice for All =
Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Justice for All , known in Japan as Gyakuten Saiban 2 ( Japanese : 逆転裁判2 , " Turnabout Trial 2 " ) , is a visual novel adventure video game developed and published by Capcom . It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2002 in Japan , and has since been released on multiple platforms . The Nintendo DS version , initially released in 2006 in Japan , was released in English in the West in 2007 . The game is the second entry in the Ace Attorney series , following Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney .
The story follows Phoenix Wright , a defense attorney who defends his clients in four episodes . Among other characters are his partner Maya Fey , her cousin Pearl , and the rival prosecutor Franziska von Karma . The game is divided into two types of sections : courtroom sessions , where the player cross @-@ examines witnesses and tries to uncover contradictions in their testimonies , and investigations , where the player gathers evidence and talks to witnesses .
The game was directed and written by Shu Takumi , as the second entry in a planned Ace Attorney trilogy . It was originally intended to feature the first game 's prosecutor , Miles Edgeworth , in all episodes ; Franziska was created when the development team learned that Edgeworth had become popular among players , and Takumi wanted to use the character more carefully and sparingly . They only introduced one new gameplay mechanic in the game ; Takumi wanted to keep the game focused on the core concept of finding lies , and to keep it simple enough for his mother to play . The game was positively received by critics , who generally liked the writing , but criticized the game 's short length and the lack of the Nintendo DS @-@ exclusive gameplay mechanics that appeared in the previous game .
= = Gameplay = =
Justice for All is a visual novel adventure game in which the player takes the role of Phoenix Wright , a defense attorney who defends people accused of murder in four different episodes . At first , only one episode is available ; as the player solves a case , a new episode is unlocked to play . The episodes are all divided into chapters , consisting of courtroom sections and investigation sections .
During the investigation sections , the player investigates the case to gather evidence needed for the trial ; once enough evidence has been collected , the game moves on to the next chapter of the episode . During these sections , the player has access to a menu with four options : examine , move , present , and talk . By choosing " examine " , the player can move a cursor around the screen and look at various things in the environment ; by choosing " move " , the player reaches a sub @-@ menu with all locations they can choose to move to ; by choosing " present " , the player can choose to show a piece of evidence or a character profile to a character at the location ; and by choosing " talk " , the player is able to pick a topic to discuss with a character who is present at the location . As the player talks to a character , the topics they have already discussed get marked with a checkmark .
If the player chooses a topic the witnesses does not want to discuss , the player is shown locks and chains on top of the character , referred to as " psyche @-@ locks " ; additionally , a lock symbol is added to that topic in the talk menu . By presenting a magatama to the character , the player is able to start breaking the psyche @-@ locks and unlock the topics ; this is done by showing the character evidence or character profiles that proves they are hiding something . The deeper the secret is that the character is hiding , the more psyche @-@ locks appear ; by breaking all the locks , the topic gets unlocked and the player is given access to new information .
During the courtroom sections , the player attempts to get the defendant declared innocent by questioning witnesses and presenting evidence to the judge and the prosecutor . Many witnesses lie during their testimonies ; the player is able to move back and forth through the testimony to try to find any inconsistencies . There are two options available during cross @-@ examinations : " press " , which makes the player question a particular statement , which sometimes makes the witnesses change their testimony ; and " present " , which is used to show a piece of evidence or a character profile that the player thinks shows a contradiction in the witness 's currently shown statement . In the upper right corner of the screen , the player 's health bar is shown , representing the judge 's patience . The bar decreases if the player makes mistakes , such as presenting the wrong piece of evidence ; if it reaches zero , the defendant is declared guilty , and the player loses the game . While the player cannot lose the game while trying to break a psyche @-@ lock , the bar will still decrease if the player presents the wrong evidence while trying to break psyche @-@ locks . 50 % of the bar is restored when the player manages to break a psyche @-@ lock , and 100 % is restored when an episode is completed .
= = Plot = =
The game 's first episode involves defense attorney Phoenix Wright getting amnesia after being hit on the head by Richard Wellington , a witness in the case . Phoenix is forced to defend Maggey Byrde , a policewoman who has been accused of murdering her boyfriend , with no memory of the case . Phoenix regains his memory with help from Byrde and his partner , the spirit medium Maya Fey , and deduces that Wellington is the true killer . The second episode takes place before the first , and involves Dr. Turner Grey requesting a spirit channeling from Maya Fey at the Kurain Village . During the channeling , Grey is killed , and Maya is arrested on suspicion of murder . When defending her , Phoenix faces prosecutor Franziska von Karma , who has never lost a case and has come to America to defeat Phoenix in court . Phoenix discovers that Grey 's death was plotted by a nurse who once worked under him and Maya 's aunt , Morgan Fey , who sought to displace Maya as the master of Kurain Village to allow her own 8 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Pearl Fey , to take the title instead . After the case , Morgan is arrested and placed into solitary confinement , and Maya and Phoenix step in to take care of Pearl . In the third episode , Maximillion Galactica , a magician at the Berry Big Circus , is charged with the ringmaster 's murder . Phoenix successfully defends him against Franziska von Karma , and the real killer is revealed to be one of the circus 's trapeze artists , who accidentally killed the ringmaster while trying to murder the ringmaster 's daughter as revenge for his brother .
In the fourth episode , Maya is kidnapped after the actor Matt Engarde has been suspected of murdering his media rival Juan Corrida . The kidnapper , the infamous assassin Shelly de Killer , promises to let Maya go if Phoenix can get a complete acquittal for Engarde . Phoenix learns that Engarde , Corrida , and their managers had a complicated romantic relationship , and that Engarde had hired de Killer to force Phoenix to defend him in court . During the case , de Killer shoots Franziska , wounding her and forcing a new prosecutor in the case to step in : Miles Edgeworth , who had just returned to the country in time . Edgeworth picks up on Phoenix 's unusual behavior in court and recognizes that Maya is in trouble , and helps extend the case to give the police more time to rescue Maya . When Phoenix reveals to de Killer that Engarde has blackmail evidence on de Killer 's actions , de Killer reneges his loyalty to Engarde , promising to kill him next . Engarde , terrified by de Killer 's promise , pleads guilty in order to escape his wrath . Maya is freed and reunited with Phoenix and Pearl , while Franziska , recovering from her wounds , decides to return home . If the player presents the wrong evidence towards the end of the trial , an alternate ending ensues , in which Engarde is freed and his manager is tried and convicted of Juan 's murder , causing Phoenix to be shunned forever by Maya and abandon his profession . In the regular ending following Engarde 's conviction , Edgeworth follows Franziska to the airport . Franziska says that she had planned to take revenge on Phoenix after he had proved her father 's guilt in a trial in the first game , but that she has failed . With Edgeworth 's encouragement , she vows to return as a better prosecutor .
= = Development = =
After development of the original Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney was finished , the writer and director Shu Takumi 's boss , Shinji Mikami , told him that they should make an Ace Attorney trilogy , with a grand finale in the third game 's last case . Development of the game began immediately when Takumi returned to work from his vacation : the producer , Atsushi Inaba , called him in to a meeting , and told Takumi that he wanted him to write the script for five episodes before the game went into full production , with a deadline of three and a half months . Takumi thought that this was " completely insane " , as it had taken him an average of more than a month to write each of the four episodes for the first Ace Attorney ; additionally , he felt that he did not have any " tricks " left to use for mysteries or any story threads to work off of . He wanted to protest , but still ended up having to do it . As soon as he returned to his desk , he drafted a work schedule : he scheduled two and a half month to write the dialogue , with half a month per episode , leaving him with a month to create the first prototype and figure out the " tricks " to be used in the mysteries . He doubted that he would be able to do it in time , but managed to write the whole script by the deadline . However , due to issues with memory on the game 's cartridge , one episode ended up having to be cut from the game ; it was later used as the third episode of the third game .
After finishing writing the dialogue , Takumi was called into another meeting with Inaba , and was told to add a new gameplay mechanic to the investigations . Takumi wanted to keep the gameplay simple enough for his mother to be able to play it , and keep it focused on the core concept of finding lies ; according to him , he immediately had a vision of the psyche lock system during the meeting with Inaba , but still asked for three days to come up with an idea . He found it easy to formulate the idea , but it took over a month to create the system ; the biggest problem was how to visually represent the psyche locks . Takumi also drew storyboards for the episodes ' openings , which consisted of series of detailed drawings that show what is happening . He also drew rough sketches of cut @-@ in illustrations ; it was only decided after all the text had been written what scenes would have illustrations made for them . While the game 's opening features the judge , it was originally supposed to have featured a demon instead ; this was because Takumi was playing Devil May Cry at the time , and had liked its opening . As Takumi wanted the first three Ace Attorney games to be part of one larger work , he did not want the first game to look outdated in comparison to later ones , so it was decided to keep the same graphics for main characters such as Phoenix , Maya and Edgeworth throughout all their appearances , and not make updates to them . The game 's music was composed by Naoto Tanaka under the pseudonym Akemi Kimura .
As the dialogue @-@ integrated " tutorial " in the first Ace Attorney was well received , the inclusion of one in Justice for All was considered a " major point " . While the first game 's tutorial involved Phoenix being helped through his first trial by his mentor Mia and the judge , this could not be used twice , which led to the idea of giving Phoenix a temporary amnesia from a blow to the head . Takumi included a circus and magic in the game 's third episode ; he really wanted to do this , as performing magic is a hobby of his . The episode includes two themes that he wanted to explore : the difficulties in forming a cohesive team with different people , and a person who against the odds tries to make something whole . The former was reflected in how the circus members come together at the end , while the latter was reflected in the character Moe . Several different versions of the fourth episode were created , partially because of them running out of memory on the game 's cartridge , but also because of the popularity of the character of Miles Edgeworth : Takumi had originally planned to let Edgeworth be the prosecutor in all episodes , but when they were in full production the development team learned that the character had become popular , which led to Takumi feeling that he had to use the character more carefully and sparingly . Because of this , he created the character Franziska von Karma , to save Edgeworth for the game 's last case , and avoid a situation where he – a supposed prodigy – loses every case . The character Pearl Fey was originally intended to be a rival character around the same age as Maya , only appearing in the game 's second episode ; one of the game 's designers suggested that it would be more dramatic if she were much younger , so Takumi wrote her as an eight @-@ year @-@ old . As he ended up liking her , he included her in other episodes as well .
= = Release = =
The game was originally released by Capcom for the Game Boy Advance on October 18 , 2002 in Japan ; a Nintendo DS version followed on October 26 , 2006 in Japan , on January 16 , 2007 in North America , and on March 16 , 2007 in Europe . A PC port of the Game Boy Advance version , developed by a company called Daletto , was released in Japan in an episodic format , starting on April 15 , 2008 . A Wii version was released through WiiWare on January 26 , 2010 in Japan , on February 15 , 2010 in North America , and on February 19 , 2010 in Europe .
A high @-@ definition iOS version of the first three Ace Attorney games , Ace Attorney : Phoenix Wright Trilogy HD , was released in Japan on February 7 , 2012 , and in the West on May 30 , 2013 . Another collection of the first three games , Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney Trilogy , was released for the Nintendo 3DS in Japan on April 17 , 2014 , in North America on December 9 , 2014 , and in Europe on December 11 , 2014 .
= = = Localization = = =
Starting with Justice for All , the series localization direction has been handled by Janet Hsu ; by the time she joined Capcom 's localization team in 2005 , the first Ace Attorney had already been localized , with the original localization team having decided to do a full localization , changing the setting from Japan to Los Angeles . While Hsu thought that this was the right choice to make , as it made the characters and dialogue more relatable and made for an emotional experience closer to what players of the Japanese version experience , it resulted in issues with each following game . According to the localization editor , Brandon Gay , Justice for All was one of their largest games to localize due to its focus on the story , and how it needs to convey the whole game world and its characters through just text ; this made it a challenge to make the characters relatable for an American audience . Another thing the localization team had to keep in mind was to ensure that recurring characters were consistent with how they behave in the first Ace Attorney . According to JP Kellams , another staff member working on the localization , there was a lot of pressure on them to make a good localization , as the first game 's localization had been well received ; he also felt that there was room for creativity due to the game 's style and subject , with room for humor that might not fit in other localizations . A lot of the humor in the original was based on Japanese wordplay ; these jokes had to be redone entirely for the English release . Hsu felt that the game was more demanding than previous projects she had worked on , as the localizers " almost have to become [ the characters ] " in order to get the nuance and motivations right due to their complexity .
One of the first decisions Hsu had to make was how to localize Maya 's hometown and the mysticism of the Fey clan . She came up with the idea that the localized versions of the Ace Attorney games take place in Los Angeles in an alternative universe where anti @-@ Japanese laws like the California Alien Land Law of 1913 were not passed , anti @-@ Japanese sentiments were not powerful , and where Japanese culture flourished . This dictated what should be localized and what should be kept Japanese ; things relating to the Fey clan and the Kurain channeling technique were kept Japanese , as that was Maya 's heritage , while Japanese foods that were not widely known in the West were changed . Despite the setting in the United States in the localized | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
mission in Berkeley by Massey .
= = Los Alamos Laboratory = =
When cooperation resumed in September 1943 , Groves and Oppenheimer revealed the existence of the Los Alamos Laboratory to Chadwick , Peierls and Oliphant . Oppenheimer wanted all three to proceed to Los Alamos as soon as possible , but it was decided that Oliphant would go to Berkeley to work on the electromagnetic process and Peierls would go to New York to work on the gaseous diffusion process . The task then fell to Chadwick . The original idea , favoured by Groves , was that the British scientists would work as a group under Chadwick , who would farm out work to them . This was soon discarded in favour of having the British Mission fully integrated into the laboratory . They worked in most of its divisions , only being excluded from plutonium chemistry and metallurgy .
First to arrive was Otto Frisch and Ernest Titterton and his wife Peggy , who reached Los Alamos on 13 December 1943 . At Los Alamos Frisch continued his work on critical mass studies , for which Titterton developed electronic circuitry for high voltage generators , X @-@ ray generators , timers and firing circuits . Peggy Titterton , a trained physics and metallurgy laboratory assistant , was one of the few women working at Los Alamos in a technical role . Chadwick arrived on 12 January 1944 , but only stayed for a few months before returning to Washington , D.C.
When Oppenheimer appointed Hans Bethe as the head of the laboratory 's prestigious Theoretical ( T ) Division , he offended Edward Teller , who was given his own group , tasked with investigating Teller 's " Super " bomb , and eventually assigned to Enrico Fermi 's F Division . Oppenheimer then wrote to Groves requesting that Peierls be sent to take Teller 's place in T Division . Peierls arrived from New York on 8 February 1944 , and subsequently succeeded Chadwick as head of the British Mission at Los Alamos . Egon Bretscher worked in Teller 's Super group , as did Anthony French , who later recalled that " never at any time did I have anything to do with the fission bomb once I went to Los Alamos . " Four members of the British Mission became group leaders : Bretscher ( Super Experimentation ) , Frisch ( Critical Assemblies and Nuclear Specifications ) , Peierls ( Implosion Hydrodynamics ) and George Placzek ( Composite Weapon ) .
Niels Bohr and his son Aage , a physicist who acted as his father 's assistant , arrived on 30 December on the first of several visits as a consultant . Bohr and his family had escaped from occupied Denmark to Sweden . A De Havilland Mosquito bomber brought him to England where he joined Tube Alloys . In America , he was able to visit Oak Ridge and Los Alamos , where he found many of his former students . Bohr acted as a critic , a facilitator and a role model for younger scientists . He arrived at a critical time , and several nuclear fission studies and experiments were conducted at his instigation . He played an important role in the development of the uranium tamper , and in the design and adoption of the modulated neutron initiator . His presence boosted morale , and helped improve the administration of the laboratory to strengthen ties with the Army .
Nuclear physicists knew about fission , but not the hydrodynamics of conventional explosions . As a result , there were two additions to the team that made significant contributions in this area of physics . First was James Tuck whose field of expertise was in shaped charges used in anti tank weapons for armour piercing . In terms of the plutonium bomb the scientists at Los Alamos were trying to wrestle with the idea of the implosion issue . Tuck was sent to Los Alamos in April 1944 and used a radical concept of explosive lensing which was then put into place . Tuck also designed the Urchin initiator for the bomb working closely with Seth Neddermeyer . This work was crucial to the success of the plutonium atomic bomb : Italian @-@ American scientist Bruno Rossi later stated that without Tuck 's work the plutonium bomb could not have exploded in August 1945 . The other was Sir Geoffrey Taylor , an important consultant who arrived a month later to also work on the issue . Taylor 's presence was desired so much at Los Alamos , Chadwick informed London , " that anything short of kidnapping would be justified " . He was sent , and provided crucial insights into the Rayleigh – Taylor instability . The acute need for scientists with an understanding of explosives also led Chadwick to obtain the release of William Penney from the Admiralty , and William Marley from the Road Research Laboratory . Peierls and Fuchs worked on the hydrodynamics of the explosive lenses . Bethe considered Fuchs " one of the most valuable men in my division " and " one of the best theoretical physicists we had . "
William Penney worked on means to assess the effects of a nuclear explosion , and wrote a paper on what height the bombs should be detonated at for maximum effect in attacks on Germany and Japan . He served as a member of the target committee established by Groves to select Japanese cities for atomic bombing , and on Tinian with Project Alberta as a special consultant . Along with Group Captain Leonard Cheshire , sent by Wilson as a British representative , he watched the bombing of Nagasaki from the observation plane Big Stink . He also formed part of the Manhattan Project 's post @-@ war scientific mission to Hiroshima and Nagasaki that assessed the extent of the damage caused by the bombs .
Bethe declared that :
For the work of the theoretical division of the Los Alamos Project during the war the collaboration of the British Mission was absolutely essential ... It is very difficult to say what would have happened under different conditions . However , at least , the work of the Theoretical Division would have been very much more difficult and very much less effective without the members of the British Mission , and it is not unlikely that our final weapon would have been considerably less efficient in this case .
From December 1945 on , members of the British Mission began returning home . Peierls left in January 1946 . At the request of Norris Bradbury , who had replaced Oppenheimer as laboratory director , Fuchs remained until 15 June 1946 . Eight British scientists , three from Los Alamos and five from the United Kingdom , participated in Operation Crossroads , the nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific . With the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 , known as the McMahon Act , all British government employees had to leave . Titterton was granted a special dispensation , and remained until 12 April 1947 . The British Mission ended when he departed . Carson Mark remained , as he was a Canadian government employee . He remained at Los Alamos , becoming head of its Theoretical Division in 1947 , a position he held until he retired in 1973 . He became a United States citizen in the 1950s .
= = Feed materials = =
The Combined Development Trust was proposed by the Combined Policy Committee on 17 February 1944 . The declaration of trust was signed by Churchill and Roosevelt on 13 June 1944 . The trustees were approved at the Combined Policy Committee meeting on 19 September 1944 . The United States trustees were Groves , who was elected chairman , geologist Charles K. Leith , and George L. Harrison . The British trustees were Sir Charles Hambro , the head of the British Raw Materials Mission in Washington , D.C. , and Frank Lee from HM Treasury . Canada was represented by George C. Bateman , a deputy minister and member of the Canadian Combined Resources Board . Each of the three governments had its own raw materials resources staff , and the Combined Development Trust was a means of coordinating their efforts .
The role of the Combined Development Trust was to purchase or control the mineral resources needed by the Manhattan Project , and to avoid competition between the three . Britain had little need for uranium ores while the war continued , but was anxious to secure adequate supplies for its own nuclear weapons programme when it ended . Half the funding was to come from the United States and half from Britain and Canada . The initial $ 12 @.@ 5 million was transferred to Groves from an account in the office of the United States Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau , Jr . , that was not subject to the usual accounting auditing and oversight . By the time Groves resigned from the Trust at the end of 1947 , he had deposited $ 37 @.@ 5 million into an account he controlled at the Bankers Trust . Payments were then made from this account .
Britain took the lead in securing control of the world 's major source of ore in the Belgian Congo . They also negotiated deals with Swedish companies to acquire ore from there . Oliphant had approached the Australian High Commissioner in London , Sir Stanley Bruce , in August 1943 about uranium supplies from Australia , and Anderson made a direct request to the prime minister of Australia , John Curtin , during the latter 's visit to Britain in May 1944 to initiate mineral exploration in Australia in places where uranium deposits were believed to exist . As well as uranium , the Combined Development Trust secured supplies of thorium from Brazil , Netherlands East Indies , Sweden and Portugal . At the time uranium was believed to be a rare mineral , and the more abundant thorium was seen as a possible alternative , as it could be irradiated to produce uranium @-@ 233 , another isotope of uranium suitable for making atomic bombs .
= = Intelligence = =
In December 1943 , Groves sent Robert R. Furman to Britain to establish a London Liaison Office for the Manhattan Project to coordinate scientific intelligence with the British government . Groves selected the head of the Manhattan District 's security activities , Captain Horace K. Calvert , to head the London Liaison Office with the title of Assistant Military Attaché . He worked in cooperation with Lieutenant Commander Eric Welsh , the head of the Norwegian Section of MI6 , and Michael Perrin from Tube Alloys . An Anglo @-@ American intelligence committee was formed by Groves and Anderson in November 1944 , consisting of Perrin , Welsh , Calvert , Furman and R. V. Jones .
At the urging of Groves and Furman , the Alsos Mission was created on 4 April 1944 under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Boris Pash to conduct intelligence in the field relating to the German nuclear energy project . The more experienced British considered creating a rival mission , but in the end agreed to participate in the Alsos Mission as a junior partner . In June 1945 , Welsh reported that the German nuclear physicists captured by the Alsos Mission were in danger of being executed by the Americans , and Jones arranged for them to be moved to Farm Hall , a country house in Huntingdonshire used for training by MI6 and the Special Operations Executive ( SOE ) . The house was bugged , and the conversations of the scientists were recorded .
= = Results = =
Groves appreciated the early British atomic research and the British scientists ' contributions to the Manhattan Project , but stated that the United States would have succeeded without them . He considered British assistance " helpful but not vital " , but at the same time , acknowledged that " without active and continuing British interest , there probably would have been no atomic bomb to drop on Hiroshima . " He considered Britain 's key contributions to have been encouragement and support at the intergovernmental level , scientific aid , the production of powdered nickel in Wales , and preliminary studies and laboratory work .
Cooperation did not long survive the war . Roosevelt died on 12 April 1945 , and the Hyde Park Agreement was not binding on subsequent administrations . In fact , it was physically lost . When Wilson raised the matter in a Combined Policy Committee meeting in June , the American copy could not be found . The British sent Stimson a photocopy on 18 July 1945 . Even then , Groves questioned the document 's authenticity until the American copy was located years later in the papers of Vice Admiral Wilson Brown , Jr . , Roosevelt 's naval aide , apparently misfiled by someone unaware of what Tube Alloys was , who thought it had something to do with naval guns .
Harry S. Truman , who had succeeded Roosevelt on the latter 's death , Clement Attlee , who had replaced Churchill as prime minister in July 1945 , Anderson and United States Secretary of State James F. Byrnes conferred while on a boat cruise on the Potomac River , and agreed to revise the Quebec Agreement . On 15 November 1945 , Groves , Robert P. Patterson and George L. Harrison met a British delegation consisting of Anderson , Wilson , Malcolm MacDonald , Roger Makins and Denis Rickett to draw up a communiqué . They agreed to retain the Combined Policy Committee and the Combined Development Trust . The Quebec Agreement 's requirement for " mutual consent " before using nuclear weapons was replaced with one for " prior consultation " , and there was to be " full and effective cooperation in the field of atomic energy " , but in the longer Memorandum of Intention , signed by Groves and Anderson , this was only " in the field of basic scientific research " . Patterson took the communiqué to the White House , where Truman and Attlee signed it on 16 November 1945 .
The next meeting of the Combined Policy Committee on 15 April 1946 produced no accord on collaboration , and resulted in an exchange of cables between Truman and Attlee . Truman cabled on 20 April that he did not see the communiqué he had signed as obligating the United States to assist Britain in designing , constructing and operating an atomic energy plant . Attlee 's response on 6 June 1946 " did not mince words nor conceal his displeasure behind the nuances of diplomatic language . " At issue was not just technical cooperation , which was fast disappearing , but the allocation of uranium ore . During the war this was of little concern , as Britain had not needed any ore , so all the production of the Congo mines and all the ore seized by the Alsos Mission had gone to the United States , but now it was also required by the British atomic project . Chadwick and Groves reached an agreement by which ore would be shared equally .
The McMahon Act , which was signed by Truman on 1 August 1946 , and went into effect at midnight on 1 January 1947 , ended technical cooperation . Its control of " restricted data " prevented the United States ' allies from receiving any information . The remaining scientists were denied access to papers that they had written just days before . The terms of the Quebec Agreement remained secret , but senior members of Congress were horrified when they discovered that it gave the British a veto over the use of nuclear weapons . The McMahon Act fuelled resentment from British scientists and officials alike , and led directly to the British decision in January 1947 to develop its own nuclear weapons . In January 1948 , Bush , James Fisk , Cockcroft and Mackenzie concluded an agreement known as the modus vivendi , that allowed for limited sharing of technical information between the United States , Britain and Canada .
As the Cold War set in , enthusiasm in the United States for an alliance with Britain cooled as well . A September 1949 poll found that 72 per cent of Americans agreed that the United States should not " share our atomic energy secrets with England " . The reputation of the British Mission to Los Alamos was tarnished by the 1950 revelation that Fuchs was a Soviet atomic spy . It damaged the relationship between the United States and Britain , and provided ammunition for Congressional opponents of cooperation like Senator Bourke B. Hickenlooper .
British wartime participation in the Manhattan Project provided a substantial body of expertise that was important to the subsequent success in October 1952 of the United Kingdom 's nuclear weapons programme , although it was not without important gaps , such as in the field of plutonium metallurgy . The development of the independent British nuclear deterrent led to the Atomic Energy Act being amended in 1958 , and to a resumption of the nuclear Special Relationship between America and Britain under the 1958 US – UK Mutual Defence Agreement .
= John Lennon =
John Winston Ono Lennon , MBE ( born John Winston Lennon ; 9 October 1940 – 8 December 1980 ) was an English singer and songwriter who co @-@ founded the Beatles , the most commercially successful band in the history of popular music . With fellow member Paul McCartney , he formed a lucrative songwriting partnership .
Born and raised in Liverpool , Lennon became involved in the skiffle craze as a teenager ; his first band , the Quarrymen , evolved into the Beatles in 1960 . When the group disbanded in 1970 , Lennon embarked on a solo career that produced the albums John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band and Imagine , and songs such as " Give Peace a Chance " , " Working Class Hero " , and " Imagine " . After his marriage to Yoko Ono in 1969 , he changed his name to John Ono Lennon . Lennon disengaged himself from the music business in 1975 to raise his infant son Sean , but re @-@ emerged with Ono in 1980 with the new album Double Fantasy . He was murdered three weeks after its release .
Lennon revealed a rebellious nature and acerbic wit in his music , writing , drawings , on film and in interviews . Controversial through his political and peace activism , he moved to Manhattan in 1971 , where his criticism of the Vietnam War resulted in a lengthy attempt by Richard Nixon 's administration to deport him , while some of his songs were adopted as anthems by the anti @-@ war movement and the larger counterculture .
As of 2012 , Lennon 's solo album sales in the United States exceeded 14 million and , as writer , co @-@ writer , or performer , he is responsible for 25 number @-@ one singles on the US Hot 100 chart . In 2002 , a BBC poll on the 100 Greatest Britons voted him eighth and , in 2008 , Rolling Stone ranked him the fifth @-@ greatest singer of all time . He was posthumously inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1987 , and into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice , as a member of the Beatles in 1988 and as a solo artist in 1994 .
= = Biography = =
= = = 1940 – 57 : Early years = = =
Lennon was born in war @-@ time England , on 9 October 1940 at Liverpool Maternity Hospital , to Julia ( née Stanley ) and Alfred Lennon , a merchant seaman of Irish descent , who was away at the time of his son 's birth . His parents named him John Winston Lennon after his paternal grandfather , John " Jack " Lennon , and then @-@ Prime Minister Winston Churchill . His father was often away from home but sent regular pay cheques to 9 Newcastle Road , Liverpool , where Lennon lived with his mother ; the cheques stopped when he went absent without leave in February 1944 . When he eventually came home six months later , he offered to look after the family , but Julia — by then pregnant with another man 's child — rejected the idea . After her sister , Mimi Smith , twice complained to Liverpool 's Social Services , Julia handed the care of Lennon over to her . In July 1946 Lennon 's father visited Smith and took his son to Blackpool , secretly intending to emigrate to New Zealand with him . Julia followed them — with her partner at the time , ' Bobby ' Dykins — and after a heated argument his father forced the five @-@ year @-@ old to choose between them . Lennon twice chose his father , but as his mother walked away , he began to cry and followed her . It would be 20 years before he had contact with his father again .
Throughout the rest of his childhood and adolescence he lived with his aunt and uncle , Mimi and George Smith , who had no children of their own , at Mendips , 251 Menlove Avenue , Woolton . His aunt purchased volumes of short stories for him , and his uncle , a dairyman at his family 's farm , bought him a mouth organ and engaged him in solving crossword puzzles . Julia visited Mendips on a regular basis , and when John was 11 years old he often visited her at 1 Blomfield Road , Liverpool , where she played him Elvis Presley records , taught him the banjo , and showed him how to play " Ain 't That a Shame " by Fats Domino . In September 1980 , Lennon commented about his family and his rebellious nature :
Part of me would like to be accepted by all facets of society and not be this loudmouthed lunatic poet / musician . But I cannot be what I am not ... I was the one who all the other boys ' parents — including Paul 's father — would say , ' Keep away from him ' ... The parents instinctively recognised I was a troublemaker , meaning I did not conform and I would influence their children , which I did . I did my best to disrupt every friend 's home ... Partly out of envy that I didn 't have this so @-@ called home ... but I did ... There were five women that were my family . Five strong , intelligent , beautiful women , five sisters . One happened to be my mother . [ She ] just couldn 't deal with life . She was the youngest and she had a husband who ran away to sea and the war was on and she couldn 't cope with me , and I ended up living with her elder sister . Now those women were fantastic ... And that was my first feminist education ... I would infiltrate the other boys minds . I could say , " Parents are not gods because I don 't live with mine and , therefore , I know.'
He regularly visited his cousin , Stanley Parkes , who lived in Fleetwood . Seven years Lennon 's senior , Parkes took him on trips and to local cinemas . During the school holidays , Parkes often visited Lennon with Leila Harvey , another cousin , often travelling to Blackpool two or three times a week to watch shows . They would visit the Blackpool Tower Circus and see artists such as Dickie Valentine , Arthur Askey , Max Bygraves and Joe Loss , with Parkes recalling that Lennon particularly liked George Formby . After Parkes 's family moved to Scotland , the three cousins often spent their school holidays together there . Parkes recalled , " John , cousin Leila and I were very close . From Edinburgh we would drive up to the family croft at Durness , which was from about the time John was nine years old until he was about 16 . " He was 14 years old when his uncle George died of a liver haemorrhage on 5 June 1955 ( aged 52 ) .
Lennon was raised as an Anglican and attended Dovedale Primary School . From September 1952 to 1957 , after passing his Eleven @-@ Plus exam , he attended Quarry Bank High School in Liverpool , and was described by Harvey at the time as , " A happy @-@ go @-@ lucky , good @-@ humoured , easy going , lively lad . " He often drew comical cartoons which appeared in his own self @-@ made school magazine called The Daily Howl , but despite his artistic talent , his school reports were damning : " Certainly on the road to failure ... hopeless ... rather a clown in class ... wasting other pupils ' time . "
His mother bought him his first guitar in 1956 , an inexpensive Gallotone Champion acoustic for which she " lent " her son five pounds and ten shillings on the condition that the guitar be delivered to her own house , and not Mimi 's , knowing well that her sister was not supportive of her son 's musical aspirations . As Mimi was sceptical of his claim that he would be famous one day , she hoped he would grow bored with music , often telling him , " The guitar 's all very well , John , but you 'll never make a living out of it " . On 15 July 1958 , when Lennon was 17 years old , his mother , walking home after visiting the Smiths ' house , was struck by a car and killed .
Lennon failed all his GCE O @-@ level examinations , and was accepted into the Liverpool College of Art only after his aunt and headmaster intervened . Once at the college , he started wearing Teddy Boy clothes and acquired a reputation for disrupting classes and ridiculing teachers . As a result , he was excluded from the painting class , then the graphic arts course , and was threatened with expulsion for his behaviour , which included sitting on a nude model 's lap during a life drawing class . He failed an annual exam , despite help from fellow student and future wife Cynthia Powell , and was " thrown out of the college before his final year " .
= = = 1957 – 70 : The Quarrymen to the Beatles = = =
= = = = 1957 – 66 : Formation , commercial break @-@ out and touring years = = = =
At age 15 , Lennon formed the skiffle group , the Quarrymen . Named after Quarry Bank High School , the group was established by him in September 1956 . By the summer of 1957 , the Quarrymen played a " spirited set of songs " made up of half skiffle and half rock and roll . Lennon first met Paul McCartney at the Quarrymen 's second performance , held in Woolton on 6 July at the St. Peter 's Church garden fête , after which he asked McCartney to join the band .
McCartney says that Aunt Mimi " was very aware that John 's friends were lower class " , and would often patronise him when he arrived to visit Lennon . According to Paul 's brother Mike , McCartney 's father was also disapproving , declaring Lennon would get his son " into trouble " , although he later allowed the fledgling band to rehearse in the McCartneys ' front room at 20 Forthlin Road . During this time , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Lennon wrote his first song , " Hello Little Girl " , a UK top 10 hit for The Fourmost nearly five years later .
McCartney suggested his friend George Harrison as the lead guitarist . Lennon thought Harrison ( then 14 years old ) was too young . McCartney engineered an audition on the upper deck of a Liverpool bus , where Harrison played " Raunchy " for Lennon and was asked to join . Stuart Sutcliffe , Lennon 's friend from art school , later joined as bassist . Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Sutcliffe became " The Beatles " in early 1960 . In August that year , the Beatles engaged for a 48 @-@ night residency in Hamburg , Germany , and desperately in need of a drummer , asked Pete Best to join them . Lennon was now 19 , and his aunt , horrified when he told her about the trip , pleaded with him to continue his art studies instead . After the first Hamburg residency , the band accepted another in April 1961 , and a third in April 1962 . Like the other band members , Lennon was introduced to Preludin while in Hamburg , and regularly took the drug , as well as amphetamines , as a stimulant during their long , overnight performances .
Brian Epstein , the Beatles ' manager from 1962 , had no prior experience of artist management , but had a strong influence on their early dress code and attitude on stage . Lennon initially resisted his attempts to encourage the band to present a professional appearance , but eventually complied , saying , " I 'll wear a bloody balloon if somebody 's going to pay me " . McCartney took over on bass after Sutcliffe decided to stay in Hamburg , and drummer Ringo Starr replaced Best , completing the four @-@ piece line @-@ up that would endure until the group 's break @-@ up in 1970 . The band 's first single , " Love Me Do " , was released in October 1962 and reached No. 17 on the British charts . They recorded their debut album , Please Please Me , in under 10 hours on 11 February 1963 , a day when Lennon was suffering the effects of a cold , which is evident in the vocal on the last song to be recorded that day , " Twist and Shout " . The Lennon – McCartney songwriting partnership yielded eight of its fourteen tracks . With few exceptions — one being the album title itself — Lennon had yet to bring his love of wordplay to bear on his song lyrics , saying : " We were just writing songs ... pop songs with no more thought of them than that — to create a sound . And the words were almost irrelevant " . In a 1987 interview , McCartney said that the other Beatles idolised John : " He was like our own little Elvis ... We all looked up to John . He was older and he was very much the leader ; he was the quickest wit and the smartest . "
The Beatles achieved mainstream success in the UK during the beginning of 1963 . Lennon was on tour when his first son , Julian , was born in April . During their Royal Variety Show performance , attended by the Queen Mother and other British royalty , Lennon poked fun at his audience : " For our next song , I 'd like to ask for your help . For the people in the cheaper seats , clap your hands ... and the rest of you , if you 'll just rattle your jewellery . " After a year of Beatlemania in the UK , the group 's historic February 1964 US debut appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show marked their breakthrough to international stardom . A two @-@ year period of constant touring , moviemaking , and songwriting followed , during which Lennon wrote two books , In His Own Write and A Spaniard in the Works . The Beatles received recognition from the British Establishment when they were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in the 1965 Queen 's Birthday Honours .
Lennon grew concerned that fans attending Beatles concerts were unable to hear the music above the screaming of fans , and that the band 's musicianship was beginning to suffer as a result . Lennon 's " Help ! " expressed his own feelings in 1965 : " I meant it ... It was me singing ' help ' " . He had put on weight ( he would later refer to this as his " Fat Elvis " period ) , and felt he was subconsciously seeking change . In March that year he was unknowingly introduced to LSD when a dentist , hosting a dinner party attended by Lennon , Harrison and their wives , spiked the guests ' coffee with the drug . When they wanted to leave , their host revealed what they had taken , and strongly advised them not to leave the house because of the likely effects . Later , in an elevator at a nightclub , they all believed it was on fire : " We were all screaming ... hot and hysterical . " In March 1966 , during an interview with Evening Standard reporter Maureen Cleave , Lennon remarked , " Christianity will go . It will vanish and shrink ... We 're more popular than Jesus now — I don 't know which will go first , rock and roll or Christianity . " The comment went virtually unnoticed in England but caused great offence in the US when quoted by a magazine there five months later . The furore that followed — burning of Beatles records , Ku Klux Klan activity and threats against Lennon — contributed to the band 's decision to stop touring .
= = = = 1967 – 70 : Studio years , break @-@ up and solo work = = = =
Deprived of the routine of live performances after their final commercial concert on 29 August 1966 , Lennon felt lost and considered leaving the band . Since his involuntary introduction to LSD , he had made increasing use of the drug , and was almost constantly under its influence for much of 1967 . According to biographer Ian MacDonald , Lennon 's continuous experience with LSD during the year brought him " close to erasing his identity " . 1967 saw the release of " Strawberry Fields Forever " , hailed by Time magazine for its " astonishing inventiveness " , and the group 's landmark album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , which revealed Lennon 's lyrics contrasting strongly with the simple love songs of the Lennon – McCartney 's early years .
In August , after having been introduced to the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi , the group attended a weekend of personal instruction at his Transcendental Meditation seminar in Bangor , Wales , and were informed of Epstein 's death during the seminar . " I knew we were in trouble then " , Lennon said later . " I didn 't have any misconceptions about our ability to do anything other than play music , and I was scared " . Led primarily by Harrison and Lennon 's interest in Eastern religion , the Beatles later travelled to Maharishi 's ashram in India for further guidance . While there , they composed most of the songs for The Beatles and Abbey Road .
The anti @-@ war , black comedy How I Won the War , featuring Lennon 's only appearance in a non – Beatles full @-@ length film , was shown in cinemas in October 1967 . McCartney organised the group 's first post @-@ Epstein project , the self @-@ written , -produced and -directed television film Magical Mystery Tour , released in December that year . While the film itself proved to be their first critical flop , its soundtrack release , featuring Lennon 's acclaimed , Lewis Carroll @-@ inspired " I Am the Walrus " , was a success . With Epstein gone , the band members became increasingly involved in business activities , and in February 1968 they formed Apple Corps , a multimedia corporation composed of Apple Records and several other subsidiary companies . Lennon described the venture as an attempt to achieve , " artistic freedom within a business structure " , but his increased drug experimentation and growing preoccupation with Yoko Ono , and McCartney 's own marriage plans , left Apple in need of professional management . Lennon asked Lord Beeching to take on the role , but he declined , advising Lennon to go back to making records . Lennon approached Allen Klein , who had managed The Rolling Stones and other bands during the British Invasion . Klein was appointed as Apple 's chief executive by Lennon , Harrison and Starr , but McCartney never signed the management contract .
At the end of 1968 , Lennon was featured in the film The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus ( not released until 1996 ) in the role of a Dirty Mac band member . The supergroup , composed of Lennon , Eric Clapton , Keith Richards and Mitch Mitchell , also backed a vocal performance by Ono in the film . Lennon and Ono were married on 20 March 1969 , and soon released a series of 14 lithographs called " Bag One " depicting scenes from their honeymoon , eight of which were deemed indecent and most of which were banned and confiscated . Lennon 's creative focus continued to move beyond the Beatles and between 1968 and 1969 he and Ono recorded three albums of experimental music together : Unfinished Music No.1 : Two Virgins ( known more for its cover than for its music ) , Unfinished Music No.2 : Life with the Lions and Wedding Album . In 1969 , they formed the Plastic Ono Band , releasing Live Peace in Toronto 1969 . Between 1969 and 1970 , Lennon released the singles " Give Peace a Chance " ( widely adopted as an anti @-@ Vietnam @-@ War anthem in 1969 ) , " Cold Turkey " ( documenting his withdrawal symptoms after he became addicted to heroin ) and " Instant Karma ! " In protest at Britain 's involvement in the Nigerian Civil War , its support of America in the Vietnam war and ( perhaps jokingly ) against " Cold Turkey " slipping down the charts , Lennon returned his MBE medal to the Queen , though this had no effect on his MBE status , which could not be renounced .
Lennon left the Beatles in September 1969 , and agreed not to inform the media while the group renegotiated their recording contract , but he was outraged that McCartney publicised his own departure on releasing his debut solo album in April 1970 . Lennon 's reaction was , " Jesus Christ ! He gets all the credit for it ! " He later wrote , " I started the band . I disbanded it . It 's as simple as that . " In later interviews with Rolling Stone magazine , he revealed his bitterness towards McCartney , saying , " I was a fool not to do what Paul did , which was use it to sell a record . " He spoke too of the hostility he perceived the other members had towards Ono , and of how he , Harrison , and Starr " got fed up with being sidemen for Paul ... After Brian Epstein died we collapsed . Paul took over and supposedly led us . But what is leading us when we went round in circles ? "
= = = 1970 – 80 : Solo career = = =
= = = = 1970 – 72 : Initial solo success and activism = = = =
In 1970 , Lennon and Ono went through primal therapy with Arthur Janov in Los Angeles , California . Designed to release emotional pain from early childhood , the therapy entailed two half @-@ days a week with Janov for four months ; he had wanted to treat the couple for longer , but they felt no need to continue and returned to London . Lennon 's emotional debut solo album , John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band ( 1970 ) , was received with high praise . Critic Greil Marcus remarked , " John 's singing in the last verse of ' God ' may be the finest in all of rock . " The album featured the songs " Mother " , in which Lennon confronted his feelings of childhood rejection , and the Dylanesque " Working Class Hero " , a bitter attack against the bourgeois social system which , due to the lyric " you 're still fucking peasants " , fell foul of broadcasters . The same year , Tariq Ali 's revolutionary political views , expressed when he interviewed Lennon , inspired the singer to write " Power to the People " . Lennon also became involved with Ali during a protest against Oz magazine 's prosecution for alleged obscenity . Lennon denounced the proceedings as " disgusting fascism " , and he and Ono ( as Elastic Oz Band ) released the single " God Save Us / Do the Oz " and joined marches in support of the magazine .
With Lennon 's next album , Imagine ( 1971 ) , critical response was more guarded . Rolling Stone reported that " it contains a substantial portion of good music " but warned of the possibility that " his posturings will soon seem not merely dull but irrelevant " . The album 's title track would become an anthem for anti @-@ war movements , while another , " How Do You Sleep ? " , was a musical attack on McCartney in response to lyrics from Ram that Lennon felt , and McCartney later confirmed , were directed at him and Ono . However , Lennon softened his stance in the mid @-@ 1970s and said he had written " How Do You Sleep ? " about himself . He said in 1980 : " I used my resentment against Paul … to create a song … not a terrible vicious horrible vendetta [ … ] I used my resentment and withdrawing from Paul and the Beatles , and the relationship with Paul , to write ' How Do You Sleep ' . I don 't really go ' round with those thoughts in my head all the time . "
Lennon and Ono moved to New York in August 1971 , and in December released " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " . The new year saw the Nixon administration take what it called a " strategic counter @-@ measure " against Lennon 's anti @-@ war and anti @-@ Nixon propaganda , embarking on what would be a four @-@ year attempt to deport him . In 1972 , Lennon and Ono attended a post @-@ election wake held in the New York home of activist Jerry Rubin after McGovern lost to Nixon . Embroiled in a continuing legal battle with the immigration authorities , Lennon was denied permanent residency in the US ( which wouldn 't be resolved until 1976 ) . Depressed , Lennon got intoxicated and had sex with a female guest , leaving Ono embarrassed . Her song " Death of Samantha " was inspired by the incident .
Recorded as a collaboration with Ono and with backing from the New York band Elephant 's Memory , Some Time in New York City was released in 1972 . Containing songs about women 's rights , race relations , Britain 's role in Northern Ireland and Lennon 's problems obtaining a green card , the album was poorly received — unlistenable , according to one critic . " Woman Is the Nigger of the World " , released as a US single from the album the same year , was televised on 11 May , on The Dick Cavett Show . Many radio stations refused to broadcast the song because of the word " nigger " . Lennon and Ono gave two benefit concerts with Elephant 's Memory and guests in New York in aid of patients at the Willowbrook State School mental facility . Staged at Madison Square Garden on 30 August 1972 , they were his last full @-@ length concert appearances .
= = = = 1973 – 75 : " Lost weekend " = = = =
While Lennon was recording Mind Games ( 1973 ) , he and Ono decided to separate . The ensuing 18 @-@ month period apart , which he later called his " lost weekend " , was spent in Los Angeles and New York in the company of May Pang . Mind Games , credited to the " Plastic U.F.Ono Band " , was released in November 1973 . Lennon also contributed " I 'm the Greatest " to Starr 's album Ringo ( 1973 ) , released the same month ( an alternate take , from the same 1973 Ringo sessions , with Lennon providing a guide vocal , appears on John Lennon Anthology ) .
In early 1974 , Lennon was drinking heavily and his alcohol @-@ fuelled antics with Harry Nilsson made headlines . Two widely publicised incidents occurred at The Troubadour club in March , the first when Lennon placed a menstrual pad on his forehead and scuffled with a waitress , and the second , two weeks later , when Lennon and Nilsson were ejected from the same club after heckling the Smothers Brothers . Lennon decided to produce Nilsson 's album Pussy Cats and Pang rented a Los Angeles beach house for all the musicians but after a month of further debauchery , with the recording sessions in chaos , Lennon moved to New York with Pang to finish work on the album . In April , Lennon had produced the Mick Jagger song " Too Many Cooks ( Spoil the Soup ) " which was , for contractual reasons , to remain unreleased for more than 30 years . Pang supplied the recording for its eventual inclusion on The Very Best of Mick Jagger ( 2007 ) .
Settled back in New York , Lennon recorded the album Walls and Bridges . Released in October 1974 , it included " Whatever Gets You thru the Night " , which featured Elton John on backing vocals and piano , and became Lennon 's only single as a solo artist to top the US Billboard Hot 100 chart during his lifetime.b A second single from the album , " # 9 Dream " , followed before the end of the year . Starr 's Goodnight Vienna ( 1974 ) again saw assistance from Lennon , who wrote the title track and played piano . On 28 November , Lennon made a surprise guest appearance at Elton John 's Thanksgiving concert at Madison Square Garden , in fulfilment of his promise to join the singer in a live show if " Whatever Gets You thru the Night " — a song whose commercial potential Lennon had doubted — reached number one . Lennon performed the song along with " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " and " I Saw Her Standing There " , which he introduced as " a song by an old estranged fiancée of mine called Paul " .
Lennon co @-@ wrote " Fame " , David Bowie 's first US number one , and provided guitar and backing vocals for the January 1975 recording . The same month , Elton John topped the charts with his cover of " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " , featuring Lennon on guitar and back @-@ up vocals ( Lennon is credited on the single under the moniker of " Dr. Winston O 'Boogie " ) . He and Ono were reunited shortly afterwards . Lennon released Rock ' n ' Roll ( 1975 ) , an album of cover songs , in February . " Stand by Me " , taken from the album and a US and UK hit , became his last single for five years . He made what would be his final stage appearance in the ATV special A Salute to Lew Grade , recorded on 18 April and televised in June . Playing acoustic guitar and backed by an eight @-@ piece band , Lennon performed two songs from Rock ' n ' Roll ( " Stand by Me " , which was not broadcast , and " Slippin ' and Slidin ' " ) followed by " Imagine " . The band , known as Etc . , wore masks behind their heads , a dig by Lennon who thought Grade was two @-@ faced .
= = = = 1975 – 80 : Retirement and return = = = =
With the birth of his second son Sean on 9 October 1975 , Lennon took on the role of househusband , beginning what would be a five @-@ year hiatus from the music industry during which he gave all his attention to his family . Within the month , he fulfilled his contractual obligation to EMI / Capitol for one more album by releasing Shaved Fish , a compilation album of previously recorded tracks . He devoted himself to Sean , rising at 6 am daily to plan and prepare his meals and to spend time with him . He wrote " Cookin ' ( In the Kitchen of Love ) " for Starr 's Ringo 's Rotogravure ( 1976 ) , performing on the track in June in what would be his last recording session until 1980 . He formally announced his break from music in Tokyo in 1977 , saying , " we have basically decided , without any great decision , to be with our baby as much as we can until we feel we can take time off to indulge ourselves in creating things outside of the family . " During his career break he created several series of drawings , and drafted a book containing a mix of autobiographical material and what he termed " mad stuff " , all of which would be published posthumously .
Lennon emerged from retirement in October 1980 with the single " ( Just Like ) Starting Over " , followed the next month by the album Double Fantasy , which contained songs written during a journey to Bermuda on a 43 @-@ foot sailing boat the previous June , that reflected his fulfilment in his new @-@ found stable family life . Sufficient additional material was recorded for a planned follow @-@ up album Milk and Honey ( released posthumously in 1984 ) . Released jointly by Lennon and Ono , Double Fantasy was not well received , drawing comments such as Melody Maker 's " indulgent sterility ... a godawful yawn " .
= = = 8 December 1980 : Death = = =
At around 10 : 50 p.m. ( EST ) on 8 December 1980 , as Lennon and Ono returned to their New York apartment in the Dakota , Mark David Chapman shot Lennon in the back four times at the entrance to the building . Lennon was taken to the emergency room of nearby Roosevelt Hospital and was pronounced dead on arrival at 11 : 00 p.m. ( EST ) . Earlier that evening , Lennon had autographed a copy of Double Fantasy for Chapman .
Ono issued a statement the next day , saying " There is no funeral for John " , ending it with the words , " John loved and prayed for the human race . Please pray the same for him . " His body was cremated at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale , New York . Ono scattered his ashes in New York 's Central Park , where the Strawberry Fields memorial was later created . Chapman pleaded guilty to second @-@ degree murder and was sentenced to 20 @-@ years @-@ to @-@ life . As of 2016 , he remains in prison , having been denied parole eight times .
= = Personal relationships = =
= = = Cynthia Lennon = = =
Lennon and Cynthia Powell ( 1939 – 2015 ) met in 1957 as fellow students at the Liverpool College of Art . Although being scared of Lennon 's attitude and appearance , she heard that he was obsessed with French actress Brigitte Bardot , so she dyed her hair blonde . Lennon asked her out , but when she said that she was engaged , he screamed out , " I didn 't ask you to fuckin ' marry me , did I ? " She often accompanied him to Quarrymen gigs and travelled to Hamburg with McCartney 's girlfriend at the time to visit him . Lennon , jealous by nature , eventually grew possessive and often terrified Powell with his anger and physical violence . Lennon later said that until he met Ono , he had never questioned his chauvinistic attitude to women . The Beatles song " Getting Better " , he said , told his own story , " I used to be cruel to my woman , and physically — any woman . I was a hitter . I couldn 't express myself and I hit . I fought men and I hit women . That is why I am always on about peace " .
Recalling his reaction in July 1962 on learning that Cynthia was pregnant , Lennon said , " There 's only one thing for it Cyn . We 'll have to get married . " The couple were married on 23 August at the Mount Pleasant Register Office in Liverpool . His marriage began just as Beatlemania took hold across the UK . He performed on the evening of his wedding day , and would continue to do so almost daily from then on . Epstein , fearing that fans would be alienated by the idea of a married Beatle , asked the Lennons to keep their marriage secret . Julian was born on 8 April 1963 ; Lennon was on tour at the time and did not see his son until three days later .
Cynthia attributed the start of the marriage breakdown to LSD , and as a result , she felt that he slowly lost interest in her . When the group travelled by train to Bangor , Wales , in 1967 , for the Maharishi Yogi 's Transcendental Meditation seminar , a policeman did not recognise her and stopped her from boarding . She later recalled how the incident seemed to symbolise the ending of their marriage . After arriving home at Kenwood , and finding Lennon with Ono , Cynthia left the house to stay with friends . Alexis Mardas later claimed to have slept with her that night , and a few weeks later he informed her that Lennon was seeking a divorce and custody of Julian on grounds of her adultery with him . After negotiations , Lennon capitulated and agreed to her divorcing him on the same grounds . The case was settled out of court in November 1968 , with Lennon giving her £ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 240 @,@ 000 in US dollars at the time ) , a small annual payment and custody of Julian .
= = = Brian Epstein = = =
The Beatles were performing at Liverpool 's Cavern Club in November 1961 , when they were introduced to Epstein after a midday concert . Epstein was homosexual . According to biographer Philip Norman , one of his reasons for wanting to manage the group was that he was physically attracted to Lennon . Almost as soon as Julian was born , Lennon went on holiday to Spain with Epstein , leading to speculation about their relationship . Questioned about it later , Lennon said , " Well , it was almost a love affair , but not quite . It was never consummated . But it was a pretty intense relationship . It was my first experience with a homosexual that I was conscious was homosexual . We used to sit in a café in Torremolinos looking at all the boys and I 'd say , ' Do you like that one ? Do you like this one ? ' I was rather enjoying the experience , thinking like a writer all the time : I am experiencing this . " Soon after their return from Spain , at McCartney 's twenty @-@ first birthday party in June 1963 , Lennon physically attacked Cavern Club MC Bob Wooler for saying " How was your honeymoon , John ? " The MC , known for his wordplay and affectionate but cutting remarks , was making a joke , but ten months had passed since Lennon 's marriage , and the honeymoon , deferred , was still two months in the future . To Lennon , who was intoxicated with alcohol at the time , the matter was simple : " He called me a queer so I battered his bloody ribs in " .
Lennon delighted in mocking Epstein for his homosexuality and for the fact that he was Jewish . When Epstein invited suggestions for the title of his autobiography , Lennon offered Queer Jew ; on learning of the eventual title , A Cellarful of Noise , he parodied , " More like A Cellarful of Boys " . He demanded of a visitor to Epstein 's flat , " Have you come to blackmail him ? If not , you 're the only bugger in London who hasn 't . " During the recording of " Baby , You 're a Rich Man " , he sang altered choruses of " Baby , you 're a rich fag Jew " .
= = = Julian Lennon = = =
Lennon 's first son , Julian , was born as his commitments with the Beatles intensified at the height of Beatlemania during his marriage to Cynthia . Lennon was touring with the Beatles when Julian was born on 8 April 1963 . Julian 's birth , like his mother Cynthia 's marriage to Lennon , was kept secret because Epstein was convinced public knowledge of such things would threaten the Beatles ' commercial success . Julian recalls how some four years later , as a small child in Weybridge , " I was trundled home from school and came walking up with one of my watercolour paintings . It was just a bunch of stars and this blonde girl I knew at school . And Dad said , ' What 's this ? ' I said , ' It 's Lucy in the sky with diamonds . ' " Lennon used it as the title of a Beatles song , and though it was later reported to have been derived from the initials LSD , Lennon insisted , " It 's not an acid song . " McCartney corroborated Lennon 's explanation that Julian innocently came up with the name . Lennon was distant from Julian , who felt closer to McCartney than to his father . During a car journey to visit Cynthia and Julian during Lennon 's divorce , McCartney composed a song , " Hey Jules " , to comfort him . It would evolve into the Beatles song " Hey Jude " . Lennon later said , " That 's his best song . It started off as a song about my son Julian ... he turned it into ' Hey Jude ' . I always thought it was about me and Yoko but he said it wasn 't . "
Lennon 's relationship with Julian was already strained , and after Lennon and Ono 's 1971 move to New York , Julian would not see his father again until 1973 . With Pang 's encouragement , it was arranged for him ( and his mother ) to visit Lennon in Los Angeles , where they went to Disneyland . Julian started to see his father regularly , and Lennon gave him a drumming part on a Walls and Bridges track . He bought Julian a Gibson Les Paul guitar and other instruments , and encouraged his interest in music by demonstrating guitar chord techniques . Julian recalls that he and his father " got on a great deal better " during the time he spent in New York : " We had a lot of fun , laughed a lot and had a great time in general . "
In a Playboy interview with David Sheff shortly before his death , Lennon said , " Sean was a planned child , and therein lies the difference . I don 't love Julian any less as a child . He 's still my son , whether he came from a bottle of whiskey or because they didn 't have pills in those days . He 's here , he belongs to me , and he always will . " He said he was trying to re @-@ establish a connection with the then 17 @-@ year @-@ old , and confidently predicted , " Julian and I will have a relationship in the future . " After his death it was revealed that he had left Julian very little in his will .
= = = Yoko Ono = = =
Two versions exist of how Lennon met Ono . According to the first , told by the Lennons , on 9 November 1966 Lennon went to the Indica Gallery in London , where Ono was preparing her conceptual art exhibit , and they were introduced by gallery owner John Dunbar . Lennon was intrigued by Ono 's " Hammer A Nail " : patrons hammered a nail into a wooden board , creating the art piece . Although the exhibition had not yet begun , Lennon wanted to hammer a nail into the clean board , but Ono stopped him . Dunbar asked her , " Don 't you know who this is ? He 's a millionaire ! He might buy it . " Ono had supposedly not heard of the Beatles , but relented on condition that Lennon pay her five shillings , to which Lennon replied , " I 'll give you an imaginary five shillings and hammer an imaginary nail in . " The second version , told by McCartney , is that in late 1965 , Ono was in London compiling original musical scores for a book John Cage was working on , Notations , but McCartney declined to give her any of his own manuscripts for the book , suggesting that Lennon might oblige . When asked , Lennon gave Ono the original handwritten lyrics to " The Word " .
Ono began visiting and telephoning Lennon 's home and , when his wife asked for an explanation , Lennon explained that Ono was only trying to obtain money for her " avant @-@ garde bullshit " . In May 1968 , while his wife was on holiday in Greece , Lennon invited Ono to visit . They spent the night recording what would become the Two Virgins album , after which , he said , they " made love at dawn . " When Lennon 's wife returned home she found Ono wearing her bathrobe and drinking tea with Lennon who simply said , " Oh , hi . " Ono became pregnant in 1968 and miscarried a male child they named John Ono Lennon II on 21 November 1968 , a few weeks after Lennon 's divorce from Cynthia was granted .
During Lennon 's last two years in the Beatles , he and Ono began public protests against the Vietnam War . They were married in Gibraltar on 20 March 1969 , and spent their honeymoon at the Hilton Amsterdam campaigning with a week @-@ long Bed @-@ In for Peace . They planned another Bed @-@ In in the United States , but were denied entry , so held one instead at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal , where they recorded " Give Peace a Chance " . They often combined advocacy with performance art , as in their " Bagism " , first introduced during a Vienna press conference . Lennon detailed this period in the Beatles song " The Ballad of John and Yoko " . Lennon changed his name by deed poll on 22 April 1969 , adding " Ono " as a middle name . The brief ceremony took place on the roof of the Apple Corps building , made famous three months earlier by the Beatles ' Let It Be rooftop concert . Although he used the name John Ono Lennon thereafter , official documents referred to him as John Winston Ono Lennon , since he was not permitted to revoke a name given at birth . The couple settled at Tittenhurst Park at Sunninghill in Berkshire . After Ono was injured in a car accident , Lennon arranged for a king @-@ sized bed to be brought to the recording studio as he worked on the Beatles ' last album , Abbey Road . To escape the acrimony of the band 's break @-@ up , Ono suggested they move permanently to New York , which they did on 31 August 1971 .
They first lived in The St. Regis Hotel on 5th Avenue , East 55th Street , then moved to a street @-@ level flat at 105 Bank Street , Greenwich Village , on 16 October 1971 . After a robbery , they relocated to the more secure Dakota at 1 West 72nd Street , in 1973 .
= = = May Pang = = =
ABKCO Industries , formed in 1968 by Allen Klein as an umbrella company to ABKCO Records , recruited May Pang as a receptionist in 1969 . Through involvement in a project with ABKCO , Lennon and Ono met her the following year . She became their personal assistant . After she had been working with the couple for three years , Ono confided that she and Lennon were becoming estranged from one another . She went on to suggest that Pang should begin a physical relationship with Lennon , telling her , " He likes you a lot . " Pang , 22 , astounded by Ono 's proposition , eventually agreed to become Lennon 's companion . The pair soon moved to California , beginning an 18 @-@ month period he later called his " lost weekend " . In Los Angeles , Pang encouraged Lennon to develop regular contact with Julian , whom he had not seen for two years . He also rekindled friendships with Starr , McCartney , Beatles roadie Mal Evans , and Harry Nilsson . Whilst drinking with Nilsson , after misunderstanding something Pang said , Lennon attempted to strangle her , relenting only when physically restrained by Nilsson .
Upon returning to New York , they prepared a spare room in their newly rented apartment for Julian to visit . Lennon , hitherto inhibited by Ono in this regard , began to reestablish contact with other relatives and friends . By December he and Pang were considering a house purchase , and he was refusing to accept Ono 's telephone calls . In January 1975 , he agreed to meet Ono who claimed to have found a cure for smoking . But after the meeting he failed to return home or call Pang . When Pang telephoned the next day , Ono told her Lennon was unavailable , being exhausted after a hypnotherapy session . Two days later , Lennon reappeared at a joint dental appointment , stupefied and confused to such an extent that Pang believed he had been brainwashed . He told her his separation from Ono was now over , though Ono would allow him to continue seeing her as his mistress .
= = = Sean Lennon = = =
When Lennon and Ono were reunited , she became pregnant , but having previously suffered three miscarriages in her attempt to have a child with Lennon , she said she wanted an abortion . She agreed to allow the pregnancy to continue on condition that Lennon adopt the role of househusband ; this he agreed to do . Sean was born on 9 October 1975 , Lennon 's 35th birthday , delivered by Caesarean section . Lennon 's subsequent career break would span five years . He had a photographer take pictures of Sean every day of his first year , and created numerous drawings for him , posthumously published as Real Love : The Drawings for Sean . Lennon later proudly declared , " He didn 't come out of my belly but , by God , I made his bones , because I 've attended to every meal , and to how he sleeps , and to the fact that he swims like a fish . "
= = = Former Beatles = = =
Although his friendship with Starr remained consistently friendly during the years following the Beatles ' break @-@ up in 1970 , Lennon 's relationships with McCartney and Harrison varied . He was close to Harrison initially , but the two drifted apart after Lennon moved to America . When Harrison was in New York for his December 1974 Dark Horse tour , Lennon agreed to join him on stage , but failed to appear after an argument over Lennon 's refusal to sign an agreement that would finally dissolve the Beatles ' legal partnership . ( Lennon eventually signed the papers while holidaying in Florida with Pang and Julian . ) Harrison offended Lennon in 1980 , when he published an autobiography that made little mention of him . Lennon told Playboy , " I was hurt by it . By glaring omission ... my influence on his life is absolutely zilch ... he remembers every two @-@ bit sax player or guitarist he met in subsequent years . I 'm not in the book . "
Lennon 's most intense feelings were reserved for McCartney . In addition to attacking him through the lyrics of " How Do You Sleep ? " , Lennon argued with him through the press for three years after the group split . The two later began to reestablish something of the close friendship they had once known , and in 1974 , they even played music together again before eventually growing apart once more . Lennon said that during McCartney 's final visit , in April 1976 , they watched the episode of Saturday Night Live in which Lorne Michaels made a $ 3 @,@ 000 cash offer to get the Beatles to reunite on the show . The pair considered going to the studio to make a joke appearance , attempting to claim their share of the money , but were too tired . Lennon summarised his feelings towards McCartney in an interview three days before his death : " Throughout my career , I 've selected to work with ... only two people : Paul McCartney and Yoko Ono ... That ain 't bad picking . "
Along with his estrangement from McCartney , Lennon always felt a musical competitiveness with him and kept an ear on his music . During his five @-@ year career break he was content to sit back so long as McCartney was producing what Lennon saw as mediocre material . When McCartney released " Coming Up " , in 1980 , the year Lennon returned to the studio and the last year of his life , he took notice . " It 's driving me crackers ! " he jokingly complained , because he could not get the tune out of his head . Asked the same year whether the group were dreaded enemies or the best of friends , he replied that they were neither , and that he had not seen any of them in a long time . But he also said , " I still love those guys . The Beatles are over , but John , Paul , George and Ringo go on . "
= = Political activism = =
Lennon and Ono used their honeymoon as what they termed a " Bed @-@ In for Peace " at the Amsterdam Hilton Hotel ; the March 1969 event attracted worldwide media ridicule . At a second Bed @-@ In three months later at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal Lennon wrote and recorded " Give Peace a Chance " . Released as a single , it was quickly taken up as an anti @-@ war anthem and sung by a quarter of a million demonstrators against the Vietnam War in Washington , DC , on 15 November , the second Vietnam Moratorium Day . In December , they paid for billboards in 10 cities around the world which declared , in the national language , " War Is Over ! If You Want It " .
Later that year , Lennon and Ono supported efforts by the family of James Hanratty , hanged for murder in 1962 , to prove his innocence . Those who had condemned Hanratty were , according to Lennon , " the same people who are running guns to South Africa and killing blacks in the streets . ... The same bastards are in control , the same people are running everything , it 's the whole bullshit bourgeois scene . " In London , Lennon and Ono staged a " Britain Murdered Hanratty " banner march and a " Silent Protest For James Hanratty " , and produced a 40 @-@ minute documentary on the case . At an appeal hearing years later , Hanratty 's conviction was upheld after DNA evidence matched . His family continued to appeal in 2010 .
Lennon and Ono showed their solidarity with the Clydeside UCS workers ' work @-@ in of 1971 by sending a bouquet of red roses and a cheque for £ 5 @,@ 000 . On moving to New York City in August that year , they befriended two of the Chicago Seven , Yippie peace activists Jerry Rubin and Abbie Hoffman . Another political activist , John Sinclair , poet and co @-@ founder of the White Panther Party , was serving ten years in prison for selling two joints of marijuana after previous convictions for possession of the drug . In December 1971 at Ann Arbor , Michigan , 15 @,@ 000 people attended the " John Sinclair Freedom Rally " , a protest and benefit concert with contributions from Lennon , Stevie Wonder , Bob Seger , Bobby Seale of the Black Panther Party , and others . Lennon and Ono , backed by David Peel and Rubin , performed an acoustic set of four songs from their forthcoming Some Time in New York City album including " John Sinclair " , whose lyrics called for his release . The day before the rally , the Michigan Senate passed a bill that significantly reduced the penalties for possession of marijuana and four days later Sinclair was released on an appeal bond . The performance was recorded and two of the tracks later appeared on John Lennon Anthology ( 1998 ) .
Following the Bloody Sunday incident in Northern Ireland in 1972 , in which 14 unarmed civil rights protesters were shot dead by the British Army , Lennon said that given the choice between the army and the IRA ( who were not involved in the incident ) he would side with the latter . Lennon and Ono wrote two songs protesting British presence and actions in Ireland for their Some Time in New York City album : " Luck of the Irish " and " Sunday Bloody Sunday " . In 2000 , David Shayler , a former member of Britain 's domestic security service MI5 , suggested that Lennon had given money to the IRA , though this was swiftly denied by Ono . Biographer Bill Harry records that following Bloody Sunday , Lennon and Ono financially supported the production of the film The Irish Tapes , a political documentary with a Republican slant .
According to FBI surveillance reports ( and confirmed by Tariq Ali in 2006 ) Lennon was sympathetic to the International Marxist Group , a Trotskyist group formed in Britain in 1968 . However , the FBI considered Lennon to have limited effectiveness as a revolutionary since he was " constantly under the influence of narcotics " .
In 1973 , Lennon contributed a limerick called " Why Make It Sad To Be Gay ? " to Len Richmond 's The Gay Liberation Book .
Lennon 's last act of political activism was a statement in support of the striking minority sanitation workers in San Francisco on 5 December 1980 . He and Ono planned to join the workers ' protest on 14 December . By this time , however , Lennon had also quietly renounced the counterculture views which he had helped promote during the 1960s and 1970s and became more aligned with conservatism , though whether he had actually aligned to a more conservative world view is disputed .
= = = Deportation attempt = = =
Following the impact of " Give Peace a Chance " and " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " , both strongly associated with the anti – Vietnam War movement , the Nixon administration , hearing rumours of Lennon 's involvement in a concert to be held in San Diego at the same time as the Republican National Convention , tried to have him deported . Nixon believed that Lennon 's anti @-@ war activities could cost him his re @-@ election ; Republican Senator Strom Thurmond suggested in a February 1972 memo that " deportation would be a strategic counter @-@ measure " against Lennon . The next month the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service ( INS ) began deportation proceedings , arguing that his 1968 misdemeanor conviction for cannabis possession in London had made him ineligible for admission to the United States . Lennon spent the next three and a half years in and out of deportation hearings until 8 October 1975 , when a court of appeals barred the deportation attempt , stating " ... the courts will not condone selective deportation based upon secret political grounds . " While the legal battle continued , Lennon attended rallies and made television appearances . Lennon and Ono co @-@ hosted The Mike Douglas Show for a week in February 1972 , introducing guests such as Jerry Rubin and Bobby Seale to mid @-@ America . In 1972 , Bob Dylan wrote a letter to the INS defending Lennon , stating :
John and Yoko add a great voice and drive to the country 's so @-@ called art institution . They inspire and transcend and stimulate and by doing so , only help others to see pure light and in doing that , put an end to this dull taste of petty commercialism which is being passed off as Artist Art by the overpowering mass media . Hurray for John and Yoko . Let them stay and live here and breathe . The country 's got plenty of room and space . Let John and Yoko stay !
On 23 March 1973 , Lennon was ordered to leave the US within 60 days . Ono , meanwhile , was granted permanent residence . In response , Lennon and Ono held a press conference on 1 April 1973 at the New York City Bar Association , where they announced the formation of the state of Nutopia ; a place with " no land , no boundaries , no passports , only people " . Waving the white flag of Nutopia ( two handkerchiefs ) , they asked for political asylum in the US . The press conference was filmed , and would later appear in the 2006 documentary The US vs. John Lennon . Lennon 's Mind Games ( 1973 ) included the track " Nutopian International Anthem " , which comprised three seconds of silence . Soon after the press conference , Nixon 's involvement in a political scandal came to light , and in June the Watergate hearings began in Washington , DC . They led to the president 's resignation 14 months later . Nixon 's successor , Gerald Ford , showed little interest in continuing the battle against Lennon , and the deportation order was overturned in 1975 . The following year , his US immigration status finally resolved , Lennon received his " green card " certifying his permanent residency , and when Jimmy Carter was inaugurated as president in January 1977 , Lennon and Ono attended the Inaugural Ball .
= = = FBI surveillance and declassified documents = = =
After Lennon 's death , historian Jon Wiener filed a Freedom of Information Act request for FBI files documenting the Bureau 's role in the deportation attempt . The FBI admitted it had 281 pages of files on Lennon , but refused to release most of them on the grounds that they contained national security information . In 1983 , Wiener sued the FBI with the help of the American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California . It took 14 years of litigation to force the FBI to release the withheld pages . The ACLU , representing Wiener , won a favourable decision in their suit against the FBI in the Ninth Circuit in 1991 . The Justice Department appealed the decision to the Supreme Court in April 1992 , but the court declined to review the case . In 1997 , respecting President Bill Clinton 's newly instigated rule that documents should be withheld only if releasing them would involve " foreseeable harm " , the Justice Department settled most of the outstanding issues outside court by releasing all but 10 of the contested documents .
Wiener published the results of his 14 @-@ year campaign in January 2000 . Gimme Some Truth : The John Lennon FBI Files contained facsimiles of the documents , including " lengthy reports by confidential informants detailing the daily lives of anti @-@ war activists , memos to the White House , transcripts of TV shows on which Lennon appeared , and a proposal that Lennon be arrested by local police on drug charges " . The story is told in the documentary The US vs. John Lennon . The final 10 documents in Lennon 's FBI file , which reported on his ties with London anti @-@ war activists in 1971 and had been withheld as containing " national security information provided by a foreign government under an explicit promise of confidentiality " , were released in December 2006 . They contained no indication that the British government had regarded Lennon as a serious threat ; one example of the released material was a report that two prominent British leftists had hoped Lennon would finance a left @-@ wing bookshop and reading room .
= = Writing and art = =
Beatles biographer Bill Harry writes that Lennon began drawing and writing creatively at an early age with the encouragement of his uncle . He collected his stories , poetry , cartoons and caricatures in a Quarry Bank High School exercise book that he called the Daily Howl . The drawings were often of crippled people , and the writings satirical , and throughout the book was an abundance of wordplay . According to classmate Bill Turner , Lennon created the Daily Howl to amuse his best friend and later Quarrymen bandmate Pete Shotton , to whom he would show his work before he let anyone else see it . Turner said that Lennon " had an obsession for Wigan Pier . It kept cropping up " , and in Lennon 's story A Carrot in a Potato Mine , " the mine was at the end of Wigan Pier . " Turner described how one of Lennon 's cartoons depicted a bus stop sign annotated with the question , " Why ? " . Above was a flying pancake , and below , " a blind man wearing glasses leading along a blind dog — also wearing glasses " .
Lennon 's love of wordplay and nonsense with a twist found a wider audience when he was 24 . Harry writes that In His Own Write ( 1964 ) was published after " Some journalist who was hanging around the Beatles came to me and I ended up showing him the stuff . They said , ' Write a book ' and that 's how the first one came about " . Like the Daily Howl it contained a mix of formats including short stories , poetry , plays and drawings . One story , " Good Dog Nigel " , tells the tale of " a happy dog , urinating on a lamp post , barking , wagging his tail — until he suddenly hears a message that he will be killed at three o 'clock " . The Times Literary Supplement considered the poems and stories " remarkable ... also very funny ... the nonsense runs on , words and images prompting one another in a chain of pure fantasy " . Book Week reported , " This is nonsense writing , but one has only to review the literature of nonsense to see how well Lennon has brought it off . While some of his homonyms are gratuitous word play , many others have not only double meaning but a double edge . " Lennon was not only surprised by the positive reception , but that the book was reviewed at all , and suggested that readers " took the book more seriously than I did myself . It just began as a laugh for me " .
In combination with A Spaniard in the Works ( 1965 ) , In His Own Write formed the basis of the stage play The John Lennon Play : In His Own Write , co @-@ adapted by Victor Spinetti and Adrienne Kennedy . After negotiations between Lennon , Spinetti and the artistic director of the National Theatre , Sir Laurence Olivier , the play opened at The Old Vic in 1968 . Lennon and Ono attended the opening night performance , their second public appearance together . In 1969 , Lennon wrote " Four in Hand " — a skit based on his teenaged experiences of group masturbation — for Kenneth Tynan 's play Oh ! Calcutta ! . After Lennon 's death , further works were published , including Skywriting by Word of Mouth ( 1986 ) ; Ai : Japan Through John Lennon 's Eyes : A Personal Sketchbook ( 1992 ) , with Lennon 's illustrations of the definitions of Japanese words ; and Real Love : The Drawings for Sean ( 1999 ) . The Beatles Anthology ( 2000 ) also presented examples of his writings and drawings .
= = Musicianship = =
= = = Instruments played = = =
Lennon 's playing of a mouth organ during a bus journey to visit his cousin in Scotland caught the driver 's ear . Impressed , the driver told Lennon of a harmonica he could have if he came to Edinburgh the following day , where one had been stored in the bus depot since a passenger left it on a bus . The professional instrument quickly replaced Lennon 's toy . He would continue to play harmonica , often using the instrument during the Beatles ' Hamburg years , and it became a signature sound in the group 's early recordings . His mother taught him how to play the banjo , later buying him an acoustic guitar . At 16 , he played rhythm guitar with the Quarrymen .
As his career progressed , he played a variety of electric guitars , predominantly the Rickenbacker 325 , Epiphone Casino and Gibson J @-@ 160E , and , from the start of his solo career , the Gibson Les Paul Junior . Double Fantasy producer Jack Douglas claimed that since his Beatle days Lennon habitually tuned his D @-@ string slightly flat , so his Aunt Mimi could tell which guitar was his on recordings . Occasionally he played a six @-@ string bass guitar , the Fender Bass VI , providing bass on some Beatles numbers ( " Back in the U.S.S.R. " , " The Long and Winding Road " , " Helter Skelter " ) that occupied McCartney with another instrument . His other instrument of choice was the piano , on which he composed many songs , including " Imagine " , described as his best @-@ known solo work . His jamming on a piano with McCartney in 1963 led to the creation of the Beatles ' first US number one , " I Want to Hold Your Hand " . In 1964 , he became one of the first British musicians to acquire a Mellotron keyboard , though it was not heard on a Beatles recording until " Strawberry Fields Forever " in 1967 .
= = = Vocal style = = =
When the Beatles recorded " Twist and Shout " , the final track during the mammoth one @-@ day session that produced the band 's 1963 debut album , Please Please Me , Lennon 's voice , already compromised by a cold , came close to giving out . Lennon said , " I couldn 't sing the damn thing , I was just screaming . " In the words of biographer Barry Miles , " Lennon simply shredded his vocal cords in the interests of rock ' n ' roll . " The Beatles ' producer , George Martin , tells how Lennon " had an inborn dislike of his own voice which I could never understand . He was always saying to me : ' DO something with my voice ! ... put something on it ... Make it different . ' " Martin obliged , often using double @-@ tracking and other techniques .
As his Beatles era segued into his solo career , his singing voice found a widening range of expression . Biographer Chris Gregory writes of Lennon " tentatively beginning to expose his insecurities in a number of acoustic @-@ led ' confessional ' ballads , so beginning the process of ' public therapy ' that will eventually culminate in the primal screams of " Cold Turkey " and the cathartic John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band . " Music critic Robert Christgau calls this Lennon 's " greatest vocal performance ... from scream to whine , is modulated electronically ... echoed , filtered , and double tracked . " David Stuart Ryan notes Lennon 's vocal delivery to range from " extreme vulnerability , sensitivity and even naivety " to a hard " rasping " style . Wiener too describes contrasts , saying the singer 's voice can be " at first subdued ; soon it almost cracks with despair " . Music historian Ben Urish recalls hearing the Beatles ' Ed Sullivan Show performance of " This Boy " played on the radio a few days after Lennon 's murder : " As Lennon 's vocals reached their peak ... it hurt too much to hear him scream with such anguish and emotion . But it was my emotions I heard in his voice . Just like I always had . "
= = Legacy = =
Music historians Schinder and Schwartz , writing of the transformation in popular music styles that took place between the 1950s and the 1960s , say that the Beatles ' influence cannot be overstated : having " revolutionised the sound , style , and attitude of popular music and opened rock and roll 's doors to a tidal wave of British rock acts " , the group then " spent the rest of the 1960s expanding rock 's stylistic frontiers " . Liam Gallagher , his group Oasis among the many who acknowledge the band 's influence , identifies Lennon as a hero ; in 1999 he named his first child Lennon Gallagher in tribute . On National Poetry Day in 1999 , after conducting a poll to identify the UK 's favourite song lyric , the BBC announced " Imagine " the winner .
In a 2006 Guardian article , Jon Wiener wrote : " For young people in 1972 , it was thrilling to see Lennon 's courage in standing up to [ US President ] Nixon . That willingness to take risks with his career , and his life , is one reason why people still admire him today . " For music historians Urish and Bielen , Lennon 's most significant effort was " the self @-@ portraits ... in his songs [ which ] spoke to , for , and about , the human condition . "
In 2013 , Downtown Music Publishing signed a publishing administration agreement for the U.S. with Lenono Music and Ono Music , home to the song catalogs of John Lennon and Yoko Ono respectively . Under the terms of the agreement , Downtown represents Lennon 's solo works -- including " Imagine , " " Instant Karma ( We All Shine On ) , " " Power to the People , " " Happy X @-@ Mas ( War Is Over ) , " " Jealous Guy , " " ( Just Like ) Starting Over " and others .
Lennon continues to be mourned throughout the world and has been the subject of numerous memorials and tributes . In 2002 , the airport in Lennon 's home town was renamed the Liverpool John Lennon Airport . In 2010 , on what would have been Lennon 's 70th birthday , the John Lennon Peace Monument was unveiled in Chavasse Park , Liverpool , by Cynthia and Julian Lennon . The sculpture entitled ' Peace & Harmony ' exhibits peace symbols and carries the inscription " Peace on Earth for the Conservation of Life · In Honour of John Lennon 1940 – 1980 " .
In December 2013 the International Astronomical Union named one of the craters on Mercury after Lennon .
= = = Awards and sales = = =
The Lennon – McCartney songwriting partnership is regarded as one of the most influential and successful of the 20th century . As performer , writer or co @-@ writer Lennon has had 25 number one singles on the US Hot 100 chart.a His album sales in the US stand at 14 million units . Double Fantasy was his best @-@ selling solo album , at three million shipments in the US ; Released shortly before his death , it won the 1981 Grammy Award for Album of the Year . The following year , the BRIT Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music went to Lennon .
Participants in a 2002 BBC poll voted him eighth of " 100 Greatest Britons " . Between 2003 and 2008 , Rolling Stone recognised Lennon in several reviews of artists and music , ranking him fifth of " 100 Greatest Singers of All Time " and 38th of " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " , and his albums John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band and Imagine , 22nd and 76th respectively of " Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . He was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) with the other Beatles in 1965 ( returned in 1969 ) . Lennon was posthumously inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1987 and into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994 .
= = Discography = =
Unfinished Music No. 1 : Two Virgins ( with Yoko Ono ) ( 1968 )
Unfinished Music No. 2 : Life with the Lions ( with Yoko Ono ) ( 1969 )
Wedding Album ( with Yoko Ono ) ( 1969 )
John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band ( 1970 )
Imagine ( 1971 )
Some Time in New York City ( with Yoko Ono ) ( 1972 )
Mind Games ( 1973 )
Walls and Bridges ( 1974 )
Rock ' n ' Roll ( 1975 )
Double Fantasy ( with Yoko Ono ) ( 1980 )
Milk and Honey ( with Yoko Ono ) ( 1984 )
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= 411th Engineer Brigade ( United States ) =
The 411th Engineer Brigade ( Theater Army ) is a combat engineer brigade of the United States Army headquartered in New Windsor , New York . It is a major engineer command of the United States Army Reserve .
Tracing its lineage back to the 355th Engineer Regiment , the brigade assumed its predecessor 's campaign participation credit and honors , which were received fighting in the European Theater of World War II . The reserve brigade did not participate in any Cold War era fighting , and only saw periodic moves to various army bases around New York State . After the Cold War , however , the brigade saw several deployments to the Middle East in a supporting role for US @-@ led contingencies . These included Operation Desert Storm , Operation Joint Endeavor , Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom .
= = Organization = =
The 411th Engineer Brigade is a subordinate unit of the 412th Engineer Command and its Headquarters and Headquarters Company is stationed at New Windsor , New York . It contains two subordinate battalions and separate companies which are also reserve units . The 479th Engineer Battalion ( Combat ) ( Mechanized ) headquartered at Watertown , New York and the 854th Engineer Battalion located at Saugerties , New York are the Brigade 's two principal components . Additionally , the Brigade commands the 306th Engineer Company in Farmingdale , New York and the 328th Engineer Company ( Combat ) ( Heavy ) of Northfield , New Jersey , and the 417th Engineer Company ( Combat ) ( Heavy ) in Bullville , New York .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The 411th Engineer Brigade traces its lineage back to the 355th Engineer Regiment , which was first constituted on 15 October 1921 in the Organized Reserves . The regiment was organized in January 1922 with its headquarters at Chapel Hill , North Carolina .
It was ordered into active duty military service on 1 September 1942 at Camp White , Oregon in preparation for deployment to Europe during World War II . During World War II , the regiment saw action in the European Theater , undertaking numerous bridging and mobility missions in Normandy , Northern France , the Rhineland and the Ardennes area . The Regiment was awarded the Meritorious Unit Commendation for its service during the war . After the war was over in 1945 , the regiment remained in the country until it was inactivated on 17 June 1946 in Germany . A year later , on 27 May 1947 the regiment was reactivated with its Headquarters in Detroit , Michigan . It was again deactivated on 31 December 1948 in Detroit .
After the deactivation , the Regiment was broken up and its subordinate elements were redesignated . The regimental Headquarters and Headquarters Company and Service Company were reorganized on 25 February 1949 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 411th Engineer Brigade , allowing them a larger staff with the ability to take command of more subordinate units . The regiment 's 1st Battalion was reorganized and redesignated on 25 February 1949 as the 928th Engineer Construction Battalion . The 2nd Battalion was reorganized and redesignated on 15 March 1949 as the 929th Engineer Construction Battalion . The 3rd Battalion disbanded on 9 July 1953 . The two separated battalions retained separate lineage from this point and the 355th Engineer Regiment ceased to exist .
= = = Cold War years = = =
The 411th Engineer Brigade was activated on 14 March 1949 at New York City . It was reorganized on 22 December 1950 as the 411th Engineer Aviation Brigade . A few years later , the Organized Reserve Corps itself was redesignated as the Army Reserve , and the brigade was delegated to Reserve status . On 1 January 1957 , the brigade was again redesignated as the 411th Engineer Brigade . On 31 January 1968 , the brigade headquarters was relocated to Fort Tilden , New York .
For most of its operational existence , the brigade remained in Reserve status except for a few brief activations in the Active Duty force . It was ordered into active military service on 24 March 1970 at Fort Tilden , New York , before being reverted to reserve status two days later . The brigade received its distinctive unit insignia on 28 January 1971 and its shoulder sleeve insignia on 20 December 1973 . On 3 January 1978 the brigade headquarters location was changed to Brooklyn , New York .
The brigade was again ordered into active duty to play a supporting role in the Gulf War in 1990 . It officially switched to active service on 6 December 1990 at Brooklyn , New York . It participated in Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm and earned two campaign streamers for participation in the conflict . On 11 March 1991 it was released from active military service and reverted to reserve status . The next day , while still in the country , the brigade was one of numerous units thought to have been exposed to chemical agents released during the Khamisiyah Pit demolition . Much of the NATO invasion force in the country at the time is suspected to have been exposed to these agents .
On 1 April 1996 , the brigade relocated to New Windsor , New York . It provided engineer Support to Operation Joint Endeavor in Bosnia and Kosovo by augmenting the staff of the 412th Engineer Command , and by deploying the 139th and 141st Transportation Company Detachments to the region which were under the brigade 's peacetime command and control .
= = = Iraq War = = =
The Brigade was alerted for deployment to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom in late 2005 . In the summer of 2006 , it trained for three months at Fort McCoy , Wisconsin to prepare . Its mission in Iraq was to integrate other smaller engineer units and provide engineer support to the other Army units operating in the country . The brigade headquarters took command of several other engineer battalions during this deployment . Among the units under brigade 's control was the 502nd Engineer Battalion based in Hanau , Germany which worked on bridges around Baghdad , as well as the 875th Engineer Battalion of the Arkansas Army National Guard based at Camp Striker and the active duty 92nd Engineer Battalion . Also attached to the brigade 's command was the Us Air Force 's 557th Expeditionary RED HORSE Squadron , a contingent of Air Force engineers .
The brigade arrived in Iraq in September 2006 . It assumed control of over 3 @,@ 000 engineers from the US Army , US Navy , US Air Force and US Marine Corps , having taken over the duty from the 130th Engineer Brigade which was departing following the end of its deployment . During the deployment , the brigade had five principle duties : route clearance and sanitation , rapid crater repair , engineer support to the 3rd Infantry Division and other combat units , planning , design and construction of contingency operating bases , and command of tactical bridging assets . The first major project of the brigade after arriving in country in September 2006 was to assist Iraqi engineers in repairing and operating the run down and damaged water treatment plant at Al Bakir which provided a major source of fresh water from the Tigris River . The brigade allowed Iraqi engineers to lead this operation and played a supporting role in evaluating their work . One of the brigade 's major projects was the construction of Forward Operating Base ( FOB ) Hammer , which was completed in just 45 days . The base required construction materials from all over the country as well as foreign materials brought to Camp Victory and Balad Air Base . The 411th Brigade 's attached B CO 92nd EN BN soldiers focused primarily on land work , perimeter fences and ground fortifications totaling over nine kilometers , with a detachment from the RED HORSE USAF focused on construction of buildings and other " vertical " projects . After completion , the FOB had space for 4 @,@ 000 soldiers , and was occupied by 3rd Brigade Combat Team , 3rd Infantry Division .
After the completion of the FOB , 411th Engineer Brigade soldiers commenced construction on other facilities throughout Camp Liberty for other incoming Army units . At the same time , other units in the brigade were responsible for route clearance in the areas of Logistics Support Area Anaconda along routes used for military supply as well as civilian traffic . The brigade 's soldiers used Buffalo mine protected vehicles to clear these routes of suspected Improvised Explosive Devices and other dangerous obstacles .
During this deployment , the brigade completed over 200 projects on every major Forward Operating Base in the country , and three major projects supporting the Iraq War troop surge of 2007 . It completed over 400 @,@ 000 kilometers of route clearance and blast hole repair using over 2 @,@ 800 pieces of major equipment . The brigade headquarters returned home to New York in fall of 2007 , after one year of deployment to Iraq .
= = = Operation Enduring Freedom = = =
In 2012 , the 411th Engineer Brigade was again activated and deployed to Bagram Air Base in Afghanistan to take command of theater @-@ wide engineer operations . The brigade formed a task force dubbed " Joint Task Force Empire " and remained deployed in Afghanistan until March 2013 when it returned home to New York and was reverted to reserve status .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
= Stanley Matthews =
Sir Stanley Matthews , CBE ( 1 February 1915 – 23 February 2000 ) was an English footballer . Often regarded as one of the greatest players of the English game , he is the only player to have been knighted while still playing , as well as being the first winner of both the European Footballer of the Year and the Football Writers ' Association Footballer of the Year awards . Matthews ' nicknames included " The Wizard of the Dribble " and " The Magician " .
Matthews kept fit enough to play at the top level until he was 50 years old . He was also the oldest player ever to play in England 's top football division and the oldest player ever to represent the country . He played his final competitive game in 1985 , at the age of 70 . Matthews was also an inaugural inductee to the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002 to honour his contribution to the English game .
He spent 19 years with Stoke City , playing for the Potters from 1932 to 1947 , and again from 1961 to 1965 . He helped Stoke to the Second Division title in 1932 – 33 and 1962 – 63 . Between his two spells at Stoke he spent 14 years with Blackpool , where , after being on the losing side in the 1948 and 1951 FA Cup finals , he helped Blackpool to win the cup with a formidable personal performance in the " Matthews Final " of 1953 . Between 1934 and 1957 he won 54 caps for England , playing in the FIFA World Cup in 1950 and 1954 , and winning nine British Home Championship titles .
Following an unsuccessful stint as Port Vale 's general manager between 1965 and 1968 , he travelled around the world , coaching enthusiastic amateurs . The most notable of his coaching experiences came in 1975 in South Africa , where in spite of the harsh apartheid laws of the time he established an all @-@ black team in Soweto known as " Stan 's Men " .
= = Family and early life = =
Stanley Matthews was born on 1 February 1915 in a terraced house in Seymour Street , Hanley , Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent , Staffordshire . He was the third of four sons born to Jack Matthews , a local boxer who was also known as the " Fighting Barber of Hanley " . In the summer of 1921 , Jack Matthews took six @-@ year @-@ old Stanley to the Victoria Ground , home of the local club Stoke City , for an open race for boys under the age of 14 , with a staggered start according to age . His father placed a bet on his son winning , and he did . Matthews attended Hanley 's Wellington Road School , and later described himself as " in many respects a model pupil " . He also said the kickabout games the children played helped to improve his dribbling , and prepared the children for future life by giving them " a focus , a purpose , discipline , and in many respects an escape " . At home he also spent " countless hours " practising dribbling around kitchen chairs he placed in his backyard .
Though he would later become indelibly associated with Stoke City , Matthews grew up supporting that club 's local rivals Port Vale . His father wanted him to follow in his footsteps and become a boxer , but Stanley decided at the age of 13 that he wanted to be a footballer . After a rigorous training session that made Matthews vomit , his mother , Elizabeth , stood firm and made Jack realise that his son , who had one more year at school , should follow his passion of football . His father conceded that should he be picked for England Schoolboys then he could continue his footballing career ; around this time his school football master picked Matthews as an outside @-@ right , rather than as his then @-@ preferred position of centre @-@ half . Matthews played for England Schoolboys against Wales in 1929 , in front of around 20 @,@ 000 spectators at Dean Court , Bournemouth .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Stoke City = = =
Wolverhampton Wanderers , Birmingham City , Aston Villa and West Bromwich Albion were all rumoured to be interested in Matthews in the wake of his appearance for England Schoolboys . The Stoke City manager Tom Mather persuaded Matthews ' father to allow Stanley to join his club 's staff as an office boy on his 15th birthday for pay of £ 1 a week . Matthews played for Stoke 's reserve team during the 1930 – 31 season , coming up first against Burnley . After the game his father gave his usual realist assessment : " I 've seen you play better and I 've seen you play worse " .
Matthews played 22 reserve games in 1931 – 32 , shunning the social scene to focus on improving his game . In one of these games , against Manchester City , he attempted to run at the left @-@ back and take him on with a deft swerve as the defender committed himself to a challenge , rather than follow the accepted wisdom of the day which was to first wait for the defender to run at the attacker – his new technique " worked a treat " . The national press were already predicting a bright future for the teenager , and though he could have then joined any club in the country , he signed as a professional with Stoke on his 17th birthday . Paid the maximum wage of £ 5 a week ( £ 3 in the summer break ) , he was on the same wage as seasoned professionals before he even kicked a ball . Despite this his father insisted that Matthews save this money , and only spend any winning bonus money he earned . He made his first team debut against Bury at Gigg Lane on 19 March 1932 ; the " Potters " won the game 1 – 0 and Matthews learned how physical and dirty opponents could be – and get away with it .
After spending the 1932 – 33 pre @-@ season training intensely by himself ( as opposed to playing golf with his teammates ) , Mather selected Matthews in 15 games , enough to earn him in a winners medal after Stoke were crowned Second Division champions , one point ahead of Tottenham Hotspur . On 4 March 1933 he scored his first senior goal in a 3 – 1 win over local rivals Port Vale at The Old Recreation Ground .
He played 29 First Division games in 1933 – 34 , as Stoke secured their top @-@ flight status with a 12th @-@ place finish . He continued to progress in the 1934 – 35 campaign , and was selected by The Football League for an Inter @-@ League game with the Irish League at The Oval , which finished 6 – 1 to the English . His England debut followed , and so did a further game for the Football League against the Scottish League . Stoke finished the season in 10th place .
In 1935 – 36 Matthews continued to improve , and he added the double body swerve technique to his increasing arsenal of tricks . Largely out of the international picture , he put in 45 games for the " Potters " as Stoke finished fourth under Bob McGrory – the club 's best ever finish . He played 42 games in 1936 – 37 , including the club 's record 10 – 3 win over West Brom at the Victoria Ground . At the end of the season he was paid a loyalty bonus of £ 650 , though the Stoke board initially insisted he was only due £ 500 as he had spent his first two years at the club as an amateur – this attitude left a sour taste in Matthew 's mouth .
Stoke slipped down the league in an extremely tight 1937 – 38 season , and , annoyed by rumours circulating the city of resentment in the dressing room against him for his England success , Matthews requested a transfer in February ; his request was denied . His request became public knowledge , and , disturbed by the attention and harassment he was receiving from Stoke supporters urging him to stay , Matthews decided to take a few days off from the club to relax in Blackpool . Finding no peace there either , Stoke chairman Albert Booth told Matthews he would not be allowed to leave the club , and 3 @,@ 000 City supporters organized a meeting to make their feelings known – they too demanded that he stay . Touched by their strength of feeling and worn out by the attention he was receiving , Matthews agreed to stay . Despite playing regularly for the national side , Matthews put in 38 games for Stoke in 1938 – 39 , helping them to a seventh @-@ place finish – there would not be another full season of Football League action until 1946 .
The war cost Matthews his professional career from the age of 24 to the age of 30 . He instead joined the Royal Air Force , and was based just outside Blackpool , with Ivor Powell his NCO . He rose to the rank of corporal , though he admitted to being one of the most lenient and easy @-@ going NCOs in the forces . He played 69 Wartime League and Cup games for Stoke , and also made 87 guest appearances for Blackpool . In addition to these , he also played a handful of games for Scottish sides Airdrieonians , Morton and Rangers , and also played for Arsenal against FC Dynamo Moscow in extremely thick fog . He also played 29 times for England , though no caps were awarded as these were unofficial games . One of the last games of the period was an FA Cup Sixth Round second @-@ leg tie clash between Stoke and Bolton Wanderers ; the match ended in tragedy in what would be known as the Burnden Park disaster – 33 people died and 500 were injured . Matthews sent £ 30 to the disaster fund and couldn 't bring himself to train for several days afterwards . Matthews ' father died in 1945 . From his deathbed he made his son promise him two things : to look after his mother , and to win an FA Cup Final .
The regular Football League returned in time for the 1946 – 47 season , during which Matthews played 23 league games and was a major contributor to 30 of the club 's 41 league goals . Stoke matched their record finish of fourth in the league , finishing just two points shy of champions Liverpool after losing to Sheffield United on the final day of the season . However , in February Matthews was returning from a knee injury when manager McGrory told him he was not in the first XI for the game against Arsenal ; the press reported this as a bust @-@ up . Relations between McGrory , the Stoke City board , and Matthews had indeed always been sour – though once again a story that the players sided against Matthews were untrue . Recalled against Brentford , only after the game did he find out that this was only because he was a last @-@ minute replacement for an injured Bert Mitchell . Matthews put in a second transfer request , which the Stoke board eventually accepted . He selected Blackpool as his next club as he still lived in the area following his service in the RAF ; the Stoke board sanctioned the move on the condition that the deal was to remain a secret until the end of the season , so as to not disrupt the club 's title bid . The secret was revealed in a matter of hours , as an unknown person informed the press .
= = = Blackpool = = =
On 10 May 1947 , immediately after a Great Britain versus Rest of Europe match in Glasgow ( Britain won 6 – 1 ) , he made the move for £ 11 @,@ 500 , at the age of 32 . The match itself raised £ 30 @,@ 000 for the four Home Nations Football Associations , and since the eleven British players received £ 14 each , Matthews questioned where exactly this money ended up – he doubted that much of it ended up as funding for grass @-@ roots football .
" You 're 32 , do you think you can make it for another couple of years ? " – Blackpool manager Joe Smith in 1947 .
Smith told Matthews " there are no shackles here ... express yourself ... play your own game and whatever you do on the pitch , do it in the knowledge that you have my full support . " He assembled a talented frontline in Matthews , Stan Mortensen , Jimmy McIntosh , and Alex Munro ; with an emphasis on entertaining football . The Seasiders finished in ninth place and reached the 1948 FA Cup Final . On 23 April 1948 , the eve of the final , Matthews won the inaugural Football Writers ' Association Footballer of the Year award . Despite taking the lead twice in the match , Blackpool lost out 4 – 2 to Matt Busby 's Manchester United in the final , with Matthews assisting Mortensen for Blackpool 's second .
Injury limited him to only 28 appearances in 1948 – 49 , as Blackpool struggled to a 16th @-@ place finish . He spent the summer touring theatres in a variety act with his brother Ronnie , though he was troubled by an ankle injury he picked up in a charity game . Blackpool finished seventh in 1949 – 50 , and though they were never title contenders vast crowds still turned out home and away to witness the entertaining football they displayed . At this time he received the maximum wage allowed for a professional player – £ 12 a week .
In 1950 – 51 Blackpool stormed to a third @-@ place finish , and Matthews played 44 games in league and cup . He cited his highlights of the season as a 2 – 0 win at Sunderland , a 4 – 4 draw at Arsenal , and a 4 – 2 defeat at Newcastle United . They also reached the 1951 FA Cup Final , where they were favourites to beat opponents Newcastle ; however Matthews ended up with a second runners @-@ up medal thanks to a brace from Jackie Milburn .
After picking up an ankle injury in November , he missed most of the 1951 – 52 campaign , and was forced to instead spent most of his time working at the hotel he and his wife ran . It was during this time that he cut red meat from his diet to begin his new near @-@ vegetarian diet . At this point new Stoke manager Frank Taylor enquired as to whether he might bring Matthews back to the club ; all parties agreed to the idea in principle until Joe Smith put his foot down to ensure he stayed , with an inspirational speech he promised Matthews that an FA Cup winners medal was still possible , telling him that " a lot of people think I 'm mad , but even though you 're 37 , I believe your best football is still to come . "
Despite spending some three months of the season out with a muscle injury , the 1952 – 53 campaign proved Smith 's words to be accurate , as a 38 @-@ year @-@ old Matthews won an FA Cup winners medal in a match which was , despite Mortensen 's hat @-@ trick , subsequently dubbed the " Matthews Final " . Bolton were leading 3 – 1 with 35 minutes to go , but Matthews had " the game of his life " in " the greatest ever FA Cup final " and spurred his team on to a last gasp 4 – 3 victory . He always credited the team and especially Mortensen for the victory , and never accepted the nickname of the " Matthews Final " .
He helped the Tangerines to record a sixth @-@ place finish in 1953 – 54 , though hopes of retaining their FA Cup title were ended with a defeat to Port Vale at Vale Park in the Fifth Round . Matthews missed just eight league games in 1954 – 55 , though journalists were keen to write him off with every occasional off @-@ performance and missed game – " it was all balderdash " , he replied . Despite his age , and more pertinently the media 's constant references to his age , Arsenal manager Tom Whittaker tried , unsuccessfully , to lure Matthews to Highbury with a lucrative , if somewhat illegal approach .
As Smith began to establish a new side with talents such as Jackie Mudie and Jimmy Armfield , Blackpool posted a second @-@ place finish in 1955 – 56 , though they ended up some 11 points behind champions Manchester United . Matthews believed that the performance he gave in a 3 – 1 win over Arsenal on the opening day of the season was the finest he ever gave . At the end of the campaign Matthews was made the inaugural winner of the European Footballer of the Year award , having narrowly defeated Alfredo Di Stéfano 47 to 44 in the poll .
Remaining a key first team member in 1956 – 57 , injury restricted him to 25 league appearances , though Blackpool claimed a creditable fourth @-@ place finish . Matthews scored his 18th and final goal for Blackpool in a 4 – 1 league victory over Tottenham Hotspur at Bloomfield Road on 3 September 1956 . Blackpool finished seventh in 1957 – 58 , after which Joe Smith left the club .
Smith 's replacement was Ron Suart , who wanted Matthews to stay out wide , and did not value his contribution in the way that Smith had done . Suart limited | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
940s near Sasamungga by the Kolombangara River , although this sighting was never confirmed . Searches of the small , cat @-@ free islands of Rob Roy Island and Wagina off Choiseul 's southeast coast and Choiseul 's forested coastal swampland in the 1960s by British ornithologist Shane A. Parker did not discover any signs of the pigeon . American scientist Jared Diamond searched for the bird in 1974 without success .
= = Relationship with humans = =
This pigeon was a source of food for the local people , who would locate its roosting sites either due to the bird calling or by the droppings that had accumulated below its perches . It was well @-@ remembered by the indigenous peoples , and stories of the delicious ground @-@ dwelling pigeon were passed down by local elders after its extinction . One indigenous person implied that the gizzard stones of the pigeon may have had value locally . After the bird 's extinction , the indigenous people have occasionally confused the Choiseul pigeon with the arboreal crested cuckoo @-@ dove in modern folklore , and several claims of the pigeon 's continued existence turned out to be based on the cuckoo @-@ dove . After its discovery , several Western bird collections highly desired its skins ; the Whitney South Seas Expedition spent three months at high expense on Choiseul with the primary objective being the acquisition of the Choiseul pigeon . In 2012 the Choiseul pigeon was commemorated on a stamp from Mozambique along with several other extinct birds . The Choiseul pigeon is depicted on the flag of the Choiseul Province .
= = = Extinction = = =
The indigenous population believed that the pigeon became extinct due to predation by feral cats and , to a lesser extent , feral dogs . As Choiseul has no indigenous carnivorous mammals , the ground @-@ dwelling pigeon was particularly susceptible to the introduced cats . If the pigeon existed on islands that feral cats had never reached , it is believed that the clearance of its forest habitat would have led to its local extinction . As there have been no substantiated reports since 1904 despite multiple searches , the IUCN has declared it extinct . As several ornithologists had visited Choiseul and the nearby islands prior to Meek without noting any sign of the bird 's existence , it is likely that the Choiseul pigeon was already close to extinction in 1904 .
= Charles Boycott =
Charles Cunningham Boycott ( 12 March 1832 – 19 June 1897 ) was an English land agent whose ostracism by his local community in Ireland gave the English language the verb " to boycott " . He had served in the British Army 39th Foot , which brought him to Ireland . After retiring from the army , Boycott worked as a land agent for Lord Erne ( John Crichton , 3rd Earl Erne ) , a landowner in the Lough Mask area of County Mayo .
In 1880 , as part of its campaign for the Three Fs ( fair rent , fixity of tenure , and free sale ) and specifically in resistance to proposed evictions on the estate , local activists of the Irish Land League encouraged Boycott 's employees ( including the seasonal workers required to harvest the crops on Lord Erne 's estate ) to withdraw their labour , and began a campaign of isolation against Boycott in the local community . This campaign included shops in nearby Ballinrobe refusing to serve him , and the withdrawal of services . Some were threatened with violence to ensure compliance .
The campaign against Boycott became a cause célèbre in the British press after he wrote a letter to The Times . Newspapers sent correspondents to the West of Ireland to highlight what they viewed as the victimisation of a servant of a peer of the realm by Irish nationalists . Fifty Orangemen from County Cavan and County Monaghan travelled to Lord Erne 's estate to harvest the crops , while a regiment of the 19th Royal Hussars and more than 1 @,@ 000 men of the Royal Irish Constabulary were deployed to protect the harvesters . The episode was estimated to have cost the British government and others at least £ 10 @,@ 000 to harvest about £ 500 worth of crops .
Boycott left Ireland on 1 December 1880 , and in 1886 , became land agent for Hugh Adair 's Flixton estate in Suffolk . He died at the age of 65 on 19 June 1897 in his home in Flixton , after an illness earlier that year .
= = Early life and family = =
Charles Cunningham Boycott was born in 1832 to Reverend William Boycatt and his wife Georgiana . He grew up in the village of Burgh St Peter in Norfolk , England ; the Boycatt family had lived in Norfolk for almost 150 years . They were of Huguenot origin , and had fled from France in 1685 when Louis XIV revoked civil and religious liberties to French Protestants . Charles Boycott was named Boycatt in his baptismal records . The family changed the spelling of its name from Boycatt to Boycott in 1841 .
Boycott was educated at a boarding school in Blackheath , London . He was interested in the military — and in 1848 , entered the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich , in hopes of serving in the Corps of Royal Sappers and Miners . He was discharged from the academy in 1849 after failing a periodic exam , and the following year his family bought him a commission in the 39th Foot regiment for £ 450 .
Boycott 's regiment transferred to Belfast shortly after his arrival . Six months later , it was sent to Newry before marching to Dublin , where it remained for a year . In 1852 , Boycott married Anne Dunne in St Paul 's Church , Arran Quay , Dublin . He was ill between August 1851 and February 1852 and sold his commission the following year , but decided to remain in Ireland . He leased a farm in County Tipperary , where he acted as a landlord on a small scale .
= = Life on Achill Island = =
After receiving an inheritance , Boycott was persuaded by his friend , Murray McGregor Blacker , a local magistrate , to move to Achill Island , a large island off the coast of County Mayo . McGregor Blacker agreed to sublet 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 ha ) of land belonging to the Irish Church Mission Society on Achill to Boycott , who moved there in 1854 . According to Joyce Marlow in the book , Captain Boycott and the Irish , Boycott 's life on the island was difficult initially , and in Boycott 's own words it was only after " a long struggle against adverse circumstances " that he became prosperous . With money from another inheritance and profits from farming , he built a large house near Dooagh .
Boycott was involved in a number of disputes while on Achill . Two years after his arrival , he was unsuccessfully sued for assault by Thomas Clarke , a local man . Clarke said that he had gone to Boycott 's house because Boycott owed him money . He said that he had asked for repayment of the debt , and that Boycott had refused to pay him and told him to go away , which Clarke refused to do . Clarke alleged that Boycott approached him and said : " If you do not be off , I will make you . " Clarke later withdrew his allegations , and said that Boycott did not actually owe him any money .
Both Boycott and McGregor Blacker were involved in a protracted dispute with Mr Carr , the agent for the Achill Church Mission Estate , from whom McGregor Blacker leased the lands , and Mr O 'Donnell , Carr 's bailiff . The dispute began when Boycott and Carr supported different sets of candidates in elections for the Board of Guardians to the Church Mission Estate , and Boycott 's candidates won . Carr was also the local receiver of wrecks , which meant that he was entitled to collect the salvage from all shipwrecks in the area , and guard it until it was sold in a public auction . The local receiver had a right to a percentage of the sale and to keep whatever did not sell . In 1860 Carr wrote a letter to the Official Receiver of Wrecks stating that Boycott and his men had illegally broken up a wreck and moved the salvage to Boycott 's property . In response to this accusation , Boycott sued Carr for libel and claimed £ 500 in damages .
= = Life in Lough Mask before controversy = =
In 1873 , Boycott moved to Lough Mask House , owned by Lord Erne , four miles ( 6 km ) from Ballinrobe in County Mayo . Lord Erne , the third Earl of Erne , was a wealthy landowner who lived in Crom Castle in County Fermanagh . He owned 40 @,@ 386 acres ( 163 @.@ 44 km2 ) of land in Ireland , of which 31 @,@ 389 were in County Fermanagh , 4 @,@ 826 in County Donegal , 1 @,@ 996 in County Sligo , and 2 @,@ 184 in County Mayo . Lord Erne also owned properties in Dublin .
Boycott agreed to be Lord Erne 's agent for 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) he owned in County Mayo . One of Boycott 's responsibilities was to collect rents from tenant farmers on the land , for which he earned ten per cent of the total rent due to Lord Erne , which was £ 500 each year . In his roles as farmer and agent , Boycott employed numerous local people as labourers , grooms , coachmen , and house @-@ servants . Joyce Marlow wrote that Boycott had become set in his mode of thought , and that his twenty years on Achill had " ... strengthened his innate belief in the divine right of the masters , and the tendency to behave as he saw fit , without regard to other people 's point of view or feelings . "
During his time in Lough Mask before the controversy began , Boycott had become unpopular with the tenants . He had become a magistrate and was an Englishman , which may have contributed to his unpopularity , but according to Marlow it was due more to his personal temperament . While Boycott himself maintained that he was on good terms with his tenants , they said that he had laid down many petty restrictions , such as not allowing gates to be left open and not allowing hens to trespass on his property , and that he fined anyone who transgressed these restrictions . He had also withdrawn privileges from the tenants , such as collecting wood from the estate . In August 1880 , his labourers went on strike in a dispute over a wage increase .
= = Lough Mask affair = =
= = = Historical background = = =
In the nineteenth century , agriculture was the biggest industry in Ireland . In 1876 , the government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland commissioned a survey to find who owned the land in Ireland . The survey found that almost all land was the property of just 10 @,@ 000 people , or 0 @.@ 2 % of the population . The majority were small landlords , but the 750 richest landlords owned half of the country between them . Many of the richest were absentee landlords who lived in Britain or elsewhere in Ireland , and paid agents like Charles Boycott to manage their estates .
Landlords generally divided their estates into smaller farms that they rented to tenant farmers . Tenant farmers were generally on one @-@ year leases , and could be evicted even if they paid their rents . Some of the tenants were large farmers who farmed over 100 acres ( 0 @.@ 40 km2 ) , but the majority were much smaller — on average between 15 and 50 acres ( 0 @.@ 06 – 0 @.@ 20 km2 ) . Many small farmers worked as labourers on the larger farms . The poorest agricultural workers were the landless labourers , who worked on the land of other farmers . Farmers were an important group politically , having more votes than any other sector of society .
In the 1850s , some tenant farmers formed associations to demand the three Fs : fair rent , fixity of tenure , and free sale . In the 1870s , the Fenians tried to organise the tenant farmers in County Mayo to resist eviction . They mounted a demonstration against a local landlord in Irishtown and succeeded in getting him to lower his rents .
Michael Davitt was the son of a small tenant farmer in County Mayo who became a journalist and joined the Irish Republican Brotherhood . He was arrested and given a 15 @-@ year sentence for gun @-@ running . Charles Stewart Parnell , then Member of Parliament for Meath and member of the Home Rule League , arranged to have Davitt released on probation . When Davitt returned to County Mayo , he was impressed by the Fenians ' attempts to organise farmers . He thought that the " land question " was the best way to get the support of the farmers for Irish independence .
In October 1879 , after forming the Land League of Mayo , Davitt formed the Irish National Land League . The Land League 's aims were to reduce rents and to stop evictions , and in the long term , to make tenant farmers owners of the land they farmed . Davitt asked Parnell to become the leader of the league . In 1880 , Parnell was also elected leader of the Home Rule Party .
= = = Parnell 's speech in Ennis = = =
On 19 September 1880 , Parnell gave a speech in Ennis , County Clare to a crowd of Land League members . He asked the crowd , " What do you do with a tenant who bids for a farm from which his neighbour has been evicted ? " The crowd responded , " kill him , " " shoot him . " Parnell replied :
I wish to point out to you a very much better way – a more Christian and charitable way , which will give the lost man an opportunity of repenting . When a man takes a farm from which another has been evicted , you must shun him on the roadside when you meet him – you must shun him in the streets of the town – you must shun him in the shop – you must shun him on the fair green and in the market place , and even in the place of worship , by leaving him alone , by putting him in moral Coventry , by isolating him from the rest of the country , as if he were the leper of old – you must show him your detestation of the crime he committed .
This speech set out the Land League 's powerful weapon of social ostracism , which was first used against Charles Boycott .
= = = Community action = = =
The Land League was very active in the Lough Mask area , and one of the local leaders , Father John O 'Malley , had been involved in the labourer 's strike in August 1880 . The following month Lord Erne 's tenants were due to pay their rents . He had agreed to a 10 per cent reduction owing to a poor harvest , but all except two of his tenants demanded a 25 per cent reduction . Boycott said that he had written to Lord Erne , and that Erne had refused to accede to the tenants ' demands . He then issued demands for the outstanding rents , and obtained eviction notices against eleven tenants .
Three days after Parnell 's speech in Ennis , a process server and seventeen members of the Royal Irish Constabulary began the attempt to serve Boycott 's eviction notices . Legally , they had to be delivered to the head of the household or his spouse within a certain time period . The process server successfully delivered notices to three of the tenants , but a fourth , Mrs Fitzmorris , refused to accept the notice and began waving a red flag to alert other tenants that the notices were being served . The women of the area descended on the process server and the constabulary , and began throwing stones , mud , and manure at them , succeeding in driving them away to seek refuge in Lough Mask House .
The process server tried unsuccessfully to serve the notices the following day . News soon spread to the nearby Ballinrobe , from where many people descended on Lough Mask House , where , according to journalist James Redpath , they advised Boycott 's servants and labourers to leave his employment immediately . Boycott said that many of his servants were forced to leave " ... under threat of ulterior consequences . " Martin Branigan , a labourer who subsequently sued Boycott for non @-@ payment of wages , claimed he left because he was afraid of the people who came into the field where he was working . Eventually , all Boycott 's employees left , forcing him to run the estate without help .
Within days , the blacksmith , postman , and laundress were persuaded or volunteered to stop serving Boycott . Boycott 's young nephew volunteered to act as postman , but he was intercepted en route between Ballinrobe and Lough Mask , and told that he would be in danger if he continued . Soon , shopkeepers in Ballinrobe stopped serving Boycott , and he had to bring food and other provisions by boat from Cong .
= = = Newspaper coverage = = =
Before October 1880 , Boycott 's situation was little known outside County Mayo . On 14 October of that year , Boycott wrote a letter to The Times about his situation :
THE STATE OF IRELAND
Sir , The following detail may be interesting to your readers as exemplifying the power of the Land League . On the 22nd September a process @-@ server , escorted by a police force of seventeen men , retreated to my house for protection , followed by a howling mob of people , who yelled and hooted at the members of my family . On the ensuing day , September 23rd , the people collected in crowds upon my farm , and some hundred or so came up to my house and ordered off , under threats of ulterior consequences , all my farm labourers , workmen , and stablemen , commanding them never to work for me again . My herd has been frightened by them into giving up his employment , though he has refused to give up the house he held from me as part of his emolument . Another herd on an off farm has also been compelled to resign his situation . My blacksmith has received a letter threatening him with murder if he does any more work for me , and my laundress has also been ordered to give up my washing . A little boy , twelve years of age , who carried my post @-@ bag to and from the neighbouring town of Ballinrobe , was struck and threatened on 27th September , and ordered to desist from his work ; since which time I have sent my little nephew for my letters and even he , on 2nd October , was stopped on the road and threatened if he continued to act as my messenger . The shopkeepers have been warned to stop all supplies to my house , and I have just received a message from the post mistress to say that the telegraph messenger was stopped and threatened on the road when bringing out a message to me and that she does not think it safe to send any telegrams which may come for me in the future for fear they should be abstracted and the messenger injured . My farm is public property ; the people wander over it with impunity . My crops are trampled upon , carried away in quantities , and destroyed wholesale . The locks on my gates are smashed , the gates thrown open , the walls thrown down , and the stock driven out on the roads . I can get no workmen to do anything , and my ruin is openly avowed as the object of the Land League unless I throw up everything and leave the country . I say nothing about the danger to my own life , which is apparent to anybody who knows the country .
CHARLES C. BOYCOTT
Lough Mask House , County Mayo , 14 October
After the publication of this letter , Bernard Becker , special correspondent of the Daily News , traveled to Ireland to cover Boycott 's situation . On 24 October , he wrote a dispatch from Westport that contained an interview with Boycott . He reported that Boycott had £ 500 worth of crops that would rot if help could not be found to harvest them . According to Becker , " Personally he is protected , but no woman in Ballinrobe would dream of washing him a cravat or making him a loaf . All the people have to say is that they are sorry , but that they ' dare not . ' " Boycott had been advised to leave , but he told Becker that " I can hardly desert Lord Erne , and , moreover , my own property is sunk in this place . " Becker 's report was reprinted in the Belfast News @-@ Letter and the Dublin Daily Express . On 29 October , the Dublin Daily Express published a letter proposing a fund to finance a party of men to go to County Mayo to save Boycott 's crops . Between them , the Daily Express , Daily Telegraph , Daily News , and News Letter raised £ 2 @,@ 000 to fund the relief expedition .
= = = Saving the crops = = =
In Belfast in early November 1880 , The Boycott Relief Fund was established to arrange an armed expedition to Lough Mask . Plans soon gained momentum , and within days , the fund had received many subscriptions . The committee had arranged with the Midland Great Western Railway for special trains to transport the expedition from Ulster to County Mayo . Many nationalists viewed the expedition as an invasion . The Freeman 's Journal denounced the organisers of the expedition , and asked , " How is it that this Government do not consider it necessary to prosecute the promoters of these warlike expeditions ? "
William Edward Forster , Chief Secretary for Ireland made it clear in a communication with the proprietor of the Dublin Daily Express that he would not allow an armed expedition of hundreds of men , as the committee was planning , and that 50 unarmed men would be sufficient to harvest the crops . He said that the government would consider it their duty to protect this group . On 10 November 1880 , the relief expedition consisting of one contingent from County Cavan and one from County Monaghan left for County Mayo . Additional troops had already arrived in County Mayo to protect the expedition . Boycott himself said that he did not want such a large number of Ulstermen , as he had saved the grain harvest himself , and that only ten or fifteen labourers were needed to save the root crops . He feared that a large number of Ulstermen would lead to sectarian violence . While local Land League leaders said that there would be no trouble from them if the aim was simply to harvest the crops , more extreme sections of the local population did threaten violence against the expedition and the troops .
The expedition experienced hostile protests on their route through County Mayo , but there was no violence , and they harvested the crops without incident . Rumours spread amongst the Ulstermen that an attack was being planned on the farm , but none materialised .
= = = Aftermath = = =
On 27 November 1880 , Boycott , his family and a local magistrate were escorted from Lough Mask House by members of the 19th Hussars . A carriage had been hired for the family , but no driver could be found for it , and an army ambulance and driver had to be used . The ambulance was escorted to Claremorris railway station , where Boycott and his family boarded a train to Dublin , where Boycott was received with some hostility . The hotel he stayed in received letters saying that it would be boycotted if Boycott remained . He had intended to stay in Dublin for a week , but Boycott was advised to cut his stay short . He left Dublin for England on the Holyhead mail boat on 1 December .
The cost to the government of harvesting Boycott 's crops was estimated at £ 10 @,@ 000 : in Parnell 's words , " ... one shilling for every turnip dug from Boycott 's land . " In a letter requesting compensation to William Ewart Gladstone , then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , Boycott said that he had lost £ 6 @,@ 000 of his investment in the estate .
Boycotting had strengthened the power of the peasants , and by the end of 1880 there were reports of boycotting from all over Ireland . The events at Lough Mask had also increased the power of the Land League , and the popularity of Parnell as a leader .
On 28 December 1880 , Parnell and other Land League leaders were put on trial on charges of conspiracy to prevent the payment of rent . The trial attracted thousands of people onto the streets outside the court . A Daily Express reporter wrote that the court reminded him " ... more of the stalls of the theatre on opera night . " On 24 January 1881 , the judge dismissed the jury , it having been hung ten to two in favour of acquittal . Parnell and Davitt received this news as a victory .
After the boycotting , Gladstone discussed the issue of land reform , writing in an 1880 letter , " The subject of the land weighs greatly on my mind and I am working on it to the best of my ability . " In December 1880 , the Bessborough Commission , headed by Frederick Ponsonby , 6th Earl of Bessborough , recommended major land reforms , including the three Fs .
William Edward Forster argued that a Coercion Act — which would punish those participated in events like those at Lough Mask , and would include the suspension of Habeas Corpus — should be introduced before any Land Act . Gladstone eventually accepted this argument . When Forster attempted to introduce the Protection of Person and Property Act 1881 , Parnell and other Land League MP 's attempted to obstruct its passage with tactics such as filibustering . One such filibuster lasted for 41 hours . Eventually , the Speaker of the house intervened , and a measure was introduced whereby the Speaker could control the house if there was a three to one majority in favour of the business being urgent . This was the first time that a check was placed on a debate in a British parliament . The act was passed on 28 February 1881 . There was a negative reaction to the passing of the act in both England and Ireland . In England , the Anti @-@ Coercion Association was established , which was a precursor to the Labour Party .
In April 1881 , Gladstone introduced the Land Law ( Ireland ) Act 1881 , in which the principle of the dual ownership of the land between landlords and tenants was established , and the three Fs introduced . The act set up the Irish Land Commission , a judicial body that would fix rents for a period of 15 years and guarantee fixity of tenure . According to The Annual Register , the act was " ... probably the most important measure introduced into the House of Commons since the passing of the Reform Bill . "
= = = The word " boycott " = = =
According to James Redpath , the verb " to boycott " was coined by Father O 'Malley in a discussion between them on 23 September 1880 . The following is Redpath 's account :
I said , " I 'm bothered about a word . "
" What is it ? " asked Father John .
" Well , " I said , " When the people ostracise a land @-@ grabber we call it social excommunication , but we ought to have an entirely different word to signify ostracism applied to a landlord or land @-@ agent like Boycott . Ostracism won 't do – the peasantry would not know the meaning of the word – and I can 't think of any other . "
" No , " said Father John , " ostracism wouldn 't do "
He looked down , tapped his big forehead , and said : " How would it do to call it to Boycott him ? "
According to Joyce Marlow , the word was first used in print by Redpath in the Inter @-@ Ocean on 12 October 1880 . The coining of the word , and its first use in print , came before Boycott and his situation was widely known outside County Mayo . In November 1880 , an article in the Birmingham Daily Post referred to the word as a local term in connection to the boycotting of a Ballinrobe merchant . Still in 1880 , The Illustrated London News described how " To ' Boycott ' has already become a verb active , signifying to ' ratten ' , to intimidate , to ' send to Coventry ' , and to ' taboo ' " . In 1888 , the word was included in the first volume of A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles ( later known as the Oxford English Dictionary ) . According to Gary Minda in his book , Boycott in America : how imagination and ideology shape the legal mind , " Apparently there was no other word in the English language to describe this dispute . " The word also entered the lexicon of languages other than English , such as Dutch , French , German , Polish and Russian .
= = Later life = =
After leaving Ireland , Boycott and his family visited the United States . His arrival in New York generated a great deal of media interest ; the New York Tribune said that , " The arrival of Captain Boycott , who has involuntarily added a new word to the language , is an event of something like international interest . " The New York Times said , " For private reasons the visitor made the voyage incognito , being registered simply as ' Charles Cunningham . ' " The purpose of the visit was to see friends in Virginia , including Murray McGregor Blacker , a friend from his time on Achill Island who had settled in the United States . Boycott returned to England after some months .
In 1886 , Boycott became a land agent for Hugh Adair 's Flixton estate in Suffolk , England . He had a passion for horses and racing , and became secretary of the Bungay race committee . Boycott continued to spend holidays in Ireland , and according to Joyce Marlow , he left Ireland without bitterness .
In early 1897 , Boycott 's health became very poor . In an attempt to improve his health , he and his wife went on a cruise to Malta . In Brindisi , he became seriously ill , and had to return to England . His health continued to deteriorate , and on 19 June 1897 he died at his home in Flixton , aged 65 . His funeral took place in the church at Burgh St Peter , conducted by his nephew Arthur St John Boycott , who was at Lough Mask during the first boycott . Charles Boycott 's widow , Annie , was subsequently sued over the funeral expenses and other debts , and had to sell some assets . A number of London newspapers , including The Times , published obituaries .
= = In popular culture = =
Charles Boycott and the events that led to his name entering the English language have been the subject of several works of fiction . The first was Captain Boycott , a 1946 romantic novel by Phillip Rooney . This was the basis for the 1947 film Captain Boycott — directed by Frank Lauder and starred Stewart Granger , Kathleen Ryan , Alastair Sim , and Cecil Parker as Charles Boycott . More recently the story was the subject of the 2012 novel Boycott , by Colin C. Murphy .
= Neighbours =
Neighbours is an Australian television soap opera . It was first broadcast on the Seven Network on 18 March 1985 . It was created by TV executive Reg Watson , who proposed the idea of making a show that focused on realistic stories and portrayed adults and teenagers who talk openly and solve their problems together . Seven decided to commission the show following the success of Watson 's Sons and Daughters , which aired on the network . Although successful in Melbourne , Neighbours underperformed in the Sydney market and struggled for months before Seven cancelled it . The show was immediately bought by rival network Ten . After taking over production of the show , the new network had to build replica sets because Seven destroyed the originals to prevent its rival from obtaining them . Ten began screening Neighbours on 20 January 1986 , taking off where the previous series left off and commencing with episode 171 . Neighbours has since become the longest running drama series in Australian television and in 2005 , it was inducted collectively into the Logie Hall of Fame . On 11 January 2011 , Neighbours moved to Ten 's digital channel , Eleven .
The show 's storylines concern the domestic and professional lives of the people who live and work in Erinsborough , a fictional suburb of Melbourne , Victoria . The series primarily centres on the residents of Ramsay Street , a short cul @-@ de @-@ sac , and its neighbouring area , the Lassiters complex , which includes a bar , hotel , cafe , police station , lawyers ' office and park . Neighbours began with three families created by Watson – the Ramsays , the Robinsons and the Clarkes . Watson said that he wanted to show three families who are friends living in a small street . The Robinsons and the Ramsays had a long history and were involved in an ongoing rivalry . Pin Oak Court , in Vermont South , is the real cul @-@ de @-@ sac that has doubled for Ramsay Street since 1985 . All of the houses featured are real and the residents allow the production to shoot external scenes in their yards . The interior scenes are filmed at the Global Television studios in Forest Hill .
Through its entire run in Australia , Neighbours has been screened as a twenty @-@ two @-@ minute episode each week night in an early @-@ evening slot . In Australia it is currently broadcast each weeknight at 6 : 30 pm on Eleven . The show is produced by FremantleMedia and has been sold to over sixty countries around the world , making it one of Australia 's most successful media exports . Neighbours was first screened in the United Kingdom in October 1986 on BBC1 where it achieved huge popularity among British audiences in the late 1980s and 1990s . In 2008 , it moved to the UK 's Channel 5 .
= = History = =
Neighbours was created in the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 1980s by Australian TV executive Reg Watson . Watson decided to create a soap opera after working on Crossroads and seeing how successful it and Coronation Street were in Britain . He had already created such successful Australian made soap operas as The Young Doctors , Prisoner and Sons and Daughters . Watson proposed the idea of making a show that would focus on more realistic stories and portray teens and adults who talk openly to each other and solve their problems together . Watson , who worked for the Grundy production company , decided to make his show appeal to both Australia and Britain . In 2005 , Darren Devlyn and Caroline Frost from the Herald Sun reported that Watson then took his idea to the Nine Network in 1982 , but it was rejected . Former Network Nine chief executive Ian Johnson commented that it was one of the " biggest missed opportunities " in his twenty @-@ four years at the network . He added " I remember it being discussed , but I 'm not exactly sure what went against it . It may have had something to do with the fact we 'd picked up Sale of the Century with Tony Barber in 1980 and it was doing huge business , so we didn 't have a pressing need for a five @-@ night @-@ a @-@ week show . " Watson then took his idea to the Seven Network , who commissioned the show , following the success of his other Seven Network soap opera , Sons and Daughters . Several titles for the show were discussed , including People Like Us , One Way Street , No Through Road and Living Together until the network programmers voted on Neighbours . The first episode was broadcast on 18 March 1985 and reviews for the show were favourable . However , the Melbourne @-@ produced programme underperformed in the Sydney market and after a meeting of the general managers , Seven decided to drop the show in October 1985 . Seven 's Melbourne programme boss , Gary Fenton said Sydney chief Ted Thomas told the other general managers that Seven could not afford three dramas and argued that the Sydney @-@ based A Country Practice and Sons and Daughters be retained .
Neighbours was immediately bought by Seven 's rival Network Ten . The new network had to build replica sets when it took over production after Seven destroyed the original sets to prevent the rival network obtaining them . Ten began screening the series with episode 171 on 20 January 1986 . In 1986 , the series was bought by the BBC as part of their new daytime schedule in the United Kingdom . Neighbours made its debut on BBC1 on 27 October 1986 starting with the pilot episode . It soon gained a loyal audience and the show became very popular within the student market and was watched by 16 million viewers . In 1988 Neighbours became the only television show to have its entire cast flown over to the UK to make an appearance at the Royal Variety Performance in front of the Queen . Neighbours has since become the longest running drama series in Australian television and the seventh longest running serial drama still on the air in the world . In 2005 , Neighbours celebrated its 20th anniversary and over twenty former cast members returned for a special episode , which saw them sitting down to watch a documentary about Ramsay Street . At the Logie Award ceremony that year , the show was inducted into the Logie Hall of Fame .
2007 saw the show undergo a revamp , which included a switch to recording in HDTV , the introduction of a new family , the departure of several existing characters and a new version of the show 's familiar theme song and opening titles . In addition , episode titles were abandoned , having been in use for the previous three years . Daniel Bennett , the new head of drama at Network Ten , announced that the crux of the Ramsay Street story would go " back to basics " and follow a less sensational path than of late with the emphasis on family relations and suburban reality . Executive producer Ric Pellizzeri said new writers , actors and sets would bring the soap back to its glory days . He added " We moved too far into event @-@ driven stories rather than the character @-@ driven stories that made Neighbours what it is " . The relaunch failed to attract more viewers in Australia . Pellizzeri left the series at the end of 2007 and former Neighbours scriptwriter , Susan Bower , became the new executive producer . In 2008 , Neighbours was branded " too white " by black and Asian viewers in Britain and in Australia there was talk of a " White Australia policy " when it came to casting actors for soaps . In response to the criticism , Bower made a decision to add more ethnically diverse extras , small walk on roles and speaking parts , as well as introducing the character of Sunny Lee ( played by Hany Lee ) an exchange student from South Korea .
On 18 March 2010 , Neighbours celebrated its 25th anniversary . In April , Channel 5 in the UK launched a search to find a female actress to play the part of Poppy Rogers . The search was similar to the Dolly magazine competition in Australia . August saw Neighbours air its 6000th episode . Digital Spy revealed that the week @-@ long 6000th episode celebrations would see the wedding of regular characters , Donna Freedman ( Margot Robbie ) and Ringo Brown ( Sam Clark ) . It was later announced that an attempt on the life of long term regular , Paul Robinson ( Stefan Dennis ) would be the focus of the actual 6000th episode . Bower said " Last week I saw episode 6 @,@ 000 . This marks Australian television history . The 6,000th episode falls on a Friday so the whole week is a special one . As Stefan Dennis – Paul Robinson – was in the first episode 25 years ago , it was decided that his character play a most important role in this very special event " .
In late 2010 , TV Tonight reported that Neighbours would reduce crew operations in 2011 so production could be upgraded . The changes meant that the location manager and catering team were no longer required , studio shoots would be reduced from three cameras to two , and location shots will be mainly confined to the Ramsay Street and Lassiter 's complex sets , with occasional filming in one @-@ off places . Of the changes , FremantleMedia said " Neighbours is undergoing a work flow upgrade to accommodate advances in technology and production techniques to ensure we are at the forefront of professionalism and efficiency . " They added that the show 's production model had been in place since 1985 and that it was time to evolve it . On 14 March 2011 , The Australian reported that Neighbours has become the first television show available to watch on a free iPhone application . Viewers are able to watch whole episodes within three hours of them airing on Eleven . Nick Spooner , the head of Ten digital media said " This is part of what we call our ' three @-@ screen approach ' – broadcast , online and mobile – and it is intended to build viewer engagement with a show and our brand . This is a way for us to stay in touch with our audience and to keep them coming back . " To celebrate the wedding of Prince William of Wales and Kate Middleton , Neighbours filmed a specially commissioned scene for the UK episode airing on the same day as the wedding . The episode , which had already aired in Australia , marked the first time an Australian show recorded extra scenes for a UK broadcaster .
On 25 October 2011 , it was announced Bower would be leaving Neighbours in December 2011 to move into a new international role with FremantleMedia . Of her departure , Bower told Colin Vickery of the Herald Sun , " I love Neighbours , it is a wonderful show and because of this I felt it was important that fresh eyes and brains take over to keep this Australian icon contemporary . Having said that , I 'm really excited about the new role and thank FremantleMedia for this wonderful opportunity . " Former City Homicide producer , Richard Jasek , took over Bower 's role , while Alan Hardy took over the role of producer . On 4 December 2013 , it was confirmed that Jasek would be leaving Neighbours and Jason Herbison had been promoted to series producer . FremantleMedia 's head of drama Jo Porter became executive producer , while Laurence Wilson is the associate producer . In March 2015 , Neighbours celebrated its 30th anniversary and twelve former cast members returned for the anniversary episodes that revolved around an Erinsborough Festival . Network Ten and Channel 5 aired a documentary special titled Neighbours 30th : The Stars Reunite , which featured interviews with current and former cast members , including Kylie Minogue , Jason Donovan and Guy Pearce , reflecting on their time on the show .
= = Setting = =
Neighbours ' main focus is the fictional Ramsay Street , a residential cul @-@ de @-@ sac in the fictional Melbourne suburb of Erinsborough . The street was named after the grandfather of original character Max Ramsay ( Francis Bell ) . Other locations include Erinsborough High School and the Lassiter 's complex , which contains the Lassiter 's Hotel , Waterhole bar , Harold 's Store cafe , the lawyers office Rebecchi Law , and the police station . Ahead of the 25th anniversary the Erinsborough village set underwent a makeover . The cafe and bar remained the same , but the centre of the complex was upgraded . Lassiter 's Hotel was given a new logo and gained a second floor with outdoor seating area . Erinsborough Hospital and the police station received new facades , a used car lot was created near the garage and a new university set was created .
Pin Oak Court , in Vermont South , is the real cul @-@ de @-@ sac that doubles for Ramsay Street . All of the houses featured in the show are real and the residents allow Neighbours to shoot external scenes in their front and back yards and on occasions , in their garages . Neighbours has been filmed in Pin Oak Court since the series began in 1985 and it has since become popular with tourists . Tours to the cul @-@ de @-@ sac run throughout the year . The interior scenes are filmed at the Global Television studios in Forest Hill , the adjoining suburb in which Pin Oak Court is located .
Through much of the show 's run , it was not stated in which Australian city Erinsborough was located . The rivalry between Sydney and Melbourne meant that scripts did not mention that Erinsborough was a suburb of the latter city , until 1994 . Since the 2000s , it has been explicitly stated that Erinsborough is a suburb of Melbourne . Other Australian locations mentioned and sometimes seen in the series include the fictitious suburbs of West Waratah , Eden Hills , and Anson 's Corner . Real @-@ life Australian towns in the state of Victoria such as Colac , Frankston and Shepparton are sometimes referred to . Oakey in Queensland is also mentioned and sometimes seen . On 27 August 2010 , Neighbours filmed scenes in Sydney 's Darling Harbour and on board a cruise ship . The episodes marked only the third time that the show has filmed scenes outside of Victoria . In October 2011 , Neighbours filmed scenes in Port Douglas , Queensland and around the Great Barrier Reef region . The show filmed scenes in Geelong in 2016 .
Filming locations outside of Australia have included Kenya , the United States and the UK , which has seen Neighbours episodes filmed there on three occasions . In February 1990 , Lyme Park in Cheshire doubled as the Ledgerwood estate set in Yorkshire . Derek Nimmo guest @-@ starred as the fictitious Lord Ledgerwood in two of the episodes . In November 1992 , the characters Rick Alessi ( Dan Falzon ) and Debbie Martin ( Marnie Reece @-@ Wilmore ) visited London to attend a Michael Jackson concert . The second London @-@ based storyline was broadcast in late March 2007 , when Susan ( Jackie Woodburne ) and Karl Kennedy ( Alan Fletcher ) were seen taking a ride on the London Eye and being married on a boat on the River Thames .
= = Broadcasting = =
Through its entire run in Australia , Neighbours has been screened as a 21 @-@ minute episode each weeknight in an early @-@ evening slot . Neighbours is on air for approximately forty @-@ four weeks per year . It is broadcast from early January to early December and goes off air for around four to five weeks during the Christmas and New Year period . The show currently airs at 6 : 30 pm . The last five aired episodes shown are available to watch on the Neighbours official Australian website , as a part of Network Ten 's Catch Up TV service .
When the show began in 1985 , the first season was broadcast on the Seven Network , at 5 : 30 pm in Sydney , at 6 : 00 pm in Melbourne and Adelaide and at 7 : 00 pm in Brisbane . The show 's transmission in other areas was varied and many regional channels declined to purchase the series . When the show debuted on Network Ten in 1986 it screened at 7 : 00 pm . In 1992 the show moved to 6 : 30 pm to avoid direct competition from rival soap opera Home and Away on the Seven Network . Repeat episodes of Neighbours episodes from the 1988 – 1991 period were broadcast between 2000 and June 2003 on Network Ten . These episodes were seen at 3 : 30 pm , before moving to 11 : 30 am . During 2008 Ten HD broadcast the previous week 's episodes in an omnibus edition each Sunday . These omnibus editions did not return in 2009 as Ten HD was replaced by One HD from March 2009 .
In August 2010 , The Daily Telegraph reported that Neighbours would be moving to Ten 's new digital channel , to make way for a new current affairs show . They said " It 's part of a re @-@ branding of Ten 's free @-@ to @-@ air channel , targeting the older demographic . The ' younger ' shows , like Neighbours , will go on to one of Ten 's digital channels " . It was later confirmed that the show would be moving to digital channel , Eleven . Network Ten 's programmer , David Mott said " We believe Neighbours is perfectly suited to Eleven 's audience strategy and will find a successful and enduring home on Eleven " . Neighbours moved to Eleven on 11 January 2011 , the channel 's launch day . An encore of the previous day 's episode is broadcast at 7 : 00 am weekdays on Network Ten . Eleven also broadcast the last five aired episodes shown in an omnibus edition each Sunday . Repeat episodes of Neighbours from the 2007 period , titled Old School Neighbours , were broadcast in 2013 on Eleven . These episodes were seen during weekdays at 9 : 30 am , before moving to 11 : 00 am .
= = = International = = =
Neighbours has been sold to over 60 countries around the world and is one of Australia 's most successful media exports .
Neighbours has proved to be more popular in the United Kingdom than in Australia . It was screened on BBC One from 1986 until 2008 . The series started airing on 27 October 1986 , as part of BBC1 's revamped daytime schedules . Neighbours went out twice a day , with an earlier morning omnibus and then a showing at lunchtime . Michael Grade , the channel 's then controller , was advised by his daughter to move the series to 5 : 35 pm , as she and her friends kept missing it due to being at school , which took place from January 1988 . The show then started attracting larger audiences , peaking in 1990 at over 21 million . Towards the late 2000s , Neighbours was normally attracting an average of 3 million viewers for its lunchtime showing and 2 @.@ 6 million viewers for its early @-@ evening repeat . It was frequently the highest @-@ rating daytime programme in the UK , outside of news bulletins .
In 2008 , the UK broadcast moved to rival channel Channel 5 following the BBC 's decision not to keep the show after being asked to pay £ 300m over eight years by FremantleMedia ( three times the show 's usual fee ) . Both Channel 5 and FremantleMedia were owned at that time by the German RTL Group . The first episode to be shown on Channel 5 in February 2008 was watched by 2 @.@ 2 million viewers ( an audience share of 14 @.@ 2 % ) , a drop of 300 @,@ 000 from the BBC 's average . However , the move boosted Channel 5 's usual share for the 5 @.@ 30 pm slot by three and a half times . On 4 February 2009 , Neighbours ' 5 : 30 pm showing was seen by 1 @.@ 94 million viewers and by 2012 , the teatime showing had averaged 1 million viewers . UK viewers are able to catch up with episodes with Channel 5 's video catch up service , Demand 5 , similar to the catch up service in Australia . Channel 5 also have a deal with YouTube , allowing viewers to watch episodes for free on the video sharing site after they have been transmitted .
From 4 January 2016 , Channel 5 began broadcasting episodes on the same day as Australia . Channel 5 's commissioning editor Greg Barnett explained that closing the transmission gap would reduce spoilers and the amount of viewers watching the show illegally online . From mid @-@ 2016 , the show also began airing every week @-@ night on Nickelodeon as part of their Nick at Nite programming block , broadcasting the same episode that was earlier seen on Channel 5 .
In New Zealand , Neighbours is broadcast on TV2 at 6 : 30 pm weekdays . In October 2010 , it began airing episodes at the same pace as Australia . The show was initially broadcast by TVNZ in 1988 , but by 1996 it was removed from the schedule . TV4 ( now C4 ) picked the show up and began broadcasting it from 1997 . They dropped it in 2000 and it returned to TV2 in 2002 . Repeats of the previous day 's episode of Neighbours were formerly shown at 2 : 30 pm weekdays and are now shown at 11 @.@ 00 am weekdays . The show moved to 5 : 25 pm weeknights on TV One in late 2007 . After a couple of months , the show moved to 3 : 50 pm weekdays . The show eventually moved back to TV2 . The TV2 website offers viewers the chance to watch episodes online with its OnDemand service . In Ireland , Neighbours is broadcast on RTÉ Television at 1 : 55 pm on RTÉ One and repeated on RTÉ Two at 5 : 35 pm each weekday . FremantleMedia secured a long term deal with RTÉ in 2007 for them to transmit the show after the BBC pulled out of negotiations . In Kenya , Neighbours is broadcast on the KTN network Monday to Friday at 12 : 30 pm with an omnibus on Sunday mornings . In Barbados , Neighbours is broadcast on the CBC8 channel at 1 : 00 pm Monday to Friday . In Canada , CFMT @-@ TV in Toronto broadcast Neighbours on weeknights at 11 : 00 pm , starting in September 1990 . From 20 May 1991 , CFMT moved the show to 4 : 00 pm . After announcing its cancellation , CFMT decided to keep Neighbours on its schedule throughout September 1994 , following numerous letters and telephone calls . In Belgium Neighbours airs Monday till Friday at 5.35pm. ( episodes are 7 months behind Australia ) After 27 years on air , it is still the most popular foreign soap in Belgium .
In the United States , Neighbours premiered on KCOP @-@ TV in Los Angeles on 3 June 1991 at 5 : 30 pm weekdays . KCOP planned on cancelling the show by the end of the month due to low ratings , but brought it back due to viewer demand at a 9 : 30 am daily time slot from 1 July to 30 August 1991 . New York City station WWOR @-@ TV showed Neighbours weekdays 5 : 30 pm from 17 June to 17 September 1991 . In April 2004 , the show began broadcasting nationally on the television channel Oxygen . A spokeswomen from the channel said " Now our viewers can join in on the good , the bad and the endlessly entertaining lives of our Aussie neighbours . " The episodes started from the Scully family 's arrival in 1999 and were aired for a six @-@ week trial basis . The show was broadcast in the afternoon with two episodes being shown back to back at 1 : 00 pm and 2 : 00 pm . After a couple of weeks , the show was moved to a late @-@ night time slot and it eventually left the air . On 7 July 2014 , Todd Spangler from Variety reported that FremantleMedia International had signed a deal with U.S. subscription service Hulu giving it exclusive rights to the most recent season of Neighbours . The soap began airing from 14 July , with new episodes airing daily from Monday through to Friday , on Hulu and Hulu Plus services . The episodes were four weeks behind the Australian broadcast . All past and current episodes of Neighbours were removed from Hulu on 19 September 2015 , stating they had lost the rights .
= = Popularity and viewership = =
= = = 1985 – 1990s = = =
Neighbours initially aired on Seven Network where it struggled to attract high ratings leading to its cancellation by the network four months after it premiered . The series was then picked up by Network Ten . After the usual break in broadcast over the summer non ratings period the series made its debut on Ten in 1986 . Ten revamped the show , adding several new , younger cast members including Jason Donovan as Scott Robinson and Kylie Minogue as Charlene Mitchell . When the show began on Ten it initially attracted low ratings , so the Network worked hard to publicise the series . Ten 's publicity drive was designed to promote the show in a star @-@ focused campaign recalling that of the Hollywood star system where stars were packaged to feed into a fan culture . This paid off and by the end of 1987 ratings had improved for the show . The episode featuring Scott and Charlene 's wedding achieved the highest ever ratings for Neighbours and it became one of the highest rating soap episodes ever in Australia . The same episode attracted 20 million viewers when it was aired in the United Kingdom . By the early 1990s , Australian audiences had decreased although viewing figures had recovered slightly by the end of the decade . In 1994 , Network Ten told TV Week that they would be introducing a " younger , livelier look with six regular characters under the age of 18 " in a bid to generate interest . It was then that they introduced the characters of Stonefish Rebecchi played by Anthony Engelman and Serendipity Gottlieb played by Raelee Hill .
In 1996 , Kimberley Davies , who played Annalise Hartman , quit the series . Then Caroline Gillmer fell ill and her character Cheryl Stark was temporarily recast with former Prisoner actress Colette Mann . This made producers nervous that viewing figures might decrease , so they implemented a series of plots to keep viewers interested . These included a cameo from Clive James and an explosion , which destroyed the doctor 's surgery in the Lassiter 's complex .
= = = 2000s = = =
In the 2000s , rival soap opera Home and Away emerged as more popular than Neighbours in Australia . As of 2004 , Neighbours was regularly attracting just under a million viewers per episode . In 2007 , Home and Away was averaging 1 @.@ 4 million viewers in Australia to Neighbours ' 700 @,@ 000 . During the revamp of 2007 , the episode broadcast on 23 July 2007 saw the introduction of a new family , updated sets , new theme music and graphics . Ratings for that episode averaged 1 @.@ 05 million viewers in the 6 : 30 pm. slot . It was the first time the programme 's viewing figures had topped 1 million in 2007 . By the end of 2007 it was reported that producers had hoped the Neighbours revamp would push the ratings up to between 900 @,@ 000 to 1 million an episode . It had , however , resulted in a more modest boost , with ratings hovering at about 800 @,@ 000 a night . The same viewing period had shown an increase in ratings for Home and Away , which was now averaging 1 @.@ 4 million viewers every night .
In February 2008 , new executive producer , Susan Bower , announced that she would be implementing further changes to the programme . Bower promised to retain the return to traditional Neighbours values , but with an injection of drama that remains recognisable and relevant . Ratings rose to almost 900 @,@ 000 in mid @-@ 2008 , but generally ratings begin to fall towards the end of each year , usually averaging around 700 @,@ 000 . On 17 July 2009 , during the aftermath of the Parker family 's car accident and the dramatic death of Bridget Parker ( Eloise Mignon ) , Neighbours achieved higher ratings than Home And Away . Neighbours achieved 998 @,@ 000 viewers and placed 6th for the night , Home And Away placed 7th .
= = = 2010s = = =
In January 2010 , Neighbours returned to Australian screens to an audience of 563 @,@ 000 . On 20 January , the ratings fell to a low of 426 @,@ 000 , making it one of the programme 's lowest ever ratings in Australia . A July 2010 report showed figures had dropped 20 % , from having 1 @.@ 2 million viewers in 1991 to a low of 618 @,@ 000 in 2010 . A Network Ten spokesperson commented " Most of the show 's budget is covered by its UK deal with Channel 5 and the 50 @-@ odd other countries it is seen in , so it 's not a financial problem for Ten despite the low ratings . And Ten needs the show to score the Australian content and drama points required for it to hold on to a broadcasting licence " . On 29 October 2010 , Neighbours ' ratings dropped to a low figure of 386 @,@ 000 viewers . Viewing numbers for Network Ten that night were down across all programmes . The show 's highest figure of the week was 590 @,@ 000 on 25 October 2010 .
Following its move to digital multichannel Eleven , Neighbours attracted 254 @,@ 000 viewers for the first episode broadcast on 11 January 2011 . This was half the number of viewers that watched it on Network Ten ; the Herald Sun reported that it was a good result as " bosses were only expecting 133 @,@ 000 . " Neighbours became Eleven 's most @-@ watched show and the third highest rating show on digital multichannels that night . Programming chief , David Mott stated " Last night 's strong result for Neighbours already suggests the audience will follow the folks from Ramsay Street to their brand new neighbourhood on Eleven . " On 24 January 2011 , Neighbours achieved 330 @,@ 000 viewers and three days later 355 @,@ 000 viewers tuned in , becoming the show 's highest rating yet on Eleven . The show had more viewers than the Ten Evening News in the 16 – 39 and 18 – 49 demographic . On 13 June 2011 , Neighbours was watched by 455 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the highest rating show on digital multichannels that night and breaking its previous ratings record on the channel . On 27 May 2013 , episode 6651 of Neighbours was watched by an audience of 405 @,@ 000 viewers , which was the highest rating the series had achieved in nearly two years . Neighbours has traditionally rated between 250 @,@ 000 and 350 @,@ 000 since moving to Eleven in January 2011 .
= = Storylines = =
Neighbours storylines frequently focus on family problems , intergenerational clashes , school problems , romances and domestic issues . Despite the restrictive 6 : 30 pm time slot , Neighbours has also covered many serious problems such as teenage pregnancy , marital breakdown , imprisonment , career problems , financial problems , pregnancy , abortion , eating disorders , alcoholism , adultery , drug use and drug trafficking , robbery , stalking , kidnapping , accidental death , hit @-@ and @-@ runs , murder , shootings , and incest . In the 2000s , the show dealt with controversial issues such as sexuality , gambling , prostitution , and surrogacy . Health issues were also focused on , including multiple sclerosis , bipolar disorder , epilepsy , amnesia , congenital diaphragmatic hernia , and alzheimer 's disease . In September 2014 , the show featured a natural disaster storyline , in which a tornado descended on Erinsborough and Ramsay Street .
= = Characters = =
In 1985 , Neighbours started out with three families created by Watson – the Ramsays , the Robinsons and the Clarkes . Watson said that he wanted to show three families living in a small street , who are friends . Max Ramsay ( Francis Bell ) , his wife Maria ( Dasha Blahova ) and their sons Shane ( Peter O 'Brien ) and Danny ( David Clencie ) lived at No.24 Ramsay Street . Single father , Jim Robinson ( Alan Dale ) lived next door with his children , Paul ( Stefan Dennis ) , Julie ( Vikki Blanche ) , Scott ( Darius Perkins ) and Lucy ( Kylie Flinker ) . His mother @-@ in @-@ law , Helen Daniels ( Anne Haddy ) also lived with him . Bachelor Des Clarke ( Paul Keane ) invited Daphne Lawrence ( Elaine Smith ) to live at No. 28 with him and they were later married . The Robinsons and the Ramsays had a long history in the street and they were often involved in an ongoing rivalry . When Network Ten picked up the show and revamped it , they brought in new and younger actors including Kylie Minogue as Charlene Mitchell and Jason Donovan , who replaced Darius Perkins as Scott Robinson . Many families , including the Alessi , Bishop , Hancock , Hoyland , Rebecchi , Scullys , Timmins ' and Willises have moved in and out of the street over the years .
When storylines for certain characters become tired , the scriptwriters simply move one family out and replace it with a new one . Ramsay Street is now a mixture of older characters like Lou Carpenter ( Tom Oliver ) , Toadfish Rebecchi ( Ryan Moloney ) , Karl ( Alan Fletcher ) and Susan Kennedy ( Jackie Woodburne ) , as well as newer characters such as the Canning and Turner families . Watson originally wanted to show young people communicating with older people , which means that the cast is a mix of young actors in their teens or early 20s and older , more experienced hands . The last remaining original character , Helen Daniels , departed the show in 1997 due to the ill @-@ health of Anne Haddy . In 2004 , original cast member Stefan Dennis returned to Neighbours full @-@ time as Paul Robinson . Paul is currently the only remaining original character in the series . In February 2009 , it was announced that producers would be introducing a new generation of the Ramsay family to the show , over a decade after the family had last appeared . Kate ( Ashleigh Brewer ) , Harry ( Will Moore ) and Sophie Ramsay ( Kaiya Jones ) made their first appearances in May 2009 .
= = = Celebrity guest appearances = = =
Throughout its run , Neighbours has featured several guest appearances from celebrities playing themselves or characters . Early cameos included former Skyhooks musician Red Symons , Warwick Capper , Molly Meldrum , Chris Lowe of Pet Shop Boys , and Clive James . During the 2000s and 2010s , the series featured appearances from The Wiggles , Shane Warne , former Spice Girls singer Emma Bunton , Little Britain 's Matt Lucas and David Walliams , The Veronicas , André Rieu , wrestler Dave Batista , Lily Allen and Paula Abdul .
= = Theme tune = =
The theme tune to Neighbours was composed by Tony Hatch whose then wife , Jackie Trent , wrote the lyrics . Since 1985 , there have been eight versions of the theme tune . The song has been voted the world 's most recognised television theme song and the lyrics were quoted by John Smith , then British Shadow Chancellor , in a House of Commons debate on Government economic policy . From 2007 , the theme tune to Neighbours was sung by Sandra de Jong . In February 2013 , Network Ten and FremantleMedia announced that they were searching across Australia and the United Kingdom for a singer to record a new version of the theme tune . The competition resulted in a tie and the new theme was sung as a duet by Daniel Boys and Stephanie Angelini . That version of the theme tune began airing from 15 April 2013 . A new retro @-@ inspired theme tune sung by Garth Ploog debuted on 5 January 2015 as part of the show 's 30th anniversary celebrations .
= = Titles = =
Since Neighbours began in 1985 , it has used its opening titles sequence to introduce the major characters which currently feature in the show . The sequences often feature the characters in family or domestic groups . Each episode 's titles sequence was preceded by a recap of events from recent episodes featuring the characters who were to appear in the new episode .
In 2002 , Neighbours debuted an all new style of titles with a remixed version of the theme tune . The titles showed characters together in groups according to gender , a change from the previous ones which were taken outside . 2007 saw Neighbours debut an updated theme , a new logo and new " optimistic , contemporary " titles . A photo booth montage was played and characters were seen rowing boats , walking along piers and eating outside . The sequence also contained shots of upcoming scenes . In August 2009 , Neighbours introduced a new titles format . The first episode of each week begins with a trailer previewing the week 's events . The usual recap of storylines switched to after the opening titles of each episode for the first time since 1998 . The end of episode teasers returned and are now made in @-@ house by the Neighbours production team .
In September 2009 , Susan Bower announced that Neighbours would introduce new opening titles for the 25th anniversary and they would feature a bit of " bling " . The titles were created by Visual Playground , who shot a series of scenes featuring the cast in settings familiar to viewers . The titles made their debut on 18 March 2010 . A new set of opening titles made their debut on 15 April 2013 , along with a new version of the theme tune . Visual Playground once again created and produced the titles . The titles depict the Ramsay Street residents gathering outside their houses for a street party . A writer for Visual Playground explained that they " invented a bokeh graphic device that uses the play of light in a formation to locate the houses in the cul @-@ de @-@ sac . Six overlapping circles represent the six houses of Ramsay St and the off street cast members . All the circles together reinforce the sense of community that makes up Neighbours . " A new retro @-@ inspired logo , theme tune and opening titles debuted on 5 January 2015 as part of the show 's 30th anniversary celebrations . The new logo is a reimagined contemporary version of the original Neighbours logo from 1985 . The titles show characters in a variety of familiar settings around Erinsborough and ends with a look at Ramsay Street from above .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Neighbours has received a wide variety of awards and nominations throughout its run . The show has received 81 Logie Award nominations , of which it has won 30 . It has also been nominated for " Most Popular Daytime Programme " at the UK 's National Television Awards in five of the six years from 2000 to 2006 . In 1997 , the show won an award for Best Episode in A Television Drama Serial at the Australian Film Institute Awards . Two Neighbours actors have been nominated for Rose D 'Or awards , once in 2004 for Ryan Moloney and again in 2005 for Jackie Woodburne . Neighbours has also won three Australian Writers ' Guild awards .
= = Home media and spin @-@ offs = =
Since the show 's inception , several spin @-@ offs have been produced , including books , music , DVDs and internet webisodes . In 1991 , an officially licensed video game of Neighbours was created by Ian Copeland and developed by Zeppelin Games under their Impulze label for the ZX Spectrum , Commodore 64 , Atari ST , and Amiga ; it was re @-@ released by Zeppelin in 1992 on budget price . In the game , the player took on the role of Scott Robinson and had to skateboard around four whole courses .
Episodes of Neighbours have been released on several DVDs . Neighbours : Defining Moments was the first DVD box set released in 2002 . It is a compilation of fifteen classic episodes and a photo gallery . The Neighbours : The Iconic Episodes Volume 1 DVD box set was released in 2008 and contains twenty @-@ three episodes , the 1000th episode party celebration special and a photo gallery . Neighbours : The Iconic Episodes Volume Two contains twenty @-@ four episodes over three discs . One disc is dedicated to the character of Charlene . In 2012 , early episodes of Neighbours were released on three DVD box sets in Germany . From April 2012 , Shock Entertainment began releasing DVD box sets of Neighbours episodes in broadcast order from the beginning . As of October 2014 , five box sets have been released .
Neighbours has released three internet webisode series via their YouTube channel . The first series was titled Steph in Prison and coincided with Stephanie Scully 's ( Carla Bonner ) return to Neighbours in April 2013 . The following year , Brennan on the Run focusing on Mark Brennan 's ( Scott McGregor ) time in witness protection was released . Neighbours vs Zombies was launched in October 2014 and featured the returns of many former characters who had previously died in the show .
= Francis Harvey =
Major Francis John William Harvey , VC ( 29 April 1873 – 31 May 1916 ) was an officer of the British Royal Marine Light Infantry during the First World War . Harvey was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross , the highest military award for gallantry in the face of the enemy given to British and Commonwealth forces , for his actions at the height of the Battle of Jutland . A long serving Royal Marine officer descended of a military family , during his career Harvey became a specialist in naval artillery , serving on many large warships as gunnery training officer and gun commander . Specially requested for HMS Lion , the flagship of the British battlecruiser fleet , Harvey fought at the battles of Heligoland Bight , Dogger Bank and Jutland .
At Jutland , Harvey , although mortally wounded by German shellfire , ordered the magazine of Q turret on the battlecruiser Lion to be flooded . This action prevented the tons of cordite stored there from catastrophically detonating in an explosion that would have destroyed the vessel and all aboard her . Although he succumbed to his injuries seconds later , his dying act may have saved over a thousand lives and prompted Winston Churchill to later comment : " In the long , rough , glorious history of the Royal Marines there is no name and no deed which in its character and consequences ranks above this " .
= = Gunnery expert = =
Harvey was born in Upper Sydenham , Kent , the son of Commander John William Francis Harvey , RN and Elizabeth Edwards Lavington Harvey née Penny . At age 11 in 1884 , Harvey moved with his family to Southsea and he attended Portsmouth Grammar School , achieving excellent academic results and showing proficiency in languages and debating . Harvey was descended from a military family ; his great @-@ great @-@ grandfather John Harvey had been killed in the Glorious First of June in 1794 and his great @-@ grandfather Admiral Sir Edward Harvey , GCB , RN and grandfather Captain John Harvey of the 9th Regiment of Foot were also prominent military figures .
After leaving school , Harvey chose a military career and was accepted by both the Royal Military College , Sandhurst and the Royal Naval College , Greenwich for officer training . Choosing the latter school as a Royal Marines officer cadet , Harvey graduated in 1892 and the following year was made a full lieutenant , joining HMS Wildfire for his first seagoing commission . After just a year at sea , Harvey was back on shore attending gunnery courses at HMS Excellent , qualifying in 1896 as an instructor first class in naval gunnery . Harvey was appointed to the cruiser HMS Phaeton when she was commissioned at Devonport on 8 June 1897 for service on the Pacific Station . In 1898 , whilst on the Phaëton , he was reprimanded by the Admiralty for an unfavourable report he released on San Diego Harbour . Returning home the same year , Harvey was given the position of Assistant Instructor for Gunnery at Plymouth Division . During this period , Harvey married Ethel Edye and had one son , John .
Between 1898 and 1904 Harvey spent much of his time attached to the Channel Fleet , aboard HMS Edgar and HMS Diadem , practising and instructing in gunnery . On 28 January 1900 he was promoted to captain . In 1903 he was posted aboard HMS Royal Sovereign , the first of a string of big ship appointments teaching gunnery to the heavy units of the Channel Fleet . By 1909 , Harvey had served on HMS Duke of Edinburgh , HMS St George and the new battlecruiser HMS Inflexible . In 1910 Harvey became Instructor of Gunnery at Chatham Dockyard and the following year was promoted to major , a report on the gunnery school commenting " Degree of efficiency in Gunnery Establishment at Chatham is very high both as regards general training and attention to detail . Great credit is due all concerned particularly to Major F.J.W. Harvey , the I of G " .
The strength of this report subsequently gained Harvey a position as senior marine officer aboard HMS Lion , the 27 @,@ 000 ton flagship of the British battlecruiser fleet . Lion had eight 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns and Harvey was stationed in an office under Q turret directing their operation and fire . Under her new commander , Admiral David Beatty , Harvey served as the senior marine officer on board into the First World War , his first military campaign .
= = First World War = =
Harvey did not have to wait long to see action , seeing combat for the first time at the Battle of Heligoland Bight just weeks into the war . On 28 August 1914 , Lion and her squadron of HMS Queen Mary and HMS Princess Royal , swept into the Heligoland Bight where German and British cruiser forces were already engaged in a bitter struggle . One German cruiser had already been sunk by the time Beatty 's force arrived , but the German flagship SMS Cöln and cruiser SMS Ariadne were surprised in the fog and destroyed by heavy calibre shells from Beatty 's battlecruisers . German Admiral Leberecht Maass and over 1 @,@ 000 of his sailors were killed , Harvey 's guns scoring several hits on the cruisers .
Six months later , Harvey 's guns again caused severe damage to a German force at the Battle of Dogger Bank . Over the previous months , a German battlecruiser squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Hipper had crossed the North Sea and bombarded British coastal towns on several occasions . On 24 January 1915 another attempt was made , but this time British signals analysts had detected the German movement and using this information the Admiralty dispatched Beatty 's force to intercept and destroy them . Beatty and Hipper 's squadrons collided at 09 : 00 and during the engagement that followed , Lion was left exposed by mis @-@ communication between the ships , which led to HMS Tiger engaging the wrong ship , leaving SMS Moltke uncovered and so able to fire more accurately . The British flagship was hard pressed until one of Lion 's shots penetrated one of Seydlitz 's turrets . A huge explosion destroyed the neighbouring turret as well and killed 160 men , the German flagship only surviving due to the actions of sailor Wilhelm Heidkamp , who wrenched open the water valves to the magazines despite them glowing red hot .
Lion was badly damaged in the action by shells from the passing SMS Derfflinger and with her engines failing , dropped back to engage the already sinking SMS Blücher . Misread signals resulted in the rest of the British fleet returning to support Lion in this task , allowing the rest of the battered German fleet to retire as the British destroyed the hapless Blücher and 792 of her crew . Following the battle , Harvey remained aboard Lion at Rosyth for the whole of 1915 and the first five months of 1916 , continuing his gunnery training and preparations for major fleet action . His preparations came to fruition on the last day of May , when the British fleet sailed to engage the main body of the German High Seas Fleet at the Battle of Jutland .
Just after Dogger Bank , Harvey had written to a fellow RMLI officer in HMS Orion describing his experiences :
= = = Jutland = = =
Beatty 's battlecruisers led the British fleet in its attack , casting south into the North Sea to find the enemy during the afternoon of 31 May 1916 . At 14 : 15 , scouting cruisers spotted the German vanguard and Beatty closed to attack the enemy with his main force . Given time to prepare , Hipper was ready for Beatty with his battlecruisers in line to face Beatty 's approaching ships with their full broadsides . Hipper was also encouraged by the main German battleship fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Reinhard Scheer , which was steaming northwards close behind him . At 15 : 45 Beatty came within range of the German fleet and the vanguards engaged one another with their opening fusillades . As the two squadrons closed , the Germans found the range better and faster than the British , who were silhouetted against the sun . As a result , German shells pounded the British ships while the German ships remained untouched for the first 10 minutes of the engagement . During this stage of the battle Lion was hit by nine shells from SMS Lützow . One shell at 16 : 00 struck the right upper corner of the left hand gun port at the junction of the face plate and the roof , and punched a piece of the 9 @-@ inch face plate into the turret before detonating , blowing off the armoured roof of the turret and starting a fire , which a damage control party working from outside the turret fought to put out .
The initial explosion killed or wounded everyone stationed in the gun house itself . Harvey , despite severe wounds and burns , realised that the shell hoist leading to the ship 's main forward magazine was jammed open . With the hatch open , the flash fire would rapidly travel down to the main magazine resulting in an explosion that would tear the ship in two and kill everyone on board . Staggering across the wreckage of the turret , Harvey gave orders down the voice pipe for the magazine doors to be closed and the magazine compartments to be flooded , an action which would prevent the cordite in the magazines detonating . Turning to his sergeant , the one man still standing , Harvey instructed him to proceed to the bridge and give a full report to the ship 's captain Ernle Chatfield ( a standard drill in damage exercises ) . Seconds later , Harvey collapsed and died from his wounds . The sergeant went immediately to the bridge and notified the captain of Harvey 's actions before being taken below to have his wounds dressed .
As soon as the turret had been hit the captain had ordered Q magazine doors closed and the magazine flooded , the order passing to the Transmitting Station below the armoured deck where Stoker 1st Class William Yeo was entrusted with passing the order on . The magazine was consequently flooded and locked up within minutes of the hit . However the cordite charges which had fallen down from gun house after the hit were not removed to safety , and there were still ready charges in the working chamber . A large number of crewmen still remained in the shell room , magazine handing room and working chamber . The fire which was thought to have been put out after the hit on the turret gained strength and ignited the remaining cordite charges , setting off a large explosion at 16 : 28 which killed the turret crewmen , the flame of the explosion reaching as high as the top of the ship 's masts . Even with the precautions taken in hand , the magazine doors were later found to be severely buckled – only the seawater in the magazine behind it prevented the blast reaching inside . Other ships of the battlecruiser fleet were less lucky ; at about the same time as Harvey 's death , HMS Indefatigable was torn to pieces by a series of magazine explosions that claimed 1 @,@ 013 lives and just minutes after that HMS Queen Mary exploded " like a puffball " in one huge column of grey smoke , killing 1 @,@ 275 sailors . Hours later during the main battlefleet engagement , Admiral Horace Hood 's flagship HMS Invincible was destroyed with 1 @,@ 032 lives . All three ships were lost as the result of magazine explosions similar to the one narrowly avoided on Lion .
= = Remembrance = =
Harvey 's charred corpse was taken from the wreckage of Q turret in the aftermath of battle and buried at sea with full honours alongside the other 98 fatal casualties Lion had suffered . His bravery in the face of certain death did not go unnoticed ; he was mentioned by name in Admiral Jellicoe 's post @-@ battle dispatch and he was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross . Harvey 's widow Ethel was presented with the award at Buckingham Palace by King George V on 15 September 1916 . His medal group was later loaned to the Royal Marines Museum , Eastney Barracks by his son Lieutenant @-@ Colonel John Malcolm Harvey of the King 's Regiment in 1973 . Harvey 's name is inscribed on the Chatham Naval Memorial to those with no known grave , administered by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission .
= = = Victoria Cross citation = = =
= DayZ ( mod ) =
DayZ is a multiplayer open world survival third @-@ person shooter modification designed by Dean Hall for the 2009 tactical shooter video game ARMA 2 and its 2010 expansion pack , ARMA 2 : Operation Arrowhead . The mod places the player in the fictional post @-@ Soviet state of Chernarus , where a mysterious plague has infected most of the population , turning people into violent zombies . As a survivor with limited supplies , the player must scavenge the world for supplies such as food , water , weapons and medicine , while killing or avoiding both zombies and other players , and sometimes non @-@ player characters , in an effort to survive the zombie apocalypse .
DayZ has been praised for its innovative design elements . The mod reached one million players in its first four months on August 6 , 2012 , with hundreds of thousands of people purchasing ARMA 2 just to play it . The mod version of DayZ remains in continued development by its community , where as the standalone game was developed by ARMA 2 creators Bohemia Interactive .
During the alpha , designer Dean Hall became part of Bohemia Interactive , and the mod , retitled to Arma II : DayZ Mod , was officially released on February 21 , 2013 .
= = Gameplay = =
DayZ attempts to portray a realistic scenario within the gameplay , with the environment having different effects on the player . A character may receive bone fractures from damage to their legs , go into shock from bullet wounds or zombie bites , receive infections from zombies or diseased players , or faint due to low blood pressure . Thirst and hunger must be kept under control by finding sustenance in either cities or the wilderness , with body temperature playing a key part in the character 's survival . The game focuses on surviving and the human elements of a zombie apocalypse by forcing the player to acknowledge basic human needs like thirst , hunger and shelter . These mechanics require the player to focus on immediate goals before they can consider long @-@ term strategies .
DayZ is praised for its level of emergent gameplay . BuzzFeed author Russell Brandom suggested that the mod has spawned the first photojournalist in a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game , creating articles that are not only about a game world but journalism told from within it . Brandom claimed that DayZ is a unique example of the massively multiplayer online game genre in giving players the freedom to harm or murder each other , whilst adding no restrictions on how or why they may do it , quoting a player who described it as " the story of people " . The mod has been compared by Kotaku to The Walking Dead and its focus on interactions between the characters when faced with desperate situations . The players in DayZ are forced to deal with dilemmas in similar ways as portrayed in both the comics and TV series for The Walking Dead .
It has been proposed that DayZ provides some insight into people 's motivations and behaviors when reacting to real crisis events , mirroring controlled experiments of a similar nature . However , some critics of this theory argue that participants do not react as they would in a real world situation in which their life is truly threatened . Despite the game being biased towards self @-@ interested , hostile competition , many players enter the game with their own perceptions and priorities . These varied approaches and experiences within the game suggest that even in a system that should theoretically promote rational behaviour , people act in unexpected ways . It has been proposed that this dispels the idea that chaos is an objective and defining feature of the system , rather it is what players make of it .
= = Development = =
Dean Hall created the concept while he was a soldier in the New Zealand Army , as a suggestion for training soldiers through exposure to situations provoking emotion and relevant thought processes . He has stated he was inspired by experiences during jungle training while on exchange with the Singapore Armed Forces in Brunei , where he was badly injured in a survival skills exercise . Hall has stated that what he had endured then directly affected the development of DayZ , and the creation of immersion through forcing the player to experience emotion and tension as part of gameplay . Hall believed that early rapid success of the mod was largely due to social media and consumers ' desire for games that provided significant challenge . Hall has described the mod as something of an " anti @-@ game " as it broke what he felt were generally considered to be basic rules of game design such as balance and not frustrating users .
First requiring manual installation , DayZ now uses two third @-@ party programs called Six Updater Suite and DayZ Commander to facilitate its installation . On August 7 , 2012 , Dean Hall announced on the game 's development blog that the mod was going to be made into its own game , with Bohemia Interactive as the developer , and himself as the project leader . On October 29 , 2012 , development of the mod officially transferred to a largely community driven effort with the release of version 1 @.@ 7 @.@ 3 .
= = Reception = =
DayZ acquired a large user base due to its unique gameplay . By August 2012 , three months after release , the mod had registered more than one million unique users . IGN called it one of the most popular PC games in the world " right now " four months after release . It was credited for over 300 @,@ 000 unit sales of ARMA 2 within two months of the mod 's release , putting this three @-@ year @-@ old title in the top seller charts on Steam for over seven weeks , much of this time as the top selling game .
Marek Španěl , CEO of ARMA 2 developer Bohemia Interactive , said the mod was directly driving sales of the game and applauded it for an addictive and thrilling experience , saying that it could stand as a gaming experience on its own . The mod was also praised by video game developers not involved with the series . Kristoffer Touborg from CCP ( EVE @-@ Online ) said it was the best game he has played in several months and called it particularly innovative given the first @-@ person shooter genre , which he considered to be one of gaming 's least innovative genres . Game designers Erik Wolpaw and Tim Schafer stated at PAX Prime 2012 that they believe that player @-@ driven experiences such as DayZ are the future of gaming , commenting on what the title achieved without having a driving narrative .
= = = Media reception = = =
The mod received widespread media acclaim . Edge called DayZ the mod of the year . Wired UK 's Quitin Smith said it could be the most terrifying game of 2012 , and Rock Paper Shotgun 's Jim Rossignol called it the best game he had played so far in 2012 . PC Gamer stated the game was one of the most important things to happen to PC gaming in 2012 and included it in their 2012 list of the top five scariest PC games of all time . Metro called it one of the best games to ever to come out of PC modding and one of the single most impressive experiences available on the system . Eurogamer called it the best zombie game ever made and the break out phenomenon of PC gaming in 2012 . Kotaku called it possibly the greatest zombie game of all time and the most interesting PC game of 2012 . PC PowerPlay said DayZ was the most important thing to happen to PC gaming in 2012 .
Eurogamer 's Stace Harman suggested that the mod 's designer Dean Hall might be responsible for some of the most emotive stories to come from playing a video game . Chris Pereiraa of 1UP.com called it a " shining example of PC gaming at its finest " , stating the tension from interacting with other players leads to an experience unlike anything else he had experienced in gaming apart from making love in Heavy Rain , and cited the game as an example that PC gaming is not in decline , as the creation of such a mod is something that is only possible on a computer ( as opposed to video game consoles ) . According to bit @-@ tech 's Joe Martin , no other game in the genre has offered so compelling take on a zombie apocalypse and its impact of the mod on the industry might be similar to that of Defense of the Ancients and Counter @-@ Strike .
= = = Awards = = =
The mod was nominated for the " Online Innovation " category at the Game Developers Conference Online Awards 2012 .
PC Gamer gave DayZ the " Mod of the Year " 2012 award , calling it " one of the least @-@ forgiving and most intimidating games of the year . "
Good Game gave DayZ the " Quiet Achiever " award for 2012 .
PC PowerPlay gave DayZ the " Game of the Year 2012 " and named it number five on their list of top 100 games of all time .
= = Standalone game = =
The standalone title , also called DayZ , carries over many of the core gameplay mechanisms of the ARMA 2 mod . DayZ has enhanced graphics , enhanced UI , and AI compared to the mod . DayZ is planned to launch on 8th generation consoles ( PlayStation 4 and Xbox One ) once the game is fully complete .
= Ted Bundy =
Theodore Robert Bundy ( born Theodore Robert Cowell ; November 24 , 1946 – January 24 , 1989 ) was an American serial killer , kidnapper , rapist , and necrophile who assaulted and murdered numerous young women and girls during the 1970s and possibly earlier . Shortly before his execution , after more than a decade of denials , he confessed to 30 homicides committed in seven states between 1974 and 1978 . The true victim count remains unknown , and could be much higher .
Bundy was regarded as handsome and charismatic by many of his young female victims , traits he exploited to win their trust . He typically approached them in public places , feigning injury or disability , or impersonating an authority figure , before overpowering and assaulting them at more secluded locations . He sometimes revisited his secondary crime scenes for hours at a time , grooming and performing sexual acts with the decomposing corpses until putrefaction and destruction by wild animals made further interaction impossible . He decapitated at least 12 of his victims , and kept some of the severed heads in his apartment for a period of time as mementos . On a few occasions , he simply broke into dwellings at night and bludgeoned his victims as they slept .
Initially incarcerated in Utah in 1975 for aggravated kidnapping and attempted criminal assault , Bundy became a suspect in a progressively longer list of unsolved homicides in multiple states . Facing murder charges in Colorado , he engineered two dramatic escapes and committed further assaults , including three murders , before his ultimate recapture in Florida in 1978 . He received three death sentences in two separate trials for the Florida homicides .
Ted Bundy died in the electric chair at Raiford Prison in Starke , Florida , on January 24 , 1989 . Biographer Ann Rule described him as " ... a sadistic sociopath who took pleasure from another human 's pain and the control he had over his victims , to the point of death , and even after . " He once called himself " ... the most cold @-@ hearted son of a bitch you 'll ever meet . " Attorney Polly Nelson , a member of his last defense team , agreed . " Ted " , she wrote , " was the very definition of heartless evil . "
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Bundy was born Theodore Robert Cowell at the Elizabeth Lund Home for Unwed Mothers ( now the Lund Family Center ) in Burlington , Vermont on November 24 , 1946 to Eleanor Louise Cowell ( 1924 – 2012 ; known for most of her life as Louise ) . His father 's identity has never been determined with certainty . His birth certificate assigns paternity to a salesman and Air Force veteran named Lloyd Marshall , but Louise later claimed that she had been seduced by " a sailor " whose name may have been Jack Worthington . ( Years later , investigators would find no record of anyone by that name in Navy or Merchant Marine archives . ) Some family members expressed suspicions that Bundy might have been fathered by Louise 's own violent , abusive father , Samuel Cowell , but no material evidence has ever been cited to support or refute this .
For the first three years of his life Bundy lived in the Philadelphia home of his maternal grandparents , Samuel and Eleanor Cowell , who raised him as their son to avoid the social stigma that accompanied birth outside wedlock at the time . Family , friends , and even young Ted were told that his grandparents were his parents and that his mother was his older sister . Eventually he discovered the truth ; he told his girlfriend that a cousin showed him a copy of his birth certificate after calling him a " bastard " , but he told biographers Stephen Michaud and Hugh Aynesworth that he found the certificate himself . Biographer and true crime writer Ann Rule , who knew Bundy personally , believes that he located his original birth record in Vermont in 1969 . Bundy expressed a lifelong resentment toward his mother for lying about his true parentage and leaving him to discover it for himself .
Bundy spoke warmly of his grandparents in some interviews , and told Rule that he " identified with " , " respected " , and " clung to " his grandfather ; but he and other family members told attorneys in 1987 that Samuel Cowell was a tyrannical bully and a bigot who hated blacks , Italians , Catholics , and Jews , beat his wife and the family dog , and swung neighborhood cats by their tails . He once threw Louise 's younger sister Julia down a flight of stairs for oversleeping . He sometimes spoke aloud to unseen presences , and at least once he flew into a violent rage when the question of Ted 's paternity was raised . Bundy described his grandmother as a timid and obedient woman who periodically underwent electroconvulsive therapy for depression and feared leaving their house toward the end of her life . Ted occasionally exhibited disturbing behavior , even at that early age . Julia recalled awakening one day from a nap to find herself surrounded by knives from the Cowell kitchen ; her three @-@ year @-@ old nephew was standing by the bed , smiling .
In 1950 Louise abruptly changed her surname from Cowell to Nelson , and at the urging of multiple family members , left Philadelphia with her son to live with cousins Alan and Jane Scott in Tacoma , Washington . In 1951 Louise met Johnny Culpepper Bundy , a hospital cook , at an adult singles night at Tacoma 's First Methodist Church . They married later that year and Johnny Bundy formally adopted Ted . Johnny and Louise conceived four children of their own , and although Johnny tried to include his adoptive son in camping trips and other family activities , Ted remained distant . He later complained to his girlfriend that Johnny wasn 't his real father , " wasn 't very bright " , and " didn 't make much money . "
Bundy 's Tacoma recollections varied from biographer to biographer : To Michaud and Aynesworth he described roaming his neighborhood , picking through trash barrels in search of pictures of naked women . To Polly Nelson he spoke of perusing detective magazines , crime novels , and true crime documentaries for stories involving sexual violence , particularly when illustrated with pictures of dead or maimed bodies ; yet in a letter to Rule he asserted that he " ... never , ever read fact @-@ detective magazines , and shuddered at the thought [ that anyone would ] " . To Michaud , he described consuming large quantities of alcohol and " canvass [ ing ] the community " late at night in search of undraped windows where he could observe women undressing , or " whatever [ else ] could be seen . "
Accounts of his social life also varied : He told Michaud and Aynesworth that he " chose to be alone " as an adolescent because he was unable to understand interpersonal relationships . He claimed that he had no natural sense of how to develop friendships . " I didn 't know what made people want to be friends , " he said . " I didn 't know what underlay social interactions . " Classmates from Woodrow Wilson High School told Rule , however , that Bundy was " well known and well liked " there , " a medium @-@ sized fish in a large pond " .
Bundy 's only significant athletic avocation was snow skiing , which he pursued enthusiastically using stolen equipment and forged lift tickets . During high school he was arrested at least twice on suspicion of burglary and auto theft . When he reached age 18 the details of the incidents were expunged from his record , as is customary in Washington and most other states .
= = = University years = = =
After graduating from high school in 1965 Bundy spent a year at the University of Puget Sound ( UPS ) before transferring to the University of Washington ( UW ) in 1966 to study Chinese . In 1967 he became romantically involved with a UW classmate who is identified in Bundy biographies by several pseudonyms , most commonly Stephanie Brooks . In early 1968 he dropped out of college and worked at a series of minimum @-@ wage jobs . He also volunteered at the Seattle office of Nelson Rockefeller 's presidential campaign , and in August , attended the 1968 Republican National Convention in Miami as a Rockefeller delegate . Shortly thereafter Brooks ended their relationship and returned to her family home in California , frustrated by what she described as Bundy 's immaturity and lack of ambition . Psychiatrist Dorothy Lewis would later pinpoint this crisis as " ... probably the pivotal time in his development . " Devastated by Brooks 's rejection , Bundy traveled to Colorado and then farther east , visiting relatives in Arkansas and Philadelphia , and enrolling for one semester at Temple University . It was at this time in early 1969 , Rule believes , that Bundy visited the office of birth records in Burlington and confirmed his true parentage .
Back in Washington in the fall of 1969 , he met Elizabeth Kloepfer ( identified in Bundy literature as Meg Anders , Beth Archer , or Liz Kendall ) , a divorcée from Ogden , Utah , who worked as a secretary at the University of Washington School of Medicine . Their stormy relationship would continue well past his initial incarceration in Utah in 1976 . In mid @-@ 1970 , now focused and goal @-@ oriented , he re @-@ enrolled at UW , this time as a psychology major . He became an honor student , well @-@ regarded by his professors . In 1971 he took a job at Seattle 's Suicide Hotline crisis center . There he met and worked alongside Rule , a former Seattle police officer and aspiring crime writer who would later write one of the definitive Bundy biographies , The Stranger Beside Me . Rule saw nothing disturbing in Bundy 's personality at the time , describing him as " kind , solicitous , and empathetic " .
After graduating from UW in 1972 Bundy joined Governor Daniel J. Evans 's reelection campaign . Posing as a college student , he shadowed Evans 's opponent , former governor Albert Rosellini , recording his stump speeches for analysis by Evans 's team . After Evans 's reelection he was hired as an assistant to Ross Davis , Chairman of the Washington State Republican Party . Davis thought well of Bundy , describing him as " smart , aggressive ... and a believer in the system . " In early 1973 , despite mediocre Law School Admission Test scores , Bundy was accepted into the law schools of UPS and the University of Utah on the strength of letters of recommendation from Evans , Davis , and several UW psychology professors .
During a trip to California on Republican Party business in the summer of 1973 Bundy rekindled his relationship with Brooks , who marveled at his transformation into a serious , dedicated professional , seemingly on the cusp of a distinguished legal and political career . He continued to date Kloepfer as well , though neither woman was aware of the other 's existence . In the fall of 1973 Bundy matriculated at UPS Law School and continued courting Brooks , who flew to Seattle several times to stay with him . They discussed marriage ; at one point he introduced her to Davis as his fiancée . In January 1974 , however , he abruptly broke off all contact ; her phone calls and letters went unreturned . Finally reaching him by phone a month later , Brooks demanded to know why Bundy had unilaterally ended their relationship without explanation . In a flat , calm voice , he replied , " Stephanie , I have no idea what you mean ... " and hung up . She never heard from him again . Later he explained , " I just wanted to prove to myself that I could have married her . " At about the same time Bundy began skipping classes at law school , and by April he had stopped attending entirely , as young women began to disappear in the Pacific Northwest .
= = First two series of murders = =
= = = Washington , Oregon = = =
There is no consensus on when or where Bundy began killing women . He told different stories to different people , and refused to divulge the specifics of his earliest crimes , even as he confessed in graphic detail to dozens of later murders in the days preceding his execution . He told Nelson that he attempted his first kidnapping in 1969 in Ocean City , New Jersey , but did not kill anyone until sometime in 1971 in Seattle . He told psychologist Art Norman that he killed two women in Atlantic City in 1969 while visiting family in Philadelphia . To homicide detective Robert D. Keppel he hinted at a murder in Seattle in 1972 , and another in 1973 involving a hitchhiker near Tumwater , Washington , but refused to elaborate . Rule and Keppel both believe that he may have started killing as a teenager . Circumstantial evidence suggests that he abducted and killed 8 @-@ year @-@ old Ann Marie Burr of Tacoma in 1961 when he was 14 , an allegation he denied repeatedly . His earliest documented homicides were committed in 1974 when he was 27 years old . By then he had ( by his own admission ) mastered the skills needed — in the era before DNA profiling — to leave minimal incriminating evidence at a crime scene .
Shortly after midnight on January 4 , 1974 — around the time that he terminated his relationship with Brooks — Bundy entered the basement apartment of 18 @-@ year @-@ old Karen Sparks ( identified as Joni Lenz or Terri Caldwell by various sources ) , a dancer and student at UW . After bludgeoning the sleeping woman with a metal rod from her bed frame he sexually assaulted her with a speculum , causing extensive internal injuries . She remained unconscious for 10 days but survived , with permanent brain damage . Less than a month later , in the early morning hours of February 1 , Bundy broke into the basement room of Lynda Ann Healy , a UW undergraduate who broadcast morning radio weather reports for skiers . He beat her unconscious , dressed her in blue jeans , a white blouse , and boots , and carried her away .
Female college students continued disappearing at the rate of about one per month . On March 12 , Donna Gail Manson , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old student at The Evergreen State College in Olympia , 60 miles ( 97 km ) southwest of Seattle , left her dormitory for a jazz concert on campus but never arrived . On April 17 , Susan Elaine Rancourt disappeared while on her way to a movie after an evening advisors ' meeting at Central Washington State College ( now Central Washington University ) in Ellensburg , 110 miles ( 180 km ) southeast of Seattle . Two female Central Washington students later came forward to report encounters — one on the night of Rancourt 's disappearance , the other three nights earlier — with a man wearing an arm sling , asking for help carrying a load of books to his brown or tan Volkswagen Beetle . On May 6 Roberta Kathleen Parks left her dormitory at Oregon State University in Corvallis , 260 miles ( 420 km ) south of Seattle , to have coffee with friends at the Student Union Building , but never arrived .
Detectives from the King County Sheriff 's Office and the Seattle Police Department grew increasingly concerned . There was no significant physical evidence , and the missing women had little in common , apart from being young , attractive , white college students with long hair parted in the middle . On June 1 , Brenda Carol Ball , 22 , disappeared after leaving the Flame Tavern in Burien , Washington near Seattle – Tacoma International Airport . She was last seen talking in the parking lot to a brown @-@ haired man with his arm in a sling . In the early hours of June 11 , UW student Georgann Hawkins vanished while walking down the brightly lit alley between her boyfriend 's dormitory residence and her sorority house . The next morning three Seattle homicide detectives and a criminalist combed the entire alleyway on their hands and knees , finding nothing . After Hawkins 's disappearance was publicized , witnesses came forward to report seeing a man that night in the alley behind a nearby dormitory , on crutches with a leg cast , struggling to carry a briefcase . One woman recalled that the man asked her to help him carry the case to his car , a light @-@ brown Volkswagen Beetle .
During this period Bundy was working at the Washington State Department of Emergency Services ( DES ) in Olympia , a government agency involved in the search for the missing women . There he met and dated Carole Ann Boone , a twice @-@ divorced mother of two who , six years later , would play an important role in the final phase of his life .
Reports of the six missing women and Sparks 's brutal beating appeared prominently in newspapers and on television throughout Washington and Oregon . Fear spread among the population ; hitchhiking by young women dropped sharply . While pressure mounted on law enforcement agencies , the paucity of physical evidence severely hampered them . Police could not provide reporters with the little information that was available for fear of compromising the investigation . Further similarities between the victims were noted : The disappearances all took place at night , usually near ongoing construction work , within a week of midterm or final exams ; all of the victims were wearing slacks or blue jeans ; and at most crime scenes there were sightings of a man wearing a cast or a sling , and driving a brown or tan Volkswagen Beetle .
The Pacific Northwest murders culminated on Sunday , July 14 with the broad @-@ daylight abductions of two women from a crowded beach at Lake Sammamish State Park in Issaquah , 20 miles ( 32 km ) east of Seattle . Five female witnesses described an attractive young man wearing a white tennis outfit with his left arm in a sling , speaking with a light accent , perhaps Canadian or British . Introducing himself as " Ted " , he asked their help in unloading a sailboat from his tan- or bronze @-@ colored Volkswagen Beetle . Four refused ; one accompanied him as far as his car , saw that there was no sailboat , and fled . Three additional witnesses saw him approach Janice Anne Ott , 23 , a probation case worker at the King County Juvenile Court , with the sailboat story , and watched her leave the beach in his company . About four hours later Denise Naslund , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old woman who was studying to become a computer programmer , left a picnic to go to the restroom and never returned . While Bundy later told Stephen Michaud that Ott was still alive when he returned with Naslund — and that one was forced to watch as the other was murdered — he retracted that detail on the eve of his execution .
King County police , finally armed with a detailed description of their suspect as well as his car , posted fliers throughout the Seattle area . A composite sketch was printed in regional newspapers and broadcast on local television stations . Elizabeth Kloepfer , Ann Rule , a DES employee , and a UW psychology professor all recognized the profile , the sketch , and the car , and reported Ted Bundy as a possible suspect ; but detectives — who were receiving up to 200 tips per day — thought it unlikely that a clean @-@ cut law student with no adult criminal record could be the perpetrator .
On September 6 two grouse hunters stumbled across the skeletal remains of Ott and Naslund near a service road in Issaquah , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Lake Sammamish State Park . An extra femur and several vertebrae found at the site were later identified by Bundy as Georgann Hawkins 's . Six months later , forestry students from Green River Community College discovered the skulls and mandibles of Healy , Rancourt , Parks , and Ball on Taylor Mountain , where Bundy frequently hiked , just east of Issaquah . Manson 's remains were never recovered .
= = = Idaho , Utah , Colorado = = =
In August 1974 Bundy received a second acceptance from the University of Utah Law School and moved to Salt Lake City , leaving Kloepfer in Seattle . While he called Kloepfer often , he dated " at least a dozen " other women . As he studied the first @-@ year law curriculum a second time , " he was devastated to find out that the other students had something , some intellectual capacity , that he did not . He found the classes completely incomprehensible . ' It was a great disappointment to me , ' he said . "
A new string of homicides began the following month with two that went undiscovered until Bundy confessed to them shortly before his execution . On September 2 he raped and strangled a still @-@ unidentified hitchhiker in Idaho , then either disposed of the corpse immediately in a nearby river or returned the next day to photograph and dismember the victim . On October 2 he seized 16 @-@ year @-@ old Nancy Wilcox in Holladay , a suburb of Salt Lake City , and dragged her into a wooded area , intending to " de @-@ escalate " his pathological urges , he said , by raping and releasing her . However , he strangled her — by accident , he claimed — in the process of trying to silence her . Wilcox was buried , he said , near Capitol Reef National Park , some 200 miles ( 320 km ) south of Holladay , but her remains were never found .
On October 18 Melissa Smith , the 17 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of the police chief of Midvale , another Salt Lake City suburb , disappeared after leaving a pizza parlor . Her nude body was found in a nearby mountainous area nine days later . Postmortem examination indicated that she may have remained alive for up to seven days following her disappearance . On October 31 , 25 miles ( 40 km ) south in Lehi , Laura Ann Aime , also 17 , disappeared after leaving a café just after midnight . Her naked body was found by hikers 9 miles ( 14 km ) to the northeast in American Fork Canyon on Thanksgiving Day . Both women had been beaten , raped , sodomized , and strangled with nylon stockings . Years later Bundy described his postmortem rituals with Smith 's and Aime 's remains , including hair shampooing and application of makeup .
In the late afternoon of November 8 , Bundy approached 18 @-@ year @-@ old telephone operator Carol DaRonch at Fashion Place Mall in Murray , Utah , less than a mile from the Midvale restaurant where Melissa Smith was last seen . He identified himself as " Officer Roseland " of the Murray Police Department , told DaRonch that someone had attempted to break into her car , and asked her to accompany him to the station to file a complaint . When DaRonch pointed out that Bundy was driving on a road that did not lead to the police station , he immediately pulled to the shoulder and attempted to handcuff her . During their struggle he inadvertently fastened both handcuffs to the same wrist , and DaRonch was able to open the car door and escape . Later that evening Debra Kent , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old student at Viewmont High School in Bountiful , 19 miles ( 31 km ) north of Murray , disappeared after leaving a theater production at the school to pick up her brother . The school 's drama teacher and a student told police that " a stranger " had asked each of them to come out to the parking lot to identify a car . Another student later saw the same man pacing in the rear of the auditorium , and the drama teacher spotted him again shortly before the end of the play . Outside the auditorium , investigators found a key that unlocked the handcuffs removed from Carol DaRonch 's wrist .
In November Elizabeth Kloepfer , having read that young women were disappearing in towns surrounding Salt Lake City , called King County police a second time . Detective Randy Hergesheimer of the Major Crimes division interviewed her in detail . By then , Bundy had risen considerably on the King County hierarchy of suspicion , but the Lake Sammamish witness considered most reliable by detectives failed to pick him from a photo lineup . In December , Kloepfer called the Salt Lake County Sheriff 's Office and repeated her suspicions . Bundy 's name was added to their list of suspects , but at that time no credible evidence linked him to the Utah crimes . In January 1975 Bundy returned to Seattle after his final exams and spent a week with Kloepfer , who did not tell him that she had reported him three separate times to police . She made plans to visit him in Salt Lake City in August .
In 1975 Bundy shifted much of his criminal activity eastward to Colorado from his base in Utah . On January 12 , a 23 @-@ year @-@ old registered nurse named Caryn Campbell disappeared while walking down a well @-@ lit hallway between the elevator and her room at the Wildwood Inn ( now the Wildwood Lodge ) in Snowmass Village , 400 miles ( 640 km ) southeast of Salt Lake City . Her nude body was found a month later next to a dirt road just outside the resort . She had been killed by blows to her head from a blunt instrument that left distinctive linear grooved depressions on her skull ; her body also had deep cuts from a sharp weapon . A hundred miles ( 160 km ) northeast of Snowmass on March 15 , Vail ski instructor Julie Cunningham , 26 , disappeared while walking from her apartment to a dinner date with a friend . Bundy later told Colorado investigators that he approached her on crutches and asked that she help carry his ski boots to his car , where he clubbed and handcuffed her , then assaulted and strangled her at a remote secondary site near Rifle , Colorado , 90 miles ( 140 km ) west of Vail . Weeks later he made the six @-@ hour drive from Salt Lake City to revisit her remains . Denise Oliverson , 25 , disappeared near the Utah – Colorado border in Grand Junction on April 6 while riding her bicycle to her parents ' house ; her bike and sandals were found under a viaduct near a railroad bridge . On May 6 Bundy lured 12 @-@ year @-@ old Lynette Culver from Alameda Junior High School in Pocatello , Idaho , 160 miles ( 260 km ) north of Salt Lake City . He drowned and then sexually assaulted her in his hotel room , then disposed of her body in a river north of Pocatello ( possibly the Snake ) .
In mid @-@ May three of Bundy 's Washington State DES coworkers , including Carole Ann Boone , visited him in Salt Lake City and stayed for a week in his apartment . Bundy spent a week in Seattle with Kloepfer in early June and they discussed getting married the following Christmas . Again , Kloepfer made no mention of her discussions with the King County Police and Salt Lake County Sheriff 's Office , and Bundy disclosed neither his ongoing relationship with Boone nor a concurrent romance with a Utah law student known in various accounts as Kim Andrews or Sharon Auer .
On June 28 Susan Curtis vanished from the campus of Brigham Young University in Provo , 45 miles ( 72 km ) south of Salt Lake City . Curtis 's murder became Bundy 's last confession , tape @-@ recorded moments before he entered the execution chamber . The bodies of Wilcox , Kent , Cunningham , Culver , Curtis , and Oliverson were never recovered .
In August or September 1975 he was baptized into The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints , although he was not an active participant in services and ignored most church restrictions . He would later be excommunicated by the LDS Church following his 1976 kidnapping conviction . ( When asked his religious preference after his arrest , Bundy answered " Methodist " , the religion of his childhood . )
In Washington state , investigators were still struggling to analyze the Pacific Northwest murder spree that had ended as abruptly as it had begun . In an effort to make sense of an overwhelming mass of data , they resorted to the then @-@ innovative strategy of compiling a database . They used the King County payroll computer , a " huge , primitive machine " by contemporary standards , but the only one available for their use . After inputting the many lists they had compiled — classmates and acquaintances of each victim , Volkswagen owners named " Ted " , known sex offenders , and so on — they queried the computer for coincidences . Out of thousands of names , 26 turned up on four separate lists ; one was Ted Bundy . Detectives also manually compiled a list of their 100 " best " suspects , and Bundy was on that list as well . He was " literally at the top of the pile " of suspects when word came from Utah of his arrest .
= = Arrest and first trial = =
Bundy was arrested in August 1975 by a Utah Highway Patrol officer in Granger , another Salt Lake City suburb , after he failed to pull over for a routine traffic stop . The officer , noting that the Volkswagen 's front passenger seat was missing , searched his car ; he found a ski mask , a second mask fashioned from pantyhose , a crowbar , handcuffs , trash bags , a coil of rope , an ice pick , and other items initially assumed to be burglary tools . Bundy explained that the ski mask was for skiing , he had found the handcuffs in a dumpster , and the rest were common household items . However , Detective Jerry Thompson remembered a similar suspect and car description from the November 1974 DaRonch kidnapping , and Bundy 's name from Kloepfer 's December 1974 phone call . In a search of Bundy 's apartment police found a guide to Colorado ski resorts with a checkmark by the Wildwood Inn , and a brochure advertising the Viewmont High School play in Bountiful ( where Debra Kent had disappeared ) , but nothing sufficiently incriminating to hold him . He was released on his own recognizance . ( Bundy later said that searchers missed a collection of Polaroid photographs of his victims hidden in the utility room , which he destroyed after he was released . )
Salt Lake City police placed Bundy on 24 @-@ hour surveillance , and Thompson flew to Seattle with two other detectives to interview Kloepfer . She told them that in the year prior to Bundy 's move to Utah she had discovered objects she " couldn 't understand " in her house and in Bundy 's apartment : a set of crutches ; a bag of plaster of Paris that he admitted stealing from a medical supply house ; a meat cleaver , never used for cooking , that he packed when he moved to Utah ; surgical gloves ; an Oriental knife in a wooden case that he kept in his glove compartment ; and a sack full of women 's clothing . Bundy was perpetually in debt to everyone , and Kloepfer suspected he had stolen almost everything of significant value that he owned . Once , when she confronted him over a new TV and stereo , he warned her , " If you tell anyone , I 'll break your fucking neck . " She said Bundy became " very upset " whenever she considered cutting her hair — which was long and parted in the middle . She would sometimes awaken in the middle of the night to find him under the bed covers with a flashlight , examining her body . He kept a lug wrench , taped halfway up the handle , in the trunk of her car ( she too owned a Volkswagen Beetle , which Ted often borrowed ) " for protection " . The detectives confirmed that Bundy had not been with Kloepfer on any of the nights during which the Pacific Northwest victims had vanished , nor on the day Ott and Naslund were abducted . Shortly thereafter , Kloepfer was interviewed by Seattle homicide detective Kathy McChesney and learned of the existence of Stephanie Brooks and her brief engagement to Bundy around Christmas 1973 .
In September Bundy sold his Volkswagen Beetle to a Midvale teenager . Utah police impounded it , and FBI technicians dismantled and searched it . They found hairs matching samples obtained from Caryn Campbell 's body . Later , they also identified hair strands " microscopically indistinguishable " from those of Melissa Smith and Carol DaRonch . FBI lab specialist Robert Neill concluded that the presence of hair strands in one car matching three different victims who had never met one another would be " a coincidence of mind @-@ boggling rarity " .
On October 2 , detectives put Bundy in a lineup before DaRonch , who immediately identified him as " Officer Roseland " . Witnesses from Bountiful picked him from the same lineup as the stranger lurking about the high school auditorium . There was insufficient evidence linking him to Debra Kent ( whose body was never found ) , but more than enough to charge him with aggravated kidnapping and attempted criminal assault in the DaRonch case . He was freed on $ 15 @,@ 000 bail , paid by his parents , and spent most of the time between indictment and trial in Seattle , living in Kloepfer 's house . Seattle police had insufficient evidence to charge him in the Pacific Northwest murders , but kept him under close surveillance . " When Ted and I stepped out on the porch to go somewhere , " Kloepfer wrote , " so many unmarked police cars started up that it sounded like the beginning of the Indy 500 . "
In November , the three principal Bundy investigators — Jerry Thompson from Utah , Robert Keppel from Washington , and Michael Fisher from Colorado — met and exchanged information with 30 detectives and prosecutors from five states in Aspen , Colorado . While officials left the meeting ( later known as the Aspen Summit ) convinced that Bundy was the murderer they sought , they agreed that more hard evidence would be needed before he could be charged with any of the murders .
On February 23 , 1976 , Bundy stood trial for the DaRonch kidnapping , waiving his right to a jury on the advice of his attorney , John O 'Connell , due to the publicity surrounding the case . On March 1 , after a four @-@ day trial and a weekend of deliberation , Judge Stewart Hanson Jr. found him guilty of kidnapping and assault . He was sentenced to 1 to 15 years in the Utah State Prison on June 30 . In October he was found hiding in bushes in the prison yard carrying an " escape kit " — road maps , airline schedules , and a social security card — and spent several weeks in solitary confinement . Later that month , Colorado authorities charged him with Caryn Campbell 's murder . After a period of resistance , he waived extradition proceedings and was transferred to Aspen in January 1977 .
= = Escapes = =
On June 7 , 1977 , Bundy was transported 40 miles ( 64 km ) from the Garfield County jail in Glenwood Springs to Pitkin County Courthouse in Aspen for a preliminary hearing . He had elected to serve as his own attorney and as such was excused by the judge from wearing handcuffs or leg shackles . During a recess he asked to visit the courthouse 's law library to research his case . Concealed behind a bookcase , he opened a window and jumped from the second story , spraining his right ankle as he landed . After shedding an outer layer of clothing he walked through Aspen as roadblocks were being set up on its outskirts , then hiked southward onto Aspen Mountain . Near its summit he broke into a hunting cabin and stole food , clothing , and a rifle . The following day he left the cabin and continued south toward the town of Crested Butte , but became lost in the forest . For two days he wandered aimlessly on the mountain , missing two trails that led downward to his intended destination . On June 10 Bundy broke into a camping trailer on Maroon Lake , 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Aspen , taking food and a ski parka ; but instead of continuing southward he walked back north toward Aspen , eluding roadblocks and search parties . Three days later he stole a car at the edge of Aspen Golf Course . Cold , sleep @-@ deprived , and in constant pain from his sprained ankle , he drove back into Aspen , where two police officers noticed his car weaving in and out of its lane and pulled him over . He had been a fugitive for six days . In the car were maps of the mountain area around Aspen that prosecutors were using to demonstrate the location of Caryn Campbell 's body ( as his own attorney , Bundy had rights of discovery ) , indicating that his escape had been planned .
Back in jail in Glenwood Springs , Bundy ignored the advice of friends and legal advisors to stay put . The case against him , already weak at best , was deteriorating steadily as pretrial motions consistently resolved in his favor and significant bits of evidence were ruled inadmissible . " A more rational defendant might have realized that he stood a good chance of acquittal , and that beating the murder charge in Colorado would probably have dissuaded other prosecutors ... with as little as a year and a half to serve on the DaRonch conviction , had Ted persevered , he could have been a free man . " Instead , Bundy devised a new escape plan . He acquired a detailed floor plan of the jail and a hacksaw blade from other inmates and accumulated $ 500 in cash , smuggled in over a six @-@ month period , he later said , by visitors — Carole Ann Boone in particular . During the evenings , while other prisoners were showering , he sawed a hole about one foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) square between the steel reinforcing bars in his cell 's ceiling and , after losing 35 pounds ( 16 kg ) , was able to wriggle through it into the crawl space above . In the weeks that followed he made a series of practice runs , exploring the space . Multiple reports from an informant of movement within the ceiling during the night were not investigated .
By late 1977 , Bundy 's impending trial had become a cause célèbre in the small town of Aspen , and Bundy filed a motion for a change of venue to Denver . On December 23 the Aspen trial judge granted the request — but to Colorado Springs , where juries had historically been hostile to murder suspects . On the night of December 30 , with most of the jail staff on Christmas break and nonviolent prisoners on furlough with their families , Bundy piled books and files in his bed , covered them with a blanket to simulate his sleeping body , and climbed into the crawlspace . He broke through the ceiling into the apartment of the chief jailer — who was out for the evening with his wife — changed into street clothes from the jailer 's closet , and walked out the front door to freedom .
After stealing a car , Bundy drove eastward out of Glenwood Springs , but the car soon broke down in the mountains on Interstate 70 . A passing motorist gave him a ride into Vail , 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the east . From there he caught a bus to Denver , where he boarded a flight to Chicago . In Glenwood Springs , the jail 's skeleton crew did not discover the escape until noon on December 31 , more than 17 hours later . By then Bundy was already in Chicago .
= = Florida = =
From Chicago , Bundy traveled by train to Ann Arbor , Michigan . There , on January 2 in a local tavern , he watched his alma mater UW defeat Michigan in the Rose Bowl . Five days later he stole a car and drove to Atlanta , where he boarded a bus and arrived in Tallahassee , Florida , on January 8 . He rented a room under the alias Chris Hagen at a boarding house near the Florida State University ( FSU ) campus . Bundy later said that he initially resolved to find legitimate employment and refrain from further criminal activity , knowing he could probably remain free and undetected in Florida indefinitely as long as he did not attract the attention of police ; but his lone job application , at a construction site , had to be abandoned when he was asked to produce identification . He reverted to his old habits of shoplifting and stealing credit cards from women 's wallets left in shopping carts .
Sometime during the evening of January 14 or the early hours of January 15 , 1978 — one week after his arrival in Tallahassee — Bundy entered FSU 's Chi Omega sorority house through a rear door with a faulty lock . Beginning at about 2 : 45 am he bludgeoned Margaret Bowman , 21 , with a piece of oak firewood as she slept , then garroted her with a nylon stocking . He then entered the bedroom of 20 @-@ year @-@ old Lisa Levy and beat her unconscious , strangled her , tore one of her nipples , bit deeply into her left buttock , and sexually assaulted her with a hair mist bottle . In an adjoining bedroom he attacked Kathy Kleiner , breaking her jaw and deeply lacerating her shoulder ; and Karen Chandler , who suffered a concussion , broken jaw , loss of teeth , and a crushed finger . Tallahassee detectives later determined that the four attacks took place in a total of less than 15 minutes , within earshot of more than 30 witnesses who heard nothing . After leaving the sorority house Bundy broke into a basement apartment eight blocks away and attacked FSU student Cheryl Thomas , dislocating her shoulder and fracturing her jaw and skull in five places . She was left with permanent deafness , and equilibrium damage that ended her dance career . On Thomas 's bed police found a semen stain and a pantyhose " mask " containing two hairs " similar to Bundy 's in class and characteristic " .
On February 8 Bundy drove 150 miles ( 240 km ) east to Jacksonville in a stolen FSU van . In a parking lot he approached 14 @-@ year @-@ old Leslie Parmenter , the daughter of Jacksonville Police Department 's Chief of Detectives , identifying himself as " Richard Burton , Fire Department " , but retreated when Parmenter 's older brother arrived . That afternoon he backtracked 60 miles ( 97 km ) westward to Lake City . At Lake City Junior High School the following morning , 12 @-@ year @-@ old Kimberly Diane Leach was summoned to her homeroom by a teacher to retrieve a forgotten purse ; she never returned to class . Seven weeks later , after an intensive search , her partially mummified remains were found in a pig farrowing shed near Suwannee River State Park , 35 miles ( 56 km ) northwest of Lake City .
On February 12 , with insufficient cash to pay his overdue rent and a growing suspicion that police were closing in on him , Bundy stole a car and fled Tallahassee , driving westward across the Florida Panhandle . Three days later at around 1 : 00 a.m. , he was stopped by Pensacola police officer David Lee near the Alabama state line after a " wants and warrants " check showed his Volkswagen Beetle as stolen . When told he was under arrest , Bundy kicked Lee 's legs out from under him and took off running . Lee fired a warning shot and then a second round , gave chase , and tackled him . The two struggled over Lee 's gun before the officer finally subdued and arrested Bundy . In the stolen vehicle were three sets of IDs belonging to female FSU students , 21 stolen credit cards , and a stolen television set . Also found were a pair of dark @-@ rimmed non @-@ prescription glasses and a pair of plaid slacks , later identified as the disguise worn in Jacksonville . As Lee transported his suspect to jail , unaware that he had just arrested one of the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives , he heard Bundy say , " I wish you had killed me . "
= = Florida trials , marriage = =
Following a change of venue to Miami , Bundy stood trial for the Chi Omega homicides and assaults in June 1979 . The trial was covered by 250 reporters from five continents , and was the first to be televised nationally in the United States . Despite the presence of five court @-@ appointed attorneys , Bundy again handled much of his own defense . From the beginning , he " sabotaged the entire defense effort out of spite , distrust , and grandiose delusion " , Nelson later wrote . " Ted [ was ] facing murder charges , with a possible death sentence , and all that mattered to him apparently was that he be in charge . "
According to Mike Minerva , a Tallahassee public defender and member of the defense team , a pre @-@ trial plea bargain was negotiated in which Bundy would plead guilty to killing Levy , Bowman , and Leach in exchange for a firm 75 @-@ year prison sentence . Prosecutors were amenable to a deal , by one account , because " prospects of losing at trial were very good . " Bundy , on the other hand , saw the plea deal not only as a means of avoiding the death penalty , but also as a " tactical move " : He could enter his plea , then wait a few years for evidence to disintegrate or become lost , and for witnesses to die , move on , or retract their testimony . Once the case against him had deteriorated beyond repair , he could file a post @-@ conviction motion to set aside the plea and secure an acquittal . At the last minute , however , Bundy refused the deal . " It made him realize he was going to have to stand up in front of the whole world and say he was guilty " , Minerva said . " He just couldn 't do it . "
At trial , crucial testimony came from Chi Omega members Connie Hastings , who placed Bundy in the vicinity of Chi Omega House that evening ; and Nita Neary , who saw him leaving the sorority house clutching the oak murder weapon . Incriminating physical evidence included the bite impressions Bundy left in Levy 's left buttock , which forensic odontologists Richard Souviron and Lowell Levine matched to castings of Bundy 's teeth . The jury deliberated less than seven hours before convicting him on July 24 , 1979 of the two murders , three counts of attempted first degree murder , and two counts of burglary . Trial judge Edward Cowart imposed death sentences for the murder convictions .
Six months later , a second trial took place in Orlando for the abduction and murder of Kimberly Leach . Bundy was found guilty once again , after less than eight hours ' deliberation , due principally to the testimony of an eyewitness who saw him leading Leach from the schoolyard to his stolen van . Important material evidence included clothing fibers with an unusual manufacturing error , found in the van and on Leach 's body , which matched fibers from the jacket Bundy was wearing when he was arrested .
During the penalty phase of the trial , Bundy took advantage of an obscure Florida law providing that a marriage declaration in court , in the presence of a judge , constituted a legal marriage . As he was questioning former Washington State DES coworker Carole Ann Boone — who had moved to Florida to be near Bundy , had testified on his behalf during both trials , and was again testifying on his behalf as a character witness — he asked her to marry him . She accepted , and Bundy declared to the court that they were legally married .
On February 10 , 1980 , Bundy was sentenced to death by electrocution for a third time . As the sentence was announced , he reportedly stood and shouted , " Tell the jury they were wrong ! " This third death sentence would be the one ultimately carried out nearly nine years later .
In October 1982 , Boone gave birth to a daughter and named Bundy as the father . While conjugal visits were not allowed at Raiford Prison , inmates were known to pool their money to bribe guards to allow them intimate time alone with their female visitors .
= = Death row , confessions , and execution = =
Shortly after the conclusion of the Leach trial and the beginning of the long appeals process that followed , Bundy initiated a series of interviews with Stephen Michaud and Hugh Aynesworth . Speaking mostly in third person to avoid " the stigma of confession " , he began for the first time to divulge details of his crimes and thought processes .
He recounted his career as a thief , confirming Kloepfer 's long @-@ time suspicion that he had shoplifted virtually everything of substance that he owned . " The big payoff for me , " he said , " was actually possessing whatever it was I had stolen . I really enjoyed having something ... that I had wanted and gone out and taken . " Possession proved to be an important motive for rape and murder as well . Sexual assault , he said , fulfilled his need to " totally possess " his victims . At first he killed the women " as a matter of expediency ... to eliminate the possibility of [ being ] caught " ; but later , murder became part of the " adventure " . " The ultimate possession was , in fact , the taking of the life " , he said . " And then ... the physical possession of the remains . "
Bundy also confided in Special Agent William Hagmaier of the FBI Behavioral Analysis Unit . Hagmaier was struck by the " deep , almost mystical satisfaction " that Bundy took in murder . " He said that after a while , murder is not just a crime of lust or violence " , Hagmaier related . " It becomes possession . They are part of you ... [ the victim ] becomes a part of you , and you [ two ] are forever one ... and the grounds where you kill them or leave them become sacred to you , and you will always be drawn back to them . " Bundy told Hagmaier he considered himself an " amateur " , an " impulsive " killer in his early years , before moving into what he called his " prime " or " predator " phase at about the time of Lynda Healy 's murder in 1974 . This implied that he began killing well before 1974 — though he never explicitly admitted doing so .
In July 1984 Raiford guards found two hacksaw blades hidden in Bundy 's cell . A steel bar in one of its windows had been sawed completely through at the top and bottom and glued back in place with a homemade soap @-@ based adhesive . Several months later his cell was changed again after guards found a mirror .
Sometime during this period Bundy was attacked by a group of his fellow death row inmates . Though he denied having been assaulted , a number of inmates confessed to the crime , characterized by one source as a " gang rape " . Shortly thereafter he was charged with a disciplinary infraction for unauthorized correspondence with another high @-@ profile criminal , John Hinckley , Jr . In October 1984 Bundy , who by then considered himself an expert on serial killers , contacted Robert Keppel and offered to share his self @-@ proclaimed expertise in the ongoing hunt for his successor in Washington , the Green River Killer . Keppel and Green River Task Force detective Dave Reichert interviewed Bundy , but Gary Leon Ridgway remained at large for a further 17 years . Keppel published a detailed documentation of the Green River interviews , and later collaborated with Michaud on another examination of the interview material .
In early 1986 an execution date ( March 4 ) was set on the Chi Omega convictions ; the Supreme Court issued a brief stay , but the execution was quickly rescheduled . In April , shortly after the new date ( July 2 ) was announced , Bundy confessed to Hagmaier and Nelson what they believed was the full range of his depredations , including details of what he did to some victims after their deaths . He told them that he revisited Taylor Mountain , Issaquah , and other secondary crime scenes , often several times , to lie with his victims and perform sexual acts with their decomposing bodies until putrefaction forced him to stop . In some cases he drove several hours each way and remained the entire night . In Utah he applied makeup to Melissa Smith 's lifeless face , and he repeatedly washed Laura Aime 's hair . " If you 've got time , " he told Hagmaier , " they can be anything you want them to be . " He decapitated approximately twelve of his victims with a hacksaw , and kept at least one group of severed heads — probably the four later found on Taylor Mountain ( Rancourt , Parks , Ball , and Healy ) — in his apartment for a period of time before disposing of them .
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Less than 15 hours before the scheduled July 2 execution , the Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals stayed it indefinitely and remanded the Chi Omega case for review of multiple technicalities — including Bundy 's mental competency to stand trial , and an erroneous instruction by the trial judge during the penalty phase requiring the jury to break a 6 – 6 tie between life imprisonment and the death penalty — that , ultimately , were never resolved . A new date ( November 18 , 1986 ) was then set to carry out the Leach sentence ; the Eleventh Circuit Court issued a stay on November 17 . In mid @-@ 1988 the Eleventh Circuit ruled against Bundy , and in December the Supreme Court denied a motion to review the ruling . Within hours of that final denial a firm execution date of January 24 , 1989 was announced . Bundy 's journey through the appeals courts had been unusually rapid for a capital murder case : " Contrary to popular belief , the courts moved Bundy as fast as they could ... Even the prosecutors acknowledged that Bundy 's lawyers never employed delaying tactics . Though people everywhere seethed at the apparent delay in executing the archdemon , Ted Bundy was actually on the fast track . "
With all appeal avenues exhausted and no further motivation to deny his crimes , Bundy agreed to speak frankly with investigators . To Keppel , he confessed to all eight of the Washington and Oregon homicides for which he was the prime suspect . He described three additional previously unknown victims in Washington and two in Oregon whom he declined to identify ( if indeed he ever knew their identities ) . He said he left a fifth corpse — Donna Manson 's — on Taylor Mountain , but incinerated her head in Kloepfer 's fireplace . ( " Of all the things I did to [ Kloepfer ] , " he told Keppel , " this is probably the one she is least likely to forgive me for . Poor Liz . " )
He described in detail his abduction of Georgann Hawkins from the brightly lit UW alley — how he lured her to his car , clubbed and handcuffed her , drove her to Issaquah and strangled her , spent the entire night with her body , and revisited her corpse on three later occasions . He also admitted , for the first time , that he returned the following morning to the UW alley . There , in the very midst of a major crime scene investigation , he located and gathered Hawkins 's earrings and one of her shoes where he had left them in the adjoining parking lot and departed , unobserved . " It was a feat so brazen , " wrote Keppel , " that it astonishes police even today . "
" He described the Issaquah crime scene [ where the bones of Ott , Naslund , and Hawkins were found ] , and it was almost like he was just there " , Keppel said . " Like he was seeing everything . He was infatuated with the idea because he spent so much time there . He is just totally consumed with murder all the time . " Nelson 's impressions were similar : " It was the absolute misogyny of his crimes that stunned me , " she wrote , " his manifest rage against women . He had no compassion at all ... he was totally engrossed in the details . His murders were his life 's accomplishments . "
To detectives from Idaho , Utah , and Colorado , Bundy confessed to numerous additional homicides , including several that police had been unaware of . He explained that in Utah he could bring his victims back to his apartment , " where he could reenact scenarios depicted on the covers of detective magazines . " A new ulterior strategy quickly became apparent : He withheld many details , hoping to parlay the incomplete information into yet another stay of execution . " There are other buried remains in Colorado " , he admitted , but refused to elaborate . The new strategy — immediately dubbed " Ted 's bones @-@ for @-@ time scheme " — served only to deepen the resolve of authorities to see Bundy executed on schedule , and yielded little new detailed information . In cases where he did give details , nothing was found . Colorado detective Matt Lindvall interpreted this as a conflict between his desire to postpone his execution by divulging information and his need to remain in " total possession — the only person who knew his victims ' true resting places . "
When it became clear that no further stays would be forthcoming from the courts , Bundy supporters began lobbying for the only remaining option , executive clemency . Diana Weiner , a young Florida attorney and Bundy 's last purported love interest , asked the families of several Colorado and Utah victims to petition Florida Governor Bob Martinez for a postponement to give Bundy time to reveal more information . All refused . " The families already believed that the victims were dead and that Ted had killed them " , wrote Nelson . " They didn 't need his confession . " Martinez made it clear that he would not agree to further delays in any case . " We are not going to have the system manipulated " , he told reporters . " For him to be negotiating for his life over the bodies of victims is despicable . "
Carole Ann Boone , who had championed Bundy 's innocence throughout all of his trials , felt " deeply betrayed " by his admission that he was , in fact , guilty . She moved back to Washington with her daughter and refused to accept his final , pre @-@ execution phone call . " She was hurt by his relationship with Diana [ Wiener ] , " Nelson wrote , " and devastated by his sudden wholesale confessions in his last days . "
Hagmaier was present during Bundy 's final interviews with investigators . On the eve of his execution , he talked of suicide . " He did not want to give the state the satisfaction of watching him die " , Hagmaier said . Ted Bundy died in the Raiford electric chair at 7 : 16 a.m. EST on January 24 , 1989 ; he was 42 years old . Hundreds of revelers — including 20 off @-@ duty police officers , by one account — sang , danced , and set off fireworks in a pasture across the street from the prison as the execution was carried out , then cheered loudly as the white hearse containing Bundy 's corpse departed the prison . His remains were cremated in Gainesville and the ashes scattered at an undisclosed location in the Cascade Range of Washington State in accordance with his will .
= = Modus operandi and victim profiles = =
Bundy was an unusually organized and calculating criminal who used his extensive knowledge of law enforcement methodologies to elude identification and capture for years . His crime scenes were distributed over large geographic areas ; his victim count had risen to at least 20 before it became clear that numerous investigators in widely disparate jurisdictions were hunting the same man . His assault methods of choice were blunt trauma and strangulation , two relatively silent techniques that could be accomplished with common household items . He deliberately avoided firearms due to the noise they made and the ballistic evidence they left behind . He was a " meticulous researcher " who explored his surroundings in minute detail , looking for safe sites to seize and dispose of victims . He was unusually skilled at minimizing physical evidence . His fingerprints were never found at a crime scene , nor was any other incontrovertible evidence of his guilt , a fact he repeated often during the years in which he attempted to maintain his innocence .
Other significant obstacles for law enforcement were Bundy 's generic , essentially anonymous physical features , and a curious chameleon @-@ like ability to change his appearance almost at will . Early on , police complained of the futility of showing his photograph to witnesses ; he looked different in virtually every photo ever taken of him . In person , " ... his expression would so change his whole appearance that there were moments that you weren 't even sure you were looking at the same person " , said Stewart Hanson , Jr . , the judge in the DaRonch trial . " He [ was ] really a changeling . " Bundy was well aware of this unusual quality and he exploited it , using subtle modifications of facial hair or hairstyle to significantly alter his appearance as necessary . He concealed his one distinctive identifying mark , a dark mole on his neck , with turtleneck shirts and sweaters . Even his Volkswagen Beetle proved difficult to pin down ; its color was variously described by witnesses as metallic or non @-@ metallic , tan or bronze , light brown or dark brown .
Bundy 's modus operandi evolved in organization and sophistication over time , as is typical of serial murderers , according to FBI experts . Early on , it consisted of forcible late @-@ night entry followed by a violent attack with a blunt weapon on a sleeping victim . Some victims were sexually assaulted with inert objects ; all except Healy were left as they lay , unconscious or dead . As his methodology evolved Bundy became progressively more organized in his choice of victims and crime scenes . He would employ various ruses designed to lure his victim to the vicinity of his vehicle where he had pre @-@ positioned a weapon , usually a crowbar . In many cases he wore a plaster cast on one leg or a sling on one arm , and sometimes hobbled on crutches , then requested assistance in carrying something to his vehicle . Bundy was regarded as handsome and charismatic by many of his victims , traits he exploited to win their confidence . " Ted lured females " , Michaud wrote , " the way a lifeless silk flower can dupe a honey bee . " Once near or inside his vehicle the victim would be overpowered , bludgeoned , and restrained with handcuffs . Most were sexually assaulted and strangled , either at the primary crime scene or ( more commonly ) after transport to a pre @-@ selected secondary site , often a considerable distance away . In situations where his looks and charm were not useful , he invoked authority by identifying himself as a police officer or firefighter . Toward the end of his spree , in Florida , perhaps under the stress of being a fugitive , he regressed to indiscriminate attacks on sleeping victims .
At secondary sites he would remove and later burn the victim 's clothing , or in at least one case ( Cunningham 's ) deposit them in a Goodwill Industries collection bin . Bundy explained that the clothing removal was ritualistic , but also a practical matter , as it minimized the chance of leaving trace evidence at the crime scene that could implicate him . ( A manufacturing error in fibers from his own clothing , ironically , provided a crucial incriminating link to Kimberly Leach . ) He often revisited his secondary crime scenes to engage in acts of necrophilia , and to groom or dress up the cadavers . Some victims were found wearing articles of clothing they had never worn , or nail polish that family members had never seen . He took Polaroid photos of many of his victims . " When you work hard to do something right , " he told Hagmaier , " you don 't want to forget it . " Consumption of large quantities of alcohol was an " essential component " , he told Keppel , and later Michaud ; he needed to be " extremely drunk " while on the prowl in order to " significantly diminish " his inhibitions and to " sedate " the " dominant personality " that he feared might prevent his inner " entity " from acting on his impulses .
All of Bundy 's known victims were white females , most of middle @-@ class backgrounds . Almost all were between the ages of 15 and 25 and most were college students . He apparently never approached anyone he might have met before . ( In their last conversation before his execution , Bundy told Kloepfer he had purposely stayed away from her " when he felt the power of his sickness building in him . " ) Rule noted that most of the identified victims had long straight hair , parted in the middle — like Stephanie Brooks , the woman who rejected him , and to whom he later became engaged and then rejected in return . Rule speculated that Bundy 's animosity toward his first girlfriend triggered his protracted rampage and caused him to target victims who resembled her . Bundy dismissed this hypothesis : " [ T ] hey ... just fit the general criteria of being young and attractive " , he told Hugh Aynesworth . " Too many people have bought this crap that all the girls were similar ... [ but ] almost everything was dissimilar ... physically , they were almost all different . " He did concede that youth and beauty were " absolutely indispensable criteria " in his choice of victims .
= = Pathology = =
Bundy underwent multiple psychiatric examinations ; the experts ' conclusions varied . Dorothy Otnow Lewis , Professor of Psychiatry at the New York University School of Medicine and an authority on violent behavior , initially made a diagnosis of bipolar disorder , but later changed her impression more than once . She also suggested the possibility of a multiple personality disorder , based on behaviors described in interviews and court testimony : A great @-@ aunt witnessed an episode during which Bundy " ... seemed to turn into another , unrecognizable person ... [ she ] suddenly , inexplicably found herself afraid of her favorite nephew as they waited together at a dusk @-@ darkened train station . He had turned into a stranger . " Lewis recounted a prison official in Tallahassee describing a similar transformation : " He said , ' He became weird on me . ' He did a metamorphosis , a body and facial change , and he felt there was almost an odor emitting from him . He said , ' Almost a complete change of personality ... that was the day I was afraid of him . ' " Narcissistic personality disorder ( NPD ) has also been proposed in at least one subsequent retrospective analysis .
While experts found Bundy 's precise diagnosis elusive , the majority of evidence pointed away from bipolar disorder or other psychoses , and toward antisocial personality disorder ( ASPD ) . ASPD patients — frequently identified as " sociopaths " or " psychopaths " — are often outwardly charming , even charismatic ; but beneath the facade there is little true personality or genuine insight . Most sociopaths are not demonstrably psychotic ; they can readily distinguish right from wrong , but such ability has minimal effect on their behavior . They are devoid of feelings of guilt or remorse , a point readily admitted by Bundy himself . " Guilt doesn 't solve anything , really " , he said in 1981 . " It hurts you ... I guess I am in the enviable position of not having to deal with guilt . " Other hallmarks include narcissism , poor judgment , and manipulative behavior . " Sociopaths " , prosecutor George Dekle wrote , " are egotistical manipulators who think they can con anybody . " " Sometimes he manipulates even me " , admitted one psychiatrist . In the end , Lewis agreed with the majority : " I always tell my graduate students that if they can find me a real , true psychopath , I 'll buy them dinner " , she told Nelson . " I never thought they existed ... but I think Ted may have been one , a true psychopath , without any remorse or empathy at all . "
On the afternoon before he was executed Bundy granted an interview to James Dobson , a psychologist and founder of the Christian evangelical organization Focus on the Family . He used the opportunity to make new statements about violence in the media and the pornographic " roots " of his crimes . " It happened in stages , gradually " , he said . " My experience with ... pornography that deals on a violent level with sexuality , is once you become addicted to it ... I would keep looking for more potent , more explicit , more graphic kinds of material . Until you reach a point where the pornography only goes so far ... where you begin to wonder if maybe actually doing it would give that which is beyond just reading it or looking at it . " Violence in the media , he said , " particularly sexualized violence " , sent boys " down the road to being Ted Bundys . " The FBI , he suggested , should stake out adult movie houses and follow patrons as they leave . " You are going to kill me , " he said , " and that will protect society from me . But out there are many , many more people who are addicted to pornography , and you are doing nothing about that . "
Multiple biographers , researchers , and other observers have concluded that Bundy 's sudden condemnation of pornography was one last manipulative attempt to shift blame by catering to Dobson 's agenda as a longtime anti @-@ pornography advocate , telling him precisely what he wanted to hear . While he asserted in the Dobson interview that detective magazines and other reading material had " corrupted " him and " fueled [ his ] fantasies ... to the point of becoming a serial killer " , in a 1977 letter to Ann Rule he wrote , " Who in the world reads these publications ? ... I have never purchased such a magazine , and [ on only ] two or three occasions have I ever picked one up . " He told Michaud and Aynsworth in 1980 , and Hagmaier the night before he spoke to Dobson , that pornography played a negligible role in his development as a serial killer . " The problem wasn 't pornography " , wrote Dekle . " The problem was Bundy . " Nelson expressed the minority view , that Bundy 's concern about the dangers of violent pornography was genuine .
Rule and Aynesworth both noted that , for Bundy , the fault always lay with someone or something else . While he eventually confessed to 30 murders , he never accepted responsibility for any of them , even when offered that opportunity prior to the Chi Omega trial — which would have averted the death penalty . He deflected blame onto a wide variety of scapegoats , including his abusive grandfather , the absence of his biological father , the concealment of his true parentage , alcohol , the media , the police ( whom he accused of planting evidence ) , " society " in general , violence on television , and ultimately , true crime periodicals and pornography . He blamed television programming — which he watched mostly on sets that he had stolen — for " brainwashing " him into stealing credit cards . On at least one occasion he even tried to blame his victims : " I have known people who ... radiate vulnerability " , he wrote in a 1977 letter to Kloepfer . " Their facial expressions say ' I am afraid of you . ' These people invite abuse ... By expecting to be hurt , do they subtly encourage it ? "
A significant element of delusion permeated his thinking :
Bundy was always surprised when anyone noticed that one of his victims was missing , because he imagined America to be a place where everyone is invisible except to themselves . And he was always astounded when people testified that they had seen him in incriminating places , because Bundy did not believe people noticed each other .
" I don 't know why everyone is out to get me " , he complained to Lewis . " He really and truly did not have any sense of the enormity of what he had done , " she said . " A long @-@ term serial killer erects powerful barriers to his guilt , " Keppel wrote , " walls of denial that can sometimes never be breached . " Nelson agreed . " Each time he was forced to make an actual confession , " she wrote , " he had to leap a steep barrier he had built inside himself long ago . "
= = Victims = =
Bundy confessed to 30 homicides , but the true total remains unknown . Published estimates have run as high as 100 or more , and Bundy occasionally made cryptic comments to encourage that speculation . He told Hugh Aynesworth in 1980 that for every murder " publicized " , there " could be one that was not . " When FBI agents proposed a total tally of 36 , Bundy responded , " Add one digit to that , and you 'll have it . " Years later he told attorney Polly Nelson that the common estimate of 35 was accurate , but Robert Keppel wrote that " [ Ted ] and I both knew [ the total ] was much higher . " " I don 't think even he knew ... how many he killed , or why he killed them " , said Rev. Fred Lawrence , the Methodist clergyman who administered Bundy 's last rites . " That was my impression , my strong impression . "
On the evening before his execution , Bundy reviewed his victim tally with Bill Hagmaier on a state @-@ by @-@ state basis :
in Washington , 11 ( including Parks , abducted in Oregon but killed in Washington ; and including 3 unidentified )
in Utah , 8 ( 3 unidentified )
in Colorado , 3
in Florida , 3
in Oregon , 2 ( both unidentified )
in Idaho , 2 ( 1 unidentified )
in California , 1 ( unidentified )
The following is a chronological summary of the 20 identified victims and 5 identified survivors :
= = = 1974 = = =
= = = = Washington , Oregon = = = =
January 4 : Karen Sparks ( often identified as Joni Lenz in Bundy literature ) ( age 18 ) : Bludgeoned and sexually assaulted in her bed as she slept ; survived
February 1 : Lynda Ann Healy ( 21 ) : Bludgeoned while asleep and abducted ; skull and mandible recovered at Taylor Mountain site
March 12 : Donna Gail Manson ( 19 ) : Abducted while walking to a concert at The Evergreen State College ; body left ( according to Bundy ) at Taylor Mountain site , but never found
April 17 : Susan Elaine Rancourt ( 18 ) : Disappeared after attending an evening advisors ' meeting at Central Washington State College ; skull and mandible recovered at Taylor Mountain site
May 6 : Roberta Kathleen Parks ( 22 ) : Vanished from Oregon State University in Corvallis ; skull and mandible recovered at Taylor Mountain site
June 1 : Brenda Carol Ball ( 22 ) : Disappeared after leaving the Flame Tavern in Burien ; skull and mandible recovered at Taylor Mountain site
June 11 : Georgann ( often misspelled " Georgeann " ) Hawkins ( 18 ) : Abducted from an alley behind her sorority house , UW ; skeletal remains identified by Bundy as Hawkins 's recovered at Issaquah site
July 14 : Janice Ann Ott ( 23 ) : Abducted from Lake Sammamish State Park in broad daylight ; skeletal remains recovered at Issaquah site
July 14 : Denise Marie Naslund ( 19 ) : Abducted four hours after Ott from the same park ; skeletal remains recovered at Issaquah site
= = = = Utah , Colorado , Idaho = = = =
October 2 : Nancy Wilcox ( 16 ) : Ambushed , assaulted , and strangled in Holladay , Utah ; body buried ( according to Bundy ) near Capitol Reef National Park , 200 miles ( 320 km ) south of Salt Lake City , but never found
October 18 : Melissa Anne Smith ( 17 ) : Vanished from Midvale , Utah ; body found in nearby mountainous area
October 31 : Laura Ann Aime ( 17 ) : Disappeared from Lehi , Utah ; body discovered by hikers in American Fork Canyon
November 8 : Carol DaRonch ( 18 ) : Attempted abduction in Murray , Utah ; escaped from Bundy 's car and survived
November 8 : Debra Kent ( 17 ) : Vanished after leaving a school play in Bountiful , Utah ; body left ( according to Bundy ) near Fairview , Utah , 100 miles ( 160 km ) south of Bountiful ; minimal skeletal remains ( one patella ) found , but never positively identified as Kent 's
= = = 1975 = = =
January 12 : Caryn Campbell ( 23 ) : Disappeared from hotel hallway in Snowmass , Colorado ; body discovered on a dirt road near the hotel
March 15 : Julie Cunningham ( 26 ) : Disappeared on the way to a tavern in Vail , Colorado ; body buried ( according to Bundy ) near Rifle , 90 miles ( 140 km ) west of Vail , but never found
April 6 : Denise Oliverson ( 25 ) : Abducted while bicycling to her parents ' house in Grand Junction , Colorado ; body thrown ( according to Bundy ) into the Colorado River 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of Grand Junction , but never found
May 6 : Lynette Culver ( 12 ) : Abducted from Alameda Junior High School in Pocatello , Idaho ; body thrown ( according to Bundy ) into what authorities believe to be the Snake River , but never found
June 28 : Susan Curtis ( 15 ) : Disappeared during a youth conference at Brigham Young University ; body buried ( according to Bundy ) near Price , Utah , 75 miles ( 121 km ) southeast of Provo , but never found
= = = 1978 = = =
= = = = Florida = = = =
January 15 : Margaret Bowman ( 21 ) : Bludgeoned and then strangled as she slept , Chi Omega sorority , FSU ( no secondary crime scene )
January 15 : Lisa Levy ( 20 ) : Bludgeoned , strangled and sexually assaulted as she slept , Chi Omega sorority , FSU ( no secondary crime scene )
January 15 : Karen Chandler ( 21 ) : Bludgeoned as she slept , Chi Omega sorority , FSU ; survived
January 15 : Kathy Kleiner ( 21 ) : Bludgeoned as she slept , Chi Omega sorority , FSU ; survived
January 15 : Cheryl Thomas ( 21 ) : Bludgeoned as she slept , eight blocks from Chi Omega ; survived
February 9 : Kimberly Diane Leach ( 12 ) : Abducted from her junior high school in Lake City , Florida ; skeletal remains found near Suwannee River State Park , 43 miles ( 69 km ) west of Lake City
= = = Other possible victims = = =
Bundy remains a suspect in several unsolved homicides , and is likely responsible for others that may never be identified ; in 1987 he confided to Keppel that there were " some murders " that he would " never talk about " , because they were committed " too close to home " , " too close to family " , or involved " victims who were very young " .
Ann Marie Burr , age 8 , vanished from her Tacoma home on August 31 , 1961 when Bundy was 14 . The Burr house was on Bundy 's newspaper delivery route . The victim 's father was certain that he saw Bundy in a ditch at a construction site on the nearby UPS campus the morning his daughter disappeared . Other circumstantial evidence implicates him as well , but detectives familiar with the case have never agreed on the likelihood of his involvement . Bundy repeatedly denied culpability and wrote a letter of denial to the Burr family in 1986 ; but Keppel has observed that Burr fits all three of Bundy 's " no discussion " categories of " too close to home " , " too close to family " , and " very young " . Forensic testing of material evidence from the Burr crime scene , in 2011 , yielded insufficient intact DNA sequences for comparison with Bundy 's .
Flight attendants Lisa E. Wick and Lonnie Trumbull , both 20 , were bludgeoned with a piece of lumber as they slept in their basement apartment in Seattle 's Queen Anne Hill district on June 23 , 1966 near the Safeway store where Bundy worked at the time , and where the women regularly shopped . Trumbull died . In retrospect , Keppel noted many similarities to the Chi Omega crime scene . Wick , who suffered permanent memory loss as a result of the attack , later contacted Ann Rule : " I know that it was Ted Bundy who did that to us , " she wrote , " but I can 't tell you how I know . " In the absence of incriminating evidence , Bundy 's involvement remains speculative .
Vacationing college friends Susan Davis and Elizabeth Perry , both 19 , were stabbed to death on May 30 , 1969 . Their car was found that day abandoned beside the Garden State Parkway outside Somers Point , New Jersey , near Atlantic City , 60 miles ( 97 km ) south of Philadelphia ; and their bodies — one nude , one fully clothed — were found in nearby woods three days later . Bundy attended Temple University from January through May , 1969 and apparently did not move west until after Memorial Day weekend . While Bundy 's accounts of his earliest crimes varied considerably between interviews , he told forensic psychologist Art Norman that his first murder victims were two women in the Philadelphia area . Biographer Richard Larsen believed that Bundy committed the murders using his feigned @-@ injury ruse , based on an investigator 's interview with Julia , Bundy 's aunt : Ted , she said , was wearing a leg cast due to an automobile accident on the weekend of the homicides , and therefore could not have traveled from Philadelphia to the Jersey Shore ; there is no official record of any such accident . Bundy is considered a " strong suspect " , but the case remains open .
Rita Curran , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old elementary school teacher and part @-@ time motel maid , was murdered in her basement apartment on July 19 , 1971 in Burlington , Vermont ; she had been strangled , bludgeoned and raped . The location of the motel where she worked ( adjacent to Bundy 's birthplace , the Elizabeth Lund Home for Unwed Mothers ) and similarities to known Bundy crime scenes led retired FBI agent John Bassett to propose him as a suspect . No evidence firmly places Bundy in Burlington on that date , but municipal records note that a person named " Bundy " was bitten by a dog that week , and long stretches of Bundy 's time — including the summer of 1971 — remain unaccounted for . Curran 's murder officially remains unsolved .
Joyce LePage , 21 , was last seen on July 22 , 1971 on the campus of Washington State University , where she was an undergraduate . Nine months later her skeletal remains were found wrapped in carpeting and military blankets , bound with rope , in a deep ravine south of Pullman , Washington . Multiple suspects — including Bundy — have " never been cleared " , according to investigators . Whitman County authorities have said that Bundy remains a suspect .
Rita Lorraine Jolly , 17 , disappeared from West Linn , Oregon on June 29 , 1973 ; Vicki Lynn Hollar , 24 , disappeared from Eugene , Oregon on August 20 , 1973 . Bundy confessed to two homicides in Oregon without identifying the victims . Oregon detectives suspected that they were Jolly and Hollar , but were unable to obtain interview time with Bundy to confirm it . Both women remain classified as missing .
Katherine Merry Devine , 14 , was abducted on November 25 , 1973 , and her body was found the next month in the Capitol State Forest near Olympia , Washington . Brenda Joy Baker , 14 , was seen hitchhiking near Puyallup , Washington on May 27 , 1974 ; her body was found in Millersylvania State Park a month later . Though Bundy was widely believed responsible for both murders , he told Keppel that he had no knowledge of either case . DNA analysis led to the arrest and conviction of William E. Cosden for Devine 's murder in 2002 . The Baker homicide remains unsolved .
Sandra Jean Weaver , 19 , a Wisconsin native who had been living in Tooele , Utah , was last seen in Salt Lake City on July 1 , 1974 ; her nude body was discovered the following day near Grand Junction , Colorado . Sources conflict on whether Bundy mentioned Weaver 's name during the death row interviews . Her murder remains unsolved .
Carol L. Valenzuela , 20 , was last seen hitchhiking near Vancouver , Washington , on August 2 , 1974 . Her remains were discovered two months later in a shallow grave south of Olympia , along with those of another female later identified as Martha Morrison , 17 ( last seen in Eugene , Oregon on September 1 , 1974 ) . Both victims had long hair parted in the middle . In August 1974 Bundy drove from Seattle to Salt Lake City and could have passed through Vancouver and Eugene en route , but there is no evidence that he did . Both cases remain open .
Melanie Suzanne " Suzy " Cooley , 18 , disappeared on April 15 , 1975 , after leaving Nederland High School in Nederland , Colorado , 50 miles ( 80 km ) northwest of Denver . Her bludgeoned and strangled corpse was discovered by road maintenance workers two weeks later in Coal Creek Canyon , 20 miles ( 32 km ) away . While gas receipts place Bundy in nearby Golden on the day Cooley disappeared , and Cooley is included on the list of Bundy victims in most Bundy literature , Jefferson County authorities say the evidence is inconclusive and continue to treat her homicide as a cold case .
Shelly ( or Shelley ) Kay Robertson , 24 , failed to show up for work in Golden , Colorado on July 1 , 1975 . Her nude , decomposed body was found in August , 500 feet ( 150 m ) inside a mine on Berthoud Pass near Winter Park Resort by two mining students . Gas station receipts place Bundy in the area at the time , but there is no direct evidence of his involvement ; the case remains open .
Nancy Perry Baird , 23 , disappeared from the service station where she worked in Farmington , Utah , 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of Salt Lake City , on July 4 , 1975 and remains classified as a missing person . Bundy specifically denied involvement in this case during the death row interviews .
Debbie Smith , 17 , was last seen in Salt Lake City in early February 1976 , shortly before the DaRonch trial began ; her body was found near the Salt Lake City International Airport on April 1 , 1976 . Though listed as a Bundy victim by some sources , her murder remains officially unsolved .
Minutes before his execution , Hagmaier queried Bundy about unsolved homicides in New Jersey , Illinois , Vermont ( the Curran case ) , Texas , and Miami , Florida . Bundy provided directions — later proven inaccurate — to Susan Curtis 's burial site in Utah , but denied involvement in any of the open cases .
= = Artifacts = =
Bundy 's 1968 Volkswagen Beetle was displayed in the lobby of the National Museum of Crime and Punishment in Washington DC until its closure in 2015 . It is presently on exhibit at the Alcatraz East Crime Museum in Pigeon Forge , Tennessee .
= = In media = =
= = = Film = = =
The Deliberate Stranger ( 1986 ) , starring Mark Harmon
Ted Bundy ( 2002 ) , starring Michael Reilly Burke
The Stranger Beside Me ( 2003 ) , starring Billy Campbell
Bundy : A Legacy of Evil ( 2008 ) , starring Corin Nemec
= Lovely ( Desperate Housewives ) =
" Lovely " is the fifteenth episode of the sixth season of the American comedy @-@ drama series , Desperate Housewives , and the 126th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on ABC in the United States on February 21 , 2010 . In the episode , former stripper Robin Gallagher ( Julie Benz ) interacts with each of the women of Wisteria Lane , drastically affecting their lives . She grows particularly close to Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) , with whom she shares a kiss during a bar outing .
The episode was written by David Schladweiler and directed by David Warren . It included the second in a string of guest appearances by Benz , who had recently departed as a regular from the Showtime drama series , Dexter . " Lovely " introduced an ongoing storyline of Katherine exploring her sexuality , a subplot which was met with enthusiasm by actress Delany . The pairing between Robin and Katherine was the first lesbian relationship in Desperate Housewives .
" Lovely " received generally mixed reviews , with detractors criticizing it for failing to advance the show 's plotlines . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode was seen by 10 @.@ 9 million viewers , and matched the series low rating from the previous episode , " The Glamorous Life " , although the subsequent episode , " The Chase " , drew even poorer ratings . Viewership for " Lovely " suffered because of competition from the 2010 Winter Olympics .
= = Plot = =
= = = Back story = = =
Desperate Housewives focuses on the lives of several residents on the suburban neighborhood of Wisteria Lane . In recent episodes , Susan Mayer ( Teri Hatcher ) has encouraged a stripper Robin Gallagher ( Julie Benz ) to quit her job and turn her life around . Susan invited Robin to move into her house until she gets back on her feet . Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) has been admitted to a psychiatric hospital after suffering a mental breakdown stemming from the breakup of her relationship with Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) , who has since married Susan . Orson Hodge ( Kyle MacLachlan ) has recently learned that his wife , Bree Van de Kamp ( Marcia Cross ) , was having an affair with Susan 's ex @-@ husband Karl Mayer ( Richard Burgi ) . Orson has been using a wheelchair since Christmas , as a result of a small passenger plane crash landing into a building he and Karl were inside ; Karl died as a result of the accident . Angie ( Drea de Matteo ) and Nick Bolen ( Jeffrey Nordling ) recently moved onto Wisteria Lane to escape circumstances that are yet to be fully explained ; however , Gabrielle ( Eva Longoria ) and Carlos Solis ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) overheard the Bolens arguing about their circumstances , and have grown concerned about their niece Ana ( Maiara Walsh ) dating the Bolens ' son , Danny ( Beau Mirchoff ) .
= = = Episode = = =
As Robin becomes integrated into Wisteria Lane , she gradually begins to affect the lives of several of her new neighbors .
Lynette Scavo ( Felicity Huffman ) , who is in the middle of celebrating her wedding anniversary with Tom ( Doug Savant ) , grows angry when she learns her son Parker ( Joshua Logan Moore ) is spying on Robin while she showers next door . Lynette rudely confronts Robin , who tells Lynette that Parker offered her money to have sex with him . Later , Parker tells his parents he is the only one of his friends who have not had sex . Tom assures him it will happen when the time is right , and Lynette apologizes to Robin .
Later , Robin learns Bree has had trouble connecting with Orson due to her recent affair . Robin suggests Bree restart their sex life , prompting Bree to later try giving Orson a lap @-@ dance . The dance proves awkward , especially when Bree falls over and Orson runs over her foot with the wheelchair . Bree explains she wants to become intimate with her husband again , and the two share a romantic moment .
Meanwhile , Gabrielle and Carlos plot to break up Ana and Danny . Gabrielle arranges for an old photographer friend in New York City to help Ana with her modeling career , but she turns down the offer because of her relationship with Danny . After Robin tells Gabrielle that she gave up a career in ballet for a boy in her youth , only for the boy to break up with her two months later , and that she then got in a car crash ruining her chances of a future in ballet , Gabrielle convinces Robin to tell the story to Ana . Ana breaks up with Danny and leaves for New York , but after Robin realizes she has been used , she speaks to Danny , who secretly leaves town in a taxi to chase after Ana .
Susan grows jealous when Robin starts giving Mike massages to ease his sore back . Susan tries to give Mike a massage , but being the klutz that Susan is , ends up putting him in the hospital . Susan confesses her jealousy to Robin , who decides to preserve their friendship by moving out .
Robin becomes a roommate to Katherine , who is still feeling depressed after her recent stint in a mental hospital . Robin encourages Katherine to go out to a bar , and the two have a great time . When two men hit on Robin and show no interest in Katherine , Robin shows them up by kissing Katherine on the lips . Katherine initially laughs at the funny moment , but later learns Robin really is a lesbian . Katherine insists she is not interested in women when Robin suggests she explores the possibility , but later it appears that Katherine may be intrigued by the idea .
= = Production = =
" Lovely " was written by David Schladweiler and directed by David Warren . It marked the second in a string of at least four guest appearances by actress Julie Benz as Robin Gallagher , a former stripper seeking a new life . Benz joined the show soon after her departure as a regular cast member from the Showtime drama series Dexter , where her character Rita Morgan was killed in the fourth season finale , " The Getaway " . Benz said of her role in Desperate Housewives , " I love the show so much , and I am honored to be part of the whole [ world ] of Wisteria Lane . And to work with all these great , amazing women ! I 've done a lot of male @-@ dominated movies and television shows , so it 's so amazing for me to be a part of a show that is female @-@ dominated . "
" Lovely " introduced an ongoing storyline of Katherine Mayfair exploring her sexuality . Actress Dana Delany , who previously played a lesbian character in the Showtime series The L Word , said she felt the subplot was an excellent idea : " A lot of the ladies on the set have said , ' Why has this not happened before ? ' I think everybody wanted to be the one who got to do it . " In an interview with E ! Online , actress Marcia Cross jokingly said of the kiss scene , " I 'm a little jealous that I 'm not involved . What is going on ? " Delany said she did not know if the character would become a lesbian permanently , because the story lines change so often in Desperate Housewives , but that series creator Marc Cherry " is interested in playing the complexity of that " . The pairing between Robin and Katherine was the first lesbian relationship in Desperate Housewives .
Delany compared Katherine 's new realizations to that of actress Meredith Baxter , who realized she was a lesbian late in her life after entering into a relationship with a woman . Delany said she believed her character would be taken by surprise by the new feelings she is experiencing : " I think that she ’ s still so emotionally vulnerable from getting out of the loony bin , and I think she and Robin connect on a kind of wounded , emotional level . And I think if anything , she ’ s feeling this kind of emotional solace with her , and that draws her to Robin in a physical way , and that ’ s confusing to her . " Delany and Benz were both sick when they filmed their kiss scene . Benz said of the scene , " Dana 's a great kisser . " Delany said more male crew members were present for the filming of the lesbian kiss scene than usual due to the sensuality of the scene .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on February 21 , 2010 , " Lovely " was seen by 10 @.@ 9 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , which is 20 percent below the season average . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , it received a 3 @.@ 7 rating / 9 share ; a share represents the percentage of households using a television at the time the program is airing . This rating matched the previous episode , " The Glamorous Life " , for the lowest rating for an individual episode of Desperate Housewives in series history . However , it held that distinction only two weeks before " The Glamorous Life " , and the subsequent episode " The Chase " , received even lower ratings . " Lovely " continued a downward trend in the ratings : " The Glamorous Life " was seen by 11 @.@ 82 million viewers , and the previous episode , " How About a Friendly Shrink ? " , was seen by 11 @.@ 2 million viewers and achieved the lowest rating of the series at the time . " Lovely " suffered in the ratings partially due to competition from the NBC broadcast of the 2010 Winter Olympics . The day " Lovely " was originally broadcast , the 2010 Winter Olympics drew an average of 24 @.@ 67 million viewers during the episode 's 9 p.m. timeslot . Desperate Housewives was also outperformed by the CBS reality series Undercover Boss which , in its third episode , drew 13 @.@ 6 million viewers .
" Lovely " received generally mixed reviews . Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times said he was initially skeptical of the Robin and Katherine romance subplot , but said he liked how it was presented . " It wasn ’ t contrived like other girl @-@ on @-@ girl scenes on television that we see . ... I just hate it when it ’ s used to seem ' edgy ' or to sell an episode , and I hope that isn 't the case here . " Kennedy said the Bree and Orson scenes led to " a tender moment " , but said Susan was annoying and the Lynette plotline was somewhat insulting toward women . Isabelle Carreau of TV Squad said he was surprised Robin 's back story was fleshed out so quickly , and speculated it could lead to a permanent role in the series . Carreau said the pairing of Robin and Katherine could be " very interesting " , and that the best part of the episode was the comical conversation between Robin and Karen McCluskey ( Kathryn Joosten ) at the end .
Entertainment Weekly writer Tanner Stransky criticized " Lovely " for stringing together several uninteresting and unfunny segments rather than advancing existing plotlines or introducing new ones . He was particularly critical of the Susan and Lynette segments , but said the introduction of Katherine 's possible lesbianism was " intriguing for the moment " . Gael Fashingbauer Cooper of MSNBC also criticized the episode for failing to advance the plot , and sarcastically wrote of the Katherine development , " Oh , because lesbian storylines have worked so well on this show in the past , except , never . " Cooper said the segment involving Robin and Bree was the only one that didn 't feel " stilted and sad " .
= Hurricane Blanca ( 2015 ) =
Hurricane Blanca was the earliest recorded tropical cyclone to make landfall in Baja California in any given year . Forming as a tropical depression on May 31 , Blanca initially struggled to organize due to strong wind shear . However , once this abated , the system took advantage of high sea surface temperatures and ample moisture . After becoming a tropical storm on June 1 , Blanca rapidly intensified on June 2 – 3 , becoming a powerful Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ; maximum sustained winds reached 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) at this time . The hurricane 's slow motion resulted in tremendous upwelling of cooler water , resulting in a period of weakening . Blanca gradually recovered from this and briefly regained Category 4 status on June 6 as it moved generally northwest toward the Baja California peninsula . Cooler waters and increased shear again prompted weakening on June 7 and the system struck Baja California Sur on June 8 as a weak tropical storm . It quickly degraded to a depression and dissipated early the next day .
Although Blanca remained far from Jalisco , large swells and rip currents produced by the hurricane claimed four lives . In Northwestern Mexico , watches and warnings were raised prior to the storm 's landfall . Blanca caused generally light damage in the region , consisting of downed trees and power lines . Remnant moisture from the system spread across the Southwestern United States , resulting in several days of scattered thunderstorms . Flash flooding occurred in multiple states , washing out roads and damaging homes , though the overall effects were limited .
= = Meteorological history = =
On May 26 , 2015 , a tropical wave traversed Central America and entered the Eastern Pacific . Little development occurred over the following few days as the system drifted westward . Convective activity finally blossomed on May 30 and following the consolidation of a surface low , it was classified as a tropical depression by 12 : 00 UTC on May 31 . At this time , the depression was situated 370 mi ( 595 km ) south @-@ southwest of Acapulco , Mexico . The system initially drifted northwest along the edge of a weak ridge ; however , steering currents soon collapsed and left the depression to meander in the same general region for four days . Strong wind shear stemming from the nearby Hurricane Andres precluded intensification of the nascent depression . Other factors , including a moist atmosphere and sea surface temperatures of 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) presented favorable conditions for development once the shear relaxed . Formation of a central dense overcast on June 1 marked the transition into a tropical storm , at which time the system was assigned the name Blanca . As shear steadily relaxed , conditions became exceptionally favorable for rapid intensification . Accordingly the Statistical Hurricane Intensity Prediction Scheme showed a 90 percent chance of winds increasing by 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) in 24 hours , among the highest probabilities seen by National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) forecaster Michael Brennan .
The upper @-@ level environment became even more favorable during the overnight of June 1 – 2 as anticyclonic outflow developed above Blanca , providing necessary ventilation for intensification . Turning south along an erratic , drifting course , an eye feature developed within the storm 's convective mass on June 2 . Blanca reached hurricane strength by 18 : 00 UTC and underwent rapid intensification thereafter . A small , pinhole eye soon appeared on visible and infrared satellite imagery . Reaching major hurricane intensity by 12 : 00 UTC on June 3 , Blanca marked the earliest occurrence of a season 's second such storm on record . The system featured a small , well @-@ defined eye surrounded by intense convection . Hours later , at 18 : 00 UTC , the hurricane achieved its estimated peak strength as a Category 4 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 936 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 64 inHg ) . Given continued favorable conditions , forecasters at the NHC predicted Blanca to achieve Category 5 status — the highest ranking on the scale , indicating winds in excess of 156 mph ( 251 km / h ) .
Contrary to forecasts , the still quasi @-@ stationary Blanca soon degraded . The hurricane 's persistence over the same location for several days resulted in tremendous upwelling of cooler waters , with temperatures underneath the storm falling from 30 to 21 ° C ( 86 to 70 ° F ) . Compounding the effects of cooler water was an eyewall replacement cycle . This resulted in rapid weakening , with Blanca 's winds falling to 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) by 12 : 00 UTC on June 5 . The previously small core of Blanca dramatically expanded to 65 mi ( 100 km ) across , with convection asymmetrically wrapping around it . During this period , a mid @-@ level ridge north of the hurricane moved east and allowed Blanca to acquire a steady northwest track . Re @-@ intensification ensued on June 6 as the hurricane moved away from its cold wake and traversed an area of warmer water .
Throughout June 6 , Blanca 's convective structure became more symmetric as it completed its eyewall replacement cycle . Aided by impressive outflow , the hurricane regained Category 4 status by 12 : 00 UTC , marking its secondary peak intensity with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . Soon thereafter , Blanca moved back over cooler waters and began weakening . A turn to the north @-@ northwest also occurred at this time as it rounded a mid @-@ level ridge over Mexico . The hurricane passed roughly 30 mi ( 45 km ) northeast of Socorro Island on June 7 . An automated weather station there recorded sustained winds of 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) , with a peak gust of 101 mph ( 163 km / h ) , before it ceased reporting . Additionally , a pressure of 977 @.@ 3 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 86 inHg ) was observed . Deep convection steadily weakened and the hurricane 's eye filled as the winds decreased .
Increasing wind shear accelerated the rate of weakening , causing Blanca 's mid- and low @-@ level circulation centers to decouple . By 18 : 00 UTC on June 7 , the hurricane degraded to a tropical storm . Around 10 : 30 UTC on June 8 , Blanca made landfall over Isla Santa Margarita off the coast of Baja California Sur before striking the mainland , near Puerto Argudin , at 11 : 15 UTC . This marked the earliest known landfall in the state , and peninsula , on record during a calendar year . It surpassed the previous earliest — Tropical Storm Calvin on July 8 , 1993 — by a month . Turning back to the northwest , the system briefly emerged back over the Pacific Ocean before weakening to a tropical depression . Blanca made its third and final landfall near El Patrocinio around 20 : 30 UTC . With deep convection no longer present , the depression degraded into a remnant low early on June 9 over the central Baja California peninsula before dissipating hours later .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Mexico = = =
On June 3 , precautionary alerts were raised across the southern Baja California Peninsula and much of Western Mexico , due to potential impacts from the hurricane . Two days later , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch for parts of Baja California Sur before upgrading it to a warning on June 6 . Warnings ultimately extended northward to Punta Abreojos . A hurricane watch was temporarily in place ; however , Blanca 's abrupt weakening on June 7 prompted its discontinuation . All schools were closed in Baja California Sur on June 8 . A collective 3 @,@ 300 troops from the Mexican Army and Navy were deployed to Baja California Sur to ensure the safety of residents . Under the threat of 16 ft ( 5 m ) waves , the port of Los Cabos suspended operations . Within Sonora , all schools in the Empalme , Guaymas , and Hermosillo municipalities were canceled for June 8 .
Waves up to 16 ft ( 5 m ) damaged coastal installations in Puerto Vallarta , Jalisco . A surfer was pulled out by rip currents near Villa Obregón and required rescue ; however , the rescuer was also overcome and both drowned . Two fishermen ignored warnings to remain at port and died amid rough seas from the hurricane . Striking Baja California Sur on June 8 , Blanca brought tropical storm @-@ force winds and heavy rain to the region . The highest sustained winds were observed at Cabo San Lucas International Airport , reaching 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) while gusts were measured at 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) in San Juanico . Across the state , high winds downed power lines and left 104 @,@ 106 residents without electricity . However , around 90 percent of the outages were fixed within 12 hours of the storm . The winds also broke a few windows . Sinaloa experienced similar effects , with strong winds downing many trees and tearing apart billboards , primarily in Los Mochis and Guasave .
= = = United States = = =
The remnants of Blanca , aided by an unusually late @-@ season coastal low , later brought several days of scattered thunderstorms to the Southwestern United States . Effects in California were primarily concentrated across the Mojave Desert and southern Great Basin . Daily rainfall records were broken in several areas , though accumulations were generally less than 1 in ( 25 mm ) . Maricopa and Taft received 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) of rain in 30 minutes , triggering flash flooding that stranded vehicles and prompted the temporary closure of State Route 166 . Flooding and mud flows covered parts of State Route 190 in Inyo County , resulting in an accident that injured two people . Thunderstorm winds downed several trees , two of which fell on mobile homes . Hail up to 1 in ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) in diameter was observed in Ford City . Some flooding took place in Santa Barbara County . Damage across the state amounted to $ 67 @,@ 000 .
Record rainfall was observed in parts of Arizona , with Yuma recording measurable precipitation for only the seventeenth time in June since records began in 1876 . Rainfall amounted to 0 @.@ 31 in ( 7 @.@ 9 mm ) in the city , and 0 @.@ 21 in ( 5 @.@ 3 mm ) fell in Tucson . In Six Mile Canyon in Nevada , near the border of Lyon and Storey counties , 1 @.@ 13 in ( 29 mm ) of rain fell in an hour , resulting in flash flooding . Damage was primarily to landscaping with minor effects to homes . The normally dry Pine Nut Creek in Dresslerville rose 4 to 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 5 m ) in a short period of time , inundating nine homes and covering low water crossings . Multiple roads across Esmeralda , Eureka , and Lander counties were subjected to flooding . Damage across Nevada was $ 46 @,@ 000 .
Following above @-@ average rainfall since April , renewed precipitation in New Mexico led to flash flooding . Roads were washed away near Conchas Dam and minor flooding took place near Pojoaque . A strong thunderstorm over the Navajo Nation in New Mexico spawned a brief EF0 tornado near Napi Headquarters . Hail up to 1 @.@ 75 in ( 4 @.@ 4 cm ) in diameter was observed and rainfall caused the Animas River to overflow . Damage in the state reached $ 20 @,@ 000 . Flash flooding also took place in Utah , including along the Paria River ; a stream gauge observed a peak flow of 1 @,@ 160 ft3 ( 32 @.@ 8 m3 ) per second . A peak wind gust of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) was observed on Flattop Mountain in Emery County .
= Coral Springs , Florida =
Coral Springs , officially the City of Coral Springs , is a city in Broward County , Florida , approximately 20 miles ( 32 km ) northwest of Fort Lauderdale . As of the 2010 United States Census , the city had a population of 121 @,@ 096 . The city is part of the Miami metropolitan area , which was home to 5 @,@ 564 @,@ 635 people in 2010 .
The city , officially chartered on July 10 , 1963 , was master @-@ planned and primarily developed by WCI Communities , then known as Coral Ridge Properties , a division of Westinghouse . The city 's name is derived from the company 's name , and was selected after several earlier proposals had been considered and rejected . Despite the name , there are no springs in the city ; Florida 's springs are found in the central and northern portions of the state .
During the 1970s , 1980s , and 1990s the young city grew rapidly , adding over 35 @,@ 000 residents each decade . Coral Springs has notably strict building codes , which are designed to maintain the city 's distinctive aesthetic appeal . The city government 's effective fiscal management has maintained high bond ratings , and the city has won accolades for its overall livability , its low crime rate , and its family @-@ friendly orientation .
= = History = =
Coral Springs is a planned community . Prior to its incorporation as a city in July 1963 , the area which is now Coral Springs was part of 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 km2 ) of marshy lands bought by Henry Lyons between 1911 and 1939 . After several floods in 1947 , Florida created the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control District ( now the South Florida Water Management District ) . Canals and levees drained much of the area upon which Coral Springs was built . After the land was drained and cleared , most of the area was used as a bean farm . After Lyons ' death in 1952 , his heirs changed the focus to cattle .
A post @-@ World War II real estate boom in South Florida attracted the interest of developers . Coral Ridge Properties , which already had several developments in Broward County , bought 3 @,@ 869 acres ( 16 km2 ) of land from the Lyons family on December 14 , 1961 for $ 1 million . The City of Coral Springs was chartered on July 10 , 1963 . Other names that were considered for the new city included " Curran Village , " " Pompano Springs " and " Quartermore " . By 1964 , the company had developed a master plan for a city of 50 @,@ 000 residents . On July 22 , 1964 , the first sale of 536 building lots netted $ 1 @.@ 6 million . The landmark covered bridge was built that same year to promote the town . In 1965 , Coral Ridge Properties bought an additional 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 km2 ) from the Lyons family , increasing the city 's land area to 16 square miles ( 41 km2 ) . The first city government elections were held in 1967 .
The city added nineteen public schools , a regional mall , shopping centers and parks during the last three decades of the twentieth century in response to rapid population growth . The construction of the Sawgrass Expressway in 1986 brought even more growth . A museum and a theater opened in the 1990s . The city reached residential build @-@ out in 2003 and is very close to a commercial build @-@ out .
The city 's historically low crime rate was marred in the early 1990s , when teen gang violence made headlines , with fights and murders reported . The violence subsided and the city returned to its previously peaceful state in 1995 .
Coral Springs was ranked as the 27th best city in the United States in which to live by Money Magazine in 2006 ; was named the 10th safest city in the US by Morgan Quitno in 2007 ; and was a multiple recipient of America 's Promise " 100 Best Cities for Young People " award , identified by the group as a three @-@ time winner in 2008 . In 2007 , Coral Springs became the first state or local government in the nation to receive the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award .
In 2010 , CNNMoney.com listed Coral Springs as the 44th best place to live in the United States .
= = Geography and climate = =
Coral Springs is located at 26 ° 16 ′ 14 ″ N 80 ° 15 ′ 33 ″ W. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 24 @.@ 0 square miles ( 62 @.@ 1 km2 ) , 23 @.@ 8 square miles ( 61 @.@ 6 km2 ) of which is land and 0 @.@ 19 square miles ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) of which is water ( 0 @.@ 83 % ) . Coral Springs is bordered by the cities of Parkland to the north , Coconut Creek to the east , Margate and North Lauderdale to the southeast and Tamarac to the south . To the west lies The Everglades .
= = = Cityscape = = =
Coral Springs is a sprawling city , with few tall or prominent structures . The tallest building in the city is a 12 story condominium ( Country Club Tower ) , with five more buildings topping out at 10 stories , including three office buildings lining University Drive , one of the city 's main roads . Buildings include Preferred Exchange Tower ( originally the Bank of Coral Springs Building ) , 210 Tower , Bank of America Center and the Briarwood Towers .
Coral Ridge Properties established strict landscaping and sign laws for the city — a question in the original version of Trivial Pursuit noted that the city hosted the first McDonald 's without the distinctive Golden Arches sign . Restrictions on commercial signs , exterior paint colors , roofing materials , recreational vehicle and boat storage , and landscaping specifications are all strictly enforced ; consequently , real estate values in the city are significantly higher than the county as a whole . In 2006 , the median price of a single family home in Coral Springs was US $ 415 @,@ 000 , while the median price county @-@ wide was US $ 323 @,@ 000 .
The city 's downtown is the focus of an extensive redevelopment plan , estimated to cost close to US $ 700 million . The plan to revitalize the city 's core started with an open @-@ air shopping and entertainment center — " The Walk " — and progressed with the construction of " One Charter Place , " opened April 2007 . When completed , the redeveloped downtown area will offer office , retail , and a new government center , encompassing approximately three million square feet of floor space , in addition to approximately 1 @,@ 000 residential units and a new hotel .
The City of Coral Springs ' Parks and Recreation Department operates over 50 municipal parks , including a water park and a skate park , encompassing over 675 acres ( 2 @.@ 7 km2 ) . Coral Springs ' largest park is Mullins Park ( 70 acres ) . Of the four conservation areas in the city , Sandy Ridge Sanctuary is the biggest , at 38 acres ( 150 @,@ 000 m2 ) .
= = = Climate = = =
Average monthly rainfall is higher from April to September , with January and February as the driest months . The average monthly rainfall ranges from 2 @.@ 8 inches ( 7 cm ) in January and February to 7 @.@ 3 inches ( 19 cm ) in June . The hurricane season is from June to November , with September as the month during which hurricanes are most likely to occur . The most powerful hurricane to strike Coral Springs since its incorporation was Wilma in 2005 ; the eye of the hurricane passed directly over the city . The city estimated that " as a result of the numerous hurricanes and storms that hit Coral Springs in 2004 / 2005 , and especially as a result of Hurricane Wilma , the tree canopy coverage throughout the city has been reduced by about one third " .
= = Demographics = =
As of 2010 , there were 45 @,@ 433 households , with 8 @.@ 1 % being vacant . As of 2000 , 19 @,@ 151 ( 43 @.@ 2 % ) households had children under the age of 18 living with them , 26 @,@ 875 ( 60 @.@ 6 % ) were married couples living together , 7 @,@ 663 ( 17 @.@ 3 % ) had a female householder with no husband present , and 8 @,@ 387 ( 18 @.@ 9 % ) were non @-@ families . 5 @,@ 922 of all households ( 13 @.@ 4 % ) were made up of individuals and 1 @,@ 408 ( 3 @.@ 2 % ) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 3 @.@ 11 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 45 .
In 2000 , the city 's age distribution was as follows : 38 @,@ 335 residents ( 27 @.@ 8 % ) under the age of 18 , 14 @,@ 560 ( 10 @.@ 5 % ) from 18 to 24 , 35 @,@ 927 ( 26 @.@ 0 % ) from 25 to 44 , 39 @,@ 821 ( 28 @.@ 8 % ) from 45 to 64 , and 9 @,@ 358 ( 6 @.@ 8 % ) who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 35 @.@ 7 years . For every 100 females there were 93 @.@ 5 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 85 @.@ 7 males .
In 2000 , the median income for a household in the city was US $ 69 @,@ 808 , and the median income for a family was $ 76 @,@ 106 . Males had a median income of $ 47 @,@ 427 versus $ 34 @,@ 920 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 29 @,@ 285 . About 5 @.@ 8 % of families and 7 @.@ 3 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 11 @.@ 1 % of those under age 18 and 2 @.@ 1 % of those age 65 or over .
As of 2000 , those who spoke only English at home accounted for 74 @.@ 6 % of residents . Other languages spoken at home included Spanish ( 15 @.@ 0 % ) , French Creole ( 2 @.@ 2 % ) , Portuguese ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) , French ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) , and Italian ( 0 @.@ 8 % . )
As of 2000 , 2 @.@ 1 % of the city 's population was from Haiti , 2 @.@ 1 % of the population was from Colombia , and 1 @.@ 7 % of the population was from Cuba .
= = Government and infrastructure = =
Coral Springs uses the commission @-@ manager form of municipal government , with all governmental powers resting in a legislative body called a commission . Coral Springs ' commission is composed of five elected commissioners , one of whom is the mayor of the city and another of whom is the vice @-@ mayor . The mayor and vice @-@ mayor serve a two @-@ year term ; the commissioners serve four @-@ year terms . The offices are non @-@ partisan ; no candidate is allowed to declare a party affiliation . The role of the commission is to pass ordinances and resolutions , adopt regulations , and appoint city officials , including the city manager . While the mayor serves as a presiding officer of the commission , the city manager is the administrative head of the municipal government , and is responsible for the administration of all departments . The city commission holds its regular meetings biweekly . As of 2014 , the Mayor is Walter " Skip " Campbell . The Vice @-@ Mayor is Larry Vignola , the other commissioners are Joy Carter , Lou Cimaglia & Dan Daley . The City Manager is Erdal Donmez .
In @-@ city buses are provided free of charge by the local government . Regional transportation is provided by Broward County Transit . The closest passenger airport to Coral Springs is Fort Lauderdale @-@ Hollywood International Airport , located 27 miles ( 43 km ) southeast . The only limited @-@ access highway in Coral Springs is the Sawgrass Expressway ( State Road 869 ) , which borders the city on its northern and western edges . Major roads in the city include Atlantic Boulevard , University Drive , and Sample Road .
Coral Springs is served by Broward Health , and is home to the 200 @-@ bed Coral Springs Medical Center . The hospital received a 99 ( out of 100 ) from the Joint Commission , ranking in the top 2 % of over 9 @,@ 000 surveyed hospitals .
Coral Springs ' water supply comes from the Biscayne Aquifer , South Florida 's primary source of drinking water . There are four different water districts within the city ; the providers are the City of Coral Springs Water District , Coral Springs Improvement District , North Springs Improvement District and Royal Utilities . The South Florida Water Management District provides flood control protection and water supply protection to local residents , controls all water shortage management efforts and assigns water restrictions when necessary . Collection and disposal of city 's trash or garbage is provided by Waste Pro . Electric power service is distributed by Florida Power & Light .
= = Economy = =
Of residents aged 16 years and over , 72 @.@ 6 % were in the labor force , 95 % were employed and 5 % unemployed . 39 @.@ 5 % of the population worked in management , professional , and related occupations ; 32 @.@ 9 % in sales and office occupations ; 12 @.@ 8 % in service occupations ; 7 @.@ 6 % in construction , extraction , and maintenance occupations ; 7 % in production , transportation , and material moving occupations ; and 0 @.@ 1 % in farming , fishing , and forestry occupations . The industries for which Coral Springs inhabitants worked were 17 @.@ 6 % educational , health and social services ; 16 @.@ 1 % retail trade ; 12 @.@ 9 % professional , scientific , management , administrative , and waste management services ; 10 @.@ 1 % finance , insurance , real estate , and rental and leasing ; 8 @.@ 2 % arts , entertainment , recreation , accommodation and food services ; 7 @.@ 0 % manufacturing ; 6 @.@ 6 % construction ; 5 @.@ 0 % wholesale trade ; 4 % transportation , warehousing , and utilities ; , 4 @.@ 9 % other services ( except public administration ) ; 3 @.@ 7 % information ; 3 @.@ 6 % public administration ; and 0 @.@ 2 % agriculture , forestry , fishing and hunting , and mining . 85 @.@ 2 % of workers worked in the private sector , 9 @.@ 6 % in government , 5 % self @-@ employed in unincorporated businesses , and 0 @.@ 3 % as unpaid family workers . The predominant method of commuting was driving alone in own car , accounting for 81 @.@ 5 % of commuting trips , followed by 11 @.@ 2 % who were carpoolers and 7 @.@ 4 % who used other methods or worked from home .
Fitch , Moody 's , and Standard & Poor 's rate Coral Springs bonds as " AAA " . Standard & Poor 's , in a 2004 report , noted that Coral Springs had a " vibrant regional economy with above @-@ average wealth levels and consistently low unemployment " and praised the city administration . In 2004 , the city 's industrial and commercial base represented 24 % of the city valuation — 50 % higher than the previous decade . The city 's tax rate of 3 @.@ 8715 mils is the lowest in Broward County of cities with more than 70 @,@ 000 people . The city has twice received the Florida Sterling Award for excellence in administration . First Data and Alliance Entertainment are the largest companies that have offices in the Corporate Park of Coral Springs . ABB Asea Brown Boveri and Royal Plastics Group have subsidiaries headquartered in the city as well . The biggest shopping mall in the city is Coral Square , which opened in October 1984 with 945 @,@ 000 square feet ( 87 @,@ 800 m2 ) of retail space and more than 120 stores . Preferred Exchange Tower is the largest office building in the city — it has 10 floors and 203 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 18 @,@ 900 m2 ) .
= = Education = =
According to the 2005 American Community Survey ( conducted by the US Census Bureau ) , 39 @.@ 2 % of all adults over the age of 25 in Coral Springs have obtained a bachelor 's degree , as compared to a national average of 27 @.@ 2 % of adults over 25 , and 91 @.@ 7 % of Coral Springs residents over the age of 25 have earned a high school diploma , as compared to the national average of 84 @.@ 2 % . Coral Springs had approximately 29 @,@ 900 students in 2006 . Three charter schools offer both primary and secondary education . Higher education is offered by Barry University , Nova Southeastern University and Broward College through a partnership with Coral Springs Charter School .
Public primary and secondary education is handled by the Broward County Public Schools District ( BCPS ) . BCPS operates 3 high schools , 4 middle schools and 12 elementary schools within the city limits . Ramblewood Elementary School received a Florida Sterling Award for its efforts in 2006 . In 2008 the Florida Department of Education awarded all public schools in the city , with the exception of Coral Springs High School , " A " grades based on their performance on the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test . In 2008 , Coral Springs High School received a " B , " and in 2010 the school received its first " A. " In 2009 , all public elementary , middle , and charter schools in the city received " A 's , " except for Broward Community Charter School West , which received a " B. "
North Broward Preparatory School maintains a satellite campus in Coral Springs . The Coral Springs campus has boarding facilities , a playground , and a gymnasium . The school 's main campus is in Coconut Creek .
= = Sports = =
Coral Springs does not have any professional sports teams , but has more than 25 amateur sports leagues . Coral Springs Youth Soccer had more than 3300 players in their 2006 season , playing for 284 teams in 20 separate leagues , divided by age group and sex . The Honda Classic golf tournament was played at the TPC at Eagle Trace from 1984 to 1991 and 1996 and then at the TPC at Heron Bay from 1997 to 2002 . The short @-@ lived professional soccer team Coral Springs Kicks ( USISL ) was based in the city .
The regional Sportsplex has a jogging path , an aquatic center , tennis courts , ice rinks and a dog park . The NHL 's Florida Panthers call the Saveology.com Iceplex , part of the Sportsplex , their official home and conduct much of their training there . The International Tennis Championships — an ATP International Series men 's tennis tournament was held at the Sportsplex from 1993 to 1998 .
A number of professional athletes are from Coral Springs : MLS soccer player Stephen Herdsman , Latvian Higher League soccer player Nate Weiss , NFL football players Dan Morgan , Todd Weiner , Darius Butler , Steve Hutchinson , Cody Brown and Sam Young , and Major League Baseball player Anthony Rizzo of the Chicago Cubs .
Pro golfer Lexi Thompson , youngest winner ever of a LPGA tour event at 16 , was born in Coral Springs .
Several athletes who participated in the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing are from or currently living in Coral Springs , including beach volleyball gold medalist Misty May @-@ Treanor , swimming silver medalist Dara Torres ( who resides in neighboring Parkland , Florida but trains in Coral Springs ) , and track @-@ and @-@ field bronze medalist Walter Dix .
= = Media and culture = =
Coral Springs is a part of the Miami @-@ Fort Lauderdale @-@ Hollywood media market , which is the twelfth largest radio market and the seventeenth largest television market in the United States . Its primary daily newspapers are the South Florida @-@ Sun Sentinel and The Miami Herald , and their Spanish @-@ language counterparts El Sentinel and El Nuevo Herald .
The city is home to two local weekly newspapers , the Coral Springs Forum and Our Town News . Both publications focus on local issues and human interest stories . The Coral Springs Forum was founded in 1971 by local high school students , the publication was sold after their graduation to local residents . Later the company became a subsidiary of the Tribune Company , the South Florida @-@ Sun Sentinel publisher .
The Coral Springs Center for the Arts opened in 1990 . Originally planned to be a gymnasium , a US $ 4 million renovation in 1996 added a 1 @,@ 471 seat theater . The theater presents a program of popular shows and a yearly Broadway series . The 8 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 700 m2 ) Coral Springs Museum of Art has a small number of exhibits and focuses on art classes and programs for the local community . There is currently one public library in the city , the Northwest Regional Library , affiliated with the county @-@ wide Broward County Library system . The band New Found Glory hails from Coral Springs and was formed in the city .
The " Our Town " Festival has been continuously held since 1979 , first sponsored by the Coral Springs Chamber of Commerce , and promoted by a non @-@ profit organization since 1997 . The event has a car show , a beauty pageant and carnival rides . The festival attracted more than 100 @,@ 000 attendees in 1984 , and the city estimated 200 @,@ 000 visitors at the 1990 event . A parade was added to the event in 1985 ; since 1994 , the parade has been run as a separate event during the Christmas season . Several other festivals are held throughout the year , such as " Fiesta Coral Springs " , a Hispanic culture celebration , and the Festival of the Arts . At Coral Springs ' 25th Anniversary Party , the Guinness World Record for " Largest Hamburger and Milkshake " was broken on July 10 , 1988 . The hamburger measured 26 feet ( 8 m ) in diameter and weighed 5063 pounds . The record stood for just over a year .
Coral Springs has two designated Florida Heritage sites . The Coral Springs Covered Bridge was the first structure built in the city , in 1964 . The steel bridge , 40 feet ( 12 m ) in length , is the only covered bridge in Florida in the public right @-@ of @-@ way . The American Snuff Company provided two historical designs for the bridge sides , to make the structure appear aged . The Covered Bridge is depicted in Coral Springs ' seal . The Museum of Coral Springs History started as a real estate office . Built outside the city limits , the single @-@ room wooden structure was moved to Coral Springs and became its first administration building . Later it was used as the first police station , and as a Jaycees clubhouse ; it was moved to the city dump in 1976 , where it was used as a fire department training site for smoke drills . After it was inadvertently set on fire , public outcry prompted the building 's relocation to Mullins Park for restoration . Since 1978 , it has housed the city 's history museum . The exhibits in the museum are historic items and city models .
Coral Springs is a sister city of Paraíso , Costa Rica .
= Young Blood ( Sophie Ellis @-@ Bextor song ) =
" Young Blood " is a song by English recording artist Sophie Ellis @-@ Bextor from her fifth studio album Wanderlust ( 2014 ) . The song was released as the album 's lead single on 21 November 2013 . It was co @-@ written by Ed Harcourt and Ellis @-@ Bextor ; the former also produced it . The song is a chamber pop piano ballad , which features instrumentation from subdued drums and various string instruments . In the track , Ellis @-@ Bextor sings with restrain , incorporating a low register in the verses and hitting her highest note in the chorus . A demo version of the track was offered online in March 2013 .
" Young Blood " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who complimented Ellis @-@ Bextor 's vocals and the song 's tenderness . The song became her first single to enter the UK Singles Chart since her 2011 single " Bittersweet " . On its component UK Indie chart , the track peaked within the top five . Sophie Muller was commissioned to direct its video , which shows Ellis @-@ Bextor on a pier and inside a living room . The song was performed on some television programmes in the United Kingdom .
= = Composition = =
As with the rest of Wanderlust , " Young Blood " was composed by the English musician Ed Harcourt , with additional songwriting from Ellis @-@ Bextor . It was recorded at the State of the Ark studios , mixed and engineered by Richard Woodcruft , and mastered by Miles Showell . It is a chamber pop piano ballad , with a viola , a violin , muffled drums , a cello and a double bass .
According to the sheet music published by Universal Music , it is set in a tempo of 60 beats per minute . It is written in the key of F major , and its verses follow the chord progression B ♭ mai7 — F. The song begins with a gentle piano melody , transitioning into Ellis @-@ Bextor 's sung section . During the verses of the song , she sings in a low register , reaching her lowest note of F4 ; conversely , in the chorus , her voice reaches C6 and trembles . Throughout the song , her vocals are restrained and incorporate the melisma technique . The bridge of the song features " choral harmonies " . The song 's lyrics are written in first and second @-@ person narrative , following the common verse – chorus form . According to Ludovic Hunter @-@ Tilney from Financial Times , the track discusses " the joys of growing old with one 's spouse " .
= = Reception = =
For Time Out magazine , Clare Considine described " Young Blood " as a " delicate love song " and opined that the strings and piano melodies effectively complement Ellis @-@ Bextor 's vocals . Michael Cragg of The Guardian stated that the song 's sonority " fits [ Ellis @-@ Bextor ] like a glove " , and also deemed its melody " gorgeous " . James Gareth from Clash characterised the song as " sincerely beautiful " , and Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey agreed , calling it " doe @-@ eyed " and " fantastically pretty " . From Virgin Media , Matthew Horton called the track " heart @-@ stinging " , while Hermoine Hoby , writing for The Observer considered that the song is " surprisingly successfully " similar to the works of Adele . Sam Lansky of Idolator complimented the song for being " beautiful " and " timeless " . Louise Bruton from The Irish Times wrote that Ellis @-@ Bextor 's " icy vocals forgive [ d ] " the " blunders " of Wanderlust , while musicOMH 's Kate Bennett provided a polarized review for the song . Although she praised Ellis @-@ Bextor 's vocals , Bennett described the track as " heroine @-@ gazing @-@ forlornly @-@ into @-@ the @-@ distance " due to its instrumentation . David Farrell , writing on behalf of PopMatters , commented that " Young Blood " was the best of the album and highlighted Ellis @-@ Bextor 's vocal performance .
The song only charted in the United Kingdom . Reaching number 34 on its singles chart , the song became Ellis @-@ Bextor 's first to enter the chart since " Bittersweet " , which was released in 2010 and peaked at 25 . " Young Blood " spent three weeks on the chart , and as of January 2014 , it is her fifteenth best @-@ selling song in the country . On the UK Indie chart , the track reached number 3 .
= = Release and promotion = =
A demo version of " Young Blood " was released on 27 March 2013 , as a complimentary download on Ellis @-@ Bextor 's website . Selected as the lead single of Wanderlust , the song was released as a standalone digital download on 21 November of that year . A CD single of the track was sent to radio stations in that month , including the album version of it as well as a radio edit ; the song was eventually playlisted by hot adult contemporary UK station BBC Radio 2 . Ellis @-@ Bextor revealed that she chose " Young Blood " as the first single from Wanderlust because she found it representative of the album 's sound .
The official music video of " Young Blood " was filmed by Sophie Muller , and released on 25 November 2013 . It mostly depicts Ellis @-@ Bextor , dressed in a striped dress , lip @-@ synching the song 's lyrics , walking through an abandoned pier " in terrible weather " . Those scenes are interspersed with clips of her sat on a red sofa , wearing a " buttoned up , Victorian @-@ styled lace dress " inside a lounge room . Writing for Idolator , Mike Wass characterised the visual as " simple " , noting that it is adequate for the song 's tone . On 9 April 2014 , Ellis @-@ Bextor performed " Young Blood " on ITV 's morning programme Daybreak ; fifteen days later , she sang it on the first episode of the channel 's Weekend , aired on 26 April 2014 . She performed the song in an unplugged setting on ZDF Morgenmagazin , a programme of German channel ZDF , on 23 January 2014 .
= = Track listing = =
Promotional CD single
Details adapted from the liner notes of the " Young Blood " promotional CD single .
" Young Blood " ( Radio edit ) – 3 : 45
" Young Blood " – 4 : 28
Digital download
" Young Blood " – 4 : 28
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Weekly charts = =
= = Release history = =
= University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill =
The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , also known as UNC , or simply Carolina , is a public research university located in Chapel Hill , North Carolina , United States . After being chartered in 1789 , the university first began enrolling students in 1795 , which also allows it to be one of three schools to claim the title of the oldest public university in the United States . North Carolina is one of the original eight Public Ivy schools .
The first public institution of higher education in North Carolina , the school opened its doors to students on February 12 , 1795 . The university offers degrees in over 70 courses of study through fourteen colleges and the College of Arts and Sciences . All undergraduates receive a liberal arts education and have the option to pursue a major within the professional schools of the university or within the College of Arts and Sciences from the time they obtain junior status . Under the leadership of President Kemp Plummer Battle , in 1877 North Carolina became coeducational and began the process of desegregation in 1951 when African @-@ American graduate students were admitted under Chancellor Robert Burton House . In 1952 , North Carolina opened its own hospital , UNC Health Care , for research and treatment , and has since specialized in cancer care . The school 's students , alumni , and sports teams are known as " Tar Heels " .
The campus of North Carolina is located in Chapel Hill , North Carolina , a university town . The campus covers 729 acres ( 3 km2 ) over Chapel Hill 's downtown area , encompassing places like the Morehead Planetarium and the many stores and shops located on Franklin Street . Students can participate in over 550 officially recognized student organizations . The student @-@ run newspaper The Daily Tar Heel has won national awards for collegiate media , while the student radio station WXYC provided the world 's first internet radio broadcast . North Carolina is one of the charter members of the Atlantic Coast Conference , which was founded on June 14 , 1953 . Competing athletically as the Tar Heels , North Carolina has achieved great success in sports , most notably in men 's basketball , women 's soccer , and women 's field hockey .
= = History = =
Chartered by the North Carolina General Assembly on December 11 , 1789 , the university 's cornerstone was laid on October 12 , 1793 , near the ruins of a chapel , chosen because of its central location within the state . The first public university chartered under the US Constitution , The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill is the oldest public university in the United States and the only such institution to confer degrees in the eighteenth century .
During the Civil War , North Carolina Governor David Lowry Swain persuaded Confederate President Jefferson Davis to exempt some students from the draft , so the university was one of the few in the Confederacy that managed to stay open . However , Chapel Hill suffered the loss of more of its population during the war than any village in the South , and when student numbers did not recover , the university was forced to close during Reconstruction from December 1 , 1870 until September 6 , 1875 .
Despite initial skepticism from university President Frank Porter Graham , on March 27 , 1931 , legislation was passed to group the University of North Carolina with the State College of Agriculture and Engineering and Woman 's College of the University of North Carolina to form the Consolidated University of North Carolina . In 1963 , the consolidated university was made fully coeducational , although most women still attended Woman 's College for their first two years , transferring to Chapel Hill as juniors , since freshmen were required to live on campus and there was only one women 's dorm . As a result , Woman 's College was renamed the " University of North Carolina at Greensboro " , and the University of North Carolina became the " University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill . " In 1955 , UNC Chapel Hill officially desegregated its undergraduate divisions .
During World War II , UNC Chapel Hill was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V @-@ 12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission .
During the 1960s , the campus was the location of significant political protest . Prior to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , protests about local racial segregation which began quietly in Franklin Street restaurants led to mass demonstrations and disturbance . The climate of civil unrest prompted the 1963 Speaker Ban Law prohibiting speeches by communists on state campuses in North Carolina . The law was immediately criticized by university Chancellor William Brantley Aycock and university President William Friday , but was not reviewed by the North Carolina General Assembly until 1965 . Small amendments to allow " infrequent " visits failed to placate the student body , especially when the university 's board of trustees overruled new Chancellor Paul Frederick Sharp 's decision to allow speaking invitations to Marxist speaker Herbert Aptheker and civil liberties activist Frank Wilkinson ; however , the two speakers came to Chapel Hill anyway . Wilkinson spoke off campus , while more than 1 @,@ 500 students viewed Aptheker 's speech across a low campus wall at the edge of campus , christened " Dan Moore 's Wall " by The Daily Tar Heel for Governor Dan K. Moore . A group of UNC Chapel Hill students , led by Student Body President Paul Dickson , filed a lawsuit in U.S. federal court , and on February 20 , 1968 , the Speaker Ban Law was struck down . In 1969 , campus food workers of Lenoir Hall went on strike protesting perceived racial injustices that impacted their employment , garnering the support of student groups and members of the University and Chapel Hill community .
From the late 1990s and onward , UNC Chapel Hill expanded rapidly with a 15 % increase in total student population to more than 28 @,@ 000 by 2007 . This was accompanied by the construction of new facilities , funded in part by the " Carolina First " fundraising campaign and an endowment that increased fourfold to more than $ 2 billion in just ten years . Professor Oliver Smithies was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2007 for his work in genetics . Additionally , Aziz Sancar was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2015 for his work in understanding the molecular repair mechanisms of DNA .
Notable leaders of the university include the 26th Governor of North Carolina , David Lowry Swain ( president 1835 – 1868 ) ; and Edwin Anderson Alderman ( 1896 – 1900 ) , who was also president of Tulane University and the University of Virginia . The current chancellor is Carol Folt , the first woman to hold the post .
= = Campus = =
UNC Chapel Hill 's 729 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 0 km2 ) campus is dominated by two central quads : Polk Place and McCorkle Place . Polk Place is named after North Carolina native and university alumnus President James K. Polk , and McCorkle Place is named in honor of Samuel Eusebius McCorkle , the original author of the bill requesting the university 's charter . Adjacent to Polk Place is a sunken brick courtyard known as the Pit where students will gather , often engaging in lively debate with speakers such as the Pit Preacher . The Morehead – Patterson Bell Tower , located in the heart of campus , tolls the quarter @-@ hour . In 1999 , UNC Chapel Hill was one of sixteen recipients of the American Society of Landscape Architects Medallion Awards and was identified as one of 50 college or university " works of art " by T.A. Gaines in his book The Campus as a Work of Art .
The university 's campus is informally divided into three regions , usually referred to as " north campus , " " middle campus , " and " south campus . " North campus includes the two quads along with the Pit , Frank Porter Graham Student Union , and the Davis , House , and Wilson libraries . Almost all classrooms are located in north campus along with several undergraduate residence halls . Middle campus includes Fetzer Field and Woollen Gymnasium along with the Student Recreation Center , Kenan Memorial Stadium , Irwin Belk outdoor track , Eddie Smith Field House , Boshamer Stadium , Carmichael Auditorium , the Sonja Haynes Stone Center for Black Culture and History , School of Government , School of Law , George Watts Hill Alumni Center , Ram 's Head complex ( with a dining hall , parking garage , grocery store , and gymnasium ) , and various residence halls . South campus includes the Dean Smith Center for men 's basketball , Koury Natatorium , School of Medicine , UNC Hospitals , Kenan – Flagler Business School , and the newest student residence halls .
A new satellite campus , Carolina North , to be built on the site of Horace Williams Airport was approved in 2007 . This is planned to be primarily a research park with expanded science facilities , but will also add classrooms and residence halls to cope with future increases in student population .
= = = Sustainability = = =
The principles of sustainability have been integrated throughout much of UNC Chapel Hill . In the area of green building , the university requires that all new projects meet the requirements for LEED Silver certification and is in the process of building the first building in North Carolina to receive LEED Platinum status . UNC Chapel Hill 's award @-@ winning co @-@ generation facility produces one @-@ fourth of the electricity and all of the steam used on campus . In 2006 , the university and the Town of Chapel Hill jointly agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions 60 % by 2050 , becoming the first town @-@ gown partnership in the country to do so . Through these efforts , the university achieved a " A − " grade on the Sustainable Endowment Institute 's College Sustainability Report Card 2010 . Only 14 out of 300 universities received a higher score than this .
= = = Old Well and McCorkle Place = = =
The most enduring symbol of the university is the Old Well , a small neoclassical rotunda based on the Temple of Love in the Gardens of Versailles , in the same location as the original well that provided water for the school . The well stands at the south end of McCorkle Place , the northern quad , between two of the campus 's oldest buildings , Old East , and Old West . Also located in McCorkle Place is the Davie Poplar tree under which the university 's founder , William Richardson Davie , supposedly selected the location for the university . The legend of the Davie Poplar says that if the tree falls , so will UNC Chapel Hill . Because of the tree 's questionable health from damage caused by severe weather such as Hurricane Fran in 1996 , the university has planted two genetic clones nearby called Davie Poplar Jr. and Davie Poplar III . The second clone , Davie Poplar III , was planted in conjunction with the university 's bicentennial celebration in 1993 by President Bill Clinton .
Another university landmark is the Confederate monument , known to students as Silent Sam , erected to commemorate UNC Chapel Hill students who died fighting for the Confederacy . The statue has at times been dogged by controversy , some critics claiming that the monument invokes memories of racism and slavery , while others counter that " Silent Sam " is simply historical and a part of the rich heritage of the South . The statue depicts a soldier armed with a rifle , but lacking a cartridge box . Thus , Silent Sam does not carry any ammunition and is a " benign " soldier . The statue was erected in 1913 by the United Daughters of the Confederacy to honor the school 's Confederate heroes . The student members of the university 's Dialectic and Philanthropic Societies are not allowed to walk on the grass of McCorkle Place out of respect for the unknown resting place of Joseph Caldwell , the university 's first president .
The Morehead – Patterson bell tower was commissioned by John Motley Morehead III , the benefactor of the prestigious Morehead Scholarship . The hedge and surrounding landscape was designed by William C. Coker , botany professor and creator of the campus arboretum . Traditionally , seniors have the opportunity to climb the tower a few days prior to May commencement .
The historic Playmakers Theatre is located on Cameron Avenue between McCorkle Place and Polk Place . It was designed by Alexander Jackson Davis , the same architect who renovated the northern façade of Old East in 1844 . The east @-@ facing building was completed in 1851 and initially served as a library and as a ballroom . It was originally named Smith Hall after North Carolina Governor General Benjamin Smith , who was a special aide to George Washington during the American Revolutionary War and was an early benefactor to the university . When the library moved to Hill Hall in 1907 , the School of Law occupied Smith Hall until 1923 . In 1925 , the structure was renovated and used as a stage by the university theater group , the Carolina Playmakers . It has remained a theater to the present day . Louis Round Wilson wrote in 1957 that Playmakers Theatre is the " architectural gem of the campus . " Playmakers Theatre was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1973 . Today , the building is a venue for student drama productions , concerts , and events sponsored by academic departments . In 2006 , the university began a renovation of Playmakers Theatre , which has included an exterior paint job and interior remodeling . The renovation is expected to be complete by the end of 2010 .
= = Academics = =
= = = Curriculum = = =
UNC Chapel Hill offers 71 bachelor 's , 107 master 's and 74 doctoral degree programs . The university enrolls more than 28 @,@ 000 students from all 100 North Carolina counties , the other 49 states , and 47 other countries . It is the second largest university in North Carolina . State law requires that the percentage of students from North Carolina in each freshman class meet or exceed 82 % . The student body consists of 17 @,@ 981 undergraduate students and 10 @,@ 935 graduate and professional students ( as of Fall 2009 ) . Minorities comprise 30 @.@ 8 % of UNC Chapel Hill 's undergraduate population and applications from international students have more than doubled in the last five years ( from 702 in 2004 to 1 @,@ 629 in 2009 ) . Eighty @-@ nine percent of enrolling first year students in 2009 reported a GPA of 4 @.@ 0 or higher on a weighted 4 @.@ 0 scale . UNC Chapel Hill students are strong competitors for national and international scholarships . In 2009 , two UNC Chapel Hill seniors won Rhodes Scholarships . The most popular majors at UNC Chapel Hill are Biology , Business Administration , Psychology , Media and Journalism , and Political Science . UNC Chapel Hill also offers 300 study abroad programs in 70 countries .
At the undergraduate level , all students must fulfill a number of general education requirements as part of the Making Connections curriculum , which was introduced in 2006 . English , social science , history , foreign language , mathematics , and natural science courses are required of all students , ensuring that they receive a broad liberal arts education . The university also offers a wide range of first year seminars for incoming freshmen . After their second year , students move on to the College of Arts and Sciences , or choose an undergraduate professional school program within the schools of medicine , nursing , business , education , pharmacy , information and library science , public health , or media and journalism . Undergraduates are held to an eight @-@ semester limit of study .
= = = Undergraduate admissions = = =
UNC Chapel Hill 's admissions process is " most selective " according to U.S. News & World Report . State law requires that the percentage of in @-@ state students per freshman class be at least 82 % , making out @-@ of @-@ state admissions very selective . For freshmen entering Fall 2015 , 9 @,@ 510 were accepted out of 31 @,@ 953 applicants , a 30 % acceptance rate , and 4 @,@ 076 enrolled . Women constituted 59 % of the incoming class ; men 41 % .
Among freshman students who enrolled in fall 2015 , SAT scores for the middle 50 % ranged from 600 @-@ 710 for critical reading , 620 @-@ 720 for math , and 590 @-@ 700 for writing . ACT composite scores for the middle 50 % ranged from 28 – 33 . In terms of class rank , 77 % of enrolled freshmen were in the top 10 % of their high school classes .
= = = Department of Public Policy = = =
The UNC Chapel Hill Department of Public Policy , established in 2001 , is a public policy program offering specializations in areas such as global health policy , education policy , tax policy , and social justice .
Established in 1979 , the Curriculum in Public Policy Analysis was one of the first undergraduate degree programs in public policy , and a charter member of the national Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management . It was augmented in 1991 by an interdisciplinary PhD Curriculum in Public Policy Analysis . In 1995 the two curricula were combined and began recruiting their own core faculty . In 2001 the combined curriculum became the present Department of Public Policy .
= = = Honor Code = = =
The university has a longstanding Honor Code known as the " Instrument of Student Judicial Governance , " supplemented by an entirely student @-@ run Honor System to resolve issues with students accused of academic and conduct offenses against the university community . The Honor System is divided into three branches : the Student Attorney General Staff , the Honor Court , and the Honor System Outreach . The Student Attorney General is appointed by the Student Body President to investigate all reports of Honor Code violations and determine whether or not to bring charges against the student as detailed in the " Instrument . " The Attorney General is supported by a select staff of around 40 students . The Honor Court is led by the Chair , who is appointed by the Student Body President , and supported by Vice Chairs who adjudicate all students ' hearings . The Honor Court as a whole is made up of some 80 selected students . The Honor System Outreach is a branch of the System solely devoted to promoting honor and integrity in the university community . UNC Chapel Hill is the only public university , with the exception of the military academies , that has a completely student @-@ run system from the beginning to the end of the process .
= = = Libraries = = =
UNC Chapel Hill 's library system includes a number of individual libraries housed throughout the campus and holds more than 7 @.@ 0 million volumes in total . UNC Chapel Hill 's North Carolina Collection ( NCC ) is the largest and most comprehensive collection of holdings about any single state nationwide . The unparalleled assemblage of literary , visual , and artifactual materials documents four centuries of North Carolina history and culture . The North Carolina Collection is housed in Wilson Library , named after Louis Round Wilson , along with the Southern Historical Collection , the Rare Books Collection , and the Southern Folklife Collection . The university is home to ibiblio , one of the world 's largest collections of freely available information including software , music , literature , art , history , science , politics , and cultural studies .
The Davis Library , situated near the Pit , is the main library and the largest academic facility and state @-@ owned building in North Carolina . It was named after North Carolina philanthropist Walter Royal Davis and opened on February 6 , 1984 . The first book checked out of Davis Library was George Orwell 's 1984 . The R.B. House Undergraduate Library is located between the Pit area and Wilson Library . It is named after Robert B. House , the Chancellor of UNC Chapel Hill from 1945 to 1957 , and it opened in 1968 . In 2001 , the R.B. House Undergraduate Library underwent a $ 9 @.@ 9 million renovation that modernized the furnishings , equipment , and infrastructure of the building . Prior to the construction of Davis , Wilson Library was the university 's main library , but now Wilson hosts special events and houses special collections , rare books , and temporary exhibits .
= = = Rankings and reputation = = =
In 2015 , U.S. News & World Report ranked UNC Chapel Hill 5th among the top public colleges and universities in the United States .
The university was named a Public Ivy by Richard Moll in his 1985 book The Public Ivies : A Guide to America 's Best Public Undergraduate Colleges and Universities , and in later guides by Howard and Matthew Greene . Many of UNC Chapel Hill 's professional schools have achieved high rankings in publications such as Forbes magazine , as well as annual U.S. News & World Report surveys . In 2016 , U.S. News & World Report ranked UNC Chapel Hill business school 's MBA program as the 16th best in the nation . In the 2011 edition , U.S. News & World Report ranked the UNC Chapel Hill Gillings School of Global Public Health as the top public school of public health in the United States , and the second ranked school of public health in the U.S. ( behind the top ranked school , Johns Hopkins and ahead of the third ranked school , Harvard ) . The UNC Chapel Hill Eshelman School of Pharmacy was ranked second among pharmacy schools in the United States in 2012 by U.S. News & World Report . In 2005 , Business Week ranked UNC Chapel Hill business school 's Executive MBA program as the 5th best in the United States . Other highly ranked schools include journalism and mass communication , law , library and information science , medicine , dentistry , and city and regional planning . Nationally , UNC Chapel Hill is in the top ten public universities for research . Internationally , the 2015 QS World University Rankings ranked North Carolina 79th in the world ( in 2010 Times Higher Education World University Rankings and QS World University Rankings parted ways to produce separate rankings ) .
UNC Chapel Hill 's undergraduate program is ranked 30th in the United States by U.S. News & World Report and is consistently ranked among the nation 's top five public universities , just behind UC Berkeley , University of Virginia , UCLA , and the University of Michigan . Kiplinger 's Personal Finance in 2015 ranked UNC Chapel Hill as the number one " best value " public college in the country . The university also topped The Princeton Review 's list of the Best Value Colleges in 2014 . Similarly , the university is first among public universities and ninth overall in " Great Schools , Great Prices " , on the basis of academic quality , net cost of attendance and average student debt . Along with one of the nation 's most acclaimed undergraduate honors programs in a public institution , UNC Chapel Hill also has the highest percentage of undergraduates studying abroad for any public institution .
The University is also a large recipient of National Institute of Health grants and funds . For fiscal year 2014 , the university received $ 247 @,@ 555 @,@ 416 in NIH funds for research . This amount makes Chapel Hill the 7th overall recipient to research funds in the nation by the NIH .
= = = Scholarships = = =
For decades UNC Chapel Hill has offered an undergraduate merit scholarship known as the Morehead @-@ Cain Scholarship . Recipients receive tuition , room and board , books , and funds for summer study for four years . Since the inception of the Morehead scholarship program , 29 alumni of the program have been named Rhodes Scholars . North Carolina also boasts the Robertson Scholars Program , a scholarship granting recipients the opportunity to attend both UNC Chapel Hill and neighboring Duke University . Additionally , the university provides merit @-@ based scholarships , including the Carolina , Colonel Robinson , and Pogue Scholars programs , which offer full scholarships for out @-@ of @-@ state students .
In 2003 , Chancellor James Moeser announced the Carolina Covenant , which provides a debt free education to low @-@ income students who are academically qualified to attend the university . The program was the second in the nation ( following Princeton ) and the first of its kind at a public university . About 80 other universities have since followed suit .
North Carolina is tied for the largest number of Rhodes Scholars among public universities ( 47 since 1902 ) with the University of Virginia . Additionally , many students have won Truman , Goldwater , Mitchell , Churchill , Fulbright , Marshall , Udall , and Mellon scholarships .
= = = Academic @-@ athletic scandal = = =
From 1993 to 2011 UNC Chapel Hill offered independent study courses within the Department of African and Afro @-@ American Studies that consistently awarded high grades regardless of the quality of the work submitted . The final research papers generally received only a cursory review by an administrator without faculty oversight . During the 18 @-@ year period the courses saw 3 @,@ 100 enrollees , of which slightly fewer than half were athletes . A report released in October 2014 by former federal prosecutor Kenneth L. Wainstein showed that a number of faculty and administrators , including some members of the athletic support department and the director of the Parr Center for Ethics , had varying levels of knowledge about the nature of the courses . Members of the athletic support staff raised concerns with the College of Arts and Sciences on multiple occasions , but they were repeatedly rebuffed by an Associate Dean , who claimed that professors are free to run their classes as they see fit ; nine employees were eventually terminated or placed under disciplinary review for their role in the classes . In June 2015 , the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools ' Commission on Colleges put UNC Chapel Hill on one year of probation .
= = Athletics = =
North Carolina 's athletic teams are known as the Tar Heels . They compete as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I level ( Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) sub @-@ level for football ) , primarily competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) for all sports since the 1953 – 54 season . Men 's sports include baseball , basketball , cross country , fencing , football , golf , lacrosse , soccer , swimming & diving , tennis , track & field and Wrestling ; while women 's sports include basketball , cross country , fencing , field hockey , golf , gymnastics , lacrosse , rowing , soccer , softball , swimming and diving , tennis , track & field and volleyball .
The NCAA refers to UNC Chapel Hill as the " University of North Carolina " for athletics . As of Fall 2011 , the university had won 40 NCAA team championships in six different sports , eighth all @-@ time . These include twenty one NCAA championships in women 's soccer , six in women 's field hockey , four in men 's lacrosse , five in men 's basketball , one in women 's basketball , and two in men 's soccer . The Men 's basketball team won its 5th NCAA basketball championship in 2009 , the second for Coach Roy Williams since he took the job as head coach . Other recent successes include the 2011 College Cup in men 's soccer , and four consecutive College World Series appearances by the baseball team from 2006 to 2009 . In 1994 , the university 's athletic programs won the Sears Directors Cup " all @-@ sports national championship " awarded for cumulative performance in NCAA competition . Consensus collegiate national athletes of the year from North Carolina include Rachel Dawson in field hockey ; Phil Ford , Tyler Hansbrough , Antawn Jamison , Vince Carter , James Worthy and Michael Jordan in men 's basketball ; and Mia Hamm ( twice ) , Shannon Higgins , Kristine Lilly , and Tisha Venturini in women 's soccer .
= = = Mascot and nickname = = =
The university 's teams are nicknamed the " Tar Heels , " in reference to the state 's eighteenth century prominence as a tar and pitch producer . The nickname 's cultural relevance , however , has a complex history that includes anecdotal tales from both the American Civil War and the American Revolution . The mascot is a live Dorset ram named Rameses , a tradition that dates back to 1924 , when the team manager brought a ram to the annual game against Virginia Military Institute , inspired by the play of former football player Jack " The Battering Ram " Merrit . The kicker rubbed his head for good luck before a game @-@ winning field goal , and the ram stayed . There is also an anthropomorphic ram mascot who appears at games . The modern Rameses is depicted in a sailor 's hat , a reference to a United States Navy flight training program that was attached to the university during World War II .
= = = The Carolina Way = = =
Dean Smith was widely known for his idea of " The Carolina Way " , in which he challenged his players to , " Play hard , play smart , play together . " " The Carolina Way " was an idea of excellence in the classroom , as well as on the court . In Coach Smith 's book , The Carolina Way , former player Scott Williams said , regarding Dean Smith , " Winning was very important at Carolina , and there was much pressure to win , but Coach cared more about our getting a sound education and turning into good citizens than he did about winning . "
The October 22 , 2014 release of the Wainstein Report alleging institutionalized academic fraud that involved over 3 @,@ 100 students and student athletes , over an 18 @-@ year period from 1993 to 2011 that began during the final years of the Dean Smith era , marred " The Carolina Way " image . The report alleged that at least 54 players during the Dean Smith era were enrolled in what came to be known as " paper classes . " In response to the allegations of the Wainstein report , the NCAA launched their own investigation and on June 5 , 2015 accused the institution of five major violations ( including lack of institutional control ) . Sports Illustrated has since gone on to say , " The Carolina Way " is no longer shorthand for all that is admirable and salutary in college sports . "
= = = Rivalries = = =
The South 's Oldest Rivalry between North Carolina and its first opponent , the University of Virginia , was prominent throughout the first third of the twentieth century . The 119th meeting in football between two of the top public universities in the east occurred in October 2014 .
One of the fiercest rivalries is with Durham 's Duke University . Located only eight miles from each other , the schools regularly compete in both athletics and academics . The Carolina @-@ Duke rivalry is most intense , however , in basketball . With a combined ten national championships in men 's basketball , both teams have been frequent contenders for the national championship for the past thirty years . The rivalry has been the focus of several books , including Will Blythe 's To Hate Like This Is to Be Happy Forever and was the focus of the HBO documentary Battle for Tobacco Road : Duke vs Carolina . Duke was Carolina 's biggest rival from the 1930 's until the early 1960 's , when Duke 's declining athletic program shifted Carolina 's rival focus to North Carolina State .
Carolina holds an in @-@ state rivalry with fellow Tobacco Road school , North Carolina State University . Attention shifted back to Duke following a decline in NC State 's basketball program since the mid @-@ 1970 's ( and the resurgence of Duke 's basketball program ) , but the rivalry is sometimes still considered the most bitter in the state . Combined , the two schools hold seven NCAA Championships and 27 ACC Championships in basketball . Students from each school often exchange pranks before basketball and football games .
= = = Rushing Franklin = = =
While students previously held " Beat Duke " parades on Franklin Street before sporting events , today students and sports fans have been known to spill out of bars and dormitories upon the victory of one of Carolina 's sports teams . In most cases , a Franklin Street " bonfire " celebration is due to a victory by the men 's basketball team , although other Franklin Street celebrations have stemmed from wins by the women 's basketball team and women 's soccer team . The first known student celebration on Franklin Street came after the 1957 men 's basketball team capped their perfect season with a National Championship victory over the Kansas Jayhawks . From then on , students have flooded the street after important victories . After a Final Four victory in 1981 and the men 's basketball team won the 1982 NCAA Championship , Franklin Street was painted blue by the fans who had rushed the street . This event has led local vendors to stop selling Carolina blue paint as the Tar Heels near the national championship .
= = = School colors = = =
Since the beginning of intercollegiate athletics at UNC Chapel Hill in the late nineteenth century , the school 's colors have been Carolina blue and white . The colors were chosen years before by the Dialectic ( blue ) and Philanthropic ( white ) Societies , the oldest student organization at the university . The school had required participation in one of the clubs , and traditionally the " Di " s were from the western part of North Carolina while the " Phi " s were from the eastern part of the state .
Society members would wear a blue or white ribbon at university functions , and blue or white ribbons were attached to their diplomas at graduation . On public occasions , both groups were equally represented , and eventually both colors were used by processional leaders to signify the unity of both groups as part of the university . When football became a popular collegiate sport in the 1880s , the Carolina football team adopted the light blue and white of the Di @-@ Phi Societies as the school colors .
= = = School songs = = =
Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement , convocation , and athletic games are the university fight songs " I 'm a Tar Heel Born " and " Here Comes Carolina " . The fight songs are often played by the bell tower near the center of campus , as well as after major victories . " I 'm a Tar Heel Born " originated in the late 1920s as a tag to the school 's alma mater , " Hark The Sound " . " Hark the Sound " was usually played at the end of games , but as of late it has been played at the beginning of games as well .
The Institute of Folk Music at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill was founded by Lamar Stringfield in 1930 , followed by the founding of the North Carolina Symphony in 1932 .
= = Student life = =
= = = Organizations and activities = = =
Most student organizations at UNC Chapel Hill are officially recognized and provided with assistance by the Carolina Union , an administrative unit of the university . Funding is derived from the student government student activity fee , which is allocated at the discretion of the student congress .
The largest student fundraiser , the UNC Chapel Hill Dance Marathon , involves thousands of students , faculty , and community members in raising funds for the North Carolina Children 's Hospital . The organization conducts fundraising and volunteer activities throughout the year and , as of 2008 , had donated $ 1 @.@ 4 million since its inception in 1999 .
The university is also noted for its Campus Y , the social justice hub on campus that houses many service and internationally focused organizations . The Campus Y was founded in 1859 , and is noted as a " leader in on @-@ campus discussion and dialogue and off @-@ campus service and activism " . The Campus Y was at the center of many progressive movements within the university , including the racial integration of the student body , the effort to improve wages and working conditions for University employees , and the establishment of the Sonja Haynes Stones Center for Black Culture and History . The Y is a collection of many UNC Chapel Hill specific and outside organizations , such as Carolina Kickoff , STAND , Nourish International , Carolina Microfinance Initiative , Homeless Outreach & Poverty Eradication ( HOPE ) , and Project Literacy .
The student @-@ run newspaper The Daily Tar Heel is ranked highly by The Princeton Review , and received the 2004 – 5 National Pacemaker Award from the Associated Collegiate Press . Founded in 1977 , WXYC 89 @.@ 3 FM is UNC Chapel Hill 's student radio station that broadcasts 24 hours a day , 365 days a year . Programming is left up to student DJs . WXYC typically plays little heard music from a wide range of genres and eras . On November 7 , 1994 , WXYC became the first radio station in the world to broadcast its signal over the internet . A student @-@ run television station , STV , airs on the campus cable and throughout the Chapel Hill Time Warner Cable system . Founded in 1948 as successor to the Carolina Magazine , the Carolina Quarterly , edited by graduate students , has published the works of numerous authors , including Wendell Berry , Raymond Carver , Don DeLillo , Annie Dillard , Joyce Carol Oates , and John Edgar Wideman . Works appearing in the Quarterly have been anthologized in Best American Short Stories and New Stories from the South and have won the Pushcart and O. Henry Prizes .
The Clef Hangers ( also known as the Clefs ) are the university 's oldest a cappella group , founded by Barry Saunders in 1977 . The group has since won several Contemporary A Cappella Recording Awards ( CARAs ) , including Best Soloist in the song Easy , featured on the 2003 album Breeze . They have won two more CARAs for Best Male Collegiate Songs for My Love on Time Out ( 2008 ) , and for Ain 't Nothing Wrong on Twist ( 2009 ) . Members have included Brendan James , who graduated in 2002 , and Anoop Desai , who graduated in 2008 . Since the spring of 2002 , the Clef Hangers have sung each year at Commencement . They hold fall and spring concerts , sometimes featuring special guests .
The Residence Hall Association , the school 's third @-@ largest student @-@ run organization , is dedicated to enhancing the experience of students living in residence halls . This includes putting on social , educational , and philanthropic programs for residents ; recognizing outstanding residents and members ; and helping residents develop into successful leaders . The organization is run by 8 student executive officers ; 16 student governors that represent each residence hall community ; and numerous community government members . RHA is the campus organization of NACURH , the largest student organization in the world . In 2010 the organization won the national RHA Building Block Award , which is awarded to the school with the most improved RHA organization .
The athletic teams at the university are supported by the Marching Tar Heels , the university 's marching band . The entire 275 @-@ member volunteer band is present at every home football game , and smaller pep bands play at all home basketball games . Each member of the band is also required to play in at least one of five pep bands that play at athletic events of the 26 other sports .
UNC Chapel Hill has a regional theater company in residence , the Playmakers Repertory Company , and hosts regular dance , drama , and music performances on campus . The school has an outdoor stone amphitheatre known as Forest Theatre used for weddings and drama productions . Forest Theatre is dedicated to Professor Frederick Koch , the founder of the Carolina Playmakers and the father American folk drama .
Many fraternities and sororities on campus belong to the National Panhellenic Conference ( NPC ) , Interfraternity Council ( IFC ) , Greek Alliance Council , and National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council ( NPHC ) . As of spring 2010 , eighteen percent of undergraduates were Greek ( 1146 men and 1693 women out of 17 @,@ 160 total ) . The total number of community service hours completed for the 2010 spring semester by fraternities and sororities was 51 @,@ 819 hours ( average of 31 hours / person ) . UNC Chapel Hill also offers professional and service fraternities that do not have houses but are still recognized by the school . Some of the campus honor societies include : the Order of the Golden Fleece , the Order of the Grail @-@ Valkyries , the Order of the Old Well , the Order of the Bell Tower , and the Frank Porter Graham Honor Society .
Student government at Carolina is composed of an executive branch headed by the student body president , a legislative branch composed of a student @-@ elected student congress , and a judicial branch which includes the honor court and student supreme court . The Judicial Reform Committee created the Instrument of Student Judicial Governance , which outlined the current Honor Code and its means for enforcement in 1974 . Currently , Carolina boasts one of the only student @-@ run judicial systems in the nation . All academic and most conduct violations are handled by the student @-@ run Honor System . Prior to that time , the Dialectic and Philanthropic Societies along with other campus organizations supported student concerns .
= = = Dining = = =
Lenoir Dining Hall was completed in 1939 and opened for service to students when they returned from Christmas holidays in January 1940 . The building was named for General William Lenoir , first chairman of the Board of Trustees of the university in 1790 . The new Rams Head Dining Hall seats 1 @,@ 300 people and has a capacity for serving 10 @,@ 000 meals per day . It has one large dining area , two medium size dining areas , food service staff offices , kitchen , food preparation areas , storage and a Starbucks coffee shop .
Rams Head Dining Center was opened to the students in March 2005 . It includes the Rams Head Dining Hall , Starbucks , and the Rams Head Market . It was opened to offer more food service options to the students living on south campus . In addition the dining hall 's hours were extended to include the 9 pm – 12 am period , a time referred to as " Late Night " by students .
= = = Housing = = =
On campus , the Department of Housing and Residential Education manages thirty @-@ two residence halls , grouped into thirteen communities . These communities range from Olde Campus Upper | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Quad Community which includes Old East Residence Hall , the oldest building of the university , to modern communities such as Manning West , completed in 2002 . In addition to residence halls , the university oversees an additional eight apartment complexes organized into three communities , Ram Village , Odum Village , and Baity Hill Student Family Housing . Along with themed housing focusing on foreign languages and substance @-@ free living , there are also " living @-@ learning communities " which have been formed for specific social , gender @-@ related , or academic needs . An example is UNITAS , sponsored by the Department of Anthropology , where residents are assigned roommates on the basis of cultural or racial differences rather than similarities . Three apartment complexes offer housing for families , graduate students , and some upperclassmen . Along with the rest of campus , all residence halls , apartments , and their surrounding grounds are smoke @-@ free . As of 2008 , 46 % of all undergraduates live in university @-@ provided housing .
= = Alumni = =
With over 300 @,@ 000 living former students , North Carolina has one of the largest and most active alumni groups in America . Many Tar Heels have attained local , national , and international prominence . James K. Polk served as President of the United States for a single term , William R. King was the thirteenth Vice President of the United States . North Carolina has produced many United States Senators including Paul Wellstone and Thomas Lanier Clingman , along with multiple House Representatives such as Virginia Foxx and Ike Franklin Andrews . Algenon L. Marbley and Thomas Settle have received positions of federal judgeship . Former Secretary of War and Secretary of the Army Kenneth Claiborne Royall and the fifth White House Press Secretary Jonathan W. Daniels were graduates of North Carolina . Peaches Golding was appointed by HM Queen Elizabeth II as High Sheriff of the City and County of Bristol 2010 @-@ 2011 , the first Black female High Sheriff and second only black High Sheriff in over 1 @,@ 000 years .
Tar Heels have also made a mark on pop culture . Andy Griffith and John Forsythe became successful actors . Stuart Scott , Woody Durham , and Mick Mixon have become sportscasters . Civil War historian and writer Shelby Foote , sportswriter Peter Gammons , and Pulitzer Prize winner Lenoir Chambers all graduated from North Carolina . Other notable writers who have attended UNC Chapel Hill include Thomas Wolfe , who has a memorial on campus ; National Book Award winners Walker Percy , Hayden Carruth , and Charles Frazier ; Dos Passos Prize winner Russell Banks ; National Book Critics Circle Award winner Ben Fountain ; Pulitzer Prize finalist Lydia Millet ; New Yorker columnist Joseph Mitchell ; National Geographic writer John Patric ; Armistead Maupin ; and the notable poets Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Bollingen Prize winner Edgar Bowers.Television journalist Charles Kuralt , honored with three Peabody Awards , is a UNC Chapel Hill graduate . Three @-@ time Pulitzer Prize winner , political cartoonist Jeff MacNelly graduated from Carolina . Caleb Bradham , the inventor of the popular soft drink Pepsi @-@ Cola , was a member of the Philanthropic Society and the class of 1890 .
Tar Heels have made their mark on the basketball court with Southern Methodist University head coach Larry Brown , title winning coach Roy Williams , Los Angeles Lakers general manager Mitch Kupchak , college player of the year award winners George Glamack , Lennie Rosenbluth , Antawn Jamison , and Tyler Hansbrough , Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees Michael Jordan , Billy Cunningham , and Robert McAdoo , great defender Bobby Jones , and NBA All @-@ Star Vince Carter . Other notable Tar Heels include football players Lawrence Taylor and Dré Bly , soccer stars Mia Hamm , Ashlyn Harris , Heather O 'Reilly , Meghan Klingenberg , Whitney Engen , Allie Long , Lori Chalupny and Tobin Heath , baseball standouts Dustin Ackley and B.J. Surhoff , and Olympians April Heinrichs and Vikas Gowda .
Many Tar Heels have become business leaders . The leaders include Jason Kilar , former CEO of Hulu ; Howard R. Levine , chairman of the board and CEO of Family Dollar ; Paul Kolton , chairman of the American Stock Exchange ; Julian Robertson , founder of Tiger Management Corp. ; Bill Ruger , founder of Sturm , Ruger ; Warren Grice Elliott , former president of Atlantic Coast Line Railroad ; Allen B. Morgan , Jr . , founder and former CEO of Morgan Keegan & Company ; Ken Thompson , former chairman and CEO of Wachovia ; Hugh McColl , former CEO of Bank of America ; Sallie Krawcheck , former CFO of Citigroup Inc. and William Johnson , the current president and CEO of Progress Energy , and John A. Allison IV , former CEO of BB & T.
= = Criticism = =
= = = UNC tuition increase = = =
In July 2011 , the public universities in North Carolina had to share a budget cut of $ 414 million , of which the Chapel Hill campus lost more than $ 100 million in 2011 . This followed state budget cuts that trimmed university spending by $ 231million since 2007 ; Provost Bruce Carney said more than 130 faculty members have left UNC since 2009 . , with poor staff retention .
On November 17 , 2011 , the Board of Trustees for UNC @-@ CH recommended a 15 @.@ 6 percent increase in tuition tuition increase , a historically larges increase . The budget cuts in 2011 greatly affected the university and set this increased tuition plan in motion
UNC students angrily protested on November 17 , with the slogan " Strike the Hikes " . They believe that the university should dip into its $ 2 @.@ 2 billion endowment , but UNC officials noted that they endowments are restricted for specific uses , such as scholarships and other financial aid . Mary Cooper ( Student Body President ) , the lone student representative , was the only trustee to vote against the proposal .
On February 10 , 2012 , the UNC Board of Governors approved tuition and fee increases of 8 @.@ 8 percent for in @-@ state undergraduates across all 16 campuses
= Ames Project =
The Ames Project was a research and development project that was part of the larger Manhattan Project to build the first atomic bombs during World War II . It was founded by Frank Spedding from Iowa State College in Ames , Iowa as an offshoot of the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago devoted to chemistry and metallurgy , but became a separate project in its own right . The Ames Project developed the Ames Process , a method for preparing pure uranium metal that the Manhattan Project needed for its atomic bombs and nuclear reactors . Between 1942 and 1945 , it produced over 1 @,@ 000 short tons ( 910 t ) of uranium metal . It also developed methods of preparing and casting thorium , cerium and beryllium . In October 1945 Iowa State College received the Army @-@ Navy " E " Award for Excellence in Production , an award usually only given to industrial organisations . In 1947 it became the Ames Laboratory , a national laboratory under the Atomic Energy Commission .
= = Background = =
The discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932 , followed by that of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938 , and its theoretical explanation ( and naming ) by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch soon after , opened up the possibility of a controlled nuclear chain reaction with uranium . On 20 December , soon after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor that brought the United States into World War II , the Nobel Prize @-@ winning physicist Arthur H. Compton was placed in charge of the plutonium project , objective of which was to produce reactors to convert uranium into plutonium , to find ways to chemically separate plutonium from the uranium , and ultimately to design and build an atomic bomb . This became the Manhattan Project . Although a successful reactor had not yet been built , the scientists had already produced several different but promising design concepts .
Compton established its Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago in February 1942 . Its mission was to build nuclear reactors to create plutonium that would be used in atomic bombs . For advice on assembling the laboratory 's Chemistry Division , Compton , a physicist , turned to Herbert McCoy , who had considerable experience with isotopes and radioactive elements . McCoy recommended Frank Spedding from Iowa State College in Ames , Iowa , as an expert on the rare earth elements , which were chemically similar to the actinide series that included uranium and plutonium . Compton asked Spedding to become the head of the Metallurgical Laboratory 's Chemistry Division .
Due to lack of space at the University of Chicago , Spedding proposed to organise part of the Chemistry Division at Iowa State College , where he had colleagues who were willing to help . It was agreed that Spedding would spend half of each week in Ames , and half in Chicago . The intention was that staff at Ames would eventually move to Chicago when space became available , but this never happened . The success of the Ames Project ensured that it became a separate laboratory within the Manhattan Project .
= = Organization = =
Spedding started by recruiting two fellow scientists at Iowa State College to become his associate directors ; Harley A. Wilhelm , an expert in spectrochemistry , as the head of the Ames Project 's Metallurgy Division , and Iral B. Johns as the head of the Plutonium Division . Under them were eight section chiefs . The Ames Project grew to over 90 scientific staff . The total number of staff eventually exceeded 500 . Senior staff would meet on Sunday mornings to review the previous week 's work and set goals for the week ahead , a process that came to be called " Speddinars " . At first Spedding had to depart for Chicago soon after the meeting , but in early 1943 he was succeeded as head of the chemistry division at the Metallurgical Laboratory by James Franck , allowing Spedding to spend more times at Ames . He remained an associate director at the Metallurgical Laboratory .
Spedding was fortunate in having the full support of Charles E. Friley , the president of Iowa State College , even though the nature of the work could not at first be disclosed to him until security checks were complete . Once this was complete , Friley brought in Harold V. Gaskill , the Dean of Science , as the Ames Project 's administrator . The United States Army Corps of Engineers took control of the Manhattan Project in June 1942 , and the Ames Project in late 1942 .
= = Uranium = =
= = = Ames Process = = =
The first item on the agenda was to find uranium for the nuclear reactor that Enrico Fermi was proposing to build . Uranium ore was readily available . Some 1 @,@ 200 short tons ( 1 @,@ 100 t ) of high @-@ grade ore from the Belgian Congo was in storage in a warehouse at Port Richmond on Staten Island . About 300 short tons ( 270 t ) per annum was being mined at the Eldorado Mine at Port Radium on the Great Bear Lake near the Arctic Circle in Canada 's Northwest Territories . The Eldorado company also operated a refinery at Port Hope , Ontario , where Canadian and Belgian ore was refined . The Manhattan Project 's estimated requirements for 1942 were 200 short tons ( 180 t ) , of which Compton required just 45 short tons ( 41 t ) for his proposed nuclear reactor .
The major problem was impurities in the uranium oxide , which could act as neutron poisons and prevent a nuclear chain reaction . Due to the presence of impurities , references published before 1942 typically listed its melting point at around 1 @,@ 700 ° C ( 3 @,@ 090 ° F ) when pure uranium metal actually melts at 1 @,@ 132 ° C ( 2 @,@ 070 ° F ) . Peter P. Alexander , at Metal Hybrides Incorporated , gave in 1938 the first indications that the melting point of uranium was " as low as 1 @,@ 100 ° C ( 2 @,@ 010 ° F ) and even somewhat lower " .
The most effective way to purify uranium oxide in a laboratory was to take advantage of the fact that uranium nitrate is soluble in ether . Scaling this process up for industrial production was a dangerous proposition ; ether was explosive , and a factory using large quantities was likely to blow up or burn down . Compton and Spedding turned to Mallinckrodt in Saint Louis , Missouri , which had experience with ether . Spedding went over the details with Mallinckrodt 's chemical engineers , Henry V. Farr and John R. Ruhoff , on 17 April 1942 . Within a few months , sixty tons of highly pure uranium oxide was produced .
The only uranium metal available commercially was produced by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company , using a photochemical process . Uranium oxide was reacted with potassium fluoride in large vats on the roof of Westinghouse 's plant in Bloomfield , New Jersey . This produced ingots the size of a quarter that were sold for around $ 20 per gram . But Edward Creutz , the head of the Metallurgical Laboratory 's group responsible for fabricating the uranium , wanted a metal sphere the size of an orange for his experiments . With Westinghouse 's process , it would have cost $ 200 @,@ 000 and taken a year to produce . The hydride or " hydramet " process , developed by Peter P. Alexander used calcium hydride as the reducing agent for the conversion of uranium ore to metal . By this means the Metal Hydrides plant in Beverly , Massachusetts , managed to produce a few pounds of uranium metal . Unfortunately , the calcium hydride contained unacceptable amounts of boron , a neutron poison , making the metal unsuitable for use in a reactor . Some months would pass before Clement J. Rodden from the National Bureau of Standards and Union Carbide figured out a means to produce sufficiently pure calcium hydride .
Spedding and Wilhelm began looking for ways to create the uranium metal . At the time , it was produced in the form of a powder , and was highly pyrophoric . It could be pressed and sintered and stored in cans , but to be useful , it needed to be melted and cast . Casting presented difficulty because uranium corroded crucibles of beryllium , magnesia and graphite . To produce uranium metal , they tried reducing uranium oxide with hydrogen , but this did not work . While most of the neighboring elements on the periodic table can be reduced to form pure metal and slag , uranium did not behave this way . In June 1942 they then tried reducing the uranium with carbon in a hydrogen atmosphere , with only moderate success . They then tried aluminum , magnesium and calcium , all of which were unsuccessful . The following month the Ames team found that molten uranium could be cast in a graphite container . Although graphite was known to react with uranium , this could be managed because the carbide formed only where the two touched .
Around this time , someone from the Manhattan Project 's Berkeley Radiation Laboratory brought a 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) cube of uranium tetrafluoride — the uranium compound being used in the calutrons — to the Metallurgical Laboratory to discuss the possibility of using it rather than uranium oxide in the reactor . Spedding began wondering whether it would be possible to produce uranium metal from this salt , bypassing the problems with oxygen . He took the cube back to Ames , and asked Wilhelm to investigate . The task was assigned to an associate , Wayne H. Keller . He investigated a process ( now known as the Ames process ) originally developed by J. C. Goggins and others at the University of New Hampshire in 1926 . This involved mixing uranium tetrachloride and calcium metal in a calcium oxide @-@ lined steel pressure vessel ( known as a " bomb " ) and heating it . Keller was able to reproduce Goggin 's results on 3 August 1942 , creating a 20 @-@ gram ( 0 @.@ 71 oz ) button of very pure uranium metal . The process was then scaled up . By September , bombs were being prepared in a 4 @-@ inch ( 10 cm ) steel pipes 15 inches ( 38 cm ) long , lined with lime to prevent corrosion , and containing up to 3 kilograms ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) of uranium tetrafluoride . C. F. Gray took these ingots and cast them into a 4 @,@ 980 @-@ gram ( 10 @.@ 98 lb ) 5 @-@ by @-@ 2 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 by 5 @.@ 1 cm ) billet of pure uranium .
= = = Production = = =
On 24 September 1942 , Wilhelm took the ingot to Spedding at the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago and presented it to Compton , whose first reaction was of disbelief . He thought it must be hollow . Spedding had the ingot cut open . It was not hollow . A few days later , the Metallurgical Laboratory 's director , Richard L. Doan , went to Ames , where he drew up an Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) contract for the Ames Project to produce 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) of pure uranium metal a day . This would be a pilot plant , with the process eventually being transferred to industry . The OSRD contract was superseded by a Manhattan Project contract in November 1942 . The initial contract was for $ 50 @,@ 000 . By 31 December 1945 , the face value of contracts let to the Ames Project totalled $ 6 @,@ 907 @,@ 000 ; but the work was carried out for $ 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
Spedding and Wilhelm found an old wooden building on the southeastern edge of the campus . It had been a home economics building until 1926 , and then had served as a women 's gymnasium until a new one was built in 1941 ; by 1942 it was mainly used for storage . The building was handed over to the Ames Project , and the wooden floor replaced with a concrete one , much to the disappointment of the university architect , who had been trying for some years to get the place torn down . The building officially became known as the Physical Chemistry Annex ; local people called it " Little Ankeny " , after the nearby town of Ankeny , Iowa , where there was an ordnance plant . Looking for machine tools , Wilhelm found a machine shop for sale in Ames . The owner , Bill Maitland , had once made gardening tools , but could no longer obtain the metal he needed due to wartime rationing . Wilhelm bought it for $ 8 @,@ 000 . The Metallurgical Laboratory supplied two large 40 @,@ 000 W reduction furnaces .
The Ames Project supplied two tons of uranium metal to the Metallurgical Laboratory for the construction of Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , the world 's first nuclear reactor , which achieved criticality on 2 December 1942 . The Ames Project would later supply over 90 percent of the uranium for the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge , Tennessee . The Ames Project was producing a ton of highly pure uranium metal a day . Production rose from 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) per day in December 1942 to 550 pounds ( 250 kg ) per day by the middle of January .
For production , the process was changed to use magnesium instead of calcium ; magnesium was cheaper , more readily available , and purer . But it was also harder to start the reaction with magnesium than calcium , requiring more heating . The uranium tetrafluoride , known as green salt because of its characteristic color , was supplied by Mallinckrodt , DuPont and Harshaw Chemical , and was ground up on arrival , as was the magnesium . Bombs were normally 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) pipes , 36 @-@ inch ( 91 cm ) long , although 10 @-@ inch ( 25 cm ) , 42 @-@ inch ( 110 cm ) long pipes could be used to produce 125 @-@ pound ( 57 kg ) ingots . They were heated to 650 ° C ( 1 @,@ 202 ° F ) for 40 to 60 minutes , after which the mixture spontaneously reacted , reaching temperatures of 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 ° C ( 2 @,@ 730 to 3 @,@ 630 ° F ) . A microphone was used to detect the ignition , and the bomb would be moved to a spray chamber to cool . If everything worked , uranium metal biscuit and magnesium fluoride slag would be produced . After the bomb cooled , it would be opened and hammered until the two separated . The resulting biscuit would be stamped , and sent off to be cast .
Casting re @-@ shaped the uranium into ingots and removed impurities . The metal biscuits were melted in a graphite crucible and poured into a mold . This produced rods between 1 @.@ 5 and 5 @.@ 0 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 and 12 @.@ 7 cm ) in diameter and 20 to 30 inches ( 51 to 76 cm ) long . The rods were stamped with a number and placed in wooden boxes for shipping to the Metallurgical Laboratory . From there they were sent to the Oak Ridge or the Hanford Site . By July 1943 , the Ames Project was producing 130 @,@ 000 pounds ( 59 @,@ 000 kg ) of uranium metal per month . The cost of a pound of uranium metal fell from $ 1 @,@ 000 to around one dollar . Starting in July 1943 , Mallinckrodt , Electromet , and DuPont began producing uranium by the Ames process , and Ames phased out its own production by early 1945 .
The Ames Project began a program of recovering uranium metal from scrap . A new building , known as Physical Chemistry Annex 2 , was constructed for the purpose in 1944 . Uranium turnings were washed , dried , passed through a magnet to remove iron impurities , and pressed into briquettes . They were then send to be remelted . The job was handed over to Metal Hydrides and a recovery plant at the Hanford Site in December 1945 , by which time the Ames Project had recovered 600 @,@ 000 pounds ( 270 t ) of scrap metal . In all , the Ames Project produced over 1 @,@ 000 short tons ( 910 t ) of uranium metal . All production ceased on 5 August 1945 , as did that at Metal Hydrides and DuPont , leaving Mallinckrodt as the only producer of uranium metal in the early post @-@ war period .
= = Other metals = =
Beginning in 1942 , along with uranium production operations , the Ames Project conducted a variety of metallurgical research related to the separation and purification of thorium , beryllium and rare earth metals , such as cerium .
= = = Thorium = = =
In 1942 , Glenn T. Seaborg established that when thorium was bombarded with neutrons , it could be transformed into fissile uranium @-@ 233 . This was another possible route to an atomic bomb , especially if it turned out that uranium @-@ 233 could be more easily separated from thorium than plutonium from uranium . It was not pursued further because uranium @-@ 233 production would have required a complete redesign of the Hanford reactors ; but in April 1944 the Metallurgical Laboratory 's Thorfin R. Rogness calculated that a nuclear reactor containing thorium could produce enough uranium @-@ 233 to sustain its reaction without adding anything but more thorium . This was very interesting , because at the time it was thought that uranium might be scarce , whereas thorium was at least ten times more plentiful .
In July and August 1943 , the Ames Project attempted to create thorium metal using something similar to the Ames Process . This was unsuccessful , because thorium has a much higher melting point than uranium . Efforts continued into 1944 , and it was found that with a zinc chloride booster they could produce a zinc @-@ thorium alloy . Heating to 1 @,@ 300 ° C ( 2 @,@ 370 ° F ) in a graphite crucible could then melt the zinc , which could be drawn off . This left the thorium , which was cast into 150 pounds ( 68 kg ) ingots in beryllia crucibles . Some 4 @,@ 500 pounds ( 2 @,@ 000 kg ) was produced by 31 December 1945 . Thorium sold for $ 3 a gram before the war ; by its end , the Ames Project was producing it for less than 5 ¢ a gram .
= = = Beryllium = = =
Beryllium was used by the Manhattan Project as a neutron reflector , and as a component of modulated neutron initiators . Only one firm produced it commercially in the United States , Brush Beryllium in Lorain , Ohio . The Ames Project began working on a production process in December 1943 , reducing beryllium fluoride in a bomb with metallic magnesium and a sulphur booster . The main difficulty with working with beryllium was its high toxicity . A closed bomb was used to minimise the possibility of producing toxic beryllium dust . The process worked , but the high temperatures and pressures created by the magnesium sulphide meant that it was potentially explosive . An alternative was then developed using beryllium fluoride in a bomb with metallic calcium and a lead chloride booster . The metal was cast in a vacuum . Research was still ongoing when the war ended .
= = = Cerium = = =
In mid @-@ 1944 , the Ames Project was asked to produce cerium . This was being used by the laboratories at Berkeley and Los Alamos for cerium sulphide , which was used in crucibles to cast plutonium . Again , the bomb method was used , this time to reduce anhydrous cerium chloride with calcium using an iodine booster . A special " dry room " was constructed for drying out the cerium chloride using hydrogen chloride gas . The resulting metal contained calcium and magnesium impurity , so it had to be recast to remove them . The opportunity was taken to make it into 0 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 19 mm ) diameter rods 4 inches ( 100 mm ) long , the desired shape . Because cerium is so reactive , the remelting was done in a vacuum , using a calcium oxide or magnesium oxide crucible . The first shipment of cerium metal was made in August 1944 . The Ames Laboratory produced 437 pounds ( 198 kg ) of extremely ( more than 99 % ) pure cerium by August 1945 , when production ended .
= = Alloys = =
Since uranium metal had been so scarce before the war , little was known about its metallurgy , but with uranium being used in the reactors , the Manhattan Project became keenly interested in its properties . In particular , with water being used for cooling , there was speculation about alloys with high thermal conductivity and resistance to corrosion . The Ames Project produced and tested uranium carbide , which had a potential to be used as a fuel in reactors instead of metallic uranium . So too was bismuth , because of its low neutron capture cross section , so the Ames Project produced and tested uranium @-@ bismuth alloys .
At one point a proposal was on the table to protect the uranium in a reactor from corrosion by jacketing it with copper . The Ames Project therefore studied uranium @-@ copper alloys , which would occur at the interface . In practice , the uranium was canned in aluminum ; this too was studied , as were alloys with tin , which was used to solder the cans . Tests were also carried out with alloys of uranium with beryllium , calcium , cobalt , magnesium , manganese and thorium , which were being produced or in use elsewhere in the Ames Project . Attempts were made to separate plutonium from uranium through metallurgy , exploiting plutonium 's greater affinity with gold and silver , but the Manhattan Project chose to use the Bismuth phosphate process , a chemical separation method , instead .
The Ames Project also studied thorium , alloying it with bismuth , carbon , chromium , iron , manganese , molybdenum , nickel , oxygen , tin , tungsten and uranium , and alloyed beryllium with bismuth , lead , thorium , uranium and zinc .
= = Chemistry = =
The chemistry of uranium was the focus of multiple studies by the Ames Project . The properties of the various uranium oxides and uranium hydride were investigated . The latter of was particular interest because at one point the Los Alamos Laboratory considered using it in an atomic bomb instead of metallic uranium , but the idea was found to be inefficient , and was shelved . A process was developed to recovery depleted uranium metal from the uranium tetrafluoride left over from the electromagnetic isotope separation process and uranium hexafluoride left over from the gaseous diffusion process . This was operated as a pilot plant that produced kilogram quantities , before being turned over to the Manhattan Project 's SAM Laboratories for implementation on an industrial scale at Oak Ridge .
If the chemistry and metallurgy of uranium was poorly understood , that of plutonium was practically unknown , as it had only existed in microscopic amounts . Samples began arriving from the reactors in 1943 , and although the locus of the Manhattan Project 's investigations into plutonium chemistry was at the Metallurgical Laboratory , the Ames Project investigated methods of separating plutonium metal from uranium and fission products .
= = Post @-@ war = =
Major General Leslie R. Groves Jr . , the director of the Manhattan Project , visited Iowa State College on 12 October 1945 , and presented the Army @-@ Navy " E " Award for Excellence in Production for its part in producing uranium for the Manhattan Project . It was unprecedented for a college or university to receive this award , which was usually given to industrial organisations . The award came in the form of a banner sporting four white stars , representing two and a half years of service to the war effort . As of 2011 , the award was on display at Iowa State University in Spedding Hall .
The Iowa State Board of Education created the Institute of Atomic Research ( IAR ) as a coordinating body for research throughout the Midwestern United States on 1 November 1945 , with Spedding as its director . The Manhattan Project continued to fund the activities of the Ames Project , but with the passage of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 , responsibility passed to the newly @-@ created Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) on 1 January 1947 .
On 17 May 1947 , the AEC awarded the contract to run the Ames Laboratory , which now had the status of a national laboratory , to Iowa State College . The laboratory remained on the Iowa State College campus , and its faculty and graduate students made up most the staff . Spedding remained its director until he retired in 1968 . Administration was delegated to IAR . Permanent buildings were constructed that were opened in 1948 and 1950 , and subsequently named Wilhelm Hall and Spedding Hall . The Ames Laboratory retained a focus on chemistry and metallurgy , particularly of the rare earth metals .
= Vildanden ( airline ) =
Vildanden AS ( " The Wild Duck " ) was a virtual , regional airline based at Skien Airport , Geiteryggen in Norway , where it was the only airline . With operations starting in 2005 , it flew to Bergen , Trondheim and Stavanger using a Jetstream 32 and an ATR 42 , which is wet leased from Danish Air Transport ( DAT ) and Helitrans . Previously , the airline has also served Stockholm and Molde , and has also operated Saab 340 aircraft , operated by Coast Air , Air Aurora and Avitrans . The airline hadbeen in conflict with Coast Air about terminating the wet lease agreement . The company has had to be bailed out several times , including by the municipality , until it managed to make its first profit in 2009 . It ceased operations and filed for bankruptcy in January 2011 .
= = Operation = =
The airline was based at Skien Airport , Geiteryggen . It provides twenty weekly trips to Bergen and weekly trips to Stavanger . In 2009 , 50 @,@ 000 people traveled with Vildanden . The company has one ATR 42 , which seats 48 passengers and is operated by Danish Air Transport , and one Jetstream 32 , which seats 19 and is operated by Helitrans . The airline used Sandefjord Airport , Torp as its reserve airport in case of bad weather . The airline is named after the play The Wild Duck ( Norwegian : Vildanden ) written by Henrik Ibsen , who was born in Skien . The slogan " The shortest path between Ibsen and Grieg " is a pun on the Bergen composer Edvard Grieg 's and Ibsen 's names . The largest owner is Magne Forland , who owns 70 % .
= = Destinations = =
The following list shows all current and former destinations , including the city served , the country , the airport ( with IATA airport codes and ICAO airport codes ) , and the begin and end year of the service .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
Vildanden was founded on 23 November 2004 by 18 local investors who wanted to start commercial scheduled flights from Skien Airport , Geiteryggen . For a long period , there had been a public debate about closing the airport . Owned by the municipality , the airport was receiving annual subsidies of NOK 2 @.@ 5 million from the municipality , and NOK 3 @.@ 8 million from the state . It was decided to operate Vildanden as a virtual airline ( one that owns none of its equipment , leasing everything from others ) , and wet lease operations from other companies . Initial plans had been started in 2003 to cooperate with Dutch airline Denim Air , with a 50 @-@ seater aircraft , but these plans did not work out .
In October 2004 , a contract was signed with Haugesund @-@ based Coast Air , who would operate Jetstream 31 aircraft between Skien and Bergen . The owner of Coast Air , Kystfly , also bought 20 % of Vildanden . Coast Air had previously operated routes from Skien to Western Norway , but had withdrawn in 1999 . Following the announcement from Vildanden and Coast Air , the municipality decided to not close the airport , and cover the estimated NOK 300 @,@ 000 annual deficit , as well as upgrade the control tower for NOK 700 @,@ 000 . The airport had been closed since 2002 , following the increased domestic and international traffic from near @-@ by Sandefjord Airport , Torp .
Initial service would have 16 weekly departures to Bergen Airport , Flesland . The main market segment is the offshore petroleum industry , and the departure times were designed to mesh with helicopter routes to offshore installations . The company estimated that one @-@ quarter of travellers would be people commuting to the North Sea . Norsk Hydro , who have a lot of employees in the Grenland area , stated that they could not start using Vildanden because they had an agreement with SAS Braathens ' services from Sandefjord . The first scheduled service flew on 24 January 2005 , carrying eight passengers . This first month , 972 passengers took the plane , and Vildanden announced that they would try to also start a route to Stavanger Airport , Sola , as well as potentially to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen .
= = = DAT in , Coast Air out = = =
On 19 April , a new Jetstream 32 aircraft was taken into service . This allowed capacity to increase from 12 to 19 passengers , and at the same time travel time was reduced from 47 to 39 minutes . By September , the most popular departures were being booked full , and Vildanden asked Coast Air for a larger aircraft , with about 30 seats . In addition to allowing more passengers , larger planes would give higher comfort , and allow a more flexible ticket pricing scheme . An agreement with Danish Air Transport ( DAT ) to operate an ATR 42 , with a capacity of 48 seats , was signed in mid @-@ October .
To be able to breach the agreement with Coast Air — who still had a wet leasing contract , but were not able to put into operation a larger aircraft — the company Skien Lufttransport AS was created , and it purchased all the revenue and passenger rights from Vildanden . At the same time , it became the legal counterpart for DAT . The new aircraft was put into service on 31 October , branded with the Vildanden logo . Coast Air chose to continue operating the route between Bergen and Skien in their own name , and used the same aircraft and slot times . At Skien Airport , the Vildanden passengers were given the choice between Coast Air and Vildanden , and all nineteen chose Vildanden . On the return flight , three passengers chose each airline . Both aircraft flew to Skien , but due to heavy rain , only the aircraft from DAT was able to land . The passengers who had taken the Coast Air aircraft , were forced to land at Sandefjord Airport instead .
The following day , Coast Air terminated their flights , but stated that they still had an agreement with Vildanden . Skien Lufttransport on their hand stated that Vildanden was now a sleeping company , and that the contract therefore was terminated . Both companies considered the incident a legal matter . In December , the two companies settled outside court .
At the same time , the municipal council was considering the future of the airport . The city engineer estimated it would need a subsidy of NOK 2 million in 2006 , and the politicians , who wanted the airport to run without subsidies , demanded that Vildanden guarantee for the deficit . This was rejected by Vildanden — on the contrary , the company was in dire need for more capital , and issued a private placement for NOK 4 million in December 2005 . The company had since the start been losing money , and needed extra capital to get through the rough until it could make an operating profit . After the placement , 15 % of the company was owned by DAT , while Coast Air sold their shares . In 2005 , Vildanden had a revenue of NOK 15 million .
= = = More operators = = =
During 2006 , the ridership increased , and Vildanden started becoming more aggressive against Widerøe , which was flying to Bergen from Sandefjord Airport . Vildanden stated that they aimed to outperform Widerøe on price to Bergen . The ATR @-@ 42 turned out to be too large ; from 1 July , operations was taken over by the Czech company Air Aurora , with a smaller 30 @-@ seater Saab 340 . This reduced the monthly leasing costs from NOK 700 @,@ 000 to NOK 550 @,@ 000 . DAT remained responsible for the booking system .
In October , an agreement was signed with the Avitrans of Sweden to take over operations . This also included a second aircraft , so the airline could start operations to Stavanger and Molde in 2007 . From 18 March , Vildanden also started three weekly departures from Skien to Stockholm @-@ Skavsta Airport . The route was necessary to transport personnel from Avitrans ' hub at Bromma to Skien .
= = = Troubled times = = =
By October 2007 , Vildanden was in severe financial distress . An agreement was made with the municipal council , where the latter gave a credit loan to the airline . The route to Molde had given large deficits , and the company was forced to close it down . NOK 2 @.@ 3 million , equal to the airlines debt to the airport , was granted to the municipal @-@ owned airport operator , and the company allowed to make an agreement where half the debt was deleted , and the other half made interest and principal @-@ free for two years . At the same time , the management of Vildanden had to raise new capital equal to at least half the companies accounts payable , which was NOK 8 million . The case raised local debate about whether it was the municipality 's job to subsidize the airport and the airline . The Federation of Norwegian Aviation Industries announced that they would consider reporting the subsidies to the EFTA Surveillance Authority ( ESA ) for violation of the European Community competition law .
The fiscal year 2007 gave a revenue of NOK 61 million , and a deficit of NOK 13 million . During the airport strike in May 2008 — which closed Bergen Airport — Vildanden had full planes since they could land them on the short runway at near @-@ by Stord Airport , Sørstokken . In 2008 , 50 @,@ 000 people used Skien Airport , most of whom flew with Vildanden .
On 19 June 2008 , the municipal council voted to not give further subsidies to the airport . Upgrades for NOK 8 million were needed to meed safety standard . The airport operator had debt of NOK 12 million , and no realizeable assets . Vildanden was under certain conditions willing to pay some of the capital needed to perform the upgrades . The municipal council changed their opinion and voted — with a single decisive vote — to keep the airport running in July . The financial risk would be taken over by the municipal @-@ owned Kontorbygg , who operate a range of offices and commercial buildings in Skien . The proposal was supported by the right @-@ winged parties , and opposed by the socialist parties , as well as the chair of Kontorbygg . As a response , the Federation of Norwegian Aviation Industries reported the municipality to ESA , and demanded that NOK 20 million in illegal subsidies be repaid by Vildanden and the airport operator .
The company had a loss of NOK 3 @.@ 4 million in 2008 . In April 2009 , Vildanden terminated its agreement with Aviatrans with the intention of using larger aircraft . In July , an agreement was made with DAT to operate an ATR @-@ 42 on the Bergen route . From 1 August , the Stockholm route was terminated . The company stated that they had been considering having a stop @-@ over at Moss Airport , Rygge on the Stockholm flights , but instead decided to terminate the route .
During the winter of 2008 – 09 , Vildanden was forced to land at Sandefjord Airport 50 times due to weather closing Geiteryggen . In March , Widerøe started a marketing campaign to attract people from Grenland to use their routes at Torp . Local Liberal Party politician Gustav Søvde stated that he was opposed to Widerøe advertising in the Telemark press for their services . At the same time , Asbjørn Anthonisen , previous chief of operations in Malmö Aviation , was hired as new CEO .
Magne Forland increased his ownership in the company to 70 % in August , after he had previously given NOK 10 @.@ 5 million in interest @-@ free loans to the company . On 11 November 2009 , the German pilots on a flight from Skien to Bergen announced that only 28 of the passengers , without baggage , could take the ride . The reason was bad weather , which was described as " normal Norwegian rain " by the airline afterwards . This caused several commuters to miss their connecting flights on helicopters to offshore installations . The airline later stated that it was caused by the pilots not being aware of the safety equipment installed at Geiteryggen .
In December 2009 , Vildanden announced it plans to operate routes to Trondheim Airport , Værnes , but lacks financial maneuverability to commence operations . By October 2009 , Vildanden owed Kontorbygg , the operator of Geiteryggen , NOK 1 @.@ 5 million in airport fees . Kontorbygg stated that if Vildanden did not pay , the airport would have to file for bankruptcy . Innovation Norway rejected to give Vildanden a loan for NOK 3 @.@ 5 million in December 2009 . Kontorbygg stated that the operation of Geiteryggen had cost the municipality NOK 50 million in the course of the five years Vildanden had been operating from it . In February 2010 , the Municipality of Skien announced that it required Vildanden to pay back the NOK 3 @.@ 1 million , plus NOK 200 @,@ 000 in interest , that they borrowed in 2007 . The loan was renewed in March , after Vildanden paid NOK 385 @,@ 000 . From 16 August , Helitrans took over as the operator , using an ATR 42 . From 6 September , the company started with flights to Trondheim . The company ceased operations after its last flight on 14 January 2011 .
= Your Love ( Nicki Minaj song ) =
" Your Love " is a song by Trinidadian @-@ born recording artist Nicki Minaj , taken from her debut studio album Pink Friday ( 2010 ) . It was released on June 1 , 2010 by Young Money , Cash Money , and Universal Motown as the lead single of the album . The song was written by Minaj , Joseph Hughes , David Freedman , and Andrew " Pop " Wansel , and was produced by the latter . Minaj originally intended to release " Massive Attack " as the lead single from Pink Friday , though its release was scrapped after an underwhelming commercial performance .
Described as a " rap ballad " , the song is a change of tempo compared to Minaj 's previous work , and according to Mariel Concepcion of Billboard , the song contains a " new brand of hood majesty . " The song heavily samples Annie Lennox 's 1995 cover version of the song " No More I Love You 's " ( 1986 ) by The Lover Speaks , using its background vocals with additional bass , hip @-@ hop backbeats and drum loops added .
The song peaked at numbers 14 and four on the US Billboard Hot 100 and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts , respectively .
= = Background = =
The first version of " Your Love " appeared on Minaj 's unofficial mixtape Barbie World ( 2010 ) , with different lyrics included in the pre @-@ chorus along with a faster pace . Another version was later stolen and leaked online . The song underwent minor lyrical adjustments and mixing before being sent to mainstream radio , as the first official single from Minaj 's debut album Pink Friday ( 2010 ) . In an interview with Hot 93 @.@ 7 radio , Minaj spoke about the leak of the song , saying " That was a leak and I was so upset they put it out ' cause I recorded that song like two years ago . Next thing you know , people started falling in love with it . " Whilst on set on the music video for " Your Love " , Minaj further explain about the song 's theft and leak , saying ,
" I was not planning on putting the song out at all . But then I heard it one day , somebody told me it was online . And I was like , ' No way , no way in the world that song is out . ' I went and listened to it and was really upset . It wasn 't mixed , it wasn 't finished , it wasn 't anything — I wasn 't gonna use it at all . But then radio started playing it . "
Rap @-@ Up posted cover art featuring a close up of Minaj smirking to her right , however for unknown reasons the art work was changed . The new cover features a cartoon version of Minaj , made by illustrator Asia Kendrick @-@ Horton who posted it for Minaj on Twitter .
= = Composition = =
" Your Love " is a mid @-@ tempo song with the heavy use of Auto @-@ Tune in the chorus . It samples the instrumentals and background vocals of Annie Lennox 's cover version of " No More I Love You 's " by the Lover Speaks , with the addition of additional bass , drum @-@ loops and hip @-@ hop backbeats . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Your Love " is set in common time with a metronome of 94 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of E major with Minaj 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of B3 to the high @-@ note of C ♯ 5 .
Sara D. Anderson of AOL Radio Blog described the song as a " rap / singing mash @-@ up . " Coined as a " new brand of hood majesty , " the song is accompanied by a simple beat , which includes finger snaps and " xylophone clings . " Lean Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly commented : " Rap 's spitfire explores her softer side , sampling Annie Lennox on her honey @-@ tongued ode to a good man . " Greenblatt went on to compare the song to Jay @-@ Z 's " kindred " " Young Forever . " Minaj makes several references in her lines to well known people , which includes Bruce Willis in Die Hard , as well as Adam and Eve . Minaj makes several connections to Superman including in the pre @-@ chorus , " ' S ' on my chest , let me get my cape on . " The official remix featuring Cash Money labelmate Jay Sean was leaked via @-@ internet on August 2 , 2010 , and later made available for purchase in Australia via iTunes . American rapper Flo Rida released an unofficial remix to the song , in which he adds a verse . Reggae recording artist Sean Paul also did a remix to the song where he ad @-@ libs his verse throughout the original and later adds his own verse . Other remixes to the song include those done by American rapper Rick Ross and American R & B singer Chris Brown .
= = Critical reception = =
Rap @-@ Up stated that Minaj " slows down her rapid @-@ fire verses on the sticky and sweet " Your Love " ... with a sprinkling of Auto @-@ Tune to top it off . Young Money ’ s First Lady even exercises her vocal chops . We demand another helping . " Robbie Daw of Idolator gave the song a positive review , while complimented Minaj 's dual rapping and singing , as well as the use of the sample . Backy Bain also of Idolator additionally gave the song a positive review stating " We were a bit worried that Harujuku Barbie would forever be the garnish on other people ’ s tracks instead of the main dish , but this sweet song proves otherwise . " Mariel Concepcion of Billboard commented on Minaj toning it down stating , " the Young Money rap princess puts the sleazy talk aside and finds herself smitten with a young man ... Minaj proves that even the wildest ones can be tamed . " While reviewing the music video , Brad Wete also of Entertainment Weekly reviewed the song positively , stating that Minaj was " [ .. ] slicing the competition to pieces with her second try . " David Jeffries of AllMusic deemed the song an album highlight , additionally adding that the song , " waltzes out of the speakers . In 2014 , Pitchfork named it the best Nicki Minaj single . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Your Love " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at 51 , becoming Minaj 's first song to chart on the Hot 100 as a solo artist . It eventually peaked at No. 14 , becoming her first Top 20 in the country . It debuted at No. 23 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and peaked at number four . Your Love " peaked at No. 1 on the US Rap Songs chart for eight consecutive weeks . Minaj became the first female rapper to top the chart since Lil ' Kim 's " Magic Stick " , featuring 50 Cent . Minaj also became the first artist to lead the chart with a song without any features since Missy Elliott in 2003 with " Work It " . The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) denoting sales of over one million copies . On the Canadian Hot 100 , the song peaked at 43 . " Your Love " also charted in the United Kingdom , at a peak of 71 on the UK Singles Chart and at a peak of 22 on the UK R & B Chart . The song peaked at number 32 on the Australian Urban Singles chart .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
A music video for the song was directed by Lil X on the weekend of July 4 , 2010 in Los Angeles . Minaj took to her Twitter , asking fans who they would like to see portray her love interest in the video . Minaj was interviewed on the set of " Your Love " by MTV News while wearing a pink and purple kimono as a geisha for the video . In the interview , Minaj said , " We wanted to have geisha themes , samurai themes , stuff like that . I wanted to tell a love story . It 's just kinda liking a guy , where he 's not really for you to like — the forbidden fruit — and me and this other girl happen to like him and we go to war . " The video premiered July 21 , 2010 on MTV.com. Actor Michael Jai White portrays Minaj 's love interest in the video .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video is set to tell the story of a samurai @-@ in @-@ training , who falls in love with her master while a jealous peer fights for his affection . The video begins with Minaj delivering her lines over a red flowing fabric backdrop wearing a brown coat and a geisha costume with a blue flowing fabric backdrop , while White teaches a martial arts class . As Minaj and the instructor ( White ) begin to fall for one another , a student , who also has feelings for the instructor sees this and is jealous . This is intercut with scenes with Minaj donning a blonde wig and black bodysuit and in front of a green flowing backdrop . After seeing Minaj and White embrace each other on a bridge over blue @-@ fabric " water " , Minaj and her peer rival have a confrontation , which results in a duel . According to MTV News , the scenes pay homage to Uma Thurman as The Bride and Lucy Liu as Cottonmouth in Kill Bill . Minaj loses and her rival walks away as Minaj bleeds a red fabric and White walks up and grieves over her body .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Robbie Daw of Idolator appreciated the plot twist of the video , commenting , " We really expected Nicki to waste that other warrior @-@ in @-@ training hater . The fact that she dies — and does so in such a beautiful way here — kind of makes us love her all the more . " Daw also inferred that the fancy attire from the " No More I Love You 's " video inspired Minaj 's in the " Your Love " video . Nicole Sia of MTV Buzzworthy stated that the video resembles Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon in its fight scene . Sia also commented on Minaj 's appearance stating " the camera cuts to Ms. Young Money soloing in front of billowing one @-@ million @-@ thread @-@ count satin sheets , just to remind us how damn FINE she is . " Tray Hova of Vibe gave a list of the best and worst parts of the music video , stating the best were Minaj chopped through the blocks of cement , her crazy faces , silk sheets and headgear , and that the worst part was the " melodramatic ending " and " the return of those Freddy Krueger fingers . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Onika Maraj , Warren " Oak " Felder , Andrew " Pop " Wansel , David Freeman , Joseph Patrick Hughes
Recording / Mixing – Ariel Chobaz , assisted by Lyttleton " Cartwheel " Carter
Mixing – Neal Pogue
Production – Pop Wansel , Oak
Credits are taken from Pink Friday liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Radio dates and release history = =
= Miles Copeland ( Home and Away ) =
Miles Copeland is a fictional character from the Australian Channel Seven soap opera Home and Away , played by Josh Quong Tart . He debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 30 November 2007 . Ryley Mickle and Jackson Edwards played Miles in flashback sequences , showing him at ages three and eight years old respectively . During the early years of Home and Away , Sally Fletcher ( Kate Ritchie ) often spoke of an imaginary friend she called " Milco " . When Ritchie announced her departure from the soap , producers decided to introduce the real Milco , as regular character Miles Copeland . The development was described by the media as a " legacy storyline . " Quong Tart announced his departure from Home and Away in October 2011 . Miles departed on 23 November 2011 .
Miles is characterised as being charming and quick witted . His clothes often consist of board shorts and crumpled shirts , with his long hair , this gives him a trademark " beachy " look . Miles ' style changed in 2010 following Quong Tart 's break from the show . Upon returning to Home and Away , the actor had lost weight , grown a beard and cut his hair short . Producers were impressed with the changes and wrote them into the scripts . Miles is often seen consuming large amounts of food , which stems from his time spent living hungry on the streets . This was a character trait created by Quong Tart . Some viewers have written to Home and Away to complain about Miles ' eating habits .
Miles ' storylines have often centred on his friendships and romantic relationships with other characters . He has become a surrogate father to several teenagers , including Jai Fernandez ( Jordan Rodrigues ) and Melody Jones ( Celeste Dodwell ) . Miles and Kirsty Sutherland ( Christie Hayes ) had a long relationship together , during which they lost an unborn child . Kirsty eventually left town , ending their relationship . After sharing a long friendship , Miles and Leah Patterson @-@ Baker ( Ada Nicodemou ) entered into a romantic relationship in 2011 . Leah becomes pregnant and Miles proposes to her . Miles has earned a generally positive reception , while Quong Tart has been nominated for three Inside Soap Awards .
= = Creation and casting = =
The character of Miles was introduced to Home and Away in 2007 , as Sally Fletcher 's ( Kate Ritchie ) brother , whom she had always referred to as " Milco " . For twenty years , viewers had been led to assume Milco was just Sally 's imaginary friend . Channel Seven ran an on @-@ air promotion campaign , which promised viewers " a 20 @-@ year @-@ old mystery " would be solved . In the 2007 season finale , Miles mysteriously arrives in Summer Bay and writes " Milco " in the sand on the beach . Quong Tart was cast in the role of Miles . He previously starred in the Home and Away spin @-@ off headLand as Will Monk . In 2010 , Miles was briefly written out of the serial , while Quong Tart took a break from filming to rehearse for a play at the Sydney Opera House .
In October 2011 , Quong Tart announced his departure from Home and Away . Of his time in the show , Quong Tart told TV Week , " I couldn 't have imagined how much fun I would have and the friends I would make on Home and Away . Playing Miles was a gift . " Rebecca Davies from Digital Spy reported the actor had already filmed his final scenes , while TV Week said the way in which Miles leaves the Bay was being kept secret . Miles departed on 23 November 2011 .
= = Character development = =
= = = Characterisation and career = = =
Quong Tart told Channel 5 that he liked the way Miles looks at the world and revealed that he shared similarities with the character 's personality . Miles is often shown consuming large amounts of food on @-@ screen . Miles enjoys his food because of his time spent living hungry on the streets . This was a character choice made by Quong Tart . He thought it was important that viewers see his eating habits , staying true to " representing human beings . " However , Quong Tart stated that it sometimes reached a " point where it might not be very pleasant to watch . " Viewers had written letters to Quong Tart requesting that Miles should stop " pigging out on television . "
In 2011 , Miles returns to Home and Away with a new look . Miles had lost weight , cut his hair short and grew a beard . Off @-@ screen Quong Tart had such a busy schedule that he lost weight . When he revealed his new look to producers , they were so impressed they decided to change Miles ' image , because it suited the storyline .
Miles secures employment as a teacher at Summer Bay High . One of his students , Ruby Buckton ( Rebecca Breeds ) , develops romantic feelings for him . Breeds said it was a " genuine teenage infatuation " and Ruby was drawn to Miles ' maturity rather than his physical appearance . Quong Tart said Miles was " taken back " when he was faced with accusations of kissing Ruby . He manages to prove they are false .
= = = Relationship with Kirsty Sutherland = = =
One of Miles ' first relationships is with Kirsty Sutherland ( Christie Hayes ) , which develops from a friendship . Miles is left upset over his foster child Jai Fernandez ( Jordan Rodrigues ) . His emotional state has an effect on Kirsty and she kisses him . Hayes told TV Week that as Kirsty 's feelings " take over in the moment " , Miles is left surprised because he had been harbouring feelings for her too . Hayes also said Miles did not want to scare Kirsty away and they agree to take their relationship slowly . Hayes later said that Miles and Kirsty 's relationship worked so well because " they talk about things and they 're mature about their relationship . " Kirsty decides that she needs to raise money for her husband Kane Phillips ' ( Sam Atwell ) trial . She secretly begins work as an escort behind Miles ' back . Hayes ' explained Kirsty was " terrified " that Miles would find out and hated lying to him , but " has no choice . " When Miles discovers the truth about Kirsty 's escorting , he feels " totally betrayed " and ends their relationship . However , when Kirsty nearly sleeps with a client , Miles comes to her aid . At this point Leah Patterson @-@ Baker ( Ada Nicodemou ) tries to kiss Miles , as the two previously shared a connection . However , Miles defends Kirsty when he learns Leah had argued with Kirsty over her deceit . The state of their relationship remained troubled , though Hayes correctly predicted the couple would reunite .
In 2009 Hayes quit the serial and her exit storyline played out the same year . It was initially left unclear what impact her departure would have on Miles ' . Their relationship deteriorates after Kirsty miscarries their unborn baby . Kirsty is left distraught and feels she has to move with her life without Miles . However , Kirsty does not tell Miles she is leaving and leaves him a goodbye letter . Speaking of the scenes , Hayes said " I don 't agree with what she did or how she did it but Kirsty in her warped , grieving mind thinks it 's best for everybody . " She felt that Kirsty 's actions were " horrible and selfish . " She also described her as " emotionally detached " and Miles would have tried to talk her out of leaving if he had been made aware of her departure . Viewers were not shown the full content of the goodbye letter . Hayes said it was good because she wrote a private goodbye letter to Quong Tart , and noted the personal element was best left between the two . After Miles chances of a family are again ruined , Miles loses control . He starts drinking and on one occasion he tries to kiss Leah . Producers decided to introduce a character named Rabbit ( Mitzi Ruhlmann ) , who " brings a little fun back into Miles ' life . " Though Rabbit later turns out to be his dead daughter and a figment of Miles ' imagination .
= = = Relationship with Leah Patterson @-@ Baker = = =
In 2008 , Miles and Leah develop feelings for one another . Nicodemou who plays Leah said her character becomes " freaked out " when she realises they share a connection . At this point in the series Leah was still grieving for her late husband Dan Baker ( Tim Campbell ) . Leah is so ashamed of herself she " cuts Miles off " . Nicodemou added that the characters " bonded straight away " because Miles understands Leah and has supported her when she needed help . However , Miles " cannot deny the attraction " which sends Leah further into denial . She decides she is not ready to move on , Nicodemou said this was to respect Dan 's memory . Though , she concluded that Leah sees Miles as an " old sock you just feel comfortable with . "
In January 2011 , Quong Tart revealed Miles was set to have a new love interest . The actor said he found his character 's new romance intriguing and explained Miles is " more surprised than anyone that it happens . " A few months later , the Daily Star reported Miles would confess his love to Leah , who is shocked by the declaration . Miles is left wondering whether he has ruined their friendship by revealing his feelings to her . An insider told the paper , " Miles and Leah have both been unlucky in love so if they could find happiness together it would be pretty special . Leah is shocked but once the confession starts to sink in she wonders whether they could work as a couple . She begins to consider making a go of it with him . " Nicodemou explained that Leah and Miles have tried to get together in the past , but the timing has never been right for them . She later told RTÉ TEN that she thinks Miles and Leah are well suited and hoped they find happiness with each other . Miles and Leah discuss their situation and Leah decides to take the first step and kisses Miles to see if they have any chemistry . Nicodemou said once Leah realises she and Miles have chemistry , she decides to go for it and they begin dating .
In August 2011 , Leah discovers she is pregnant . She realises that she does not want a baby as she previously had a miscarriage , which made her decide not to have children again . Of the impact the storyline would have on Miles and Leah , Nicodemou said " It 's a really interesting storyline for them . It makes everything serious because things have been quite light , so it 's good to see that side of them . There are some rocky times ahead for them because there are differences of opinion . " A week later it was announced Miles would propose to Leah in a bid to " solidify " their relationship . Miles confides in Alf Stewart ( Ray Meagher ) about his plans and Quong Tart said Alf is very excited and encourages Miles . Of Miles ' decision to propose to Leah , Quong Tart said " They 've dated for a while and they know each other so well , and I think it 's just one of those things that makes sense . "
= = = Other relationships = = =
Miles starts a relationship with Shandi Palmer ( Samantha Tolj ) , TV Week described them as a " kooky " pairing . However their relationship was short @-@ lived , lasting only a number of weeks . Quong Tart said " It came and went like every romance in his life . " Miles " couldn 't believe his luck " with Shandi because of her attractive appearance . They were compatible because she was " beachy and hippy " and like Miles enjoyed to talk about the meaning of life . Miles drunkenly sleeps with Roo Stewart ( Georgie Parker ) , the next morning she reacts badly . A Home and Away spokesperson said Miles was one of the " nicest blokes in the Bay " and felt like a humiliated " idiot " .
In various storylines Miles has taken in teenagers without homes . Jai Fernandez ( Jordan Rodrigues ) is the first to be taken into Miles ' care . Miles knew Jai from the Boxing Day Tsunami in which they both lost their families . Rodrigues said that Jai is " angry at the world " because Miles " ditched " him in Phuket . Miles tries to help Jai because he realises that he is having a tough time at the refuge . Off @-@ screen Quong Tart mentored Rodrigues to improve his acting skill . He later takes in Melody Jones ( Celeste Dodwell ) , though she makes life hard for Miles by causing chaos at the school formal and running away to Melbourne . In the latter storyline Miles and Charlie Buckton ( Esther Anderson ) travel to Melbourne to search for Melody . The episodes marked the first time the cast had filmed in Melbourne . Location shoots took place at Queen Victoria Market , Docklands Studios Melbourne and St Kilda . Anderson told Inside Soap that " It 's a nice self @-@ contained little storyline " and described it as a treat for British and Irish viewers . She added that Melody ends up on the streets and Charlie and Miles fail to locate her straightaway . The situation leaves them feeling " vulnerable " and they kiss . Anderson opined the kiss was " a rebound thing " and they feel " awkward the following morning . "
Miles lets teenagers Nicole Franklin ( Tessa James ) and Romeo Smith ( Luke Mitchell ) , and adult character Marilyn Chambers ( Emily Symons ) move in with him . Together they form a new character unit , Meagher who plays Alf praised the dynamic . He said as none of them have external relationships at the time , there was a " genuine caring for the well @-@ being of the other people in the house . "
= = Storylines = =
= = = Backstory = = =
Miles and his twin Sally initially lived together with their alcoholic father Aaron ( Timothy Walter ) and mother Diana . Aaron used to beat Diana , so she left him and took Sally with her . When Miles was eight years old , Aaron read that Diana and her new husband Derek Wilson had been killed in a boating accident . Aaron and Miles went to find Sally , but after seeing Sally was better off with the Fletcher family , they left . In the serial Sally constantly insisted her imaginary friend Milco was real , it was actually Miles she was thinking about , but no one believed Sally and her bullying foster brother Brian " Dodge " Forbes ( Kelly Dingwall ) eventually stopped her believing in him . Aaron died of alcohol @-@ related illness , so Miles became an English teacher . He married a woman called Louise and they had a daughter called Amber . They both died in the Boxing Day Tsunami whilst on holiday in Phuket . He then went on a downward spiral and became a homeless drifter .
= = = 2007 – 11 = = =
Miles turns up in Summer Bay and decides to stick around after he thinks it is a familiar setting . He has nowhere to live and is starving . Irene Roberts ( Lynne McGranger ) becomes annoyed with him for stealing food out of the bins , but Roman Harris ( Conrad Coleby ) takes pity on him and feeds him . He sees Sally on the beach and writes Milco in the sand . They later become friends and she feels like she has a close connection . He reveals his family 's death to be the reason why he became a drifter . He eventually reveals the truth to Sally , that he is Milco and her twin brother . After it sinks in she is delighted with this and they become close . Miles stays with her and one night forgets to lock the door . Johnny Cooper ( Callan Mulvey ) enters the house and stabs Sally , however she survives but he blames himself . He decides to get his life back on track and becomes an English teacher at the school . Aden Jefferies ( Todd Lasance ) initially gives him a hard time , but he is well liked after he and Ric Dalby ( Mark Furze ) arrange a leaving party for Sally , who has decided to move away . At the party Steven Matheson ( Adam Willits ) and Carly Morris ( Sharyn Hodgson ) are startled to meet the person they heard so much about whilst growing up .
Miles becomes the new owner of the caravan park . He becomes good friends with Leah and falls in love with her . She feels it is to soon after husband Dan 's death and does not feel the same , leaving him upset . Morag Bellingham ( Cornelia Frances ) then helps him track down Jai , a boy from Phuket whom he told he would help , but never did . He comes to live with Miles , their relationship is strained by Jai 's reluctance to trust him , eventually they become close . Religious Christine Jones ( Elizabeth Alexander ) later starts a campaign to have Miles removed from his job when she does not agree with his choice of book used for teaching . Morag later helps rid of Christine and saves his career . He lets Melody Jones stay with him , but she rebells and causes trouble for him with her new @-@ found bad attitude . He then has a brief relationship with Jazz Curtis ( Rachel Gordon ) .
He gives Kirsty a place to stay . They start a relationship and he falls in love with her , however he finds out she has been working as an escort to raise money for husband Kane Phillips ' ( Sam Atwell ) trial and throws her out . Melody becomes more wild and runaway from home , he tracks her down with the help of Charlie , who he shares a kiss with . He lets Melody leave to live in New Zealand with her mother . Kirsty returns with Kane who attacks him and he has to admit they were never together . After Trey Palmer ( Luke Bracey ) makes advances on Kirsty and Miles supports her , they reconcile . Trey tries to attack Kirsty , but Miles pushes him over , Miles is then under investigation for assault , later Trey drops the charges . Whilst out fishing Miles falls overboard and is nearly eaten by a shark , he discovers Lou De Bono 's ( David Roberts ) body in the process . He promises to look after Nicole after Roman is sent to prison . Miles then decides he wants to try for a baby with Kirsty , she agrees but he is angry when he sees her taking the pill . She says he thought he would leave her , he reassures her this is not the case . Kirsty starts university studying teaching . He resents her for spending time at university with her new friends , he suspects she is having affair . Upon confrontation she admits she is actually pregnant . She is unhappy about it , but agrees to keep the baby . He breaks his promise of keeping the pregnancy a secret , Kirsty starts to feel more at ease about the baby . Kirsty has a series of fits causing her to miscarry . Their relationship becomes strained and Kirsty 's mother Shelley ( Paula Forrest ) convinces her to run away to the city with her . Miles is devastated she has left and becomes withdrawn from everyone .
After VJ Patterson ( Felix Dean ) is bullied by Riley Radcliffe ( Tani Edgecombe ) he goes to see his father Ian ( Ben Simpson ) but he laughs it off . Miles is attacked and beaten and presumes it was Ian . He later finds out it was in fact Riley and his friends . He tries to drag Riley to the police station but he breaks his wrist . Miles is arrested for assault . Ian blackmails him saying he will drop the charges for money , the police find out Ian was responsible for the injuries . However the newspapers published an article on Miles branding him a thug . Miles destroys a classroom and Gina Austin ( Sonia Todd ) forces him to take leave . He starts drinking heavily again , makes a pass at Leah and sleeps on the beach . Miles begins having visions of a girl called Rabbit , who tells him about future events . She convinces him to do good deeds . Miles becomes good friends with Elijah Johnson ( Jay Laga 'aia ) and he goes to Africa with him . On his return he is assaulted by Heath Braxton ( Daniel Ewing ) . He then gets drunk and kisses Roo Stewart ( Georgie Parker ) and wakes up next to her in the morning . He later confesses his love to Leah and they start a relationship . Elijah is initially annoyed , but they repair their friendship . Leah learns she is pregnant , which delights Miles . Leah is initially hesitant about going ahead with the pregnancy , but she and Miles talk and she decides to keep the baby . Miles proposes to Leah , but she turns him down , saying they are not ready . She later asks him to move in with her and VJ . Leah suffers a miscarriage , which devastates Miles . The couple struggle with their grief and Miles moves out . He and Leah later break up . Miles learns Elijah is still in love with Leah . Miles tells Marilyn that Sally has got him a teaching job in Thailand and he leaves the Summer Bay .
= = Reception = =
For his portrayal of Miles , Quong Tart was nominated for " Best Newcomer " at the 2008 Inside Soap Awards . The following year he received a nomination for " Best Actor " . At the 2011 Inside Soap Awards he was nominated for " Best Daytime Star " . The episode where Miles conquers his fear of water to save Jai Fernandez who feigns drowning earned Writer Sean Nash an Australian Writer 's Guild award nomination for " Best Television Serial " in 2009 . The episode featuring Miles finally letting go of his visions of Rabbit won the Australian Writers ' Guild Award in the same category the following year and was presented to the episode 's writer , Sam Meikle .
The week ahead of the serial 's airing , Mark Patrick of the Sun @-@ Herald said Milko , " an imaginary friend of one of the brats " was his favorite character . Michael Idato writing for The Sydney Morning Herald said Milco being not being imaginary seemed " ludicrous " . He said that Milco being revealed to be Miles , was Home and Away delivering a " plot twist equal to the genre 's best . " He opined that Miles ' " timely " arrival softened the blow of Sally 's departure . They said it was " a tender baton change that evokes memories of the iconic ' 80s soap Sons And Daughters " Idato later said Miles and Sally 's story was an example of " strong legacy storylines " Home and Away creates .
Ruth Deller of entertainment website Lowculture placed Miles at number nine on her best characters of February 2009 list . In July 2010 , she placed Miles second on her list of best soap characters . She spoke about how " ridiculous storylines " turn out to be great onscreen and referred to Miles 's visions of Rabbit , which she went on to praise . She said " Miles 's grief , his visions of Rabbit and his torment at everyone telling him she wasn 't real were devastating to watch , and this was a really interesting avenue to take one of the soap 's best @-@ loved characters down that could have spectacularly backfired , but instead , had people bawling their eyes out . " Holy Soap have said that Miles 's most memorable moment is " When he found student Trey trying to kiss Kirsty , Miles pushed him and found his job as a teacher in jeopardy " . The website also named Miles as one their Summer Bay hunks . In 2010 , the Daily Record said that " poor old Miles " had a so many problems that " he was probably happier when everybody thought he was just sister Sally 's friend " . After Miles became involved with Shandi , they stated that true love " never ran smoothly in Summer Bay " and that with Shandi ; Miles got " a lot more than he first bargained for " . Australian television website Throng , said Miles looked completely different after Quong Tart lost weight . They said he looks " a lot older , thinner , has a new hair style and is sporting a dark beard ! "
Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail criticised Home and Away for the amount of car accidents it features . When Miles nearly crashed his car , she asked if anyone in Summer Bay is capable of " sitting atop four wheels " without nearly getting killed . Stephen was not a fan of Miles ' long hair . When he returned in 2011 , she said " we can only hope that he ’ s seen a hairdresser since his departure . " When he left the series , Sarah Ellis of Inside Soap said that Home and Away " won 't be the same without Miles ' shaggy barnet " . Laura Morgan of All About Soap said that she and her colleagues were " in mourning " over Miles ' exit . She added that they " sorely missed " him .
= Bristol Britannia =
The Bristol Type 175 Britannia was a British medium @-@ to @-@ long @-@ range airliner built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company in 1952 to fly across the British Empire . During development two prototypes were lost and the turboprop engines proved susceptible to inlet icing which delayed entry into service while solutions were sought .
By the time development was completed , " pure " jet airliners from France , United Kingdom and the United States were about to enter service , and consequently , only 85 Britannias were built before production ended in 1960 . Nevertheless , the Britannia is considered one of the landmarks in turboprop @-@ powered airliner design and was popular with passengers . It became known by the title of " The Whispering Giant " for its quiet exterior noise and smooth flying , although the passenger interior remained less tranquil .
Canadair purchased a licence to build the Britannia in Canada , adding another 72 variants . These were the stretched Canadair CL @-@ 44 / Canadair CC @-@ 106 Yukon , and the greatly modified Canadair CP @-@ 107 Argus patrol aircraft .
= = Design and development = =
= = = Origins = = =
In 1942 , during the Second World War , Allied aircraft construction saw the UK of necessity concentrating on heavy bombers , leaving the production of transport aircraft to the USA . This would have left the UK with little experience in transport construction at the end of the war , so in 1943 , a committee under Lord Brabazon of Tara investigated the future of the British civilian airliner market . The Brabazon Committee called for several different aircraft to be developed to specifications composed by the committee for roles felt to fulfil Britain 's civilian aviation needs .
Bristol won the Type I and Type III contracts , delivering their Type I design , the Bristol Brabazon in 1949 . The requirement for the 1946 British Overseas Airways Corporation ( BOAC ) Medium Range Empire ( MRE ) Requirements coincided with the Type III , Specification C.2 / 47 , issued in April 1947 by the Minister of Supply . The specifications called for an airliner capable of carrying 48 passengers and powered with Bristol Centaurus radial engines or Napier Nomad turbo @-@ compound diesel engine . Turboprop options were also considered , but they were so new that Bristol could not guarantee the performance specifications .
Although in @-@ company Proposals " X " for conversions of Lockheed Constellations to Centaurus 662 powerplants or " Y " for licence production of the Constellation were considered in late 1946 , BOAC decided that an entirely new design was preferred . After wrangling between the Ministry of Supply and BOAC over costs , the go @-@ ahead for the project assigned the company designation Model 175 was given in July 1948 . Three prototypes were ordered as Mk 1 ( Centaurus 662 ) , with the second and third prototypes designated the Mk 2 ( to be convertible to Bristol Proteus turboprops , then under development ) .
In October 1947 , with work already underway , Bristol had settled on a Centaurus @-@ powered design , with an all @-@ up weight of 103 @,@ 000 lb ( 47 @,@ 000 kg ) and a payload of 13 @,@ 300 lb ( 6 @,@ 000 kg ) . The anticipated Karachi @-@ Cairo run necessitated a 48 @-@ seat limit with a requirement for sufficient fuel for the lengthy stage . On 5 July 1949 , the Ministry of Supply ordered five prototypes to this specification with the understanding that BOAC would contract for an additional 25 production examples . BOAC purchased options for 25 aircraft on 28 July , to be powered initially with the Bristol Centaurus engine but to be re @-@ fitted with the Bristol Proteus when available . In November 1948 , the Type 175 design was revised again to accommodate 74 passengers and a longer span wing in a contemplated long @-@ range version aimed at long @-@ haul Empire and transatlantic routes rather than the medium @-@ haul Empire routes originally planned . On reflection , BOAC decided that only a Proteus @-@ engined aircraft was worth working on , necessitating a further redesign with Bristol eliminating the Centaurus option . Senior figures within BOAC such as the Deputy Chairman Whitney Straight , however , considered the Proteus engine to be " an obsolete contraption " . Despite BOAC 's desire to have a turboprop engine , the Type 175 project was contingent on the Proteus passing a 150 @-@ hour Type Test .
= = = Prototypes and production = = =
The name , " Britannia " was chosen in April 1950 with Britannia 101 the designation for first two prototypes powered by the early series Proteus 625 , the follow @-@ up from the 600 series engine that had successfully completed its type trials . The first prototype , registered G @-@ ALBO , with Bristol Chief Test Pilot A.J. " Bill " Pegg at the controls , flew for the first time on 16 August 1952 at Filton Aerodrome . The maiden flight was eventful as the over @-@ sensitive flying controls led to a wild pitching before Pegg restored control . During the landing approach , smoke filled the cockpit and the main undercarriage bogie was stuck in its cycle , only fully deploying seconds before landing . The " snags " proved to be minor and by September , the prototype was cleared to perform at the 1952 SBAC Display at Farnborough where spectators commented on the " quietness " of the giant airliner . In November 1952 , Popular Science reported that by 1954 BOAC would have 25 of these aircraft on routes such as London @-@ to @-@ Tokyo over the Arctic and North Pole . However , in 1953 and 1954 , three de Havilland Comets crashed without explanation , and the Air Ministry demanded the Britannia undergo lengthy tests . Further delays were attributed to teething problems with the engine resulting in the loss in December 1953 of the second prototype , G @-@ ALRX , caused by a failed reduction gear that led to an engine fire and the aircraft landing on the mudflats of the Severn Estuary . Resolving easily avoidable inlet icing issues - by selecting a slightly different cruising height than that specified - which were exaggerated by BOAC destroying the Britannia 's sales prospects and delaying the Britannia 's introduction by two years , also took time . The first prototype G @-@ ALBO was subsequently modified to more closely approximate a production standard but was retained by the company to undergo engine testing and development .
Bristol revised the design into a larger transatlantic airliner for BOAC , resulting in the Series 200 and 300 , with the Britannia 300LR ( Long @-@ Range ) seen as " eminently suitable " for BOAC 's services between London and Sydney . Qantas had been considering purchasing a fleet of Britannia aircraft , but the extended development time had worn away the advantage the aircraft would hold until newer aircraft such as the Douglas DC @-@ 8 and de Havilland Comet 4 came onto the market . Route @-@ proving trials continued through 1955 , although orders were on the books from El Al and Canadian Pacific Air Lines as well as BOAC 's standing order .
The purchase price paid by BOAC for each Britannia 100 @-@ series aircraft agreed on in 1955 was £ 768 @,@ 000 .
During the first eight months of operational trials , a total of 16 in @-@ flight engine failures and 49 unscheduled engine changes punctuated the ongoing engine dilemma and delayed the in @-@ service date until February 1957 , roughly two years late . The Britannia received a fair amount of attention in both the popular press and the British House of Commons , especially when it was revealed that BOAC had contemplated fitting Rolls @-@ Royce Tynes to their fleet of Douglas DC @-@ 7s as an interim measure until the Britannia was cleared for service .
Aviation historian Peter Pigott summarised the impact of the delays :
= = = Related development = = =
In 1954 , a licence was issued to Canadair to build the derivative Canadair CL @-@ 28 / CP @-@ 107 Argus , and the Canadair CL @-@ 44 / Canadair CC @-@ 106 Yukon . Based on the Britannia , the design of the Argus maritime patrol and anti @-@ submarine warfare aircraft was optimised for endurance on long @-@ range patrol , not speed , and used four Wright R @-@ 3350 @-@ 32W Turbo @-@ Compound engines that used less fuel at low altitude . Unlike its Britannia forebear , the Argus was a hybrid using the Britannia wings , tail surfaces and landing gear matched to a " purpose @-@ built " , unpressurised fuselage . Another significant departure was being " Americanized " , substituting North American materials and standard parts for the British ones . The interior was well equipped with the tools to conduct anti @-@ submarine warfare : navigation , communication and tactical electronic equipment along with weapon loads that included bombs , torpedoes , mines and depth charges . A total of 33 Argus aircraft were built in two series ( Mk 1 and Mk 2 ) , serving the Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) and Canadian Forces from 1957 to 1982 .
Canadair also built 37 turboprop Rolls Royce Tyne @-@ powered CL @-@ 44 passenger / cargo variants for the civil market , most of which were used as freighters . Four were built as CL @-@ 44Js with lengthened fuselages for service with the Icelandic " budget " airline Loftleiðir . Four CL @-@ 44D4s were also built with swing @-@ tails to allow straight @-@ in cargo loading and served with a variety of carriers , most notably Flying Tiger Line . The similar CC @-@ 106 Yukon was used by the RCAF in a solely passenger configuration . A final unique " one @-@ off " development was the Conroy Skymonster , nicknamed Guppy , based on a Canadair CL @-@ 44D4 N447T . The most prominent modification was an enlarged fuselage , like the Mini Guppy which was produced by Jack Conroy 's previous company , Aero Spacelines . After a long operational career as a freighter , the Guppy was stored at Bournemouth Airport in 2003 and has recently been sold .
= = Operational history = =
Following a long period of uneventful development flying trials and the fitting of a modified Proteus 765 series engine that greatly reduced breakdowns , a full Certificate of Airworthiness was awarded at the end of 1955 . The first two Model 102s were delivered to BOAC on 30 December 1955 for crew training . The Model 102 began scheduled service on 1 February 1957 with a BOAC flight from London to Johannesburg , flights to Sydney following in March and to Tokyo in July . By August 1957 , the first 15 Model 102 aircraft had been delivered to BOAC . The last 10 aircraft of the order were built as Series 300 aircraft for transatlantic flights . In April 1959 , a Model 102 Britannia was leased by BOAC to Ghana Airways for flights between Accra and London , and several more Britannias were purchased by the airline in the early 1960s . The Model 102 was eventually made available to other BOAC associates , including Cathay Pacific , Central Africa , East African , Nigeria and Malayan airlines .
The next production series was based on the long @-@ range , mixed passenger / freight Model 200 series that was intended for civil airline use but ultimately Bristol offered the series to the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) instead . The production series of three Model 252 and 20 Model 253 aircraft were purchased by RAF Transport Command in 1959 , assigned the designation Britannia C.2 ( first Model 252 series ) and C.1 ( Model 253 series ) . Those in RAF service were allocated the names of stars , such as " Arcturus " , " Sirius " and " Vega " . On retirement from the RAF in 1975 , many Model 200 series were subsequently used by independent civil operators for cargo operations , harkening back to their original intended role .
Although the Bristol Model 302 was built first as part of the original BOAC order , BOAC released this series to other airlines ; Aeronaves de Mexico took two Model 302s which entered service in December 1957 . The 18 Bristol Britannia 312s for BOAC were delivered from September 1957 with its service introduction on the first @-@ ever non @-@ stop flight from London to Canada on 19 December 1957 . In late December 1957 BOAC began regular Britannia flights from London to New York . Other airlines , such as Israel 's El Al , used the Britannia on transatlantic routes . In 1959 BOAC started flying the Britannia across the Pacific to Tokyo and Hong Kong , thus extending their network round the world . The westbound routing in 1959 for these intercontinental BOAC Britannia flights between the U.K. and Asia was London @-@ New York @-@ San Francisco @-@ Honolulu @-@ Wake Island @-@ Tokyo @-@ Hong Kong .
On 1 April 1958 Canadian Pacific Air Lines took delivery of the first of six Model 314 Britannias , with an additional two Model 324s ( built to a 320 standard ) arriving later and sold to Cathay Pacific in 1961 . BOAC ordered seven Model 302s but never took delivery , instead they were taken on by airlines including Aeronaves de México and Ghana Airways . The main long @-@ range series were the 310s , of which BOAC took 18 and , after deliveries began in September 1957 , put them into service between London and New York ; in March 1964 BOAC owned 50 aircraft , 10 being Britannia 312s . BOAC 's last scheduled Britannia flight was April 1965 .
The 310 series ( the Model 318 ) also saw transatlantic service with Cubana de Aviación starting in 1958 , in spite of the Cuban Revolution the airline had a special accord with British aircraft manufacturers to maintain this model of aircraft . In 1975 Cuban Britannias were used to transport hundreds of soldiers of the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces to Angola in Operation Carlota , a proxy war . Cubana de Aviación continued using various Britannias until March 1990 .
Most aircraft were built by Bristol at Filton but 30 were built at Belfast by Short Brothers and Harland . Due to the extended development instead of a projected production of 180 Britannias , only 80 were sold . The negative experience with the development of the Britannia caused BOAC to be more cautious towards other British @-@ made aircraft such as the Vickers VC @-@ 10 . Throughout the Britannia 's lifespan , the engine icing condition remained a " continual potential hazard " that flight crews ultimately learned to manage with a " high @-@ lo " flight regime that minimized the danger , although the problems of the Britannia can mainly be linked to that of a manufacturer undertaking an innovative airframe design matched to an unproven engine , a design syndrome that remained particularly daunting . Squadron Leader David Berry who had 5 @,@ 000 hours on the type characterised his experiences as flying " Beauty and the Beast . " A more fitting epitaph was recently proffered by the editors of Aeroplane as the " 100 Great British Aircraft " ( 2008 ) were analysed with the Bristol Britannia counted among the " greats " .
Following purchase of remaining spare parts from Royal Aircraft Establishment and Cubana , Zaïrois airlines continued to operate Bristol Britannia into the early 1990s on regular cargo flights from N 'djili Airport to various destinations within the country .
= = Variants = =
= = = Bristol Model 175 = = =
Mk 1
Prototype powered by Bristol Centaurus 662 , fuselage length of 114 ft ( 35m ) , span 120 ft ( 36 @.@ 5 m ) , seating for 48 passengers , not built
Mk 2
Two prototypes powered by either Bristol Centaurus 662 or Bristol Proteus 600 ; with the Proteus , the fuselage length of 114 ft ( 35m ) was fitted with a longer wingspan 140 ft ( 43 m ) and reduced seating for 36 passengers , two prototypes planned , none built .
= = = Series 100 = = =
Seventy @-@ four passenger airliner with 114 ft ( 35m ) fuselage and powered by four Bristol Proteus 705
101
Prototypes , two initially powered by Proteus 625 and soon after re @-@ engined with the Proteus 755 , later the first prototype G @-@ ALBO was used for development testing of the Bristol Orion in 1956 and the Proteus 765 in 1957 .
102
Production aircraft for BOAC , 25 ordered with the last 10 cancelled in favour of the 300 series , 15 built .
= = = Series 200 = = =
All cargo variant with a 124 ft 3 in ( 38 m ) fuselage , BOAC option for five was cancelled , none built .
= = = Series 250 = = =
Similar to the 200 series , but mixed passenger and freight .
252
Originally ordered by the Ministry of Supply for intended lease to charter operators , but delivered to the Royal Air Force , as the Britannia C2 . Fitted with a heavy @-@ duty floor in forward area of fuselage and cargo door , three built .
253
Passenger / freight variant for the Royal Air Force , designated Britannia C1 . Fitted with full length heavy @-@ duty floor and provision for rearwards @-@ facing seats as preferred by the RAF . Capacity for 115 troops or equivalent in cargo , 20 built . Aircraft later sold on the civil market as freighters designated Series 253F .
= = = Series 300 = = =
Passenger only " stretched " version of the 200 series , incorporating 123 inches ( 3 @.@ 1 m ) longer fuselage , capable of carrying up to 139 ( originally 99 ) passengers , medium @-@ fuel capacity .
301
One Filton @-@ built company prototype , used the same wing and fuel capacity of the Model 100 ; first flew : 31 July 1956 .
302
Belfast @-@ built production , 10 ordered by BOAC but cancelled in favour of 305 ; seven were begun to this standard with two delivered to Aeronaves de Mexico .
305
Five Belfast @-@ built 302s modified for longer @-@ range but with limited takeoff weight due to thinner fuselage skin and lighter landing gear . Originally ordered by Capital Airlines which were cancelled and then for Northeast Airlines which also cancelled . All modified to other variants .
306
One former Series 305 leased to El Al pending delivery of last Series 315 . Later converted to Series 307 .
307
Two of the ex @-@ BOAC Northeast 305 order ( one formerly the El AL Series 307 ) to Air Charter Limited September 1958 and March 1959 , with a new designation : Model 307 . Later to British United Airways .
307F
1960 's conversion of 307 to freighter ( both converted ) .
308
Two former 305s ordered by Transcontinental SA of Argentina in 104 @-@ passenger configuration .
308F
1960 's conversion of 308 to freighter for British Eagle ( both converted ) .
309
One former 305 ( leased to Ghana Airways ) .
= = = Series 310 = = =
As 305 series , but with strengthened fuselage skin and undercarriage . Long @-@ range fuel capacity and was originally known as 300LR .
311
One prototype originally known as a 300LR .
312
Production aircraft for BOAC , 18 built .
312F
1960s conversion of 312 to freighter ( five converted ) .
313
Production aircraft for El Al , four built .
314
Production aircraft for Canadian Pacific Air Lines , six built .
317
Production aircraft for Hunting @-@ Clan Air Transport in 124 passenger trooping configuration , two built .
318
Production aircraft for Cubana de Aviación , four built . Delivery taking place on 15 December 1958 , later one leased to Cunard Eagle in 1960 – 1961 and this same airliner leased to CSA in 1962 .
319
Last production Britannia sold to Ghana Airways , modified from original Model 310 / 311 series .
320
Variant for North American market , order for Trans World Airlines not concluded , two built were completed as Series 324s .
324
Two Series 320s built for Canadian Pacific Air Lines , later purchased by Cunard Eagle Airways in 1961 .
= = Operators = =
= = = Civilian operators = = =
Argentina
Aerotransportes Entre Rios
Transcontinental | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
SA
Australia
Southern Cross International ( leased )
Belgium
Young Cargo
Burundi
Centre Air Afrique
Canada
Canadian Pacific Air Lines
Cuba
Aerocaribbean
Cubana de Aviación
Czechoslovakia
CSA leased two aircraft from Cubana de Aviación ( 1961 – 1964 and 1963 – 1969 ) .
Dubai
Air Faisal
Ghana
Ghana Airways
Gemini Air Transport
Indonesia
Indonesian Ankasa Civil Air Transport
Ireland
Aer Turas
Interconair
Israel
El Al - An El Al Bristol Britannia was used by Israel to fly Adolf Eichmann out of Argentina after his kidnap in 1960 .
Kenya
African Cargo Airlines
African Safari Airways
Liberia
Liberia World Airways
Mexico
Aeronaves de México
Spain
Air Spain
Switzerland
Globe Air operated two former El Al 313s between 1964 and 1967 .
United Arab Emirates
Gaylan Air Cargo ( United Arab Emirates )
United Kingdom
Air Charter
BKS Air Transport
BOAC
Britannia Airways
British Eagle
British United Airways
Caledonian Airways
Cathay Pacific
Cunard Eagle Airways
Donaldson International Airways
Hunting @-@ Clan Air Transport
International Air Services
Invicta International Airlines
Lloyd International Airways
Monarch Airlines
Redcoat Air Cargo
Transglobe Airways
Zaire
Domaine de Katale
Katale Air Transport
Lukum Air Services
Transair Cargo
= = = Military operators = = =
United Kingdom
Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment
Royal Air Force
No. 99 Squadron RAF
No. 511 Squadron RAF
Cuba
Cuban Air Force
= = Accidents and incidents = =
Fourteen Britannias were lost with a total of 365 fatalities between 1954 and 1980 . The worst accident was the 1967 Nicosia Britannia disaster with a loss of life totalling 126 .
On 4 February 1954 , the second Britannia prototype crashed at Severn Beach , Gloucestershire . During the test flight , beginning with a loss of oil pressure , the No. 3 engine was shut down and restarted with a fire breaking out that could not be contained , consequently , No. 4 was shut down as a precaution . On approach to Filton Airport , there was concern that the uncontrolled fire would lead to a failure of the main spar , the pilot , William " Bill " Pegg , electing to make an emergency landing on the mudflats of the Severn Estuary . There were no fatalities .
On 6 November 1957 , the 300 series prototype crashed during a test flight , killing the 15 occupants .
On 24 December 1958 , a BOAC Britannia 312 on a test flight crashed at Winkton , killing nine of the passengers and crew on board .
On 12 October 1967 , " Sirius " a Royal Air Force C1 was damaged beyond repair after over @-@ running the runway at RAF Khormaksar , Aden .
On 22 July 1962 , a Canadian Pacific Air Lines Flight 301 a Britannia 314 was destroyed during an attempted " go @-@ around " following a three @-@ engined approach at Honolulu Airport , Hawaii .
On 29 February 1964 , British Eagle International Airlines Flight 802 crashed into the Glungezer mountain near Innsbruck killing all 83 people aboard .
On 1 September 1966 , a Britannia Airways Flight 105 crashed while landing at Ljubljana , Yugoslavia , resulting in a total of 98 fatalities out of 117 passengers and crew . The probable cause was the flight crew having failed to set their altimeter to QFE instead of QNH , creating a 980 feet ( 300 m ) error in indicated altitude .
On 20 April 1967 , a Globe Air Britannia 313 was on a flight from Bangkok to Basel with intermediate stops at Colombo , Mumbai ( Bombay ) and Cairo . The crew didn 't fly to Cairo , but elected to fly to Nicosia instead , where a missed approach and subsequent low circuit ended in impact near the airport perimeter .
On 30 September 1977 , an Interconair Britannia 253G was on a ferry flight , on approach to Shannon Airport severe vibration was experienced at an height of 300 feet . The approach to runway 24 was abandoned and an overshoot was commenced . The aircraft continued to sink and collided with the ground short and to the right of the runway . The Britannia aircraft bounced , the right wing broke off . The aircraft then skidded and caught fire .
On 16 February 1980 , a Britannia 253F of Redcoat Air Cargo crashed at Billerica , Massachusetts , shortly after taking off from Boston . The probable cause of the accident was degraded aerodynamic performance beyond the flight capabilities of the aircraft resulting from an accumulation of ice and snow on the airframe before takeoff and a further accumulation of ice when the aircraft was flown into moderate to severe icing conditions following takeoff . Contributing to the cause of the accident were encounters with wind shear , downdrafts , and turbulence during the climb . Of eight crew and passengers on board , there were seven fatalities with one seriously injured .
= = Survivors = =
Britannia 101 ( G @-@ ALRX )
Forward fuselage is with the Bristol Aero Collection This is the second prototype aircraft , destroyed in the Severn Estuary crash .
Britannia 308F ( G @-@ ANCF )
Removed from Kemble , and reassembled in early 2007 in Liverpool , England . Under restoration on the former airside apron behind the Crowne Plaza Liverpool John Lennon Airport Hotel , which was the original terminal building of Liverpool Speke Airport .
Britannia 312 ( G @-@ AOVF )
On display at the Royal Air Force Museum , RAF Cosford , England , in Royal Air Force Air Support Command colours as XM497 " Schedar " .
Britannia 312F ( G @-@ AOVS )
Derelict fuselage on the fire training dump at London Luton Airport , Luton , England , in Redcoat Air Cargo colours as G @-@ AOVS " Christian " . Is visible from the Wigmore Valley Park playing fields .
Britannia 312 ( G @-@ AOVT )
On display at the Imperial War Museum Duxford , England , in Monarch Airlines colours .
Britannia C.1 ( XM496 ) Regulus
On display at Kemble Airfield , England , in RAF colours .
Britannia 307F ( 5Y @-@ AYR )
Cockpit preserved in Burnham on Sea , Somerset , England .
= = Notable appearances in media = =
An Aeronaves de Mexico Model 302 Britannia was the aircraft in the 1959 movie Jet Over the Atlantic ; the audience is informed that the aircraft is a turboprop .
= = Specifications ( Series 310 ) = =
Data from Britannia ... Last of the Bristol Line
General characteristics
Crew : 4 @-@ 7
Capacity : 139 passengers ( coach class )
Length : 124 ft 3 in ( 37 @.@ 88 m )
Wingspan : 142 ft 3 in ( 43 @.@ 36 m )
Height : 37 ft 6 in ( 11 @.@ 43 m )
Wing area : 2 @,@ 075 ft ² ( 192 @.@ 8 m ² )
Empty weight : 86 @,@ 400 lb ( 38 @,@ 500 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 185 @,@ 000 lb ( 84 @,@ 000 kg )
Powerplant : 4 × Bristol Proteus 765 turboprops , 4 @,@ 450 ehp ( 3 @,@ 320 kW ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 397 mph ( 345 knots , 639 km / h )
Cruise speed : 357 mph ( 310 kn , 575 km / h ) at 22 @,@ 000 ft ( 6 @,@ 700 m )
Range : 4 @,@ 430 mi ( 3 @,@ 852 nmi , 7 @,@ 129 km )
Service ceiling : 24 @,@ 000 ft ( 7 @,@ 300 m )
Avionics
EKCO E120 weather radar
= Tales ( series ) =
The Tales series , known in Japan as the Tales of series ( 「 テイルズ オブ 」 シリーズ , " Teiruzu Obu " Shirīzu ) , is a franchise of fantasy Japanese role @-@ playing video games published by Bandai Namco Entertainment ( formerly Namco ) , and developed by its subsidiary , Namco Tales Studio until 2011 and presently by Bandai Namco . First begun in 1995 with the development and release of Tales of Phantasia for the Super Famicom , the series currently spans sixteen main titles , multiple spin @-@ off games and supplementary media in the form of manga series , anime series , and audio dramas .
While entries in the series generally stand independent of each other with different characters and stories , they are commonly linked by their gameplay , themes and high fantasy settings . The series is characterized by its art style , which draws from Japanese manga and anime , and its action @-@ based fighting system called the " Linear Motion Battle System " . Multiple people have become linked with the series , including character designers Kōsuke Fujishima and Mutsumi Inomata , producers Hideo Baba and Makoto Yoshizumi , and composer Motoi Sakuraba . The series was created by Yoshiharu Gotanda .
Most of the main Tales games have been localized for North America and Europe , although almost all of the spinoff titles have not been released abroad . While generally seen as a niche series in English speaking regions , Tales is considered a high @-@ profile property in Japan , just behind other series such as Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest . The series has been gaining popularity in the West since the release of Tales of Symphonia , which is still considered one of its most popular titles . As of December 2013 , the series has sold 16 million units worldwide .
= = Titles = =
= = = Games = = =
Since the first installment was released in 1995 , the Tales series has grown to include the main entries and multiple spin @-@ offs that derive multiple gameplay and narrative elements from the main entries . Except when indicated by naming , the main Tales entries are separate from each other apart from gameplay mechanics and themes . While Tales titles are often ported to new consoles after their original release , these remakes are rarely localized . The 2007 Nintendo DS game Tales of the Tempest was originally seen as a main entry in the series , but in 2007 was classified as a spin @-@ off .
= = = = Main series = = = =
The series debuted on the Super Famicom with Tales of Phantasia in 1995 , and introduced multiple elements that would become staples of the Tales series . It was released in the west on the Game Boy Advance in 2006 . It was also ported to the PlayStation , PlayStation Portable and iOS . The PlayStation received two original Tales games : Tales of Destiny in 1997 , which was the first title to be released in North America , and Tales of Eternia in 2000 , which was released in North America as Tales of Destiny 2 in 2001 .
Five titles have been released on the PlayStation 2 . The true direct sequel to Destiny , Tales of Destiny 2 , was released on the PlayStation 2 in 2001 across Asian territories , and ported to the PlayStation Portable in Japan in 2007 ; both versions have yet to receive a western release . Tales of Symphonia was released in Japan on the PS2 and Nintendo GameCube . The GameCube version was also released North America and Europe . It was the first entry to feature 3D graphics for its characters and environments and the first to be released in Europe . Tales of Rebirth was released in 2004 , ported to the PlayStation Portable in 2008 , and has yet to receive a western localization . Tales of Legendia and Tales of the Abyss were both released in Japan in 2005 , with both being released in North America the following year . Legendia was the first and only Tales game developed by Namco internal development team " Project Melfes " , while Abyss was developed by the same team that developed Symphonia , and used its same graphics engine . Abyss was later ported to the Nintendo 3DS , and released in Japan , North America and Europe .
Tales of Innocence was released in Japan on the Nintendo DS in 2007 . A remake of the game , Innocence R was released on the PlayStation Vita in 2012 . Neither version has been released in the west . The first release on seventh @-@ generation consoles , Tales of Vesperia for Xbox 360 , was released in Japan and North America in 2008 and in Europe in 2009 . A Japan @-@ exclusive PlayStation 3 port was released in 2009 as well . Tales of Hearts was released on the Nintendo DS in 2008 . A remake , Hearts R , was released in 2013 in Japan and 2014 in North America and Europe .
The twelfth entry , Tales of Graces , released on the Wii in Japan in 2009 . A PlayStation 3 port , Graces f , was released in 2009 in Japan , and in 2012 in North America and Europe . Tales of Xillia , the series ' 15th anniversary title , was released in Japan for PlayStation 3 in 2011 , and in North America and Europe in 2013 . Xillia 's direct sequel and the fourteenth main title , Tales of Xillia 2 , was released in 2012 in Japan and 2014 in North America and Europe . The fifteenth main title , Tales of Zestiria , was released in January 2015 in Japan and it was released in North America on October 20 , 2015 . The sixteenth main title , Tales of Berseria , is in production for PS3 and PlayStation 4 .
= = = = Sequels and spin @-@ offs = = = =
The series has received a small number of sequels , and a large amount of spin @-@ off titles and subseries . With the exception of Tempest , worked on by multiple staff from the main series and treated a precursor to Innocence , they are derivative rather than original works . Three direct sequels have been produced : Destiny 2 , Xillia 2 and Tales of Symphonia : Dawn of the New World . Eternia received an MMORPG spin @-@ off for PC platforms titled Tales of Eternia Online . Multiple crossover games have been made for mobile platforms , including Tales of Link , the Tales of Mobile series , Tales of Card Evolve , Tales of Kizna and Tales of Asteria . Two titles for the PlayStation Portable have been released in Japan : Tales of VS. in 2009 , and Tales of the Heroes : Twin Brave in 2012 . The main spin @-@ off subseries is Tales of the World , which has grown to include ten games beginning with Tales of Phantasia : Narikiri Dungeon , released in Japan on the Game Boy Color in 2000 . Only Tales of the World : Radiant Mythology has been released in the west . A second subseries , Tales of Fandom , includes two games released respectively for the PlayStation and PlayStation 2 in 2002 and 2007 .
= = = Related media = = =
The Tales series has expanded into other media , including CD dramas , manga and anime . Multiple Tales games have been adapted into anime OAVs and TV series . The Symphonia OAV was released in three parts between 2007 and 2011 , and released as a single collection in 2013 . Abyss was adapted into a 26 @-@ episode TV series between October 2008 and March 2009 . Phantasia and Eternia have also received anime adaptations . The series ' first theatrical film , a prequel to Vesperia called Tales of Vesperia : The First Strike , was released in 2009 in Japan and 2012 in North America . A made @-@ for @-@ television anime based on the opening sections of Zestiria , Dawn of the Shepard , was produced as part of the 20th anniversary celebrations related to the title . It was also released on the game disc . A full series based on Zestiria will air in 2016 .
Books and audio dramas have also been made . Phantasia received multiple CD dramas , including four collected into anthologies in January and March 2000 @.@ and a stand @-@ alone drama in December 2001 . Symphonia received seven audio dramas following the game 's plot . Two CD dramas for Legendia were respectively released in August and September 2005 . A manga of Phantasia was written and serialized in 2008 and 2009 , while Abyss received three manga adaptations in the years after its release . Symphonia was adapted in both novelizations and a manga serial . Others to receive adaptations of these kinds are Destiny , Graces and Xillia .
= = Common elements = =
= = = Gameplay = = =
The Tales series is classified as a role @-@ playing video game series . Multiple gameplay elements carry over from entry to entry . The main unifying element is the combat system , the Linear Motion Battle System ( LMBS for short ) . Considered as one of the mainstays and building blocks for every main entry in the series , it undergoes multiple incremental changes and alterations from one installment to the next . Introduced in Phantasia , it is a real @-@ time fighting system similar to a brawler , as opposed to the majority of RPGs at the time of Phantasia 's release which primarily used turn @-@ based battle systems .
Some features introduced in certain games have proven popular enough to remain in future installments like " Free Running " ( the ability for a character to freely roam the battlefield ) . Elements of turn @-@ based combat are also present , though to a lesser degree : an example of this is Destiny 's " Chain Capacity " feature ( the number of skills a character can perform ) , which appears in later games in the series . The battle system for Legendia was deliberately designed to be similar to a brawler : the stated reason was that the team wished to combine brawler combat with the story and leveling mechanics of a Tales game . Characters generally use Artes , which are special attacks characters can perform in battle . Players can usually only control one character , though a multiplayer option was implemented for Destiny and has reappeared in later Tales games .
The battle system 's name for each installment is augmented with descriptive titles representative of features of that game 's battle system : examples are the " Style Shift " system from Graces ( characters shifting between two types of Artes ) and the " Fusionic @-@ Chain " system from Zestiria ( a human character merging with a magical character for a brief period to deal greater damage ) . Characters are awarded with " Titles " , nicknames which sometimes grant boons to them in battle when assigned to them . In the majority of Tales games , when navigating the overworld or environment and encountering an enemy , combat took place on a separate battle screen . For Zestiria , combat took place in the same space as exploration .
Most Tales games have skits , side conversations between different characters that can be both dramatic and comedic in nature . They are commonly portrayed as character portraits or profiles , with text along the bottom of the screen . They were first introduced in Tales of Destiny , though the majority were cut from the English release . In the original English GameCube release of Symphonia , the voice track for the skits was removed , but for its HD re @-@ release , the Japanese voice track , and consequently the skit voice tracks , were included . The first English release to include fully voiced skits was Vesperia : they had been planned for Abyss , but were cut due to space issues . Another recurring feature is the Cooking system , where characters learn and prepare dishes to restore health and forms of experience points .
= = = Themes , plots and characters = = =
The prominent narrative theme of the Tales series is the issue of coexistence between different races . A particular example of this is Tales of Rebirth , which extensively explores themes of racism . Scenario writer Hiramatsu Masaki was inspired by the ethnic conflicts seen in Yugoslavia . Another recurring feature is the plot and characters , which are often rooted in and revolve around themes such as justice or faith . The theme for each entry in the series is decided by the series producer based on current world events . The chosen theme helps dictate what the game will be called : once the theme is decided , the team search through various languages to find a suitable representative word . The narratives of each story were described by Gamasutra as " very typical " during a 2008 interview with staff members , although it was not elaborated upon by the interviewer . The interviewees suggested that this point of view was based on the fact that western fans were not generally experienced in Japanese culture , and so would see the stories in each entry as similar . The writers for each game are hired on a per @-@ project basis , with both freelancers and in @-@ house story writers being involved . Two of the recurring writers are Takumi Miyajima ( Symphonia and Abyss ) , and Naoki Yamamoto ( Hearts , Xillia , Zestiria ) . There are very few mainline games that share a setting : Symphonia takes place along the same " time axis " as Phantasia , while Zestiria and Berseria take place on the same world at different time periods .
The settings for the stories are primarily high fantasy worlds , with the producers opting not to use a dark or science fiction @-@ based setting . An exception is Xillia 2 , which mostly took place in a modern setting , and explored darker themes than usual . This direction was confirmed as a one @-@ off experiment for the series . The main characters play a key role in the Tales games , as it is partially through them that the main theme of each entry is depicted . For Abyss , it was decided to take a risk and create an unorthodox protagonist that would be initially unlikable . For Vesperia , the team opted to raise the age limit of the target audience , showing this in the game by making the main protagonist a more mature type . A female main protagonist was included for the first time in Xillia in the form of Milla Maxwell alongside male protagonist Jude Mathis , although at the time it was stated that there were no solid plans to create a game with a single female protagonist . A sole female character , called Velvet , was eventually included in Berseria . The way the characters interact with each other during the narrative forms one of the core aspects of designing each game . Another main priority is for players to see a part of themselves in the characters .
= = = Terminology = = =
Unique terminology is used when referring to games within the series . In 2007 , Yoshizumi announced two classes of Tales games , " Mothership Titles " and " Escort Titles " . " Mothership " essentially means " Main series " , where as " Escort " essentially means " Spinoff " . One of the recurring differences between the two game types internally is that " Escort " titles don 't supply inspiration for main entries in the series , but draw the most popular elements from them . The games are also frequently given what is called a " Characteristic Genre Name " , which is essentially a short subtitle or phrase that outlines the game 's overall theme . The main reason for this , as stated by Yoshizumi , was that the series was not seen as a role @-@ playing series by the development team , but rather " Character Playing Game " , with the player learning about the game 's characters and watching them grow rather than using them as avatars : the genre names are meant to distinguish them from other role @-@ playing games . The terms , however , are largely removed from the English localized versions . There are also terms that are used in remakes or ports of games : " R " stands for " remake " or " Re @-@ imagination " ( as in Hearts R ) , while " F " in Graces f stood for " future " , in reference to the game 's extra story content .
= = Development = =
= = = History = = =
The Tales series originated when Phantasia began production , based on an unpublished novel titled Tale Phantasia ( テイルファンタジア , Teiru Fantajia ) , written by the game 's scenario writer and lead programmer Yoshiharu Gotanda . During the story development process , several elements of the original novel were dropped or changed . The game was developed by Wolf Team , an independent game development studio founded in 1986 . Due to bad experiences at Telenet Japan , the previous employer of multiple Wolf Team members , the staff sought an independent publisher for the game . After an unsuccessful pitch to Enix , they entered a publishing contract with Bandai Namco ( then Namco ) . Phantasia had a troubled development cycle for the original Super Famicom version , with many creative disagreements between Wolf Team and Namco . The disagreements led to most of the Wolf Team staff leaving after the game in order to start a new company , tri @-@ Ace , which would go on to make the Star Ocean series . Remaining members would continue to develop games in the Tales series .
The studio remained independent until 2003 , when it was acquired by Bandai Namco and renamed Namco Tales Studio . The studio 's shares were divided between Bandai Namco , Telenet Japan and series director Eiji Kikuchi . In 2006 , Namco bought Telenet 's shares , then later Kikuchi 's , giving them full control over the studio . In mid 2011 , a financial report indicated that Namco Tales was in serious financial trouble , having a debt of 21 million dollars and posting a loss for the previous financial year . The studio 's absorption into its parent company was formally announced in November of that year . After the absorption of Namco Tales , former series brand manager Hideo Baba was appointed as series producer . He had previously been the producer of the original version of Hearts . Alongside Baba , the chief series producer is Makoto Yoshizumi , who had produced multiple titles including Destiny and Innocence .
= = = Art design = = =
The series is distinguished by its art style , which emulates manga and anime . According to Baba , the character designs are created once the main character 's story , personality , and environment are determined by the rest of the production team . Beyond that , the artist is allowed to use their imagination , though they can be asked to alter things like costume details , and facial expressions . One of the main designers for the series is manga artist Kōsuke Fujishima . He was first brought in to design the characters for Phantasia , and has since designed for multiple entries including Abyss and Xillia . Another designer , Mutsumi Inomata , first designed for the series with Destiny , and has contributed designs for multiple entries including Eternia , Rebirth and Xillia . A third regular artist is Daigo Okumura , who designed characters for Vesperia and Xillia 2 , as well as Dawn of the New World . Other designers to work on the series include Kazuto Nakazawa ( Legendia ) , Kouichi Kimura ( Xillia 2 ) , and Minoru Iwamoto ( Zestiria ) . The art design for each game 's world and characters has ranged between a cel @-@ shaded anime style ( Vesperia ) to a more realistic style ( Xillia 2 ) . Skit character images are also directly inspired by anime art . The art style for each title is determined by the theme and story decided upon by the developers .
Anime cutscenes are included in each game , and are a primary focus for the production team as they help make the first impression on players . The series aims to avoid standard anime tropes and common narrative elements with each installment . The first game to feature such cutscenes was Destiny . The cutscenes were animated by Production I.G , which has provided cutscenes for the series until Xillia . For Xillia , aiming to demonstrate a new artistic direction for the series , production of the anime cutscenes was given to Ufotable . For the Nintendo DS release of Hearts , two identical versions of the game were released as an experiment by the production team , with one featuring traditional anime animation by Production I.G. , and one featuring computer @-@ generated cutscenes by Shirogumi Ltd . The CGI cutscenes proved less popular with fans than the established anime style .
= = = Technology and development teams = = =
The engines for the games are generally developed in @-@ house : the cited reasons for this included problems with outsourced development . Until Vesperia , the team worked on a by @-@ project basis , creating new development tools and engines for each installment . Due to cost increases , the development process was altered and streamlined as more user @-@ friendly software engines became available . The studio was divided into two teams : Team Destiny worked on 2D Tales titles such as Tales of Destiny , while Team Symphonia developed 3D titles . In @-@ house , major distinctions were made between the two studios except for some core staff Namco Tales produced the majority of the mainline Tales games until its absorption in 2011 . The notable exceptions are Legendia , which was developed by an internal staff group at Bandai Namco , and Innocence , which was developed by Alfa System . Alfa System also developed many of the portable spin @-@ off titles . After the absorption of Namco Tales by Bandai Namco , the teams and staff transferred to the new in @-@ house development studio called Bandai Namco Studios . The size of the teams was reduced and the previous studio 's main divisions were merged . This allowed production to be streamlined , but also meant that the team could only focus on one game at a time , rather than working on two games simultaneously as they had done before .
= = = Music = = =
The regular main composer for the Tales series is Motoi Sakuraba . His first work on the series was for Phantasia , and has since contributed to nearly every main entry since there in the capacity of a freelance composer . Sakuraba has become noted for his signature musical style , which is present in the majority of his Tales scores . He also frequently collaborates with Shinji Tamura . The entries Sakuraba has not worked on are Legendia , which was composed by Go Shiina , an in @-@ house composer , and Innocence , whose composer was Kazuhiro Nakamura . Sakuraba and Shiina had collaborated on the score for Zestiria . Multiple titles in the series use licensed theme songs by multiple Japanese artists : among the artists are Garnat Crow ( Eternia ) , Deen ( Destiny / Hearts ) , Kokia ( Innocence ) and Ayumi Hamasaki ( Xillia / Xillia 2 ) . One recurring aspect of many earlier localizations was the removal of the Japanese theme song , such as with Symphonia , which had its theme song replaced with an orchestral version . The first western release of a Tales title to feature the theme song used in Japan was Vesperia .
= = = Localization = = =
Multiple Tales titles , the majority of which are spin @-@ offs , have not been localized for the west or have only been released in North America : two examples of the former case for entries in the main series are Rebirth and Innocence , while an example of the latter is Legendia . Speaking in 2013 , Baba explained that the main priority for localizations was for the main series rather than spin @-@ offs . In addition to this , he stated that their localization team was limited and they needed to " pick and choose " which game to bring to the west . For its western release , Eternia 's name was changed to " Destiny 2 " : this was due to a possible trademark conflict and the wish to exploit the popularity of Destiny . The 2006 PSP port of Eternia retained its original title . With Zestiria , Bandai Namco planned to attempt releasing the game in the west in the same year it was released in Japan . The deciding factor in this resolution was the delayed release of Xillia and its sequel , and the reaction of western fans to this . Fan localizations have also been created , such as for the original versions of Phantasia and Innocence . While the option of the Japanese voice tracks have been heavily requested for western releases by fans , licensing issues have mostly prevented Bandai Namco from implementing it . Localization for mobile titles is also a low priority due to them being co @-@ developed by Japan @-@ based mobile developers .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The series has generally sold well during its lifetime . The series ' strongest sales base has been Japan : in 2007 , sales distribution was 87 % in Japan , 8 % in North America , 3 % in Europe and 2 % in mainland Asia . The best @-@ selling titles of the series at the time were Symphonia ( 953 @,@ 000 copies for the GameCube , 486 @,@ 000 for PlayStation 2 ) , Destiny ( 1 @.@ 1 million copies for PlayStation ) , Xillia ( 1 million copies for PlayStation 3 ) and Destiny 2 ( 977 @,@ 000 copies for PlayStation 2 ) . The sales data did not include mobile and online games . The success of entries has also been linked with the consoles they are released on : Vesperia 's release on the Xbox 360 caused the console to sell out for the first time in Japan , while Namco decided to release Zestiria on the PlayStation 3 due to the low sales prospects for next @-@ gen consoles in their target audience . As of December 2013 , the series has shipped 16 million units worldwide across 100 different countries .
While keeping a lower profile in English @-@ speaking regions , in Japan , it is regarded as one of the biggest role @-@ playing video game series . 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish , speaking in 2001 , referred to it as the third biggest RPG series in Japan behind Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest . Gamasutra 's Brandon Sheffield echoed these sentiments , stating that " While the series doesn 't have quite the cultural cache of Final Fantasy in the West or Dragon Quest in Japan , it 's still a very popular brand worldwide " . IGN 's Anoop Gantayat additionally referred to it as the third biggest Japanese role @-@ playing series in regards to sales . Multiple entries in the series , notably Destiny and Legendia have been favorably compared with fighting games and brawlers , especially the Street Fighter series . GameTrailers ranked the Linear Motion Battle System , with particular reference to Graces , as one of the top five JRPG battle systems . Their stories and characters have generally received a more mixed response from western critics : opinions on entries such as Legendia , Abyss , Xillia were mixed to positive , while others such as Symphonia , Graces and Xillia 2 were criticized . The main criticism for these games and Legendia was that the story was either predictable or cliché . The in @-@ game graphics have also drawn mixed responses for several games in the series , including Destiny , Eternia , Graces and Xillia .
In 2013 , leading up to the release of Tales of Symphonia Chronicles , Baba called Symphonia the most successful title in the series in the west thus far , although the series ' main target audience was still in Japan . In an earlier interview , Baba commented that the team behind the series put a large amount of effort and development in keeping the series fresh while retaining the base elements across each installment . The positive reaction of gamers in the US to Symphonia influenced the way the various teams developed titles after that point . Speaking in 2014 , production manager Denis Lee said that , since Symphonia 's release , the popularity of the series has grown . In response , Bandai Namco have focused on getting more entries out in western territories . Much of their research about what titles to release or develop in the future revolves around direct conversation with Tales series fans at gaming conventions and special events .
= Zimbabwe women 's national field hockey team at the 1980 Summer Olympics =
The 1980 Zimbabwe women 's national field hockey team won the gold medal in women 's field hockey at that year 's Summer Olympics in Moscow , the capital of the Soviet Union . The squad of 16 women , all from Zimbabwe 's white minority , was assembled less than a month before the Olympics began to help fill the gaps the American @-@ led Olympic boycott created in the women 's hockey competition . Zimbabwe 's subsequent victory in the round @-@ robin tournament with three wins and two draws was regarded as a huge upset , particularly considering the team 's lack of preparation and experience ; it has been called an " irresistible fairy story " . Won at a time of great political transition in Zimbabwe , the gold medal was the country 's first Olympic medal of any colour .
The 1980 Olympics were first to feature women 's hockey , and the first to include Zimbabwe under that name — barred from the last three Olympics for political reasons , the country had last competed as Rhodesia in 1964 . The women 's hockey matches , held between 25 and 31 July , were all played on artificial turf , which none of the Zimbabwean team members had ever seen ; they had also never played together until that month . After beating Poland and the USSR and drawing with Czechoslovakia and India , the Zimbabweans won the competition on the final day with a 4 – 1 victory over Austria . Dubbed the " Golden Girls " by the media of Zimbabwe , they were met by cheering crowds on their return home , and were briefly national celebrities . Zimbabwe did not win another Olympic medal until 2004 .
= = Invitation and team selection = =
The 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow , the capital of the Soviet Union , were the first to include a competition in women 's field hockey . Pre @-@ tournament favourites included Australia , the Netherlands and West Germany , but the American @-@ led Western boycott of the Moscow Olympics led to these teams and others withdrawing , leaving only the Soviets in the women 's hockey event . The Soviet and international Olympic authorities filled the gaps by inviting teams from countries that had not qualified . Among the nations invited was Zimbabwe , which had become an internationally recognised country in April 1980 following seven years of civil war . Moscow marked the southern African nation 's return to the Olympics after 16 years ; as Rhodesia it had been excluded from the 1968 , 1972 and 1976 Games for political reasons following the mostly white government 's declaration of independence from Britain in 1965 . The Zimbabwe Olympic Committee received the invitation to send men 's and women 's hockey squads to Moscow on 14 June 1980 , 35 days before the Olympics were due to start . They were taken totally by surprise — they had not prepared hockey teams for the Games — but nevertheless agreed to send a women 's squad . No women 's hockey team representing the country had ever played overseas before .
A squad of 16 members , built around the core of the former Rhodesia team , was hastily assembled by Liz Dreyer , the president of the national women 's hockey association , who became the team 's manager . Every player and official was white . Ann Grant , the team 's 25 @-@ year @-@ old sweeper , was appointed captain . Anthea Stewart , who had played for South Africa 25 times before retiring in 1974 , both coached the squad and played herself . Liz Chase , the only other team member with international experience ( having also represented South Africa ) was made vice @-@ captain . At 35 years old , Stewart was the team 's oldest player , while Arlene Boxall , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old reserve goalkeeper , was the youngest . The squad included twin sisters in Sandy Chick and Sonia Robertson .
Entirely amateur , the team mostly comprised players with professions unrelated to sport — Grant , for example , was a bookkeeper , while Boxall was an operations clerk in the Air Force of Zimbabwe . Several had sporting relatives , most prominently Grant , whose brother was the international cricketer Duncan Fletcher . Audrey Palmer , a seasoned hockey official and referee who had played for Rhodesia from 1953 to 1961 , travelled with the team as a medic , trainer and general supervisor . The squad left on 7 July , travelling first to the Zambian capital Lusaka and then to Luanda in Angola , from where they flew to Moscow on an aircraft usually used for freighting meat . " The stench was terrible " , Grant later said . " There were no seats , so we all sat on the floor , strapped in and set off into the unknown . We didn 't even have the right shoes to play on the artificial hockey surface . "
= = Tournament = =
The event was organised as a round @-@ robin tournament in which each of the six teams would play each other once between 25 and 31 July . Two points were awarded for a win and one for a draw ; the team with the most points at the end would be the winner . The other competitors were Austria , Czechoslovakia , India , Poland and the USSR ; apart from the Soviets , all of these teams were competing as a result of the boycott , having failed to qualify initially . All of the matches were played at Dynamo Minor Arena in Moscow . Zimbabwe arrived two weeks before the hockey tournament was due to start , and warmed up with a number of matches against local teams . The players ' lack of preparation and unfamiliarity with artificial turf — " none of us had ever seen it before " , Chick recalled — were offset by what several members of the squad have described as a very strong team spirit . They considered themselves serious underdogs and did not expect to win a medal .
Zimbabwe played in the first women 's Olympic hockey match , facing Poland on 25 July . Pat McKillop scored the first goal to put Zimbabwe ahead before Pat Davies , Linda Watson and Chase each added one more to round off a 4 – 0 victory . On 27 July , Zimbabwe and Czechoslovakia drew 2 – 2 ; McKillop and Chase scored . The next day , the Zimbabweans beat the Soviets 2 – 0 , McKillop scoring both goals . A 1 – 1 draw with India on 30 July put Zimbabwe in first place before the final round of matches on the 31st . Zimbabwe had to beat Austria to be sure of winning the gold .
Stewart declared the team 's first @-@ choice white @-@ and @-@ blue outfit " lucky " on the basis that both Zimbabwe 's victories had been won wearing it ( as opposed to the two draws wearing green ) , and expressed joy that they would again be wearing white and blue in the deciding match . According to Glen Byrom , covering the event for the Herald newspaper , the Zimbabweans appeared nervous during the opening stages of the game , and were fortunate not to go behind after 15 minutes , when Austria missed a clear chance . Chick opened the scoring after 28 minutes , receiving the ball from a corner before cleanly stroking it into the net . Austria 's Brigitte Kindler equalised two minutes later from a penalty stroke , flicking the ball beyond Zimbabwean goalkeeper Sarah English into the top @-@ left corner of the goal . With the score 1 – 1 at half time , Brenda Phillips replaced Christine Prinsloo at right @-@ half .
Urged on by a small but loud group of fellow Zimbabwean Olympians , the Zimbabweans improved after the break and , according to Byrom , " ke [ pt ] the Austrian goal under siege " throughout the second half . With 50 of the match 's 70 minutes gone , McKillop powerfully stroked a short corner that deflected off an opposing player 's stick and flew high into the net to give Zimbabwe the lead . Now appearing supremely confident , Byrom reported , the Zimbabweans " simply overran Austria with a splendid display of fast , attacking hockey " , forcing eight short corners and four long corners during the second period to Austria 's one long corner . Gillian Cowley made it 3 – 1 on 60 minutes , following up to score after Sandy Chick 's free hit was blocked . McKillop rounded up the win four minutes later , collecting a through pass from Chase and smashing the ball home . Byrom reported " incredible scenes of unrestrained joy " at the final buzzer — " the Zimbabweans , tears streaming from their eyes , danced about the field hugging and kissing each other " . Finally they hoisted Grant onto their shoulders and carried her off the field .
A few hours later , the Zimbabwean players returned to the field wearing their blue skirts and blue Zimbabwe Olympic blazers for the medals ceremony . After the third @-@ placed Soviets and second @-@ placed Czechoslovakians had received their medals , Grant led the team up to the podium to receive the first ever Olympic gold medal for women 's hockey . It was their country 's first Olympic medal of any colour . All 16 players received medals ; they then led the Czechoslovakian and Soviet teams on a walking lap of honour around the field .
Zimbabwe finished the tournament undefeated , having scored the most goals and conceded the fewest of any team . The six goals from Pat McKillop , a housewife from Bulawayo , made her the competition 's joint top scorer with the USSR 's Natella Krasnikova . Chase , despite nursing a knee injury , played in all five matches and scored three goals . All of the Zimbabwean squad members played at least one match except for Boxall , who never came off the bench , but still received a gold medal .
= = Reactions and legacy = =
The victorious hockey players were immediately dubbed the " Golden Girls " by Zimbabwean reporters . They were greeted by huge crowds on their return to Zimbabwe and briefly became national celebrities . Prime Minister Robert Mugabe welcomed them home at an official function . Each member of the team was promised an ox by the Prime Minister 's wife Sally , but ultimately received a polystyrene package of meat instead at a ceremony hosted by Mrs Mugabe . Many of the players emigrated over the following years , mostly to South Africa . Their victory continues to be celebrated in Zimbabwe today . The country did not win another Olympic medal until Kirsty Coventry won three swimming medals in Athens in 2004 . Robert Mugabe promptly applied the " golden girl " nickname to her on her return home .
The Zimbabwean hockey team 's victory at the 1980 Olympics was widely considered a great upset . Sports historians have called it a " fairytale " and an " irresistible fairy story " . While the Zimbabweans were overjoyed by their unlikely status as the first ever Olympic gold medallists in women 's hockey , some , including Robert Sullivan of Sports Illustrated , felt that the Zimbabwean victory epitomised how the Western boycott had lowered competitive standards and , in their opinion , " ruined " the 1980 Olympics . While acknowledging this to an extent , Cathy Harris asserted in her 2008 retrospective on the team , published in The Sunday Times , that the victory still deserved to be recognised as a great achievement . " They freely acknowledge that they won the gold medal without competing against the best in the world " , she concludes , " but , like many athletes in Moscow in 1980 , they seized their chance . "
= Air Greenland =
Air Greenland A / S is the flag carrier airline of Greenland , a subsidiary of the SAS Group , owned by the SAS Group , The Greenlandic Government and The Danish Government . It operates a fleet of 32 aircraft , including 1 airliner used for transatlantic and charter flights , 9 fixed @-@ wing aircraft primarily serving the domestic network , and 22 helicopters feeding passengers from the smaller communities into the domestic airport network . Flights to heliports in the remote settlements are operated on contract with the government of Greenland .
Founded in 1960 as Grønlandsfly , the airline started its first services with Catalina water planes and within the decade expanded to include DHC @-@ 3 Otters as well as Sikorsky S @-@ 61 helicopters , some of which remain in active service . The majority of operations were based on helicopters until the newly established Greenland Home Rule began investing in a network of short takeoff and landing airfields . These were very expensive to construct and Greenland 's airport fees are still among the highest in the world ; they also required a new fleet : DHC @-@ 7 turboprops uniquely suited to the harsh terrain and weather conditions in Greenland . The reliability of connections improved as the domestic airport network expanded in the 1990s : increasing use of the Dash 7s made the airline less restricted by inclement weather . In the late 1990s and early 2000s , Air Greenland acquired a Boeing 757 and an Airbus A330 , allowing it to open connections to Copenhagen , until then operated by SAS which also competed mid to late 2000s . In the 21st century , it competes with Air Iceland for international connections and small charter services domestically .
Besides running scheduled services and government @-@ contracted flights to most villages in the country , the airline also supports remote research stations , provides charter services for tourists and Greenland 's energy and mineral @-@ resource industries , and permits medivac during emergencies . Air Greenland has seven subsidiaries , an airline , hotels , tour operators , a travel agency specialized in Greenlandic tourism and the Arctic Umiaq Line , an unprofitable but government @-@ subsidized ferry service .
= = History = =
= = = 1960s = = =
The airline was established on 7 November 1960 as Grønlandsfly A / S by the Scandinavian Airlines System ( now SAS ) and Kryolitselskabet Øresund , a Danish mining company involved with the cryolite operations at Ivittuut to provide transport and logistics for four American radar bases in Greenland . In 1962 , interests in the firm were acquired by the Provincial Council ( now the Greenland Home Rule Government ) and the Royal Greenland Trade Department ( now KNI ) .
The first flights serving the American bases in Greenland operated lightweight DHC @-@ 3 Otters and Sikorsky S @-@ 55 helicopters chartered from Canada . After a crash in 1961 , Grønlandsfly used PBY Catalina water planes and DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otters on domestic routes . One of the Catalinas then crashed in 1962 . In 1965 , the Douglas DC @-@ 4 became the line 's first larger airplane . It was followed by Sikorsky S @-@ 61 helicopters , which have remained in use : in 2010 , they still served the communities of Kujalleq municipality in southern Greenland year @-@ round and those of Disko Bay during the winter .
= = = 1970s = = =
During the 1970s , Grønlandsfly upgraded its DC @-@ 4 to the newer DC @-@ 6 , but principally focused on expanding its helicopter fleet , purchasing five more S @-@ 61s . By 1972 , it opened up service to east Greenland with a helicopter based in Tasiilaq , and established Greenlandair Charter . Mining at Maamorilik in the Uummannaq Fjord required still more helicopters , and the airline purchased Bell 206s for the route . Grønlandsfly also picked up a Danish government contract to fly reconnaissance missions regarding the sea ice around Greenland .
By the end of 1979 , the number of Grønlandsfly passengers served annually exceeded 60 @,@ 000 , more than the population of Greenland . That year , the airline 's first international route was also opened , running between Greenland 's capital Nuuk and the town of Iqaluit in northern Canada . The route connected Greenland 's Kalaallit with Canada 's Inuit and was operated in conjunction with the Canadian First Air line , but the planes were generally run empty and the route was shuttered 13 years later .
= = = 1980s = = =
The establishment of the Greenland Home Rule Government in 1979 led to investment in a regional network of true airports , with short take @-@ off and landing ( STOL ) airfields constructed in Nuuk , Ilulissat ( 1984 ) , and Kulusuk . ( These early airports were built without de @-@ icing equipment , a situation which has proven problematic during Greenland 's winters and continues to cause delays and losses for the airline . ) The decade also saw the company train and hire its first native Kalaallit pilots .
To service the enlarged network , Grønlandsfly began acquiring DHC @-@ 7s , planes particularly suited to the often severe weather conditions in Greenland . The first was delivered on 29 September 1979 , followed by more over the next decade . These planes remain in active service , serving every airport except Nerlerit Inaat near Ittoqqortoormiit , whose operation is handled by Air Iceland under contract with Greenland Home Rule .
In 1981 , Grønlandsfly opened its first route to Iceland , linking Reykjavík Airport to its main hub at Kangerlussuaq via Kulusuk . In 1986 , a route to Keflavík allowed the company to break SAS 's monopoly on flights between Greenland and Denmark via a Keflavík @-@ Copenhagen leg operated by Icelandair . By 1989 , the airline employed more than 400 Greenlanders and carried more than 100 @,@ 000 passengers annually .
= = = 1990s = = =
The company saw its activity curtailed as the mines at Ivittuut ( 1987 ) and Maamorilik ( 1990 ) closed operation , leading to a recession in the Greenlandic economy .
As the situation improved , the network of regional STOL airports was extended with Sisimiut Airport , Maniitsoq Airport , and Aasiaat Airport built in mid @-@ western Greenland and Qaarsut Airport and Upernavik Airport built in northwestern Greenland . With the purchase of a fifth Dash 7 , Grønlandsfly was – for the first time since its inception – able to provide plane services to all major towns in Greenland . ( Uummannaq is served by Qaarsut Airport in conjunction with its heliport . )
Grønlandsfly also purchased its first jet aircraft , a Boeing 757 – 200 which began operation in May 1998 . The airliner was named Kunuunnguaq in honor of the Greenlandic explorer and ethnologist Knud Rasmussen , whose bust decorates in the terminal of Kangerlussuaq hub . The airliner allowed the company to run the profitable Kangerlussuaq – Copenhagen route directly , without affiliates or a layover in Iceland . Thus , in 1999 , the airline served 282 @,@ 000 passengers , nearly triple the number at the end of the previous decade .
= = = 2000s = = =
Around the turn of the millennium , the airline renewed its aging fleet , retiring several of its S @-@ 61 and 206 helicopters and replacing them with Bell 212s and Eurocopter AS350s . The company also sacked its CEO Peter Fich , who had proven unable to balance Greenland Home Rule 's demands for local Greenlander service with the board 's for expanded tourism , lower fares , and higher profits . Under his replacement Finn Øelund , Grønlandsfly initially posted a DKK 30 million loss as contractual obligations maintained unprofitable service while a strike ruined the summer tourist season and Post Greenland relocated a lucrative mail contract to the Danish @-@ owned Air Alpha Greenland . In response , the company successfully pushed back against Greenland Home Rule 's large demands , high fees , and low subsidies and rebranded itself , anglicizing its name to Air Greenland and adopting a new logo and livery on 18 April 2002 .
In 2003 , Finn Øelund left to head Maersk Air and was replaced as CEO by Flemming Knudson . Air Greenland opened a route from Copenhagen to Akureyri in Iceland ; the service lasted for six years before finally being deemed unprofitable and ended . Also in 2003 , SAS abandoned its Greenland service , leading Air Greenland to purchase its second airliner , an Airbus A330 @-@ 200 named Norsaq . ( SAS briefly revived the service during the peak season in 2007 before dropping it again in January 2009 . ) Owing to SAS 's withdrawal from the market , Air Greenland received its contract with the U.S. Air Force for passenger service to and from Thule Air Base . Running from February 2004 , the contract was renewed for another five @-@ year period in 2008 despite SAS 's brief return to the market .
The first takeover of another airline took place on 28 July 2006 : Air Greenland acquired the Danish carrier Air Alpha 's Greenland subsidiary . Air Alpha Greenland had operated helicopter flights in Disko Bay and in eastern Greenland . Since the takeover , the acquired Bell 222 helicopters have been used for passenger transfers between Nerlerit Inaat Airport and Ittoqqortoormiit Heliport .
In 2007 , Flemming Knudson was moved to head the Royal Greenland fishing concern and current CEO Michael Binzer was hired with a mandate to lead the company towards greater commercialization and self @-@ sufficiency under the Qarsoq 2012 ( " Arrow 2012 " ) plan . On 13 June , SAS announced its intention to sell its stake in Air Greenland , a move later incorporated into its restructuring program , but as of 2012 it has not found any buyers . On 1 October , the airline introduced its e @-@ ticket system . Also in 2007 , Air Greenland began direct service with Baltimore / Washington International Airport in the United States of America . After sixty American visitors were stranded by a strike of Air Greenland employees and the company refused to make alternate arrangements for their return , ticket sales slumped and the route was closed in March 2008 .
In 2009 , the airline carried 399 @,@ 000 passengers .
= = = 2010s = = =
In the 2010s , Air Greenland has curtailed some services . On 1 January 2010 , Air Greenland suspended its participation in SAS 's EuroBonus frequent @-@ flyer program . In 2011 , nonstop service from Narsarsuaq to Copenhagen was suspended .
However , some expansion is planned . In order to compete with Air Iceland , which operates service from Reykjavik Airport to Nuuk , Narsarsuaq , Ilulissat , and the east coast of Greenland and now controls about 15 % the market in Greenland @-@ bound travel , Air Greenland may open a nonstop route between Nuuk and Keflavík International Airport in Iceland . Also , owing to improved technology and higher commodity prices , the Maarmorilik mines were due to reopen in November 2010 with zinc and iron ore reserves projected to last 50 years . As in the 1970s , the mine 's supply flights to the mine will be operated by Air Greenland , using Bell helicopters ( 212s ) based out of the Uummannaq Heliport .
Air Greenland 's last remaining Twin Otter was sold in 2011 to Norlandair in exchange for cash and a one @-@ fourth interest in the Icelandic company .
Reopening the connection to Iqaluit , now the capital of Nunavut , was considered by Air Greenland in late 2009 , but finally happened in 2012 . However , this service ceased in 2015 .
= = Destinations = =
Air Greenland 's domestic airport network includes all 13 civilian airports within Greenland . Outside Greenland , the airline currently operates transatlantic flights to Keflavík International Airport in Iceland , Copenhagen Airport in Denmark , and Iqaluit Airport in Canada .
Two international airports capable of serving large airliners – Kangerlussuaq Airport and Narsarsuaq Airport – were constructed as U.S. Air Force military bases during World War II and continue to be used for transatlantic flights . All other regional airports are STOL @-@ capable and are served with Dash 7 and Dash 8 fixed @-@ wing aircraft .
Smaller communities are served via heliports which connect with hubs located at Upernavik Airport in the Upernavik Archipelago in northwestern Greenland ; at Uummannaq Heliport in the Uummannaq Fjord region in northwestern Greenland ; at Ilulissat and Aasiaat Airports in the Disko Bay region in western Greenland ; at Qaqortoq and Nanortalik Heliports in southern Greenland ; and at Tasiilaq Heliport in southeastern Greenland . Of the 45 heliports in use , 8 are primary and equipt with a tarmac , a terminal building , and permanent staff . The other heliports are helistops with either a gravel or grass landing area . Often helicopters need to make more than one flight for each connection to a fixed @-@ wing flight because of passenger capacity , causing longer total travel time .
Air Greenland also performs charter flights within Europe on behalf of European travel agencies using its Airbus A330 .
= = = Interline agreements = = =
The agreement makes it again possible to combine a trip , in one ticket .
Air Greenland has interline agreements with the following airlines :
DAT ( Denmark )
Icelandair ( International )
SAS ( Scandinavia / Europe / International )
= = Fleet = =
As of April 2015 , the Air Greenland fleet includes the following active aircraft :
= = = Fixed @-@ wing fleet = = =
The Bombardier Dash 8 Q200 is the airline 's primary aircraft , operating on all domestic airport @-@ to @-@ airport routes . In 2010 , the airline acquired its first Dash 8 aircraft .
As of 5 March 2015 there are one outstanding aircraft order , with the airline operating the following fleet :
= = = Helicopter fleet = = =
The Bell 212 is the primary helicopter used for flights to district villages . The older Sikorsky S @-@ 61N machines are stationed in Ilulissat Airport and Qaqortoq Heliport . With a capacity to seat 25 passengers , the S @-@ 61 based in southern Greenland was used to shuttle passengers arriving from Copenhagen at Narsarsuaq Airport . The sale of the Boeing 757 in April 2010 contributed to the long @-@ term decline of the airport , with the airline planning to remove the old helicopter from the fleet . Three of the Bell 222 helicopters are taken out of active service and remain stationed in Kangerlussuaq Airport having been put up for sale .
= = = Historical Fleet = = =
In the past , Air Greenland ( Grønlandsfly ) also used the following aircraft :
= = Management and structure = =
The Greenlandic Government and the SAS Group are the largest shareholders of the airline , owning a 37 @.@ 5 % stake each . The Danish Government owns the remaining 25 % of the stock . The Ministry of Housing , Infrastructure , and Transport oversees the development of the transport industry in Greenland and controls Mittarfeqarfiit , the airport authority in Greenland . Between them , they control mandatory services , airport taxes , pricing policies , maritime connections , and tourism development , effectively allowing Greenland Home Rule to control the company in spite of the other stakeholders .
The board of directors , chaired by Julia Pars of Greenland Home Rule , includes representatives of all three shareholders and the airline employees . Michael Binzer , previously heading the airline 's marketing and sales department , has been holding the position of chief executive officer since June 2007 .
Headquartered in Nuuk , the airline had 668 employees in December 2009 . The airline 's technical base is located at Nuuk Airport .
= = = Charter = = =
The charter unit within Air Greenland is led by Hans Peter Hansen and employs 8 people , with 13 helicopters and 3 fixed @-@ wing aircraft at its disposal . Excess capacity of airplanes is used for regular charters to tourist destinations in Europe , Asia , and Africa .
The helicopters , primarily the AS350 , are used for special flights , such as search and rescue , air ambulance , charter flights to the Thule Air Base on contract with the U.S. Air Force , geological exploration , and supply flights to the mining sites and the research stations on the Greenland ice sheet . During the peak summer season , the helicopter crew is supplemented by freelance pilots from Norway and Sweden .
Other charter flights include heliskiing shuttles , services for the energy industry such as facilitating oil exploration or surveying for hydroelectric stations , and environmental research counting polar bears and tracking other large Arctic fauna .
= = = Subsidiary companies = = =
= = = = Arctic Umiaq Line = = = =
Air Greenland co @-@ owns the Arctic Umiaq Line jointly ( 50 % each ) with Royal Arctic , Greenland 's government @-@ owned shipping line . Arctic Umiaq runs the ferry M / S Sarfaq Ittuk among Greenland 's coastal communities from Ilulissat in the north to Narsaq in the south .
The ferry has been unprofitable since its founding in 2006 , but Greenland Home Rule provided the owners with a loss guarantee through 2011 , allowing the subsidiary to break even . The deficit was DKK 8 @.@ 1 million for 2011 and , on 16 March 2010 , Air Greenland announced plans to divest its stock . Greenland Home Rule avoided this by undertaking to continue the guarantee at least through 2016 .
= = = = Tourism = = = =
Air Greenland wholly owns Hotel Arctic A / S , a hotel and travel agency based in Ilulissat . Hotel Arctic in turn partially owns World of Greenland , an outfitter company also based in Ilulissat . The airline also owns Greenland Travel , a package @-@ tour travel agency based in Copenhagen .
= = Service = =
= = = In @-@ flight service = = =
= = = = Economy class = = = =
Air Greenland offers flexible and restricted economy class on all flights operated with fixed @-@ wing aircraft , with complimentary snacks and drinks . On transatlantic flights to Copenhagen , both economy class and business class seats are available , with in @-@ flight meals served in all classes . Air Greenland publishes a quarterly Suluk ( Kalaallisut : " Wing " ) in @-@ flight magazine , with general information about current political and cultural events in Greenland and with news from the airline .
= = = = Business class = = = =
A flexible business class – named " Business @-@ Class " – is offered by Air Greenland on transatlantic flights aboard Norsaq , its Airbus A330 @-@ 200 . The service includes a personal video screen , an in @-@ seat power source , an amenity kit , blankets , and a selection of newspapers . Passengers travelling on this class are eligible to use the Novia Business Class Lounge at Copenhagen Airport .
= = = Settlement flights = = =
Air Greenland operates helicopter flights to most settlements in Greenland ( " settlement flights " ) on contract with the government of Greenland , with the destination network subsidized and coordinated by the Ministry of Housing , Infrastructure , and Transport . Settlement flights are not featured in the company 's timetable , although they can be pre @-@ booked .
Departure times for these flights as specified during booking are by definition approximate , with the settlement service optimized on the fly depending on local demand for a given day . Settlement flights in the Disko Bay region are unique in that they are operated only during winter and spring . During summer and autumn , transportation between settlements is only by sea , with services operated by Diskoline , a government @-@ contracted ferry service based in Ilulissat .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 29 August 1961 , a DHC @-@ 3 Otter ( registration CF @-@ MEX ) crashed 20 kilometers ( 12 mi ) from Kangerlussuaq . The aircraft was a non @-@ scheduled service en route from Kangerlussuaq Airport to Aasiaat Airport when a fuel leak caused an in @-@ flight fire . One of the pilots was killed , while the other pilot and the four passengers survived .
On 12 May 1962 , a PBY Catalina flying boat ( registration CF @-@ IHA ) crashed during landing at Nuuk Airport . The accident was caused by a mechanical malfunction in the nose wheel doors preventing them from closing during landing on water , resulting in the aircraft sinking . The accident killed 15 of the 21 people on board .
On 25 October 1973 , the Akigssek ( " Grouse " ) , an Air Greenland S @-@ 61N ( registration OY @-@ HAI ) , crashed about 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) south of Nuuk , resulting in the loss of 15 lives . It was en route to Paamiut from Nuuk . The same helicopter had had an emergency landing on the Kangerlussuaq fjord 2 years earlier , due to a double flameout on both engines because of ice in its intake .
On 7 June 2008 , a Eurocopter AS350 crashed on the runway at Nuuk Airport . There were no injuries , but the helicopter was damaged beyond repair .
On 29 January 2014 , the Paartoq an Air Greenland Dash 8 @-@ Q202 ( registration OY @-@ GRI ) , was involved in a runway excursion accident at Ilulissat Airport ( BGJN ) , Greenland . Flight GL3205 originated in Kangerlussuaq Airport ( BGSF ) , Greenland. four passengers were taken to the hospital for observation , there were no fatalities or serious injuries . Evidence available so far indicates that the airplane landed on runway 07 at the time of the accident . It then went off the left side of the runway . It then went down a 10 – 15 m dropoff and came to rest on rocky terrain approximately abeam the runway 25 threshold . The weather at the time of the incident was reported : Wind 110 degrees at 29 knots , gusting at 40 knots
= Murali Kartik =
Murali Kartik ( Tamil : முரளி கார ் த ் திக ் pronunciation , born 11 September 1976 ) is an Indian cricketer who sporadically represented the India national cricket team from 2000 to 2007 . He is a specialist slow left arm orthodox bowler known for his loopy trajectory and ability to spin and bounce , but has found international selection blocked during his prime years by the presence of Anil Kumble and Harbhajan Singh . He is also a left @-@ handed batsman , and although he has had some success with the bat at first @-@ class level with 19 half @-@ centuries , he has not been able to repeat this at international level .
After starting out in the Delhi junior system , Kartik moved through the age group ranks at Railways , was selected for the Indian Under @-@ 19 team . He made his first @-@ class debut in 1996 – 97 and after a few productive seasons at domestic level , made his Test debut in early @-@ 2000 as Kumble 's bowling partner . However , he ran into disciplinary problems and was expelled from the National Cricket Academy in the same year , while new national captain Sourav Ganguly was reluctant to entrust him with responsibility . Ganguly called for off spinner Harbhajan to be recalled in 2001 , and was rewarded with a series @-@ winning performance against Australia . This entrenched the off spinner in the team and left Kartik on the outer .
For the next four years , Kartik was on the fringes of selection . He made his ODI debut in 2002 and had a short stint before being dropped and missing the 2003 Cricket World Cup because of mediocre performance . He was recalled in late @-@ 2003 for limited overs matches and played in around half of India 's matches for a six @-@ month period , as well as one Test after Harbhajan suffered a serious injury . In late @-@ 2004 Kartik played in three Tests as India fielded three spinners , and claimed his only man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match award in Tests against Australia in Mumbai , but was again dropped two matches later . In late @-@ 2005 , Kartik became a regular member of the ODI team for a few months when the International Cricket Council introduced an experimental rule that allowed one substitute to be used , opening an extra vacancy in the national team . However , Kartik was unable to secure his position in the team and the rule was later revoked . In late @-@ 2007 , Kartik broke back into the ODI team and took 6 / 27 in one victory over Australia , but lost form soon after and was again dropped . He has not represented India since then . Aside from domestic cricket , Kartik plays for Royal Challengers Bangalore in the Indian Premier League and has been in demand in English county cricket as an overseas player , representing Lancashire , Middlesex , Somerset and Surrey .
= = Early years = =
Born in chennai Murali Karthik wanted to be a genetic engineer , he was a medium pacer in his early years , before switching to a left arm finger spinner in the classical mould , Kartik grew up trying to emulate past Indian orthodox spinners Bishen Singh Bedi , Maninder Singh and Venkatapathy Raju . He also garnered attention for what was perceived to be a fiery attitude , but took pride in coach Kapil Dev saying of him " I have never seen a player with such an attitude towards the game in my 20 years of international cricket " .
Kartik started out in the junior system at Delhi . He broke into their Under @-@ 16 team in December 1992 , and took a match total of 10 / 74 on debut against Himachal Pradesh , as well as scoring 52 not out in an innings victory . He took 2 / 91 in the next match against Haryana , but could no longer play in the Under @-@ 16s because of his advancing age . He could not break into the Under @-@ 19s at Delhi , and played no further youth domestic matches for two years , when he transferred to Railways and broke into their Under @-@ 19 team .
In five matches for his new team during the 1994 – 95 , he took 24 wickets at 14 @.@ 58 including a haul of 5 / 28 against Vidarbha . He was rewarded with selection in the Under @-@ 19 Central Zone team for the zonal one @-@ day tournament , taking five wickets at 25 @.@ 00 in four matches . He had little success with the bat , scoring 47 on one occasion during the season , but otherwise only aggregating nine runs in six innings .
The following season in 1995 – 96 , Kartik had a more successful season for Railways Under @-@ 19s . He started with 5 / 73 and 5 / 55 against Madhya Pradesh and made it three five @-@ wicket hauls in a row with 5 / 42 against Vidarbha . He took another five @-@ wicket haul later in the season against Rajasthan and ended the competition with 38 wickets at 18 @.@ 94 in seven matches . Railways made the final , where they faced Punjab . Kartik was Railways ' most effective bowler , taking 4 / 57 in Punjab 's first innings of 310 . He then made 14 not out as Railways ceded a first innings lead , which was enough to give Punjab the title as the match ended in a draw . Kartik took 3 / 138 in the second innings . After the final , newly crowned champions took on the Rest of India , and Kartik took 2 / 25 and 4 / 89 to help his team to a six @-@ wicket victory . Kartik had a less successful time in the zonal one @-@ dayers for Central , taking only one wicket in three matches . He also improved his batting marginally , scoring 57 and three other double @-@ digit scores .
As a result of his performances during the season , Kartik was called up to the Indian Under @-@ 19 team for an international series against their counterparts from South Africa . In the youth Test , he took 4 / 40 as India dismissed South Africa for 159 to take a 19 @-@ run lead . In the second innings , he took 3 / 30 as South Africa fell for 107 in pursuit of 277 . In two youth one @-@ day internationals that followed , Kartik was prominent in the Indian victories , taking 3 / 23 and 3 / 33 respectively .
= = Senior domestic debut = =
The following season , 1996 – 97 , Kartik was promoted into the senior ranks of major cricket . In his first match , a List A fixture against Madhya Pradesh , Kartik took 2 / 27 from his allotment of ten overs but was unable to prevent a four @-@ wicket loss . He made his first @-@ class debut the next day against the same team and sent down 16 overs taking a total of 1 / 18 in a drawn match . In a close @-@ run match , Madhya Pradesh were 8 / 89 , 17 runs short with two wickets in hand when time ran out . Kartik had scored a rearguard 47 in the second innings , without which Madhya Pradesh would have won . In his next first @-@ class match , against Vidarbha , he took a hat trick in the first innings , ending with 6 / 28 , helping to bowl Vidarbha out for 130 . He then took 3 / 27 in the second innings as Vidarbha made only 95 to cede victory to Railways . He ended the season with 16 wickets at 19 @.@ 37 , and 185 runs at 20 @.@ 55 including a 74 against Bengal , but was overlooked for the Central Zone selection for the Duleep Trophy after taking only six wickets in his last four matches for the season . In four one @-@ dayers for Railways , Kartik took seven wickets at 12 @.@ 42 , including a match @-@ winning 4 / 13 against Rajasthan .
The following season he managed 14 wickets at 18 @.@ 42 in four matches , but was dropped in the later stages of the tournament . After taking a match total of 7 / 74 in helping to orchestrate an innings victory over Rajasthan in his third match of the season , Kartik went wicketless in the next match against Madhya Pradesh , and was dropped . He scored 70 runs at 23 @.@ 33 during the tournament . In four one @-@ dayers for Railways , he took four wickets at 29 @.@ 75 at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 30 . Despite being dropped by Railways , Kartik was called up to make his senior debut for Central Zone . He took two wickets at 63 @.@ 00 in two first @-@ class matches , and then took three wickets at 43 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 30 in three matches .
Despite the modest returns during the season , Kartik was selected for an India A tour of Pakistan in February and March 1998 . In four first @-@ class matches , which were persistently curtailed by the weather , Kartik bowled only 31 overs , and only two in the two matches against Pakistan A. He finished with four wickets at 27 @.@ 50 . In the two one @-@ dayers , he proved expensive , taking 1 / 53 and 0 / 73 from ten overs each , as Pakistan won both matches easily .
At the start of the 1998 – 99 season , Kartik took 23 wickets for Vijay Cricket Club in the Chennai League . He played more regularly in the 1998 – 99 Ranji Trophy , taking 29 wickets in seven matches at 19 @.@ 3 to be the 13th highest wicket @-@ taker . This included a 3 / 8 and 4 / 62 in an innings win over Rajasthan , and 5 / 84 and 5 / 55 in the last two matches of the campaign against Tamil Nadu and Delhi . He also added 29 and 53 with the bat against Tamil Nadu to help stave off a defeat after his team had trailed by over 200 on the first innings .
He was rewarded with selection for Central Zone and after taking 4 / 133 against North Zone , claimed 5 / 73 and 2 / 22 in the final to help them defeat West Zone by 112 runs in Aurangabad to claim the Duleep Trophy , and was the leading wicket @-@ taker during the tournament . He scored a total of 183 runs at 18 @.@ 30 for the entire Indian first @-@ class season . He took five wickets at 26 @.@ 60 in four zonal one @-@ dayers , and tasted victory in all four fixtures .
= = Early international career = =
Kartik had a truncated but productive 1999 – 2000 Indian season . After taking a solitary wicket in a truncated match for India A against the touring New Zealand , Kartik snared 6 / 62 and 6 / 31 against Vidarbha , He then went on an India A tour to the West Indies , so his only other first @-@ class match was a Ranji Trophy encounter against Rajasthan in which he took 4 / 53 . In four first @-@ class matches in the Caribbean , Kartik took 18 wickets at 16 @.@ 38 . This included two matches against West Indies A , in which he took 6 / 75 before claiming 3 / 64 and 5 / 73 in the second match , although he was unable to force a victory in either . In two one @-@ day matches against their West Indian counterparts , Kartik took two wickets at 26 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 46 . Returning to India , he took 12 wickets at 13 @.@ 08 in five matches for Railways and the Indian Board president 's XI , before playing in the zonal one @-@ dayers with less success , managing only two wickets at 91 @.@ 50 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 57 . Despite these struggles , he was selected for the India A team for the Challenger Trophy , where he took four wickets at 38 @.@ 00 at the expensive economy rate of 5 @.@ 84 .
Despite the downturn in his limited overs fortunes towards the end of the season , Kartik 's form was enough to earn him selection in the Indian Board president 's XI for the tour match against the visiting South Africans before the Tests . He had a match total of 2 / 122 , which was enough for him to secure national selection , playing in both Tests against South Africa in early 2000 at Mumbai and Bangalore as India sought a second spinner to accompany Anil Kumble , after Harbhajan Singh 's performance in the role in the previous season had been deemed inadequate . Kartik scored 14 before being bowled by Shaun Pollock as India batted first and made 225 . He then took 2 / 28 from 18 overs as the Indians restricted the tourists to 176 , before collapsing to be all out for 113 in the second innings , Kartik scoring only two before Pollock had him caught behind . Kartik took 1 / 50 in the second innings as South Africa ground their way to the target of 163 with four wickets in hand . In the Second Test , Kartik took 3 / 123 and scored a duck and two as India were crushed by an innings . Overall , Kartik performed steadily , taking six wickets at 33 @.@ 50 .
Kartik was selected in 2000 for the first intake of the National Cricket Academy in Bangalore , after earlier having made his Test debut in early 2000 in a home series against South Africa . However , his stay was cut short along with that of Harbhajan , when they were expelled by the director Hanumant Singh over disciplinary issues .
In the 2000 – 01 season , Kartik started in fine form as he set out to maintain a Test position . In the Irani Trophy , the traditional season opener between the reigning Ranji champions — Mumbai — and the Rest of India , Kartik orchestrated the demise of the title @-@ holders . After taking 4 / 73 in Mumbai 's 260 , Kartik scored 22 in the Rest of India 's 389 . He then took 9 / 70 to cut down Mumbai for 184 , and his batting colleagues accumulated the 55 needed for victory without loss . Kartik then took 3 / 82 and 1 / 45 against Madhya Pradesh to secure his spot in the Test team .
Kartik then played in one Test against Bangladesh and Zimbabwe respectively in India , taking match totals of 1 / 42 and 2 / 66 . He scored 43 in the nine @-@ wicket win over Bangladesh but was not required to bat in the seven @-@ wicket win over Zimbabwe . New captain Sourav Ganguly — who had taken over after Sachin Tendulkar resigned following the South African whitewash — did not show much confidence in him , by only affording him frequent but short spells . Kartik was dropped from the team after the First Test against Zimbabwe , and did not have an opportunity to immediately prove his captain wrong , as the one @-@ day domestic circuit was in progress at the time . Kartik took nine wickets at 25 @.@ 22 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 02 , and then had a chance to stake his claims for a Test recall in the Duleep Trophy .
Kartik struggled , taking 2 / 129 against East and then 0 / 178 in the first innings as North Zone accumulated 8 / 690 declared . He then had to endure the humiliation of not being trusted to bowl in the second innings as North reached 8 / 233 . In the last match against South , Kartik could only aggregate 1 / 87 . Although Kartik had scored 45 and 27 in his two innings , he totalled only three Duleep Trophy wickets at an average of 131 @.@ 33 . The selectors were unsatisfied by these performances , and despite a shoulder injury to Kumble , Kartik was discarded as India hosted Australia in the 2001 Border Gavaskar Trophy . Harbhajan was recalled and took 32 wickets at 17 to engineer an Indian series win and permanently establish himself as India 's leading spinner alongside Kumble . Kartik played in one more match for Railways at the end of the season , and his poor season continued , managing only a total of 2 / 152 , although he did score 79 with the bat .
Kartik started the new 2001 – 02 season well , taking 20 wickets at 15 @.@ 40 in the first four first @-@ class matches of the season , including five @-@ wicket hauls against Rajasthan and Vidarbha , and 3 / 84 against the touring English Test team for a Board president 's XI , but this was not enough to force the selectors to recall him for the Tests . He continued his form for Railways in the one @-@ dayers , taking seven wickets at 20 @.@ 57 in four matches at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 00 , before suffering a serious back injury that forced him to travel to Adelaide for treatment , which was funded by the Board of Control for Cricket in India . He made a successful comeback in January after a month @-@ long layoff , and ended as fourth @-@ highest wicket taker in the Ranji Trophy , with 34 at an average of 17 , taking 5 / 51 and 3 / 7 , and scoring 69 in his final match of the season to secure a win over Baroda . He batted well in the second half of the season , also scoring 42 and 58 . He also performed well in the Challenger Trophy and zonal one @-@ dayers after his surgery , taking ten wickets at 21 @.@ 70 in seven matches . At the end of the season , Kartik was rewarded with his debut in One Day Internationals ( ODIs ) ; he was punished by the Zimbabwean batsmen , conceding 47 runs without taking a wicket from eight overs , but India still won by five wickets .
= = Fringe player = =
Since then , Kartik was India 's third choice Test spinner behind Kumble and Harbhajan for most of the decade , only playing due to their injuries or when India selected three spinners . At the end of the 2001 – 02 season , Kartik was selected for an India A tour of South Africa . He struggled in the first two first @-@ class matches , before taking 6 / 101 and scoring 59 in the second match against South Africa A to end the three games with ten wickets at 32 @.@ 50 . He had more success in the one @-@ dayers , taking four wickets at 17 @.@ 50 at an economy rate of 2 @.@ 50 in three matches .
The West Indies toured India at the start of the 2002 – 03 season and Kartik had a chance to press his claims for Test selection in two tour matches against the visitors . However , he had little impact , taking 2 / 92 for the Board president 's XI and 0 / 117 for Railways against the Caribbean tourists , although he scored 72 with the bat in the latter match . He then took a total of 2 / 135 as Railways , the reigning Ranji Trophy holders , defeated the Rest of India in the Irani Trophy . With these lean returns , Kartik was overlooked for the Tests .
Kartik had opportunities in the ODI format following his strong form in domestic limited overs matches , playing in four consecutive matches against the West Indies . After going wicketless in the first of these matches , he broke through in the next match to take his maiden ODI wicket in his third appearance . Kartik then took 3 / 36 in the next match as India scraped home by three wickets , but he was punished in his fourth outing of the series , conceding 69 runs in nine overs without success , after which he was dropped . He had taken four wickets at 47 @.@ 25 , at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 84 .
Kartik was called into the Test squad to tour New Zealand in late 2002 after Kumble withdrew , but in the warm @-@ up match he bowled one only over , in which he was hammered for 23 runs . He then watched from the sidelines as India only fielded one spin bowler — Harbhajan — in the Tests , held on green , pace @-@ friendly surfaces . Kartik returned to India and was ineffective in the zonal one @-@ dayers , taking a total of 1 / 148 from 24 overs in three matches , conceding more than a run a ball . Combined with his results against the West Indies , the poor returns saw him left out of the 2003 Cricket World Cup squad , with Harbhajan and Kumble preferred .
While the World Cup was in progress , Kartik toured the West Indies with India A , playing against the domestic teams in five first @-@ class matches . He took 14 wickets at 30 @.@ 50 including a 5 / 105 against Barbados and 4 / 57 against Trinidad and Tobago . India A then toured England during the northern hemisphere summer and Kartik took 10 wickets at 40 @.@ 00 and scored 79 runs at 26 @.@ 33 including a 50 in four first @-@ class matches , and three wickets at 44 @.@ 33 in one @-@ dayers .
At the start of the 2003 – 04 season , Kartik took 2 / 118 and 2 / 41 for India A in a match against the touring New Zealanders , and was overlooked for the Test series against the visitors . He managed only a total of 1 / 84 from 18 overs in the Challenger Trophy but was called into the ODI team and gained semi @-@ regular appearances during the TVS Trophy against New Zealand and Australia , competing with Kumble and Harbhajan for a regular position in the team . In four matches during the competition , he was economical although not very penetrative , taking four wickets at 38 @.@ 25 at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 82 .
= = Occasional international appearances in 2004 and 2005 = =
After taking match figures of 6 / 117 and 5 / 140 for India A against Sri Lanka A , Kartik made his first overseas appearance for India , replacing the injured Harbhajan midway through the 2003 – 04 tour of Australia . He had little success in his first tour match , taking 1 / 64 and 1 / 53 against Australian A. He played in the final Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground when India fielded two spinners for the only time in the series . He was punished by the Australian batsmen , taking a total of1 / 211 from 45 overs , a run rate of 4 @.@ 68 , in a high @-@ scoring draw .
Kartik then made sporadic appearances in the VB triangular ODI series , playing in four of India 's ten matches , as he and Kumble were brought in and out of the team in an attempt to challenge the Australian superiority . He continued to be punished by the Australian batsmen , taking a total of 1 / 178 from 26 overs , an economy rate of 6 @.@ 84 . However , he did manage to resist the Australians with the bat ; in his only two innings he made 32 not out and 23 as the Indian batting was dismissed for only 203 and 151 respectively .
Despite these performances , Kartik was retained for the ODI tour of Pakistan with Harbhajan still injured , taking five wickets at 32 @.@ 80 at an economy of 5 @.@ 46 . He played in three of the five matches and India won all of these . Kartik was also in the Test squad , but saw not action as India opted to field only Kumble and took the series 2 – 1 .
Kartik started the 2004 – 05 season by scoring 56 and 16 and taking 2 / 42 and 2 / 49 as the Rest of India defeated Mumbai in the Irani Trophy , but it was not enough to prevent Harbhajan from resuming his position in the team for the home Test series against Australia . He got an opportunity in the Third Test in Nagpur , when Harbhajan was ill , taking 3 / 57 and 2 / 74 as India were 342 runs to lose their first home series to Australia since 1969 – 70 . Kartik held his place when Harbhajan returned for the final Test in Mumbai as India fielded three spinners , and took 4 / 44 and 3 / 32 in a man of the match performance which saw India win by 13 runs . Both of these performances occurred under the captaincy of Rahul Dravid with Ganguly injured , in which Kartik netted his wickets at an average of 17 @.@ 50 compared to 51 @.@ 08 under Ganguly 's leadership . Kartik played the last of his eight Tests in a subsequent opening match against South Africa in Kanpur , taking a total of 2 / 93 under Ganguly 's command , being dropped after India chose to only use two spinners in subsequent matches . Kartik spent the next month watching from the sidelines as the reserve slow bowler , as only Kumble and Harbhajan played during the tour of Bangladesh . During this campaign , he was allowed to play in the second ODI , taking 2 / 43 as India lost to Bangladesh for the first time . Kartik returned to India and took seven wickets at 35 @.@ 42 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 69 in the zonal one @-@ dayers and Challenger Trophy , and then played four first @-@ class matches to end the season , taking 10 wickets at 19 @.@ 10 . At the end of the season , he took 2 / 54 in a home ODI against Pakistan , who scored 7 / 319 to overhaul the target .
He enjoyed more opportunities in the ODI arena in 2005 , when Kumble was dropped by newly appointed coach Greg Chappell due to his lack of athleticism , as well as the introduction of the experimental rules which allowed the use of one substitute , thus opening an extra position in the team . Kartik had a modest start under the new regime , taking 1 / 52 from nine overs in a win over a depleted host Zimbabwe team . He returned to India and started the new season in fine all @-@ round form . After taking 2 / 34 in the first innings , he scored his highest first @-@ class score of 96 to guide Railways to 311 , giving them a first @-@ innings lead of 88 runs over the Rest of India in the Irani Trophy . He then took 3 / 28 to dismiss the Rest of India for 137 in their second innings , setting up a nine @-@ wciket win . He then took seven wickets at 16 @.@ 85 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 56 in three matches for India Seniors in the Challenger Trophy , including a match @-@ winning 5 / 29 in the final against India B.
Kartik was thus selected in the Indian ODI team for the home summer , and played in ten of the twelve ODIs that India hosted in late @-@ 2005 . He started well with 3 / 48 in a 152 @-@ run crushing of Sri Lanka in Nagpur , and went on to finish the series with eight wickets at 30 @.@ 25 , playing in six of the seven matches . However , his form dissipated and he went wicketless in the South African series , conceding 126 runs in 28 overs , and giving away more than a run a ball in the last two matches . Kumble remained in favour for the Tests along with Harbhajan , and Kartik returned to Ranji competition while they bowled against Sri Lanka in the five @-@ dayers . Kartik took 5 / 95 against Mumbai and then 8 / 40 against Delhi , and in three Ranji Trophy matches took 17 wickets at 19 @.@ 94 .
Despite his ineffectiveness against South Africa , Kartik was retained in the ODI squad , but after conceding 64 runs from nine overs in the first ODI loss against Pakistan , he was replaced in early @-@ 2006 in the Test and ODI squad by 17 @-@ year @-@ old legspinner Piyush Chawla and off @-@ spinner Ramesh Powar respectively .
= = Discarded again = =
In late @-@ 2006 , India 's ODI team began to hit rocky waters . After losing a bilateral series in the West Indies , they were knocked out of a triangular tournament in Malaysia ahead of the finals , and were eliminated in the first round of the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy on home soil . Kartik took four wickets at 34 @.@ 00 and an economy rate of 5 @.@ 36 in the Challenger Trophy and could not earn a recall . He had a steady domestic first @-@ class season , taking 26 wickets at 25 @.@ 53 in nine matches , never taking more than five wickets in a match . He took 13 wickets at 27 @.@ 92 in eight one @-@ day matches for the season , and was overlooked as Kumble and Harbhajan were the spinners selected for the 2007 Cricket World Cup . India were knocked out in the first round after losing to Bangladesh , and Harbhajan was dropped while Kumble retired from ODIs , but Kartik did not do enough to persuade the selectors to hand him a recall .
In 2004 , Kartik played in the Lancashire League with Ramsbottom as their professional . In 19 games , he took 80 wickets at 9 @.@ 92 and scored 464 runs at 25 @.@ 77 . He scored three fifties with a best of 83 against Colne and took nine five @-@ wicket innings hauls including a best of 9 / 30 against Enfield in addition to two other matches in which he took seven wickets .
In 2005 , he returned to Ramsbottom as their professional for a second season , with more effect . He took 83 wickets at 9 @.@ 19 and scored 519 runs at 37 @.@ 07 in 20 matches . He scored five fifties including a best of 66 , and took eight five @-@ wicket innings hauls including a best of 9 / 47 against Church as well as 7 / 27 against Lowerhouse . These performances earned him notice , and in late @-@ 2005 , he appeared as a late @-@ season overseas player substitute for Lancashire , and became the first overseas Lancashire player to take ten wickets on their debut , with 10 / 168 against Essex . This 5 / 93 and 5 / 75 helped Lancashire to an eight @-@ wicket win , and in his only other first @-@ class match , he took 4 / 43 and 2 / 49 was not enough as the Roses went down to Leicestershire by four runs . His sixteen wickets at 16 @.@ 25 placed him second on the season 's bowling averages , and helped the team to be promoted from Second Division . In two one @-@ day games , Kartik took five wickets at 13 @.@ 40 .
Despite these performances , he was not initially offered a contract for 2006 . Eventually in August 2006 , he was again signed as a late @-@ season overseas player for Lancashire just in time to appear in the C & G Trophy final against Sussex , taking 2 / 28 and scoring a duck in a 15 @-@ run defeat . He took eight wickets at 17 @.@ 25 in four one @-@ dayers , and six wickets at 39 @.@ 00 in three first @-@ class matches with a best of 3 / 89 , as well a 40 with the bat against Hampshire .
In 2007 , he joined Middlesex as an overseas registration . He made his debut as the county club 's 700th first @-@ class cricketer against Somerset at Taunton in April 2007 . He took 51 wickets at 24 @.@ 96 in 12 matches and agreed to sign on for a further season in 2008 . A highlight of Kartik 's stint was a haul of 6 / 21 and 3 / 52 that helped set up an innings win over Glamorgan , and 6 / 85 and 3 / 83 that secured a 38 @-@ run win over Leicestershire . A third five @-@ wicket haul , 5 / 38 against Derbyshire , was not enough to prevent a 15 @-@ run defeat . With the bat , Kartik contributed 209 runs at 19 @.@ 00 with a best of 35 . Kartik was also prolific for his new county in the one @-@ dayers , taking 21 wickets at 23 @.@ 52 in 15 matches , taking three wickets in a match twice , both of which resulted in wins . During the T20 tournament , Kartik took nine wickets at 10 @.@ 77 and an economy rate of 5 @.@ 70 , including a haul of 5 / 13 in a vain attempt to halt an Essex run @-@ chase .
= = Brief international return and later career = =
In late @-@ 2007 , Kartik was recalled to the ODI team in place of the struggling Powar mid @-@ way through the series against Australia . He played his first ODI in 18 months when he returned for the fourth match at Mohali . He took 1 / 48 , and conceded only two runs in the 48th over as Australia stumbled in a tight run chase to give India their first win of the series .
Kartik took only one wicket in the next two matches , which Australia won . In the seventh and final match , Kartik took a career best of 6 / 27 from 10 overs at the Wankhede Stadium in Mumbai to bowl Australia out for 193 . The tourists had reached 2 / 117 after 19 @.@ 4 overs , scoring at over six runs and over before Kartik removed Brad Hodge and Andrew Symonds from consecutive balls . He failed to get his hat @-@ trick , but in the 32nd over he removed Brad Haddin from the first ball , and then Brad Hogg and Brett Lee from the fourth and fifth balls . Again Kartik missed the hat @-@ trick opportunity , but returned to claim his six wicket . In reply , India had fallen to 8 / 143 before Kartik chipped in with an unbeaten 21 from 34 balls in an unbroken 52 @-@ run stand with Zaheer Khan , guiding India to a two @-@ wicket victory . Kartik was recognised by being selected as the man of the match . Kartik then made his T20 international debut , taking 0 / 27 from four overs in an Indian win over Australia .
In the following series against Pakistan , Kartik was only selected in the first , third and fifth matches , and took two wickets at an average of 68 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 23 . As a result , Kartik was omitted from the ODI tour of Australia in favour of Chawla .
Due to his international commitments , Kartik made only sporadic appearances during the Indian domestic scene in 2007 – 08 . He took nine wickets at 44 @.@ 22 and scored 77 runs at 19 @.@ 25 in three first @-@ class fixtures . After being dropped from India 's limited @-@ overs team , Kartik continued his strong one @-@ day form at domestic level , taking six wickets at 25 @.@ 33 at an economy rate of only 3 @.@ 16 in six matches .
Kartik was purchased by the Kolkata Knight Riders in the inaugural 2008 Indian Premier League . He played in six matches , taking three wickets at 42 @.@ 33 , but was dropped because his economy rate was beyond eight runs an over . All of these came in one match in which he took 3 / 17 .
Kartik was part of the Middlesex team that won the 2008 Twenty20 Cup in England , their first domestic title for 15 years . He played in 11 matches and took 14 wickets at 20 @.@ 14 at an economy rate of 6 @.@ 71 , claiming at least one wicket in all but one of the matches . Kartik represented Middlesex in the Stanford competition in October , taking two wickets at 25 @.@ 50 at an economy rate of 6 @.@ 37 .
His second first @-@ class season with Middlesex was much less successful than the first ; Kartik took only 16 wickets at 34 @.@ 06 in seven matches , with a best of 4 / 101 against Derbyshire . He scored 161 runs at 20 @.@ 12 with a best of 44 against Warwickshire . His one @-@ day form was also lean , yielding six wickets at 33 @.@ 00 in six matches .
Kartik returned to India and took 16 wickets at 32 @.@ 75 in six matches for Railways in the Ranji Trophy . After taking 5 / 85 in the first innings of the season opener against Karnataka , his performances fell away and he managed only four wickets in his last three matches . Nevertheless , he was selected for Central Zone in the Duleep Trophy and took a total of 2 / 98 as they lost on first innings to South and were eliminated after one match . Kartik made some contributions with the bat , scoring 197 runs at 24 @.@ 62 for the season , including a score of 56 against Maharashtra and two other efforts of 30 . Playing for both Railways and Central , Kartik took 12 wickets at 23 @.@ 50 in the one @-@ day matches for the season . He also scored 65 runs at 13 @.@ 00 .
During the 2009 IPL season , which was held in South Africa , Kartik played in ten matches and took four wickets at 50 @.@ 25 , but he was one of the most economical bowlers , conceding only 5 @.@ 91 runs per over . Kolkata were wracked by infighting and came last . Kartik also scored 21 runs without being dismissed . In the 2009 English season , Kartik resumed service for Middlesex , and as in the IPL he was most effective as a stock bowler , taking only four wickets at 51 @.@ 50 in eight T20 fixtures at an economy rate of 6 @.@ 86 , never taking multiple wickets in a match . Middlesex , who had won the domestic title the previous year , only tasted victory in two of the Twenty20 matches that Kartik played in .
Kartik played in ten first @-@ class matches for Middlesex , taking 33 wickets at 22 @.@ 87 . He took his season 's innings best of 5 / 65 and then 2 / 26 in the season opener against cross @-@ London rivals Surrey , and then took 3 / 32 and 4 / 53 in a hard @-@ fought 47 @-@ run win over Kent , and a total of 6 / 139 in the next match against Essex , but his season fell away at the end , managing only six wickets in the last three matches . With the bat , he made 336 runs at 24 @.@ 00 , the most prolific season of his career with the willow , including 62 against Essex and 57 not out against Gloucestershire . He played in a solitary one @-@ dayer , taking 2 / 19 against Northamptonshire .
At the end of the 2009 season , it was announced that Kartik would join Somerset as their overseas player for the 2010 season .
During the 2009 – 10 Indian season , Kartik played in seven matches for Railways in the Ranji Trophy , taking 17 wickets at 25 @.@ 05 including a best of 5 / 81 against Mumbai . He also scored 44 against the team and ended with 97 runs at 12 @.@ 12 for the season . However his figures were not enough to gain selection for Central Zone in the Duleep Trophy .
= = Environment Concerns = =
Murali Kartik has done many advertisement for the PETA India , including the ' Save Your Chicks ' campaign , which aimed for awareness against flesh farming of poultry .
= 2001 Gator Bowl =
The 2001 Gator Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Clemson Tigers at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida on January 1 , 2001 . The game was the final contest of the 2000 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 41 – 20 victory for Virginia Tech .
Virginia Tech entered the game headed by star quarterback Michael Vick , who led the Hokies to a 10 – 1 regular @-@ season record despite being injured for a part of the season . Clemson entered the game with a regular @-@ season record of 9 – 2 under the command of head coach Tommy Bowden , who was in the second year of his tenure . The contest featured two high @-@ scoring offenses that emphasized different aspects of the game . These aspects were exemplified in the game , which saw Clemson pass for more yards than Virginia Tech , while the Hokies ran for more yards than the Tigers .
Virginia Tech jumped out to an early lead and maintained it throughout the game . Vick had a 23 @-@ yard touchdown run on the game 's opening drive , then helped the Hokies expand their lead to 14 – 0 by the end of the first quarter . The Tigers narrowed Tech 's lead to 14 – 10 in the second quarter , but the Hokies scored another touchdown before halftime and went into the second half with a 21 – 10 lead . Injuries knocked Clemson 's two leading running backs out of the game , and starting Clemson quarterback Woodrow Dantzler was removed from the game after he proved ineffective against the Virginia Tech defense . Despite these changes , the Tigers were unable to reduce Virginia Tech 's lead , which stood at 34 – 13 at the end of the third quarter . A late Clemson touchdown moved the Tigers within two touchdowns , but Virginia Tech answered with a touchdown of its own , making the final score 41 – 20 .
In recognition of his performance in leading his team to a victory , Vick was named the game 's most valuable player . It was his final collegiate game , and four months after the Gator Bowl , he was selected with the first overall selection in the 2001 NFL Draft . A handful of other players who participated in the Gator Bowl also were selected in the draft .
= = Team selection = =
For the 2000 – 2001 college football season , the Gator Bowl had the right to select the No. 2 bowl @-@ eligible team from both the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) and the Big East Conference . The bowl game 's administrators also had a contract to include Notre Dame if that school met certain entry requirements . The conference champions of the ACC and Big East were guaranteed a spot in a Bowl Championship Series game , and there also was the possibility of an at @-@ large BCS selection for any team in each conference if it finished high enough in the BCS Poll but did not win the conference championship .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
During the 1999 – 2000 college football season , Virginia Tech went undefeated during the regular season but lost to Florida State in the 2000 BCS National Championship Game . In the offseason following the championship @-@ game loss , Tech fans and pundits anticipated a possible repeat of the Hokies ' undefeated regular season and national championship run . In the annual preseason poll of media members covering Big East Conference football , Virginia Tech was picked to finish second ; Tech received nine first @-@ place votes to Miami 's 15 . In the preseason Associated Press college football poll , Virginia Tech was 11th .
When games for the 2001 college football season were scheduled , Virginia Tech was picked to host the annual Black Coaches & Administrators Classic , the opening game of the national Division I @-@ A season . Georgia Tech was picked as the opponent , but on the day of the game , severe lightning storms hit the Blacksburg , Virginia area . ESPN commentator Lee Corso 's rental car was struck by lightning , and the game was postponed due to severe weather . It was never rescheduled and eventually was canceled .
After the BCA Classic was canceled , Virginia Tech opened the regular season with a 52 – 23 blowout win over Akron . This was followed by a 45 – 28 win over East Carolina and a 49 – 0 shutout of Rutgers . The three wins typified the early part of Virginia Tech 's schedule , which also featured wins against Boston College , Temple , West Virginia , Syracuse , and Pittsburgh . By virtue of winning its first eight games of the season , Tech rose to a No. 2 national ranking prior to facing No. 3 Miami on November 4 .
Virginia Tech star quarterback Michael Vick suffered a severely sprained ankle in the game against Pittsburgh , and strong @-@ performing wide receiver Andre Davis was temporarily crippled by bursitis in his left foot . Despite these injuries , commentators predicted a high @-@ scoring game that was sometimes referred to as " the Big East 's game of the year " . It was predicted that the winner likely would be a shoo @-@ in for that year 's national championship game . With Vick injured , backup quarterback Dave Meyer started the game for the Hokies , who fell behind 14 – 0 in the first quarter . In desperation , Vick tried to play despite his injury , but he participated in only 19 plays before leaving the game for good . Miami quarterback Ken Dorsey threw three long touchdown passes , and Miami won the game , 41 – 21 .
The loss knocked Tech out of contention for the national championship and the conference championship , since Miami was a fellow member of the Big East . The Hokies also fell to No. 8 in the AP Poll during the week after the game . In that week , they rebounded by beating the University of Central Florida , 44 – 21 . Ranked No. 6 after the win , Tech defeated in @-@ state rival Virginia , 42 – 21 , in the annual battle for the Commonwealth Cup .
Though the loss to Miami knocked the Hokies out of contention for the Big East championship and its accompanying automatic BCS bid , there was the possibility that Tech could receive an at @-@ large BCS game bid if it scored high enough in the final BCS poll and the administrators of a BCS game wanted to invite the Hokies . Tech was considered a long shot due to the availability of Oregon State and Notre Dame , two teams with large followings that would attract greater television revenue and ticket sales . Gator Bowl officials made plans based on different possibilities . If Virginia Tech was selected for a BCS bowl but Notre Dame was not , the Fighting Irish would play in the Gator Bowl . If both were selected , Big East No. 3 Pittsburgh would be given the nod for the Gator Bowl . On December 3 , the BCS selections were announced : The Fiesta Bowl selected No. 5 Oregon State and No. 10 Notre Dame instead of No. 6 Virginia Tech . This left the Hokies available for the Gator Bowl , which picked them on the next day .
= = = Clemson = = =
The Clemson Tigers entered the 2000 – 2001 college football season after a 6 – 6 season in 1999 under first @-@ year head coach Tommy Bowden . Fans and college football analysts predicted Bowden would continue Clemson 's resurgence from a 3 – 8 season during the year before Bowden was hired . Some pointed to Bowden 's undefeated season in the second year after assuming the head coaching job at Tulane University as a sign of what to expect from Clemson . Most analysts , however , anticipated a more moderate improvement over the previous year . In the annual preseason poll of media who covered Atlantic Coast Conference football , Clemson tied for second with Georgia Tech . Both teams were far behind perennial favorite Florida State , however . Nationally , Clemson debuted at No. 17 in the preseason AP Poll and No. 20 in the preseason coaches ' poll .
The Tigers opened their season against Division I @-@ AA opponent The Citadel , whom they beat handily , 38 – 0 . That victory was followed by two blowout wins : 62 – 9 against Missouri and 55 – 7 against ACC opponent Wake Forest . Those three games were typical of Clemson 's first eight , which the Tigers won in succession . After the win against Wake Forest , Clemson beat Virginia , Duke , North Carolina State , Maryland , and North Carolina . In the final win of that streak , starting quarterback Woodrow Dantzler was replaced by backup Willie Simmons in the second quarter due to an injury to Dantzler .
With an 8 – 0 record and a No. 5 national ranking , Clemson hosted Georgia Tech . In the game , the Yellow Jackets posted a school @-@ record offensive effort in an upset victory over the Tigers . Clemson took a 28 – 24 lead with 1 : 52 remaining in the game , but the Yellow Jackets drove 80 yards in 11 plays before ending with a one @-@ handed catch for a touchdown , giving Clemson its first loss of the season . The defeat eliminated the Tigers from national championship contention , but they still had a chance to win the conference championship if they defeated Florida State the following week .
The Florida State Seminoles are coached by Bobby Bowden , father of Tommy Bowden . Their 2001 matchup marked only the second time that a father and son had faced each other as opposing head football coaches . The only other meeting had been the previous year , when Tommy lost by three points to his father . In the 2001 meeting , No. 4 Florida State dominated No. 10 Clemson from the start of the game . In an effort to impress BCS voters , Florida State ran up the score and the game ended with the Seminoles on top , 52 – 7 . The Seminoles ' win gave them the ACC football championship and dropped Clemson to a No. 16 ranking . With its spot as the No. 2 ACC team assured , Clemson accepted a bid to the Gator Bowl on November 14 , prior to its annual in @-@ state rivalry game against South Carolina . In that game , South Carolina took a one @-@ point lead with 59 seconds remaining , but Clemson drove the length of the field and kicked a field goal as time expired , giving the Tigers a 16 – 14 win to end the regular season .
= = Pregame buildup = =
In the weeks before the Gator Bowl , media and fan attention focused on Virginia Tech 's possible disappointment at not being selected for a BCS game , the coaching situations at the two schools , and the issue of whether or not Tech quarterback Michael Vick would return for another year of collegiate football . After the Virginia Tech @-@ Clemson matchup was announced for the Gator Bowl , spread bettors favored Virginia Tech to win by 6 @.@ 5 points . The betting line remained there throughout the month of December and until the game began . There were almost no off @-@ field incidents involving players from either team : The only notable event involved two backup players from Clemson who were indicted for money counterfeiting and were suspended for the Gator Bowl . In exchange for appearing in the game , the teams were guaranteed to split a payout of $ 3 @,@ 313 @,@ 610 .
= = = Virginia Tech disappointment = = =
Immediately after the Fiesta Bowl bypassed Virginia Tech in favor of lower @-@ ranked Notre Dame , protests from Tech fans and opponents of the BCS system erupted . Some said the selection was " unfair " , that Virginia Tech was " hosed " , or that the pick of Notre Dame was a " snub " of the Hokies . In an interview immediately after the selection , Vick said the Gator Bowl bid provided motivation to win the Gator Bowl . " We 're going to go out there and make a statement , play a great game and show the nation , " he said . Clemson , on the other hand , was enthusiastic about the Gator Bowl bid . A win in the game would have given the Tigers their first 10 @-@ win season since 1990 , and the Gator Bowl appearance marked a continued improvement over its showing the previous year . Clemson players viewed the game as a reward for a successful season , while Virginia Tech players perceived it from a more workmanlike point of view . Due to revenue @-@ sharing agreements among Big East schools , Virginia Tech 's selection by the Gator Bowl resulted in a payment of $ 1 @.@ 7 million less than if it had been selected by a BCS bowl game . Instead of receiving about $ 3 @.@ 5 million from the revenue agreement and bowl payout , Tech received about $ 1 @.@ 8 million .
= = = Coaching changes = = =
Both Virginia Tech and Clemson endured questions about their coaching staffs in the weeks and months prior to the Gator Bowl . Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer was interviewed by North Carolina prior to the end of the regular season , and he debated whether or not to accept that school 's head football coaching job . On November 27 , one week before Tech 's selection by the Gator Bowl , | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
King Bradley . He and his younger brother , Alphonse , seek to obtain the legendary Philosopher 's Stone in order to restore their bodies after a disastrous failed attempt to bring their mother back to life through alchemy . Edward was born in a small town named Resembool , where he lived with Alphonse and his parents , Trisha Elric and Van Hohenheim . After Hohenheim left the family on a journey early in his sons ' lives , and Trisha died of an illness years later , the two young boys concentrated on studying alchemy in the hopes of bringing their mother back to life , and trained with a skilled alchemist named Izumi Curtis . They attempt to revive their mother and failed , costing Edward his left leg , and Alphonse his entire body.During this first transmutation , Edward sees the Truth ( 真理 , Shinri ) , thus gaining great knowledge as well as the prodigious ability to perform transmutations just by clapping his hands together . Edward then performed a second transmutation , sacrificing his own right arm to bind Alphonse 's soul to a nearby suit of armor . In order to move with his lost limbs , Edward has had prosthetic " automail " limbs designed and implemented by his childhood friend , Winry Rockbell . Winry is often kept busy repairing Edward 's automail , as he regularly breaks and damages the machines during heavy bouts . As the series continues , the two progressively develop a romantic relationship , eventually confessing their feelings to each other by the series ' end .
Edward 's motivation stems from a love for his brother , Alphonse , whom he is desperately seeking to restore to human form after their mistake . He is extremely idealistic , and strongly believes in the alchemical concept of " Equivalent Exchange , " which states that every outcome requires an equal payment . Edward also behaves in a childish manner when confronted about his short height , tending to overreact to any negative comment regarding the subject , usually attacking people in a fit of rage . Unlike regular alchemists who use transmutation circles , Edward has the ability to create alchemical currents in his body simply by connecting his hands as a result of his failed human transmutation which gave him such trait . In addition to this , Edward is a formidable fighter as a result of his training with Izumi , who had extensively trained both brothers in martial arts .
During their search for the Stone , they become targets of Scar , a vengeful Ishbalan , and the immortal creatures known as the homunculi . When Edward and Alphonse discover that the homunculi and the Philosopher 's Stone are related , they work together with their comrades in order to find them . However , after the Elric brothers meet the homunculi 's creator , " Father , " they are forced to keep working with the military by high @-@ ranking officials who are secretly using their friends from Resembool as hostages . Unable to protect their friends , the Elrics travel to the northern area of the country in order to request help from General Olivier Mira Armstrong . Shortly after their arrival , the State Alchemist Solf J. Kimblee takes Winry to the north as a hostage , unknown to Winry , in order to force Edward to continue his work . When the brothers are ordered to capture Scar , they end up using his help to move Winry to a safe place . Upon their success , Edward learns when Father plans to make a human transmutation circle out of the entire country . Edward , Alphonse , and their allies thus unite in an effort to bring down Father . They make their way into the underground complex where Edward is to be used as a sacrifice for Father 's transmutation . While battling Father , Edward loses his automail arm , rendering him unable to perform alchemy . Alphonse transmutes his soul in order to restore Edward 's original flesh @-@ and @-@ blood arm . After defeating Father , Edward manages to restore Alphonse to his original body by sacrificing his own ability to use alchemy . Giving up on alchemy forever , they return to their hometown to live normal lives . Two years later , Edward decides to research alchemy by heading out west . In the epilogue he and Winry get married and have a son and daughter together .
= = = First anime series = = =
Although Edward has the same background and characteristics in the manga and anime , Edward meets different people and fights against variable enemies . In the first anime , Edward learns the secret to destroying a homunculus during his encounter with Greed , whom he kills in an effort to save Alphonse . When he learns of Scar 's creation of a Philosopher 's Stone within Alphonse , Edward saves the people of Lior from being sacrificed for its creation . During his battle against the homunculi , Edward is killed by Envy , but Alphonse trades himself for his brothers ' revival . In doing so , however , Alphonse 's armor with the philosopher 's stone within it is used up and he disappears . After being revived , Edward sacrifices his own life to bring back his brother in exchange . As a result , Edward finds himself on the other side of the Gate , a parallel world , while Alphonse recovers his original body . Determined to return to Alphonse , Edward becomes involved in rocketry research in Germany , with the intention of using that technology to return to his home world . In the feature film , Fullmetal Alchemist the Movie : Conqueror of Shamballa , set two years after the end of the anime , Edward has been living in Germany and looks for a way to return to his world . At the film 's end , he decides to stay in the parallel world along with Alphonse so that they may try to protect both worlds .
= = = In other media = = =
Edward also appears in almost all the Fullmetal Alchemist original video animations ( OVAs ) . In the first OVA he appears as a super deformed version of himself at the movie 's wrap @-@ up party ; in the second , he appears shortly as an old man living in modern @-@ day Tokyo ; and in the third OVA , he plays a part in the battle against the first anime 's homunculi . As the series ' titular character , Edward is playable in all Fullmetal Alchemist video games . The three games for the PlayStation 2 – Fullmetal Alchemist and the Broken Angel , Curse of the Crimson Elixir and Kami o Tsugu Shōjo – feature exclusive stories in which the Elrics keep searching for the Philosopher 's Stone . In the Nintendo DS game , Fullmetal Alchemist Dual Sympathy , he and Alphonse replay the first anime series . He is also featured in the Fullmetal Alchemist Trading Card Game . There are two character CDs featuring tracks based on Edward 's character . The first is named Hagaren Song File – Edward Elric ( Hagaren Song File – エドワード ・ エルリック ) and the second Theme of Edward Elric . Both albums were performed by Ed 's Japanese voice actress , Romi Park . He also appears in each light novel written by Makoto Inoue which continue Ed and Al 's search for the Philosopher 's Stone and at the same time feature different stories from the ones appearing the manga and the anime .
= = Creation and conception = =
Author Hiromu Arakawa integrated several social problems into the plot , such as the way Edward and Alphonse live as brothers after the death of their mother , Trisha . She also looks at how the brothers help people all over the country to gain an understanding of the meaning of family . When describing the character 's personality , Arakawa comments that after his father 's departure from home and his mother 's death , Edward tried to replace the role of the man for the Elric family . As a result , Van Hohenheim 's reappearance caused a shocking and terrified reaction in the character . Arakawa has noted that Edward is one of her favorite characters from the series , although she denied having the same personality as him when one of her assistants mentioned it .
When comparing the two brothers during the time Alphonse obtained the ability to use alchemy without a circle like Edward , Arakawa stated nobody was better at alchemy as the two had different preferences in the same way as other alchemist appearing in the series . Although she claims she has not thought of the characters ' birthdates , Arakawa noted that she decided Edward 's birthdate during the series ' serialization . During a chapter in which it was mentioned that Edward was about to be 16 , winter was about to begin in Hokkaido , Arakawa 's birthplace , so it was decided Edward 's birthdate would be in winter . In a common slapstick gag from the series , Edward is often struck by Winry Rockbell 's wrench . While commenting that Edward has an ability easily dodge her , Arakawa comments that he gets hit on purpose as a result of his personality . The director of the first anime series , Seiji Mizushima , says that in the development of the story Edward " evolves and devolves " ; Mizushima comments that Edward is continuously overcoming inner struggles in order to determine how to grow up . The appearance of his automail in the anime is used to symbolize the intangibles of his character , making viewers note that Edward lost something important .
In a prototype from the series , Edward was an eighteen @-@ year @-@ old teenager travelling alongside his father whose soul sealed in a flying squirrel . Edward 's prototype had an average height , but retained his automail . In order to fit with the readers from the manga magazine Monthly Shonen Gangan , Edward 's traits were further modified , leaving his current one . His height was reduced in order to contrast with Alphonse 's huge armor . In the design of the character , Arakawa is often worried about not making his automail too bulky to avoid balancing it by increasing Edward 's muscles , making his appearance unsuitable for his age . She has also often drawn the character in full body length , but at one point noticed she made it too tall . As the manga continued serialization , Arakawa found that she drew Edward half naked several times even more than Alex Louis Armstrong who tends to show his torso . While stating that this was because she wanted to draw Edward 's automail , she commented that it was common for men to walk in underwear at their homes .
In the Japanese version of Fullmetal Alchemist 's anime adaptations , Edward has been voiced by Romi Park . In the English version , the role has been played by Vic Mignogna . Mignogna has stated that performing Edward may be his biggest voice acting achievement since fans do not compare him with Park , noting that their voices are not similar and that he did not plan to sound like her . Additionally , in the upcoming live @-@ action of the series , Edward will be portrayed by Ryosuke Yamada .
= = Reception = =
Edward 's character is well received by manga readers ; in each of the popularity polls made by Monthly Shōnen Gangan he has ranked first . Edward also won the Twenty @-@ sixth Annual Animage Readers ' Poll , Anime Grand Prix , in the " Favorite Male Character " ; Romi Park , who voices Edward in Japanese , won in the " Favorite Seiyu " category . Edward maintained a high place in the next year 's poll in the same category . In the July 2009 issue of Newtype , Edward ranked at the top of the survey Male Character Rankings . In the August 2009 issue his rank changed to fourth . In a Newtype poll from March 2010 , Edward was voted as the fourth most popular male anime character from the 2000s . In the Anime Awards 2006 from About.com , Edward won in the category " Best Lead Character – Male " . He was also seventh in IGN 's 2009 Top 25 Anime Characters of All Time with writer Chris Mackenzie saying , " [ Edward ] and his kid brother Al make one of the best action @-@ comedy teams in recent memory " . In 2014 , IGN ranked him as the eighth greatest anime character of all time , saying that " In Edward we had a character who was truly multidimensional . He could be comedic and pull off wild takes and sight gags . He could be placed in the most tragic circumstances and portray the deepest kind of sadness . He could be a complete badass , but he could also be the nicest guy on the planet . " Several pieces of merchandise have been released in Edward 's likeness , including plush toys , action figures , and key @-@ chains . Vic Mignogna , who performs the voice of Edward in the English dub , was the winner in American Anime Awards in the category " Best Actor " for voicing Edward .
Several publications for manga , anime , and other pop culture media have provided both praise and criticism on Edward 's character . IGN writer Hilary Goldstein praises Edward as the perfect balance between the typical clever kid and the stubborn kid persona , explaining that this allows the character to " float between comical moments and underlying drama without seeming false . " Additionally , Melissa Harper from Anime News Network praises Edward 's facial expressions as some of the most humorous highlights of the series , including also the moments in which he reacts quite violently to comments about his small stature . They also praise him for not being a stereotypical shōnen character as it is noted that he has " very real skills , relationships , and personality " . Samuel Arbogast from T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews also comments that the interaction between the Elric brothers as they travel is interesting , and praises their humor scenes as they help to balance the dark parts of the series . Similarly , Mania Entertainment 's Jarred Pine liked the dynamic between the Elrics brothers as while Edward is often faced with following " dark paths " in the same way as villains with the series , he is always supported by Alphonse who makes sure he is okay . Judge Joel Pearce from DVD Verdict commented on Edward 's journey , considering it very complex morally because he is trying to do good within a morally questionable organization . Lydia Hojnacki listed Ed as one of the reasons she likes Fullmetal Alchemist , noting the progression of the character 's personality throughout the series , from simple maturity to a deeper sensitivity . The character was noted to go through a notable development in the manga after meeting his father by Holly Ellingwood from Active Anime as it made him decide to see the investigate from the human he and Alphonse created as children which led him to find a clue about how to recover his brother 's body . On the other hand , Maria Lin from Animefringe criticized Edward 's development in the first animated adaptation of Fullmetal Alchemist , as in the series ' finale he once again attempted to resurrect a human .
= Picardy Spaniel =
The Picardy Spaniel is a breed of dog developed in France for use as a gundog . It is related to the Blue Picardy Spaniel , and still has many similarities , but the Picardy Spaniel is the older of the two breeds . It is thought to be one of the two oldest continental spaniel breeds and was favoured by the French nobility , remaining popular for hunting after the French Revolution due to its weather resistant coat that enabled it to hunt in a variety of conditions and terrain . However its popularity waned following the influx of English hunting breeds in the early 20th century . Slightly smaller than an English Setter but larger than most of its spaniel cousins , it has no major health issues although as with many breeds with pendulous ears , it can be prone to ear infections .
= = History = =
The French Spaniel and the Picardy Spaniel are considered to be the two oldest continental breeds of spaniel . Both breeds are speculated to have stemmed from the Chien d ' Oysel described in the writings of Gaston Phoebus . Hunting during this period in France was one of the favourite sports of the nobility and the French type of Spaniel became the favourite hunting dog of the French Royalty . The breed can be seen in paintings dating from this period by artists Alexandre @-@ François Desportes and Jean @-@ Baptiste Oudry . They were also the first breed of dog to be admitted into salons .
The breed became more popular still following the French Revolution and the aftermath in which hunting was no longer restricted to the nobility . Although spread throughout France , a large concentration was located in the north west where the weather resistant coat of the breed made it ideal for the wooded and swampy conditions . During the early 19th century , British hunters crossed the channel to hunt in the grounds of north west France . The British brought their own hunting dogs , and this resulted in a change of preference as French hunters switched to English breeds and caused a major blow to the existence of the Picardy Spaniel . In addition the infusion of blood from the English Setter into the local spaniel population created the Blue Picardy Spaniel .
= = = Recognition = = =
The Epagneul Picard Club was formed in 1921 and was merged with the Club of Blue Picardy Spaniel on 28 July 1937 . A further merger took place on 21 May 1980 when these clubs merged with the Pont @-@ Audemer Club to form the Club des Epagneuls Picards , Bleus de Picardie & Pont Audemer .
The Picardy Spaniel is recognised by a variety of Kennel Clubs and associations including the North American Kennel Club , American Rare Breed Association , United Kennel Club , and the Fédération Cynologique Internationale . All four associations use the standard as set by the FCI . It is also recognised by the Continental Kennel Club , but unlike the closely related Blue Picardy Spaniel , it is not recognised by the Canadian Kennel Club .
= = Description = =
= = = Appearance = = =
Typical examples of the breed measure between 22 – 24 inches ( 56 – 61 cm ) at the withers , with the average weight between 20 – 25 kilograms ( 44 – 55 lb ) . The breed is similar in size to the English Setter , although is slightly smaller . Of the Spaniel type breeds , only the Large Münsterländer and Drentse Patrijshond are recognised as possibly growing to larger sizes , with the Drentse measuring 21 @.@ 5 – 25 @.@ 5 in ( 55 – 65 cm ) , and the Münsterländer slightly smaller with a narrower range at 23 – 25 in ( 58 – 64 cm ) .
The breed has a squarely built muscular body and an oval shaped head with a long muzzle and long ears that hang fairly low . Its coat can vary in colours from chocolate , chestnut brown and white with sandy coloured markings on the head and white or grey spots on the legs . Its hair is abundant with a slight wave , enabling it to work in dense cover and even in water .
= = = Temperament = = =
The Picardy Spaniel is a docile breed of dog and is fond of playing with children and bonds well with their master . It is described as having a gentle sociable nature , possessing a good character and being relatively easy to train . In France , the breed is used for hunting in wooded areas for Pheasants , and in swamps for Snipes . However it can also be used for hunting ducks , hares and rabbits . The breed excels at hunting in marshes and will not hesitate to jump into water . It can also adequately serve as a retriever should it be required . The dog is content with a small amount of space and could suit life in the city , but also loves open spaces .
= = Health = =
The Picardy Spaniel has no known hereditary health problems , and has an average lifespan of 14 years . However being a hunting spaniel , the breed is prone to ear infections . These infections are common among dogs with pendulous ears , including Basset Hounds and other breeds of spaniel . Overfeeding a Picardy Spaniel may lead to overweight .
= U @-@ Drop Inn =
The U @-@ Drop Inn , also known as Tower Station and U @-@ Drop Inn and Tower Café , was built in 1936 in Shamrock , Texas along the historic Route 66 highway . Inspired by the image of a nail stuck in soil , the building was designed by J. C. Berry . An unusual example of art deco architecture applied to a gas station and restaurant , the building features two flared towers with geometric detailing , curvilinear massing , glazed ceramic tile walls , and neon light accents . It has traditionally held two separate business : " Tower Station " , a gas station on the western side , and the " U @-@ Drop Inn " , a café on the eastern side . Though it has passed hands several times in its history , the building has consistently housed the same types of businesses it was originally constructed for .
Once considered a beautiful and impressive example of Route 66 architecture in Texas , the U @-@ Drop Inn fell into disrepair with the decommissioning of Route 66 . It closed for business in the late 1990s . After it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in September 1997 , the building was purchased by the First National Bank of Shamrock , which then gave it to the city . Primarily funded by a US $ 1 @.@ 7 million federal grant , the city hired a firm specializing in historical renovation to restore the building to its original glory and adapt it into a museum , visitors ' center , gift shop , and the city 's chamber of commerce . In 2006 animated film Cars , the cartoon village of Radiator Springs was based on multiple real U.S. Route 66 landmarks from Peach Springs to Baxter Springs ; the U @-@ Drop Inn 's distinctive architecture appears as Ramone 's automotive body and paint shop .
On St. Patrick 's Day 2014 , a Tesla high power electric vehicle charging station , known commonly as a supercharger , was opened on site .
= = History = =
= = = Early days = = =
Opened on April 1 , 1936 , the U @-@ Drop Inn was built by J.M. Tindall using a design created by his friend , John Nunn , who scratched the design on a patch of dirt in the driveway of a nearby motel . Tindall had Pampa architect J.C. Berry draw up the blueprints for the art deco structure , and construction began at the busy intersection of Route 66 and U.S. Route 83 . Nunn , whose family owned and ran the business , sponsored a contest to decide the name of the new building . An eight @-@ year @-@ old boy won a week 's worth of waitressing pay ( approximately $ 50 @.@ 00 at the time ) with his entry of " U @-@ Drop Inn " . In addition to a café , the building housed a gas station that sold Conoco brand fuel and a store . The store was never actually opened as a store , and became a ballroom and overflow dining area for the café .
When the business opened , the local newspaper called it " the most up @-@ to @-@ date edifice of its kind on U.S. Highway 66 between Oklahoma City and Amarillo " , with the café considered " the swankiest of the swank eating places " . At the time of opening , the U @-@ Drop was the only café within 100 miles ( 160 km ) of Shamrock , enjoying brisk business and becoming a successful establishment . Nunn sold the Inn after several years , but purchased it back in 1950 and renamed it Nunn 's Café . In 1957 , John Nunn died and his wife Bebe sold the café to Grace Brunner who again renamed it , this time to Tower Café , and added a Greyhound bus station .
= = = Decline = = =
After Nunn 's death , the building passed through the hands of a few more owners and the station sold gasoline from various other companies . In the 1970s , Fina took over the building , painting it red , white , and blue . In the early 1980s , James R. Tindall , Sr. purchased the building , the construction of which his father had originally financed , repainted it to its original colors , and changed the name back to the original name of U @-@ Drop Inn . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the building was repossessed by the bank and closed completely in 1997 . Up through its closing , the café at the U @-@ Drop was praised for its low @-@ priced and tasty " home cooking " .
With signing of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 , Route 66 fell into decline , with segments being bypassed via turnpikes and newer highways . With the opening of Interstate 40 , Shamrock became one of the bypassed towns and the U @-@ Drop Inn , which once served thousands of travelers fell into disrepair due to neglect . In 1984 , Route 66 was decommissioned by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials , seeming to seal the fate of the town and the U @-@ Drop Inn . In 1990 , several state and local historical associations began efforts to preserve the architectural landmarks along the old route , particularly the many derelict or abandoned motels .
= = = Restoration = = =
Called " one of the most impressive examples " of Route 66 architecture by the Texas Historical Commission , the U @-@ Drop Inn was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 18 , 1997 . In May 1999 , the First National Bank of Shamrock purchased the U @-@ Drop Inn , then gave it to the city of Shamrock .
The city of Shamrock began taking measures to revive the neglected structure as a tourist attraction . In 2000 , the city hired Phillips Swager Associates of Dallas and Architexas , a firm specializing in historical preservation , to begin implementing a phased restoration plan .
The company adapted the old gas station and café to act as the community 's chamber of commerce and visitor center while preserving the building 's architectural features and historical authenticity . Old photographs and interviews with residents were used to aid the company in uncovering the buildings original details . They peeled away decades of paint layers and fabric to find the original interior and exterior colors . One of the more difficult aspects was in restoring the neon accents . While historical photographs showed where neon existed , they had all been taken during the daytime when the neon lights were off , making it difficult to determine what color the lights originally were .
The restoration also included turning the building into a museum of its own history , giving it the authentic appearance of a working 1940 gas station . With $ 1 @.@ 7 million in funding by the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century , the restoration was completed in July 2003 .
In May 2013 , the neon lighting of the restored U @-@ Drop Inn was damaged by a hailstorm ; the damaged elements were replaced by LEDs in February 2014 . The café will serve fountain drinks , coffee and floats in 2014 after many years with no food or beverage service .
= = Architecture = =
With its glazed brick , " zigzag " motif , strong vertical elements , and the decorative structure , particularly the metal " tulip " , the building is considered to be an excellent example of the Art Deco style . Art Deco was most commonly seen in large commercial and public buildings , so its use in a gas station and roadside restaurant was a rare sight . The U @-@ Drop is one of the few Art Deco cafés built in the 1930s , and it stands out architecturally from its peers , as most depression @-@ era cafés had simpler and similar wood @-@ frame and clapboard designs or followed the Streamline Moderne offshoot of Art Deco .
The original building was designed by John Nunn and architect J. C. Berry . The 1 @-@ story concrete and brick building has a modified rectangular layout with a flat roof . It features a flared tower over the gas station , and two canopies , one facing Route 66 and one facing Highway 83 over the front of the gas station office . In the rear , a second , shorter tower contained the restaurant . The main buildings were built of structural clay tile with terra @-@ cotta glazed brick . The two towers are clad in stucco with decorative green and gold glazed terra @-@ cotta tiles and cast concrete stepped forms . Designed to attract the attention of the passing motorists , the towers also feature geometric detailing , curvilinear massing , and are outlined with neon lighting added additional character and uniqueness to the building 's design .
Historically , the U @-@ Drop Inn held two separate businesses that shared a single interior wall . The west side , commonly called " Tower Station " " is dominated by a large four @-@ sided obelisk rising from the flat roof and topped by a metal " tulip " . " The tower displayed the station name , Conoco , in all capital letters on each side , with neon lighting on the corners . Vertical @-@ rubbed detailing goes along the base of both towers , as well as two canopies that extend south and west from the western tower . The posts of the canopies were originally encased in decorative glazed tile and vintage metal signs . Between the canopy posts are fuel islands designed to hold three fuel pumps each . 1960s @-@ vintage pumps are situated on the islands , with three on the western canopy and two on the southern . A chamfered corner separates the two canopies . Multiple @-@ pane windows surround the glass doors of the office station , as well as dominating much of the southern side of the building . Situated between the office and the café are two service station bays with roll @-@ up style overhead doors .
The east side of the building , commonly called the " U @-@ Drop Inn café " has a similarly designed , three @-@ sided , shorter version of the main tower . Mirroring the " Conoco " wording , it has " Café " written in the same green paint with drop shadowed lettering , and a small ornamental metal sphere perched at its top . Just below the tower , an outstretched metal and wooden sign , added in 1950 , displays the name of the building and points towards the recessed entrance . This side mirrors the tiled detail found in the station side , and once had a neon " starburst " around the sign and entryway . Inside the café , the eastern and southern interior walls are lined with booths . The northern wall holds two small restrooms , with the kitchen once located in the northeastern corner . On the southern wall , a recessed doorway flanked by large single @-@ paned windows led into the café 's main dining room . The building 's exterior is pained beige with dark green accents . On the northern facade , the original brick remains unpainted .
= = In popular culture = =
The 2006 Pixar computer @-@ animated film Cars is set in the cartoon village of Radiator Springs , which was created as a composite of real landmarks and personalities encountered by Pixar artists on multiple research trips on 1 @,@ 200 miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) of the former U.S. Route 66 . Among the buildings and structures based on Route 66 landmarks is a version of Tower Station . U @-@ Drop Inn 's unique design and architecture is portrayed as an automotive body shop owned by the character Ramone , a Chevrolet Impala lowrider .
= They Don 't Care About Us =
" They Don 't Care About Us " is the fourth single from Michael Jackson 's album HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , released on March 31 , 1996 . The song remains one of the most controversial pieces Jackson ever composed . In the US , media scrutiny surrounding allegations of antisemitic lyrics were the catalyst for Jackson issuing multiple apologies and re @-@ recording the song with altered lyrics . The singer countered allegations of antisemitism , arguing that reviews had misinterpreted the context of the song , either unintentionally or deliberately . The song was also covered by Christian alternative metal band P.O.D. in 1998 as a bonus track on the special edition version of their album , The Fundamental Elements of Southtown . The album contains an uncensored version of the song . Christian stores removed the album when the special edition came out because of the controversial lyrics including " Jew me " and " Kike me . "
The song was accompanied by two music videos directed by Spike Lee . The first was shot in two locations in Brazil , in Pelourinho , the historic city centre of Salvador , and in a favela of Rio de Janeiro called Dona Marta , where the state authorities had tried to ban all production over fears the video would damage their image , the area and prospects of Rio de Janeiro staging the 2004 Olympics . Still , the residents of the area were happy to see the singer , hoping their problems would be made visible to a wider audience . The second video was shot in a prison and contained video footage of multiple references to human rights abuses .
Commercially , the song became a top ten hit in all European countries and number one in Germany for three weeks . In the US , radio stations were reluctant to play the controversial composition ; it , however , managed to peak at number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
The song was remixed with parts of songs such as " Privacy " ( from the album Invincible ) and " Tabloid Junkie " , and released on the Immortal album , in November , 2011 .
The song was performed during Jackson 's third and final concert series , the HIStory World Tour which ran from 1996 to 1997 as part of a medley with " Scream " and " In the Closet " . The song was set to be performed on Jackson 's This Is It comeback concert series at The O2 Arena in London from July 2009 to March 2010 but the shows were ultimately cancelled due to his sudden death on June 25 , 2009 .
= = Music and other commentary = =
The song begins with a child chanting , " Enough is enough of this garbage ! " and someone else helps sing the chorus — " All I wanna say is that they don 't really care about us " . According to the sheet music published on Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing " They Don 't Care About Us " is played in the key of D minor and the track 's time signature is common time . The song , which is cited as being a pop song , has a moderately slow tempo of 88 beats per minute . Instruments used include a piano and guitar . Jon Pareles stated that Jackson was calling himself " a victim of police brutality " and a " victim of hate " . He continued , " A listener might wonder just who ' Us ' is supposed to be ... To make the songs lodge in the ear , Jackson uses elementary singsong melodies – a ' nyah , nyah ' two @-@ note motif in ' They Don 't Care About Us ' ... and he comes up with all kinds of surprises in the arrangements " .
James Hunter of Rolling Stone magazine noted that musically , Jackson was no longer trying to hide any eccentricities he had , he expressed the opinion that in " They Don 't Care About Us " , the pop musician sounded more embattled than ever . Jim Farber of New York Daily News said that Jackson " snarled " while singing , that the song " clicked " and has an " original clattering rhythm " . The review of HIStory in The Washington Times noted of " They Don 't Care About Us " : " [ it ] follows fast , inviting more pathos – and more controversy . With haunting clapping and a police scanner in the background " . The Sacramento Bee described it as a " looped reggae @-@ lite dance beat " .
The song gained renewed attention and relevance due to its use during Black Lives Matter protests in 2014 and 2015 .
= = Chart performance = =
In the UK , it peaked at number four and stayed on the chart for three months . The song found particular success in Europe , peaking within the top ten in all countries . European highlights came in Austria , Switzerland , France , Belgium and Sweden , in these countries the song became a top five hit and stayed in their respective charts for a minimum of 21 weeks . The song reached the top of the charts for three weeks in Germany and stayed a full 30 weeks in the survey . It is the longest consecutive chart run of a Michael Jackson song in the German charts . The lyrical controversy surrounding " They Don 't Care About Us " brought partial commercial disappointment in the US ; radio stations were reluctant to play the song . It peaked at number 30 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , falling short of the record breaking success of the two previous singles " Scream / Childhood " and " You Are Not Alone " , yet the song peaked at number 10 on the US Billboard Hot R & B Singles chart .
= = Music videos = =
Producing the first video proved to be a difficult task for Jackson . State authorities unsuccessfully tried to ban the singer filming in Salvador ( Pelourinho ) and in Rio de Janeiro . Officials in the state of Rio feared images of poverty might affect tourism and accused Jackson of exploiting the poor . Ronaldo Cezar Coelho , the state secretary for Industry , Commerce and Tourism demanded editing rights over the finished product , stating , " I don 't see why we should have to facilitate films that will contribute nothing to all our efforts to rehabilitate Rio 's image " . Some were concerned that scenes of poverty and human rights abuses would affect their chances of hosting the Olympics in 2004 . Others supported Jackson 's wish to highlight the problems of the region , arguing that the government were embarrassed by their own failings .
A judge banned all filming but this ruling was overturned by an injunction . Although officials were angry , the residents were not and Jackson was surrounded by crowds of enthusiastic onlookers during filming . One woman managed to push through security to hug Jackson who continued dancing while hugging her . Another woman appeared and hugged him from behind . He then fell to the ground as police pulled the two women off him and escorted them away . After the director helped Jackson get up off the street , he continued to sing and dance . This incident made it into the music video . 1 @,@ 500 policemen and 50 residents acting as security guards effectively sealed off the Dona Marta favela . Some residents and officials found it offensive that Jackson 's production team had negotiated with drug dealers in order to gain permission to film in one of the city 's shantytowns .
The music video was directed by Spike Lee . Asked why he chose Lee to direct the video , Jackson responded , " ' They Don 't Care About Us ' has an edge , and Spike Lee had approached me . It 's a public awareness song and that 's what he is all about . It 's a protest kind of song ... and I think he was perfect for it " .
Jackson also collaborated with 200 members of the cultural group Olodum , who " swayed to the heavy beat of Salvador 's ' samba @-@ reggae ' music " . The media interest surrounding the music video exposed Olodum to 140 countries around the world . It brought them worldwide fame and increased their credibility in Brazil . At the beginning of the video , a Brazilian woman says " Michael , eles não ligam pra gente " which means " Michael , they don 't care about us " .
Speaking of the music video , in The New Brazilian Cinema , Lúcia Nagib observed :
When Michael Jackson decided to shoot his new music video in a favela of Rio de Janeiro ... he used the favela people as extras in a visual super @-@ spectacle ... All the while there is a vaguely political appeal in there ... The interesting aspect of Michael Jackson 's strategy is the efficiency with which it gives visibility to poverty and social problems in countries like Brazil without resorting to traditional political discourse . The problematic aspect is that it does not entail a real intervention in that poverty .
In 2009 , Billboard described the area as " now a model for social development " and claimed that Jackson 's influence was partially responsible for this improvement .
For the first time in his career , Jackson made a second music video for a single . This second version was filmed in a prison with cell mates ; in the video Jackson is seen handcuffed . It also contains real footage of police attacking African Americans , the military crackdown of the protest in the Tiananmen Square , the Ku Klux Klan , war crimes , genocide , execution , martial law , and other human rights abuses .
The first music video of the song appears on the box set Visionary : The Video Singles , and the video albums HIStory on Film , Volume II and Vision ; the latter additionally includes the prison version .
The voice intro , " Michael , Michael , eles não ligam pra gente " ( portuguese for " they don 't care about us " ) , was recorded by Angélica Vieira , producer of Manhattan Connection .
= = Cover versions = =
In 2009 , Northern Kings covered the song as bonus track for on their 2008 album Rethroned .
In 2012 , Italian jazz trumpeter Enrico Rava released a version on his tribute album Rava on the Dance Floor .
In 2014 , 2Cellos released a cover of the song on their album Celloverse .
In 2014 , a Nigerian , King A @-@ Maz , used the song to protest the Nigerian government 's nonchalance concerning the Boko Haram carnage going on at that time . The single was uploaded to YouTube , along with amateur footage , which caused a lot of controversy due to the newspaper clippings used in the footage .
The Tupac Shakur album entitled Better Dayz ( 2002 ) features a song named " They Don 't Give a Fuck About Us " . With different lyrics , the song contained a similar theme and musical composition style . Tupac discusses the trials and tribulations of the black and working class communities , referring to " they " as the middle class , media , U.S. that did not understand him .
= = 2009 rehearsal footage = =
A short video clip released after Jackson 's death of the June 23 , 2009 rehearsal for the This Is It concert series shows Jackson performing the song as the main song in a medley with parts of " HIStory " song as well as " Why You Wanna Trip On Me " and " She Drives Me Wild " from Dangerous .
= = Dispute regarding lyrics and context = =
The New York Times reported the song contained racist and anti @-@ Semitic content on June 15 , 1995 , just a day before the album 's release . The publication highlighted the lyrics , " Jew me , sue me , everybody do me / Kick me , kike me , don 't you black or white me . " Jackson responded directly to the publication , stating :
When questioned further about the lyrics on the ABC News program Prime Time Live , Jackson stated , " It 's not anti @-@ Semitic because I 'm not a racist person ... I could never be a racist . I love all races . " The singer also claimed that some of his closest employees and friends were Jewish . That same day , Jackson received support from his manager and record label , who described the lyrics as " brilliant " , that they were about opposition to prejudice and taken out of context . The following day , two leading members of the Jewish community stated that Jackson 's attempt to make a song critical of discrimination had backfired . They expressed the opinion that the lyrics used were unsuitable for a teenage audience that might not understand the song 's context , adding that the song was too ambiguous for some listeners to understand . They accepted that Jackson meant well and suggested that the entertainer write an explanation in the album booklet .
On June 17 , Jackson issued another public apology for his choice of words . He promised that future copies of the album would include an apology . By this point , however , two million copies of the record had already been shipped . The singer concluded , " I just want you all to know how strongly I am committed to tolerance , peace and love , and I apologize to anyone who might have been hurt . " The next day , in his review of HIStory , Jon Pareles of The New York Times alleged , " In ... ' They Don 't Care About Us ' , he gives the lie to his entire catalogue of brotherhood anthems with a burst of anti @-@ Semitism . "
On June 21 , Patrick Macdonald of The Seattle Times criticized Jackson , stating , " He may have lived a sheltered life , but there really is no excuse for using terms like ' Jew me ' and ' kike ' in a pop song , unless you make it clear you are denouncing such terms , and do so in an artful way . " Two days later , Jackson decided , despite the cost incurred , he would return to the studio and alter the offending wording on future copies of the album ; " Jew me " and " Kike me " would be substituted with " do me " and " strike me " . The music video and some copies of the album still carry the original words , but with loud , abstract noises partially drowning them out . He reiterated his acceptance that the song was offensive to some . Spike Lee claimed there was some kind of double standard in the music industry . " While the New York Times asserted the use of racial slurs in " They Don 't Care About Us " , they were silent on other racial slurs in the album . The Notorious B.I.G. says " nigga " on " This Time Around , " another song on the HIStory album , but it did not attract media attention , as well as , many years before , use in lyrics of word " nigger " by John Lennon .
= = Charts = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= = Track listing = =
= = = U.S. and Japan maxi single = = =
= = = U.S. CD Single = = =
= = = UK single = = =
= = = Visionary single = = =
CD side
" They Don 't Care About Us " ( LP Edit ) – 4 : 10
" They Don 't Care About Us " ( Love to Infinity 's Walk in the Park Mix ) – 7 : 19
DVD side
" They Don 't Care About Us " ( LP Edit ) – 4 : 10
" They Don 't Care About Us " ( Love to Infinity 's Walk in the Park Mix ) – 7 : 19
" They Don 't Care About Us " ( Music Video # 1 – in Brazil with Olodum music group ) ( Video ) – 7 : 09
= = = US 7 " Inch Single : Epic – 34 78264 = = =
" They Don 't Care About Us " - 4 : 43
" Rock With You " ( Frankie Knuckles Radio Mix ) - 3 : 47
= = Personnel = =
Michael Jackson : written by , solo vocals , percussion
Trevor Rabin : guitar ( background )
= Benzodiazepine =
Benzodiazepines ( BZD , BZs ) , sometimes called " benzos " , are a class of psychoactive drugs whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring . The first such drug , chlordiazepoxide ( Librium ) , was discovered accidentally by Leo Sternbach in 1955 , and made available in 1960 by Hoffmann – La Roche , which , since 1963 , has also marketed the benzodiazepine diazepam ( Valium ) . In 1977 benzodiazepines were globally the most prescribed medications .
Benzodiazepines enhance the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma @-@ aminobutyric acid ( GABA ) at the GABAA receptor , resulting in sedative , hypnotic ( sleep @-@ inducing ) , anxiolytic ( anti @-@ anxiety ) , anticonvulsant , and muscle relaxant properties . High doses of many shorter @-@ acting benzodiazepines may also cause anterograde amnesia and dissociation . These properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating anxiety , insomnia , agitation , seizures , muscle spasms , alcohol withdrawal and as a premedication for medical or dental procedures . Benzodiazepines are categorized as either short- , intermediate- , or long @-@ acting . Short- and intermediate @-@ acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of insomnia ; longer @-@ acting benzodiazepines are recommended for the treatment of anxiety .
Benzodiazepines are generally viewed as safe and effective for short @-@ term use , although cognitive impairment and paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition occasionally occur . A minority of people can have paradoxical reactions such as worsened agitation or panic . Long @-@ term use is controversial because of concerns about adverse psychological and physical effects , decreasing effectiveness , and physical dependence and withdrawal . As a result of adverse effects associated with the long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines , withdrawal from benzodiazepines , in general , leads to improved physical and mental health . The elderly are at an increased risk of suffering from both short- and long @-@ term adverse effects , and as a result , all benzodiazepines are listed in the Beers List of inappropriate medications for older adults .
There is controversy concerning the safety of benzodiazepines in pregnancy . While they are not major teratogens , uncertainty remains as to whether they cause cleft palate in a small number of babies and whether neurobehavioural effects occur as a result of prenatal exposure ; they are known to cause withdrawal symptoms in the newborn . Benzodiazepines can be taken in overdoses and can cause dangerous deep unconsciousness . However , they are much less toxic than their predecessors , the barbiturates , and death rarely results when a benzodiazepine is the only drug taken ; however , when combined with other central nervous system ( CNS ) depressants such as ethanol and opioids , the potential for toxicity and fatal overdose increases . Benzodiazepines are commonly misused and taken in combination with other drugs of abuse .
= = Medical uses = =
Benzodiazepines possess sedative , hypnotic , anxiolytic , anticonvulsant , muscle relaxant , and amnesic actions , which are useful in a variety of indications such as alcohol dependence , seizures , anxiety , panic , agitation , and insomnia . Most are administered orally ; however , they can also be given intravenously , intramuscularly , or rectally . In general , benzodiazepines are well @-@ tolerated and are safe and effective drugs in the short term for a wide range of conditions . Tolerance can develop to their effects and there is also a risk of dependence , and upon discontinuation a withdrawal syndrome may occur . These factors , combined with other possible secondary effects after prolonged use such as psychomotor , cognitive , or memory impairments , limit their long @-@ term applicability . The effects of long @-@ term use or misuse include the tendency to cause or worsen cognitive deficits , depression , and anxiety .
= = = Panic disorder = = =
Because of their effectiveness , tolerability , and rapid onset of anxiolytic action , benzodiazepines are frequently used for the treatment of anxiety associated with panic disorder . However , there is disagreement among expert bodies regarding the long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines for panic disorder . The views range from those that hold that benzodiazepines are not effective long @-@ term and that they should be reserved for treatment @-@ resistant cases to that they are as effective in the long term as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors .
The American Psychiatric Association ( APA ) guidelines note that , in general , benzodiazepines are well tolerated , and their use for the initial treatment for panic disorder is strongly supported by numerous controlled trials . APA states that there is insufficient evidence to recommend any of the established panic disorder treatments over another . The choice of treatment between benzodiazepines , SSRIs , serotonin – norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors , tricyclic antidepressants , and psychotherapy should be based on the patient 's history , preference , and other individual characteristics . Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are likely to be the best choice of pharmacotherapy for many patients with panic disorder , but benzodiazepines are also often used , and some studies suggest that these medications are still used with greater frequency than the SSRIs . One advantage of benzodiazepines is that they alleviate the anxiety symptoms much faster than antidepressants , and therefore may be preferred in patients for whom rapid symptom control is critical . However , this advantage is offset by the possibility of developing benzodiazepine dependence . APA does not recommend benzodiazepines for persons with depressive symptoms or a recent history of substance abuse . The APA guidelines state that , in general , pharmacotherapy of panic disorder should be continued for at least a year , and that clinical experience support continuing benzodiazepine treatment to prevent recurrence . Although major concerns about benzodiazepine tolerance and withdrawal have been raised , there is no evidence for significant dose escalation in patients using benzodiazepines long @-@ term . For many such patients stable doses of benzodiazepines retain their efficacy over several years .
Guidelines issued by the UK @-@ based National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence ( NICE ) , carried out a systematic review using different methodology and came to a different conclusion . They questioned the accuracy of studies that were not placebo @-@ controlled . And , based on the findings of placebo @-@ controlled studies , they do not recommend use of benzodiazepines beyond two to four weeks , as tolerance and physical dependence develop rapidly , with withdrawal symptoms including rebound anxiety occurring after six weeks or more of use . Nevertheless , benzodiazepines continue to be prescribed for the long @-@ term treatment of anxiety disorders , although specific antidepressants and psychological therapies are recommended as the first @-@ line treatment options with the anticonvulsant drug pregabalin indicated as a second- or third @-@ line treatment and suitable for long @-@ term use . NICE stated that long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines for panic disorder with or without agoraphobia is an unlicensed indication , does not have long @-@ term efficacy , and is , therefore , not recommended by clinical guidelines . Psychological therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy are recommended as a first @-@ line therapy for panic disorder ; benzodiazepine use has been found to interfere with therapeutic gains from these therapies .
Benzodiazepines are usually administered orally ; however , very occasionally lorazepam or diazepam may be given intravenously for the treatment of panic attacks .
= = = Generalized anxiety disorder = = =
Benzodiazepines have robust efficacy in the short @-@ term management of generalized anxiety disorder ( GAD ) , but were not shown to be effective in producing long @-@ term improvement overall . According to National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence ( NICE ) , benzodiazepines can be used in the immediate management of GAD , if necessary . However , they should not usually be given for longer than 2 – 4 weeks . The only medications NICE recommends for the longer term management of GAD are antidepressants .
Likewise , Canadian Psychiatric Association ( CPA ) recommends benzodiazepines alprazolam , bromazepam , lorazepam , and diazepam only as a second @-@ line choice , if the treatment with two different antidepressants was unsuccessful . Although they are second @-@ line agents , benzodiazepines can be used for a limited time to relieve severe anxiety and agitation . CPA guidelines note that after 4 – 6 weeks the effect of benzodiazepines may decrease to the level of placebo , and that benzodiazepines are less effective than antidepressants in alleviating ruminative worry , the core symptom of GAD . However , in some cases , a prolonged treatment with benzodiazepines as the add @-@ on to an antidepressant may be justified .
A 2015 review found a larger effect with medications than talk therapy . Medications with benefit include serotonin @-@ noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors , benzodiazepines , and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors .
= = = Insomnia = = =
Benzodiazepines can be useful for short @-@ term treatment of insomnia . Their use beyond 2 to 4 weeks is not recommended due to the risk of dependence . It is preferred that benzodiazepines be taken intermittently and at the lowest effective dose . They improve sleep @-@ related problems by shortening the time spent in bed before falling asleep , prolonging the sleep time , and , in general , reducing wakefulness . However , they worsen sleep quality by increasing light sleep and decreasing deep sleep . Other drawbacks of hypnotics , including benzodiazepines , are possible tolerance to their effects , rebound insomnia , and reduced slow @-@ wave sleep and a withdrawal period typified by rebound insomnia and a prolonged period of anxiety and agitation .
The list of benzodiazepines approved for the treatment of insomnia is fairly similar among most countries , but which benzodiazepines are officially designated as first @-@ line hypnotics prescribed for the treatment of insomnia can vary distinctly between countries . Longer @-@ acting benzodiazepines such as nitrazepam and diazepam have residual effects that may persist into the next day and are , in general , not recommended .
Since the release of nonbenzodiazepines in 1992 in response to safety concerns , individuals with insomnia and other sleep disorders have increasingly been prescribed nonbenzodiazepines ( 2 @.@ 3 % in 1993 to 13 @.@ 7 % of Americans in 2010 ) , less often prescribed benzodiazepines ( 23 @.@ 5 % in 1993 to 10 @.@ 8 % in 2010 ) . It is not clear as to whether the new nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics ( Z @-@ drugs ) are better than the short @-@ acting benzodiazepines . The efficacy of these two groups of medications is similar . According to the US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality , indirect comparison indicates that side @-@ effects from benzodiazepines may be about twice as frequent as from nonbenzodiazepines . Some experts suggest using nonbenzodiazepines preferentially as a first @-@ line long @-@ term treatment of insomnia . However , the UK National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence did not find any convincing evidence in favor of Z @-@ drugs . NICE review pointed out that short @-@ acting Z @-@ drugs were inappropriately compared in clinical trials with long @-@ acting benzodiazepines . There have been no trials comparing short @-@ acting Z @-@ drugs with appropriate doses of short @-@ acting benzodiazepines . Based on this , NICE recommended choosing the hypnotic based on cost and the patient 's preference .
Older adults should not use benzodiazepines to treat insomnia unless other treatments have failed to be effective . When benzodiazepines are used , patients , their caretakers , and their physician should discuss the increased risk of harms , including evidence which shows twice the incidence of traffic collisions among driving patients as well as falls and hip fracture for all older patients .
= = = Seizures = = =
Prolonged convulsive epileptic seizures are a medical emergency that can usually be dealt with effectively by administering fast @-@ acting benzodiazepines , which are potent anticonvulsants . In a hospital environment , intravenous clonazepam , lorazepam , and diazepam are first @-@ line choices , clonazepam due to its stronger and more potent anticonvulsant action , diazepam due to its faster onset and lorazepam for its longer duration of action . In the community , intravenous administration is not practical and so rectal diazepam or ( more recently ) buccal midazolam are used , with a preference for midazolam as its administration is easier and more socially acceptable .
When benzodiazepines were first introduced , they were enthusiastically adopted for treating all forms of epilepsy . However , drowsiness and tolerance become problems with continued use and none are now considered first @-@ line choices for long @-@ term epilepsy therapy . Clobazam is widely used by specialist epilepsy clinics worldwide and clonazepam is popular in the Netherlands , Belgium and France . Clobazam was approved for use in the United States in 2011 . In the UK , both clobazam and clonazepam are second @-@ line choices for treating many forms of epilepsy . Clobazam also has a useful role for very short @-@ term seizure prophylaxis and in catamenial epilepsy . Discontinuation after long @-@ term use in epilepsy requires additional caution because of the risks of rebound seizures . Therefore , the dose is slowly tapered over a period of up to six months or longer .
= = = Alcohol withdrawal = = =
Chlordiazepoxide is the most commonly used benzodiazepine for alcohol detoxification , but diazepam may be used as an alternative . Both are used in the detoxification of individuals who are motivated to stop drinking , and are prescribed for a short period of time to reduce the risks of developing tolerance and dependence to the benzodiazepine medication itself . The benzodiazepines with a longer half @-@ life make detoxification more tolerable , and dangerous ( and potentially lethal ) alcohol withdrawal effects are less likely to occur . On the other hand , short @-@ acting benzodiazepines may lead to breakthrough seizures , and are , therefore , not recommended for detoxification in an outpatient setting . Oxazepam and lorazepam are often used in patients at risk of drug accumulation , in particular , the elderly and those with cirrhosis , because they are metabolized differently from other benzodiazepines , through conjugation .
Benzodiazepines are the preferred choice in the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome , in particular , for the prevention and treatment of the dangerous complication of seizures and in subduing severe delirium . Lorazepam is the only benzodiazepine with predictable intramuscular absorption and it is the most effective in preventing and controlling acute seizures .
= = = Anxiety = = =
Benzodiazepines are sometimes used in the treatment of acute anxiety , as they bring about rapid and marked or moderate relief of symptoms in most individuals ; however , they are not recommended beyond 2 – 4 weeks of use due to risks of tolerance and dependence and a lack of long @-@ term effectiveness . As for insomnia , they may also be used on an irregular / " as @-@ needed " basis , such as in cases where said anxiety is at its worst . Compared to other pharmacological treatments , benzodiazepines are twice as likely to lead to a relapse of the underlying condition upon discontinuation . Psychological therapies and other pharmacological therapies are recommended for the long @-@ term treatment of generalized anxiety disorder . Antidepressants have higher remission rates and are , in general , safe and effective in the short and long term .
= = = Other indications = = =
Benzodiazepines are often prescribed for a wide range of conditions :
They can be very useful in intensive care to sedate patients receiving mechanical ventilation or those in extreme distress . Caution is exercised in this situation due to the occasional occurrence of respiratory depression , and it is recommended that benzodiazepine overdose treatment facilities should be available .
Benzodiazepines are effective as medication given a couple of hours before surgery to relieve anxiety . They also produce amnesia , which can be useful , as patients will not be able to remember any unpleasantness from the procedure . They are also used in patients with dental phobia as well as some ophthalmic procedures like refractive surgery ; although such use is controversial and only recommended for those who are very anxious . Midazolam is the most commonly prescribed for this use because of its strong sedative actions and fast recovery time , as well as its water solubility , which reduces pain upon injection . Diazepam and lorazepam are sometimes used . Lorazepam has particularly marked amnesic properties that may make it more effective when amnesia is the desired effect .
Benzodiazepines are well known for their strong muscle @-@ relaxing properties and can be useful in the treatment of muscle spasms , although tolerance often develops to their muscle relaxant effects . Baclofen or tizanidine are sometimes used as an alternative to benzodiazepines . Tizanidine has been found to have superior tolerability compared to diazepam and baclofen .
Benzodiazepines are also used to treat the acute panic caused by hallucinogen intoxication . Benzodiazepines are also used to calm the acutely agitated individual and can , if required , be given via an intramuscular injection . They can sometimes be effective in the short @-@ term treatment of psychiatric emergencies such as acute psychosis as in schizophrenia or mania , bringing about rapid tranquillization and sedation until the effects of lithium or neuroleptics ( antipsychotics ) take effect . Lorazepam is most commonly used but clonazepam is sometimes prescribed for acute psychosis or mania ; their long @-@ term use is not recommended due to risks of dependence .
Clonazepam , a benzodiazepine is used to treat many forms of parasomnia . Rapid eye movement behavior disorder responds well to low doses of clonazepam . Restless legs syndrome can be treated using clonazepam as a third line treatment option as the use of clonazepam is still investigational .
Benzodiazepines are sometimes used for obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) , although they are generally believed to be ineffective for this indication ; effectiveness was , however , found in one small study . Benzodiazepines can be considered as a treatment option in treatment resistant cases .
Antipsychotics are generally a first @-@ line treatment for delirium ; however , when delirium is caused by alcohol or sedative hypnotic withdrawal , benzodiazepines are a first @-@ line treatment .
There is some evidence that low doses of benzodiazepines reduce adverse effects of electroconvulsive therapy .
= = Contraindications = =
Because of their muscle relaxant action , benzodiazepines may cause respiratory depression in susceptible individuals . For that reason , they are contraindicated in people with myasthenia gravis , sleep apnea , bronchitis , and COPD . Caution is required when benzodiazepines are used in people with personality disorders or intellectual disability because of frequent paradoxical reactions . In major depression , they may precipitate suicidal tendencies and are sometimes used for suicidal overdoses . Individuals with a history of alcohol , opioid and barbiturate abuse should avoid benzodiazepines , as there is a risk of life @-@ threatening interactions with these drugs .
= = = Pregnancy = = =
In the United States , the Food and Drug Administration has categorized benzodiazepines into either category D or X meaning potential for harm in the unborn has been demonstrated .
Exposure to benzodiazepines during pregnancy has been associated with a slightly increased ( from 0 @.@ 06 to 0 @.@ 07 % ) risk of cleft palate in newborns , a controversial conclusion as some studies find no association between benzodiazepines and cleft palate . Their use by expectant mothers shortly before the delivery may result in a floppy infant syndrome , with the newborns suffering from hypotonia , hypothermia , lethargy , and breathing and feeding difficulties . Cases of neonatal withdrawal syndrome have been described in infants chronically exposed to benzodiazepines in utero . This syndrome may be hard to recognize , as it starts several days after delivery , for example , as late as 21 day for chlordiazepoxide . The symptoms include tremors , hypertonia , hyperreflexia , hyperactivity , and vomiting and may last for up to three to six months . Tapering down the dose during pregnancy may lessen its severity . If used in pregnancy , those benzodiazepines with a better and longer safety record , such as diazepam or chlordiazepoxide , are recommended over potentially more harmful benzodiazepines , such as temazepam or triazolam . Using the lowest effective dose for the shortest period of time minimizes the risks to the unborn child .
= = = Elderly = = =
The benefits of benzodiazepines are least and the risks are greatest in the elderly . The elderly are at an increased risk of dependence and are more sensitive to the adverse effects such as memory problems , daytime sedation , impaired motor coordination , and increased risk of motor vehicle accidents and falls , and an increased risk of hip fractures . The long @-@ term effects of benzodiazepines and benzodiazepine dependence in the elderly can resemble dementia , depression , or anxiety syndromes , and progressively worsens over time . Adverse effects on cognition can be mistaken for the effects of old age . The benefits of withdrawal include improved cognition , alertness , mobility , reduced risk incontinence , and a reduced risk of falls and fractures . The success of gradual @-@ tapering benzodiazepines is as great in the elderly as in younger people . Benzodiazepines should be prescribed to the elderly only with caution and only for a short period at low doses . Short to intermediate @-@ acting benzodiazepines are preferred in the elderly such as oxazepam and temazepam . The high potency benzodiazepines alprazolam and triazolam and long @-@ acting benzodiazepines are not recommended in the elderly due to increased adverse effects . Nonbenzodiazepines such as zaleplon and zolpidem and low doses of sedating antidepressants are sometimes used as alternatives to benzodiazepines .
Long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines has been associated with increased risk of cognitive impairment , but its relationship with dementia remains inconclusive . The association of a past history of benzodiazepine use and cognitive decline is unclear , with some studies reporting a lower risk of cognitive decline in former users , some finding no association and some indicating an increased risk of cognitive decline .
Benzodiazepines are sometimes prescribed to treat behavioral symptoms of dementia . However , like antidepressants , they have little evidence of effectiveness , although antipsychotics have shown some benefit . Cognitive impairing effects of benzodiazepines that occur frequently in the elderly can also worsen dementia .
= = Adverse effects = =
The most common side @-@ effects of benzodiazepines are related to their sedating and muscle @-@ relaxing action . They include drowsiness , dizziness , and decreased alertness and concentration . Lack of coordination may result in falls and injuries , in particular , in the elderly . Another result is impairment of driving skills and increased likelihood of road traffic accidents . Decreased libido and erection problems are a common side effect . Depression and disinhibition may emerge . Hypotension and suppressed breathing ( hypoventilation ) may be encountered with intravenous use . Less common side effects include nausea and changes in appetite , blurred vision , confusion , euphoria , depersonalization and nightmares . Cases of liver toxicity have been described but are very rare .
The long @-@ term effects of benzodiazepine use can include cognitive impairment as well as affective and behavioural problems . Feelings of turmoil , difficulty in thinking constructively , loss of sex @-@ drive , agoraphobia and social phobia , increasing anxiety and depression , loss of interest in leisure pursuits and interests , and an inability to experience or express feelings can also occur . Not everyone , however , experiences problems with long @-@ term use . Additionally an altered perception of self , environment and relationships may occur .
= = = Cognitive effects = = =
The short @-@ term use of benzodiazepines adversely affects multiple areas of cognition , the most notable one being that it interferes with the formation and consolidation of memories of new material and may induce complete anterograde amnesia . However , researchers hold contrary opinions regarding the effects of long @-@ term administration . One view is that many of the short @-@ term effects continue into the long @-@ term and may even worsen , and are not resolved after stopping benzodiazepine usage . Another view maintains that cognitive deficits in chronic benzodiazepine users occur only for a short period after the dose , or that the anxiety disorder is the cause of these deficits .
While the definitive studies are lacking , the former view received support from a 2004 meta @-@ analysis of 13 small studies . This meta @-@ analysis found that long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines was associated with moderate to large adverse effects on all areas of cognition , with visuospatial memory being the most commonly detected impairment . Some of the other impairments reported were decreased IQ , visiomotor coordination , information processing , verbal learning and concentration . The authors of the meta @-@ analysis and a later reviewer noted that the applicability of this meta @-@ analysis is limited because the subjects were taken mostly from withdrawal clinics ; the coexisting drug , alcohol use , and psychiatric disorders were not defined ; and several of the included studies conducted the cognitive measurements during the withdrawal period .
= = = Paradoxical effects = = =
Paradoxical reactions , such as increased seizures in epileptics , aggression , violence , impulsivity , irritability and suicidal behavior sometimes occur . These reactions have been explained as consequences of disinhibition and the subsequent loss of control over socially unacceptable behavior . Paradoxical reactions are rare in the general population , with an incidence rate below 1 % and similar to placebo . However , they occur with greater frequency in recreational abusers , individuals with borderline personality disorder , children , and patients on high @-@ dosage regimes . In these groups , impulse control problems are perhaps the most important risk factor for disinhibition ; learning disabilities and neurological disorders are also significant risks . Most reports of disinhibition involve high doses of high @-@ potency benzodiazepines . Paradoxical effects may also appear after chronic use of benzodiazepines .
= = = Long @-@ term worsening of psychiatric symptoms = = =
While benzodizapines may have short @-@ term benefits for anxiety , sleep and agitation in some patients , long @-@ term ( i.e. , greater than 2 – 4 weeks ) use can result in a worsening of the very symptoms the medications are meant to treat . Potential explanations include exacerbating cognitive problems that are already common in anxiety disorders , causing or worsening depression and suicidality , disrupting sleep architecture by inhibiting deep stage sleep , withdrawal symptoms or rebound symptoms in between doses mimicking or exacerbating underlying anxiety or sleep disorders , inhibiting the benefits of psychotherapy by inhibiting memory consolidation and reducing fear extinction , and reducing coping with trauma / stress and increasing vulnerability to future stress . Anxiety , insomnia and irritability may be temporarily exacerbated during withdrawal , but psychiatric symptoms after discontinuation are usually less than even while taking benzodiazepines . Fortunately , for those with benzodiazepine @-@ induced problems , functioning significantly improves within 1 year of discontinuation .
= = = Reinforcement disorders = = =
= = = = Tolerance = = = =
The main problem of the chronic use of benzodiazepines is the development of tolerance and dependence . Tolerance manifests itself as diminished pharmacological effect and develops relatively quickly to the sedative , hypnotic , anticonvulsant , and muscle relaxant actions of benzodiazepines . Tolerance to anti @-@ anxiety effects develops more slowly with little evidence of continued effectiveness beyond four to six months of continued use . In general , tolerance to the amnesic effects does not occur . However , controversy exists as to tolerance to the anxiolytic effects with some evidence that benzodiazepines retain efficacy and opposing evidence from a systematic review of the literature that tolerance frequently occurs and some evidence that anxiety may worsen with long @-@ term use . The question of tolerance to the amnesic effects of benzodiazepines is , likewise , unclear . Some evidence suggests that partial tolerance does develop , and that , " memory impairment is limited to a narrow window within 90 minutes after each dose " .
A major disadvantage of benzodiazepines that tolerance to therapeutic effects develops relatively quickly while many adverse effects persist . Tolerance develops to hypnotic and myorelexant effects within days to weeks , and to anticonvulsant and anxiolytic effects within weeks to months . Therefore , benzodiazepines are unlikely to be effective long @-@ term treatments for sleep and anxiety . While BZD therapeutic effects disappear with tolerance , depression and impulsivity with high suicidal risk commonly persist . Several studies have confirmed that long @-@ term benzodiazepines are not significantly different from placebo for sleep or anxiety . This may explain why patients commonly increase doses over time and many eventually take more than one type of benzodiazepine after the first loses effectiveness . Additionally , because tolerance to benzodiazepine sedating effects develops more quickly than does tolerance to brainstem depressant effects , those taking more benzodiazepines to achieve desired effects may suffer sudden respiratory depression , hypotension or death . Most patients with anxiety disorders and PTSD have symptoms which persist for at least several months , making tolerance to therapeutic effects a distinct problem for them and necessitating the need for more effective long @-@ term treatment ( e.g. , psychotherapy , serotonergic antidepressants ) .
= = = = Withdrawal symptoms and management = = = =
Discontinuation of benzodiazepines or abrupt reduction of the dose , even after a relatively short course of treatment ( three to four weeks ) , may result in two groups of symptoms — rebound and withdrawal . Rebound symptoms are the return of the symptoms for which the patient was treated but worse than before . Withdrawal symptoms are the new symptoms that occur when the benzodiazepine is stopped . They are the main sign of physical dependence .
The most frequent symptoms of withdrawal from benzodiazepines are insomnia , gastric problems , tremors , agitation , fearfulness , and muscle spasms . The less frequent effects are irritability , sweating , depersonalization , derealization , hypersensitivity to stimuli , depression , suicidal behavior , psychosis , seizures , and delirium tremens . Severe symptoms usually occur as a result of abrupt or over @-@ rapid withdrawal . Abrupt withdrawal can be dangerous , therefore a gradual reduction regimen is recommended .
Symptoms may also occur during a gradual dosage reduction , but are typically less severe and may persist as part of a protracted withdrawal syndrome for months after cessation of benzodiazepines . Approximately 10 % of patients will experience a notable protracted withdrawal syndrome , which can persist for many months or in some cases a year or longer . Protracted symptoms tend to resemble those seen during the first couple of months of withdrawal but usually are of a sub @-@ acute level of severity . Such symptoms do gradually lessen over time , eventually disappearing altogether .
Benzodiazepines have a reputation with patients and doctors for causing a severe and traumatic withdrawal ; however , this is in large part due to the withdrawal process being poorly managed . Over @-@ rapid withdrawal from benzodiazepines increases the severity of the withdrawal syndrome and increases the failure rate . A slow and gradual withdrawal customised to the individual and , if indicated , psychological support is the most effective way of managing the withdrawal . Opinion as to the time needed to complete withdrawal ranges from four weeks to several years . A goal of less than six months has been suggested , but due to factors such as dosage and type of benzodiazepine , reasons for prescription , lifestyle , personality , environmental stresses , and amount of available support , a year or more may be needed to withdraw .
Withdrawal is best managed by transferring the physically dependent patient to an equivalent dose of diazepam because it has the longest half @-@ life of all of the benzodiazepines , is metabolised into long @-@ acting active metabolites and is available in low @-@ potency tablets , which can be quartered for smaller doses . A further benefit is that it is available in liquid form , which allows for even smaller reductions . Chlordiazepoxide , which also has a long half @-@ life and long @-@ acting active metabolites , can be used as an alternative .
Nonbenzodiazepines are contraindicated during benzodiazepine withdrawal as they are cross tolerant with benzodiazepines and can induce dependence . Alcohol is also cross tolerant with benzodiazepines and more toxic and thus caution is needed to avoid replacing one dependence with another . During withdrawal , fluoroquinolone @-@ based antibiotics are best avoided if possible ; they displace benzodiazepines from their binding site and reduce GABA function and , thus , may aggravate withdrawal symptoms . Antipsychotics are not recommended for benzodiazepine withdrawal ( or other CNS depressant withdrawal states ) especially clozapine , olanzapine or low potency phenothiazines e.g. chlorpromazine as they lower the seizure threshold and can worsen withdrawal effects ; if used extreme caution is required .
Withdrawal from long term benzodiazepines is beneficial for most individuals . Withdrawal of benzodiazepines from long @-@ term users , in general , leads to improved physical and mental health particularly in the elderly ; although some long term users report continued benefit from taking benzodiazepines , this may be the result of suppression of withdrawal effects .
= = Overdose = =
Although benzodiazepines are much safer in overdose than their predecessors , the barbiturates , they can still cause problems in overdose . Taken alone , they rarely cause severe complications in overdose ; statistics in England showed that benzodiazepines were responsible for 3 @.@ 8 % of all deaths by poisoning from a single drug . However , combining these drugs with alcohol , opiates or tricyclic antidepressants markedly raises the toxicity . The elderly are more sensitive to the side effects of benzodiazepines , and poisoning may even occur from their long @-@ term use . The various benzodiazepines differ in their toxicity ; temazepam appears to be most toxic in overdose and when used with other drugs . The symptoms of a benzodiazepine overdose may include ; drowsiness , slurred speech , nystagmus , hypotension , ataxia , coma , respiratory depression , and cardiorespiratory arrest .
A reversal agent for benzodiazepines exists , flumazenil ( Anexate ) . Its use as an antidote is not routinely recommended because of the high risk of resedation and seizures . In a double @-@ blind , placebo @-@ controlled trial of 326 patients , 4 patients suffered serious adverse events and 61 % became resedated following the use of flumazenil . Numerous contraindications to its use exist . It is contraindicated in patients with a history of long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines , those having ingested a substance that lowers the seizure threshold or may cause an arrhythmia , and in those with abnormal vital signs . One study found that only 10 % of the patient population presenting with a benzodiazepine overdose are suitable candidates for treatment with flumazenil .
= = Interactions = =
Individual benzodiazepines may have different interactions with certain drugs . Depending on their metabolism pathway , benzodiazepines can be divided roughly into two groups . The largest group consists of those that are metabolized by cytochrome P450 ( CYP450 ) enzymes and possess significant potential for interactions with other drugs . The other group comprises those that are metabolized through glucuronidation , such as lorazepam , oxazepam , and temazepam , and , in general , have few drug interactions .
Many drugs , including oral contraceptives , some antibiotics , antidepressants , and antifungal agents , inhibit cytochrome enzymes in the liver . They reduce the rate of elimination of the benzodiazepines that are metabolized by CYP450 , leading to possibly excessive drug accumulation and increased side @-@ effects . In contrast , drugs that induce cytochrome P450 enzymes , such as St John 's wort , the antibiotic rifampicin , and the anticonvulsants carbamazepine and phenytoin , accelerate elimination of many benzodiazepines and decrease their action . Taking benzodiazepines with alcohol , opioids and other central nervous system depressants potentiates their action . This often results in increased sedation , impaired motor coordination , suppressed breathing , and other adverse effects that have potential to be lethal . Antacids can slow down absorption of some benzodiazepines ; however , this effect is marginal and inconsistent .
= = Pharmacology = =
= = = Mechanism of action = = =
Benzodiazepines work by increasing the efficiency of a natural brain chemical , GABA , to decrease the excitability of neurons . This reduces the communication between neurons and , therefore , has a calming effect on many of the functions of the brain .
GABA controls the excitability of neurons by binding to the GABAA receptor . The GABAA receptor is a protein complex located in the synapses of neurons . All GABAA receptors contain an ion channel that conducts chloride ions across neuronal cell membranes and two binding sites for the neurotransmitter gamma @-@ aminobutyric acid ( GABA ) , while a subset of GABAA receptor complexes also contain a single binding site for benzodiazepines . Binding of benzodiazepines to this receptor complex does not alter binding of GABA . Unlike other positive allosteric modulators that increases ligand binding , benzodiazepine binding acts as a positive allosteric modulator by increasing the total conduction of chloride ions across the neuronal cell membrane when GABA is already bound to its receptor . This increased chloride ion influx hyperpolarizes the neuron 's membrane potential . As a result , the difference between resting potential and threshold potential is increased and firing is less likely . Different GABAA receptor subtypes have varying distributions within different regions of the brain and , therefore , control distinct neuronal circuits . Hence , activation of different GABAA receptor subtypes by benzodiazepines may result in distinct pharmacological actions . In terms of the mechanism of action of benzodiazepines , their similarities are too great to separate them into individual categories such as anxiolytic or hypnotic . For example , a hypnotic administered in low doses will produce anxiety @-@ relieving effects , whereas a benzodiazepine marketed as an anti @-@ anxiety drug will at higher doses induce sleep .
The subset of GABAA receptors that also bind benzodiazepines are referred to as benzodiazepine receptors ( BzR ) . The GABAA receptor is a heteromer composed of five subunits , the most common ones being two αs , two βs , and one γ ( α2β2γ ) . For each subunit , many subtypes exist ( α1 – 6 , β1 – 3 , and γ1 – 3 ) . GABAA receptors that are made up of different combinations of subunit subtypes have different properties , different distributions in the brain and different activities relative to pharmacological and clinical effects . Benzodiazepines bind at the interface of the α and γ subunits on the GABAA receptor . Binding also requires that alpha subunits contain a histidine amino acid residue , ( i.e. , α1 , α2 , α3 , and α5 containing GABAA receptors ) . For this reason , benzodiazepines show no affinity for GABAA receptors containing α4 and α6 subunits with an arginine instead of a histidine residue . Once bound to the benzodiazepine receptor , the benzodiazepine ligand locks the benzodiazepine receptor into a conformation in which it has a greater affinity for the GABA neurotransmitter . This increases the frequency of the opening of the associated chloride ion channel and hyperpolarizes the membrane of the associated neuron . The inhibitory effect of the available GABA is potentiated , leading to sedatory and anxiolytic effects . For instance , those ligands with high activity at the α1 are associated with stronger hypnotic effects , whereas those with higher affinity for GABAA receptors containing α2 and / or α3 subunits have good anti @-@ anxiety activity .
The benzodiazepine class of drugs also interact with peripheral benzodiazepine receptors . Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors are present in peripheral nervous system tissues , glial cells , and to a lesser extent the central nervous system . These peripheral receptors are not structurally related or coupled to GABAA receptors . They modulate the immune system and are involved in the body response to injury . Benzodiazepines also function as weak adenosine reuptake inhibitors . It has been suggested that some of their anticonvulsant , anxiolytic , and muscle relaxant effects may be in part mediated by this action .
= = = Pharmacokinetics = = =
A benzodiazepine can be placed into one of three groups by its elimination half @-@ life , or time it takes for the body to eliminate half of the dose . Some benzodiazepines have long @-@ acting active metabolites , such as diazepam and chlordiazepoxide , which are metabolised into desmethyldiazepam . Desmethyldiazepam has a half @-@ life of 36 – 200 hours , and flurazepam , with the main active metabolite of desalkylflurazepam , with a half @-@ life of 40 – 250 hours . These long @-@ acting metabolites are partial agonists .
Short @-@ acting compounds have a median half @-@ life of 1 – 12 hours . They have few residual effects if taken before bedtime , rebound insomnia may occur upon discontinuation , and they might cause daytime withdrawal symptoms such as next day rebound anxiety with prolonged usage . Examples are brotizolam , midazolam , and triazolam .
Intermediate @-@ acting compounds have a median half @-@ life of 12 – 40 hours . They may have some residual effects in the first half of the day if used as a hypnotic . Rebound insomnia , however , is more common upon discontinuation of intermediate @-@ acting benzodiazepines than longer @-@ acting benzodiazepines . Examples are alprazolam , estazolam , flunitrazepam , clonazepam , lormetazepam , lorazepam , nitrazepam , and temazepam .
Long @-@ acting compounds have a half @-@ life of 40 – 250 hours . They have a risk of accumulation in the elderly and in individuals with severely impaired liver function , but they have a reduced severity of rebound effects and withdrawal . Examples are diazepam , clorazepate , chlordiazepoxide , and flurazepam .
= = Physical and chemical properties = =
Benzodiazepines share a similar chemical structure , and their effects in humans are mainly produced by the allosteric modification of a specific kind of neurotransmitter receptor , the GABAA receptor , which increases the overall conductance of these inhibitory channels ; this results in the various therapeutic effects as well as adverse effects of benzodiazepines . Other less important mechanisms of action are also known .
= = = Chemistry = = =
The term benzodiazepine is the chemical name for the heterocyclic ring system ( see figure to the right ) , which is a fusion between the benzene and diazepine ring systems . Under Hantzsch – Widman nomenclature , a diazepine is a heterocycle with two nitrogen atoms , five carbon atom and the maximum possible number of cumulative double bonds . The " benzo " prefix indicates the benzene ring fused onto the diazepine ring .
Benzodiazepine drugs are substituted 1 @,@ 4 @-@ benzodiazepines , although the chemical term can refer to many other compounds that do not have useful pharmacological properties . Different benzodiazepine drugs have different side groups attached to this central structure . The different side groups affect the binding of the molecule to the GABAA receptor and so modulate the pharmacological properties . Many of the pharmacologically active " classical " benzodiazepine drugs contain the 5 @-@ phenyl @-@ 1H @-@ benzo [ e ] [ 1 @,@ 4 ] diazepin @-@ 2 ( 3H ) -one substructure ( see figure to the right ) . Benzodiazepines have been found to mimic protein reverse turns structurally which enable them with their biological activity in many cases .
Nonbenzodiazepines also bind to the benzodiazepine binding site on the GABAA receptor and possess similar pharmacological properties . While the nonbenzodiazepines are by definition structurally unrelated to the benzodiazepines , both classes of drugs possess a common pharmacophore ( see figure to the lower @-@ right ) , which explains their binding to a common receptor site .
= = = Common types = = =
2 @-@ keto compounds :
clorazepate , diazepam , flurazepam , halazepam , prazepam , and others .
3 @-@ hydroxy compounds :
lorazepam , lormetazepam , oxazepam , temazepam
7 @-@ nitro compounds :
clonazepam , flunitrazepam , nimetazepam , nitrazepam
Triazolo compounds :
adinazolam , alprazolam , estazolam , triazolam
Imidazo compounds
climazolam , loprazolam , midazolam
= = History = =
The first benzodiazepine , chlordiazepoxide ( Librium ) , was synthesized in 1955 by Leo Sternbach while working at Hoffmann – La Roche on the development of tranquilizers . The pharmacological properties of the compounds prepared initially were disappointing , and Sternbach abandoned the project . Two years later , in April 1957 , co @-@ worker Earl Reeder noticed a " nicely crystalline " compound left over from the discontinued project while spring @-@ cleaning in the lab . This compound , later named chlordiazepoxide , had not been tested in 1955 because of Sternbach 's focus on other issues . Expecting the pharmacology results to be negative and hoping to publish the chemistry @-@ related findings , researchers submitted it for a standard battery of animal tests . However , the compound showed very strong sedative , anticonvulsant , and muscle relaxant effects . These impressive clinical findings led to its speedy introduction throughout the world in 1960 under the brand name Librium . Following chlordiazepoxide , diazepam marketed by Hoffmann – La Roche under the brand name Valium in 1963 , and for a while the two were the most commercially successful drugs . The introduction of benzodiazepines led to a decrease in the prescription of barbiturates , and by the 1970s they had largely replaced the older drugs for sedative and hypnotic uses .
The new group of drugs was initially greeted with optimism by the medical profession , but gradually concerns arose ; in particular , the risk of dependence became evident in the 1980s . Benzodiazepines have a unique history in that they were responsible for the largest @-@ ever class @-@ action lawsuit against drug manufacturers in the United Kingdom , involving 14 @,@ 000 patients and 1 @,@ 800 law firms that alleged the manufacturers knew of the dependence potential but intentionally withheld this information from doctors . At the same time , 117 general practitioners and 50 health authorities were sued by patients to recover damages for the harmful effects of dependence and withdrawal . This led some doctors to require a signed consent form from their patients and to recommend that all patients be adequately warned of the risks of dependence and withdrawal before starting treatment with benzodiazepines . The court case against the drug manufacturers never reached a verdict ; legal aid had been withdrawn and there were allegations that the consultant psychiatrists , the expert witnesses , had a conflict of interest . This litigation led to changes in the British law , making class action lawsuits more difficult .
Although antidepressants with anxiolytic properties have been introduced , and there is increasing awareness of the adverse effects of benzodiazepines , prescriptions for short @-@ term anxiety relief have not significantly dropped . For treatment of insomnia , benzodiazepines are now less popular than nonbenzodiazepines , which include zolpidem , zaleplon and eszopiclone . Nonbenzodiazepines are molecularly distinct , but nonetheless , they work on the same benzodiazepine receptors and produce similar sedative effects .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Legal status = = =
In the United States , benzodiazepines are Schedule IV drugs under the Federal Controlled Substances Act , even when not on the market ( for example , nitrazepam and bromazepam ) . Flunitrazepam is subject to more stringent regulations in certain states and temazepam prescriptions require specially coded pads in certain states .
In Canada , possession of benzodiazepines is legal for personal use . All benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV substances under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act .
In the United Kingdom , the benzodiazepines are schedule 4 controlled drugs , except for flunitrazepam , temazepam and midazolam , which are schedule 3 controlled drugs and carry stronger penalties for possession and trafficking .
In the Netherlands , since October 1993 , benzodiazepines , including formulations containing less than 20 mg of temazepam , are all placed on List 2 of the Opium Law . A prescription is needed for possession of all benzodiazepines . Temazepam formulations containing 20 mg or greater of the drug are placed on List 1 , thus requiring prescriptions to be written in the List 1 format .
In East Asia and Southeast Asia , temazepam and nimetazepam are often heavily controlled and restricted . In certain countries , triazolam , flunitrazepam , flutoprazepam and midazolam are also restricted or controlled to certain degrees . In Hong Kong , all benzodiazepines are regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong 's Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance . Previously only brotizolam , flunitrazepam and triazolam were classed as dangerous drugs .
Internationally , benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV controlled drugs , apart from flunitrazepam which is a Schedule III drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances .
= = = Recreational use = = =
Benzodiazepines are considered to be major drugs of abuse . Benzodiazepine abuse is mostly limited to individuals who abuse other drugs , i.e. , poly @-@ drug abusers . On the international scene , benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV controlled drugs by the INCB , apart from flunitrazepam which is a Schedule III drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances . Some variation in drug scheduling exists in individual countries ; for example , in the United Kingdom , midazolam and temazepam are Schedule III controlled drugs . British law requires temazepam ( but not midazolam ) to be stored in safe custody . Safe custody requirements ensures that pharmacists and doctors holding stock of temazepam must store it in securely fixed double @-@ locked steel safety cabinets and maintain a written register , which must be bound and contain separate entries for temazepam and must be written in ink with no use of correction fluid ( although a written register is not required for temazepam in the United Kingdom ) . Disposal of expired stock must be witnessed by a designated inspector ( either a local drug @-@ enforcement police officer or official from health authority ) . Benzodiazepine abuse ranges from occasional binges on large doses , to chronic and compulsive drug abuse of high doses .
Benzodiazepines are used recreationally and by problematic drug misusers . Mortality is higher among poly @-@ drug misusers that also use benzodiazepines . Heavy alcohol use also increases mortality among poly @-@ drug users . Dependence and tolerance , often coupled with dosage escalation , to benzodiazepines can develop rapidly among drug misusers ; withdrawal syndrome may appear after as little as three weeks of continuous use . Long @-@ term use has the potential to cause both physical and psychological dependence and severe withdrawal symptoms such as depression , anxiety ( often to the point of panic attacks ) , and agoraphobia . Benzodiazepines and , in particular , temazepam are sometimes used intravenously , which , if done incorrectly or in an unsterile manner , can lead to medical complications including abscesses , cellulitis , thrombophlebitis , arterial puncture , deep vein thrombosis , and gangrene . Sharing syringes and needles for this purpose also brings up the possibility of transmission of hepatitis , HIV , and other diseases . Benzodiazepines are also misused intranasally , which may have additional health consequences . Once benzodiazepine dependence has been established , a clinician usually converts the patient to an equivalent dose of diazepam before beginning a gradual reduction program .
A 1999 – 2005 Australian police survey of detainees reported preliminary findings that self @-@ reported users of benzodiazepines were less likely than non @-@ user detainees to work full @-@ time and more likely to receive government benefits , use methamphetamine or heroin , and be arrested or imprisoned . Benzodiazepines are sometimes used for criminal purposes ; they serve to incapacitate a victim in cases of drug assisted rape or robbery .
Overall , anecdotal evidence suggests that temazepam may be the most psychologically habit @-@ forming ( addictive ) benzodiazepine . Temazepam abuse reached epidemic proportions in some parts of the world , in particular , in Europe and Australia , and is a major drug of abuse in many Southeast Asian countries . This led authorities of various countries to place temazepam under a more restrictive legal status . Some countries , such as Sweden , banned the drug outright . Temazepam also has certain pharmacokinetic properties of absorption , distribution , elimination , and clearance that make it more apt to abuse compared to many other benzodiazepines .
= = Veterinary use = =
Benzodiazepines are used in veterinary practice in the treatment of various disorders and conditions . As in humans , they are used in the first @-@ line management of seizures , status epilepticus , and tetanus , and as maintenance therapy in epilepsy ( in particular , in cats ) . They are widely used in small and large animals ( including horses , swine , cattle and exotic and wild animals ) for their anxiolytic and sedative effects , as pre @-@ medication before surgery , for induction of anesthesia and as adjuncts to anesthesia .
= Claire Underwood =
Claire Hale Underwood is a fictional character in House of Cards , played by Robin Wright . She is the wife of the show 's protagonist Francis J. " Frank " Underwood . She is a lobbyist and runs an environmental nonprofit organization , but in later seasons ascends to the position of Second Lady of the United States , and finally First Lady of the United States and the United States Ambassador to the United Nations . Underwood made her first appearance in the series ' pilot episode , " Chapter 1 " . The character is based on Elizabeth Urquhart , a character from the British miniseries from which the current series is derived . Unlike the original character , however , Claire has her own storylines .
The role has been critically acclaimed . Wright won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama for this role at the 71st Golden Globe Awards , becoming the first actress to win a Golden Globe Award for a web television online @-@ only role in a series . She was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for this role at the 65th , 66th and 67th Primetime Emmy Awards .
= = Character overview = =
Claire Hale Underwood is originally from the exclusive Highland Park enclave of Dallas , Texas . Her late father was a major Texas Republican . While at Radcliffe College in Cambridge , she met a Harvard Law student from South Carolina . That student was Francis J. Underwood . She is of wealthy background and the show characterizes her as a " Dallas Debutante " and " Lily White " . She recounts her father taking her to Dealey Plaza , where John F. Kennedy was assassinated , and that she felt “ so sad , so angry . ” She has a difficult relationship with her mother , Elizabeth Hale ( Ellen Burstyn ) , who despises Frank and is disappointed in Claire for marrying him .
Brian Stelter of The New York Times described her as Frank Underwood 's conniving wife and described the Underwoods as " the scheming husband and wife at the center of ' House of Cards ' " . She is a woman " who will stop at nothing to conquer everything " . Hank Stuever of The Washington Post describes her as an " ice @-@ queen wife " . The Independent 's Sarah Hughes echoes this description , saying she is so dedicated to the couple 's schemes that it is clear she will execute them herself if Frank wavers . Following season 4 , Robin Wright stated that she felt Claire Underwood was the equal of Frank Underwood and demanded equal pay for her performance . Netflix acquiesced .
= = = Relationship with Frank = = =
While Frank is Machiavellian , Claire presents a woman urging on her husband 's assertion of power in the image of Lady Macbeth . She encourages his vices while noting her disapproval of his weaknesses , saying " My husband doesn ’ t apologize ... even to me . " This gives a credibility to their symbiosis .
Willimon notes that , " What 's extraordinary about Frank and Claire is there is deep love and mutual respect , but the way they achieve this is by operating on a completely different set of rules than the rest of us typically do . "
Nancy deWolf Smith of The Wall Street Journal describes Claire as " a short @-@ haired blonde who manages to be masculine and demasculinizing at the same time . " Smith describes their relationship as pivotal to the show : " Benign though they may seem — and their harmless air is what makes the Underwoods so effective as political plotters — this is a power couple with the same malignant chemistry as pairs of serial killers , where each needs the other in order to become lethal " .
Upon viewing a four episode preview of season 2 , Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter says the series " ... sells husband and wife power @-@ at @-@ all @-@ costs couple Frank ( Kevin Spacey ) and Claire ( Robin Wright ) Underwood as a little too oily and reptilian for anyone 's good . " Los Angeles Times critic Mary McNamara makes the case that House of Cards is a love story on many levels but most importantly between Frank and Claire .
In season 3 , when the Underwoods are President and First Lady of the United States , Claire 's marriage to Frank begins to falter , and she ultimately decides he is no longer " enough " for her . She leaves him in the season finale , but comes back in the fourth season , treating their marriage as a purely political arrangement to further her own career . When he is shot during a campaign event , Claire privately admits that she feels nothing for him . Throughout the season , she works behind the scenes to undermine Frank 's election campaign , before finally joining forces with him in order to become his vice president . She also has an affair with her speechwriter Tom Yates ( Paul Sparks ) , with Frank 's approval .
= = Fictional character biography = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
Claire is a lobbyist who runs an environmental group while serving as her husband 's primary accomplice . After President Garrett Walker ( Michel Gill ) goes back on his promise to make Frank Secretary of State , Frank enlists Claire to help him get revenge and propel them both to positions of power . She and Frank scheme nightly over a cigarette , and together they maneuver their way into Walker 's inner circle . Frank says of Claire : " I love that woman , I love her more than sharks love blood . "
Claire is aware of Frank 's sexual relationship with reporter Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) , and approves of it as long as it achieves their ends . She herself has an affair with an old boyfriend , Adam Galloway ( Ben Daniels ) .
By the end of the season , Walker appoints Frank the Vice President of the United States , making Claire the Second Lady of the United States .
= = = Season 2 = = =
Claire 's main storyline in season 2 is her advocacy , as Second Lady , for a sexual assault prevention bill . During her campaign for the bill , a skeleton from her college days emerges : During a nationally televised interview , she admits that she was raped in college , and that her rapist , Dalton McGinnis ( Peter Bradbury ) , is now a high @-@ ranking general . ( She had earlier had an uncomfortable encounter with McGinnis at a White House dinner , during which she had told Frank what the general had done to her . ) She also admits to having aborted a pregnancy that she claims was the result of the rape ; it is later revealed that she in fact aborted Frank 's child , with his consent . She then converts the focus on that issue into political support that becomes critical to the Underwoods ' ascension to the Oval Office .
Claire becomes increasingly ruthless as the season progresses . When Galloway leaks an intimate photo of Claire to appease his jealous fiancee , Claire intimidates him into publicly stating that he fabricated the picture , ruining his reputation . When Gillian Cole ( Sandrine Holt ) , a pregnant former employee , returns to demand health care as part of her severance , Claire says , " I am willing to let your child wither and die inside you , if that ’ s what ’ s required , ... Am I really the sort of enemy you want to make ? " Claire also manipulates First Lady Patricia Walker ( Joanna Going ) into believing that her husband is having an affair in order to distract President Walker from Frank 's machinations . She shows remorse for her actions only once . When another of McGinnis ' victims , Megan Hennessy ( Libby Woodbridge ) , comes forward , Claire uses her as the poster girl for the sexual assault bill , leaving the fragile young woman open to public scrutiny and reprisals from the bill 's opponents . Before she can testify about her ordeal before Congress , however , Megan suffers a breakdown and attempts suicide . Upon realizing what she has caused Megan to go through , Claire bursts into tears .
In the season finale , she urges Frank to humble himself before President Walker , with whom he has fallen out of favor , in order to complete the plan : " Cut out your heart and put it in his fucking hands . " The gambit works : Walker keeps Frank as his Vice President , allowing Frank to succeed him when he resigns . Frank is now President of the United States , with Claire as the First Lady of the United States .
According to Drew Grant of The New York Observer , Claire 's season @-@ long storyline was similar to the real life efforts of United States Senator Kirsten Gillibrand 's to legislate an end to military sexual assault . Based upon the 4 @-@ episode preview , Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times says that in season 2 Claire " is still ruthlessly pursuing her own agenda as well as her husband ’ s . She remains an enigma even as she reveals more and more disturbing secrets from her past . " Claire remains composed and stylish with or without her husband and plays the press with aplomb .
= = = Season 3 = = =
In Season 3 , Claire feels the need to be something more " significant " than the First Lady , and asks Frank to nominate her to a United Nations post . He nominates her , but the Senate rejects her after a rocky hearing . Frank gives her the job anyway in a recess appointment , but her tenure is brief ; she ruins a treaty between the U.S. and Russia by publicly confronting Russian President Viktor Petrov ( Lars Mikkelsen ) about his anti @-@ gay policies , and is forced to resign when Petrov uses her as a bargaining chip during a diplomatic crisis .
During Frank 's election campaign , Claire begins to question whether she still loves him . In the season finale , she and Frank get into an ugly fight in which she says he is not enough for her ; Frank replies that without him , she is nothing . Season three ends with Claire leaving Frank as he prepares to go to the New Hampshire primary .
= = = Season 4 = = =
After leaving Frank , Claire goes back to Texas , where she has a tense reunion with her mother , who is dying of lymphoma . She sets her sights on running for a House of Representatives seat in Texas , with help from political consultant LeAnn Harvey ( Neve Campbell ) . Frank persuades her to resume public appearances with him by promising to support her run . However , he sandbags her prospective candidacy by endorsing a political ally 's daughter , in order to keep Claire focused on his campaign . Claire retaliates on the day the South Carolina primary by covertly leaking a photo of Frank 's father with a Klansman , imperiling Frank 's candidacy . Frank figures out that she was behind the leak and confronts her . Claire calmly admits what she did , and proposes that she join him in the ticket as his vice president . Frank rejects the idea .
Shortly thereafter , Frank is shot by Lucas Goodwin in an assassination attempt , and falls into a coma . While Frank is in surgery , Claire helps guide Frank 's vice @-@ president Donald Blythe through diplomatic oil crisis with Russia . While Frank is receiving a liver transplant , she declines going to the hospital in favor of negotiating a treaty with Petrov , and strong @-@ arms him into accepting the U.S. ' terms . When Frank recovers from surgery , he agrees to let Claire be his vice president . He and Claire advocate for a controversial gun control bill for the sole purpose of creating an atmosphere divisive enough to pick off the potential running mates . In the ensuing open convention , they publicly endorse Secretary of State Catherine Durant ( Jayne Atkinson ) for the job , while working behind the scenes to undermine her and ensure that Claire wins enough delegates to be nominated . Meanwhile , she reluctantly honors her mother 's request to help her die . She and Frank then use the public sympathy from Elizabeth 's death to win the nomination ; they are now running mates .
When a group of homegrown ICO terrorists take an American family hostage , Claire negotiates with their imprisoned leader , Yusuf Al Ahmadi ( Farshad Farahat ) , who agrees to tell his followers to release the hostages . Al Ahmadi reneges on the deal , however , and tells them to kill the hostages . At the same time , Tom Hammerschmidt ( Boris McGiver ) publishes an investigative news story detailing Frank 's crimes . Claire gives Frank the idea to declare war on the terrorists and allow the public to see the hostage die in order to distract from the scandal and create an atmosphere of widespread fear that they can exploit .
= = Reception = =
Wright 's performance is described as " nuanced and compelling " . Claire has " chilly poise " but the " coolly regal doyenne " softens over the course of the first season according to New Republic 's Laura Bennet . Wright plays the role with " an almost terrifying froideur " . As a couple Frank and Claire are said to " reverberate with tension and wit " . Michael Dobbs , who wrote the trilogy of novels upon which the British miniseries is based , compares the compelling nature of the relationship between Frank and Claire favorably to the original characters in House of Cards and likens them to Macbeth and Lady Macbeth . He is not alone . In season 2 , she remains " equally steely " . Despite suggestions to the contrary , Wright insists that the character is not based on Hillary Clinton .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
On July 18 , 2013 , Netflix earned the first Primetime Emmy Award nominations for original online only web television for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards . Three of its web series , Arrested Development , Hemlock Grove , and House of Cards , earned nominations . Among those nominations was Wright 's portrayal of Claire Underwood for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series as well as Kevin Spacey 's portrayal of Frank Underwood for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series and Jason Bateman 's portrayal of Michael Bluth in Arrested Development for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series , making these three roles the first three leading roles to be Primetime Emmy Award @-@ nominated from a web television series . The role has also earned Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama award at the 71st Golden Globe Awards on January 12 , 2014 . In so doing she became the first actress to win a Golden Globe Award for an online @-@ only web television series .
For season 2 , Wright earned a Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Drama Series nomination at the 4th Critics ' Choice Television Awards . Wright was again nominated for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards and Best Actress – Television Series Drama at the 72nd Golden Globe Awards . She was nominated for both Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series and Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series at the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards .
In season 3 , she was nominated for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series at the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards , Best Actress – Television Series Drama at the 73rd Golden Globe Awards , as well as both Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series and Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series at the 22nd Screen Actors Guild Awards .
The season 4 performance earned a nomination for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actreaa in a Drama Series at the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards .
= The Utility of Force =
The Utility of Force : The Art of War in the Modern World is a treatise on modern warfare written by General Sir Rupert Smith and published in 2005 . Smith is a retired general who spent 40 years in the British Army ; he commanded the 1st Armoured Division in the First Gulf War and served as General Officer Commanding Northern Ireland at the end of the Troubles . He was motivated to write the book by his experiences in the Balkans . He commanded the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) in Bosnia from 1995 to 1996 , during which time the Srebrenica massacre occurred and the capital , Sarajevo , was under siege by Serb forces . Smith was instrumental in the lifting of the siege by arranging for NATO air strikes and an artillery barrage . This enabled a ground assault by Bosnian and Croatian forces that ended the siege and led to the Dayton Agreement . Smith 's second involvement with the Balkans was in 1999 during the Kosovo War , when he was serving as NATO 's Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe , overseeing air strikes against Serb targets .
Smith 's thesis , and the central theme of The Utility of Force , is that the world entered a new paradigm of conflict at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries , which he calls " war amongst the people " , and that Western , industrialised armies are ill @-@ suited to the new style of warfare . The defining characteristics of " war amongst the people " are that conflicts tend to be timeless , more political in nature , and fought between parties that are part of , and in amongst , the civilian population rather than between uniformed armies on a battlefield . To prove his theory , Smith provides a detailed history starting with Napoleon , who invented what Smith calls " industrial warfare " — the paradigm in which the entire resources of the nation were mustered and which culminated in the two world wars . In the second half of the book , Smith states that the advent of nuclear weapons rendered industrial warfare obsolete , but that Western governments and generals refused to | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
reduced to 200 officers and men per ship .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Prinzregent Luitpold sank at 13 : 30 ; she was subsequently raised on 9 July 1931 and broken up by 1933 in Rosyth .
= Michèle Mouton =
Michèle Mouton ( born 23 June 1951 ) is a French former rally driver . Competing in the World Rally Championship for the Audi factory team , she took four victories and finished runner @-@ up in the drivers ' world championship in 1982 . She is still the last woman to compete in top @-@ level rallying .
Mouton debuted in rallying as a co @-@ driver but quickly moved to the driver 's seat , steering an Alpine @-@ Renault A110 in national rallies . In 1975 , she competed in circuit racing and won the two @-@ litre prototype class in the 24 Hours of Le Mans . After being signed by Fiat France for 1977 , Mouton finished runner @-@ up to Bernard Darniche in the European Rally Championship . She went on to win the 1978 Tour de France Automobile and record consistent results in her home events in the WRC ; the Tour de Corse and the Monte Carlo Rally . For 1981 , Audi Sport signed Mouton to partner Hannu Mikkola . In her first year with the Audi Quattro , she took a surprise victory at the Rallye Sanremo .
In the 1982 season , Mouton finished a close second overall to Walter Röhrl , after wins in Portugal , Brazil and Greece , and helped Audi to its first manufacturers ' title . Her campaign the following year resulted in fifth place . With the team having four top drivers for 1984 , Mouton 's participation on world championship level became part @-@ time . In 1985 , she won the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb in the United States , setting a record time in the process . In 1986 , she moved to Peugeot and won the German Rally Championship as the first female driver to win a major championship in rallying . Soon after securing the title , Mouton retired from rallying due to the ban of Group B supercars . In 1988 , she co @-@ founded the international motorsport event Race of Champions in memory of her former rival Henri Toivonen . Mouton became the first president of the FIA 's Women & Motor Sport Commission in 2010 and the FIA 's manager in the World Rally Championship in 2011 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Michèle Mouton was born 23 June 1951 in Grasse , a town on the French Riviera known for its perfume industry , close to the mountain stages famously featured in French rallies . Her parents grew roses and jasmine on their large property . After graduating from high school , Mouton began law studies , but would soon drop out and concentrate on a career in rallying . Although Mouton began driving her father 's Citroën 2CV when she was 14 years old , she did not turn her interest to rallying until 1972 , when her friend Jean Taibi asked her to practise the Tour de Corse with him . Mouton later co @-@ drove for him in the 1973 Monte Carlo Rally , the first @-@ ever World Rally Championship ( WRC ) event . After a few more rallies , Mouton 's father suggested a switch to driving if she wanted to continue in rallying , and promised to buy her a car and give her one @-@ year to prove herself . Driving an Alpine @-@ Renault A110 , she debuted at the Critérium Féminin Paris @-@ Saint @-@ Raphaël and then tackled the Tour de France Automobile . In the Île de Beauté , a complementary event to the Tour de Corse at the end of 1973 , Mouton finished eighth overall .
In the World Rally Championship , Mouton made her driver debut in 1974 , finishing 12th in the Tour de Corse in an Alpine A110 . It was rumoured her good performances were the result of a special engine , however her car passed inspection by WRC scrutineers . At the end of the year , Mouton was crowned both French and European ladies ' champion . Re @-@ entering the Tour de Corse the following season , she took seventh place . Mouton successfully defended her ladies ' titles , and also competed in circuit racing : In an all @-@ female team with Christine Dacremont and Marianne Hoepfner , she won the two @-@ litre prototype category of the 1975 24 Hours of Le Mans . Recalling the race in 2008 , Mouton said : " It started to rain I remember , and I started to pass everybody . I was running on slicks . In the pits they were saying ' Michele you must stop ' , but I did not want to because I was passing everyone . " Her results attracted a major sponsor in the form of the French oil company Elf . In 1976 , Mouton drove the A110 to 11th place in Monte Carlo and retired at the Rallye Sanremo . At the Tour de Corse , her debut in the newer A310 also ended in retirement .
= = = Fiat = = =
For the 1977 season , Fiat France signed Mouton to partner Jean @-@ Claude Andruet . She was not impressed by the handling of the Fiat 131 Abarth , stating it was " like a big truck , not a car " and " terrible to drive " . However , the car would prove successful and Mouton put in very consistent results , finishing eighth in the Tour de Corse in 1977 and fifth three years in a row from 1978 to 1980 . In 1980 , she had been running as high as second before her engine died for a time . In Monte Carlo , she drove the car to seventh place in 1979 and 1980 , equalling the result she had achieved in the event in a Lancia Stratos HF in 1978 .
Outside the World Rally Championship , Mouton drove a Porsche Carrera RS to victory in the 1977 RACE Rallye de España and to second place in the 1977 Tour de France Automobile . She also finished runner @-@ up to Bernard Darniche in the overall European Rally Championship ( ERC ) . Mouton went on to win the Tour de France with the 131 Abarth the following year . At the Rallye d 'Antibes , she finished third behind the Stratos drivers Darniche and Attilio Bettega . She placed fifth in the ERC standings and fourth in the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) Cup for Drivers , the predecessor to the drivers ' world championship . In 1979 , Mouton finished second in the French Rally Championship , behind Porsche 911 SC driver Bernard Béguin .
= = = Audi = = =
= = = = 1980 = = = =
In 1980 , Audi Sport , Audi 's new factory team , called Mouton and signed her for a World Rally Championship programme for the 1981 season . Mouton described Audi 's call as " a complete shock " . Audi 's decision to nominate her instead of established male rivals attracted a great deal of publicity . As the Audi Quattro , the first rally car to have over 300 bhp and both a turbocharger and four @-@ wheel @-@ drive , had not yet gained FIA homologation , Audi could only enter rallies as zero cars and not as competitive entries . Hannu Mikkola debuted the car in the Algarve Rally in October , and would have won by about thirty minutes had his times been officially registered . Mouton joined Freddy Kottulinsky for the final round of the Finnish Rally Championship , the Northern Lights , and also showed encouraging pace on the slippery surfaces . Mouton initially found the car understeering , but became more comfortable after switching to left @-@ foot braking , as advised by Mikkola who was in charge of developing the car . Audi announced their participation in eight events in 1981 , although Mouton would not be entered in the Swedish Rally due to her lack of experience on driving on ice and snow .
= = = = 1981 = = = =
Mouton 's first competitive run in the Quattro in Monte Carlo ended before it had even begun . She withdrew from the event before the start due to apparent engine problems . The team later discovered that dirt had got into the fuel system . At the Rally Portugal , she started her long partnership with the Italian co @-@ driver Fabrizia Pons . Mouton won seven stages and took a career @-@ best fourth place , despite suffering from electronic problems . This ended criticism of Audi for signing a female driver . After a retirement due to a broken camshaft in the Tour de Corse , Mouton set several fastest times at the Acropolis Rally in Greece . While Mikkola was leading and Mouton fifth , the stewards excluded the Quattros citing homologation infractions . Although Audi protested , the stewards upheld the decision . In her debut in the high @-@ speed 1000 Lakes Rally in Finland , Mouton found it hard to get used to the rhythm changes . She recorded a few top @-@ ten stage times and finished 13th . She was satisfied with her performance , and the local newspaper Keskisuomalainen described her debut as successful . At the Rallye Sanremo in Italy , a mixed surface event with tarmac and gravel , Mouton took the lead when the local star Michele Cinotto crashed and held off Henri Toivonen and Ari Vatanen to take the victory . This marked the first time a female driver had won a world championship event in rallying . Mouton 's male rivals were left speechless . Earlier during the weekend , Vatanen had been confident : " Never can nor will I lose to a woman . " Mouton recalled her debut win in a 2008 interview for RallySport Magazine :
I remember not just because it was a win , but also because it was a big fight right into the last night . Fabrizia reminded me the other night that we had a problem with the brake pads , so we lost a lot of time . We finished three days rallying ( with one day to go ) , night and day , 32 seconds in front of Ari Vatanen . We drove the last special stage for the night , came back to the hotel and I could not sleep at all , four hours in front of me and no sleep . Then I arrive at the special stage , it 's about 42km long , and I look at Fabrizia and I said " OK , we forget everything , and we are at the first stage of the rally again , because one of us will crash . " And so Ari hit a rock , and we won the rally .
In the season @-@ ending RAC Rally in Great Britain , Mouton continued her good performances by running third at half distance , despite having been uncomfortable about competing in a rally where pacenotes and practice are not allowed . However , her Quattro later incurred gearbox problems and she retired from fifth place after sliding off the road into a snow @-@ filled ditch . Mouton would later state : " For me , rallying is England . No pacenotes – just you in the car having to do the fastest time . This , to me , is rallying . OK , it was not easy for me because I did not have experience there of the British championship , but it is really rallying . I like it very much . " Mouton finished the season in eighth place in the drivers ' championship , while Audi was fifth in the manufacturers ' standings .
= = = = 1982 = = = =
Mouton 's 1982 season started with a big accident at the Monte Carlo Rally . On stage twelve in the small town Briançonnet in Provence , she missed a patch of ice and slid off the road , crashing into the stone wall of a large house at 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . Mouton injured her knee while Pons suffered a concussion . She had been in third place , and had set the fastest time for the difficult Col de Turini mountain pass . The pair 's injuries were not serious and Mouton went on to make her debut in the Swedish Rally . She was running third when she slid into a snow bank , and crashed into the Quattro of teammate Hannu Mikkola who had gone off at the same place . She eventually finished fifth . In Portugal , Mouton recorded 18 stage wins on her way to a clear victory ahead of Toyota 's Per Eklund . She once admitted that to be competitive in the rally , she tried to think of the large crowds right by the side of the route as trees . At the Tour de Corse , she could not match the pace of the leaders and finished seventh . At the Acropolis Rally , Mouton won ahead of the Opel duo Walter Röhrl and Henri Toivonen , and closed to within 20 points of the championship leader Röhrl . The event was overshadowed by two serious accidents , one of which killed a spectator . Mouton had commented : " I 'm afraid that something might break in my car and I can no longer avoid hitting a spectator . "
In New Zealand , Mouton continued her good performances and traded the lead with Mikkola , Röhrl and Björn Waldegård . Soon after regaining the lead on stage twelve , she retired with a broken oil pump . After seven rounds , Mouton was second in the championship , 32 points behind Röhrl and 12 ahead of Eklund . The Rally of Brazil was marred by the fatal accident of Brazilian driver Thomas Fuchs , and featured chaotic conditions as parts of the course were not successfully closed for competition . Although only five teams made it to the finish , Mouton improved her title hopes by winning her duel with Röhrl after the German lost a wheel on the last day . At the 1000 Lakes , she clocked in the eighth fastest time for the famous Ouninpohja stage and placed seventh after the first day . On the following leg , Mouton drove too fast into a jump and damaged her Quattro while landing . After the next jump , her front wheels locked up and she rolled the car . Mouton was next locked in a tight battle for the win in Sanremo . Although she recorded nine stage wins and Audi took a one @-@ two , she had to settle for fourth behind Röhrl .
Audi had not originally planned to participate in the African marathon events , but now found it necessary to enter the penultimate round , the Rallye Côte d 'Ivoire , due to their title battles with Opel . Just before the start of the event , Mouton received news that her father had succumbed to cancer in his house in Nice . His last wish was that Mouton start the rally . After a first day of over 1 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 750 miles ) of racing in temperatures over 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , she was eight minutes clear of Mikkola and nearly half an hour ahead of title rival Röhrl . Mikkola said that he had never been in such a hot car , and Röhrl estimated that the temperature inside his car reached an " almost unbearable " 70 ° C. With just over half of the 5 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 100 mi ) behind , Mouton led from Röhrl by over an hour despite losing 25 minutes due to transmission problems . On the third day , both Mouton and Röhrl struggled with several reliability issues and her lead over Röhrl shrank to 18 minutes . The Toyota Celica GT2000s of Eklund and Waldegård were still over two hours behind . Should Mouton go on to hold off Röhrl , she would reduce Röhrl 's lead in the championship to just two points . As a driver 's seven best results counted towards the championship at the time , Mouton would only need a third place in the RAC Rally to take the title even if Röhrl would win . On the final day , she continued to suffer from mechanical problems and had the complete fuel injection system changed . For the next time control , Röhrl and Mouton arrived almost simultaneously . With only 600 km to go , Mouton went off the road and rolled her car . She drove the severely damaged Quattro for five more kilometres before giving up .
Röhrl inherited the win and became the first two @-@ time world champion in rallying . Having lost her father , Mouton did not dwell on losing the title . Röhrl had earlier conceded that he " would have accepted second place in the championship to Mikkola " , but not to Mouton : " This is not because I doubt her capabilities as a driver , but because she is a woman . " He believed that defeat would have devalued his performances . At the RAC , Mouton edged out Toivonen to take second place behind Mikkola . This result made Audi the first German marque to win the manufacturers ' world title . At the inaugural Autosport Awards gala , Mouton won the International Rally Driver of the Year award .
= = = = 1983 = = = =
The 1983 season started the Group B era of the WRC and Mouton was now at the wheel of the Audi Quattro A1 . She also had a new teammate ; Audi had signed Stig Blomqvist as their third regular driver . For the third year in a row , Mouton had a bad start to her season in Monte Carlo . She went off the road on a stage not far from her home town , and again hit a stone wall at over 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) . The car was destroyed , but Mouton and Pons were unharmed . Mouton explained to her team boss Roland Gumpert , later of Gumpert supercar fame , that she had had to dodge a photographer . Mouton went on to record successive points finishes . She finished fourth in Sweden in a quadruple win for Audi , after an early driving error that had sent her Quattro into a snow bank . In Portugal , Mouton finished second to Mikkola , ahead of Lancia 's Röhrl and Markku Alén . After the first section of the Safari Rally , totaling over 1 @,@ 600 km ( 1 @,@ 000 mi ) , Mouton arrived to the finish on three wheels and said she was " totally exhausted " from the effort . She eventually placed third behind Opel 's Ari Vatanen and her teammate Mikkola . After four events , Mikkola and Mouton were first and second in the drivers ' championship .
At the Tour de Corse , Audi debuted the Quattro A2 , which was 70 kg ( 155 lb ) lighter and had an engine producing 30 more horsepower . Mouton 's rally ended when her engine caught on fire . On the first stage in Greece , she rolled her car on a hairpin turn 18 km ( 11 mi ) from the start . Rally New Zealand was for Mouton a repetition of the previous year ; she took the lead on the seventh stage and held on to it until her A2 's engine failed , with only six of the 33 stages to go . The three retirements in a row dropped Mouton to fifth place in the championship . She then finished third behind Mikkola and Blomqvist at the Rally Argentina , but this would remain her last podium finish of the season . At the 1000 Lakes in Finland , Mouton finished the first day in seventh place after setting two top @-@ five stage times . Her car later caught on fire , but she was able to continue in the event by following Mikkola 's advice and driving into a lake . With a string of top @-@ ten times , she eventually finished 16th . In the Rallye Sanremo , the tarmac stages were dominated by the Lancia 037 and Mouton finished seventh after suffering from fuel injection problems . In the season @-@ ending RAC Rally , she started well and held second place after the first twelve stages . An Audi mechanic later accidentally refilled Mouton 's fuel tank with pure water which resulted in time @-@ consuming repairs . She eventually retired after crashing out , and placed fifth overall in the drivers ' championship . Although Mikkola beat Lancia 's Röhrl and Alén to the drivers ' title , Audi had lost the manufacturers ' title to Lancia after the latter 's triple win in Sanremo .
= = = = 1984 = = = =
For the 1984 season , Audi added two @-@ time world champion Walter Röhrl to their star line @-@ up and Mouton now had a part @-@ time role , competing in five WRC events . For the first time in nine years , she did not enter the Monte Carlo Rally . However , Mouton signed up to commentate the event for Radio Monte Carlo . She started her year well by finishing second at the Swedish Rally behind teammate and home favourite Blomqvist . Mouton later stated that " finishing second was fantastic . When you are out rallying on ice or snow in country like that it is like dancing . From one side to the other side . My dancing background helped my rallying . As soon as I started on gravel I liked it because of that . It was so nice to feel and move the car like that . Sweden , in ice and snow , like ballet ! " This would remain her last podium position in the World Rally Championship .
In the Safari Rally , a rotor arm in Mouton 's Quattro failed and caused the turbo to break down as well . She retired after falling victim to the team 's ranking order ; as the repairs were expected to take too long , Gumpert ordered championship leader Blomqvist 's Quattro to be fixed by using Mouton 's sister car as spares . Her debut in the new Sport Quattro at the Acropolis Rally ended with engine overheating problems . In the 1000 Lakes , Mouton placed ninth after the short first day . She later crashed and continued without a windscreen , but the damage to her Quattro could not be repaired in service . Mouton retired and left Finland pointless for the fourth year in a row . In late October , she signed a contract extension with Audi . At the RAC Rally , a slight mistake led to a puncture and Mouton dropped from third to fifth . She went on to narrowly lose the final podium spot to Toyota 's Per Eklund . Mouton 's results placed her 12th in the drivers ' world championship , a point behind Röhrl . Outside the WRC , Mouton debuted in the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb in the United States , driving an Audi Sport Quattro together with her usual co @-@ driver Fabrizia Pons . After her main opponent Martin Schanche got hampered by a flat right front tyre she won the open rally category ( now known as unlimited ) in a record time and placed second overall , leaving behind several specialised V8 single @-@ seaters that had normally dominated the race .
= = = = 1985 = = = =
Audi 's WRC programme was limited for the 1985 season due to the recent defeats to Peugeot Talbot Sport , Peugeot 's factory team headed by Jean Todt . Mouton and Mikkola were assigned to testing and development duties . She drove both the Sport Quattro and its follower , the Quattro S1 ( Sport E2 ) . Mouton considered the S1 the most difficult rally car she had driven : " For rallying on asphalt , I agree the limit had gone too far . We did not have the reflexes to control it properly . It was tough to drive the car , but not the short Quattro before . "
Although Mouton competed in only one world championship event during the season , she contested a full six @-@ round British Rally Championship . Her campaign was plagued by reliability problems and she recorded only one finish . In the National Breakdown Rally , Mouton stopped after damaging her Quattro in a jump . After technical problems led to an early retirement at the Circuit of Ireland , she finished second at the Welsh Rally behind Malcolm Wilson in another Quattro . At the Scottish Rally , Mouton had been closing in on the leading Wilson until a transmission problem forced her to retire . At the Ulster Rally , she set the fastest time for the first stage but then dropped out with a mechanical failure . In the season @-@ ending Manx International Rally , Mouton struggled to start her Quattro and then crashed out five stages later .
Mouton 's only WRC event of the year was the long @-@ distance Rallye Côte d 'Ivoire . She was co @-@ driven by Arne Hertz as Pons was ill at the time of the start . Mouton started well and tied the lead with Toyota 's Juha Kankkunen after the first day . Her Quattro incurred severe engine problems on the next day , but was seemingly repaired by Audi mechanics off the route in the jungle . At the same time , the Sport Quattro " chase car " , a high @-@ speed service car , retired and Audi faced accusations of swapping the cars . The team withdrew Mouton just before the finish and the controversy remains unresolved ; the stewards did not find proof but the media published evidence afterwards . Although her rallying year was a disappointment , Mouton made a successful return to the Pikes Peak , winning the event overall in her Sport Quattro . Despite slippery conditions caused by a hailstorm , she broke Al Unser , Jr . ' s 1982 record by about thirteen seconds . The Frenchwoman 's win irritated some of her male rivals . Bobby Unser was reputedly quite vocal about his loss , to which Mouton is said to have replied : " If you have the balls you can try to race me back down as well . "
= = = Peugeot = = =
Mouton broke off her contract with Audi in late 1985 to join Peugeot for the coming season . She contested the German Rally Championship and two WRC events in a Peugeot 205 Turbo 16 , with which the marque had captured last year 's world titles . To replace the newly @-@ wed Pons , Mouton recruited Terry Harryman who had been left jobless after Ari Vatanen 's accident . Mouton , nicknamed " der schwarze Vulkan " ( The Black Volcano ) due to her temperament and long black hair , won six of the eight events in the German championship , including the Rallye Deutschland . Although the Hessen Rallye was stopped after the severe accident of Formula One driver Marc Surer , which claimed the life of his co @-@ driver Michel Wyder , Mouton was declared the winner . She secured the German national title on the seventh and penultimate round , the Sachs Baltic , after taking her fifth win of the season . She became the first female driver to win a major championship in rallying .
Mouton 's WRC outings were her home events : Monte Carlo Rally and Tour de Corse . In Monte Carlo , she was running in eighth place after eleven stages , but soon retired with oil pump problems . For the Tour de Corse in May , Mouton was given the second evolution of the car . She quickly showed good pace and held third place behind Lancia 's Henri Toivonen and teammate Bruno Saby . However , she ran into gearbox trouble on the tenth stage and was forced to retire . During the next day , Toivonen and his co @-@ driver Sergio Cresto crashed out from the lead and died in their seats . Mouton was still in Corsica and remarked to her boyfriend that " if they stop the Group B now , it will be the end for me . " Within days , FISA announced new regulations and banned the Group B supercars for the following year .
In October , two weeks after securing the German Rally Championship title , Mouton announced her retirement from rallying . She cited the end of the Group B era as the reason behind the decision , and stated that it was " a good time to stop . " Later in the same month , Mouton crowned her career by winning the last event of the German championship , the Drei @-@ Städte @-@ Rallye ( Three Cities Rally ) , ahead of Armin Schwarz 's MG Metro 6R4 .
= = = Later career = = =
In 1988 , Mouton co @-@ founded the international motorsport event Race of Champions with Fredrik Johnsson , in memory of Toivonen and to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the world championship for rally drivers . The event originally included the world 's top rally drivers , but now features stars also from other disciplines , such as Formula One , NASCAR , Le Mans and MotoGP , competing against each other in identical cars .
In 1988 and 1989 , Mouton participated in rally raids as part of Peugeot 's service team for Ari Vatanen and Jacky Ickx . At the 1988 Rally of Tunisia , Mouton drove a 205 T16 Grand Raid chase car and transported spare parts for Vatanen and Henri Pescarolo , but also classified sixth overall . She later took part in the Dakar Rally as a press driver in 2004 and 2009 . In 2000 , Mouton finished second in the London – Sydney Marathon driving a Porsche 911 , behind former teammate Stig Blomqvist . After 22 years , Mouton and Fabrizia Pons reunited to compete in the 2008 Otago Classic Rally in New Zealand . In 2010 , Mouton competed with a 911 in the Rallye du Maroc and finished second to Grégoire De Mévius .
In 2010 , Mouton became the first president of the FIA 's Women & Motor Sport Commission . She stated that " for many years people have asked me why there have been no women following in my footsteps . I really hope the Commission can help answer that question and that we can attract and support women in all areas of our sport . " Having already headed a working group on the future of rallying , Mouton was appointed FIA 's manager in the World Rally Championship in 2011 . Mouton also serves in the nomination committee of the Rally Hall of Fame . In March 2012 , she recused herself after becoming a candidate for nomination . Mouton was inducted into the Hall of Fame along with two @-@ time world champion Carlos Sainz .
= = Personal life and legacy = =
While announcing her retirement from rallying , Mouton stated her intention to start a family with Corsican sports journalist Claude Guarnieri . She had her daughter Jessie ( Jessica ) in 1987 . Mouton credited her father Pierre 's support as the secret for her success : " He loved driving . He loved fast cars . And I think he would have loved to do what I did . He was a prisoner of war for five years and when he came back he never had the opportunity to compete . But he came to all the rallies I did . And my mother came , too . "
Mouton states that in her mind she did not try to beat her male rivals , but to be at their level . She noted that in rallying the time is the most important thing . David Evans of Autosport described her as " motorsport 's most successful ever female driver . " Rally journalist and historian Graham Robson credits Mouton , along with Pat Moss , as " the driver by whom all other females measure their skills and achievements . " Mouton and Moss were of different eras and did not compete directly against each other , although they both appeared at the 1973 Monte Carlo Rally where Mouton co @-@ drove . In 1985 , they swapped cars in a private test session with Moss driving the Quattro and Mouton an Austin @-@ Healey 3000 . Stirling Moss regarded Mouton as " one of the best " , and Niki Lauda described her as a " superwoman " .
In 2011 , Mouton was made knight of the Legion of Honour ( Légion d 'honneur ) by French President Nicolas Sarkozy .
= = Complete WRC results = =
= Dan Borislow =
Daniel Marc Borislow ( September 21 , 1961 – July 21 , 2014 ) was an American entrepreneur , sports team owner , inventor , and thoroughbred horse breeder . Originating in the Philadelphia , Pennsylvania area , Borislow attended Widener University and worked in cable construction and landscaping before going into the telephone business . He founded Tel @-@ Save , Inc. to resell access to AT & T long @-@ distance lines in 1989 . Borislow took the company public in 1995 , and two years later brokered a $ 100 million deal with AOL that made it the exclusive telephone service of its users . At its peak in early 1998 , Tel @-@ Save had sales of $ 300 million and was valued by Wall Street investors at $ 2 billion . However , due to the financial strain of paying off the AOL deal , Tel @-@ Save lost $ 221 million in 1999 , and Borislow sold his stock for a reported $ 200 to $ 300 million and retired .
In his brief retirement , he focused on his horse racing career , sending Talk is Money to the 2001 Kentucky Derby although the thoroughbred did not complete the race . Borislow 's most successful horse yet has been Toccet , who won four graded stakes , among which are the Champagne and Hollywood Futurity in 2002 . After selling most of his horses in 2004 , Borislow set forth plans for a new voice @-@ over @-@ IP business which became the magicJack . Invented in 2007 , the magicJack is a small product which can be plugged into a computer 's USB port and allows for unlimited calling from regular telephones . In 2010 , YMAX , the company behind the magicJack , merged with an Israeli company and became a publicly traded corporation .
In 2011 , Borislow purchased a controlling share of the Washington Freedom women 's professional soccer team . He had a brief turbulent relationship with other owners and the players which ended in a battle of law suits and the termination of the soccer team and league . Borislow and his family lived in Palm Beach County , Florida , where , through D & K Charitable Foundation , Borislow issued grants to charitable causes .
Borislow died from an apparent heart attack or myocardial infarction on July 21 , 2014 .
= = Business career = =
= = = Tel @-@ Save = = =
In 1989 , Borislow founded Tel @-@ Save when he was in his 20s to resell access to AT & T long @-@ distance lines . The company was based in New Hope , Pennsylvania , and its primary market was toward small and medium @-@ sized businesses . Borislow took the company public in 1995 and had an initial public offering of three million shares . He then invested in his own long distance network by deploying five Lucent 5ESS @-@ 2000 switches throughout the United States . By 1997 , Tel @-@ Save was making $ 20 million a year .
In 1997 , Borislow negotiated a three @-@ year deal with America Online that granted Tel @-@ Save exclusive marketing rights to sell long @-@ distance service to AOL users . AOL users , meanwhile , would now be billed online for their local , long distance , cellular , and internet services . His original asking price was $ 50 million , but after negotiations , the figure increased to $ 100 million , in addition to half of future profits and 15 percent of the company 's stock . Having rescued a reeling AOL from Chapter 11 , Borislow was compared to Ted Turner for his vision and marketing abilities by Bob Pittman , president of AOL . This deal with Borislow skyrocketed AOL 's stock prices 231 % over the next year and catapulted them to be the dominant online provider with no runner up in sight . In December of that year , Borislow was behind the merger of Tel @-@ Save and STF , a similar company that provided telecommunications services to office buildings .
At its peak in early 1998 , Tel @-@ Save had sales of $ 300 million and was valued by Wall Street investors at $ 2 billion . His personal stock in the company was $ 500 million . Borislow 's America Online deal was the catalyst for other " portal deals " with AOL . The company 's fortunes turned due to the financial strain of the AOL deal , and following an annual loss of $ 221 million in 1998 , he resigned as CEO of the company on January 1 , 1999 . Gabriel Battista was named CEO in his absence . Tel @-@ Save is now known as Talk America .
= = = magicJack = = =
In 2005 , after retiring from business to focus on his horse racing career , Borislow set forth plans for a new voice @-@ over @-@ IP business , with an initial name of Talk4free . He created YMAX Communications Corporation in April 2006 as a communications and equipment service . YMAX 's profits come from the production of the magicJack , a small device which can be plugged into a computer 's USB port and allows for unlimited calling from regular telephones .
CEO Borislow invented the product in 2007 and had applied for patents from the U.S. government while he and Donald Burns shared the payment of $ 25 million to start up the company .
Before Borislow launched a widespread television campaign in January 2008 , the company sold less than 1 @,@ 000 magicJacks per day . By June , he was selling 8 @,@ 000 @-@ 9 @,@ 000 per day and had roughly 500 @,@ 000 subscribers in total . Borislow attributes its success to its pricing , at $ 40 in the first year of service and $ 20 each year thereafter . Although its voice quality has been criticized , Ted Kritsonis of The Globe and Mail said the " MagicJack was still better than most cell phones I 've tried . "
In 2009 , Florida Attorney General Bill McCollum investigated a claim that Borislow falsely marketed the magicJack as having a free 30 @-@ day trial of the product . In reality , the customer must specifically cancel the trial prior to the 30 @-@ day mark , otherwise the credit card would be automatically billed . While Borislow maintained that his company 's actions were not illegal , he reached a settlement on April 15 , agreeing to pay the state of Florida $ 125 @,@ 000 for the cost of the investigation . He said the company resolved over 500 complaints and added a disclaimer on the website clarifying the misconception .
VocalTec , an Israeli telephone company , acquired YMAX in July 2010 . Since Borislow and other YMAX businessmen contributed most of the equity , they essentially run the merged business , which kept the " YMAX " moniker . VocalTec was a publicly traded company , so YMAX went on Nasdaq following the merger . In 2010 , YMAX had a market capitalization of $ 300 million and is expected to make $ 110 million to $ 125 million in sales .
= = Horse racing career = =
After watching horse races at Philadelphia Park for some time , Borislow decided to go into the business in 1991 . He frequently wagered on trainer John Scanlan 's horses , so he requested Scanlan to be the conditioner for his horses . Among Borislow 's first acquisitions was broodmare Beautiful Bid , who gave birth to Breeders ' Cup Distaff winner and Eclipse champion Beautiful Pleasure . In 2000 , he sold Beautiful Bid for $ 2 @.@ 6 million .
Borislow bought a $ 1 @.@ 8 million yearling in September 1999 that he named Talk Is Money . The thoroughbred was named after Tel @-@ Save , with Borislow saying , " Every time someone was talking on the phone , I made money . " Talk Is Money 's best finish came at the Tesio Stakes in April 2001 , where the horse placed second . This qualified him for the 2001 Kentucky Derby , and Borislow hired jockey Jerry Bailey , who won the 2000 Breeders Cup Juvenile with Macho Uno . At 47 @-@ 1 odds , Talk Is Money came in last in the Derby and did not finish the race .
Borislow 's most successful horse was Toccet , who won four graded stakes , including the Champagne and Hollywood Futurity in 2002 . Toccet 's name is a misspelled tribute to former National Hockey League ( NHL ) player Rick Tocchet . The horse was named runner @-@ up to Vindication for the American Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Colt in 2002 , a part of the Eclipse Award . Once a favorite to enter the 2003 Kentucky Derby , Toccet was derailed by ankle injuries early in the year . He won one listed stakes after his juvenile season out of 15 starts and now stands at Castleton Lyons .
After a dispute with the Internal Revenue Service , Borislow sold a majority of his horses at the Fasig Tipton November sale in 2004 . In February 2005 , he was in a partnership with baseball manager Joe Torre and hockey player Keith Jones to buy Wild Desert . In June of that year , Wild Desert won the Queen 's Plate off a layoff of over 10 weeks .
On 5 / 25 / 2014 , Borislow hit the Gulfstream Park Rainbow Six paying $ 6 @.@ 6 million . His winning Rainbow 6 ticket of all / all / all / 1 @,@ 4 / all / all cost $ 7 @,@ 603 @.@ 20 . He played two other similar tickets with a total cost of $ 22 @,@ 809 @.@ 60 .
= = Women 's Professional Soccer = =
In 2011 , Borislow bought Women 's Professional Soccer franchise Washington Freedom , moved it to South Florida , and renamed it magicJack . Borislow attracted stars of the United States national women 's soccer team such as Abby Wambach and Hope Solo with salaries well above the league average of $ 25 @,@ 000 per year . Borislow was criticized for discriminatory treatment of lesser @-@ known players . Cat Whitehill , a former player and sports broadcaster said , " There are so few superstars that the majority of players can be easily intimidated " She added that the stars " never deliberately meant for the other players on the roster to be treated badly . But it does appear that they didn 't consider what standing up to Borislow would mean for the rest of the team . "
On 8 July 2011 , the non @-@ National Team members of magicJack voted to file a grievance through their Player 's Union against Borislow . The grievance alleged that Borislow had violated the Standard Player Contract Provision , the FIFA Code of Ethics , WPS Media Policy and U.S. Soccer Federation Coaching Requirements . The suit alleged Borislow 's " practice of bullying and threatening players , and his creation of a hostile , oppressive , and intimidating work environment which adversely affects players ’ ability ( to ) perform " .
The only individual player to speak out publicly about Borislow was Ella Masar . Masar told of a team meeting in which Borislow demanded that the grievance be dropped or he would terminate the players and the magicJack season .
Borislow also had problems with WPS staff and owners of other teams . In response to ongoing conflicts with Borislow , in June 2011 WPS moved to terminate his franchise at the end of the season for breach of contractual obligations . Borislow subsequently filed an injunction that would force the league into arbitration rather than settling the matter with the league ’ s Board of Governors . On October 25 , 2011 , the WPS voted to terminate the franchise , accusing Borislow of violations ranging from " unprofessional and disparaging treatment of his players to failure to pay his bills . " WPS also stated , " Mr. Borislow 's actions have been calculated to tarnish the reputation of the league and damage the league 's business relationships . " The team was disbanded on October 28 , 2011 . The ongoing legal battle with the WPS led to the cancelling of the 2012 season for " pending legal issues " on January 1 , 2012 and the magicJack soccer franchise ceased to exist .
= = Philanthropy = =
D & K Charitable Foundation was established by Borislow in 1997 with a $ 21 million stock donation . In the first two years , he tried to use the charity to buy and preserve a tract of land in New Hope , Pennsylvania . This venture failed in 1998 when the property owner declined Borislow 's offer . Following this , D & K made donations to the Clearwater Endoscopy Center and the Center for Digestive Healthcare in Clearwater , Florida until 2001 . Since then , it has issued varied grants to causes Borislow supported , such as $ 2 @.@ 75 million to two yeshivas and $ 173 @,@ 450 to a West Palm Beach , Florida private school . Tax records indicate that Borislow and George Farley , the chief financial officer of the non @-@ profit , split approximately $ 2 @.@ 1 million in profits from 2001 @-@ 2005 , while $ 1 @.@ 6 million went to charitable causes . Borislow drew criticism in 2007 when he paid himself $ 1 @.@ 7 million through the charity .
= = Personal life = =
Borislow lived with his wife , Michele , and two children , Danny and Kylie , in Palm Beach County , Florida . The Borislows own three dogs , Magic , Jack , and Teddy . He also maintained a home in Brigantine , New Jersey .
In his free time , he enjoyed playing soccer , watching sports , and deep sea fishing . Borislow 's yacht , dubbed The Triple Crown , has three bedrooms , nine flat screen televisions , and golden fixtures .
On May 25 , 2014 , he won $ 6 @,@ 678 @,@ 939 @.@ 12 with the only ticket to have the winners of the final six races on Gulfstream 's card . The winner of the biggest payoff in American racing history invested $ 7 @,@ 603 @.@ 20 on the bet , which has a 20 @-@ cent base wager . He covered the full fields in all but the sixth race , in which he had only the Nos. 1 and 4 . Borislow made 2 other similar bets on the race , total investment was $ 22 @,@ 809 @.@ 60 .
Borislow died from a heart attack ( myocardial infarction ) in Jupiter , Florida on July 21 , 2014 , reportedly after playing in an adult league soccer match . On July 25 , 2014 , more than 500 mourners attended a memorial service at the Kravis Center in West Palm Beach .
= Sarus crane =
The sarus crane ( Grus antigone ) is a large non @-@ migratory crane found in parts of the Indian Subcontinent , Southeast Asia and Australia . The tallest of the flying birds , standing at a height of up to 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 ft 11 in ) , they are conspicuous and iconic species of open wetlands . The sarus crane is easily distinguished from other cranes in the region by the overall grey colour and the contrasting red head and upper neck . They forage on marshes and shallow wetlands for roots , tubers , insects , crustaceans and small vertebrate prey . Like other cranes , they form long @-@ lasting pair @-@ bonds and maintain territories within which they perform territorial and courtship displays that include loud trumpeting , leaps and dance @-@ like movements . In India they are considered symbols of marital fidelity , believed to mate for life and pine the loss of their mates even to the point of starving to death . The main breeding season is during the rainy season , when the pair builds an enormous nest " island " , a circular platform of reeds and grasses nearly two metres in diameter and high enough to stay above the shallow water surrounding it . Sarus crane numbers have declined greatly in the last century and it has been estimated that the current population is a tenth or less ( perhaps 2 @.@ 5 % ) of the numbers that existed in the 1850s . The stronghold of the species is in India , where it is traditionally revered and lives in agricultural lands in close proximity to humans . Elsewhere , the species has been extirpated in many parts of its former range .
= = Description = =
The adult sarus crane is very large with grey wings and body ; a bare red head and part of the upper neck ; a greyish crown ; and a long greenish @-@ grey pointed bill . In flight , the long neck is held straight , unlike that of an heron , which folds it back , and the black wing tips can be seen ; the crane 's long pink legs trail behind them . This bird has a grey ear covert patch , an orange @-@ red iris and a greenish @-@ grey bill . Juveniles have a yellowish base to the bill and the brown @-@ grey head is fully feathered .
The bare red skin of the adult 's head and neck is brighter during the breeding season . This skin is rough and covered by papillae , and a narrow area around and behind the head is covered by black bristly feathers . The sexes do not differ in plumage although males are on average larger than females ; male sarus of the Indian population can attain a maximum height of about 180 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) making them the world 's tallest extant flying bird . The weight of nominate race individuals is 6 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 8 kg ( 15 – 17 lb ) , while five adult sharpii averaged 8 @.@ 4 kg ( 19 lb ) . Across the distribution range , the weight can vary from 5 to 12 kg ( 11 to 26 lb ) , height typically from 115 to 167 cm ( 45 @.@ 5 to 65 @.@ 5 in ) and the wingspan from 220 to 250 cm ( 86 @.@ 5 to 98 @.@ 5 in ) .
While the northern populations are amongst the heaviest cranes , alongside the red @-@ crowned and wattled cranes , and the largest in their range , birds from Australia tend to be smaller . In Australia , the sarus can easily be mistaken for the more widespread brolga . The brolga has the red colouring confined to the head and not extending into the neck . Body mass in Australian sarus cranes was found to average 6 @.@ 68 kg ( 14 @.@ 7 lb ) in males and 5 @.@ 25 kg ( 11 @.@ 6 lb ) in females , with a range for both sexes of 5 to 6 @.@ 9 kg ( 11 to 15 lb ) . Thus , Australian sarus average about 25 % lighter than the northern counterparts and are marginally lighter on average than brolgas .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The species has historically been widely distributed on the lowlands of India along the Gangetic plains , extending south to the Godavari River , west to coastal Gujarat , the Tharparkar District of Pakistan , and east to West Bengal and Assam . The species no longer breeds in Punjab , though it winters regularly . Sarus cranes are rare and occur in very low numbers in West Bengal and Assam , and are no longer found in the state of Bihar . In Nepal , its distribution is restricted to the western lowland plains , with most of the population occurring in Rupandehi , Kapilvastu , and Nawalparasi districts .
There are two distinct populations of sarus cranes in South @-@ east Asia : the northern population in China and Burma , and the southern population in Cambodia and Vietnam . The sarus used to extend to Thailand and further east into the Philippines , but may now be extinct in both these countries . In 2011 , 24 captive bred cranes raised from five original founders were reintroduced into Thailand . In Australia they are found only in the northern parts , and are partly migratory in some areas . The global range has shrunk and the largest occupied area is now in India . With marshlands largely destroyed , these cranes are increasingly dependent on wet paddy fields in India . Although now found mainly at a low elevation on the plains , there are some historical records from highland marshes further north in Harkit Sar and Kahag in Kashmir . The sarus crane breeds in some high elevation regions such as near the Pong Dam in Himachal Pradesh , where populations may be growing in response to increasing rice cultivation along the reservoir . In rice @-@ dominated districts of Uttar Pradesh , sarus crane abundance ( estimated as occupancy ) was highest in the western districts , intermediate in the central districts , and minimal in the eastern districts . Sarus crane abundance was positively associated with percentage of wetlands on the landscape , and negatively with the percentage of area under rice cultivation .
Two isolated populations exists in Australia , one from the western Kimberley region east to Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory and another population from Burketown eastwards and as far south as Townsville . Sarus cranes are not found on the Cape York Peninsula north of Weipa . They are commonly seen in Kakadu National Park , where the species is often hard to find among the more numerous brolga , and on the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland .
Sarus cranes preferentially use wetlands or uncultivated patches amid flooded rice paddies ( locally called khet @-@ taavadi ) for nesting in India . Breeding pairs are territorial and prefer to forage in natural wetlands , though wet crops like rice and wheat are also frequented . In south @-@ western Uttar Pradesh , sarus crane numbers increased with wetland size , though they were found in wetlands of all sizes despite extensive use of wetlands by humans .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
This species was described by Linnaeus in 1758 and placed in the genus Ardea that included the larger herons . Edward Blyth published a monograph on the cranes in 1881 in which he considered the " sarus crane " of India to be made up of two species , Grus collaris and Grus antigone . Most modern authors recognise one species with three disjunct populations that have been treated as subspecies , although the status of one extinct population from the Philippines is uncertain . The nominate subspecies from India is the largest , and in the east from Myanmar is replaced by race sharpii that extends into the Southeast Asian islands . The nominate form from the Indian subcontinent is well marked and differentiated by having a white collar below the bare head and upper neck , and white tertiary remiges . Some authors consider antigone and sharpii as representatives of a formerly continuous population that varied clinally . The race in Australia , initially placed in sharpii ( sometimes spelt sharpei but amended to conform to the rules of Latin grammar ) has been separated and named as the race gilliae ( sometimes spelt gillae or even gilli ) . The Australian race was designated only in 1988 , with the species itself first noticed in Australia in 1969 and regarded as a recent immigrant . Native Australians , however , differentiated the sarus and the brolga and called the sarus " the crane that dips its head in blood " . The Australian race has a distinctively darker plumage and a larger grey patch of ear coverts . This population shows the most recent divergence from the ancestral form with an estimated 3000 generations of breeding within Australia . An additional subspecies luzonica has been suggested for the population once found , but now extinct , in the Philippines . No distinctive character is known and it may be synonymous with either gilliae or sharpii .
Analysis of mitochondrial DNA , from a limited number of specimens , suggested that there was gene flow within the continental Asian populations until the 20th century reductions in range , and that Australia was colonized only in the Late Pleistocene , some 35000 years ago . This has been corroborated by nDNA microsatellite analyses with four times the sample size . This study further suggests that the Australian population is quite inbred . As there exists the possibility of ( limited ) hybridization with the genetically distinct brolga , the Australian sarus crane can be expected to be an incipient species .
= = = Etymology = = =
The common name of sarus is from the Hindi name ( " sāras " ) for the species . The Hindi word is derived from the Sanskrit word sarasa for the " lake bird " , ( sometimes corrupted to sārhans ) . While Indians held the species in veneration , British soldiers in colonial India hunted the bird , calling it the serious or even cyrus . The specific name of antigone — after the daughter of Oedipus , who hanged herself — may relate to the bare skin of the head and neck .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Unlike many other cranes that make long migrations , sarus cranes are largely non @-@ migratory ; they may however make short @-@ distance movements in response to rain or dry @-@ weather conditions . The only migratory population is in South @-@ east Asia . Breeding pairs maintain territories that are defended from other cranes using a large repertoire of calls and displays . In Uttar Pradesh , less than a tenth of the breeding pairs maintain territories at wetlands and most pairs are scattered well away from the major wetlands . Non @-@ breeding birds occur as flocks of various sizes that vary from 1 – 430 birds . In semi @-@ arid areas , breeding pairs and successfully fledged juveniles depart from territories in the dry season and join non @-@ breeding flocks . In areas with perennial water supply , like in the western plains of Uttar Pradesh , breeding pairs maintain perennial territories . The largest known flocks are from the 29 km2 Keoladeo National Park – as many as 430 birds , and from wetlands in Etawah and Mainpuri districts in Uttar Pradesh , ranging from 245 – 412 birds . Flocks of over 100 birds are also regularly reported from Gujarat and Australia . During the breeding season , breeding pairs displace non @-@ breeding birds from some wetland sites , and local populations can appear to decline . Sarus crane populations in Keoladeo National Park have been noted to reduce from over 400 birds in summer to just 20 birds during the monsoon . In areas with perennial wetlands in the landscape such as western Uttar Pradesh , numbers of nonbreeding sarus cranes in flocks can be relatively stable throughout the year . In Etawah @-@ Mainpuri districts , nonbreeding sarus cranes form up to 65 % of the regional population .
They roost in shallow water , where they may be safe from some ground predators . Adult birds do not moult their feathers annually and instead feathers are replaced once every two or three years .
= = = Feeding = = =
Sarus cranes forage in shallow water ( usually with less than 30 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 ft ) depth of water ) or in fields , frequently probing in mud with their long bills . They are omnivorous , eating insects ( especially grasshoppers ) , aquatic plants , fish ( perhaps only in captivity ) , frogs , crustaceans and seeds . Occasionally tackling larger vertebrate prey such as water snakes ( Xenochrophis piscator ) , sarus cranes may in rare cases feed on the eggs of birds and turtles . Plant matter eaten includes tubers , corms of aquatic plants , grass shoots as well as seeds and grains from cultivated crops such as groundnuts and cereal crops such as rice .
= = = Courtship and breeding = = =
Sarus cranes have loud trumpeting calls . These calls are , as in other cranes , produced by the elongated trachea that form coils within the sternal region . Pairs may indulge in spectacular displays of calling in unison and posturing . These include " dancing " movements that are performed both during and outside the breeding season and involve a short series of jumping and bowing movements made as one of the pair circles around the other . Dancing may also be a displacement activity when the nest or young are threatened . The cranes breed mainly during the monsoons in India ( from July to October although there may be a second brood ) , and there are records of breeding in all the months . They build large nests , platforms made of reeds and vegetation in wet marshes or paddy fields . The nest is constructed within shallow water by piling up rushes , straw , grasses with their roots and mud so that the platform rises above the level of the water to form a little island . The nest is unconcealed and conspicuous , being visible from afar .
The nests can be more than two metres ( six feet ) in diameter and nearly a metre ( three feet ) high . Pairs shows high fidelity to the nest site , often refurbishing and reusing nests for as many as five breeding seasons . The clutch is one or two eggs ( rarely three or four ) which are incubated by both sexes for about 31 days ( range 26 – 35 days ) . Eggs are chalky white and weigh about 240 grams . When disturbed from the nest , parents may sometimes attempt to conceal the eggs by attempting to cover them with material from the edge of the nest . The eggshells are removed by the parents after the chicks hatch either by carrying away the fragments or by swallowing them . Approximately 30 % of all breeding pairs succeed in raising chicks in any year , and most of the successful pairs raise one or two chicks each , with brood sizes of three being rare . The chicks are fed by the parents for the first few days , but are able to feed independently after that and follow their parents for food . When alarmed , the parent cranes use a low korr @-@ rr call that signals chicks to freeze and lie still . Young birds stay with their parents until the subsequent breeding season . In captivity , birds breed only after their fifth year . The sarus is widely believed to pair for life , however cases of " divorce " and mate replacement have been recorded .
= = = Mortality factors = = =
Eggs are often destroyed at the nest by jungle ( Corvus macrorhynchos ) and house crows ( C. splendens ) . In Australia , predators of young birds include the dingo ( Canis dingo ) and fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) while brahminy kites ( Haliastur indus ) have been known to take eggs . Removal of eggs by farmers ( to reduce crop damage ) or children ( in play ) , or by migrant labourers for food or opportunistic egg collection during trips to collect forest resources are prominent causes of egg mortality . Between 31 and 100 % of nests with eggs can fail to hatch eggs for these reasons . Chicks are also prone to predation ( estimated at about 8 % ) and collection at the nest , but more than 30 % die of unknown reasons . Breeding success ( percentage of eggs hatching and surviving to fledging stage ) has been estimated at about 20 % in Gujarat and 51 – 58 % in south @-@ western Uttar Pradesh . In areas where farmers are tolerant , nests in flooded rice fields and those in wetlands have similar rates of survival . Pairs that nest later in the season have a lower chance of raising chicks successfully , but this improves when territories have more wetlands . Nest success for 96 sarus nests that were protected by locals during 2009 – 2011 via a payment @-@ for @-@ conservation program was 87 % . More pairs are able to raise chicks in years with higher total rainfall , and when territory quality was undisturbed due to increased farming or development . Permanent removal of pairs from the population due to developmental activities caused reduced population viability , and was a far more important factor relative to breeding success due to changes in total annual rainfall .
Little is known about the diseases and parasites of the sarus crane , and their effects on wild bird populations . A study conducted at the Rome zoo noted that these birds were resistant to anthrax . Endoparasites that have been described include a trematode , Opisthorhis dendriticus from the liver of a captive crane at the London zoo and a Cyclocoelid ( Allopyge antigones ) from an Australian bird . Like most birds , they have bird lice and the species recorded include Heleonomus laveryi and Esthiopterum indicum .
In captivity , sarus cranes have been known to live for as long as 42 years . Premature adult mortality is often the result of human actions . Accidental poisoning by monocrotophos , chlorpyrifos and dieldrin @-@ treated seeds used in agricultural areas has been noted . Adults have been known to fly into power lines and die of electrocution , this is responsible for killing about 1 % of the local population each year .
= = Conservation status = =
There were about an estimated 15 – 20 @,@ 000 mature sarus cranes left in the wild in 2009 . The Indian population is less than 10 @,@ 000 , but of the three subspecies , is the healthiest in terms of numbers . They are considered sacred and the birds are traditionally left unharmed , and in many areas they are unafraid of humans . They used to be found on occasion in Pakistan , but have not been seen there since the late 1980s . The population in India has however declined . Estimates of the global population suggest that the population in 2000 was at best about 10 % and at the worst just 2 @.@ 5 % of the numbers that existed in 1850 . Many farmers in India believe that these cranes damage standing crops , particularly rice , although studies show that direct feeding on rice grains resulted in losses amounting to less than one percent and trampling could account for grain loss of about 0 @.@ 4 – 15 kilograms ( 0 @.@ 88 – 33 @.@ 07 lb ) . The attitude of farmers tends to be positive in spite of these damages , and this has helped in conserving the species within agricultural areas . The role of rice paddies may be particularly important for the birds ' conservation , since natural wetlands are increasingly threatened by human activity . The conversion of wetlands to farmland , and farmland to more urban uses are major causes for habitat loss and long @-@ term population decline . Compensating farmers for crop losses has been suggested as a measure that may help . The Australian population is greater than 5 @,@ 000 birds and may be increasing , however , the Southeast Asian subspecies has been decimated by war and habitat change ( such as intensive agriculture and draining of wetlands ) and by the mid @-@ 20th century had disappeared from large parts of its range which once stretched up to southern China ; some 1500 – 2000 birds are left in several fragmented subpopulations . Payment to locals to guard nests and help increase breeding success has been attempted in northern Cambodia . Nest success of protected nests was significantly higher than that of unprotected nests , and positive population @-@ level impacts were apparent . However , the program also caused local jealousies leading to deliberate disturbance of nests , and did nothing to alleviate larger @-@ scale and more permanent threats due to habitat losses reading to the conclusion that such payment @-@ for @-@ conservation programs are at best a complement and not a substitute to more permanent interventions that include habitat preservation and local management of resources . The little @-@ known Philippine population became extinct in the late 1960s .
The sarus crane is classified as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List . Threats include habitat destruction and / or degradation , hunting and collecting , as well as environmental pollution and possibly diseases or competing species . The effects of inbreeding in the Australian population may need to be studied .
The species has been extirpated in Malaysia , the Philippines and Thailand . Reintroduction programs planned in Thailand have made use of birds from Cambodia .
= = In culture = =
The species is venerated in India and legend has it that the poet Valmiki cursed a hunter for killing a sarus crane and was then inspired to write the epic Ramayana . The species was a close contender to the Indian peafowl as the national bird of India . Among the Gondi people , the tribes classified as " five @-@ god worshippers " consider the sarus crane as sacred . The meat of the sarus was considered taboo in ancient Hindu scriptures . It is widely believed that the sarus pairs for life and that death of one partner leads to the other pining to death . They are a symbol of marital virtue and in parts of Gujarat , it is a custom to take a newly wed couple to see a pair of sarus cranes . Being ubiquitous in the flood plains of the Ganges , observations on their biology had been made by the Mughal emperor , Jahangir around AD 1607 . He noted , for instance , that the species always laid two eggs with an interval of 48 hours between them and that the incubation period was 34 days .
Although venerated and protected by Indians , these birds were hunted during the colonial period . It was noted that killing a bird would lead to its surviving partner trumpeting for many days and it was traditionally believed that the other would starve to death . Even sport hunting guides discouraged shooting these birds . According to 19th @-@ century British zoologist Thomas C. Jerdon , young birds were good to eat , while older ones were " worthless for the table " . Eggs of the sarus crane are however used in folk remedies in some parts of India .
Young birds were often captured and kept in menageries both in India and in Europe in former times . They were also successfully bred in captivity early in the 17th century by Emperor Jehangir and in Europe and the United States in the early 1930s .
... The young birds are easily reared by hand , and become very tame and attached to the person who feeds them , following him like a dog . They are very amusing birds , going through the most grotesque dances and antics , and are well worth keeping in captivity . One which I kept , when bread and milk was given to him , would take the bread out of the milk , and wash it in his pan of water before eating it . This bird , which was taken out of the King 's palace at Lucknow , was very fierce towards strangers and dogs , especially if they were afraid of him . He was very noisy — the only bad habit he possessed
The Indian state of Uttar Pradesh uses the sarus crane as its official bird symbol . An Indian 14 @-@ seater propeller aircraft , the Saras , is named after this crane .
= = Other sources = =
Matthiessen , Peter & Bateman , Robert ( 2001 ) . The Birds of Heaven : Travels with Cranes . North Point Press , New York . ISBN 0 @-@ 374 @-@ 19944 @-@ 2
Weitzman , Martin L. ( 1993 ) . " What to preserve ? An application of diversity theory to crane conservation " . The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108 ( 1 ) : 157 – 183 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2118499 . ISSN 0033 @-@ 5533 . JSTOR 2118499 .
Haigh , J. C. & Holt , P. E. ( 1976 ) . " The use of the anaesthetic " CT1341 " in a Sarus crane " . Can Vet J. 17 ( 11 ) : 291 – 292 . PMC 1697384 . PMID 974983 .
Duan , W. & Fuerst , P. A. ( 2001 ) . " Isolation of a sex @-@ Linked DNA sequence in cranes " . J. Hered . 92 ( 5 ) : 392 – 397 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / jhered / 92 @.@ 5 @.@ 392 . PMID 11773245 .
Menon , G. K. , R. V. Shah , and M. B. Jani . ( 1980 ) . " Observations on integumentary modifications and feathering on head and neck of the Sarus Crane , Grus antigone antigone " . Pavo 18 : 10 – 16 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Sundar , K. S. G. ( 2006 ) . " Flock size , density and habitat selection of four large waterbirds species in an agricultural landscape in Uttar Pradesh , India : implications for management " . Waterbirds 29 ( 3 ) : 365 – 374 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1675 / 1524 @-@ 4695 ( 2006 ) 29 [ 365 : fsdahs ] 2.0.co ; 2 .
= United Nations Parliamentary Assembly =
A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly ( UNPA ) is a proposed addition to the United Nations System that would allow for participation of member nations ' legislators and , eventually , direct election of United Nations ( UN ) parliament members by citizens worldwide . The idea was raised at the founding of the League of Nations in the 1920s and again following the end of World War II in 1945 , but remained dormant throughout the Cold War . In the 1990s and 2000s , the rise of global trade and the power of world organizations that govern it led to calls for a parliamentary assembly to scrutinize their activity . The Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly was formed in 2007 to coordinate pro @-@ UNPA efforts , which as of July 2013 has received the support of over 800 Members of Parliament from over 100 countries worldwide and is supported by over 5 @,@ 000 people . The Commission on Global Security , Justice and Governance , chaired by former U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright and former Nigerian Foreign Minister Ibrahim Gambari , has called for the creation of a United Nations Parliamentary Network " to raise greater awareness and participation by strengthening the voices of legislators in global institutions . " The Commission proposes that this Network " would be similar in initial composition to the Parliamentary Network on the World Bank and International Monetary Fund and the Parliamentary Conference on the World Trade Organization " .
Supporters have set forth possible UNPA implementations , including promulgation of a new treaty ; creation of a UNPA as a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly ; and evolution of a UNPA from the Inter @-@ Parliamentary Union or another non @-@ governmental organization . Several proposals for apportionment of votes have been raised to address disparities in UN members ' population and economic power . CEUNPA advocates initially giving the UNPA advisory powers and gradually increasing its authority over the UN system . Opponents cite issues such as funding , voter turnout , and undemocratic UN member nations as reasons for abandoning the project altogether .
= = History = =
Proposals for a parliamentary assembly in the global organization of nations date back to at least the 1920s , when League of Nations founders considered ( and rejected ) plans to include a people 's assembly as part of the League 's structure . League and UN founding documents include few mechanisms for direct participation by citizens or legislators , aside from Article 71 provision allowing ECOSOC to grant consultative status to certain organizations , and the Chapter XVIII and XIX requirements that ratification and amendments be approved by member states " in accordance with their respective constitutional processes " which typically involve legislative and / or public input . In 1945 , a people 's world assembly was proposed by British politician Ernest Bevin , who said in the House of Commons that " There should be a study of a house directly elected by the people of the world to whom the nations are accountable . "
On 16 October 1945 , before the UN Charter had even entered into force , retired U.S. Supreme Court Justice Owen J. Roberts and former New Hampshire Governor Robert P. Bass held a conference in Dublin , New Hampshire , which passed the Dublin Declaration . It stated that the UN Charter was inadequate to preserve peace and proposed the transformation of the U.N. General Assembly into a world legislature , opining , " Such a government should be based upon a constitution under which all peoples and nations will participate upon a basis of balanced representation which will take account of natural and industrial resources and other factors as well as population . It cannot be based on treaties ... in which the states ... act and vote as states " . It called for " limited but definite and adequate power for the prevention of war . " Grenville Clark and other participants in the Dublin conference went on to become active in the United World Federalists ( UWF ) and the global World Federalist Movement . UWF enjoyed some success in the postwar period , as 23 state legislatures passed bills supporting the organization ’ s goals , but McCarthyism prompted many prominent members to resign lest Senator Joseph McCarthy ruin their careers . In the United States , internationalism came to be associated with communism .
In the post @-@ Cold War era , several factors contributed to a more favorable environment for UNPA proposals . A Trilateral Commission report notes that the shift from a world led by the two rival Soviet- and U.S.-led blocs meant a general diffusion of power . Growth of economic interdependence , proliferation of transnational actors , nationalism in weak states , spread of technology , and increasing numbers of issues ( such as global environmental problems and weapons of mass destruction containment ) that are both domestic and international generated stronger incentive to develop international cooperation than ever before . Democracy in general had spread ; in 2003 , Freedom House counted 121 electoral democracies , compared to 66 in 1987 and 30 in 1975 ( although by the mid @-@ 2000s , the trend appeared to have stagnated ) . The rapidly integrating European Union , a unique supranational body whose European Parliament was gradually growing in power , provided an example to the world of how a multi @-@ nation parliament can evolve and function . The World Trade Organization and similar organizations generated great concern as they seemed to be gaining more influence and control over trade disputes , yet were not accountable to the people ; U.S. President Bill Clinton argued , " We must insist that international trade organizations be open to public scrutiny instead of mysterious , secret things subject to wild criticism . " A " new diplomacy " seemed to be taking shape in which NGOs and governments cooperated to create new global institutions such as the International Criminal Court . U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy Chairman Harold C. Pachios of Preti , Flaherty , Beliveau & Pachios noted :
In early 1993 , the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on External Affairs and International Trade presented a report stating , " By way of building the public and political constituency for the United Nations , the Committee recommends that Canada support the development of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly . " The Campaign for a Democratic United Nations ( CAMDUN ) , the International Network for a United Nations Second Assembly ( INFUSA ) , and the Global People 's Assembly Movement ( GPAM ) , began circulating UNPA proposals around 1995 , and other organizations , such as One World Trust , began publishing analyses of how to proceed in the current political situation . On 8 February 2005 , on the initiative of the Committee for a Democratic UN , 108 Swiss Parliamentarians signed an open letter to the Secretary @-@ General calling for the establishment of just such a body . On 14 May 2005 , the Congress of the Liberal International issued a resolution stating that " the Liberal International calls on the member states of the United Nations to enter into deliberations on the establishment of a Parliamentary Assembly at the United Nations . " On 9 June 2005 , the European Parliament issued a resolution that contained an item stating that Europarl " calls for the establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly ( UNPA ) within the UN System , which would increase the democratic profile and internal democratic process of the organisation and allow world civil society to be directly associated in the decision @-@ making process ; states that the Parliamentary Assembly should be vested with genuine rights of information , participation and control , and should be able to adopt recommendations directed at the UN General Assembly ; [ ... ] " In 2006 , Citizens for a United Nations People 's Assembly circulated a petition to UN Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan to " convene a High Level Panel to determine the steps required for the establishment of a Peoples ' Parliamentary Assembly within the United Nations Organization "
In April 2007 , international NGOs launched the International Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly , the principal current movement for the establishment of a UNPA . Its Secretariat is led by the Committee for a Democratic U.N. Over 150 civil society groups and more than 550 parliamentarians from all over the world are taking part in the Campaign . As of November 2008 , CEUNPA 's appeal was endorsed by around 2400 signatories from over 120 countries , among them hundreds of parliamentarians , civil society leaders , leading academics and distinguished individuals such as former UN Secretary @-@ General Boutros Boutros @-@ Ghali , the President of the Pan @-@ African Parliament , Gertrude Mongella , Academy Award winner Emma Thompson , SF @-@ author Sir Arthur C. Clarke and Edgar Mitchell , former NASA astronaut and sixth human being to walk on the moon . On 25 September 2007 , the statement by H.E. Mr. José Sócrates , Prime Minister of Portugal , on behalf of the European Union , at the United Nations 62nd Session of the General Assembly , General Debate , stated , " We remain committed to the reform of its main bodies in order to enhance the Organization 's representativity , transparency and effectiveness . " On 24 October 2007 , the Pan African Parliament unanimously adopted a resolution calling for the establishment of a Parliamentary Assembly at the United Nations , noting , " in contrast to regional international bodies such as the African Union , the European Union , the Council of Europe , or Mercosur , the United Nations and its specialized organizations is one of the last international fora lacking an integrated and institutionalized Parliamentary Assembly . " So far , four international conferences of CEUNPA have taken place .
One of the most influential and well @-@ known pro @-@ UN organizations , UNA @-@ USA has been on both sides of the issue . In 2003 , UNA @-@ USA 's executive director of policy studies , Jeffrey Laurenti , wrote an article , An Idea Whose Time Has Not Come , arguing that there were important unresolved issues of inclusivity , authority , and efficiency with the UNPA . UNA 's position seemed to reverse in November 2006 , when the 38th plenary session of the World Federation of United Nations Associations issued a resolution stating that it " Supports the establishment of a United Nations parliamentary Assembly as a consultative body within the United Nations system as a voice of the citizens ; Calls upon the governments of the United Nations member states , parliamentarians and civil society representatives to jointly examine possible steps and options to create a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly . "
According to Stefan Marschal , the post @-@ World War II years , particularly the 1980s and 1990s , saw tremendous growth in parliamentary assemblies , with more than 40 established since 1949 . About 42 % of the world 's parliamentary assemblies are formally affiliated with an intergovernmental organization ; 32 % are informally affiliated ; and 26 % are unaffiliated . The spread in parliamentary assemblies was spurred by acceptance of parliamentarism as a means of legitimizing decisions ; initiatives for intergovernmental cooperation reaching a point at which stronger parliamentary backing was needed ; and regional integration . However , many global organizations , such as the UN and WTO , still lack a parliamentary assembly and " have been heavily criticized for what is supposed to be an institutional deficit . "
On 9 February 2010 , a resolution of an international conference of sitting and former judges of the supreme courts of over 30 countries that took place in Lucknow , India , called for a revision of the United Nations Charter and for the establishment of a world parliament .
= = Implementation = =
There are five main options for creating a U.N. Parliamentary Assembly , according to various assessments .
Amending the UN Charter , possibly through a Charter Review Conference under Article 109 of the UN Charter , is a commonly cited possibility . This is difficult because it requires ratification by two @-@ thirds of UN members , including all five permanent members of the Security Council . There have been only five amendments to the UN Charter since 1945 , and none of them were done through the Article 109 process . Louis Sohn and Grenville Clark , in their 1958 book World Peace Through World Law , proposed establishing a UN Parliamentary Assembly through this method .
Another possibility is establishing the UNPA as a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly . The General Assembly has authority to do this under Article 22 of the UN Charter . Erskine Childers and Sir Brian Urquhart endorsed this approach in their 1994 book , Renewing the United Nations System . The Committee for a Democratic UN also recommended the establishment of UNPA by Article 22 or by transformation of the Inter @-@ Parliamentary Union in its report , Developing International Democracy . In 2006 , the Council of Europe passed a resolution noting , " A decisive step towards the development of a UN parliamentary dimension could be the establishment of an experimental parliamentary committee with consultative functions for General Assembly committees . "
Yet another option is to create the UNPA as a nongovernmental organization of democratically elected legislators . This would have the advantage of not requiring the cooperation of ( sometimes dictatorial ) national governments or world parliamentary organizations with dictatorial members , so only democratic legislators , parliaments and countries would be represented . The World Constitution and Parliament Association and other NGOs have attempted to set up workable parliaments . Dieter Heinrich critiqued this approach by saying , " If it did succeed on any scale , it would divert resources from pressuring governments on thousands of specific issues , which citizens are good at , into the operation of a pan @-@ global institutional structure , which citizens ' groups are ill equipped to do ... And the resulting assembly would always be of doubtful legitimacy ( who does it really represent ? ) and of unlikely value as an evolutionary starting point for a real world parliament . "
A UNPA could be created through a stand @-@ alone treaty . This would have the advantage that as few as 20 or 30 economically and geographically diverse countries could establish a UNPA , and it could expand as more countries ratified the treaty . Strauss notes that this is the method by which most international bodies , such the World Health Organization , International Labour Organization , and International Criminal Court , were founded . The way to get started presumably would be to hold a conference of plenipotentiaries to draft the treaty ; then the ratification process would begin .
It might also be possible to use and / or transform the Inter @-@ Parliamentary Union ( IPU ) , which was granted observer status in 2002 . The IPU 's Second World Conference of Speakers of Parliament adopted a resolution stating , " We would greatly welcome more substantive interaction and coordination with the United Nations , and call upon the world body to resort more frequently to the political and technical expertise which the IPU together with its Member Parliaments can provide . " Moreover , a 2005 article by IPU Secretary @-@ General Anders B. Johnsson stated that , " It makes little practical or political sense to set up a separate parliamentary assembly alongside the existing governmental General Assembly . " Indeed , the Inter @-@ Parliamentary Union seems to favor a reformed IPU as a substitute for a UNPA , saying , " The Union had the necessary experience , and further bureaucracy should be avoided . " Many national parliaments , however , are currently not members of the IPU .
= = Powers = =
The CEUNPA proposes that the UNPA 's begin as a consultative body whose powers could be augmented as it evolved into a directly elected assembly : " Step by step , it should be provided with genuine rights of information , participation and control vis @-@ à @-@ vis the UN and the organizations of the UN system . " An article in the Asian @-@ Pacific Law & Policy Journal notes that precedents for this idea include the British Parliament , French Estates @-@ General , U.S. Congress , and Europarl , which are all systems in which , over time , power shifted to directly elected officials : " In the past , fledgling democracy has always had to compromise with the realities of power and evolve step @-@ by @-@ step , where possible . This is often accomplished in the form of a ' non @-@ democratic ' additional house in the parliamentary structure . Thus , in Britain , the necessity of compromise of the ' common people ' with the powers and interests of the armed and titled nobility necessitated a bicameral system incorporating the House of Lords , as well as the House of Commons . The French Estates @-@ General included similar power blocs as ' estates ' or functional separate houses , and the United States Senate reflected a necessary compromise of the interests of less populous states hesitant to subject themselves to ' democratic inundation ' by the more populous states . "
World federalists often point out that a democratic union of peoples , rather than governments , is suggested by the opening words of the Preamble to the United Nations Charter , " We the peoples ... " This sentiment was expressed by Theo van Boven , who said , " A more democratic United Nations as envisaged by the campaign for a UN Parliament will strengthen the legitimacy of We the peoples of the United Nations in whose name the UN Charter was proclaimed . " According to the Committee for a Democratic UN , " The UNPA concept is the a first step towards a democratic world parliament " . World federalists typically view an empowered democratic assembly as a means of preventing war by providing everyone a peaceful means of pursuing their political objectives . Walter Cronkite , for instance , said , " Within the next few years , we must change the basic structure of our global community from the present anarchic system of war and ever more destructive weaponry to a new system governed by a democratic U.N. federation . "
But there is some opposition to the idea of an empowered global parliament . A 2007 BBC poll of approximately 12 @,@ 000 respondents asked , " How likely would you be to support a Global Parliament , where votes are based on country population sizes , and the global parliament is able to make binding policies ? " Of those polled , 19 @.@ 1 % responded " Very unlikely – it is a bad idea " ; 14 @.@ 9 % responded " Quite unlikely – but it might work " ; 23 @.@ 1 % said " Quite likely – but with reservations " ; and 14 @.@ 4 % said " Very likely – it is a good idea " . The poll was broken out by country , and the U.S. and Australia showed the strongest | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
opposition . Potential challenge to the UNPA are political organizations such as the U.S. Constitution Party , and politicians such as 2008 U.S. presidential candidate Ron Paul , which favor withdrawal from the United Nations and other multilateral organizations altogether due to sovereignty concerns . Canadian Action Party leader Connie Fogal also opposes the UNPA , saying , " It is very revealing to see the NDP and the Greens as part of and promoting this ... Further , the European assembly has proven to be a rubber stamping mechanism of bureaucratic decisions . This is not democracy . " In addition , a Civicus article warns , " With an unexpected backlash against civil society in the offing ( despite the good efforts of the UN General Assembly President , Jan Eliasson , to reverse the trend ) , citizen participation at the UN is diminishing quickly . It would be safe to assume that Member States as a whole are not in the mood to consider a Parliamentary Assembly at this time . "
Herbert W. Briggs points out that while a UNPA could be established as a UNGA subsidiary body without any changes to international law , granting it the power to pass binding legislation would require UN Charter amendment or a new treaty . The UNGA plays a role in admitting , suspending and expelling UN members , approving the budget , and electing members to other UN bodies , but its powers as set forth in Chapter IV of the UN Charter are mostly advisory in nature . These include the power to " discuss , " " make recommendations , " " consider , " " call the attention of the Security Council to situations , " " initiate studies , " " receive ... reports , " etc . , as well as " establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions . " The Charter contains no provision allowing the UNGA to delegate any powers it does not itself possess . And while Article 25 states , " The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council , " there is no requirement that members abide by the recommendations of the UNGA . On the other hand , Article 13 ( 1 ) ( a ) of the Charter tasks the UNGA with " encouraging the progressive development of international law and its codification . "
According to Oscar Schachter , there is some question as to whether the traditional international lawmaking process of state @-@ by @-@ state treaty ratification is adequate today : " The traditional case @-@ by @-@ case process of customary law cannot meet the necessity for common action to deal with the numerous problems raised by technological developments , demographic and environmental impacts , changing attitudes as to social justice , or the many requirements of international business . While all of these matters can be dealt with by multilateral treaties , the treaty processes are often complicated and slow , whereas UN resolutions can be more readily attained . " The Law of the Sea is an example of an agreement that has taken decades to pass in the U.S. ( although the Cato Institute views the delay as a good thing . ) George Monbiot argues , " The absence of an international legislature undermines the authority of an international judiciary ( such as the proposed criminal court ) . Judges presiding over the war @-@ crimes tribunals at the Hague and in Arusha have been forced , in effect , to make up the law as they go along . "
Proposals to give the UNGA legislative power – including the " binding triad " idea which would have made UNGA resolutions binding if passed by countries constituting a supermajority of the world 's states , population , and economic production – have made little headway . According to Heinrich , once the UNPA is established , it will be easier to gather support for empowering it . The assembly 's own members can be expected to play a major role in pushing for its evolution by seeking a UN Charter amendment to make it a " principal organ " in parallel with the General Assembly . With their political know @-@ how , their access to the highest levels of their national governments , and their credibility with the world public and the media , the politicians in the UN Parliamentary Assembly can be expected to become a strong and persistent political force for organizing the assembly 's eventual transformation .
= = Legitimacy and accountability = =
One of the main purposes for the creation of a UNPA is enhancing UN accountability and legitimacy . The United Nations System spent more than $ 1 @.@ 8 billion of public money in 2005 and its own auditors have pointed out that it lacks adequate internal controls to protect against waste , fraud and mismanagement . By holding hearings , issuing reports , and passing resolutions , the UNPA could exercise oversight over other UN bodies . In a September 2007 press release , MEP Graham Watson expressed his hope that " in an era where the UN 's mandate has grown exponentially the UNPA would act as a watch @-@ dog on its activities , monitoring its decision @-@ making deadlines , its accountability and transparency " . London Mayor Ken Livingstone promised that , " a more democratic United Nations as envisaged by this campaign will strengthen the accountability and legitimacy of the UN . " The Pan African Parliament 's resolution mirrored this sentiment : " If democratization is a major means to legitimize and improve national governance , it is also the most reliable way to legitimize and improve international organization , making it more open and responsive by increasing participation . "
Canadian Senator Douglas Roche , O.C. , argues in The Case for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly that even an indirectly elected UNPA consisting of delegates appointed by national parliaments could create additional checks and balances by providing for oversight by a parliamentary body that would be independent of member nations ' executive branches . It would open up the global policymaking process to a larger group of elected officials by shifting some power from the relatively small executive branches of countries to the larger legislative branches . According to Roche , globalization has tended to increase the power of the executive branch while marginalizing the legislative branch ; for instance , U.S. Presidents since George H. W. Bush have been given fast track authority to negotiate trade agreements , subject to a " yea or nay " scrutiny by the U.S. Congress on the negotiated deal . A Property and Environment Research Center report argues that changes in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development are another example of how international regulation removes checks and balances between the branches of government : " The OECD was created by a 1961 treaty , ratified by the U.S. Senate , to help achieve economic growth . In April 1998 , a ministerial meeting reinterpreted the treaty , adding social and environmental considerations to the economic ones . The United States executive branch agreed to the changes , but the Senate had no opportunity to debate this treaty , even though it was significantly different from the 1961 treaty . The executive branch had essentially negotiated a new deal without Senate approval . " World Federalist Canada Briefing Paper No. 30 , however , suggests that UNPA proposals may spark opposition from the executive branches that stand to lose power : " Experience has shown that civil servants and diplomats working in national foreign ministries are less likely to support or see the need for a UNPA . They view the UN as a forum for discussion among sovereign states ; whatever action the UN takes is a result of bargaining and compromise among member states " .
A significant practical obstacle to a completely democratically elected and representative UNPA is that , in contrast to the situation in which the European Parliament functions , a significant number of UN members , including populous countries such as China are not electoral democracies . In the past , bodies such as the United Nations Commission on Human Rights were criticized for being dominated by abusive regimes . If UNPA representatives were to be drawn from member nations ' parliaments , it could create legitimacy concerns since some national legislatures are regarded as a rubber stamp for the rulers ' decrees . Some global parliament proponents , such as Prof. Lucio Levi , propose starting a federation limited to democracies : " Though the democratization of states all over the world hasn ’ t been completed , this does not preclude starting the democratization of the UN . Six Western European countries founded the European Community , starting its democratization without waiting for the democratization of the institutions of all the European states . " UNA @-@ USA 's Jeff Laurenti notes the problems associated with excluding undemocratic countries from membership : " It is one thing to deny membership to a few small " rogue " dictatorships . It is quite another to exclude China , the vast majority of Arab countries , and two @-@ thirds of Africa , and imagine that the resulting body can have a formal consultative or oversight role with United Nations agencies , be part of UN @-@ sponsored negotiations on multilateral conventions ( the real work of international legislating ) , or pass on the resolutions of UN political bodies . "
UNPA proponents frequently counter by pointing out that most of the world 's countries are democratic .
= = Funding = =
Heinrich argues , " It is essential that the salary and travel costs of UN parliamentarians should be paid by the institution of the UN Parliamentary Assembly from its own budget ( which would be part of the UN budget ) , and not by the national governments individually . This is both to assure the independence of the UNPA politicians in their service to the UN and to assure equality of participation . " Article 17 of the UN Charter stipulates , " The expenses of the Organization shall be borne by the Members as apportioned by the General Assembly . " Thus , unless funded by private donors ( as the land for UN headquarters was in 1946 ) , presumably the UNPA would be funded like the rest of the UN system , with larger economies such as the U.S. paying larger shares of the contributions . This disparity might be offset by weighting members ' votes according to their gross national product or their contributions to the UN system . A Vancouver Sun article notes , " Another point of opposition would involve the notion of adding bureaucracy and complexity to the UN . Estimated cost of the new outfit runs $ 140 million to $ 280 million a year . "
A 1993 Parliamentarians for Global Action survey showed that a strong majority of parliamentary respondents thought that the public would support the idea of a UN Parliamentary Assembly , but they were less sure the public would be prepared to finance it . The analysis pointed out , " The possibility of a greater financial burden to support an enlarged UN is unlikely to evoke support unless it can be demonstrated that the return on investment is significant . Citizens are often known to express lofty globalist sentiments when questioned on general principles , and to surrender them when costs or trade offs are concerned . " A 1995 United Nations University report claimed , " it is difficult to see how the Parliamentary Assembly would be able to pay for the salaries and travel of what could be over 1 @,@ 000 representatives ; this proposal could increase the duplication and waste that already exist within multilateral bodies . "
CEUNPA 's response to this objection is that " it is true that a Parliamentary Assembly at the United Nations would be another player in the diplomatic scenery which governments and their executives in international organizations would have to take into account to a certain degree . On the other hand , being composed of elected parliamentarians , the assembly would be closer to the citizens and as such it would lend more credibility and legitimacy to international decisions in which it is involved . In this way , the parliamentary assembly actually would contribute to an increased efficiency of international action . "
= = Direct election vs. appointment by national parliaments = =
A UNPA might begin as an inter @-@ parliamentary institution – an assembly of parliamentarians from their respective countries ' legislatures – and then change to a directly elected body . This would be similar to the evolution of the European Parliament . Beginning with the European Common Assembly 's founding in 1952 , MEPs were appointed by each of the Member States ' national parliaments ; in 1979 , direct election was instituted . Sen. Douglas Roche , O.C. , in The Case for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly , analyzes the tradeoffs between the two choices . A UNPA based on existing parliamentarians may be easier to establish , because it avoids several hurdles , such as decisions on electoral cycles , a universally acceptable electoral body , legitimacy of elections , and so on : " A body comprising national parliamentarians has the ' stamp of approval ' built @-@ in . National parliamentarians can claim electoral legitimacy in their own right . Admittedly , the credibility of domestic franchised can be called into question , but the trend toward democracy has been strengthening rapidly . "
National parliamentarians also generally have staff and money , which could ease the funding issues associated with forming a new world parliamentary assembly . Delegates to a directly elected UNPA , on the other hand , would have more time to devote to the global assembly , since its members would not be occupied with duties relating to their membership in their national legislature . Heinrich points out strategic advantages of an indirectly elected UNPA : " Another advantage to basing representation in a UN Parliamentary Assembly on national parliaments is that it may engage parliamentarians as allies in the cause of getting the assembly established , and , later , helping to build the political will for its evolution . The experience of being a UN parliamentarian will galvanize many of these politicians into going home as advocates for the UN , including the need for strengthening and democratizing the UN Parliamentary Assembly itself . "
Heinrich also notes the possibility that national parliaments could appoint citizen representatives to the UNPA , similarly to how the U.S. Electoral College officially selects the President . This would be a stopgap solution until direct election became possible . Yet it would still ensure that citizens would be electing citizens ( albeit indirectly ) , rather than the executive appointing officials , to the UNPA .
= = Apportionment of votes = =
A global parliamentary assembly could be structured to give populous states greater influence . The one state , one vote rule of the UN General Assembly gives small states a disproportionate amount of influence over the UN system . In Entitlement quotients as a vehicle for United Nations reform , University of Minnesota professor emeritus Joseph E. Schwartzberg notes , " The sixty @-@ four least populous members – enough to block a two @-@ thirds majority vote – comprise less than one percent of the world 's total population , and in theory , the 127 least populous members , accounting for barely eight percent of humanity , are enough to provide the two @-@ thirds majority needed to pass a substantive resolution . " He continues this point in his essay , Overcoming Practical Difficulties in Creating a World Parliamentary Assembly :
There are several alternate proposals for apportionment of votes among member nations :
Schwartzberg 's weighted voting formula takes into account population ( the democratic / demographic principle ) , contribution to the UN budget ( the economic principle ) , and share of the total membership . The idea of weighting countries ' votes according to their financial contribution to the organization is not unprecedented , as the World Bank , International Monetary Fund and other Bretton Woods institutions use this method .
The Provisional People 's Assembly 's methodology gives each nation Population Seats based on a calculation that combines the Penrose method , which takes the square root of the millions of inhabitants of each country , Economic Seats equal to its portion of the world 's total gross domestic product , and classification as Free , Partially Free , or Unfree by Freedom House .
Under one person , one vote , each country 's number of votes is directly proportional to its population . This would be similar to how U.S. states are represented in the United States House of Representatives . In The Future of Sovereignty - Rethinking a Key Concept of International Relations , Hasenclever et al. sum up the advantages and disadvantages of this system : " In a strict meaning of democracy based on individuals as subjects , every person 's vote would have to have exactly the same weight . None of the known proposals , however , supports such a strict interpretation , because the inequality among the states ' voting powers would be extreme with only four countries - China , India , the United States and the former USSR - disposing of an absolute majority . " A way to resolve the disparity in population between countries would be to apportion representation to regions instead of nations . This would , for example , place Suriname and Brazil , the least and most populated South American countries , in a single South American voting bloc of approximately 400 million people , preserving the one person , one vote system while eliminating extreme disparities in population . This approach , however , is dependent upon elected officials being entrusted to represent said regions and not just their home countries , and could potentially leave some less populated countries with no representatives from their country if they are either outvoted by people in more populated countries in their assigned region or if the people in less populated countries vote in large numbers for candidates or political parties from other countries .
= = Election standards = =
A directly elected UNPA might have common election standards if it follows the example of European Parliament ( EP ) . The European Parliament has adopted certain minimum requirements , such as proportional representation , that each member country must abide by to be represented . Schwartzberg proposes a professional election commission " to ensure that assembly elections are carried out , to the maximum extent , on a level playing field " . Under Schwartzberg 's proposal , the commission would have several powers , including the authority to establish rules of fairness , determine in advance whether fairness criteria were being met , and foreclose polling where those criteria were not met . He proposes criteria that an election must meet to be considered valid , such as minimum participation rates that initially could be set as low as 20 % , and gradually increased .
= Dave Stamper =
Dave Stamper ( November 10 , 1883 – September 18 , 1963 ) was an American songwriter of the Tin Pan Alley and vaudeville eras , a contributor to twenty @-@ one editions of the Ziegfeld Follies , writer for the Fox Film Corporation , and composer of more than one thousand songs , in spite of never learning to read or write traditional music notation . He may have written " Shine On Harvest Moon " , a claim supported by vaudeville performer and writer Eddie Cantor . He was also a charter member of the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers or ASCAP .
= = Biography = =
Stamper was born in New York City on November 10 , 1883 , and took up piano at age ten . At seventeen , he left school and became a pianist at a Coney Island dance hall for two years before becoming a " song @-@ plugger " for publisher F. A. Mills . Stamper was twenty when he met singer Nora Bayes and her husband Jack Norworth becoming her accompanist and touring widely for the next four years . After Stamper left Bayes ' employment , he resumed working as a song @-@ plugger and vaudeville pianist . In 1910 he met Gene Buck , an artist who painted cover images for sheet music . The two started collaborating , with Buck providing lyrics for Stamper 's melodies . Their first published songs were In the Cool of the Evening , Daddy Has a Sweetheart ( and Mother Is Her Name ) and Some Boy .
Stamper 's first marriage to Gertrude Springer ended in divorce after the birth of two children , Maurice and Regina Stamper . On 16 July 1926 he married " vaudeville and revue comedienne " Edna Leedom who had performed in the Follies of 1923 , 1924 and 1925 . The marriage ended within two years . On 16 August . 1928 he married Agnes White , a Follies performer who was in Stamper and Buck 's musical Take The Air ( 1927 ) . The couple were married for 40 years and produced one daughter , Susan Stamper , a dancer . One of their grandchildren is singer / songwriter Happy Rhodes .
Stamper did not learn to read or write traditional musical notation , creating his own numerical notation .
= = Career = =
= = = The Ziegfeld years = = =
In 1912 Stamper began writing songs for the Ziegfeld Follies of 1913 , contributing Just You and I and The Moon , Without You and Everybody Sometime Must Love Somebody . He is credited as " additional music " for the Follies of 1914 and 1915 , but he wrote the majority of the music for the Follies of 1916 @.@ and was on an equal billing with Louis A. Hirsch , Jerome Kern , and Irving Berlin . The music of the Follies of 1917 was written by Stamper and Raymond Hubbell and he was described as " an old hand " for his work with Louis A. Hirsch by the Follies of 1918 . In addition to his 1918 Follies work , he wrote all the music for Ziegfeld Midnight Frolic with Gene Buck , a series that also had editions in 1919 , 1920 and 1921 .
The Follies of 1919 found Stamper branching out into writing lyrics as well as writing comic sketches . 1919 was a very busy year , with Stamper writing songs for the Follies as well as the Midnight Frolic and the Ziegfeld Nine O 'Clock Review both of which appeared in a theater on the roof of the New Amsterdam theater .
Stamper continued as principal songwriter for the Follies of 1920 through 1925 , with an additional summer edition in 1923 . He returned for the Follies of 1931 , the last edition produced by Florenz Ziegfeld himself .
= = = Other musicals = = =
While his work with Ziegfeld encompassed the majority of his working life , Stamper and Gene Buck worked for other producers as well . He had songs in two plays - When Claudia Smiles ( 1914 ) and Broadway and Buttermilk ( 1916 ) prior to traveling to London with Buck to write songs for Zig Zag ! which ran for 648 performances at the London Hippodrome . Stamper returned to London in 1918 to write songs for another review Box O ' Tricks with Frederick Chapelle , which ran for 625 performances . During his first trip to London , Buck befriended a man who turned out to be a German spy . Two results of this event were fellow passenger Eddie Rickenbacker deciding to enlist to fly , and Dave Stamper having to prove to British police and a Judge that his pages covered with numbers were sheet music rather than a code .
Stamper was fully occupied with work for Ziegfeld until 1927 , when Gene Buck hired Stamper to write the music for Take The Air ( 1927 ) . He also worked for the Schubert organization on Lovely Lady ( 1927 ) before returning to Ziegfeld for the 1931 Follies .
He finished out his work on Broadway with Provincetown Follies ( 1935 ) which only ran for 63 performances and Orchids Preferred ( 1937 ) which closed in a week .
= = = Hollywood = = =
In 1928 , Stamper was signed by Fox Film Corporation as a staff composer , remaining there until 1930 . He contributed Dance Away the Night and Peasant Love Song to the film Married in Hollywood ( 1929 ) often called the first filmed operetta . The film Words and Music ( 1929 ) featured The Hunting Song , Take a Little Tip and Too Wonderful for Words all written with lyricist Harlan Thompson . In 1930 , he contributed Only One and The Gay Heart written with Clare Kummer and Once In A While written with Clare Kummer and Cecil Arnold to the " singing cowboy " movie One Mad Kiss. and the Bela Lugosi film Such Men Are Dangerous .
= = = Shine On , Harvest Moon = = =
Stamper claimed to have written " Shine On , Harvest Moon " , while the writers of record were his former employers Nora Bayes and Jack Norworth . Stamper 's claim was supported by vaudeville comic Eddie Cantor in his 1934 book Ziegfeld , The Great Glorifier and David Ewen 's All the Years of American Popular Music .
Stamper was working as a pianist rather than as a songwriter at the time the song appeared but never learned how to read or write using traditional music notation thus he would have not been able submit the song for copyright , or produce sheet music to prove his claim . Bayes and Norworth compelled Stamper at one point to wear stage make @-@ up to appear Japanese , apparently to keep him from being interviewed by reporters .
= = In popular culture = =
Stamper 's caricature was on the wall at Sardi 's restaurant .
Stamper and Buck 's song The Shakespearian Rag appears in T. S. Eliot 's The Waste Land :
But
O O O O that Shakespeherian Rag — It 's so elegant
So intelligent
Ring Lardner and George S. Kaufman mentioned Stamper in their play June Moon :
Paul : Did I tell you what Dave Stamper said about it ?
Lucille : Yes ! Paul : He said it was another " Paprika " . Wait till you hear it played . Dave Stamper says it 's sure fire .
John Hyams played Stamper in the 1936 film The Great Ziegfeld starring William Powell , which won the Academy Award for Best Motion Picture . His songwriting partner Gene Buck was played by William Demarest , best known as " Uncle Charley " on the TV show My Three Sons .
= Advanced Gemini =
Advanced Gemini is a number of proposals that would have extended the Gemini program by the addition of various missions , including manned low Earth orbit , circumlunar and lunar landing missions . Gemini was the second manned spaceflight program operated by NASA , and consisted of a two @-@ seat spacecraft capable of maneuvering in orbit , docking with unmanned spacecraft such as Agena Target Vehicles , and allowing the crew to perform tethered extra @-@ vehicular activities .
A range of applications were considered for Advanced Gemini missions , including military flights , space station crew and logistics delivery , and lunar flights . The Lunar proposals ranged from reusing the docking systems developed for the Agena target vehicle on more powerful upper stages such as the Centaur , which could propel the spacecraft to the Moon , to complete modifications of the Gemini to enable it to land on the Lunar surface . Its applications would have ranged from manned lunar flybys before Apollo was ready , to providing emergency shelters or rescue for stranded Apollo crews , or even replacing the Apollo program .
Some of the Advanced Gemini proposals used " off @-@ the @-@ shelf " Gemini spacecraft , unmodified from the original program , whilst others featured modifications to allow the spacecraft to carry more crew , dock with space stations , visit the Moon , and perform other mission objectives . Other modifications considered included the addition of wings or a parasail to the spacecraft , in order to enable it to make a horizontal landing .
= = Background = =
Gemini was the second American manned orbital spaceflight program , after Mercury . It was intended to demonstrate technologies and techniques required for the Apollo program , such as extra @-@ vehicular activities , rendezvous and docking , maneuvering in orbit and long duration flight .
The Gemini spacecraft , which was built by McDonnell Aircraft , was derived from the earlier Mercury spacecraft , but modified to accommodate two astronauts . It was also equipped with a larger equipment module , allowing it to support longer missions , and maneuver in orbit . It was launched by the Titan II rocket flying from Launch Complex 19 at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . In total , twelve missions were launched , ten of which were manned . Following two unmanned test flights , the first manned flight , Gemini 3 , was launched on 23 March 1965 . The program concluded on 15 November 1966 , with the successful recovery of Gemini 12 .
Many other applications were envisaged for the Gemini spacecraft at various stages before , during , and after the two years in which it was used by NASA for manned spaceflight . Although none of these proposals ever made it into operation , many were considered seriously , and in some cases flight hardware was constructed prior to cancellation . In the case of the Manned Orbital Laboratory , a Gemini spacecraft was launched on a suborbital demonstration flight in support of the program . In some cases technology developed in the Advanced Gemini program has been reintegrated into other programs , such as components from the Titan IIIM , which was to have launched MOL , being used to upgrade other Titan rockets .
= = Military applications = =
The United States Air Force intended to use the Gemini spacecraft to transport astronauts to its proposed space stations , the Manned Orbital Development System and later the Manned Orbital Laboratory ( MOL ) . These stations would have been launched by Titan IIIM rockets , with a Gemini spacecraft atop , eliminating the need for rendezvous and docking maneuvers . For this purpose , several modifications were made to the Gemini capsule , including the installation of a hatch in the heat shield to allow access to the space station .
In order to give its astronauts experience before these programs started , the Blue Gemini program was proposed , which would have seen USAF astronauts fly on NASA missions in order to practice various techniques required for their own missions . This would have first seen cooperative missions between NASA and the US Air Force , with two missions flying with crews composed of one astronaut from NASA , and one from the USAF , followed by two missions with all @-@ USAF crews , but performing missions for NASA . After these flights , the US Air Force would have flown a number of missions of its own . Firstly , it would have flown a two @-@ man Agena rendezvous and docking mission , followed by two one @-@ man scientific or technology research missions . Other proposed missions included tests of the Astronaut Mobility Unit which was designed to assist with EVAs , inertial navigation systems , and flying a radar imaging system .
MOL Launches would have been conducted from Launch Complex 40 at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , and Space Launch Complex 6 at Vandenberg Air Force Base . In 1966 , a test flight was launched from LC @-@ 40 , using a Titan IIIC . It consisted of the Gemini B spacecraft , built from the spacecraft used for the Gemini 2 test flight , atop OPS 0855 , a boilerplate MOL space station . Gemini B was released on a suborbital trajectory , and descended to Earth to test modifications made to the heat shield , and ensure that the access hatch would not affect its performance . OPS 0855 continued on to orbit . Early MOL stations would have only been manned by a single crew , launched with the station . Later stations would have been designed to be resupplied , and support multiple crews , delivered by additional Gemini spacecraft , or derivatives .
The MOL program was cancelled on 10 June 1969 , in favour of unmanned reconnaissance satellites . Some systems developed for the program were later used on unmanned missions , while the space suits which were under development were transferred to NASA . The Titan IIIM rocket which was to launch MOL never flew , however some of the upgrades that were built into it were later used to upgrade other Titan rockets — the stretched first and second stages became the Titan 34 , which was used as the core of some later Titan IIIB flights , and on the Titan 34D . The seven @-@ segment solid rocket boosters were later introduced on the Titan IVA .
= = Gemini Ferry = =
Several Gemini Ferry spacecraft were proposed to provide transportation of crews and cargo to NASA and USAF space stations in low Earth orbit . NASA contracted McDonnell to conduct a study into what modifications would be needed to allow the Gemini spacecraft to support this . Three spacecraft were envisioned ; a manned spacecraft to transport crew to the stations , a manned spacecraft with a cargo module for both crew and cargo delivery , and a dedicated unmanned spacecraft to resupply the station every three or four months .
The studies looked at minimizing required modifications to the Gemini spacecraft . Three docking methods were considered . The first was use of the existing docking system used on Gemini @-@ Agena missions . This would have allowed the mission to be accomplished with little modification to the Gemini spacecraft needed , however crew transfer could only have been accomplished by means of an Extra @-@ vehicular activity ( EVA ) . Changes that would have been required included strengthening the nose , installing two solid rockets to be used for a separation burn , adding the necessary equipment to perform the transfer EVA , and providing provisions for flight to and from the station . The number of retro @-@ rockets would have been increased from four to six . A second method would have seen the spacecraft dock in the same way , but after docking , the spacecraft would be swung round and attached to the side of the space station . A tunnel would then have been placed over the Gemini 's hatches , allowing the crew to transfer to the station without performing an EVA . Some modifications to the hatches would have been required . The final proposed docking method was to use a port mounted on the rear of the equipment module , which would have allowed the crew to transfer directly between the spacecraft and space station , through the docking port .
A modified version of the spacecraft was proposed , which would have included a cargo module attached to the back of a modified equipment module . The spacecraft would have approached the station , and docked backwards using a port on the rear of the cargo module . If one of the forward docking configurations had been used for the Gemini itself , the docking would have been controlled remotely from the station , with the Gemini then separating from the cargo module and flying around the station to dock normally on a different port . The rear @-@ docking Gemini would have simply remained attached to the cargo module , with the crew boarding the station through it . Its docking would have been controlled by its own crew , from a station at the back of the cargo module .
Two Gemini @-@ derived spacecraft were considered for unmanned resupply flights . The first of these would have involved a Gemini spacecraft , with all systems for manned flight , re @-@ entry and landing removed . The spacecraft would have docked using a port at the front of the spacecraft . Cargo would have been transferred through the nose of the spacecraft , where the re @-@ entry attitude control system was located on the manned spacecraft . The spacecraft was equipped with a liquid propellant engine to perform rendezvous , and to reboost the space station . The other proposal was for a new spacecraft to be built for unmanned missions , but re @-@ using as many Gemini systems as possible . It would have had a higher cargo capacity than the stripped @-@ down version of the Gemini spacecraft .
Crew @-@ only or cargo @-@ only supply missions would have been launched aboard a Titan II , and the Saturn I or Saturn IB would have been used for the combined crew and cargo spacecraft . Because of the increased power of the Saturn I , the Gemini spacecraft 's ejection seats would not have been able to propel the crew far enough in the event of an explosion , so a launch escape tower was proposed , based on the one used on the Mercury spacecraft . The Titan IIIM was also considered to launch the heavier spacecraft .
= = Big Gemini = =
Big Gemini , or Big G , grew out of a 1963 proposal called Gemini Transport , to develop an enlarged Gemini spacecraft with docking capability , which would take advantage of the increased capacity offered by the Saturn IB and Titan IIIM rockets . It was designed to transport between nine and twelve astronauts into space , and to be able to dock with space stations , in support of Apollo Applications and MOL missions . It would have been launched by a Heavy lift launch vehicle ; either a Titan IIIG or Saturn INT @-@ 20 , the former being intended for use on US Air Force missions and the latter being intended for NASA missions . The Titan IIIM was also considered , which would have launched a smaller version of the spacecraft due to its lower capacity , to resupply MOL space stations later in the program . NASA also proposed several Saturn IB derivatives with solid first stages as alternatives to the INT @-@ 20 , offering similar payload capacity .
The shape and mass of the spacecraft would have varied depending on the rocket that was to launch it . The Saturn @-@ launched version had a short , conical cargo module , and a total mass of 47 @,@ 300 kilograms ( 104 @,@ 300 lb ) whereas the Titan IIIG @-@ launched version featured a longer , cylindrical module , with a total mass of 59 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 130 @,@ 000 lb ) . The Titan IIIM version would have been much shorter and lighter , with a mass of 15 @,@ 600 kilograms ( 34 @,@ 400 lb ) , as that rocket had less payload capacity than the Titan IIIG or Saturn . The IIIG variant would have carried twelve crew , whilst the others had a maximum capacity of nine . Use of the NASA variant with the Apollo Service Module was also considered .
Once in orbit , Big G would have docked with space stations using an Apollo docking probe mounted on the rear of the cargo module , which was in turn mounted on the rear of the re @-@ entry module . The re @-@ entry module itself would have been enlarged to accommodate the larger crew , and the modifications made to the spacecraft for the MOL program would have been incorporated , including the hatch in the heat shield , which would have been used to provide access to the cargo module . In the event of a launch failure , the launch escape system developed for the Apollo spacecraft would have been used to propel the re @-@ entry module clear of the rocket .
Big G would have made landings on land , using a parasail or paraglider to guide it onto a runway or dry lake , such as the one at Edwards Air Force Base . It would have landed using skids derived from the North American X @-@ 15 .
= = Lunar exploration = =
= = = Circumlunar missions = = =
A number of studies investigated sending a Gemini spacecraft onto a circumlunar trajectory . Many of the proposals made for this involved a two launch architecture , with the Gemini spacecraft rendezvousing with an upper stage in orbit . Upper stages that were considered included the Transtage , the second stage of a Titan II , four different types of Centaur , including the S @-@ V variant developed for the Saturn I , the Agena @-@ D , an enlarged Agena , and two Agenas burning in parallel . Either a Titan or Saturn IB would have been used to launch the upper stage , whilst the Gemini would launch on the Titan II , as it had in the Gemini program .
Other proposals involved launching the Gemini spacecraft on a Titan IIIC , and refueling in low Earth orbit before proceeding to the Moon , and a single launch architecture using a three @-@ stage variant of the Saturn IB .
The Gemini @-@ Centaur proposal was predicted to have been able to achieve a 72 @-@ hour circumlunar flight . The Centaur would have performed trans @-@ lunar injection , before separating from the Gemini spacecraft .
Some concerns were raised that the Gemini spacecraft 's heat shield would not have been able to protect it during the higher speed ballistic reentry associated with the trajectory that would have been required . NASA proposed using a thicker heat shield and more insulation to protect the spacecraft . This and several other modifications made the spacecraft too heavy to be launched by the Titan II rocket which was used for the original twelve Gemini missions , so several solid rocket motors would have been added to allow this additional mass to be flown .
= = = Lunar orbit missions = = =
The Gemini spacecraft would have rendezvoused with stacked Centaur and Agena upper stages in low Earth orbit . The Centaur would have placed the Gemini and Agena onto a circumlunar trajectory , along which they would coast until they reached the Moon . The Agena would then have been used to perform Lunar orbit insertion . Following the completion of activities in Lunar orbit , the Agena would have been fired again for trans @-@ Earth injection .
This architecture would have used a Titan II to launch the Gemini spacecraft , with a Saturn IB launching the upper stages .
= = = Lunar landing = = =
Using the Gemini spacecraft for a manned Lunar landing was considered as early as the original Mercury Mark II proposal which led to the Gemini program . The initial proposal was for a Lunar orbit rendezvous mission , using a Gemini spacecraft and a lightweight , open cockpit lander , launched by a Saturn C @-@ 3 rocket . It was the first time that Lunar orbit rendezvous was proposed as part of a lunar landing concept . The spacecraft would have been tested in Low Earth orbit before the Lunar missions , using two Titan II launches . The lander , which was designed by NASA 's Langley Research Center , would have had a mass of no more than 4 @,@ 372 kilograms ( 9 @,@ 639 lb ) . Some of the proposals had a mass as low as 1 @,@ 460 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 220 lb ) , with cryogenic propellants being used in place of heavier hypergolic propellant . The proposal was intended to provide a faster and lower @-@ cost alternative to the Apollo program , which was at that time proposing a direct ascent landing .
Another proposal would have used a Saturn V to achieve a direct ascent mission profile . The spacecraft consisted of four modules . The Retrograde Module would have been powered by an RL10 engine , and used to propel the spacecraft during the trans @-@ lunar coast . During landing , it would be used for the initial phases of powered descent . At an altitude of 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) above the Lunar surface , the RM would have been jettisoned , and a second module , the Terminal Landing Module , would have performed the final descent . After landing , the spacecraft would have stayed on the Moon for a day , before it was propelled back to Earth . Launch from the Lunar Surface and trans @-@ Earth injection would have been performed by the Service Module , which would also have contained components of the life support system , and other systems which were located in the Equipment Module of the Earth orbit Gemini spacecraft . The Reentry Module was based on the Gemini capsule , but would have been modified to allow it to reenter the atmosphere at the higher velocity that would have been required by a Lunar flight . It was seen as the last effort by NASA managers and engineers who still advocated the direct ascent mission profile , and was intended to be cheaper , faster and safer than the Apollo lunar orbit rendezvous technique .
= = = Apollo rescue = = =
Due to the risks associated with the Lunar landing , a number of rescue spacecraft were proposed , to be used to allow the crew of an Apollo mission to return to Earth safely in the event of a problem . Many of these designs were based around the Gemini spacecraft .
One of these proposals was the Gemini Lunar Orbit Rescue Vehicle , which was designed to retrieve the crew of an Apollo spacecraft stranded in orbit around the Moon . It was to have used a stretched reentry module to accommodate the three astronauts who would have been aboard the Apollo . This would have been attached to a modified Equipment Module . The Equipment Module contained engines which would be used for Lunar orbit insertion and trans @-@ Earth injection , as well as life support equipment to keep the crew alive until they returned to Earth . Launch and trans @-@ Lunar injection would have been performed by a Saturn V. Once the spacecraft was in Lunar orbit , the Apollo crew would have boarded it by means of an EVA .
Another proposed spacecraft , the Gemini Lunar Surface Survival Shelter , was designed to be sent to the Moon ahead of an Apollo mission . It would have landed close to the planned Apollo landing site , and if the Apollo Lunar Module 's ascent stage failed to ignite , the crew would have performed an EVA to transfer to the LSSS . The shelter was not designed to take off again after landing , so an LSRS or another Apollo mission would then be sent to collect the crew , whilst the Command Module Pilot of the original Apollo mission would have returned to Earth alone aboard his spacecraft . It consisted of a Gemini Reentry Module , which would have housed the astronauts whilst they awaited rescue , and a descent stage containing life support systems , consumables , and the engine and propellant used to land the spacecraft .
The Gemini Lunar Surface Rescue Spacecraft was intended to fly a direct ascent mission , launched by a Saturn V. Descent stages , built from either the descent stage of the Apollo Lunar Module , or from the Apollo Service Module , would have reduced the spacecraft 's velocity as it approached the Moon . One configuration used two Service Modules and one LEM descent stage , with the LEM descent stage performing the final landing , and then being reused for ascent from the Lunar surface and trans @-@ Earth injection . The other configuration used three LEM descent stages , with the second being used for landing and the third for ascent and TEI . The LSRS would have landed close to the Apollo Lunar Module on the Moon , and the Apollo crew would have transferred to it by EVA .
Following the Apollo 1 fire in January 1967 , NASA conducted a safety review of the Apollo program . In response to this review , McDonnell proposed the Universal Lunar Rescue Vehicle , a repackaged version of the Lunar Surface Rescue Spacecraft with an enlarged capsule to make room for the three astronauts who were being rescued . It was intended to rescue an Apollo crew at almost any point whilst they were at the Moon , should an anomaly occur . Some ULRV designs included five seats , with two astronauts piloting it to the Moon . The proposal was considered , but rejected due to lack of funds .
= = Other proposals = =
A number of other applications were considered for the Gemini spacecraft .
= = = Manned Orbital Telescope = = =
The Manned Orbital Telescope was a proposal for a manned spacecraft for astronomical or solar observation . It would have used the larger reentry module which was also proposed for the Big Gemini spacecraft , and would have been launched on a Saturn IB . The enlarged reentry module was also considered for a spacecraft proposed at the same time , which would have been used to rescue the crews of manned spacecraft that were stranded in low Earth orbit . It would have launched atop a Titan IIIC , once in orbit it would have maneuvered by means of a Transtage integrated into the equipment module . The larger capsule would have been used to accommodate the crew of the spacecraft which required rescuing .
= = = Rendezvous with a Pegasus satellite = = =
Another proposed mission would have seen a Gemini spacecraft rendezvous with a Pegasus satellite in low Earth orbit . The spacecraft would have either been launched directly into an orbit to rendezvous with the Pegasus , or into a lower orbit , subsequently docking with an Agena , and using that to raise its orbit . The Gemini would have flown around the Pegasus , and then one of the crew would have performed an EVA to recover a piece of one of the spacecraft 's micrometeoroid detection panels . This mission would have been used to prove that rendezvous could be accomplished with any spacecraft , to collect data on the satellite 's exposure to micrometeoroids — supporting data that the satellite had returned itself , and to demonstrate technology for military flights to inspect hostile satellites .
= = = Gemini Paraglider = = =
Several missions were proposed to demonstrate methods of landing the Gemini spacecraft on land . The spacecraft had originally been designed to land using a paraglider and a set of skis or wheels , however this was abandoned in favor of splashdowns under parachutes due to delays in development and failures during testing . As the proposed Big Gemini spacecraft would have landed this way , McDonnell Aircraft asked NASA to consider flying standard Gemini spacecraft with the paraglider in order to test the system before it would be required operationally .
= = = Winged Gemini = = =
Another alternative landing concept was the US Air Force 's proposal to attach wings to the spacecraft . This proposal arose soon after the cancellation of the X @-@ 20 Dyna @-@ Soar , and would have seen a Gemini spacecraft attached to a set of wings developed during the ASSET program . This would have been launched by a Titan II rocket , and would have been unable to maneuver in orbit . Another proposal saw the spacecraft being launched by a Titan IIIA or IIIC , using the Transtage for maneuvering . Once the mission was complete , the spacecraft would have been deorbited by means of five solid rocket motors .
= = = Long @-@ duration missions = = =
There were also proposals to use the Gemini spacecraft to conduct long @-@ duration missions to small , purpose @-@ built space stations in low @-@ Earth orbit . One proposal saw a space station based on the Agena , which would have been used to provide propulsion and attitude control for the station . A pressurized module between the Agena and the docking adapter would have been used by the crew for accommodation and to conduct experiments . The crew would have boarded the Agena by means of an inflatable tunnel between the hatches and its airlock . The Pecan spacecraft was a similar proposal .
= MacPaint =
MacPaint is a bitmap @-@ based graphics painting software program developed by Apple Computer and released with the original Macintosh personal computer on January 24 , 1984 . It was sold separately for US $ 195 with its word processor counterpart , MacWrite . MacPaint was notable because it could generate graphics that could be used by other applications . Using the mouse , and the clipboard and QuickDraw picture language , pictures could be cut from MacPaint and pasted into MacWrite documents . Pictures could also be cut from MacPaint and pasted into the resource fork of any application via ResEdit , allowing application internationalization .
The original MacPaint was developed by Bill Atkinson , a member of Apple 's original Macintosh development team . Early development versions of MacPaint were called MacSketch , still retaining part of the name of its roots , LisaSketch . It was later developed by Claris , the software subsidiary of Apple which was formed in 1987 . The last version of MacPaint was version 2 @.@ 0 , released in 1988 . It was discontinued by Claris in 1998 because of diminishing sales .
= = Development = =
MacPaint was written by Bill Atkinson , a member of Apple 's original Macintosh development team . The original MacPaint consisted of 5 @,@ 804 lines of Pascal computer code , augmented by another 2 @,@ 738 lines of 68000 assembly language . MacPaint 's user interface was designed by Susan Kare , also a member of the Macintosh team . Kare also beta @-@ tested MacPaint before release .
MacPaint uses two offscreen memory buffers to avoid flicker when dragging shapes or images across the screen . One of these buffers contained the existing pixels of a document , and the other contained the pixels of its previous state . The second buffer was used as the basis of the software 's undo feature . In April 1983 , the software 's name was changed from MacSketch to MacPaint . The original MacPaint was programmed as a single @-@ document interface . The palette positions and sizes were unalterable , as was the document window . This was different from other Macintosh software at the time , which allowed the users to move windows and resize them .
The original MacPaint did not incorporate a zoom function . Instead of a zoom function , a special magnification mode called FatBits was used . FatBits showed each pixel as a clickable rectangle with a white border . The FatBits editing mode set the standard for many future editors . MacPaint included a " Goodies " menu which included the FatBits tool . This menu was named the " Aids " menu in prerelease versions , but was renamed " Goodies " as public awareness of the AIDS epidemic grew in the summer of 1983 .
= = Release and version history = =
MacPaint was first advertised in an 18 @-@ page brochure in December 1983 , following the earlier announcement of the Macintosh 128K . The Macintosh was released on January 24 , 1984 with two applications , MacPaint and MacWrite . For a special post @-@ election edition of Newsweek in November 1984 , Apple spent more than US $ 2 @.@ 5 million to buy all 39 of the advertising pages in the issue . The Newsweek advertisement included many pages dedicated to explaining how MacWrite and MacPaint worked together . After launch , a New York Times reviewer noted how MacPaint unfolded numerous graphic possibilities for the personal computer ; he went further to say " it is better than anything else of its kind offered on personal computers by a factor of 10 . "
MacPaint 2 @.@ 0 was released on January 11 , 1988 by Claris . It added many improvements to the software , including the capability to open and use up to nine documents simultaneously . The original MacPaint operated as a single @-@ document application with a non @-@ movable window . MacPaint 2 @.@ 0 eliminated this limitation , introducing a fully functioning document window , which could be sized up to 8 x 10 " . Several other features were introduced , such as a Zoom tool , MagicEraser tool for undo actions and stationary documents . MacPaint 2 @.@ 0 was developed by David Ramsey , a developer at Claris . MacPaint 2 @.@ 0 was sold for US $ 125 , with a US $ 25 upgrade available for existing users of MacPaint . Claris discontinued technical support for the original MacPaint in 1989 . Claris stopped selling MacPaint in early 1998 because of diminishing sales . There has been an unofficial update called MacPaint X which is 3 @.@ 0 beta , mainly for people who wished to be able to use the program .
Since 2010 MacPaint 1 @.@ 3 's source code ( written in a combination of Assembly and Pascal ) is available through the Computer History Museum , along with the QuickDraw source code , a library to draw bitmapped graphics , due to the support of Steve Jobs .
MacPaint inspired other companies to release similar products for other platforms ; within a year a half @-@ dozen clones existed for the Apple II and IBM PC . Some of these included Broderbund 's Dazzle Draw for the Apple II , Mouse Systems ' PC Paint for the PC , and IBM 's Color Paint for the IBM PCjr .
= = Version history = =
= Night Out ( The Office ) =
" Night Out " is the fifteenth episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's sixty @-@ eighth episode overall . The episode was written by Mindy Kaling and directed by Ken Whittingham . It first aired in the United States on April 24 , 2008 on NBC . " Night Out " was viewed by a measured audience of over 7 @.@ 5 million people , bringing in the lowest number of estimated viewers that The Office received among 12 episodes . " Night Out " received mixed reviews from critics .
In the episode , Michael and Dwight travel to New York City to party with Ryan . Ryan starts acting erratically , and it is revealed that he is under the influence of drugs . Meanwhile , the remaining employees are going to be forced to work on a Saturday . Jim proposes that they work late on Friday , so they do not have to come in the next day . Once Jim and his co @-@ workers finish working , they find that they are locked in , and everyone quickly places the blame on Jim .
= = Plot = =
Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) arrives at the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the Dunder Mifflin Paper Company and is noticeably friendlier than on his previous visits . The employees , by now fed up with Ryan 's new website , angrily ask him questions about the website and their clients . Ryan shows the staff at the branch the new Dunder Mifflin website , " Dunder Mifflin Infinity 2 @.@ 0 " , the previous version of which was shut down because sexual predators had invaded the social networking component of the site . As Ryan leaves , he tells Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) of the women he meets in clubs in New York City . Michael and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) subsequently decide to go to New York , locate Ryan , attend parties with him , and try to meet women while doing so .
In New York , Michael and Dwight locate Ryan after discovering which club Ryan frequents ; Ryan is thrilled to see them but appears to be under the influence of drugs though Michael and Dwight do not notice . Later , Michael , Dwight , Ryan and Ryan 's colleague , Troy Undercook ( Noel Petok ) ( who Dwight is certain is a Hobbit due to his short stature ) wait outside another club , but fail to get in because they do not have dates . Dwight comes to the rescue when he manages to pair each of them with members of a women 's basketball team , who are also waiting in line . Inside the club , Ryan 's dancing becomes erratic and aggressive , and he accidentally hits a girl , prompting her friends to attack Ryan . Dwight and Michael escort him out of the club , and after Troy advises them not to take Ryan to a hospital , he runs off . Michael and Dwight bring Ryan back to his apartment , where he tells them that he thinks his " friend Troy " has a drug problem , and asks what he should do about it . Michael , oblivious to the fact that Ryan is obviously referring to his own drug addiction , gives him hypothetical advice involving a wiretap and snitching on a drug dealer . He then tells the camera that he has been watching The Wire but does not understand what is going on in the show .
Back in Scranton , the rest of the employees are going to be forced to work on a Saturday to record their own sales as the website 's sales , which is , according to Ryan , " a temporary procedure to increase the legitimacy of the website . " With no one eager to participate , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) decides to ask everyone to stay in the office late instead of coming in for the Saturday . They all agree to the plan , and after working until 9 : 00 pm , they are shocked to find the parking lot gates locked . Jim had forgotten to tell the security guard that they were staying late . They are unable to return to the office because Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) locked the door from the inside , and Dwight , miles away in New York , has both the spare and master keys . Jim repeatedly calls Hank the security guard ( Hugh Dane ) . Pam accidentally injures Meredith by hitting her head with a football that was found in the parking lot . Sitting in the lobby area waiting for the security guard to arrive , the employees are clearly frustrated with Jim , and even vote by a show of hands that Andy and Angela are a better couple than Jim and Pam .
During a moment of levity , Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) affectionately places his hand on Pam 's knee . After an awkward silence , Toby proclaims that he is moving to Costa Rica ; he then hops the parking lot fence and runs away . The cleaning staff arrives and lets the group out ( with help from Oscar , who speaks Spanish ) .
At the end of the episode , Hank finally shows up but is upset because everyone but the cleaning staff is gone .
= = Production = =
" Night Out " was the seventh episode of the series directed by Ken Whittingham . It was written by Mindy Kaling , who also acts in the show as customer @-@ service representative Kelly Kapoor . The episode was the eighth of the series to be written by Kaling . " Night Out " was the third new episode of The Office to be broadcast since the episode " The Deposition " on November 15 , 2007 , due to the effects of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . Filming of The Office immediately halted on that date , because many members of the cast including Carell , Novak , Kaling , and Lieberstein are members of the WGA and refused to cross WGA picket lines . If not for the writers ' strike , this episode would have most likely been filmed in November 2007 .
Most of " Night Out " was shot during the night . The scene that has Toby putting his hand on Pam 's knee was shot at 2 : 30 am on a Friday . The scene was shot about eight times because according to Kaling , " everyone kept breaking because Toby was so vulnerable and awkward . " Kate Flannery did her stunts in the scene where Pam throws a football and hits Customer and Supplier Relations worker Meredith Palmer ( Flannery ) in the face . Flannery had a stunt double on the set , but she was never needed for the scene . Kate recalls that she " didn 't get a scratch in all 14 takes that we shot . " Lieberstein on the other hand used a stunt double for the scene in which Toby climbs over the fence . Although Lieberstein offered to do the stunt himself , executive producer and show runner Greg Daniels decided against it .
When casting " Tall Girl # 1 " ( the woman who would kiss with Dwight ) , the show was looking for a girl 6 ' 1' ' or taller . Actress Cassie Fliegel , who is 5 ' 11 ' ' , auditioned for the part anyway . After getting a callback , Fliegel went to a gym to work out , attempting to gain muscle to look more like a basketball player . On the day of the callbacks , Fliegel remembers being next to a girl who was 6 ' 8' ' . Despite her size , Fliegel , a former basketball player herself , was cast for the part . Initially , she did not know that her character was going to make out with Dwight . Fliegel recalls that when she first heard about kissing Dwight she " was like , I don 't think so " . However , after finding out that she had her own trailer , Fliegel warmed up to the idea . The music in the club was chosen by Novak , Kaling 's then @-@ boyfriend Benjamin Nugent , and Daniel Chun . When filming Ryan dancing in the club , the girl that Ryan hit was actually a stunt woman . Pads had been placed on the floor so Novak could fall down safely . The German lullaby that Dwight sang to Ryan was script supervisor Veda Semarne 's idea . Semarne 's Austrian grandmother sang the same song to her when she was a child .
= = Reception = =
" Night Out " received 4 @.@ 0 / 10 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings . This means that four percent of all households with an 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old living in it watched the episode , and ten percent had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point . The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 56 million viewers . " Night Out " did not do as well as " Chair Model " did the week before , losing 20 percent of the previous episode 's viewers . Some attribute the loss of viewers to a lack of Grey 's Anatomy and a repeat of CSI the previous week . With 7 @.@ 69 million , " Night Out " had fewer viewers than any other episode of The Office from the fourth season , except for " Job Fair " , which garnered only 7 @.@ 16 million viewers .
Reviews for " Night Out " were mixed . Zap2It 's Rick Porter thought that although it wasn 't " as sublime in its Needy Michael @-@ ness as last week 's ( episode ) " and " in some ways , though , it was maybe even a little sadder " , " Night Out " was " still pretty darn funny " . Porter went on to praise the acting work of both B.J. Novak and Paul Lieberstein , as well as the writing of Mindy Kaling . TV Squad 's Jay Black said that Michael summed up " Night Out " perfectly when he said " Best . Night . Ever . " Black went on to praise both of the storylines , and the ability of the show to achieve success both in as well as out of the Dunder Mifflin Scranton building . Similar to Black 's statements , Gretchen Hansen of Entertainment Weekly stated that " ' Best . Night . Ever . ' Oh , so true , Michael . " She also stated that " I guess I knew it was going to be a good episode of The Office when I had two pages of scribbled notes before the first commercial break . " Hansen went on to praise both the acting and the writing of the episode as points that contributed to the success of the episode . Rachel Cericola , of TV Fodder , praised the writing of the episode by Mindy Kaling . She also praised the storyline of the episode that didn 't involve Michael and Dwight , saying " The second plotline was its usual funny filler . However , it was Toby 's revelation that made it all worthwhile . "
Travis Fickett of IGN said that the episode was " still satisfying , even when it 's not one of the show 's funnier episodes " , but " it 's a bit of a shame this episode wasn 't a home run , because having Dwight and Michael hit the clubs is a funny idea . " Fickett went on to praise the episode 's awkward moment between Toby and Pam , when Toby placed his hand on Pam 's leg , and Toby 's subsequent escape by hopping the fence . Fickett stated that , for Toby 's growing love of Pam , and growing jealousy of Jim , " this is pretty great pay off " . Claire Zulkey , a writer for the Los Angeles Times , was not as pleased with the episode . Zulkey wrote " that when it 's at its zaniest , The Office is at its worst " , and the episode was " just too silly to be funny " . Zulkey did say that " it was hilarious to see him ( Toby ) let his hand more @-@ than @-@ linger on her knee and then abruptly flee the premises by jumping over the fence and running home . " In a poll done by Office fansite OfficeTally.com , viewers ranked " Night Out " as the 13th @-@ most popular episode out of the 14 episodes of season four .
= Raining Men ( Rihanna song ) =
" Raining Men " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna from her fifth studio album , Loud ( 2010 ) . Written by Melvin Hough II , Rivelino Wouter , Timothy Thomas , Theron Thomas and Onika Maraj , and produced by Mel & Mus , the song was sent to urban radio on December 7 , 2010 , as the album 's third single in the United States , and was re @-@ sent to urban radio on January 25 , 2011 . A hip hop song , it features rap vocals by Nicki Minaj and instrumentation consisting of sirens and bass . The song 's lyrics revolve around how there is an endless supply of men available in the world . The song garnered a mixed response from music critics ; some praised the chemistry between Rihanna and Minaj , while others commented that it bore strong resemblances to Beyoncé 's song " Diva " with regard to its composition , and were critical of the notion .
Upon the release of Loud , " Raining Men " charted on the singles charts in South Korea , the United Kingdom and the United States on the strength of digital download sales . In South Korea , the song peaked at number 41 , while in the United Kingdom it peaked at number 142 on the UK Singles Chart and number 31 on the UK R & B Chart . In the United States , it peaked at number 11 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles , making this Rihanna 's third single that failed to reach the US Billboard Hot 100 chart ( " We Ride " , " Wait Your Turn " ) . Following the song 's release to US urban radio , " Raining Men " peaked at number 48 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . No music video was shot for the song , and it received no televised performances as part of promotion . The song was included on the set list of the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) . The performance featured Rihanna in a camouflage inspired outfit , accompanied by dancers in the same attire who held pink rifles .
= = Recording and production = =
" Raining Men " was written by Melvin Hough II , Rivelino Wouter , Timothy Thomas , Theron Thomas and Nicki Minaj ( credited as Onika Maraj ) , with instrumental production of the song done by Mel & Mus . It features rap vocals by Minaj ; Rihanna 's and Minaj 's vocals were recorded by Kuk Harrell , Josh Gudwin , Marcos Tovar and Aerial Chobaz at Platinum Sound Recording Studios ; Manhattan , New York City ; Electric Lady Studios , Greenwich Village , New York City and Glenwood Recording Studios , Burbank , California . Koby Hassi served as the assistant vocal recorder . The song 's music was recorded by Dana Nielsen , and was mixed by Jaycen Joshua . Jesus Garnica served as the mixing assistant .
= = Conception and development = =
" Raining Men " marked the second collaboration between Rihanna 's and Minaj , the first being Minaj 's song " Fly " , from her album Pink Friday ( 2010 ) , on which Rihanna appeared as a guest vocalist . During an interview with Capital FM radio station in London , England , Rihanna revealed that herself and Minaj had written songs together , specifically ballads , for possible inclusion on the formers fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) , however none of the songs made the final track listing . Rihanna concluded her statement by saying that she could not wait to collaborate with the rapper again for her fifth studio album , the at the time unreleased and unnamed Loud . When questioned about what " Raining Men " was like , the singer stated that it is " a really fun song . Nothing like the original . It 's quite uptempo but kind of quirky and funny . "
In the same interview , Rihanna explained why she liked to collaborate with Minaj , saying " She has a great buzz and she has a ' thing ' to her . She is a star and that 's why people love her . She 's also really entertaining with her visual as well as her lyrics , and she has a great melody . " The singer continued to reveal how she was impressed with Minaj 's songwriting abilities , saying " I 'm really amazed that she can write like that . [ Nicki ] not only raps but she can write songs too ... It was really easy actually . We were going back and forth with the texts on how we were going to get to do it because we were in two different places and had two opposite schedules . " In an interview with DJ Semtex for BBC Radio , Minaj explained how the concept for her rap verse developed , revealing " I just wanted to be crazy , I wrote that track in bed actually . I had an off day , they sent me a record and said they needed it back in 24 hours and I wrote . " With regard to the original , " It 's Raining Men " , Minaj stated that she wanted to make " Raining Men " " more melodic and crazy . " " Raining Men " was sent for urban radio adds as the third single from Loud on December 7 , 2010 . On January 25 , 2011 , the song was re @-@ released for urban radio adds .
= = Composition = =
" Raining Men " is a hip hop song , with a " shiny trap beat " . that lasts for a duration of 3 : 44 ( 3 minutes , 44 seconds ) . The song is not a cover of The Weather Girls song " It 's Raining Men " , composed by Paul Jabara and Paul Shaffer , however it is based on it with regard to its lyrical content and does sample it . Instrumentation consists of sirens and " mind @-@ melting " bass . The song is written in the key of B ♭ major and is set in simple time with a moderated hip @-@ hop groove , with a metronome of 80 beats per minute . " Raining Men " ' s composition was likened to the work of M.I.A. by Emily McKay for NME . Stacey Anderson for Spin commented on Minaj 's vocal stylizaion of the word " really , " writing that she projects the word as a " breathless contortion into its own fully demented sideshow , " with regard to the fast speed in which Minaj raps . James Reed for The Boston Globe described Minaj 's verse as a " manic guest rhyme " . Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of G3 to the high note of B ♭ 4 . According to Jon Pareles for The New York Times , the songs lyrics revolve around Rihanna and Minaj " singing and rapping about an endless supply of available men . " Lyrically , Kevin O 'Donnell of Spin described the song as Rihanna and Minaj 's own " female empowerment anthem .
= = Critical reception = =
The song was met with mixed reviews from music critics . Jon Pareles and Jon Caramanica of The New York Times commented that " Rihanna shares the mechanized , chattering beat of " Raining Men " with Nicki Minaj , singing and rapping about an endless supply of available men " . Stacey Anderson of Spin commented that the song is the highlight of the album , calling it " a gloriously eccentric collaboration with Nicki Minaj that entwines their minor @-@ key hyperventilating , air sirens dissolving into mind @-@ melting bass , and the scene @-@ stealing Minaj 's breathless contortion of the simple word ' really ' into its own fully demented sideshow " . BBC Music also commended Minaj 's presence on the song , saying that " Nicki Minaj makes for a superb partner in crime on Raining Men , her wild , kinetic flow complementing Rihanna ’ s steely delivery to wicked effect " . Jim Farber for New York Daily News said that " Rihanna pairs just as well with Nicki Minaj , on a complete tear @-@ down on the old Weather Girls disco standard ' It 's Raining Men . ' Here it 's not a gay song of lust but a statement of assurance that no man should incite too much worry , considering their sheer numbers " . Chris Richards of The Washington Post said that " Nicki Minaj , a quick @-@ witted rapper able to assume the voices of a dozen characters in a single song , fails to impart any wisdom on her colleague with " Raining Men " . Emily Mackay of NME said that " Raining Men " is a bold collaboration between Rihanna and Minaj , which plays to both of their strengths in the " hip @-@ pop " collaboration .
August Brown for Los Angeles Times said that " ' Cheers ( Drink to That ) ' and ' Raining Men , ' as foamy and spunky as they may be , are such a dogleg turn from Rated R that they come off as little more than image recalibration . That 's her prerogative as an artist , and it 's certainly earned . But it underscores the one thing we 've always wondered about Rihanna — what is she really feeling ? " . Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media was more critical of the song , commenting that " Raining Men is a shameless Beyoncé rip @-@ off that would be quickly dismissed if not for the fact that it 's a pretty @-@ damn @-@ good Beyoncé rip off with a characteristically scene @-@ stealing guest verse from Nicki Minaj " . James Reed of The Boston Globe also noticed the similarity between the song 's composition and the work of American R & B recording artist Beyoncé Knowles , saying " ' Raining Men ' , borrowing a digitized riff from Beyoncé 's ' Diva ' , features rising rapper Nicki Minaj on a typically manic guest rhyme . The song 's message doubles as the album 's mantra : Some cats really do have nine lives " . Idolator reviewer Becky Bain praised Minaj 's " infectious and energetic verse " and felt the song 's rhythm " fits Nicki 's quirkiness perfectly " .
= = Chart performance = =
Upon the release of Loud , " Raining Men " charted in South Korea , the United Kingdom and the United States on the strength of digital download sales . The song debuted at number 41 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart on November 14 , 2010 , and fell to number 85 the following week before dropping out of the chart . It debuted and peaked at number 142 on the UK Singles Chart on November 27 , 2010 . The song was more successful on the UK R & B Chart , where it peaked at number 30 in the same chart issue . " Raining Men " peaked at number 11 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles , a component chart which represents the 25 songs which failed to make an impact on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . The song debuted at number 69 US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart for the week of December 25 , 2010 . It peaked at number 48 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs .
= = Live performances = =
" Raining Men " was included on the set list of the Loud Tour in 2011 . The performance featured Rihanna in a camouflage inspired outfit , and was accompanied by dancers in the same attire who held pink rifles . The set included a pink tank which was also present on the Rated R supported tour , Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 / 11 ) . It began with Rihanna appearing on stage sitting on the pink tank as it was wheeled from the back of the stage to the front while Minaj 's rap verse played ; Rihanna then concluded the song with her vocals . " Raining Men " was preceded by " Hard " and " Breakin ' Dishes " , and featured the singer wearing the same outfit and set design . Minaj has also performed her verse on her Pink Friday : Reloaded Tour .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Loud , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
Management
SESAC / ASCAP / BMI
Mel & Mus appears on behalf of Wall Street Ent .
Kuk Harrell appears on behalf of Suga Wuga Music , Inc .
Jaycen Joshua appears on behalf of the Penua Project / Innersound Management
Nicki Minaj appears courtesy of Young Money / Universal Motown
Recording
Vocal recording – Platinum Sound Recording Studios ( New York City , NY ) ; Electric Lady Recording Studios ( New York City , NY ) ; Glenwood Studios ( Burbank , CA )
Music recording – Cahuenga Pass Studio ( Los Angeles , CA )
Mixing – Larrabee Sound Studios ( Los Angeles , CA )
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Radio history = =
= Brooks Laich =
Evan Brooks Laich ( / ˈlaɪk / ; born June 23 , 1983 ) is a Canadian ice hockey player currently playing for the Toronto Maple Leafs of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) .
Laich was originally drafted by the Ottawa Senators in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft , and was later traded to the Washington Capitals as part of the package for Peter Bondra . Before playing professionally , Laich spent time in the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) playing with the Moose Jaw Warriors and Seattle Thunderbirds . He has represented Canada internationally , capturing a silver medal at the 2003 World Junior Championships , and playing for Canada again at the 2010 World Hockey Championships .
= = Hockey career = =
= = = Minor = = =
Laich started playing minor hockey in his hometown of Wawota , Saskatchewan . During the 1999 – 2000 season , he was the top scorer and most valuable player for the midget AAA Tisdale Trojans . He was the runner up for league MVP .
= = = Junior = = =
Laich started his junior hockey career with the Moose Jaw Warriors of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) during the 2000 – 01 season . He played in 71 games with the Warriors , scoring nine goals and adding 21 assists . Laich was a dedicated student in Moose Jaw , being awarded the club 's Scholastic Player of the Year for the 2000 – 01 season . After the season , he was drafted by the Ottawa Senators in the sixth round , 193rd overall , of the 2001 NHL Entry Draft . He started the 2001 – 02 season with the Warriors , but was traded to the Seattle Thunderbirds along with Tomáš Mojžíš for Craig Olynick and Stas Avksentiev . The deal was unpopular with Warriors fans , as Olynick left the club and Avksentiev never reported .
Laich spent the rest of his junior career with the Thunderbirds . He started to develop more of an offensive game , finishing off the 2001 – 02 season with 58 points in the 47 games he played in Seattle . Laich has said that getting traded to Seattle was a good move for him , with coach Dean Chynoweth providing ample opportunities for him to display his skills . He was named the team 's Most Dedicated Player after the 2001 – 02 season . His offensive game flourished further in his first full season with the Thunderbirds ( 2002 – 03 ) , as he finished the season with 41 goals and 53 assists , leading the team . These stats placed him sixth overall in the WHL points race . He was named the WHL 's Western Conference MVP . He was also named to the WHL 's Western Conference First All @-@ Star Team , and the Canadian Hockey League 's Third All @-@ Star Team .
= = = Professional = = =
Laich attended the Ottawa Senators training camp before the 2002 – 03 season . He played his first professional game in the American Hockey League ( AHL ) for the Binghamton Senators in 2003 . He made his National Hockey League ( NHL ) debut with the Senators on February 3 , 2003 , against the New Jersey Devils . Later in the season , Laich was traded to the Washington Capitals , along with a second round draft pick , for Peter Bondra , a deal which ended Bondra 's 14 @-@ year career with the Capitals . After the trade , he reported to the Capitals ' AHL affiliate , the Portland Pirates , making his debut with the Capitals on March 12 , 2003 , against the Chicago Blackhawks . He finished the season playing with the Pirates , appearing in six playoff games . The NHL lockout saw Laich spend the entire 2004 – 05 season with the Pirates , playing in 68 games , finishing eighth on the team in scoring with 16 goals and 10 assists .
During the 2005 – 06 season , Laich played in 104 regular season and playoff games between the Capitals and their new AHL affiliate , the Hershey Bears ; this tied him for the most games played in the organization with Boyd Gordon . After training camp , he started the season in the AHL , but was optimistic about his chances to play in the NHL , saying , " You 've just got to work hard . There 's spots up there , guys could go down with an injury , you want to be the first guy called up . " He spent most of the season at the NHL level , playing in 73 games and recording 21 points . After the Capitals ' season was over , Laich rejoined the Bears for their playoff run and scored eight goals in 21 games while helping the team capture the Calder Cup . Laich played the entire 2006 – 07 season with the Capitals , scoring eight goals and adding ten assists . After the season , Laich and the Capitals went to salary arbitration , where he was awarded a one @-@ year contract worth $ 725 @,@ 000 .
Laich played in all 82 games for the Capitals during the 2007 – 08 season , and set career highs in goals , assists and points . His 21 goals ranked third overall on the team . He led the Capitals with two short handed goals , and played in his 200th career regular season game . After a two @-@ goal game against the Atlanta Thrashers , Laich summed up his philosophy towards scoring : " If you want money , go to the bank . If you want bread , go to the bakery . If you want goals , go to the net . " During the playoffs , Laich had a five @-@ game point streak in the Eastern Conference quarter @-@ finals against the Philadelphia Flyers . This tied him for the longest point streak during the first round of the playoffs . As a restricted free agent after the season , Laich signed a three @-@ year deal with the team on July 9 , 2008 .
The 2008 – 09 season saw Laich play in all 82 games for the Capitals again , where he set new career highs in goals , assists and points ; he scored 23 goals and added 30 assists , breaking the 50 @-@ point plateau for the first time in his career . During the Capitals ' playoff run , Laich played in 14 games and added seven points . He assisted on the overtime winning goal in Game 6 of the Eastern Conference Semi @-@ Final against the eventual Stanley Cup champions Pittsburgh Penguins .
Laich 's streak of consecutive games played was broken in the 2009 – 10 season , when he missed four games with a cheekbone injury in February 2010 . He still managed to set new career highs in both goals ( 25 ) and assists ( 34 ) . On February 10 , shortly after returning from injury , Laich recorded his first career NHL hat trick , against the Montreal Canadiens . During the playoffs , Laich scored the last goal of the Capitals season during Game 7 against the Montreal Canadiens .
During the 2010 – 11 season , the Capitals participated in the 2011 NHL Winter Classic against the Pittsburgh Penguins at Heinz Field , Pittsburgh . Leading up to the game , both teams were featured on HBO 's 24 / 7 , which offered a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes look at both teams as they prepared . Laich refused to blame the presence of the cameras for the team 's losing streak , saying , " There 's no using the HBO cameras as a crutch or an annoyance or anything like that . There 's no excuse . I don 't think HBO has played any bit of an ounce in how things have gone the last two weeks . " Laich was appreciative of the opportunities afforded by the outdoor game , and was happy to be able to share time with his family and friends on the outdoor rink set up at Heinz Field .
On June 28 , 2011 , Laich signed a six @-@ year , $ 27 million contract extension worth $ 4 @.@ 5 million per season .
As the player representative for the Washington Capitals during the 2012 NHL @-@ NHLPA CBA negotiations , Laich stated in support of the National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) that , " At some point you have to dig your heels in and fight . If we don ’ t this time , then what happens next ? Appeasement only makes the aggressor more aggressive , and the players really understand that . We believe in our cause and our leadership and I believe we ’ re more unified this time and ready for a fight . "
Prior to the start of the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 @-@ 2013 playing season , Laich played for the Kloten Flyers of Switzerland 's National League . In 35 games for the Flyers , Laich posted 17 goals and a total of 38 points . He also reportedly suffered a groin injury , which limited his play upon his return stateside with the NHL . When play resumed for the 2012 – 13 season , Laich was limited to nine games .
On March 17 , 2014 , the Capitals announced via Twitter that Laich " underwent a successful procedure to release a tight adductor , " a part of the groin muscle . He is expected to miss the rest of the season with a recovery time of four @-@ to @-@ six weeks .
Except for a minor shoulder injury resulting in him missing 16 games , Laich returned to full health in 2014 @-@ 15 . He finished with seven goals and 20 points in 66 games played .
In the 2015 – 16 season , Laich 's offensive production rapidly declined , while his $ 4 @.@ 5 million cap hit stuck out as one of the only adverse aspects of a league @-@ leading Capitals squad . On February 27 , 2016 , the Capitals placed Laich on waivers for the purpose of sending him to the Hershey Bears of the AHL . The following day , on the eve of the trade deadline , Laich , along with Connor Carrick and a second round selection in the 2016 draft , were traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for Daniel Winnik and a fifth round pick in the 2016 draft . The purpose of the trade was to give the Capitals salary cap relief to use toward younger core player contracts that needed re @-@ signing the following off @-@ season . Capitals GM Brian Maclellan called the trade , when asked , the hardest thing he had done as General Manager of the team . Laich had been the longest tenured active professional Washington @-@ area athlete at the time of the trade , concluding his service of 12 years with the franchise . In | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, or they had a winning percentage barely over 50 % . Some hockey legends often recalls that he was the best goaltender of them all . He was elected to the Hall of Fame in 1958 , with the help of Senator Chubby Power , once a teammate . He is still the earliest goaltender in HHOF , starting his senior hockey venture in 1901 .
= = Playing style = =
Moran was a stand @-@ up style goaltender . At 5 ft 11 in ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) and 180 lb ( 82 kg / 12 st 12 lb ) , he was considered a big goaltender for his era . In Moran 's era , goaltenders were not allowed to drop down to the ice to make saves , so his style suited him well . Moran was especially noted for his aggressive defense of the area in front of his net . He used his stick to slash opposing players within reach . Moran often chewed tobacco while on the ice , and another favorite tactic of his was to expectorate at opposing players . Moran 's stick work was described as attempts to " slash [ other players ' ] heads off with lightning strokes of his blade " . Moran often wore oversized sweaters , claiming that they kept him warm in the cold arenas ; however , he kept it unbuttoned , and often used it to catch shots .
= = Post @-@ retirement = =
Moran retired after the 1916 – 17 season , at the age of 39 . He was proud to have built his own house with his ice hockey earnings , which cost CAN $ 4 @,@ 000 . In 1919 , Moran became a custom house builder , and continued in this career for at least 35 years . In 1944 at age 66 , Moran was interviewed about his playing days , along with contemporary goaltender Percy LeSueur , who is noted for his Stanley Cup wins in 1909 and 1911 with the Ottawa Senators . Later in his life , Moran became an avid follower of the Quebec Aces . He was inducted into the Quebec Hockey Hall of Fame . In 1958 , Moran was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . He died on January 14 , 1966 .
= = Statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Stanley Cup Finals = = =
= Typhoon Halong ( 2002 ) =
Typhoon Halong , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Inday , passed just south of Guam one week after Typhoon Chataan struck the island and left heavy damage . The seventh named storm of the season , Halong developed near the same location as Chataan on July 5 near the Marshall Islands . For much of its duration , the storm moved toward the northwest , gradually intensifying . Early on July 10 , Halong passed just south of Guam as a tropical storm , producing high waves and gusty winds on the island . The storm disrupted relief efforts from Chataan , causing additional power outages but little damage .
After affecting Guam , Halong quickly strengthened and reached its peak winds on July 12 . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , while the Japan Meteorological Agency estimated 10 ‑ minute winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . Subsequently , the typhoon weakened greatly while curving to the northeast , although it still passed near Okinawa with strong winds that left widespread power outages . Halong struck southeastern Japan , dropping heavy rainfall and producing strong winds that left $ 89 @.@ 8 million ( ¥ 10 @.@ 3 billion 2002 JPY ) in damage . There was one death in the country and nine injuries . Halong became extratropical on July 16 and dissipated the next day . The typhoon influenced the monsoon trough in the Philippines , contributing to flooding and deaths in the country .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early July , a circulation with an area of convection developed along the monsoon trough near Enewetak Atoll . The system remained nearly stationary , tracking slowly to the southwest . Gradually organizing , the system developed into a tropical depression on July 6 over the Marshall Islands . Without having issued a tropical cyclone formation alert , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 10W at 0000 UTC on July 7 . Late that day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Halong near the island of Chuuk in the Federated States of Micronesia . By that time , the storm was moving west @-@ northwestward , steered by a ridge to the north . Halong slowly intensified , although it continued to develop deep convection that wrapped into the center . Early on July 9 , the JMA upgraded the storm to a severe tropical storm . At 1200 UTC that day , the JTWC upgraded Halong to typhoon status about 405 km ( 250 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Guam .
While moving toward Guam , Halong became better organized , developing an eye and well @-@ defined rainbands . After a brief turn more toward the west , the storm passed about 140 km ( 85 mi ) south of the southern tip of Guam at 0200 UTC on July 10 ; at the time , the JTWC estimated 1 ‑ minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , although the JMA had maintained Halong as a tropical storm until upgrading to a typhoon at 1800 UTC that day . An approaching trough increased shear over Halong , and a weak ridge to the north restricted outflow ; this briefly prevented significant intensification after the convection decreased . Late on July 11 , the thunderstorms increased , and restrengthening resumed . Late on July 12 , the JMA assessed Halong as reaching peak 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . Around that time , the typhoon entered the area of the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) , which gave it the local name Typhoon Inday . Early on July 13 , the JTWC upgraded Halong to a super typhoon after the storm developed a well @-@ defined eye 63 km ( 39 mi ) in diameter . Shortly thereafter , the agency estimated peak 1 ‑ minute sustained winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) .
At its peak intensity , Typhoon Halong had gale @-@ force winds that extended 415 km ( 260 mi ) northeast of the center . It was continuing to the northwest toward Okinawa , and threatened to strike the island at near peak intensity . However , the typhoon began rapidly weakening due to increasing wind shear , and the eye quickly deteriorated . At around 1200 UTC on July 14 , Halong made landfall on Okinawa with 10 ‑ minute winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . Around that time , the typhoon moved through a weakness in the ridge , turning to the north and later accelerating to the northeast . The combination of cool , dry air , and the persistent wind shear removed the convection from the center by early on July 15 , weakening Halong to tropical storm status . Later that day , the JTWC discontinued advisories while the storm was approaching Japan , and the agency classified Halong as extratropical . The JMA continued tracking the storm , and Halong struck both the Izu and Bōsō peninsulas along Honshu . Late on July 16 , the JMA classified Halong as extratropical , and shortly thereafter the storm dissipated over the Kuril Islands . The extratropical remnants of Halong moved out of the basin late on July 19 , just prior dissipating .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Only a week after Typhoon Chataan struck Guam and left $ 60 million in damage , Typhoon Halong also threatened the island , although it veered to the south in the day before it would have struck . Due to the storm , all flights were canceled in Guam and the Northern Marianas Islands , and officials advised residents in low @-@ lying areas to evacuate . While passing to the south , Halong produced waves as high as 6 m ( 20 ft ) in Inarajan . The waves left beach erosion along Guam 's southern coast , and were higher than during Chataan 's passage . The typhoon produced peak sustained winds of 69 km / h ( 43 mph ) , with gusts to 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) ; both observations were recorded at Guam 's National Weather Service . Damage on the island was estimated at $ 40 @,@ 000 . The storm disrupted work to repair damage from Chataan . Portions of the island , including Guam Memorial Hospital , had their power restored after Chataan , only to lose electricity during Halong . The additional damage caused by Halong contributed to Governor Carl T.C. Gutierrez declaring the island as a state of emergency on July 22 , which activated the Guam National Guard .
While passing northeast of the Philippines , Halong enhanced the monsoon , and combined with the effects from previous typhoons Rammasun and Chataan , as well as Severe Tropical Storm Nakri , there were 85 deaths , with 45 people injured in the Philippines . About ten of the deaths were estimated to have been caused by Halong . The combined damage in the country totaled $ 10 @.@ 3 million ( ₱ 522 million 2002 PHP ) .
In Japan , Halong dropped heavy rainfall that peaked at 362 mm ( 14 @.@ 3 in ) in Nagano Prefecture . The highest rainfall in Okinawa was 258 mm ( 10 @.@ 2 in ) . Near Tokyo , a station recorded winds of 112 km / h ( 69 mph ) , although winds gusted to 183 km / h ( 114 mph ) at Kadena Air Base on Okinawa . In the Ryukyu Islands of Japan , including Okinawa , Halong left more than 48 @,@ 800 houses without power due to the strong winds . Officials canceled bus service in Naze , Kagoshima during the storm . Throughout the country , the typhoon destroyed six houses and damaged 223 others to varying degrees . Halong also flooded 301 houses , forcing about 4 @,@ 000 people to evacuate their homes , many along rivers . Officials canceled 54 airline flights , 10 of them international , and due to the storm , 171 schools were closed . In Sendai , Halong damaged roads in 550 locations and railroads in seven locations . Nine levees were breached , and there were at least 270 landslides . Damage totaled $ 89 @.@ 8 million ( ¥ 10 @.@ 3 billion 2002 JPY ) across the country , mostly from agriculture . During its passage , the typhoon injured nine people , one of them severely , and there was one death .
= Typhoon Nancy ( 1982 ) =
Typhoon Nancy , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Weling , was a destructive typhoon that moved through Vietnam and the Philippines during October 1982 . The typhoon originated from an area of convection and was first classified as a tropical cyclone on October 10 . The system attained gale @-@ force winds the next day , and slowly deepened thereafter . Although Nancy initially moved west , the system maintained a general westward course for much of its duration , striking Luzon on October 14 at peak intensity of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . It weakened to tropical storm strength overland , but re @-@ intensified to typhoon intensity over the South China Sea . Nancy hit northern Vietnam on the October 18 , and weakened almost immediately thereafter , before dissipating on October 20 inland over Vietnam .
In the Philippines , damage was the worst in Cagayan and Isabela . In the former , 4 @,@ 378 homes were destroyed while 2 @,@ 250 houses were destroyed in the latter . Nationwide , 96 people were killed and 30 others were listed as missing . Additionally , 186 were injured . A total of 12 @,@ 464 homes were destroyed while 34 @,@ 111 others were damaged . Moreover , 301 @,@ 431 persons were " affected " by the storm , or 51 @,@ 532 families . Damage totaled to $ 56 million ( 1982 USD ) , including $ 18 million from infrastructure and $ 26 million from agriculture . While strking Vietnam , the typhoon killed 30 people . Around 72 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed , leaving 125 @,@ 000 people homeless . Throughout the country , 450 @,@ 000 acres ( 182 @,@ 110 ha ) of rice were destroyed .
= = Meteorological history = =
Typhoon Nancy originated from a large area of convection situated in the middle of the Pacific Ocean , which began to consolidate on October 8 within a favorable environment aloft . The convection separated from an upper @-@ level low embedded within a tropical upper @-@ tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) . Later that day , the area of convection degenerated into a " random area of cloudiness . " The TUTT drifted west while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) reported that a tropical depression formed within the area of convection that was now located south of the TUTT . Early on October 10 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started watching the system . At 0730 UTC , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert was issued by the JTWC while located 370 km ( 230 mi ) north of Guam .
Following an increase in reorganization , a Hurricane Hunter flight indicated winds of 50 km / h ( 30 mph ) early on October 11 . Later that morning , the JMA upgraded the cyclone into a tropical storm . Following Hurricane Hunter reports , which indicated winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Based on this , the JTWC upgraded the depression into a tropical storm and named it Nancy . Initially , the JTWC expected the system to track northwards and eventually re @-@ curve , but this did not occur . Nancy maintained its intensity for 24 hours while tracking westward before rapidly turning west due to a change in steering patterns . Meanwhile , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Weling . Midday on October 12 , the JMA upgraded Nancy into a severe tropical storm . At 0000 UTC on October 13 , the same agency classified Nancy into a typhoon . Later that day , the JTWC followed suit . By midday on October 14 , the JTWC predicted Nancy to turn northwest into China due to the anticipation of a mid @-@ latitude trough south of South Korea deepening . At 0600 UTC , the JMA reported that Nancy reached its peak intensity of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 935 mbar ( 27 @.@ 6 inHg ) . Meanwhile , the JTWC reported peak intensity of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) , a Category 4 hurricane equivalent on the United States @-@ based Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ( SSHWS ) . Six hours later , Typhoon Nancy moved ashore in northern Luzon while still at peak intensity .
The storm rapidly weakened over land . Although the JTWC downgraded Nancy to a tropical storm , the JMA kept the storm at typhoon intensity throughout landfall . After entering the South China Sea , the JTWC upped Nancy to typhoon status as it entered an area with favorable mid- to upper @-@ level winds . Continuing to gain strength , the JMA raised the intensity of Nancy to 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) on October 16 . Shortly thereafter , Nancy crossed Hainan Island . After weakening slightly overland , the storm resumed strengthening once offshore . According to the JMA , Nancy attained a secondary peak , with winds of 135 km / h ( 85 mph ) at 0600 UTC on October 17 . The tropical cyclone moved on a slow northwesterly track along the southern periphery of the ridge . While passing slightly north of the Paracel Islands , the JTWC estimated winds of 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) , equivalent to a high @-@ end Category 1 hurricane on the SSHWS . Late on October 18 , Nancy made landfall along the coast of Vietnam , just north of Vinh . At the time of landfall , both agencies estimated that Nancy was a typhoon . Within hours , the convection ceased , though the JMA kept monitoring the system until October 20 , when it finally dissipated .
= = Impact = =
= = = Philippines = = =
Prior to the arrival of Nancy , typhoon warnings were issued for much of Luzon . Many residents left for shelter prior to landfall . Typhoon Nancy passed through 10 provinces in the Philippines , resulting in widespread destruction . Damage was the worst in Cagayan and Isabela , where 56 people were hurt . In the former , 4 @,@ 378 dwellings were destroyed . In Isabela , 2 @,@ 250 houses were destroyed , displacing 35 @,@ 744 residents . Along a river in Isabela , ten bodies were found . Elsewhere , 800 homes were destroyed in Tuguegarao , leaving 1 @,@ 000 homeless and two injured . In Kalinga @-@ Apayao , four fatalities occurred . Throughout the nation , many roads were closed due to mudslides . Mass destruction was reported in rice fields , as well as tobacco and cotton plantations . However , this total was later revised upwards to $ 56 million ( 1982 USD ) , which includes $ 18 million from infrastructure and $ 26 million from agriculture . A total of 96 people died ; 81 of the fatalities were from just three provinces . Most of the deaths were by drowning . Thirty others were rendered as missing and 186 people were injured . A total of 12 @,@ 464 dwellings were destroyed while 34 @,@ 111 others were damaged . Furthermore , 301 @,@ 431 people were " affected " by the storm , or 51 @,@ 532 families .
= = = Vietnam = = =
While making landfall in central Vietnam , winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) were measured due to the typhoon . A total of 30 persons perished . Around 72 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed . Moreover , 125 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in Vinh . In all , 450 @,@ 000 acres ( 182 @,@ 110 ha ) of rice were destroyed ; approximately 150 @,@ 000 acres ( 60 @,@ 705 ha ) of rice were submerged in the Thanh Hóa province alone . In addition , many houses were submerged in Nghe Tinhe . Bình Trị Thiên was also affected by Nancy , but no casualties occurred there .
= RAF Uxbridge =
RAF Uxbridge was a Royal Air Force ( RAF ) station in Uxbridge , within the London Borough of Hillingdon , occupying a 44 @.@ 6 @-@ hectare ( 110 @-@ acre ) site that originally belonged to the Hillingdon House estate . The British Government purchased the estate in 1915 , three years before the founding of the RAF . Until the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , the station was open to the public .
The station is best known as the headquarters of No. 11 Group RAF , which was responsible for the aerial defence of London and the south @-@ east of England during the Battle of Britain . Hillingdon House served as the group 's headquarters . A bunker , subsequently known as the Battle of Britain Bunker , was built nearby to house the 11 Group Operations Room , which controlled fighter squadrons operating within the group . The Operations Room was also responsible for providing air support during the evacuation of Dunkirk in May 1940 ( Operation Dynamo ) and the D @-@ Day landings ( Operation Overlord ) . It was here that Winston Churchill first said , " Never was so much owed by so many to so few " , which he repeated in a speech to Parliament four days later .
RAF Uxbridge closed on 31 March 2010 as part of a reduction in the number of Ministry of Defence properties in the Greater London area . Many of its remaining military units were relocated to nearby RAF Northolt the following day . Plans for redevelopment , consisting of a mixture of new residential and commercial properties and the retention of all listed buildings , were approved in January 2011 . A small part of the station incorporating the Battle of Britain Bunker retains the RAF Uxbridge name and is maintained by RAF Northolt .
The River Pinn runs through the site from north to south , passing Hillingdon House and the Battle of Britain Bunker . The land around the river is mainly wooded and designated as greenbelt , and Hillingdon Golf Course borders the south of the station . A footpath through the site that had closed in 1988 was reopened in 2011 .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The area that became RAF Uxbridge was originally part of the estate of Hillingdon House , built as a hunting lodge in 1717 by the Duke of Schomberg , who staged regular hunts in the grounds . He was a German @-@ born general serving under William of Orange ( later King William III ) , knighted for his part in the 1690 Battle of the Boyne .
The Marchioness of Rockingham , widow of Prime Minister Charles Watson @-@ Wentworth , 2nd Marquess of Rockingham , bought the house in 1786 for £ 9 @,@ 000 following her husband 's death and lived there until her own death in 1804 . She left the estate to her stepsister Elizabeth , widow of William Weddell MP , who sold it to Josias Du Pré Porcher in 1805 .
In 1810 the estate was sold to Richard Henry Cox , grandson of Richard Cox , founder of the travel company Cox & Kings . Cox & Co , as the company was then known , was formed after Richard Cox was appointed agent to the Foot Guards ( later the Grenadier Guards ) , and provided banking services for many regiments of the British Army by the end of the 18th century . The mansion was completely rebuilt after it burnt down in 1844 and later received a Grade II listing .
= = = First World War = = =
In 1914 the mansion was put on the market by the estate of Frederick Cox , Richard Henry Cox 's grandson . It was described as " a brick and stone building , partly stuccoed , with extensive outbuildings and ornamental gardens . " The house and gardens , together with the surrounding parkland and an artificial lake created by damming a section of the River Pinn , amounted to over 81 ha ( 200 acres ) .
The British Government purchased the estate in 1915 , with the intention of establishing a prisoner of war camp . The local population strongly opposed the plan , causing the government to relent , and the site instead became the Canadian Convalescent Hospital to care for troops evacuated from the front line during the First World War . The hospital opened on 20 September 1915 and was joined on 19 November 1917 by the Royal Flying Corps Armament School which moved into Hillingdon House with 114 officers and 1156 men , making a donation of £ 2289 , 12s and 9d to the Canadian Red Cross . The RFC used parts of the estate not required by the Canadians , and established firing ranges for the training of recruits in ground gunnery . A total of eight of these ranges were built along the River Pinn ; one remains today . The hospital closed on 12 December 1917 .
On 1 April 1918 , the Uxbridge site came under control of the Royal Air Force , which had been formed that day by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service . The following month it became the first RAF station to receive a royal visit , from King George V.
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
The Recruits Training Depot and a detachment of the RAF Depot from RAF Halton arrived in August 1919 , merging to form No. 1 Depot , RAF Uxbridge . The station itself was designated RAF Central Depot , Uxbridge . The site was then split to form two new RAF stations , the area to the east of the River Pinn heading uphill to Hillingdon House becoming RAF Hillingdon and the remainder RAF Uxbridge . That year , the building that became the station cinema was opened , designed by Lieutenant J.G.N. Clift of the Royal Engineers , and served as a lecture hall for new recruits . The RAF School of Music moved to RAF Uxbridge from Hampstead in September 1919 . Headquarters Southern Area , Southern Area Medical Headquarters , Southern Area Barrack Stores , and the Southern Area and South Eastern Area Headquarters of the Air Construction Service moved into Hillingdon House in October 1919 . T. E. Lawrence , better known as " Lawrence of Arabia " , underwent initial training at the Uxbridge Depot in 1922 after enlisting in the RAF under the assumed name John Hume @-@ Ross . He recounted his experiences in The Mint .
Uxbridge Football Club was provided with the use of the station stadium from 1923 and played evening matches there . Ten barrack blocks designed by A. Gilpin were built around the parade ground in 1925 , as was the RAF officers ' hospital and the original Operations Room , controlled by the Fighting Area of Air Defence of Great Britain ( ADGB ) . The Air Ministry chose RAF Uxbridge as the new base for ADGB on 14 January 1926 owing to its proximity to Whitehall . The site had the added advantage of lying on the fringes of London and therefore difficult for an enemy to locate and bomb . Having also housed a gymnasium , the lecture hall building became the station cinema in 1927 , initially for the use of station personnel only but soon opened to the general public . On 1 March 1929 , the headquarters of the Royal Observer Corps ( ROC ) was established at Hillingdon House ; Air Commodore Edward Masterman was appointed as its first commandant . The Observer Corps remained at RAF Uxbridge until 1 March 1936 , when it transferred to RAF Bentley Priory .
Owing to its wooden construction the original Operations Room could only be used during the summer months ; maintenance of the signalling and communications equipment became difficult under damp winter conditions . A memo dated 16 January 1933 , sent to the senior Air Staff Officer , Wing Commander Modin , stated :
Uxbridge Royal Air Force buildings would provide an easy bombing target from all points of view , I feel that our Operations Room at least must go underground ... and the sooner it is put there the better , as not only will the re @-@ installation of communications and apparatus generally take time , but if that machinery is to function smoothly in a sudden emergency , installation must have been completed and the whole layout repeatedly worked and tried out before the danger of such emergency arises .
Douglas Bader arrived at the military hospital in 1932 to recover from the amputation of his legs following an air crash . During his stay Bader met the Desoutter brothers , who were beginning to make lightweight artificial legs from aluminium . Once fitted with artificial legs , Bader fought hard to regain his former abilities and in time his efforts paid off . He was able to drive a specially modified car , play golf and even dance . During his convalescence , Bader met his future wife Thelma Edwards , a waitress at a nearby pub called the Pantiles .
Formed on 1 May 1936 , No. 11 Group RAF was headquartered at RAF Uxbridge under the command of Air Vice Marshal Philip Joubert de la Ferté , who was succeeded by Sir Ernest Gossage in January 1937 . The ADGB was reorganised on 13 July 1936 , with control of fighter aircraft passing to the newly established RAF Fighter Command , which moved to RAF Bentley Priory . The following day the remaining elements of ADGB became RAF Bomber Command , headquartered in Hillingdon House .
Planning for the new No. 11 Group Operations Room ( within what became known as the Battle of Britain Bunker ) began in August 1937 . Initially it was to be buried 66 feet ( 20 m ) below ground , but problems with the local London Clay on the site meant it was eventually built by Sir Robert McAlpine at a depth of 60 feet ( 18 m ) , although it was still able to withstand being hit by a 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb . The bunker was designed by Bob Creer of the Air Ministry . Work began in February 1939 and finished in August , ten days before the outbreak of the Second World War . The original Operations Room on the surface remained as a back @-@ up , but was not required for that purpose and was subsequently renamed Building 76 . Also in August 1939 , Bomber Command moved to Iver and on 2 September the new Operations Room and RAF Uxbridge reached operational war readiness . The station closed to the public on the outbreak of war , and the football club was required to suspend its use of the stadium .
= = = Second World War = = =
During the war RAF Uxbridge was tasked with despatching personnel to and from training and operational units in Northern France . It also housed the RAF Uxbridge Language School , where Polish Air Force pilots were taught key RAF codewords . Pilots practised formation flying on the station football pitch , using tricycles fitted with radios , compasses and speed indicators . British Expeditionary Force troops returning from Dunkirk were processed at Uxbridge . In mid @-@ 1940 , staff at the station processed an average of 2 @,@ 500 recruits and experienced troops per week .
During the Battle of Britain , between July and October 1940 , RAF Fighter Command at RAF Bentley Priory received air threat warnings that it filtered to remove duplication , doubt and confusion . These were then forwarded to the Operations Room at RAF Uxbridge , which allocated appropriate defence resources and passed orders on to No. 11 Group sector airfields . No. 11 Group personnel doubled to 20 @,@ 000 between April and November 1940 . The RAF officers ' hospital was converted to the Women 's Auxiliary Air Force ( WAAF ) hospital early in 1940 .
While overseeing the operations at RAF Uxbridge , Air Vice Marshal Park stayed in a house opposite the entrance to the bunker . He used a small door to reach the bunker from the house each day . The house , named after the war in Park 's honour , was demolished in 1996 to make way for newly constructed married quarters ; only the garden wall and door were retained . Wing Commander Willoughby de Broke received the Air Force Cross on 11 July 1940 for his service as a Senior Operations Officer for No. 11 Group , working within the Operations Room . Prime Minister Winston Churchill visited the station on 16 August 1940 , to monitor the battle from the Operations Room . He subsequently made his well @-@ known comment , " Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few " to General Ismay as they got into their car to leave . Churchill repeated the quote in a speech to Parliament four days later . King George VI and Queen Elizabeth visited the station on 6 September . Churchill was again present at RAF Uxbridge on the fiercest day of fighting of the entire battle : Battle of Britain Day , 15 September 1940 . As the last squadrons were sent into battle , Churchill asked Air Vice Marshal Sir Keith Park , " How many reserves have we ? " Park answered " There are none " .
A delayed @-@ action landmine fell on the station on 26 September 1940 , between the police school and WAAF Quarters , where it remained until it was defused the following day . On 28 September a bomb fell into a tree 50 yards ( 46 m ) from the Operations Room and was later defused in Harefield . A Junkers Ju 88 attacked the station on 6 October 1940 , dropping a bomb beside the Navy , Army and Air Force Institutes ( NAAFI ) grocery shop . The device damaged water and gas mains but caused no casualties . Few bombs fell on the station ; Luftwaffe pilots may have mistaken the glass greenhouses at the Lowe & Shawyer plant nursery west of the station for a large body of water not on their maps .
The king and queen returned on 1 November 1941 , by which time a " Royal Box " had been installed in the Operations Room to allow them to observe the plotting activities . During 1942 , General Charles de Gaulle , Sir Anthony Eden and Lord Mountbatten all visited the 11 Group Operations Room . The actors Rex Harrison ( then a squadron leader liaising with Bomber Command ) , Cyril Raymond and Ronald Adam all served within the Operations Room during the war .
In 1941 , a division of the Meteorological Office was established at RAF Uxbridge as part of the Intelligence Branch . On 1 July that year the station Sick Quarters were merged with the WAAF hospital to create the RAF Station Hospital . No. 11 Group was involved in providing air support for the Dieppe Raid ( Operation Jubilee ) on 19 August 1942 . Air Marshal Trafford Leigh @-@ Mallory commanded participating Allied air forces from the 11 Group Operation Room . The air operations section of Operation Overlord , the 6 June 1944 Normandy landings ( D @-@ Day ) , was also controlled from RAF Uxbridge . Orders from the station were the only ones issued to Allied air units on the day . The headquarters of the 2nd Tactical Air Force and 9th Tactical Air Force of the USAAF were stationed at Uxbridge while preparations were made for the invasion . On D @-@ Day , the 11 Group Controller was responsible for ensuring sufficient air patrols of the United Kingdom , the main shipping routes , and the beach landing areas .
= = = Post @-@ war years = = =
RAF Uxbridge served as an athlete 's village for the male competitors in the 1948 Summer Olympics . Swimmers trained at nearby Uxbridge Lido , and female athletes were housed at RAF West Drayton . Personnel from RAF Uxbridge were moved out to RAF Stanmore Park and transported back to the station daily for their shifts . In 1949 , the RAF Cricket Association opened on Vine Lane on the western boundary of the station . Also moving into the stations grounds in October of that year were the 14F squadron or the Air Training Corps , their access also being via Vine Lane.The station 's crest was approved in April 1953 , incorporating a drill sergeant 's pace stick to symbolise the training of recruits , and a bugle to represent the Central Band of the RAF ; Uxbridge was the first RAF station in Middlesex to have a crest approved .
The ceremonial entrance to the north @-@ west of the station , St Andrew 's Gate , was officially opened on 16 December 1957 to mark the link between Uxbridge and the Royal Air Force . A memorial to the personnel of No. 11 Group , made of Cornish granite , was placed in the ground above the Operations Room in 1957 . No. 11 Group moved to RAF Martlesham Heath on 14 April 1958 and the room was soon sealed in its original condition . The memorial was unveiled by Air Chief Marshal Lord Dowding on 23 April 1958 in a ceremony attended by Group Captain Douglas Bader and Wing Commander Lord Willoughby de Broke , among others , and marked by a flypast of the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight . Control of RAF Hillingdon passed from Fighter Command to Technical Training Command that year , at which time the entire site became known as RAF Uxbridge . The RAF School of Education moved into Hillingdon House from RAF Spitalgate on 10 November 1958 , and the station was subsequently merged with No. 22 Group RAF .
The station was granted the Freedom of the London Borough of Hillingdon on 19 March 1960 , an honour allowing the station 's personnel to march throughout the borough in uniform . On 1 November that year , the Queen 's Colour Squadron of the RAF Regiment moved to Uxbridge and the Southern Region Air Traffic Services headquarters moved into Hillingdon House . After the war , the station was already home to the London Area Control Centre , renamed the London Air Traffic Control Centre in 1948 and the Uxbridge Air Traffic Control Centre in 1957 . This eventually transferred to RAF West Drayton but remained under the parentage of RAF Uxbridge .
The 11 Group Operations Room was extensively surveyed in order for a replica to be built at Pinewood Studios for the 1969 film Battle of Britain . Scenes for the 1996 television miniseries Over Here and an episode of Richard Holmes ' War Walks were filmed in the Operations Room itself . The reinforced Uniter building was built on the site in the 1970s to house communications equipment . Although no longer used for this purpose , the building contains two fuel storage tanks . The main entrance to the station was moved in 1972 from beside the station cinema to its present location roughly 50 yards ( 46 m ) south .
Over nine months in 1975 , the 11 Group Operations Room was restored by No. 9 Signals Unit . The original map was repaired and returned to the table by the RAF Cartography unit , and the board detailing the readiness and activities of each sector squadron was rebuilt to resemble its status on 15 September 1940 . In 1985 a museum was created within the bunker by Warrant Officer " Chris " Wren and the Operations Room opened for group visits .
In January 1981 , the Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) planted a bomb in the Suvla barrack block at RAF Uxbridge . The device was discovered and the 35 RAF musicians and 15 airmen living there were evacuated before it exploded . Following the incident , an enquiry began and security at all RAF stations was reviewed . The following year , many RAF personnel from the station were deployed during the Falklands War . The station went on to celebrate its 70th anniversary in 1987 by staging several events that raised £ 30 @,@ 000 for the RAF Benevolent Fund .
RAF Uxbridge also became involved in Operation Granby following the Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 . Personnel at Uxbridge were prepared for service in the Gulf at that time , and deployed that year in December . During the aerial assault on Iraq in January 1991 , support group meetings began at the station for the families of service personnel serving during the Gulf War . Prince Edward , Earl of Wessex , visited one of these groups in February 1991 .
The station church , St Luke 's , became structurally unsound on 21 November 1990 after the foundations failed . The building dated back to 1933 and had been constructed of wood ; the walls were pushed out and the floor rose by 4 inches ( 100 mm ) . In March 1993 , the Leigh @-@ Mallory bridge was opened across the River Pinn , and the church moved into a new permanent home , Building 231 , in March 1995 . Jim Bolger , then Prime Minister of New Zealand , visited the station in May , and in October , the station 's new sports centre opened .
RAF Uxbridge personnel were once more prepared for action in the Gulf in 2003 in readiness for Operation Telic in Iraq . A support network for the families of service personnel sent into action was again established at the station . In March 2003 the Under @-@ Secretary of State for Defence was briefed at Uxbridge as part of preparations for a visit to the Gulf .
Personnel paraded through Uxbridge town centre on 28 November 2007 , exercising the freedom of the borough granted to the station in 1960 . RAF Uxbridge became a satellite station of RAF Northolt on 1 April 2008 , in preparation for the eventual closure . In the final years of RAF ownership , the Service Prosecuting Authority and Civil Aviation Authority 's UK Airprox Board ( investigating air proximity incidents ) was based in Hillingdon House . The final of the national Carnegie Champions schools rugby tournament was held at the station in August 2008 . The link between RAF Uxbridge and the Royal Observer Corps was renewed in 2008 with the closure of RAF Bentley Priory and the relocation to Uxbridge of ROC memorabilia from the Priory Officers ' Mess for safekeeping and display . The Royal Observer Corps had been stood down from operational duties in December 1995 .
The Queen 's Colour Squadron returned from a six @-@ month tour of duty in Afghanistan in 2009 , marked by a homecoming parade through Uxbridge town centre held on 5 August 2009 . More than 20 @,@ 000 people watched the parade , which started from Uxbridge Magistrates Court , passing along the town 's High Street to the RAF station .
= = RAF units = =
Sources : RAF Uxbridge 90th Anniversary 1917 – 2007 , RAF Uxbridge – A Fond Farewell , and Ministry of Defence .
= = Closure and redevelopment = =
Prior to the closure of RAF Uxbridge , Queen Elizabeth II sent a message to the station in February 2010 , via her equerry , Wing Commander A.D. Calame , who had served as Officer Commanding the Queen 's Colour Squadron between 10 August 2005 and 16 July 2007 :
Her Majesty was interested to hear that , in this anniversary year , the historic Number 11 Group Operations Rooms Bunker has been listed and will be preserved as a Royal Air Force asset . Hopefully , the facility will continue as a permanent reminder of those who fought and won the Battle of Britain .
Her Majesty hopes that the relocation to Royal Air Force Northolt will continue to progress well , and wishes all personnel at Uxbridge best wishes for the future .
The station closed on 31 March 2010 as part of the Ministry of Defence 's Project MoDEL , a programme to reduce the number of defence sites in Greater London in favour of a core site at RAF Northolt . The closure ceremony was overseen by the Mayor of Hillingdon and included parades and the final lowering of the Royal Air Force Ensign over the parade ground . A Supermarine Spitfire conducted a flypast of the station . The final units marched to their new station at RAF Northolt the following day . The station , which had received the Freedom of the Borough of Hillingdon , returned the award to the London Borough of Hillingdon as part of the ceremony , though this was returned on 4 September to be stored in the museum of the Battle of Britain Bunker . A commemorative blue plaque dedicated to Douglas Bader was unveiled by the Mayor of Hillingdon at the entrance to the Officers ' Mess .
The Middlesex Wing Headquarters of the Air Training Corps ( ATC ) had been based at the station together with No. 1083 Squadron ATC , which met on Mondays and Thursdays for parade nights . As part of the closing ceremony , personnel of No. 1083 Squadron were presented with the station crest to adopt as their own . The squadron continued to meet at the station until July 2010 , when a newly refurbished building at the TA Centre on Honeycroft Hill became available .
The Grade I listed Battle of Britain Bunker is now preserved as a museum open to the public , while the Grade II listed Hillingdon House will be partially converted into a restaurant . The station cinema is also Grade II listed . The Battle of Britain War Memorial is a scheduled protected monument . Although not listed , several other buildings on the site were identified within the plans for possible retention : the Sick Quarters , the Officers ' Mess , the original gymnasium , the carpenters ' block in the grounds of Hillingdon House and a building near the Battle of Britain Bunker . St. Andrew 's Gate will be retained , as will the Mons barrack block adjacent to the parade ground .
Plans to develop the remaining 44 @.@ 6 hectares ( 110 acres ) of the site were approved by the London Borough of Hillingdon in January 2011 for 1 @,@ 340 homes , shops , a theatre and a primary school to be built over 10 years . The council intends the development to become an extension of Uxbridge town centre . Early suggestions from the Leader of Hillingdon Council included a theatre with a statue of T.E. Lawrence outside , and a new museum built around the Battle of Britain Bunker . MP for Uxbridge John Randall called in 2009 for Hillingdon Hospital to be relocated to the site as an alternative to a planned rebuilding project on its existing site . The hospital trust ruled out such a move due to the projected costs .
The area around the Battle of Britain Bunker , including the No. 11 Group memorial , will retain the RAF Uxbridge name and be maintained by RAF Northolt as an exclave . The Royal Air Force Ensign was moved to the area , together with the Supermarine Spitfire gate guardian , a fibreglass replica of aircraft BR600 . The Spitfire was refurbished and painted in the D @-@ Day invasion colours of No. 33 Squadron as aircraft BS239 , funded by the London Borough of Hillingdon . Uxbridge 's first gate guardian was a real Supermarine Spitfire which was unveiled on 23 May 1973 . This was sold to a collector for restoration and replaced by the current guardian in 1988 . At a service commemorating the Battle of Britain in September 2010 , a new Hawker Hurricane gate guardian in the markings of No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron was unveiled , also near the bunker . The guardian is a fibreglass replica of the aircraft flown by Witold Urbanowicz during the Battle of Britain .
The South Hillingdon branch of the St. John Ambulance service was based at RAF Uxbridge until the closure in 2010 led to a period of uncertainty over its relocation . Eventually , RAF Northolt provided the charity with new premises , which were available from January 2011 .
In June 2011 , it was announced that the public right of way from St Andrew 's Gate in the north @-@ west to Vine Lane in the north @-@ east would be reopened , after work to fence off the pathway was completed . The path , 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) long , was the subject of a petition submitted to Hillingdon Council in 2010 and had been closed since 1988 . The path was reopened in early August 2011 .
Since closing , the site has been used extensively for filming . Most recently , scenes for the television drama Endeavour , set in the 1960s , were filmed there .
In April 2012 , VSM Estates announced it would be completing the purchase of the site from the MoD , with a view to commencing building work by the end of the year . VSM were provided with a £ 60 million five @-@ year loan by HSBC , together with funding from joint parent companies , St. Modwen Properties and Vinci plc . Persimmon will develop 8 @.@ 9 hectares ( 22 acres ) of the site with 500 homes under an existing joint venture agreement with St Modwen . Demolition of the site in phases began in October 2012 . The site will be developed under the St Andrew 's Park name .
A wood commemorating the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II was planted within the site in May 2012 . Each school in the London Borough of Hillingdon was invited to plant a tree , and the Station Commander of RAF Northolt , Group Captain Tim O 'Brien , also planted one on behalf of the RAF . The wood was officially dedicated by the London Borough of Hillingdon 's Representative Deputy Lieutenant , Wing Commander Edna Partridge , on 19 July 2012 .
A ground @-@ breaking ceremony was held on 2 July 2013 on the site , attended by the Mayor of Hillingdon and cabinet members of Hillingdon Council . The development is due to be completed within seven years .
A new primary school , built on the site of the former sports ground and gym , opened in September 2014 . Named the John Locke Academy , the school will have 630 primary places and 90 nursery places when fully subscribed .
An additional planning application for the construction of office buildings was submitted by St. Modwen in June 2015 .
= Audrey Pauley =
" Audrey Pauley " is the eleventh episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It originally aired on the Fox network on March 17 , 2002 . It was written by Steven Maeda and directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the mythology , or overarching fictional history , of The X @-@ Files . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 4 @.@ 8 , being watched by 8 million viewers . It has generally received positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , after being in a car accident , Reyes awakens in a surreal hospital . Doggett and a comatose Reyes struggle to prevent her organ donor card from being acted upon . The two , however , soon discover a unique woman , Audrey Pauley , who has the ability to communicate with both those conscious and unconscious .
" Audrey Pauley " guest starred Tracey Ellis as the title character ; she had previously appeared as a major character in the third season episode " Oubliette " . Gish has called the episode one of her favorites to film . In addition , it contained several elaborate stunts and effect sequences , many of which were created in unique manners .
= = Plot = =
After driving home from work , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) is struck by a drunk driver and transported to a hospital , where she is examined by Dr. Preijers ( Jack Blessing ) and Nurse Edwards ; she soon slips into a coma . Reyes , however , wakes up moments later in the same room all alone . Running to the door , she discovers that the hospital is floating in a dark void . She soon finds two other patients , Stephen Murdoch ( Stan Shaw ) , and Mr. Barreiro ( Del Zamora ) . They assume that they are dead . Reyes , however , maintains that they are still alive .
Meanwhile , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) tells John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) that Reyes is braindead , a fact that Doggett refuses to believe . Preijers informs Doggett and Scully that , since Reyes was an organ donor , in a few days her life @-@ support will be pulled and the hospital will harvest her remains . In the floating hospital , Reyes sees a woman ( Tracey Ellis ) standing in the hallway , but she disappears . At that moment , Barreiro begins screaming and is engulfed in blue electricity before disappearing . In the real world , it is revealed that Barreiro , a fellow comatose patient , has had his life support removed by Preijers . Nearby stands the mystery woman that Reyes encountered : Audrey Pauley .
Doggett begins looking into ways to save Reyes , noting an anomaly in her electrocardiograph that suggests stifled brain activity . While visiting her room , Doggett runs into Audrey who tells her that Reyes ' soul is not gone yet . Audrey walks to her room in the basement , where a model of the hospital has been built . By concentrating her mind , she is able to move into the floating hospital where Reyes is trapped . Once there , she finds Reyes and asks her to tell Doggett that he 's a " dog person " , a reference to a conversation the two had before Reyes ' crash . After relaying the message , Doggett is determined that Reyes is not gone and , following Audrey , learns about her hospital model .
Meanwhile , Nurse Edwards ( Vernee Watson @-@ Johnson ) confronts Preijers about an injection she saw him give Reyes ; he kills Edwards to cover his tracks . Later , in the floating hospital , Stephen collapses and disappears when he too is pulled off of life support . After Doggett is spotted with Audrey in the basement by Preijers , he begins to worry that she could expose what he is doing . He injects the same drug he used to kill Edwards , but Audrey is able to concentrate and move into the floating hospital one last time . She informs Reyes that her only way out is to jump into the void . Reyes does so and wakes up in her hospital bed moments before her organs are to be harvested . Doggett runs down to Audrey 's room only to find that Preijers has killed her . Doggett manages to capture Preijers before he can escape .
= = Production = =
" Audrey Pauley " was written by Steven Maeda and directed by Kim Manners . The entry was Maeda 's second ninth season entry after " 4 @-@ D " . The episode features guest star Tracey Ellis as the titular Audrey Pauley . Ellis had previously appeared as a major character in the third season episode " Oubliette " . Annabeth Gish later noted that the episode , along with " 4 @-@ D " , were her " two favorite episodes " because they " are stand @-@ alone episodes about Reyes and Doggett . Wonderful acting challenges , and the stories were fantastic . " Robert Patrick , whose friend Ted Demme had recently died , was worried about bringing too much emotion onto the set . He later noted , " I was kind of raw . I remember being a little worried about bringing too much emotion to it . I felt safe with Kim ; he knew I was going through a tough time . "
The episode contained several elaborate stunts and effect sequences . Gish performed all of her stunts in the episode , including one shot when she jumped from a thirty foot descender . She later called the sequence " the biggest stunt of my career . " For several of the special effect shots , Manners was forced to compromise on his original decision . One specific shot , wherein Audrey Pauley had to disappear after appearing in front of Gish , was originally going to be done via CGI . Eventually , Manners decided to " tie the two actresses [ Gish and Ellis ] together [ ... ] and then you [ cut ] to Annabeth and in her face there 's an ' oh shit ' reaction , and then [ pan ] straight up on a crane , all right , and see that she 's completely alone . " He called effects like these " creative ways to trim [ the ] budget . " To create the floating hospital scene , a small door set was merged with a CGI hospital . Initially , the scene used a straight flat " piece of cement " as the bottom of the building . The effects team tried adding a " big piece of earth " under the building , but Paul Rabwin felt it looked too much like The Little Prince , so the piece of earth was removed . The final result also removed the cement @-@ like base .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Audrey Pauley " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 17 , 2002 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on January 26 , 2003 . The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 5 @.@ 1 million households , 8 million viewers , and ranked as the sixty @-@ eighth most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending March 17 . " Audrey Pauley " earned a Nielsen household rating of 4 @.@ 8 , meaning that roughly 4 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , were tuned in to the episode .
The episode has generally received positive reviews from television critics . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a glowing review and rated it five stars out of five . The two noted that " this is what The X @-@ Files should be doing now " and that " this would have been the template on which to have built a series starring Doggett and Reyes . " Furthermore , they noted that the script was " written and directed with so much restraint " , that is makes many of the emotional scenes " more affecting " . Shearman and Pearson ultimately called the end result " clever , thoughtful , [ … ] very moving " and " beautiful " . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it an 8 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this was a strong episode , with a lot of wonderful character exploration and an interesting concept . However , there were some weaknesses throughout , typical of Steve Maeda ’ s episodes , and that detracted from the episode in some places . Still , another winner in this underrated final season . " Lionel Green from Sand Mountain Reporter named the episode one of his " 13 all @-@ time favorite episodes " of The X @-@ Files , ranking it at number three . He wrote that the episode was " powerful " due to its themes of " faith , love and sacrifice . " He concluded that it was " the best one starring the new agents , Doggett and Reyes . " M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , praised the performances of Robert Patrick and Annabeth Gish while stating that the visuals in the dream sequences were " pitch @-@ perfect " .
Jessica Morgan , however , from Television Without Pity , gave the episode a more mixed review . She criticized the character of Monica Reyes and called her " Moronica " . She ultimately gave the episode a C + grade . Jeffrey Robinson from DVD Talk called the entry " borderline weird " and used it as evidence that " the ninth season [ is ] arguably the worst season of the series . " The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen was generally unenthused writing " It ’ s not a bad episode , exactly , but there doesn ’ t seem to be a lot of point to it . ... it makes for a forgettable hour . "
= Pedra Branca dispute =
The Pedra Branca dispute [ 2008 ] ICJ 2 was a territorial dispute between Singapore and Malaysia over several islets at the eastern entrance to the Singapore Strait , namely Pedra Branca ( previously called Pulau Batu Puteh and now Batu Puteh by Malaysia ) , Middle Rocks and South Ledge . The dispute began in 1979 and was largely resolved by the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) in 2008 , which opined that Pedra Branca belonged to Singapore and Middle Rocks belonged to Malaysia .
In early 1980 , Singapore lodged a formal protest with Malaysia in response to a map published by Malaysia in 1979 claiming Pedra Branca . In 1989 Singapore proposed submitting the dispute to the ICJ . Malaysia agreed to this in 1994 . In 1993 , Singapore also claimed the nearby islets Middle Rocks and South Ledge . In 1998 the two countries agreed on the text of a Special Agreement that was needed to submit the dispute to the ICJ . The Special Agreement was signed in February 2003 , and the ICJ formally notified of the Agreement in July that year . The hearing before the ICJ was held over three weeks in November 2007 under the name Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh , Middle Rocks and South Ledge ( Malaysia v. Singapore ) .
Singapore argued that Pedra Branca was terra nullius , and that there was no evidence the island had ever been under the sovereignty of the Johor Sultanate . In the event the Court did not accept this argument , Singapore contended that sovereignty over the island had passed to Singapore due to the consistent exercise of authority over the island by Singapore and its predecessor , the United Kingdom . The actions taken included selecting Pedra Branca as the site for Horsburgh Lighthouse and constructing the lighthouse , requiring Malaysian officials wishing to visit the island to obtain permits , installing a military rebroadcast station on the island , and studying the feasibility of reclaiming land around the island . Malaysia had remained silent in the face of these activities . In addition , it had confirmed in a 1953 letter that Johor did not claim ownership of the island , and had published official reports and maps indicating that it regarded Pedra Branca as Singapore territory . Middle Rocks and South Ledge should be regarded as dependencies of Pedra Branca .
Malaysia 's case was that Johor had original title to Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge . Johor had not ceded Pedra Branca to the United Kingdom , but had merely granted permission for the lighthouse to be built and maintained on it . The actions of the United Kingdom and Singapore in respect of the Horsburgh Lighthouse and the waters surrounding the island were not actions of the island 's sovereign . Further , the 1953 letter had been unauthorised and the official reports and maps it had issued were either irrelevant or inconclusive .
On 23 May 2008 , the Court ruled that Pedra Branca is under Singapore 's sovereignty , while Middle Rocks belongs to Malaysia . As regards South Ledge , the Court noted that it falls within the apparently overlapping territorial waters generated by mainland Malaysia , Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks . As it is a maritime feature visible only at low tide , it belongs to the state in the territorial waters of which it is located . Malaysia and Singapore have established what they have named the Joint Technical Committee to delimit the maritime boundary in the area around Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks , and to determine the ownership of South Ledge .
= = Dispute = =
Pedra Branca is a small granite outcrop located 25 nautical miles ( 46 km ; 29 mi ) east of Singapore and 7 @.@ 7 nautical miles ( 14 @.@ 3 km ; 8 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Johor , Malaysia , where the Singapore Strait meets the South China Sea . There are two maritime features near the island : Middle Rocks , 0 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ; 0 @.@ 69 mi ) south of Pedra Branca , which consists of two clusters of small rocks about 250 metres ( 820 ft ) apart ; and South Ledge , 2 @.@ 2 nautical miles ( 4 @.@ 1 km ; 2 @.@ 5 mi ) south @-@ south @-@ west of Pedra Branca , which is visible only at low tide .
Singapore has been administering Pedra Branca since Horsburgh Lighthouse was built on the island by its predecessor , the United Kingdom , between 1850 and 1851 . Singapore was ceded by Sultan Hussein Shah and Temenggung Abdul Rahman Sri Maharajah of Johor to the British East India Company under a Treaty of Friendship and Alliance of 2 August 1824 ( the Crawfurd Treaty ) , and became part of the Straits Settlements in 1826 . At the time when the lighthouse on the island was constructed , the Straits Settlements were under British rule through the Government of India .
On 21 December 1979 , the Director of National Mapping of Malaysia published a map entitled Territorial Waters and Continental Shelf Boundaries of Malaysia showing Pedra Branca to be within its territorial waters . Singapore rejected this " claim " in a diplomatic note of 14 February 1980 and asked for the map to be corrected . In the late 1980s , Attorney @-@ General of Singapore Tan Boon Teik was despatched by the Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew to disclose the documentary evidence which Singapore had to the Malaysian Attorney @-@ General , to demonstrate the strength of Singapore 's case . However , the dispute was not resolved by an exchange of correspondence and intergovernmental talks in 1993 and 1994 . In the first round of talks in February 1993 the issue of sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge was also raised . Malaysia and Singapore therefore agreed to submit the dispute to the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) .
= = Procedural matters = =
Singapore first suggested submitting the territorial dispute to the ICJ in 1989 . The suggestion was accepted by Malaysia in 1994 . In 1998 , the text of a Special Agreement to bring the matter before the ICJ was agreed , and the Agreement was signed by the two countries at Putrajaya , Malaysia , on 6 February 2003 . It was notified to the Court in July 2003 . The case was assigned the name Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh , Middle Rocks and South Ledge ( Malaysia v. Singapore ) .
Following directions issued by the Court , the parties exchanged memorials on 25 March 2004 , counter @-@ memorials on 25 January 2005 , and replies on 25 November 2005 . As the parties informed the Court by a letter dated 23 January 2006 that rejoinders were unnecessary , the written proceedings were closed . The Court determined by drawing lots that Singapore would present its case first . Public hearings were held between 6 and 23 November 2007 , with Singapore presenting its case from 6 to 9 November , and Malaysia doing the same from 13 to 16 November 2007 . Each country was then given two days to respond , with 19 and 20 November allocated to Singapore , and 22 and 23 November allocated to Malaysia . The persons who spoke for the parties were :
For Singapore : Tommy Koh , Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large , Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( Singapore ) ; Professor of Law at the National University of Singapore ( acting as Singapore 's Agent ) ;
Chao Hick Tin , Attorney @-@ General of Singapore ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;
Chan Sek Keong , Chief Justice of Singapore ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;
Alain Pellet , Professor at the Paris X University Nanterre ; member and former Chairman of the United Nations International Law Commission ; associate member of the Institut de Droit International ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;
Ian Brownlie , C.B.E. , Q.C. , F.B.A. ; member of the English Bar ; Chairman of the UN International Law Commission ; Emeritus Chichele Professor of Public International Law , University of Oxford ; member of the Institut de Droit International ; Distinguished Fellow , All Souls College , Oxford ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;
Rodman R. Bundy , avocat à la Cour d 'Appel de Paris ; member of the New York State Bar Association ; Frere Cholmeley / Eversheds , Paris ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;
Loretta Malintoppi , avocat à la Cour d 'Appel de Paris ; member of the Rome Bar ; Frere Cholmeley / Eversheds , Paris ( Counsel and Advocate ) ; and
S. Jayakumar , Deputy Prime Minister ; Co @-@ ordinating Minister for National Security and Minister for Law ; Professor of Law at the National University of Singapore ( Counsel and Advocate ) .
For Malaysia : Abdul Kadir Mohamad , Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large , Ministry of Foreign Affairs , Malaysia ; Adviser for Foreign Affairs to the Prime Minister ( Malaysia 's Agent ) ;
Farida Ariffin , Ambassador of Malaysia to the Netherlands ( Co @-@ Agent ) ;
Abdul Gani Patail , Attorney @-@ General of Malaysia ( Counsel ) ;
Elihu Lauterpacht , C.B.E. , Q.C. , Honorary Professor of International Law , University of Cambridge ; member of the Institut de Droit International ; member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration ( Counsel ) ;
James Crawford , S.C. , F.B.A. , Whewell Professor of International Law , University of Cambridge ; member of the Institut de Droit International ( Counsel ) ;
Nicolaas Jan Schrijver , Professor of Public International Law , Leiden University ; associate member of the Institut de Droit International ( Counsel ) ;
Marcelo G. Kohen , Professor of International Law , Graduate Institute of International Studies , Geneva ; associate member of the Institut de Droit International ( Counsel ) ; and
Penelope Nevill , college lecturer , Downing College , Cambridge .
The case was presided over by ICJ Vice @-@ President Judge Awn Shawkat Al @-@ Khasawneh , alongside 13 other judges and two ad hoc judges appointed by the two countries . The judges were Raymond Ranjeva from Madagascar , Shi Jiuyong from the People 's Republic of China , Abdul G. Koroma from Sierra Leone , Gonzalo Parra Aranguren from Venezuela , Thomas Buergenthal from the United States , Hisashi Owada from Japan , Bruno Simma from Germany , Peter Tomka from Slovakia , Ronny Abraham from France , Kenneth Keith from New Zealand , Bernardo Sepúlveda Amor from Mexico , Mohamed Bennouna from Morocco and Leonid Skotnikov from Russia . As the Bench of the Court did not include any judges of the nationality of either party , the parties exercised their right to choose judges ad hoc to sit in the case . Singapore appointed Pemmaraju Sreenivasa Rao from India , and Malaysia Christopher John Robert Dugard from South Africa .
= = Singapore 's case = =
= = = Pedra Branca terra nullius = = =
Singapore argued that in 1847 Pedra Branca was terra nullius ( Latin for " land belonging to no one " ) as it had never been the subject of a prior claim or manifestation of sovereignty by any sovereign entity . It denied Malaysia 's claim that the island had been under Johor 's sovereignty . It contended there was no evidence that the Johor Sultanate had claimed or exercised authority over Pedra Branca between 1512 and 1641 . This period began with the fall of the Malacca Sultanate to the Portuguese in 1512 , who continued to harass the Johor Sultanate during this time , as did the Aceh Sultanate . Similarly , there was no evidence of Johor 's sovereignty over Pedra Branca between 1641 and 1699 , when Johor 's power and influence were at their height ; between 1699 and 1784 when the death of Sultan Mahmud Shah II in 1699 without a clear heir led to instability , during which many vassals broke away from the Sultanate ; and between 1784 and 1824 when , according to a 1949 annual report of the Johor government , the Sultanate was in a " state of dissolution " by the beginning of the 19th century .
To support its assertion that the Sultan of Johor did not have sovereignty over Pedra Branca , Singapore contended that the traditional Malay concept of sovereignty was based mainly on control over people and not over territory . Thus , the only reliable way to determine whether a particular territory belonged to a ruler was to find out whether the inhabitants pledged allegiance to that ruler . This was difficult to do with respect to Pedra Branca since it was isolated and uninhabited , and Malaysia had not provided clear evidence of a direct claim to or actual exercise of sovereign authority over the island .
In addition , Singapore claimed that the old Johor Sultanate , which controlled a maritime Malay empire from a capital on the Johor River , was not the same as the new Johor Sultanate occupying only the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula that came into existence after the signing of the Anglo – Dutch Treaty of 1824 between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands . In its view , the Anglo – Dutch Treaty did not divide up the Singapore Strait , in which Pedra Branca is situated , between the new Johor Sultanate under the British sphere of influence and the Riau @-@ Lingga Sultanate under Dutch influence . Instead , both Britain and the Netherlands could access the Strait freely . Therefore , there was a legal vacuum with regard to sovereignty over the island , enabling the British to lawfully take possession of it between 1847 and 1851 .
Following the death of Sultan Mahmud Shah III of Johor in 1812 , his two sons Hussein and Abdul Rahman vied for the throne of the Johor Sultanate . The United Kingdom recognised the elder son Hussein , who was based in Singapore , as the rightful heir , while the Netherlands recognised the younger son Abdul Rahman who was based in Riau ( now Bintan , Indonesia ) . A year after the Anglo – Dutch Treaty , Abdul Rahman sent a letter dated 25 June 1825 to Hussein . In it he stated that , " in complete agreement with the spirit and the content of the treaty concluded between their Majesties , the Kings of the Netherlands and Great Britain " , he donated to his older brother " [ t ] he part of the lands assigned to [ Great Britain ] " :
Your territory , thus , extends over Johor and Pahang on the mainland or on the Malay Peninsula . The territory of Your Brother [ Abdul Rahman ] extends out over the islands of Lingga , Bintan , Galang , Bulan , Karimon and all other islands . Whatsoever may be in the sea , this is the territory of Your Brother , and whatever is situated on the mainland is yours .
On the basis of this letter , Singapore argued that Abdul Rahman had only donated the mainland territories to Hussein and had retained sovereignty over all the islands in the sea . Pedra Branca therefore never became a part of Johor .
= = = Lawful taking of ownership = = =
In the event that the Court rejected the argument that Pedra Branca was terra nullius in 1847 , Singapore contended that the selection of Pedra Branca as the site for Horsburgh Lighthouse and the construction of the lighthouse between 1847 and 1851 constituted a taking of possession of the island à titre de souverain ( with the title of a sovereign ) . The British Crown obtained title over the island in accordance with legal principles governing the acquisition of territory at that time . This title was maintained by the United Kingdom and its lawful successor , the Republic of Singapore .
Singapore claimed that it and its predecessor the United Kingdom had demonstrated a consistent exercise of authority over the island through various acts since 1847 . For instance , during the ceremony for the laying of the foundation stone of the lighthouse on 24 May 1850 , Pedra Branca was described as a " dependency of Singapore " in the presence of the Governor of the Straits Settlements – the most senior British official in Singapore – and other British and foreign officials . The attribution of sovereignty was widely reported in local newspapers , but drew no response from the Johor authorities . Other significant acts included the following :
Singapore had investigated shipwrecks in the waters around the island between 1920 and 1979 .
It had exercised exclusive control over the use of the island and visits to the island , including requiring Malaysian officials wishing to visit the island for scientific surveys to obtain permits .
It had displayed British and Singapore ensigns from Horsburgh Lighthouse . Furthermore , it had acceded to a request by Malaysia in 1968 to remove the Singapore flag from another island , Pulau Pisang , which is under Malaysian sovereignty . Malaysia had made no such request in respect of Pedra Branca .
On 30 May 1977 , the Port of Singapore Authority ( PSA ) allowed the Republic of Singapore Navy to install a military rebroadcast station on the island .
On the direction of the Government of Singapore , in 1972 , 1973 , 1974 and 1978 the PSA studied the feasibility of reclaiming 5 @,@ 000 square metres ( 54 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of land around the island . Tenders for the project were sought through newspaper advertisements , though eventually the project was not proceeded with .
In addition , Singapore had on two occasions claimed the sea around Pedra Branca as its territorial waters . The first occasion was in July 1952 when the Chief Surveyor expressed the opinion that Singapore should claim a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) limit around the island . Subsequently in 1967 , the Singapore Government 's Marine Department also stated in an official memorandum to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( Singapore ) that the waters within three miles of Pedra Branca might be considered Singapore territorial waters .
= = = Malaysia 's inaction and acceptance of Singapore 's sovereignty = = =
It was also Singapore 's case that for over 130 years since 1847 , Malaysia had been silent over Singapore 's activities and exercise of sovereignty over Pedra Branca . No other state had challenged Singapore 's claims , and she had done so without having to seek approval from any other state . During the hearing , Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large Tommy Koh highlighted this by saying :
A key feature of this case is the constant stream of Singapore 's acts of administration in relation to Pedra Branca , contrasted with the complete absence of Malaysian activities on Pedra Branca or within its territorial waters , and with Malaysia 's silence in the face of all these state activities of Singapore ... Such silence on Malaysia 's part is significant and must be taken to mean that Malaysia never regarded Pedra Branca as her territory .
On 12 June 1953 , when Singapore was a Crown Colony , its Colonial Secretary J. D. Higham wrote to the British Adviser to the Sultan of Johor to clarify the status of Pedra Branca . He noted that the rock was outside the limits ceded by Sultan Hussein Shah and the Temenggung with the island of Singapore under the 1824 Crawfurd Treaty they had entered into with the East India Company . However , the Colonial Government had been maintaining the lighthouse built on it , and " [ t ] his by international usage no doubt confers some rights and obligations on the Colony " . He therefore asked if " there is any document showing a lease or grant of the rock or whether it has been ceded by the Government of the State of Johore or in any other way disposed of " . The Acting State Secretary of Johor , M. Seth bin Saaid , replied on 21 September that " the Johore Government does not claim ownership of Pedra Branca " . Singapore contended that this reply confirmed Singapore 's sovereignty over the island and that Johor had no title , historic or otherwise , to it .
The Colony of Singapore became a self @-@ governing state in 1959 , and left the British Empire to join the Federation of Malaysia in 1963 . Two years later , in 1965 , Singapore became a fully independent republic . In 1959 , in an official publication regarding meteorological information collected on Pedra Branca , Malaya listed Horsburgh Lighthouse as a " Singapore " station together with the Sultan Shoal and Raffles Lighthouses . The lighthouse on Pedra Branca was described in the same way in a joint Malaysian and Singaporean publication in 1966 , the year after Singapore left the Federation . In 1967 , when the two countries began reporting meteorological information separately , Malaysia ceased referring to Horsburgh Lighthouse . In maps published by the Malayan and Malaysian Surveyor General and Director of General Mapping in 1962 , 1965 , 1970 , 1974 and 1975 , the island was indicated with the word " ( SINGAPORE ) " or " ( SINGAPURA ) " under it . The same designation was used for an island that was unquestionably under Singapore 's sovereignty . On the other hand , the designation was not used for Pulau Pisang , an island under Malaysian sovereignty on which Singapore operated a lighthouse .
At a news conference in May 1980 attended by Malaysia 's former Prime Minister Tun Hussein Onn and Singapore 's then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew , the Malaysian leader admitted that the question of sovereignty over Pedra Branca was " not very clear " to Malaysia .
On 19 November 2007 , Singapore Deputy Prime Minister S. Jayakumar refuted Malaysia 's claim that Singapore was attempting to subvert the status quo by claiming sovereignty of Pedra Branca . He said Singapore was " an honest , law @-@ abiding state that has never and will never do anything to endanger navigational safety , security arrangements or the Singapore Strait 's environment " . Rather , it was Malaysia that had sought to alter the status quo by publishing a map in 1979 that altered maritime boundaries with seven neighbouring countries . This was evidenced by a telegram that the Malaysian Government had sent to its overseas missions in December 1979 , notifying them that the map would " affect " Brunei , China , Indonesia , the Philippines , Thailand , Singapore and Vietnam .
= = = Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge one entity = = =
Singapore took the position that Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge should be considered a single group of maritime features as Middle Rocks and South Ledge were dependencies of Pedra Branca . It relied , among others , on the Island of Palmas Case ( 1932 ) : " As regards a group of islands , it is possible that a group may under certain circumstances be regarded as in law a unit , and that the fate of the principal part may involve the rest . " It argued that the three maritime features were geomorphologically the same , as rock samples showed that they were all composed of a light , coarse @-@ grained biotite granite . Additionally , Malaysia had not shown any exercise of sovereignty over the uninhabited reefs of Middle Rocks and South Ledge while Singapore had consistently exercised sovereign authority in the surrounding waters . Since sovereignty over Pedra Branca belonged to Singapore , so did sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge as they were within Pedra Branca 's territorial waters .
= = Malaysia 's case = =
= = = Pedra Branca not terra nullius = = =
Malaysia 's case was that it had original title to Pedra Branca " from time immemorial " . The island could not at any relevant time have been terra nullius as it is and had always been part of Johor , which is now a state of Malaysia . Nothing that the United Kingdom or Singapore had done had displaced its sovereignty over it . Contrary to what Singapore had claimed , there had been no break between the old Sultanate of Johor and the new Johor Sultanate ruled by Sultan Hussein that came into existence after the signing of the 1824 Anglo – Dutch Treaty . The Treaty had the effect of leaving the islands south of the Singapore Strait within the Dutch sphere of influence ( the Riau – Lingga Sultanate ) , while the territory and islands in the Strait and to its north were within the British sphere of influence ( the new Johor Sultanate ) . A few months after the conclusion of the Anglo – Dutch Treaty , the Sultan and the Temenggung of Johor entered into the Crawfurd Treaty with the East India Company on 2 August 1824 . Article II of the Crawfurd Treaty stated :
Their Highnesses the Sultan Hussein Mahomed Shah and Datu Tumungong Abdul Rahman Sri Maharajah hereby cede in full sovereignty and property to the Honourable the English East India Company , their heirs and successors for ever , the Island of Singapore situated in the Straits of Malacca , together with the adjacent seas , straits , and islets , to the extent of ten geographical miles , from the coast of the said main island of Singapore .
Since Johor could not have ceded Singapore island and the islets in its vicinity to the British if it lacked title to them , this was evidence that the United Kingdom recognised the prior and continuing sovereignty of the Johor Sultanate over all islands in and around the Singapore Strait .
Malaysia challenged Singapore 's contention that Pedra Branca never became part of the new Johor Sultanate because 25 June 1825 letter from Sultan Abdul Rahman of Riau – Lingga to Sultan Hussain showed that Abdul Rahman had only donated territories on the mainland of the Malay Peninsula to Hussein and had retained sovereignty over all the islands in the sea . Malaysia submitted Abdul Rahman 's statement that his territory " extends out over the islands of Lingga , Bintan , Galang , Bulan , Karimon and all other islands " had to be read in the context of Article XII of the 1824 Anglo – Dutch Treaty , which guaranteed that no " British Establishment " would be made " on the Carimon Isles , or on the Island of Bantam , Bintang , Lingin , or on any of the other Islands South of the Straits of Singapore " . Three of the islands mentioned by Abdul Rahman – Bintan , Karimun and Lingga – were islands that the British had agreed were not within their sphere of influence , while the other two – Bulan and Galang – lay south of the Singapore Strait . Therefore , the phrase " all other islands " in Abdul Rahman 's letter referred only to islands lying within the Dutch sphere of influence . The letter was simply formal recognition that Abdul Rahman did not claim sovereignty over Johor .
The Johor Sultanate 's title to the island was also confirmed by ties of loyalty that existed between the Sultanate and the Orang Laut , a nomadic sea people who in the past had inhabited the maritime areas of the Singapore Strait , carrying out fishing and piracy , and had visited Pedra Branca quite frequently . This was evidenced by three 19th @-@ century letters written by British officials , including one dated November 1850 by John Turnbull Thomson , the Government Surveyor of Singapore , which had reported on the need to exclude the Orang Laut from Pedra Branca where Horsburgh Lighthouse was being built . Thomson noted that they " frequently visit the rock so their visits should never be encouraged nor any trust put in them ... In the straits and islets of the neighbouring shores and islands many lives are taken by these people . "
Malaysia rejected Singapore 's argument that the traditional Malay concept of sovereignty was based mainly on control over people and not over territory . It stated that authority in states throughout the world is based on a combination of control over people and territory , and that this applies to the Malay States as it does to any other state . Since the Johor Sultanate was established in the 16th century , it always had rulers who were recognised as such and who thus commanded people 's allegiance and therefore controlled the territory where those people lived .
= = = Actions of United Kingdom and Singapore those of lighthouse operator = | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, was released in 1969 . It was produced by veteran R & B producer and songwriter Jerry Ragovoy , reportedly brought in by Elektra to turn out a " breakout commercial hit " . The album was not embraced by critics or long @-@ time fans ; however , it reached number 102 in the Billboard album chart .
A live double album by the Butterfield Blues Band , Live , was recorded March 21 – 22 , 1970 , at the The Troubadour , in West Hollywood , California . By this time , the band included a four @-@ piece horn section in what has been described as a " big @-@ band Chicago blues with a jazz base " . Live provides perhaps the best showcase for this unique " blues @-@ jazz @-@ rock @-@ R & B hybrid sound " . After the release of another soul @-@ influenced album , Sometimes I Just Feel Like Smilin ' in 1971 , the Paul Butterfield Blues Band disbanded . In 1972 , a retrospective or their career , Golden Butter : The Best of the Paul Butterfield Blues Band , was released by Elektra .
= = = Better Days and solo = = =
After the breakup of the Butterfield Blues Band and no longer under contract with Elektra , Butterfield retreated to Woodstock , New York , where he eventually formed his next band , Paul Butterfield 's Better Days , with drummer Chris Parker , guitarist Amos Garrett , singer Geoff Muldaur , pianist Ronnie Barron and bassist Billy Rich . In 1972 – 1973 , the group recorded the albums Paul Butterfield 's Better Days and It All Comes Back , released by Albert Grossman 's Bearsville Records . The albums reflected the influence of the participants and explored more roots- and folk @-@ based styles . Although without an easily defined commercial style , both reached the album chart . The band did not last to record a third studio album , but its album Live at Winterland Ballroom , recorded in 1973 , was released in 1999 .
Butterfield next pursued a solo career and appeared as a sideman in several different musical settings . In 1975 , he again joined Muddy Waters to record Waters 's last album for Chess Records , The Muddy Waters Woodstock Album . The album was recorded at Levon Helm 's Woodstock studio with Garth Hudson and members of Waters 's touring band . In 1976 , Butterfield performed at the Band 's final concert , " The Last Waltz " , accompanying the Band on the song " Mystery Train " and backing Muddy Waters on " Mannish Boy " . Butterfield kept up his association with former members of the Band , touring and recording with Levon Helm and the RCO All Stars in 1977 and touring with Rick Danko in 1979 . A 1984 live performance with Danko and Richard Manuel was recorded and released as Live at the Lonestar in 2011 .
As a solo act with backing musicians , Butterfield continued to tour and recorded the misguided and overproduced Put It in Your Ear in 1976 and North South in 1981 , with strings , synthesizers , and pale funk arrangements . In 1986 , he released his final studio album , The Legendary Paul Butterfield Rides Again , which again was a poor attempt at a comeback with an updated rock sound . On April 15 , 1987 , he participated in the concert " B.B. King & Friends " , with Eric Clapton , Etta James , Albert King , Stevie Ray Vaughan , and others .
= = Legacy = =
Aside from " rank [ ing ] among the most influential harp players in the Blues " , Butterfield has also been seen as pointing blues @-@ based music in new , innovative directions . AllMusic critic Steve Huey commented ,
It 's impossible to overestimate the importance of the doors Butterfield opened : before he came to prominence , white American musicians treated the blues with cautious respect , afraid of coming off as inauthentic . Not only did Butterfield clear the way for white musicians to build upon blues tradition ( instead of merely replicating it ) , but his storming sound was a major catalyst in bringing electric Chicago blues to white audiences who 'd previously considered acoustic Delta blues the only really genuine article .
In 2006 , Butterfield was inducted into the Blues Foundation 's Blues Hall of Fame , which noted that " the albums released by the Butterfield Blues Band brought Chicago Blues to a generation of Rock fans during the 1960s and paved the way for late 1960s electric groups like Cream " . The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inducted the Paul Butterfield Blues Band in 2015 . The induction biography commented that " the Butterfield Band converted the country @-@ blues purists and turned on the Fillmore generation to the pleasures of Muddy Waters , Howlin ' Wolf , Little Walter , Willie Dixon and Elmore James " .
= = Harmonica style = =
Like many Chicago blues harp players , Butterfield approached the instrument like a horn , preferring single notes to chords , and used it for soloing . His style has been described as " always intense , understated , concise , and serious " , and he was " known for purity and intensity of his tone , his sustained breath control , and his unique ability to bend notes to his will " . In his choice of notes he has been compared to Big Walter Horton , but he was never seen as an imitator of any particular harp player . Rather , he developed " a style original and powerful enough to place him in the pantheon of true blues greats " .
Butterfield played Hohner harmonicas ( and endorsed them ) . He preferred the diatonic ten @-@ hole Marine Band model . He wrote a harmonica instruction book , Paul Butterfield Teaches Blues Harmonica Master Class , a few years before his death ( it was not published until 1997 ) . In it , he explains various techniques , demonstrated on an accompanying CD . Butterfield played mainly in cross @-@ harp , or second position . He occasionally used a chromatic harmonica . Reportedly left @-@ handed , he held the harmonica in a manner opposite that of a right @-@ handed player , i.e. , in his right hand , upside down ( with the low notes to the right ) , using his left hand for muting effects .
Also like other electric Chicago blues harp players , Butterfield frequently used amplification to achieve his sound . Producer Rothchild noted that Butterfield favored an Altec harp microphone run through an early model Fender tweed amplifier . Beginning with album The Resurrection of Pigboy Crabshaw , he began using an acoustic harmonica style , following his shift to a more R & B @-@ based approach .
= = Personal life = =
By all accounts , Paul Butterfield was absorbed in his music . According to his brother Peter ,
He listened to records and went places , but he also spent an awful lot of time , by himself , playing [ harmonica ] . He 'd play outdoors . There 's a place called the Point in Hyde Park [ Chicago ] , a promontory of land that sticks out into Lake Michigan , and I can remember him out there for hours playing . He was just playing all the time ... It was a very solitary effort . It was all internal , like he had a particular sound he wanted to get and he just worked to get it .
Producer Norman Dayron recalled the young Butterfield as " very quiet and defensive and hard @-@ edged . He was this tough Irish Catholic , kind of a hard guy . He would walk around in black shirts and sunglasses , dark shades and dark jackets ... Paul was hard to be friends with . " Although they later became close , Michael Bloomfield commented on his first impressions of Butterfield : " He was a bad guy . He carried pistols . He was down there on the South Side , holding his own . I was scared to death of that cat " . Writer and AllMusic founder Michael Erlewine , who knew Butterfield early in his recording career , described him as " always intense , somewhat remote , and even , on occasion , downright unfriendly " . He remembered Butterfield as " not much interested in other people " .
Paul married his first wife ( and high school friend of many years ) , Virginia McEwan , at Chicago City Hall on November 16 , 1964 . Together , they had Paul 's first son , Gabriel Butterfield , born September , 1965 . The couple remained married until 1969 . It was also Virginia McEwan who wrote and delivered the eulogy at Paul 's funeral .
By 1971 , Butterfield had purchased his first house , in rural Woodstock , New York , and began enjoying family life with his second wife , Kathy , and their infant son , Lee . According to Maria Muldaur , she and her husband were frequent dinner guests , which usually involved sitting around a piano and singing songs . She doubted her abilities , but " it was Butter that first encouraged me to let loose and just sing the blues [ and ] not to worry about singing pretty or hitting all the right notes ... He loosened all the levels of self @-@ consciousness and doubt out of me ... And he 'll forever live in my heart for that and for respecting me as a fellow musician . "
= = Death = =
Beginning in 1980 , Paul Butterfield underwent several surgical procedures to relieve his peritonitis , a serious and painful inflammation of the intestines . Although he had been opposed to hard drugs as a bandleader , he began using painkillers , including heroin , which led to an addiction . These problems and the drug @-@ related death of his friend and one @-@ time musical partner Mike Bloomfield weighed heavily on him . On May 4 , 1987 at age 44 , Paul Butterfield died at his apartment in the North Hollywood district of Los Angeles . An autopsy by the county coroner concluded that he was the victim of an accidental drug overdose , with " significant levels of morphine ( heroin ) " .
By the time of his death , Paul Butterfield was out of the commercial mainstream . Although for some , he was very much the bluesman , Maria Muldaur commented " he had the whole sensibility and musicality and approach down pat ... He just went for it and took it all in , and he embodied the essence of what the blues was all about . Unfortunately , he lived that way a little too much " .
= = Discography = =
In 1964 , Butterfield began his association with Elektra Records and eventually recorded seven albums for the label . After the breakup of the Butterfield Blues Band in 1971 , he recorded four albums for manager Albert Grossman 's Bearsville Records – two with Paul Butterfield 's Better Days and two solo . His last solo album was released by Amherst Records .
After his death in 1987 , his former record companies released a number of live albums and compilations . Except where noted , the following albums are listed as " The Paul Butterfield Blues Band " .
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = = The Butterfield Blues Band = = = =
The Paul Butterfield Blues Band ( 1965 )
East @-@ West ( 1966 )
The Resurrection of Pigboy Crabshaw ( 1967 )
In My Own Dream ( 1968 )
Keep On Moving ( 1969 )
Sometimes I Just Feel Like Smilin ' ( 1971 )
= = = = Paul Butterfield = = = =
Better Days ( 1973 ) ( by Paul Butterfield 's Better Days )
It All Comes Back ( 1973 ) ( by Paul Butterfield 's Better Days )
Put It in Your Ear ( 1976 )
North @-@ South ( 1981 )
The Legendary Paul Butterfield Rides Again ( 1986 )
= = = Live albums = = =
Live ( 1970 , reissued 2005 with bonus tracks )
Strawberry Jam ( 1996 , recorded 1966 – 1968 )
East @-@ West Live ( 1996 , recorded 1966 – 1967 )
Live at Unicorn Coffee House ( released with several titles and dates , bootleg recorded 1966 )
Live at Winterland Ballroom , Paul Butterfield 's Better Days ( 1999 , recorded 1973 )
Rockpalast : Blues Rock Legends , Vol . 2 , Paul Butterfield Band ( 2008 , recorded 1978 )
Live at the Lone Star , Rick Danko , Richard Manuel & Paul Butterfield ( 2011 , recorded 1984 )
= = = Butterfield compilation albums = = =
Golden Butter : The Best of the Butterfield Blues Band ( 1972 )
The Original Lost Elektra Sessions ( 1995 , recorded 1964 )
An Anthology : The Elektra Years ( 2 CDs , 1997 )
Paul Butterfield 's Better Days : Bearsville Anthology , Paul Butterfield 's Better Days ( 2000 )
Hi @-@ Five : The Paul Butterfield Blues Band ( EP , 2006 )
= = = Compilation albums and videos with various artists = = =
Folksongs ' 65 ( 1965 )
What 's Shakin ' ( 1966 )
Festival ( 1967 film , including 1965 appearance with Dylan )
You Are What You Eat ( 1968 film soundtrack )
Woodstock : Music from the Original Soundtrack and More ( 1970 , recorded 1969 )
Woodstock 2 ( 1971 , recorded 1969 )
An Offer You Can 't Refuse ( 1972 , recorded 1963 )
Woodstock ' 79 ( 1991 video , filmed 1979 )
Woodstock : Three Days of Peace and Music ( 1994 , recorded 1969 )
The Monterey International Pop Festival June 16 – 17 – 18 30th Anniversary Box Set ( 1997 , recorded 1967 )
The Complete Monterey Pop Festival ( 2002 video , filmed 1967 )
Woodstock : 40 Years On : Back to Yasgur 's Farm ( 2009 , recorded 1969 )
Woodstock : 40th Anniversary Ultimate Collector 's Edition ( 2009 video , filmed 1969 )
= = = As accompanist = = =
John Mayall 's Bluesbreakers with Paul Butterfield , John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers ( EP , 1967 )
Blues at Midnight ( released with several titles and dates ) , Jimi Hendrix , B.B. King , and others ( bootleg of jam recorded 1968 )
Fathers and Sons , Muddy Waters ( 1969 , reissued 2001 with bonus tracks )
Give It Up , Bonnie Raitt ( 1972 )
Steelyard Blues , Mike Bloomfield , Nick Gravenites , Maria Muldaur , and others ( 1973 film soundtrack )
That 's Enough for Me , Peter Yarrow ( 1973 )
Woodstock Album , Muddy Waters ( 1975 )
Levon Helm & the RCO All @-@ Stars ( 1977 )
The Last Waltz , the Band ( 1978 )
Elizabeth Barraclough , Elizabeth Barraclough ( 1978 )
Hi ! , Elizabeth Barraclough ( 1979 )
B.B. King & Friends ( released with various titles and dates ) , B.B King , Eric Clapton , Stevie Ray Vaughan , and others ( bootleg video of television special filmed 1987 )
Heart Attack , Little Mike & the Tornados ( 1990 , recorded 1986 )
= = = Tribute albums = = =
A Tribute to Paul Butterfield ' , Robben Ford and the Ford Blues Band ( 2001 )
The Butterfield / Bloomfield Concert , the Ford Blues Band , with Robben Ford and Chris Cain ( 2006 )
= Timothy Everest =
Timothy Everest , MBE ( born 1961 ) is a Welsh bespoke tailor and designer who has , according to Vogue , " dressed some of the world 's most famous people " . Born in Haverfordwest , Wales , he moved to London in his early twenties to work with innovative Savile Row tailor Tommy Nutter , where he learned the art of bespoke . Everest was one of the leaders of the New Bespoke Movement , which brought designer attitudes to the traditional skills of Savile Row tailoring .
Everest has been running his own tailoring business in the East End of London since 1989 . Based at his Spitalfields atelier since 1993 , he opened a West End store off Bond Street , near Savile Row , in 2008 . As well as collaborating on projects with designers and brands such as Brooks England , DAKS , Kim Jones , Levi 's , Rapha and Rocawear , as costume designer Everest has dressed the stars of films including Mission Impossible ( One and M : i @-@ 2 ) , Eyes Wide Shut , Atonement and Mamma Mia ! . He has been associated with the British high street retailer Marks and Spencer since 1999 , and has been a contributor to men 's magazine The Rake since 2008 . Everest is at the forefront of the bespoke casual movement .
= = Early life = =
Everest was born and brought up in Haverfordwest , Pembrokeshire , west Wales ; most of his family remain in the area . His parents were restaurateurs . He had aspired to become a racing driver . But , his ambition unfulfilled , he took a job with his uncle when he was 17 , working as a sales assistant at Hepworths , Milford Haven ; a high street tailor that would form the foundation of the Next retail empire . In the early 1980s , he became interested in the club scene , often driving to London , where he mixed with New Romantics such as Boy George at The Blitz ; a trendy London nightclub run by Steve Strange of the group Visage .
Determined to become part of the fashion industry , but unable to make a breakthrough , Everest decided to use his knowledge of tailoring . He answered an advertisement placed in the London Evening Standard , in 1982 , by Tommy Nutter ; ' Boy wanted in Savile Row ' . He pestered Nutter for weeks , until he was given the job . Nutter 's client base included rock stars , celebrities , politicians and businessmen ; he famously dressed The Beatles and The Stones . Everest also mixed with future celebrities of the fashion world . John Galliano , who had been studying at the Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design , passed on some design skills to Everest , while on work placement with Nutter . Everest met his future wife Catherine ( now an actress and film producer ) at this time , while she was also working with Nutter . The couple have two daughters . Everest 's time under Nutter , a Savile Row revolutionary in the 1960s , inspired him to experiment with tone and pattern in his own designs . In 1986 , after nearly five years as Nutter 's apprentice , Everest was persuaded to move on to work for Malcolm Levene . He had become disillusioned with Savile Row , particularly with their lack of appreciation for Nutter 's more modern approach . Everest found that working with Levene , a small menswear retailer based away from Savile Row , on Chiltern Street , provided a welcome change . During Everest 's first year there , Levene 's turnover doubled .
= = Career = =
= = = Setting out on his own = = =
Leaving Levene in the late 1980s to become a freelance stylist in television advertising , MTV and film , Everest began styling bands and pop stars such as George Michael . He recognised a shift in perception of the male fashion industry ; men had become more label conscious . This had coincided with the increased awareness of top @-@ end fashion designers , like Hugo Boss and Armani , highlighted by men 's lifestyle magazines ; such as Arena and The Face . He said , " I thought that if we could demystify bespoke tailoring and make it more accessible , as well as really understanding what was going on in ready @-@ to @-@ wear fashion and being directional with it , there was possibly a market there . " Having decided to create the Timothy Everest brand as an alternative to ' designer ' ready @-@ to @-@ wear , he searched for a suitable location away from " the stuffiness of Savile Row " . Everest opened his first premises in 1989 ; in Princelet Street , Spitalfields , just outside the City of London , in the East End . He said , " We started in one room of a house . We had one rail with four garments on and a telephone , no chairs , no furniture . " To begin with , business was slow . Moving premises in 1993 , he chose a three @-@ storey , early Georgian townhouse ( built in 1724 ) , just north of Old Spitalfields Market in nearby Elder Street – the former home of artist Mark Gertler ( 1891 – 1939 ) – converting it to an atelier over seven weeks . He dressed Tom Cruise for the 1996 film Mission : Impossible . Cruise liked the suits so much that he kept them , and commissioned Everest to make him some more .
= = = New Bespoke Movement = = =
Everest became one of the " Cool Britannia " tailoring generation of the mid @-@ 1990s , identified by James Sherwood ( author of Savile Row : The Master Tailors of British Bespoke ) as having begun with the publication of Vanity Fair 's " Cool Britania " issue in 1997 . Sensing a change in consumer attitudes , away from the more traditional styling of Savile Row , he sought to revitalise bespoke suiting , which he believed had been in danger of disappearing . With contemporaries Ozwald Boateng and Richard James , he launched the New Bespoke Movement , which brought a fashion designer approach to Savile Row craftsmanship . He launched the brand 's first ready @-@ to @-@ wear collection in 1999 . His long @-@ standing association with Marks and Spencer began that year . He dressed Tom Cruise again , for his reprised role in the 2000 film Mission : Impossible II , and at the Oscars that year , when he also dressed Robin Williams and Burt Bacharach . By 2000 , he had 3 @,@ 500 bespoke clients . Everest joined DAKS Simpson as design consultant in May 2000 . He was appointed to the board as Group Creative Director in 2002 , leaving in 2003 . One of the lines he designed for DAKS was an affordable suiting range aimed at teenagers , launched in August 2001 ; called DAKS E1 , after the postal district of his atelier .
= = = Bespoke casual = = =
Everest is at the forefront of the bespoke casual movement which , as the name suggests , provides individually tailored casual clothing of Savile Row quality , including : casual shirts ; smart @-@ casual jackets ; T @-@ shirts ; and jeans . In collaboration with Levi 's in 2004 , he designed a tailored @-@ denim suit , sold in Japanese retailer Oki @-@ Ni 's stores . Expanding the bespoke casual concept , he offered a bespoke denim tailoring service dressing celebrities from sports , Hollywood and rock music , such as David Beckham , Kevin Bacon and Ricky Wilson of the Kaiser Chiefs . Everest designed a suit collection in 2004 / 05 in collaboration with Rocawear , the fashion clothing company founded by American hip hop artists Damon Dash and Jay @-@ Z. The advertising campaign was fronted by Dash 's friends Kevin Bacon and Naomi Campbell . He teamed up with British casual and sportswear designer Kim Jones during 2005 and 2006 . The collaboration produced tailoring collections for four seasons that were shown on the catwalk at Paris fashion week . For his next collaboration , in 2006 Everest showed a limited collection of menswear with New York hair salon Bumble and bumble , including a fully bespoke denim line , which retailed at around US $ 1 @,@ 000 . Marketed as a ' destination location ' , the retail space on the store 's 8th floor , in the fashionable Meatpacking District of Manhattan , also featured a barbershop , a café and a teahouse . In autumn 2007 , the Timothy Everest ready @-@ to @-@ wear collection was available in shops for the first time , including Flannels , Liberty and John Lewis . The range included suits , shirts and trousers . He was costume designer for the 2008 film Mamma Mia ! , dressing its stars , including Pierce Brosnan and Colin Firth . He opened a West End store in 2008 , at Bruton Street , Mayfair , off Bond Street ; less than five minutes walk from Savile Row . He has been a creative contributor and Sartorial Advisor to men 's magazine The Rake since 2008 .
= = = Bespoke active wear = = =
A keen cyclist , in 2009 Everest collaborated with cyclewear brand Rapha to develop a bespoke suit that could be worn while cycling ; what he called " bespoke active wear " . Priced at £ 3 @,@ 500 , the three @-@ piece suit was made of blended wool , using nanotechnology to repel water and dirt . It combined the functionality of classic cycling clothing with the elegance of bespoke tailoring . Its features included a high button fastening to keep the jacket closely fitted to the body , a lapel pocket for an MP3 player and pleats at the shoulders and center back to allow extra fabric when the rider was bent over the bicycle . The jacket design was incorporated into Rapha 's ready @-@ to @-@ wear collection in 2010 . In collaboration with bicycle saddle manufacturer Brooks England during 2010 , he developed a cycling jacket ; under Brooks ' John Boultbee clothing label . The resulting ' Criterion Mk.1 cycling jacket ' , which used water and sweat @-@ resistant materials , was shown at the Bread and Butter street and urban fashion fair , Berlin , in January 2011 .
Everest received an MBE in the 2010 New Year 's Honours list for his " services to the British fashion industry " . Having receiving the award from Queen Elizabeth at Buckingham Palace on Saint David 's Day 2010 , with his wife and two daughters watching , he described the award as a " great honour , not only for me but my business and all who have been involved " . He is quoted as saying that he would like " to be remembered as someone who made people take British clothing seriously " .
= = = The brand = = =
The Timothy Everest brand has three levels of tailoring . ' Bespoke ' is aimed at young professionals with the means to purchase bespoke tailoring , but not necessarily the desire to visit Savile Row . Each customer is measured for an individual pattern to be hand @-@ cut , from which their chosen cloth is cut and sewn by hand . Although still hand made , ' Made @-@ to @-@ measure ' garments use existing ' house ' patterns , adapted to the customer 's measurements . The ' Ready @-@ to @-@ wear ' collection is sold in @-@ house , at Everest 's Mayfair branch , and in Japan . Emphasising his Savile Row background , Everest said , " We are tailors who design , not designers who discovered tailoring " .
= = Marks and Spencer = =
UK department store retailer Debenhams ' collaboration with designers , launched in 1993 under their Designers at Debenhams range , was a success . Hoping to recapture some of their lost market share , Marks and Spencer ( M & S ) asked Everest to review their menswear range . As Creative Consultant , he designed the Sartorial suiting line for their menswear collection . In October 2000 , he designed the Autograph suiting line . Noting that the M & S range consisted of Italian @-@ style suiting , he aimed to achieve a more ' British ' look from the cut , fit and styling and by using different fabrics and colours . He also has responsibility for their Luxury collection . During M & S advertising campaigns , his designs for the Autograph range have been modelled by several British celebrities , including David Beckham , Bryan Ferry , Jimmy Carr , Martin Freeman , Bob Mortimer and Take That . In 2007 , M & S were selected by The Football Association as ' Official Tailor to the England football team ' and Everest designed the team 's official suits for the 2010 World Cup in South Africa .
= = Clientele = =
Everest has , according to Vogue , dressed " some of the world 's most famous people " . He has clients worldwide and travels regularly for fittings in New York , Los Angeles and Japan . Closer to home , Everest 's bespoke atelier in Spitalfields has a diverse client base that includes politicians ( including British Prime Ministers past and present ) , and sports and Hollywood personalities . Of his suit worn to the Oscars , Tom Cruise commented : " Of course it fits ; it 's a Timothy Everest " .
He has been costume designer on several films , including Mission Impossible ( One and M : i @-@ 2 ) , Tube Tales , Eyes Wide Shut , Appaloosa , Atonement , The Accidental Husband and Mamma Mia ! . Among his celebrity clients are : Kevin Bacon ; David Beckham ; Matthew Broderick ; Gordon Brown ; Pierce Brosnan ; David Cameron ; Jarvis Cocker ; Jeremy Irons ; Jay @-@ Z ; Mick Jagger ; and James McAvoy .
= Symphony in White , No. 3 =
Symphony in White , No. 3 , is a painting by James Abbott McNeill Whistler . The work shows two women dressed in white , one sitting on a sofa and the other resting on the floor . The model on the sofa is Joanna Heffernan , the artist 's mistress . By calling the painting Symphony in White , No. 3 , Whistler intended to emphasise his artistic philosophy of corresponding arts , inspired by the poet Charles Baudelaire . The presence of a fan on the floor shows the influence of Japonisme , which was a popular artistic trend in European art at the time . Whistler was also greatly influenced by his colleague and friend Albert Joseph Moore , and their works show considerable similarities .
Though Whistler started on the painting in 1865 , he was not ready to exhibit it publicly until 1867 , when it went on display at the Royal Academy . His colleagues were impressed by the painting , but not all critics fully understood the connection between the painting and its title . One review in particular questioned the presence of other colours in addition to white , a criticism which prompted Whistler to respond with a scathing and sarcastic letter . Years later , Whistler 's former student Walter Sickert criticized the painting as " the low @-@ water mark of the old manner , before the birth of the new . "
= = Background = =
James Abbott McNeill Whistler was born in the United States in 1834 , the son of George Washington Whistler , a railway engineer . In 1843 , his father relocated the family to Saint Petersburg , Russia , where James received training in painting . After a stay in England , he returned to America to attend the US Military Academy at West Point in 1851 . In 1855 , he made his way back to Europe , determined to dedicate himself to painting . Here he settled in Paris at first , but in 1859 moved to London , where he would spend most of the remainder of his life . There he met Dante Gabriel Rossetti and other members of the Pre @-@ Raphaelite Brotherhood , who would have a profound influence on Whistler .
It was also in London that Whistler met Joanna Heffernan , the model who would become his lover . By 1865 , Whistler had already used her as a model for other paintings , among these Symphony in White , No. 1 and Symphony in White , No. 2 . Heffernan supposedly had a strong influence over Whistler ; his brother @-@ in @-@ law Francis Seymour Haden refused a dinner invitation in the winter of 1863 – 64 due to her dominant presence in the household . In January 1864 , Whistler 's mother Anna – later depicted in the painting Arrangement in Grey and Black – arrived to stay with her son in London . As a result , Heffernan had to move out of the apartment , and only visited as a model . Still , Heffernan 's presence displeased Whistler 's mother , and his relationship with both women became strained .
= = Creation and reception = =
Whistler started on Symphony in White , No. 3 perhaps as early as July 1865 . It was the last of his paintings for which Heffernan was a model . He used Milly Jones , the wife of an actor friend , as the second model for the painting . By the middle of August , he had a complete sketch ready , and he continued work on the painting into September . Whistler kept reworking it , however , and it was not until 1867 that he considered it finished . He painted over the final " 5 " in the date , and replaced it with a " 7 " , to mark the changes it had undergone . In March 1867 , William Michael Rossetti wrote of seeing the painting in Whistler 's studio , and mentioned that it was previously called The Two Little White Girls . It then went on display at the Royal Academy .
The work was greatly admired by Whistler 's colleagues , including Henri Fantin @-@ Latour , Alfred Stevens , James Tissot and Edgar Degas . For Degas , the painting served as an inspiration for his own portrait of Eugénie Fiocre in the ballet La Source . Some critics , however , were confused by the title . Philip Hamerton , writing for the Saturday Review on 1 June 1867 , remarked :
In the " Symphony in White No . III . " by Mr. Whistler there are many dainty varieties of tint , but it is not precisely a symphony in white . One lady has a yellowish dress and brown hair and a bit of blue ribbon , the other has a red fan , and there are flowers and green leaves . There is a girl in white on a white sofa , but even this girl has reddish hair ; and of course there is the flesh colour of the complexions .
Whistler was always belligerent in his response to critics . He wrote a letter to the editor that the newspaper would not print , but was later reprinted by Whistler himself in his book The Gentle Art of Making Enemies :
How pleasing that such profound prattle should inevitably find its place in print ! ... Bon Dieu ! did this wise person expect white hair and chalked faces ? And does he then , in his astounding consequence , believe that a symphony in F contains no other note , but shall be a continued repetition of F , F , F ? . . . Fool !
The painting was originally bought by the wealthy art collector Louis Huth , who later also commissioned Whistler to paint a portrait of his wife . It is currently in the ownership of the Barber Institute of Fine Arts , in Birmingham , England .
= = Composition and interpretation = =
Symphony in White , No. 3 shows Heffernan reclining on a sofa with her head rested on her hand , while Jones is seated on the floor , leaning against the sofa . There is a fan on the floor , and a plant bearing white flowers on the right . The fan is an oriental element , and an expression of the artistic trend known as Japonisme which was then prevalent in European art . At the time , Whistler was greatly influenced by his friend and colleague Albert Joseph Moore . The painting bears close resemblances to Moore 's roughly contemporary painting A Musician , though at the time the two were working so closely together that it is hard to ascertain exactly who influenced whom .
The painter Walter Sickert – a student of Whistler – later described the painting in unflattering terms . In December 1908 , five years after Whistler 's death , he wrote in the Fortnightly Review :
In ' Symphony in White , No. 3 , ' we get the culbute . A bad picture , lâchons le mot , badly composed , badly drawn , badly painted , the low @-@ water mark of the old manner , before the birth of the new . Folds of drapery are expressed by ribbons of paint in the direction of the folds themselves , with hard edges to them . Only painters can quite understand the depth of technical infamy confessed in this last description . It means that the drapery is no longer painted , but intended .
To Whistler himself , however , the painting was not old @-@ fashioned , but rather an expression of something new and innovative . By naming it Symphony in White , No. 3 , Whistler highlighted his emphasis on composition , rather than subject matter . The use of a musical title was also an expression of the theory of corresponding arts , which was an idea developed by the French poet Charles Baudelaire . These tendencies became more and more dominant in Whistler 's art over time . His two earlier paintings Symphony in White , No. 1 and Symphony in White , No. 2 had originally been titled The White Girl and The Little White Girl respectively , and later been renamed by the artist . Whistler had originally intended to call this work Two Little White Girls , but the development of his artistic philosophy made him change his mind , and from the time of its first exhibition it has been called by its musical title .
= 2 Become 1 =
" 2 Become 1 " is a song by the English girl group the Spice Girls . Written by the group members , Matt Rowe and Richard Stannard during the group 's first professional songwriting session , it was produced by Rowe and Stannard for the group 's debut album Spice ( 1996 ) . It was inspired by the special relationship that was developing between Geri Halliwell and Rowe during the writing session .
" 2 Become 1 " is a Pop , Pop rock , Soft rock , Easy listening , and Romance ( music ) song that features instrumentation from a guitar , an electronic keyboard , and string instruments . The lyrics focus on the bonding of two lovers , and also address the importance of contraception . Its Big TV ! -directed music video , which features the group performing against time @-@ lapse footage of Times Square in New York City , was completely shot against a green screen at a studio in London . The backdrop was later superimposed .
Released as the group 's third single on 16 December 1996 , it was generally well received by music critics and was a commercial success . It topped the UK Singles Chart for three weeks , becoming the group 's third consecutive chart @-@ topper , their second million @-@ selling single , and their first Christmas number @-@ one single in the United Kingdom . In July 1997 , the song was released in the United States , peaking at No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and receiving a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . It performed similarly internationally , peaking inside the top ten on the majority of the charts that it entered .
= = Background = =
In December 1994 , the Spice Girls persuaded their former managers — father @-@ and @-@ son team Bob and Chris Herbert — to set up a showcase in front of industry writers , producers and A & R men at the Nomis Studios in Shepherd 's Bush , London . Producer Richard Stannard was originally at the studio to meet pop star Jason Donovan , but he ended up in the showcase after hearing Melanie Brown , as she went charging across the corridor . Stannard recalls :
More than anything , they just made me laugh . I couldn 't believe I 'd walked into this situation . You didn 't care if they were in time with the dance steps or whether one was overweight or one wasn 't as good as the others . It was something more . It just made you feel happy . Like great pop records .
Stannard stayed after everyone had left the showcase to talk to the group , he then reported back to his songwriter partner Matt Rowe , that he had found the pop group of their dreams . In January 1995 , Chris Herbert booked the group 's first professional songwriting session with the producers at the Strongroom in Curtain Road , East London . Rowe remember feeling similarly to Stannard when he first met the group , " I love them . Immediately . [ ... ] They were like no one I 'd met before , really . " The session was productive as the duo seemed to get along with the group , together they discussed about the songwriting process and what they wanted to do with the record . In her autobiography , Brown recalled that the duo instinctively understood their point of view and knew how to incorporate " the spirit of five loud girls into great pop music " .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
" 2 Become 1 " was co @-@ written by the Spice Girls along with partners Richard Stannard and Matthew Rowe . Stannard and Rowe also co @-@ produced the track . After writing more uptempo dance @-@ based songs , such as " Wannabe " , the group and the two producers decided to write a slow ballad . But as the group were writing the song , they realised that it was a bit too slushy , so it was decided to address the importance of contraception with the lyrics : " Be a little bit wiser baby . Put it on , put it on " .
The song was inspired by the special relationship that was developing between Geri Halliwell and Rowe . Brown hinted at this development in her autobiography commenting : " When he [ Rowe ] and Geri started making eyes at each other I knew what was going on , even though they denied it . I knew them both too well for it to be a secret for me . " Stannard commented about the fondness between Halliwell and Rowe : " I don 't want to get into the side of things . They were very close . They clicked . And I think the lyrics in " 2 Become 1 " came from that , especially the first verse , which they wrote together . "
= = = Spanish version = = =
The group recorded a Spanish version of the song , written by them , Rowe , Stannard , and N. Maño . The title was " 2 Become 1 " ( Spanish Version ) , although the title is loosely translated in one line of the song , " Seremos Uno Los Dos " . It was released as the eleventh track of their debut album Spice , in Latin America , South Africa , in a special re @-@ edition of the album in Spain , and as one of the tracks of the " 2 Become 1 " maxi @-@ single in the US . A Spanglish edit that traded verses between the English and Spanish versions was created by DJ Mike Rizzo and production director Bill Schultz for New York @-@ based radio WKTU .
= = Composition = =
" 2 Become 1 " is a pop ballad , written in the key of F ♯ major ; it is set in the time signature of common time and moves at a slow tempo of 72 beats per minute . The song is constructed in a verse @-@ chorus form , and its instrumentation comes from a guitar , an electronic keyboard , and string instruments . The song opens with an instrumental introduction , with a chord progression of E ♭ m add9 – D ♭ / F – G ♭ – A ♭ m7 sus4 , that is also used during the first part of the verses . The last two lines of each verse changes the progression to C ♭ – B ♭ m7 – A ♭ m7 – D ♭ 11 , and changes again during each chorus to G ♭ – D ♭ – C ♭ – D ♭ . It closes with a string outro that uses the chord progression F ♭ – G ♭ – B ♭ ♭ – C ♭ , which is arranged by Scottish composer Craig Armstrong .
In 1995 the Spice Girls recorded the demo version of 2 Become 1 . The first three verses sang by Chisholm , Beckham and Bunton respectively . The second three verses were sung by Chisholm , Halliwell and Bunton respectively . The final verse sang by Bunton and the bridges sang by Brown . In the final versions of the song Brown sang the second verse instead of Beckham for unknown reasons . The first and third lines of the chorus are sung by Bunton and Halliwell together and the second and fourth lines are sung by Chisholm and Beckham . After Halliwell 's departure in 1998 , Beckham replaced Halliwell singing the first and third lines of the chorus along with Bunton , while Brown replaced Beckham singing the second and fourth lines of the chorus along with Chisholm .
The lyrics focus on how the bonding of two lovers can become so strong that they practically become one entity , through the act of sexual intercourse . Apart from the sexual connotations , there is an aspirational undercurrent to the lyrics , and like many of their subsequent songs , desire is explicitly linked to ambition – " Free your mind of doubt and danger / Be for real don 't be a stranger / We can achieve it / We can achieve it " .
Two different versions of the song , each with different lyrics , were recorded : in the album version , the second line of the second verse , " Any deal that we endeavor / Boys and girls go good together " , was changed in the single version to : " Once again if we endeavour / Love will bring us back together " . Victoria Beckham sings on the single version , while Halliwell sings on the album version , after Halliwell confessed that she had a hard time singing on that particular key . The single version appears in the music video , and on stage the girls always performed the single version before and after Halliwell 's departure .
= = Release = =
" 2 Become 1 " was released in the United Kingdom on 16 December 1996 , in three single versions . The first one , a maxi single that included the single version of the track , an orchestral take , the Junior Vasquez remix of " Wannabe " , and " One of These Girls " , a song written by the group with Paul Wilson and Andy Watkins — the songwriters and production duo known as Absolute . The second version was the special Christmas pack , a standard CD single in a cardboard case that included a signed postcard with a Christmas message from the group . This version contained the single version , the Dave Way remix , and their own version of Leroy Anderson 's " Sleigh Ride " . The third version was a two @-@ track cassette single , featuring the single version and the orchestral take of the song . The same track listing was also used for the release of the European CD single .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The song was generally well received by music critics . In a review of the group 's debut album Spice , Dev Sherlock of Yahoo ! Music Radio called it a " glossy ballad that would do Mariah Carey proud " . Whitney Pastorek of Entertainment Weekly said that the song is " too slow , and the lyrics appear to have been written by a safe @-@ sex @-@ loving unicorn " , adding that " it 's almost impossible to identify the individual Spice Girls by their voices here , so airbrushed are the proceedings " . Larry Flick of Billboard magazine said that " they are surprisingly adept at weaving warm and romantic imagery over a sweet melody " adding that " [ Everyone ] will delight in the track 's arrangement of soft harmonies and delicate acoustic guitar riffs " . Time magazine 's Christopher John Farley called it a " slumberous ballad [ ... ] [ that ] seem [ s ] designed to amuse , titillate , ingratiate " .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic called the song a " perfect adult contemporary confection " . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said that their first album " is a compendium of slick secondhand urban pop encompassing [ ... ] G @-@ funk synths on ' Say You 'll Be There ' [ ... ] and Babyface 's guitar and strings balladry on ' 2 Become 1 ' " . In a review of the group 's 2007 compilation album Greatest Hits , Talia Kraines of BBC Music called it " shimmering " adding that " only a cold heart could fail to love their first festive # 1 " . Digital Spy 's Nick Levine said that the group 's slower songs were " probably their strongest suit " , and thought that " ' 2 Become 1 ' manages to combine every element of the perfect Christmas ballad – a touch of elegance , a hint of romance , a soupcon of sexiness and a generous sprinkling of sparkle – and still finds time for a coy safe sex message " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" 2 Become 1 " was originally going to be released in the UK on 9 December 1996 , but the release date was delayed to let Dunblane 's " Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door " — a tribute to the children killed at the Dunblane Primary School in Scotland — to stay at the top of the UK Singles Chart . The single was released the next week , debuting at the top , becoming the group 's third chart @-@ topper and their first Christmas number @-@ one single in the UK . It sold 209 @,@ 000 copies in the first three days of release and 430 @,@ 000 in the first week , becoming the tenth best @-@ selling single of the year . " 2 Become 1 " sold 1 @.@ 12 million copies in total , giving the Spice Girls their second and final million @-@ selling single in the UK .
In Ireland , " 2 Become 1 " was the group 's second number @-@ one single , and their first to debut at the top of the Irish Singles Chart . It stayed at the top position for six weeks , and became their first Christmas number @-@ one single in the country . " 2 Become 1 " peaked at No. 3 on the Eurochart Hot 100 , and performed similarly across the rest of Europe , topping the singles chart in Spain , peaking inside the top ten in Austria , Denmark , Finland , France , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland , and inside the top fifteen in Belgium and Germany . It was also commercially successful in Australia and New Zealand , peaking inside the top three on both countries .
In July 1997 , " 2 Become 1 " debuted on the Canadian RPM singles chart at No. 87 , peaked at No. 3 on its fifth week , and ended at No. 25 on the year @-@ end chart . On the Adult Contemporary chart it peaked at No. 4 , and ended at No. 27 on the year @-@ end chart . In the United States , the song debuted on 16 August 1997 at No. 6 , reaching a peak of No. 4 in its fourth week , becoming the group 's third consecutive top five in the country . The song peaked at No. 6 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart and at No. 8 on the Hot 100 Singles Sales chart , selling 700 @,@ 000 copies as of December 1997 . It peaked at four on the Mainstream Top 40 , and had crossover success , peaking at four on the Rhythmic Top 40 and at eight on the Adult Contemporary chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " 2 Become 1 " was directed on 22 November 1996 by Big TV ! , in a two @-@ day shoot located at a studio in Old Compton Street , London . Cinematographer Stephen Keith @-@ Roach — who worked in other music videos such as Jamiroquai 's " Virtual Insanity " and U2 's " Discotheque " — was in charge of the photography . The shoot involved the group dressed in winter coats , wandering around the studio against a green screen , interspersed with close @-@ up camera angles , so that the backdrop could be superimposed later . To achieve the effect of the wind blowing slowly through their hairs , the group was required to lip @-@ synch the song in double time while wind machines were on them .
The music video features the group in Times Square in New York City with fast moving cars appearing around multi @-@ coloured lights , appearing in various places around the city , either alone , with one other member , or as a quintet . The video is intercut with scenes of lovers experiencing moments of togetherness and closes with a deer wandering the streets . Such a scene , according to the group 's first official book Girl Power ! , gave them a running gag all throughout the shoot — " Whenever anyone made a mistake it was , ' Oh , deer ' . " Sometimes , the closing scene would not be shown on television , due to the song fading out to an instrumental , which lasts for 40 seconds .
In the same book , Victoria Beckham wrote about the shoot : " I think ' 2 Become 1 ' is my favorite video . [ ... ] It was really different to the other videos – shot entirely in the studio , with high technology and loads of effects . It was really weird having to sing passionately into the camera , I was feeling a right mug in front of all those people singing ' wanna make love to ya baby ' . "
= = Live performances = =
The song was performed many times on television , including the Bravo Supershow , GMTV , Live & Kicking , Noel 's House Party , and Top of the Pops . In October 1997 , the group performed " 2 Become 1 " as the eighth song of their first live concert at the Abdi İpekçi Arena in Istanbul , Turkey . The performance was broadcast on Showtime in a pay @-@ per @-@ view event titled Spice Girls In Concert Wild ! , and was later included in the VHS and DVD release Girl Power ! Live in Istanbul . In December 2007 , the group performed the song on the finale of the fifth season of the British television show Strictly Come Dancing . They wore floor @-@ length gowns and used microphones covered in glitter , while professional dancers did a choreography in front of them .
The Spice Girls have performed the song on their three tours , the Spiceworld Tour , the Christmas In Spiceworld Tour , and the Return of the Spice Girls . The performance at the Spiceworld Tour 's final concert can be found on the video : Spice Girls Live at Wembley Stadium , filmed in London , on 20 September 1998 . For the Return of the Spice Girls Tour , the group performed it during the second segment of the show . After the " Too Much " performance , each of the girls emerged from a cocoon of oversized swan wings and danced around a set of barber ’ s poles while singing the song .
= = Cover versions = =
" 2 Become 1 " has been covered both in albums and live performances . In 1998 , The Countdown Singers recorded a sound @-@ alike version of the song for their album Today 's Love Songs . Lester Bowie 's Brass Fantasy did an instrumental jazz cover for the 1999 album The Odyssey Of Funk & Popular Music . American guitarist Paul Gilbert covered the song for his fourth album Alligator Farm . Wildside recorded a dance remake for the 1997 album Mega Hits Dance Party , Vol . 1 , and was later included on the 2005 album Let 's Hear It for the 90 's , Vol . 1 . Filipino bossa nova singer , Sitti Navarro , recorded a cover of the song for her second album My Bossa Nova . During her solo career , Emma Bunton has performed live covers of the song on television programmes such as CD : UK and Popworld , and it was also included as part of her setlist for the Pepsi Silver Clef Concert . She performed the song as a duet twice with her former band mate Melanie C on November 9 , 2013 as part of the Oxford Street Lights Switch On and on January 11 , 2014 for Sporty 's Forty at 02 Shepherd 's Bush Empire .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " 2 Become 1 " :
= = Credits and personnel = =
Published by Windswept Pacific Music Ltd . / PolyGram Music Publishing Ltd .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Crimes Act of 1790 =
The Crimes Act of 1790 ( or the Federal Criminal Code of 1790 ) , formally titled An Act for the Punishment of Certain Crimes Against the United States , defined some of the first federal crimes in the United States and expanded on the criminal procedure provisions of the Judiciary Act of 1789 . The Crimes Act was a " comprehensive statute defining an impressive variety of federal crimes . "
As an enactment of the First Congress , the Crimes Act is often regarded as a quasi @-@ constitutional text . The punishment of treason , piracy , counterfeiting , as well as crimes committed on the high seas or against the law of nations , followed from relatively explicit constitutional authority . The creation of crimes within areas under exclusive federal jurisdiction followed from the plenary power of Congress over the " Seat of the Government , " federal enclaves , and federal territories . The creation of crimes involving the integrity of the judicial process derived from Congress 's authority to establish such courts .
The Crimes Act also established a statute of limitations for federal crimes , provided for criminal venue , ensured procedural protections for treason and capital defendants , simplified the pleading requirements for perjury , and broadened the constitutional protection against " corruption of blood . " Further , the act provided for punitive dissection of murderers and codified diplomatic immunity .
= = Background = =
Even after the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1789 , " the definition of crimes and the establishment of punishments " remained a " missing link of the criminal system . " The Judiciary Act of 1789 divided original jurisdiction for the trial of federal crimes between the district courts and the circuit courts . The district courts were given jurisdiction over all federal crimes " where no other punishment than whipping , not exceeding thirty stripes , a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars , or a term of imprisonment not exceeding six months , is to be inflicted . " The circuit courts were given concurrent jurisdiction over these crimes , and exclusive jurisdiction over all other federal crimes . The circuit courts also exercised appellate jurisdiction over the district courts , but only in civil cases .
The Judiciary Act of 1789 also placed the responsibility for prosecuting federal crimes in the United States Attorney for each federal judicial district . The Act provided that " there shall be appointed in each district " a " person learned in the law to act as attorney for the United States in such district , who shall be sworn or affirmed to the faithful execution of his office , whose duty it shall be to prosecute in such district all delinquents for crimes and offences , cognizable under the authority of the United States . "
Prior to the Crimes Act , Congress had passed very few federal crimes . Among Congress 's earlier criminal statutes were :
The renewal of the Northwest Ordinance , which authorized the executive to adopt state law within the Northwest Territory ; and
A prohibition on unloading ships in the dark or without a license , as well as customs bribery and false statements ; and
A prohibition on census takers failing to report their findings .
= = Drafting = =
The Senate passed an act to define a variety of federal crimes on August 31 , 1789 , but the House did not act on that bill .
Like the Judiciary Act of 1789 and the Process Act of 1789 , the Crimes Act was primarily authored by Senator ( and future Chief Justice ) Oliver Ellsworth as the chair of the Senate committee . The committee examined the state criminal laws of Massachusetts , New Jersey , Pennsylvania , Virginia , and South Carolina at the beginning of the drafting process . The Crimes Act generated " little reported debate " on the floor of Congress . The act was passed on April 30 , 1790 .
= = Crimes established = =
Due to the seriousness of the authorized sentences , under the Judiciary Act of 1789 , original jurisdiction for the trial of all of the crimes created by the Crimes Act would have rested with the circuit courts ; none of the crimes created could have been tried in the district courts .
= = = Treason = = =
Article Three provides that : " Treason against the United States , shall consist only in levying War against them , or in adhering to their Enemies , giving them Aid and Comfort . No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act , or on Confession in open Court . The Congress shall have power to declare the Punishment of Treason , but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood , or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted . "
As to misprision of treason , according to David P. Currie , because " [ t ] he Constitution said nothing of this offense , " " the legislators must have interpreted the narrow definition of treason in Article III not to preclude it from creating lesser related offenses that might otherwise fall within federal purview — although nothing in the misprision provision suggested that Congress had yet considered the possible impact of the Treason Clause on its efforts to punish seditious expression . "
= = = Piracy and the high seas = = =
Article One provides that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas . " Five sections in the Crimes Act " were devoted to the subject . " Currie notes that the various piracy offenses " take an exceedingly broad view of what constituted piracy , " but that " [ f ] rom a constitutional standpoint no harm was done , since all of the acts punished were felonious and Congress 's power extended to all felonies on the high seas . "
" The principal provisions with respect to piracy were incorporated in section 8 . " Section 8 applied not only to the " high Seas , " but also to " any river , haven , basin , or bay , out of the jurisdiction of any particular State . " Currie notes a variety of constitutional theories which Congress might have espoused in order to justify this provision : " Whether Congress thought authority over such places included within the ostensibly narrower term ' high Seas , " necessary and proper to the regulation of commerce or to the exercise of admiralty jurisdiction , or implicit in a central government responsible for external affairs is not clear . "
Currie also argues that the phrase " offence , which , if committed within the body of a county , would , by laws of the United States , be punishable with death " is vague . He suggests that it could refer to any federal law , to any state or federal law , or only to federal laws applicable to places under exclusive federal jurisdiction .
= = = Counterfeiting = = =
Article One provides that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States . " Currie argues that section 14 's somewhat broad reading of the word " Securities " is fair enough . Currie suggests that " [ n ] othing was said of counterfeiting coins " because the United States Mint had not yet been established .
Some members of the House , including Theodore Sedgwick of Massachusetts , spoke against the prescribing death penalty for counterfeiting , viewing it as too harsh .
= = = Crimes against the law of nations = = =
Article One provides that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o define and punish . . . Offenses against the Law of Nations . " According to Currie : " No reliance on inherent on implied powers over foreign affairs was necessary to justify " sections 26 and 28 as each " plausibly described " offenses against the law of nations . Congress had also created a civil offense against the law of nations in the Alien Tort Statute of the Judiciary Act of 1789 .
= = = Exclusive federal jurisdiction = = =
Several offenses were limited to acts committed in places " under the sole and exclusive jurisdiction of the United States . " Such regulations would have applied in the " Seat of the Government , " federal enclaves , and federal territories .
Article One provides that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever , over such District ( not exceeding ten Miles square ) as may , by Cession of particular States , and the acceptance of Congress , become the Seat of the Government of the United States , and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be , for the Erection of Forts , Magazines , Arsenals , dock @-@ Yards , and other needful Buildings . " And Article Four provides that " Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory . . . . "
With reference to the " arms , ordnance , munition , shot , powder , or habiliments of war belonging to the United States " provision of section 16 , Currie argues that it could have been justified under Congress 's Article One power to " raise and support armies " or Congress 's Article Four power to make needful rules respecting " property belonging to the United States . "
In United States v. Bevans ( 1818 ) , although the defendant had only been charged under § 8 of the Crimes Act , Chief Justice Marshall proceeded to consider whether the offense would have been cognizable under § 3 . Following the canon of noscitur a sociis , Marshall interpreted the jurisdictional phrase " any fort , arsenal , dockyard , magazine , or in any other place , or district of country " to be limited to places that are " fixed and territorial " ( i.e. not to include a navy vessel ) .
Crimes against persons
Crimes against property
Misprision
= = = Integrity of the judicial process = = =
The constitutional authorization of these crimes was less explicit , but Article One does provide that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court . " According to Currie :
This is the point at which explicit constitutional authority for the creation of federal crimes runs out . But the statute went on to define additional crimes : theft or falsification of court records , perjury , bribery of federal judges , interference with judicial process , and liberation of federal prisoners . All of these were plainly necessary and proper to the operation of the federal courts ; Marshall was to cite the perjury section as precedent for the existence of implicit powers in M 'Culloch v. Maryland .
According to Stacy and Dayton , these provision are " compelling evidence that the founders did not intend the national role in criminal law to be limited to crimes expressly mentioned in the Constitution . "
= = Criminal procedure = =
= = = Statute of limitations = = =
Section 32 provided for the following statutes of limitations : no statute of limitations for wilfull murder or forgery ; no statute of limitations for fugitives from justice ; three ( 3 ) years for capital offenses ( other than wilfull murder and forgery ) ; two ( 2 ) years for non @-@ capital offenses . In United States v. Cook ( 1872 ) , the Court held that indictments need not plead facts establishing that these limitations periods have not run .
= = = Venue = = =
Section 8 provided that " the trial of crimes committed on the high seas , or in any place out of the jurisdiction of any particular State , shall be in the district where the offender is apprehended , or into which he may first be brought . " Thus , section 8 was an exercise of Congress 's authority under Article Three to define criminal venue for all crimes " not committed within any State . " But , the Supreme Court did not interpret section 8 as exercising the full extent of Congress 's authority under Article Three . In Ex parte Bollman ( 1807 ) , the Court held that the statutory term " any place out of the jurisdiction of any particular state " applied only to " any river , haven , bason or bay , not within the jurisdiction of any particular state , " and only in " those cases there is no court which has particular cognizance of the crime . "
= = = Treason and capital cases = = =
The Crimes Act prescribed death as the exclusive punishment for the crimes of treason , counterfeiting , wilfull murder , and aiding the escape of a death row prisoner , as well as piracy , murder , and robbery on the high seas . Section 29 provided treason and capital defendants a right to a copy of the indictment , a list of the jury ( and , in treason cases , witnesses ) , appointed counsel , and compulsory process :
[ A ] ny person who shall be accused and indicted of treason , shall have a copy of the indictment , and a list of the jury and witnesses , to be produced on the trial for proving the said indictment , mentioning the names and places of abode of such witnesses and jurors , delivered unto him at least three entire days before he shall be tried for the same ; and in other capital offences , shall have such copy of the indictment and list of the jury two entire days at least before the trial : And that every person so accused and indicted for any of the crimes aforesaid , shall also be allowed and admitted to make his full defence by counsel learned in the law ; and the court before whom such person shall be tried , or some judge thereof , shall , and they are hereby authorized and required immediately upon his request to assign to such person such counsel , not exceeding two , as such person shall desire , to whom such counsel shall have free at all reasonable hours ; and every such person or persons accused or indicted of the crimes aforesaid , shall be allowed and admitted in his said defence to make any proof that he or they can produce , by lawful witness or witnesses , and shall have the like process of the court where he or they shall be tried , to compel his or their witnesses to appear at his or their trial , as is usually granted to compel witnesses to appear on the prosecution against them .
Most of the provisions of section 29 are plainly similar to those of the Sixth Amendment , namely the Information Clause , the Assistance of Counsel Clause , and the Compulsory Process Clause . The Sixth Amendment ( and the remainder of the Bill of Rights ) had not yet been ratified at the time of the Crimes Act 's passage .
Section 30 provided treason and capital defendants with peremptory challenges and provided for a plea of not guilty in the case that the defendant refused to enter a plea :
if any person or persons be indicted of treason against the United States , and shall stand mute or refuse to plead , or shall challenge peremptorily above the number of thirty @-@ five of the jury ; or if any person or persons be indicted of other of the offences herein for which the punishment is declared to be death , if he or they shall also stand mute or will not answer to the indictment , or challenge peremptorily above the number of twenty persons of the jury ; the court , in any of the cases aforesaid , shall notwithstanding proceed to the trial of the person or persons so standing mute or challenging , as if he or they had pleaded not guilty , and render judgment thereon accordingly .
In United States v. Shackleford ( 1855 ) , the Court held that the section 30 's allocation of peremptory challenges controlled , rather than an 1840 statute that required federal jury selection to generally follow state law ( and , thus , the prosecutor was given no peremptory challenges in such cases ) . Ten years later , Congress abrogated Shackleford , granting prosecutors five peremptory challenges in treason and capital cases ( and two in non @-@ capital felony cases ) ; the 1865 act left the defendant 's number of peremptory challenges unchanged .
Section 31 eliminated the benefit of clergy for capital crimes . Section 33 designated the means of execution as " hanging . . . by the neck until dead . "
= = = Perjury indictments = = =
Section 19 , applicable to perjury prosecutions under section 18 , provided that
in every presentment or indictment to be prosecuted against any person for wilful and corrupt perjury , it shall be sufficient to set forth the substance of the offence charged upon the defendant , and by what court , or before whom the oath or affirmation was taken , ( averring such court , or person or persons to have a competent authority to administer the same ) together with the proper averment or averments to falsify the matter or matters wherein the perjury or perjuries is or are assigned ; without setting forth the bill , answer , information , indictment , declaration , or any part of any record or proceeding , either in law or equity , other than as aforesaid , and without setting forth the commission or authority of the court , or person or persons before whom the perjury was committed .
and section 20 provided that
in every presentment or indictment for subornation of perjury , or for corrupt bargaining or contracting with others to commit wilful and corrupt perjury , it shall be sufficient to set forth the substance of the offence charged upon the defendant , without setting forth the bill , answer , information , indictment , declaration , or any part of any record or proceeding , either in law or equity , and without setting forth the commmsion or authority of the court , or person or persons before whom the perjttry was committed , or was agreed or promised to be committed .
= = = Sentencing = = =
Section 24 provided that " no conviction or judgment of any of the offences aforesaid , shall work corruption of blood , or any forfeiture of estate . " This generalized the guarantee of Article Three that " no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood , or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted . "
The Crimes Act made no provision for the creation of federal prisons . Instead , a September 21 , 1789 concurrent resolution asked the state legislatures to authorize their prisons to imprison federal prisoners . The first federal prison was not opened until 1894 at Fort Leavenworth .
= = Other provisions = =
= = = Dissection = = =
Section 4 authorized a court to order the post @-@ execution dissection of the corpse of convicted murderers . According to David P. Currie , this was the " most controversial provision of the entire statute . " Dissection @-@ as @-@ punishment had its roots in a 1789 New York statute and a 1752 English law . Rep. Michael J. Stone of Maryland argued against the inclusion of this provision as cruel . Currie argues that Congress was on a firm constitutional footing in enacting this provision in relation to murders committed in areas under exclusive federal jurisdiction , but perhaps less so for murders committed on the high seas .
= = = Diplomatic immunity = = =
Section 25 provided :
[ I ] f any writ or process shall at any time hereafter be sued forth or prosecuted by any person or persons , in any of the courts of the United States , or in any of the courts of a particular state , or by any judge or justice therein respectively , whereby the person of any ambassador or other public minister of any foreign prince or state , authorized and received as such by the President of the United States , or any domestic or domestic servant of any much ambassador or other public minister , may be arrested or imprisoned , or his or their goods or chattels be distrained , seized or attached , such writ or process shall be deemed and adjudged to be utterly null and void to all intents , construction and purposes whatsoever .
Section 27 provided a limited exception for private debts contracted by ambassadors prior to the passage of the act .
= = Prosecutions = =
Between 1790 and 1797 , only 147 criminal cases were brought in the circuit courts , and more than half of those cases were brought in the Pennsylvania circuit court concerning the Whiskey Rebellion . And , between 1790 and 1801 , only 426 criminal cases were brought in all federal courts ( the district courts and the circuit courts combined ) .
= = Amendments and repeals = =
Section 1 was supplemented by an omnibus treason law during the Civil War , which , inter alia , provided for punishments other than death and additional lesser offenses . The offense of treason , and the punishment thereof , were codified in consecutive sections of the Revised Statutes . Both were repealed and replaced by the Criminal Code of 1909 . During the 1948 re @-@ codification of the Criminal Code , the treason offense was amended and moved to 18 U.S.C. § 2381 , where it remains . It was amended in 1994 .
Section 2 was codified in the Revised Statutes , and re @-@ codified by the Criminal Code of 1909 , and the 1948 re @-@ codification . It was amended in 1994 .
Section 3 was amended by § 4 of the Crimes Act of 1825 and codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 4 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 5 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 6 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 7 was amended in 1857 and 1875 and codified in the Revised States .
Section 8 was amended in 1820 , 1835 , and 1846 and codified in five sections of the Revised Statutes . Further , § 8 was supplemented by additional prohibitions in § 5 of an 1819 act and § 3 of an 1820 act . Despite the similarity of the provisions , all three were all separately codified in the Revised Statutes in 1874 . Section 8 was repealed by the Criminal Code of 1909 . Section 8 's venue provision was re @-@ enacted by § 14 of the Crimes Act of 1825 , with minor changes .
Section 9 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 10 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 11 was codified in two sections of the Revised Statutes .
Section 12 was amended in 1835 and codified in two sections of the Revised Statutes .
Section 13 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 14 was repealed by § 17 of the Crimes Act of 1825 , which broadened the offense of counterfeiting and reduced authorized the punishment from death to 10 years hard labor and a $ 5000 fine . Sections 18 through 21 of the 1825 Act created additional counterfeiting offenses .
Section 15 was amended in 1874 and codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 16 was amended in 1842 and codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 17 was amended by § 8 of the Crimes Act of 1825 and codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 18 was amended by § 13 of the Crimes Act of 1825 — which defined the term " perjury " and increased the authorized punishment to 5 years hard labor and a $ 3000 fine — and further amended in 1874 and 1876 . Perjury and subornation were separately codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 19 was codified in three sections of the Revised Statutes .
Section 21 was codified in two sections of the Revised Statutes .
Section 22 was amended in 1866 and codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 23 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 24 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Sections 25 through 29 were not codified in Title LXX of the Revised Statutes .
Section 30 , with regard to peremptory challenges , was re @-@ enacted and supplemented in 1865 . Section 30 , with regard to a defendant 's failure to enter a plea , was extended from capital to all crimes by § 14 of the Crimes Act of 1825 .
Section 31 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 33 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
= = Constitutionality = =
According to Taylor : " Like the Judiciary Act of 1789 , the Process Act of 1789 and the Crimes Act of 1790 , having been passed by the First Congress , are perhaps the statutes most informative of an original understanding of Congress 's constitutional power over the federal judiciary . "
According to Kurland , " for the most part , Congress enacted statutes that closely tracked the specific constitutional grants of federal criminal authority . However , Congress continued to venture slightly , but significantly , into areas outside the specific constitutional grants . " As examples in the later category , Kurland cites the provisions concerning the integrity of the federal criminal process , bribery , misprison of treason , and the revenue provisions .
Currie notes that the Crimes Act " resolved a number of interesting constitutional questions . " For example , with reference to the punishments of " stripes " and disqualification from office , Currie argues that : " These provisions suggest not only that Congress viewed neither of these punishments as cruel and unusual , but also that they did not understand impeachment to be the sole avenue for the future disqualification of current officeholders . " Taylor goes further in arguing the disqualification provision was not merely prospective : " The Crimes Act of 1790 indicates that , beyond its plenary power over federal court jurisdiction and procedure , the First Congress believed it had the constitutional power to make conviction by a court an alternative means of removing a federal judge , outside the impeachment context , and it sheds light on the First Congress 's understanding of its own powers to discipline federal judges . "
Similarly , the Supreme Court and individual justices have cited the Crimes Act 's authorization of the death penalty as evidence that the founders believed it was constitutional .
= Witch trials in early modern Scotland =
Witch trials in early modern Scotland were the judicial proceedings in Scotland between the early sixteenth century and the mid @-@ eighteenth century concerned with crimes of witchcraft . In the late Middle Ages there were a handful of prosecutions for harm done through witchcraft , but the passing of the Witchcraft Act 1563 made witchcraft , or consulting with witches , capital crimes . The first major series of trials under the new act were the North Berwick witch trials , beginning in 1589 , in which James VI played a major part as " victim " and investigator . He became interested in witchcraft and published a defence of witch @-@ hunting in the Daemonologie in 1597 , but he appears to have become increasingly sceptical and eventually took steps to limit prosecutions .
An estimated 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 people , mostly from the Scottish Lowlands , were tried for witchcraft in this period ; a much higher rate than for neighbouring England . There were major series of trials in 1590 – 91 , 1597 , 1628 – 31 , 1649 – 50 and 1661 – 62 . Seventy @-@ five per cent of the accused were women . Modern estimates indicate that over 1 @,@ 500 persons were executed . Most of those executed were strangled and then burnt . The hunts subsided under English occupation after the Civil Wars during the period of the Commonwealth led by Oliver Cromwell . In the 1650s and returned after the Restoration in 1660 , causing some alarm and leading to the Privy Council of Scotland limiting arrests , prosecutions and torture . There was also growing scepticism in the later seventeenth century , while some of the factors that may have contributed to the trials , such as economic distress , subsided . Although there were occasional local outbreaks of witch @-@ hunting , the last recorded executions were in 1706 and the last trial in 1727 . The Scottish and English parliaments merged in 1707 , and the unified British parliament repealed the 1563 Act in 1736 .
Many causes have been suggested for the hunts , including economic distress , changing attitudes to women , the rise of a " godly state " , the inquisitorial Scottish judicial system , the widespread use of judicial torture , the role of the local kirk , decentralised justice and the prevalence of the idea of the diabolic pact . The proliferation of partial explanations for the witch @-@ hunt has led some historians to proffer the concept of " associated circumstances " , rather than one single significant cause .
= = Origins = =
= = = Legal origins = = =
For late Medieval Scotland there is evidence of occasional prosecutions of individuals for causing harm through witchcraft . High @-@ profile political cases included the action against John Stewart , Earl of Mar for allegedly using sorcery against his brother King James III in 1479 . Evidence of these political cases indicates that they were becoming rarer in the first half of the sixteenth century however . Popular belief in magic was widespread in the Middle Ages , but theologians had been generally sceptical , and lawyers only interested in prosecuting cases in which harm from magic was evident . From the late fifteenth century attitudes began to change , and witches were seen as deriving powers from the Devil , with the result that witchcraft was seen as a form of heresy . These ideas were widely accepted by both Catholics and Protestants in the sixteenth century . In the aftermath of the initial Reformation settlement of 1560 , Parliament passed the Witchcraft Act 1563 , one of a series of laws underpinning Biblical laws and similar to that passed in England a year earlier , which made the practice of witchcraft itself , and consulting with witches , capital crimes . The first witch @-@ hunt under the act was in the east of the country in 1568 – 69 in Angus and the Mearns , where there were unsuccessful attempts to introduce elements of the diabolic pact and the hunt collapsed .
= = = Role of James VI = = =
James VI 's visit to Denmark in 1589 , where witch @-@ hunts were already common , may have encouraged an interest in the study of witchcraft , and he came to see the storms he encountered on his voyage as the result of magic . After his return to Scotland , he attended the North Berwick witch trials , the first major persecution of witches in Scotland under the 1563 Act and the first known to successfully involve the diabolic pact . Several people , most notably Agnes Sampson and the schoolmaster John Fian , were convicted of using witchcraft to send storms against James ' ship . James became obsessed with the threat posed by witches . He subsequently believed that a nobleman , Francis Stewart , 5th Earl of Bothwell , was a witch , and after the latter fled in fear of his life , he was outlawed as a traitor . The king subsequently set up royal commissions to hunt down witches in his realm , recommending torture in dealing with suspects . James is known to have personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches . Inspired by his personal involvement , in 1597 he wrote the Daemonologie , a tract that opposed the practice of witchcraft and which provided background material for Shakespeare 's Tragedy of Macbeth , which contains probably the most famous literary depiction of Scottish witches . James imported continental explanations of witchcraft . His goal was to divert suspicion away from male homosociality among the elite , and focus fear on female communities and large gatherings of women . He thought they threatened his political power so he laid the foundation for witchcraft and occultism policies , especially in Scotland . The point was that a widespread belief in the conspiracy of witches and a witches ' Sabbath with the devil deprived women of political influence . Occult power was supposedly a womanly trait because women were weaker and more susceptible to the devil . However , after the publication of Daemonologie his views became more sceptical , and in the same year he revoked the standing commissions on witchcraft , limiting prosecutions by the central courts .
= = Nature of the trials = =
Despite the fact that Scotland probably had about one quarter of the population of England , it had three times the number of witchcraft prosecutions , at an estimated 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 over the entire period . This was about four times the European average . The overwhelming majority were in the Lowlands , where the Kirk had more control , despite the evidence that basic magical beliefs were very widespread in the Highlands . Large series of trials included those in 1590 – 91 and the Great Scottish Witch Hunt of 1597 , which took place across Scotland from March to October . At least 400 people were put on trial for various forms of diabolism . The exact number of those executed as a result of these trials is unknown , but is believed to be about 200 . Later major trials included hunts in 1628 – 31 and 1649 – 50 . Probably the most intense witch @-@ hunt was in 1661 – 62 , which involved some 664 named witches in four counties .
Most of the accused , some 75 per cent , were women . Modern estimated indicate that over 1 @,@ 500 persons were executed . Most of these were older women , with some younger women and men accused because they were related to an accused witch , usually as daughters and husbands . Some men were accused because they were folk healers , who were felt to have misused their powers , although folk healers as a group were not targeted . Most were not vagrants or beggars , but settled members of their communities . Most had built a reputation for witchcraft over years , which resulted in prosecution when a " victim " suffered ill fortune , particularly after a curse had been issued . The use of curses by some women as a means of acquiring social power may have made this process more likely to occur .
Almost all witchcraft prosecutions took place in secular courts under the provisions of the 1563 Act . In 1649 the religiously radical Covenanter regime passed a new witchcraft act that ratified the existing act and extended it to deal with consulters of " Devils and familiar spirits " , who would now be punished with death . There were three main types of court in which accused witches could be tried . First was the Court of Justiciary in Edinburgh , which took cases from all over Scotland , with a heavy bias to the local region . Next were the circuit courts , presided over by judges from the central courts and held in the various shires of the country . Finally , there were a series of ad hoc local courts , held under commissions by the Privy Council or Parliament and staffed by local landholders and gentlemen to try witches in the places where they were accused . Based on known outcomes , the execution rates for the local courts was much higher than the courts run by professional lawyers , with the local courts executing some 90 per cent of the accused , the Judiciary Court 55 per cent , but the circuit courts only 16 per cent . After the revocation of the standing commissions in 1597 , the pursuit of witchcraft was largely taken over by kirk sessions , disciplinary committees run by the parish elite , and was often used to attack " superstitious " and Catholic practices . The central courts only launched a trial when the Privy Council issued a commission , although the council did not have full control over prosecutions in the Court of Judiciary .
Scottish witchcraft trials were notable for their use of pricking , in which a suspect 's skin was pieced with needles , pins and bodkins as it was believed that they would possess a Devil 's mark through which they could not feel pain . Professional prickers included John Kincaid and John Dick , whose actions helped set off the outbreak of witch @-@ hunting in 1661 – 62 , and whose exposure as frauds , and subsequent imprisonment , helped end the trials . Judicial torture was used in some high @-@ profile cases , like that of John Fine , one of the witches accused of plotting the death of the king in 1590 , whose feet were crushed in a shin press , known as the boots . However , these cases were relatively rare . Confessions , considered the best evidence for conviction , were more usually extracted by " waking " the witch , keeping the suspect sleep deprived . After about three days individuals tend to hallucinate , and this provided some exotic detail in witchcraft trials . In Scotland , convicted witches were usually strangled at the stake before having their bodies burned , although there are instances where they were burned alive .
= = Witch beliefs = =
The belief that witches could cure and cause harm was common among all social groups in early modern Scotland . In 1701 in Anstruther , Elizabeth Dick had been turned away from the local mill when begging . She cursed the mill and several witnesses testified that the grain in the mill turned red . Only when one of the people who had refused her help ran after her and gave her alms did she bless the mill and everything returned to normal . About half of accused witches had already gained a reputation for causing harm over a long period of time . The fact that only four per cent of recorded accused witches were involved in folk healing seems to indicate that healing was not seen as a major element of witchcraft . The Aberdeenshire trials of 1596 reveal that spells could be purchased from witches for success at fishing , to ensure a happy marriage , to prolong life and to affect the weather . Many accusations included gender and sexual fears . Margaret Bain , a midwife , it was claimed , could transfer the pains of childbirth to a woman 's husband and Helen Gray cast a spell on a man that gave him a permanent erection . Witches could also carry out divinations . These included by reading the marks on the shoulder blade of a slaughtered animal , measuring a person 's sleeve or waist to see if they were suffering from a fever , or being able to find answers based on which way a sieve suspended from scissors or shears swung , as Margaret Mungo was accused of doing before the kirk session of Dingwall in 1649 .
It has often been stated that Scottish witchcraft was particularly concerned with the demonic pact . In the high court , Katherine Sands , who was one of four women accused of witchcraft at Culross in 1675 , admitted to renouncing her baptism , receiving the Devil 's mark and having sex with the Devil , but in local trials these demonic elements were rarer . Stuart MacDonald notes that in trials from Fife the Devil was a relatively insignificant and indistinct figure and that a number of instances of covens meeting look like fairy revels , where the dancing fairies traditionally disappeared when a human broke the ring , rather than satanic gatherings . Fairies were an important part of magical beliefs in Scotland . Isobel Gowdie , the young wife of a cottar from near Auldearn , who was tried for witchcraft in 1662 , left four depositions , gained without torture , that provide one of the most detailed insights into magical beliefs in Britain . She stated that her coven met on nearby Downie Hill , that they could transform themselves into hares and that she had been entertained by the Queen of the Fairies in her home under the hill . J. A. MacCulloch argued that there was a " mingling of beliefs " in Scotland , between popular belief in fairies and elite Christian ideas of demonic action .
= = Decline = =
In the seventeenth century there was growing scepticism about the reality of witchcraft among the educated elite . Scotland was defeated in the Civil Wars by the forces of the English parliament led by Oliver Cromwell and occupied . In 1652 Scotland was declared part of a Commonwealth with England and Ireland and the Privy Council and courts ceased to exist . The English judges who replaced them were hostile to the use of torture and often sceptical of the evidence it produced , resulting in a decline in prosecutions . In an attempt to gain support among the landholding orders , Sheriff 's courts were re @-@ established and Justices of the Peace returned in 1656 . The result was a wave of witchcraft cases , with 102 in the period 1657 – 59 . The limitations on prosecutions were fully reversed with the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , and there was a flood of over 600 cases that alarmed the restored Privy Council , leading it to insist on the necessity of its commission for an arrest or prosecution , and banning judicial torture .
Prosecutions began to decline as trials were more tightly controlled by the judiciary and government , torture was more sparingly used and standards of evidence were raised . The exposure of prickers as frauds in 1662 removed a major form of evidence . The Lord Advocate George Mackenzie made efforts to make prosecutions ineffective . There may also have been a growing popular scepticism , and , with relative peace and stability , the economic and social tensions that may have contributed to accusations were reduced , although there were occasional local outbreaks , like those in East Lothian in 1678 and in Paisley in 1697 . The last executions in the records of the central courts were in 1706 . The last trial was held in the court of a sheriff @-@ depute at Dornoch in 1727 , and was of questionable legality . The British parliament repealed the 1563 Act in 1736 , making the legal pursuit of witches impossible . Nevertheless , basic magical beliefs persisted , particularly in the Highlands and Islands .
= = Causes = =
Various reasons for the Scottish witch @-@ hunt , and its more intense nature than that in England , have been advanced by historians . Older theories , that there was a widespread pagan cult that was persecuted in this period and that the witch @-@ hunts were the result of a rising medical profession eliminating folk healers , have been discredited among professional historians . Most of the major periods of prosecution coincided with periods of intense economic distress , and some accusations may have followed the withdrawal of charity from marginal figures , particularly the single women that made up many of the accused . The reformed Kirk that emerged from 1560 was heavily influenced by Calvinism and Presbyterianism , and may have perceived women as more of a moral threat . As a result the witch @-@ hunt in Scotland has been seen as a means of controlling women . Christina Larner suggested that the outbreak of the hunt in the mid @-@ sixteenth century was tied to the rise of a " godly state " , where the reformed Kirk was closely linked to an increasingly intrusive Scottish crown and legal system .
It has been suggested that the intensity of Scottish witch @-@ hunting was due to an inquisitorial judicial system and the widespread use of judicial torture . However , B. P. Levak argues that the Scottish system was only partly inquisitorial and that use of judicial torture was extremely limited , similar to the situation in England . A relatively high level of acquittal in Scottish trials may have been due to the employment of defence lawyers in Scottish courts , a benefit not given accused witches in England . The close involvement of the Scottish Kirk in trials and the decentralised nature of Scottish courts , where local magistrates heard many cases ( in contrast to England where most were before a small number of circuit judges ) , may have contributed to higher rates of prosecution . The diabolic pact is often stated as a major difference between Scottish and English witchcraft cases , but Stuart Maxwell argues that the iconography of Satan may be an imposition of central government beliefs on local traditions , particularly those concerned with fairies , which were more persistent in Scotland than in England . The proliferation of partial explanations for the witch @-@ hunt has led some historians to proffer the concept of " associated circumstances " , rather than one single significant cause .
= Loboc Church =
The San Pedro Apostol Parish Church ( also Saint Peter the Apostle Parish Church , Spanish : Iglesia Parroquial de San Pedro Apóstol ) , commonly known as Loboc Church , is a Roman Catholic church in the municipality of Loboc , Bohol , Philippines , within the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tagbilaran .
After the Jesuits established the Christian community in Baclayon , they moved to Loboc and established a second Christian settlement in Bohol . The parish was established in 1602 , and the present coral stone church was completed in 1734 . Because of its strategic location , it became the center of the Jesuit mission in the Bohol area . In 1768 , upon the expulsion of the Jesuits , the town was transferred to the Augustinian Recollects .
The church is classified as a National Historical Landmark by the National Historical Commission of the Philippines and a National Cultural Treasure by the National Museum of the Philippines . It was considered for the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of the Philippines as a member of two categories , the Baroque Churches of the Philippines ( Extension ) and the Jesuit Churches of the Philippines .
It was severely damaged when a 7 @.@ 2 magnitude earthquake struck Bohol and other parts of Central Visayas on October 15 , 2013 .
= = Church history = =
After the establishment of the Jesuit mission in Bohol , Father Juan de Torres , SJ , moved to the community along the Loboc River in late 1596 to establish a second mission station . The first church , made of wood , was built by the people of the area on a site called Calvario , Sawang , near the location of the present @-@ day church . It was dedicated under the patronage of Saint Michael the Archangel . Loboc officially became a Catholic parish in 1602 . Due to pirate attacks on Baclayon and the strategic position of Loboc , the Jesuits chose Loboc to become the center of their mission . The Jesuit superior of Bohol later resided in Loboc until the Jesuits ' expulsion in 1768 . A boarding school for boys , the Seminario de los Indios , was established at Loboc in 1605 .
Fire destroyed the original wooden church in 1638 ; it was later reconstructed by the Jesuit priest Jose Sanchez . A larger church was built in 1670 , on the site of the present day convent . The present coral stone church was finished in 1734 . After the Jesuits were expelled from the country in May 1768 , the Augustinian Recollects assumed the administration of the parish and the church that November .
= = = Historical and cultural designations = = =
In 1998 , Loboc Church was declared a National Historical Landmark by the National Historical Institute , now the National Historical Commission of the Philippines . It was also listed as a National Cultural Treasure by the National Museum of the Philippines .
The church complex was a candidate for UNESCO World Heritage Sites of the Philippines , under two distinct categories . The Jesuit Churches of the Philippines nomination includes the churches of Maragondon in Cavite , Baclayon in Bohol and Guiuan in Eastern Samar . The Baroque Churches of the Philippines ( Extension ) nomination , nominates Loboc Church along with the churches of Patrocinio de Maria in Boljoon , Cebu , La Inmaculada Concepcion in Guiuan , Eastern Samar , San Matias in Tumauini , Isabela , and San Isidro Labrador in Lazi , Siquijor . However , due to its total destruction , it was removed from the roster of nominated sites .
= = Architecture = =
The church is built along the banks of the Loboc River . The coral stone church follows a cruciform plan , with a sunken pyramidal roof on its crossing . As a church built by the Jesuits , exterior walls of the church have the Jesuit insignia and icons of an angel 's wing and head . Major renovations were undertaken by Augustinian priest Father Aquilino Bon , including the addition of a portico to the façade ( 1863 – 1866 ) and re @-@ roofing with tiles ( 1873 ) . Father José Sánchez , OAR , added stone buttresses to the walls ( 1891 – 1893 ) and side porticoes ( 1895 – 1896 ) . Because of frequent flooding , its wooden flooring was changed to cement tiles in 1895 and was elevated in 1969 .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior of the church is adorned with ceiling paintings by Canuto Avila and his sons , Ricardo and Ray Francia , created from May 1926 to July 1927 , and retouched by Cris Naparota in 1995 . A mural of Our Lady of Guadalupe , secondary patron of Loboc , painted by Max Aya @-@ ay in 1930 at the center of the nave depicts the Virgin saving Loboc from floods . The church also has a separate cantilevered organ loft , hosting a large pipe organ believed to be connected with Father Diego Cera , maker of the Las Piñas Bamboo organ .
= = = = Façade = = = =
The inner baroque façade , which is part of the 1734 church built by the Jesuits , is decorated with pilasters , capitals , blind niches and volutes . It is patterned after the San Ignacio Church in Intramuros , with two levels , a triangular pediment , and two narrow octagonal bell towers on each side . The neoclassical portico houses niches for Saint Peter and Saint Paul . Along the pediment is a wooden bas @-@ relief on galvanized iron of the papal tiara over crossed keys ( the symbol of Saint Peter ) on the center and medallions carrying the icons of the Augustinians and Saint Peter on both ends .
= = = = Altars = = = =
The church has five retablos ( reredos ) . The central retablo ( or retablo mayor ) at the altar houses images of Saint Peter , the patron , paired with Saint Paul on the uppermost niche . On the lowest level are images of Our Lady of Guadalupe , a secondary patron , in the center . Also on the lowest level were statues of Saint Lucy , patron against typhoons and Saint Francis Xavier , patron against floods and alligators . Both Saint Lucy and Saint Francis were elected patrons in 1697 . Behind the walls of the retablo mayor are the remains of the former Jesuit altarpiece , a bas @-@ relief of Saint Ignatius Loyola and St Francis Xavier dressed as a pilgrim .
= = = = = Epistle retablo = = = = =
On the right side of the altar are two retablos . The larger altar on the right side currently houses the image of St. Francis Xavier as preacher on the topmost level . On the middle level of the same retablo are images of Saint Vincent Ferrer in the center , and Saint Augustine and Saint Monica on the left and right niches , respectively . The lowest level contains images of the Nuestra Señora de la Consolacion in the center , Saint Anne to the right and Saint Thérèse of Lisieux ( originally St Joachim ) on the left . The smaller altar has two levels of baroque and neoclassical style , respectively , with images of the crucified Christ on the lower level and the Holy Infant on the upper . The tomb of Father Aquilino Bon and other Recollect priests who served Loboc are also on this side of the church . The remains of Jesuit priest Alonso de Humanes were formerly interred in this area before the transfer of his remains to San Ignacio in Intramuros . An apocryphal account tells of a fire in a former Loboc church stopping at the foot of Humanes ' tomb ; this story spread across the people of the Loboc and nearby towns , which drew pilgrims to light candles in memory of Humanes .
= = = = = Gospel retablo = = = = =
On the left side of the altar are also two retablos . The larger altar , which is a twin of the altar opposite it , houses an image of a unidentified saint on the topmost level , presumably Michael the Archangel , and the crucified Christ ( originally Madonna and Child ) in the center , Saint Anthony of Padua on the middle @-@ left , and Saint Nicholas of Tolentino on the middle @-@ right niches . The original images on the lowest level have been replaced . The smaller retablo , also of the same style , houses the images of Saint Joseph with the child Jesus , and St Isidore the Laborer on the lower and upper level , respectively . In the sacristy is another retablo , with a crucifix in its central niche . On the doorframes of the sacristy are two bas @-@ reliefs depicting Saint Ignatius and the first Jesuits before Mary and the child Jesus and of St. Ignatius holding a book ( in stucco ) .
= = = Outbuildings = = =
= = = = Sacristy and Convent = = = =
The convent , which was built around 1854 , was used as the central residence of Jesuit missionaries in Bohol . It was built parallel to the transept and was an unusual three @-@ storey structure , with a two @-@ storey outdoor gallery ( called a volada ) and thick walls . It is the only convent in the Philippines with three storeys . An extension perpendicular to the convent was built in the middle of the 19th century . The convent was also adorned with paintings on its walls and ceilings , and with colored glass on its windows and cornices on the kitchen . The roof was replaced with galvanized iron in 1888 . The third floor of the convent is now used as an ecclesiastical museum ( known as Loboc Museum ) , containing several religious artifacts , such as a 1786 silver missal and 18th century wooden Santo Niño .
= = = = Belltower = = = =
A detached four @-@ storey bell tower was built near the riverbanks by the first Augustinian Recollect priest of Loboc . It has seven bells , with the 1863 bell being the oldest and the 1937 bell , named for Father Cayetano Bastes , being the largest . It also has a large wooden ratchet , installed in 1899 , used during Holy Week , and a clock made by the Altonaga Company , installed in 1893 .
= = = = Mortuary chapel = = = =
A hexagonal mortuary is located on the left side of the façade . It was built by Father Bon between 1867 and 1868 . Inside is a baroque retablo , similar to the altars inside the church . It is now used as an adoration chapel .
= = 2013 Bohol earthquake = =
The island of Bohol experienced a strong earthquake on October 15 , 2013 . The center of the M7.2 earthquake was near Sagbayan , Bohol . Centuries @-@ old churches in Bohol , including Loboc and several other churches designated as National Cultural Treasures , were heavily damaged . The church of Loboc suffered major damage to its structure , particularly its façade and tower , which both partially collapsed .
Loboc Church after the 2013 Bohol Earthquake
The Diocese of Tagbilaran plans to restore the church of Loboc and all other churches destroyed by the earthquake . While waiting for the complete restoration and rehabilitation of the old church , the people of Loboc inaugurated an alternate church on October 12 , 2014 .
= Robert A. Little =
Robert Alexander Little , DSO & Bar , DSC & Bar ( 19 July 1895 – 27 May 1918 ) , a World War I fighter pilot , is generally regarded as the most successful Australian flying ace , with an official tally of forty @-@ seven victories . Born in Victoria , he travelled to England in 1915 and learned to fly at his own expense before joining the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) . Posted to the Western Front in June 1916 , he flew Sopwith Pups , Triplanes and Camels with No. 8 Squadron RNAS , achieving thirty @-@ eight victories within a year and earning the Distinguished Service Order and Bar , the Distinguished Service Cross and Bar , and the French Croix de Guerre . Rested in July 1917 , he volunteered to return to the front in March 1918 and scored a further nine victories with No. 3 Squadron RNAS ( later No. 203 Squadron RAF ) before he was killed in action on the night of 27 May , aged twenty @-@ two .
= = Early life = =
Little was born on 19 July 1895 at Hawthorn , a suburb of Melbourne , to Canadian James Little , a seller of medical and surgical books , and his Victorian @-@ born wife Susan . His family heritage was Scottish , and he was educated at Camberwell Grammar School and Scotch College , Melbourne , where he was a swimming medallist . He entered his father 's business as a travelling salesman , and was living with his family at Windsor when World War I broke out in August 1914 .
= = World War I = =
Long interested in aviation , Little decided to apply for pilot training at the Australian Army 's Central Flying School in Point Cook , but with only four vacancies , he was rejected along with hundreds of others . He then decided to sail for England in July 1915 and become a qualified pilot at his own expense . Gaining his flying certificate with the Royal Aero Club at Hendon in October , he joined the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) as a probationary flight sub @-@ lieutenant on 14 January 1916 . He suffered badly from air sickness early on , most likely brought on by fumes from castor oil that was employed as an engine lubricant in the aircraft he flew in England .
Little arrived in France in June 1916 for service with No. 1 ( Naval ) Wing at Dunkirk , where he initially flew Sopwith 1 ½ Strutters in bombing raids . He married Vera Gertrude Field at the Congregational Church , Dover , on 16 September . The next month he was posted to No. 8 Squadron RNAS ( " Naval Eight " ) flying Sopwith Pups on the Western Front , under fellow Australian Stanley Goble . Little scored his first aerial victory on 23 November , destroying an enemy two @-@ seater north @-@ east of La Bassée . By the following February , he had four victories to his credit and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross ( DSC ) for " conspicuous bravery in successfully attacking and bringing down hostile machines " . In one action on 4 December , Little and Goble " fought like mad " against a large formation of German fighters , each claiming a Halberstadt ; Little did not return to base with Goble and was thought lost , but had only landed near Allied lines to clear his jammed gun before taking off again to continue the fight .
On 24 April 1917 , Little engaged a DFW C.V , forcing it to land . He then followed the German aircraft down to claim it as captured and personally take its crew prisoner at gunpoint . The Australian flipped his own plane in a ditch after touching down , however , prompting the surrendering enemy pilot to suggest : " It looks as if I have brought you down , not you me , doesn 't it ? " Naval Eight 's conversion to the Sopwith Triplane in April saw Little begin to score heavily , eventually registering twenty @-@ four victories on the type to bring his total up to twenty @-@ eight by 10 July , including twin victories in a day on four occasions . He was the squadron 's top scorer with the Triplane , mostly in one particular airframe , N5493 , that he christened " Blymp " , which also became the nickname of his baby son . The unit then began flying Sopwith Camels , in which he scored a further ten kills in July to make fourteen all @-@ up for the month . When he subsequently rotated back to England for rest , he was ranked Flight Lieutenant and credited with a total of thirty @-@ eight victories , including fifteen destroyed or captured . A bar to his DSC had been gazetted on 29 June , for " exceptional daring and skill in aerial fighting on many occasions " , and he received the French Croix de Guerre on 11 July , becoming — along with fellow Australian RNAS ace Roderic ( Stan ) Dallas — one of the first three British Empire pilots to be so decorated . In August , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order " for exceptional skill and daring " , followed by a bar to the decoration in September for " remarkable courage and boldness in attacking enemy machines " . He was mentioned in despatches on 11 December , and promoted to flight commander the following month .
Despite Little 's prowess in combat , as an aviator he was ordinary at best , enduring a number of crash @-@ landings . What gave him his edge as a fighter pilot was his keen eye , excellent marksmanship , and willingness to single @-@ handedly take on entire enemy formations and close in on his prey — down to twenty @-@ five yards on occasion — before opening fire . Fellow No. 8 Squadron member Reggie Soar recalled , " Although not a polished pilot , he was one of the most aggressive ... an outstanding shot with both revolver and rifle ... " , while ace Robert Comptson described Little as " not so much a leader as a brilliant lone hand ... Small in stature , with face set grimly , he seemed the epitome of deadliness " . His squadron nicknamed him " Rikki " , after the mongoose " Rikki @-@ Tikki @-@ Tavi " , which outstrikes cobras in the story of the same name by Rudyard Kipling . Many who knew him saw a sensitive side , however , Soar noting that in addition to his skill with guns , Little was " also a collector of wild flowers " , and his wife contending that his appearance in photographs belied his sense of humour . Squadron commander Raymond Collishaw , who would finish the war as the RNAS ' top @-@ scoring ace , summed up Little as " an outstanding character , bold , aggressive and courageous , yet he was gentle and kindly . A resolute and brave man . "
Following a period of rest in England , Little turned down a desk assignment and volunteered to return to action on the Western Front , joining Lieutenant Colonel Collishaw 's No. 3 Squadron RNAS in March 1918 . The unit evolved into No. 203 Squadron of the new Royal Air Force on 1 April , formed after the merger of the RNAS and the Royal Flying Corps . Now ranked captain , and again flying Sopwith Camels , Little gained a further nine successes , beginning with a Fokker Triplane on 1 April , and concluding with two kills in one day on 22 May , an Albatros and a DFW . During this stretch of victories , on 21 April 1918 , he was brought down unharmed by Friedrich Ehmann . On 27 May , Little received reports of German Gotha bombers in the vicinity , and took off on a moonlit evening to intercept the raiders . As he closed with one of the bombers , his plane was caught in a searchlight beam and he was struck by a bullet that passed through both his thighs . He crash @-@ landed in a field near Nœux , and bled to death before he was discovered the following morning by a passing gendarme . Little 's skull and ankle had also been fractured in the impact ; his body was identified by his friend and fellow ace , Charles Dawson Booker . Collishaw launched an investigation but it was never established whether the single bullet that hit Little had come from a gunner in the Gotha or from the ground .
= = Legacy = =
Little was buried in the village cemetery at Nœux , before his body was moved to Wavans British Cemetery in the Pas de Calais . Aged twenty @-@ two , he left a widow and a son ; in accordance with her husband 's wishes , Vera travelled back to Australia to raise the boy . Of Little 's forty @-@ seven confirmed victories , twenty were credited as destroyed , two as captured , and twenty @-@ five as " out of control " ; he was believed to be responsible for many others driven down or forced to land , which were not counted in his official total . As well as the eighth most successful Commonwealth ace of World War I , and the ranking RNAS ace , this score made him the most prolific Australian ace of all time , ahead of Stan Dallas with an official score of thirty @-@ nine , although modern research also credits Dallas with a tally numbering in the fifties .
The propeller blade from Little 's Sopwith Triplane was fitted with a clock in its hub by his fellow officers , who presented it to his widow ; she transported it back to Australia in three pieces and it later went on display at the Australian War Memorial , along with his awards and the wooden cross of his original burial place at Nœux . The Sopwith Pup he flew with No. 8 Squadron RNAS , N5182 , was rebuilt to flying standard and in October 1976 led a flypast to commemorate the squadron 's Diamond Jubilee , before going on permanent display at the Royal Air Force Museum , Hendon . One of the buildings of the Australian Defence Force Academy ( ADFA ) in Canberra , opened in 1986 , was named in Little 's honour .
= Winnebago War =
The Winnebago War was a brief conflict that took place in 1827 in the Upper Mississippi River region of the United States , primarily in what is now the state of Wisconsin . Not quite a war , the hostilities were limited to a few attacks on American civilians by a portion of the Winnebago ( or Ho @-@ Chunk ) Native American tribe . The Ho @-@ Chunks were reacting to a wave of lead miners trespassing on their lands , and to false rumors that the United States had sent two Ho @-@ Chunk prisoners to a rival tribe for execution .
Most Native Americans in the region decided against joining the uprising , and so the conflict ended after U.S. officials responded with a show of military force . Ho @-@ Chunk chiefs surrendered eight men who had participated in the violence , including Red Bird , who American officials believed to be the ringleader . Red Bird died in prison in 1828 while awaiting trial ; two other men convicted of murder were pardoned by President John Quincy Adams and released .
As a result of the war , the Ho @-@ Chunk tribe was compelled to cede the lead mining region to the United States . The Americans also increased their military presence on the frontier , building Fort Winnebago and reoccupying two other abandoned forts . The conflict convinced some officials that Americans and Indians could not live peaceably together , and that the Natives should be compelled to move westward , a policy known as Indian removal . The Winnebago War preceded the larger Black Hawk War of 1832 , which involved many of the same people and concerned similar issues .
= = Background = =
Following the War of 1812 , the United States pursued a policy of trying to prevent wars among Native Americans in the Upper Mississippi River region . This was not strictly for humanitarian reasons : intertribal warfare made it more difficult for the United States to acquire Indian land and move the tribes to the West , a policy known as Indian removal , which had become the primary goal by the late 1820s . On August 19 , 1825 , U.S. officials finalized a multi @-@ tribal treaty at Prairie du Chien , which defined the boundaries of the region 's tribes .
By that time , however , white Americans had begun to trespass on Ho @-@ Chunk ( or Winnebago ) lands in large numbers , drawn by the promise of easy lead mining along the Fever ( later Galena ) River . Native Americans had mined this region for thousands of years , and exporting lead had become an important part of the Ho @-@ Chunk economy . Ho @-@ Chunks tried to drive away the trespassers , but they often suffered abuse at the hands of aggressive miners . Some U.S. officials , concerned that Ho @-@ Chunk mining would delay what they saw as the inevitable American possession of the mining region , worked " to dissuade the Indians from their mining plans " .
= = = Methode family murder = = =
In March 1826 , a French @-@ Canadian man named Methode , his Native American wife , and their children were gathering maple syrup in present @-@ day Iowa , about twelve miles north of Prairie du Chien , when they were murdered , apparently by a Ho @-@ Chunk raiding party that had been passing through . The murderers evidently had no specific grievance with the victims , who were targets of opportunity . Two Ho @-@ Chunk suspects were arrested by Prairie du Chien militiamen and taken to Fort Crawford . After they escaped , U.S. Army Lieutenant Colonel Willoughby Morgan seized two Ho @-@ Chunk hostages and demanded that the Ho @-@ Chunk tribe turn over the murderers .
On July 4 , 1826 , the Ho @-@ Chunks delivered six men to Morgan at Fort Crawford . In accordance with Ho @-@ Chunk custom , writes historian Martin Zanger , the six men were not all involved in the murders ; they were surrendered to appease American anger and deflect punishment away from the tribe as a whole . The Americans , however , wanted to punish those personally responsible for the killings . Colonel Morgan was unable to determine who was guilty , and so he detained all six and demanded that the Ho @-@ Chunk chiefs identify the killers . Colonel Josiah Snelling , commander of the 5th Infantry Regiment , reinforced the fort amid rumors that the Ho @-@ Chunks were going to attempt to free the prisoners . Eventually , two Ho @-@ Chunks , Wau @-@ koo @-@ kau ( or Waukookah ) and Man @-@ ne @-@ tah @-@ peh @-@ keh ( or Mahnaatapakah ) , were turned over to the Americans and indicted for the murders .
= = = Evacuation and rumors = = =
The rumored Ho @-@ Chunk attack on Fort Crawford never came , and so in October 1826 , Colonel Snelling moved the garrison to Fort Snelling , where he hoped to reduce hostilities between the Dakotas ( Sioux ) and the Ojibwes ( Chippewas ) . The two Ho @-@ Chunk prisoners were also moved to Fort Snelling . In May 1827 , after Dakotas attacked an Ojibwe party near Fort Snelling , Colonel Snelling arrested four of the Dakotas and turned them over to the Ojibwes , who killed them . This angered some Dakotas , who encouraged the Ho @-@ Chunks to help them strike at the Americans , falsely telling them that the Ho @-@ Chunks prisoners had also been turned over to the Ojibwes for execution .
The false story of the execution of the Ho @-@ Chunk prisoners , along with the incessant American trespassing , convinced some Ho @-@ Chunks to take up arms against the United States . The timing seemed right , since the evacuation of Fort Crawford appeared to be a sign of American weakness . Another grievance was the news that some Ho @-@ Chunk women had been sexually assaulted by American riverboat crews along the Mississippi River , although this story , like the one about the executions , may have been a false rumor . The Ho @-@ Chunks broke off diplomatic relations with the United States by not showing up for a scheduled treaty conference , and prepared for war .
= = Hostilities = =
In late June 1827 , a Ho @-@ Chunk leader named Red Bird , along with Wekau ( or Wa @-@ ni @-@ ga , The Sun ) and Chickhonsic ( or Chic @-@ hong @-@ sic , Little Buffalo ) , went to Prairie du Chien to seek revenge for what they believed were the executions of the Ho @-@ Chunk prisoners . Unable to locate their intended victim , they instead targeted the cabin of Registre Gagnier , the son of an esteemed African @-@ American nurse and midwife named Aunt Mary Ann . Gagnier welcomed the three Ho @-@ Chunks into his home for a meal . What happened inside varies according to sources . According to one account , Red Bird shot and killed Gagnier , while Chickhonsic shot and killed Solomon Lipcap , a hired man or friend of the family . Wekau tried to shoot Gagnier 's wife , but she wrestled his gun away before escaping with her young son . Wekau had to settle for stabbing and scalping Gagnier 's infant daughter , who survived the attack . Another account says that only Red Bird committed the murders . Red Bird and his companions returned with the three scalps to their village at Prairie La Crosse , where a celebration was held .
On June 30 , 1827 , the Prairie La Crosse Ho @-@ Chunks struck again . About 150 Ho @-@ Chunks , with a few Dakota allies , attacked two American keelboats on the Mississippi , near the mouth of the Bad Axe River . Two Americans were killed and four were wounded in the skirmish ; about seven Ho @-@ Chunks died in the attack or later from their wounds . According to historian Patrick Jung , " The attack , while relatively small , was significant because it was the first act of war committed against the United States by Indians in the region since the War of 1812 . "
In their nascent war against the Americans , the Prairie La Crosse Ho @-@ Chunks sought to recruit allies among the Dakotas , Potawatomis , and other Ho @-@ Chunk bands . Most leaders of these tribes , while sympathetic to Ho @-@ Chunk grievances , urged neutrality . Some Potawatomis participated by killing some American livestock , but Potawatomi leaders Billy Caldwell , Alexander Robinson , and Shaubena rode among the Potawatomi settlements and urged people to stay out of the war ; they would do the same five years later during the Black Hawk War . Many Ho @-@ Chunks also distanced themselves from the actions of Red Bird and the Prairie La Crosse Ho @-@ Chunks . Without allies , the effort to ignite a widespread war was doomed . By mid @-@ July , writes historian Martin Zanger , " for all practical purposes the ' Red Bird Uprising ' was over " .
= = American response = =
The attacks created panic among the American population of the area . Settlers , fearing the outbreak of a wider Indian war , fled to towns such as Galena and Chicago , or sought sanctuary in the abandoned Fort Crawford .
Lewis Cass , the governor of Michigan Territory , and Thomas McKenney , the Superintendent of Indian Affairs , were hosting a treaty conference near Green Bay when they learned of the attacks . To discourage the spread of the uprising , Cass promptly invited Native Americans in the region to come to the treaty grounds to receive gifts and food ; more than 2 @,@ 000 people eventually arrived . McKenney warned the Ho @-@ Chunk chiefs in attendance that the only way to avoid an American military invasion of their homeland was to surrender those responsible for the attacks . Other American officials met with other Native leaders , including Keokuk and Wabokieshiek , and urged them to stay out of the war .
Meanwhile , American officials scrambled to mobilize troops . Cass hurried to Prairie du Chien , where he organized the local militia . Colonel Snelling arrived at Prairie du Chien on July 10 , bringing about 200 regulars from Fort Snelling to reoccupy Fort Crawford . He was joined there on July 29 by Brigadier General Henry Atkinson , who brought 500 men upriver by steamboat from Jefferson Barracks . Several days later , Henry Dodge arrived at Fort Crawford with 130 mounted militiamen , mostly miners . Governor Ninian Edwards of Illinois sent 600 mounted militiamen north to Wisconsin .
To the east , McKenney and Major William Whistler organized another force . Whistler had about 100 regulars from Fort Howard , along with 50 mostly métis militiamen from Green Bay , 60 New York Indians , and 120 Menominees . On August 29 , Atkinson 's force began moving up the Wisconsin River towards Portage , Wisconsin , where the hostile Ho @-@ Chunks had concentrated , while Whistler 's force converged on the same location from the north .
On September 1 , 1827 , McKenney and Whistler 's force arrived at the Portage . On September 3 , two Ho @-@ Chunk leaders , Waukon Decorah and Carymaunee , surrendered Red Bird and Wekau to the Americans . Carymaunee asked the Americans not to put irons on Red Bird and Wekau ; this request was granted . He then offered to give the Americans twenty horses in exchange for the prisoners , but this was declined . The Ho @-@ Chunks turned in four more men involved in the uprising in the following weeks .
= = Aftermath = =
In diplomatic talks with the Ho @-@ Chunks at the close of the war , General Atkinson promised that the U.S. government would look into their grievances in the lead mining region . Thomas McKenney requested military aid to evict American miners who were trespassing on Ho @-@ Chunk land , but after the war , settlers poured into the region in unprecedented numbers , and U.S. officials proved to be unable or unwilling to stem the tide . By January 1828 , there were as many as 10 @,@ 000 illegal settlers on Ho @-@ Chunk land , including militia general Henry Dodge , who established a mining camp after the war and boasted that the U.S. Army could not make him leave . Having no other options , on August 25 , 1828 , the Ho @-@ Chunks signed a provisional treaty with the United States , agreeing to sell the land occupied by the miners in a more formal treaty to be held later .
Eight Ho @-@ Chunks were detained by the U.S. government at Fort Crawford for trial after the war . American officials most wanted to convict Red Bird , believing that he had been the leader of the uprising . This belief , according to historian Martin Zanger , was based on an American failure to understand the decentralized nature of Ho @-@ Chunk society . " Because Red Bird was well known to the white frontiersmen , " writes Zanger , " they focused their resentment on him , mistakenly attributing to him a leadership role he did not deserve . " Red Bird was never tried ; he contracted dysentery and died in prison on February 16 , 1828 , before his trial got underway .
The trials were delayed due to the difficulties in bringing together witnesses , prosecutors , defense attorneys , and interpreters . The proceedings finally began in August 1828 , with Judge James Duane Doty presiding . Wau @-@ koo @-@ kau and Man @-@ ne @-@ tah @-@ peh @-@ keh , the two warriors imprisoned for the 1826 murders of the Methode family , were released due to a lack of witnesses , as were three Ho @-@ Chunks held for the attack on the keelboats . Only two men , Wekau and Chickhonsic , were prosecuted . According to historian Patrick Jung , it became clear during the trial that Red Bird had committed the murders at the Gagnier cabin , and that there was not enough evidence to convict Wekau and Chickhonsic . Despite this , the white and métis jury found them guilty . Judge Doty sentenced them to hang , as he was required to do by law . Their lawyer filed a motion for a new trial , arguing that the jury had ignored the evidence , and so Doty suspended the death sentences .
On November 3 , 1828 , President John Quincy Adams , having been told that the executions would likely spark another uprising , pardoned the prisoners in exchange for a land cession . In July and August 1829 , in treaties signed at Prairie du Chien , the Ho @-@ Chunks and the Three Fires Confederacy formally ceded the lead mining region to the United States for annual payments of $ 16 @,@ 000 and $ 18 @,@ 000 respectively .
Hoping to prevent further uprisings , the United States decided to strengthen its military presence in the region after the Winnebago War . Fort Crawford was reoccupied , as was Fort Dearborn in Chicago , which had been abandoned in 1823 . A new outpost , Fort Winnebago , was built in October 1828 at the portage between the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers .
The conflict also helped to promote a change in U.S. policy regarding Native Americans . Previously , many Americans had argued that Indians should be " civilized " and assimilated into white American society . But for some , the Winnebago War discredited the idea that Indians and Americans could live peaceably together . In his State of the Union Address of December 2 , 1828 , outgoing President Adams announced that the " civilization " policy had been a failure , and that Indian removal — moving the tribes to the West — was the policy of the future . That policy would be taken up by Adams 's successor , Andrew Jackson .
= The Modern Cook =
The Modern Cook was the first cookery book by the Anglo @-@ Italian cook Charles Elmé Francatelli ( 1805 – 1876 ) . It was first published in 1846 . It was popular for half a century in the Victorian era , running through 29 London editions by 1896 . It was also published in America .
The book offered elaborate dishes , described with French terminology such as bisque , entrées , entremets , vol @-@ au @-@ vent , timbale and soufflé . It included bills of fare for meals for up to 300 people , and for a series of eight- or nine @-@ course dinners served to Queen Victoria ; one exceptional royal dinner in 1841 had sixteen entrées and sixteen entremets , including truffles in Champagne .
The Modern Cook was the first to mention filling wafer cones with ice cream . The book , written for upper middle @-@ class housewives , is illustrated with 60 engravings , often showing how to present carefully @-@ decorated centrepiece dishes such as " Salmon a la Chambord " for large dinner parties .
The book influenced households in Britain and America to aspire to more complex , French @-@ style dinners in imitation of the Queen , and resulted in a change in eating habits , including the modern two @-@ course approach for both lunch and dinner .
= = Context = =
Charles Elmé Francatelli , from an Italian family , was born in London in 1805 , and learnt cookery in France . Coming to England , he worked for various aristocrats before becoming chief chef of Crockford 's club and then chief cook to Queen Victoria in 1840 . He went on to work at Crockford 's again , at the Coventry House and Reform Clubs , St James 's Hotel , and for the Prince and Princess of Wales . This made him a celebrity cook of his time .
= = Book = =
= = = Approach = = =
Apart from the preface and Francatelli 's advice on serving wine , the body of the book consists almost entirely of recipes without any kind of introduction . There is no guidance on choice of kitchenware or advice on the layout of the kitchen .
The recipes are presented entirely as instructions , generally without illustration . Quantities , where stated , are incorporated in the text ; ingredients are never listed explicitly . Quantities are sometimes named , as in the " Cream Bechamel Sauce " , which begins " Put six ounces of fresh butter into a middle @-@ sized stewpan ; add four ounces of sifted flour , some nutmeg , a few peppercorns , and a little salt ; " . In other cases only the relative proportions are indicated , as for the " Salmis of Partridges with Aspic Jelly " , where the only hint of quantity in the recipe is " must be mixed with one @-@ third of its quantity of aspic jelly " . This recipe also indicates the style of cross @-@ referencing , with the starting instruction " Prepare the salmis as directed in No. 1078 " .
The Modern Cook is the first published record in England of filling wafer cornets , which Francatelli called gauffres , with ice cream . He used them to garnish his iced puddings .
= = = Contents = = =
The following apply to the 28th edition of 1886 . The Table of Contents did not have page numbers .
= = = Illustrations = = =
The 28th edition is illustrated with 60 , mostly small , engravings . There is a full @-@ page frontispiece of the author , drawn by Auguste Hervieu and engraved by Samuel Freeman ( 1773 – 1857 ) . Freeman is known for working mainly in stipple , and the portrait here is no exception .
All the other engravings are of completed dishes , showing the serving @-@ plate with the food arranged on it and often elaborately garnished . The artists and engravers of the food illustrations are not identified .
= = = Bills of fare = = =
Francatelli provides " A Series of Bills of Fare for Every Month Throughout the Year " , including dinners variously for 6 , 8 , 10 , 12 , 14 16 , 18 , 20 , 24 , 28 and 36 persons ( though not all of these in every month ) . The bills of fare for dinners for 6 persons thus represent the simplest menus in the book . All the dinners are divided into a first and a second " Course " , but each course was divided in turn into three or four servings , in most cases with a choice of two or more dishes . Thus there might be one | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Metal Gear Solid is an action @-@ adventure stealth video game developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Japan and first published by Konami for the PlayStation in 1998 . The game was directed , produced , and co @-@ written by series creator Hideo Kojima , and serves as a sequel to the MSX2 video games Metal Gear and Metal Gear 2 : Solid Snake , which Kojima also wrote and directed .
Metal Gear Solid follows Solid Snake , a soldier who infiltrates a nuclear weapons facility to neutralize the terrorist threat from FOXHOUND , a renegade special forces unit . Snake must liberate two hostages , the head of DARPA and the president of a major arms manufacturer , confront the terrorists , and stop them from launching a nuclear strike . Cinematic cutscenes were rendered using the in @-@ game engine and graphics , and voice acting was used throughout the entire game .
Metal Gear Solid was well received , shipping more than six million copies , and scoring an average of 94 / 100 on the aggregate website Metacritic . It is regarded as one of the greatest and most important games of all time , and is often seen as the game which helped popularize the stealth genre . The commercial success of the title prompted the release of an expanded version for the PlayStation and PC , titled Metal Gear Solid : Integral ; and a remake , Metal Gear Solid : The Twin Snakes was later released for the GameCube . The game has also spawned numerous sequels , prequels and spin @-@ offs , including several games , a radio drama , comics , and novels .
= = Gameplay = =
Despite a transition to 3D , the gameplay of Metal Gear Solid remains similar to its 2D MSX2 predecessor Metal Gear 2 : Solid Snake . The player must navigate the protagonist , Solid Snake , through the game 's areas without being detected by enemies . Detection is triggered by the player moving into an enemy 's field of vision and sets off an alarm that draws armed enemies to his location . This also triggers " alert mode " and the player must then hide and remain undetected , at which point “ evasion mode ” begins and once the counter reaches zero the game returns to " infiltration mode " where enemies are not suspicious of Snake ’ s presence . The radar cannot be used in alert or evasion mode .
To remain undetected , the player can perform techniques which make use of both Solid Snake 's abilities and the environment , such as crawling under objects , using boxes as cover , ducking or hiding around walls , and making noise to distract enemies . These are carried out using the third @-@ person camera , which often changes its angle to give the player the best view of the area possible , and an on @-@ screen radar , which displays enemies and their field of vision . Snake can also make use of many items and gadgets , such as infra @-@ red goggles or a cardboard box disguise . The emphasis on stealth promotes a less violent form of gameplay , as fights against large groups of enemies will often result in serious damage for the player .
The game 's progress is punctuated by cutscenes and codec , as well as encounters with bosses . To progress , players must discover the weaknesses of each boss and defeat them . Play controls and strategies can also be accessed via the Codec radio , where advice is delivered from Snake 's support team ; for example , the support team may chastise Snake for not saving his progress often enough , or explain his combat moves in terms of which buttons to press on the gamepad . The Codec is also used to provide exposition on the game 's backstory . Completion of the title provides the player with a statistical summary of their performance , and a " code name " based upon it , typically the name of a common animal .
In a first for the Metal Gear series , a training mode , called VR Mode , is available in which players can practice hiding techniques , weapon use , and sneaking . In addition to the stealth gameplay , there are set piece sequences that entail firefights between the player and enemies from the third @-@ person and first @-@ person perspectives .
= = Characters = =
The protagonist of Metal Gear Solid is Solid Snake , a legendary infiltrator and saboteur . During the mission , Snake receives support and advice via codec radio . Colonel Roy Campbell , Solid Snake 's former commanding officer , supports Snake with advice and tactics . While he initially keeps a number of secrets from Snake , he gradually reveals them . He is joined by Naomi Hunter , who gives medical advice ; Nastasha Romanenko , who provides item and weapon tips ; Master Miller , a former drill instructor and survival coach ; and Mei Ling , who invented the soliton radar system used in the mission and is also in charge of mission data ; the player can call her to save the game .
The main antagonist of the game is Liquid Snake , leader of a now @-@ terrorist splinter cell of the organization FOXHOUND , and genetic counterpart to Solid Snake . An elite special forces unit , FOXHOUND contains experts specializing in unique tasks . Members are Revolver Ocelot , a Western @-@ style gunslinger and expert interrogator whose weapon of choice is the Colt Single Action Army ; Sniper Wolf , a preternatural sniper ; Vulcan Raven , a hulking Alaskan shaman armed with an M61 Vulcan torn from a downed F @-@ 16 ; Psycho Mantis , a psychic profiler and psychokinesis expert ; and Decoy Octopus , a master of disguise .
Other characters include Meryl Silverburgh , Colonel Campbell 's niece and a rookie soldier stationed in Shadow Moses who did not join the revolt ; Dr. Hal Emmerich , the lead developer of Metal Gear REX ; and the " Ninja " , a mysterious cybernetically enhanced agent who is neither an ally nor an enemy of Snake but does oppose FOXHOUND .
= = Plot = =
The year is 2005 , six years after the downfall of Zanzibarland . A renegade genetically @-@ enhanced special forces unit , FOXHOUND , has seized a remote island in Alaska 's Fox Archipelago codenamed " Shadow Moses " , the site of a nuclear weapons disposal facility . FOXHOUND threatens to use the nuclear @-@ capable mecha , Metal Gear REX , against the U.S. government if they do not receive the remains of Big Boss and the ransom of $ 1 billion within 24 hours . Solid Snake is forced out of retirement by Colonel Roy Campbell to infiltrate the island and neutralize the threat .
Snake enters the facility via an air vent and locates the first hostage , DARPA Chief Donald Anderson . Anderson reveals that Metal Gear REX can be deactivated with a secret detonation override code , but dies of a heart attack . Colonel Campbell 's niece Meryl Silverburgh , held hostage in an adjoining cell , helps Snake escape . Snake locates another hostage , ArmsTech president Kenneth Baker , but is confronted by FOXHOUND member Revolver Ocelot . Their gunfight is interrupted by a mysterious cyborg ninja who cuts off Ocelot 's right hand . Baker briefs Snake on the Metal Gear project and advises him to contact Meryl , whom he gave a PAL card that might prevent the launch , but he too dies of a sudden heart attack .
Over Codec , Meryl agrees to meet in the warhead disposal area on the condition that Snake contacts Metal Gear 's designer , Dr. Hal " Otacon " Emmerich . En route , Snake receives an anonymous codec call warning him of a tank ambush . Snake fends off the attack from Vulcan Raven and proceeds to the rendezvous , where he locates Otacon . The ninja reappears and Snake realizes it is his former ally Gray Fox , believed dead . Otacon agrees to aid Snake remotely using special camouflage to procure information and supplies .
Snake meets Meryl and receives the PAL card . As they head for the underground base , Meryl is possessed by psychic Psycho Mantis and pulls her gun on Snake . He disarms her and defeats Mantis , who informs Snake that he has " a large place " in her heart . After they reach the underground passageway , Sniper Wolf ambushes them , wounds Meryl , and captures Snake . Liquid confirms Snake 's suspicion that they are twin brothers . After being tortured by Ocelot , Snake is confused to discover Anderson 's body in his cell , seemingly dead for days . He escapes , makes his way up the communications tower , and fends off a helicopter attack from Liquid . As he emerges onto a snowfield , he is confronted again by Sniper Wolf . He kills her , devastating Otacon , who was infatuated with her .
Snake continues to REX 's hangar and is ambushed again by Raven . After Snake defeats him , Raven tells Snake that " Anderson " was in fact FOXHOUND disguise artist Decoy Octopus Infiltrating Metal Gear 's hangar , Snake overhears Liquid and Ocelot preparing the REX launch sequence and uses the PAL card , but this unexpectedly activates REX . Liquid reveals that he has been impersonating Snake 's advisor Master Miller and that FOXHOUND has used Snake to facilitate REX 's launch . He and Snake are the product of the Les Enfants Terribles project , a 1970s government program to clone Big Boss . He also reveals to Snake the government 's true reason for sending him : Snake is unknowingly carrying a weaponized " FoxDie " virus that causes cardiac arrest in FOXHOUND members on contact , allowing the government to retrieve REX undamaged .
As Liquid , in REX , battles Snake , Gray Fox appears , destroys REX 's radome , and is killed . Snake destroys REX and defeats Liquid , then escapes with Meryl or Otacon via an underground tunnel , pursued by Liquid in a Jeep . After their vehicles crash , Liquid pulls a gun on Snake but dies from FoxDie . Colonel Campbell , briefly ousted from command , calls off a nuclear strike to destroy evidence of the operation , and has Snake registered as killed in action to stop the US government searching for him . Naomi Hunter , who injected Snake with the FoxDie virus , tells him that he has an indeterminate amount of time before it kills him . Ocelot calls the U.S. President ; he was a double agent whose mission was to steal Baker 's disk of Metal Gear specifications .
= = Development = =
Kojima initially planned the third Metal Gear game in 1994 , originally titled Metal Gear 3 , and to release it for the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer in 1994 . Conceptual artwork , by illustrator Yoji Shinkawa , of the characters Solid Snake , Meryl Silverburgh , who was also a character in the adventure game Policenauts , and the FOXHOUND team , were included in the Policenauts : Pilot Disk preceding the release of the full version of the 3DO game in 1995 . However , due to the discontinuation of the 3DO from the market , development of the game shifted to the PlayStation shortly after Policenauts was released .
Kojima retitled the game Metal Gear Solid , choosing this over the working title Metal Gear 3 . This was due to the fact that he believed that the first two MSX2 games were not well known at the time due to their lack of worldwide releases . He used the word ' Solid ' which was chosen due to the game being the third installment in the series , and because it uses 3D computer graphics , as well as being in reference to Solid Snake , the game 's protagonist . Sequels to this game also use the Metal Gear Solid title , and generally follow a numeral progression .
The development for Metal Gear Solid began in mid @-@ 1995 with the intention of creating the " best PlayStation game ever " . Developers aimed for accuracy and realism while making the game enjoyable and tense . In the early stages of development , the Huntington Beach SWAT team educated the creators with a demonstration of vehicles , weapons and explosives . Weapons expert Motosada Mori was also tapped as technical adviser in the research , which included visits to Fort Irwin and firing sessions at Stembridge Gun Rentals . Kojima stated that " if the player isn 't tricked into believing that the world is real , then there 's no point in making the game " . To fulfill this , adjustments were made to every detail , such as individually designed desks .
Hideo Kojima created the characters of Metal Gear Solid . Modifications and mechanics were made by conceptual artist Yoji Shinkawa . According to Shinkawa , Solid Snake 's physique in this particular installment was based on Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme , while his facial appearance was based on Christopher Walken . The characters were completed by polygonal artists using brush drawings and clay models by Shinkawa . Kojima wanted greater interaction with objects and the environment , such as allowing the player to hide bodies in a storage compartment . Additionally , he wanted " a full orchestra right next to the player " ; a system which made modifications such as tempo and texture to the currently playing track , instead of switching to another pre @-@ recorded track . Although these features could not be achieved , they were implemented in Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty .
Metal Gear Solid was shown to the public at E3 1997 as a short video . It was later playable for the first time at the Tokyo Game Show in 1998 and officially released the same year in Japan with an extensive promotional campaign . Television and magazine advertisements , in @-@ store samples , and demo give @-@ aways contributed to a total of $ 8 million in promotional costs . An estimated 12 million demos for the game were distributed during 1998 .
= = = Music = = =
The musical score of Metal Gear Solid was composed by Konami 's in @-@ house musicians , including Kazuki Muraoka , Hiroyuki Togo , Takanari Ishiyama , Lee Jeon Myung , and Maki Kirioka . Composer and lyricist Rika Muranaka provided a song called " The Best is Yet To Come " for the game 's ending credits sequence . The song is performed in Irish by Aoife Ní Fhearraigh . The main theme was composed by Tappi Iwase from the Konami Kukeiha Club .
Music played in @-@ game has a synthetic feel with increased pace and introduction of strings during tense moments , with a looping style endemic to video games . Overtly cinematic music , with stronger orchestral and choral elements , appears in cutscenes . The soundtrack was released on September 23 , 1998 , under the King Records label .
= = Releases = =
= = = Original version = = =
The English version of Metal Gear Solid , translated by Jeremy Blaustein , who localized the Sega CD version of Snatcher , contains minor refinements made during localization , such as a choice of three difficulty settings when starting a new game ( with a fourth unlockable setting available if a completed file is present ) , an alternate tuxedo outfit for Snake ( which the character wears on every third successive playthrough on the same save file ) , and a " demo theater " where the player views every cutscene and radio conversations relevant to the main story . Changes to the English script include the addition of Western sources and authors to Mei @-@ Ling 's motivational quotes ( originally the character only cited Chinese proverbs ) and the games detected by Psycho Mantis when he reads the player 's memory card ( due to certain titles such as Policenauts and the Tokimeki Memorial series not being released for the foreign market ) . Versions of the game dubbed in Spanish , German , French and Italian were released throughout Europe in addition to the English @-@ dubbed version released in America . A premium package was released in Japan and Asia containing the game , a T @-@ shirt , dog tags , a music CD featuring the soundtracks of the MSX2 games , and a booklet with information about the game 's production and plot . A European version of the package was also produced , featuring different content from the Japanese version .
The Japanese PlayStation version of Metal Gear Solid , as well as Integral , had been reissued twice : once under The Best range and second time as a PS one Books title . Likewise , the American and European versions of Metal Gear Solid were reissued under the " Greatest Hits " and " Platinum " ranges respectively . The game is included in the Japanese Metal Gear Solid : 20th Anniversary Collection set and in the American Essential Collection set . The original Metal Gear Solid was released on the PlayStation Store for download on the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable in 2008 in Japan and in 2009 in North America and Europe .
= = = Integral = = =
Released on June 25 , 1999 for the PlayStation in Japan , Metal Gear Solid : Integral ( メタルギアソリッド インテグラル , Metaru Gia Soriddo : Integuraru ) is an expanded edition that features the additional content from the American and European versions of the original game . Integral replaces the Japanese voices from the original version with the English dub , while offering a choice between Japanese and English subtitles ( item descriptions , mission logs and other text are still in Japanese ) . Further additional content to the main game include an alternate " sneaking suit " outfit for Meryl ( which she wears after the player unlocks the tuxedo for Snake ) , a " Very Easy " difficulty setting where the player starts the mission armed with a suppressor @-@ equipped MP5 sub @-@ machine gun with infinite ammo ( which substitutes the FAMAS rifle in the player 's inventory ) , an eight Codec frequency featuring written staff commentary ( in Japanese only ) on every area and boss encounter , hidden music tracks , an alternate game mode where the player controls Snake from a first @-@ person perspective , an option for alternate patrol routes for enemies , and a downloadable PocketStation minigame . The Torture Event was also made easier on higher difficulty levels , reducing the number of rounds to three per session in all settings .
In addition to the main game , Integral includes a third disc of additional content called the " VR Disc . " The VR Disc features 300 VR training missions testing the player 's sneaking and fighting skills , as well as less conventional tests , such as murder mysteries , battling giant genome soldiers , and three missions where the player controls the Cyborg Ninja . Other content include preview trailers and a " photoshoot " mode where the player takes pictures of Mei Ling and Naomi . Completing all 300 missions will unlock a concept artwork of the Metal Gear RAY mech that would later appear in Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty . Famitsu magazine rated Metal Gear Solid : Integral a 34 out of 40 .
The third disc from Integral was released as a stand @-@ alone game in North America under the title of Metal Gear Solid : VR Missions on September 23 , 1999 . While the content of VR Missions are virtually identical to the VR Disc , the unlocking requirements for the Ninja missions and the photoshoot mode were changed accordingly so that they no longer required save data from the main story mission .
The VR Disc was also released in the PAL region as an expansion pack titled Metal Gear Solid : Special Missions on October 29 , 1999 . Unlike the Japanese and American versions , Special Missions requires a PAL copy of the original Metal Gear Solid in order to be played . This change was done since the original Metal Gear Solid was released in multiple languages in Europe and Special Missions determines the language it uses based on which version of the original game the player owns . When the Special Missions disc is loaded into the PlayStation console , the game will ask the player to switch the disc with the first disc from Metal Gear Solid in order to load voice and language data before asking the player to switch back to the Special Missions disc . This requirement renders Special Missions incompatible with PlayStation 2 consoles made prior to the SCPH @-@ 70000 model .
= = = PC version = = =
The PC version of Metal Gear Solid was released in North America , Europe and Asia in late 2000 . This version was published by Microsoft Game Studios and developed by Digital Dialect . It supports the use of a keyboard or a USB game controller with at least six buttons ( with the manual recommending the Sidewinder Game Pad Pro ) . The PC version is simply labelled Metal Gear Solid on the packaging , but the actual game uses the Metal Gear Solid : Integral logo , although it has some differences as well from the PlayStation version of Integral and lacks some of its content . The biggest change was reducing the number of discs from three to two , which was done by giving each disc two separate executable files , one for the main game ( mgsi.exe ) and the other for the VR training portion ( mgsvr.exe ) , thus eliminating the need for a stand @-@ alone third disc .
One notable omission was the removal of the cutscene prior to the Psycho Mantis battle in which he reads the player 's memory card and activates the vibration function of the player 's controller if a DualShock is being used , as this scene involved the use of PlayStation @-@ specific peripherals . The method for defeating Mantis was also changed from using the second controller to simply using the keyboard ( regardless of whether the player was using a game controller or not up to that point ) . Other omissions include the removal of the eighth Codec frequency ( 140 @.@ 07 ) , which featured written commentaries by the developers , Meryl 's alternate sneaking suit outfit , and the mission logs when loading a save file . However , the PC version adds the option to toggle moving and shooting in first @-@ person view mode at any time regardless of difficulty setting , and players can now save their progress at any point without contacting Mei @-@ Ling through the use of quick saves . On the VR training portion , all 300 missions , as well as the photoshoot mode , are available from the start , although the three unlockable preview trailers from the PlayStation version have been removed .
Scoring 83 in Metacritic 's aggregate , the game was criticized for " graphic glitches " , the aged nature of the port , and being essentially identical to the PlayStation version .
= = = The Twin Snakes = = =
A remake of Metal Gear Solid , titled Metal Gear Solid : The Twin Snakes , was developed by Silicon Knights under the supervision of Hideo Kojima and released for the GameCube in North America , Japan , and Europe in March 2004 . While Twin Snakes was largely developed at Silicon Knights , its cutscenes were developed in @-@ house at Konami and directed by Japanese film director Ryuhei Kitamura , reflecting his dynamic signature style , utilizing bullet time photography and choreographed gunplay extensively . While the storyline and settings of the game were unchanged ( although a select few lines of dialog were re @-@ written more closely resembling the original Japanese version ) , a variety of gameplay features from Sons of Liberty were added such as the first person aiming and hanging from bars on walls . Another change in the English voice acting was the reduction of Mei Ling 's , Naomi 's and Nastasha 's accents , as well as the recasting of Gray Fox from Greg Eagles , who still reprise the role of the DARPA chief , to Rob Paulsen . The graphics were also updated to match those of Metal Gear Solid 2 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Metal Gear Solid was a commercial success , shipping over six million copies worldwide . It became one of the most rented games and topped sales charts in the United Kingdom .
The game was critically acclaimed , gaining a 93 @.@ 24 % and 94 / 100 aggregate at ratings websites GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively . The review in PlayStation Magazine declared it " the best game ever made . Unputdownable and unforgettable . " The review by IGN opined Metal Gear Solid came " closer to perfection than any other game in PlayStation 's action genre " and called it " beautiful , engrossing , and innovative ... in every conceivable category . " NGamer compared it to " playing a big budget action blockbuster , only better . " GamePro called it " this season 's top offering [ game ] and one game no self @-@ respecting gamer should be without , " but criticized the frame rate that " occasionally stalls the eye @-@ catching graphics " . GameSpot was critical of how easy it is for the player to avoid being seen , as well as the game 's short length , calling it " more of a work of art than ... an actual game . " Metal Gear Solid received an Excellence Award for Interactive Art at the 1998 Japan Media Arts Festival .
= = = Retrospective = = =
Metal Gear Solid is often recognized as one of the key titles involved in popularizing the stealth game genre . The idea of the player being unarmed and having to avoid being seen by enemies rather than fight them has been used in many games since . It is also sometimes acclaimed as being a film as much as a game due to the lengthy cut scenes and complicated storyline . GameTrailers claimed that Metal Gear Solid " invented the stealth game " and IGN called it " the founder of the stealth genre " . Entertainment Weekly said it " broke new ground with ... movie @-@ style production ... and stealth @-@ driven gameplay . " The game is often considered one of the best games for the PlayStation , and was featured in best video games lists by Computer and Video Games in 2000 , by Electronic Gaming Monthly and Game Informer in 2001 , by Retro Gamer in 2004 , by GameFAQs and GamePro in 2005 , and by Famitsu , and by Entertainment Weekly and GameTrailers in 2006 .
In 2002 , IGN ranked it as the best PlayStation game ever , stating that just the demo for the game had " more gameplay [ in it ] than in most finished titles . " IGN also gave it the " Best Ending " and " Best Villain " awards . In 2005 , in placing it 19th on their list of " Top 100 Games " , they said that it was " a game that truly felt like a movie . " Guinness World Records awarded Metal Gear Solid with a record for the " Most Innovative Use of a Video Game Controller " for the boss fight with Psycho Mantis in the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition 2008 edition . In 2010 , PC Magazine ranked it as seventh in the list of most influential video games of all time , citing its influence on " such stealthy titles as Assassin 's Creed and Splinter Cell . " In 2012 , Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time and G4tv ranked it as the 45th top video game of all time . According to 1UP.com , Metal Gear Solid 's cinematic style continues to influence modern action games such as Call of Duty . Metal Gear Solid , along with its sequel , Metal Gear Solid 2 , was featured in the Smithsonian American Art Museum 's exhibition The Art of Video Games in 2012 . In September 2015 , Metal Gear Solid was voted the best original PlayStation game of all time by users .
= = Related media = =
A Japanese radio drama version of Metal Gear Solid , directed by Shuyo Murata and written by Motosada Mori , was produced shortly after the release of the original PlayStation game . 12 episodes were aired , from 1998 to 1999 on Konami 's CLUB db program . The series was later released on CD as a two volume set . Set after the events of the PlayStation game , Snake , Meryl , Campbell and Mei Ling ( all portrayed by their original Japanese voice actors ) pursue missions in hostile third world nations as FOXHOUND . The new characters introduced include Sgt. Allen Iishiba ( voiced by Toshio Furukawa ) , a Delta Force operative who assists Snake and Meryl , Col. Mark Cortez ( v.b. Osamu Saka ) , an old friend of Campbell who commands the fictional Esteria Army Special Forces , and Capt. Sergei Ivanovich ( v.b. Kazuhiro Nakata ) , a former war buddy of Revolver Ocelot from his SVR days .
In September 2004 , IDW Publications began publishing a series of Metal Gear Solid comics , written by Kris Oprisko and illustrated by Ashley Wood . As of 2006 , 12 issues have been published , fully covering the Metal Gear Solid storyline . The comic was adapted into a PlayStation Portable game titled Metal Gear Solid : Digital Graphic Novel ( Metal Gear Solid : Bande Dessinée in Japan ) . It features visual enhancements and two interactive modes designed to give further insight into the publication . Upon viewing the pages , the player can open a " scanning " interface to search for characters and items in a three dimensional view . Discoveries are added to a database which can be traded with other players via Wi @-@ Fi . The " mission mode " allows the player to add collected information into a library . This information must be properly connected to complete a mission . Metal Gear Solid : Digital Graphic Novel was released in North America on June 13 , 2006 , Japan on September 21 and the PAL region on September 22 . In 2006 , the game received IGN 's award for Best Use of Sound on the PSP . A DVD @-@ Video version is included with its sequel ( Metal Gear Solid 2 : Bande Dessinée ) , which was released in Japan on June 12 , 2008 . The DVD version features full voice acting .
A novelization based on the original Metal Gear Solid was written by Raymond Benson and published by Del Rey . The American paperback edition was published on May 27 , 2008 , and the British Edition on June 5 , 2008 .
= = = Film adaptation = = =
Director Hideo Kojima confirmed in 2006 that a film adaptation of Metal Gear Solid was in development . He also hinted that the movie may be set in Alaska , the original setting for the game . Despite pitching his ideas regarding the movie , the voice of Solid Snake , David Hayter , will not be writing the final script , appearing in the movie or directing the film . However , a petition has been started by fans to get Hayter involved in writing the script . The movie 's producers hoped to invite Kurt Wimmer to write the movie , but the final decision has not yet been announced , but producer Michael DeLuca dismissed the claim . According to an interview in Nuts magazine actor Christian Bale is interested in playing Solid Snake in the film . In late August 2012 , Konami issued a press release stating that a live @-@ action film was in pre @-@ production . The film is being produced by Avi Arad and Ari Arad , with their production company Arad Productions as well as Columbia Pictures . Distribution and production will be handled by Sony Pictures Entertainment .
= Delaware Route 26 =
Delaware Route 26 ( DE 26 ) is a state highway in Sussex County , Delaware . The route 's western terminus is at an intersection with Maryland Route 353 ( MD 353 ) and DE / MD 54 at the Maryland border south of Gumboro and its eastern terminus is at a dead end on the Atlantic Ocean in Bethany Beach , even though signage ends at the DE 1 intersection . The route passes through rural areas of southeastern Sussex County along with the communities of Dagsboro , Millville , Ocean View and Bethany Beach . DE 26 intersects DE 30 and DE 54 in the Gumboro area , U.S. Route 113 ( US 113 ) and DE 20 in Dagsboro , and DE 17 west of Millville . The road was built as a state highway in various stages during the 1920s and 1930s . By 1936 , DE 26 was assigned onto its current alignment .
= = Route description = =
DE 26 begins at the Maryland border at an intersection where DE / MD 54 runs west along the state line and MD 353 continues south into Maryland . From the state line , DE 26 heads northeast on two @-@ lane undivided Millsboro Highway concurrent with DE 54 . The two routes pass through agricultural areas with some woods and homes , intersecting DE 30 . At this point , DE 30 turns northeast to form a concurrency with DE 26 / DE 54 . The road curves north and heads into the residential community of Gumboro , where DE 54 turns to the east . DE 26 / DE 30 leaves Gumboro and continues back into areas of farms and forests with occasional residences .
In Shaft Ox Corner , DE 26 splits from DE 30 by turning east onto Nine Foot Road . The route continues east through rural land to an intersection with US 113 . Past this intersection , the road becomes Clayton Street and enters Dagsboro , passing homes and businesses and crossing Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary railroad line . In the center of Dagsboro , DE 26 comes to an intersection with DE 20 , at which point it turns south to form a concurrency with DE 20 on Main Street . The two routes curve east and leave town on Vines Creek Road .
Upon leaving Dagsboro , the road passes to the south of Prince George 's Chapel and DE 20 splits from DE 26 by heading southeast on Armory Road . DE 26 continues east on Vines Creek Road , passing through a mix of farmland and woodland with some residential and commercial development . The route turns southeast and comes to the community of Clarksville , where it turns east onto Atlantic Avenue . Farther along , the road comes to an intersection with the northern terminus of DE 17 . After the DE 17 junction , DE 26 continues into Millville and runs through residential and commercial areas . The road continues east through Ocean View before it crosses the Assawoman Canal into Bethany Beach and becomes Garfield Parkway . The road gains a center left @-@ turn lane and intersects DE 54 Alt. before coming to a junction with DE 1 , at which point DE 26 signage ends . DE 26 officially continues east on four @-@ lane divided Garfield Parkway through the commercial center of Bethany Beach , ending at a dead end at the Atlantic Ocean .
DE 26 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 16 @,@ 225 vehicles at Central Avenue intersection in Ocean View to a low of 3 @,@ 837 vehicles at the west end of the DE 20 concurrency in Dagsboro . None of DE 26 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 26 existed as an unimproved county road . The route was upgraded to a state highway between present @-@ day US 113 and Dagsboro and from Millville to just west of the Assawoman Canal by 1924 . A year later , the road was completed as a state highway between Gumboro and Mission and between Dagsboro and Vines Creek , with the route between the Maryland border and Gumboro and the incomplete sections between Dagsboro and Bethany Beach proposed as a state highway . The proposed segments were completed by 1931 . In 1932 , the state highway between Shaft Ox Corner and Dagsboro was completed . DE 26 was assigned to its current alignment between the Maryland border south of Gumboro and Bethany Beach , where it intersected the southern terminus of DE 14 ( now part of DE 1 ) , by 1936 . In 2014 , work began to widen DE 26 between Clarksville and the Assawoman Canal from a two @-@ lane road to a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane and bike lanes in order to reduce traffic congestion . The widening project , which is to cost $ 57 million , is expected to be finished in 2017 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
= The Stripped Mixes =
The Stripped Mixes ( released on CD for a limited time as The Motown 50 Mixes ) , is a collection of American recording artist and former Jackson 5 member Michael Jackson 's classic songs . The songs featured on the album are mainly from Jackson 's career as a member of the Jackson 5 from the 1960s to the 1980s ; songs credited to Jackson as a solo artist are from his albums during his Motown @-@ era . Other songs included on the album are " stripped " mixes of Jackson material , meaning the songs are of a quieter tone and most of the drums have been removed .
Following a surge in Jackson 's popularity after his death in June 2009 , it was confirmed on July 7 , that The Stripped Mixes would be released . The album was made available as a digital download on July 7 , 2009 , and as a CD on July 28 . A remixed song , entitled " I 'll Be There ( Minus Mix ) " , was released on iTunes to promote the album on June 9 , 2009 , prior to Jackson 's death . The Stripped Mixes was the second Jackson compilation album to be posthumously released , the first being The Collection ; which was released over two weeks prior . The Stripped Mixes received mixed reviews from music critics . The album was a moderate commercial success worldwide and had a better chart performance internationally than in the United States .
= = Concept = =
Due to the high popularity of a State Farm Insurance commercial featuring an acoustic version of the hit " I 'll Be There " , Motown released " I 'll Be There ( Minus Mix ) " via iTunes on June 9 , 2009 , as a prelude to The Stripped Mixes . " I 'll Be There ( Minus Mix ) " did not chart on any music charts . Shortly after Jackson 's death in June 2009 , his music experienced a surge in popularity , leading to re @-@ issues of his music . Less than an hour after the memorial service for Jackson at the Staples Center on July 7 , 2009 , Universal Music Group announced The Stripped Mixes , a collection of Jackson 's classic songs , would be released . The album features " stripped " mixes of Jackson 's classic Motown @-@ era songs as well as songs recorded while he was a member of The Jackson 5 from the 1960s to the 1980s . The songs that are " stripped " on the album have backing instruments and some studio engineering removed to make the songs have a more acoustic sound . The Stripped Mixes was made available as a digital download on July 7 , and as a compact disc on July 28 , 2009 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The Stripped Mixes charted at a peak position of # 95 on the Billboard 200 in its debut week with sales of less than five thousand units . It charted at # 43 on the R & B Albums Chart in 2009 , and moved up to # 21 in 2010 . Internationally , The Stripped Mixes was more successful commercially . The album charted within the top fifty in Belgium Flanders and Belgium Wallonia , peaking at # 43 and # 47 for five and seven weeks , respectively . The Stripped Mixes also charted at # 75 in Mexico for one week before dropping out of the top 100 .
= = = Critical analysis = = =
The Stripped Mixes received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . Writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave The Stripped Mixes two out of five stars , stating that he felt that " the logic of what is left behind doesn 't quite make sense " , pointing out that " I Want You Back " and " ABC " have no drums and " feel a little tipsy and top @-@ heavy " ; " Ben " and " With a Child 's Heart " have echoes of strings in the background , making it hard to identify the songs as being " stripped " . He added that since the genius lies in the arrangements , " having so much of the arrangement absent " means that the music " just sounds awkward and incomplete , as if it was waiting for the final round of mixing and overdubs . " Erlewine 's overall opinion on the album was " if the purpose of this disc is to draw attention to Michael 's vocals , The Stripped Mixes does its job , but just because his voice is pushed front and center does not mean that this is the best place to appreciate his genius . "
A writer for PR Newswire praised the album , describing it as " showcasing " Jackson 's vocal talent and viewed The Stripped Mixes as shining a " bright , fresh light " on Jackson 's early career as both a solo artist and with his brothers in The Jackson 5 . Natalie Salvo of TheDwarf.com.au commented that the mix of " Ain 't No Sunshine " made the album " personally " worth buying . She added that " the music does what it 's supposed to do " , which was " evoking the right mood but not being overly showy . " Despite the praise , she did state that the album could be clinically looked at as an " element of bad taste " from a " greedy record company " and noted that it was " difficult " to " stop yourself being overcome with cynicism towards this album " . Jeff Dorgay of Tone Publications described all of the album 's tracks as being " quite strong " and added that " regardless of your interest in Michael Jackson " the The Stripped Mixes is a disc " you should have in your collection " because it offers a " rare look " at " classic " material by Jackson when he was just beginning his career .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
= Sir William Gordon @-@ Cumming , 4th Baronet =
Sir William Alexander Gordon Gordon @-@ Cumming , 4th Baronet ( 20 July 1848 – 20 May 1930 ) was a Scottish landowner , soldier , adventurer and socialite . A notorious womaniser , he is best known for being the central figure in the royal baccarat scandal of 1891 . After inheriting a baronetcy he joined the Army and saw service in South Africa , Egypt and the Sudan ; he served with distinction and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel . Something of an adventurer , he also spent time hunting in the US and India .
A friend of Edward , Prince of Wales for over 20 years , in 1891 he attended a house party at Tranby Croft , Yorkshire , where he took part in a game of baccarat at the behest of the prince . During the course of two nights ' play he was accused of cheating , which he denied vehemently . After news of the affair leaked out , he sued five members of the host family for slander , with the Prince of Wales called as a witness during the ensuing trial . The case was a public spectacle , widely reported in the UK and abroad . Knowledgeable commentators of the day , and subsequently , sided with Gordon @-@ Cumming , but the judgement went against him and he was ostracized from polite society .
A handsome , arrogant man , Gordon @-@ Cumming was a womanizer , particularly with married women . After the court case he married an American heiress ; the couple had five children , but it was an unhappy relationship . He was the grandfather of the writers Katie Fforde and Jane Gordon @-@ Cumming .
= = Early life = =
William Gordon Gordon @-@ Cumming was born on 20 July 1848 at Sanquhar House , near Forres , Morayshire . His parents were Alexander Penrose Gordon @-@ Cumming and his wife Anne Pitcairn née Campbell ( died 1888 ) . The big @-@ game hunter Roualeyn George Gordon @-@ Cumming was his uncle ; and the travel writer Constance Gordon @-@ Cumming was his aunt . He was educated at Eton and Wellington colleges .
At the age of eighteen he inherited the baronetcy and became chief of the Clan Cumming ; his line had been traced from the fourth century , through Charlemagne . His inheritance included three Morayshire estates : Altyre near Forres , Gordonstoun near Elgin and Dallas . Though the estates totalled 38 @,@ 500 acres ( 156 km2 ) , they yielded poor revenues ; the annual income from the estates in around 1890 has been described as either £ 60 @,@ 000 or £ 80 @,@ 000 .
= = Professional career = =
Although Gordon @-@ Cumming suffered from asthma and was blind in one eye , he purchased an ensign 's commission in the Scots Fusilier Guards ( later the Scots Guards ) in 1868 ( dated from 25 December 1867 ) . He was promoted to regimental lieutenant and to the rank of captain in the army by purchase on 17 May 1871 , the last year commissions were allowed to be purchased . He volunteered for service in South Africa in the Anglo @-@ Zulu War , where he served gallantly , and was the first man to enter Cetshwayo 's kraal after the Battle of Ulundi ( 1879 ) . That year he conveyed the condolences of the army to the Empress Eugénie on the death of her son , Napoléon , Prince Imperial .
Gordon @-@ Cumming was promoted to the regimental rank of captain and the army rank of lieutenant @-@ colonel on 28 July 1880 . He went on to serve in Egypt , in the Anglo @-@ Egyptian War ( 1882 ) and in the Sudan in the Mahdist War ( 1884 – 85 ) , the last of which was with the Guards Camel Regiment in the Desert Column . He was promoted to regimental major on 23 May 1888 .
He also found time for independent adventure , hunting in the Rocky Mountains in the U.S. and in India , where he would stalk tigers on foot ; in 1871 he published an account of his travels in India , Wild Men & Wild Beasts . Scenes in camp and jungle .
= = Royal baccarat scandal = =
In September 1890 Gordon @-@ Cumming was invited , along with Edward , Prince of Wales , to a house party at Tranby Croft in Yorkshire . There he was accused of cheating at baccarat by placing additional counters onto his stake after the hand had finished , but before the stake had been paid — a method of cheating known in casinos as la poussette . Gordon @-@ Cumming insisted they had been mistaken , and explained that he played the coup de trois system of betting , in which if he won a hand with a £ 5 stake , he would add his winnings to the stake , together with another £ 5 , as the stake for the next hand .
In order to avoid a scandal involving the prince , he gave way to pressure from the attendant royal courtiers to sign a statement undertaking never to play cards again in return for a pledge that no @-@ one present would speak of the incident again .
" In consideration of the promise made by the gentlemen whose names are subscribed to preserve my silence with reference to an accusation which has been made in regard to my conduct at baccarat on the nights of Monday and Tuesday the 8th and 9th at Tranby Croft , I will on my part solemnly undertake never to play cards again as long as I live . "
Despite the pledge of silence , rumours of the incident began to circulate and were brought to Gordon @-@ Cumming 's attention . In an attempt to scotch the rumours , he demanded a retraction from five of the house party ; when that was not forthcoming , with no withdrawal forthcoming , on 6 February 1891 , Gordon @-@ Cumming issued writs for slander against the five , claiming £ 5 @,@ 000 against each of them .
The trial opened on 1 June 1891 and entry to the court was by ticket only . The Prince of Wales was present , and sat on a red leather chair on a raised platform between the judge and the witness box ; his appearance was the first time since 1411 that an heir to the throne had appeared involuntarily in court .
The trial closed the following week , after the judge 's summing up " had been unacceptably biased " , according to Tomes . The jury deliberated for only 13 minutes before finding in favour of the defendants ; their decision was greeted by prolonged hissing from some members of the galleries . The day after judgement was passed , the leader in The Times stated that " He is ... condemned by the verdict of the jury to social extinction . His brilliant record is wiped out and he must , so to speak , begin life again . Such is the inexorable social rule ... He has committed a mortal offence . Society can know him no more . "
Gordon @-@ Cumming 's senior counsel , the Solicitor General Sir Edward Clarke , remained convinced in his client and , in his 1918 memoirs , wrote that " I believe the verdict was wrong , and that Sir William Gordon @-@ Cumming was innocent " .
= = Aftermath = =
As a result of the scandal , Gordon @-@ Cumming was dismissed from the army the day after the trial , and he resigned his membership of his four London clubs , the Carlton , Guards ' , Marlborough and Turf .
The same day he married his American fiancée , the heiress Florence Garner , who had stood by him throughout the trial despite Gordon @-@ Cumming twice offering to break off their engagement because of the scandal . The service took place at the Holy Trinity church in Chelsea with only a small congregation . When the couple returned to Scotland a few days later the locals from near his estate had decorated the station and pulled the carriage through the streets by hand . According to the former Lord Chancellor , Michael Havers , the lawyer Edward Grayson and the historian Peter Shankland , " That the prince and society considered him a social outcast mattered not at all to his people " . The prince was determined Gordon @-@ Cumming should remain ostracised and he " declined to meet anyone who henceforth acknowledged the Scottish baronet " .
= = Later life = =
Gordon @-@ Cumming remained outside high society for the remainder of his life . He later told his daughter that " among a host of acquaintances I thought I had perhaps twenty friends . Not one of them ever spoke to me again " . Others of his friends only relented after the death of the prince , who was by that stage King Edward VII .
Gordon @-@ Cumming and his wife had three sons and two daughters between 1892 and 1904 . In 1905 Florence 's fortune slumped and the couple were compelled to let or close up the houses on the Scottish estates and to move to Bridge House , Dawlish , Devon with a reduced household . Gordon @-@ Cumming managed to disguise his contempt for the middle class society to which he was now limited so that he could continue to indulge himself in golf , croquet , billiards , cricket , bridge and collecting post marks . He also enjoyed his own company , and that of his dogs and pet monkey . He hated Dawlish and considered his wife a " fat little frump " , unapologetically engaging in chronic infidelity . Florence lost no opportunity to remind him who funded their life but eventually herself resorted to alcohol abuse ; the couple had effectively separated before she died in 1922 .
In 1916 Gordon @-@ Cumming ensured that the Labour Party politician Ramsay MacDonald had his membership rescinded from the Moray Golf Club because of the latter 's opposition to the First World War .
Gordon @-@ Cumming died on 20 May 1930 at his Altyre home at the age of 81 . He was succeeded in his title by his eldest son , Major Alexander Penrose Gordon @-@ Cumming , MC .
= = Private life = =
Gordon @-@ Cumming 's biographer , Jason Tomes , thought that his subject possessed " audacity and wit [ and ] gloried in the sobriquet of the most arrogant man in London " , while Sporting Life described him as " possibly the most handsome man in London , and certainly the rudest " . Gordon @-@ Cumming also owned a house in Belgravia , London ; he was a friend of the Prince of Wales , and would lend the premises to the prince for assignations with the royal mistresses .
Gordon @-@ Cumming was a womaniser , and stated that his aim was to " perforate " members of " the sex " . His preference was for uncomplicated relationships with married women , and he admitted that " all the married women try me " ; his liaisons included Lillie Langtry , Sarah Bernhardt and Lady Randolph Churchill . In 1890 , three days before the events at Tranby Croft , the Prince of Wales returned early from travelling in Europe ; he visited Harriet Street where he found his mistress , Daisy , Lady Brooke " in Gordon @-@ Cumming 's arms " , which soured the relationship between the two men .
After Gordon @-@ Cumming 's death in 1930 , his house at Gordonstoun was obtained by Kurt Hahn , who turned it into the eponymous school . It has been attended by Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , and his three sons , Charles , Andrew and Edward .
Two of Gordon @-@ Cumming 's granddaughters , Katie Fforde and Jane Gordon @-@ Cumming , became writers .
= Lycoperdon echinatum =
Lycoperdon echinatum , commonly known as the spiny puffball or the spring puffball , is a type of puffball mushroom in the genus Lycoperdon . The saprobic species has been found in Africa , Europe , Central America , and North America , where it grows on soil in deciduous woods , glades , and pastures . It has been proposed that North American specimens be considered a separate species , Lycoperdon americanum , but this suggestion has not been followed by most authors . Molecular analysis indicates that L. echinatum is closely related to the puffball genus Handkea .
The fruit bodies of L. echinatum are 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide by 2 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) tall , supported by a small base , and densely covered with spines that are up to 0 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) long . The spines can fall off in maturity , leaving a net @-@ like pattern of scars on the underlying surface . Initially white in color , the puffballs turn a dark brown as they mature , at the same time changing from nearly round to somewhat flattened . Young specimens of L. echinatum resemble another edible spiny puffball , Lycoperdon pulcherrimum , but the latter species does not turn brown as it ages . The fruit bodies are edible when young , when the interior is white and firm and before it has turned into a powdery brown mass of spores . Laboratory tests have shown that extracts of the fruit bodies can inhibit the growth of several bacteria that are pathogenic to humans .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1797 . It was later reduced to a variety of Lycoperdon gemmatum ( as L. gemmatum var. echinatum ; L. gemmatum is now known as Lycoperdon perlatum ) by Elias Magnus Fries , but American mycologist Charles Horton Peck , who extensively studied the North American distribution of the genus , raised it again to species level in 1879 . He thought it worthy of status as a species distinct from L. gemmatum because of the different character of its warts , its much spinier appearance , and the smoother surface of the peridium underneath the spines . Miles Joseph Berkeley and Christopher Edmund Broome wrote of the fungus in 1871 , but believed their specimen , collected from Reading , Berkshire , by Hoyle , represented a new species , which they called Lycoperdon Hoylei . They wrote that their specimen agreed " exactly with an authentic specimen of Persoon 's L. echinatum externally , who could , however , scarcely have overlooked the lilac spores . " Despite the apparent difference in spore color , L. Hoylei is currently considered synonymous with L. echinatum . Utraria echinata , named by Lucien Quélet in 1873 , is another synonym for L. echinatum .
In 1972 , Vincent Demoulin described the species Lycoperdon americanum on the basis of a specimen found in North Carolina . Although he believed it to be a unique species , several authors consider it synonymous with L. echinatum . Phylogenetic analysis of the sequence and secondary structure of the ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ) genes coding for the internal transcribed spacer units suggests that Lycoperdon echinatum forms a clade with the puffball genus Handkea , separate from the type species of Lycoperdon , Lycoperdon perlatum . In previous analyses that used only the rRNA sequences for phylogenetic comparison , L. echinatum formed a clade with L. mammiforme , L. foetidum , and Bovistella radicata ( now known as Lycoperdon radicatum ) , but separate from L. pyriforme .
The species is commonly known as the " spiny puffball " or the " spring puffball " ; Peck referred to the species as the " echinate puff @-@ ball " . The specific epithet echinatum is derived from the Greek word echinos ( εχινος ) meaning " hedgehog " or " sea @-@ urchin " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of L. echinatum are 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide by 2 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) tall , and are roughly spherical , or pear @-@ shaped . The exterior surface is crowded with spines that may be up to 0 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) long . According to Curtis Gates Lloyd , American specimens have more slender spines than European ones . Initially white and becoming dark brown in maturity , the spines are often joined at the tips in groups of three or four . In this form the puffballs resemble acorn caps of burr oak , with which they may readily be confused . The spines slough off in age , revealing a somewhat net @-@ like or reticulated surface . The fruit body has a small base that is an off @-@ white or purple @-@ gray color , and it may be attached to the growing surface by thin white cords ( rhizomorphs ) . The internal contents of the puffball contain the gleba , a mass of spores and associated spore @-@ producing cells . In young specimens the gleba is white and firm , but as the puffball ages , it turns yellowish and then brown to purple @-@ brown and powdery . Mature specimens develop a pore at the top of the fruit body through which spores are released when hit by falling raindrops .
The spores of L. echinatum , roughly spherical with warts on the surface , have diameters between 4 and 6 µm . The capillitia ( coarse thick @-@ walled hyphae in the gleba ) are elastic , brown in color , contain small pores , and are 5 – 8 µm thick . The basidia ( the spore @-@ bearing cells ) may be attached to two to four spores , and the sterigmata ( tapered spine @-@ like projections from the basidia that attach the spores ) are up to 5 µm long .
Like most other puffball species , L. echinatum is edible when still young and while the gleba is still white and firm . Consumption of older specimens with a non @-@ white gleba , or where the gleba has turned into a powdery spore mass , may cause stomach upsets . This species has a mild taste , and no distinguishable odor , although one source describes the smell of dried fruit bodies as similar to " old ham " . One source notes that it is " well flavoured and tender when cooked " , while another describes the texture ( of edible puffballs in general ) as " somewhat like French toast " . Antonio Carluccio recommends sautéeing puffballs with other mushrooms . To avoid possible confusion with potentially deadly Amanita species , it is recommended to slice young puffballs with a longitudinal cut to ensure that the flesh is devoid of any internal structures .
= = Similar species = =
Lycoperdon pulcherrimum closely resembles L. echinatum , but its spines are stouter , do not turn brown in age , and the surface of the fruit body underneath the spines is smooth , not pitted . Alexander H. Smith noted that in youth , they are " difficult if not impossible to distinguish from each other , but this will cause no inconvenience to those collecting for the table , since both are edible . " In some areas the two species appear to intergrade , as specimens may be found whose spines turn brown but do not fall off . Young specimens of L. pedicellatum may also be difficult to distinguish from L. echinatum , but the former has a smooth outer surface when mature , and has spores attached to a pedicel ( a narrow extension of the basidium on which the sterigmata and spores are formed ) that is about 4 – 5 times as long as the spore . Lycoperdon compactum , found only in New Zealand , also resembles L. echinatum in appearance , but differs in having smaller spores , capillitia that are hyaline ( translucent ) and septate ( with partitions that divide the capillitia into compartments ) .
= = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = =
Lycoperdon echinatum can be found either solitary or in small groups . It typically grows on the ground in deciduous forests and grassy areas , glades and pastures , on moss , humus , or woody debris . The fungus has been noted to have a preference for beech woods . Fruit bodies may make their appearance anytime from the late spring to autumn . Older specimens are more likely to be overlooked , as their brown color blends into the surrounding environment of dead leaves and dead wood . The puffball is used by various species of scuttle flies ( family Phoridae ) as larval food .
This species has been collected from eastern central Africa , China , Costa Rica , Iran , Japan , and Europe ( including Britain , Bulgaria , the Czech Republic , Finland , Germany , Italy , Slovakia , Spain , Sweden , and Switzerland ) . In North America , it is " locally frequent " east of the Rocky Mountains .
It is considered a threatened species in the Åland Islands of Finland . A study of the species ' distribution in Sweden reported that in the 1940s and 50s , it grew in beech woods with broad @-@ leaved grasses and herbs in topsoils with soil pH levels between 5 @.@ 0 and 6 @.@ 6 , but the populations have since decreased owing to soil acidification during the last several decades . Fruit bodies collected near arsenic @-@ contaminated sites have been shown to bioaccumulate arsenic , largely in the form of arsenobetaine .
= = Antimicrobial activity = =
Using a standard laboratory method to determine antimicrobial susceptibility , methanol @-@ based extracts of Lycoperdon umbrinum fruit bodies were shown in a 2005 study to have " significant " antibacterial activity against various human pathogenic bacteria , including Bacillus subtilis , Escherichia coli , Salmonella typhimurium , Staphylococcus aureus , Streptococcus pyogenes , and Mycobacterium smegmatis . An earlier study ( 2000 ) had identified weak antibacterial activity against Enterococcus faecium and Staphylococcus aureus . Although the specific compounds responsible for the antimicrobial activity have not been identified , chemical analysis confirms the presence of terpenoids , a class of widely occurring organic chemicals that are being investigated for their potential use as antimicrobial drugs .
= Speak Now ( song ) =
" Speak Now " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . The song , written and produced by Swift with Nathan Chapman , was released as a promotional single on October 5 , 2010 , by Big Machine Records from her 2010 album of the same name . Swift wrote the song about interrupting a wedding , after conversing with her friend , whose ex @-@ boyfriend would soon wed to someone else , and having a dream about one of her own ex @-@ boyfriends marrying another girl . The song relies on acoustic guitar and is a narration from the perspective of a person who crashes her former love 's wedding in attempt to win him back .
The song opened to critical acclaim for its lyrical detail . " Speak Now " had successful commercial outcomes in Canada and the United States , debuting and peaking at number eight on both the Canadian Hot 100 and the Billboard Hot 100 . Its appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 marked Swift 's sixth top ten debut , which made her the artist with the most top ten debuts in the history of the chart . " Speak Now " also managed to garner enough airplay to chart on the Hot Country Songs chart .
= = Background = =
" Speak Now " was written by Swift , as were all the tracks for the album . The song was inspired by the story of her friend and her high school boyfriend . The couple went their separate ways after high school – with the idea that they would get back together . One day , Swift 's friend informed Swift that her high school boyfriend would soon wed . " He had met this girl who 's just this horrible , mean person who made him completely stop talking to all of his friends , cut off his family . She had him so completely isolated , " said Swift . She asked her friend if she would " speak now . " Perplexed , her friend asked for an explanation , and she answered , " You know , storm the church . ' Speak now or forever hold your peace . ' I 'll go with you . I 'll play guitar . It 'd be great . " Swift 's friend found this to be humorous , laughing at the idea .
After speaking with her friend , Swift became deeply fixated on the idea of how tragic it would be for the person one loved to wed someone else . That night , Swift experienced a dream where one of her own ex @-@ boyfriends married another girl . To her , this signaled that she had to compose a song about interrupting a wedding . In retrospect , she concluded , " For me , I like to think of it as good versus evil . And this girl is just completely – just the evil one . " Swift entitled the album after " Speak Now " because it fit the album 's concept , with each song being a different confession to a person . " It 's called Speak Now , and that pertains to the album as a concept and as an entire theme of the record more than I can even tell you , " she said . The song was released as a promotional single on October 5 , 2010 , as part of Countdown to Speak Now , an exclusive campaign launched by the iTunes Store . During the opening week of Speak Now , Swift performed " Speak Now " on the Late Show with David Letterman .
= = Composition = =
" Speak Now " is a country pop track with a length of four minutes and two seconds . It has a predominant pop music composition , intertwined with various country elements . The song is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is written in the key of G major and Swift 's vocals span two octaves , from A3 to D5 . Swift 's vocals begin in a hushed tone , gradually turn grow , and at one point belt the song 's title . The song features different twangy , up @-@ and @-@ down vocal hooks might , in similarity to " You Belong with Me " . It follows the chord progression G – D – Am – C. The song 's instrumentation is based on acoustic guitar ; it eventually has its own gentle solo .
In the lyrics of " Speak Now " , Swift narrates about crashing her former love 's wedding in attempt to win him back . The opening lines acknowledge that , although out of character , Swift is still in love with her ex @-@ boyfriend and wants to make sure he does not marry the wrong girl . Throughout the song 's verses , Swift sneaks in the wedding and describes her observations , such as the bride @-@ to @-@ be 's bearing of a poofy wedding gown , her cumulative family , and an organist playing " Bridal Chorus " . In " Speak Now " ' s refrains , Swift pleads her ex @-@ boyfriend to not say his vows in order to run away with her . The bridge has Swift responding to the priest 's calling of " Speak now or forever hold your peace " before repeating the opening lines . The last refrain is altered , with Swift narrating from the groom 's perspective and inform Swift they will indeed run away together .
= = Critical reception = =
The song opened to critical acclaim . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly deemed " Speak Now " one of Swift 's best songs yet . He also said , " Her expressive delivery of the lyrics makes up for any shortcomings as a technical vocalist " and that it was " expertly catchy " . He concluded that he was unable to stop playing the song after he heard it . Bill Lamb of About.com said the song was " brilliant " . He continued , " The song is sweet , funny , bratty , and edgy all at the same time . Taylor Swift remains one of our most gifted young lyricists . " Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine thought that " Speak Now " exemplified Swift 's inability to " write authoritatively about anything other than how great boys are or how much boys suck or how dreams about boys will take her somewhere better than where she is now . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Speak Now " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number eight due to the sales of 217 @,@ 000 digital downloads . With that week 's appearance on the chart , " Speak Now " became Swift 's sixth top ten debut and , therefore , set the mark that made Swift the artist with most top ten debuts in the history of the Billboard Hot 100 , surpassing the five top ten entries earned by Mariah Carey from 1995 to 1998 . Elsewhere in North America , the track debuted at number eight on the Canadian Hot 100 . In Australia , " Speak Now " debuted at number twenty .
= = Live performances = =
The song is performed on the Speak Now World Tour . Clips of the performance can be seen in the music video for Swift 's single " Sparks Fly " . In the clips we see a bride wearing " a gown shaped like a pastry " as she walks up the stairs to the groom and preacher . Swift can be seen in the background making a scene during this clip . Other clips show the bridesmaids waving , the bride getting onto them while the groom is clapping and the groom running off with Swift . According to Jocelyn Vena of MTV.com , the performance is " a very theatrical moment " in which " Swift acted out crashing a wedding . She eventually stole the groom away , as she sings in the song , and the pair ran through the crowd together . "
= = Covers = =
Speak Now was covered by Seohyun of Girls ' Generation as a solo stage at the Romantic Fantasy concert on 1 January 2013 . Prior to this , she played a part of the song on the 21 September 2011 episode of the Big Brother TV program as an example of a song which she enjoyed when practicing the guitar and the English language .
= = Track listing = =
Digital Download
" Speak Now " – 4 : 02
= = Charts = =
= American Water Spaniel =
The American Water Spaniel , ( often abbreviated to AWS ) , is a breed of spaniel which is one of a small number of breeds originating in the United States . Developed in the state of Wisconsin during the 19th century from a number of other breeds , including the Irish and English Water Spaniels . The breed was saved by Dr. Fred J. Pfeifer , who set up the breed club and standard , and whose work led to recognition for the breed by the United Kennel Club , and later , the American Kennel Club . While they are the state dog of Wisconsin , they remain a rare breed .
They are medium @-@ sized dog , and have a double layered coat , which comes in a variety of brown related shades . A versatile hunting dog , they are also suitable for apartment life due to work by breeders to develop a breed with an even temperament . The AWS may have been involved in the development of the Boykin Spaniel .
= = History = =
Developed in the United States , the American Water Spaniel is the Wisconsin state dog . The breed originated in the areas along the Fox River and its tributary the Wolf River during the early 19th century . Hunters needed a dog that could work on both land and water , a versatile hunter skilled at bringing in a variety of game . Hunters also wanted a hunting dog compact enough to be transported in a small skiff , one that was able to withstand Wisconsin 's cold water temperatures . Breeds involved in the creation of the American Water Spaniel are thought to have included the English Water Spaniel , Irish Water Spaniel , Curly Coated Retriever , native Indian Dogs , the Poodle , and either the Sussex Spaniel or another type of field spaniel .
This little brown dog created was known at the time as the American Brown Spaniel , and weighed around 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) . It had a thick curly coat that protected it from the cold temperatures of the water and winter . It was used to hunt waterfowl , Ruffed Grouse , Greater Prairie Chicken and a variety of fur – bearing animals .
Over the years the numbers of the breed began to dwindle due both to a reduction in the duck population through those valley areas , and because of a switch in hunting – from a means to gather food for survival to that of recreation . Additionally , following World War II , new types of dogs became available in Wisconsin such as setters , pointers and other spaniels , allowing additional specialization in hunting .
Dr. Fred J. Pfeifer , from New London , Wisconsin , set up Wolf River Kennels in order to save the breed . Numbers held by the kennel fluctuated but at times went up to 132 dogs . He advertised the dogs widely across the country , selling male dogs for $ 25 and females dogs for $ 20 . Part of a sales pitch that Pfeifer mailed to prospective dog owners read , " The American Brown Spaniel is distinctively an American production . Hunters have known this type for years and it was through their efforts that this dog was propagated .... For years we have bred only selective stock , breeding for gameness , stability , courage , intelligence , and beauty . They are dogs to admire and trust under all conditions whether in the home circle or in the field with the outdoor man . "
Due to Pfeifer 's work , the breed was recognized by the United Kennel Club ( UKC ) as the American Water Spaniel in 1920 , and by the Field Dog Stud Book in 1938 . Dr. Pfeifer 's own dog , named " Curly Pfeifer " was the first American Water Spaniel to be registered with UKC . John Scofield of Missouri and Thomas Brogdan of Rush Lake , Wisconsin worked together with the American Water Spaniel Club ( AWSC ) , gaining the breed recognition with the American Kennel Club ( AKC ) in 1940 . Prior to recognition by the AKC , the breed had not been shown in the show ring before .
The breed has links to the Boykin Spaniel , and is thought to have been the main breed used to develop the Boykin . The differences between the Boykin and the AWS are negligible with some dog historians suggesting that the original Boykin , called " Dumpy " , who was found on the streets of Spartanburg , South Carolina , was actually an American Water Spaniel who had been misplaced in transit . However the breed clubs for the Boykin do not agree with this account .
The breed was made the state dog of Wisconsin in 1985 . The American Water Spaniel remains a rare breed . During 1998 only 233 puppies were registered with the AKC , with an estimated 3 @,@ 000 dogs in existence mostly around the Midwestern United States , in particular in Wisconsin , Minnesota and Michigan . In 2010 , the breed was ranked 143rd most popular breed in the United States , out of 167 breeds . This is a decrease since 2000 , when the breed was ranked 125th . The dogs are not classified specifically as either retrievers or as spaniels and so may not compete in AKC field trials , but may compete in AKC hunt tests ( spaniel and retriever tests ) and retriever hunting tests sponsored by the AWSC , the breed club in the United States . The American Water Spaniel Field Association was set up in 1993 by breed enthusiasts supporting AKC Spaniel classification and looking to provide field training opportunities to owners of the breed . In a vote held of members of the AWSC in 1999 , they chose to keep the breed unclassified .
= = Appearance = =
The limited popularity of the American Water Spaniel restricted development , resulting in the breed being relatively unchanged since its origins in the 19th century . They are a medium @-@ sized dog , with a curly liver , brown , or chocolate colored coat . The average height at the withers for the breed is 15 – 18 inches ( 38 – 46 cm ) , and their weight around 25 – 45 pounds ( 11 – 20 kg ) . They have similar features to the Irish Water Spaniel , but the Irish breed is larger at between 21 – 24 inches ( 53 – 61 cm ) and weighing 55 – 65 pounds ( 25 – 29 kg ) . The coat of the American Water Spaniel can fall in two different patterns , either tightly curled or in the " marcel pattern " where the fur falls in waves . Working and show lines have not diverged as with some other breeds of spaniel , and both appear the same , with show dogs of this breed being rare .
The coat has a coarse outside layer which keeps water away and protects the dog from foliage such as briers . The inside layer provides insulation to keep the dog warm . The coat has an oily feel to it , which gives off a " doggy smell " . The breed standard specifies color of the eyes should harmonize with the color of the coat , and should never be yellow . The skull is broad , and carries long , wide ears . The tail is not typically docked .
= = Temperament = =
In the field , the AWS is less exuberant than the English Springer Spaniel , but it is as skilled in retrieval as Labrador or Golden Retriever . It is versatile regardless of the type of terrain , and in the water it is not the fastest swimmer but has a high level of endurance . The breed is also good at agility and flyball , with the first of the breed receiving a flyball championship title in 1993 .
Members of the breed enjoy being the center of attention , and can be quite vocal at times . It is a one family dog , and will often bond with one particular individual . For many years the breed was " pack bred " , where they were allowed to live in a group . Since these times , breeders have been working to breed even tempered dogs that are suitable for both hunting and family life .
The AWS has a mind of its own at times and reaches peak performance with the owner who is dedicated to teaching the dog just what is expected of it . The breed takes well to training , and especially excels at training that offers some variety rather than routine training drills . However , members of the breed can may have issues with food possessiveness . They can be stubborn , and mentally are slow to mature from puppyhood . Some lines of the breed still retain dominant and aggressive temperaments ; other than these lines , the AWS gets on well with children and enjoys playing with them . Even though they were originally bred to hunt , due to their size , they are suitable for apartment living as long as they receive enough exercise .
= = Health = =
Pack breeding early in its development led to a level of genetic variation , so the hereditary conditions of more popular breeds are not common in the AWS . The breed however is known to suffer from eye issues including cataracts and progressive retinal atrophy . Inheritance is suspected in both conditions , with the average age of cataract onset at under one year old .
Additional concerns are hypothyroidism , allergies , epilepsy , diabeties and glandular disorders which may cause baldness . The hair loss occurs at around six months of age , affecting the neck , thighs and tail ; however the frequency has been reduced through work conducted by the breed clubs . Hip dysplasia is seen in around 8 @.@ 3 % of the breed , according to surveys conducted by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals over a twenty five @-@ year period between 1974 and 1999 . This was one of the lower results of the sporting breeds , with Greyhounds coming lowest with 3 @.@ 4 % , and the related Boykin Spaniel coming in second highest at 47 % . There was no evidence of elbow dysplasia found . The breed has an average life span of 10 – 13 years .
= Arniston ( East Indiaman ) =
Arniston was an East Indiaman that made eight voyages for the British East India Company ( EIC ) . She was wrecked on 30 May 1815 during a storm at Waenhuiskrans , near Cape Agulhas , South Africa , with the loss of 372 lives – only six on board survived . She had been requisitioned as a troopship and was underway from Ceylon to England on a journey to repatriate wounded soldiers from the Kandyan Wars .
Controversially , the ship did not have a marine chronometer on board , a comparatively new and expensive navigational instrument that would have enabled her to determine her longitude accurately . Instead , she was forced to navigate through the heavy storm and strong currents using older , less reliable navigational aids and dead reckoning . Navigational difficulties and a lack of headway led to an incorrect assumption that Cape Agulhas was Cape Point . Consequently , the ship was wrecked when the captain headed north for St Helena with the incorrect belief the ship had already passed Cape Point .
= = Overview = =
East Indiamen operated under charter or licence to the Honourable East India Company , which held a monopoly granted by Queen Elizabeth I of England for all English trade between the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn . Arniston was built at the Barnard yard at Deptford on the Thames and launched in 1794 .
Arniston was heavily armed , with her fifty @-@ eight guns making her the equivalent of a Royal Navy fourth @-@ rate ship of the line . A classification of " ship of the line " – a class of ship that later evolved into the battleship – meant that a ship was powerful enough to stand in a line of battle and explained why these ships of commerce were sometimes mistaken for men @-@ o @-@ war . The armament was necessary for the ship to protect herself and her valuable cargo from pirates and commerce raiders of other nations during long voyages between Europe and the Far East . Arniston , like other East Indiamen , was slow and unmanoeuvrable , but able to carry a large quantity of cargo .
= = Voyages ( 1794 – 1812 ) = =
Arniston sailed from Great Britain to the Far East eight times before her last voyage . On one of her homeward journeys from China , she struck an uncharted rock at 5 ° 46 ′ 8 ″ S 105 ° 16 ′ 43 ″ E , near the island of Pulo Goondy ( modern day Pulau Legundi ) , located just south of Sumatra . She did not suffer any ill effects as a result of this incident however , which is mentioned in journals of the time only for its noteworthiness as a navigation hazard to other shipping .
Apart from this and another incident in 1800 , Arniston 's first eight voyages were uneventful .
= = = Voyage # 1 : St Helena , Madras , and China ( 1795 @-@ 97 ) = = =
Captain Campbell Marjoribanks :
3 April 1795 : Portsmouth
14 April : Tenerife
2 June : St Helena
9 August : Cape of Good Hope
27 September : Madras
14 November : Penang
3 December : Malacca
11 March 1796 : Whampoa
23 April : Second Bar
29 June : Macau
20 November : St Helena
1 March 1797 : Deptford
While Arniston was at St Helena on her outward journey , she undertook to transport troops from there to join Lord Elphinstone , who was undertaking an expedition to capture Cape Colony from the Dutch . On 10 July George Vancouver arrived in HMS Discovery . Vancouver was returning to England after his four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year long voyage of exploration . He transferred to Arniston four field guns that he had been carrying , together with what ammunition he had left for them , for onward transmission to Elphinstone . Discovery 's boats also helped in the ferrying of troops from shore to Arniston .
Arniston was to ferry nine field pieces , as well as a company of artillery and three of infantry ( 393 men in all ) , to Elphinstone .
= = = Voyage # 2 : China ( 1797 @-@ 98 ) = = =
On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain William Macnamara , and dated 13 May 1797 . Her itinerary was :
5 June 1797 : Portsmouth
29 August : Cape of Good Hope
9 December : Whampoa
14 February 1798 : Second Bar
26 March : Macau
5 August : St Helena
23 October : Long Reach
= = = Voyage # 3 : St Helena , Benkulen , and China ( 1800 @-@ 01 ) = = =
On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain Campbell Marjoribanks , and dated 29 November 1799 . Her itinerary was :
7 January 1800 : Portsmouth
4 April : St Helena
27 June : Benkulen
29 July : Penang
27 August : Malacca
21 September : Whampoa
29 November : Second Bar
18 January 1801 : Macau
15 April : St Helena
17 June : Long Reach
During this voyage Arniston had just anchored at Benkulen on 27 June 1800 , when the 26 @-@ gun French privateer Confiance attacked her . Arniston cut her anchor and gave chase , firing several broadsides into the other ship , but the faster French ship was able to make an escape . On 9 October 1800 , the East Indiaman Kent would be less fortunate ; Confiance would capture Kent after a two @-@ hour engagement .
= = = Voyage # 4 : St Helena , Benkulen , and China ( 1801 @-@ 03 ) = = =
Captain Campbell Marjoribanks :
31 December 1801 : Downs
9 March 1802 : St Helena
10 June : Benkulen
12 July : Penang
31 August : Whampoa
24 October : Second Bar
11 February 1803 : St Helena
26 April : Long Reach
= = = Voyage # 5 : China ( 1804 @-@ 05 ) = = =
On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain James Jameson , and dated 24 March 1804 . Her itinerary was :
9 June 1804 : Portsmouth
17 August : Rio de Janeiro
14 January 1805 : Whampoa
14 February : Second Bar
21 March : Malacca
30 June : St Helena
15 September : Long Reach
This journey included a passage through the Bass Strait to improve an earlier nautical chart of the route .
= = = Voyage # 6 : China ( 1806 @-@ 07 ) = = =
On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain Peter Wedderburn , and dated 20 March 1806 . Her itinerary was :
14 May 1806 : Portsmouth
7 August : Cape of Good Hope
10 October : Penang
21 January 1807 : Whampoa
4 May : off Lintin Island
1 July : Penang
17 July : Acheh
19 September : Cape of Good Hope
13 October : St Helena
6 January 1808 : Lower Hope
= = = Voyage # 7 : Bombay and China ( 1810 @-@ 11 ) = = =
Captain Samuel Landon :
21 January 1810 : Portsmouth
9 April : Cape of Good Hope
26 May : Bombay
1 September : Penang
12 October : Whampoa
29 December : Second Bar
28 May 1811 : St Helena
13 August : Long Reach
= = = Voyage # 8 : Bombay and China ( 1812 @-@ 13 ) = = =
On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain Walter Campbell . Her itinerary was :
4 January 1812 : Torbay
5 April : Johanna
7 May : Bombay
11 September : Whampoa
4 January 1813 : Macau
27 March : St Helena
7 June : Long Reach
The British government then chartered Arniston as a troop transport to the Cape and India .
= = = Voyage # 9 : Madeira , Cape , and Ceylon ( 1814 @-@ 1815 ) = = =
Captain George Simpson left England on 8 June 1814 . At Ceylon , Arniston embarked soldiers of the 73rd Regiment , who were wounded in the Kandyan Wars in Ceylon , to repatriate them to England .
= = Wreck ( 1815 ) = =
Critically , the ship did not have a chronometer for this voyage , a comparatively new and expensive navigational instrument at the time . Captain George Simpson could not afford the 60 – 100 guineas for one , and the ship 's owners were also unwilling to purchase one , even threatening to replace him with another captain if he refused to set sail without one .
Arniston sailed from Port de Galle on 4 April 1815 in a convoy of six other East Indiamen , under the escort of HMS Africaine and HMS Victor . Among her 378 passengers were many invalid soldiers and sailors , plus 14 women and 25 children .
During the passage from Ceylon , at one o 'clock every day , the ships signalled each other their longitude that they calculated using their chronometers . In this way , the ships were able to compare their respective instruments , and the master of the Arniston was able to learn his longitude too , as long as he remained in the convoy .
On 26 May , while rounding the southern tip of Africa , Arniston separated from the convoy in bad weather after her sails were damaged . Without accurate daily longitudinal information from the other ships , Arniston had to rely instead on older , less accurate navigation methods . Navigation via dead reckoning proved particularly difficult as there were strong ocean currents combined with inclement weather that prevented a fix being obtained for several days via celestial navigation .
On 29 May , land was sighted to the north at 7 am , and given the dead reckoning estimates , was presumed to be the Cape of Good Hope . The ship sailed west until 4 : 30 pm on 29 May , then turned north to run for St Helena . However the land sighted had in fact been Cape Agulhas ( then known as " Cape L 'Agullas " ) and the ship had also not made good headway against the current since this sighting . Compounding these navigational errors , the master had not taken any depth soundings ( which would have confirmed his location over the Agulhas Bank ) , before heading north . Consequently , instead of being 100 miles ( 160 km ) west of the Cape of Good Hope as presumed , the ship was closing on the reef at Waenhuiskrans near Cape Agulhas . The anchors were unable to hold the heavy ship in the storm , so on 30 May near 4 pm , Lieutenant Brice advised Captain Simpson to ground the ship to save the lives of those aboard . Eight minutes later , at about 8 pm , the ship struck rocks half a mile offshore and heeled into the wind . The guns on the opposite side were cut away in a failed attempt to level the ship , which soon started to break up in the waves .
Only six men of the 378 people on board survived , after reaching the shore only with great difficulty through the high surf . The following morning the sternpost was the only part of the vessel still visible . The ship and her passengers had been lost for the price of a chronometer , or as an officer from the same convoy later wrote :
[ T ] his valuable ship , and all the lives on board of her , were actually sacrificed to a piece of short @-@ sighted economy . That they might have been saved , had she been supplied with the worst chronometer that was ever sent to sea , is also quite obvious .
= = Aftermath = =
The six survivors buried the bodies found on the beach , then travelled east along the beach , expecting to reach Cape Town . However , after four and a half days , they realised their error and returned to the site of the wreck . Here they subsisted off a cask of oatmeal , while trying to effect repairs to the ship 's pinnace , which had been washed ashore . They were discovered six days later on 14 June by a farmer 's son , who was out hunting .
Among the victims were : Captain George Simpson , Lieutenant Brice , Lord and Lady Molesworth .
The six survivors were : Dr. Gunter ( boatswain ) , John Barrett ( carpenter ) , Charles Stewart Scott ( carpenter 's mate ) , William Grung ( second class ) , Gibbs ( third class ) , Robinson ( fourth class ) .
A memorial , a replica of which can be seen today , was erected on the beach by the wife of Colonel Giels , whose four children were lost in the tragedy on their homeward journey , having visited him in Ceylon . The memorial bears the following inscription :
Erected by their disconsolate parents to the memory of Thomas , aged 13 years , William Noble , aged 10 , Andrew , aged 8 and Alexander McGregor Murray , aged 7 ( the four eldest sons of Lieut Colonel Andrew Giels of H.M. 73rd Regiment ) who , with Lord and Lady Molesworth unfortunately perished in the Arniston Transport , wrecked on this shore on 3rd May , 1815 .
Over time , the seaside village of Waenhuiskrans has become so associated with the wreck , that it now is also known as Arniston . The nearby town of Bredasdorp has a museum dedicated to the wreck . The wreck had a direct influence on the decision to build a lighthouse at Cape Agulhas to the west in 1847 – 1848 .
Thirty seven years later , the 73rd Regiment once again suffered hundreds of casualties on this coast when HMS Birkenhead was wrecked only 50 miles ( 80 km ) away at Gansbaai .
= = Archaeological excavation = =
The wreck , which lies in about 6 metres ( 20 ft ) of water , was surveyed by an archaeological team from the University of Cape Town ( UCT ) in 1982 . The National Monuments Council issued a permit to UCT student Jim Jobling to conduct an underwater survey of the site , as well as a limited excavation . A number of artefacts were recovered , which were donated to the Bredasdorp Shipwreck Museum .
= United States Capitol shooting incident ( 1998 ) =
The United States Capitol shooting incident of 1998 was an attack on July 24 , 1998 , which led to the death of two United States Capitol Police officers . Detective John Gibson and Officer Jacob Chestnut were killed when Russell Eugene Weston , Jr . , entered the Capitol and opened fire . Chestnut was killed instantly and Gibson died during surgery at George Washington University Hospital . Weston 's exact motives are unknown , but he has a mental disorder and maintains a strong distrust of the federal government . He remains in a mental institution due to paranoid schizophrenia and has yet to be tried in court .
= = The shooting = =
On the day of shooting , Officer Chestnut and another officer were assigned to operate the X @-@ ray machine and magnetometer at the Document Door entrance located on the East Front of the Capitol , which was open only to Members of Congress and their staff . Detective Gibson was assigned to the dignitary protection detail of Rep. Tom DeLay ( R @-@ TX ) and was in his suite of offices near this door . Weston , armed with a .38 caliber Smith & Wesson six @-@ shot revolver , entered the Document Door at 3 : 40 p.m. At the same time , Officer Chestnut was providing directions to a tourist and his son while his partner escorted another tourist towards the restroom . Weston reportedly walked around the metal detector just inside the entrance ; Chestnut requested he go back through the detector . Weston suddenly produced the gun and without warning , shot Chestnut in the back of the head at point @-@ blank range . According to witnesses , he turned down a short corridor and pushed through a door which leads to a group of offices used by senior Republican representatives including then Majority Whip Tom DeLay and Representative Dennis Hastert , future Speaker of the House and a close protégé of then Speaker Newt Gingrich .
Detective Gibson , who was in plainclothes , was shot after the suspect entered DeLay 's office . Despite being mortally wounded , Detective Gibson was able to return fire and wound the suspect , who was apprehended in that office . A female tourist was grazed by bullets on her shoulder and face . She was treated for her injuries and released . Also injured was USCP Officer Douglas McMillian . Future Senate Majority Leader Bill Frist , R @-@ Tennessee , a heart surgeon who had been presiding on the Senate floor just before the shooting , resuscitated the gunman and accompanied him to D.C. General Hospital .
= = After the shooting = =
Officers Chestnut and Gibson were the two people killed in the attack . Following the shooting , both officers received the tribute of lying in honor in the United States Capitol rotunda . They were the first police officers , and Chestnut was the first African American , to receive the honor .
In 1999 , Weston was found incompetent to stand trial due to mental illness as he was a man with schizophrenia who stopped taking his medication . A judge of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia ordered that he be treated with antipsychotic medication without his consent in 2001 , and the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit upheld the decision . In 2004 , the court determined that Weston still was not competent to be tried , despite ongoing treatment , and suspended but did not dismiss the criminal charges against him . Weston was known to the United States Secret Service prior to the incident as a person who had threatened the President of the United States .
The shooting led to the creation of the United States Capitol Police Memorial Fund , a nonprofit organization managed by the Capitol Police Board which provides funds for the families of Chestnut and Gibson . In November 2005 , the fund was expanded to include the family of Sgt. Christopher Eney , a USCP officer killed during a training accident in 1984 . The shooting was cited as one reason for the development of the Capitol Visitors Center . The legislation authorizing the construction of the facility was introduced by Washington , D.C. Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton and was entitled the Jacob Joseph Chestnut @-@ John Michael Gibson United States Capitol Visitor Center Act of 1998 . The door where Weston entered was renamed in honor of the two officers , from the Document Door to the Chestnut @-@ Gibson Memorial Door .
On March 6 , 2008 , Weston filed a motion requesting a hearing on his mental status . The hearing was held on May 6 with Weston appearing via teleconference from the Federal Medical Center , Butner with his public defender Jane Pierce and two witnesses he selected , a psychologist and vocational rehabilitation specialist . Federal judge Earl Britt denied Weston 's request to be released from the federal facility , arguing that he failed to present enough evidence that he no longer needed to be committed . During the hearing defense psychologist Holly Rogers stated that , " sometimes there are individuals who simply do not respond to medication " , implying that Weston was not ready for release . Had Weston been released from the facility , it would have made it possible for him to be taken to Washington , D.C. to stand trial for the murders of Gibson and Chestnut .
= = The officers = =
Detective John Michael Gibson ( March 29 , 1956 – July 24 , 1998 ) was a United States Capitol Police officer assigned to the dignitary protection detail of Congressman Tom DeLay . He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery after lying in honor with Chestnut in the Capitol rotunda . Detective Gibson had served with the agency for 18 years . He was a native of Massachusetts who married the niece of Representative Joe Moakley , Democrat of Massachusetts . He had three children , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old daughter and two boys , ages 15 and 14 . Growing up in New England , Det . Gibson was a lifelong Boston Red Sox fan , and on August 11 , 1998 , his beloved team had a moment of silence in his honor prior to a game with the Kansas City Royals .
Officer Jacob Joseph Chestnut ( April 28 , 1940 – July 24 , 1998 ) , was the first African American to lie in honor at the Capitol . Chestnut is buried in Arlington National Cemetery . His funeral included a speech by President Bill Clinton and a fly @-@ over by military jets in a missing man formation . A United States Post Office located in Fort Washington , Maryland has been renamed in their honor .
= = The suspect = =
Russell Eugene Weston , Jr . ( born December 28 , 1956 ) , also known as Rusty , grew up in Valmeyer , Illinois . Weston attended Valmeyer High School , the only high school in a town of 900 people . Shortly after graduating high school in 1974 , Weston moved to Rimini , Montana , rarely returning to Valmeyer . The only attempt his high school classmates made at inviting him to a class reunion was returned with obscenities written across it . Many of Weston 's Montana neighbors had disliked him , and often ignored him . They considered him to be unusual , and sometimes eccentric . Weston had once thought that his neighbor was using his television satellite dish to spy on his actions and believed Navy SEALs were hiding in his cornfield .
He was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia six years before the shooting and spent fifty @-@ three days in a mental hospital after threatening a Montana resident . He was released after testing as being of no danger to himself or anyone else . Eighteen months before the shooting , he moved back to Valmeyer from Montana . Once home , he was known to compulsively hack at trees which filled his back yard following the Mississippi River floods of 1993 . There was so much downed timber on his family 's homestead that they had to ask him to stop cutting at trees . Two days prior to the Capitol shooting , at his grandmother 's insistence to do something about nearby cats which were becoming a nuisance , Weston shot and killed 14 cats with a single @-@ barreled shotgun , leaving several in a bucket and burying the rest .
Following the Capitol shooting , Weston was transferred to a psychiatric center at Butner Federal Correctional Institution in Butner , North Carolina . In an interview with a court @-@ appointed psychiatrist he explained that he stormed the Capitol to prevent the United States from being annihilated by disease and legions of cannibals .
He has never been charged with any crime due to apparent mental inculpability . One contentious issue of Weston 's incarceration is that of forced medication . Weston has thus far refused to take any medications voluntarily . His lawyers helped enable this , in order to protect him from the death penalty . In May 2001 , a federal judge authorized doctors to treat Weston involuntarily . A panel from a federal appeals court ruled in July 2001 that Weston could be forced to take the drugs which he was forced to do for 120 days . He remains in the Butner facility indefinitely .
= Hurricane Kathleen ( 1976 ) =
Hurricane Kathleen was a tropical cyclone that caused destructive impacts in California . On September 7 , 1976 , a tropical depression formed ; two days later it accelerated north towards the Baja California Peninsula . Kathleen brushed the Pacific coast of the peninsula as a hurricane on September 9 and made landfall as a fast @-@ moving tropical storm the next day . With its circulation intact and still a tropical storm , Kathleen headed north into the United States and affected California and Arizona . Kathleen finally dissipated late on September 11 .
Damage in the United States was considerable . California received record rainfall , with over a foot of rain falling in some areas . Flooding caused catastrophic destruction to Ocotillo , and six people drowned . Flooding extended west ; railway tracks were destroyed in Palm Desert and high winds and severe flooding were recorded in Arizona . Overall , the damage total was $ 160 million ( 1976 USD ) and 12 deaths were attributed to the storm .
= = Background = =
Tropical cyclones do not typically bring high winds to the southwestern United States . Most Pacific hurricanes are embedded in easterly winds south of the subtropical ridge , and thus move westward — away from large land masses — until they dissipate over cold waters . However , during early autumn , tropical cyclones generally form closer to the Mexican shoreline than average , making them more likely to recurve , or to curve again , northwards under the influence of an approaching trough . These troughs tend to extend farther to the south during the latter part of the Pacific hurricane season , in the period between late August and early October . They also produce a synoptic @-@ scale flow that is conducive to steering hurricanes towards the southwestern United States . However , many hurricanes that approach the southwestern United States tend to be undergoing extratropical transition as they encounter increased wind shear and markedly cooler sea surface temperatures , and as they interact with the deep troughs that caused them to recurve . Kathleen is one of only six recorded tropical cyclones in the eastern Pacific Ocean known to have brought gale @-@ force or hurricane @-@ force winds to the Continental United States .
= = Meteorological history = =
A large area of thunderstorms , with a diameter of about 500 mi ( 800 km ) , formed 270 mi ( 430 km ) southwest of Acapulco . Moving rapidly west @-@ northwest , a tropical depression formed on September 7 . While briefly moving towards the east , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Kathleen . Moving above 83 ° F ( 28 ° C ) sea surface temperatures , Kathleen quickly strengthened . Before passing 40 mi ( 64 km ) east of Socorro Island , Kathleen reached its secondary peak with winds of 65 mph ( 115 km / h ) . Kathleen then weakened considerably , and by 0600 UTC September 9 , Tropical Storm Kathleen was barely a tropical storm . At this time , the system was located at 55 mi ( 89 km ) north of the island . Shortly thereafter , Kathleen turned north @-@ northeast into warmer waters .
Subsequently , the tropical storm began to re @-@ strengthen . Despite moving rapidly north , the cyclone strengthened into Hurricane Kathleen . The hurricane passed near several ships , and was intercepted by a Hurricane Hunter aircraft early on September 10 . It is estimated that the storm peaked in intensity around that time , with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 986 mb ( 986 hPa ) . However , Kathleen never developed an eye . About an hour after the first flight reached Kathleen , a second flight suggested that Kathleen had weakened back into a tropical storm . With precipitation falling in the United States , some 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) north of the cyclone 's atmospheric circulation , Kathleen 's motion accelerated to speeds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) -38 mph ( 61 km / h ) .
After crossing the Point Eugenia peninsula ( the cyclones first landfall ) later on the morning of September 10 , Kathleen made its second landfall 120 mi ( 190 km ) north of Ensenada at 1130 UTC the same day . Unlike most tropical cyclones , Kathleen weakened slowly over California . Tropical Storm Kathleen weakened further into a depression over southern California and shortly thereafter , moved across Death Valley . On September 11 , Kathleen entered western Nevada . Finally , the center became difficult to locate , and the depression dissipated later on September 11 . After undergoing a Fujiwhara @-@ like interaction , where two circulations interact with each other , with a low @-@ pressure area stalled off the Pacific coast , moisture later spread into the northwestern part of the United States . After the stalled low was pulled inland , Kathleen combined with the low to produce additional rainfall over parts of California .
= = Impact = =
= = = Mexico = = =
The bulk of the rainfall from the tropical cyclone fell over Baja California Norte and Baja California Sur , to the east of its track . The highest amount reported was 6 @.@ 52 in ( 166 mm ) in San Antonio .
= = = Arizona = = =
On September 10 – 11 , gale @-@ force winds caused considerable damage to the city of Yuma . For a time , the sustained winds exceeded 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , with gusts up to 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) . The National Weather Service 's forecast office in Tucson estimates that tropical storm @-@ force winds extended as far east as Pima County , and as far north as Lake Havasu . Rains caused severe flash @-@ flooding in Mohave County . One man was killed when the wind blew a palm tree onto his mobile home and 13 people across the state were hurt . The Tucson metropolitan area was particularly hard hit with flash flooding , with golf @-@ ball size hail . On Mount Lemmon , the hail reached a depth of 5 in ( 13 cm ) . While most of the rainfall from Tropical Storm Kathleen fell in California , 2 @.@ 87 inches ( 7 @.@ 3 cm ) fell at the Davis Dam on the Colorado River .
= = = California = = =
The state received record rainfall , with 14 @.@ 76 in ( 37 @.@ 5 cm ) falling on the southern slopes of Mount San Gorgonio , and 10 @.@ 13 in ( 25 @.@ 7 cm ) accumulated on Mount Laguna . Because the village is situated atop an alluvial fan , a 40 ft ( 12 m ) wall of water exited a mountain canyon . Ocotillo was flooded with 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) -6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of water ; subsequently , half the town was destroyed . Six people drowned in the mud and waters in the town and two people were initially reported missing , though they were later found by officials . Overall , Ocotllio was 70 % – 80 % destroyed . Officials evacuated 175 people from the flooded area of Ocotillo and the nearby communities that surround the Salton Sea ; the sea rose 6 in ( 150 mm ) -8 in ( 200 mm ) . A quarter mile of interstate and a 60 @-@ foot bridge were destroyed by the flood , which also washed away mobile homes , trucks , and cars .
In Los Angeles , two people died of injuries suffered from slippery roads . One man drowned in El Centro. and two people drowned when their cars tumbled into the water near the city . Record flood stage was attained at numerous streams near the Coachella Valley . Widespread property damage was recorded on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada as well as the nearby desert . Across the San Joaquin Valley , 2 / 3 of the $ 150 million raisin crop was threatened . Crops including cotton , lettuce , and hay were damaged .
Homeowners in Palm Desert suffered $ 4 million in damage from the storm ; the town received more than a year 's worth of rainfall in a matter of days . No serious injuries were reported throughout the desert city , though two agricultural dikes broke .
Several miles of railway track , including three trestles that belonged to the San Diego and Arizona Eastern Railway , were destroyed and five others were damaged . At more than 50 other locations , tracks were buried by mudslides or had the ground under them washed away . After assessing the damage from Kathleen , the Southern Pacific Transportation Company decided in 1977 to abandon most of the railroad . A 700 ft ( 210 m ) section of Interstate 8 from Yuma to San Diego was destroyed .
Overall , hundreds of homes were damaged or destroyed ; Tropical Storm Kathleen was described as a one @-@ in- 160 @-@ year event . Total damage was $ 160 million , making Kathleen one of the costliest tropical storms in state history . Parts of California were declared a disaster area , and flash flood watches were issued throughout Southern California , including the desert and mountains . Flash flood warnings were also issued for parts of California , as well as nearby states Nevada and Arizona , but were dropped as the rain tampered off on September 11 .
= = = Rest of the United States = = =
In Wyoming , the cyclone is credited for the first known sighting of a white ibis in the state 's history . In Montana , Kathleen dropped locally heavy rainfall approaching 2 inches ( 51 mm ) in localized spots , enough to become the wettest known tropical cyclone in state history . The remnants of the storm also affected Oregon and Idaho .
= Mamoru Miyano =
Mamoru Miyano ( 宮野 真守 , Miyano Mamoru , born Wednesday , June 8 , 1983 ) is a Japanese voice actor , actor , and singer from Saitama Prefecture . He is best known for his roles on Ouran High School Host Club , Vampire Knight , Death Note , Soul Eater , Tokyo Ghoul , Free ! , Mobile Suit Gundam 00 , Kōtetsu Sangokushi , Steins ; Gate , Nobunaga the Fool , and Uta no Prince @-@ sama . At the 2007 Seiyu Awards he was nominated for two awards for his role as Light Yagami in Death Note , and in 2008 , he won the " Best Voice Actor " award at the 2008 Tokyo International Anime Fair . At the 2008 Seiyu Awards , Miyano won " Best Lead Actor Award " for his role as Setsuna F Seiei in Mobile Suit Gundam 00 , and as Hakugen Rikuson in Kōtetsu Sangokushi .
Miyano began his career as a musician in 2007 . He released his debut single , " Kuon " ( 久遠 , lit . Eternity ) , in May on the King Records label . In March 2009 , his debut album Break was released .
= = Acting career = =
Miyano started his acting career in 1990 and provides the voice of Riku in the Japanese version of the PlayStation 2 video game Kingdom Hearts . He then voiced Kiba , the main character of anime series Wolf 's Rain . He returned as the voice for Riku in the 2004 Game Boy Advance game Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , as well as Kingdom Hearts II in 2005 , and in Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories in 2007 .
In 2006 , Miyano voiced Light Yagami for the anime version of the manga Death Note . In 2007 , for his role as Light Yagami , he was nominated for two awards at the first Seiyu Awards : " Best Lead Actor Award " and " Best New Actor Awards " . Also in 2007 , Miyano went on to provide the voice of Setsuna F Seiei , the main character of Mobile Suit Gundam 00 . He won his first award , " Best Voice Actor " , at the 2008 Tokyo International Anime Fair for his portrayal of Light Yagami and Setsuna F Seiei . In 2008 , Miyano took on the role as Setsuna F Seiei again for the second season of Mobile Suit Gundam 00 . He won his first Seiyu award for the roles of Setsuna F Seiei and of Hakugen Rikuson in Kōtetsu Sangokushi . He has also voiced Zero Kiryu from the series Vampire Knight and Vampire Knight Guilty , as well as Death The Kid in the anime Soul Eater . He also provided the voice of Tamaki Suoh in the anime version of Ouran High School Host Club , Okabe Rintarō from Steins ; Gate , Ling Yao from Fullmetal Alchemist Brotherhood , Oda Nobunaga from Nobunaga the Fool , and Rin Matsuoka from Free ! Iwatobi Swim Club and Free ! Eternal Summer .
In addition to voice acting , Miyano has also appeared on camera . His first acting job was in 1992 in Tokusou Exceedraft , where he appeared in a flashback as a child in a yakuza member 's past . In 2003 , Miyano joined the cast of The Prince of Tennis Musical playing Tetsu Ishida ( 石田 鉄 , Ishida Tetsu ) . He made his film debut in 2006 's The Prince of Tennis . He also made a guest appearance in the drama The Quiz Show in 2008 . In 2009 , he has voiced Ultraman Zero from the new movie , Mega Monster Battle : Ultra Galaxy Legend The Movie .
In 2010 , he began voicing Dent in the popular Pokémon anime series . In the same year he starred with fashion model and actress Ayumi Uehara and fellow voice actors Tomokazu Sugita , Tomokazu Seki , Rikiya Koyama , Yuka Hirata , Showtaro Morikubo and Yūko Kaida in the film , Wonderful World , directed by Daisuke Namikawa . Later , he voiced Ultraman Zero again in the movie , Ultraman Zero : The Revenge of Belial . In 2012 , he continued to voice Ultraman Zero in Ultraman Saga , in 2015 in Ultraman Ginga S : Showdown ! Ultra 10 Warriors ! ! , as well as in the new movie , Ultraman X : Here It Comes ! Our Ultraman in 2016 .
= = Musical career = =
On May 28 , 2007 on the King Records label , Miyano debuted as a singer with the single " Kuon " ( 久遠 , Eternity ) . " Kuon " debuted at number 47 on the Oricon charts and was used as the ending theme song for anime series Kōtetsu Sangokushi . On June 13 , 2007 , with fellow voice actress Romi Park , the duo released a collaboration single titled " Fight " , which debuted on the Oricon chart at number 73 . On June 4 , 2008 he released his second single , " Discovery " , which was the intro song for PlayStation 2 video game Fushigi Yūgi : Suzaku Ibun . The song debuted at number 24 on the chart .
In August 2008 , Miyano released the character single " Soup / Hakosora " , under the name Mamoru Miyano comes across Setsuna F Seiei ( 宮野真守 come across 刹那 ・ F ・ セイエイ ) ; it debuted at number 18 . In December he released his third single , " ... Kimi e " ( … 君へ , ... To You ) , which also debuted at number 18 . On March 11 , 2009 Miyano released his debut album , Break , which debuted at number 20 . On April 11 , 2009 , a month after the release of his album , Miyano went on his first tour , 1st Live Tour 2009 : Breaking .
In 2010 , Miyano released his second album , Wonder . The album charted at number 20 on the Oricon Weekly Albums chart . Following the album 's release , Miyano went on his second tour , Mamoru Miyano Live Tour 2010 : Wondering . In April 2012 , Miyano released his third album , Fantasista . The album charted at number 4 on the Oricon Weekly Albums chart .
In 2013 , Miyano made his first appearance in on NHK 's music variety show Music Japan .
In May 2014 , Miyano went on his 6th live tour ~ Wakening ! ~ where he traveled around Japan . The DVD was released January 28 , 2015 .
= = Personal life = =
Miyano married in late 2008 . He and his wife have a son together .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = Promotional singles = = =
= = = Video releases = = =
Mamoru Miyano Live Tour 2009 : Smile & Break ( 2010 )
Mamoru Miyano Live Tour 2010 : Wondering ( 2011 )
Mamoru Miyano Live 2011 – 12 : Fight & Stand ( 2012 )
Mamoru Miyano Live 2012 – 13 : Beginning ( 2013 )
Mamoru Miyano Special Live 2013 : Traveling ! ( 2014 )
Mamoru Miyano Live 2014 : WAKENING ! ( 2015 )
Mamoru Miyano Live 2015 : AMAZING ( 2015 )
Mamoru Miyano Live 2015 – 16 : GENERATING ( 2016 )
= = Filmography = =
= = = Television anime = = =
= = = Tokusatsu = = =
Special Rescue Exceedraft ( 1992 ) – Child
Zyuden Sentai Kyoryuger ( 2013 ) – Ferocious Knight D
Ultraman Retsuden ( 2011 ) - Ultraman Zero ( Voice ) , Singer ( Ep . 72 cameo ; actor )
New Ultraman Retsuden ( 2013 ) Ultraman Zero
Ultraman X ( 2015 ) - Ultraman Zero ( Ep.5 )
= = = Original video animation ( OVA ) = = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = = Dubbing = = =
= = = = Live @-@ action = = = =
Caitlin 's Way ( Griffen Lowe ( Jeremy Foley ) )
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory ( Willy Wonka ( Johnny Depp ) )
Halloweentown High ( Dylan Cromwell ( Joey Zimmerman ) )
Hannah Montana : The Movie ( Travis Brody ( Lucas Till ) )
Harry Potter film series ( Percy Weasley ( Chris Rankin ) )
The Musketeers ( d 'Artagnan ( Luke Pasqualino ) )
Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief ( Percy Jackson ( Logan Lerman ) )
Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters ( Percy Jackson ( Logan Lerman ) )
The Spy Next Door ( Larry ( Lucas Till ) )
Upside Down ( Adam Kirk ( Jim Sturgess ) )
= = = = Animation = = = =
Bionicle : Mask of Light ( Takua Takanuva )
Despicable Me 2 ( Antonio Pérez )
The Lorax ( Ted Wiggins )
Minions ( Herb )
My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic ( Shining Armor )
The Secret Life of Pets ( Tiberius )
X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine ( Scott Summers )
= = = Drama CD = = =
Dolls ( Seiju Shikibu )
Free ! ( Rin Matsuoka )
Karneval ( Yogi )
Mobile Suit Gundam 00 ( Setsuna F Seiei )
Ouran High School Host Club ( Tamaki Suoh )
Soul Eater ( Death the Kid )
Starry Sky ( Shiki Kagurazaka )
Steins ; Gate ( Rintaro Okabe )
Uta no Prince @-@ sama ( Tokiya Ichinose )
Vampire Knight ( Zero Kiryu and Ichiru Kiryu )
Fate / Stay Night : Garden of Avalon- glorious afterimage ( Bedivere )
= = = Comics = = =
Strobe Edge ( Ren Ichinose )
= Japanese ironclad Hiei =
Hiei ( 比叡 , Hiei ) was the second and last vessel of the Kongō @-@ class ironclad corvettes built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the 1870s . They were built in the United Kingdom because the Japanese were unable to build ironclad warships in Japan . She became a training ship in 1887 and made training cruises to the Mediterranean and to countries on the edge of the Pacific Ocean . The ship returned to active duty during the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 where she was damaged during the Battle of the Yalu River . Hiei also participated in the Battle of Weihaiwei and the invasion of Formosa in 1895 . The ship resumed her training duties after the war , although she played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . She was reclassified as a survey ship in 1906 and was sold for scrap in 1912 .
= = Design and description = =
During the brief Japanese occupation of Taiwan in 1874 , tensions heightened between China and Japan , and the possibility of war caused the Japanese government to realize that it needed to reinforce its navy . The following year the government placed an order for the armored frigate Fusō and two Kongō @-@ class ships , designed by the British naval architect Sir Edward Reed , from British shipyards as no Japanese shipyard was able to build a ship of this size .
Hiei was 220 feet ( 67 @.@ 1 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 41 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) . She had a forward draft of 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) and drew 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) aft . The ship displaced 2 @,@ 248 long tons ( 2 @,@ 284 t ) and had a crew of 22 officers and 212 enlisted men . Her hull was of composite construction with an iron framework planked with wood .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship had a single two @-@ cylinder , double @-@ expansion , horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine , driving a single propeller using steam from six cylindrical boilers . The engine was designed to produce 2 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) to give the Kongō @-@ class ironclads a speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) . During her sea trials on 7 December 1877 , the ship reached a maximum speed of 13 @.@ 92 knots ( 25 @.@ 78 km / h ; 16 @.@ 02 mph ) . She carried enough coal to steam 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ironclad was barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 14 @,@ 036 square feet ( 1 @,@ 304 m2 ) . The ship was reboilered at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal in 1889 with two steel cylindrical boilers ; the new boilers proved to be less powerful during sea trials . Hiei reached a maximum speed of 10 @.@ 34 knots ( 19 @.@ 15 km / h ; 11 @.@ 90 mph ) from 1 @,@ 279 ihp ( 954 kW ) . Her topmasts were removed in 1895 .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Hiei was fitted with three 172 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 8 in ) Krupp rifled breech @-@ loading ( RBL ) guns and six RBL 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) Krupp guns . All of the 172 @-@ millimeter guns were positioned as chase guns , two forward and one aft . The 152 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted on the broadside . The ship also carried two short 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns for use ashore or mounted on the ship 's boats .
During the 1880s , the armament of the ship was reinforced with the addition of four quadruple @-@ barreled 25 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) Nordenfelt and two quintuple @-@ barreled 11 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) Nordenfeldt machine guns for defense against torpedo boats . Around the same time she also received two 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes for Schwartzkopff torpedoes . The anti @-@ torpedo boat armament was again reinforced in 1897 by the addition of a pair of 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . After the end of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Hiei 's armament was reduced to six ex @-@ Russian 12 @-@ pounder guns and six 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounders .
The Kongō @-@ class corvettes had a wrought @-@ iron armor waterline belt 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships that tapered to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) at the ends of the ship .
= = History = =
The contract for Hiei was awarded to Milford Haven Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. in Pembroke Dock , Wales , on 24 September 1875 for the price of £ 119 @,@ 600 , exclusive of armament . Japanese sources universally give the date for Hiei 's keel @-@ laying as 24 September 1875 — the same as that for the awarding of the contract — but historian Hans Langerer describes this as improbable , arguing that no shipyard would order enough material to begin construction without cash in hand . She was launched on 12 June 1877 ; Reed 's daughter smashed a bottle of champagne on the ship 's bow in the traditional Western style . The ship was named for Mount Hiei . Completed in February 1878 , Hiei sailed for Japan on 22 March under the command of a British captain and with a British crew because the IJN was not yet ready for such a long voyage . One of the passengers aboard her was the future admiral Togo Heihachiro , who had just completed six years of study in the United Kingdom . She arrived in Yokohama on 22 May and was assigned to the Tokai Naval District a month later . On 10 July a formal ceremony was held in Yokohama for the receipt of the ship that was attended by the Meiji Emperor and many senior government officials . The ship was opened for tours by the nobility , their families and invited guests for three days after the ceremony . On 14 July , the general public was allowed to tour the ship for a week .
During 1880 , Hiei visited ports in India , Persia , the Persian Gulf and various ports in Southeast Asia . The ship made annual port visits to Jinsen in Korea in 1881 through 1883 . She was assigned to the Small Standing Fleet in 1886 and became a training ship in 1887 the following year . Together with her sister ship Kongō , Hiei sailed from Shinagawa , Tokyo on 13 August 1889 on a training cruise to the Mediterranean with cadets from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy , returning on 2 February 1890 . On 5 October the sisters departed Shinagawa for Kobe to pick up the 69 survivors of the wrecked Ottoman frigate Ertuğrul and continued on to Constantinople , Turkey to return them to their homeland . They arrived on 2 January 1891 , and the ships ' officers were received by Sultan Abdul Hamid II . The ships also carried a class of naval cadets . On the return voyage , they made a port visit at Piraeus where they were visited by King George I of Greece and his son , Crown Prince Constantine . Making stops at Alexandria , Port Said , Aden , Colombo , Singapore and Hong Kong , the sisters arrived at Shinagawa on 10 May .
Hiei began another cadet cruise on 30 September 1891 and visited Australia and Manila before returning to Shinagawa on 10 April 1892 . The ship was not in service in 1893 , but she was recommissioned before the beginning of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War in 1894 . Hiei was assigned to the Standing Fleet on 2 July . She was the last ship in the Japanese line during the Battle of the Yalu River in September and was heavily damaged when her captain decided to pass through the Chinese fleet rather than try to keep up with the faster Main Squadron . The ship became the target of most of the Chinese ships and was forced to disengage to prevent further damage . Hiei was transferred to the West @-@ Sea Fleet on 14 October , and the sisters were assigned to the Second Raiding Unit in December for operations against the Chinese port of Weihaiwei . The ships were present during the Battle of Weihaiwei in January – February 1895 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, although neither saw any significant combat . Hiei took part in the invasion of Formosa in 1895 , and participated in the bombardment of the Chinese coastal forts at Takow ( Kaohsiung ) on 13 October 1895 .
After the war , Hiei alternated her training cruises with Kongō , making the 1897 cruise to the West Coast of North America and Hawaii from 13 April to 20 September and repeating the same cruise from 14 December 1898 to 28 August 1899 . During that cruise , on 21 March 1898 , the ship was re @-@ designated as a 3rd @-@ class coast defense ship , although she retained her training duties . Both ships made the 1902 cruise , their last , to Manila and Australia from 19 February to 25 August . Hiei played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War before she was reclassified as a survey ship in 1906 . Hiei was stricken from the Navy List on 1 April 1911 and ordered to be sold on 21 December . The exact date of her sale is not known , although Maizuru Naval District reported her sale on 25 March 1912 .
= Moncton =
Moncton / ˈmʌŋktən / is a city located in Westmorland County in the southeastern portion of the province of New Brunswick , Canada . Situated in the Petitcodiac River Valley , Moncton lies at the geographic centre of the Maritime Provinces . The city has earned the nickname " Hub City " due to its central location in the region and its history as a railway and land transportation hub for the Maritimes .
The city proper has a population of 69 @,@ 074 ( 2011 ) and has a land area of 142 km2 ( 55 sq mi ) . The Moncton CMA has a population of 138 @,@ 644 ( 2011 ) , making it the largest CMA in New Brunswick , the second @-@ largest CMA in the Maritime Provinces , and the third @-@ largest CMA in Atlantic Canada . The CMA includes the neighbouring city of Dieppe and the town of Riverview , as well as adjacent suburban areas in Westmorland and Albert counties .
Although the Moncton area was originally settled in 1733 , Moncton is considered to have been officially founded in 1766 with the arrival of Pennsylvania Dutch immigrants from Philadelphia . Initially an agricultural settlement , Moncton was not incorporated until 1855 . The city was named for Lt. Col. Robert Monckton , the British officer who had captured nearby Fort Beauséjour a century earlier . A significant wooden shipbuilding industry had developed in the community by the mid @-@ 1840s , allowing for the civic incorporation in 1855 , but the shipbuilding economy collapsed in the 1860s , causing the town to lose its civic charter in 1862 . Moncton regained its charter in 1875 after the community 's economy rebounded , mainly due to a growing railway industry . In 1871 , the Intercolonial Railway of Canada had chosen Moncton to be its headquarters , and Moncton remained a railroad town for well over a century until the closure of the Canadian National Railway ( CNR ) locomotive shops in the late 1980s . Although the economy of Moncton was traumatized twice — by the collapse of the shipbuilding industry in the 1860s and by the closure of the CNR locomotive shops in the 1980s — the city was able to rebound strongly on both occasions . The city adopted the motto Resurgo after its rebirth as a railway town . At present , the city 's economy is stable and diversified , primarily based on its traditional transportation , distribution , retailing , and commercial heritage , and supplemented by strength in the educational , health care , financial , information technology , and insurance sectors . The strength of Moncton 's economy has received national recognition and the local unemployment rate is consistently less than the national average .
= = History = =
Acadians first settled the head of the Bay of Fundy in the 1670s . The first reference to the " Petcoucoyer River " was on the De Meulles map of 1686 . Settlement of the Petitcodiac and Memramcook river valleys began about 1700 , gradually extending inland and reaching the site of present @-@ day Moncton in 1733 . The first Acadian settlers in the Moncton area established a marshland farming community and chose to name their settlement Le Coude ( The Elbow ) , an allusion to the 90 ° bend in the river near the site of the settlement .
In 1755 , nearby Fort Beausejour was captured by English forces under the command of Lt. Col. Robert Monckton . The Beaubassin region including the Memramcook and Petitcodiac river valleys subsequently fell under English control .
Later that year , Governor Charles Lawrence issued a decree ordering the expulsion of the Acadian population from Nova Scotia ( including recently captured areas of Acadia such as le Coude ) . This action came to be known as the " Great Upheaval " .
The reaches of the upper Petitcodiac River valley then came under the control of the Philadelphia Land Company ( one of the principals of which was Benjamin Franklin ) and in 1766 Pennsylvania Dutch settlers arrived to re @-@ establish the pre @-@ existing farming community at Le Coude . The Settlers consisted of eight families ; Heinrick Stief ( Steeves ) , Jacob Treitz ( Trites ) , Matthias Sommer ( Somers ) , Jacob Reicker ( Ricker ) , Charles Jones ( Schantz ) , George Wortmann ( Wortman ) , Michael Lutz ( Lutes ) , and George Koppel ( Copple ) . There is a plaque dedicated in their honor at the mouth of Hall 's Creek . They renamed the settlement " The Bend " . The Bend remained an agricultural settlement for nearly 80 more years . Even by 1836 , there were only 20 households in the community . At this time , the Westmorland Road became open to year round travel and a regular mail coach service was established between Saint John and Halifax . The Bend became an important transfer and rest station along the route . Over the next decade , lumbering and then shipbuilding would become important industries in the area .
The turning point for the community was when Joseph Salter took over ( and expanded ) a shipyard at The Bend in 1847 . The expanded shipyard ultimately grew to employ about 400 workers . The Bend subsequently developed a service @-@ based economy to support the shipyard and gradually began to acquire all the amenities of a growing town . The prosperity engendered by the wooden shipbuilding industry allowed The Bend to incorporate as the town of Moncton in 1855 . The town was named for Lt. Col. Robert Monckton , but a clerical error at the time the town was incorporated resulted in the misspelling of the community 's name , which has been perpetuated to the present day . The first mayor of Moncton was the shipbuilder Joseph Salter .
Two years later , in 1857 , the European and North American Railway opened its line from Moncton to nearby Shediac ; this was followed by a line from Moncton to Saint John opening in 1859 . At about the time of the arrival of the railway , the popularity of steam @-@ powered ships forced an end to the era of wooden shipbuilding . The Salter shipyard closed in 1858 . The resulting industrial collapse caused Moncton to surrender its civic charter in 1862 .
Moncton 's economic depression did not last long and a second era of prosperity came to the area in 1871 when Moncton was selected to be the headquarters of the Intercolonial Railway of Canada ( ICR ) . The arrival of the ICR in Moncton was a seminal event for the community . For the next 120 years , the history of the city would be firmly linked with that of the railway . In 1875 , Moncton was able to reincorporate as a town and adopted the motto " Resurgo " ( Latin for I rise again ) . One year later , the ICR line to Quebec was opened . The railway boom that emanated from this and the associated employment growth allowed Moncton to achieve city status on 23 April 1890 .
Moncton grew rapidly during the early 20th century , particularly after provincial lobbying helped the city become the eastern terminus of the massive National Transcontinental Railway project in 1912 . In 1918 , the ICR and NTR were merged by the federal government into the newly formed Canadian National Railways ( CNR ) system . The ICR shops would become CNR 's major locomotive repair facility for the Maritimes and Moncton became the headquarters for CNR 's Maritime division . The T. Eaton Company 's catalogue warehouse moved to the city in the early 1920s , employing over seven hundred people . Transportation and distribution became increasingly important to the Moncton economy throughout the middle part of the 20th century . The Moncton Airport opened in 1929 and quickly became an important fixture in the community . During the Second World War the Canadian Army built a large military supply base in the city to service the Maritime military establishment . The CNR continued to dominate the economy of the city with railway employment in Moncton peaked at nearly six thousand workers in the 1950s before beginning a slow decline .
Moncton was placed on the Trans @-@ Canada Highway network in the early 1960s after Route 2 was built along the northern perimeter of the city . Subsequent development saw Route 15 built between the city and Shediac . At the same time , the Petitcodiac River Causeway was constructed . The Université de Moncton was founded in 1963 . This institution became an important resource in the development of Acadian culture in the area .
The late 1970s and the 1980s again saw a period of economic hardship hit the city as several major employers closed or restructured . The Eatons catalogue division , CNR 's locomotive shops facility and CFB Moncton were all closed during this time throwing thousands of citizens out of work .
Diversification in the early 1990s saw the rise of information technology , led by call centres which made use of the city 's bilingual workforce . By the late 1990s , retail , manufacturing and service expansion began to occur in all sectors and within a decade of the closure of the CNR locomotive shops Moncton had more than made up for its employment losses . This dramatic turnaround in the fortunes of the city has been termed the " Moncton Miracle " .
The growth of the community has continued unabated since the 1990s and has actually been accelerating . The confidence of the community has been bolstered by its ability to host major events such as the Francophonie Summit in 1999 , a Rolling Stones concert in 2005 , the Memorial Cup in 2006 and both the IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics and a neutral site regular season CFL football game in 2010 . Recent positive developments include the Atlantic Baptist University ( later renamed Crandall University ) achieving full university status and relocating to a new campus in 1996 , the Greater Moncton Airport opening a new terminal building and becoming a designated international airport in 2002 , and the opening of the new Gunningsville Bridge to Riverview in 2005 . In 2002 , Moncton became Canada 's first officially bilingual city . In the 2006 census , Moncton was officially designated a Census Metropolitan Area and became the largest metropolitan area in the province of New Brunswick .
= = Geography = =
Moncton lies in southeastern New Brunswick , at the geographic centre of the Maritime Provinces . The city is located along the north bank of the Petitcodiac River at a point where the river bends acutely from a west − east to north − south flow . This geographical feature has contributed significantly to historical names given to the community .
Petitcodiac in the Mi 'kmaq language has been translated as meaning " bends like a bow " . The early Acadian settlers in the region named their community Le Coude which means " the elbow " . Subsequent English immigrants changed the name of the settlement to The Bend of the Petitcodiac ( or simply The Bend ) .
The Petitcodiac river valley at Moncton is broad and relatively flat , bounded by a long ridge to the north ( Lutes Mountain ) and by the rugged Caledonia Highlands to the south . Moncton lies at the original head of navigation on the river , however a causeway to Riverview ( constructed in 1968 ) resulted in extensive sedimentation of the river channel downstream and rendered the Moncton area of the waterway unnavigable . On 14 April 2010 , the causeway gates were opened in an effort to restore the silt @-@ laden river .
= = = Tidal bore = = =
The Petitcodiac River exhibits one of North America 's few tidal bores : a regularly occurring wave that travels up the river on the leading edge of the incoming tide . The bore is as a result of the extreme tides of the Bay of Fundy . Originally , the bore was very impressive , sometimes between 1 and 2 metres ( 3 ft 3 in and 6 ft 7 in ) in height and extending across the 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) width of the Petitcodiac River in the Moncton area . This wave would occur twice a day at high tide , travelling at an average speed of 13 km / h ( 8 @.@ 1 mph ) and producing an audible roar . Unsurprisingly , the " bore " became a very popular early tourist attraction for the city , but when the Petitcodiac causeway was built in the 1960s , the river channel quickly silted in and reduced the bore so that it rarely exceeds 15 to 20 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) in height . On 14 April 2010 , the causeway gates were opened in an effort to restore the silt @-@ laden river . A recent tidal bore since the opening of the causeway gates measured a 2 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) wave , unseen for many years .
= = = Nearby natural features = = =
There are many natural attractions near Moncton . Two major national parks , Fundy National Park and Kouchibouguac National Park , are within a one @-@ hour drive of the city . The warmest salt water beaches north of Virginia can be found on the Northumberland Strait , only 15 minutes away at Parlee Beach in the nearby town of Shediac . New Brunswick 's signature natural attraction , the Hopewell Rocks , are a half @-@ hour 's drive down the Petitcodiac river valley . Cape Enrage , located near Alma , includes a historic lighthouse , fossil cliffs , scenic vistas , and adventure tourism . The Sackville Waterfowl Park includes nature trails and a boardwalk over a freshwater marsh as well as waterfowl viewing platforms . Other nearby attractions ( within one hour of the city ) include The Cape Jourimain National Wildlife Preserve , La Dune de Bouctouche Eco @-@ Centre , ( an ecotourism site and beach ) and the Joggins Fossil Cliffs in Nova Scotia ; a UNESCO world heritage site .
= = Climate = =
Despite being less than 50 km ( 31 mi ) from the Bay of Fundy and less than 30 km ( 19 mi ) from the Northumberland Strait , the climate tends to be more continental than maritime during the summer and winter seasons , with maritime influences somewhat tempering the transitional seasons of spring and autumn .
Moncton has a warm summer continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) with uniform precipitation distribution . Winter days are typically cold but generally sunny with solar radiation generating some warmth . Daytime high temperatures usually range a few degrees below the freezing point . Major snowfalls can result from nor 'easter ocean storms moving up the east coast of North America . These major snowfalls typically average 20 – 30 cm ( 8 – 12 in ) and are frequently mixed with rain or freezing rain . Spring is frequently delayed because the sea ice that forms in the nearby Gulf of St. Lawrence during the previous winter requires time to melt , and this will cool onshore winds , which can extend inland as far as Moncton . The ice burden in the gulf has diminished considerably over the course of the last decade ( which may be a consequence of global warming ) , and the springtime cooling effect has weakened as a result . Daytime temperatures above freezing are typical by late February . Trees are usually in full leaf by late May . Summers are hot and humid due to the seasonal prevailing westerly winds strengthening the continental tendencies of the local climate . Daytime highs sometimes reach more than 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . Rainfall is generally modest , especially in late July and August , and periods of drought are not uncommon . Autumn daytime temperatures remain mild until late October . First snowfalls usually do not occur until late November and consistent snow cover on the ground does not happen until late December . The Fundy coast of New Brunswick occasionally experiences the effects of post @-@ tropical storms . The stormiest weather of the year , with the greatest precipitation and the strongest winds , usually occurs during the fall / winter transition ( November to mid @-@ January ) .
= = Cityscape = =
Moncton generally remains a " low rise " city . The city 's skyline however encompasses many buildings and structures with varying architectural styles from many periods . The most dominant structure in the city is the Bell Aliant Tower , a 127 metres ( 417 ft ) microwave communications tower built in 1971 . When it was constructed , it was the tallest microwave communications tower of its kind in North America . It remains the tallest structure in Moncton , dwarfing the neighbouring Place L ’ Assomption by 46 metres ( 151 ft ) . Indeed , the Bell Aliant Tower is also the tallest free @-@ standing structure in all four Atlantic provinces . Assumption Place is a 20 @-@ story office building and is the headquarters of Assumption Mutual Life Insurance . This building is 81 metres ( 266 ft ) in height and is tied with Brunswick Square ( Saint John ) as the tallest building in the province . The Blue Cross Centre is a large nine @-@ story building in Downtown Moncton . Although only nine stories tall , the building is architecturally distinctive , encompasses a full city block , and is the largest office building in the city in terms of square footage . It is the home of Medavie Blue Cross and the Moncton Public Library . There are about a half dozen other buildings in Moncton that range between eight and twelve stories in height , including the Delta Beausejour and Brunswick Crowne Plaza Hotels and the Terminal Plaza office complex .
= = Urban parks = =
The most popular park in the area is Centennial Park , which contains an artificial beach , lighted cross country skiing and hiking trails , the city 's largest playground , lawn bowling and tennis facilities , a boating pond , a treetop adventure course , and Rocky Stone Field , a city owned 2 @,@ 500 seat football stadium with artificial turf , and home to the Moncton Minor Football Association . The city 's other main parks are Mapleton Park in the city 's north end , Irishtown Nature Park ( one of the largest urban nature parks in Canada ) and St. Anselme Park ( located in Dieppe ) . The numerous neighbourhood parks throughout the metro Moncton area include Bore View Park ( which overlooks the Petitcodiac River ) , and the downtown Victoria Park , which features a bandshell , flower gardens , fountain , and the city 's cenotaph . There is an extensive system of hiking and biking trails in Metro Moncton . The Riverfront Trail is part of the Trans Canada Trail system , and various monuments and pavilions can be found along its length .
= = Demography = =
The population of Moncton is 69 @,@ 074 ( 2011 Census ) . Along with Fredericton and Halifax , Moncton is one of only three Maritime cities to register a population increase in recent years .
The majority of Moncton residents are native English speakers , but the city also has a substantial French @-@ speaking Acadian population ( 31 @.@ 9 % ) . Almost all Monctonians speak English ( 64 @.@ 6 % ) or French ( 31 @.@ 9 % ) as first languages ; 1 @.@ 6 % speak both languages as a first language , and 6 @.@ 9 % speak another language . About 46 % of the city population is bilingual and understands both English and French ; the only other Canadian cities that approach this level of linguistic duality are Ottawa , Sudbury , and Montreal . Moncton became the first officially bilingual city in the country in 2002 . The adjacent city of Dieppe is about 73 % Francophone and has benefited from an ongoing rural depopulation of the Acadian Peninsula and areas in northern and eastern New Brunswick . The town of Riverview meanwhile is heavily ( 95 % ) Anglophone .
The census metropolitan area ( CMA ) grew by 9 @.@ 7 % between 2006 and 2011 - the fastest such rate of any metropolitan area in Atlantic Canada . The census metropolitan area had a population of 138 @,@ 644 as of the 2011 national census , which makes it the largest metropolitan area in the province of New Brunswick and the second largest in the Maritime Provinces after Halifax . The 2015 estimated CMA population is 148 @,@ 000 . The CMA includes the city of Dieppe ( population 23 @,@ 310 ) , town of Riverview ( 19 @,@ 128 ) , Moncton Parish ( 9 @,@ 421 ) , Memramcook ( 4 @,@ 831 ) , Coverdale Parish ( 4 @,@ 401 ) , and Salisbury ( 2 @,@ 208 ) .
Migration is mostly from other areas of New Brunswick ( especially the north ) , Nova Scotia ( 13 % ) , and Ontario ( 9 % ) . 62 % of new arrivals to the city are Anglophone and 38 % are Francophone .
There are 2 @,@ 990 Aboriginal people living in Moncton , who make up 4 @.@ 3 % of the city 's population . There are 3 @,@ 305 visible minorities in Moncton . Blacks and South Asians are the largest visible minority groups , comprising 1 @.@ 7 % and 0 @.@ 7 % of the city 's population , respectively . There is also a growing Korean community in Moncton .
= = Economy = =
The underpinnings of the local economy are based on Moncton 's heritage as a commercial , distribution , transportation , and retailing centre . This is due to Moncton 's central location in the Maritimes : it has the largest catchment area in Atlantic Canada with 1 @.@ 6 million people living within a three @-@ hour drive of the city . The insurance , information technology , educational , and health care sectors also are major factors in the local economy with the city 's two hospitals alone employing over five thousand people .
Moncton has garnered national attention because of the strength of its economy . The local unemployment rate averages around 6 % , which is below the national average . In 2004 Canadian Business Magazine named it " The best city for business in Canada " , and in 2007 FDi magazine named it the fifth most business friendly small @-@ sized city in North America .
A number of nationally or regionally prominent corporations have their head offices in Moncton including Atlantic Lottery Corporation , Assumption Life Insurance , Medavie Blue Cross Insurance , Armour Transportation Systems , Imvescor , Major Drilling Group International , PropertyGuys.com , and Co @-@ op Atlantic .
There are 37 call centres in the city which employ over 5000 people . Some of the larger centres include Asurion , Numeris ( formerly BBM Canada ) , Exxon Mobil , Royal Bank of Canada , Tangerine Bank ( formerly ING Direct ) , UPS , Fairmont Hotels and Resorts , Rogers Communications , and Sitel . A growing high tech sector includes companies such as Gtech , Nanoptix , International Game Technology , OAO Technology Solutions , BMM Test Labs , TrustMe , and BelTek Systems Design .
Several arms of the Irving corporation have their head offices and / or major operations in greater Moncton . These include Midland Transport , Majesta / Royale Tissues , Irving Personal Care , Master Packaging , Brunswick News , and Cavendish Farms . Kent Building Supplies ( an Irving subsidiary ) opened their main distribution centre in the Caledonia Industrial Park in 2014 . The Irving group of companies employs several thousand people in the Moncton region .
There are three large industrial parks in the metropolitan area . The Irving operations are concentrated in the Dieppe Industrial Park . The Moncton Industrial Park in the city 's west end has been expanded . Molson / Coors opened a brewery in the Caledonia Industrial Park in 2007 , its first new brewery in over fifty years . All three industrial parks also have large concentrations of warehousing and regional trucking facilities .
A new four @-@ lane Gunningsville Bridge was opened in 2005 , connecting downtown Riverview directly with downtown Moncton . On the Moncton side , the bridge connects with an extension of Vaughan Harvey Boulevard as well as to Assumption Boulevard and will serve as a catalyst for economic growth in the downtown area . This has become already evident as an expansion to the Blue Cross Centre was completed in 2006 and a Marriott Residence Inn opened in 2008 . The new regional law courts on Assumption Blvd opened in 2011 . Construction will begin on a new downtown 9 @,@ 000 seat multipurpose events centre and arena on the site of the former Highfield Square shopping centre in 2016 . On the Riverview side , the Gunningsville Bridge now connects to a new ring road around the town and is expected to serve as a catalyst for development in east Riverview .
The retail sector in Moncton has become one of the most important pillars of the local economy . Major retail projects such as Champlain Place in Dieppe and the Wheeler Park Power Centre on Trinity Drive have become major destinations for locals and for tourists alike .
Tourism is an important industry in Moncton and historically owes its origins to the presence of two natural attractions , the tidal bore of the Petitcodiac River ( see above ) and the optical illusion of Magnetic Hill . The tidal bore was the first phenomenon to become an attraction but the construction of the Petitcodiac causeway in the 1960s effectively extirpated the attraction . Magnetic Hill , on the city 's northwest outskirts , is the city 's most famous attraction . The Magnetic Hill area includes ( in addition to the phenomenon itself ) , a golf course , major water park , zoo , and an outdoor concert facility . A $ 90 million casino / hotel / entertainment complex opened at Magnetic Hill in 2010 .
= = Arts and culture = =
Moncton 's Capitol Theatre , an 800 @-@ seat restored 1920s @-@ era vaudeville house on Main Street , is the main centre for cultural entertainment for the city . The theatre hosts a performing arts series and provides a venue for various theatrical performances as well as Symphony New Brunswick and the Atlantic Ballet Theatre of Canada . The adjacent Empress Theatre offers space for smaller performances and recitals . The Molson Canadian Centre at Casino New Brunswick provides a 2 @,@ 000 seat venue for major touring artists and performing groups .
The Moncton @-@ based Atlantic Ballet Theatre tours mainly in Atlantic Canada but also tours nationally and internationally on occasion . Théâtre l 'Escaouette is a Francophone live theatre company which has its own auditorium and performance space on Botsford Street . The Anglophone Live Bait Theatre is based in the nearby university town of Sackville . There are several private dance and music academies in the metropolitan area , including the Capitol Theatre 's own performing arts school .
The Aberdeen Cultural Centre is a major Acadian cultural cooperative containing multiple studios and galleries . Among other tenants , the Centre houses the Galerie Sans Nom , the principal private art gallery in the city .
The city 's two main museums are the Moncton Museum at Resurgo Place on Mountain Road and the Musée acadien at Université de Moncton . The Moncton Museum reopened following major renovations and an expansion to include the Transportation Discovery Centre . The Discovery Centre includes many hands on exhibits highlighting the city 's transportation heritage . The city also has several recognized historical sites . The Free Meeting House was built in 1821 and is a New England @-@ style meeting house located adjacent to the Moncton Museum . The Thomas Williams House , a former home of a city industrialist built in 1883 , is now maintained in period style and serves as a genealogical research centre and is also home to several multicultural organizations . The Treitz Haus is located on the riverfront adjacent to Bore View Park and has been dated to 1769 both by architectural style and by dendrochronology . It is the only surviving building from the Pennsylvania Dutch era and is the oldest surviving building in the province of New Brunswick .
Moncton is home to the Frye Festival , an annual bilingual literary celebration held in honour of world @-@ renowned literary critic and favourite son Northrop Frye . This event attracts noted writers and poets from around the world and takes place in the month of April .
The Atlantic Nationals Automotive Extravaganza , held each July , is the largest annual gathering of classic cars in Canada . Other notable events include The Atlantic Seafood Festival in August , The HubCap Comedy Festival , and the World Wine Festival , both held in the spring .
= = Sports = =
= = = Facilities = = =
The Moncton Coliseum is a 6 @,@ 554 @-@ seat arena which serves as a venue for major concerts and trade shows and is the home of the Moncton Wildcats of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League . The CN Sportplex is a major recreational facility which has been built on the former CN Shops property . It includes ten ballfields , six soccer fields , an indoor rink complex with four ice surfaces ( the Superior Propane Centre ) and the Hollis Wealth Sports Dome , an indoor air supported multi @-@ use building . The Sports Dome is large enough to allow for year @-@ round football , soccer and golf activities . A newly constructed YMCA near the CN Sportsplex has extensive cardio and weight training facilities , as well as three indoor pools . The CEPS at Université de Moncton contains an indoor track and a 37 @.@ 5 metres ( 123 ft ) swimming pool with diving towers . The new Moncton Stadium , also located at the U de M campus was built for the 2010 IAAF World Junior Track & Field Championships . It has a permanent seating for 10 @,@ 000 , but is expandable to a capacity of over 20 @,@ 000 for events such as professional Canadian football . The only velodrome in Atlantic Canada is in Dieppe . The metro area has a total of 12 indoor hockey rinks and three curling clubs . Other public sporting and recreational facilities are scattered throughout the metropolitan area , including a new $ 18 million aquatic centre in Dieppe opened in 2009 . A new 9 @,@ 200 seat downtown arena and events centre has been approved and is expected to open in 2018 .
Greater Moncton has many golfing facilities . There are nine 18 @-@ hole golf courses in the census metropolitan area , four of which are residential courses with courseside housing developments either existing or under construction . Both the Royal Oaks and Fox Creek golf clubs can be considered championship courses , with Royal Oaks being the first Rees Jones designed golf course in Canada . Other notable courses include the Moncton Golf & Country Club , Memramcook Valley Golf Club and the Mountain Woods Golf Club .
= = = Sports teams = = =
The Moncton Wildcats play major junior hockey in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) . They won the President 's Cup , the QMJHL championship in both 2006 and 2010 . The Moncton Mets played baseball in the New Brunswick Senior Baseball League and won the Canadian Senior Baseball Championship in 2006 . The Dieppe Commandos ( formerly known as the Moncton Beavers ) are a member of the Maritime Junior A Hockey League . The Universite de Moncton has a number of active CIS university sports programs including hockey , soccer , and volleyball . These teams are a part of the Canadian Interuniversity Sport program . Historically , Moncton was home to a professional American Hockey League franchise from 1978 to 1994 . The New Brunswick Hawks won the AHL Calder Cup by defeating the Binghamton Whalers in 1981 @-@ 1982 .
In 2011 , the Moncton Miracles began play as one of the seven charter franchises of the professional National Basketball League of Canada . In 2015 , the Moncton Fisher Cats began play in the New Brunswick Senior Baseball League . They were formed by a merger between the Moncton Mets and the Hub City Brewers of the NBSBL .
= = = Major events = = =
Moncton has hosted many large sporting events . The 2006 Memorial Cup was held in Moncton with the hometown Moncton Wildcats losing in the championship final to rival Quebec Remparts . Moncton hosted the Canadian Interuniversity Sports ( CIS ) Men 's University Hockey Championship in 2007 and 2008 . The World Men 's Curling Championship was held in Moncton in 2009 ; the second time this event has taken place in the city .
Moncton also hosted the 2010 IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics . This was the largest sporting event ever held in Atlantic Canada , with athletes from over 170 countries in attendance . The new 10 @,@ 000 seat capacity Moncton Stadium was built for this event on the Université de Moncton campus . The construction of this new stadium led directly to Moncton being awarded a regular season neutral site CFL game between the Toronto Argonauts and the Edmonton Eskimos , which was held on 26 September 2010 . This was the first neutral site regular season game in the history of the Canadian Football League and was played before a capacity crowd of 20 @,@ 750 . Additional CFL regular season games were held in 2011 and 2013 .
Moncton was one of only six Canadian cities chosen to host the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup .
Major sporting events hosted by Moncton include :
= = Tourism , entertainment and shopping = =
Magnetic Hill is on the northwestern outskirts of Moncton and is now the city 's most famous attraction . It is a gravity hill optical illusion , where the local topography gives the impression that you are going uphill when in fact you are going downhill .
The " Magnetic Hill Illusion " is a popular tourism draw and both the city and province have built major tourism developments on the surrounding properties to capitalize on this . The complex includes The Magnetic Hill Zoo , a nationally accredited and award winning zoo with over 400 animals displayed in themed exhibit areas . It is the largest zoo in Atlantic Canada , has well @-@ developed and popular educational program , and was ranked as the fourth best zoo in Canada in 2007 . Also on site is Magic Mountain , the largest water park in Atlantic Canada , with a half dozen large water slides , a lazy river , wave pool , children 's splash pool , and a 36 @-@ hole mini @-@ golf course . An adjacent amusement park is now under construction and will be completed in 2017 . The Magnetic Hill Concert Site , a large outdoor concert facility which holds one or two large concerts every year is located nearby . The Rolling Stones performed there in 2005 in front of 85 @,@ 000 fans . The Eagles played there in the summer of 2008 in front of 55 @,@ 000 fans . AC / DC and Bon Jovi played at the hill in 2009 , with the crowd for the AC / DC concert exceeding 70 @,@ 000 . The Magnetic Hill Concert Site has developed a reputation for holding the largest concert productions in the entire country . U2 played the final concert of their worldwide U2 360 ° Tour at Magnetic Hill on 30 July 2011 . The Casino New Brunswick , which also encompasses a hotel and 2 @,@ 000 seat entertainment venue also opened at Magnetic Hill in 2010 . The performance space at the Casino New Brunswick has already hosted many top acts on the casino circuit .
At present , the major destinations for shopping enthusiasts in Greater Moncton are the Northwest Centre , and the Wheeler Park Power Centre in Moncton , and Champlain Place in Dieppe , which , at 816 @,@ 000 square feet ( 75 @,@ 800 m2 ) , is the largest shopping mall in Atlantic Canada and has over 160 stores and services . The Bass Pro Complex is adjacent to Champlain Place and is co @-@ managed by Cadillac Fairview . It includes a Chapters bookstore , multiplex cinema complex and includes a Bass Pro Shop .
= = Government = =
The municipal government consists of a mayor and ten city councillors elected to four @-@ year terms of office . The council is non @-@ partisan with the mayor serving as the chairman , casting a ballot only in cases of a tie vote . There are four wards electing two councillors each with an additional two councillors selected at large by the general electorate . Day @-@ to @-@ day operation of the city is under the control of a City Manager .
The greater Moncton area contains nine of New Brunswick 's 49 provincial electoral districts : Moncton Centre , Moncton East , Moncton South , Moncton Southwest , Moncton Northwest , Dieppe , Shediac Bay @-@ Dieppe , Riverview and Albert . Of the nine members of the Legislative Assembly that represent greater Moncton , five belong to the Liberal party and four belong to the Progressive Conservative party .
Moncton is in the federal riding of Moncton — Riverview — Dieppe . Portions of Dieppe are in the federal riding of Beauséjour , and portions of Riverview are in the riding of Fundy Royal . In the current federal parliament , all three members from the metropolitan area belong to the Liberal party .
The current federal MP for Moncton — Riverview — Dieppe is Ginette Petitpas Taylor ( Liberal ) , as of the 2015 federal election .
= = Education = =
Separate Anglophone and Francophone school boards administer greater Moncton 's 35 public primary and secondary schools . The Francophone South School Board administers ten schools in the Moncton area . The Anglophone East School Board administers 25 schools in Greater Moncton . There are four Anglophone high schools in the metro Moncton area ; Moncton High School , Harrison Trimble High School , Bernice MacNaughton High School , and Riverview High School . The area 's Francophone high schools are École Mathieu @-@ Martin and École L 'Odyssée .
Four universities have campuses in the greater Moncton region .
The Université de Moncton is a publicly funded provincial comprehensive university and is the largest French @-@ language university in Canada outside of Quebec . The Moncton campus enrolls over 4 @,@ 000 students and offers a variety of undergraduate and post @-@ graduate degree programs , including a School of Law as well as a number of health sciences disciplines including an MD degree program ( offered in conjunction with the Université de Sherbrooke ) .
Crandall University ( formerly Atlantic Baptist University ) is a private undergraduate liberal arts university affiliated with the Convention of Atlantic Baptist Churches that enrolls about 800 students . It offers degrees in arts , science , education , business , and religious studies . Crandall is partway through a $ 24 million expansion to the campus which began in 2009 and will see three new buildings constructed , allowing enrollment to increase to 1 @,@ 200 students .
The University of New Brunswick ( Moncton ) is a small satellite health sciences campus located at the Moncton Hospital that offers degrees in nursing and medical X @-@ ray technology to over 300 students . The Dalhousie NB Medical Training Program ( in conjunction with UNBSJ ) sees about 25 medical students and residents based at the Moncton Hospital as well .
Mount Allison University is a publicly funded principally undergraduate liberal arts university . Mount A is traditionally ranked by Maclean 's magazine as one of Canada 's top undergraduate universities , taking top honours in 18 out of the last 25 years . Mount Allison University is located about a half hour from downtown Moncton in nearby Sackville . Mount Allison enrolls nearly 2 @,@ 500 students and offers degrees in arts , fine arts , music , commerce , and science ( including master 's degrees in biology and chemistry ) . Mount Allison also provides first year and extension university courses in Moncton and has developed a formal affiliation with the Moncton Flight College to allow for a bachelor 's degree in aviation . As of 2014 , Mount Allison has produced 53 Rhodes Scholars , the most of any comparable university in the Commonwealth .
Moncton is home to two campuses of the New Brunswick Community College system .
The English @-@ language New Brunswick Community College - Moncton is the largest campus in the NBCC system with an enrollment of over 1600 full @-@ time students and also hundreds of part @-@ time students . It provides training in over 30 different trades and technology disciplines . A major $ 20 million expansion / refurbishment of the campus has recently been completed which , amongst other things has allowed construction of a new academic building for the business program .
The ( smaller ) French @-@ language Collège Communautaire du Nouveau Brunswick - Dieppe provides similar training for the trades and technology sectors .
Moncton has six private vocational schools that offer practical training in a variety of fields .
The Atlantic Business College offers a variety of business , paramedical and paralegal programs .
The Atlantic Paramedic Academy , operated by Medavie EMS is a Canadian Medical Association accredited school providing training in Primary and Advanced Care Paramedicine . It is also home to the Advanced Emergent Care ( AEC ) program of the Department of National Defence ( Canada ) .
Eastern College ( formerly known as CompuCollege ) has a campus in Moncton . Operating for over 25 years , they offer 40 different programs at seven different campuses in Atlantic Canada . Programs are offered in the areas of Business and Administration , Art and Design , Health Care , Social Sciences & Justice , Tourism & Hospitality , and Trades .
Moncton Flight College is one of Canada 's oldest , largest , and most prestigious flight schools .
McKenzie College is a visual arts institution specializing in graphic design , digital media , and animation .
Oulton College , New Brunswick 's oldest private college , provides training in a variety of business , paramedical , dental sciences , pharmacy , veterinary , youth care and paralegal programs . A new campus has just been constructed off of Vaughan Harvey Blvd in central Moncton .
= = Media = =
Moncton 's daily newspaper is the Times & Transcript , which has the highest circulation of any daily newspaper in New Brunswick . More than 60 percent of city households subscribe daily , and more than 90 percent of Moncton residents read the Times & Transcript at least once a week . The city 's other publications include L 'Acadie Nouvelle , a French newspaper published in Caraquet in northern New Brunswick .
There are 16 broadcast radio stations in the city covering a variety of genres and interests , all on the FM dial . Ten of these stations are English and six are French .
Rogers Cable has its provincial headquarters and main production facilities in Moncton and broadcasts on two community channels , Cable 9 in French and Cable 10 in English . The French @-@ language arm of the CBC , Radio @-@ Canada , maintains its Atlantic Canadian headquarters in Moncton . There are three other broadcast television stations in Moncton and these represent all of the major national networks .
= = Transportation = =
Air
Moncton is served by the Greater Moncton International Airport ( YQM ) . A new airport terminal with an international arrivals area was opened in 2002 by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II . The GMIA handles about 677 @,@ 000 passengers per year , making it the second busiest airport in the Maritime provinces in terms of passenger volume . The GMIA is also the 10th busiest airport in Canada in terms of aircraft movements . Regular scheduled destinations include Halifax , Montreal , Ottawa , Toronto and Hamilton . Scheduled service providers include Air Canada , Air Canada Express , Westjet and Porter Airlines . Seasonal direct air service is provided to destinations in Cuba , Mexico , the Dominican Republic , Jamaica , and Florida , with operators including Sunwing Airlines , Air Transat , and Westjet . FedEx , UPS , and Purolator all have their Atlantic Canadian air cargo bases at the facility . The GMIA is the home of the Moncton Flight College ; the largest pilot training institution in Canada , and is also the base for the regional RCMP air service , the New Brunswick Air Ambulance Service and the regional Transport Canada hangar and depot .
There is a second smaller aerodrome near Elmwood Drive . McEwen Airfield ( CCG4 ) is a private airstrip used for general aviation . Skydive Moncton operates the province 's only nationally certified sports parachute club out of this facility .
The Moncton Area Control Centre is one of only seven regional air traffic control centres in Canada . This centre monitors over 430 @,@ 000 flights a year , 80 % of which are either entering or leaving North American airspace .
Railways
Freight rail transportation in Moncton is provided by Canadian National Railway . Although the presence of the CNR in Moncton has diminished greatly since the 1970s , the railway still maintains a large classification yard and intermodal facility in the west end of the city , and the regional headquarters for Atlantic Canada is still located here as well . Passenger rail transportation is provided by Via Rail Canada , with their train the Ocean serving the Moncton railway station three days per week to Halifax and to Montreal . The downtown Via station has been refurbished and also serves as the terminal for the Maritime Bus intercity bus service .
Highways
Moncton lies on Route 2 of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway , which leads to Nova Scotia in the east and to Fredericton and Quebec in the west . Route 15 intersects Route 2 at the eastern outskirts of Moncton , heads northeast leading to Shediac and northern New Brunswick , Route 16 connects to route 15 at Shediac and leads to Port Elgin and Prince Edward Island . Route 1 intersects Route 2 approximately 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) west of the city and leads to Saint John and the U.S. border . Wheeler Boulevard ( Route 15 ) serves as an internal ring road , extending from the Petitcodiac River Causeway to Dieppe before exiting the city and heading for Shediac . Inside the city it is an expressway bounded at either end by traffic circles .
Urban transit
The Metro Moncton Area is served by Codiac Transpo , which is operated by the City of Moncton . It operates 40 buses on 19 routes throughout Moncton , Dieppe , and Riverview .
Intercity Bus
Maritime Bus provides intercity service to the region . Moncton is the largest hub in the system . All other major centres in New Brunswick , as well as Charlottetown , Halifax , and Truro are served out of the Moncton terminal .
= = Military = =
Aside from locally formed militia units , the military did not have a significant presence in the Moncton area until the beginning of the Second World War . In 1940 , a large military supply base ( later known as CFB Moncton ) was constructed on a railway spur line north of downtown next to the CNR shops . This base served as the main supply depot for the large wartime military establishment in the Maritimes . In addition , two Commonwealth Air Training Plan bases were also built in the Moncton area during the war : No. 8 Service Flying Training School , RCAF , and No. 31 Personnel Depot , RAF . The RCAF also operated No. 5 Supply Depot in Moncton . A naval listening station was also constructed in Coverdale ( Riverview ) in 1941 to help in coordinating radar activities in the North Atlantic . Military flight training in the Moncton area terminated at the end of World War II and the naval listening station closed in 1971 . CFB Moncton remained open to supply the maritime military establishment until just after the end of the Cold War .
With the closure of CFB Moncton in the early 1990s , the military presence in Moncton has been significantly reduced . The northern portion of the former base property has been turned over to the Canada Lands Corporation and is slowly being redeveloped . The southern part of the former base remains an active DND property and is now termed the Moncton Garrison . It is affiliated with CFB Gagetown . Resident components of the garrison include the 1 Engineer Support Unit ( Regular force ) . The garrison also houses the 37 Canadian Brigade Group Headquarters ( reserve force ) and one of the 37 Brigades constituent units ; the 8th Canadian Hussars ( Princess Louise 's ) , which is an armoured reconnaissance regiment . 3 Area support unit Det Moncton , and 42 Canadian Forces Health Services Center Det Moncton provide logistical support for the base . In 2013 , the last regular forces units left the Moncton base , but the reserve units remain active and Moncton remains the 37 Canadian Brigade Unit headquarters .
= = Health facilities = =
There are two major regional referral and teaching hospitals in Moncton .
The Moncton Hospital has approximately 400 active treatment beds and is affiliated with Dalhousie University Medical School . It is home to the Northumberland family medicine residency training program and is a site for third and fourth year clinical training for medical students in the Dalhousie Medicine New Brunswick Training Program . The hospital hosts UNB degree programs in nursing and medical x @-@ ray technology and professional internships in fields such as dietetics . Specialized medical services at the hospital include neurosurgery , peripheral and neuro @-@ interventional radiology , vascular surgery , thoracic surgery , orthopedics , trauma , burn unit , medical oncology , neonatal intensive care , and adolescent psychiatry . A $ 48 million expansion to the hospital was completed in 2009 and contains a new laboratory , ambulatory care centre , and provincial level one trauma centre . A new oncology clinic was built at the hospital and opened in late 2014 . The Moncton Hospital is managed by the Horizon Health Network ( formerly the South East Regional Health Authority ) .
The Dr. Georges @-@ L.-Dumont University Hospital Centre has about 400 beds and hosts a medical training program through the local CFMNB and distant Université de Sherbrooke Medical School . There are also degree programs in nursing , medical x @-@ ray technology , medical laboratory technology and inhalotherapy which are administered by U de M. Specialized medical services include medical oncology , radiation oncology , orthopedics , vascular surgery , and nephrology . A cardiac cath lab is being studied for the hospital and a new PET / CT scanner has been installed . A future $ 75 million expansion for ambulatory care , expanded surgery suites , and medical training is also planned . The hospital is also the location of the Atlantic Cancer Research Institute . This hospital is managed by Vitalité Health Network .
Maclean 's magazine has stated that Moncton has the best health care facilities of any of the smaller sized regional cities in Canada .
= = Notable people = =
Moncton has been the home of a number of notable people , including National Hockey League Hall of Famer and NHL scoring champion Gordie Drillon , World and Olympic champion curler Russ Howard , distinguished literary critic and theorist Northrop Frye , former Governor @-@ General of Canada Roméo LeBlanc , and former Supreme Court Justice Ivan Cleveland Rand , developer of the Rand Formula and Canada 's representative on the UNSCOP commission . Robb Wells , the actor who plays Ricky on the Showcase hit comedy Trailer Park Boys hails from Moncton , along with Chris Lee , Jacques Daigle , Julie Doiron , an indie rock musician , and Holly Dignard the actress who plays Nicole Miller on the CTV series " Whistler " . Harry Currie , noted Canadian conductor , musician , educator , journalist and author was born in Moncton and graduated from MHS . Antonine Maillet , a francophone author , recipient of the Order of Canada and the " Prix Goncourt " , the highest honour in francophone literature , is also from Moncton . France Daigle , another acclaimed Acadian novelist and playwright , was born and resides in Moncton , and is noted for her pioneering use of chiac in Acadian literature , was the recipient of the 2012 Governor General 's Literary Prize in French Fiction , for her novel " Pour Sûr " ( translated into English as " For Sure " ) . Canadian hockey star Sidney Crosby graduated from Harrison Trimble High School in Moncton .
= Be Someone Else =
Be Someone Else is the second studio album by Portuguese singer @-@ songwriter Slimmy . Saul Davies was first set to be the producer of the album , however , such collaboration wasn 't possible and Slimmy started working on the album with his longtime producers Quico Serrano and Mark J Turner . Other musicians joined Slimmy for the recording of the album : Paulo Garim in the bass and Tó @-@ Zé in the drums , who already worked with slimmy in Beatsound Loverboy , and Gustavo Silva , in the keyboards and Daniel Santos in the guitar as guest musicians . He mentioned that all production process happened because of him and that he was the one with the " last word " on his projects , not the bands or producers that he worked with . Originally due for release on May 2010 , the album 's release was pushed back to 14 June 2010 . The album was released in three formats : the physical standard edition , the physical deluxe edition with 2 discs and the digital format featuring 10 tracks .
Slimmy defined the album as " freedom , with a bit of " teasing " and " sexual " , an album full of strong songs dedicated to his fans . The album is essentially a rock album , a completely opposite of Beatsound Loverboy , which features a more electronic sound , keeping , however , the same connection between rock and electro music . In an interview with JN Slimmy declared that the album feels more organic and less electronic because in Beatsound Loverboy , there was no one else to play the songs but him . While maintaining his irreverence , Slimmy guarantees , however , that what matters is to make music that people intending to sing and lyrics that people can understand . He also said that he already received criticism for not being a singer with a proper style , but " I try to provide different sensations to people .
Slimmy 's most significant promotion marked the beginning of " A Very Slimmy Tour " , starting on 18 February 2011 at the Kastrus River Klub in Esposende and ending on 30 April 2011 at the Pitch Club in Porto . Slimmy 's " Be Someone Else Tour " began on 6 May 2011 with its opening show at the Academy Week in Mirandela . Neither of the album 's singles , " Be Someone Else " and " The Games You Play " , were particularly successful , charting anywhere . Critical response to the album was generally favorable , with critics praising Quico Serrano and Mark Turner 's Be Someone Else 's polished production , calling the album more direct and humanized than Beatsound Loverboy . " Be Someone Else " was a commercial disappointment , the album didn 't managed to chart on any official chart company to date . Two music videos were released from the album : " The Games You Play " , produced by Ana Andrade , Carla Fardilha , Clara Araújo Teixeira and Helena Oliveira , premiered on 17 November 2009 on YouTube and " Be Someone Else " , produced by Riot Films and premiered on 27 June 2010 .
= = Background and development = =
= = = Production = = =
Slimmy started working on the album with his longtime producers Quico Serrano and Mark Turner by the third quarter of 2009 . Saul Davies was first set to be the producer of the album , however , Davies was on tour with the band James at the time , making such collaboration impossible . Other musicians joined Slimmy for the recording of the album : Paulo Garim in the bass and Tó @-@ Zé in the drums , who already worked with slimmy in Beatsound Loverboy , and Gustavo Silva , in the keyboards and Daniel Santos in the guitar as guest musicians . Slimmy commented that most songs on the album are re @-@ recordings which were recorded in Portugal in 2006 and 2007 , however , these suffered some changes during the recording sessions at the Wrong Planet Studios in the UK , to improve their sound quality .
In an interview with Susana Faria of JPN , Slimmy defined the album as " freedom , with a bit of " teasing " and " sexual " , an album full of strong songs dedicated to my fans " . During this same interview , Slimmy talked about the album :
= = = Concept and music = = =
The album is essentially a rock album , a completely opposite of Beatsound Loverboy , which features a more electronic sound , keeping , however , the same connection between rock and electro music . Slimmy has been influenced by rock artists such as Placebo , IAMX and Kings of Leon . Slimmy explained that Be Someone Else sounds different from Beatsound Loverboy because of its complex and structured production . Slimmy mentioned that Be Someone Else is less individualist than Beatsound Loverboy , he declares that this album is like " a message about being who you are " , while his previous album talked about his past experiences , specially about his experience in London . In an interview with Palco Principal , Slimmy was asked if he missed the " One Man Show " times . He declared that " Doesn 't matter how big the bands that play with me are , I will always feel like " one " , because , in this new record , I was the one who spent nights working on the album , not my band " . He also mentioned that all production process happened because of him and that he was the one with the " last word " on his projects , not the bands or producers that he worked with . During this same interview , Slimmy confessed that is always good to have someone with great ideas to work with , in this case , he was talking about him . He explained : " if there were five persons creating music , there would be a lot of mess , that 's why do it all and I 'm glad people trust in me for that " .
" I Can 't Live Without You In This Town " , an electro rock ballad , makes a markable difference from the other tracks , some critics called the chorus of the song memorable . The song is dedicated to a girl Slimmy met in Texas in 2004 . The album also features a song entitled " Together 4ever " remixed by DJ Ride . The song " Beatsound Loverboy " , included on the Beatsound Loverboy Remixes EP , was also remixed by DJ Ride .
In an interview with JN Slimmy declared that the album feels more organic and less electronic because in Beatsound Loverboy , there was no one else to play the songs but him . He explained that with the trio now completely formed , it is a whole different concept , everything sounds different , and their presence on stage is more energetic and trustful . Slimmy also declared that SLIMMY is no longer a solo project , but also belongs to those who follow it . In an interview with Jornal Metro , Slimmy said that the album reflects the maturity , greater stability in the mind . While maintaining his irreverence , Slimmy guarantees , however , that what matters is to " make music that people intending to sing and lyrics that people can understand . I do not do things to shock " , he also said that he already received criticism for not being a singer with a proper style , but " I try to provide different sensations to people . When I sing alive , I sound much more rock , but in this album , there are many different spirit moods " .
= = Release and promotion = =
Originally due for release on May 2010 , the album 's release was pushed back to 14 June 2010 . It was released in three formats : the physical standard edition , featuring 10 tracks ; the physical deluxe edition with 2 discs , the first disc featuring the standard 10 track listing plus a bonus remix of " Together 4ever " and the second disc , released in digipack format together with the other CD , featuring remixes of 8 songs from Beatsound Loverboy ; and the digital format featuring 10 tracks . Both standard and deluxe edition 's jewel case CD contained a booklet with alternative covers .
In an interview with Palco Principal , on March 23 , 2010 , Slimmy revealed the title of the album . He explained : " As a first resort , when I wrote the lyrics of the song [ " Be Someone Else " ] , I just wanted to warn those who not work , but still waiting for results . If you want to be somebody , you have to give much of yourself , is not enough to " give less and expect more " . However , over the years , I realized that music was also for the kind of people that bring us down . Life is not a race . We must be ourselves , open our eyes and always look forward . "
While being interviewed by Palco Principal , Slimmy declared he was bit " unsure " about the promotion process of the album , he affirmed that he already had shows to make in France and Germany , but his real intention was to tour Portugal intensively , because he felt he had no success in his country . The first promotional concert toke place at the Cidade do Porto Shopping on 26 March 2010 , where Slimmy sang a few songs from his album , including " The Games You Play " and " Be Someone Else " . Slimmy also promoted his album in Albufeira , at the Algarve Shopping 's Fnac on November 27 , 2010 . Slimmy 's next significant promotion marked the beginning of " A Very Slimmy Tour " , where Slimmy performed songs from his two albums . It started on 18 February 2011 at the Kastrus River Klub in Esposende and ended on 30 April 2011 at the Pitch Club in Porto . The first music video to be released was " The Games You Play " , produced by Ana Andrade , Carla Fardilha , Clara Araújo Teixeira and Helena Oliveira . It premiered on 17 November 2010 on YouTube . A music video was also made for " Be Someone Else " , produced by Riot Films . It premiered on 27 June 2010 on YouTube . Slimmy 's " Be Someone Else Tour " began on 6 May 2011 with its opening show at the Academy Week in Mirandela . Future show dates will be added on 1bigo 's Facebook page . Slimmy also performed at the Queima das Fitas in Viana do Castelo on 15 May 2011 .
= = = Singles = = =
" Be Someone Else " was unveiled as the album 's lead single . The song was written by Fernandes and produced by Quico Serrano and Mark Turner . It was released to MySpace on 1 January 2010 . " The Games You Play " , also written by Fernandes and produced by Quico Serrano and Mark Turner , was released as the second single of the album on 6 March 2010 on the iTunes Store . " The Games You Play " premiered on the Antena 3 radio station on 20 September 2009 and was released on Slimmy 's MySpace profile on 30 September 2009 as a promotional song . Neither of the album 's singles were particularly successful , charting anywhere . Despite not being released as a single , " I Can 't Live Without You in This Town " is available for digital purchase at Amazon since June 14 , 2010 . It charted at number 152 at the Metropolis Chart , and it was featured on the eighth season of the Portuguese soap opera Morangos com Açúcar .
= = Critical reception = =
Since its release , the album has received favorable reviews from contemporary music critics . A Trompa gave the album a favorable review , commenting that " [ the album is ] fast and oriented to be devoured in dance floors or other places of similar excitement and socializing " it " clearly evokes a modern rock that welcomes people to it " . A Trompa also praised Quico Serrano and Mark Turner 's polished production , calling the album more direct and humanized then Beatsound Loverboy . CDGO gave the album a positive review and commented that the album is more eclectic and that " it will surely satisfy the fans and other lovers of electronic music . Slimmy emphasizes again his unmistakable style , both musical and his image , proving to be one of the most promising musicians of the new generation of national music . " Ágata Ricca from Palco Principal also gave the album a favorable review and stated that " [ the album ] marks the difference with the previous one , due to Slimmy 's mature and reflective attitude " and that the album does not " change Slimmy 's past , it just emphasize it and strengthen it " . Ágata Ricca also praised the song " I Can 't Live Without You In This Town " for its markable difference from the other tracks , calling the chorus of the song memorable . She also said that some other tracks of the album are pretty " danceable " .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Paulo Fernandes , all music composed by Paulo Fernandes , Paulo Garim , Tó @-@ Zé , Gustavo Silva , Daniel Santos .
= = = Deluxe edition = = =
= = Personnel = =
Taken from iOnline .
Performance Credits
Technical credits
= = Charts = =
= = = Songs = = =
= = Release history = =
= Delichon =
Delichon is a small genus of passerine birds that belongs to the swallow family and contains three species named as house martins . These are chunky , bull @-@ headed and short @-@ tailed birds , blackish @-@ blue above with a contrasting white rump , and with white or grey underparts . They have feathering on the toes and tarsi that is characteristic of this genus . The house martins are closely related to other swallows that build mud nests , particularly the Hirundo barn swallows . They breed only in Europe , Asia and the mountains of North Africa . Two species , the common and Asian house martins , migrate south in winter , while the Nepal house martin is resident in the Himalayas year @-@ round .
The house martins nest in colonies on cliffs or buildings , constructing feather- or grass @-@ lined mud nests . The typical clutch is two or three white eggs ; both parents build the nest , incubate the eggs and feed the chicks . These martins are aerial hunters of small insects such as flies and aphids . Despite their flying skills the Delichon martins are sometimes caught by fast @-@ flying birds of prey . They may carry fleas or internal parasites . None of the species are considered threatened , although widespread reductions in common house martin numbers have been reported from central and northern Europe . This decline is due to factors including poor weather , poisoning by agricultural pesticides , lack of mud for nest building and competition with house sparrows for nest sites .
= = Taxonomy = =
The three Delichon species are members of the swallow family of birds , and are classed as members of the Hirundininae subfamily which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . The groups are the " core martins " including burrowing species like the sand martin , the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities , and the " mud nest builders " . The Delichon species construct a closed mud nest and therefore belong to the latter group ; they appear to be intermediate between the Hirundo and Ptyonoprogne species that make open cup nests , and the Cecropis and Petrochelidon swallows , which have retort @-@ like closed nests with an entrance tunnel . The genetic evidence suggests a close relationship between Hirundo and Delichon , which is further supported by the frequency of interbreeding between two widespread species , the barn swallow and the common house martin , despite being their being in different genera . The suggested taxonomic sequence of the mud @-@ building swallows has been recommended by at least two European taxonomic committees .
The genus Delichon was created by American naturalist Thomas Horsfield and British entomologist Frederic Moore in 1854 to accommodate the Nepal house martin that was first described by Moore in the same year , and is therefore the type species for the genus . The two other house martins were moved to Delichon from the genus Chelidon in which they had been placed up to that time . The name of the new genus , " Delichon " , is an anagram of the Ancient Greek term χελιδον / chelidôn , meaning swallow .
The genus contains three similar species :
Common house martin ( Delichon urbicum ) originally described as Hirundo urbica by Linnaeus in 1758 .
Asian house martin ( Delichon dasypus ) described as Chelidon dasypus by Bonaparte in 1850 .
Nepal house martin ( Delichon nipalense ) described by Moore in 1854 .
The common and Asian house martins have sometimes been considered to be a single species , although both breed in the western Himalayas without hybridising . There is also limited DNA evidence that suggests a significant genetic distance between these two martins .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Delichon is an Old World genus with all three species breeding only in the Northern Hemisphere . The common house martin is a widespread migrant breeder across Europe , north Africa and all northern temperate Asia to Kamchatka . Its western subspecies D. u. urbicum winters in tropical Africa , and eastern D. u. lagopodum moves to southern China and Southeast Asia . The Asian house martin breeds further south than common house martin in the mountains of central and eastern Asia ; its nominate subspecies winters in Southeast Asia , but the races breeding in the Himalayan and Taiwan may just move from the high mountains to lower altitudes . The Nepal house martin is resident in the mountains of southern Asia .
The preferred habitat of the common house martin is open country with low vegetation , such as pasture , meadows and farmland , and preferably near water , although it is also found in mountains up to at least 2 @,@ 200 metres ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) altitude . As its name implies , it readily nests on man @-@ made buildings , and will breed even in city centres if the air is clean enough . The other two species favour mountainous country ( and sea cliffs in the case of Asian house martin ) ; they use buildings as nest sites less frequently than their northern relative . The wintering grounds of the two migrant species include a range of open country and hilly habitats .
= = Description = =
Delichon martins are 13 – 15 cm ( 5 – 6 in ) long , blackish blue above with a contrasting white rump , and with white or grey underparts . They are chunky , bull @-@ headed and short @-@ tailed birds , and have feathering on the toes and tarsi . The common house martin is the largest bird of the three , with an average weight of 18 @.@ 3 g ( 0 @.@ 65 oz ) , and has the most deeply forked tail ; the Nepalese species is the smallest ( 15 g , 0 @.@ 53 oz ) and has the squarest tail . Distinctive species plumage features are the black chin and black undertail coverts of the Nepal house martin , and the greyish wash to the underparts of the Asian house martin . As with other swallows and martins , the moult is slow and protracted because of the need to maintain efficient flight at all times to enable feeding . Moult normally starts on arrival at the wintering grounds , but overlaps with the breeding season for the non @-@ migratory Nepal house martin .
The Delichon martins have simple flight calls of one to three notes . In the two more widespread species these have a distinctive buzzing quality . The male 's song is a short simple ripple , perhaps less musical than that given by other swallows .
As a group , the house martins cannot easily be confused with any other swallows . Four species of the genus Tachycineta have white rumps and underparts , but they have bright metallic green or blue @-@ green upperparts , longer tails , and are restricted to Central and South America . The variable plumages of the South Asian species and a confused taxonomic history has left their distribution ranges in doubt .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
The Delichon martins were originally cliff nesters , breeding in colonies situated under an overhang on a vertical cliff . However , the house martin now largely uses human structures , as , to a lesser extent , does the Asian house martin . The typical nest is a grass or feather @-@ lined deep closed mud bowl with a small opening at the top , but many Asian house martins leave the top of the nest open .
David Winkler and Frederick Sheldon believe that evolutionary development in the mud @-@ building swallows , and individual species follow this order of construction . A retort builder like red @-@ rumped swallow starts with an open cup , closes it , and then builds the entrance tunnel . Winkler and Sheldon propose that the development of closed nests reduced competition between males for copulations with the females . Since mating occurs inside the nest , the difficulty of access means other males are excluded . This reduction in competition permits the dense breeding colonies typical of the Delichon martins .
The urban common house martin has to compete with house sparrows , which frequently attempt to take over the nest during construction , with the house martins rebuilding elsewhere if the sparrows are successful . The entrance at the top of the completed cup is so small that the sparrows cannot take over the nest once it is finished .
As with other swallows , pairing and copulation displays are normally brief , taking just a few minutes . The male calls to a female and attempts to lead her to the nest , where he lands and continues calling while posing with lowered head , dropped wings and ruffled throat . If he is successful , the female calls and allows him to mount her , usually in the nest . Three or four white eggs are the normal clutch and all three species are frequently double @-@ brooded . Both sexes build the nest , incubate the eggs and feed the chicks , although the female does most of the incubation , which normally lasts 14 – 16 days . The newly hatched chicks are altricial , and after a further 22 – 32 days , depending on weather , the chicks leave the nest . The fledged young stay with , and are fed by , the parents for about a week after leaving the nest . Occasionally , young birds from the first brood will assist in feeding the second brood .
A Scottish study showed that mortality in common house martins occurred mostly outside the breeding season and averaged 57 % . Females that had raised two clutches in a season had a higher mortality than those that were single @-@ brooded , but there was no such correlation for the males .
= = = Feeding = = =
The Delichon species typically feed higher in the air , and take smaller prey than other swallows . It is believed that this reduces inter @-@ specific food competition , particularly with the barn swallow which shares much of the breeding and wintering range of the martins . The insects eaten are mostly small flies , aphids and Hymenoptera such as winged ants . A wide range of other insects are caught , including Lepidoptera , beetles and lacewings . The Asian house martin appears to occasionally take terrestrial springtails and larvae and the common house martin also sometimes feeds on the ground . These martins are gregarious , feeding in flocks often with other aerial predators like swifts , or other hirundines such as the barn or striated swallows . In the case of at least the common house martin , the start of egg laying appears to be linked to the appearance of large numbers of flying aphids , which provide a stable and abundant food supply .
= = = Predators and parasites = = =
The main predators of the house martins are those birds of prey which are capable of catching these agile fliers , such as the hobby ( Falco subbuteo ) . Birds of the Delichon species are most vulnerable when collecting mud from the ground . This has therefore become a communal activity , with a group of these birds descending suddenly on a patch of mud . The generally insectivorous collared falconet has been recorded as hunting Nepal house martins .
The house martins are parasitised by fleas and mites , including the " house martin flea " , Ceratophyllus hirundinis and its relatives . A Polish study of the common house martin showed that nests typically contained more than 29 species of ectoparasite , with C. hirundinis and another swallow specialist , Oeciacus hirundinis , the most abundant . The genus also hosts endoparasites such as Haemoproteus prognei ( avian malaria ) , which are transmitted by blood @-@ sucking insects including mosquitoes .
More than 40 beetle species have been recorded in common house martin nests , but most are either typical of the locality or found in the nests of other birds . The typical number of individuals , around 200 , is relatively low compared to other bird species ( 1 @,@ 400 individual beetles for house sparrow , 2 @,@ 000 for sand martin ) . The beetles have no effect on the nesting birds , and the reason for their comparatively low numbers is unknown , although the numbers of specific parasites found in house martin 's nests is also quite small .
= = Conservation status = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) is the organisation responsible for assessing the conservation status of species . A species is assessed as subject to varying levels of threat if it has a small , fragmented or declining range , or if the total population is less than 10 @,@ 000 mature individuals , or if numbers have dropped rapidly ( by more than 10 % in ten years or three generations ) . None of the three Delichon species meets these criteria , and three genus house martins are therefore considered of least concern .
The numbers of the two Asian species are unknown , but both can be locally common or abundant , and the Asian house martin is extending its range in southern Siberia . The lowland breeding common house martin has greatly benefited from forest clearance , creating the open habitats it prefers , and from human habitation which has given it an abundance of safe man @-@ made nest sites , although widespread declines in its numbers have been reported from central and northern Europe since 1970 . This is due to factors including poor weather , poisoning by agricultural pesticides , lack of mud for nest building and competition with house sparrows for nest sites . Despite this , the huge geographical range and large numbers of the common house martin mean that its global status is secure .
= = Fossil record = =
Delichon polgardiensis ( late Miocene of Polgardi , Hungary )
Delichon pusillus ( Pliocene of Csarnota , Hungary )
Delichon major ( Pliocene of Beremend , Hungary )
= The Firefly ( Fringe ) =
" The Firefly " is the 10th episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 53rd episode overall . The episode centers on a chain of events created by Walter crossing over into the parallel universe in 1985 that has had subtle but significant effects in the present . Christopher Lloyd guest @-@ starred as retired rocker Roscoe Joyce .
As the first episode in its new Friday time slot , " The Firefly " aired on January 21 , 2011 in the United States to 4 @.@ 88 million viewers , outperforming the previous episode " Marionette " Thursday night viewership by 18 % . Time shifted viewership added 42 % in its ratings . It received generally positive reviews , with many praising the storyline as " elegant " and " beautiful . "
= = Plot = =
The Fringe team is brought to a nursing home , where Roscoe Joyce ( Christopher Lloyd ) , the former keyboardist of the band Violet Sedan Chair , was seen talking to his son Bobby ( Nick Ouellette ) who had died in 1985 , as well as evidence of an Observer . Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) , meeting his musical hero , requests to take Roscoe back to his lab to help Roscoe remember what his son said . Walter is able to help Roscoe remember much of his past since the loss of his son through therapy that includes helping Roscoe to recall his piano @-@ playing skills . Roscoe shortly recalls the conversation with his son , which was actually a message from the Observer September to Walter . September ( Michael Cerveris ) soon appears at the lab and requests to speak to Walter .
As they walk , September reminds Walter of the damage he did when he brought Peter from the parallel universe . September recounts the events of one such chain : in the prime universe , three months after Walter 's crossing , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) captured a firefly which set into motion a chain of events that eventually led to the death of a pedestrian in a car accident . September mysteriously departs when Walter answers a telephone call , but not before leaving him with a message : " give him the keys and save the girl . " Later , Walter returns Roscoe to the nursing home . Roscoe thanks him and explains that the recent events reminded him of the last phone call he had with his son , where Bobby said he had dreamed of meeting Roscoe in a nursing home in the future . Roscoe is remorseful that Bobby died shortly after that call when a car struck him while crossing the street , which led to the breakup of the band . Walter realizes that Roscoe 's son was the pedestrian that was previously alluded to by September .
Unbeknownst to the Fringe team , September has engineered several events in the last few days , including stopping an armed robbery to help the asthmatic female employee ( Olivia Cheng ) recover from an asthma attack , taking her inhaler . When Walter hears of this witness , he requests Peter and Agent Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) to bring her to his lab , believing her to be related to the Observer 's warning . Minutes from the lab , September rams the car in which the woman is being transported , initiating another asthma attack . September races from the scene , prompting Peter to follow him in Walter 's car , requesting Walter to " give me the keys and save the girl . " Walter realizes that September has been orchestrating the events leading up to this point and urges Peter not to go , believing that following the advice of the Observer might lead to Peter 's death . Walter eventually relents and returns to help the woman , creating a makeshift inhaler before emergency help arrives . Meanwhile , Peter and Olivia follow the Observer to a rooftop . Peter corners September , who says " It must be very difficult , being a father " , before he shoots Peter with an energy blast that knocks him off his feet . Olivia arrives in time to give chase to the Observer but September disappears from an adjacent rooftop .
While Walter and Agent Astrid Farnsworth ( Jasika Nicole ) ensure that the witness is safe at the hospital , Olivia takes Peter back to the lab . Peter , suffering from a headache , takes an aspirin and drinks out of what he believes to be an ordinary bottle of milk from the fridge . In reality , the milk contains a serum developed by Walter in order to help him recover his full mental function . However , the serum was incorrectly prepared , which causes Peter to begin convulsing . Over the phone , Walter directs Olivia to inject Peter with the correct compounds in order to save his life . Walter realizes that the serum would have killed him if he had consumed it , and that this was another step in the Observer 's plot . Later that evening , September meets with another Observer , and identifies the fact that Walter was able to let Peter go , despite believing that he may not survive , and that when the time comes , they can expect Walter to do it again .
In a side plot , Olivia and Peter attempt to reorganize their relationship after Olivia receives a book ( If You Meet The Buddha On The Road , Kill Him ! by Sheldon Kopp ) from Peter that he had originally ordered for Olivia 's doppelgänger from the parallel universe .
= = Production = =
" The Firefly " was co @-@ written by co @-@ showrunners J.H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , while being directed by Supernatural veteran Charles Beeson . On October 20 , 2010 , TV Guide announced that Back to the Future star Christopher Lloyd had been cast in an upcoming episode as " Walter 's musical hero " . Noble explained Lloyd 's role : " We all know how much Walter loves music , right ? Well this fellow was one of his icons . He adored this man . So Walter gets to be a bit of a fanboy " . Lloyd began shooting the episode in late October . Soon before the episode aired , Lloyd told reporters " I was very excited for this role . My character is going through an experience he never expected to happen to him , and he 's adjusting to that . " Lloyd also added he felt welcomed in as a part of the ensemble cast . In a conference call interview with journalists , John Noble explained that " probably the best fun that I 've had [ on Fringe ] was doing the stuff with Chris Lloyd , because it was two crazy old guys just trying desperately to communicate with each other . We had a lot of laughs . There was a common thread of trying to find the music again , because Chris ' character had forgotten how to play the piano , so we go through this journey of bringing the music back to him , and [ it 's a ] thrill to Walter . This happens all the way through this very complicated episode " .
The band name of Lloyd 's character Roscoe Joyce , " Violet Sedan Chair , " is a fictional band that Walter Bishop had mentioned the previous season , in the episode Grey Matters . J.J. Abrams had also named @-@ dropped the fictional band two years earlier in an issue of Wired for which he had guest @-@ edited , alluding to the band 's album , Seven Suns , recorded in the 1970s . Several months prior to the broadcast of " The Firefly " , a number of vinyl records of Seven Suns were shipped to a select number of independent record stores across the United States , which have been discovered by some people . The album does contain twelve songs in the style of psychedelic and folk . The album itself has been briefly shown in the series .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " The Firefly " , with the intention of having " students learn about pharmacology and the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical functions . "
= = Cultural references = =
Walter explains that the red and blue sunglasses he uses in order to see Roscoe Joyce 's aura were sent to him by his friend , Doctor Jacoby from Washington State . This is a reference to the television series Twin Peaks , set in Washington State where Doctor Lawrence Jacoby is the local psychiatrist who also owns a pair of the same sunglasses . Reviewers also contrasted the casting of Christopher Lloyd , better known for his role of the scientist " Doc " Brown from the Back to the Future trilogy which took place in 1985 , to that of a character involved with time travel involving the year 1985 . Some journalists have speculated that the episode 's title was in reference to Joss Whedon 's Firefly series , which while critically acclaimed was cancelled mid @-@ season after being scheduled in the Friday night death slot . However , though " The Firefly " was the first Fringe episode to be first aired in the new Friday night slot , the producer had already selected the title of the episode prior to the Fox Network rescheduling .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In November 2010 , Fox announced that Fringe was being moved to Friday nights as a part of the network 's midseason overhaul , to air after the fourth season of their reality series Kitchen Nightmares . The move meant that Fringe would be airing against Supernatural , a show with a similar science fiction genre , though this competition did not begin until Fringe 's third Friday episode " Concentrate and Ask Again " . Fox 's popular reality series American Idol took Fringe 's timeslot , as it was shifted a day later to Wednesdays and Thursdays . Executive producer J.H. Wyman stated in an interview that they were excited and believed Friday nights are " open territory that can be conquered ... [ We believe ] we can actually deliver like The X @-@ Files did . ... I think we both agree it 's a good opportunity " . Wyman elaborated that the show 's high DVR numbers proved that though fans were watching the show , they did not want to do so on Thursdays . Co @-@ executive producer Jeff Pinkner felt that if the show " can build a fan base on and carve out some territory on Friday night , we can be there for years " .
The episode was originally going to air on January 28 until it was moved to a week earlier , on January 21 behind the season premiere of Kitchen Nightmares . " The Firefly " was the first Fringe episode to broadcast in its Friday slot , and many journalists considered the pending viewership numbers critical for the future of the show . The episode was the most watched show of the night , earning a 1 @.@ 9 / 6 share or about 4 @.@ 88 million viewers in the 18 – 49 age group . This figure was slightly higher than the average viewership for Fringe in the first half of the 2010 @-@ 2011 television season , and 18 % higher than the previous episode , " Marionette " . When time shifted viewership over the following three days is considered , the episode received a 42 % ratings increase with a 2 @.@ 7 rating share , and within 7 days after its airing , reported a total of 6 @.@ 7 million viewers with 2 @.@ 8 rating , representing a 37 % increase from the live broadcast . Fringe and its lead @-@ in show , Kitchen Nightmares , resulted in Fox 's highest rated Friday night with entertainment programs since 2008 .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Firefly " was well received by critics who considered the episode to be backed by a strong script . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly considered " The Firefly " as one of the series ' " finest episodes " , calling on the show 's many qualities :
The pull of family ; the knotty complexity of romance ; the way sci @-@ fi can provide fresh metaphors for the most frequently explored ideas and emotions ; the way we encounter humor and surprise even in the midst of anguish and regret — this is the stuff of which Fringe is made .
The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen rated the episode an " A " in considering the " elegance " of the complicated Rube Goldberg @-@ like plot , and praised the " beautiful , beautiful writing " in the reveal of the connection between Walter 's actions and Roscoe 's loss . Time 's James Poniewozik also enjoyed the elegant plot , calling the episode " an impressive outing for the series to welcome back its fans with " ; Poniewozik also appreciated John Noble 's performance as he " made Walter 's regret , and the toll it has taken , real — while also pulling off an amusing turn as an overawed , elderly rock fanboy " .
Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times , though somewhat confused to the cause @-@ and @-@ effect of the Observer 's plot , he still found the show enjoyable , and called it " the Fringe version of the butterfly effect " , a trope often used in other shows to show the impact of small changes in the characters ' lives . IGN 's Ramsey Isler gave the episode a rating of 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , stating that was " an important part of the setup for the second half of the season " with strong character development , but felt the pacing was slow and needed more action . Television Without Pity graded the episode a " B + " . The A.V. Club staff highlighted the episode in their review of the best television shows of 2011 .
= = = Awards and nomination = = =
At the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , John Noble submitted " The Firefly " , along with " Entrada " and " The Day We Died " , for consideration in the Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series category , but did not receive a nomination .
= Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II =
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II is a platforming action @-@ adventure video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) developed by UK @-@ based company Zippo Games , a subsidiary of Rare Ltd. it was published by Acclaim and released in North America in December 1989 and in Europe on March 27 , 1991 . It is the sequel to Rare 's 1987 title Wizards & Warriors . In Ironsword , the player controls the knight warrior Kuros as he ventures in the land of Sindarin . He must defeat the evil wizard Malkil , who has assumed the elemental forms of Earth , Wind , Fire , and Water . Kuros must collect the parts of and assemble the legendary " IronSword " in order to defeat Malkil , who resides at the top of IceFire Mountain .
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was developed by Zippo Games ' founder Ste Pickford and was the first game that he developed for the NES . Steve Hughes also assisted in development , while Rare 's video game composer David Wise did the music and sound . Pickford wanted to expand on the previous Wizards & Warriors game . Having experience with developing computer games , Pickford used various animation and graphics techniques to try and show off the NES ' graphical capabilities . In addition , Acclaim hired Italian male model Fabio Lanzoni to pose as Kuros on the game 's cover .
The game was fairly well @-@ received , selling 500 @,@ 000 copies in North America and 50 @,@ 000 copies in Europe . Various video game magazines praised Ironsword for its size , graphics and sound , detailed characters and bosses , and gameplay . Other reviews criticized its lack of originality as compared to other games that were released at the time . The game led Zippo Games to develop additional games for Rare on the NES such as Solar Jetman : Hunt for the Golden Warpship and Wizards & Warriors III : Kuros : Visions of Power . Ironsword won " Game Player 's NES Excellence Award " from Game Players magazine as one of the better NES titles of 1990 .
= = Gameplay = =
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II is a platforming video game where the player controls the renowned warrior Kuros as he explores the land of Sindarin to defeat the evil wizard Malkil . This time , Malkil has taken the form of the four " Elementals " , based on the Greek classical elements – Earth , Wind , Fire , and Water – to stop Kuros in his quest . The objective is to assemble the legendary " IronSword " — the only weapon that can defeat Malkil — and defeat the evil wizard who lies at the peak of IceFire Mountain . In the game , players can move Kuros left or right , or make him crouch with the control pad ; the buttons allow Kuros to jump , to use his sword or a magic spell to defeat enemies , to access the " Magic Spell Screen " , or to pause the game . Kuros has a life meter that decreases every time he sustains damage from an enemy or a dangerous projectile , or if he falls for too long a distance . Along the way , players can collect chicken and brew to replenish Kuros ' life meter . Kuros loses a life when his life meter runs out , and the game ends when he loses all his lives . However , players may continue and restart the game where they left off up to two times . The continue feature would normally be disabled after the player had completed the earth domain , but due to an in @-@ game bug , the player actually loses the continue function immediately upon merely setting foot in the domain .
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II consists of four levels called " domains , " each named after the four elementals . In each domain , Kuros must find a golden artifact that belongs to the domain 's " Animal King " and return it to him . Upon doing so , the path to the second part of the domain will appear . In the second part , Kuros must find the magic spell necessary to defeat the boss – the domain 's Elemental . Without the spell , it is impossible to damage the boss . Once the elemental in each stage has been destroyed , Kuros obtains a piece of the IronSword , which is needed for the final battle on Icefire Mountain . Throughout the game , players must collect items , spells , and money to progress . Money helps buy magic spells , more powerful weapons , shields , helmets , keys to open locked treasure chests , and additional food . Treasure chests — located throughout the game — can contain one of the following items : Additional money , magic spells , or weapon and armor upgrades . In each domain , players can visit inns where they can buy food , keys , or items ; they may also participate in a " Bonus chance " game where they may gamble their money to see which cup a bouncing skull will fall into .
In the game , magic spells help against enemies and Elemental bosses ; some are bought , while others must be found . Magic spells include " The Familiar Spell , " which turns enemies into money and helps retrieve golden objects , the " Dragon Tooth Spell , " which turns enemies into food , the " Asp Tongue Spell , " which slows down enemies , the " Silver Fleece Spell , " which makes Kuros temporarily invincible , and the " Water Spout Spell , " which creates an upward column of water that allows Kuros to reach high places . Each spell has a limited number of uses before it vanished from the player 's inventory . Other magic spells are necessary to defeat the Elemental bosses . These spells are found in each of the four domains , and include " Windbane , " " Blightwater , " " Firesmite " and " Earthscorch . " These spells can be used only in the corresponding levels in which they are obtained , and each consumes magic upon use. players can obtain additional magic by collecting small , floating , gold bubbles that appear randomly or are triggered by the player 's proximity to secret locations .
Players may also increase their score by defeating enemies or collecting items . Hidden along the way are the " Relics of Sindarin , " which are worth many points when collected . At the end of the game , players with a high enough of a score can place their names in the " IronSword Hall of Fame . " However , the list resets when the console is turned off . The game also includes a password feature in which players can obtain a password from the " Magic Spell Screen " to use to continue the game at a later time , even after the console has been turned off .
= = Development = =
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was developed by UK @-@ based computer game company Zippo Games , headed by Ste and John Pickford ; this was the first game Zippo developed for fellow UK @-@ based video game company Rare . At the time , Zippo Games had just completed a previous game titled Cosmic Pirate - a game that was published by Palace Software and released for the Commodore 64 , Atari ST , and Amiga in 1988 . New to the technical capabilities of the Nintendo Entertainment System , the Pickford brothers visited Rare and were pleased with their NES library , though they thought they were backtracking by deciding to develop games for the console . According to Ste Pickford : " The NES seemed primitive by comparison , sub @-@ Commodore 64 . But the games were ten times better than everything being released for home computers , which we appreciated , and we wanted to try to make games as good as that . " Rare decided to hire Zippo Games to develop this Wizards & Warriors sequel ; Pickford remarked : " Rare showed us Wizards & Warriors and asked us to develop the sequel , and pretty much left us to it . " Rare felt that Zippo Games was trustworthy enough to develop the sequel without much help from them .
Development started in early 1989 , when the Pickford brothers were still learning about the NES and what it could do . At the same time , as being new to developing console video games , they were also learning about the market aspects and Nintendo 's policies and restrictions on games . Feeling that the graphics in most of the games in the NES library were poor , they placed emphasis on the graphics and animation . Pickford was particularly pleased with the animation of the enemy eagles and their movement . Rare assisted with the sound , and all of the game 's background music was composed by video game composer David Wise , who Pickford said " did a fantastic job on IronSword " . As far as gameplay was concerned , they tried to expand upon its predecessor , introducing more adventure @-@ based gameplay and additional RPG elements such as magic , inns , and money .
= = = Graphics and animation = = =
Ste Pickford developed the gameplay map for Ironsword . According to him , he basically copied the map that was used in a conversion port of Ghosts ' n Goblins that he developed a couple of years earlier . Moreover , the Pickford brothers were trying to resemble Ghosts ' n Goblins and similar games by Capcom as part of their attempt to earn the rights to develop the game from Rare . For the map screen , Ste Pickford used specific character data in the ROM itself , used the font from elsewhere in the data that was inserted separately , and overlaid the Elementals ' floating heads over the top of the graphic . According to Pickford : " The job of graphic was always about 30 % drawing , and about 70 % fiddly technical stuff ( which was why so many terrible artists – people who couldn 't draw at all – made decent video game artists back then , if they could manage the technical side of things well enough ) . "
In developing the game 's graphics , Ste Pickford translated black and white sketches into the character maps in the game . For the bosses , the plan was to use the entire screen while involving as few moving sprites as possible " to fool the player into thinking the whole thing was alive " . The same was done with the " Dragon King " , which was not one of the game 's bosses ; the dragon 's head and neck were composed of sprites , while the rest of the body was considered part of the background . The dragon 's neck stretched out vertically due to NES hardware sprite limitations horizontally .
The animation of the eagle ( the " Eagle King " ) that transports Kuros to the Wind Elemental was one of Ste Pickford 's first graphics which he drew for the NES . It was done in Deluxe Paint for the Amiga with sketching done by mouse - without assistance from graphics tablets or other scanners . He took eagle drawings from a book on animals in motion by Eadweard Muybridge . Pickford wanted to show off the possible graphical capabilities of the NES ; he said , " I wanted to do something ' flashy ' early in the game , trying to show off my amazing graphic art skills on the rather primitive NES . We were working on Amiga and ST games at the same time , so were always trying to push the NES with bigger and better graphics , right from the start of our work on the machine . " The eagle consisted of only three colors and between 11 and 17 sprites per frame of animation . There was a smaller version of the same eagle , which was used as a regular enemy in that level .
Development of the game 's title screen was inspired by loading screens that were used in most computer games at the time ; the objective was to create a nice @-@ looking graphic while waiting for the game to load , even though the NES , more rooted in arcade traditions , did not require that . Pickford spent most of his character space on the title screen image ; he was limited in the number of available colors due to the more limited graphic capabilities of the NES ( as opposed to most home computers ) , as it was more designed for scrolling and animation and not for stationary graphics . The sword in the title screen used character sprites and used a different palette from the picture of Kuros himself ; the sword had to be vertical as the NES hardware did not allow for too many sprites horizontally . Pickford planned to use and completed an Ironsword logo of his own when Acclaim made him use their planned logo , which he said " was a bit more bland and blocky , with detail that didn 't work very well at such a low pixel resolution " .
= = = Release = = =
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was first unveiled in North America as part of the 1989 Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas , Nevada and was displayed with other games to be released later that year by Acclaim . It was mentioned as a future game in the May 1989 premiere issue of video gaming magazine Electronic Gaming Monthly . It was also covered in GamePro 's premiere issue in May 1989 . Finally , it was previewed by Nintendo Power in its July – August 1989 issue .
For the game 's cover , Acclaim hired Italian male model Fabio Lanzoni to pose as Kuros ; Fabio was presented on the cover bare @-@ chested and without armor . When Zippo Games saw the image of the cover a week prior to its release , they were perplexed . According to Ste Pickford , " Our jaws hit the floor when we first saw this image ( which was , being merely the developers , probably about a week before the game 's release ) . Why on earth did they choose a photograph of a bare @-@ chested barbarian to promote a game starring a knight in shining armour ? " . Pickford added that " We used it as an example of the lack of imagination of Americans " , while suggesting that having an actual suit or armor would be too costly to use for a photo shoot . Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was released by Acclaim for the NES in North America in December 1989 and in Europe and Australia in 1991 . It managed to sell about 500 @,@ 000 copies in North America and about 50 @,@ 000 copies in Europe . Following the game 's release , Zippo Games would proceed to develop its next game for Rare , Solar Jetman : Hunt for the Golden Warpship ; they would eventually also release the third installment in the Wizards & Warriors series , Wizards & Warriors III : Kuros : Visions of Power .
The television advertisement consisted of a boy who is shown playing the first Wizards & Warriors game when a Conan the Barbarian @-@ lookalike enters his room after having defeated a monster and hands him a copy of Ironsword . After describing the brief plot and shortly showing clips of the game , the Conan @-@ lookalike leaves his room while exclaiming , " The fate of the world is in your hands ! Back vile beast ! " . At the end of the commercial , after briefly playing Ironsword , the boy opens the door in his room , only to find his dog , who now has smoke coming from his behind .
= = Reception = =
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was initially reviewed and received positive ratings in the June 1989 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly . Steve Harris said that the game was very large and expansive , noting that it " is so big , and has so much to offer , most of the competition pales by comparison " . Ed Semrad called the game " a worthy sequel that fortunately is better than the original " , similarly noting the game 's size as well as difficulty . Donn Nauert appreciated the game 's good graphics which complement the adventure theme , but he noted that some of the precise movements that are required in various areas may cause some frustration in gameplay . Jim Allee praised all the aspects of the game , saying " if you liked Wizards & Warriors , you 'll love Ironsword " . All four reviewers lauded the game 's involving gameplay and graphics .
The game would also be featured in the magazine 's September 1989 issue , in which it was named the magazine 's " Game of the Month " ; it also featured the game 's box art , with Fabio , on the cover . The reviewers , the U.S. National Video Game Team , noted that the game was superior to its predecessor as well as other games released at the time , noting that it was particularly better than Castlevania II : Simon 's Quest . They praised its well @-@ detailed and thought @-@ out graphics , the inclusion of well @-@ drawn out large bosses and supporting characters , the sound which " has an eerie tone that sets the mood for the whole game " , and additional features which expanded upon the game 's predecessor . They concluded that Ironsword was " one of the most welcome Nintendo Entertainment System games in a long time " . The game was also one of the featured games in the November – December 1989 issue of Nintendo Power , where it received six pages of coverage and featured a poster of the game . Game Players magazine awarded Ironsword the " Game Player 's NES Excellence Award " as one of the best games for the console in 1990 .
The game was also featured in UK @-@ based magazine Mean Machines in May 1991 . Matt Regan said that he was not impressed with the game , saying that similar platforming games such as DuckTales and Gremlins 2 : The New Batch were superior to Ironsword and had a more original approach in gameplay . He also criticized the fact that players cannot hit enemies while in mid @-@ air . However , he noted the game 's good gameplay . Julian Rignall also said that the game was fun , but it was not spectacular . However , just as Regan noted , Rignall said that the game did not offer anything special like with better titles such as Mega Man 2 or Super Mario Bros. 2 . However , he noted the game 's good graphics and challenge , though both noted that the backgrounds " are slightly bland " . Both reviewers said the game was well @-@ presented with good introductions and a password mode , easy controls , fair challenge , and " fairly good tunes and effects which fit the action well " . Overall , they said that Ironsword was " a fun but ultimately limited game that will appeal to platform fans " .
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was listed at # 64 in IGN 's list of " Top 100 NES Games " . Reviewer Sam Claiborn said that the game was more expansive than its predecessor and that it featured many of the good graphics , gameplay , and usage of Middle English . He also noted that " Fabio 's bare @-@ breasted likeness smoldering on IronSword 's cover art that made this game a smash hit with kids and moms alike " . Website GamesRadar praised the game 's music , especially the title theme ; Brett Elston said it set a serious tone for the game , saying " its heavy , droning beats mix with a fantasy @-@ minded melody that make it sound like a funeral dirge in the Shire " .
The game 's cover , which features Fabio , has received significant coverage from many gaming websites . IGN listed Ironsword as having one of the most notable covers in video game history , listing its cover as the 2nd best of all time behind Ninja Golf . Conversely , 1UP.com listed Ironsword as having one of the worst covers of all time , comparing it to the cover for Mega Man . GameSpy listed it as the 4th worst video game cover in history , saying that " thanks to the presence of Fabio on the cover , gamers got confused and thought they had accidentally picked up one of their mom 's romance novels " . In a retrospective of the NES for the console 's 25th anniversary , Nintendo Power wrote that " the game 's quality will be forever overshadowed by Acclaim 's choice of Fabio as the cover model " .
= Unas =
Unas / ˈjuːnəs / or Wenis , also spelled Unis ( hellenized form Oenas / ˈiːnəs / or Onnos ) , was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh , the ninth and last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty during the Old Kingdom period . Unas reigned for 15 to 30 years in the mid @-@ 24th century BC succeeding Djedkare Isesi , who might have been his father . Little is known of Unas ' activities during his reign , which was a time of economic decline . Egypt maintained trade relations with the Levantine coast and Nubia , and military action may have taken place in southern Canaan . The growth and decentralization of the administration in conjunction with the lessening of the king 's power continued under Unas , ultimately contributing to the collapse of the Old Kingdom some 200 years later .
Unas built a pyramid in Saqqara , the smallest of the royal pyramids completed during the Old Kingdom . The accompanying mortuary complex with its high and valley temples linked by a 750 m ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) long causeway was lavishly decorated with painted reliefs , whose quality and variety surpass the usual royal iconography . Furthermore , Unas was the first pharaoh to have the Pyramid Texts carved and painted on the walls of the chambers of his pyramid , a major innovation that was followed by his successors until the First Intermediate Period ( c . 2160 – c . 2050 BC ) . These texts identify the king with Ra and with Osiris , whose cult was on the rise in Unas ' time , and were meant to help the king reach the afterlife .
Unas had several daughters and possibly one or two sons who are believed to have predeceased him . Manetho , an Egyptian priest of the Ptolemaic period and author of the first history of Egypt , claims that with Unas ' death the Fifth Dynasty came to an end . Unas was succeeded by Teti , the first pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty , possibly after a short crisis . However the archaeological evidence suggests that the Egyptians at the time made no conscious break with the preceding dynasty and the distinction between the Fifth and Sixth dynasties might be illusory .
The funerary cult of Unas established at his death continued until the end of the Old Kingdom and may have survived during the chaotic First Intermediate Period . The cult was still in existence or revived during the later Middle Kingdom ( c . 2050 – c . 1650 BC ) . This did not prevent Amenemhat I and Senusret I ( c . 1990 – c . 1930 BC ) from partially dismantling the mortuary complex of Unas for its materials . In parallel to the official cult , Unas may have received popular veneration as a local god of the Saqqara necropolis until as late as the Late Period ( 664 – 332 BC ) , nearly 2000 years after his death .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Historical sources = = =
Unas is well attested by historical sources with three ancient Egyptian king lists dating to the New Kingdom period mentioning him . Unas occupies the 33rd entry of the Abydos King List , which was written during the reign of Seti I ( 1290 – 1279 BC ) . Unas ' name is also present on the Saqqara Tablet ( 32nd entry ) and on the Turin canon ( third column , 25th row ) , both of which were written during the reign of Ramses II ( 1279 – 1213 BC ) . The Turin canon further credits Unas with 30 years of reign . These sources all place Unas as the ninth and final ruler of the Fifth Dynasty , succeeding Djedkare Isesi and preceding Teti on the throne . This relative chronology is corroborated by archaeological evidence , for example in the tomb of officials serving under these kings .
In addition to these sources , Unas was also likely mentioned in the Aegyptiaca , a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II ( 283 – 246 BC ) by the Egyptian priest Manetho . No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is known to us only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius . Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned a pharaoh " Onnos " reigning for 33 years at the end of the Fifth Dynasty . Onnos is believed to be the hellenized form for Unas , and Africanus ' 33 @-@ year figure fits well with the 30 years of reign given to Unas on the Turin canon .
= = = Contemporaneous sources = = =
The primary contemporaneous sources attesting to Unas ' activities are the many reliefs from his pyramid complex . Excluding these , surprisingly few documents dating to Unas ' reign have survived to this day , considering the 30 @-@ year length that later records give for his reign . Excavations at Abusir , the royal necropolis of the Fifth Dynasty , have produced only four dated inscriptions safely attributable to Unas . They explicitly mention his third , fourth , sixth and eighth years on the throne . Unas also left a rock inscription on the island of Elephantine , next to the First Cataract of the Nile in Nubia .
In addition , several alabaster vases bearing Unas ' cartouche are known . A complete vessel and additional fragments originating from Byblos on the Levantine coast are now in the National Museum of Beirut . A vase of unknown provenance is located in the National Archaeological Museum of Florence and reads " Horus Wadjtawy , living eternally , king of Upper and Lower Egypt , son of Ra , Unas , living eternally " . Another vessel , of unknown origins , is on display at the Louvre Museum . It is a 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) tall 13 @.@ 2 cm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) large globular alabaster vase finely decorated with a falcon with outstretched wings and two uraei , or rearing cobras , holding ankh signs surrounding Unas ' cartouche . An ointment jar bearing Unas ' cartouche and Horus name is in the Brooklyn Museum . Finally , a fragment of a calcite vase rim bearing two cartouches of Unas is on display in the Petrie Museum .
= = Reign = =
= = = Family = = =
Unas assumed the throne at the death of his predecessor Djedkare Isesi . Djedkare is thought to have been Unas ' father , in spite of the complete lack of evidence bearing on the question . The succession from Djedkare Isesi to Unas seems to have been smooth .
Unas had at least two queens , Nebet and Khenut , who were buried in a large double mastaba adjacent to their husband 's pyramid . Unas and Nebet possibly had a son , the " king 's son " , " royal chamberlain " , " priest of Maat " and " overseer of Upper Egypt " Unas @-@ Ankh , who died about 10 years into Unas ' reign . The filiation of Unas @-@ Ankh is indirectly hinted at by his name and titles and by the presence of his tomb near those of Nebet and Unas but is not universally accepted . Two other sons have been proposed , Nebkauhor and Shepsespuptah , but these filiations are conjectural and contested . Unas likely died without a male heir .
Unas had at least five daughters named Hemetre Hemi , Khentkaues , Neferut , Nefertkaues Iku , and Sesheshet Idut . The status of another possible daughter , Iput , is uncertain .
= = = Duration = = =
The duration of Unas ' reign is uncertain . As indicated above , historical sources credit him with 30 and 33 years on the throne , figures that have been adopted by many Egyptologists , including Flinders Petrie , William C. Hayes , Darrell Baker , Peter Munro , and Jaromir Malek . In favor of such a long reign are scenes of a Sed festival found in Unas ' mortuary temple . This festival was normally celebrated only after 30 years of reign and was meant to rejuvenate the pharaoh 's strength and power . Mere depictions of the festival do not necessarily imply a long reign however , for example a relief showing pharaoh Sahure in the tunic of the Sed festival has been found in his mortuary temple , although both historical sources and archeological evidence agree that he ruled Egypt for less than 14 full years .
Other Egyptologists suspect a reign of less than 30 years for Unas owing to the scarcity of artefacts datable to his reign as well as the lack of documents dated to beyond his eighth year on the throne . Hence , Jürgen von Beckerath believes that Unas ruled Egypt for 20 years while Rolf Krauss , David Warburton and Erik Hornung shortened this number to 15 years in their 2012 study of Egyptian chronology . Krauss and Miroslav Verner further question the credibility of the Turin canon concerning the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties , so that the 30 years figure credited to Unas by the canon might not be reliable .
Excavations of the tomb of Nikau @-@ Isesi under the direction of Naguib Kanawati at Saqqara have yielded evidence in support of a shorter reign . Nikau @-@ Isesi was an official who started his career during the reign of Djedkare Isesi , lived through that of Unas and died as overseer of Upper @-@ Egypt under Unas ' successor Teti . Nikau @-@ Isesi is known to have died on the year of the eleventh cattle count during Teti 's reign , an event consisting of counting the livestock throughout the country to evaluate the amount of taxes to be levied . It is traditionally believed that such counts occurred every two years during the Old Kingdom and every year during the later Middle Kingdom ( c.2055 – c.1650 BC ) . Thus Nikau @-@ Isesi would have lived for 22 years after Teti took the throne and together with the 30 years of reign credited to Unas , would have died past 70 years old . However , forensic examination of his mummy yielded an age at death of no more than 45 years old . This suggests that the cattle count occurred more than once every two years during Unas and Teti 's time , possibly irregularly . If so , Unas ' 30 years figure on the Turin canon , understood to mean 15 cattle counts , could translate into as little as 15 years , which together with just 11 years during Teti 's reign would account for Nikau @-@ Isesi 's death at around 40 – 45 years of age .
= = = Activities = = =
Trade and warfare
Owing to the scarcity of evidence dating to Unas ' reign , we know very little about his activities . Existing trade relations with foreign countries and cities , in particular Byblos , seem to have continued during Unas ' time on the throne . Reliefs from the causeway of his pyramid complex show two large seagoing ships coming back from an expedition to the Levantine coast with Syro @-@ Canaanite men , who were either the boat crews or slaves . Another relief depicts a military campaign , Egyptians armed with bows | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
oil along the pipes .
= = = Construction process , recorded by John Vachon = = =
= = Post @-@ war sale = =
By the end of the war , there was considerable debate over the future of the pipelines . The major oil companies , such as Standard Oil , campaigned for the conversion of the pipelines for the transfer of natural gas . Demand for natural gas was rising rapidly , and it was produced in large quantities in the Texas oilfields , but could not be got to market in the north @-@ east and was otherwise burnt off uselessly into the atmosphere . The railroad and coal companies , who saw this as likely to introduce additional competition for coal and coal gas , and therefore lower demand for their goods and services , argued against this move . The smaller oil companies proposed continuing to use the pipelines for oil in order to undermine the transport monopolies of the larger corporations .
A government inquiry was undertaken to determine the future use of the pipelines , and took evidence from the various stakeholders , most of whom presented the case that favored their companies or industry . The inquiry concluded that the pipelines should be sold for continued use in transporting petroleum . An auction for the pipelines was announced in 1946 , which was designed to give preference to bidders who intended to use them for moving petroleum . 16 bids were received , with the highest cash bidders being companies hoping to use the pipelines for natural gas . Assessing the different bids proved difficult and the discussions became enmeshed in national politics , with companies seeking support from various Washington politicians . Meanwhile , a threatened national coal strike raised concerns over the availability of natural gas , strengthening the arguments of the natural gas lobby .
A fresh inquiry was declared in November , voiding the previous competition and the Inch Lines were transferred to the War Assets Administration on December 2 , 1946 , for disposal . Pending any final decision on their sale , the lines were leased to the Tennessee Gas Company for use in shipping natural gas as far as Ohio and the Appalachians , but no further east , and only for 12 months . Tennessee Gas did not convert the pipelines in any way for their new role , and simply pumped the gas through the system under its own pressure , moving 138 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 3 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 m3 ) of gas a day in this way .
A second auction was held , with bids for natural gas given equal weight to those wishing to transfer crude oil , although any natural gas bidder would be obliged to maintain the oil pumping stations for use in a national emergency . Ten bids were received and on February 8 , 1947 , the Texas East Transmission Corporation ( TETCO ) was declared successful . Its bid of $ 143 @,@ 127 @,@ 000 would make the disposal the largest sale of war @-@ surplus property to the private sector following World War II .
= = Conversion by TETCO = =
TETCO was the brainchild of corporate lawyers Charles Francis and James Elkins , who convinced the construction specialists George and Herman Brown , and the fuel engineer E. Holley Poe , that buying the Big and Little Inch pipelines could be a lucrative opportunity . The corporation was established specifically for the purposes of the bid , and came to their bidding figure by estimating that the likely competition would bid at $ 130 million ; their own figure exceeded this by 10 percent , and added on $ 127 @,@ 000 to avoid a suspiciously round number . TETCO believed it could afford to make this offer because it intended to reuse the electric motors in the oil pumping mechanisms for moving the natural gas ; it also believed that the price of gas would rise considerably in the post @-@ war markets .
After winning the bidding , TETCO raised the money to pay the government through a combination of bonds and share issues . A further government enquiry was required before the sale was allowed to go through , which was complicated by the reluctance of the state of Pennsylvania to allow the pipelines to be used to pump gas east through its territory . The government of Pennsylvania was influenced by the coal industry , who feared they would lose sales , but it eventually relented and the sale of the pipelines to TETCO was finally completed on November 1 . The value of the company soared , and the original investors saw the value of their holdings increase 63 @-@ fold .
TETCO immediately began to convert the pipelines for permanent use as natural gas transmission lines , under the direction of Baxter Goodrich , their chief engineer . 24 compressor stations were constructed along the pipeline with centrifugal compressors , increasing the capacity of the system to 433 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 12 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 m3 ) of gas a day , and the old oil pumps were retained for reuse in a future crisis . Steel valves replaced the older , less reliable cast iron designs . Demand continued to increase , requiring additional compressor capability , and by January 1949 the pipelines were moving 508 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 14 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 m3 ) a day .
The supply route undermined the local markets for manufactured gas , and the major cities of the north @-@ east rapidly converted to the use of natural gas ; historian David Waples describes how the pipelines contributed to " an extraordinary expansion of natural gas customers and gas company employees after World War II " . The Inch pipelines encouraged the development of further long distance pipelines in the US through the 1960s and 1970s .
= = Later use = =
In 1957 , the operation of the Little Big Inch , and its ownership south of Ohio , was transferred from TETCO to the subsidiary Texas Eastern Petroleum Products Corporation ( TEPPCO ) , and converted back to use for petroleum products . TEPPCO was purchased by Enterprise Products in 2010 . Around 1961 , there was discussion of converting the Big Inch pipeline back to petroleum use , but it continued in use as a gas pipeline . In 1989 , TETCO was taken over by the Panhandle Eastern Corporation , and in 1997 this company was merged with Duke Power , to form the Duke Energy Corporation ; in 2007 , the oil pipelines were spun off from Duke Energy , to form part of Spectra Energy Partners .
The Inch pipelines are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Along the western parts of the pipelines , around 90 percent of the pipes are the original installation , although in the east large parts have since been replaced , largely due to the absence of anti @-@ corrosion protective coatings on the original piping . 62 of the original buildings from 1942 and 1943 remain , including pump @-@ houses , offices , employee houses and garages . The best surviving examples of the original buildings are in Pennsylvania . A " Big Inch pipeline " construction playset was produced as a children 's toy in 1962 by the Marx company .
= = List of pumping stations = =
= = = Big Inch and northern Little Big Inch = = =
Station No. 1 : Longview , Texas
Station No. 2 : Atlanta , Texas
Station No. 3 : Hope , Arkansas
Station No. 4 : Donaldson , Arkansas
Station No. 5 : Little Rock , Arkansas
Station No. 6 : Bald Knob , Arkansas
Station No. 7 : Egypt , Arkansas
Station No. 8 : Fagus , Missouri
Station No. 9 @-@ a : Oran , Missouri
Station No. 9 @-@ b : Gale , Illinois
Station No. 10 : Lick Creek , Illinois
Station No. 11 : Norris City , Illinois
Station No. 12 : Princeton , Indiana
Station No. 13 : French Lick , Indiana
Station No. 14 : Seymour , Indiana
Station No. 15 : Oldenburg , Indiana
Station No. 16 : Lebanon , Ohio
Station No. 17 : Circleville , Ohio
Station No. 18 : Crooksville , Ohio
Station No. 19 : Sarahsville , Ohio
Station No. 20 : Wind Ridge , Pennsylvania
Station No. 21 : Connellsville , Pennsylvania
Station No. 22 : Rockwood , Pennsylvania
Station No. 23 : Chambersburg , Pennsylvania
Station No. 24 : Marietta , Pennsylvania
Station No. 25 : Phoenixville , Pennsylvania
Station No. 26 : Lambertville , New Jersey
Station No. 27 : Linden , New Jersey
= = = Southern part of the Little Big Inch = = =
Station A : Baytown , Texas
Station B : Beaumont , Texas
Station C : Newton , Texas
Station D : Many , Louisiana
Station E : Castor , Texas
Station F : El Dorado , Arkansas
Station G : Fordyce , Arkansas
= Horace Robertson =
Lieutenant General Sir Horace Clement Hugh Robertson , KBE , DSO ( 29 October 1894 – 28 April 1960 ) was a senior officer in the Australian Army who served in the First World War , the Second World War and the Korean War . He was one of the first graduates of the Royal Military College , Duntroon , to reach the ranks of major general and lieutenant general .
During the First World War , Robertson served with the 10th Light Horse in the Gallipoli Campaign , including the disastrous Battle of the Nek , where much of his regiment was wiped out . He later participated in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign , where he captured a Turkish Army general , and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order .
During the Second World War , Robertson led the 19th Infantry Brigade at the Battle of Bardia and accepted the surrender of the Italian Navy at Benghazi . Later , he commanded the 1st Armoured Division in Western Australia . In the final weeks of the war he commanded troops in the closing stages of the New Britain Campaign and the Aitape – Wewak campaign . At the end of the war , he accepted the surrender of Japanese Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi .
Following the war , he commanded the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in the Occupation of Japan and the British Commonwealth Forces Korea in the Korean War . Robertson was a key figure in establishing the Australian Armoured Corps . Its headquarters in Darwin is named Robertson Barracks in his honour .
= = Early life = =
Horace Clement Hugh Robertson was born in Warrnambool , Victoria , on 29 October 1894 , the sixth child of John Robertson , a state school teacher , and his wife Anne née Grey . Horace was educated at a state school in Outtrim , from May 1905 to April 1910 , when he went to The Geelong College . Horace was nicknamed " Red Robbie " by his fellow schoolboys after his hair colour , in contrast to his older brother John , or " Black Robbie " .
In October 1911 Robertson took the entrance examination for the Royal Military College , Duntroon , and was accepted into the second intake of cadets in 1912 . His class was due to be commissioned on 1 January 1916 , but the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 caused it to be graduated early . He was commissioned as a lieutenant in both the Permanent Military Forces ( PMF ) and the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 3 November 1914 .
On 7 November 1914 , Robertson married Jessie Bonnar in a private service at a registry office in Collingwood . The ceremony was kept secret , because at the time junior officers required the Army 's permission to marry , and at age 20 Robertson would not have received it . Later they would claim that they had been married in 1916 . Their marriage produced no children .
= = First World War = =
Major General William Bridges decided that the Duntroon cadets , none of whom had yet finished their training , should be split up and posted to the various units of the AIF as regimental rather than staff officers . Robertson was posted to the 10th Light Horse as its machine @-@ gun officer . He was one of seven members of his class in the 3rd Light Horse Brigade . By the end of August 1915 , three of them would be dead .
The 10th Light Horse was concentrated at Claremont , Western Australia , before departing for the Middle East on the transport Mashobra in February 1915 . After arriving at Alexandria , Egypt , in March 1915 , the regiment moved to Mena Camp near Cairo . In May , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade began moving , without horses , to Gallipoli , preceded by the machine @-@ gun sections , which embarked at Alexandria on 8 May 1915 . At Gallipoli , the machine guns were brigaded together to provide additional firepower . Robertson 's machine guns were in support during the disastrous Battle of the Nek on 7 August 1915 , during which much of the 10th Light Horse became casualties . Afterwards , Robertson was promoted to captain and became second in command of A Squadron . He assumed command of C Squadron on 28 August , and led it in the fighting at Hill 60 the next day .
The 10th Light Horse was reorganised after returning to Egypt in January 1916 , and Robertson assumed command of B Squadron , with the AIF rank of major from May 1916 . This was as far as he could go , for Duntroon graduates could not be promoted above major in the AIF . This was the result of an AIF policy aimed at giving them a broad a range of experience , which would benefit the post @-@ war Army , while not allowing an accumulation of young officers of high rank , for whom the reduced post @-@ War Army would not have sufficient posts . His substantive rank remained that of lieutenant ; he would not be promoted to the substantive rank of captain in the PMF until 30 September 1920 , and promotion to major would not come until 1 July 1932 . At the Battle of Magdhaba , his colonel was wounded and Robertson took over command of the 10th Light Horse . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) for his actions during this battle . His citation read :
For distinguished and gallant service in the field . He led a mounted change and was the first officer to enter the enemy 's trenches . He is an officer of exceptional organising and training powers and thoroughly deserves reward .
Robertson 's men took many Turkish prisoners , including a senior officer of engineers who insisted that he would only surrender his sword to the Australian officer in charge . He was disappointed to discover that it was Robertson , a youthful major , but handed it over anyway .
In February 1917 Robertson was attached to the Desert Column as a staff officer . From there , he was sent to staff school in Egypt . However , on 7 March he suffered a broken leg in a riding accident and was hospitalised for two months . He returned to the staff school in May and finally graduated on 17 June . He was then posted to the newly formed Yeomanry Mounted Division as a General Staff Officer ( Grade 3 ) . In March 1918 , he was posted to Headquarters Delta Force in Cairo . This was disbanded in April and Robertson became Deputy Assistant Adjutant General ( DAAG ) at AIF Headquarters in Cairo . In January 1919 , he became Assistant Adjutant General ( AAG ) . He returned to Australia in July 1919 . In addition to his Distinguished Service Order , he was twice mentioned in despatches , and awarded the Order of the Nile ( 4th Class ) by the Sultan of Egypt .
= = Between the wars = =
On returning to Australia , Robertson became brigade major in the 7th Light Horse Brigade . In September 1920 he was posted to the staff of the 3rd Military District and then the 2nd Cavalry Division and the 3rd Division . In April 1922 he sat for and passed the entrance examination to the Staff College , Camberley , where his class included Majors Arthur Percival , John Smyth and Georges Vanier , and Lieutenant Colonel Harry Crerar . Robertson eventually became the first Australian to graduate with an A @-@ grade pass .
Afterwards , Robertson went on to attend a series of shorter training courses in Britain . He attended the School of Musketry at Hythe , Kent ; the Machine Gun School at Netheravon , Wiltshire ; the Artillery College at Woolwich ; the Anti @-@ Gas School at Porton Down ; the Anti @-@ Aircraft School at Westerham , Kent ; and the Royal Tank Corps School at Woolwich . He returned to Australia in 1925 to become Chief Instructor at the Small Arms School at Randwick , New South Wales in 1926 . Following the retirement of General Sir Harry Chauvel in 1930 , Robertson was posted to the 7th Infantry Brigade as its brigade major . In 1931 he became brigade major of the 1st Cavalry Brigade in Queensland . He returned to Sydney in February 1934 as General Staff Officer ( Grade 2 ) at the 2nd District Base . In June 1934 , he was appointed Director of Military Art at the Royal Military College , which had been transferred to Victoria Barracks , Sydney , as a cost @-@ cutting measure during the Great Depression . It returned to Canberra in 1937 , and Robertson returned with it .
Robertson was finally breveted as a lieutenant colonel in June 1936 . The rank became substantive in July 1937 . Like other regular officers , Robertson was opposed to the " Singapore strategy " , and therefore to the defence policy of the government of the day , and said so publicly in the British Army Quarterly . Robertson argued for a local defence of Australia by land and air units . The naval theorist , Admiral Sir Herbert Richmond , responding to Robertson 's arguments in an editorial , pointed out that local defence would fragment the British Empire 's defence effort and could not secure the sea lanes . However , in view of the weakness of the Royal Navy , Richmond was forced to concede that Robertson 's approach was not unreasonable .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Libya = = =
In March 1939 , Robertson was appointed commander of the 7th Military District , which encompassed the Northern Territory . It was his first command since the First World War . He was promoted to the temporary rank of colonel in August 1939 , and this became substantive in November . The job involved cooperation with the Royal Australian Navy and Royal Australian Air Force , and the administration of a company of regular soldiers known as the Darwin Mobile Force . After the Second World War began in September 1939 , Robertson became responsible for supplying the 7th Military District 's quota of volunteers for the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . A strike on the waterfront saw Robertson committing troops to help unload cargo .
On 4 April 1940 , Robertson joined the Second AIF himself , with the rank of brigadier , and was allocated the AIF service number VX20321 . He was appointed to command the 19th Infantry Brigade , which was then being formed from units made surplus by the reduction of the 6th Division from 12 infantry battalions to nine . All three of its battalions , the 2 / 4th , 2 / 8th and 2 / 11th Infantry Battalions , were initially commanded by over @-@ age officers , but the commander of the 2 / 4th was replaced by Ivan Dougherty in August . Initially , Dougherty received a cool reception from Robertson , who was disappointed at being unable to select his own battalion commanders , but Dougherty soon made such a good impression that when Robertson went on leave in October 1940 he recommended that Dougherty act as brigade commander , despite the fact that he was the youngest and most junior of Robertson 's battalion chiefs .
The Battle of Bardia brought to the fore the simmering hostility between regular officers and reservists . Frank Berryman , the 6th Division 's General Staff Officer ( Grade 1 ) , and Alan Vasey , the Deputy Assistant Adjutant and Quartermaster General ( DA & QMG ) , were eager for Robertson to do well and show that Staff Corps officers could make good commanders , and if that could be done at the expense of an old @-@ style reservist like Stanley Savige , so much the better . They pushed for Robertson 's 19th Infantry Brigade , then in reserve , to be committed when the attack by Savige 's 17th Infantry Brigade slowed down . The abrupt manner in which this was done generated antipathy between Robertson and Savige .
The 19th Infantry Brigade then advanced on Tobruk . The attack on this fortified town proceeded along similar lines to that on Bardia , with the 16th Infantry effecting a break @-@ in of the position , but this time the 19th Infantry Brigade was to carry out the exploitation phase . Robertson 's contribution to the plan was to increase its tempo , so that the attack would be carried through without pause , the exploitation being carried out before the initial break @-@ in was complete . Robertson accepted the surrender of the fortress commander , Generale di Corpo d 'Armata Petassi Manella , and later Admiral Messimiliano Vietina , the Italian naval commander . Comments by " a sunburnt red @-@ headed Australian brigadier " made headlines in Britain , where senior officers rarely spoke to the media , but did not endear Robertson to his critics , who felt that his ego was out of control . Following the entry of the 19th Infantry Brigade to Benghazi on 7 February , Robertson declared " give me two stout ships and a bearing on Rome and we 'll dine in the hall of the caesars " .
For this campaign , Robertson was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) , but later that month he was hospitalised for varicose veins in the leg he had broken in 1917 . He was replaced as commander of the 19th Infantry Brigade by Alan Vasey . When Robertson recovered he was given responsibility for the training of AIF reinforcements in the Middle East . Robertson 's service in the field and his long experience in training troops made him an ideal candidate for the post . For his services , Robertson was mentioned in despatches a third time .
= = = Defence of Australia = = =
Around the time of the outbreak of war with Japan , many senior officers with distinguished records in the Middle East were recalled to Australia to lead militia formations and fill important staff posts . One of these was Robertson , who was recalled to take command of the 1st Cavalry Division in January 1942 . In March 1942 , an unusual event occurred . Major Generals Alan Vasey and Edmund Herring , and Brigadier Clive Steele , fearing that Gordon Bennett or John Lavarack was about to be appointed Commander in Chief , approached the Minister for the Army , Frank Forde , with a proposal that in view of the danger of an invasion of Australia , all officers over the age of 50 be immediately retired and Robertson be appointed Commander in Chief . This reflected an extraordinary endorsement of Robertson by his colleagues , but such favourable opinion was not universally held . Sydney Rowell later explained that :
Robbie , although in Sydney , was not unaware of what was going on . The thing that really riled me was Vasey 's saying that " perhaps Robbie 's vices in peace would be virtues in war , to which I replied that " if meanmindedness and disloyalty could be counted as virtues at any time I might be prepared to go along with him . "
The " revolt of the generals " collapsed with the welcome news that Blamey was returning from the Middle East to become Commander in Chief . In the reorganisation of the Army that followed , Robertson was appointed to command the 1st Armoured Division . Initially , the 1st Armoured Division had a key role in the defence of Australia as a mobile reserve , but it was only partly trained and equipped , representing another major challenge to Robertson as a trainer of troops . When the prospect of an invasion of Australia became remote , the 1st Armoured Division was sent to Western Australia in January 1943 , where it became part of Bennett 's III Corps . The area became a backwater and the 1st Armoured Division was slowly broken up and then disbanded . To recoup some of the nation 's investment in training for armoured warfare , Robertson arranged for 25 officers to be seconded to the British 7th Armoured Division in Europe . Following the disbandment of the 1st Armoured Division , Robertson took over command of the 2nd Division , the other division in Western Australia , and then , upon Bennett 's retirement , III Corps in April 1944 . This too was disbanded in June 1944 and Robertson took over Western Command .
Because the Army reached its greatest extent in 1942 and shrank in size thereafter , Blamey was faced with a limited number of senior appointments and more senior officers than he needed to fill them . He faced public and political criticism over " shelving " senior officers , including Robertson . That Robertson and Bennett , two troublesome potential rivals of Blamey 's , had been sent to Western Australia did not escape comment . However , it was always more likely that Robertson would be the one recalled . Nevertheless , Blamey had serious concerns about Robertson 's health , after the latter was hospitalised with internal haemorrhaging in July 1944 and sent to the eastern states to convalesce . While there he joined Vasey and Brigadier Bertrand Coombes , the Commandant of Duntroon , in conducting an inquiry into the future training and organisation of the Royal Military College . Their report , submitted to Blamey in January 1945 , called for a number of reforms , the most significant being that the postings of regular officers should alternate between staff and regimental duties .
= = = New Guinea = = =
In April 1945 , Robertson returned to the field , replacing Alan Ramsay as commander of the 5th Division , which was then engaged in the final stages of the New Britain Campaign . In July , Robertson became commander of the 6th Division , leading it through the final days of the Aitape – Wewak Campaign . On 13 September 1945 , Robertson accepted the surrender of Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi , and his Japanese Eighteenth Army . In December 1945 , Robertson took over command of the First Army , becoming one of a select number of Australians to command such a formation , at least on paper , with the rank of lieutenant general . For the final campaigns , Robertson was mentioned in despatches a fourth time .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = British Commonwealth Occupation Force = = =
Robertson returned to Australia in March 1946 to take over Southern Command . In June he was appointed to replace Lieutenant General John Northcott as commander of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) in the occupation of Japan . Northcott had negotiated the Northcott @-@ MacArthur agreement in January 1946 with General of the Army Douglas MacArthur , which governed the terms and conditions under which the BCOF would occupy part of Japan . They agreed that the BCOF would serve under American command , with American policy being followed . It remained to make the occupation work . Robertson had a poor relationship with the British component commander , Major General David Tennant Cowan , who resented being placed under an Australian officer . " It did not occur to me " , Robertson later wrote , " that officers of the British and Indian armies looked upon us from Australia and New Zealand as they looked upon Indians , and were prepared to do anything to avoid being publicly commanded by us . "
The British government 's principal interest in Japan was to renew pre @-@ war trade concessions , and to secure new ones ; it was particularly interested in the port city of Kobe . The Americans blocked these attempts . Robertson clashed repeatedly with Lieutenant General Sir Charles Gairdner , the official representative of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . Gairdner was nominally senior in rank to Robertson until March 1947 , when Robertson was promoted to the substantive rank of lieutenant general , backdated to January 1944 . Robertson resisted Gairdner 's requests for BCOF aircraft for personal purposes .
= = = Korean War = = =
By mid @-@ 1950 , the BCOF was winding down . All the contingents other than the Australians had departed , and the Australians were preparing to leave . For his services as commander of the BCOF , Robertson was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( Military Division ) ( KBE ) in the King 's Birthday Honours List . Robertson intended to travel to London to be invested by King George VI but his plans were disrupted by the outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950 . Robertson passed on to the Australian government requests from MacArthur for BCOF assistance , which were agreed to . He committed the frigate HMAS Shoalhaven and No. 77 Squadron RAAF but , although authorised to do so , he hesitated to deploy the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , as he considered the risks too great .
Robertson built up what became the British Commonwealth Forces Korea ( BCFK ) . While the British government had hoped to have the Americans supply all their logistic support , Robertson realised that this was impossible . The US Army was being stretched to its limit just supporting itself and the army of the Republic of Korea , and British Commonwealth equipment was different in many respects . The British Army then scrambled to meet its own logistic needs , creating ad hoc arrangements and requesting support from Robertson and MacArthur . The Chief of the General Staff , Sydney Rowell , sent a cable to his British counterpart , Field Marshal Sir William Slim , warning of " a bugger 's muddle in which the only people to suffer will be the soldiers " . Slim agreed ; a Maintenance Area was established in Korea to support Commonwealth forces there , which drew some resources from American sources , such as petrol , oil and lubricants , engineer stores , casualty evacuation and port operations , and the rest from BCOF in Japan .
Once again , the British government did not wish to entrust its interests in Japan to a foreign officer , so the British Chiefs of Staff appointed Air Vice Marshal Cecil Bouchier as their representative at MacArthur 's headquarters . His brief made it clear that he had no responsibility or authority over the BCOF or Commonwealth forces in Korea . After rashly ordering the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade to Pusan without transport or heavy equipment , much to Robertson 's annoyance , Bouchier did attempt to confine himself to acting solely as a liaison officer . Following the dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur , Robertson held a press conference in which he defended the general and his conduct of the war . This constituted an implicit condemnation of the British government 's policy . Soon after , during the Battle of the Imjin River , Robertson was consulted by the Americans about the possible consequences of the loss of the 1st Battalion , the Gloucestershire Regiment , and he advised them not to endanger the rest of the I Corps line with a rescue attempt . For his services in the Korean War , he was awarded the American Legion of Merit , and the South Korean Order of Military Merit .
= = Later life = =
Robertson was recalled to Australia in November 1951 , replacing Sir Edmund Herring as Director General of Recruiting . In January 1953 , Robertson took over Southern Command again . This put him in uncomfortably close proximity to Rowell , however , and the two clashed over a number of minor issues . Robertson turned 60 on 29 October 1954 , and retired the next day , after racking up 3 @,@ 985 days of active service in 43 years in the Australian Army . From 1954 to 1960 , he was honorary colonel of the Royal Australian Regiment . In retirement Robertson served on the committee of the Metropolitan Golf Club and was president of the Victorian branch of the Royal Empire Society for a time . He commenced writing his memoirs , which he promised would be " the million pound libel " . Unfortunately , the fate of the papers he gathered for it and the unfinished manuscript itself is unknown .
On 28 April 1960 he suffered a ruptured aorta and died at the Repatriation General Hospital , Heidelberg . His sudden death came as a shock to many . A funeral with full military honours was held at Scots ' Church , Melbourne . For pall bearers , he had eight generals : Leslie Beavis , Allan Boase , Cyril Clowes , Hector Edgar , Ragnar Garrett , Edmund Herring , Sydney Rowell and Colin Simpson . Frank Kingsley Norris carried his decorations while the 2nd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment and 1st Armoured Regiment provided honour guards for the largest military funeral since Blamey 's in 1951 . Afterwards , he was buried with his wife , who had died in 1956 , at Springvale Botanical Cemetery . The Robertson Barracks was later named in his honour .
= Guilty ( Awake ) =
" Guilty " is the third episode of the American police procedural drama television series Awake . The episode first aired on March 15 , 2012 in the United States on NBC , and was simultaneously broadcast on Global in Canada . It was written by series executive producer and showrunner Howard Gordon and consulting producer Evan Katz , and was directed by Jeffrey Reiner . " Guilty " was well received by television critics , who praised its storylines , noting the script to be interesting . The episode garnered 5 @.@ 12 million viewers in the United States and a 1 @.@ 6 / 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . It ranked second in its timeslot of the night , behind Private Practice on ABC .
The show centers on Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) , a police detective living in two separate realities after a car accident . In this episode , John Copper ( Clifton Powell ) , a convict that Michael arrested 10 years ago , escapes from jail . Tara ( Michaela McManus ) and Rex ( Dylan Minnette ) go to tennis practice . Cooper hits the car Rex is in , incapacitates Tara , and kidnaps Rex . John kidnaps him for " justice " , claiming that he was innocent . Michael later finds out in the " red reality " , that Jim Mayhew ( William Russ ) had framed him for murder . He wears a wire to set him up , and obtains a confession . Meanwhile , Hannah 's ( Laura Allen ) friends organize a service for Rex 's death in the " red reality " . Michael can 't come because of the " green reality " .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens in the " green reality " ( where Rex is alive and Hannah isn 't ) , with John Cooper ( Clifton Powell ) , a convict that Michael arrested 10 years ago , who is transferred to a medical clinic for dialysis because he is missing a kidney , by Nancy ( Lolly Ward ) . As the guard takes Copper to the car to go back to prison , he complains that the prisoner is getting preferential treatment over his mother , who is on the waiting list . As they arrive at the van , Cooper uses a paralytic vial hidden in his bandages to knock one guard out . He takes his gun , and makes the other security guard shut the door . Cooper claims his has " nothing to lose " . Later , at home , while Rex 's tennis coach Tara ( Michaela McManus ) takes him to tennis practice , Michael gets a call from Isaiah " Bird " Freeman ( Steve Harris ) , his partner , that Cooper had escaped . Rex and Tara are talking about Rex 's guilt about his father , when Cooper hits the car , and puts a chemical thing on Tara , and kidnaps Rex .
Michael and Bird investigate in the case , and Michael , with evidence , finds out where Rex is , and runs away . Meanwhile , Rex wakes up inside of a shed , handcuffed to the floor . He tries to dial 911 on the cell phone but Cooper comes in , interrupting him . Michael speaks to Nancy , who admits that she helped Cooper escape but didn ’ t know he would abduct anyone . She claims that she helped him because he claimed that he was innocent . Tara notes that Cooper had phoned Tara , and told him to go to a payphone near his police station . He goes there , and speaks to Cooper , who tells him to meet him at a warehouse . Cooper then apologizes to Rex , stating that " no son should pay for the sins of the fathers " , and walks out of the shack . Michael meets with him ; he claims that he met him for " justice " , and said that he was innocent . Cooper explains that Rex will die without him , confirming that he will die from dehydration possibly soon . He goes home and takes a sleeping pill , transferring to the " red reality " . Later , in the " red reality " ( where Hannah is alive and Rex isn 't ) , he speaks with Cooper at jail . He says that he didn 't do it , and asks if he knows who did . He claimed that Jim Mayhew , another cop , committed the crime and framed him .
Michael leaves the prison and calls Mayhew , and offers to come over for a beer . However , once Michael comes over , he reminds Mayhew that Bell had a million dollars but only $ 100 @,@ 000 ever turned up . He figures that Mayhew killed Bell , took the money , and planted the gun in Cooper 's house . When Michael demands his share of the stolen money , he kept stating that there was no money . However , as Michael leaves , Mayhew says that he has the remaining money for him . Michael leaves , Mayhew goes to the door , and finds out that the police are there . They arrest him . Michael 's partner in the " red reality " , Efrem Vega ( Wilmer Valderrama ) admits to Michael that he wasn 't sure if his partner had dreamed up the entire thing . Later in the " green reality " , Michael and the team head to the shed to get Rex , and take him to the hospital . In the shed , Rex had left a video message , which Michael had watched . Rex had said that he loved him . Michael wakes up in the " red reality " , and speaks to Hannah about their experiences .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series executive producer and showrunner Howard Gordon and consulting producer Evan Katz , and was directed by Jeffrey Reiner . It marked both Gordon and Katz 's first writing credit in the series , and director Reiner 's second directing credit , with the last episode he directed being " The Little Guy " , the second episode aired on March 8 , 2012 . This is the first episode that was not written by series creator and executive producer Kyle Killen . The episode is rated TV @-@ 14 on television in the United States .
= = = Casting = = =
The episode featured guest performances from many actors including : Logan Miller , who was cast as Cole , Rex 's best friend . Daniela Bobadilla appeared as Emma , who is Rex 's girlfriend , currently . Bailey Chase , who played as David Walker . Clifton Powell as John Cooper , a man who was falsely accused of a crime ten years earlier . He was framed by Jim Mayhew , played by William Russ . Jim Cantafio appeared as an IA Officer . Lolly Ward as Nancy , a man who had helped Cooper escape from jail . David Pease as Doubting Cop . Enrique Almeida , who was cast as Perez . Kevin Jackson , who appeared as a Homeless Man , and Christopher Judd , who was cast as the Paramedic .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Guilty " was originally broadcast on March 15 , 2012 in the United States on NBC between 10 : 00 pm and 11 : 00 pm , preceded by Up All Night . The episode garnered 5 @.@ 12 million viewers in its original airing the United States , and it ranked second in its timeslot despite airing simultaneously with Private Practice on ABC , and a live airing of the college basketball game , with teams New Mexico and Indiana playing . It acquired a 1 @.@ 6 / 4 rating @-@ share in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that it was seen by 1 @.@ 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode 's ratings had slightly improved over the previous episode , " The Little Guy " , which obtained 4 million viewers . It was simultaneously broadcast on Global in Canada , and was subsequently aired on Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom on May 18 , 2012 . The episode obtained 277 @,@ 000 million viewers in the United Kingdom on its original airing , making it the third most @-@ watched program for that week on the channel behind Game of Thrones and Blue Bloods . Its ratings had slightly dropped from the previous episode .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Guilty " was well received by most television commentators , who praised its storylines . Matt Fowler of IGN gave the episode a complimentary review . He claimed that the episode " effectively ramped up the tension " . Fowler thought that it " might have been a bit too much to accept that poor Rex had to suffer through yet another near @-@ death ordeal " , and that " the episode itself was able to provide genuine thrills mixed with some incredible moments of tenderness " . Fowler noted that Michael fully took " advantage of his unique , tragic , situation by having him purposefully use one world as a source of information to help him solve a case " . Stating that the episode had " top @-@ tier entertainment " , Fowler concluded his review by giving the episode a " 9 out of 10 " , classifying it as " great " . Nick McHatton from TV Fanatic mainly enjoyed this episode . McHatton claimed that Rex 's current behaviour and thoughts are " understandable " and " heart @-@ renching " . He concluded his review by giving the episode a " 4 @.@ 7 out of 5 " score . Caroline Preece from Den of Geek gave praise in the episode . He thought the episode was " built around a gripping premise " . Preece wrote that the series is " still very odd " after the episode . HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall noted many parts of the episode . Sepinwall stated that there was a " notable change in feel or style " from other episodes , because of different writers for the episode . He noted that " the idea of the loved one getting kidnapped feels like a very big card to play this early " , and that " it does fit in with the theme of the show " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave less praise and enjoyment in the episode . In his " B- " review , he noted that the " premise has been established " . He stated that it is " a clever device " . He argued that the " plotting isn 't helping " the episode . The Voice of TV 's Mary Powers gave the episode a " A- " grade . She called the episode " fabulous " . Carl Cortez from Assignment X gave much praise in the episode . He called it a " twisty / turny adventure " . Cortez claimed that it " feels too early and convenient " for Rex to get kidnapped .
= Curiosity ( EP ) =
Curiosity is the first EP by Canadian recording artist Carly Rae Jepsen . It was released on February 14 , 2012 , by 604 Records . Initially planned as a full @-@ length album , Curiosity was cut down to a six @-@ song EP just days before its release . Musically , Curiosity is a pop album influenced by several genres such as dance @-@ pop and R & B , while its lyrical content is mostly about love .
Curiosity received generally positive reviews from contemporary music , with many praising the quality of the tracks and labeling it mainstream . Its lead single , " Call Me Maybe " , was a commercial success , topping the charts in several countries and is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with over 18 million copies sold . The album peaked at number six on the Canadian Albums Chart .
= = Background = =
Jepsen 's second studio album was initially planned to be released on February 14 , 2012 ; however , she chose not to release it because she wanted to make sure she " got the second CD right . I think I got a little nervous about the idea of the sophomore being a little less @-@ than because it 's so rushed . So I wanted to give myself the time to not feel that pressure . " She then worked with songwriter Josh Ramsay and producer Ryan Stewart on most of the album 's tracks . Jepsen 's songwriting process was inspired by her life and friends . After the recording sessions were completed , Curiosity was announced as a full @-@ length album , with a digital release date confirmed for February 14 , 2012 . A few days before its official release , however , the label decided to change the format of the album , turning it into an extended play .
= = Composition = =
The EP opens with " Call Me Maybe " , an upbeat track that draws influences from dance @-@ pop and R & B. The clever lyrics of the song describes the " infatuation and inconvenience of a love at first sight , " as described by Bill Lamb of About.com. During the pre @-@ chorus , the singer states , " Ripped jeans , skin was showing / Hot night , wind was blowing / Where you think you ’ re going , baby ? " As the chorus begins , the background incorporates synthesized string chords , and she sings , " Hey , I just met you , And this is crazy , But here 's my number , So call me maybe . " Melody Lau of Rolling Stone wrote that " Call Me Maybe " is a " Taylor Swift meets Robyn " song . The title track , " Curiosity " , has a similar sound to " Call Me Maybe " , and features heavy dance beats and catchy hooks . In the song , Jepsen sings about being poorly treated by a bad boy , and begs for more of his love . " Picture " is a ballad that focuses on patience in a relationship . Critics noted that the song would work well during the climax of a motion picture due to its lyrical content . " Talk to Me " and " Just a Step Away " were both described as mid @-@ tempo pop songs that alludes to summer love , teen love and that first crush . Fiona Eadie of Cadence Canada noted that in both tracks , Carly is able to transcend the listener " to a porch swing or riding a bicycle along an old dirt road in the countryside ’ s summer sunshine . Her voice sings the highs and lows of love and everything that comes along with it . " The final song is a cover of Joni Mitchell 's " Both Sides Now " . Musically , the song is also an upbeat ballad , and differs from the original version in the sense that Jepsen 's version is " fresh and modern with her unique bubblegum twist . " Critics also added that Jepsen will be able to " attract a new generation to this widely recognized hit " with her " unique version . "
= = Critical reception = =
Curiosity received critical acclaim from contemporary critics . Bill Lamb of About.com began his review stating that it is always interesting to have new artists making music both familiar and fresh . He went to describe the six " electronic pop songs strong , almost too short to be satisfying but immensely repeatable . " Lamb also added that Jepsen 's " style is summery and bright without the emotional bogging down of [ Demi ] Lovato or the flat out drudgery of Jessie J " Allmusic critic Jon O 'Brien stated that , when compared to Jepsen 's previous effort Tug of War ( 2008 ) , the EP " unexpectedly abandons her previous singer / songwriter approach in favor of an unashamed bubblegum sound which harks back to the early 2000s pop princess glory days of Britney , Christina , Jessica , and Mandy . " Fiona Eadie of Cadence Canada described the musical style of the album as " pop . But not in the annoying , auto @-@ tune , and talentless way . Her perfectly pitched voice makes it clear that this girl has real talent . " Eadie summarized her review saying that Curiosity " is filled with music that dances . And it is your choice to listen to it with or without a hairbrush ( a.k.a. microphone ) in front of your bedroom mirror . Overall a great EP . I can ’ t wait to put the top down and blast her tunes all summer . " Jen Appel of idobi Radio commented that , overall , Curiosity is the kind of extended play that brings attention from the teenage public due to its mainstream songs , and added , " if you are looking for fun , lovable songs to make you smile , this is your go @-@ to mix . " Appel only criticized the lyrical content , noting that it is " very childish but seem to work with the music nonetheless . "
= = Singles = =
" Call Me Maybe " was released as the lead single from the EP on September 20 , 2011 . After pop singers Justin Bieber and Selena Gomez tweeted about the song , Jepsen gained international attention and was signed to Schoolboy Records , releasing her single in the United States through the label . The song received generally positive reviews from contemporary critics , who praised its composition and clever lyrical content , while deeming it as the perfect pop song . " Call Me Maybe " has attained commercial success worldwide , topping the charts in several countries , and is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with over 18 million copies sold . An accompanying music video portrays Jepsen trying to gain attention from her attractive neighbor , who is revealed to be gay at the close of the story . To promote the song , Jepsen has performed on several live televised shows , including on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , where she made her US television debut , and at the MTV Europe Music Awards .
" Curiosity " was released as the second single on May 1 , 2012 . Jepsen shot a video for the song on June 5 , 2012 with director Colin Minihan . The music video was not released , and leaked on November 25 , 2012 . According to the description of the leak , " this video was shelved because it was " too sexy " for her new tween demographic . " On March 26 , 2012 , Jepsen visited WBBM @-@ FM 's Morning Show and performed the two singles . In the last week of January 2013 , the singer filmed an acoustic performance of the song in Tokyo exclusively for Billboard .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= W. E. B. Du Bois =
William Edward Burghardt " W. E. B. " Du Bois ( pronounced / duːˈbɔɪz / doo @-@ BOYZ ; February 23 , 1868 – August 27 , 1963 ) was an American sociologist , historian , civil rights activist , Pan @-@ Africanist , author , and editor . Born in Great Barrington , Massachusetts , Du Bois grew up in a relatively tolerant and integrated community . After completing graduate work at the University of Berlin and Harvard , where he was the first African American to earn a doctorate , he became a professor of history , sociology and economics at Atlanta University . Du Bois was one of the co @-@ founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) in 1909 .
Du Bois rose to national prominence as the leader of the Niagara Movement , a group of African @-@ American activists who wanted equal rights for blacks . Du Bois and his supporters opposed the Atlanta compromise , an agreement crafted by Booker T. Washington which provided that Southern blacks would work and submit to white political rule , while Southern whites guaranteed that blacks would receive basic educational and economic opportunities . Instead , Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation , which he believed would be brought about by the African @-@ American intellectual elite . He referred to this group as the Talented Tenth and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership .
Racism was the main target of Du Bois 's polemics , and he strongly protested against lynching , Jim Crow laws , and discrimination in education and employment . His cause included people of color everywhere , particularly Africans and Asians in colonies . He was a proponent of Pan @-@ Africanism and helped organize several Pan @-@ African Congresses to fight for independence of African colonies from European powers . Du Bois made several trips to Europe , Africa and Asia . After World War I , he surveyed the experiences of American black soldiers in France and documented widespread bigotry in the United States military .
Du Bois was a prolific author . His collection of essays , The Souls of Black Folk , was a seminal work in African @-@ American literature ; and his 1935 magnum opus Black Reconstruction in America challenged the prevailing orthodoxy that blacks were responsible for the failures of the Reconstruction Era . He wrote one of the first scientific treatises in the field of American sociology , and he published three autobiographies , each of which contains insightful essays on sociology , politics and history . In his role as editor of the NAACP 's journal The Crisis , he published many influential pieces . Du Bois believed that capitalism was a primary cause of racism , and he was generally sympathetic to socialist causes throughout his life . He was an ardent peace activist and advocated nuclear disarmament . The United States ' Civil Rights Act , embodying many of the reforms for which Du Bois had campaigned his entire life , was enacted a year after his death .
= = Early life = =
William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was born on February 23 , 1868 , in Great Barrington , Massachusetts , to Alfred and Mary Silvina ( née Burghardt ) Du Bois . Mary Silvina Burghardt 's family was part of the very small free black population of Great Barrington and had long owned land in the state . She was descended from Dutch , African and English ancestors . William Du Bois 's maternal great @-@ great @-@ grandfather was Tom Burghardt , a slave ( born in West Africa around 1730 ) , who was held by the Dutch colonist Conraed Burghardt . Tom briefly served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War , which may have been how he gained his freedom during the 18th century . His son Jack Burghardt was the father of Othello Burghardt , who was the father of Mary Silvina Burghardt .
William Du Bois 's paternal great @-@ grandfather was James Du Bois of Poughkeepsie , New York , an ethnic French @-@ American who fathered several children with slave mistresses . One of James ' mixed @-@ race sons was Alexander . He traveled and worked in Haiti , where he fathered a son , Alfred , with a mistress . Alexander returned to Connecticut , leaving Alfred in Haiti with his mother .
Sometime before 1860 , Alfred Du Bois emigrated to the United States , settling in Massachusetts . He married Mary Silvina Burghardt on February 5 , 1867 , in Housatonic . Alfred left Mary in 1870 , two years after their son William was born . Mary Burghardt Du Bois moved with her son back to her parents ' house in Great Barrington until he was five . She worked to support her family ( receiving some assistance from her brother and neighbors ) , until she suffered a stroke in the early 1880s . She died in 1885 .
Great Barrington had a majority European American community , who treated Du Bois generally well . He attended the local integrated public school and played with white schoolmates . As an adult , he wrote about racism which he felt as a fatherless child and the experience of being a minority in the town . But , teachers recognized his ability and encouraged his intellectual pursuits , and his rewarding experience with academic studies led him to believe that he could use his knowledge to empower African Americans . Du Bois graduated from the town 's Searles High School . When Du Bois decided to attend college , the congregation of his childhood church , the First Congregational Church of Great Barrington , raised the money for his tuition .
= = = University education = = =
Relying on money donated by neighbors , Du Bois attended Fisk University , a historically black college in Nashville , Tennessee , from 1885 to 1888 . His travel to and residency in the South was Du Bois 's first experience with Southern racism , which at the time encompassed Jim Crow laws , bigotry , suppression of black voting , and lynchings ; the lattermost reached a peak in the next decade . After receiving a bachelor 's degree from Fisk , he attended Harvard College ( which did not accept course credits from Fisk ) from 1888 to 1890 , where he was strongly influenced by his professor William James , prominent in American philosophy . Du Bois paid his way through three years at Harvard with money from summer jobs , an inheritance , scholarships , and loans from friends . In 1890 , Harvard awarded Du Bois his second bachelor 's degree , cum laude , in history . In 1891 , Du Bois received a scholarship to attend the sociology graduate school at Harvard .
In 1892 , Du Bois received a fellowship from the John F. Slater Fund for the Education of Freedmen to attend the University of Berlin for graduate work . While a student in Berlin , he traveled extensively throughout Europe . He came of age intellectually in the German capital , while studying with some of that nation 's most prominent social scientists , including Gustav von Schmoller , Adolph Wagner , and Heinrich von Treitschke . After returning from Europe , Du Bois completed his graduate studies ; in 1895 he was the first African American to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard University .
= = = Wilberforce and Philadelphia = = =
In the summer of 1894 , Du Bois received several job offers , including one from the prestigious Tuskegee Institute ; he accepted a teaching job at Wilberforce University in Ohio . At Wilberforce , Du Bois was strongly influenced by Alexander Crummell , who believed that ideas and morals are necessary tools to effect social change . While at Wilberforce , Du Bois married Nina Gomer , one of his students , on May 12 , 1896 .
After two years at Wilberforce , Du Bois accepted a one @-@ year research job from the University of Pennsylvania as an " assistant in sociology " in the summer of 1896 . He performed sociological field research in Philadelphia 's African @-@ American neighborhoods , which formed the foundation for his landmark study , The Philadelphia Negro , published in 1899 while he was teaching at Atlanta University . It was the first case study of a black community in the United States . By the 1890s , Philadelphia 's black neighborhoods had a negative reputation in terms of crime , poverty , and mortality . Du Bois 's book undermined the stereotypes with experimental evidence , and shaped his approach to segregation and its negative impact on black lives and reputations . The results led Du Bois to realize that racial integration was the key to democratic equality in American cities .
While taking part in the American Negro Academy ( ANA ) in 1897 , Du Bois presented a paper in which he rejected Frederick Douglass 's plea for black Americans to integrate into white society . He wrote : " we are Negroes , members of a vast historic race that from the very dawn of creation has slept , but half awakening in the dark forests of its African fatherland " . In the August 1897 issue of Atlantic Monthly , Du Bois published " Strivings of the Negro People " , his first work aimed at the general public , in which he enlarged upon his thesis that African Americans should embrace their African heritage while contributing to American society .
= = Atlanta University = =
In July 1897 , Du Bois left Philadelphia and took a professorship in history and economics at the historically black Atlanta University in Georgia . His first major academic work was his book The Philadelphia Negro ( 1899 ) , a detailed and comprehensive sociological study of the African @-@ American people of Philadelphia , based on the field work he did in 1896 – 1897 . The work was a breakthrough in scholarship , because it was the first scientific study of African Americans and a major contribution to early scientific sociology in the U.S. In the study , Du Bois coined the phrase " the submerged tenth " to describe the black underclass . Later in 1903 he popularized the term , the " Talented Tenth " , applied to society 's elite class . Du Bois 's terminology reflected his opinion that the elite of a nation , both black and white , was critical to achievements in culture and progress . Du Bois wrote in this period in a dismissive way of the underclass , describing them as " lazy " or " unreliable " , but he – in contrast to other scholars – he attributed many of their societal problems to the ravages of slavery .
Du Bois 's output at Atlanta University was prodigious , in spite of a limited budget : He produced numerous social science papers and annually hosted the Atlanta Conference of Negro Problems . Du Bois also received grants from the U.S. government to prepare reports about African @-@ American workforce and culture . His students considered him to be a brilliant , but aloof and strict , teacher .
= = = First Pan @-@ African Conference = = =
In 1900 Du Bois attended the First Pan @-@ African Conference , held in London from July 23 to 25 . ( This was just prior to the Paris Exhibition of 1900 " in order to allow tourists of African descent to attend both events . " ) It was organized by men from the Caribbean : Haitians Anténor Firmin and Bénito Sylvain and Trinidadian barrister Henry Sylvester Williams . Du Bois played a leading role , drafting a letter ( " Address to the Nations of the World " ) to European leaders appealing to them to struggle against racism , to grant colonies in Africa and the West Indies the right to self @-@ government and to demand political and other rights for African Americans . By this time , southern states were passing new laws and constitutions to disfranchise most African Americans , an exclusion from the political system that lasted into the 1960s .
At the conclusion of the conference , delegates unanimously adopted the " Address to the Nations of the World " , and sent it to various heads of state where people of African descent were living and suffering oppression . The address implored the United States and the imperial European nations to " acknowledge and protect the rights of people of African descent " and to respect the integrity and independence of " the free Negro States of Abyssinia , Liberia , Haiti , etc . " It was signed by Bishop Alexander Walters ( President of the Pan @-@ African Association ) , the Canadian Rev. Henry B. Brown ( Vice @-@ President ) , Williams ( General Secretary ) and Du Bois ( Chairman of the Committee on the Address ) . The address included Du Bois 's observation , " The problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the colour @-@ line . " He used this again three years later in the " Forethought " of his book , The Souls of Black Folk ( 1903 ) .
= = = Booker T. Washington and the Atlanta Compromise = = =
In the first decade of the new century , Du Bois emerged as a spokesperson for his race , second only to Booker T. Washington . Washington was the director of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama , and wielded tremendous influence within the African @-@ American and white communities . Washington was the architect of the Atlanta Compromise , an unwritten deal he struck in 1895 with Southern white leaders who dominated state governments after Reconstruction . Essentially the agreement provided that Southern blacks , who lived overwhelmingly in rural communities , would submit to the current discrimination , segregation , disenfranchisement , and non @-@ unionized employment ; that Southern whites would permit blacks to receive a basic education , some economic opportunities , and justice within the legal system ; and that Northern whites would invest in Southern enterprises and fund black educational charities .
Despite initially sending congratulations to Washington for his Atlanta Exposition Speech , Du Bois later came to oppose Washington 's plan , along with many other African Americans , including Archibald H. Grimke , Kelly Miller , James Weldon Johnson and Paul Laurence Dunbar – representatives of the class of educated blacks that Du Bois would later call the " talented tenth " . Du Bois felt that African Americans should fight for equal rights and higher opportunities , rather than passively submit to the segregation and discrimination of Washington 's Atlanta Compromise .
Du Bois was inspired to greater activism by the lynching of Sam Hose , which occurred near Atlanta in 1899 . Hose was tortured , burned and hung by a mob of two thousand whites . When walking through Atlanta to discuss the lynching with newspaper editor Joel Chandler Harris , Du Bois encountered Hose 's burned knuckles in a storefront display . The episode stunned Du Bois , and he resolved that " one could not be a calm cool , and detached scientist while Negroes were lynched , murdered , and starved . " Du Bois realized that " the cure wasn 't simply telling people the truth , it was inducing them to act on the truth . "
In 1901 , Du Bois wrote a review critical of Washington 's autobiography Up from Slavery , which he later expanded and published to a wider audience as the essay " Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others " in The Souls of Black Folk . Later in life , Du Bois regretted having been critical of Washington in those essays . One of the contrasts between the two leaders was their approach to education : Washington felt that African @-@ American schools should focus primarily on industrial education topics such as agricultural and mechanical skills , to prepare southern blacks for the opportunities in the rural areas where most lived . Du Bois felt that black schools should focus more on liberal arts and academic curriculum ( including the classics , arts , and humanities ) , because liberal arts were required to develop a leadership elite . However , as sociologist E. Franklin Frazier and economists Gunnar Myrdal and Thomas Sowell have argued , such disagreement over education was a minor point of difference between Washington and Du Bois ; both men acknowledged the importance of the form of education that the other emphasized . Sowell has also argued that , despite genuine disagreements between the two leaders , the supposed animosity between Washington and Du Bois actually formed among their followers , not between Washington and Du Bois themselves . Du Bois himself also made this observation in an interview published in the The Atlantic Monthly in November 1965 .
= = = Niagara Movement = = =
In 1905 , Du Bois and several other African @-@ American civil rights activists – including Fredrick L. McGhee , Jesse Max Barber and William Monroe Trotter – met in Canada , near Niagara Falls . There they wrote a declaration of principles opposing the Atlanta Compromise , and incorporated as the Niagara Movement in 1906 . Du Bois and the other " Niagarites " wanted to publicize their ideals to other African Americans , but most black periodicals were owned by publishers sympathetic to Washington . Du Bois bought a printing press and started publishing Moon Illustrated Weekly in December 1905 . It was the first African @-@ American illustrated weekly , and Du Bois used it to attack Washington 's positions , but the magazine lasted only for about eight months . Du Bois soon founded and edited another vehicle for his polemics , The Horizon : A Journal of the Color Line , which debuted in 1907 .
The Niagarites held a second conference in August 1906 , in celebration of the 100th anniversary of abolitionist John Brown 's birth , at the West Virginia site of Brown 's raid on Harper 's Ferry . Reverdy C. Ransom spoke and addressed the fact that Washington 's primary goal was to prepare blacks for employment in their current society : " Today , two classes of Negroes , [ ... ] are standing at the parting of the ways . The one counsels patient submission to our present humiliations and degradations ; [ ... ] The other class believe that it should not submit to being humiliated , degraded , and remanded to an inferior place [ ... ] it does not believe in bartering its manhood for the sake of gain . "
= = = The Souls of Black Folk = = =
In an effort to portray the genius and humanity of the black race , Du Bois published The Souls of Black Folk ( 1903 ) , a collection of 14 essays . James Weldon Johnson said the book 's effect on African Americans was comparable to that of Uncle Tom 's Cabin . The introduction famously proclaimed that " [ ... ] the problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the color line . " Each chapter begins with two epigraphs – one from a white poet , and one from a black spiritual – to demonstrate intellectual and cultural parity between black and white cultures . A major theme of the work was the double consciousness faced by African Americans : Being both American and black . This was a unique identity which , according to Du Bois , had been a handicap in the past , but could be a strength in the future : " Henceforth , the destiny of the race could be conceived as leading neither to assimilation nor separatism but to proud , enduring hyphenation . "
Jonathon S. Kahn in Divine Discontent : The Religious Imagination of Du Bois shows how Du Bois in his The Souls of Black Folk , represents an exemplary text of pragmatic religious naturalism . On page 12 Kahn writes : " Du Bois needs to be understood as an African American pragmatic religious naturalist . By this I mean that , like Du Bois the American traditional pragmatic religious naturalism , which runs through William James , George Santayana and John Dewey , seeks religion without metaphysical foundations . " Kahn 's interpretation of religious naturalism is very broad but he relates it to specific thinkers . Du Bois 's anti @-@ metaphysical viewpoint places him in the sphere of religious naturalism as typified by William James and others .
= = = Racial violence = = =
Two calamities in the autumn of 1906 shocked African Americans , and contributed to strengthening support for Du Bois 's struggle for civil rights to prevail over Booker T. Washington 's accommodationism . First , President Teddy Roosevelt dishonorably discharged 167 black soldiers because they were accused of crimes as a result of the Brownsville Affair . Many of the discharged soldiers had served for 20 years and were near retirement . Second , in September , riots broke out in Atlanta , precipitated by unfounded allegations of black men assaulting white women . This was a catalyst for racial tensions based on a job shortage and employers playing black workers against white workers . Ten thousand whites rampaged through Atlanta , beating every black person they could find , resulting in over 25 deaths . In the aftermath of the 1906 violence , Du Bois urged blacks to withdraw their support from the Republican Party , because Republicans Roosevelt and William Howard Taft did not sufficiently support blacks . Most African Americans had been loyal to the Republican Party since the time of Abraham Lincoln .
Du Bois wrote the essay , " A Litany at Atlanta " , which asserted that the riot demonstrated that the Atlanta Compromise was a failure . Despite upholding their end of the bargain , blacks had failed to receive legal justice in the South . Historian David Lewis has written that the Compromise no longer held because white patrician planters , who took a paternalistic role , had been replaced by aggressive businessmen who were willing to pit blacks against whites . These two calamities were watershed events for the African @-@ American community , marking the ascendancy of Du Bois 's vision of equal rights .
= = = Academic work = = =
In addition to writing editorials , Du Bois continued to produce scholarly work at Atlanta University . In 1909 , after five years of effort , he published a biography of abolitionist John Brown . It contained many insights , but also contained some factual errors . The work was strongly criticized by The Nation , which was owned by Oswald Villard , who was writing his own , competing biography of John Brown . Du Bois 's work was largely ignored by white scholars . After publishing a piece in Collier 's magazine warning of the end of " white supremacy " , Du Bois had difficulty getting pieces accepted by major periodicals . But he did continue to publish columns regularly in The Horizon magazine .
Du Bois was the first African American invited by the American Historical Association ( AHA ) to present a paper at their annual conference . He read his paper , Reconstruction and Its Benefits , to an astounded audience at the AHA 's December 1909 conference . The paper went against the mainstream historical view , promoted by the Dunning School of scholars at Columbia University , that Reconstruction was a disaster , caused by the ineptitude and sloth of blacks . To the contrary , Du Bois asserted that the brief period of African @-@ American leadership in the South accomplished three important goals : democracy , free public schools , and new social welfare legislation . He asserted that it was the federal government 's failure to manage the Freedmen 's Bureau , to distribute land , and to establish an educational system , that doomed African @-@ American prospects in the South . When Du Bois submitted the paper for publication a few months later in the American Historical Review , he asked that the word Negro be capitalized . The editor , J. Franklin Jameson , refused , and published the paper without the capitalization . The paper was mostly ignored by white historians . Du Bois later developed his paper as his ground @-@ breaking 1935 book , Black Reconstruction , which marshaled extensive facts to support his assertions . The AHA did not invite another African @-@ American speaker until 1940 .
= = NAACP era = =
In May 1909 , Du Bois attended the National Negro Conference in New York . The meeting led to the creation of the National Negro Committee , chaired by Oswald Villard , and dedicated to campaigning for civil rights , equal voting rights , and equal educational opportunities . The following spring , in 1910 , at the second National Negro Conference , the attendees created the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) . At Du Bois 's suggestion , the word " colored " , rather than " black " , was used to include " dark skinned people everywhere . " Dozens of civil rights supporters , black and white , participated in the founding , but most executive officers were white , including Mary Ovington , Charles Edward Russell , William English Walling , and its first president Moorfield Storey .
= = = The Crisis = = =
NAACP leaders offered Du Bois the position of Director of Publicity and Research . He accepted the job in the summer of 1910 , and moved to New York after resigning from Atlanta University . His primary duty was editing the NAACP 's monthly magazine , which he named The Crisis . The first issue appeared in November 1910 , and Du Bois pronounced that its aim was to set out " those facts and arguments which show the danger of race prejudice , particularly as manifested today toward colored people . " The journal was phenomenally successful , and its circulation would reach 100 @,@ 000 in 1920 . Typical articles in the early editions included one that inveighed against the dishonesty and parochialism of black churches , and one that discussed the Afrocentric origins of Egyptian civilization .
An important Du Bois editorial from 1911 helped initiate a nationwide push to induce the Federal government to outlaw lynching . Du Bois , employing the sarcasm he frequently used , commented on a lynching in Pennsylvania : " The point is he was black . Blackness must be punished . Blackness is the crime of crimes [ ... ] It is therefore necessary , as every white scoundrel in the nation knows , to let slip no opportunity of punishing this crime of crimes . Of course if possible , the pretext should be great and overwhelming – some awful stunning crime , made even more horrible by the reporters ' imagination . Failing this , mere murder , arson , barn burning or impudence may do . "
The Crisis carried editorials by Du Bois that supported the ideals of unionized labor but excoriated the racism demonstrated by its leaders , who systematically excluded blacks from membership . Du Bois also supported the principles of the Socialist Party ( he was briefly a member of the party from 1910 to 1912 ) , but he denounced the racism demonstrated by some socialist leaders . Frustrated by Republican president Taft 's failure to address widespread lynching , Du Bois endorsed Democratic candidate Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 presidential race , in exchange for Wilson 's promise to support black causes .
Throughout his writings , Du Bois supported women 's rights , but he found it difficult to publicly endorse the women 's right @-@ to @-@ vote movement because leaders of the suffragism movement refused to support his fight against racial injustice . A Crisis editorial from 1913 broached the taboo subject of interracial marriage : Although Du Bois generally expected persons to marry within their race , he viewed the problem as a women 's rights issue , because laws prohibited white men from marrying black women . Du Bois wrote " [ anti @-@ miscegenation ] laws leave the colored girls absolutely helpless for the lust of white men . It reduces colored women in the eyes of the law to the position of dogs . As low as the white girl falls , she can compel her seducer to marry her [ ... ] We must kill [ anti @-@ miscegenation laws ] not because we are anxious to marry the white men 's sisters , but because we are determined that white men will leave our sisters alone . "
During the years 1915 and 1916 , some leaders of the NAACP – disturbed by financial losses at The Crisis , and worried about the inflammatory rhetoric of some of its essays – attempted to oust Du Bois from his editorial position . Du Bois and his supporters prevailed , and he continued in his role as editor . In a 1919 column titled " The True Brownies " , he announced the creation of The Brownies ' Book , the first magazine published for African American children and youth , which he founded with Augustus Granville Dill and Jessie Redmon Fauset .
= = = Historian and author = = =
The 1910s were a productive time for Du Bois . In 1911 he attended the First Universal Races Congress in London and he published his first novel , The Quest of the Silver Fleece . Two years later , Du Bois wrote , produced , and directed a pageant for the stage , The Star of Ethiopia . In 1915 , Du Bois published The Negro , a general history of black Africans , and the first of its kind in English . The book rebutted claims of African inferiority , and would come to serve as the basis of much Afrocentric historiography in the 20th century . The Negro predicted unity and solidarity for colored people around the world , and it influenced many who supported the Pan @-@ African movement .
In 1915 , Atlantic Monthly carried an essay by Du Bois , " The African Roots of the War " , which consolidated Du Bois 's ideas on capitalism and race . In it , he argued that the scramble for Africa was at the root of World War I. He also anticipated later Communist doctrine , by suggesting that wealthy capitalists had pacified white workers by giving them just enough wealth to prevent them from revolting , and by threatening them with competition by the lower @-@ cost labor of colored workers .
= = = Combating racism = = =
Du Bois used his influential role in the NAACP to oppose a variety of racist incidents . When the silent film The Birth of a Nation premiered in 1915 , Du Bois and the NAACP led the fight to ban the movie , because of its racist portrayal of blacks as brutish and lustful . The fight was not successful , and possibly contributed to the film 's fame , but the publicity drew many new supporters to the NAACP .
The private sector was not the only source of racism : under President Wilson , the plight of African Americans in government jobs suffered . Many federal agencies adopted whites @-@ only employment practices , the Army excluded blacks from officer ranks , and the immigration service prohibited the immigration of persons of African ancestry . Du Bois wrote an editorial in 1914 deploring the dismissal of blacks from federal posts , and he supported William Monroe Trotter when Trotter brusquely confronted Wilson about Wilson 's failure to fulfill his campaign promise of justice for blacks .
The Crisis continued to wage a campaign against lynching . In 1915 , it published an article with a year @-@ by @-@ year tabulation of 2 @,@ 732 lynchings from 1884 to 1914 . The April 1916 edition covered the group lynching of six African Americans in Lee County , Georgia . Later in 1916 , the " Waco Horror " article covered the lynching of Jesse Washington , a mentally impaired 17 @-@ year @-@ old African American . The article broke new ground by utilizing undercover reporting to expose the conduct of local whites in Waco , Texas .
The early 20th century was the era of the Great Migration of blacks from the Southern United States to the Northeast , Midwest and West . Du Bois wrote an editorial supporting the Great Migration , because he felt it would help blacks escape Southern racism , find economic opportunities , and assimilate into American society .
Also in the 1910s the American eugenics movement was in its infancy , and many leading eugenicists were openly racist , defining Blacks as " a lower race " . Du Bois opposed this view as an unscientific aberration , but still maintained the basic principle of eugenics : That different persons have different inborn characteristics that make them more or less suited for specific kinds of employment , and that by encouraging the most talented members of all races to procreate would better the " stocks " of humanity .
= = = World War I = = =
As the United States prepared to enter World War I in 1917 , Du Bois 's colleague in the NAACP , Joel Spingarn , established a camp to train African Americans to serve as officers in the United States military . The camp was controversial , because some whites felt that blacks were not qualified to be officers , and some blacks felt that African Americans should not participate in what they considered a white man 's war . Du Bois supported Spingarn 's training camp , but was disappointed when the Army forcibly retired one of its few black officers , Charles Young , on a pretense of ill health . The Army agreed to create 1 @,@ 000 officer positions for blacks , but insisted that 250 come from enlisted men , conditioned to taking orders from whites , rather than from independent @-@ minded blacks that came from the camp . Over 700 @,@ 000 blacks enlisted on the first day of the draft , but were subject to discriminatory conditions which prompted vocal protests from Du Bois .
After the East St. Louis Riot occurred in the summer of 1917 , Du Bois traveled to St. Louis to report on the riots . Between 40 and 250 African Americans were massacred by whites , primarily due to resentment caused by St. Louis industry hiring blacks to replace striking white workers . Du Bois 's reporting resulted in an article " The Massacre of East St. Louis " , published in the September issue of The Crisis , which contained photographs and interviews detailing the violence . Historian David Levering Lewis concluded that Du Bois distorted some of the facts in order to increase the propaganda value of the article . To publicly demonstrate the black community 's outrage over the St Louis riot , Du Bois organized the Silent Parade , a march of around 9 @,@ 000 African Americans down New York 's Fifth avenue , the first parade of its kind in New York , and the second instance of blacks publicly demonstrating for civil rights .
The Houston riot of 1917 disturbed Du Bois and was a major setback to efforts to permit African Americans to become military officers . The riot began after Houston police arrested and beat two black soldiers ; in response , over 100 black soldiers took to the streets of Houston and killed 16 whites . A military court martial was held , and 19 of the soldiers were hung , and 67 others were imprisoned . In spite of the Houston riot , Du Bois and others successfully pressed the Army to accept the officers trained at Spingarn 's camp , resulting in over 600 black officers joining the Army in October 1917 .
Federal officials , concerned about subversive viewpoints expressed by NAACP leaders , attempted to frighten the NAACP by threatening it with investigations . Du Bois was not intimidated , and in 1918 he predicted that World War I would lead to an overthrow of the European colonial system and to the " liberation " of colored people world @-@ wide – in China , in India , and especially in America . NAACP chairman Joel Spingarn was enthusiastic about the war , and he persuaded Du Bois to consider an officer 's commission in the Army , contingent on Du Bois writing an editorial repudiating his anti @-@ war stance . Du Bois accepted this bargain and wrote the pro @-@ war " Close Ranks " editorial in June 1918 and soon thereafter he received a commission in the Army . Many black leaders , who wanted to leverage the war to gain civil rights for African Americans , criticized Du Bois for his sudden reversal . Southern officers in Du Bois 's unit objected to his presence , and his commission was withdrawn .
= = = After the war = = =
When the war ended , Du Bois traveled to Europe in 1919 to attend the first Pan @-@ African Congress and to interview African @-@ American soldiers for a planned book on their experiences in World War I. He was trailed by U.S. agents who were searching for evidence of treasonous activities . Du Bois discovered that the vast majority of black American soldiers were relegated to menial labor as stevedores and laborers . Some units were armed , and one in particular , the 92nd Division ( the Buffalo soldiers ) , engaged in combat . Du Bois discovered widespread racism in the Army , and concluded that the Army command discouraged African Americans from joining the Army , discredited the accomplishments of black soldiers , and promoted bigotry .
After returning from Europe , Du Bois was more determined than ever to gain equal rights for African Americans . Black soldiers returning from overseas felt a new sense of power and worth , and were representative of an emerging attitude referred to as the New Negro . In the editorial " Returning Soldiers " he wrote : " But , by the God of Heaven , we are cowards and jackasses if , now that the war is over , we do not marshal every ounce of our brain and brawn to fight a sterner , longer , more unbending battle against the forces of hell in our own land . " Many blacks moved to northern cities in search of work , and some northern white workers resented the competition . This labor strife was one of the causes of the Red Summer of 1919 , a horrific series of race riots across America , in which over 300 African Americans were killed in over 30 cities . Du Bois documented the atrocities in the pages of The Crisis , culminating in the December publication of a gruesome photograph of a lynching that occurred during the Omaha , Nebraska race riot .
The most egregious episode during the Red Summer was a vicious attack on blacks in Elaine , Arkansas , in which nearly 200 blacks were murdered . Reports coming out of the South blamed the blacks , alleging that they were conspiring to take over the government . Infuriated with the distortions , Du Bois published a letter in the New York World , claiming that the only crime the black sharecroppers had committed was daring to challenge their white landlords by hiring an attorney to investigate contractual irregularities . Over 60 of the surviving blacks were arrested and tried for conspiracy , in the case known as Moore v. Dempsey . Du Bois rallied blacks across America to raise funds for the legal defense , which , six years later , resulted in a Supreme Court victory authored by Oliver Wendell Holmes . Although the victory had little immediate impact on justice for blacks in the South , it marked the first time the Federal government used the 14th amendment guarantee of due process to prevent states from shielding mob violence .
In 1920 , Du Bois published Darkwater : Voices From Within the Veil , the first of three autobiographies he would write . The " veil " was that which covered colored people around the world . In the book , he hoped to lift the veil and show white readers what life was like behind the veil , and how it distorted the viewpoints of those looking through it – in both directions . The book contained Du Bois 's feminist essay , " The Damnation of Women " , which was a tribute to the dignity and worth of women , particularly black women .
Concerned that textbooks used by African @-@ American children ignored black history and culture , Du Bois created a monthly children 's magazine , The Brownies ' Book . Initially published in 1920 , it was aimed at black children , who Du Bois called " the children of the sun . "
= = = Pan @-@ Africanism and Marcus Garvey = = =
Du Bois traveled to Europe in 1921 to attend the second Pan @-@ African Congress . The assembled black leaders from around the world issued the London Resolutions and established a Pan @-@ African Association headquarters in Paris . Under Du Bois 's guidance , the resolutions insisted on racial equality , and that Africa be ruled by Africans ( not , as in the 1919 congress , with the consent of Africans ) . Du Bois restated the resolutions of the congress in his Manifesto To the League of Nations , which implored the newly formed League of Nations to address labor issues and to appoint Africans to key posts . The League took little action on the requests .
Another important African American leader of the 1920s was Marcus Garvey , promoter of the Back @-@ to @-@ Africa movement and founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association ( UNIA ) . Garvey denounced Du Bois 's efforts to achieve equality through integration , and instead endorsed racial separatism . Du Bois initially supported the concept of Garvey 's Black Star Line , a shipping company that was intended to facilitate commerce within the African diaspora . But Du Bois later became concerned that Garvey was threatening the NAACP 's efforts , leading Du Bois to describe him as fraudulent and reckless . Responding to Garvey 's slogan " Africa for the Africans " slogan , Du Bois said that he supported that concept , but denounced Garvey 's intention that Africa be ruled by African Americans .
Du Bois wrote a series of articles in The Crisis between 1922 and 1924 , attacking Garvey 's movement , calling him the " most dangerous enemy of the Negro race in America and the world . " Du Bois and Garvey never made a serious attempt to collaborate , and their dispute was partly rooted in the desire of their respective organizations ( NAACP and UNIA ) to capture a larger portion of the available philanthropic funding .
Harvard 's decision to ban blacks from its dormitories in 1921 was decried by Du Bois as an instance of a broad effort in the U.S. to renew " the Anglo @-@ Saxon cult ; the worship of the Nordic totem , the disfranchisement of Negro , Jew , Irishman , Italian , Hungarian , Asiatic and South Sea Islander – the world rule of Nordic white through brute force . " When Du Bois sailed for Europe in 1923 for the third Pan @-@ African Congress , the circulation of The Crisis had declined to 60 @,@ 000 from its World War I high of 100 @,@ 000 , but it remained the preeminent periodical of the civil rights movement . President Coolidge designated Du Bois an " Envoy Extraordinary " to Liberia and – after the third congress concluded – Du Bois rode a German freighter from the Canary Islands to Africa , visiting Liberia , Sierra Leone and Senegal .
= = = Harlem Renaissance = = =
Du Bois frequently promoted African @-@ American artistic creativity in his writings , and when the Harlem Renaissance emerged in the mid @-@ 1920s , his article " A Negro Art Renaissance " celebrated the end of the long hiatus of blacks from creative endeavors . His enthusiasm for the Harlem Renaissance waned as he came to believe that many whites visited Harlem for voyeurism , not for genuine appreciation of black art . Du Bois insisted that artists recognize their moral responsibilities , writing that " a black artist is first of all a black artist . " He was also concerned that black artists were not using their art to promote black causes , saying " I do not care a damn for any art that is not used for propaganda . " By the end of 1926 , he stopped employing The Crisis to support the arts .
= = = Socialism = = =
When Du Bois became editor of the Crisis magazine in 1911 , he joined the Socialist Party of America on the advice of NAACP founders Mary Ovington , William English Walling and Charles Edward Russell . However , he supported the Democrat Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 presidential campaign , a breach of the rules , and was forced to resign from the Socialist Party . Du Bois remained : " convinced that socialism was an excellent way of life , but I thought it might be reached by various methods . "
Nine years after the 1917 Russian Revolution , Du Bois extended a trip to Europe to include a visit to the Soviet Union . Du Bois was struck by the poverty and disorganization he encountered in the Soviet Union , yet was impressed by the intense labors of the officials and by the recognition given to workers . Although Du Bois was not yet familiar with the communist theories of Karl Marx or Vladimir Lenin , he concluded that socialism may be a better path towards racial equality than capitalism .
Although Du Bois generally endorsed socialist principles , his politics were strictly pragmatic : In 1929 , Du Bois endorsed Democrat Jimmy Walker for mayor of New York , rather than the socialist Norman Thomas , believing that Walker could do more immediate good for blacks , even though Thomas ' platform was more consistent with Du Bois 's views . Throughout the 1920s , Du Bois and the NAACP shifted support back and forth between the Republican Party and the Democratic Party , induced by promises from the candidates to fight lynchings , improve working conditions , or support voting rights in the South ; invariably , the candidates failed to deliver on their promises .
A rivalry emerged in 1931 between the NAACP and the Communist Party , when the Communists responded quickly and effectively to support the Scottsboro Boys , nine African @-@ American youth arrested in 1931 in Alabama for rape . Du Bois and the NAACP felt that the case would not be beneficial to their cause , so they chose to let the Communist Party organize the defense efforts . Du Bois was impressed with the vast amount of publicity and funds the Communists devoted to the partially successful defense effort , and he came to suspect that the Communists were attempting to present their party to African Americans as a better solution than the NAACP . Responding to criticisms of the NAACP from the Communist Party , Du Bois wrote articles condemning the party , claiming that it unfairly attacked the NAACP , and that it failed to fully appreciate racism in the United States . The Communist leaders , in turn , accused Du Bois of being a " class enemy " , and claimed that the NAACP leadership was an isolated elite , disconnected from the working @-@ class blacks they ostensibly fought for .
= = Return to Atlanta = =
Du Bois did not have a good working relationship with Walter Francis White , president of the NAACP since 1931 . That conflict , combined with the financial stresses of the Great Depression , precipitated a power struggle over The Crisis . Du Bois , concerned that his position as editor would be eliminated , resigned his job at The Crisis and accepted an academic position at Atlanta University in early 1933 . The rift with the NAACP grew larger in 1934 when Du Bois reversed his stance on segregation , stating that " separate but equal " was an acceptable goal for African Americans . The NAACP leadership was stunned , and asked Du Bois to retract his statement , but he refused , and the dispute led to Du Bois 's resignation from the NAACP .
After arriving at his new professorship in Atlanta , Du Bois wrote a series of articles generally supportive of Marxism . He was not a strong proponent of labor unions or the Communist Party , but he felt that Marx 's scientific explanation of society and the economy were useful for explaining the situation of African Americans in the United States . Marx 's atheism also struck a chord with Du Bois , who routinely criticized black churches for dulling blacks ' sensitivity to racism . In his 1933 writings , Du Bois embraced socialism , but asserted that " [ c ] olored labor has no common ground with white labor " , a controversial position that was rooted in Du Bois 's dislike of American labor unions , which had systematically excluded blacks for decades . Du Bois did not support the Communist Party in the U.S. and did not vote for their candidate in the 1932 presidential election , in spite of an African American on their ticket .
= = = Black Reconstruction in America = = =
Back in the world of academia , Du Bois was able to resume his study of Reconstruction , the topic of the 1910 paper that he presented to the American Historical Association . In 1935 , he published his magnum opus , Black Reconstruction in America . The book presented the thesis , in the words of the historian David Levering Lewis , that " black people , suddenly admitted to citizenship in an environment of feral hostility , displayed admirable volition and intelligence as well as the indolence and ignorance inherent in three centuries of bondage . " Du Bois documented how black people were central figures in the American Civil War and Reconstruction , and also showed how they made alliances with white politicians . He provided evidence that the coalition governments established public education in the South , and many needed social service programs . The book also demonstrated the ways in which black emancipation – the crux of Reconstruction – promoted a radical restructuring of United States society , as well as how and why the country failed to continue support for civil rights for blacks in the aftermath of Reconstruction .
The book 's thesis ran counter to the orthodox interpretation of Reconstruction maintained by white historians , and the book was virtually ignored by mainstream historians until the 1960s . Thereafter , however , it ignited a " revisionist " trend in the historiography of Reconstruction , which emphasized black people 's search for freedom and the era 's radical policy changes . By the 21st century , Black Reconstruction was widely perceived as " the foundational text of revisionist African American historiography . "
In the final chapter of the book , " XIV . The Propaganda of History " , Du Bois evokes his efforts at writing an article for the Encyclopædia Britannica on the " history of the American Negro " . After the editors had cut all reference to Reconstruction , he insisted that the following note appear in the entry : " White historians have ascribed the faults and failures of Reconstruction to Negro ignorance and corruption . But the Negro insists that it was Negro loyalty and the Negro vote alone that restored the South to the Union ; established the new democracy , both for white and black , and instituted the public schools . " The editors refused and , so , Du Bois withdrew his article .
= = = Projected encyclopedia = = =
In 1932 , Du Bois was selected by several philanthropies – including the Phelps @-@ Stokes Fund , the Carnegie Corporation , and the General Education Board – to be the managing editor for a proposed Encyclopedia of the Negro , a work Du Bois had been contemplating for 30 years . After several years of planning and organizing , the philanthropies cancelled the project in 1938 , because some board members believed that Du Bois was too biased to produce an objective encyclopedia .
= = = Trip around the world = = =
Du Bois took a trip around the world in 1936 , which included visits to Nazi Germany , China and Japan . While in Germany , Du Bois remarked that he was treated with warmth and respect . After his return to the United States , he expressed his ambivalence about the Nazi regime . He admired how the Nazis had improved the German economy , but he was horrified by their treatment of the Jewish people , which he described as " an attack on civilization , comparable only to such horrors as the Spanish Inquisition and the African slave trade . "
Following the 1905 Japanese victory in the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Du Bois became impressed by the growing strength of Imperial Japan . He considered the victory of Japan over Tsarist Russia as an example of colored peoples defeating white peoples . A representative of Japan 's " Negro Propaganda Operations " traveled to the United States during the 1920s and 1930s , meeting with Du Bois and giving him a positive impression of Imperial Japan 's racial policies . In 1936 , the Japanese ambassador arranged a trip to Japan for Du Bois and a small group of academics .
= = = World War II = = =
Du Bois opposed the U.S. intervention in World War II , particularly in the Pacific , because he believed that China and Japan were emerging from the clutches of white imperialists . He felt that the European Allies waging war against Japan was an opportunity for whites to reestablish their influence in Asia . He was deeply disappointed by the US government 's plan for African Americans in the armed forces : Blacks were limited to 5 @.@ 8 % of the force , and there were to be no African @-@ American combat units – virtually the same restrictions as in World War I. With blacks threatening to shift their support to President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's Republican opponent in the 1940 election , Roosevelt appointed a few blacks to leadership posts in the military . Dusk of Dawn , Du Bois 's second autobiography , was published in 1940 . The title refers to Du Bois 's hope that African Americans were passing out of the darkness of racism into an era of greater equality . The work is part autobiography , part history , and part sociological treatise . Du Bois described the book as " the autobiography of a concept of race [ ... ] elucidated and magnified and doubtless distorted in the thoughts and deeds which were mine [ ... ] Thus for all time my life is significant for all lives of men . "
In 1943 , at age 76 , Du Bois was abruptly fired from his position at Atlanta University by college president Rufus Clement . Many scholars expressed outrage , prompting Atlanta University to provide Du Bois with a lifelong pension and the title of professor emeritus . Arthur Spingarn remarked that Du Bois spent his time in Atlanta " battering his life out against ignorance , bigotry , intolerance and slothfulness , projecting ideas nobody but he understands , and raising hopes for change which may be comprehended in a hundred years . "
Turning down job offers from Fisk and Howard , Du Bois re @-@ joined the NAACP as director of the Department of Special Research . Surprising many NAACP leaders , Du Bois jumped into the job with vigor and determination . During the 10 years while Du Bois was away from the NAACP , its income had increased fourfold , and its membership had soared to 325 @,@ 000 members .
= = Later life = =
= = = United Nations = = =
Du Bois was a member of the three @-@ person delegation from the NAACP that attended the 1945 conference in San Francisco at which the United Nations was established . The NAACP delegation wanted the United Nations to endorse racial equality and to bring an end to the colonial era . To push the United Nations in that direction , Du Bois drafted a proposal that pronounced " [ t ] he colonial system of government [ ... ] is undemocratic , socially dangerous and a main cause of wars " . The NAACP proposal received support from China , Russia and India , but it was virtually ignored by the other major powers , and the NAACP proposals were not included in the United Nations charter .
After the United Nations conference , Du Bois published Color and Democracy : Colonies and Peace , a book that attacked colonial empires and , in the words of one reviewer , " contains enough dynamite to blow up the whole vicious system whereby we have comforted our white souls and lined the pockets of generations of free @-@ booting capitalists . "
In late 1945 , Du Bois attended the fifth , and final , Pan @-@ African Congress , in Manchester , England . The congress was the most productive of the five congresses , and there Du Bois met Kwame Nkrumah , the future first president of Ghana who would later invite Du Bois to Africa .
Du Bois helped to submit petitions to the UN concerning discrimination against African Americans . These culminated in the report and petition called " We Charge Genocide " , submitted in 1951 with the Civil Rights Congress . " We Charge Genocide " accuses the US of systematically sanctioning murders and inflicting harm against African Americans and therefore committing genocide .
= = = Cold War = = =
When the Cold War commenced in the mid @-@ 1940s , the NAACP distanced itself from Communists , lest its funding or reputation suffer . The NAACP redoubled their efforts in 1947 after Life magazine published a piece by Arthur Schlesinger , Jr. claiming that the NAACP was heavily influenced by Communists . Ignoring the NAACP 's desires , Du Bois continued to fraternize with communist sympathizers such as Paul Robeson , Howard Fast and Shirley Graham ( his future second wife ) . Du Bois wrote " I am not a communist [ ... ] On the other hand , I [ ... ] believe [ ... ] that Karl Marx [ ... ] put his finger squarely upon our difficulties [ ... ] " . In 1946 , Du Bois wrote articles giving his assessment of the Soviet Union ; he did not embrace communism and he criticized its dictatorship . However , he felt that capitalism was responsible for poverty and racism , and felt that socialism was an alternative that might ameliorate those problems . The soviets explicitly rejected racial distinctions and class distinctions , leading Du Bois to conclude that the USSR was the " most hopeful country on earth . " Du Bois 's association with prominent communists made him a liability for the NAACP , especially since the FBI was starting to aggressively investigate communist sympathizers ; so – by mutual agreement – he resigned from the NAACP for the second time in late 1948 . After departing the NAACP , Du Bois started writing regularly for the leftist weekly newspaper the National Guardian , a relationship that would endure until 1961 .
= = = Peace activism = = =
Du Bois was a lifelong anti @-@ war activist , but his efforts became more pronounced after World War II . In 1949 , Du Bois spoke at the Scientific and Cultural Conference for World Peace in New York : " I tell you , people of America , the dark world is on the move ! It wants and will have Freedom , Autonomy and Equality . It will not be diverted in these fundamental rights by dialectical splitting of political hairs [ ... ] Whites may , if they will , arm themselves for suicide . But the vast majority of the world 's peoples will march on over them to freedom ! "
In the spring of 1949 , he spoke at World Congress of the Partisans of Peace in Paris , saying to the large crowd : " Leading this new colonial imperialism comes my own native land built by my father 's toil and blood , the United States . The United States is a great nation ; rich by grace of God and prosperous by the hard work of its humblest citizens [ ... ] Drunk with power we are leading the world to hell in a new colonialism with the same old human slavery which once ruined us ; and to a third World War which will ruin the world . " Du Bois affiliated himself with a leftist organization , the National Council of Arts , Sciences and Professions , and he traveled to Moscow as its representative to speak at the All @-@ Soviet Peace Conference in late 1949 .
= = = McCarthyism and Trial = = =
During the 1950s , the U.S. government 's anti @-@ communist McCarthyism campaign targeted Du Bois because of his socialist leanings . Historian Manning Marable characterizes the government 's treatment of Du Bois as " ruthless repression " and a " political assassination " .
The FBI began to compile a file on Du Bois in 1942 , but the most aggressive government attack against Du Bois occurred in the early 1950s , as a consequence of Du Bois 's opposition to nuclear weapons . In 1950 Du Bois became chairman of the newly created Peace Information Center ( PIC ) , which worked to publicize the Stockholm Peace Appeal in the United States . The primary purpose of the appeal was to gather signatures on a petition , asking governments around the world to ban all nuclear weapons .
The U.S. Justice department alleged that the PIC was acting as an agent of a foreign state , and thus required the PIC to register with the federal government . Du Bois and other PIC leaders refused , and they were indicted for failure to register . After the indictment , some of Du Bois 's associates distanced themselves from him , and the NAACP refused to issue a statement of support ; but many labor figures and leftists – including Langston Hughes – supported Du Bois .
He was finally tried in 1951 represented by civil rights attorney Vito Marcantonio . The case was dismissed before the jury rendered a verdict as soon as the defense attorney told the judge that " Dr. Albert Einstein has offered to appear as character witness for Dr. Du Bois " . Du Bois 's memoir of the trial is In Battle for Peace . Even though Du Bois was not convicted , the government confiscated Du Bois 's passport and withheld it for eight years .
= = = Communism = = =
Du Bois was bitterly disappointed that many of his colleagues – particularly the NAACP – did not support him during his 1951 PIC trial , whereas working class whites and blacks supported him enthusiastically . After the trial , Du Bois lived in Manhattan , writing and speaking , and continuing to associate primarily with leftist acquaintances . His primary concern was world peace , and he railed against military actions , such as the Korean War , which he viewed as efforts by imperialist whites to maintain colored people in a submissive state .
In 1950 , at the age of 82 , Du Bois ran for U.S. Senator from New York on the American Labor Party ticket and received about 200 @,@ 000 votes , or 4 % of the statewide total . Du Bois continued to believe that capitalism was the primary culprit responsible for the subjugation of colored people around the world , and therefore – although he recognized the faults of the Soviet Union – he continued to uphold communism as a possible solution to racial problems . In the words of biographer David Lewis , Du Bois did not endorse communism for its own sake , but did so because " the enemies of his enemies were his friends " . The same ambiguity characterized Du Bois 's opinions of Joseph Stalin : in 1940 he wrote disdainfully of the " Tyrant Stalin " , but when Stalin died in 1953 , Du Bois wrote a eulogy characterizing Stalin as " simple , calm and courageous " , and lauding him for being the " first [ to ] set Russia on the road to conquer race prejudice and make one nation out of its 140 groups without destroying their individuality " .
The U.S. government prevented Du Bois from attending the 1955 Bandung conference in Indonesia . The conference was the culmination of 40 years of Du Bois 's dreams – a meeting of 29 nations from Africa and Asia , many recently independent , representing most of the world 's colored peoples . The conference celebrated their independence , as the nations began to assert their power as non @-@ aligned nations during the cold war . In 1958 , Du Bois regained his passport , and with his second wife , Shirley Graham Du Bois , he traveled around the world , visiting Russia and China . In both countries he was celebrated and given guided tours of the best aspects of communism . Du Bois later wrote approvingly of the conditions in both countries . He was 90 years old .
Du Bois became incensed in 1961 when the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the 1950 McCarran Act , a key piece of McCarthyism legislation which required communists to register with the government . To demonstrate his outrage , he joined the Communist Party in October 1961 , at the age of 93 . Around that time , he wrote : " I believe in communism . I mean by communism , a planned way of life in the production of wealth and work designed for building a state whose object is the highest welfare of its people and not merely the profit of a part . "
= = = Death in Africa = = =
Ghana invited Du Bois to Africa to participate in their independence celebration in 1957 , but he was unable to attend because the U.S. government had confiscated his passport in 1951 . By 1960 – the " Year of Africa " – Du Bois had recovered his passport , and was able to cross the Atlantic and celebrate the creation of the Republic of Ghana . Du Bois returned to Africa in late 1960 to attend the inauguration of Nnamdi Azikiwe as the first African governor of Nigeria .
While visiting Ghana in 1960 , Du Bois spoke with its president about the creation of a new encyclopedia of the African diaspora , the Encyclopedia Africana . In early 1961 , Ghana notified Du Bois that they had appropriated funds to support the encyclopedia project , and they invited Du Bois to come to Ghana and manage the project there . In October 1961 , at the age of 93 , Du Bois and his wife traveled to Ghana to take up residence and commence work on the encyclopedia . In early 1963 , the United States refused to renew his passport , so he made the symbolic gesture of becoming a citizen of Ghana . While it is sometimes stated that he renounced his U.S. citizenship at that time , and he did state his intention to do so , Du Bois never actually did . His health declined during the two years he was in Ghana , and he died on August 27 , 1963 , in the capital of Accra at the age of 95 . Du Bois was buried in Accra near his home , which is now the Du Bois Memorial Centre . A day after his death , at the March on Washington , speaker Roy Wilkins asked the hundreds of thousands of marchers to honor Du Bois with a moment of silence . The Civil Rights Act of 1964 , embodying many of the reforms Du Bois had campaigned for his entire life , was enacted a year after his death .
= = Personal life = =
Du Bois was organized and disciplined : His lifelong regimen was to rise at 7 : 15 , work until 5 , eat dinner and read a newspaper until 7 , then read or socialize until he was in bed , invariably before 10 . He was a meticulous planner , and frequently mapped out his schedules and goals on large pieces of graph paper . Many acquaintances found him to be distant and aloof , and he insisted on being addressed as " Dr. Du Bois " . Although he was not gregarious , he formed several close friendships with associates such as Charles Young , Paul Laurence Dunbar , John Hope and Mary Ovington . His closest friend was Joel Spingarn – a white man – but Du Bois never accepted Spingarn 's offer to be on a first name basis . Du Bois was something of a dandy – he dressed formally , carried a walking stick , and walked with an air of confidence and dignity . He was relatively short 5 feet 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 166 cm ) and always maintained a well @-@ groomed mustache and goatee . He was a good singer and enjoyed playing tennis .
Du Bois was married twice , first to Nina Gomer ( m . 1896 , d . 1950 ) , with whom he had two children , a son Burghardt ( who died as an infant ) and a daughter Yolande , who married Countee Cullen . As a widower , he married Shirley Graham ( m . 1951 , d . 1977 ) , an author , playwright , composer and activist . She brought her son David Graham to the marriage . David grew close to Du Bois and took his stepfather 's name ; he also worked for African @-@ American causes . The historian David Levering Lewis wrote that Du Bois engaged in several extramarital relationships . But the historian Raymond Wolters cast doubt on this , based on the lack of corroboration from Du Bois 's alleged lovers .
= = Religion = =
Although Du Bois attended a New England Congregational church as a child , he abandoned organized religion while at Fisk College . As an adult , Du Bois described himself as agnostic or a freethinker , but at least one biographer concluded that Du Bois was virtually an atheist . However , another analyst of Du Bois 's writings concluded that he had a religious voice , albeit radically different from other African @-@ American religious voices of his era , and inaugurated a 20th @-@ century spirituality to which Ralph Ellison , Zora Neale Hurston , and James Baldwin also belong .
When asked to lead public prayers , Du Bois would refuse . In his autobiography , Du Bois wrote : " When I became head of a department at Atlanta , the engagement was held up because again I balked at leading in prayer [ ... ] I flatly refused again to join any church or sign any church creed . [ ... ] I think the greatest gift of the Soviet Union to modern civilization was the dethronement of the clergy and the refusal to let religion be taught in the public schools . " Du Bois accused American churches of being the most discriminatory of all institutions . He also provocatively linked African @-@ American Christianity to indigenous African religions . Du Bois occasionally acknowledged the beneficial role religion played in African @-@ America life – as the " basic rock " which served as an anchor for African @-@ American communities – but in general disparaged African @-@ American churches and clergy because he felt they did not support the goals of racial equality and hindered activists ' efforts .
Although Du Bois was not personally religious , he infused his writings with religious symbology , and many contemporaries viewed him as a prophet . His 1904 prose poem , " Credo " , was written in the style of a religious creed and widely read by the African @-@ American community . Moreover , Du Bois , both in his own fiction and in stories published in The Crisis , often analogized lynchings of African Americans to Christ 's crucifixion . Between 1920 and 1940 , Du Bois shifted from overt black messiah symbolism to more subtle messianic language .
= = Honors = =
The NAACP awarded the Spingarn Medal to Du Bois in 1920 .
Du Bois was awarded the International Lenin Peace Prize by the USSR in 1959 .
The site of the house where Du Bois grew up in Great Barrington , Massachusetts , was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976 .
In 1992 the United States Postal Service honored Du Bois with his portrait on a postage stamp . A second stamp of face value 32 ¢ was issued on February 3 , 1998 as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series .
In 1994 , the main library at the University of Massachusetts Amherst was named after Du Bois .
The Du Bois center at Northern Arizona University is named in his honor .
A dormitory was named after Du Bois at the University of Pennsylvania , where he conducted field research for his sociological study " The Philadelphia Negro " .
A dormitory is named after Du Bois at Hampton University .
Africana : The Encyclopedia of the African and African @-@ American Experience was inspired by and dedicated to Du Bois by its editors Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates , Jr .
Humboldt University in Berlin hosts a series of lectures named in Du Bois 's honor .
Scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Du Bois in his 2002 list of the 100 Greatest African Americans .
In 2005 , Du Bois was honored with a medallion in The Extra Mile , Washington DC 's memorial to important American volunteers .
The liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church remembers Du Bois annually on August 3 .
Du Bois was appointed Honorary Emeritus Professor at the University of Pennsylvania in 2012 .
= = Selected works = =
= Sectionals =
" Sectionals " is the thirteenth episode of the American television series Glee . It premiered on the Fox network on December 9 , 2009 . The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , and serves as the mid @-@ season finale for the show 's first season . " Sectionals " sees the glee club win the sectionals round of competition , advancing on to regionals . Glee club member Finn ( Cory Monteith ) discovers he is not the father of his girlfriend Quinn 's ( Dianna Agron ) baby . Football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) plans his wedding with Emma ( Jayma Mays ) on the same day as the sectionals competition . Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) is unable to take the students to sectionals and Emma offers to take them . The episode sees the return of Eve and Michael Hitchcock as rival glee club directors Grace Hitchens and Dalton Rumba .
The episode features covers of six songs , studio recordings of four of which were released as singles , available for digital download , and are also included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 2 . " Sectionals " was watched by 8 @.@ 127 million U.S. viewers , and received mostly positive reviews from critics . The episode 's musical performances attracted praise , as did the development of Will and Emma 's relationship , though Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly suggested it may have been preferable to leave their romance unresolved . James Poniewozik of Time felt that by concluding the pregnancy storyline in " Sectionals " , Glee was able to " clear the decks for a second half of the season as the confident show it now is " .
= = Plot = =
As a result of a technicality in the show choir competition rules , glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) is not allowed to accompany New Directions to sectionals . Guidance counsellor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) postpones her own wedding by a few hours so that she can take the club in his place , although her fiancé , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) , feels she is choosing Will over him .
Most of the glee club has learned that Puck ( Mark Salling ) , not Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , is the father of Quinn 's baby . They hide this fact from Rachel ( Lea Michele ) , believing that she will tell Finn . Emma takes over as faculty advisor of the club as they start working on their set list for sectionals . With two group songs selected , Rachel says that she 'll sing the solo ballad ; Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) strenuously objects to this , and sings " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " to wild applause . Rachel agrees that Mercedes deserves to sing the solo and the two hug . Meanwhile , Rachel has deduced that Puck impregnated Quinn and tells Finn ; he attacks Puck and confronts Quinn , who tearfully admits the truth . Angered by their betrayal , Finn quits the club on the eve of sectionals , and has to be replaced by school reporter Jacob Ben Israel ( Josh Sussman ) . New Directions arrive at the event to discover their competitors have received an advance copy of their set list , and are performing all three of their chosen songs . Emma calls Will , who convinces Finn to help his New Directions teammates . Will finds Finn in the locker room , and talks to him about how special he is and that the club needs him .
Emma confronts rival choir directors Grace Hitchens ( Eve ) and Dalton Rumba ( Michael Hitchcock ) , while New Directions chooses new performance pieces for their set list at the last minute . Rachel asks Mercedes to perform another ballad , but Mercedes insists , with the rest of the club agreeing , that Rachel is the best choice to perform " on the fly " . They also decide to include " Somebody to Love " as their closer , but are stuck for a third piece until Finn arrives with new sheet music for the group , ready to perform with them . Rachel gives a solo performance of " Don 't Rain on My Parade " , receiving a standing ovation after finishing . The group then performs " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " by the Rolling Stones , to the applause and cheers of the audience . After their performance , Grace attempts to confess her duplicity to the judges , but they have already unanimously decided that New Directions has won the competition .
Having previously discovered that his wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) was faking her pregnancy , Will tells her he no longer feels the same way he did when they first fell in love . He later attends Ken and Emma 's delayed wedding , only to find that Ken has ended the relationship as a result of Emma 's feelings for Will . She announces her intention to leave McKinley High School , explaining that it will be too painful for her to carry on working with Will and Ken . Back at school , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) suspends cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) for leaking the glee club 's set list , and has Will reinstated as the director of New Directions . The glee club members show Will their trophy and perform " My Life Would Suck Without You " for him . As Emma prepares to leave the school , Will chases after her and stops her with a kiss . Both are happy , but uncertain of what will happen next .
= = Production = =
Glee was originally commissioned by Fox for a thirteen episode run , culminating with " Sectionals " . On September 21 , 2009 , the network announced an extension of the first season , ordering a further nine episodes . " Sectionals " therefore serves as the mid @-@ season finale , with the remainder of the season airing from April 13 , 2010 . Events in " Sectionals " are influenced by the season 's eleventh episode " Hairography " , in which cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester gave New Directions ' competition set @-@ list to their rival glee clubs . Morrison explained that the clubs perform New Directions ' songs first , making it appear that they are copying them , so New Directions " have to do this impromptu thing and fly by the seat of [ their ] pants . " Morrison has called " Sectionals " " the best episode " of the series .
" Sectionals " was written and directed by series creator Brad Falchuk . Recurring characters who appear in the episode are glee club members Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) , Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and Matt Rutherford ( Dijon Talton ) , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) , school reporter Jacob Ben Israel ( Josh Sussman ) , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) and local news anchor Rod Remington ( Bill A. Jones ) . Anna Camp and Patricia Forte guest star as sectionals judges Candace Dykstra and Donna Landries , Peter Choi is the Emcee , and Thomasina Gross plays Perfect Engleberger , a member of the Jane Addams Academy glee club . " Sectionals " also sees the return of Eve and Michael Hitchcock as rival glee club directors Grace Hitchens and Dalton Rumba . Eve was offered the role of Grace after Whitney Houston declined to appear .
The episode features cover versions of " Don 't Rain on My Parade " by Barbra Streisand , " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " by The Rolling Stones , " My Life Would Suck Without You " by Kelly Clarkson , " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " from Dreamgirls , " Don 't Stop Believin ' " by Journey and " Proud Mary " by Creedence Clearwater Revival . Studio recordings of " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " , " Don 't Rain on My Parade " , " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " and " My Life Would Suck Without You " were released as singles in December 2009 , available for download . They are also included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 2 . " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " charted at number 85 in Canada and 94 in the US , while " Don 't Rain on My Parade " charted at number 59 in Canada and 53 in the US . " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " charted at number 51 in Canada and 71 in the US , and " My Life Would Suck Without You " charted at number 66 in Australia , 40 in Canada and 51 in the US . Jenna Ushkowitz named " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " one of her favorite songs on the album , deeming the original " a classic " and the Glee cover " emotional " as one of the final songs of the original run of episodes . The performance of " My Life Would Suck Without You " showcased choreography from numerous performances from earlier episodes .
= = Reception = =
The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 127 million US viewers . It was the show 's highest @-@ rated episode ever with teenagers , and its season high in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , with a rating / share of 3 @.@ 7 / 9 . In Canada , it was the tenth most watched show for the week of broadcast , attaining 1 @.@ 64 million viewers .
" Sectionals " received mostly positive reviews from critics . TV Guide 's Natalie Abrams felt it ended the beginning of the season on a " high note " , while Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal commented : " You couldn ’ t have asked for a better cliffhanger of a fall finale " . IGN 's Eric Goldman rated the episode 9 / 10 , calling it " very satisfying " , and Gerrick Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times commended it as " fine television . " James Poniewozik of Time wrote : " I 'm not sure I expected or wanted a feel @-@ good ending out of the first half of Glee . But what we got from " Sectionals " left me feeling very good about where the show is going this spring . " In contrast , Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger , felt that the episode brought too many storylines to a head at once , " not allowing all to have as much impact as they might have had the big developments been spaced out " . Sepinwall commented , however , that the acting and especially singing performances were " uniformly strong . "
Musical performances in the episode attracted praise . Aly Semigran of MTV called Riley 's rendition of " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " " goose bump @-@ inducing " , while Goldman commended : " Riley absolutely killed it as Mercedes belted out that song " . In contrast , Poniewozik wrote that it was the one song choice he didn 't like , feeling that it is overused , thus diminishing its impact . Abrams deemed Rachel 's solo performance at sectionals " amazing " , and Flandez recommended : " Watch it again if you ever want to take back three minutes of your life that you ’ ve wasted on something else . " Pardue called the group performance of " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " " energetic [ ... ] casual [ ... ] and very Glee " , but felt it " would have been nice " to feature different singers . Dan Snierson for Entertainment Weekly similarly noted that he would have preferred " more vocal interplay between all group members " . In December 2012 , TV Guide named the rendition of " Don 't Rain on My Parade " one of Glee 's best performances , commenting : " Glee has done Broadway many times , but rarely better than this . "
Critics also commented positively on the development of Will and Emma 's relationship , with Abrams noting that she had been waiting for them to kiss since the pilot episode , and Goldman deeming their coming together " very hard to not feel good about " . Snierson , however , wrote that although there was satisfaction in the episode ending on the kiss , it may have been " more intriguing " to conclude with Will finding Emma 's office empty , questioning whether it was too soon for the two of them to begin a relationship . The end of Quinn 's pregnancy secret was also well received . Poniewozik wrote that the pregnancy storyline had felt as though " the early Glee wasn 't confident that people would be interested in it without these over @-@ the @-@ top soap opera twists . " He noted that in concluding the pregnancy deception in " Sectionals " , Glee : " seemed to clear the decks for a second half of the season as the confident show it now is . "
= Theodore N. Kaufman =
Theodore Newman Kaufman ( February 22 , 1910 – April 1 , 1986 ) , sometimes given incorrectly as Theodore Nathan Kaufmann , was an American Jewish businessman and writer known for his eliminationist views on Germans .
In 1939 , he published pamphlets as chairman of the American Federation of Peace that argued that Americans should be sterilized so that their children will no longer have to fight in foreign wars .
In 1941 , he wrote and published Germany Must Perish ! which called for the sterilization of the German people and the distribution of the German lands . The text was used extensively in Nazi propaganda , often as a justification for the persecution of Jews and was specifically cited as a reason to round up the Jews of Hanover , Germany .
= = Early life = =
He was born in Manhattan , New York City on February 22 , 1910 to Anton Kaufman and Fannie Newman . His parents had married on March 14 , 1909 . His father had been a reporter for the Berliner Morgen @-@ Zeitung in Berlin , Germany before emigrating to the United States in 1905 . Theodore 's three brothers were Herbert , Julian , and Leonard .
He attended South Side High School in Newark , New Jersey and graduated around 1928 .
In 1934 he was arrested along with his father , Anton Kaufman , for the robbery of Sandor Alexander Balint of Budapest . Balint had developed a process to speed the aging of wine . The Kaufmans had purchased this formula from Balint , but later came to believe that the formula was " worthless " . Theodore Kaufman 's mother died in 1939 .
Kaufman traveled to the Sahara Desert and wrote : " you look at the horizon all day long and feel that you are staring at eternity . " In Biskra he met Clare Sheridan .
Kaufman became the owner of a small advertising agency and ticket agency in South Orange , New Jersey . He published the New Jersey Legal Record . Kaufman founded the Argyle Press of Newark , New Jersey to publish his political pamphlets .
= = Life during World War II = =
Kaufman was a radical intent on preventing American involvement in future wars in Europe . In 1939 , under the auspices of the " American Federation of Peace " , an unknown entity of which he was the president and probably only member , Kaufman produced several publications . One pamphlet , titled " Passive Purchase " advocated the establishment of a two @-@ week period during which Americans would curtail their spending in order to demonstrate public opposition to American intervention in European conflicts . In a section of the pamphlet on the American Federation of Peace 's beliefs , Kaufman advocated for " the strongest possible military defense of the United States " and stated that " by keeping absolutely aloof from foreign wars and entanglements the American People face a truly great future . " That same year , the group also issued publications with more contentious messages , one of which read :
" A possible plea to Congress . ... Have Us All Sterilized ! ... If You Plan On Sending Us To A Foreign War ... Spare Us Any Possibility Of Ever Bringing Children Into This World — Into This Country Of Ours ! "
Two years later he shifted his focus to the forced mass @-@ sterilization of all German men under 65 and the sterilization of most German women under 45 . This would eliminate " inbred Germanism , " he proposed , thus solving a great deal of humanity 's problems . He also promoted the distribution of Germany 's lands among the neighboring countries . His effort was spearheaded by the self @-@ publication of the book Germany Must Perish !
" Since Germans are the perennial disturbers of the world 's peace ... they must be dealt with like any homicidal criminals . But it is unnecessary to put the whole German nation to the sword . It is more humane to sterilize them . The army groups , as organized units , would be the easiest and quickest to deal with . ... The population of Germany , excluding conquered and annexed territories , is about 70 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , almost equally divided between male and female . To achieve the purpose of German extinction it would be necessary to only sterilize some 48 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 -- a figure which excludes , because of their limited power to procreate , males over 60 years of age , and females over 45 . ... Taking 20 @,@ 000 surgeons as an arbitrary number and on the assumption that each will perform a minimum of 25 operations daily , it would take no more than | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
that NVC emerged from work he was doing with civil rights activists in the early 1960s , and that during this period he also mediated between rioting students and college administrators , and worked to peacefully desegregate public schools in long @-@ segregated regions .
An MA thesis by Marion Little ( 2008 ) says that the roots of the NVC model developed in the late 1960s , when Rosenberg was working on racial integration in schools and organizations in the Southern United States . The earliest version of the model ( observations , feelings , and action @-@ oriented wants ) was part of a training manual Rosenberg prepared in 1972 . The model had evolved to its present form ( observations , feelings , needs and requests ) by 1992 . The dialog between Rosenberg and NVC colleagues and trainers continued to influence the model , which by the late 2000s placed more importance on self @-@ empathy as a key to the model 's effectiveness . Another shift in emphasis , since 2000 , has been the reference to the model as a process . The focus is thus less on the " steps " themselves and more on the practitioner 's intentions in speaking ( " is the intent to get others to do what one wants , or to foster more meaningful relationships and mutual satisfaction ? " ) in listening ( " is the intent to prepare for what one has to say , or to extend heartfelt , respectful attentiveness to another ? " ) and the quality of connection experienced with others .
Also according to Little 's thesis , Rosenberg 's work with Carl Rogers on research to investigate the components of a helping relationship was central to the development of NVC . Rogers emphasized : 1 ) experiential learning , 2 ) " frankness about one ’ s emotional state , " 3 ) the satisfaction of hearing others " in a way that resonates for them , " 4 ) the enriching and encouraging experience of " creative , active , sensitive , accurate , empathic listening , " 5 ) the " deep value of congruence between one ’ s own inner experience , one ’ s conscious awareness , and one ’ s communication , " and , subsequently , 6 ) the enlivening experience of unconditionally receiving love or appreciation and extending the same .
Little says Rosenberg was Influenced by Erich Fromm , George Albee , and George Miller to adopt a community focus in his work , moving away from clinical psychological practice . The central ideas influencing this shift by Rosenberg were that : ( 1 ) individual mental health depends on the social structure of a community ( Fromm ) , ( 2 ) therapists alone are unable to meet the psychological needs of a community ( Albee ) , and ( 3 ) knowledge about human behavior will increase if psychology is freely given to the community ( Miller ) .
According to Little , Rosenberg ’ s early work with children with learning disabilities shows his interest in psycholinguistics and the power of language , as well as his emphasis on collaboration . In its initial development , the NVC model re @-@ structured the pupil @-@ teacher relationship to give students greater responsibility for , and decision @-@ making related to , their own learning . The model has evolved over the years to incorporate institutional power relationships ( i.e. , police @-@ citizen , boss @-@ employee ) and informal ones ( i.e. man @-@ woman , rich @-@ poor , adult @-@ youth , parent @-@ child ) . The ultimate aim is to develop societal relationships based on a restorative , " partnership " paradigm and mutual respect , rather than a retributive , fear @-@ based , " domination " paradigm .
Little also says Rosenberg identified Mahatma Gandhi as an inspiration for the NVC model , and that Rosenberg ’ s goal was to develop a practical process for interaction rooted in the philosophy of Ahimsa , which Little translates as " the overflowing love that arises when all ill @-@ will , anger , and hate have subsided from the heart . "
In order to show the differences between communication styles , Rosenberg started to use two animals . The violent communication is represented by the carnivorous Jackal as a symbol of aggression and especially dominance . The herbivorous Giraffe on the other hand , represents his NVC strategy . The Giraffe was chosen as symbol for NVC as its long neck is supposed to show the clear @-@ sighted speaker , being aware of his fellow speakers ' reactions , and simply because the Giraffe is the land @-@ living mammal with the biggest heart , representing the compassionate side of NVC . In his courses he tends to use these animals in order to make the differences in communication clearer to the audience .
= = NVC theory = =
= = = Overview = = =
Nonviolent Communication holds that most conflicts between individuals or groups arise from miscommunication about their human needs , due to coercive or manipulative language that aims to induce fear , guilt , shame , etc . These " violent " modes of communication , when used during a conflict , divert the attention of the participants away from clarifying their needs , their feelings , their perceptions , and their requests , thus perpetuating the conflict .
Marshall Rosenberg , the founder of Nonviolent Communication , published numerous training materials to help in efforts to bring about radical social change . He was concerned with transforming the " gangs and domination structures " through the method he called " ask , ask , ask " . He suggested social change activists could focus on gaining access to those in power in order to " ask , ask , ask " for changes that will make life better for all including the powerful . He wrote about the need for the protective use of force , distinguishing it from the punitive use of force .
= = = Theories = = =
Two NVC trainers characterize the assumptions underlying NVC as follows :
All human beings share the same needs
Our world offers sufficient resources for meeting everyone 's basic needs
All actions are attempts to meet needs
Feelings point to needs being met or unmet
All human beings have the capacity for compassion
Human beings enjoy giving
Human beings meet needs through interdependent relationships
Human beings change
Choice is internal
The most direct path to peace is through self @-@ connection
= = = Intentions = = =
The trainers also say that practicing NVC involves having the following intentions :
Open @-@ Hearted Living
Self @-@ compassion
Expressing from the heart
Receiving with compassion
Prioritizing connection
Moving beyond " right " and " wrong " to using needs @-@ based assessments
Choice , Responsibility , Peace
Taking responsibility for our feelings
Taking responsibility for our actions
Living in peace with unmet needs
Increasing capacity for meeting needs
Increasing capacity for meeting the present moment
Sharing Power ( Partnership )
Caring equally for everyone ’ s needs
Using force minimally and to protect rather than to educate , punish , or get what we want without agreement
= = = Communication that blocks compassion = = =
Rosenberg says that certain ways of communicating tend to alienate people from the experience of compassion : ( ch.2 )
Moralistic judgments implying wrongness or badness on the part of people who don 't act in harmony with our values . Blame , insults , put @-@ downs , labels , criticisms , comparisons , and diagnoses are all said to be forms of judgment . ( Moralistic judgments are not to be confused with value judgments as to the qualities we value . ) The use of moralistic judgments is characterized as an impersonal way of expressing oneself that does not require one to reveal what is going on inside of oneself . This way of speaking is said to have the result that " Our attention is focused on classifying , analyzing , and determining levels of wrongness rather than on what we and others need and are not getting . "
Demands that implicitly or explicitly threaten listeners with blame or punishment if they fail to comply .
Denial of responsibility via language that obscures awareness of personal responsibility . It is said that we deny responsibility for our actions when we attribute their cause to : vague impersonal forces ( " I had to " ) ; our condition , diagnosis , personal or psychological history ; the actions of others ; the dictates of authority ; group pressure ; institutional policy , rules , and regulations ; gender roles , social roles , or age roles ; or uncontrollable impulses .
Making comparisons between people .
A premise of deserving , that certain actions merit reward while others merit punishment .
= = = Four components = = =
Rosenberg invites NVC practitioners to focus attention on four components :
Observation : the facts ( what we are seeing , hearing , or touching ) as distinct from our evaluation of meaning and significance . NVC discourages static generalizations . It is said that " When we combine observation with evaluation others are apt to hear criticism and resist what we are saying . " Instead , a focus on observations specific to time and context is recommended . ( ch.3 )
Feelings : emotions or sensations , free of thought and story . These are to be distinguished from thoughts ( e.g. , " I feel I didn 't get a fair deal " ) and from words colloquially used as feelings but which convey what we think we are ( e.g. , " inadequate " ) , how we think others are evaluating us ( e.g. , " unimportant " ) , or what we think others are doing to us ( e.g. , " misunderstood " , " ignored " ) . Feelings are said to reflect whether we are experiencing our needs as met or unmet . Identifying feelings is said to allow us to more easily connect with one another , and " Allowing ourselves to be vulnerable by expressing our feelings can help resolve conflicts . " ( ch.4 )
Needs : universal human needs , as distinct from particular strategies for meeting needs . It is posited that " Everything we do is in service of our needs . "
Request : request for a specific action , free of demand . Requests are distinguished from demands in that one is open to hearing a response of " no " without this triggering an attempt to force the matter . If one makes a request and receives a " no " it is recommended not that one give up , but that one empathize with what is preventing the other person from saying " yes , " before deciding how to continue the conversation . It is recommended that requests use clear , positive , concrete action language . ( ch.6 )
= = = Modes = = =
There are three primary modes of application of NVC :
Self @-@ empathy involves compassionately connecting with what is going on inside us . This may involve , without blame , noticing the thoughts and judgments we are having , noticing our feelings , and most critically , connecting to the needs that are affecting us . ( ch.4 )
Receiving empathically , in NVC , involves " connection with what 's alive in the other person and what would make life wonderful for them ... It 's not an understanding of the head where we just mentally understand what another person says ... Empathic connection is an understanding of the heart in which we see the beauty in the other person , the divine energy in the other person , the life that 's alive in them ... It doesn 't mean we have to feel the same feelings as the other person . That 's sympathy , when we feel sad that another person is upset . It doesn 't mean we have the same feelings ; it means we are with the other person ... If you 're mentally trying to understand the other person , you 're not present with them . " ( ch.5 ) Empathy involves " emptying the mind and listening with our whole being . " NVC suggests that however the other person expresses themselves , we focus on listening for the underlying observations , feelings , needs , and requests . It is suggested that it can be useful to reflect a paraphrase of what another person has said , highlighting the NVC components implicit in their message , such as the feelings and needs you guess they may be expressing . ( ch.7 )
Expressing honestly , in NVC , is likely to involve expressing an observation , feeling , need , and request . An observation may be omitted if the context of the conversation is clear . A feeling might be omitted if there is sufficient connection already , or the context is one where naming a feeling isn ’ t likely to contribute to connection . It is said that naming a need in addition to a feeling makes it less likely that people will think you are making them responsible for your feeling . Similarly , it is said that making a request in addition to naming a need makes it less likely that people will infer a vague demand that they address your need . The components are thought to work together synergistically . According to NVC trainer Bob Wentworth , " an observation sets the context , feelings support connection and getting out of our heads , needs support connection and identify what is important , and a request clarifies what sort of response you might enjoy . Using these components together minimizes the chances of people getting lost in potentially disconnecting speculation about what you want from them and why . "
= = Research = =
NVC lacks significant " longitudinal analytical research , " and few studies have evaluated the effectiveness of NVC training programs . To date , there has been little discussion of NVC in academic contexts . Most evidence for the effectiveness of NVC has been anecdotal or based on theoretical support .
Juncadella produced a systematic review of research related to the impact of NVC on the development of empathy . She found 13 studies which met her inclusion criteria ( three were published in peer reviewed journals ; ten were unpublished theses or researcher reports ) . Eleven of these suggested an increase in empathy subsequent to the application of NVC ( five of these with evidence of statistical significance ) and two did not . Juncadella notes several shortcomings of her review . None of the studies she included were randomized and only three used validated instruments . As a result she used a narrative synthesis review format , which , " lacks precision , " but allows the summarization of studies of different types , sizes , outcome measures and aims . She suggests the primary limitation of her review is that a number of relevant studies exist that could not be included due to lack of availability . She suggests these might have significantly altered her results . Finally , she includes the following caveat : " I must mention the inevitable subjectivity bias present throughout the whole review . In spite of the efforts made towards ‘ disciplined subjectivity ’ ... my decisions show a degree of uncertainty and inaccuracy born via the tension between the weak evidence of the studies and my own convictions about the NVC model . " Her overall assessment of the current research on NVC 's efficacy in promoting the development of empathy is that the results are promising , but " would need to be confirmed with further studies bearing stronger designs and more appropriate measures . " She notes that a major shortcoming of the existing research is the " mismatch between the constructs of the model and the validated empathy measures " and suggests that improved instruments need to be developed to adequately test NVC .
As of 2013 , eight Master 's theses and Doctoral dissertations are known to have tested the model on sample sizes of 108 or smaller and generally have found the model to be effective .
Allan Rohlfs , who first met Rosenberg in 1972 and was a founder of the Center for Nonviolent Communication , explains the paucity of academic literature as follows :
Virtually all conflict resolution programs have an academic setting as their foundation and therefore have empirical studies by graduate students assessing their efficacy . NVC is remarkable for its roots . Marshall Rosenberg , Ph.D. ( clinical psychology , U of Wisconsin ) comes from a full time private practice in clinical psychology and consultation , never an academic post . NVC , his creation , is entirely a grassroots organization and never had until recently any foundation nor grant monies , on the contrary funded 100 % from trainings which were offered in public workshops around the world . ... Empirical data is now coming slowly as independent researchers find their own funding to conduct and publish empirical studies with peer review .
Richard Bowers ’ thesis ( 2012 ) , updated to book form by Bowers and Moffett ( 2012 ) , asserts that NVC has been absent from academic programs due to a lack of research into the theoretical basis for the model and lack of research on the reliability of positive results . Bowers ’ thesis meets the first objection through an analysis of existing theories which provide solid support for each element of the NVC ( mediation ) model . Without this theoretical understanding , it would not be clear what aspects of the NVC model make it work or even if it can be effectively applied by anyone other than Marshall Rosenberg . This theoretical analysis can provide a foundation for further empirical research on the effectiveness and reliability of the model .
NVC has reportedly been an element of a bundle of interventions that produced dramatic changes in forensic psychiatric nursing settings in which a high level of violence is the norm . NVC was adopted , in combination with other interventions , in an effort to reduce violence . The interventions were said to reduce key violence indicators by 90 percent over a three @-@ year period in a medium security unit , and by around 50 percent in a single year in a maximum security unit .
A 2014 study examined the effects of combined NVC and mindfulness training on 885 male inmates of the Monroe Correctional Complex in Monroe , Washington . The training was found to reduce recidivism from 37 % to 21 % , and the training was estimated as having saved the state $ 5 million per year in reduced incarceration costs . The training was found to increase equanimity , decrease anger , and lead to abilities to take responsibility for one 's feelings , express empathy , and to make requests without imposing demands .
NVC has also been reported as effective in reducing domestic violence . Male participants who graduated from an NVC @-@ based batterer intervention program in California had zero percent recidivism within 5 years , according to the relevant District Attorneys ' offices . The news report contrasted this with a recidivism rate of 40 percent within 5 years as reported by the Domestic Abuse Intervention Project for graduates of their batterer intervention program based on the Duluth Model , said to previously offer the lowest known domestic violence recidivism rate .
Some recent research appears to validate the existence of universal human needs .
Bowers and Moffett provide a thoughtful study of the important role of empathy and human needs in mediation through the development of a theoretical model to explain the effectiveness of NVC mediation . The authors present theories of human needs and the basis for a common core of needs . They discuss theories that explain the importance of understanding human needs in the context of conflict resolution . They clearly distinguish core human needs from interests ( strategies ) and how focusing on needs is a paradigm shift in the field of conflict resolution . Further , Bowers and Moffett present theories of empathy from the pioneering work of Carl Rogers , Heinz Kohut , and others . Empathy is distinguished from sympathy and active listening , pointing out how the word empathy is often confused in the literature by using it interchangeably with these other two terms . They also examine stage theories of the development of empathy as well as constructive @-@ developmental theories related to empathy .
= = Relationship to spirituality = =
As Theresa Latini notes , " Rosenberg understands NVC to be a fundamentally spiritual practice . " Marshall Rosenberg has , in fact , described the influence of his spiritual life on the development and practice of NVC :
" I think it is important that people see that spirituality is at the base of Nonviolent Communication , and that they learn the mechanics of the process with that in mind . It ’ s really a spiritual practice that I am trying to show as a way of life . Even though we don ’ t mention this , people get seduced by the practice . Even if they practice this as a mechanical technique , they start to experience things between themselves and other people they weren ’ t able to experience before . So eventually they come to the spirituality of the process . They begin to see that it ’ s more than a communication process and realize it ’ s really an attempt to manifest a certain spirituality . "
Rosenberg further states that he developed NVC as a way to " get conscious of " what he calls the " Beloved Divine Energy " .
Some Christians have found NVC to be complementary to their Christian faith . Many people have found Nonviolent Communication to be very complementary to Buddhism , both in theory and in manifesting Buddhist ideals in practice .
= = Relationship to other models = =
Marion Little examines theoretical frameworks related to NVC . The influential interest @-@ based model for conflict resolution , negotiation , and mediation developed by Fisher , Ury , and Patton at the Harvard Negotiation Project in the 1980s appears to have some conceptual overlap with NVC , although neither model references the other . Little suggests The Gordon Model for Effective Relationships ( 1970 ) as a likely precursor to both NVC and interest @-@ based negotiation , based on conceptual similarities , if not any direct evidence of a connection . Like Rosenberg , Gordon had worked with Carl Rogers , so the models ' similarities may reflect common influences .
Suzanne Jones sees a substantive difference between active listening as originated by Gordon and empathic listening as recommended by Rosenberg , insofar as active listening involves a specific step of reflecting what a speaker said to let them know you are listening , whereas empathic listening involves an ongoing process of listening with both heart and mind and being fully present to the other 's experience , with an aim of comprehending and empathizing with the needs of the other , the meaning of the experience for that person .
Gert Danielsen and Havva Kök both note an overlap between the premises of NVC and those of Human Needs Theory ( HNT ) , an academic model for understanding the sources of conflict and designing conflict resolution processes , with the idea that " Violence occurs when certain individuals or groups do not see any other way to meet their need , or when they need understanding , respect and consideration for their needs . "
Chapman Flack sees an overlap between what Rosenberg advocates and critical thinking , especially Bertrand Russell 's formulation uniting kindness and clear thinking .
Martha Lasley sees similarities with the Focused Conversation Method developed by the Institute of Cultural Affairs ( ICA ) , with NVC 's observations , feelings , needs , and requests components relating to FCM 's objective , reflective , interpretive , and decisional stages .
= = Responses = =
There is little published critique of NVC . Some researchers have noted that NVC lacks an evidence base beyond the copious anecdotal claims of effectiveness and similarly lacks discussion in the literature of the theoretical basis of the model .
Several researchers have attempted a thorough evaluation of criticisms and weaknesses of NVC and assessed significant challenges in its application . These span a range of potential problems , from the practical to the theoretical , and include concerns gathered from study participants and researchers .
The difficulty of using NVC as well as the dangers of misuse are common concerns . The NVC four step model is seen as problematic for a number of reasons :
the notion of unbiased observations has been criticized because multiple interpretations of events and behaviors are likely ;
people may not understand their own feelings and needs and therefore expressing them may be challenging , if not impossible ;
the model often causes people to feel awkward and requires more trust in others than is typically found in everyday interactions ;
the process of paraphrasing and attempting to guess the identity of people 's feelings can be off putting for some ;
the demands of successfully requesting positive actions using appropriate NVC language is daunting and requires a level of investment of time and reflection not typically available in most people 's interactions .
In addition , Bitschnau and Flack find a paradoxical potential for violence in the use of NVC , occasioned by its unskilled use . Bitschnau further suggests that the use of NVC is unlikely to allow everyone to express their feelings and have their needs met in real life as this would require inordinate time , patience and discipline . Those who are skilled in the use of NVC may become prejudiced against those who are not and prefer to converse only among themselves .
Oboth suggests that people might hide their feelings in the process of empathy , subverting the nonviolence of communication .
The massive investment of time and effort in learning to use NVC has been noted by a number of researchers .
Chapman Flack , in reviewing a training video by Rosenberg , finds the presentation of key ideas " spell @-@ binding " and the anecdotes " humbling and inspiring , " notes the " beauty of his work , " and his " adroitly doing fine attentive thinking " when interacting with his audience . Yet Flack wonders what to make of aspects of Rosenberg 's presentation , such as his apparent " dim view of the place for thinking " and his building on Walter Wink 's account of the origins of our way of thinking . To Flack , some elements of what Rosenberg says seem like pat answers at odds with the challenging and complex picture of human nature history , literature and art offer .
Flack notes a distinction between the " strong sense " of nonviolent communication as a virtue that is possible with care and attention , and the " weak sense , " a mimicry of this born of ego and haste . The strong sense offers a language to examine one 's thinking and actions , support understanding , bring one 's best to the community , and honor one 's emotions . In the weak sense , one may take the language as rules and use these to score debating points , label others for political gain , or insist that others express themselves in this way . Though concerned that some of what Rosenberg says could lead to the weak sense , Flack sees evidence confirming that Rosenberg understands the strong sense in practice . Rosenberg 's work with workshop attendees demonstrates " the real thing . " Yet Flack warns that " the temptation of the weak sense will not be absent . " As an antidote , Flack advises , " Be conservative in what you do , be liberal in what you accept from others , " ( also known as the robustness principle ) and guard against the " metamorphosis of nonviolent communication into subtle violence done in its name . "
Bowling Green State University Professor Ellen Gorsevski , assessing Rosenberg 's book , " Nonviolent Communication : A Language of Compassion " ( 1999 ) in the context of geopolitical rhetoric , states that " the relative strength of the individual is vastly overestimated while the key issue of structural violence is almost completely ignored . "
PuddleDancer Press reports that NVC has been endorsed by a variety of public figures .
Sven Hartenstein has created a series of cartoons spoofing NVC .
= = Organizations = =
The Center for Nonviolent Communication ( CNVC ) , founded by Marshall Rosenberg , has trademarked the terms NVC , Nonviolent Communication and Compassionate Communication , among other terms , for clarity and branding purposes .
CNVC certifies trainers who wish to teach NVC in a manner aligned with CNVC 's understanding of the NVC process . CNVC also offers trainings by certified trainers .
Some trainings in nonviolent communication are offered by trainers sponsored by organizations considered as allied with , but having no formal relationship with , the Center for Nonviolent Communication founded by Marshall Rosenberg . Some of these trainings are announced through CNVC . Numerous NVC organizations have sprung up around the world , many with regional focuses .
= = Articles about NVC = =
Atlee , T. " Thoughts on Nonviolent Communication and Social Change . " Co @-@ intelligence Institute .
Kabatznick , R. and M. Cullen ( 2004 ) " The Traveling Peacemaker : A Conversation with Marshall Rosenberg . " Inquiring Mind , Fall issue .
Moore , P. ( 2004 ) " NonViolent Communication as an Evolutionary Imperative @-@ The InnerView of Marshall Rosenberg " Alternatives , Issue 29 , Spring .
Simons , G. ( 2003 ) " Review of Nonviolent Communication " SIETAR Europa Newsletter , November .
Sauer , M. ( 2004 ) " Expert on conflict resolution believes nonviolence is in our nature " San Diego Union @-@ Tribune , October 14 , 2004 .
van Gelder , S. ( 1998 ) " The Language of Nonviolence " Yes Magazine , Summer 1998
= Who 's Your Neighbor ? =
Who 's Your Neighbor ? is a 1917 silent American propaganda and drama film directed by S. Rankin Drew . The film 's plot focuses around reformers who pass a law to force prostitutes , including Hattie Fenshaw , out of the red light district . Fenshaw becomes Bryant Harding 's mistress and lives in an apartment next door to a reformer , and continues to ply her trade . After Fenshaw becomes familiar with Harding , his son , daughter and the daughter 's fiance , the climax of the film occurs as the cast assembles at Fenshaw 's apartment . Harding returns and a fight breaks out that results in the reformers ' arrival and concludes with the presumption that Fenshaw returns to a place of " legalized vice " . The drama was written by Willard Mack and was his first foray into screen dramas . The film proved controversial , but is noted as a great success . The film originally debuted on June 15 , 1917 , but it was rejected by the National Board of Review and was later approved after a revision , but the film continued to be labeled as an immoral production . The film is presumed to be lost .
= = Plot = =
A group of reformers , led by Mrs. Bowers , moves to have the red light district closed and force the girls out . District Attorney Osborne , believes that it will turn out poorly for the town and tries to persuade the reforms that it would be like scattering smallpox . He fails to persuade them and the law is passed . The film focuses on one of the prostitutes , Hattie Fenshaw , who is forced out from her place of vice . According to H. D. Fretz 's review , Fenshaw is determined to let those at a prominent hotel know that " women such as she had better be left alone " , but is quickly recognized and evicted . At the hotel , Fenshaw makes an acquaintance of Bryant Harding who decides to keep her as his mistress and pays Fenshaw 's rent in an apartment next door to one of the reformers , Mrs. Osborne . Fenshaw also charms Dudley Carleton , who breaks off his engagement to Betty Hamlin , the daughter of Harding , who uses her divorced mother 's maiden name . Hamlin and Fenshaw meet through an introduction with Mrs. Bowers , and Hamlin , unaware of Fenshaw 's character is telephoned by Fenshaw to come and sew for her to earn some money . Hal Harding , a college student with a desire to see the city , is introduced to Fenshaw during his father 's absence . The cast assembles at Fenshaw 's apartment when Hamlin arrives and interrupts Fenshaw 's party with her ex @-@ fiance and her brother , Hal . She is then introduced to her brother under and assumed name and is in the apartment when Bryant Harding returns . A fight breaks out and Harding nearly kills Carleton and knocks Fenshaw unconscious and shoots at his daughter , but misses . Alerted by the shot , the District Attorney , Mrs. Bowers and her reformer friends arrive and learn of Hattie Fenshaw 's vice . Shorey 's film review concludes with the presumption that Fenshaw returns to a place of " legalized vice " with Mrs. Bowers ' permission .
= = Cast = =
Christine Mayo as Hattie Fenshaw
Anders Randolf as Bryant M. Harding ( Richard Harding in Fretz 's review )
Evelyn Brent as Betty Hamlin
Frank Morgan as Dudley Carlton
William Sherwood as Hal Harding
Gladys Fairbanks as Mrs. Bowers
Franklyn Hanna as District Attorney Osborne
Mabel Wright as Betty 's mother
George Majeroni ( Undetermined role )
Dean Raymond ( Undetermined role )
= = Production = =
Willard Mack had registered and copyrighted " Who 's Your Neighbor ? " on March 9 , 1917 . Speculation by Motography states that Mack 's " contribution to the screen drama was probably prompted by the distressing Ruth Cruger mystery , which was so cleverly solved by Mrs. Grace Humiston , and follows very closely many of the phases of drama in real life that shocked the world . " The April 17 , 1917 issue of Motography profiled the film , the first production of Master Drama Features , noting that it would be shown on a " stage @-@ right " basis after a New York City premier at a Broadway theater . H. D. Fretz noted that the majority of the scenes were shot indoors and described the photography as excellent . The film was described as breaking a record by Motoplay because of the use of a triple exposure . The brief note stated that it is a delicate and precise work that required perfect synchronization that " ( the film ) had to be taken twenty times before the result was satisfactory to Director S. Rankin Drew . " Who 's Your Neighbor ? was the first film produced by Edward Small . According to the American Film Institute , the film was edited by Frank Lawrence .
= = Release = =
The film debuted at the Broadway Theater on June 15 , 1917 . After its debut , the film received many bids from buyers for the film . The original film had seven reels , but the June 30 edition of The Moving Picture World stated that it was six reels for unknown reasons . Shortly after the film 's completion , S. Rankin Drew sailed for France to join the American Ambulance Corps . He was killed in action when his plane was shot down over France during the First World War on May 19 , 1918 .
The film was originally set for a winter release , and was the subject of speculation by Lynn Kear , author of Evelyn Brent : The Life and Films of Hollywood 's Lady Crook , the film was delayed because of the fears that World War I would hurt viewer attendance . Lynn also speculated that it may have been due to the film having received condemnation from the National Board of Review . Master Drama Features general manager Herman Becker told the media the film was held for a winter release , due to expectation of a decrease in viewership due to the ongoing war , but the film was released because the vaudeville theaters wanted new acts . Becker also noted the advertising greatly boosted sales of the film . While the film did initially get condemnation from the board , it was later given a full approval following a revision according to the September 1 publication of Motion Picture News . The film was also quick to sell the state rights as noted in the July 28 edition of Motography . Becker sold states rights to " California , Washington , Nevada , Arizona , New Mexico , Colorado , Utah , Wyoming , Montana , Oregon , Idaho and northern New Jersey . " This purchase of rights was made by F. E. Backer of Mammoth Film Corporation after seeing the film .
According to Kear , advertising for the film focused on Evelyn Brent and cited an ad that appeared in the Los Angeles Times on December 5 , 1917 . Though Exhibitor 's Herald cited that the advertising for the film would include " four kinds of one @-@ sheet , three @-@ sheet , six @-@ sheet and 24 @-@ sheet lithographs , newspaper cuts , slides , window cards , banners , heralds , throw aways and many other novelties never before seen . " For advertisement purposes , the Otis Lithograph Company was contracted by the studio 's director of publicity , Arthur M. Brilant . The description of the varied materials were noted in greater detail in a column in Motion Picture News .
Though the film had its debut on June 15 , the American Film Institute states that the film was released in October . This conflicts with a claim from the Paris Theater in Denver , Colorado , found in the September 29 issue of Motography , where the film was said to be popular . The Paris Theater would also run into legal troubles over the films showing , a fact reported in the October 6 edition of Motography . Newspaper accounts for a late October run begin in the San Francisco Chronicle with the Portola Theater debuting the film , originally for one week , starting on October 28 , 1917 . The film was popular enough to run a second week at the Portola . The film would be part of the vaudeville show at the Wigwam for four days starting on November 14 . The film was suggested for mature audiences by the Portola Theater and the Wigwam Theater , both did not allow children under the age of 16 to enter .
= = Reception = =
George N. Shorey 's review of the initial seven reel Broadway release declared it another masterpiece of Mack 's writing and notes that the film would be the best example to go before the courts to argue for " free speech " in films . Shorey notes that the propaganda film " is bold , clear , tremendous in the force of its convincing showing that to drive the scarlet woman from a restricted district into the hotels and apartment houses of a city is a worse crime than it seeks to cure . " The only complaint was found that it " does not sufficiently misrepresent the ease and luxury of the underworld . It shows a scarlet woman who finds the " easiest way " truly easy . She does not die , nor even suffer . The intended moral of the picture , that once abandoned to that life a woman finds it to her taste to remain in it and cannot be " reformed , " necessarily does include the above corollary to that proposition . " The San Francisco Chronicle wrote that the film " deals with a question that has perplexed the sages from the beginning of time and it traverses life 's scroll , writing with thought and deed certain actions of everyday application . There are tense dramatic scenes , and above all there is the question that must be faced , " Who 's Your Neighbor ? " "
The film was declared to be the " most satisfactory picture Denver has had in many months " by the Paris Theater in the September 29 issue of Motography . Though the October 6 edition of Motography noted that W. A. Roderick and F. O. Brown , officers of Paris Theater Company were charged for showing the film which violated a city ordinance on " immoral pictures " . The men rejected that claim , citing that it was not immoral , but was rejected by the censorship board because it was a propaganda film and not on the film 's morality . The city had threatened to file charges and prosecute them for each exhibition of the film .
Ben H. Grimm 's review in The Moving Picture World was completely negative and described it as " one of the most insidious , moral @-@ destroying pictures ever produced . It will lower to the level of a bawdy house any theater in which it is shown . It reeks of a filthy sex element that struts across the screen in the sheep 's clothing of alleged propaganda advocating the segregation of vice . " Grimm highlights how the film 's prostitute sells herself and finds not ill , but instead gets worldly gains . Grimm also notes that the production is based on the premise that a prostitute is a prostitute by choice , does not want reform and infers that she can not be reformed . Grimm 's review stated that the great production was even more detrimental with a metaphor that stated a well @-@ dressed criminal was less likely to be suspected than a poorly dressed criminal .
The film is believed to be lost .
= Sydney Rowell =
Lieutenant General Sir Sydney Fairbairn Rowell , KBE , CB ( 15 December 1894 – 12 April 1975 ) was an Australian soldier who served as Chief of the General Staff from 17 April 1950 to 15 December 1954 . As Vice Chief of the General Staff from 8 January 1946 to 16 April 1950 , he played a key role in the post @-@ Second World War reorganisation of the Army , and in the 1949 Australian coal strike . However , he is best known as the commander who was dismissed in the Kokoda Track campaign .
As a young officer , Rowell served at Gallipoli but was invalided back to Australia with typhoid fever in January 1916 . The end of the war found Rowell junior in rank to his contemporaries with more distinguished war records , but he managed to catch up in the post @-@ war period . Rowell spent five years with the British Army or at British staff colleges , establishing valuable contacts with his British counterparts . In 1939 he was appointed chief of staff of the 6th Division and later I Corps , serving in that capacity in the Battle of Greece and the Syria @-@ Lebanon campaign . In 1942 he commanded I Corps in the Kokoda Track campaign but was sacked . His subsequent rise to become Chief of the General Staff demonstrated that the circumstances of his dismissal in 1942 were indeed extraordinary .
= = Early life = =
Sydney Fairbairn Rowell was born on 15 December 1894 at Lockleys , South Australia , the fourth son of James Rowell , an English @-@ born soldier and orchardist who served as a senator from 1916 to 1922 , and his Australian @-@ born second wife Zella Jane née Williams . He acted as an ' unofficial batman ' to his father , who was colonel commanding the South Australian Brigade from 1907 to 1911 . Rowell was educated at Adelaide High School and was one of the first cadets to enter the Royal Military College , Duntroon when it opened in 1911 .
= = First World War = =
On 15 September 1914 Rowell and his classmates were commissioned as first lieutenants in the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . At the time , Rowell 's class had not yet completed its military training . The AIF 's commander , Major General William Throsby Bridges , decided that regimental duty would rectify that deficiency , so he allotted the Duntroon cadets as regimental officers of the AIF , rather than as staff officers . The cost of this decision was high ; of the 134 commissioned in time to serve at the front , 42 were killed and 38 wounded . Cadets were posted to units being formed in their home states , so Rowell was posted to the 10th Infantry Battalion . When he discovered that the 3rd Light Horse Regiment was to be commanded by his cousin , Lieutenant Colonel F. M. Rowell , Sydney obtained permission to swap places with another member of his Duntroon class Lieutenant Eric Wilkes Talbot Smith . It was a fateful decision ; Smith was fatally wounded on Anzac Day .
Rowell contracted pneumonia and did not embark with the main body of the 3rd Light Horse Regiment . Instead , he left with its First Reinforcements on HMAT Thirty @-@ Six on 21 December 1914 . Rowell joined the regiment in Heliopolis in January . The next month he broke his left leg in a riding accident . For a time it looked like Rowell would again miss the embarkation of his regiment , but the intervention of his father ensured that he reached Anzac Cove with the 3rd Light Horse on 12 May 1915 . He was evacuated sick to Egypt and then Malta in July , and returned to his regiment at Quinn 's Post in August . Rowell was promoted to the temporary rank of captain on 9 September , briefly assuming command of a squadron before becoming the regimental adjutant three days later . In November Rowell was again evacuated to Egypt , this time with typhoid fever , the disease that had killed his cousin . On 20 January 1916 , Rowell was returned to Australia . Because of a policy that a regular officer , once invalided to Australia , could not again be posted overseas , Rowell 's period of active service was over . He was posted , along with several other Duntroon graduates who had been invalided home , to Duntroon , as an instructor at the Officers ' Training School . This was closed in June 1917 and Rowell was posted to the staff of the 4th Military District in Adelaide .
= = Between the wars = =
On 20 August 1919 at the Chalmers Church , North Terrace , Adelaide , Rowell married Blanche May Murison , the daughter of a Scottish engineer . Blanche had served in the Royal Australian Army Nursing Corps in Australia during the war . Due to his brief overseas service , the end of the war found Rowell still a lieutenant and thus junior in rank to his contemporaries but the snail @-@ like pace of promotions between the wars allowed him to gradually catch up . He was promoted to captain on 1 January 1920 , major on 1 January 1926 , and the brevet rank lieutenant colonel on 1 July 1935 , with substantive rank on 1 January 1936 . His inter @-@ war career consisted of a long series of staff postings , interspersed with training courses .
In 1924 , Rowell passed the staff college examination for one of the two Australian spots . Qualifying in first place gave him a choice between the Staff College , Camberley and its counterpart at Quetta , and Rowell chose the former , attending from 1925 to 1926 . At this time , the commandant was Major General Edmund Ironside ; the staff included Colonel J. F. C. Fuller and Lieutenant Colonels Alan Brooke and Bernard Montgomery . Fellow students included Captains Frank Messervy and Francis Tuker . From 1935 to 1937 , Rowell was on exchange to the British Army as a staff officer with the 44th ( Home Counties ) Infantry Division . He then attended the Imperial Defence College . The class was a distinguished one , including two Victoria Cross winners , Group Captain Frank McNamara from Australia and Lieutenant Colonel George Pearkes from Canada ; other students included Lieutenant Colonel William Slim and Wing Commander Keith Park . For his staff work , Rowell was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the King 's Birthday Honours in 1938 .
Rowell returned to Australia to become Director of Military Operations and Intelligence at Army Headquarters in Melbourne but in August 1938 he became staff officer to the Inspector General , Lieutenant General Ernest Squires , partly because Rowell was recognised as " one of the ablest of the early Duntroon graduates " but also because he had spent five of the previous thirteen years with the British Army or at British staff colleges . The government 's decision to appoint a British officer to produce an authoritative report into the Army was widely seen as demonstrating the government 's lack of confidence in its own officer corps . Squires ' first recommendation was to restructure the military districts into four " commands " . This required legislation amending the Defence Act and was not implemented until October 1939 . The second recommendation was the formation of a regular brigade . The death of Prime Minister Joseph Lyons in April 1939 and his subsequent replacement by Robert Menzies caused this to be shelved .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Libya = = =
When the 6th Division was formed in October 1939 , Sir Thomas Blamey appointed Rowell as its GSO1 ( chief of staff ) . Rowell joined the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) and was given the AIF service number VX3 . Gavin Long described Rowell as " clear and incisive in thought , sensitive in feeling , frank and outspoken in approach to men and to problems . Five recent years of service either at English staff colleges or on exchange duty made it probable that wherever he went his opposite numbers in British formations would be men with whom he had previously worked and played . " Comparing him to the AA & QMG , Colonel George Alan Vasey , Long noted that both " were not only efficient soldiers but men of commanding temperament and talent " .
Rowell was promoted to colonel on 13 October 1939 , and when the government decided to form I Corps in April 1940 , Blamey was given the command and Rowell became brigadier , general staff ( BGS ) , with the rank of brigadier . Blamey and Rowell prepared I Corps for operations as best they could , completing the force 's structure and integrating new units as they arrived in the Middle East . Rowell strove to establish good relations with the British Army , while occasionally having to remind them that the AIF was answerable to its own commander in chief and its own government . Rowell 's efforts to create an administrative headquarters to free the I Corps staff for operational duties foundered on Blamey 's reluctance to delegate authority . The best that he could achieve was the creation of a Base and Line of Communications Units command under Brigadier Allan Boase but I Corps remained responsible for organisation and training .
I Corps ' part in the Western Desert Campaign was brief . Its headquarters opened near Benghazi on 15 February 1941 , replacing British XIII Corps . Rowell studied the prospects of an advance on Tripoli , but the headquarters was recalled to Egypt on 24 February to participate in the Battle of Greece . Nonetheless , for his part , Rowell was mentioned in despatches , and appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire .
= = = Greece = = =
In Greece , I Corps was employed as such for the first time . The campaign was another short one , but very trying on the participants . Just three days after headquarters opened on 5 April 1941 , the Germans broke through and the corps was thrown into a retreat that eventually led to its re @-@ embarkation . Blamey and his staff worked under tremendous pressure ; the operational situation was precarious ; and German air attacks were frequent . Rowell later wrote :
What history should record is that , in the face of a desperate situation , HQ I Corps never lost control of the battle ; made sound tactical decisions with limited resources and succeeded finally in bringing its troops to the beaches with limited resources and with no loss of cohesion .
Tempers flared when I Corps headquarters was ordered to evacuate to Egypt . Blamey 's aide recalled :
We had now now come to our last hours in Greece . They were marked by tension and anger . When Rowell was told that he was to leave almost immediately to fly to Egypt with Blamey , his first reaction was to declare that he had no intention of leaving . The hostility in this exchange opened up a rift between the two men . Rowell had always been completely frank in putting his views to Blamey , but not defiant . On this occasion it took a sharp and direct order to remind Rowell who was in command .
If Rowell felt that Blamey had shown a lack of moral courage in failing to stand up to the political and military superiors who had directed the ill @-@ fated campaign , Blamey felt that the campaign had revealed flaws in Rowell 's character . He wrote to the Chief of the General Staff , Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee :
Rowell has very great ability ; is quick in decision and sound in judgement . There can be no question of his personal courage , but he lacks the reserves of nervous energy over a period of long strain . I found him difficult in the last days in Greece and , as commander , had to exercise considerable tact . Rather a reverse of what it should be .
I was a little disappointed in both him and Bridgeford over their attitude in one or two matters . They were over @-@ impressed with the danger of the dive bomber and talked a little too freely about its effect on the men . However , a short rest fixed them both up and they are doing a great job in Syria .
For his part in the campaign in Greece , Rowell was mentioned in despatches a second time .
= = = Syria = = =
I Corps was alerted to take part in the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign although , Blamey having been promoted to Deputy Commander in Chief Middle East Command , it lacked a commanding officer . Apparently , General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson believed that I Corps ' loss of transport and signal equipment precluded it from participating in the campaign from the outset . Instead , Wilson attempted to exercise command from the King David Hotel . This proved to be a serious error , as his staff were preoccupied with political and administrative issues , and were too remote from the battlefields to exercise the close command required — something that Rowell foresaw . Following a series of reverses , Rowell predicted on 16 June that " it won 't be long now . " I Corps headquarters was sent for on 18 June , and Lieutenant General John Lavarack assumed command that day .
= = = Defence of Australia = = =
In August 1941 , Rowell returned to Australia to take up the post of Deputy Chief of the General Staff ( DCGS ) , with the rank of major general . He expected that his main task would be to support the AIF ; but it turned out the primary concern was the looming war with Japan , which broke out soon after . It was at this juncture that Rowell was approached by Major General George Vasey , who had a scheme to retire all officers over the age of fifty , and making Major General Horace Robertson Commander in Chief . Presumably Vasey expected Rowell , as a fellow Duntroon graduate , to be sympathetic . A heated argument ensued , ending with Rowell telling Vasey that " if he weren 't so bloody big , I 'd toss him out of the room " . Rowell immediately went to Sturdee , who had Lavarack with him , and told him what had transpired .
In Blamey 's subsequent shake @-@ up of higher command arrangements , Rowell was appointed to command I Corps . This was his first command since his three @-@ day stint in command of a light horse squadron at Gallipoli . He became the first Duntroon graduate to command a corps , and the first to be promoted to the rank of lieutenant general . The old I Corps headquarters was largely absorbed into Lavarack 's new First Army headquarters , so a new one was formed from Headquarters , Southern Command . Initially located in Melbourne , it soon moved to Esk , Queensland .
= = = Kokoda Track = = =
On 31 July 1942 , Blamey informed Rowell that I Corps headquarters would be sent to Port Moresby to control operations in New Guinea . Rowell arrived in Port Moresby on 13 August 1942 and assumed command of New Guinea Force from Major General Basil Morris . Rowell 's I Corps headquarters took over operational control from Morris 's , which became that of ANGAU . The only warning that Morris had of Rowell 's arrival was a message from the DCGS , Vasey , which simply said : " Syd is coming " . The situation was dire . Japanese were steadily advancing on Port Moresby along the Kokoda Trail and were also threatening Milne Bay and Wau . Rowell and his staff were all seasoned officers with combat experience in the Middle East and the Battle of Malaya and " brought to New Guinea skill and organisation that Morris and his staff had been unable to provide " . However , the main body of Rowell 's staff did not arrive until 17 August . Rowell turned down a suggestion from Blamey that he needed additional base staff to cope with his administrative problems , given that a corps headquarters was a tactical headquarters , intended to operate as part of an army , with the latter handling most of the administrative work . Rowell 's staff gradually discovered how enormous the task before them was ; they had few maps , the only transport aircraft were destroyed in a Japanese raid , and the supplies that had been forwarded by air to Kokoda could not be located .
Rowell refused to give General Douglas MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) in Brisbane a " ball to ball " description of the action , sending only factual information at stated times . Failure to keep GHQ up to date could only lead to fears of the worst , which were confirmed when Major General George Kenney reported that in his opinion Port Moresby would soon fall unless something drastic was done , and Rowell was " defeatist " . On 17 September , the General MacArthur discussed the situation in New Guinea with Prime Minister John Curtin on the secraphone . He pointed out that while the Japanese faced all the same difficulties as the Australian troops fighting on the Kokoda Track , the Japanese were advancing and the Australians were retreating , and the whole situation seemed to MacArthur to be a lot like the Malaya . He recommended that General Blamey be sent up to New Guinea to take personal command of the situation .
" I 'm leaving for New Guinea in a few days , " Blamey told Burston , his Director General of Medical Services , on 18 September .
" Why ? " Burston asked . " Are you worried about New Guinea ? "
" No , " said Blamey , " But Canberra 's lost it ! "
They were talking in Blamey 's office in Victoria Barracks , Melbourne . Blamey had just had talks on the secraphone with both Curtin and MacArthur . Each of them had instructed him to go to Port Moresby . These were not recommendations or requests ; they were orders for every practical purpose . " I remember what happened to the Auk in the desert and I 'm off ! " Blamey told Burston .
Blamey took over command of New Guinea Force , but not I Corps . The difference was academic insofar as there was only one staff . Blamey wrote a letter to Rowell to explain the situation in advance of his arrival in Port Moresby on 23 September :
The powers that be have determined that I shall myself go to New Guinea for a while and operate from there ... I hope you will not be upset at this decision , and will not think that it implies any lack of confidence in yourself . I think it arises out of the fact that we have very inexperienced politicians who are inclined to panic on every possible occasion , and I think that the relationship between us personally is such that we can make the arrangement work without any difficulty .
Rowell took it very badly . He wrote to Major General Cyril Clowes at Milne Bay :
The plain fact is that he [ Blamey ] hasn 't enough moral courage to fight the Cabinet on an issue of confidence in me . Either I am fit to command the show or I am not . If the latter , then I should be pulled out . He comes here when the tide is on the turn and all is likely to be well . He cannot influence the local situation in any way , but he will get the kudos and it will be said , rather pityingly , that he came here to hold my hand and bolster me up . "
On 25 September , at MacArthur 's suggestion , Blamey flew to Milne Bay with Brigadier General Kenneth Walker and ordered Clowes to send a force by air to Wanigela . This would be an important step forward . Rowell , Kenney noted , was " not even consulted anymore " . Rowell was furious at Blamey bypassing him . Blamey reported back to Prime Minister Curtin that :
On arrival here I informed General Rowell of my instructions from the Prime Minister and the CinC SWPA [ MacArthur ] . He proved most difficult and recalcitrant considering himself very unjustly used . I permitted him to state his case with great frankness . It was mainly statement of grievances primarily against myself because he had received only one decoration for war services in Middle East where certain other officers had received two .
He charged me with having failed to safeguard his interests and he felt he was being made to eat dirt . All my persuasion could not make him see matters realistically .
On second evening I asked General Burston as an old friend of Rowell to endeavour to induce a proper frame of mind but Burston met with no success .
Instead of setting out full information here for me I have to search out details and feel a definite atmosphere of obstruction .
Urge that Herring be sent immediately by air as successor to Rowell . If Herring not approved , Mackay second choice but Herring much younger , this important in this climate .
Re disposal of Rowell if you decide to continue his services he could replace Herring in command of II Corps but events here make me doubtful of wisdom of allocating disgruntled officer to this appointment . In this connection Morshead now cables that he would be glad to accept Stevens as second in command AIF in Middle East . Rowell competent to fill Darwin which is a major general 's command . II Corps command could be operated by senior division commander temporarily and by General Eichelberger with a mixed American and Australian staff .
= = = Exile = = =
On further consideration , Blamey decided that he might need Stevens , " a first rate fighter " , and that it would be better to send Rowell to the Middle East , although such a move would involve Rowell being reduced in rank to major general so as to be junior to Morshead . Rowell paid a visit to MacArthur in Brisbane on his way south . MacArthur was unimpressed . He told the Prime Minister that " Rowell 's attitude to a superior officer in a theatre of active operations was quite unpardonable " and hoped for Rowell 's sake that there would be no enquiry into the matter . MacArthur was dissatisfied with the way that Rowell had prosecuted the campaign in Papua , and was opposed to Rowell returning to New Guinea . Curtin granted Rowell an interview on 3 October . He explained to Rowell that Blamey had gone to New Guinea on his orders and had expressed the fullest confidence in his commanders in New Guinea . Not until the end of January did the Prime Minister finally decide to send Rowell to the Middle East , as a major general .
By the time Rowell arrived in the Middle East , Morshead and most of the troops had departed . Rowell filed regular reports on the progress of the war in the Mediterranean , and processed Australian prisoners of war who had been liberated from the Italians . In December 1943 , Rowell took up the appointment as Director of Tactical Investigation at the War Office in London vice Lieutenant General Alfred Reade Godwin @-@ Austen at the instigation of Richard Casey . Despite the important sounding title and a " high powered staff " , the job was a sinecure . When Blamey and Curtin visited London in May 1944 , Rowell was on his " best behaviour " . For his services at the War Office , Rowell was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1946 New Year Honours .
= = Post war = =
Blamey 's appointment as Commander in Chief was terminated in November 1945 and the new Prime Minister Ben Chifley appointed Sturdee in his place . Rowell was recalled from Europe to assume the new post of Vice Chief of the General Staff . He dropped in on Chifley in Canberra at the Prime Minister 's invitation . " I hate bloody injustice ! " Chifley told him . Rowell presided over the Army 's transition to peacetime .
= = = Coal strike = = =
In June 1949 , while Rowell was acting Chief of the General Staff , the country was rocked by the 1949 Australian coal strike . The strike began when stocks of coal were already low , especially in New South Wales and rationing was introduced . The Chifley government turned to the Army to get the troops to mine coal . This became possible when the transport unions agreed to transport coal that was mined . Rowell delegated responsibility for planning and organising the effort to Lieutenant General Berryman , while Rowell flew " top cover " , liaising with the government ministers in Sydney . Rowell managed to get the government to pay a bonus to soldiers mining coal , and persuaded the government to allow soldiers to have beer in their canteens , although the local civilians had none . Soldiers began mining at Muswellbrook and Lithgow on 1 August and by 15 August , when the strike ended , some 4 @,@ 000 soldiers and airmen were employed . They continued work until production was fully restored .
= = = Chief of the General Staff = = =
Sturdee retired in April 1950 and Rowell became the first Duntroon graduate to become Chief of the General Staff , the post of Vice Chief disappearing for a generation . Within months , Australian troops would be committed to the Korean War . Rowell paid visits to Korea in 1952 and 1953 . He presided over the Korean War expansion of the Regular Army , the National Service Scheme , and the re @-@ establishment of the women 's services . Rowell , as Chief of the General Staff , was Army 's chief mourner at Blamey 's funeral in 1951 , also serving as one of the pallbearers along with Frank Berryman , William Bridgeford , Edmund Herring , Iven Mackay , Leslie Morshead , John Northcott , Stanley Savige , Vernon Sturdee , and Henry Wells . For his services as Chief of the General Staff , Rowell was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the Queen 's Birthday Honours in 1953 .
= = Later life = =
Rowell retired from the Army on 15 December 1954 , following a ceremony at Duntroon , where his career had begun over 43 years before . He turned to gardening , cricket , horse @-@ racing , reading , and crossword puzzles . He became a director of Smith , Elder & Co. in 1954 and of the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation in 1956 , serving as its chairman from 1957 to 1968 . From 1958 to 1968 he was chairman of the Australian Boy Scouts ' Association and a member of the Rhodes Scholarships Selection Committee for Victoria . He was offered but declined the post of Australian consul general in New York . In 1974 he published his memoirs , entitled Full Circle — the only Chief of the General Staff to have done so . Rowell died at his South Yarra home , twelve days before Lady Rowell , and was cremated . They were survived by their daughter . Sir Ivor Hele 's portrait of Rowell is held by the Australian War Memorial , as are his papers .
= Tatuidris =
Tatuidris , or armadillo ant , is a rare genus of ants consisting of a single species , Tatuidris tatusia . The ants are small in size and inhabit the leaf litter of Neotropical forests in Central and South America , from Mexico to Brazil . Workers are ferruginous @-@ colored to dark red and present a distinctive morphology , consisting of a shield @-@ like head with a broad vertex , ventrally @-@ turned heavy mandibles which do not overlap at full closure , and unique among ants – an antenna socket apparatus sitting upside @-@ down . Little is known about the biology of the ants , but they are likely nocturnal and specialist predators .
Tatuidris was first described in 1968 and initially placed in the myrmicine tribe Agroecomyrmecini , together with two fossil genera . Since the original description , the systematic status of the tribe has been the focus of debate .
= = Taxonomy = =
Tatuidris tatusia is the only species in Tatuidris , a monotypic genus and one of only two extant genera in the subfamily Agroecomyrmecinae . A new species , T. kapasi , was described by Lacau & Groc in 2012 , but has now been relegated to a junior synonym under T. tatusia based on the extent of the morphological variability encountered throughout this broad geographic range . Analysis of DNA barcodes indicated a pattern of genetic isolation by distance , suggesting the presence of a single species undergoing allopatric differentiation .
It was first described by Brown & Kempf in 1968 based on two workers collected in a Berlese sample of humus in El Salvador . Due to morphological similarities , they considered it a very primitive ant and placed it in what was then a myrmicine tribe , the Agroecomyrmecini , together with ants known from Early Eocene Baltic amber ( Agroecomyrmex ) and late Eocene Florissant shale ( Eulithomyrmex ) .
It bears superficial resemblance to some extant genera ( Strumigenys , Ishakidris , Pilotrochus , and Phalacromyrmex ) but these similarities are considered to be due to convergent evolution . Due to similarities in the habitus , Brown & Kempf ( 1968 ) linked Tatuidris to the Dacetini genus Glamyromyrmex ( currently a junior synonym of Strumigenys ) and Phalacromyrmex . However they concluded : " analysis of these similarities indicates [ ... ] that they are mostly convergent and not based on close phylogenetic relationship " . Further work explored the similarities of Tatuidris with Ishakidris ( Bolton 1984 ) and Pilotrochus ( Brown 1977 ) . While these taxa share some characteristics , including an expanded head vertex , deep antennal scrobes and a compact mesosoma , the similarities were again deemed convergent .
Since the original description , the systematic status of the tribe has been the focus of debate . Bolton ( 2003 ) was the first to suggest the taxonomic instability of Tatuidris within Myrmicinae and raised the genus to the level of a new subfamily , the Agroecomyrmecinae , suggesting that Agroecomyrmecinae might be the sister taxon to Myrmicinae . The subfamily rank was re @-@ assessed by Baroni Urbani & de Andrade in 2007 , this was the first attempt to include Tatuidris as a terminal taxon in a morphological cladistic analysis . In their study , Baroni Urbani & de Andrade identified morphological synapomorphies shared between Tatuidris and the dacetines , justifying the inclusion of the genus within Myrmicinae . In addition , two autapomorphies ( a differently shaped petiolar tergum and sternum , and the eyes at or close to the apex of the antennal scrobe ) separated Tatuidris from all other extant ant genera included in their study .
Unlike phylogenetic studies based on morphological traits , molecular analyses of the internal phylogeny of the ants have given strong evidence that the armadillo ants are neither closely related to nor nested within the Myrmicinae . Brady et al . ( 2006 ) , Moreau et al . ( 2006 ) and Rabeling et al . ( 2008 ) reconstructed phylogenetic trees with the agroecomyrmecines inside the ' poneroid ' group of subfamilies , close to the Paraponerinae , and gave support for the exclusion of the genus from the Myrmicinae , a subfamily located inside the ' formicoid ' clade . Given the early appearance of the Agroecomyrmecinae in the geologic record , the similarities of armadillo ants to Myrmicinae were hypothesized to represent convergence and / or retention of plesiomorphic forms .
The name Tatuidris means " armadillo ant " , which is also the common name for this species ; tatu comes from the Tupi and Portuguese word for " armadillo " ; the specific epithet for the single described species , tatusia , is an old generic name for armadillo .
= = Distribution = =
Tatuidris is rare but broadly distributed . The ants inhabit the leaf litter of Neotropical forests in Central and South America , from Mexico to French Guiana , central Brazil , and Amazonian Peru . No collections are known from the Caribbean , Galápagos , or other islands . Most specimens and collections are currently known to occur in localities west of the Andes , with more collections tending to occur towards Central America and Mexico . Most collections come from mountainside ( pre @-@ montane ) areas at mid elevations ( usually 800 – 1200 meters of altitude ) . Collections from lowland Amazonia are few . Published records are few , but with the advent of litter sifting and Winkler extraction as a popular method of ant collecting , Tatuidris are not as rare as they used to seem . Although not very abundant , with frequent litter sifting they can be reliably found in Costa Rican wet forests .
= = Description = =
Workers of Tatuidris present a distinctive morphology , consisting of a shield @-@ like head with a broad vertex ( upper surface of the head ) , ventrally @-@ turned heavy mandibles which do not overlap at full closure , deep antennal scrobes ( an impression that receives parts of the antenna ) with eyes at or close to their apex , compact and fused mesosoma , 7 @-@ segmented antenna , first gastral segment ventrally directed , and unique among ants – an antenna socket apparatus sitting upside @-@ down on the roof of the expanded frontal lobe .
The body of a worker is short and compact , ferruginous @-@ colored to dark red , with thick and rigid integument ( external " skin " ) . The body is covered by hairs , which are variable in length and inclination . The head is pyriform ( pear @-@ shaped ) , broadest behind , with small eyes . Queens are similar to workers , but yellow @-@ colored and paler . Their wings are about 60 % longer than total body length . Males , also similar to workers ( except head ) , are darker and have wings about 50 % longer than the body . The eyes of the queens and males are larger than in workers .
= = = Size = = =
Specimens of Tatuidris are small , about 3 @.@ 5 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 14 in ) in total length , but specimens can vary greatly in size , with larger specimens being twice as large as the smaller ones . Size variability within trap catches ( possibly same colonies ) may be considerable . For example , workers from one collection catch in Nicaragua varied 30 % in size . It is still unclear whether intra @-@ colony size variation is due to the presence of morphological worker castes ( e.g. minor and major castes ) or continuous size variability . Principal component analysis ( PCA ) revealed that most variability among specimens is related to size , with shape explaining little of total variation .
= = = Pilosity variability = = =
Four pilosity patterns ( patterns of hair @-@ like setae ) are known to occur within Tatuidris collections . Pilosity pattern A consists of a mix of both long flexuous and short appressed setae . This is the most common pilosity pattern and the one that most resembles the type specimens from El Salvador and the gyne from Otongachi , Ecuador . Pilosity pattern B is characterized by very short , fully appressed , and regular spaced setae arrayed homogeneously and equidistantly on the head , mesosoma , petiole , postpetiole and gaster . Pilosity pattern C is characterized by dense lanose @-@ looking setae . Pilosity pattern D consists of short and uniform decumbent ( strongly inclined but not fully appressed ) setae scattered throughout the body .
= = = Eyes = = =
The relative position of eyes is highly variable within the species . For example , eye location ranges from being completely within the antennal scrobes to completely outside the scrobes . In some cases the eye itself is located outside the antennal scrobe , but the eye 's fossa is well marked and confluent with the antennal scrobe . In most specimens , the antennal carina ( ridge extending along the dorsal antennal region ) bifurcates from the antennal scrobes and lies straight above the eyes . However , in specimens from Nicaragua , a strongly impressed antennal carina is present . In these specimens about 40 % of the eye 's area lies within the antennal scrobes . In the gyne , only ~ 1 / 6 of the eye lies within the antennal scrobes . A depression sometimes forms in the integument in the sides of the propodeum , below the propodeal spiracle and above the metapleural gland . The depth of this depression varies among specimens and tends to be deepest in larger specimens .
= = Biology = =
The biology is poorly known ; the male and female reproductive castes were described for the first time in 2012 . The genus is known mainly from isolated workers found in Winkler or Berlese samples . Tatuidris workers have peculiar mandibular brushes and a powerful sting , which led Brown & Kempf to speculate that Tatuidris might be specialist predators of active or slippery arthropod prey . Until 2011 , no observations of live specimens were registered . Details of a first collection event of a small live colony ( 3 workers and 4 gynes ) by Thibaut Delsinne in a mid @-@ elevation forest in southeastern Ecuador suggest that Tatuidris may well be a highly specialized predator , as colonies kept in captivity did not accept any food item offered to them . Food items rejected by the ants included live and dead termites , millipedes , mites , various insect parts , sugar water , tuna , biscuits , live and dead fruit flies ( Drosophila ) , live springtails , live myriapods ( Chilopoda and Diplopoda ) , live and dead Diplura , small live spiders , small live pseudoscorpions , one small snail , uncooked hen egg ( i.e. piece of cotton wool soaked with fresh whisked hen egg ) , ant larvae ( Gnamptogenys sp . ) , and live ant workers ( Cyphomyrmex sp . , Brachymyrmex sp . ) . Potential food items ( arthropods ) for Tatuidris were taken from soil samples and Winkler samples collected at the site where Tatuidris was a priori determined to be present .
Further observations suggest that Tatuidris may be a sit @-@ and @-@ wait predator . Delsinne observed that " both workers and gynes moved very slowly and were very clumsy . They often remained motionless during several tens of seconds or even several minutes when disturbed ( either by my handling or by the contact with another arthropod ) . " These observations were mainly performed at night , suggesting that Tatuidris may be nocturnal , a hypothesis also supported by collection patterns . For example , in the Río Toachi forest of Ecuador Tatuidris specimens tend to fall in pitfall traps , instead of Winkler sacs . Because pitfall traps usually work 24 @-@ h , but Winkler sacs generally uses litter sifted during the day , then ants with nocturnal habits may be underrepresented in Winkler samples . The small eyes of Tatudris species provide further support for this hypothesis .
= Go , Stewie , Go ! =
" Go , Stewie , Go ! " is the 13th episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on March 14 , 2010 . The episode features Stewie after he auditions , cross @-@ dressed under the pseudonym Karina Smirnoff , for a female role in the American version of Jolly Farm Revue , and eventually ends up falling in love with a female co @-@ star on the show . Meanwhile , Lois finds herself attracted to Meg 's surprisingly normal boyfriend , once Peter causes her to realize her advancing age .
The episode was written by Gary Janetti and directed by Greg Colton . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references , in addition to receiving criticism from the Parents Television Council . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 6 @.@ 72 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Stephen Bishop , Mo Collins , Colin Ford , Lucas Grabeel , Anne Hathaway , Nana Visitor and Mae Whitman , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Go , Stewie , Go ! " was released on DVD along with ten other episodes from the season on December 13 , 2011 .
= = Plot = =
Brian , walking in drunk , notices that Stewie has resumed watching Jolly Farm Revue , after previously swearing off the show in " Road to Europe " . Remembering a story he had seen in the local newspaper , Brian tells Stewie about upcoming auditions for an American version of the show . Jumping at the opportunity , the two show up to the auditions , but quickly learn that there is only one female role remaining . Determined to win a spot on the show , Stewie decides to cross @-@ dress as a woman , naming his new identity " Karina Smirnoff " . Beginning his audition , he starts by telling a completely fabricated story . Convincing the producers that he is telling a true tale , he wins the role . The next morning , on the first day of filming , Stewie as Karina introduces himself to the rest of the cast , and quickly falls in love with a female co @-@ star named Julie . Another co @-@ star , Randall , objects to the new role that Karina was cast to play , and takes Julie away from him to prevent their friendship . As they continue shooting , however , the two develop a friendly relationship , eventually deciding to hold a sleepover , where they become even closer . The next day , Julie professes her love for Karina by wishing that she was actually a boy , causing Stewie , as Karina , to come on to her . Julie insists that she is not a lesbian , so Stewie decides to unveil his true identity to the entire cast during a live taping of the show . Shocked that Karina was actually a boy , Julie 's mother refuses to let her speak to him , with Stewie left to regret his decision to come out as a cross @-@ dresser , and decides to go get ice cream with Brian , as he can no longer wear that dress .
Meanwhile , Peter begins to insult Lois about her advancing age , including her minor strands of gray hair . This makes her extremely self @-@ conscious , and soon Lois becomes aware of her lust for a younger man . After introducing her new boyfriend , Anthony , to the family , Meg goes on to make out with him on the family couch , with Lois watching over nearby . Jealous of her daughter 's new @-@ found love , she begins hitting on Anthony . Later that day , Lois sends Meg to pick up her grandfather , leaving her all alone with Anthony . The two then begin making out on the couch , but Meg returns to the house only a few moments later and discovers them . Angry at her mother for ruining her chance at having a normal boyfriend , Meg threatens Lois to lay off of him , pulling out one of her own teeth in frustration . Lois quickly agrees , but is still angry with Peter for continually insulting her . She confronts him about this , and he admits that he was actually embarrassed about his own advancing age , as well as his lack of fitness , and was only insulting Lois in order to distract her from the fact that she could be with a much better @-@ looking man . He apologizes for his behavior , and Lois forgives him .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was written by returning writer Gary Janetti , his first episode since the fourth season episode " Stewie B. Goode " . In addition , the episode was directed by series regular Greg Colton , before the conclusion of the seventh production season . The episode was Colton 's second for the season , the first being the season premiere , " Road to the Multiverse " , which received high praise from critics . The episode saw the third re @-@ appearance , the first being an equally brief appearance in " Spies Reminiscent of Us " and the second in " Road to the Multiverse " , by former main cast member Mike Henry as the voice of Cleveland Brown . The actor had previously left the role on Family Guy , in order to star as the character in his own spin @-@ off , entitled The Cleveland Show .
" Go , Stewie , Go ! " , along with the eleven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on December 13 , 2011 . The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " And Then There Were Fewer " , a mini @-@ feature entitled " The Comical Adventures of Family Guy – Brian & Stewie : The Lost Phone Call " , and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
In addition to the regular cast , musician Stephen Bishop rerecorded his single " It Might Be You " , actress Mo Collins appeared as a little girl , voice actor Colin Ford appeared briefly as Randall , actress Anne Hathaway appeared as Mother Maggie , actor Lucas Grabeel appeared as Meg 's new boyfriend Anthony , voice actress Nana Visitor appeared briefly as the audition caller and voice actress Mae Whitman appeared as Julie . Recurring guest voice actors Ralph Garman , writer Gary Janetti , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , actress Jennifer Tilly and writer John Viener also made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
Although never specifically referenced or mentioned in the episode itself , Stewie 's alter @-@ ego is named after well @-@ known ballroom dancer Karina Smirnoff , who had previously danced professionally on the American television reality show Dancing with the Stars . Most of the storyline following Stewie is a homage of the 1982 film Tootsie . The episode 's title is also a reference to the song " Go , Tootsie , Go " played during the photo @-@ shoot montage in the film . A similar scene featuring the song was slightly modified , replacing " Tootsie " with " Stewie , " in the lyrics to the song . Another song from the film , " It Might Be You " by Stephen Bishop , is played during the closing credit sequence .
As Stewie and Brian watch a recorded episode of Jolly Farm Revue , Stewie notes the introduction of several new characters to the show . The television screen is then shown , as Karina reveals the characters to his co @-@ star , Julie . The new characters include parodies of the Sesame Street characters Big Bird , who describes himself as a " big bird , " and a self @-@ described " grouch " named " Moody Green Garbage Creature " , who resembles Oscar the Grouch , and butch and femme versions of Bert and Ernie , who try to protect Karina and Julie from Oscar .
After sending Meg out on an errand to pick up her grandfather , Lois continues to seduce Anthony , having been interested in him since Peter had begun insulting her about her advancing age . Quickly returning after forgetting the car keys , Meg discovers her mother making out with her new boyfriend on the couch . The bass jingle used extensively in the long @-@ running NBC sitcom Seinfeld is then heard , with the scene pausing , before transitioning to the Jolly Farm studio . In a surprise visit to the Griffin family home , Julie unexpectedly appears when Stewie opens the front door . Expecting Julie to recognize him , he forgets that he is not dressed as Karina , causing him to hurriedly change clothing , while pretending to have an argument with his fabricated persona . A similar scene is featured in the 1993 film Mrs. Doubtfire , starring actor Robin Williams . Stewie and Jolly Farm make a reference to Pan Am Flight 103 , a Boeing 747 – 100 destroyed by a terrorist bomb over Lockerbie , Scotland , killing all 259 occupants . Large portions of the plane fell onto Lockerbie , which killed 11 people , escalating the death toll to 270 . A song features on Jolly Farm that explicitly describes debris from the newly disintegrated plane falling into Lockerbie , sung in the fashion of that of a nursery rhyme .
= = Reception = =
In an improvement over the previous two episodes , the episode was viewed in 6 @.@ 72 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons , as well as the series premiere of Sons of Tucson , in addition to significantly edging out both shows in total viewership .
Reviews of the episode were mixed , calling the storyline a " [ good source of ] material in the long @-@ running dysfunctional yet affectionate relationship between Brian and Stewie , " while criticizing its multiple cultural references . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club called the episode a " pleasant surprise , " enjoying Stewie 's storyline , while criticizing the subplot between Lois and Meg . Ramsey Isler of IGN was much more critical of the episode , however , saying that " while there [ were ] a couple of funny moments , there are more misses than hits , " giving the episode a 6 out of 10 . In a subsequent review of Family Guy 's eighth season , Isler listed " Go , Stewie , Go ! " as being " full of the lowest of the lowest @-@ common @-@ denominator " jokes " , with heavy reliance on toilet humor and the characteristic cutaway gags that have steadily gotten more random and less funny . " In contrast , Jason Hughes of TV Squad praised the episode , saying that it " [ offered ] an emotional glimpse into the characters . "
Naming the episode as its " Worst TV Show of the Week " for " strong sexual content , " the Parents Television Council called the episode a " nauseating new low , " criticizing multiple scenes , including Lois making out with a minor , as well as the confrontation between Brian and Karina at the bar . The PTC also criticized Seth MacFarlane for attempting to " elicit disgust " throughout the episode by " [ choosing ] incest and rape " in order to " provoke [ emotions ] . "
= Gettysburg ( The Office ) =
" Gettysburg " is the eighth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office . It was written by Robert Padnick and directed by Jeffrey Blitz . The episode aired on NBC in the United States on November 17 , 2011 . " Gettysburg " guest stars Lindsey Broad as Cathy Simms .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) takes some of the office staff on a field trip to Gettysburg for inspiration . Meanwhile , the rest of the office , under orders from Robert California ( James Spader ) , are tasked with coming up with a new business idea for Dunder Mifflin . Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) proposes several vending machine ideas that capture California 's imagination .
" Gettysburg " would be the last episode to feature Jenna Fischer before she went on maternity leave . The episode received mixed reviews , with commentators mainly criticizing the episode for recycling jokes . According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Gettysburg " drew 5 @.@ 50 million viewers , and ranked first in its time slot and was the highest @-@ rated NBC show of the night .
= = Plot = =
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) decides to motivate and inspire everyone by taking them on a field trip to Gettysburg . At Gettysburg , Andy is unhappy with the lack of morale and belief in his leadership and attempts to make an analogy between running a paper company and fighting in the Civil War . Andy starts to lead a haphazard tour , and eventually most of the office members sit down to rest . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) follow Andy after he presses on , and eventually tell him to stop trying to impress the office . They reinforce the fact that his co @-@ workers like him the way he is .
During the tour , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) argues with Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) about what he claims is the northernmost battle of the Civil War : the Battle of Schrute Farms . Dwight maintains that its absence from the history books is an example of re @-@ writing history , whereas Oscar maintains that the battle is a fictitious creation . After tracking down a historian , Dwight and Oscar learn that the Battle of Schrute Farms did in fact take place . However , the " battle " was really a code term . During the Civil War , Schrute Farms was a safe haven for artists and poets ( and , as heavily implied , homosexuals ) . Oscar finds this fascinating , whereas Dwight leaves in disgust . Meanwhile , Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) is sidetracked by another tour group who assume that he is an Abraham Lincoln impersonator . He acquiesces and delivers an improvised but applauded performance .
Meanwhile , at the office , half of the office opts to stay behind . Robert California ( James Spader ) makes a spontaneous visit and asks them to come up with Dunder Mifflin / Sabre 's next big idea . However , the office fails to impress Robert with their ideas . Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) details an idea he has about cookie placement in the vending machine , but Robert gets the impression that he is extremely clever and is speaking only in metaphors . Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) , who has been annoyed the entire day with Kevin being creative and Robert rejecting his ideas , later tricks Kevin into explaining an idea he has involving the Big Mac , and Robert realizes that there was no subtext to Kevin 's ideas .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by story editor Robert Padnick , his second writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff the previous season . It was directed by frequent director of The Office , Jeffrey Blitz . The episode also marks the second appearance of Lindsey Broad , who plays Cathy , Pam 's replacement during her maternity leave . She appeared in a recurring role for the season . Due to Jenna Fischer 's actual pregnancy , " Gettysburg " would be the last episode of 2011 to feature Pam . The episode was not filmed on location in Gettysburg , Pennsylvania . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt noted that the writers ' used Andy 's " overeager qualities " to have the office group skip the official tour , allowing for " some random California heritage site " to stand in for the real Gettysburg . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Andy preparing the office to go to Gettysburg , and Kevin discussing his new @-@ found approval by California .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on NBC on November 17 , 2011 , " Gettysburg " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 50 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
on the inside as you move down the hallway towards your cabin to take your seat " . In terms of the overall experience Hart said , " Universal has managed to turn what would simply be a method of transporting guests between their two parks into yet another must @-@ see attraction ... tying together the overall story and theme of visiting Hogwarts at Islands of Adventure and Diagon Alley inside Universal Studios Florida " .
Robert Niles from Theme Park Insider mentioned how the attraction " broke walls " ; including the separation of the Wizarding and Muggle worlds , how Universal made the audience the performers ( in the part of the King 's Cross queue where guests walk through the wall leading to Platform 9 ¾ ) , and how , " It 's become convention for theme park attractions to drop you off at or very near the same point where you boarded the ride , so it 's a bit disorienting when you exit the Hogwarts Express and find that you 're not only in a different train station — you 're in a different theme park . "
Arthur Levine from About.com was disappointed that Universal had not tried to re @-@ create the magical aspect of guests entering Platform 9 ¾ , " When it 's time to make their own way to the platform , however , it appears to would @-@ be wizards that they are merely entering a darkened corridor . Aside from an audible " whoosh " sound , there is , regrettably , no attempt to reproduce the magical , molecule @-@ shifting phenomenon " . He also found it awkward that the Hogwarts Express reverses into Platform 9 ¾ at King 's Cross — although in Hogsmeade the train arrives facing forwards . Overall Levine said that the attraction does more than just making it a ride , " By making it an integral and compelling part of The Wizarding World , most guests would want to ride it to get the complete Potter experience . By making it an inter @-@ park ride and requiring a two @-@ park ticket to board it , Universal will surely help up @-@ sell a lot more more customers to higher @-@ priced passes , encourage multi @-@ day visits , increase demand for its on @-@ property hotels , and drive business at its CityWalk dining / shopping / entertainment district " .
In 2014 , attendance at Universal Studios Florida increased to 8 @.@ 3 million visitors , compared to 7 @.@ 1 million in the previous year . However , attendance at Islands of Adventure did not change . According to vice president of AECOM 's economics , Brian Sands , the attendance increase at the Studios was likely due to the Diagon Alley expansion . Sands also mentioned attendance at Islands of Adventure remained the same since " visitors go to the new thing " , though the Hogwarts Express likely prevented attendance from decreasing at the park .
= 509th Composite Group =
The 509th Composite Group ( 509 CG ) was a unit of the United States Army Air Forces created during World War II and tasked with the operational deployment of nuclear weapons . It conducted the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , Japan , in August 1945 .
The group was activated on 17 December 1944 at Wendover Army Air Field , Utah . It was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets . Because it contained flying squadrons equipped with Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress bombers and C @-@ 47 Skytrain and C @-@ 54 Skymaster transport aircraft , the group was designated as a " composite " rather than a " bombardment " formation . It operated Silverplate B @-@ 29s , which were specially configured to enable them to carry nuclear weapons .
The 509th Composite Group began deploying to North Field on Tinian , Northern Mariana Islands , in May 1945 . In addition to the two nuclear bombing raids , it carried out 15 practice missions against Japanese @-@ held islands , and 12 combat missions against targets in Japan dropping high @-@ explosive pumpkin bombs .
In the postwar era , the 509th Composite Group was one of the original ten bombardment groups assigned to Strategic Air Command on 21 March 1946 and the only one equipped with Silverplate B @-@ 29 Superfortress aircraft capable of delivering atomic bombs . It was standardized as a bombardment group and redesignated the 509th Bombardment Group , Very Heavy , on 10 July 1946 .
= = History = =
See the 509th Operations Group for additional group history and lineage .
= = = Organization , training , and security = = =
The 509th Composite Group was constituted on 9 December 1944 , and activated on 17 December 1944 , at Wendover Army Air Field , Utah . It was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets , who received promotion to full colonel in January 1945 . It was initially assumed that the group would divide in two , with half going to Europe and half to the Pacific . In the first week of September Tibbets was assigned to organize a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon by airplane against targets in Germany and Japan , then command it in combat . Because the organization developed by Tibbets was self @-@ sustained , with flying squadrons of both Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress bombers and transport aircraft , the group was designated as a " composite " rather than a " bombardment " unit .
On 8 September , working with Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . ' s Manhattan Project , Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend Army Air Field , Kansas , and Mountain Home Army Airfield , Idaho , because of its remoteness . On 14 September 1944 , the 393d Bombardment Squadron arrived at Wendover from its former base at Fairmont Army Air Base , Nebraska , where it had been in operational training ( OTU ) with the 504th Bombardment Group since 12 March . When its parent group deployed to the Marianas in early November 1944 , the squadron was assigned directly to the Second Air Force until creation of the 509th Composite Group . Originally consisting of twenty @-@ one crews , fifteen were selected to continue training , and were organized into three flights of five crews , lettered A , B , and C. The 393d Bombardment Squadron was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas J. Classen , who like Tibbets had combat experience in heavy bombers , commanding a Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress with the 11th Bombardment Group .
The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron , the other flying unit of the 509th , came into being because of the highly secret work of the group . The organization that was to become the 509th required its own transports for the movement of both personnel and materiel , resulting in creation of an ad hoc unit nicknamed " The Green Hornet Line " . Crews for this unit were acquired from the five 393d crews not selected to continue B @-@ 29 training . All those qualified for positions with the 320th chose to remain with the 509th rather than be assigned to a replacement pool of the Second Air Force . They began using C @-@ 46 Commando and C @-@ 47 Skytrains already at Wendover , and in November 1944 acquired three C @-@ 54 Skymasters . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron originally consisted of three C @-@ 54 and four C @-@ 47 aircraft . In April 1945 the C @-@ 47s were transferred to the 216th AAF Base Unit and two additional C @-@ 54s acquired . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron was constituted and activated on the same dates as the group .
Other support units were activated at Wendover from personnel already present and working with Project Alberta or in the 216th AAF Base Unit , both affiliated with the Manhattan project . Project Alberta was the part of the Manhattan Project at Site Y in Los Alamos , New Mexico responsible for the preparation and delivery of the nuclear weapons . It was commanded by U.S. Navy Captain William S. Parsons , who would accompany the Hiroshima mission as weaponeer .
The 390th Air Service Group was created as the command echelon for the 603rd Air Engineering Squadron , the 1027th Air Material Squadron , and its own Headquarters and Base Services Squadron , but when these units became independent operationally , it acted as the basic support unit for the entire 509th Composite Group in providing quarters , rations , medical care , postal service and other functions . The 603rd Air Engineering Squadron was unique in that it provided depot @-@ level B @-@ 29 maintenance in the field , obviating the necessity of sending aircraft back to the United States for major repairs . On Tinian the 603rd Air Engineering Squadron was assigned to the 313th Bombardment Wing 's " C " and " D " Service Centers , where it performed provided depot @-@ level ( " third echelon " ) maintenance for the entire 313th Bombardment Wing when it was not engaged in 509th activities . The 393d Bombardment Squadron 's maintenance section was re @-@ organized as a " combat line maintenance " section ( also called PLM , or " production line maintenance , " a technique developed by the Air Transport Command in India for " Hump " aircraft ) to maximize use of personnel for first and second echelon maintenance .
The 393d Bombardment Squadron conducted ground school training only until delivery of three modified Silverplate airplanes in mid @-@ October 1944 allowed resumption of flight training . These aircraft had extensive bomb bay modifications and a " weaponeer " station installed . Initial training operations identified numerous other modifications necessary to the mission , particularly in reducing the overall weight of the airplane to offset the heavy loads it would be required to carry . Five more Silverplates were delivered in November and six in December , giving the group 14 for its training operations . In January and February 1945 , 10 of the 15 crews under the command of the Group S @-@ 3 ( operations officer ) were assigned temporary duty at Batista Field , San Antonio de los Baños , Cuba , where they trained in long @-@ range over @-@ water navigation .
On 6 March 1945 , concurrent with the activation of Project Alberta , the 1st Ordnance Squadron , Special ( Aviation ) was activated at Wendover , again using Army Air Forces personnel on hand or already at Los Alamos . Its purpose was to provide " skilled machinists , welders and munitions workers " and special equipment to the group to enable it to assemble atomic weapons at its operating base , thereby allowing the weapons to be transported more safely in their component parts . A rigorous candidate selection process was used to recruit personnel , reportedly with an 80 % " washout " rate . Not until May 1945 did the 509th Composite Group reach full strength .
= = = Overseas movement = = =
With the addition of the 1st Ordnance Squadron to its roster , the 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1 @,@ 542 enlisted men , almost all of whom deployed to Tinian . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron kept its base of operations at Wendover . In addition to its authorized strength , the 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel of Project Alberta , and two representatives from Washington , D.C. , the deputy director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Thomas Farrell , and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee .
Two anecdotes illustrate the level of security affecting the 509th 's personnel and equipment . En route to Tinian on 4 June 1945 , the B @-@ 29 that became The Great Artiste made an intermediate stop at Mather Field , near Sacramento , California . The commanding general of the base allegedly attempted to enter the aircraft to inspect it and was warned by a plane guard who aimed his carbine at the general 's chest that he could not do so . A similar incident occurred to a Project Alberta courier , 2nd Lieutenant William A. King . King was escorting the plutonium core of the Fat Man implosion bomb to Tinian , strapped to the floor of one of the 509th 's C @-@ 54s . On 26 July 1945 it made a refueling stop at Hickam Field , Hawaii . The commander of a combat unit returning to the United States learned that the Skymaster had only one passenger and attempted to enter the C @-@ 54 to requisition it as transport for his men . He was prevented from doing so by King , who aimed a .45 caliber automatic pistol at the colonel .
The 509th transferred four of its 14 training Silverplate B @-@ 29s to the 216th AAF Base Unit in February 1945 . In April the third modification increment of Silverplates , which would be their combat aircraft , began coming off the Martin @-@ Omaha assembly line . These " fly @-@ away " aircraft were equipped with fuel @-@ injected engines , Curtiss Electric reversible @-@ pitch propellers , pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements . The remaining 17 Silverplate B @-@ 29s were placed in storage . Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert pumpkin bombs before Tibbets declared his group combat @-@ ready .
The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group , consisting of 44 officers and 815 enlisted men commanded by Major George W. Westcott of the Headquarters Squadron , received movement orders and moved by rail on 26 April 1945 to its port of embarkation at Seattle , Washington . On 6 May the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas , while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner . The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area . An advance party of the air echelon , consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men commanded by Group Intelligence Officer ( S @-@ 2 ) Lieutenant Colonel Hazen Payette , flew by C @-@ 54 to North Field , Tinian , between 15 and 22 May . It was joined by the ground echelon on 29 May 1945 , marking the group 's official change of station . Project Alberta 's " Destination Team " also sent most of its members to Tinian to supervise the assembly , loading , and dropping of the bombs under the administrative title of 1st Technical Services Detachment , Miscellaneous War Department Group .
= = = Equipment and crews = = =
The air echelon consisted of the members of the 393d Bombardment Squadron . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron remained at Wendover . It began deploying from Wendover 4 June 1945 , with the first B @-@ 29 arriving at North Field on 11 June . The group was assigned to the 313th Bombardment Wing , whose four groups had been flying missions against Japan since mid @-@ February , but for security reasons their permanent base area was near the runways on the island 's north tip , several miles away from the main installations in the center of Tinian . The 509th , after spending most of June in an area previously occupied by the Seabees of the 18th Naval Construction Battalion , took over the 13th Naval Construction Battalion Area just west of North Field 's Runway D , a self @-@ contained base with 89 Quonset huts , a huge storage warehouse , a consolidated mess hall , chapel , administrative area , theater , and other amenities .
Each crew was required to attend the 313th Bombardment Wing 's week @-@ long " Lead Crew Ground School " on its arrival . The ground school indoctrinated combat crews in procedures regarding air @-@ sea rescue , ditching and bailouts , survival , radar bombing , weather , wing and air force regulations , emergency procedures , camera operation , dinghy drills , and other topics related to combat operations . Two of the group 's bombers were not delivered by Martin @-@ Omaha until early July . They remained at Wendover until 27 July to act as transports for two of the Fat Man assemblies .
Because of their geographical isolation from the combat crews of other groups , rigidly enforced security measures , and exclusion from participation in regular bombing missions , crews of the 393d Bombardment Squadron were resented and ridiculed as " lacking in discipline " and having a " soft life " . The official history of the Army Air Forces characterized the ridicule as " epitomized in a satirical verse entitled Nobody Knows , with a recurring refrain , ' For the 509th is winning the war . ' "
The group was assigned tail markings of a circle outline ( denoting the 313th Wing ) around an arrowhead pointing forward , but at the beginning of August its B @-@ 29s were repainted with the tail markings of other XXI Bomber Command groups as a security measure , because it was feared that Japanese survivors on Tinian were reporting the 509th 's activities to Tokyo by clandestine radio . The Victor ( identification assigned by the squadron ) numbers previously assigned the 393d aircraft were changed to avoid confusion with B @-@ 29s of the groups from whom the tail identifiers were borrowed . Victor numbers 82 , 89 , 90 , and 91 ( including the Enola Gay ) carried the markings of the 6th Bombardment Group ( Circle R ) ; Victors 71 , 72 , 73 , and 84 those of the 497th Bombardment Group ( large " A " ) ; Victors 77 , 85 , 86 , and 88 those of the 444th Bombardment Group ( triangle N ) ; and Victors 83 , 94 , and 95 those of the 39th Bombardment Group ( square P ) .
* These airplane commanders and crews exchanged aircraft assignments on 9 August 1945
Although all of the B @-@ 29s were named as shown , the only nose art applied to the aircraft before the atomic bomb missions was that of Enola Gay . With the exceptions of Victors 71 and 94 , the others were applied some time in August 1945 . Luke the Spook was not named until November 1945 , and it is not known if nose art was ever applied to Jabit III .
= = = Combat operations = = =
After ground training for the combat crews , the 509th began operations on 30 June 1945 , with a calibration flight involving nine of the B @-@ 29s on hand . During the month of July and the first eight days of August the thirteen bombers of the 393d Bombardment Squadron flew an intensive training and mission rehearsal program that consisted of :
17 individual training sorties without ordnance ,
15 practice bombing missions between 1 and 22 July against airfields on Japanese @-@ held Truk , Marcus , Rota , and Guguan in which 90 B @-@ 29 sorties dropped 500- and 1000 @-@ pound bombs to practice radar and visual bombing procedures ,
12 combat missions between 20 and 29 July against targets in Japan dropping high @-@ explosive pumpkin bombs , in which 37 B @-@ 29 sorties delivered conventional @-@ bomb replications of the Fat Man : four on 20 July , three on 24 July , two on 26 July , and three on 29 July . Some 27 sorties were made visually and 10 by radar , striking 17 primary targets , 15 secondary targets , and five targets of opportunity . Two other aircraft did not drop their bombs : one jettisoned its pumpkin bomb into the sea near Iwo Jima , and the Strange Cargo 's bomb came loose from the bomb rack and plunged through the closed bomb bay doors while the bomber was still on the ground . One B @-@ 29 incurred minor battle damage in the attacks . Flying at 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) put them above the effective range of flak . Each pumpkin bomb mission was conducted by a formation of three aircraft in the hope of convincing the Japanese military that small groups of B @-@ 29s did not justify a strong response . This strategy proved successful , and Japanese fighters only occasionally attempted to intercept the 509th Composite Group 's aircraft .
7 component @-@ tests between 23 July and 8 August involving rehearsal drops of four inert Little Boy gun @-@ type fission weapons and three Fat Man assemblies , and
a practice mission on 29 July to Iwo Jima in which an inert Little Boy was unloaded and then reloaded to rehearse the contingency plan for using a back @-@ up bomber in an emergency .
While this training was taking place , the components of the first two atomic bombs were shipped to Tinian by various means . For the uranium bomb code @-@ named " Little Boy " , fissile components consisted of a cylindrical target and nine washer @-@ like rings that made up the hollow cylinder projectile . When the bomb detonated , these would be brought together to create a cylindrical core . The uranium @-@ 235 projectile and bomb pre @-@ assemblies ( partly assembled bombs without the fissile components ) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard , California , on 16 July aboard the cruiser USS Indianapolis , arriving 26 July . The Little Boy pre @-@ assemblies were designated L @-@ 1 , L @-@ 2 , L @-@ 3 , L @-@ 4 , L @-@ 5 , L @-@ 6 , L @-@ 7 and L @-@ 11 . L @-@ 1 , L @-@ 2 , L @-@ 5 and L @-@ 6 were expended in test drops . L @-@ 6 was used in the Iwo Jima dress rehearsal on 29 July . This was repeated on 31 July , but this time L @-@ 6 was test dropped near Tinian by Enola Gay . L @-@ 11 was the assembly used for the Hiroshima bomb . On 26 July three C @-@ 54s of the 320th Troop Carrier Squadron left Kirtland Army Air Field , each with three of the uranium @-@ 235 target rings , and landed at North Field on 28 July .
The components for the bomb code @-@ named the Fat Man arrived by air the same day . The bomb 's plutonium core ( encased in its insertion capsule ) and the beryllium @-@ polonium initiator were transported from Kirtland to Tinian by C @-@ 54 in the custody of Project Alberta couriers . Three Fat Man high explosive pre @-@ assemblies designated F31 , F32 , and F33 were picked up at Kirtland on 28 July by three B @-@ 29s , two from the 509th and one from the 216th AAF Base Unit , and transported to North Field , arriving 2 August . The B @-@ 29s were Luke the Spook and Laggin ' Dragon of the 509th , and 42 @-@ 65386 , a phase 3 Silverplate of the 216th AAF Base Unit . F33 was expended during the final rehearsal on 8 August , and F31 was the bomb dropped on Nagasaki . F32 presumably would have been used for a third attack or its rehearsal .
The final item of preparation for the operation came on 29 July 1945 . Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on 25 July under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy , the acting Chief of Staff of the United States Army , since General of the Army George C. Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with the President . The order designated four targets : Hiroshima , Kokura , Niigata , and Nagasaki , and ordered the attack to be made " as soon as weather will permit after about 3 August . "
= = = Atomic bomb missions = = =
The mission profile for both atomic missions called for weather scouts to precede the strike force by an hour , reporting weather conditions in code over each proposed target . The strike force consisted of a bombing aircraft , with the aircraft commander responsible for all decisions in reaching the target and the bomb commander ( weaponeer ) responsible for all decisions regarding dropping of the bomb ; a blast instrumentation aircraft which would fly the wing of the strike aircraft and drop instruments by parachute into the target area ; and a camera ship , which would also carry scientific observers . Each mission had an additional " spare " aircraft pre @-@ positioned on Iwo Jima to take over carrying the bomb if the strike aircraft encountered mechanical problems . The six combat crews of the Hiroshima mission were briefed on their targets , operational flight data , and the effects of the bomb on 4 August 1945 . Their pre @-@ mission briefing on 5 August , under the terms of Operations Order No. 35 , covered details on weather and air @-@ sea rescue . The Order described the bomb to be used as " special " .
Special Mission 13 , attacking Hiroshima , was flown as planned and executed without significant problems or diversion from plan . Enola Gay took off at 02 : 45 , 7 @.@ 5 long tons ( 7 @.@ 6 t ) overweight and near maximum gross weight . Arming of the bomb began eight minutes into the flight and took 25 minutes . The three target @-@ area aircraft arrived over Iwo Jima approximately three hours into the mission and departed together at 06 : 07 . The safeties on the bomb were removed at 07 : 30 , 90 minutes before time over target , and 15 minutes later the B @-@ 29s began a climb to the 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) bombing altitude . The bomb run began at 09 : 12 , with the drop three minutes later , after which the B @-@ 29s immediately performed steep diving turns . The detonation followed 45 @.@ 5 seconds after the drop . Primary and " echo " shock waves overtook the B @-@ 29s a minute following the blast , and the smoke cloud was visible to the crews for 90 minutes , by which time they were almost 400 miles ( 640 km ) miles away . Enola Gay returned to Tinian at 14 : 58 .
Special Mission 16 was moved up two days from 11 August because of adverse weather forecasts . Weather also dictated a change in rendezvous to Yakushima , much closer to the target , and an initial cruise altitude of 17 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 200 m ) instead of 9 @,@ 300 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) , both of which considerably increased fuel consumption . Pre @-@ flight inspection discovered an inoperative fuel transfer pump in the 625 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 2 @,@ 370 l ) aft bomb bay fuel tank , but a decision was made to continue anyway . The plutonium bomb did not require arming in flight , but did have its safeties removed 30 minutes after the 03 : 45 takeoff ( all times Tinian ; Nagasaki times were one hour earlier ) when Bockscar reached 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) of altitude . When the daylight rendezvous point was reached at 09 : 10 , the photo plane failed to appear . The weather planes reported both targets within the required visual attack parameters while Bockscar circled Yakushima waiting for the photo plane . Finally the mission proceeded without the photo plane , thirty minutes behind schedule . When Bockscar arrived at Kokura 30 minutes later , cloud cover had increased to 70 % of the area , and three bomb runs over the next 50 minutes were fruitless in bombing visually . The commanders decided to reduce power to conserve fuel and divert to Nagasaki , bombing by radar if necessary . The bomb run began at 11 : 58 . ( two hours behind schedule ) using radar ; but the Fat Man was dropped visually when a hole opened in the clouds at 12 : 01 . The photo plane arrived at Nagasaki in time to complete its mission , and the three aircraft diverted to Okinawa , where they arrived at 13 : 00 . Trying in vain for 20 minutes to contact the control tower at Yontan Airfield to obtain landing clearance , Bockscar nearly ran out of fuel .
While the Nagasaki mission was in progress , two B @-@ 29s of the 509th took off from Tinian to return to Wendover . The crews of Classen in the unnamed Victor 94 , and Captain John A. Wilson in Jabit III , together with ground support crews , were sent back to the United States to stage for the possibility of transporting further bomb pre @-@ assemblies to Tinian . Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for shipment on 13 August and use on 19 August , with three more available in September and a further three in October . Groves ordered that all shipments of material be stopped on 13 August , when the third bomb was still at Site Y.
= = = Post atomic bomb operations = = =
After each atomic mission the group conducted other combat operations , making a series of pumpkin bomb attacks on 8 and 14 August . Six B @-@ 29s visually attacked targets at Yokkaichi , Uwajima , Tsuruga , and Tokushima on 8 August , bombing two primary and three secondary targets with five bombs . Seven aircraft visually attacked Koroma and Nagoya on 14 August . Some Punkins ( Crew B @-@ 7 , Price ) is believed to have dropped the last bombs by the Twentieth Air Force in World War II . After the announcement of the Japanese surrender , the 509th Composite Group flew three further training missions involving 31 sorties on 18 , 20 and 22 August , then stood down from operations . The group made a total of 210 operational sorties from 30 June to 22 August , aborted four additional flights , and had only a single aircraft fail to take off . Altogether , 140 sorties involved the dropping of live ordnance . Some 60 flights were credited as combat missions : 49 pumpkin bomb and 11 atomic bomb sorties .
Three B @-@ 29s ( Full House , Straight Flush , and Top Secret ) flew six combat missions each . Crews A @-@ 1 ( Taylor ) and C @-@ 11 ( Eatherly ) flew the most combat missions , six ( including one atomic mission ) each , while six other crews each flew five . Only the late arrivals ( A @-@ 2 [ Costello ] and C @-@ 12 [ Zahn ] ) did not participate in any combat missions , although Costello 's B @-@ 29 was used by another crew for weather reconnaissance of Nagasaki on the second mission . Including training and test flights , crews B @-@ 8 ( McKnight ) and C @-@ 13 ( Bock ) flew the most missions , with 20 total ( 5 combat ) . Crew B @-@ 7 ( Price ) is the only crew to fly all of its missions ( 18 total , 5 combat ) in its normally assigned aircraft , Some Punkins .
The 509th Composite Group returned to the United States on 6 November 1945 , and was stationed at Roswell Army Airfield , New Mexico . Colonel William H. Blanchard replaced Tibbets as group commander on 22 January 1946 , and also became the first commander of the 509th Bombardment Wing . It was one of the original ten bombardment groups assigned to Strategic Air Command when it was formed on 21 March 1946 . The 715th and 830th Bombardment Squadrons were assigned to the 509th on 6 May 1946 , and the group was redesignated the 509th Bombardment Group , Very Heavy on 10 July . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron was inactivated on 19 August . At Roswell , the 509th became the nuclear strike and deterrence core of the Strategic Air Command , and was the only unit capable of delivery of nuclear weapons until June 1948 , when B @-@ 50 Superfortresses were initially deployed . The 509th itself converted to the B @-@ 50 in 1950 , and transferred its Silverplate B @-@ 29s to the squadrons of the 97th Bombardment Wing at Biggs Air Force Base , Texas .
= = Organization = =
¹ The 393d Bombardment Squadron was part of the 504th Bombardment Group ( VH ) from 12 March to 14 September 1944 .
¹ The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron was activated on 17 December 1944 , and ² disbanded 19 August 1946 .
= = Depictions = =
The training and operations of the 509th Composite Group were dramatized in a Hollywood film , Above and Beyond ( 1952 ) , with Robert Taylor cast in the role of Tibbets . The story was retold in a partly fictionalized made @-@ for @-@ television film Enola Gay : The Men , the Mission , the Atomic Bomb ( 1980 ) , with Patrick Duffy portraying Tibbets . The operations of the 509th Composite Group were treated to a lesser extent in the docudrama The Beginning or the End ( 1947 ) , with Barry Nelson as Tibbets .
= = Lineage = =
Established as 509th Composite Group on 9 December 1944
Activated on 17 December 1944
Redesignated : 509th Bombardment Group , Very Heavy , on 10 July 1946
Redesignated : 509th Bombardment Group , Medium , on 2 July 1948
Inactivated on 16 June 1952
Redesignated 509th Operations Group on 12 March 1993
Activated on 15 July 1993
Source : Fact Sheet – 509 Operations Group ( ACC )
= = Assignments = =
Second Air Force , 17 December 1944 ;
315th Bombardment Wing , 18 December 1944 ;
313th Bombardment Wing , c . June 1945 ;
Second Air Force , 10 October 1945 ;
58th Bombardment Wing , 17 January 1946 ;
Fifteenth Air Force , 31 March 1946
Source : Fact Sheet – 509 Operations Group ( ACC )
= = Stations = =
Wendover Army Air Field , Utah , 17 December 1944
North Field , Tinian , 29 May 1945
Roswell Army Airfield , New Mexico , 6 November 1945
Source : Maurer 1983 , p . 372
= = Campaigns = =
Air Combat , Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign
Air Offensive , Japan
Eastern Mandates
Western Pacific
Source : Maurer 1983 , p . 372
= = Honors = =
Department of the Air Force Special Order GB @-@ 294 , dated 2 September 1999 , awarded the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award ( with Valor ) to the 509th Composite Group for outstanding achievement in combat for the period 1 July 1945 to 14 August 1945 .
= Italian cruiser Giovanni Bausan =
Giovanni Bausan was a protected cruiser of the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) that was designed and built by Sir W G Armstrong Mitchell & Co . ' s Elswick Works in England in the mid @-@ 1880s . The finished ship entered service in May 1885 . She was the first ship of this type to be built for the Italian fleet , and she provided the basis for subsequent designs built in Italy , including the Etna class . Giovanni Bausan was intended to serve as a " battleship destroyer " , and was armed with a main battery of two 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns to give her the ability to defeat heavy armor , but design flaws rendered her unfit for this role .
Giovanni Bausan frequently served abroad . She participated in the conquest of Eritrea in 1887 – 88 as the flagship of the Italian squadron during the campaign . She took part in the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 alongside British and German warships . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , she provided gunfire support to Italian troops ashore in North Africa . By the outbreak of the First World War , Giovanni Bausan had been relegated to secondary duties , first as a distilling ship , and later as a depot ship for seaplanes . The ship was disarmed during the conflict and ultimately was sold to ship @-@ breakers in March 1920 .
= = Design = =
The design of Giovanni Bausan was based on that of Elswick 's earlier Esmeralda , built for Chile and designed by George Rendel , and was the first modern protected cruiser constructed for the Italian Navy . The new ship was ordered in 1882 by Guglielmo Acton , then the Minister for the Navy , and was named for Giovanni Bausan , a Neapolitan naval commander who fought in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . Referred to by some as a torpedo ram , she was one of the first ships of her type . Giovanni Bausan was intended for use as a " battleship destroyer " , but the low rate of fire of her guns and her lack of steadiness as a gun platform made her ineffective in this role . She nevertheless represented a temporary embrace of the theories of the Jeune École doctrine espoused by French naval architects and strategists .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Giovanni Bausan was 84 @.@ 12 meters ( 276 @.@ 0 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 89 @.@ 32 m ( 293 @.@ 0 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 12 @.@ 85 m ( 42 @.@ 2 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 98 m ( 19 @.@ 6 ft ) . Giovanni Bausan was steel @-@ hulled , and had a crew of 295 officers and enlisted men , though later in her career this was reduced to 256 . The four Etna @-@ class cruisers were half @-@ sisters of Giovanni Bausan , built to a modified , slightly enlarged design . She was equipped with a ram bow and initially fitted with rigging as a schooner .
Giovanni Bausan was powered by two compound @-@ expansion steam engines that each drove a screw propeller . Steam was provided by four cylindrical Scotch boilers , which were trunked into two funnels on the centerline . On trials , the engines produced 6 @,@ 470 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 820 kW ) for a top speed of 17 @.@ 4 knots ( 32 @.@ 2 km / h ; 20 @.@ 0 mph ) . At a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , the ship could steam for 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) . The schooner rig was intended to provid an auxiliary method of propulsion if the ship 's engines broke down ; by the time Giovanni Bausan entered service in the mid @-@ 1880s , marine steam engines had become reliable enough that auxiliary sails were no longer necessary , and hers were later removed .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Armament was heavy for her size , with the main battery consisting of a pair of 10 @-@ inch 30 @-@ caliber breech @-@ loading ( BL ) guns mounted in individual barbettes fore and aft , capable of training up to 30 degrees abaft of the beam . These were Pattern G models manufactured by Elswick Ordnance Company . Six BL 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) , 26 @-@ caliber secondary guns were mounted in sponsons , three on a side , comprised the secondary battery . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a tertiary battery of four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 6 @-@ pounder ( 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) ) 40 @-@ caliber guns and two QF 1 @-@ pounder ( 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) ) guns . She was also equipped with three 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside above water and one submerged tube in the bow .
She was fitted with an armored deck that ran from stem to stern . It was 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) in thickness over the boilers and engines and reduced in thickness to .75 inches ( 19 mm ) fore and aft . The ship also had an " armor " belt of cork at her waterline , which was intended to swell through water absorption after being hit . This proved to be unsuccessful as hits would result in the destruction of the cork . Giovanni Bausan 's conning tower was protected with armor plating 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick and the breeches of her main guns were also protected by 2 inches of armor .
= = Service history = =
Giovanni Bausan was laid down at the Armstrong Whitworth shipyard in Elswick in England on 21 August 1882 . Her completed hull was launched on 15 December 1883 . After her commissioning on 9 May 1885 , she departed from England on 21 May to join the Squada Permamente ( Permanent Squadron ) , and in 1887 – 1888 she participated in the conquest of Eritrea , where she acted as the flagship of the Italian Red Sea Squadron . Following the conclusion of the Eritrean campaign , Giovanni Bausan returned to Italy . In 1888 , she took part in the annual fleet maneuvers , along with four ironclads , three other protected cruisers , four torpedo cruisers , and numerous smaller vessels . The maneuvers consisted of close @-@ order drills and a simulated attack on and defense of La Spezia . Later that year , the ship was present during a naval review held for the German Kaiser Wilhelm II during a visit to Italy . On 5 July 1889 , she collided with the torpedo cruiser Folgore , badly damaging her . Giovanni Bausan thereafter spent much of her time in service overseas , particularly in the Americas . During this service , she made a port visit to New York City in 1892 , during which she was the first foreign warship to be repaired at the Brooklyn Navy Yard in 15 years . 1896 , she took part in the annual summer maneuvers in July as part of the Second Division of the Active Squadron , which also included the ironclads Francesco Morosini and Andrea Doria and the torpedo cruiser Tripoli . In 1899 , Giovanni Bausan had her 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch guns replaced by modern QF 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns .
In late 1902 , Giovanni Bausan was sent to Venezuelan waters during the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 , when an international force of British , German , and Italian warships blockaded Venezuela over the country 's refusal to pay foreign debts . The Italian contingent also included the protected cruiser Elba and the armored cruiser Carlo Alberto . The following year , she and the protected cruisers Etna and Dogali represented Italy at the international naval review in New York , held at the start of the World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago . The Exposition marked the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in North America . Contingents from France , Germany , Britain , Spain , and several other nations also participated in the celebration . In 1904 , Giovanni Bausan returned to Italy , where she was assigned to the Reserve Division , and two of her 6 @-@ inch guns were removed , though she was slated to be replaced by the new armored cruiser Francesco Ferruccio , when she entered service in September 1905 .
From 1905 , Giovanni Bausan served as a training ship for stokers and mechanics until the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1912 . Returning to active duty as Flagship Cyrenaica , she served in the shore bombardment role until the end of the war , when she was again returned to second @-@ line service as a distilling ship . Fitted with four distillers and capable of producing 200 tons of fresh water every 24 hours , she was operating in this role at the start of the First World War . Because of the pressing need for artillery for service with the army , Giovanni Bausan was partially disarmed in 1915 , losing her 10 @-@ inch guns and two of the 6 @-@ inch pieces . Later in the war , the rest of her armament was removed . She was reassigned for service as a seaplane depot ship at Brindisi . Decommissioned in 1919 , she was sold for scrap in March 1920 and broken up soon after .
= Typhoon Karen =
Typhoon Karen was the most powerful tropical cyclone to strike the island of Guam , and has been regarded as one of the most destructive events in the island 's history . It was first identified as a tropical disturbance on November 6 , 1962 , well to the southeast of Truk . Over the following two days , the system tracked generally northward and quickly intensified . Karen became a tropical storm late on November 7 , and within two days it explosively intensified into a Category 5 @-@ equivalent super typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . Turning westward , the typhoon maintained its intensity and struck Guam with winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) on November 11 . Once clear of the island , it strengthened slightly and reached its peak intensity on November 13 with winds of 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 894 mb ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 40 inHg ) . The storm then gradually turned northward as it weakened , brushing the Ryukyu Islands on November 15 , before moving east @-@ northeastward over the open waters of the Pacific . Karen continued to weaken and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on November 17 before losing its identity the following day between Alaska and Hawaii .
Karen devastated Guam with wind gusts estimated up to 280 km / h ( 185 mph ) . Ninety @-@ five percent of homes were damaged or destroyed , leaving at least 45 @,@ 000 people homeless . Communication and utilities were crippled , forcing officials to set up water distribution centers to prevent disease . Total losses on the island amounted to $ 250 million . Despite the severity of the damage , only 11 people were killed . In the wake of the storm , a massive relief operation evacuated thousands to California , Hawaii , and Wake Island . Thousands more were sheltered in public buildings , and later tent villages , for many months . More than $ 60 million in relief funds were sent to Guam over the following years to aid in rehabilitation . Though the storm was devastating , it spurred new building codes and a revitalized economy .
= = Meteorological history = =
On November 6 , 1962 , a tropical disturbance was identified over the Pacific Ocean several hundred miles south @-@ southeast of Truk , in the Federated States of Micronesia , by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . Tracking northwestward , the disturbance intensified and was classified as a tropical depression early on November 7 . Later that day , the system passed to the east of Truk and turned due north before attaining gale @-@ force winds . Around 18 : 00 UTC , the JTWC issued their first advisory on Tropical Storm Karen , the 27th named storm of the 1962 season . Several hours later , a reconnaissance mission into the storm revealed a partially closed 35 km ( 22 mi ) wide eye . Over the following 30 hours , Karen underwent a period of explosive intensification as its eye became small and increasingly defined . Between 00 : 00 UTC on November 8 and 03 : 40 UTC on November 9 , Karen 's barometric pressure plummeted from 990 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 24 inHg ) to 899 mb ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 55 inHg ) , a drop of 91 mb ( hPa ; 2 @.@ 69 inHg ) . At the end of this phase , Karen featured an 8 to 10 km ( 5 to 6 mi ) wide eye and had estimated surface winds of 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) , ranking it as a modern @-@ day Category 5 @-@ equivalent super typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale .
After attaining this initial peak intensity on November 9 , Karen weakened somewhat as it gradually curved west @-@ northwestward . By 15 : 14 UTC , the storm began to undergo an eyewall replacement cycle as a larger secondary eyewall , approximately 64 km ( 40 mi ) in diameter , started developing . Although the storm 's winds failed to drop significantly , Karen 's central pressure rose to 919 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 14 inHg ) during this phase . Accelerating slightly , Karen tracked steadily west @-@ northwestward towards Guam . By November 11 , the system had regained a well @-@ defined eye and deepened once more . Between 12 : 10 and 12 : 35 UTC on November 11 , the 14 km ( 9 mi ) wide eye of Karen passed directly over southern Guam . At this time , the storm was estimated to have had winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) , which would have made it the most intense typhoon to strike the island since 1900 . However , years of post @-@ storm analyses have indicated that it may have been somewhat weaker when it passed over Guam . At the Weather Bureau station at the north end of Guam , a pressure of 942 @.@ 4 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 83 inHg ) was measured . Farther south at Anderson Air Force Base , 939 @.@ 7 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 75 inHg ) was recorded . The lowest verified pressure was 931 @.@ 9 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 52 inHg ) at the Agana Naval Air Station . Closest to the eye was Naval Magazine where a pressure of 907 @.@ 6 mb ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 80 inHg ) was estimated but never verified .
Continuing west @-@ northwestward , Karen attained its peak intensity on November 13 with a central pressure of 894 mb ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 40 inHg ) . Between November 13 and 14 , Karen gradually turned towards the north as it underwent another eyewall replacement cycle . During this time , Karen finally weakened below Category 5 status as its winds dropped below 251 km / h ( 156 mph ) . This marked the end of its near @-@ record 4 @.@ 25 @-@ day span as a storm of such intensity , second only to Typhoon Nancy of 1961 which maintained Category 5 status for 5 @.@ 5 days . Over the following days , the typhoon 's structure gradually became disorganized , with its eye no longer well @-@ defined by November 15 . By this time , Karen began accelerating northeastward and later east @-@ northeastward over the open ocean . The combination of its rapid movement and entrainment of cold air into the circulation ultimately caused the system to transition into an extratropical cyclone on November 17 . The remnants of Karen continued tracking east @-@ northeast and were last noted by the JTWC on November 18 roughly halfway between the southern Aleutian Islands and northern Hawaiian Islands .
= = Impact = =
= = = Guam = = =
Following the identification of a tropical disturbance on November 6 , a level four Typhoon Condition of Readiness ( TCOR ) , the lowest level of alert , was raised for Guam . By November 8 , three days prior to Karen 's arrival , this was raised to level three , prompting residents and military personnel to stock up on supplies . A public announcement was made that day as well , warning residents that the typhoon would likely strike the island . At 9 : 00 p.m. on November 10 ( 11 : 00 UTC ) , a level two TCOR was put in place for Guam and a typhoon emergency was declared . Buildings were boarded up and emergency supplies were distributed . By 8 : 00 a.m. ( 22 : 00 UTC on November 10 ) , this was raised to level one , the highest level of warning . At this time , the USS Haverfield , USS Brister , USS Wandank , and USS Banner sought refuge from the storm over open waters . All personnel on the island were ordered to evacuate to typhoon @-@ proof shelters and emergency rations were prepared . Strategic air command planes stationed on the island were relocated to avoid damage . Many residents on the island sought refuge in government buildings designed to withstand powerful storms while others evacuated to Wake Island . Roughly 24 hours after the typhoon 's passage , all warnings were discontinued .
Striking Guam as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent typhoon , Karen produced destructive winds across much of the island . With the eye passing over the southern tip of the territory , the most intense winds were felt over central areas . Wind gusts over the southern tip of Guam were estimated to have peaked around 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Due to the extreme nature of these winds , all anemometers on the island failed before the most intense portion of the storm arrived , and there were no measurements of the strongest winds ; however , post @-@ storm reports estimated that sustained winds reached 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) in some areas . The highest measured gust was 240 km / h ( 145 mph ) at a United States Navy anemometer on Nimitz Hill just before 11 : 00 UTC on November 11 , roughly two hours before the typhoon 's eye passed the station . Based on this measurement , a study in 1996 estimated that gusts peaked between 280 and 295 km / h ( 175 and 185 mph ) over southern areas of the island . Newspaper reports indicated that a gust of 272 km / h ( 169 mph ) was measured on the island before the anemometer was destroyed . There was also an unverified report of a 333 km / h ( 207 mph ) wind gust . Nearly all measurements of rainfall during the typhoon were lost ; the only known total is 197 mm ( 7 @.@ 76 in ) at the Weather Bureau station for the period of November 10 – 12 .
Surveys of damage revealed belt @-@ like damage patterns from the winds , with some homes being leveled and others nearby having only minor damage , akin to the impacts of tornadoes . The winds uprooted and snapped palm trees across the island and , in some instances , stripped the bark of tree trunks and branches as if they had been sandblasted . Vegetation was completely defoliated across central areas of the island . In some places , it was described as the aftermath of a forest fire . The winds also blew debris across the island . Metal roofing was found wrapped around trees . In one instance , a twin @-@ engine aircraft was carried 2 @.@ 4 km ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) from the hangar it was tied down in . A metal sign bolted into a warehouse was tossed 3 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) and found half @-@ buried in the ground . Elsewhere , a quonset hut was lofted and carried for 125 m ( 411 ft ) , intact , before being crushed on impact . Along the coast , the USS Arco was torn from her moorings , severing two anchors and shearing a cleat – tested for over 23 @,@ 000 and 45 @,@ 000 kg ( 50 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 lb ) , respectively – in the process . The ROK Han Ra San and RPS Negros Oriental sank in the inner harbor of Guam .
Karen is regarded as the worst typhoon to ever impact Guam . Acting governor Manuel Guerrero stated that " the entire territory was devastated . " Almost all structures , both civilian and military , were severely damaged or destroyed . Even reinforced concrete structures at Anderson Air Force Base sustained severe damage . Though these structures withstood the direct impact of winds , sudden drops in pressure caused windows to shatter in most structures , ultimately exposing the interior to water damage . Military structures suffered the most from this phenomenon as the buildings were designed in a way that pressure differences between the interior and exterior would not equal out . Debris from damaged or destroyed homes became projectiles during the storm that created further damage , like " shrapnel or artillery missiles . "
George Washington High and Tumon Junior High were both destroyed . Guam Memorial Hospital and the island 's public works department were extensively damaged . Downtown Hagåtña , Guam 's largest city , was flattened . Along the city 's main road , Marine Drive , 20 cm ( 8 in ) of sand accumulated from Karen 's storm surge . Overall , the city was 85 percent destroyed , while the villages of Yona and Inarajan were 97 and 90 percent destroyed , respectively . Additionally , Agana Heights and Sinajana were reportedly leveled . The communication network on the island was completely destroyed as antennas and transmission equipment were blown away . Approximately 30 percent of telephone poles between the island 's naval station and Nimitz Hill and 95 percent of civilian telephone poles were downed . The power grid was also destroyed . The Guam portion of the Pacific Scatter Communications System suffered extensive damage , with all four 61 m ( 200 ft ) antennas at Ritidian Point being reduced to a " mess of tangled , twisted steel and cable . " Losses from the antennas alone reached $ 1 million . All airstrips on the island were rendered inoperable , hampering initial relief efforts . Numerous roads across the island were also impassable , covered by downed trees and smashed vehicles . The wreckage left in the wake of the storm was described as a " massive junkyard " .
Throughout Guam , 95 percent of homes were destroyed , and those left standing were damaged . Nearly every non @-@ typhoon @-@ proof home was severely damaged or destroyed and a majority of typhoon @-@ proof buildings sustained extensive damage . Preliminary surveys by the Red Cross on November 15 indicated that at least 5 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed and another 3 @,@ 000 were severely damaged . Approximately 45 @,@ 000 people , mostly Guamanians , were left homeless . A total of 11 people lost their lives and about 100 others were injured . At least four of the deaths were due to collapsed buildings , including three in one home that buckled due to pounding surf . Another death resulted from decapitation by airborne debris . Losses across the island amounted to $ 250 million ( 1962 USD ) . The damage across Guam was described as " ' much more serious " than it had been during the second Battle of Guam , when American troops retook the island from the Japanese . The U.S. Navy described the damage as equal to that of an indirect hit from a nuclear bomb . Guerrero said that the recovery effort of the previous 17 years had been " completely wiped out " .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
In the Mariana Islands , three ships under the command of Rear Admiral J. S. Coye Jr. sank ; however , the crew had been evacuated prior to the storm 's arrival .
On November 13 , a level three TCOR was issued for Okinawa . This prompted military personnel to begin securing the island and preparing planes without hangars for evacuation . Brushing the region as a Category 3 @-@ equivalent typhoon , Karen caused considerable disruptions to airlines , trains , shipping , and communications . No serious damage was reported in Okinawa , but the nearby Daiyumaru and another Japanese fishing vessel with a total of 26 crew went missing .
On November 15 , residents in Taiwan were urged to take precautions to minimize casualties . Prior to the storm 's arrival , the USS Duncan , the USS Kitty Hawk , and two other aircraft carriers sought refuge in the Taiwan Strait . Despite attempts to escape the storm , large swells exceeding 3 @.@ 6 m ( 12 ft ) battered the vessels , causing them to pitch up to 59 degrees . At times , the waves crashed onto the deck of the USS Kitty Hawk . According to crewmen , waves up to 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) struck Taipei , leaving water marks on many buildings .
= = Aftermath = =
In the immediate aftermath of the typhoon , the Pacific Air Forces were on standby to deliver supplies to Guam , but were delayed by inoperable airstrips . Guam Memorial Hospital was damaged , but other civilian and military installations , including the Navy 's hospital , were able to handle injured persons . On November 12 , Manuel Guerrero made an urgent appeal to the Government of the United States requesting that aid be rushed to the territory . Additionally , he instituted an island @-@ wide curfew between 8 : 00 p.m. and 6 : 00 a.m. local time to limit looting . At schools , teachers were called in to guard supplies and equipment . The Federal Emergency Management Agency , under orders from United States President John F. Kennedy , declared Guam a major disaster area later that day , allowing residents to receive federal aid . Additionally , 15 United States Air Force communications technicians were deployed from Manila , Philippines carrying three plane @-@ loads of communication supplies . Guerrero estimated that it would take four months to complete repairs to utilities . It was also estimated that schools on the island would be closed for six months .
Initially , residents across Guam were critical of the delayed response by the U.S. government ; no aid had arrived within two days of the storm , but unsafe conditions at airports had prevented aircraft from landing . With the majority of homes destroyed across Guam , structures that remained standing were used as temporary shelter for those left homeless . Similarly , damaged military installations at Anderson Air Force Base were made available to all civilians . By November 14 , the USS Daniel I. Sultan arrived in Guam with 1 @,@ 100 troops to provide emergency power . A U.S. Air Force AC @-@ 130 landed on the island that day carrying the first package of relief supplies . About 400 troops and 80 public works employees were sent from Hawaii on November 14 . The Red Cross and civil defense offices were placed in charge of coordinating recovery efforts . Water distribution centers were set up across the island to provide residents with clean drinking water .
On November 15 , a massive evacuation of residents began to remove survivors from unsafe conditions . Two flights to California took place on the first day of evacuation , carrying a total of 154 people . Thousands of residents were also brought to Wake Island for shelter . Military Air Transport Service planes from the United States mainland , Japan , the Philippines , and Hawaii were called in for the operation . On November 16 , residents were warned of a possible typhoid epidemic and urged to get inoculations for the disease . Over a three @-@ day span , roughly 30 @,@ 000 people were given preventative shots for the disease . In contrast to their previous ban on alien workers , the Government of Guam requested 1 @,@ 500 carpenters , masons , and other building workers from the Philippines . By November 21 , the Navy Supply Depot planned to have enough supplies for the entire populous shipped until replenishment arrived . In order to shelter homeless , the United States Navy set up tent villages across the island . Military kitchens were also established to provide food . Due to continued rains in the wake of the typhoon , many were unable to get a full meal for Thanksgiving .
On November 21 , insurance payments for losses were expected to exceed $ 12 million . On January 1 , 1963 , a $ 2 million relief fund was authorized by President Kennedy . Another $ 5 @.@ 4 million in relief funds were provided by President Lyndon B. Johnson on February 15 , 1964 . The United States Congress provided Guam with $ 60 million , including $ 45 million through federal loans , mainly to help rebuild the territory and promote expansion of the economy . Additionally , the storm brought about the end of military security on the island , which in turn aided economic growth . Within five years of this decision , Japanese tourism to the island dramatically increased , prompting a major increase in the number of hotels . In the long term , Typhoon Karen , along with other destructive storms , shaped the development of the island 's infrastructure . It led to higher quality buildings and more efficient utilities that could withstand powerful typhoons . Since Karen , most buildings on the island have been constructed with concrete and steel .
On April 29 , 1963 , less than half a year after Karen , Typhoon Olive caused extensive damage in Guam and the Mariana Islands . With many residents living in tents , and debris from the storm still scattered about , severe damage was anticipated . Schools , churches , and other structures were opened as shelters in order to protect those without homes . Ultimately , Guam was spared the worst of the storm though much of Saipan was devastated . The island was again devastated in 1976 by Typhoon Pamela which buffeted the island with destructive winds for 36 hours . Though weaker than Karen , the longer lasting impact of Pamela was regarded as more destructive .
Due to the severity of damage caused by the typhoon in Guam , the name Karen was retired and replaced with Kim .
= Brønnøysund Airport , Brønnøy =
Brønnøysund Airport , Brønnøy ( Norwegian : Brønnøysund lufthavn , Brønnøy ; IATA : BNN , ICAO : ENBN ) is a regional airport located at the town of Brønnøysund , in the municipality of Brønnøy , Nordland county , Norway . The airport is owned and operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor and serves the southern part of Helgeland . It has a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ by @-@ 30 @-@ meter ( 3 @,@ 937 ft × 98 ft ) runway numbered 04 – 22 and is served by Widerøe , which operates their Bombardier Dash 8 aircraft to Oslo , Trondheim , Bodø , Bergen and other airports in Helgeland . The airport also serves offshore helicopter flights by CHC Helikopter Service to Norne and temporary oil rigs in the Norwegian Sea . In 2014 , the airport served 117 @,@ 471 passengers , making it the second @-@ busiest regional airport in Norway , after Florø Airport .
Brønnøysund received seaplane services in 1935 , at first operated by Norwegian Air Lines and later by Widerøe . Plans for short take @-@ off and landing airports in Northern Norway were launched in 1965 ; construction started in 1967 and Brønnøysund Airport opened along with three nearby airports on 1 June 1968 . Originally served using Twin Otter aircraft , Widerøe replaced them with Dash 7 aircraft in 1982 and Dash 8 aircraft in 1992 . Offshore helicopter traffic started in 1983 . The runway was originally 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 625 ft ) ; it was extended to 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) in 1987 and to the current length in 1999 . A new control tower opened in 2000 and a new terminal in 2008 . There have been two major accidents connected with the airport : Widerøe Flight 710 in 1988 and Helikopter Service Flight 451 in 1997 .
= = History = =
The first aircraft to land in Brønnøysund was a Hansa @-@ Brandenburg seaplane of the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service on 23 July 1922 . It was piloted by Hjalmar Riiser @-@ Larsen and Finn Lützow @-@ Holm , en route from Horten to Kirkenes . The following thirteen years Brønnøysund only saw occasional landings , when Norwegian Air Lines started a service from Bergen to Tromsø on 7 June 1935 , which included a stop at the harbor in Brønnøysund . Passengers and mail would be rowed out to the waiting aircraft . The first season the route was flown using a single @-@ engine Junkers W 34 . The aircraft turned out to be too small and a larger Junkers Ju 52 was introduced the following season . Flights were dependent on good weather and were only operated during the summer . The route was taken over by Widerøe in 1938 . All civilian flights were terminated during World War II , although the town would see occasional military landings .
Seaplane routes resumed in 1947 using the Junkers Ju 52 . Construction of primary airports in Norway started in the 1950s based on building joint military and civilian airport with funding from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) . The alliance considered constructing an airport at Søndre Herøy in Herøy , an archipelago near Sandnesssjøen , but funding was never allocated to the project .
No primary airports had been built in Helgeland by the mid @-@ 1960s . The coastal parts of the region , such as at Brønnøysund , were without highways and railways . Although Widerøe operated a seaplane route , it remained a summer @-@ only service . Travel time to Sandnessjøen , where the closest hospital was located , took five hours . A committee , led by Erik Himle and later Preben Munthe , was appointed in 1962 to consider additional airports in Norway . The Sud Aviation Caravelle jet aircraft was about to be phased into use on the main domestic routes by Scandinavian Airlines System and the committee recommended in 1964 that nine new airports be built which could serve jetliners , including an airport in Sandnesssjøen .
Widerøe came with an alternative proposal and suggested that a network of smaller airports be built instead , which could be served using short take @-@ off and landing ( STOL ) aircraft . Smaller airports could be built and operated at lower costs than larger airports , but both airports and airlines would need subsidies to operate . Håkon Kyllingmark was appointed Minister of Transport and Communications in 1965 and was a proponent of the STOLport proposal . The political rationale was that , despite that the total operating costs would rise , that it would provide better services to rural areas and thus keep up their population . The regional airports were built in groups , and the first four were built in Namsos and Helgeland .
Planning started in 1966 and construction commenced the following year . Brønnøysund Airport cost NOK 2 @.@ 7 million plus costs for expropriation and navigational aids . NOK 1 @.@ 9 million was covered by the state , while the rest was covered by Brønnøy Municipality . The runway was originally 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 625 ft ) and was the only asphalted area in Brønnøysund . The airport was originally operated by the municipality , except the tower , which was operated by the Norwegian Telecommunications Administration . Brønnøysund was one of very few regional airport to receive a restaurant . The airport opened on 30 May 1968 , along with Mo i Rana Airport , Røssvoll , Namsos Airport , Høknesøra and Sandnessjøen Airport , Stokka . Widerøe commenced flights to Bodø and Trondheim with their de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otters the following day .
The first year of operation saw 6 @,@ 157 passengers , dropping to 5 @,@ 543 in 1969 . Originally there were two southbound and two northbound flights per day in the summer and one per direction during winter . In 1969 this increased to two flights per direction all year . Trønderfly started an air ambulance service in the early 1970s . Widerøe introduced the de Havilland Canada Dash 7 in 1982 , resulting in the terminal being expanded . Offshore helicopter services began the following year . The runway was expanded to 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) in 1987 .
NATO showed interest in upgrading Brønnøysund Airport in 1991 . Specifically they intended to spend NOK 125 million in expanding the runway to 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) and building a fuel depot . The airport was planned used as a relief military airbase without any permanently stationed aircraft . The plans were canceled in 1993 following cut @-@ backs in NATO . Widerøe introduced Dash 8 aircraft in 1992 , gradually replacing the Dash 7 . In 1996 , Brønnøysund and 25 other regional airports were taken over by the state and the Civil Aviation Administration ( later renamed Avinor ) . The runway was extended to 1 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 937 ft ) in 1999 ; 1 @,@ 440 meters ( 4 @,@ 724 ft ) including the safety zone at each end . While allowing for a direct service to Oslo , the service was terminated the following year . The same year a new control tower was opened and the old tower taken over by a motorcycle club .
Airport security was introduced on 1 January 2005 . This put a large strain on the terminal capacity and the terminal had to be expanded . Makeshift solutions were used , such as plywood boards to allocate people through the security check . In late 2004 , the airport started planning an all @-@ new terminal building , as the old terminal was deemed both too small and out of date . Construction of the NOK @-@ 115 @-@ million terminal started on 24 October 2006 . As the first airport in the world , Brønnøysund received SCAT @-@ I , a satellite @-@ based landing system , on 29 October 2007 . The new terminal opened on 26 May 2008 , which allowed the a restaurant to open at the airport , all vehicles to be stored indoors and included a new helicopter terminal . Thon Hotel Torghatten opened in October 2009 and an airport surveillance radar was installed in 2010 , making Brønnøysund the first regional airport in Norway to have one .
Widerøe reintroduced direct flights to Oslo on 10 May 2010 . Statoil started using scheduled services instead of their previous charter flights on 2 January 2011 . This caused Widerøe to increase the number of direct flights to Oslo to three per day on 1 April 2011 . Widerøe introduced irregular charter flights to Manchester in April 2012 , largely targeting English tourists traveling on holidays and Norwegian football patriots .
Avinor is working on plans to close the airports in Sandnessjøen , Mo i Rana and Mosjøen and replace them with a primary airport . Brønnøysund has stated that they wish to keep their airport and not be part of a central airport for the region . There have also been launched proposals by local politicians to extend the runway at Brønnøysund to 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) . This proposal was later dismissed by the municipal council , who instead wanted a shorter extension to allow landing of Dash 8 Q400 aircraft .
= = Facilities = =
The airport is located 2 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) southeast of the town center of Brønnøysund . It consists of a combined passenger terminal and works building and includes a café . There is a separate helicopter terminal . The runway , numbered 04 – 22 , is 1 @,@ 200 by 30 meters ( 3 @,@ 937 ft × 98 ft ) ; when including the safety zones at each end the total length is 1 @,@ 440 meters ( 4 @,@ 724 ft ) . Brønnøysund Airport lacks an instrument landing system and instead uses the satellite @-@ based SCAT @-@ I. It is the only regional airport in Norway which has an airport surveillance radar installed . The airport had 117 @,@ 471 passengers , 10 @,@ 494 aircraft movements and 39 tonnes of cargo in 2014 .
Taxis , paid parking and car rental is available at the airport . Driving time to the town center is about five to seven minutes . There is a bus service operated by Torghatten Trafikkselskap form the airport to the town center ; onwards connection is available to several areas in Helgeland and Namdalen . Ferry and fast ferry services are also operated from the town center to nearby islands . The 44 @-@ room Thon Hotel Torghatten is located next to the airport .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
Widerøe is the only airline operating scheduled flights out of Brønnøysund , serving it with their Bombardier Dash 8 aircraft . The services to Bodø and Trondheim are subsidized through public service obligations with the Ministry of Transport and Communications .
CHC Helikopter Service operates flights to the offshore oil platform at Norne on contract with Statoil . The oil company flies an average 55 people to the airport with various scheduled services and onwards to the oil field . In addition , the helicopter operator flies to various temporary oil rigs . It has two Sikorsky S @-@ 92 helicopters stationed at Brønnøysund . In 2011 , there were 17 @,@ 229 offshore helicopter passengers which traveled through Brønnøysund Airport .
The Norwegian Air Ambulance operates both a helicopter and fixed @-@ wing air ambulance service out of Brønnøysund Airport . Aircraft operations are subcontracted to Lufttransport , which operates an AgustaWestland AW139 helicopter and a Beech King Air fixed @-@ wing aircraft . Both are manned by medical personnel from Helgeland Hospital Trust . In 2011 , the helicopter flew 465 missions and the fixed @-@ wing aircraft 1022 missions .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
Widerøe Flight 710 took place on 6 May 1988 when a Dash 7 crashed into nearby Torghatten mountain during a landing approach , killing all 36 aboard . It remains the worst accident involving a Dash 7 and is the fourth @-@ worst accident on Norwegian soil .
Helikopter Service Flight 451 took place on 8 September 1997 , when a Eurocopter Super Puma en route to Norne crashed into the Norwegian Sea 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) northwest of the airport , killing all 12 people on board .
= 1981 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1981 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 1981 , and lasted until November 30 , 1981 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The 1981 season was high in activity with 18 tropical depressions and twelve storms forming during the year . Nine of these systems made landfall . Cindy , Harvey , and Irene neither affected land directly nor indirectly .
Hurricane Dennis caused millions of dollars in damage in Dade County , Florida and produced the highest rainfall totals of any tropical cyclone this season . Tropical Depression Eight caused the most damage , due to flooding in Texas at the end of August , and led to most fatalities of any tropical cyclone this season ( five ) . Tropical Depressions Two and Eight caused a majority of the damage and fatalities this season , with both affecting Louisiana and Texas . Katrina was the only named storm with associated fatalities .
= = Seasonal activity = =
The 1981 season was high in activity with eighteen tropical depressions and twelve storms forming that year . The season began early , as Tropical Storm Arlene formed on May 6 . Arlene made landfall in Cuba , being absorbed by a low later . Tropical Depression Two moved out of the Gulf of Mexico into eastern Texas on June 5 , producing localized rainfall amounts of 12 inches ( 300 mm ) and numerous tornadoes over Louisiana before recurving across the Southeast United States . Tropical Storm Bret formed as a subtropical low in the open Atlantic Ocean , and made landfall in the Delmarva Peninsula .
Tropical Depression Four formed in the Gulf of Mexico on July 25 , moving into Mexico the next day , and causing heavy rains in west Texas , Oklahoma , and Arkansas when its remnants moved into the United States . Tropical Storm Cindy formed on August 2 in the open Atlantic and became an extratropical cyclone on August 5 . Hurricane Dennis formed on August 7 near South America . Dennis degenerated into a depression while making landfall in the Leeward Islands , but regained storm strength while over Cuba . Dennis moved near the southeast United States coastline from Florida to Virginia , briefly becoming a hurricane . Dennis weakened into a tropical storm and was declared an extratropical cyclone on August 22 .
Tropical Depression Seven formed in mid @-@ August and | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
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= = = = Speciality matches = = = =
The Total Nonstop Action X Division has multiple styles of match types used to showcase the talent within the division and to defend the TNA X Division Championship in more marketable matches . Three of the matches used in TNA are the Ultimate X match , The Steel Asylum , and the Xscape match .
The Ultimate X match was introduced in 2003 . It involves multiple competitors racing to retrieve the X Division Championship or a giant red letter " X " , which is suspended above the ring by two cables . The cables are attached to posts that stand behind the turnbuckles of the ring . These cables intertwine to form an " X " over the center of the ring . This match has become successful in TNA ; it was featured in the 2008 DVD " TNA : Ultimate Matches " , released by TNA Home Video .
The Steel Asylum made its debut in May 2008 at TNA 's Sacrifice PPV event , under the name " The TerrorDome " . It was used once again in October 2008 at their Bound for Glory IV PPV event , under the new and current moniker " The Steel Asylum " . As of July 2016 , this match has only been used to determine the number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship . The layout of the match involves the ring being surrounded by a giant red steel barred cage with a domed ceiling . The only way to achieve victory is to escape the cage through a hole in the center of the ceiling .
The Xscape match is the third specialty match primarily used in TNA . It is held annually at TNA 's Lockdown PPV event in April — an all – steel cage format PPV event . The first two Xscape matches were held to determine the number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship , while , since 2007 , it has been contested for the X Division Championship . The contest involves four to six participants . To win this match , two or more participants — depending on how many are involved in the encounter — must be eliminated by pinfall or submission leaving only two participants . These two men then race to see who escapes the cage first to claim victory .
= = = Creation = = =
The championship was created and debuted before the main event at the taping of TNA 's second weekly PPV event on June 19 , 2002 ; the event aired on June 26 , 2002 . Later , A.J. Styles defeated Low Ki , Jerry Lynn , and Psicosis in a Four Way Double Elimination match to be crowned the inaugural champion ; this match was announced as being for the NWA X Championship on the onscreen graphic while the ring announcer stated it was for the " NWA – TNA X Championship " . Afterwards , the title was renamed the NWA – TNA X Division Championship and then shortened to just the TNA X Division Championship . This is the oldest title in TNA .
= = = Option C = = =
Option C is a concept in which the current X Division Champion may voluntarily vacate the championship in exchange for a TNA World Heavyweight Championship match at that year 's Destination X event . It began in June 2012 when then @-@ champion Austin Aries said that he was not satisfied with being just the X Division Champion , which led to then @-@ General Manager Hulk Hogan offering him a match for the World Heavyweight Championship , but only if he first vacated the X Division Championship ( as Hogan didn 't want the same wrestler holding both titles ) . Aries agreed to Hogan 's terms , on the condition that the X Division Champion be given the same opportunity in future years . Aries would then relinquish the X Division Championship and successfully defeated Booby Roode for the World title .
The following year , Hogan asked then @-@ champion Chris Sabin if he wanted to vacate the championship and challenge for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , which Sabin accepted , and later defeated Bully Ray to win the title . On June 24 , 2014 , a mere five days after regaining the X Division Championship for his fifth reign , Austin Aries invoked Option C once again , but failed to defeat then champion Lashley . On May 10 , 2015 , one day after regaining the title for his second reign , Rockstar Spud invoked Option C , and was defeated by then champion Kurt Angle . On the July 5 , 2016 episode of Impact Wrestling , TNA World Heavyweight Champion Lashley offered a winner take all match to X Division Champion Eddie Edwards in lieu of Edwards invoking Option C. The match ended in a no @-@ contest after an interference from Mike Bennett and Edwards was attacked the debuting Moose .
= = Unifications and outside defenses = =
In July 2002 , the X Division Champion AJ Styles defended the title against Adam Jacobs and David Young at Ring of Honor 's Crowning a Champion , the first defense outside TNA . In May 2003 , before the professional wrestling promotion World Wrestling All @-@ Stars ' ( WWA ) foreclosure , then NWA – TNA X Division champion Chris Sabin defeated WWA International Cruiserweight Champion Jerry Lynn , Frankie Kazarian , and Johnny Swinger in a Four Corners championship unification match to unify the X Division Championship with the WWA International Cruiserweight Championship . On Winter 2004 , Petey Williams defended the title in various IWA @-@ Mid South events .
During Christopher Daniels ' first reign in mid @-@ 2005 , he defended the X Division Championship at several Pro Wrestling Guerrilla shows . The first defense happened at All Star Weekend - Night One on April 1 against Alex Shelley , while the second occurred at All Star Weekend – Night Two on April 2 against Chris Hero ; Daniels won both encounters retaining the championship . At Jason Takes PWG on May 13 , Daniels fought A.J. Styles for the X Division Championship and Styles ' PWG Championship to a one @-@ hour time @-@ limit draw . Daniels successfully defended the X Division Title two more times in PWG ; once at Guitarmageddon on June 11 against El Generico , while once at The 2nd Annual PWG Bicentennial Birthday Extravaganza - Night One on July 9 against fellow TNA wrestler Chris Sabin . In September 2005 at TNA 's Unbreakable PPV event , the TNA X Division Championship was defended in the main event for the first time at a monthly PPV event ; then @-@ champion Christopher Daniels defended the championship against A.J. Styles and Samoa Joe .
The title was once again defended in the main event of a monthly event at TNA 's August 2007 Hard Justice PPV event , where Kurt Angle defeated Samoa Joe to win the TNA X Division and the TNA World Tag Team Championship and retain the TNA World Heavyweight and IGF 's version of the IWGP World Heavyweight Championship . This win made Angle the only person in the history of TNA to hold every active championship at the same time ; TNA World , X Division , and World Tag Team .
On March 4 , 2014 , The title was defended in Japan as part of Kaisen : Outbreak - a supershow event promoted by Wrestle @-@ 1 in partnership with TNA - where the title was won by Wrestle @-@ 1 star Seiya Sanada . On March 22 , Sanada defended and successfully retained the title on a Wrestle @-@ 1 show .
= = Belt designs = =
In May 2007 , the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) ended their five @-@ year partnership with TNA , which allowed the NWA to regain control over the NWA World Heavyweight and World Tag Team Championships that TNA had controlled since June 2002 . TNA then introduced a new TNA X Division Championship belt on the May 16 , 2007 edition of TNA 's online podcast TNA Today . Jeremy Borash and Management Director Jim Cornette , TNA 's on @-@ screen authority figure at the time , unveiled the new belt and awarded it to then @-@ champion Chris Sabin .
On July 19 , 2013 , TNA President Dixie Carter unveiled a new design for the championship , with blue accents to match the color scheme of the company .
On June 16 , 2015 , TNA tweaked the title 's design by recoloring its accents from blue to green .
= = Reigns = =
The inaugural champion was A.J. Styles , who won the championship by defeating Low Ki , Jerry Lynn , and Psicosis in a Four Way Double Elimination match on June 19 , 2002 at TNA 's second weekly PPV event . At 301 days , Austin Aries ' first reign holds the record for longest in the title 's history . At less than one day , Eric Young 's only reign , and Chris Sabin 's sixth reign and Rockstar Spud 's second reign are the shortest in the title 's history . Chris Sabin holds the record for most reigns with eight .
The current champion is Lashley . He defeated previous champion Eddie Edwards on July 13 , 2016 , in Orlando , Florida during the Impact Wrestling tapings .
= Andrianjaka =
Andrianjaka reigned over the Kingdom of Imerina in the central highlands region of Madagascar from around 1612 to 1630 . Despite being the younger of King Ralambo 's two sons , Andrianjaka succeeded to the throne on the basis of his strength of character and skill as a military tactician . The most celebrated accomplishment of his reign was the capture of the hill of Analamanga from a Vazimba king . There he established the fortified compound ( rova ) that would form the heart of his new capital city of Antananarivo . Upon his orders , the first structures within this fortified compound ( known as the Rova of Antananarivo ) were constructed : several traditional royal houses were built , and plans for a series of royal tombs were designed . These buildings took on an enduring political and spiritual significance , ensuring their preservation until being destroyed by fire in 1995 . Andrianjaka obtained a sizable cache of firearms and gunpowder , materials that helped to establish and preserve his dominance and expand his rule over greater Imerina .
Many of the cultural practices that were to define Merina social and political life for centuries are credited to Andrianjaka . He designated the twelve sacred hills of Imerina that were to become the spiritual and political heartland of the Merina empire , contributing to the establishment of the kingdom 's traditional boundaries ; clans were assigned to specific regions within his kingdom , further defining the cultural landscape . He consolidated power through such measures as appropriating the folk tradition of sampy ( community talismans ) , thereby ensuring all the powers traditionally attributed to these idols were under the control of the sovereign alone . Merina traditions related to the burial and mourning of sovereigns are also traced back to Andrianjaka 's reign .
= = Early life = =
Andrianjaka was the second son of Ralambo , ruler of the Kingdom of Imerina in the central highlands of Madagascar . As a young man , Andrianjaka married Ravadifo , a daughter of Prince Andriampanarivomanjaka . The marriage produced one daughter and one son , Andriantsitakatrandriana , who would rule after his father from 1630 to 1650 . Andrianjaka was also actively involved in providing support to his father 's military campaigns to expand and defend Ralambo 's realm . Oral history describes an incident wherein Andrianjaka and Ralambo were engaged in the defense of Ralambo 's capital at Ambohidrabiby , which was threatened by the advance of Antsihanaka warriors . Andrianjaka reportedly suggested an innovative defensive tactic to annihilate the enemy by filling the town 's hadivory ( defensive trenches ) with cow dung and rice husks , lighting it on fire , and covering the smoldering embers with burnt rice stalks so that the area resembled a patch of land recently re @-@ cleared for planting through tavy ( slash and burn agriculture ) . The enemy troops reportedly marched into the trap , sinking into the embers and burning or suffocating to death .
Oral history provides two different accounts of Andrianjaka 's succession to the throne of the Kingdom of Imerina . According to popular legend , Ralambo devised a test to determine which of his two sons was most fit to rule : he would summon them both to join him at his capital in Ambohidrabiby , and whichever of his two sons reached him soonest would inherit his kingdom . In one account of this legend , Andrianjaka was reportedly engrossed in strategizing a win in a difficult game of fanorona and so refused to admit audience to the royal messenger until after the game was over . During this delay , his older brother Andriantompokoindrindra received his father 's message and rushed home ; he was thus awarded Ralambo 's title and kingdom . However , this tale continues , Andriantompokoindrindra 's claim to power was rejected by the public , and he was soon forced to cede the throne to Andrianjaka . In an alternate account of the succession tale , it is Andriantompokoindrindra ( not Andrianjaka ) who was said to be preoccupied with the fanorona game — a version in keeping with the oral tradition that credits him with the game 's invention and popularization at court — and his refusal to return to his father until after the game had finished led Ralambo to choose Andrianjaka as his successor . One source states that the summons was not a test , but rather occurred during the aforementioned incident when Ralambo was besieged in his capital by the Antsihanaka warriors and was genuinely in need of his sons ' assistance .
It is generally accepted by historians that Andrianjaka did indeed succeed to the throne around 1610 or 1612 after his older brother 's claim was rejected by the public . All speculation about fanorona and royal summons aside , Ralambo may have chosen Andrianjaka based on the simple fact that he was the son of Ralambo 's first wife . Ralambo 's father , Andriamanelo , had established rules of succession by which Ralambo 's first son by his first wife must rule after his father in order to fulfill a mandate established by his Vazimba antecedents Rafohy and Rangita . The passing over of Andriantompokoindrindra in favor of his younger brother was partially mitigated by the establishment of a royal tradition maintaining that all reigning descendants of Andrianjaka would henceforth be required to marry a princess directly descended from Andriantompokoindrindra , thereby preserving the royal status of descendants in both brothers ' bloodlines .
= = Reign = =
Andrianjaka moved his capital from Ambohidrabiby to Ambohimanga upon ascending to the throne around 1610 or 1612 . He was reportedly the first Merina leader to receive Europeans around 1620 and traded slaves in exchange for guns and other firearms to aid in the pacification of rival principalities , obtaining 50 guns and three barrels of gunpowder to equip his army . He unified the principalities on what he later designated as the twelve sacred hills of Imerina at Ambohitratrimo , Ambohimanga , Ilafy , Alasora , Antsahadita , Ambohimanambony , Analamanga , Ambohitrabiby , Namehana , Ambohidrapeto , Ambohijafy and Ambohimandranjaka . These hills became and remain the spiritual heart of Imerina , which was further expanded over a century later when Andrianampoinimerina redesignated the twelve sacred hills to include several different sites .
His policies and tactics highlighted and increased the separation between the king and his subjects . Andrianjaka transformed social divisions into spatial divisions by assigning each clan to a specific geographical region within his kingdom . He made a demonstration of royal power by appropriating the local tradition of sampy ( talismans ) , previously created by village chiefs and others for personal or local spiritual ends , restricting their number to twelve and declaring their creation a strictly royal prerogative . The king also imposed an intimidating change to the traditional form of justice , the trial by ordeal : Andrianjaka ordered that rather than administering tangena poison to an accused person 's rooster to determine their innocence by the creature 's survival , the poison would instead be ingested by the accused himself .
= = = Founding of Antananarivo = = =
Around 1610 or 1625 according to various estimations , Andrianjaka commanded a garrison of 1 @,@ 000 soldiers to seize the hill of Analamanga ( " Blue Forest " ) — at 1 @,@ 480 metres ( 4 @,@ 860 ft ) above sea level , then the highest and most strategically important in the region — from its Vazimba inhabitants . He constructed a royal fortified compound ( rova ) on the hilltop as the capitol of a new town at the site which he named Antananarivo ( " the city of the thousand " ) in honor of the thousand soldiers who aided in capturing and protecting the hill . He reportedly succeeded with minimal bloodshed : according to oral history , the encampment of his army at the foot of Analamanga was sufficient to secure the submission of the Vazimba . Andrianjaka made Antananarivo the capital of his realm . From his position atop Analamanga , he was well @-@ placed to exert control over the vast plains of Betsimitatatra below . Under his command the plains were gradually transformed into vast , surplus @-@ producing rice paddies . This feat was accomplished by mobilizing large numbers of his able @-@ bodied subjects to construct dikes that enabled the redirection of rainwater for controlled flooding of planted areas .
Andrianjaka 's fortified compound came to be known as the Rova of Antananarivo and constituted the heart of his newly founded city of Antananarivo . Prior to Andrianjaka 's rule , Merina sovereigns shifted their capital from one town to another , but with the establishment of the rova on the peak of Analamanga hill , Antananarivo was to become the capital of the Kingdom of Imerina ( and , ultimately , the 19th @-@ century Kingdom of Madagascar ) for generations of Merina sovereigns . The heart of the town was built in stages : first , the army cleared the forest covering the hill 's summit and constructed the rova compound to serve as an initial garrison enclosing a traditional @-@ style wooden house ( lapa ) that served as a residence for the king . Soon thereafter , two more houses were constructed ; Andrianjaka also designated the construction space and design for a row of royal tombs . In keeping with Merina aristocratic tradition , each structure in the compound was given a name . The row of tombs was named Fitomiandalana ( " Seven Aligned Tombs " ) , Andrianjaka 's own tomb being the first of these constructed . According to one account , the very first royal house constructed within the Rova of Antananarivo was named Besakana ( " Great Breadth " ) and served as the personal residence of Andrianjaka . This account is contradicted by another source that states the second and third houses were called Masoandrotsiroa and Besakana , with the latter again characterized as Andrianjaka 's personal residence , leaving the precise origins of Besakana unclear .
The Besakana , Masoandrotsiroa and Fitomiandalana structures at the Rova of Antananarivo were preserved and maintained over the centuries by successive generations of Merina sovereigns , imbuing the structures with deep symbolic and spiritual meaning . As Andrianjaka 's residence , the Besakana was particularly significant : the original building was torn down and reconstructed in the same design by Andriamasinavalona around 1680 , and again by Andrianampoinimerina in 1800 , each of whom inhabited the building in turn as their personal residence . King Radama I likewise inhabited the building for much of his time at the Rova , and in 1820 he designated the building as the first site to house what came to be known as the Palace School , the first formal European @-@ style school in Imerina . Sovereigns were enthroned in this building and their mortal remains were displayed here before burial , rendering Besakana " the official state room for civil affairs ... regarded as the throne of the kingdom . "
= = Death and succession = =
The rule of Andrianjaka continued uninterrupted until his death at the Rova of Antananarivo around 1630 . He was the first king to be buried on the grounds of the Rova , his tomb forming the first of the Fitomiandalana . To commemorate his greatness , his subjects erected a small wooden house called a trano masina on top of his tomb . Future Merina sovereigns and nobles continued to construct similar tomb houses on their tombs well into the 19th century . According to oral history , the institution of lengthy formal mourning periods for deceased sovereigns in Imerina may also have begun with the death of Andrianjaka . He was succeeded by his son , Andriantsitakatrandriana .
= No Way Out ( 2004 ) =
No Way Out ( 2004 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on February 15 , 2004 , at the Cow Palace in San Francisco , California . It was presented by THQ 's MX Unleashed . It was the sixth event produced under the No Way Out name and starred wrestlers from the SmackDown ! brand .
In the main event , Eddie Guerrero defeated WWE Champion Brock Lesnar to win the title - his sole World Championship before his death in 2005 . On the undercard Kurt Angle defeated The Big Show and John Cena in a Triple Threat match to earn a title match for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania XX . Furthermore , Chavo Guerrero defeated Rey Mysterio .
No Way Out grossed over $ 450 @,@ 000 ticket sales from an attendance of approximately 11 @,@ 000 and received 350 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , and was instrumental in helping WWE increase its pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue by $ 11 @.@ 9 million compared to the previous year . Like the event , the DVD received favorable reviews .
= = Background = =
The event consisted of eight professional wrestling matches with wrestlers involved in pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , and storylines . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or fan favorites as they followed a series of tension @-@ building events , which culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches . All wrestlers belonged to the SmackDown ! brand – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a different program , the other being Raw .
After winning a 15 @-@ man battle royal ( a match in which participants are eliminated until one person remains as the winner ) on the January 29 , 2004 episode of SmackDown ! , Eddie Guerrero earned the right to challenge for the WWE Championship at No Way Out against the champion , Brock Lesnar in a standard wrestling match , also known as a singles match . Outside the storyline with Guerrero , Lesnar was involved in a staged rivalry with Goldberg , a member of the Raw program . The feud between Lesnar and Goldberg began at the Royal Rumble , WWE 's previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event which involved both brands . Lesnar interfered in the Royal Rumble match , a 30 @-@ man battle royal , attacking and eliminating Goldberg from the match . On the week of January 26 , 2004 , Lesnar and Goldberg conducted promotional in @-@ ring segments on respective episodes of Raw and SmackDown ! , in which they insulted each other . The following week on an episode of Raw , as a result of the rivalry extending between the two programs , General Manager Steve Austin gave Goldberg the option of attending No Way Out by giving him a front @-@ row ticket . That Thursday on SmackDown ! , the storyline between Guerrero and Lesnar was enhanced when they began a brawl after an in @-@ ring interview segment .
On the February 5 , 2004 episode of SmackDown ! , The General Manager Paul Heyman scheduled a Triple Threat match between The Big Show , Kurt Angle and John Cena for No Way Out . The winner of that match would face the WWE Champion at WrestleMania XX for the title . The rivalry continued to develop the following week , when Angle was scheduled to team with Guerrero to face The Big Show and Lesnar , though the latter was portrayed as being unconscious backstage . Cena then replaced Angle in the match and defeated the opposition with Guerrero .
In February 2004 , WWE Cruiserweight Champion Rey Mysterio produced " Crossing Borders " , which was No Way Out 's official theme song . In this storyline , Chavo Guerrero became jealous of the attention Mysterio garnered as a result of recording the song . Therefore , Heyman promoted a match between the two at No Way Out for the WWE Cruiserweight title during the February 5 , 2004 episode of SmackDown ! . The following week on SmackDown ! , Mysterio was accompanied by Jorge Páez , a professional boxer and childhood friend of Mysterio who appeared in his " Crossing Borders " music video , to his match against Tajiri . Mysterio defeated Tajiri but was attacked by Guerrero and Chavo Guerrero , Sr. after the match until Paez intervened and helped Mysterio .
= = Event = =
Before the event began and aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , an episode of Sunday Night Heat , one of WWE 's secondary television programs , was taped live . In a six @-@ person tag team match , the team of Tajiri , Sakoda , and Akio defeated Último Dragón , Billy Kidman , and Paul London .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
After Sunday Night Heat , the pay @-@ per @-@ view began with a handicap match - a tag team match in which a team of two wrestlers face a team of three . WWE Tag Team Champions Rikishi and Scotty 2 Hotty defended their titles against The Basham Brothers ( Doug and Danny Basham ) and Shaniqua . During the match Hotty attempted to hit Shaniqua , who was lying on her back , with a slap over her chest , but Shaniqua countered by hitting him with her forearm . The challengers had the advantage until Hotty hit both Basham brothers with his forearm , causing them to flip over the top ring rope and into ringside . Afterwards , Rikishi lifted Shaniqua over his shoulders before falling backwards in a Samoan drop . Rikishi then covered Shaniqua to pin her , a move that allowed Rikishi and Hotty to retain their championships . Next was a Singles match , in which Jamie Noble was blindfolded as he faced his storyline girlfriend Nidia . Nidia would take advantage of Noble 's inability to see by performing antics that caused him to fall . Eventually , Noble was able to apply the guillotine choke on Nidia . Noble won the match after he forced her to submit with this move .
The third contest was a tag team match , in which The World 's Greatest Tag Team ( Shelton Benjamin and Charlie Haas ) faced the APA ( Bradshaw and Faarooq ) . At one point , Bradshaw performed a high @-@ impact forearm " Clothesline from Hell " attack on Haas . Benjamin then hit Bradshaw with a superkick and pinned him to gain the win for his team . After the match , Goldberg was seen arriving at the arena and being escorted to his seat by arena security . In the ring , General Manager Paul Heyman gave a promotional in @-@ ring segment on how SmackDown ! was the better program over Raw . Lesnar would come down to the ring to promote his match and to insult Goldberg . As part of the storyline , Goldberg immediately jumped over the barricade into the ring , where Lesnar performed a spear , a running shoulder block to Goldberg 's stomach ; however he recuperated and lifted Lesnar vertically in the air before slamming him down to perform the Jackhammer . Goldberg was then escorted out of the arena by security . This altercation was followed by a singles match between Hardcore Holly and Rhyno . Before the match began , Holly and Rhyno brawled on the entrance ramp , before they entered the ring . Once there , Holly slammed Rhyno off the top rope with a superplex , though , as they recuperated , Rhyno hit Holly with a spear that caused Holly to roll out of the ring . Afterwards , Holly lifted Rhyno by his legs over his shoulders before throwing him down with an Alabama slam ; Holly covered Rhyno for a pinfall .
= = = Main event matches = = =
In the fifth match Rey Mysterio ( managed by Jorge Paez ) , defended his WWE Cruiserweight Championship against Chavo Guerrero ( managed by his father Chavo Guerrero , Sr. ) During the fight , Mysterio performed a 619 on Guerrero ( at the time positioned on the second ring rope ) and hit him in the face with both legs while using the ropes for leverage , leading to an attack by Paez on Guerrero , Sr. The referee ordered Paez backstage . Both fighters wrestled inconclusively until Mysterio hit a second 619 . During the second sequence of the move , Guerrero grabbed Mysterio 's legs and achieved a position with his shoulders spread so as to win both a pinfall and the WWE Cruiserweight title .
The following match was the Triple Threat between The Big Show , John Cena , and Kurt Angle fighting for the opportunity to face the WWE Champion at WrestleMania XX . For the duration of the match , The Big Show , who stood at 7 feet 2 inches ( 2 @.@ 18 m ) and weighed 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) , used his body size to his advantage as he squashed , or easily and quickly performed moves on , Cena and Angle . Thereafter , Cena lifted The Big Show over his shoulders and threw him down to execute the FU , while Angle lifted The Big Show by the side to throw him out of the ring . Angle then applied an ankle lock on Cena , forcing him to submit . As a result , Angle won a WWE Championship match at WrestleMania XX .
The main event was a singles match in which WWE Champion Brock Lesnar defended his title against Eddie Guerrero . Lesnar did not show any effect from the Jackhammer Goldberg performed on him earlier in the event ; similar to the prior match , Lesnar used his size advantage over Guerrero throughout the match . As Lesnar lifted Guerrero over his shoulders to slam his face down to perform an " F @-@ 5 " , he knocked down the referee . Lesnar then attempted to take advantage of the referee 's state , as he went to retrieve the WWE title belt to hit Guerrero . Meanwhile , Goldberg came down into the ring and hit a spear on Lesnar . Because the referee was incapacitated , Guerrero could not be disqualified for Goldberg 's interference . As Goldberg retreated , Guerrero countered Lesnar 's 2nd F5 into a DDT on the title belt while the referee regained consciousness . Guerrero kicked the belt out of the ring to prevent the referee from seeing it and performed his Frog splash to pin Lesnar and win the WWE Championship from him .
= = Aftermath = =
At WrestleMania XX , WWE Champion Eddie Guerrero defeated challenger Kurt Angle via pinfall and retained his title . John " Bradshaw " Layfield , portraying a new character after the semi @-@ retirement of his tag team partner Faarooq , challenged Guerrero for the WWE Championship and defeated him at The Great American Bash to win the title . Guerrero failed to recapture the title from Layfield in a steel cage match on SmackDown ! . After Guerrero 's death in November 2005 , WWE held Tribute Shows on Raw and SmackDown ! During these programs , No Way Out was the main highlight of Guerrero 's career , as it was where he won his only World Championship . John Cena began a rivalry with The Big Show over his WWE United States Championship and , at WrestleMania XX , Cena defeated Show to win the title . Goldberg and Lesnar continued their rivalry , leading to a match promoted at WrestleMania XX , in which Goldberg defeated Lesnar . After their match , Goldberg and Lesnar left the company , although Lesnar would make his return in April 2012 .
Rey Mysterio and Chavo Guerrero 's storyline over the WWE Cruiserweight Championship also continued , culminating in a battle royal match at WrestleMania XX involving other wrestlers . Guerrero last eliminated Mysterio to retain his title in this match . After the Draft Lottery , a mock sports draft lottery in which wrestlers switched programs , Rico was drafted to SmackDown ! , while Shelton Benjamin was drafted to Raw , in the process splitting up The World 's Greatest Tag Team . Afterward , Haas and Rico won the WWE Tag Team Championship from Rikishi and Scotty 2 Hotty on SmackDown !
= = = Reception = = =
The Cow Palace arena usually can accommodate 13 @,@ 000 , but the capacity was reduced for No Way Out 2004 . This event grossed over $ 450 @,@ 000 from an approximate attendance of 11 @,@ 000 which was the maximum allowed . It also received 350 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . No Way Out helped World Wrestling Entertainment earn $ 43 @.@ 7 million in revenue from pay @-@ per @-@ view events versus $ 31 @.@ 8 million the previous year ; Linda McMahon , then CEO of WWE , confirmed this statement on June 21 , 2004 in a quarterly financial report . The event received mostly positive reviews . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section described the event as " Smackdown ! [ giving ] us our money 's worth last night but they also set up what 's probably going to be the best match at Wrestlemania . " Kevin Sowers from PWTorch described the main event between Eddie Guerrero and Brock Lesnar as " one to remember for a long time . " The event was released on DVD on March 16 , 2004 . After its release , the DVD received a rating of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 points by IGN .
= = Results = =
= Scout Taylor @-@ Compton =
Scout Taylor @-@ Compton ( born February 21 , 1989 ) is an American actress . She has appeared in numerous small television roles and in feature films that range from dramas to those in the horror genre giving her the reputation of a scream queen . Her most notable roles include Laurie Strode in the horror films Halloween ( 2007 ) and Halloween II ( 2009 ) , as well as Lita Ford in the film The Runaways ( 2010 ) .
In addition to taking vocal lessons and singing the theme song for her film Chicken Night ( 2001 ) , Taylor @-@ Compton is recording her debut rock album . Taylor @-@ Compton had also provided voice over work in other films , including The Core ( 2003 ) , and The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement ( 2004 ) .
= = Personal life = =
Scout Taylor @-@ Compton was born Desariee Starr Compton in Long Beach , California , and is half Mexican American on her mother 's side . Her father is a mortician . Taylor @-@ Compton says she " grew up in that whole [ horror ] genre and visiting my dad at the mortuary . I have no problem with that stuff . Whether it was a coffin or my dad bringing his work home . " Andy Biersack from Black Veil Brides , her ex @-@ boyfriend whom she dated for six years , composed the song The Mortician 's Daughter about her . She has 8 tattoos and is known for her tomboy fashion .
Previous to acting , Taylor @-@ Compton had been a competitive swimmer and had plans to participate in the AAU Junior Olympics . She enjoys volleyball , cheerleading , dance , gymnastics and roller @-@ blading , and has several cats and dogs . Taylor @-@ Compton is a fan of horror films , especially those featuring Michael [ Myers ] , Jason [ Voorhees ] and Chucky . She also enjoys Thir13en Ghosts , Halloween 4 and Halloween 5 . She is a fan of the lead actress in the latter two films Danielle Harris ; the two later going on to appear together in the Halloween remake and its sequel . Compton also writes song lyrics .
= = Career = =
In 1998 , Taylor @-@ Compton began her acting career with an appearance in the film A.W.O.L. with David Morse , and later in the short film Thursday Afternoon . She went on to have small roles in both television and film including Ally McBeal , ER , Frasier , The Guardian and The Division . She appeared in several student films , commercials for Fuji Film and the Disney Cruise Line , and various skits on The Jay Leno Show . November 2000 saw Taylor @-@ Compton make her stage debut as the title character in a production of Annie Warbucks at The Grove Theatre in Upland , California , and a stage production of Footloose at the Simi Valley Cultural Arts Center .
In 2001 , she had a recurring role as Clara Forrester , the younger sister of Dean Forrester ( Jared Padalecki ) in the television series Gilmore Girls , appearing in a total of four episodes until 2004 . Taylor @-@ Compton was nominated for " Best Performance in a TV Series – Recurring Young Actress " for her portrayal of Clara . She made a comedic appearance in the film Four Fingers of the Dragon ( 2003 ) playing herself auditioning for a role in a fictional Kung Fu film . Later in 2004 , she appeared in the teen comedy Sleepover , which had been her first large Hollywood film role . The cast of the film was nominated for " Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Ensemble Cast " at the Young Artists Award . Sleepover did poorly at the box office . Following Sleepover , she appeared in numerous television series including Hidden Howie , Unfabulous ( 2 episodes ) , Cold Case , That 's So Raven , Charmed ( appearing in 8 episodes between 2000 and 2006 as various Fairies ) , and Without a Trace ( in which she portrayed a runaway teenager ) .
In 2007 , Taylor @-@ Compton joined the cast on ABC 'S Friday Night Live . That year as well , she starred in the drama Tomorrow is Today and the horror film Wicked Little Things . Tomorrow is Today features Taylor @-@ Compton as Julie Peterson , a girl who saves the life of and befriends a hapless drifter . The film won over six awards at various festivals which included the California Independent Film Festival , the Garden State Film Festival , Method Fest Independent Film Festival , and the Rhode Island International Film Festival . She won " Best Actress " for her performance in the film at the Method Fest Independent Film Festival . Wicked Little Things was one of the films featured in After Dark 's 8 Films to Die For and saw Taylor @-@ Compton star as Sarah Tunny . Following these films , she appeared in Standoff and Close to Home .
In 2007 , Taylor @-@ Compton appeared in the film An American Crime which told the true story of suburban housewife Gertrude Baniszewski , who had kept a teenage girl locked in the basement of her Indiana home during the 1960s . After losing the lead role in the Pang Brothers film The Messengers to Kristen Stewart , Taylor @-@ Compton then returned to the horror genre as Laurie Strode in Rob Zombie 's remake of the classic Halloween . She endured a long audition process , but as director Zombie explains , " Scout was my first choice . There was just something about her ; she had a genuine quality . She didn 't seem actor @-@ y . " Halloween currently stands as the highest grossing overall film in the Halloween franchise .
She starred in the television movie Love 's Unfolding Dream which premiered on November 24 , 2007 . She stars in the horror film April Fool 's Day , a remake of the 1986 film of the same name , filmed in North Carolina with a March 25 , 2008 DVD release . Taylor @-@ Compton explains on the starring in the role of Torrance : " I 'll just be playing another wholesome ' good girl ' that screams a lot . " She has another horror film in production , the 2009 film Murder World in which she will have a cameo as Carrie Lain .
In an interview conducted in July 2007 , Taylor @-@ Compton reported that after completing April Fool 's Day , she wants to stay away from roles in the horror genre for her next film projects . Although she has received many horror film scripts , she believes that she " need [ s ] to move on from horror . Just drift away a little bit and do something else so I don 't get stuck in that " and although she " love [ s ] doing horror films " and are her " favorite " , she 'd " like to do other stuff in between . " She has recently been influenced by the career of Scarlett Johansson , wanting to choose scripts and roles based on personal interest as she views Johansson does . Taylor @-@ Compton went on to explain , " That 's what I kind of want to do . I love just being passionate about something rather than just caring about the money or who 's in the movie . 2009 saw Taylor @-@ Compton alongside Helen Mirren and Joe Pesci in Love Ranch . Then , she went on to star in the film Obsessed alongside Beyoncé Knowles . Her most recent film to hit theaters was Halloween II , Rob Zombie 's sequel to the 2007 remake . The film opened the same day as The Final Destination , another high profile horror film , and had disappointing box office returns as a result . In 2010 , she appeared in The Runaways where she plays Lita Ford , alongside Kristen Stewart , Dakota Fanning , and Stella Maeve .
= = = Other Work = = =
In 1998 , she appeared in The Adventures of Lily music video for " Femme Fatale " . In 2001 , Taylor Compton provided voice overs for I Am Sam , and continued with voice over work with appearances in The Core ( 2003 ) and The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement ( 2004 ) . The next year , she provided voice over work for the teen hero comedy Sky High . She sang the theme song " Jet Set " for her film Chicken Night ( 2001 ) . 2002 saw Taylor @-@ Compton appearing briefly in the Will Smith music video for " Black Suits Comin ' ( Nod Ya Head ) " for the Men in Black II soundtrack . She appeared in the music video for " Sweet Valentine " by the band Born the Sky in 2007 .
In 2003 , Taylor @-@ Compton had taken vocal lessons with Diane Gillespie and Vocal Power Institute . She had taken guitar , drums , and keyboard lessons , and was member a theatre group called " Shenanigans , " where she performed and took weekly tap and jazz lessons . She attended the Hollywood Pop Academy for additional vocal training .
Taylor @-@ Compton is currently working on her debut rock / pop album , in which she will sing and play drums . She cites Cyndi Lauper , Gwen Stefani , Madonna , Kelly Osbourne and the band Green Day as musical influences . Taylor @-@ Compton has been working with ERA Productions and " with a very well known punk / pop singer " , Vitamin C.
While on the set filming Halloween ( 2007 ) , Taylor @-@ Compton had received " a few pointers " from director Rob Zombie , who had also fronted a band and continues his singing career . She has stated that singing is a side project and " is just a little talent that I have on the side , and if it does something then I 'll do that , but I 'm not gonna give up acting . "
Taylor @-@ Compton has five songs that can be streamed on her official Garageband.com profile . All songs were recorded and posted for listening in 2005 . The songs featured are " Bad Girl " , the first song she wrote with her ERA producers , " Waiting for the Heartbreak " and " Where Do We Go " , written with Vitamin C , " Freak Show " , written by Adam Alvermark and produced Taylor @-@ Compton along with ERA Productions , and " Words " . She did minor modeling for the teenage clothing brand Limited Too and the cellular phone service Sprint PCS .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= Goin ' Home ( Archie Shepp and Horace Parlan album ) =
Goin ' Home is a studio album by American saxophonist Archie Shepp and pianist Horace Parlan . After their respective work in the avant @-@ garde jazz movement of the 1960s , Shepp and Parlan both faced career challenges as the jazz scene diverged stylistically . They left the United States for Europe during the 1970s and met each other in Denmark before recording the album on April 25 , 1977 , at Sweet Silence Studio in Copenhagen .
A jazz and gospel album , Goin ' Home features Shepp and Parlan 's interpretations of African @-@ American folk melodies and spirituals . Its title is an allusion to Shepp 's return to his African cultural roots . Shepp had never recorded spirituals before and was overcome with emotion during the album 's recording because of the historical and cultural context of the songs .
Although it surprised jazz listeners upon its release in 1977 , Goin ' Home was praised by music critics for its reverent tone and stylistic deviation from Shepp 's previous free jazz works . Shepp and Parlan were artistically satisfied with the album and subsequently recorded another album together , Trouble in Mind , in 1980 . Goin ' Home was reissued on CD by SteepleChase Records on May 3 , 1994 .
= = Background = =
After surging to the forefront of the avant @-@ garde jazz movement during the 1960s , both Archie Shepp and Horace Parlan faced career challenges during the 1970s after their style lost popularity in the jazz scene , which had split between artists who played either a tamer or a more experimental sound . Like Parlan , Shepp became a more mainstream performer , mostly playing hard bop , although he occasionally return to his free jazz sound . To support himself financially , he spent most of his time playing in Europe . In 1972 , Parlan also left the United States and eventually made his residence in Denmark , where Shepp had signed to SteepleChase Records .
Shepp became interested in recording gospel and , at the request of his producer at SteepleChase , recorded Goin ' Home with Parlan . They recorded the album on April 25 , 1977 , at Sweet Silence Studio in Copenhagen , Denmark . Shepp played tenor saxophone on six pieces and soprano saxophone on three others .
= = Music = =
According to music journalist Tom Moon , Goin ' Home is a reverent jazz and gospel album played with straightforward simplicity by Shepp and Parlan . They interpret nine traditional Negro spirituals , featuring African @-@ American folk melodies that originated from the 1920s and before . Along with Trouble in Mind and Looking at Bird in 1980 , Goin ' Home is part of a series of albums delineated in Shepp 's discography as " modular explorations of traditional musical styles " , which is itself in Shepp 's broader series of musical " portraits of the Diaspora " . The album 's title alludes to a return to African cultural roots .
Shepp viewed Goin ' Home as his attempt to cross the span of time and history between modern African Americans and the black slaves symbolized by the spirituals . In an interview for Down Beat , Shepp said that it was the first time he had recorded spirituals or made " any kind of serious statement about them " , and said that he started to cry when he started playing on the album due to " the strain , the spiritual weight of the moment " . He recalled being momentarily afraid that he would not be able to go through with the album 's recording because of his emotional state , which he explained :
The album has a melodic form , and employs pentatonic scales for melodic development , a practice common in African and African @-@ American folk music . Goin ' Home is mostly tempoless , as most of the pieces are performed in a rubato @-@ like free rhythm . Shepp and Parlan perform sudden accelerations and intended delays and halts , particularly at the end of bars , phrases , and sections in a piece . Most of the spirituals have a thirty @-@ two @-@ bar form , with the eight @-@ bar section comprising four two @-@ bar phrases wherein two choruses of the spiritual are played . Shepp and Parlan 's interpretations include few choruses from the original spirituals .
Eschewing common jazz practice , Shepp does not improvise new melodic lines within the spirituals ' harmonic framework , but plays short , impromptu passages around a melodic idea . Parlan plays piano solos on only two of the album 's pieces . Shepp contributes a tonal roughness to the songs with growled sounds , which he plays by singing or humming into his saxophone . He also uses harmonic overtones , breathy tonal weight , and expressive chromatic development of melody to add textural and timbral variety to the songs . Shepp and Parlan 's reverent takes on " Amazing Grace " and Go Down Moses " exhibit split tones and fortes .
= = Release and reception = =
Goin ' Home was released in 1977 by Danish record label SteepleChase Records . Jazz listeners were divided in their reaction to the album . According to Doug Ramsey of Texas Monthly , some listeners were surprised by Shepp 's stylistic change , while others viewed the record as a " fulfillment of promise " . Ramsey believed it revealed a " tenderness and humor " from Shepp that his 1960s work only hinted at , writing that it " disclosed an Archie Shepp that many had never known , warm rather than blistering hot , witty rather than contemptuously sardonic " . John Swenson , writing in The Rolling Stone Jazz Record Guide ( 1985 ) , praised Shepp 's work with Parlan and gave Goin ' Home a five @-@ star rating , finding it " particularly heartfelt . " Fernando Gonzalez of The Boston Globe called it " exquisite " , and C. Gerald Fraser of The New York Times wrote in 1987 that " this marriage of avant @-@ garde and soul " is " regarded as a classic . " Art Lange of CODA magazine praised Shepp 's " exquisite control " of his instrument , which he " quite literally " makes " able [ to ] talk " , and found the spirituals to have been " sung " rather than just performed . Lange added that the emotional aspect is more impressive than the technical skill and stated :
Both Shepp and Parlan were artistically satisfied with Goin ' Home and recorded another album together , the blues @-@ inspired Trouble in Mind , in 1980 . On May 3 , 1994 , the former album was reissued on CD by SteepleChase .
In The Rolling Stone Jazz Record Guide ( 1985 ) , Goin ' Home was given five stars and called " particularly heartfelt " . In a retrospective review for AllMusic , jazz critic Scott Yanow gave it four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars and found the performances " compelling " . He said listeners who are " only familiar with Shepp 's earlier Fire Music " will see the album as a " revelation . " Moon believed its tempoless mood " gives the themes an extra shot of majesty " and found it " supremely melodic " , writing that both Shepp and Parlan " do whatever is necessary to bring the spirit to the forefront . " Richard Cook gave it four out of four stars in The Penguin Guide to Jazz ( 2002 ) . JazzTimes cited Goin ' Home as one of " the finest [ albums ] of his career " , and Tom Hull of The Village Voice cited it as SteepleChase 's best release . Phil Johnson of The Independent wrote that the album " can be listened to almost without cease . " Jazz historian Eric Nisenson called it " one of the most moving albums of the Seventies " , but qualified his praise by critiquing that Shepp , an iconic figure in free jazz , " was no longer the firebrand who had so frightened and unsettled some white critics and jazz fans . " Nisenson felt that , like Pharoah Sanders , Shepp 's " trial by fire at the heart of the Sixties avant @-@ garde had made him an unusually expressive musician , " and Goin ' Home showed that he was " finding inspiration in the entire black musical tradition . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs are traditional compositions , excepted where noted , and were arranged by Archie Shepp .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
Per Grunnet – design
Freddy Hansson – engineer
Horace Parlan – piano
Flemming Rasmussen – assistant engineer
Archie Shepp – arranger , soprano saxophone , tenor saxophone
Gorm Valentin – photography
Nils Winther – photographer , producer
= Hurricane Humberto ( 2007 ) =
Hurricane Humberto was a minimal hurricane that formed and intensified faster than any other North Atlantic tropical cyclone on record before landfall . Developing on September 12 , 2007 , in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico , the tropical cyclone rapidly strengthened and struck High Island , Texas , with winds of about 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) early on September 13 . It steadily weakened after moving ashore , and on September 14 it began dissipating over northwestern Georgia as it interacted with an approaching cold front .
Damage was fairly light , estimated at approximately $ 50 million ( 2007 USD ) . Precipitation peaked at 14 @.@ 13 inches ( 358 @.@ 9 mm ) , while wind gusts to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) were reported . The heavy rainfall caused widespread flooding , which damaged or destroyed dozens of homes , and closed several highways . Trees and power lines were downed , knocking out power to hundreds of thousands of customers . The hurricane caused one fatality in the State of Texas . Additionally , as the storm progressed inland , rainfall was reported throughout the Southeast United States .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Humberto are from the remnants of a frontal trough — the same that spawned Tropical Storm Gabrielle — that moved offshore south Florida on September 5 . The combination of a weak surface trough and an upper @-@ level low pressure system produced disorganized showers and thunderstorms from western Cuba into the eastern Gulf of Mexico . Tracking slowly west @-@ northwestward , unfavorable wind shear initially inhibited tropical cyclone development . By late on September 11 , environmental conditions became more favorable , and the following morning convection increased over the disturbance . Tracking around the western periphery of a mid @-@ level ridge , the system turned on a slow northwest drift and quickly organized . Radar imagery reported loose banding features , and buoy data indicated the presence of a surface circulation ; based on the observations , the National Hurricane Center classified the system as Tropical Depression Nine , while located roughly 60 miles ( 100 km ) southeast of Matagorda , Texas .
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression was forecast to strengthen slowly to reach peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Within three hours of forming , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Humberto . A small cyclone , the storm continued to organize quickly as it turned north @-@ northeastward , while radar imagery suggested the formation of an eye by early on September 13 . Based on reports from Hurricane Hunters , Humberto was upgraded to a hurricane at 0515 UTC on September 13 , while located about 15 miles ( 20 km ) off the coast of Texas . The hurricane made landfall a few miles to the east of High Island at around 0700 UTC . A well @-@ defined eye was maintained with strong convection around it , and Hurricane Hunters reported sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) about two hours after landfall . However , post @-@ storm analysis later determined that the winds were a bit stronger — about 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) .
Based on operational estimates of a wind speed increase of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , the National Hurricane Center reported that " no tropical cyclone in the historic record has ever reached this intensity at a faster rate near landfall . " The path of the eye continued northeastward and passed over Port Arthur , Nederland , Port Neches , Groves , and Bridge City , Texas at Category 1 hurricane strength . This was the second time within two years ( following Hurricane Rita on September 24 , 2005 ) that these cities experienced a direct hit from a hurricane . By eight hours after landfall , Humberto weakened to a tropical storm as it crossed into southwestern Louisiana . Increased upper @-@ level wind shear caused the storm to weaken rapidly over land , and late on September 13 Humberto weakened to a tropical depression . Upon issuing its last advisory , the National Hurricane Center remarked on the potential for the remnants of the storm to turn southward into the Gulf of Mexico . However , the storm continued northeastward through the southeastern United States , and on September 14 , the storm began dissipating over northwestern Georgia , and shortly thereafter degenerated into a remnant low pressure area .
= = Preparations = =
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , a tropical storm warning was issued from Port O 'Connor , Texas , to Cameron , Louisiana , and a tropical storm watch was posted from Cameron to Intracoastal City , Louisiana ; after Humberto became a tropical storm , the watch was upgraded to a warning . Upon reaching hurricane status , the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane warning from High Island , Texas , to Cameron , Louisiana . An inland tropical storm warning was declared for several parishes in southwestern Louisiana . The National Weather Service Storm Prediction Center posted a tornado watch for southwestern coastal parishes .
Prior to moving ashore , officials in Calcasieu Parish , Louisiana , advised residents in low @-@ lying or flood @-@ prone areas to consider moving to a safer location . A shelter was opened in Lake Charles , where 29 people stayed during the storm . Flood watches and warnings were issued for portions of Mississippi and Louisiana as the storm tracked across the region . Texas Governor Rick Perry , prepared state resources for the potentially impacted areas , including the deployment of 200 Texas Military Forces soldiers and six Black Hawk helicopters and two water rescue teams for search and rescue missions . The Texas State Operations Center was activated shortly after the cyclone developed .
= = Impact = =
= = = Texas = = =
A few hours prior to its development , outer rainbands from the depression began moving over portions of the Texas coast . Heavy rainfall from intense thunderstorms caused minor flooding as they crossed the coastline during the subsequent days ; precipitation in the state peaked at 14 @.@ 13 inches ( 358 @.@ 9 mm ) at East Bay Bayou , the highest recorded rainfall total in association with the hurricane . Sustained winds peaked at 69 mph ( 112 km / h ) with gusts to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) at Sea Rim State Park ; the National Weather Service estimates gusts exceeded 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) in southwestern Jefferson County and extreme southeastern Chambers County . In the Golden Pass Ship Channel , an unofficial report of a 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) wind gust was relayed to the National Hurricane Center . Upon moving ashore , Humberto produced a minor storm surge in the state , peaking at 2 @.@ 86 feet ( 0 @.@ 87 m ) at Rollover Pass ; the combination of surge and waves resulted in light beach erosion .
Hurricane Humberto left 10 homes completely destroyed in Galveston County , with an additional 19 severely damaged in the county ; several homes received minor shingle damage , and road closures left about 5 @,@ 000 houses isolated in the county . The combination of saturated grounds and strong winds uprooted many trees and downed power lines across the path of the hurricane , with at least 50 high voltage transmission poles blown down or seriously damaged ; over 120 @,@ 000 power customers in Orange and Jefferson counties lost power , with 118 @,@ 000 Entergy customers in the state without electricity . Widespread flooding occurred in Jefferson and Orange counties , and at least 20 homes in Beaumont were flooded . Additionally , several roadways were flooded . The passage of the hurricane caused one fatality in the state ; a Bridge City man was killed when his carport crashed on him outside his house . Initially , press reports indicated that the storm wrought up to $ 500 million in damage ; however , final damage estimates were about $ 50 million .
Oil production was slowed as a result of Humberto , as at least four refineries — the Valero , ExxonMobil , Total SA and Motiva Enterprises LLC plants in Port Arthur — were halted due to the loss of power . Oil prices rose above $ 80 a barrel in intraday trading on September 12 as a result , ending the next day at a record high of $ 80 @.@ 09 a barrel . Natural gas futures rose 8 percent ahead of the storm , but lost most of those gains the next day .
According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) , 1 @,@ 464 residences throughout Texas were affected by Hurricane Humberto . Of these , 25 were destroyed , 96 sustained major damage and 240 sustained minor damage . The cost of individual assistance for those impacted by Humberto would cost $ 4 @,@ 776 @,@ 334 ; the cost of debris removal and other public assistance amounted to $ 6 @,@ 682 @,@ 074 . In terms of per capita income , Jefferson County sustained the most impact , decreasing by $ 22 @.@ 38 .
= = = Louisiana = = =
Tracking through the state as a weakening tropical storm , Humberto produced light to moderate winds across southwestern Louisiana . Gusts officially peaked at 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) in the state , although an unofficial reading of 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) was reported in Vinton . Heavy rainfall occurred across the area , reaching a peak of 8 @.@ 25 inches ( 210 mm ) in DeRidder . The rainfall triggered minor river flooding along the Vermilion River in Lafayette . Storm surge was minor in the state , peaking at 2 @.@ 13 feet ( 0 @.@ 65 m ) in Cypremont Point ; no beach erosion was reported .
Widespread freshwater flooding occurred in Beauregard Parish , leaving homes in DeRidder flooded . High water across the southwestern portion of the state resulted in the closure of several roadways , including U.S. Route 171 and various state highways . Isolated wind damage was reported , particularly near the Texas border , with some trees and power lines blown down . A total of about 13 @,@ 000 power customers lost electricity in southwestern Louisiana . One F1 tornado briefly touched down in Vermilion Parish , blowing the roof off one home and downing trees and power lines . Damage throughout Louisiana was estimated at $ 525 @,@ 000 .
= = = Southeast United States = = =
After the circulation dissipated , the remnants of Humberto brought moderate rainfall to the southeastern states and spawned several tornadoes across portions of South Carolina and North Carolina and caused widespread damage in some locations . Heavy rains in Mississippi led to flooding in low @-@ lying areas . In Hinds County , a small rail bridge was washed out , forcing all passengers Amtrak train to take a bus to their destinations . One person was injured after driving his car into a flooded street . In Alabama , rainfall up to 5 @.@ 06 in ( 129 mm ) caused minor ponding in low @-@ lying areas but aided in short @-@ term drought relief . In northern Georgia , locally heavy rainfall led to flash flooding , resulting in several road closures . Strong thunderstorms associated with the remnants of Humberto also produced winds up to 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) and penny @-@ sized hail . Throughout North Carolina , ten F0 tornadoes were confirmed , resulting in minor damage to homes , though none caused injuries or fatalities . Heavy rains associated with the system also triggered flash flooding along some roads , resulting in their closure . In South Carolina , one F1 tornado touched down in Laurens County , causing moderate damage to several homes before lifting .
= = Aftermath = =
Hours after Humberto made landfall , Rick Perry declared Galveston , Jefferson , and Orange counties as disaster areas , which allocated state resources to assist the affected residents . The governor applied for a presidential disaster declaration on September 21 . Four Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) teams assessed the hurricane damage in the three most affected counties . Following their assessment , they determined that the damage caused by Humberto was not significant enough to require a disaster declaration . As such , Governor Rick Perry 's request from FEMA was denied . Across the Bolivar Peninsula , an estimated 1 @,@ 500 cubic yards of structural debris and 3 @,@ 000 cubic yards of tree limbs were needed to be removed in the wake of the storm .
= Theoren Fleury =
Theoren Wallace " Theo " Fleury ( born June 29 , 1968 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player . Fleury played for the Calgary Flames , Colorado Avalanche , New York Rangers , and Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , Tappara of Finland 's SM @-@ liiga , and the Belfast Giants of the UK 's Elite Ice Hockey League . He was drafted by the Flames in the 8th round , 166th overall , at the 1987 NHL Entry Draft , and played over 1 @,@ 000 games in the NHL between 1989 and 2003 .
One of the smallest players of his generation , Fleury played a physical style that often led to altercations . As a junior , he was at the centre of the infamous Punch @-@ up in Piestany , a brawl that resulted in the disqualification of both Canada and the Soviet Union from the 1987 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . Once considered unlikely to play in the NHL due to his small size , Fleury scored over 1 @,@ 000 points in his career and won the Stanley Cup in 1989 with the Flames . He twice represented Canada at the Winter Olympics , winning a gold medal in 2002 . Throughout his career , he battled drug and alcohol addictions that ultimately forced him out of the NHL in 2003 . He played one season in the British Elite Ice Hockey League in 2005 – 06 , and made two attempts to win the Allan Cup . After an unsuccessful NHL comeback attempt with the Flames , he retired in 2009 .
Outside of hockey , Fleury overcame his addictions , operated a concrete business in Calgary with his family , and filmed a pilot for a reality television show about it . He marketed his own brand of clothing , which led him to play two professional baseball games for the Calgary Vipers of the Golden Baseball League . In 1995 , he was diagnosed with Crohn 's disease , and his annual charity golf tournament has helped raise more than $ 1 million for the Crohn 's and Colitis Foundation of Canada .
Fleury co @-@ wrote Playing with Fire , a best @-@ selling autobiography released in October 2009 , in which he revealed that he had been sexually abused by former coach Graham James . Fleury filed a criminal complaint against James , who subsequently pleaded guilty to charges of sexual assault . Fleury has since become an advocate for sexual abuse victims and developed a career as a public speaker . He was a recipient of the Indspire Award in the sports category in 2013 .
= = Early life = =
Fleury was born on June 29 , 1968 , in Oxbow , Saskatchewan , the first of Wally and Donna Fleury 's three sons . Wally was a hockey player whose dreams of a professional career ended when he broke his leg playing baseball in the summer of 1963 ; the injury helped fuel a drinking problem . Donna was a quiet , religious woman who battled drug addiction for many years . Fleury is of Métis heritage , as his grandmother Mary was Cree . The Fleurys lived in Williams Lake , British Columbia , for four years , a period that saw Theo 's brother Ted born in 1970 , before settling in Russell , Manitoba , by 1973 , the year his youngest brother Travis was born . Wally worked as a truck driver and maintenance worker at the arena in Russell .
Always one of the smallest children in his class and without stable supervision at home , Fleury adopted an aggressive posture and later described himself as a bully . He turned to hockey as an outlet when he borrowed an old pair of skates and a broken stick to play his first game at the age of five . From that point on , he played hockey at every opportunity , often accompanying his father to the arena in Russell in the pre @-@ dawn hours . He was described by his teachers as a determined youth , who would repeat any activity he failed at until he got it right .
Although his mother was a Jehovah 's Witness , Fleury was raised as a Roman Catholic . He attended mass from age 6 to 12 , serving as an altar boy until the church 's priest died of a heart attack , depriving Fleury of one of his earliest positive influences . Always lacking money and a stable home , Fleury received support from the community , in particular the Peltz family in Russell , who ensured that he and his brothers were fed and bought them new clothes when required . In January 1982 , Fleury 's dreams of playing in the NHL nearly ended at the age of 13 when , during a game , he suffered a deep cut under his arm that severed his brachial artery . He missed nearly a year of contact hockey as a result . Five months after the incident , the community raised money to send him to the Andy Murray Hockey School in Brandon , Manitoba . It was there that Fleury met Graham James , who was working as a scout for the Winnipeg Warriors of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . James told Fleury that he had the skill to play in the NHL despite his size , and promised to recruit him to play junior hockey for the Warriors when he was old enough .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Fleury began his junior career in 1983 – 84 as a 15 @-@ year @-@ old with the St. James Canadians of the Manitoba Junior Hockey League , scoring 33 goals and 64 points in 22 games , an incredible pace of nearly three points per game . In 1984 – 85 he moved to the Moose Jaw Warriors , who had just relocated from Winnipeg , scoring 29 goals and 75 points in 71 games as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old . He improved his totals in each of his four years in the WHL , culminating with a 68 @-@ goal , 92 @-@ assist season in 1987 – 88 . Fleury 's 160 points tied him for the league lead with Joe Sakic , and the two players shared the Bob Clarke Trophy as the WHL 's top scorers . Fleury 's 92 assists and 160 points remain team records ; he also holds the Warriors ' career records for goals ( 201 ) , assists ( 271 ) and points ( 472 ) . As of 2014 , he remains 10th all @-@ time in WHL scoring .
Always one of the smallest players in the game , Fleury learned early that he had to play an unpredictable style of game to survive against players much larger than he was . He found that the best way to protect himself was to intimidate his opponents by playing a feisty , physical game , which he said led to many retaliatory penalties and several arguments with his coaches . He recorded 235 minutes in penalties in his final year of junior , nearly 100 more than any of the other top 10 WHL scorers . Fleury retained this style of play throughout his hockey career , routinely surprising opponents who felt their size was an advantage .
Fleury twice represented Canada at the World Junior Hockey Championships . He first joined the team for the 1987 tournament in Piešťany , Czechoslovakia . The tournament is best remembered for the " Punch @-@ up in Piestany " on January 4 , 1987 , an infamous bench @-@ clearing brawl between the Canadians and the Soviet Union . Fleury scored the first goal of the game and , as part of his celebration , used his stick to mimic firing a machine gun at the Soviet bench , a move that was criticized by Canadian officials . The brawl began early in the second period with Canada leading 4 – 2 , when Pavel Kostichkin slashed Fleury , leading to a fight between the two . It quickly escalated into a line brawl involving all skaters on the ice , after which the Soviet players left their bench , followed closely by the Canadians . Both teams were disqualified from the tournament , costing Fleury and the Canadians a medal - – potentially the gold .
The International Ice Hockey Federation suspended all players involved in the brawl from participating in international tournaments for 18 months , though the bans were later reduced to 6 months on appeal . This reduction allowed Fleury to participate in the 1988 tournament in Moscow . He was named captain , finished second in team scoring with eight points in seven games , and was named a tournament all @-@ star as Canada won the gold medal .
Although he scored 129 points for the Warriors in 1986 – 87 , Fleury 's small stature led many teams to doubt that he could play in the NHL . The Calgary Flames drafted him in the 8th round , 166th overall , of the 1987 NHL Entry Draft . Upon completing his junior season in 1988 , Fleury signed his first professional contract , worth C $ 415 @,@ 000 , and joined the Flames ' International Hockey League ( IHL ) affiliate , the Salt Lake Golden Eagles . He scored seven points in two regular season games , then 16 more in eight playoff games as the Eagles won the Turner Cup championship .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
Fleury arrived at the Flames ' 1988 training camp 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) overweight , and was assigned back to Salt Lake to begin the 1988 – 89 season . He averaged nearly two points per game , recording 37 goals and 37 assists to lead the IHL in scoring after 40 games . Mired in a slump , the Flames recalled Fleury on January 1 , 1989 , in the hope he could help their offence . He played his first NHL game against the Quebec Nordiques two nights later and recorded his first points – three assists – on January 5 against the Los Angeles Kings . He scored his first two NHL goals in a 7 – 2 victory over the Edmonton Oilers on January 7 . Fleury continued to score , and finished with 34 points in 36 games in his NHL rookie season . He added 11 points in the playoffs , helping the Flames to the first Stanley Cup championship in franchise history .
After improving to 33 goals in his first full season , Fleury broke out in 1990 – 91 , scoring 51 goals and 104 points to lead the Flames offensively . He played in the 1991 All @-@ Star Game , scoring a goal in an 11 – 5 victory by the Campbell Conference over the Wales Conference . Towards the end of the season , Fleury set a league record by scoring three shorthanded goals in one game against the St. Louis Blues . He shared the NHL Plus @-@ Minus Award with Marty McSorley , whom he tied for the league lead with + 48 . Fleury scored only two goals in the 1991 Stanley Cup Playoffs , but after his overtime winner in game six against the Oilers he famously slid the entire length of the ice in jubilation before crashing into the boards as his teammates attempted to catch up to him . The Flames were defeated in game seven , which ended their season .
Fleury fell back to 33 goals in 1991 – 92 as the Flames missed the playoffs . That season , he made his second All @-@ Star Game appearance , recording a goal for the Campbell Conference . Fleury finished with over 100 points for the second time in his career in 1992 – 93 to lead the team in scoring , and set a franchise record by going + 9 in a 13 – 1 victory over the San Jose Sharks on February 10 , 1993 , in which he scored six points .
The 1994 – 95 NHL lockout reduced the season to 48 games from 84 . During the lockout , Fleury played for Tappara in Finland 's top league , the SM @-@ liiga . He recorded 17 points in ten games before the NHL 's labour dispute was resolved , bringing him back to Calgary . Late in the season , Fleury recorded two goals and an assist against the Oilers on March 31 , 1995 , to surpass 500 career points .
Lacking a contract prior to the 1995 – 96 season , Fleury staged a brief hold @-@ out during training camp before signing a five @-@ year , $ 12 million deal with the Flames . He agreed to take less money than he could have received on the open market out of loyalty to the franchise that had given him his NHL opportunity . He missed much of the pre @-@ season with a stomach ailment , but joined the team for the season opener . Although he felt like somebody was " stabbing a knife in [ his ] gut every five minutes " , Fleury had played every game for the Flames when he revealed in December 1995 that he had been diagnosed with Crohn 's Disease and doctors had finally found the correct medication to control it . Despite the ailment , Fleury led the team in goals , assists and points , and played in his third All @-@ Star Game , serving as Calgary 's only representative .
When Joe Nieuwendyk refused to report to the Flames prior to the 1995 season , they named Fleury interim captain . The title was made permanent when Nieuwendyk was traded in December . Fleury was reluctant to assume the captaincy , but did so out of loyalty to the team and because there was nobody else capable of taking on the role . He relinquished it two seasons later after deciding that it was harming his play and affecting his relationship with his teammates and coach Pierre Pagé .
The Flames struggled in 1996 – 97 , finishing last in the Pacific Division and missing the playoffs for only the second time since their arrival in Calgary in 1980 . Fleury again led the team in scoring , but his 29 goals were the fewest he had scored in a full season in the NHL . He was the Flames ' lone representative at the 1997 All @-@ Star Game . He scored only 27 goals in 1997 – 98 , but increased his point total from 67 to 78 while also leading the team with 197 penalties in minutes . On November 29 , 1997 , Fleury scored his 315th career goal , breaking Nieuwendyk 's franchise record . The same day , he was named to Team Canada for the 1998 Winter Olympics . Fleury participated in his fifth All @-@ Star Game that season , but the Flames again missed the playoffs .
On February 19 , 1999 , he surpassed Al MacInnis as the franchise scoring leader with his 823rd career point . He held the record for ten years until surpassed by Jarome Iginla in 2009 . The Flames , who had been struggling financially and were unable to sign Fleury to a new contract , chose to trade him less than two weeks after he broke the record rather than risk losing him to free agency . He was dealt to the Colorado Avalanche on February 28 for René Corbet , Wade Belak and Robyn Regehr . Although it was expected to a certain extent , the trade nonetheless stunned fans in Calgary . His popularity was such that during a game in 1999 , after Fleury was sent off the ice to change a bloody jersey , a fan threw his own souvenir jersey over the boards so that Fleury would not miss a shift . He put the jersey on before realizing it was autographed and handed it back .
The trade was viewed as another sign that small @-@ market Canadian teams could no longer compete in the NHL . The economics of hockey had changed such that the Flames felt that they had to deal their top player despite being just two points out of a playoff spot . Following the trade , Fleury said that any team looking to sign him to a new contract would have to pay him $ 7 million per year . In his autobiography , Playing with Fire , Fleury claims that he was offered $ 16 million over four years by the Flames before the trade , and countered with an offer of $ 25 million over five years .
= = = Colorado , New York , and Chicago = = =
Fleury made his debut for the Avalanche the day after the trade and was met with loud cheers from the Denver crowd . He scored a goal in a 4 – 3 loss to Edmonton , but also sprained his knee and missed the next two weeks . He had missed only seven games during his 11 @-@ year career in Calgary . He played in 15 regular @-@ season games for the Avalanche , scoring 10 goals and 14 assists , and another 5 goals and 12 assists in 18 playoff games before the Avalanche were eliminated by the Dallas Stars in the Western Conference Finals .
The Avalanche chose not to re @-@ sign Fleury , and he joined the New York Rangers on a three @-@ year contract worth $ 21 million that included a club option for a fourth year at $ 7 million . He touched off a wave of anger on signing with the Rangers when he claimed he was unappreciated in Calgary , comments he later stated were directed at the Flames ' owners and not the team 's fans , whom he said always supported him . Fleury 's first year in Manhattan was a disappointment . He scored only 15 goals in 1999 – 2000 , struggling under the pressure of trying to lead the Rangers into the playoffs and adapting to life in New York . After the season , he voluntarily entered a league @-@ operated program that treats substance abuse and emotional problems , though he denied that either had any effect on his play .
Fleury rebounded to score 30 goals in 2000 – 01 and participated in his seventh All @-@ Star Game . He scored his 400th NHL goal on November 4 , 2000 , in a 5 – 2 victory over the Montreal Canadiens . Fleury was leading his team , and was fourth in the league , with 74 points in 62 games , when the Rangers announced that he had again entered the league 's substance abuse program . The decision ended his season .
Prior to the 2001 – 02 season Fleury said that he continued to struggle with substance abuse and had difficulty adapting to life in Manhattan after growing up in a Canadian prairie town of 1 @,@ 500 . He played all 82 games in 2001 – 02 , but his problems affected his behavior on the ice . After receiving a major and game misconduct penalty in a game against the San Jose Sharks on December 28 , he wound up in a confrontation with the Sharks ' mascot , S.J. Sharkie , in a hallway of the HP Pavilion , reportedly breaking the rib of the mascot portrayer . Fleury himself later downplayed the incident , saying that he " nudged " Sharkie . Upon taking a penalty in a January 2002 game against the Pittsburgh Penguins , Fleury left the arena rather than skate to the penalty box . He later apologized to his teammates , claiming he was deeply stressed by family problems . Two weeks later , he was fined $ 1 @,@ 000 for making an obscene gesture to fans of the New York Islanders who had been taunting him over his drug use . Towards the end of February , he lashed out against the league 's officials . He claimed they were not judging him fairly , and threatened to retire . The league dismissed his complaints . He did achieve a personal milestone during the season , however : on October 27 , 2001 , Fleury assisted on a goal by Mike York , scoring the 1,000th point of his NHL career . The Rangers presented him with a silver stick in honour of the achievement .
Following the season , the Rangers did not exercise their option , and traded Fleury 's playing rights to the San Jose Sharks , which entitled the Sharks to a compensatory draft pick if Fleury signed elsewhere . He did so with a two @-@ year , $ 8 @.@ 5 million contract with the Chicago Blackhawks . Two days prior to the opening of the 2002 – 03 season , he was suspended by the NHL for violating the terms of the league 's substance abuse program . The Blackhawks hired one of Fleury 's friends , also a recovering alcoholic , to ensure that he attended Alcoholics Anonymous meetings and abided by the terms of the NHL 's aftercare program .
Fleury missed the first two months of the season before being reinstated . While out with teammates in January 2003 , he was involved in a drunken brawl with bouncers at a strip club in Columbus , Ohio , that left him bloodied ; he has no memory of the night and described it as among the lowest points of his life . He was not suspended , but the incident contributed to a collapse in the standings by the Blackhawks , and they placed him on waivers in March . No team claimed him , and Fleury finished the season with the Blackhawks , recording 12 goals and 21 assists in 54 games . Following the season , in April 2003 , he was suspended again by the league for violations of its substance abuse program . The suspension ended his NHL career .
= = = Senior hockey and the Belfast Giants = = =
In January 2005 , Fleury announced that he had joined his cousin Todd Holt and former NHL players Gino Odjick , Sasha Lakovic and Dody Wood in playing for the Horse Lake Thunder of the North Peace Hockey League for the Allan Cup , Canada 's national senior amateur championship . He also hoped to serve as a role model for kids on the Horse Lake First Nation . Hockey Alberta initially ruled that he was ineligible to play senior hockey in 2004 – 05 because he had been signed to a professional contract during the 2003 – 04 season . Hockey Alberta denied an appeal , citing a new policy it had put in effect to prevent NHL players from joining senior teams during the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout . It reversed its decision on a second appeal after the NHL and National Hockey League Players Association both agreed that Fleury was a free agent , and not a locked @-@ out player . Fleury played his first game for the Thunder on January 22 , 2005 , scoring a goal and two assists .
Fleury remained embroiled in controversy at the 2005 Allan Cup tournament . The Thunder were repeatedly accused of paying players despite being an amateur team , and Fleury angrily denied rumours that he was secretly being paid $ 100 @,@ 000 . Tournament fans were extremely hostile towards the Thunder , and after it was eliminated in the semi @-@ finals Fleury accused them of racism and threatened to return his 2002 Olympic gold medal : " The one thing that 's really bothered me through this whole thing is the prejudice , still , in this country when it comes to native people . I 've seen it first @-@ hand in every building we go into , how these people are treated , and it 's absolutely embarrassing to be a Canadian and know that stuff is still going on . "
Fleury was convinced by a friend to move to Northern Ireland to play with the Belfast Giants of the Elite Ice Hockey League ( EIHL ) for the 2005 – 06 season . He scored three goals and added four assists and a fight in his first game , against the Edinburgh Capitals . He scored 22 goals and 52 assists in 34 games , as Belfast won the regular season league title . Described as the " most talented " player ever to play in the United Kingdom , Fleury was named the EIHL 's Player of the Year and voted a first team All @-@ Star by the British Ice Hockey Writers Association . Fleury argued with visiting fans , as well as officials , which led him not to return to Belfast in 2006 – 07 .
In late 2008 , Fleury joined his brother Ted with the Steinbach North Stars in a second bid to win the Allan Cup . He played 13 league games , scoring eight goals and 19 assists . At the 2009 Allan Cup tournament , he recorded a goal and an assist to lead the host North Stars to a 5 – 0 win in their opening game , and finished tied for the lead in tournament scoring at seven points . The North Stars lost the semi @-@ finals to the South East Prairie Thunder , 4 – 2 .
= = = NHL comeback attempt = = =
Unhappy with how his NHL career ended , Fleury hired a personal trainer in February 2009 and began an attempt to return to the NHL . By August , he petitioned Commissioner Gary Bettman to lift his suspension . He was reinstated on September 10 following a meeting with Bettman , Deputy Commissioner Bill Daly and league doctors . Fleury then accepted a try @-@ out offer from the Flames . He said he wanted to prove to himself that he could still play at the NHL level , though his skeptics pointed to his child support payments and the failure of his concrete business , as well as the planned release of his autobiography , and argued Fleury 's comeback was financially motivated .
He made his return to the NHL in an exhibition game in Calgary against the New York Islanders on September 17 on a line with Daymond Langkow and Nigel Dawes . Fleury was met with loud cheers throughout the game , and scored the only goal in a shootout to give the Flames a 5 – 4 win . After the game , he saluted the crowd as the fans chanted " Theo ! Theo ! Theo ! " Three nights later , he scored a goal and an assist in a 5 – 2 victory over the Florida Panthers .
Fleury played four exhibition games , scoring four points , before being released by the Flames . General Manager Darryl Sutter expressed his pride in Fleury 's attempt and commended his effort , but decided he was not one of the top six wingers in camp , which Sutter and Fleury had agreed was a condition of the tryout continuing . On September 28 , 2009 , Fleury announced his retirement at a news conference at the Saddledome . He thanked the Flames for allowing him to attempt the comeback , and expressed satisfaction at how his career ended . " I get to retire a Calgary Flame . I HAD to retire a Calgary Flame . It ’ s been a long journey . It ’ s time to put down some roots . And there ’ s no better place than here , " said Fleury of his decision not to seek an offer from another team .
= = = International = = =
Fleury made his debut with the Canadian senior team at the 1990 World Hockey Championships , scoring 11 points in nine games for the fourth @-@ place Canadians . He returned the following year despite a knee injury , helping Canada win the silver medal at the 1991 tournament . His 51 @-@ goal NHL season in 1990 – 91 also earned Fleury a spot at the 1991 Canada Cup , where he scored a goal and four assists in seven games for the tournament champion Canadians . Five years later , he played in the 1996 World Cup of Hockey , the successor to the Canada Cup . He finished fourth in the tournament with four goals , but Canada finished in second place after giving up four goals in the final four minutes of the championship game against the American team .
National Hockey League players were first allowed to participate in the Olympic ice hockey tournament at the 1998 games . Invited to join Canada 's " Dream Team " , Fleury described his selection as a highlight of his life . He scored a goal for Canada , who lost their semi @-@ final match @-@ up against the Czech Republic in a shootout and failed to medal . Four years later , Fleury was invited by General Manager Wayne Gretzky to participate in Canada 's selection camp for the 2002 Olympics . The invitation was controversial , as his behavioural and substance abuse issues had become increasingly public in previous months . Fleury wanted to justify Gretzky 's support and , knowing that he would be removed from consideration if he failed , refrained from drinking or taking drugs during the 2001 – 02 NHL season , later describing himself as a " dry drunk " . He earned a spot on the team and recorded two assists in six games as the Canadian hockey team won its first Olympic gold medal in 50 years . Fleury considers the championship to be the pinnacle of his career .
= = Off the ice = =
Fleury continued to battle drug and alcohol addictions , revealing in a November 2004 interview that he had not overcome the problems that ended his NHL career a year and a half earlier . He credits his second wife , Jennifer , with turning his life around after they met when he was playing for Horse Lake in 2005 . Fleury feared that Jennifer 's frustration with his drug use would cost him the relationship , and , with her help , quit drugs and drinking on September 18 , 2005 . They were married one year later and have a daughter , Skylah . Fleury also has a son and daughter , Beaux and Tatym , from his relationship with his first wife , Veronica , and a son , Josh , born in 1987 to his high school girlfriend , Shannon .
In 1994 , Fleury joined a group that involved his former junior coach , Graham James , fellow NHL player Joe Sakic , and professional wrestler Bret Hart as a minority owner of the expansion Calgary Hitmen of the Western Hockey League . He sold his share of the team to the Flames in 1997 in the aftermath of James ' conviction for sexually abusing Sheldon Kennedy and another player . After returning from Northern Ireland , he operated Fleury 's Concrete Coatings , a concrete sealing business he started with his wife Jennifer and brother Travis , until it closed in 2009 . He filmed a pilot episode in 2007 for a reality TV series based on his concrete business called Theoren Fleury : Rock Solid : " We want to show people that if you have a dream , anything is possible with a little ambition , " Fleury said of the show . It was not picked up by any network .
The 2008 launch of clothing line " FAKE " ( Fleury 's Artistic Kustom Enterprises ) led him to approach the Calgary Vipers of the Golden Baseball League in the hope of convincing them to use his brand of practice jerseys . The conversation led to talk of Fleury playing a game for the Vipers as a publicity stunt . He made his professional baseball debut on August 9 , 2008 , at the age of 40 , hitting a single in a pinch @-@ hit appearance against the Yuma Scorpions . He started the second game at left field and struck out twice before he was replaced . " I 've had so many things happen in my life already that I sometimes surprise myself with the things I 've done , the things I 've accomplished . This was just another one of those days , " Fleury said of his appearance with the Vipers .
Fleury has organized or participated in numerous charitable causes . He launched a hockey school in the mid @-@ 1990s that ran for seven years in Calgary and another eight in Russell , and donated the proceeds to minor hockey associations . Following his diagnosis with Crohn 's disease in 1995 , Fleury joined with the Crohn 's and Colitis Foundation of Canada to host an annual golf tournament in Calgary . The event has raised over $ 1 million , and is one of the organization 's largest fundraising events in the Calgary area . He participates in Flames Alumni events and volunteers with the Calgary Dream Centre , which helps people overcome addiction .
Fleury was a participant on the second season of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation figure skating reality show Battle of the Blades , aired in the fall of 2010 , and was donating his winnings to The Men 's Project , a charity that provides support for men abused in childhood . His partner was Jamie Salé and the pair finished 5th .
= = = Autobiography = = =
With the help of Kirstie McLellan Day , Fleury wrote his autobiography , Playing with Fire , which was released on October 16 , 2009 . In it , he alleged that he was sexually abused by Graham James over a period of two years . While he stated he " doesn 't want to become the poster boy for abuse by James " , Fleury hoped that speaking out might make it easier for other childhood sexual abuse victims to come forward . He blamed the abuse for turning him into a " raging , alcoholic lunatic " , and claimed to have placed a loaded gun in his mouth and contemplated suicide in 2004 . He revealed that he had spent most of his income on alcohol , drugs , gambling and women . Fleury also claimed that he failed 13 consecutive drug tests while playing for the Rangers , but that the league did not want to suspend him because he was a leading scorer . The league disputed this , and stated that its substance abuse program functioned appropriately .
Playing with Fire became the top seller on Amazon.ca within a week of its release , and Fleury stated that he had been contacted by several sexual abuse victims who were motivated by his book to seek help . He also revealed that he was contemplating a criminal complaint against James , and had begun volunteering with an organization dedicated to helping male sexual abuse victims . Fleury was surprised that his story became the top @-@ selling non @-@ fiction book in Canada ; without help , he and his wife were unable to keep up with the mail they were receiving . It is the second book about Fleury 's life , following Fury , released in 1997 , which did not discuss many of the problems he was facing at the time .
Sheldon Kennedy , who was also a victim of James , encouraged Fleury to press charges . Fleury met with Winnipeg police in January 2010 , who began an investigation when he formally filed a complaint . James ultimately pleaded guilty to charges stemming from his abuse of Fleury and his cousin Todd Holt . James was sentenced to two years in prison , a decision which sparked outrage across Canada for its perceived leniency . Fleury praised the response by Canadians and stated his desire to use it to press for changes to the legal system . Fleury is now a motivational speaker , hoping that sharing his story will encourage others to seek help for their problems .
McLellan Day adapted the autobiography into a one @-@ man play , entitled Playing with Fire : The Theo Fleury Story , which was produced by Alberta Theatre Projects in Calgary . The play made its world premiere May 1 , 2012 . Fleury and his autobiography were also the subject of a 2012 documentary by HBO Canada .
= = = Musical career = = =
In September 2015 it was announced through Fleury 's Twitter account he had been working on a Country music record to be released in the fall of 2015 . He released his first single titled " My Life 's Been a Country Song " and it reached over 20 @,@ 000 plays on Soundcloud within the first 24 hours of being released . His debut record I Am Who I Am was released on October 16 , 2015 through eOne Music Canada and has been well received by country music fanatics . The hockey star turned Country star transformation did not happen overnight as Fleury claims this project has been ongoing for the past six years with him receiving vocal and performance training from industry professionals . He collaborated with long @-@ time friends Phil Deschambault and Paddy McCallion and together they created over 30 songs worth of material that would be later cut to ten songs for the album .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =
= = Awards = =
= Carnotaurus =
Carnotaurus / ˌkɑːrnoʊˈtɔːrəs / is a genus of large theropod dinosaur that lived in South America during the Late Cretaceous period , between about 72 and 69 @.@ 9 million years ago . The only species is Carnotaurus sastrei . Known from a single well @-@ preserved skeleton , it is one of the best @-@ understood theropods from the Southern Hemisphere . The skeleton , found in 1984 , was uncovered in the Chubut Province of Argentina from rocks of the La Colonia Formation . Derived from the Latin carno [ carnis ] ( " flesh " ) and taurus ( " bull " ) , the name Carnotaurus means " meat @-@ eating bull " , alluding to its bull @-@ like horns . Carnotaurus is a derived member of the Abelisauridae , a group of large theropods that occupied the large predatorial niche in the southern Landmasses of Gondwana during the late Cretaceous . The phylogenetic relations of Carnotaurus are uncertain ; it may have been closer to either Majungasaurus or Aucasaurus .
Carnotaurus was a lightly built , bipedal predator , measuring 8 to 9 m ( 26 to 30 ft ) in length and weighing at least 1 @.@ 35 metric tons ( 1 @.@ 33 long tons ; 1 @.@ 49 short tons ) . As a theropod , Carnotaurus was highly specialized and distinctive . It had thick horns above the eyes , a feature unseen in all other carnivorous dinosaurs , and a very deep skull sitting on a muscular neck . Carnotaurus was further characterized by small , vestigial forelimbs and long and slender hindlimbs . The skeleton is preserved with extensive skin impressions , showing a mosaic of small , non @-@ overlapping scales measuring approximately 5 mm in diameter . The mosaic was interrupted by large bumps that lined the sides of the animal , and there are no hints of feathers .
The distinctive horns and the muscular neck may have been used in fighting conspecifics . According to separate studies , rivaling individuals may have combated each other with quick head blows , by slow pushes with the upper sides of their skulls , or by ramming each other head @-@ on , using their horns as shock absorbers . The feeding habits of Carnotaurus remain unclear : some studies suggest the animal was able to hunt down very large prey such as sauropods , while other studies find it preyed mainly on relatively small animals . Carnotaurus was well adapted for running and was possibly one of the fastest large theropods .
= = Description = =
Carnotaurus was a large but lightly built predator . The only known individual was about 8 – 9 metres ( 26 – 30 ft ) in length , making Carnotaurus one of the largest abelisaurids . Only Ekrixinatosaurus and possibly Abelisaurus may have been similar or larger in size , though the incomplete remains of these genera make size estimations imprecise . Its mass is estimated to have been 1 @,@ 350 kg ( 1 @.@ 33 long tons ; 1 @.@ 49 short tons ) 1 @,@ 500 kg ( 1 @.@ 5 long tons ; 1 @.@ 7 short tons ) and 2 @,@ 100 kg ( 2 @.@ 1 long tons ; 2 @.@ 3 short tons ) in separate studies that used different estimation methods . Carnotaurus was a highly specialized theropod , as seen especially in characteristics of the skull , the vertebrae and the forelimbs . The pelvis and hindlimbs , on the other hand , remained relatively conservative , resembling those of the more basal Ceratosaurus . Both the pelvis and hindlimb bones were long and slender . The left thigh bone of the individual measures 103 cm in length , but shows an average diameter of only 11 cm .
= = = Skull = = =
The skull , measuring 59 @.@ 6 cm ( 23 @.@ 5 in ) in length , was proportionally shorter and deeper than in any other large carnivorous dinosaur . The snout was moderately broad , not as tapering as seen in more basal theropods like Ceratosaurus , and the jaws were curved upwards . As in other abelisaurids , the facial bones , especially the nasal bones , were sculptured with numerous small holes and spikes . In life , a wrinkled and possibly keratinous skin would have covered these bones . A prominent pair of horns protruded obliquely above the eyes . These horns , formed by the frontal bones , were thick , cone @-@ shaped but in cross @-@ section somewhat vertically flattened , and measured 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in length . In life , they would probably have formed the bony cores of much longer keratinous horns . The proportionally small eyes were situated in the upper part of the keyhole shaped orbita ( eye sockets ) . The upper part was slightly rotated forward , probably permitting some degree of binocular vision .
The teeth were long and slender , as opposed to the usually very short teeth seen in other abelisaurids . On each side of the upper jaws there were four premaxillary and twelve maxillary teeth , while the lower jaws were equipped with fifteen dentary teeth per side . In contrast to the robust @-@ looking skull , the lower jaw was shallow and weakly constructed , with the dentary ( the foremost jaw bone ) connected to the hindmost jaw bones by only two contact points . The lower jaw was found with hyoid bones , in the position they would be in if the animal was alive . These slender bones , supporting the tongue musculature and several other muscles , are rarely found in dinosaurs because they are not connected to other bones and therefore get lost easily .
= = = Vertebrae = = =
The vertebral column consisted of ten cervical ( neck ) , twelve dorsal , six fused sacral and an unknown number of caudal ( tail ) vertebrae . The neck was nearly straight , rather than having the S @-@ curve seen in other theropods , and also unusually wide , especially towards its base . The top of the neck 's spinal column featured a double row of enlarged , upwardly directed bony processes called epipophyses , creating a smooth trough on the top of the neck vertebrae . These processes were the highest points of the spine , towering above the unusually low spinous processes . The epipophyses probably provided attachment areas for a markedly strong neck musculature . A similar double row was also present in the tail , formed there by highly modified caudal ribs , in front view protruding upwards in a V @-@ shape , their inner sides creating a smooth , flat , top surface of the front tail vertebrae . The end of each caudal rib was furnished with a forward projecting hook @-@ shaped expansion that connected to the caudal rib of the preceding vertebra .
= = = Forelimbs = = =
The forelimbs were proportionally shorter than in any other large carnivorous dinosaurs , including Tyrannosaurus . The forearm was only a quarter the size of the upper arm . There were no carpalia in the hand , so that the metacarpals articulated directly with the forearm . The hand showed four basic digits , though apparently only the middle two of these ended in finger bones , while the fourth consisted of a single splint @-@ like metacarpal that may have represented an external ' spur ' . The fingers themselves were fused and immobile , and may have lacked claws . Carnotaurus differed from all other abelisaurids in having proportionally shorter and more robust forelimbs , and in having the fourth , splint @-@ like metacarpal as the longest bone in the hand . A 2009 study suggests that the arms were vestigial in abelisaurids , because nerve fibers responsible for stimulus transmission were reduced to an extent seen in today 's emus and kiwis , which also have vestigial forelimbs .
= = = Skin = = =
Carnotaurus was the first theropod dinosaur discovered with comprehensive fossil skin impressions . These impressions , found beneath the skeleton 's right side , come from different body parts , including the lower jaw , the front of the neck , the shoulder girdle , and the rib cage . The largest patch of skin corresponds to the anterior part of the tail . Originally , the right side of the skull also was covered with large patches of skin — this was not recognized when the skull was prepared , and these patches were accidentally destroyed . Still , the surface texture of much of the right side of the skull is very different from that of the left side , and probably shows some features of the scalation pattern of the head .
The skin was built up of a mosaic of polygonal , non @-@ overlapping scales measuring approximately 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) in diameter . This mosaic was divided by thin , parallel grooves . Scalation was similar across different body parts with the exception of the head , which apparently showed a different , irregular pattern of scales . There is no evidence of feathers . Uniquely for theropods , there were large knob @-@ like bumps running along the sides of the neck , back and tail in irregular rows . Each bump showed a low ridge and measured 4 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter . They were set 8 to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) apart from each other and became larger towards the animal 's top . The bumps probably represent clusters of condensed scutes , similar to those seen on the soft frill running along the body midline in hadrosaurid ( " duck @-@ billed " ) dinosaurs . Stephen Czerkas ( 1997 ) suggested that these structures may have protected the animal 's sides while fighting members of the same species ( conspecifics ) and other theropods , arguing that similar structures can be found on the neck of the modern iguana where they provide limited protection in combat .
= = Classification = =
Carnotaurus is one of the best @-@ understood genera of the Abelisauridae , a family of large theropods restricted to the ancient southern supercontinent Gondwana . Abelisaurids were the dominant predators in the Late Cretaceous of Gondwana , replacing the carcharodontosaurids and occupying the ecological niche filled by the tyrannosaurids in the northern continents . Several notable traits that evolved within this family , including shortening of the skull and arms as well as peculiarities in the cervical and caudal vertebrae , were more pronounced in Carnotaurus than in any other abelisaurid .
Though relationships within the Abelisauridae are debated , Carnotaurus is consistently shown to be one of the most derived members of the family by cladistical analyses . Its nearest relative may have been either Aucasaurus or Majungasaurus ; this ambiguity is largely due to the incompleteness of the Aucasaurus skull material . A recent review suggests that Carnotaurus was not closely related with either Aucasaurus or Majungasaurus , and instead proposed Ilokelesia as its sister taxon .
Carnotaurus is eponymous for two subgroups of the Abelisauridae : the Carnotaurinae and the Carnotaurini . Paleontologists do not universally accept these groups . The Carnotaurinae was defined to include all derived abelisaurids with the exclusion of Abelisaurus , which is considered a basal member in most studies . However , a 2008 review suggested that Abelisaurus was a derived abelisaurid instead . Carnotaurini was proposed to name the clade formed by Carnotaurus and Aucasaurus ; only those paleontologists who consider Aucasaurus as the nearest relative of Carnotaurus use this group .
= = Discovery = =
The only skeleton ( holotype MACN @-@ CH 894 ) was unearthed in 1984 by an expedition led by Argentinian paleontologist José Bonaparte . This expedition also recovered the peculiar spiny sauropod Amargasaurus . It was the eighth expedition within the project named " Jurassic and Cretaceous Terrestrial Vertebrates of South America " , which started in 1976 and which was sponsored by the National Geographic Society . The skeleton is well @-@ preserved and articulated ( still connected together ) , with only the posterior two thirds of the tail , much of the lower leg , and the hind feet being destroyed by weathering . During fossilization , the skull and especially the muzzle were crushed laterally , while the premaxilla were pushed upwards onto the nasal bones . As a result , the upward curvature of the upper jaw is artificially exaggerated in the holotype . The skeleton belonged to an adult individual , as indicated by the fused sutures in the braincase . It was found lying on its right side , showing a typical death pose with the neck bent back over the torso . Unusually , it is preserved with extensive skin impressions . In view of the significance of these impressions , a second expedition was started to reinvestigate the original excavation site , leading to the recovery of several additional skin patches .
The skeleton was collected on a farm named " Pocho Sastre " near Bajada Moreno in the Telsen Department of Chubut Province , Argentina . Because it was embedded in a large hematite concretion , a very hard kind of rock , preparation was complicated and progressed slowly . In 1985 , Bonaparte published a note presenting Carnotaurus sastrei as a new genus and species and briefly describing the skull and lower jaw . The generic name ( Latin carno [ carnis ] – " flesh " and taurus – " bull " ) refers to the bull @-@ like horns , while the specific name sastrei honors Angel Sastre , the owner of the ranch where the skeleton was found . A comprehensive description of the whole skeleton followed in 1990 . After Abelisaurus , Carnotaurus was the second member of the family Abelisauridae that was discovered . For years , it was by far the best @-@ understood member of its family , and also the best @-@ understood theropod from the Southern Hemisphere . It was not until the 21st century that similar well @-@ preserved abelisaurids were described , including Aucasaurus , Majungasaurus and Skorpiovenator , allowing scientists to re @-@ evaluate certain aspects of the anatomy of Carnotaurus . The holotype skeleton is displayed in the Argentine Museum of Natural Sciences , Bernardino Rivadavia ; replicas can be seen in this and other museums around the world . Sculptors Stephen and Sylvia Czerkas manufactured a life @-@ sized sculpture of Carnotaurus that is now on display in the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County . This sculpture , ordered by the museum during the mid @-@ 1980s , is probably the first life restoration of a theropod showing accurate skin .
= = Age and paleoecology = =
Originally , the rocks in which Carnotaurus was found were assigned to the upper part of the Gorro Frigio Formation , which was considered to be approximately 100 million years old ( Albian or Cenomanian stage ) . Later they were realized to pertain to the much younger La Colonia Formation , dating 72 to 69 @.@ 9 million years ago ( Late Cretaceous , Lower Maastrichtian stage ) . Thus , Carnotaurus was the latest South American abelisaurid known . By the Late Cretaceous , South America was already isolated from both Africa and North America .
The La Colonia Formation is exposed over the southern slope of the North Patagonian Massif . Most vertebrate fossils , including Carnotaurus , come from the formation 's middle section ( called the middle facies association ) . This part likely represents the deposits of an environment of estuaries , tidal flats or coastal plains . The climate would have been seasonal with both dry and humid periods . The most common vertebrates collected include ceratodontid lungfish , turtles , crocodiles , plesiosaurs , dinosaurs , lizards , snakes and mammals . Some of the snakes that have been found belong to the families Boidae and Madtsoidae , such as Alamitophis argentinus . Turtles are represented by at least five taxa , four from Chelidae ( Pleurodira ) and one from Meiolaniidae ( Cryptodira ) . Among the marine reptiles is the plesiosaur Sulcusuchus erraini of the family Polycotylidae . Mammals are represented with Reigitherium bunodontum , which was considered the first record of a South American docodont , and Argentodites coloniensis , possibly of Multituberculata . In 2011 , the discovery of a new enantiornithine bird from the La Colonia Formation was announced .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Function of the horns = = =
Carnotaurus is the only known carnivorous bipedal animal with a pair of horns on the frontal bone . The use of these horns is not entirely clear ; several interpretations have revolved around use in fighting conspecifics , in display , or in killing prey .
Greg Paul ( 1988 ) proposed that the horns were butting weapons and that the small orbita would have minimized the possibility of hurting the eyes while fighting . Gerardo Mazzetta and colleagues ( 1998 ) suggested that Carnotaurus used its horns in a way similar to rams . They calculated that the neck musculature was strong enough to absorb the force of two individuals colliding with their heads frontally at a speed of 5 @.@ 7 m / s each . Fernando Novas ( 2009 ) interpreted several skeletal features as adaptations for delivering blows with the head . He suggested that the shortness of the skull might have made head movements quicker by reducing the moment of inertia , while the muscular neck would have allowed strong head blows . He also noted an enhanced rigidity and strength of the spinal column that may have evolved to withstand shocks conducted by the head and neck .
Other studies suggest that rivaling Carnotaurus did not deliver rapid head blows , but pushed slowly against each other with the upper sides of their skulls . Thus , the horns may have been a device for the distribution of compression forces without damage to the brain . This is supported by the flattened upper sides of the horns , the strongly fused bones of the top of the skull , and the inability of the skull to survive rapid head blows .
Gerardo Mazzetta and colleagues ( 1998 ) propose that the horns might also have been used to injure or kill small prey . Though horn cores are blunt , they may have had a similar form to modern bovid horns if there was a keratinous covering . However , this would be the only reported example of horns being used as hunting weapons in animals .
= = = Jaw function and diet = = =
Analysis of the jaw design of Carnotaurus by Mazzetta and colleagues ( 1998 , 2004 , 2009 ) suggests that the animal was capable of quick bites , but not strong ones . Quick bites are more important than strong bites when capturing small prey , as shown by studies of modern @-@ day crocodiles . Furthermore , these researchers noted a high degree of flexibility ( kinesis ) within the skull and especially the lower jaw , somewhat similar to modern snakes . Elasticity of the jaw would have allowed Carnotaurus to swallow small prey items whole . In addition , the front part of the lower jaw was hinged , and thus able to move up and down . When pressed downwards , the teeth would have projected forward , allowing Carnotaurus to spike small prey items ; when the teeth were curved upwards , the now backward projecting teeth would have hindered the caught prey from escaping . Mazzetta and colleagues also found that the skull was able to withstand forces that appear when tugging on large prey items . Carnotaurus may therefore have fed mainly on relatively small prey , but also was able to hunt large dinosaurs .
This interpretation was questioned by François Therrien and colleagues ( 2005 ) , who found that the biting force of Carnotaurus was twice as high as that of the American alligator , which may have the strongest bite of any living tetrapod . These researchers also noted analogies with modern Komodo dragons : the flexural strength of the lower jaw decreases towards the tip linearly , indicating that the jaws were not suited for high precision catching of small prey but for delivering slashing wounds to weaken big prey . As a consequence , according to this study , Carnotaurus must have mainly preyed upon large animals , possibly by ambush .
Robert Bakker ( 1998 ) found that Carnotaurus mainly fed upon very large prey , especially sauropods . As he noted , several adaptations of the skull — the short snout , the relatively small teeth and the strong back of the skull ( occiput ) — had independently evolved in Allosaurus . These features suggest that the upper jaw was used like a serrated club to inflict wounds ; big sauropods would have been weakened by repeated attacks .
= = = Locomotion = = =
Mazzetta and colleagues ( 1998 , 1999 ) presumed that Carnotaurus was a swift runner , arguing that the thigh bone was adapted to withstand high bending moments while running . The ability of an animal 's leg to withstand those forces limits its top speed . The running adaptations of Carnotaurus would have been better than those of a human , although not nearly as good as those of an ostrich . Scientists calculate that Carnotaurus had a top speed of up to 48 – 56 km ( 30 – 35 mi ) per hour .
In dinosaurs , the most important locomotor muscle was located in the tail . This muscle , called caudofemoralis , attaches to the fourth trochanter , a prominent ridge on the thigh bone , and pulls the thigh bone backwards when contracted . Scott Persons and Phil Currie ( 2011 ) note that in the tail vertebrae of Carnotaurus the caudal ribs did not protrude horizontally ( " T @-@ shaped " ) , but were angled against the vertical axis of the vertebrae , forming a " V " . This would have provided additional space for a caudofemoralis muscle larger than in any other theropod — the muscle mass was calculated at 111 to 137 kilograms ( 245 to 302 lb ) per leg . Therefore , Carnotaurus could have been one of the fastest large theropods . While the caudofemoralis muscle was enlarged , the epaxial muscles situated above the caudal ribs would have been proportionally smaller . These muscles , called the longissimus and spinalis muscle , were responsible for tail movement and stability . To maintain tail stability in spite of reduction of these muscles , the caudal ribs bear forward projecting processes interlocking the vertebrae with each other and with the pelvis , stiffening the tail . As a consequence , the ability to make tight turns would have been diminished , because the hip and tail had to be turned simultaneously , unlike in other theropods .
= Go Missin ' =
" Go Missin ' " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Usher . It was produced by Diplo and was released on Valentine 's Day 2013 through SoundCloud as a free download . The year before , Usher released " Climax " on Valentine 's Day , the lead single from his seventh studio album , Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . Prior to its release , the singer tweeted that he had a " special delivery from the cloud " for his fans , who responded positively to the | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
50 cents per month , and that the society had the authority to levy further financial contributions from its members as it deemed necessary . The funds collected were to cover the society 's operating costs , and the remaining funds were to be used in purchasing books for the library . Under the constitution , the society 's meetings were to be held weekly . Following each meeting 's business session , a debate or other literary exercises were to be held consisting of topics of general interest of the members . No political or religious discussions were to take place during the debates unless they were of an abstract nature or in general terms . Profane language and " spirituous liquors " were also forbidden from the society 's meetings , with each offense being punishable with a fine of one dollar . The society 's first elected officers were Charles T. Magill as president , William C. Wodrow as secretary , and John Temple as treasurer .
= = Early debates = =
The society 's next meeting was held on February 13 , 1819 in the old Hampshire County Courthouse , where the first matter for debate was " Resolved : That a representative should be governed by instructions from his constituents . " Following the debate , the decision was rendered in favor of the affirmative . The second meeting , which was held on February 19 of that year at the Romney Academy , debated the question , " Is an education acquired at the public school or [ is ] a private tutor to be preferred ? " and the society favored the public school . At this second meeting , the first money appropriated by the society was paid to the doorkeeper for a sum of 25 cents . Also at this second meeting , the treasurer was instructed to purchase a book for use by the secretary , three candlesticks , one pair of snuffers , and three pounds of candles . On February 26 , the society argued the question , " Is a system of banking advantageous to a community ? " The debate ended under the decision that a system of banking was advantageous . The following meeting on March 6 debated a question far more psychological in nature , which was an abstract question of religion : " Can the human mind , by its own reflection , arrive at the conclusion that the soul is immortal ? " The society decided in the negative . The society also debated and decided in the negative the question , " Is a protective tariff detrimental to the interests of the country ? "
One of the society 's more spirited debates occurred in May 1822 over the question , " Is it to the interest of the people of Hampshire to encourage the canalling of the Potomac ? " While no records of the arguments survive , the society decided that the canalling of the Potomac River would be detrimental to the interests of Hampshire County . The debate took place before the construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal along the Maryland shore of the Potomac River to the north of Hampshire County . The society 's consensus was that a canal on the Potomac would destroy the business of teamsters who hauled merchandise from the east along the Northwestern Turnpike . For this reason , the society and local population of Romney also objected to the construction of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad . To ensure confidentiality , the society passed a bylaw that enforced a fine of five dollars on any member who published either his own or another member 's speeches delivered before the society . As a result of this bylaw , no speeches were ever published . The society adopted a new constitution in 1824 .
= = Growth and influence = =
Over the first ten years of the society 's existence , the organization grew in membership and held meetings at least twice a month , and usually four times a month . The society debated an extensive range of subjects including scientific , religious , political , and social topics , often violating the constitution 's rules banning religious and political subjects . The society 's debates were often acrimonious and regularly spilled beyond the confines of the meetings and into the community . Between January 30 , 1819 and January 22 , 1830 , the society 's membership rolls reached 52 members ; although as few as 15 members attended the bimonthly meetings , and no more than 17 members were ever present at a meeting .
Even though the Romney Literary Society 's membership was relatively small , its debates and activities were frequently discussed throughout the Potomac Highlands region . For this reason , the society greatly influenced trends of thought in the Romney community and surrounding areas . No records of the society 's proceedings , works , or membership enrollments spanning the period between January 22 , 1830 and 1861 are extant . During this period , the society counted among its members Angus William McDonald , John Baker White , and Robert White .
= = Library collection = =
In order to fulfill one of its primary purposes of establishing a library for its members , the Romney Literary Society gradually began to acquire volumes for such a use . The society 's library began with the April 23 , 1819 appropriation for the purchase of two books : Plutarch 's Parallel Lives and Emer de Vattel 's The Law of Nations . On July 2 , 1819 , the balance of available funds in the treasurer 's account was two dollars and forty @-@ six cents , but by October 23 , there were sufficient funds to purchase the following volumes : Charles Rollin 's Ancient History , Lewis ' Roman History , and William Robertson 's History of the Reign of Charles the Fifth .
No more volumes were purchased until the end of 1820 , when the society acquired the works of Livy , Tacitus , and John Marshall 's Life of Washington . Three months later , the society purchased a bookcase for its growing collection . In April 1821 , the society further expanded its library with the acquisitions of Nathaniel Hooke 's Roman History , from the Building of Rome to the Ruin of the Commonwealth , the works of Herodotus , Travels in Greece , Modern Europe , David Ramsay 's History of the United States , and the works of Benjamin Franklin .
In 1821 , the Virginia General Assembly passed an act incorporating the organization as the " Library Society of Romney . " The society found the assembly 's charter unsatisfactory , as it specified several changes to the organization that the society had not asked for , including the change in its name . The members regarded their society as a " literary " society and not a " library " one . The society requested that the assembly amend its charter , and after several delays and debates over the new charter , the Virginia General Assembly passed a new act on February 4 , 1823 , in which the organization was rebranded as " The Literary Society of Romney . " The society maintained this long form name throughout the duration of its existence , although it was locally known as the " Romney Literary Society . "
Within the span of ten years , the society 's small library grew to contain approximately 3 @,@ 000 volumes on literature , science , history , and art . These were bound in calfskin and stamped with the seal of the society . The minutes from the society 's bimonthly meetings listed the books purchased and the methods by which they were acquired . According to the Federal Writers ' Project in their Historic Romney 1762 – 1937 ( 1937 ) , the book selections and their acquisition " indicate that these men possessed real literary judgment and business ability . "
By resolutions of the society , the use of the library was for the society 's members , and was further extended to " ministers of the gospel of all denominations gratis . " Certain citizens of Romney were also granted access to the library , and enjoyed similar privileges as its members .
= = Academic patronage = =
From the organization 's foundation , the Romney Literary Society gradually began to recognize that the local subscription school systems provided only elementary and often fragmentary education and no longer satisfied the academic needs of the Romney community . The society periodically engaged in lengthy deliberations on which theories of educational advancement and popular education were preferable . Shortly after its establishment , the society commenced a movement to establish an institution for " the higher education of the youth of the community . " In 1820 , as a result of this initiative , the teaching of the classics was introduced into the curriculum of Romney Academy , thus making the institution the first school of higher education in the Eastern Panhandle . Under the guidance , leadership , and strict discipline of Dr. Henry Johnston , Romney Academy became widely renowned for its courses in " higher classics . " His successor and society member William Henry Foote introduced courses in theology , and the school 's enrollment grew to include students preparing for ministry . As the school became more renowned in the South Branch Potomac River valley , pupils came from further and further away . Thomas and Samuel Mulledy were among the early instructors at the academy , both of whom later served as presidents of Georgetown University in Washington , D.C.
By 1831 , Romney Academy had outgrown its facilities in the old stone school building behind the Hampshire County Courthouse . To remedy this , the society instituted a campaign to raise funds for a new school building . On January 6 , 1832 , the Virginia General Assembly authorized the society to raise an endowment of $ 20 @,@ 000 in a lottery for educational purposes . Following a ten @-@ year lapse , the society made arrangements with James Gregory of Jersey City and Daniel McIntyre of Philadelphia to finance a lottery " for raising a sum of money not exceeding twenty thousand dollars , for the purpose of erecting a suitable building for their accommodation , the purchase of library and Philosophical apparatus . " The lottery was to be conducted over a period of ten years , and sums of $ 750 , $ 1 @,@ 000 , and $ 1 @,@ 500 were to be raised in semiannual installments . The society was successful in raising funds , and in 1845 the society solicited bids for the construction of a new building to house both the academy , the society , and the society 's library . The society also used the lottery funds to pay for books for the academy .
On February 12 , 1844 , the Virginia General Assembly passed an act authorizing the society to denote the balance of the moneys raised by the lottery to the Romney Academy . The assembly further enacted another legislative act on December 12 , 1846 , authorizing the Romney Literary Society to " establish at or near the town of Romney a Seminary of Learning for the instruction of youth in various branches of science and literature ; and the Society map appropriate to the same such portion of the property which it now has or may acquire , as it may deem expedient . " That same year , a new brick neoclassical building was constructed east of Romney , and the society , its library , and Romney Academy relocated to the new facility . The second story of the new building was utilized by the society , with one hall for meetings and the other hall for the society 's library . According to Maxwell , " few schools in the state of Virginia at that time had access to better libraries . " The new institute building and grounds cost the society about $ 8 @,@ 000 . Following its move to the new building , the academy was reorganized as the Romney Classical Institute and its activities fell under the supervision of the society . The institute was operated under the principalship of Foote from 1846 until 1849 .
In 1849 , the society presented a new code and system of bylaws for the government of the Romney Classical Institute , which reserved to the society the power to appoint assistant teachers , fix the amount of salaries , and provide the conditions and manners of payment and reimbursement . Foote differed with the society over these matters , and he ultimately declined to accept the new bylaws and resigned his leadership position in October 1849 ; in 1850 , he established a rival institution known as the Potomac Seminary . Rather than falling under the patronage of the society , Foote 's new institution fell under the control of the Presbyterian church . Following Foote 's departure , the society selected Professor E. J. Meany to head the Romney Classical Institute . Despite the schism , the society also provided financial support from the lottery to the Potomac Seminary .
According to a " catalogue of the members and library " published on June 1 , 1849 , there were 20 registered members on the rolls who paid $ 3 each per year to the society 's library fund ; there were also eight library members who were admitted under certain regulations of the society and who paid the same fees . Members who had use of the library were provided keys and were allowed access to the library at any time . The town 's clergymen and the principal of the Romney Classical Institute were the only non @-@ members who were extended privileges to the library . The 1849 " catalogue " listed Alfred P. White as the society 's librarian and E. J. Meany remained the principal of the institute . After 1853 , the society possessed a permanent fund of $ 12 @,@ 000 , which yielded $ 720 per year , one half of which was devoted to the support of the Romney Classical Institute .
= = American Civil War and hiatus = =
The Romney Literary Society and the Romney Classical Institute flourished and continued to grow in importance and influence until the onset of the American Civil War in 1861 . Following the war 's outbreak , many of the society 's members and the institute 's professors and older students joined the Confederate States Army and marched to war . During the war , the society suffered extensive losses . The Romney Classical Institute building and its library were considered legitimate plunder by Union Army forces . The society 's library was emptied and three @-@ fourths of its volumes were either scattered or destroyed . The most valuable of these volumes were never recovered following the war 's end . Its records of proceedings between 1830 and 1861 , the period during which the society engaged in most of its notable literary and philanthropic works , were also destroyed during the war .
Following the war 's end , only 400 out of the library 's nearly 3 @,@ 000 volumes could be recovered , with only 200 of those books remaining on the library 's shelves . Between 10 and 20 of the library 's recovered volumes only contained three to four of their original books . The value of the recovered volumes was degraded , as many were damaged or broken . The society members that returned home to Romney were too war @-@ weary to revive the society when they discovered the ruins of the Romney Classical Institute and its library , which had been an expensive endeavor to accumulate and took almost a half @-@ century of labor to amass . The Romney Classical Institute was not restored and was in effect disestablished on account of the war .
= = Revival = =
Following the war , the residents of Romney set about repairing public buildings and reestablishing the town 's antebellum institutions , including the Romney Literary Society . The society remained on a hiatus until May 15 , 1869 when a meeting was held by nine members , as only nine original members had responded to the call for reorganization . These nine members tasked with rebuilding the society were James L. Armstrong , David Entler , William Harper , John C. Heiskell , Andrew Wodrow Kercheval , Samuel R. Lupton , James Parsons , Alfred P. White , and Robert White . These men sought to collect what remained of the library 's books and engaged in a campaign to recruit new members , which resulted in the enrollment of 20 younger men over a period of a few years . Many of the men who had been members in 1861 had died during the war , and the recruitment of new members was essential to the revival of the society . Among the new members elected between 1869 and 1886 were John Collins Covell , Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy , Henry Bell Gilkeson , Howard Hille Johnson , and Christian Streit White . The society , with renewed vigor , took a lead role in Romney 's civil development during the Reconstruction Era .
Between 1869 and 1870 , the society completed construction of a new two @-@ story brick building on Lot 56 at the corner of West Main and North High Streets known as Literary Hall , where it could hold its meetings and reassemble the remaining volumes from its original library . Literary Hall was built upon the former location of the shuttered Bank of the South Branch of the Potomac . In addition to the 400 volumes that were initially recovered following the war , the society recovered several more volumes from its original library , and set about purchasing new books ; the restored library was reopened with about 700 volumes .
= = West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind = =
Around the time of the society 's reorganization in 1869 , the state of West Virginia considered the establishment of a school for the deaf and the blind . The society resolved to secure the new state institution for Romney . On April 12 , 1870 , the society passed a resolution by which the members agreed to deed , free of cost , the buildings and grounds of the Romney Classical Institute .
On April 20 , 1870 , the society sent Andrew Wodrow Kercheval and Robert White as representatives to the then @-@ state capital Wheeling to present their formal offer of " the grounds and buildings of the Romney Classical Institute ... to the Board of Regents , free of debt , and in good repair " on the condition that the proposed school be located in Romney . Clarksburg and Parkersburg also made offers of potential campuses to the state . The offer was made to the Board of Regents of the West Virginia Institute for the Deaf , Dumb , and Blind , as it was then known , and the society 's proposal was accepted by the regents after a brief period of deliberation . The society 's offer was the only one that included a building upon the grounds .
It was discovered by the society that in order to follow through with their proposition , it was necessary to raise more than $ 1 @,@ 000 , which was ostensibly a difficult task during the Reconstruction Era in Romney . On July 11 , 1870 , the Board of Regents passed a resolution necessitating the subscription of between $ 1 @,@ 200 and $ 1 @,@ 300 to facilitate the transaction . One hundred and eighteen individuals and firms responded to the board 's request with a total subscription of $ 1 @,@ 383 @.@ 60 . To make good on its offer , the society also made an appropriation of $ 320 on July 11 for the purpose of repairing and restoring the former Romney Classical Institute and grounds so that they were satisfactory before they were transferred to the regents . Shortly thereafter , the old institute building and 15 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 ha ) of property were formally transferred to the state of West Virginia .
On September 29 , 1870 , the institute , which was later known as the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind , opened its doors in the old Romney Classical Institute building with 25 deaf and five blind students . Following its disestablishment in 1916 , the adjacent Potomac Academy ( formerly Potomac Seminary ) grounds were also incorporated into the campus of the Schools for the Deaf and Blind .
= = Final years = =
During a period of ten years spanning from 1870 to 1880 , much of Romney 's intellectual life centered on Literary Hall . During this time , the society met only occasionally and there were no records of meetings between March 1872 and April 1878 . The post @-@ war period of revival was short @-@ lived , as the death of the older members caused interest in the society to wane . The society 's meetings occurred less often , and the last recorded meeting of the society was held on February 15 , 1886 . During the society 's second existence , Literary Hall was used as a meeting space by the Freemasons and the Order of the Eastern Star , and the organizations continued to inhabit the hall following the society 's disestablishment until its 1974 purchase by attorney Ralph Haines . Also a local historian , Haines restored Literary Hall and used it as his law office and museum . Literary Hall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 29 , 1979 and , as of 2004 , it is occasionally open to the public . The society 's remaining records , dating as early as 1819 , remain on display there .
= = Legacy = =
In describing the efforts of the Romney Literary Society , historian Hu Maxwell , in his History of Hampshire County , West Virginia From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present ( 1897 ) , stated that " the work accomplished by these few energetic citizens of Romney is astonishing . " Maxwell further asserted , " No other one thing in the history of the town has had such lasting results for good . " The society left many lasting impacts upon the town of Romney during its existence and beyond , which included the foundation of a library ; the academic and financial support and patronage of the Romney Academy , Romney Classical Institute , and the Potomac Seminary ; the civic leadership during the Reconstruction Era ; and the influence and assistance in securing the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind . According to Maxwell , without the efforts of the society , the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind could not have been secured for Romney , and would have likely been located elsewhere in the state .
= Bill Stein =
William Allen " Bill " Stein ( born January 21 , 1947 in Battle Creek , Michigan ) is a retired professional baseball player and manager . His playing career spanned 17 seasons , 14 of which were spent in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) with the St. Louis Cardinals ( 1972 – 73 ) , the Chicago White Sox ( 1974 – 76 ) , the Seattle Mariners ( 1977 – 1980 ) , and the Texas Rangers ( 1981 – 85 ) . Over his career in the majors Stein batted .267 with 122 doubles , 18 triples , 44 home runs , and 311 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 959 games played . Stein played numerous fielding positions over his major league career , including third base , second base , first base , left field , right field , and shortstop . He also spent significant time as a pinch hitter .
= = Bio = =
Stein was drafted out of Southern Illinois University during the 1969 Major League Baseball draft by the St. Louis Cardinals . He made his professional debut that season in their minor league organization . On September 6 , 1972 , Stein made his MLB debut with the Cardinals . During the 1973 season , St. Louis traded him to the California Angels , who just a few months later , traded him to the Chicago White Sox . Stein was selected by the Seattle Mariners from the White Sox in the 1976 Major League Baseball expansion draft . He came to his final team , the Texas Rangers , by way of free agency . After his playing career , Stein managed in the New York Mets minor league organization for four seasons ( 1988 – 1991 ) . He managed the non @-@ affiliated Bend Bucks in 1991 , and joined the Clinton Giants in 1992 , who were minor league affiliates of the San Francisco Giants at the time . He also managed the independent league Tyler WildCatters in 1994 .
= = Early life = =
Stein was born on January 21 , 1947 , in Battle Creek , Michigan . Stein attended Brevard Community College when he was drafted by the Baltimore Orioles during the 33rd round of the 1968 Major League Baseball draft . Stein did not sign with the Orioles . He began attending Southern Illinois University in 1969 . As a member of the school 's baseball team , he batted .396 and was named an All @-@ American by the American Baseball Coaches Association . Stein was drafted by the St. Louis Cardinals during the fourth round of the 1969 Major League Baseball draft .
= = Playing career = =
= = = St. Louis Cardinals = = =
In 1969 , Stein began his professional baseball career in the St. Louis Cardinals minor league organization . The Cardinals assigned him to the Tulsa Oilers , who were their Triple @-@ A affiliates at the time . With the Oilers , Stein batted .295 with 24 runs scored , 54 hits , 11 doubles , five triples , one home run , and 20 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 62 games played . Defensively , Stein played 31 games at second base , 14 games at third base , and five games at shortstop . During the 1970 season , the Cardinals assigned Stein to the Double @-@ A level to play with the Arkansas Travelers of the Texas League . In 114 games played that year , he batted .289 with 124 hits , 21 doubles , two triples , and eight home runs . In the field , Stein played second base and outfield . In 1971 , Stein was promoted to the Triple @-@ A level . He spent the entire season with the Tulsa Oilers , where he batted .272 with 50 runs scored , 106 hits , 106 hits , 22 doubles , four triples , eight home runs , and 67 RBIs in 103 games played . Stein pitched a game that season , after Tulsa 's starting pitcher was ejected from the game after throwing the ball at the umpire . In six innings , he gave @-@ up eight hits , and three runs ( all earned ) . He played the majority of the season in the outfield , but also spent limited time at third base , first base , and shortstop .
To start the 1972 season , Stein was a member of the Triple @-@ A Tulsa Oilers . With Tulsa that year , he batted .278 with 100 hits , 26 doubles , four triples , five home runs , and 36 RBIs in 103 games played . Stein was a September call @-@ up for the St. Louis cardinals that year . He made his debut in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) on September 6 , 1972 , against the Philadelphia Phillies . He got his first hit in that game , which was a home run in the ninth inning . He played 14 games in the majors that year , batting .314 with two runs scored , 11 hits , one triple , two home runs , and three RBIs . Defensively in the majors , he was positioned at third base , left field , and right field .
During spring training in 1973 , the Sarasota Herald @-@ Tribune labeled Stein as the Cardinals candidate for pinch hitting off the bench . He made the Cardinals Opening Day roster that year . He made his season debut on April 6 as a pinch hitter , going hitless in one at @-@ bat against the Pittsburgh Pirates . His first hit of the season came on April 17 , against the Pirates . In August , Stein was sent down to the minor leagues and was replaced on the Cardinals major league roster by outfielder Héctor Cruz . In the minors , he played with the Triple @-@ A Tulsa Oilers , where he batted .289 with 23 hits , two doubles , and one triple in 21 games played . While in the majors that season , Stein compiled a .218 batting average with four runs scored , 12 hits , two doubles , and two RBIs in 32 games played . On defense with the Cardinals , he played right field , left field , third base , and first base .
= = = Chicago White Sox = = =
On September 25 , Stein was traded by the St. Louis Cardinals to the California Angels in exchange for Jerry DaVanon . California then traded Stein to the Chicago White Sox on April 3 , 1974 , before he made an appearance in the Angels organization . In return , the White Sox sent Steve Blateric to California . Stein started the 1974 season in the White Sox minor league system with the Triple @-@ A Iowa Oaks . In 135 games with Iowa , he batted .326 with 107 runs scored , 178 hits , 32 doubles , eight triples , 16 home runs , and 76 RBIs . Stein led the American Association in hits ; was second in runs scored , plate appearances ( 594 ) , at @-@ bats ( 554 ) , and doubles ; and was tied for second in triples . He was called up by Chicago in September . Stein made his season debut on September 13 , against the California Angels , getting no hits in four at @-@ bats . His first hit of the season came the day after , against California . In the majors that year , Stein batted .276 with five runs scored , 12 hits , one double , and five RBIs in 13 games played .
Stein spent his first full season in the majors during the 1975 season . His season debut came on April 16 , against the Texas Rangers , where in one at @-@ bat he went hitless . In June , Stein was named the starting third baseman after Bill Melton , who was Chicago 's regular third baseman , was benched for poor hitting . Stein also played back @-@ up for second baseman Jorge Orta over the season . On July 20 , in the second game of a doubleheader against the Milwaukee Brewers , Stein hit his first career grand slam . On the season , Stein batted .270 with 23 runs scored , 61 hits , seven doubles , one triple , three home runs , and 21 RBIs in 76 games played . In the field , he played 28 games at second base , 24 games at second base , and one game in left field . Stein also played 18 games that year at the designated hitter spot in the lineup .
Stein played his final season with the Chicago White Sox in 1976 . On August 17 , in the first game of a doubleheader against the Boston Red Sox , he hit a game @-@ winning single in the ninth inning to score Pat Kelly . In August , United Press International noted that it was the first time in his major leaue career that Stein was getting a chance to start regularly . During the season , he compiled a .268 batting average with 32 runs scored , 105 hits , 15 doubles , two triples , four home runs , and 36 RBIs in 117 games played . Stien played 58 games at second base , 58 games at third base , one game at first base , one game in right field , and one game at shortstop . He was also the designated hitter in one game during that season .
= = = Seattle Mariners = = =
During the 1976 Major League Baseball expansion draft , Stein was selected by the Seattle Mariners , who took him with their third pick in the draft . Stein stated he was " glad " that the Mariners drafted him , because he did not like playing at Comiskey Park , the home of his previous team , the Chicago White Sox . He was profiled by the Associated Press during spring training in 1977 , and was interviewed about his new team and his unique versatility in the field . Stein mentioned to the reporter that although he had played a wide verity of positions in the past , he hoped he would get a chance to be the Mariners starting third baseman . In a win against the Boston Red Sox on May 3 , Stein hit two home runs in the same game . In June , Stein commented on how he liked starting every day at third base for the Mariners . The Mariners manager , Darrell Johnson , Praised Stein for playing " good ball " with Seattle . On July 8 , in a game against the Minnesota Twins , Stein had another two @-@ home run performance , his second of the season . In early @-@ September , Stein got hit in the shoulder by a baseball , which was later revealed to have caused a hairline fracture . With the Mariners that year , he batted .259 with 53 runs scored , 144 hits , 26 doubles , five triples , 13 home runs , and 67 RBIs in 151 games played . Defensively , the vast majority of his games ( 147 ) were played at third base , but he also played limited time at shortstop . He led the American League in putouts by a third baseman with 146 . Stein was also fifth in the league in defensive games at third base .
Before the start of the 1978 season , Stein re @-@ signed with the Seattle Mariners . His contract meant he was now signed through the 1980 season . In May 1978 , he bruised his left hand , which caused him to miss some playing time . On August 25 , he broke up Dennis Martínez 's potential no @-@ hitter in the seventh inning of a game against the Baltimore Orioles . On August 28 , in a game against the Boston Red Sox , Stein had a season @-@ high four hits . On the season , he batted .261 with 41 runs scored , 105 hits , 24 doubles , four triples , four home runs , and 37 RBIs in 114 games played . In the field , Stein played 67 games at third base , 17 games at second base , and three games at shortstop . His 24 errors at third base was second in the American League .
Early into the 1979 season , Stein was placed on the disabled list after suffering a rib injury . Charlie Beamon , Jr. was called up from the minor leagues to replace Stein during his injury . In late June , the Mariners activated Stein from the disabled list . By the time he had returned , the Mariners had already positioned Dan Meyer at his position , so Stein filled in at second base during his first game back . That year , Stein batted .248 with 28 runs scored , 62 hits , nine doubles , two triples , seven home runs , and 27 RBIs in 88 games played . As a fielder , he played 67 games at third base , 17 games at second base , and three games at shortstop .
Stein 's final season with the Seattle Mariners would come in 1980 . On April 29 , against the Minnesota Twins , Stein had a season high four hit game . He matched that high on July 26 , against the Toronto Blue Jays . On July 28 , Stein broke up a no @-@ hit bid by Cleveland Indians pitcher Len Barker . In his final season with the Mariners , Stein batted .268 with 16 runs scored , 53 hits , five doubles , one triple , five home runs , and 27 RBIs in 67 games played . Defensively , he played 34 games at third base , 14 games at second base , and eight games at first base . He also played five games that season as Seattle 's designated hitter .
= = = Texas Rangers = = =
In December 1980 , Stein was signed as a free agent by the Texas Rangers . Stein made his Rangers debut on April 14 , 1981 , against the Cleveland Indians . In that game , he got one hit in two at @-@ bats . In May , Stein set an American League record by recording seven consecutive pinch hits . Through June , Stein had a .441 batting average . On the season , Stein batted .330 with 21 runs scored , 38 hits , six doubles , two home runs , and 22 RBIs in 53 games played . In the field , he played 20 games at first base , seven games at third base , seven games in left field , three games at second base , one game in right field , and one game at shortstop .
On April 16 , 1982 , in a game against the Milwaukee Brewers , Stein hit a game @-@ winning double in the top of the ninth inning . In June , while playing against his former team , the Seattle Mariners , Stein praised their pitching staff . In 85 games that year , Stein batted .239 , the lowest average of his career since the 1972 season where he played with the St. Louis Cardinals . He also compiled 14 runs scored , 44 hits , eight doubles , one home run , and 16 RBIs . In the field , he played 34 games at second base , 28 games at third base , six games at shortstop , two games at first base , and one game in left field . Stein also was the designated hitter during three games .
In March 1983 , Stein praised the Texas Rangers new manager , Doug Rader , for working on the game in a " serious " way . On May 18 , in a game against the Cleveland Indians , Stein was brought in as a pinch hitter during the 14th inning , and proceeded to get the game @-@ winning hit for the Rangers . With Texas that year , he batted .310 with 21 runs scored , 72 hits , 15 doubles , one triple , two home runs , and 33 RBIs in 78 games played . Stein played the majority of his games at second base , but also played first base and third base . He was used as the Rangers designated hitter in six contests that year . After the season , Stein spoke out against a transaction that the Rangers made , trading Jim Sundberg to the Milwaukee Brewers , calling him a " mainstay of the organization " .
In 1984 , the Associated Press stated that Stein was one of the American League 's best pinch hitters . Early into the season , he injured his wrist , which caused him to miss some playing time . In mid @-@ June , the Rangers activated him from the disabled list . On the season , Stein batted .279 with three runs scored , 12 hits , one double and three RBIs in 27 games played . Stein played 11 games at second base , three games at first base , and three games at third base . He also spent four games as the Rangers designated hitter .
Before the 1985 season , it was announced that the Texas Rangers had traded Stein to the Pittsburgh Pirates in exchange for a player to be named later , pending a physical . The Pirates later canceled the trade after team doctors discovered a " probable disc problem " in his back . Rumors then circulated that it was possible that Steins ' career would be ended by the injury . However , Stein did play 44 games with the Rangers that season , batting .253 with five runs scored , 20 hits , three doubles , one triple , one home run , and 12 RBIs . He played 11 games at third base , eight games at first base , three games at second base , and three games in right field . Stein was the team 's designated hitter in six games that year . In his final season in the majors , he earned a salary of $ 250 @,@ 000 ( $ 550 @,@ 046 inflation adjusted ) . At the end of the season , Texas announced that it would not re @-@ sign Stein . Through an agent , Stein commented that if he could not play for Texas in the upcoming season , he would retire .
= = Coaching career = =
In 1987 , Stein coached the Rockledge High School baseball team , leading them a district title with a 17 – 11 record . Stein was hired as the manager of the Class A @-@ Short Season Little Falls Mets of the New York – Penn League in 1988 . Little Falls were minor league affiliates of the New York Mets . In his first professional season as a manager , Stein led Little Falls to a 39 – 36 record . Stein commented that when he became a manager it was difficult to learn pitching after all the years of being a position player . In 1989 , the New York Mets fired Butch Hobson , the manager of the Class @-@ A Columbia Mets , and promoted Stein to that position . At the helm of Colombia that year , Stein led them to a 73 – 67 record . He also served as a player @-@ coach with the Orlando Juice of the Senior Professional Baseball Association in 1989 .
Stein continued to manage the Columbia Mets in 1990 , leading them to an 83 – 60 record . The Mets had the best record in the South Atlantic League that season . In 1991 , Stein was hired to be the manager of the Bend Bucks of the Northwest League . The non @-@ affiliated Bucks had a record of 30 – 46 with Stein as the manager . He was hired to be the manager of the Clinton Giants in 1992 . Clinton was the Class @-@ A affiliate of the San Francisco Giants at the time . Stein led Clinton to a 59 – 79 record that year . After considering taking a year off of baseball in 1994 , Stein eventually accepted the managerial position with the independent league Tyler WildCatters .
He recently relocated and lives in Palm Coast Florida , where he has been an outstanding infielder and intimidating hitter in the Flagler ( County ) Senior Softball League .
= Ranavalona I =
Ranavalona I ( born Rabodoandrianampoinimerina ; 1778 – August 16 , 1861 ) , also known as Ramavo and Ranavalo @-@ Manjaka I , was sovereign of the Kingdom of Madagascar from 1828 to 1861 . After positioning herself as queen following the death of her young husband and second cousin , Radama I , Ranavalona pursued a policy of isolationism and self @-@ sufficiency , reducing economic and political ties with European powers , repelling a French attack on the coastal town of Foulpointe , and taking vigorous measures to eradicate the small but growing Malagasy Christian movement initiated under Radama I by members of the London Missionary Society . She made heavy use of the traditional practice of fanompoana ( forced labor as tax payment ) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 Merina soldiers , whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the realm . The combination of regular warfare , disease , difficult forced labor and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33 @-@ year reign .
Although greatly obstructed by Ranavalona 's policies , French and British political interests in Madagascar remained undiminished . Divisions between traditionalist and pro @-@ European factions at the queen 's court created opportunities that European intermediaries exploited in an attempt to hasten the succession of Ranavalona 's son , Radama II . The young prince disagreed with many of his mother 's policies and was amenable to French proposals for the exploitation of the island 's resources , as expressed in the Lambert Charter he concluded with a French representative in 1855 . These plans were never successful , however , and Radama II was not to take the throne until 1861 , when Ranavalona died aged 83 .
Ranavalona 's European contemporaries generally condemned her policies and characterized her as a tyrant at best and insane at worst . These negative characterizations persisted in foreign scholarly literature until the mid @-@ 1970s . Recent academic research has recast Ranavalona 's actions as those of a queen attempting to expand her empire while protecting Malagasy sovereignty against the encroachment of European cultural and political influence .
= = Early life = =
Princess Ramavo was born in 1778 at the royal residence at Ambatomanoina , about 16 kilometers ( 10 mi ) east of Antananarivo , to Prince Andriantsalamanjaka and Princess Rabodonandriantompo . When Ramavo was still a young girl , her father alerted King Andrianampoinimerina ( 1787 – 1810 ) to an assassination plot planned by Andrianjafy , the king 's uncle , whom Andrianampoinimerina had forced from the throne at the royal city of Ambohimanga . In return for saving his life , Andrianampoinimerina betrothed Ramavo to his son , Prince Radama , whom the king designated as his heir . He furthermore declared that any child from this union would be first in the line of succession after Radama .
Despite her elevated rank among the royal wives , Ramavo was not the preferred wife of Radama and did not bear him any children . Upon Andrianampoinimerina 's death in 1810 , Radama succeeded his father as king and followed royal custom by executing a number of potential opponents among Ramavo 's relatives , an act that may have strained their relationship . Unable to find satisfaction in her loveless marriage , the neglected Ramavo and other court ladies spent most days socializing and drinking rum with David Griffiths and his fellow missionaries in Griffiths ' home . These visits established a deep friendship between Ramavo and Griffiths that would endure for three decades .
= = = Accession to the throne = = =
When Radama died without leaving any descendants on July 27 , 1828 , according to local custom , the rightful heir was Rakotobe , the eldest son of Radama 's eldest sister . An intelligent and amiable young man , Rakotobe was the first pupil to have studied at the first school established by the London Missionary Society in Antananarivo on the grounds of the royal palace . Radama died in the company of two trusted courtiers who were favorable to the succession of Rakotobe . However , they hesitated to report the news of Radama 's death for several days , fearing possible reprisals against them for having been involved in denouncing one of the king 's rivals , whose family had a stake in the succession after Radama . During this time , another courtier , a high @-@ ranking military officer named Andriamamba , discovered the truth and collaborated with other powerful officers - Andriamihaja , Rainijohary and Ravalontsalama - to support Ramavo 's claim to the throne .
These officers hid Ramavo and one of her friends in a safe location , then secured the support of several influential power brokers , including judges and the keepers of the sampy ( royal idols ) . The officers then rallied the army behind Ramavo , such that on August 11 , 1828 , when she declared herself the successor to Radama on the pretense that he himself had decreed it , there could be no immediate resistance . Ramavo took the throne name Ranavalona ( " folded " , " kept aside " ) , then followed royal custom by systematically capturing and putting to death her political rivals , including Rakotobe , his family and other members of Radama 's family , much as Radama had done to the queen 's own family upon his succession to the throne . Her coronation ceremony took place on June 12 , 1829 .
By succeeding her husband , Ranavalona became the first female sovereign of the Kingdom of Imerina since its founding in 1540 . Her rise to power occurred in a cultural milieu that favored men over women in the political sphere . In the traditional culture of Imerina , rulers were specially endowed with the power to innovate in circumvention of established norms and customs . Sovereigns often mobilized innovation through the creation of new forms of kinship , the traditional basis of the political order . Women , however , were associated with the household , a rigid kinship unit in opposition to the innovating role and power of the sovereign , and so were not viewed as suited to rule . Although female rulers had once been common among the Vazimba , described in oral histories as the original inhabitants of Madagascar , this tradition ended in the central highlands with the reign of Andriamanelo ( 1540 @-@ 1575 ) , founder of the Kingdom of Imerina and successor to his Vazimba mother , Queen Rafohy ( 1530 @-@ 1540 ) .
= = Reign = =
Ranavalona 's 33 @-@ year reign was characterized by her effort to strengthen the domestic authority of the Kingdom of Imerina over subjugated provinces and preserve the political and cultural sovereignty of Madagascar . These policies were enacted in a context of increasing European influence within her kingdom and competing French and English bids for domination over the island . Early in her reign , the queen took incremental steps to distance Madagascar from the purview of European powers , first putting an end to a friendship treaty with Britain , then placing increasing restrictions on the activities of the missionaries of the London Missionary Society , who operated schools where basic education and trade skills were taught in addition to the Christian religion . In 1835 she forbade the practice of Christianity among the Malagasy population , and within a year nearly all foreigners had left her territory .
Putting an end to most foreign trade relationships , the queen pursued a policy of self @-@ reliance , made possible through frequent use of the long @-@ standing tradition of fanompoana — forced labor in lieu of tax payments in money or goods . Ranavalona continued the wars of expansion conducted by her predecessor , Radama I , in an effort to extend her realm over the entire island , and imposed strict punishments on those who were judged as having acted in opposition to her will . Due in large part to loss of life throughout the years of military campaigns , high death rates among fanompoana workers , and harsh traditions of justice under her rule , the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2 @.@ 5 million between 1833 and 1839 , and from 750 @,@ 000 to 130 @,@ 000 between 1829 and 1842 in Imerina . These statistics have contributed to a strongly unfavorable view of Ranavalona 's rule in historical accounts .
= = = Government = = =
In the tradition of many of her royal Merina predecessors , the queen ruled from the royal Rova compound in Antananarivo . Between 1839 and 1842 , Jean Laborde built the queen a new residence called Manjakamiadana , which became the largest structure on the Rova grounds . The residence was made entirely from wood and bore most of the features of a traditional home of the Merina andriana ( aristocratic class ) , including a central pillar ( andry ) to support the roof . In other ways it showcased distinctly European innovations , as it contained three floors entirely surrounded by wooden verandas and incorporated dormers in the shingled roof . The palace would eventually be encased in stone in 1867 by James Cameron of the London Missionary Society during the reign of Ranavalona II . The original wooden palace of Ranavalona and virtually all other structures of the historic Rova compound were destroyed in a 1995 fire , leaving only the stone shell to mark where her palace had once stood .
In many respects , Ranavalona 's rule was a continuation of precedent established under Radama I. Both monarchs encouraged the introduction of new technologies and forms of knowledge from abroad , supported the establishment of an industrialized economy , and adopted measures to professionalize the army . Both viewed foreigners with ambivalence , establishing close personal relationships and drawing upon their expertise while enforcing restrictions on their activities to avert destabilizing changes to existing cultural and political systems . In addition , both contributed to the further development of a complex political bureaucracy that enabled the Merina court to govern remote provinces across an island larger than the Netherlands , Belgium and France combined .
Ranavalona maintained the tradition of ruling with the support of advisers drawn largely from the aristocratic class . The queen 's most powerful ministers were also her consorts . Her first chief adviser was a young army officer from Namehana named Andriamihaja , who served as First Minister from 1829 to 1830 . Major @-@ General Andriamihaja most likely fathered the queen 's only son , Prince Rakoto ( later King Radama II ) , who was born eleven months after the death of his official father , King Radama I. In the early years of Ranavalona 's reign , Andriamihaja was the leader of her court 's progressive faction , who favored maintaining the relations with Europe initiated under Radama . The conservative faction was led by the brothers Rainimaharo and Rainiharo , the latter being the official guardian of one of the most powerful royal sampy . These talismans were believed to embody and channel the supernatural powers of the kingship and had played a major role in the spiritual life of the Merina people since at least the 16th century reign of Ralambo . The conservative faction conspired to reduce Andriamahaja 's progressive influence over the queen , and in September 1830 they managed to persuade her while highly intoxicated to sign his death warrant for charges of witchcraft and treason . He was immediately captured in his home and killed .
Following Andriamihaja 's death , the influence of Radama 's old guard of progressives was eclipsed by that of conservative advisers at court , who grew ever closer to the queen , eventually resulting in Ranavalona 's marriage to sampy guardian and conservative figurehead Field Marshal Rainiharo ( also called Ravoninahitriniarivo ) of Ilafy in 1833 . Rainiharo gained initial access to the court through his father , Andriantsilavonandriana , a hova ( commoner ) who had exceptionally been accorded the privilege of joining King Andrianampoinimerina 's inner circle of noble advisers . Field Marshal Rainiharo served as the queen 's First Minister from 1830 to 1832 , then Prime Minister and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief from 1832 to 1852 . Upon Rainiharo 's death , the queen wed another conservative , Field Marshal Andrianisa ( also called Rainijohary ) , who remained Ranavalona 's husband until her death in 1861 . He served as Prime Minister from 1852 to 1862 before being exiled to the royal city of Ambohimanga for his part in a plot against the queen 's son , Radama II .
Traditionally , Merina sovereigns relied on the pronouncement of kabary ( oratory ) in public gatherings to communicate policy and reaffirm the relationship between sovereign and public . Due in part to her lack of experience in public speaking and politics , Ranavalona preferred to direct and inform her subordinates through letters that she dictated to missionary @-@ educated court scribes . She strengthened her relationship with the public through occasional kabary and fulfilled the traditional role of the Merina sovereign as bestower of hasina ( ancestral blessings ) by enacting traditional rituals , including the fandroana ( new year ritual of renewal ) , tributes to the royal idols , and offerings of vodiondry and jaka beef at customary occasions . Ranavalona innovated on these traditional rituals by increasing their complexity and symbolism to imbue them with added significance .
= = = Preservation and expansion of realm = = =
Queen Ranavalona continued the military incursions initiated under Radama I to pacify neighboring kingdoms and maintain their submission to Merina rule . These policies had a strongly negative effect on economic and population growth during her reign . Fanompoana labor among the population of Imerina could include conscription into the military , enabling the queen to raise a standing army that was estimated at 20 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 soldiers . This army , which was sent on repeated expeditions into neighboring provinces , exacted harsh penalties against communities resistant to Merina domination . Mass executions were common , and those who were spared their lives were commonly brought back to Imerina as slaves ( andevo ) and their valuables seized as booty to increase the wealth of the Crown . Approximately one million slaves entered Imerina from coastal areas between 1820 and 1853 , constituting one @-@ third of the total population in the central highlands and two @-@ thirds of all residents in Antananarivo .
According to Madagascar historian Gwyn Campbell , the number of non @-@ Merina who died in violent conflict during the military campaigns of Ranavalona and her predecessor Radama from 1816 to 1853 was estimated at about 60 @,@ 000 . Additionally , a considerable proportion of the population not killed in battle in the subjugated provinces eventually died from famine as a consequence of scorched earth policies . Deaths among the Merina soldiers engaged in military actions were also high , estimated at about 160 @,@ 000 for the period 1820 – 1853 . A further 25 – 50 % of the queen 's soldiers stationed in lowland areas were estimated to have died each year due to diseases such as malaria . Although prevalent in the coastal parts of the island , malaria was uncommon in the high @-@ altitude zone around Antananarivo , and Merina soldiers possessed little natural resistance against it . An average of 4 @,@ 500 soldiers died each year for the greater part of Ranavalona 's reign , contributing to severe depopulation in Imerina .
= = = = Tangena ordeal = = = =
One of the chief measures by which Ranavalona maintained order within her realm was through the traditional practice of trial by the ordeal of tangena . A poison was extracted from the nut of the native tangena ( Tanghinia venenifera ) shrub and ingested , with the outcome determining innocence or guilt . If nobles or freemen were compelled to undergo the ordeal , the poison was typically administered to the accused only after dog and rooster stand @-@ ins had already died from the poison 's effects , while among members of the slave class ( andevo ) , the ordeal required them to immediately ingest the poison themselves . The accused would be fed the poison along with three pieces of chicken skin : if all three pieces of skin were vomited up then innocence was declared , but death or a failure to regurgitate all three pieces of skin indicated guilt . According to 19th @-@ century Malagasy historian Raombana , in the eyes of the greater populace , the tangena ordeal was believed to represent a sort of celestial justice in which the public placed their unquestioning faith , even to the point of accepting a verdict of guilt in a case of innocence as a just but unknowable divine mystery .
Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes , including theft , Christianity and especially witchcraft , for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory . On average , an estimated 20 to 50 percent of those who underwent the ordeal died . In the 1820s , the tangena ordeal caused about 1 @,@ 000 deaths annually . This average rose to around 3 @,@ 000 annual deaths between 1828 and 1861 . In 1838 , it was estimated that as many as 100 @,@ 000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal , constituting roughly 20 percent of the population . Although outlawed in 1863 , the ordeal continued to be practiced secretly in Imerina and openly in other parts of the island .
= = = = Repression of Christianity = = = =
Following a visit by Radama I to Madagascar 's first formal school , established in Toamasina in 1818 by members of the London Missionary Society ( LMS ) , the king invited the first Christian artisan missionaries to the capital city to share their knowledge . Beginning in December 1820 , LMS missionaries established workshops in Antananarivo to teach brick @-@ making , European carpentry and other practical skills , and developed a network of public schools where numeracy and English were taught alongside literacy using portions of the Malagasy language Bible . Despite high attendance at the schools , the LMS were initially unsuccessful in converting pupils to Christianity . Near the end of Radama 's reign , the king came to regard the few Malagasy who had been converted as irreverent toward royal authority . He forbade Malagasy people from being baptized or attending Christian services .
Ranavalona 's succession initially resulted in a relaxation of state control over Christianity . A printing press , which was imported by LMS missionaries at the end of Radama 's reign , was only effectively put into operation in 1828 . The press was in heaviest use during the first several years of Ranavalona 's reign , when thousands of hymnals and other materials were transcribed and printed . Translation of the New Testament was completed in the second year of her reign , and 3 @,@ 000 copies were printed and distributed between 1829 and 1830 . From the beginning of her reign , Ranavalona forbade the distribution of books within the military to prevent subversion and preserve discipline . She allowed missionaries free rein in operating the printing press , however , and exempted from military service all Malagasy personnel trained to operate the press . In 1835 , translation of the Old Testament was completed and the first copies were printed . The freedom allowed to LMS and Malagasy Christians to print religious materials and teach religion in the state schools during the first six years of Ranavalona 's reign allowed the religion to become firmly established among a small but growing group of converts in and around the capital . In 1831 Ranavalona authorized Malagasy attendance at church services , administration of the sacrament , and baptism of her subjects . Within a year , the first 100 Malagasy were baptized out of an estimated 200 practicing Christians total ; these converts were drawn from all social classes , including slaves , commoners , respected elders , court officials and even sampy guardians , who were considered the bulwarks of traditional culture .
The conversion of major religious , political and social leaders sparked a backlash that led Ranavalona to become increasingly wary of the political and cultural effects of Christianity , which she saw as leading the Malagasy to forsake the ancestors and their traditions . In October and November 1831 the queen enacted a ban on Christian marriages , church services and baptisms for soldiers and members of government studying in the Missionary schools , and in December extended the ban on church service attendance to all Malagasy . From 1832 to 1834 , baptisms and church services continued , increasingly in secret . During this time , several Christians each year were charged with witchcraft and exiled or made to undergo the tangena ordeal , and Ranavalona requested the departure of three missionaries , retaining only those whose particular technical skills she viewed as valuable to the state . In 1835 , the queen attempted to shut down the press without directly targeting the LMS by banning Malagasy personnel from working at the printing house . The LMS missionaries , capitalizing on the absence of legal decrees against their own work at the press , managed to continue independently printing and distributing materials .
In a kabary speech on February 26 , 1835 , Queen Ranavalona formally forbade the practice of Christianity among her subjects . In her discourse , she was careful to differentiate between her own people , for whom the new religion was forbidden and its practice a capital offense , and foreigners , to whom she permitted freedom of religion and conscience . She furthermore acknowledged the valuable intellectual and technological contributions that European missionaries had made to the advancement of her country , and invited them to continue working to that end on the condition that their proselytizing would cease :
" To the English or French strangers : I thank you for the good that you have done in my land and my kingdom , where you have made known European wisdom and knowledge . Do not worry yourselves — I will not change the customs and rites of our ancestors . Nevertheless , whoever breaks the laws of my kingdom will be put to death — whoever he may be . I welcome all wisdom and all knowledge which are good for this country . It would be a waste of time and effort to grab the customs and rites of my ancestors . Concerning religious practice — baptism or assemblies — it is forbidden for my people who inhabit this land to take part whether on Sunday or during the week . Concerning you , foreigners , you can practice according to your own manners and customs . Nevertheless , if skilled handiwork and other practical skills exist , which can profit our people , exercise these skills that good will come . These are my instructions which I make known to you . "
The majority of the London Missionary Society missionaries , whose primary activity was teaching Christian theology and literacy at their newly established schools using the Bible as the principal Malagasy @-@ language text , departed the island . James Cameron and other key missionaries preferred to leave rather than remain on the island without authorization to proselytize . The last two remaining missionaries chose to continue teaching practical skills in the hope that the restrictions might loosen , but one year later , after receiving indirect information that the government desired their departure , they shuttered the LMS mission and left Madagascar .
Pursuant to the February 26 decree , those who possessed a Bible , worshiped in congregation or continued to profess adherence to Christianity were fined , jailed , manacled , subjected to trial by ordeal , or executed . Lurid accounts of the execution and torture of Christians were reported by missionaries with informants on the island who placed emphasis on what they perceived as the savagery of the Queen 's actions . For instance , they reported the public execution of fifteen Christian leaders near the Queen 's palace who were dangled on ropes 150 feet above a rock @-@ filled ravine before the ropes were cut upon their refusal to renounce Christianity . The Andohalo cathedral was constructed on this outcropping to commemorate early Malagasy Christians martyred at the site . The precise number of Malagasy citizens put to death for religious reasons during Ranavalona 's reign is difficult to state with certainty . British missionary to Madagascar W.E. Cummins ( 1878 ) places the number executed at between sixty and eighty . Far more were required to undergo the tangena ordeal , condemned to hard labor or stripped of their land and property , and many of these died . Persecution of Christians intensified in 1840 , 1849 and 1857 ; in 1849 , deemed the worst of these years by Cummins , 1 @,@ 900 people were fined , jailed or otherwise punished for their Christian faith , of whom 18 were executed .
= = = Protection of sovereignty = = =
Ranavalona 's reign was marked by a struggle between France and Britain to secure control over Madagascar . The French , who held several small islands off Madagascar , were interested in gaining control over the main island but this move was opposed by the British who had an interest in maintaining a safe passage to India . Ranavalona pursued a policy of self @-@ reliance to limit the influence of these foreign powers .
Shortly after taking the throne , Ranavalona annulled the Anglo @-@ Merina treaty that had been concluded between Radama and British envoys , and refused to continue receiving annual payments from Britain in exchange for adherence to the stipulations of the treaty . The most significant of these conditions was the kingdom 's non @-@ participation in the international slave trade , which had historically been a major source of revenue for the kingdoms of Imerina , Betsimisaraka , Sakalava and others across the island . One consequence of the termination of the Anglo @-@ Merina friendship treaty was an end to the delivery of British weaponry , which rendered the queen vulnerable to designs against her from foreign powers and pockets of local resistance alike . This vulnerability was underscored in 1829 when a fleet of six French ships launched an unprovoked attack against the fort of Foulpointe and the nearby town of Ivondro on the eastern coast of Madagascar . The queen 's army successfully repelled the French at the next port , forcing the ships to Île Sainte @-@ Marie , where they engaged a diplomatic envoy sent from Antananarivo by Ranavalona . The protracted negotiations ensured the French suffered from the malaria prevalent in coastal areas , until the increasing casualties forced the ships ' withdrawal from Ranavalona 's territory .
It came to the Queen 's attention that Frenchman Jean Laborde , who had been shipwrecked off Madagascar in 1832 , was knowledgeable in the production of cannons , muskets and gunpowder . Ranavalona provided him with the labor and materials to establish factories that met the material needs of her army , thereby ending the kingdom 's dependence on Europe for modern weaponry .
= = = = Foreign plots = = = =
The French were eager to hasten Radama II 's succession in the interest of capitalizing on the Lambert Charter , an 1855 agreement between French representative Joseph @-@ François Lambert and Radama that could only come into effect upon the prince 's succession . The charter guaranteed Lambert and his business associates first rights to the exploitation of many of the island 's commodities and natural resources . According to a British account , Lambert conspired with Jean Laborde and local leaders to persuade Radama II to sign a document written in French — a language in which the prince was not fluent — which Lambert orally translated as containing only an account of the excessive pressures the Queen 's policies were placing on her subjects . Radama , who was sympathetic toward the commoners and interested in easing their burden but suspicious about the letter 's true purpose , reluctantly signed the document under intense pressure from the French . He was not told the letter included a request for French military intervention that could have potentially brought Madagascar under French rule . France did not however intend to take such an action without the accord of their ally , Britain , whose influence had been so well @-@ established on the island , and refused to intercede on behalf of the prince . In the meantime , Radama , who had been made to swear on the Bible not to speak of the letter to anyone , had grown concerned enough to contact a British diplomat , thereby revealing the true circumstances under which the letter had been signed . The British refused to cooperate in the French plot , and an attack was averted . According to Lambert , however , the prince had indeed been an enthusiastic partner in the bid to end Ranavalona 's reign , and his own true feelings about the endeavor had been deliberately misrepresented through a British campaign of propaganda .
Having failed to gain the backing of a European state power to place Radama on the throne and bring the treaty into effect , Lambert decided to instigate a coup d 'état independently . He traveled to Ranavalona 's court in May 1857 in the company of the celebrated 19th @-@ century Austrian globetrotter Ida Pfeiffer , who became an unwitting participant in the plot . She documented her perspective on these events in one of her late works . According to Pfeiffer , Radama and Lambert had planned to dethrone the queen on June 20 , when ministers and soldiers loyal to Radama would infiltrate the Rova grounds and declare loyalty to the prince and support for a political transition . Pfeiffer blamed the failure of the plot on Rainilaiarivony , then Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the army who reportedly had been unable to ensure the presence of soldiers in the courtyard who were loyal to Radama . According to a British account , however , Radama himself was credited with warning the queen of the plot , in which his cooperation was merely a ploy to entrap the conspirators . This British view claims that Ranavalona deliberately allowed the plot to unfold almost to its conclusion in order to ascertain the loyalties of her members of government . After the plot 's discovery , the Europeans were largely confined to their houses on the palace grounds and prohibited from receiving visitors , until an order was issued to immediately and permanently quit the queen 's territory in late July .
= = Succession and death = =
While the queen had designated her son , Radama II , as her successor , Rainimaharo and the conservative faction knew of his progressive leanings and tried instead to ensure the queen 's nephew , Ramboasalama , would come to power and maintain loyalties to them and their political agenda . The progressive brothers Rainivoninahitriniony and Rainilaiarivony , who were the queen 's co @-@ prime minister and head of the army respectively at the time of her death , supported the succession of Radama and were able to exercise greater influence than Ramboasalama , particularly in ensuring the support of the army for the prince 's claim to the throne . As Ranavalona lay on her death bed , Radama took precautions to ensure his succession would be uncontested , surrounding his residence at the Rova of Antananarivo with several hundred soldiers and sending a member of Ramboasalama 's family to bring him to the Rova to swear a public oath of allegiance to the new king , to whom he submitted .
On August 16 , 1861 , Ranavalona died in her sleep at the Manjakamiadana palace in the Rova of Antananarivo . Twelve thousand zebu were slaughtered and their meat distributed to the populace in her honor , and the official mourning period lasted nine months . Her body was laid in a coffin made of silver piastres in a tomb at the royal city of Ambohimanga . During her funeral , a spark accidentally ignited a nearby barrel of gunpowder destined for use in the ceremony , causing an explosion and fire that killed a number of bystanders and destroyed three historic royal residences in the Nanjakana section of the compound where the event was held . In 1897 , French colonial authorities disinterred and moved the queen 's body and the remains of other Merina sovereigns to the tombs at the Rova of Antananarivo in an attempt to desanctify Ambohimanga . Her bones were placed within the tomb of Queen Rasoherina . Her son , Prince Rakoto , succeeded her as King Radama II .
= = Legacy = =
Ranavalona 's traditionalist policies were abruptly reversed under the reign of her son , King Radama II . A widespread epidemic of " spirit possession " throughout Imerina followed Radama 's public conversion to Christianity and was popularly attributed to the outraged spirit of Ranavalona I.
The queen 's foreign contemporaries strongly condemned her policies and viewed them as the actions of a tyrant or even a madwoman , a characterization that persisted in Western historical literature until the 1970s . Although Ranavalona has traditionally been depicted as a cruel and xenophobic tyrant , in more recent historical analyses she is commonly viewed as an astute politician who effectively protected the political and cultural sovereignty of her nation from European encroachment . In Madagascar today , the Malagasy of the central highlands hold complex and diverse views ranging across this spectrum . Most condemn her reign , in line with negative depictions of Ranavalona in current Malagasy history textbooks ; this view is most common among Malagasy Christians . Others admire her effort to preserve Malagasy traditions and independence . The majority , regardless of their feelings toward her domestic policies , consider her a remarkable figure in Malagasy history and commend her strength as a ruler in a period of tension with European powers .
A fictionalized account of Ranavalona and her court appears in the novel Flashman 's Lady by George MacDonald Fraser . The main character , an English soldier and agent named Harry Paget Flashman , becomes Ranavalona 's military adviser and lover .
= = Honours = =
= = = National honours = = =
Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of the Royal Hawk ( 1828 ) .
= = Ancestry = =
= Richard Buxton ( botanist ) =
Richard Buxton ( 15 January 1786 – 2 January 1865 ) was a British shoemaker and amateur botanist . Born in Prestwich , Lancashire , to a family who lived in humble circumstances , he taught himself to read , and learned the basic principles of botany . Although living as a pauper for most of his life , in 1849 he published A Botanical Guide to the Flowering Plants , Ferns , Mosses and Algæ , Found Indigenous Within Sixteen Miles of Manchester , which became one of the standard texts on the flora then commonly found in the Manchester area . According to his obituary in the Journal of Botany , British and Foreign , Buxton was one of " nature 's gentlemen " and " his true and correct pronunciation of scientific terms have caused many who heard him to believe he was an accomplished classical scholar " . He was acknowledged by the geologist Edward William Binney as " the most profound thinker of his class " .
= = Early life = =
The second of seven children , Richard Buxton was born on 15 January 1786 at Sedgley Hall Farm in the parish of Prestwich , near Manchester , Lancashire . His parents were John and Anne Buxton ( née Horton ) , both from Derbyshire . When he was two years old his family fell on hard times , left their farm and moved to Bond Street in Ancoats , Manchester . John Buxton worked as a labourer for the rest of his life .
Richard was a sickly child and his parents ' reduced circumstances meant that his education was somewhat sporadic . In his early years he wandered through the fields and brick yards where he lived , picking wildflowers . His favourites were Germander Speedwell , Creeping Tormentil and Common Chickweed . At the age of twelve he was apprenticed to a bat maker ( the maker of children 's small leather shoes ) named James Heap , in Port Street , Manchester . About 18 months later he went to work with James Hyde , with whom he stayed for a number of years .
= = Later life = =
At the age of 16 , Buxton was illiterate , but with the aid of The Common Spelling Book he taught himself to read . He was unable to understand or pronounce all words correctly and so procured a copy of Jones Pronouncing Dictionary . He read more books , such as A History of England and Goldsmith 's History of Greece and Rome . Reading occupied all his spare time , although when trade was good he had to work from 6 : 00 am until 9 : 00 pm . He earned about 14 to 15 shillings ( 70p @-@ 75p ) a week , a good wage for the time , but as cloth was superseding leather in making the tops of children shoes , this did not last .
When he was 18 , Buxton returned to work with his old master , James Heap , as a journeyman . Heap often took Buxton on country walks in his spare time . The two collected herbs for diet drinks , either for Heap 's use or to share with his neighbours . They often found plants of whose names they were ignorant , and so Buxton bought a copy of Culpeper 's Complete Herbal . However , as he found the supposedly medicinal properties of the plants fanciful and the descriptions inaccurate , he soon became dissatisfied with it . In 1808 he procured a copy of the superior Meyrick 's Herbal , from which he learned the first principles of the Linnaean system . Buxton soon outgrew this book , and began to borrow or buy as many books on botany as he could . Botanical practice at the time was to collect and dry plants , but as he disliked dead plants and preferred not to remove specimens that could be enjoyed by others , his botanical studies | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
until Inland Empire . Also included in the sound team was long time Lynch collaborator Alan Splet , a sound editor and designer who had won an Academy Award for his work on The Black Stallion ( 1979 ) , and been nominated for Never Cry Wolf ( 1983 ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Blue Velvet premiered in competition at the Montréal World Film Festival in August 1986 , and at the Toronto Film Festival on September 12 , 1986 , and a few days later in the United States . It debuted commercially in both countries on September 19 , 1986 , in 98 theatres across the United States . In its opening weekend , the film grossed a total of $ 789 @,@ 409 . It eventually expanded to another fifteen theatres , and domestically grossed a total of $ 8 @,@ 551 @,@ 228 . It was also released internationally , in Australia , most of West Germany , China , Canada , Hong Kong , and Japan , followed by subsequent video releases . The film performed well overseas , grossing $ 900 @,@ 000 in Australia , and $ 450 @,@ 139 in Hong Kong .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Blue Velvet received critical acclaim in the United States upon its release and currently has a " certified fresh " score of 94 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 62 reviews with an average rating of 8 @.@ 7 out of 10 . The critical consensus states " If audiences walk away from this subversive , surreal shocker not fully understanding the story , they might also walk away with a deeper perception of the potential of film storytelling . " The film also has a score of 75 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 14 critics indicating " Generally favorable reviews . "
Paul Attanasio of The Washington Post said " the film showcases a visual stylist utterly in command of his talents " and that Angelo Badalamenti " contributes an extraordinary score , slipping seamlessly from slinky jazz to violin figures to the romantic sweep of a classic Hollywood score " , but claimed that Lynch " isn 't interested in communicating , he 's interested in parading his personality . The movie doesn 't progress or deepen , it just gets weirder , and to no good end . " The New York Times critic Janet Maslin expressed her admiration for the film , and directed much praise toward the performances of Hopper and Rossellini : " Mr. Hopper and Miss Rossellini are so far outside the bounds of ordinary acting here that their performances are best understood in terms of sheer lack of inhibition ; both give themselves entirely over to the material , which seems to be exactly what 's called for . " She called it " an instant cult classic . " Maslin concluded by saying that Blue Velvet " is as fascinating as it is freakish . It confirms Mr. Lynch 's stature as an innovator , a superb technician , and someone best not encountered in a dark alley . " Sheila Benson of the Los Angeles Times called the film " the most brilliantly disturbing film ever to have its roots in small @-@ town American life . " She called it " shocking , visionary , rapturously controlled . "
Looking back in his Guardian / Observer review , critic Philip French wrote , " The film is wearing well and has attained a classic status without becoming respectable or losing its sense of danger . " Peter Travers , film critic for Rolling Stone , named Blue Velvet the best film of the 1980s , and referred to the film as an " American masterpiece . " Film critic Gene Siskel included Blue Velvet on his list of the best films of 1986 , at the fifth spot .
But Blue Velvet was not without its detractors . A general criticism from U.S. critics was the film 's often vulgar approach to sexuality and violence , which they claimed detracted from the film 's serious side . One of the film 's detractors , Roger Ebert , film critic of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , supported that view ; although he praised Isabella Rossellini 's performance as being " convincing and courageous " , he criticized how she was depicted in the film , even accusing David Lynch of misogyny : " degraded , slapped around , humiliated and undressed in front of the camera . And when you ask an actress to endure those experiences , you should keep your side of the bargain by putting her in an important film " . During an online Q & A session in 2007 , Ebert said he still had negativity regarding how Rossellini was depicted but said he should re @-@ visit Blue Velvet and that David Lynch was a good director . In a tweet honoring David Lynch 's birthday , Ebert later revealed though he views Lynch as a great director , his feelings remain unchanged about Blue Velvet .
= = = Accolades = = =
Lynch was nominated for a Best Director Oscar for the film . Isabella Rossellini won an Independent Spirit Award for the Best Female Lead in 1987 . David Lynch and Dennis Hopper won a Los Angeles Film Critics Association award in 1987 for Blue Velvet in categories Best Director ( Lynch ) and Best Supporting Actor ( Hopper ) . In 1987 , National Society of Film Critics awarded Best Film , Best Director ( David Lynch ) , Best Cinematography ( Frederick Elmes ) , and Best Supporting Actor ( Dennis Hopper ) awards .
= = Legacy = =
Although it initially gained a relatively small theatrical audience in North America and was met with controversy over its artistic merit , Blue Velvet soon became the center of a " national firestorm " in 1986 , and over time achieved status as an American classic . In the late 1980s , and early 1990s , after its release on videotape , the film became a widely known cult film , well known for its dark depiction of a suburban America . Followed by myriad VHS , Laserdisc and DVD releases , the film became increasingly well @-@ known among American audiences . It marked the entrance of David Lynch into the Hollywood mainstream and the comeback of Dennis Hopper after a significant hiatus from work . Hopper 's performance and the character of Frank Booth itself has left an imprint on popular culture , with countless tributes , cultural references and parodies . The success of the film alone has helped propel Hollywood mainstream toward more graphic displays of previously censored themes , a similar case to Psycho ( 1960 ) , to which Blue Velvet has been frequently compared . It has become one of the most significant , well @-@ recognized films of its era , spawning countless imitations and parodies in media . The film 's dark , stylish and erotic production design has served as a benchmark for a number of films , parodies and even Lynch 's own later work , notably Twin Peaks ( 1990 – 91 ) , and Mulholland Drive ( 2001 ) . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine cited it as one of the most " influential American films " , as did Michael Atkinson , who dedicated a book to the film 's themes and motifs .
Blue Velvet now frequently appears in various critical assessments of all @-@ time great films , also ranked as one of the greatest films of the 1980s , one of the best examples of American surrealism and one of the finest examples of David Lynch 's work . In a poll of two American critics ranking the " most outstanding films of the decade " , Blue Velvet was placed third and fourth , behind Raging Bull ( 1980 ) , E.T. The Extra Terrestrial ( 1982 ) and the German film Wings of Desire ( 1987 ) . An Entertainment Weekly book special released in 1999 ranked Blue Velvet at thirty @-@ seventh greatest films of all time . The film was ranked by The Guardian in its list of the 100 Greatest Films . Film Four 's ranked it on their list of 100 Greatest Films . In a 2007 poll of the online film community held by Variety , Blue Velvet came in at the ninety @-@ fifth greatest film of all time . Total Film ranked Blue Velvet as one of the all @-@ time best films in both a critics list and a public poll , in 2006 and 2007 , respectively . In December 2002 , a UK film critics poll in Sight & Sound ranked the film fifth on their list of the 10 Best Films of the Last 25 Years . In a special Entertainment Weekly issue , 100 new film classics were chosen from 1983 to 2008 : Blue Velvet was ranked at fourth .
In addition to Blue Velvet 's various " all @-@ time greatest films " rankings , the American Film Institute has awarded the film three honors in its lists : ninety @-@ sixth on 100 Years ... 100 Thrills in 2001 , selecting cinema 's most thrilling moments and ranked Frank Booth thirty @-@ sixth of the 50 greatest villains in 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains in 2003 . In June 2008 , the AFI revealed its " Ten top Ten " — the best ten films in ten " classic " American film genres — after polling over 1 @,@ 500 people from the creative community . Blue Velvet was acknowledged as the eighth best film in the mystery genre . Premiere magazine listed Frank Booth , played by Dennis Hopper , as the fifty @-@ fourth on its list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time , calling him one of " the most monstrously funny creations in cinema history " . The film was ranked eighty @-@ fourth on Bravo Television 's four @-@ hour program 100 Scariest Movie Moments ( 2004 ) . It is frequently sampled musically and an array of bands and solo artists have taken their names and inspiration from the film . In August 2012 , Sight & Sound unveiled their latest list of the 250 greatest films of all time , with Blue Velvet ranking at sixty @-@ ninth .
Blue Velvet was also nominated for the following AFI lists :
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
" In Dreams "
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition )
Blue Velvet was released on Blu @-@ ray on November 8 , 2011 , in a special 25th anniversary edition featuring never @-@ before @-@ seen deleted scenes . The film had previously been released on DVD in 1999 and 2002 by MGM Home Entertainment . In early 2015 , it was announced that a feature @-@ length documentary film entitled " Blue Velvet Revisited " , made up exclusively of behind the scenes footage , was in production for Autumn 2015 release . The film is based on extensive unreleased footage shot on set in 1985 by German filmmaker Peter Braatz , at David Lynch 's invitation . Cult With No Name , Tuxedomoon and John Foxx were commissioned to provide the soundtrack for the film ( which was released in October 2015 ) , and a collection of previously unreleased photos is also to be published .
Inspired by the film , baroque pop singer Lana Del Rey recorded a cover version of Bobby Vinton 's classic rendition of the song " Blue Velvet " in 2012 . Used to endorse clothing line H & M , a music video accompanied the track and aired as a television commercial . Filmed in Post @-@ war Americana , the video drew influence from Lynch and Blue Velvet . In the video , Del Rey plays the role of Dorothy Vallens , performing a private concert similar to the scene where Ben ( Dean Stockwell ) pantomimes " In Dreams " for Frank Booth . Del Rey 's version , however , has her lip @-@ synching " Blue Velvet " when a little person dressed as Frank Sinatra approaches and unplugs a hidden victrola , revealing Del Rey as a fraud . When Lynch heard of the music video , he praised it , telling Artinfo : " Lana Del Rey , she 's got some fantastic charisma and — this is a very interesting thing — it 's like she 's born out of another time . She 's got something that 's very appealing to people . And I didn 't know she was influenced by me ! "
" Now It 's Dark " , a song by American heavy metal band Anthrax on their 1988 album State of Euphoria , was directly inspired by the film , and specifically the character of Frank Booth . The same phrase appeared in the liner notes of Rush 's album Roll the Bones , and drummer Neil Peart later explained that " The phrase occurs in David Lynch 's comedy classic Blue Velvet . "
= Is Google Making Us Stupid ? =
" Is Google Making Us Stupid ? What the Internet is doing to our brains " ( alternatively " Is Google Making Us Stoopid ? " ) is a magazine article by technology writer Nicholas G. Carr highly critical of the Internet 's effect on cognition . It was published in the July / August 2008 edition of The Atlantic magazine as a six @-@ page cover story . Carr 's main argument is that the Internet might have detrimental effects on cognition that diminish the capacity for concentration and contemplation . Despite the title , the article is not specifically targeted at Google , but more at the cognitive impact of the Internet and World Wide Web . Carr expanded his argument in The Shallows : What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains , a book published by W. W. Norton in June 2010 .
The essay was extensively discussed in the media and the blogosphere , with reactions to Carr 's argument being polarised . At the Britannica Blog , a part of the discussion focused on the apparent bias in Carr 's argument toward literary reading . In Carr 's view , reading on the Internet is generally of a shallower form in comparison with reading from printed books in which he believes a more intense and sustained form of reading is exercised . Elsewhere in the media , the Internet 's impact on memory retention was discussed ; and , at the online scientific magazine Edge , several argued that it was ultimately the responsibility of individuals to monitor their Internet usage so that it does not impact their cognition .
While long @-@ term psychological and neurological studies have yet to yield definitive results justifying Carr 's argument , a few studies have provided glimpses into the changing cognitive habits of Internet users . A UCLA study led some to wonder whether a breadth of brain activity — which was shown to occur while users performed Internet searches in the study 's functional MRI scans — actually facilitated reading and cognition or possibly overburdened the mind ; and what quality of thought could be determined by the additional presence of brain activity in regions known to control decision @-@ making and complex reasoning skills .
= = Background = =
Prior to the publication of Carr 's Atlantic essay , critics had long been concerned about the potential for electronic media to supplant literary reading . In 1994 , American academic Sven Birkerts published a book titled The Gutenberg Elegies : The Fate of Reading in an Electronic Age , consisting of a collection of essays that declaimed against the declining influence of literary culture — the tastes in literature that are favored by a social group — with a central premise among the essays asserting that alternative delivery formats for the book are inferior to the paper incarnation . Birkerts was spurred to write the book after his experience with a class he taught in the fall of 1992 , where the students had little appreciation for the literature he had assigned them , stemming from , in his opinion , their inaptitude for the variety of skills involved in deep reading . In " Perseus Unbound " , an essay from the book , Birkerts presented several reservations toward the application of interactive technologies to educational instruction , cautioning that the " long @-@ term cognitive effects of these new processes of data absorption " were unknown and that they could yield " an expansion of the short @-@ term memory banks and a correlative atrophying of long @-@ term memory " .
In 2007 , developmental psychologist Maryanne Wolf took up the cause of defending reading and print culture in her book Proust and the Squid : The Story and Science of the Reading Brain , approaching the subject matter from a scientific angle in contrast to Birkerts ' cultural @-@ historical angle . A few reviewers were critical of Wolf for only touching upon the Internet 's potential impact on reading in her book ; however , in essays published concurrent with the book 's release she elaborated upon her worries . In an essay in The Boston Globe , Wolf expressed her grave concern that the development of knowledge in children who are heavy users of the Internet could produce mere " decoders of information who have neither the time nor the motivation to think beneath or beyond their googled universes " , and cautioned that the web 's " immediacy and volume of information should not be confused with true knowledge " . In an essay published by Powell 's Books , Wolf contended that some of the reading brain 's strengths could be lost in future generations " if children are not taught first to read , and to think deeply about their reading , and only then to e @-@ read " . Preferring to maintain an academic perspective , Wolf firmly asserted that her speculations have not yet been scientifically verified but deserved serious study .
In Carr 's 2008 book The Big Switch : Rewiring the World , From Edison to Google , the material in the final chapter , " iGod " , provided a basis for his later Atlantic magazine article titled " Is Google Making Us Stupid ? " The inspiration to write " Is Google Making Us Stupid ? " came from the difficulties Carr found he had in remaining engaged with not only books he had to read but even books that he found very interesting . This is sometimes called deep reading , a term coined by academic Sven Birkerts in his book The Gutenberg Elegies and later defined by developmental psychologist Maryanne Wolf with an added cognitive connotation .
= = Synopsis = =
At the start of the essay , Carr says that his recent difficulties with concentrating while reading books and long articles may be due to spending a lot of time on the Internet . He posits that regular Internet usage may have the effect of diminishing the capacity for concentration and contemplation . He prefaces his argument with a couple of anecdotes from bloggers on their changing reading habits , as well as the findings of a 2008 University College London study titled " Information Behaviour of the Researcher of the Future " which suggests the emergence of new types of reading . He cites Maryanne Wolf , an expert on reading , for her expertise on the role of media and technology in learning written languages . Carr raises the point that unlike speech , which is an innate ability hardwired into the human brain , the ability to read has to be taught in order for the brain to rearrange its original parts for the task of interpreting symbols into words . He acknowledges that his argument does not yet have the backing of long @-@ term neurological and psychological studies . Carr further draws on Wolf 's work , particularly her 2007 book Proust and the Squid , to relate his argument to the way in which neural circuits in the reading brain are specifically shaped by the demands particular to each written language , such as Chinese , Japanese , and alphabet @-@ based scripts . Therefore , Carr purports that the neural circuitry shaped by regular Internet usage can also be expected to be different from that shaped by the reading of books and other page @-@ based written material .
Carr begins his argument by reasoning how the capacity to concentrate may be weakened by regular Internet usage . He mentions a historical example involving Friedrich Nietzsche 's usage of a typewriter , a fairly new technology in the 1880s . According to German scholar Friedrich A. Kittler , Nietzsche 's prose style changed when he started using a typewriter , which he had adopted because of his developing difficulty with writing by hand due to failing eyesight . Carr proceeds to explain that scientific research in the field of neuroplasticity as of 2008 has demonstrated that the brain 's neural circuitry can in fact be rewired . In the humanities , sociologist Daniel Bell coined the term " intellectual technologies " to describe those technologies that extend the brain 's cognitive faculties , and Carr states that he believes that the human brain adopts the qualities of these intellectual technologies . In discussing the mechanical clock , Carr deliberates upon the benefits and losses that are characteristic of new technologies . Then , Carr ventures that the cognitive impact of the Internet may be far more encompassing than any other previous intellectual technology because the Internet is gradually performing the services of most intellectual technologies , thus replacing them . Carr finally contends that the prevalent style of presentation for much of the Internet 's content may significantly hinder the capacity to concentrate due to the many distractions that often surround the Internet 's content , in the form of ads and obtrusive notifications . Additionally , he claims that these detrimental effects on concentration are compounded by traditional media because they are gradually adopting a style of presentation for their content that mimics the Internet , in order to remain competitive as consumer expectations change .
Carr also theorizes that the capacity to contemplate may diminish as computer algorithms unburden an Internet user 's brain of much of the painstaking knowledge work — the manipulation of abstract information and knowledge — that was previously done manually . In comparing the Internet with Frederick Winslow Taylor 's management system for industrial efficiency , Carr makes the point that back then some workers complained that they felt they were becoming mere automatons due to the systemic application of Taylorism — a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflow processes , improving labor productivity . Carr selects Google as a prime example of a company in which computer engineers and software designers have applied Taylorism to the knowledge industry , delivering increasingly robust information that may have the effect of minimizing opportunities to ponder ambiguities . Additionally , he argues that the Internet 's dominant business model is one that thrives as companies either collect information on users or deliver them advertisements , therefore companies capitalize on users who move from link to link rather than those who engage in sustained thought .
Finally , Carr places his skepticism in a historical context , reflecting upon how previous detractors of technological advances have fared . While often correct , Carr points out that skepticisms such as Socrates ' concerns about written language and the 15th @-@ century Venetian editor Hieronimo Squarciafico 's concerns about printed works failed to anticipate the benefits that these technologies might hold for human knowledge . As an afterthought , a 2005 essay by playwright Richard Foreman is excerpted for its lament of the waning of the " highly educated and articulate personality " .
= = Reception = =
Carr 's essay was widely discussed in the media both critically and in passing . While English technology writer Bill Thompson observed that Carr 's argument had " succeeded in provoking a wide @-@ ranging debate " , Damon Darlin of The New York Times quipped that even though " [ everyone ] has been talking about [ the ] article in The Atlantic magazine " , only " [ s ] ome subset of that group has actually read the 4 @,@ 175 @-@ word article , by Nicholas Carr . " The controversial online responses to Carr 's essay were , according to Chicago Tribune critic Steve Johnson , partly the outcome of the essay 's title " Is Google Making Us Stupid ? " , a question that the article proper doesn 't actually pose and that he believed was " perfect fodder for a ' don 't @-@ be @-@ ridiculous ' blog post " ; Johnson challenged his readers to carefully consider their online responses in the interest of raising the quality of debate .
Many critics discussed the merits of Carr 's essay at great length in forums set up formally for this purpose at online hubs such as the Britannica Blog and publisher John Brockman 's online scientific magazine Edge , where the roster of names quickly took on the semblance of a Who 's Who of the day 's Internet critics . Calling it " the great digital literacy debate " , British @-@ American entrepreneur and author Andrew Keen judged the victor to be the American reader , who was blessed with a wide range of compelling writing from " all of America 's most articulate Internet luminaries " .
Book critic Scott Esposito pointed out that Chinese characters are incorrectly described as ideograms in Carr 's essay , an error that he believed undermined the essay 's argument . The myth that Chinese script is ideographic had been effectively debunked in scholar John DeFrancis ' 1984 book The Chinese Language : Fact and Fantasy ; DeFrancis classifies Chinese as a logosyllabic writing system . Carr acknowledged that there was a debate over the terminology of ' ideogram ' , but in a response to Esposito he explained that he had " decided to use the common term " and quoted The Oxford American Dictionary to demonstrate that they likewise define Chinese characters as instances of ideograms .
Writer and activist Seth Finkelstein noted that predictably several critics would label Carr 's argument as a Luddite one , and he was not to be disappointed when one critic later maintained that Carr 's " contrarian stance [ was ] slowly forcing him into a caricature of Luddism " . Then , journalist David Wolman , in a Wired magazine piece , described as " moronic " the assumption that the web " hurts us more than it helps " , a statement that was preceded by an overview of the many technologies that had been historically denounced ; Wolman concluded that the solution was " better schools as well as a renewed commitment to reason and scientific rigor so that people can distinguish knowledge from garbage " .
Several prominent scientists working in the field of neuroscience supported Carr 's argument as scientifically plausible . James Olds , a professor of computational neuroscience , who directs the Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study at George Mason University , was quoted in Carr 's essay for his expertise , and upon the essay 's publication Olds wrote a letter to the editor of The Atlantic in which he reiterated that the brain was " very plastic " — referring to the changes that occur in the organization of the brain as a result of experience . It was Olds ' opinion that given the brain 's plasticity it was " not such a long stretch to Carr 's meme " . One of the pioneers in neuroplasticity research , Michael Merzenich , later added his own comment to the discussion , stating that he had given a talk at Google in 2008 in which he had asked the audience the same question that Carr asked in his essay . Merzenich believed that there was " absolutely no question that our brains are engaged less directly and more shallowly in the synthesis of information , when we use research strategies that are all about ' efficiency ' , ' secondary ( and out @-@ of @-@ context ) referencing ' , and ' once over , lightly ' " . Another neuroscientist , Gary Small , director of UCLA 's Memory & Aging Research Center , wrote a letter to the editor of The Atlantic in which he stated that he believed that " brains are developing circuitry for online social networking and are adapting to a new multitasking technology culture " .
= = = Testimonials and refutations = = =
In the media , there were many testimonials and refutations given by journalists for the first part of Carr 's argument regarding the capacity for concentration ; treatments of the second part of Carr 's argument regarding the capacity for contemplation , were , however , far rarer . Although columnist Andrew Sullivan noted that he had little leisure time at his disposal for contemplation compared with when he grew up , the anecdotes provided by journalists that indicated a deficiency in the capacity to contemplate were described only in the context of third parties , such as columnist Margaret Wente 's anecdote about how one consultant had found a growing tendency in her clients to provide ill @-@ considered descriptions for their technical problems .
Columnist Leonard Pitts of The Miami Herald described his difficulty sitting down to read a book , in which he felt like he " was getting away with something , like when you slip out of the office to catch a matinee " . Technology evangelist Jon Udell admitted that , in his " retreats " from the Internet , he sometimes struggled to settle into " books , particularly fiction , and particularly in printed form " . He found portable long @-@ form audio to be " transformative " , however , because he can easily achieve " sustained attention " , which makes him optimistic about the potential to " reactivate ancient traditions , like oral storytelling , and rediscover their powerful neural effects " .
Also writing in The Atlantic , a year after Carr , the futurist Jamais Cascio argued that human cognition has always evolved to meet environmental challenges , and that those posed by the internet are no different . He described the ' skimming ' referred to by Carr as a form of attention deficit caused by the immaturity of filter algorithms : " The trouble isn ’ t that we have too much information at our fingertips , but that our tools for managing it are still in their infancy ... many of the technologies that Carr worries about were developed precisely to help us get some control over a flood of data and ideas . Google isn ’ t the problem ; it ’ s the beginning of a solution . " . Cascio and Carr 's articles have been discussed together in several places . Pew Research used them to form a tension @-@ pair question survey that was distributed to noted academics . Most responded in detail ; concurring with the proposition " Carr was wrong : Google does not make us stupid " . In The Googlisation of Everything , Vaidhyanathan tended to side with Carr . However , he thought both arguments relied too much on determinism : Carr in thinking that an over @-@ reliance on internet tools will inevitably cause the brain to atrophy , and Cascio in thinking that getting smarter is the necessary outcome of the evolutionary pressures he describes . In From Gutenberg to Zuckerberg Naughton noted that , while many agreed Carr had hit on an important subject , his conclusions were not widely supported .
Firmly contesting Carr 's argument , journalist John Battelle praised the virtues of the web : " [ W ] hen I am deep in search for knowledge on the web , jumping from link to link , reading deeply in one moment , skimming hundreds of links the next , when I am pulling back to formulate and reformulate queries and devouring new connections as quickly as Google and the Web can serve them up , when I am performing bricolage in real time over the course of hours , I am ' feeling ' my brain light up , I and [ sic ] ' feeling ' like I 'm getting smarter " . Web journalist Scott Rosenberg reported that his reading habits are the same as they were when he " was a teenager plowing [ his ] way through a shelf of Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky " . In book critic Scott Esposito 's view , " responsible adults " have always had to deal with distractions , and , in his own case , he claimed to remain " fully able to turn down the noise " and read deeply .
= = Analysis = =
In critiquing the rise of Internet @-@ based computing , the philosophical question of whether or not a society can control technological progress was raised . At the online scientific magazine Edge , Wikipedia co @-@ founder Larry Sanger argued that individual will was all that was necessary to maintain the cognitive capacity to read a book all the way through , and computer scientist and writer Jaron Lanier rebuked the idea that technological progress is an " autonomous process that will proceed in its chosen direction independently of us " . Lanier echoed a view stated by American historian Lewis Mumford in his 1970 book The Pentagon of Power , in which Mumford suggested that the technological advances that shape a society could be controlled if the full might of a society 's free will were employed . Lanier believed that technology was significantly hindered by the idea that " there is only one axis of choice " which is either pro- or anti- when it comes to technology adoption . Yet Carr had stated in The Big Switch that he believed an individual 's personal choice toward a technology had little effect on technological progress . According to Carr , the view expressed by Mumford about technological progress was incorrect because it regarded technology solely as advances in science and engineering rather than as an influence on the costs of production and consumption . Economics were a more significant consideration in Carr 's opinion because in a competitive marketplace the most efficient methods of providing an important resource will prevail . As technological advances shape society , an individual might be able to resist the effects but his lifestyle will " always be lonely and in the end futile " ; despite a few holdouts , technology will nevertheless shape economics which , in turn , will shape society .
= = = A focus on literary reading = = =
The selection of one particular quote in Carr 's essay from pathologist Bruce Friedman , a member of the faculty of the University of Michigan Medical School , who commented on a developing difficulty reading books and long essays and specifically the novel War and Peace , was criticized for having a bias toward narrative literature . The quote failed to represent other types of literature , such as technical and scientific literature , which had , in contrast , become much more accessible and widely read with the advent of the Internet . At the Britannica Blog , writer Clay Shirky pugnaciously observed that War and Peace was " too long , and not so interesting " , further stating that " it would be hard to argue that the last ten years have seen a decrease in either the availability or comprehension of material on scientific or technical subjects " . Shirky 's comments on War and Peace were derided by several of his peers as verging on philistinism . In Shirky 's defense , inventor W. Daniel Hillis asserted that , although books " were created to serve a purpose " , that " same purpose can often be served by better means " . While Hillis considered the book to be " a fine and admirable device " , he imagined that clay tablets and scrolls of papyrus , in their time , " had charms of their own " . Wired magazine editor Kevin Kelly believed that the idea that " the book is the apex of human culture " should be resisted . And Birkerts differentiated online reading from literary reading , stating that in the latter the reader is directed within themselves and enters " an environment that is nothing at all like the open @-@ ended information zone that is cyberspace " in which he feels psychologically fragmented .
= = = Coping with abundance = = =
Several critics theorized about the effects of the shift from scarcity to abundance of written material in the media as a result of the technologies introduced by the Internet . This shift was examined for its potential to lead individuals to a superficial comprehension of many subjects rather than a deep comprehension of just a few subjects . According to Shirky , an individual 's ability to concentrate had been facilitated by the " relatively empty environment " which had ceased to exist when the wide availability of the web proliferated new media . Although Shirky acknowledged that the unprecedented quantity of written material available on the web might occasion a sacrifice of the cultural importance of many works , he believed that the solution was " to help make the sacrifice worth it " . In direct contrast , Sven Birkerts argued that " some deep comprehension of our inheritance [ was ] essential " , and called for " some consensus vision among those shapers of what our society and culture might be shaped toward " , warning against allowing the commercial marketplace to dictate the future standing of traditionally important cultural works . While Carr found solace in Shirky 's conceit that " new forms of expression " might emerge to suit the Internet , he considered this conceit to be one of faith rather than reason . In a later response , Shirky continued to expound upon his theme that " technologies that make writing abundant always require new social structures to accompany them " , explaining that Gutenberg 's printing press led to an abundance of cheap books which were met by " a host of inventions large and small " , such as the separation of fiction from non @-@ fiction , the recognition of talents , the listing of concepts by indexes , and the practice of noting editions .
= = = Impact of the web on memory retention = = =
As a result of the vast stores of information made accessible on the web , one hundred critics pointed to a decrease in the desire to recall certain types of information , indicating , they believed , a change in the process of recalling information , as well as the types of information that are recalled . According to Ben Worthen , a Wall Street Journal business technology blogger , the growing importance placed on the ability to access information instead of the capacity to recall information straight from memory would , in the long term , change the type of job skills that companies who are hiring new employees would find valuable . Due to an increased reliance on the Internet , Worthen speculated that before long " the guy who remembers every fact about a topic may not be as valuable as the guy who knows how to find all of these facts and many others " . Evan Ratliff of Salon.com wondered if the usage of gadgets to recall phone numbers , as well as geographical and historical information , had the effect of releasing certain cognitive resources that in turn strengthened other aspects of cognition . Drawing parallels with transactive memory — a process whereby people remember things in relationships and groups — Ratliff mused that perhaps the web was " like a spouse who is around all the time , with a particular knack for factual memory of all varieties " . Far from conclusive , these ruminations left the web 's impact on memory retention an open question .
= = Themes and motifs = =
= = = Effect of technology on the brain 's neural circuitry = = =
In the essay , Carr introduces the discussion of the scientific support for the idea that the brain 's neural circuitry can be rewired with an example in which philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche is said to have been influenced by technology . According to German scholar Friedrich A. Kittler in his book Gramophone , Film , Typewriter , Nietzsche 's writing style became more aphoristic after he started using a typewriter . Nietzsche began using a Malling @-@ Hansen Writing Ball because of his failing eyesight which had disabled his ability to write by hand . The idea that Nietzsche 's writing style had changed for better or worse when he adopted the typewriter was disputed by several critics . Kevin Kelly and Scott Esposito each offered alternate explanations for the apparent changes . Esposito believed that " the brain is so huge and amazing and enormously complex that it 's far , far off base to think that a few years of Internet media or the acquisition of a typewriter can fundamentally rewire it . " In a response to Esposito 's point , neuroscientist James Olds stated that recent brain research demonstrated that it was " pretty clear that the adult brain can re @-@ wire on the fly " . In The New York Times it was reported that several scientists believed that it was certainly plausible that the brain 's neural circuitry may be shaped differently by regular Internet usage compared with the reading of printed works .
Although there was a consensus in the scientific community about how it was possible for the brain 's neural circuitry to change through experience , the potential effect of web technologies on the brain 's neural circuitry was unknown . On the topic of the Internet 's effect on reading skills , Guinevere F. Eden , director of the Center for the Study of Learning at Georgetown University , remarked that the question was whether or not the Internet changed the brain in a way that was beneficial to an individual . Carr believed that the effect of the Internet on cognition was detrimental , weakening the ability to concentrate and contemplate . Olds cited the potential benefits of computer software that specifically targets learning disabilities , stating that among some neuroscientists there was a belief that neuroplasticity @-@ based software was beneficial in improving receptive language disorders . Olds mentioned neuroscientist Michael Merzenich , who had formed several companies with his peers in which neuroplasticity @-@ based computer programs had been developed to improve the cognitive functioning of kids , adults and the elderly . In 1996 , Merzenich and his peers had started a company called Scientific Learning in which neuroplastic research had been used to develop a computer training program called Fast ForWord that offered seven brain exercises that improved language impairments and learning disabilities in children . Feedback on Fast ForWord showed that these brain exercises even had benefits for autistic children , an unexpected spillover effect that Merzenich has attempted to harness by developing a modification of Fast ForWord specifically designed for autism . At a subsequent company that Merzenich started called Posit Science , Fast ForWord @-@ like brain exercises and other techniques were developed with the aim of sharpening the brains of elderly people by retaining the plasticity of their brains .
= = = HAL in 2001 : A Space Odyssey = = =
In Stanley Kubrick 's 1968 science fiction film 2001 : A Space Odyssey , astronaut David Bowman slowly disassembles the mind of an artificial intelligence named HAL by sequentially unplugging its memory banks . Carr likened the emotions of despair expressed by HAL as its mind is disassembled to his own , at the time , cognitive difficulties in engaging with long texts . He felt as if someone was " tinkering with [ his ] brain , remapping the neural circuitry , reprogramming the memory " . HAL had also been used as a metaphor for the " ultimate search engine " in a PBS interview with Google co @-@ founder Sergey Brin as noted in Carr 's book The Big Switch , and also Brin 's TED talk . Brin was comparing Google 's ambitions of building an artificial intelligence to HAL , while dismissing the possibility that a bug like the one that led HAL to murder the occupants of the fictional spacecraft Discovery One could occur in a Google @-@ based artificial intelligence . Carr observed in his essay that throughout history technological advances have often necessitated new metaphors , such as the mechanical clock engendering the simile " like clockwork " and the age of the computer engendering the simile " like computers " . Carr concluded his essay with an explanation as to why he believed HAL was an appropriate metaphor for his essay 's argument . He observed that HAL showed genuine emotion as his mind was disassembled while , throughout the film , the humans onboard the space station appeared to be automatons , thinking and acting as if they were following the steps of an algorithm . Carr believed that the film 's prophetic message was that as individuals increasingly rely on computers for an understanding of their world their intelligence may become more machinelike than human .
= = Developing view of how Internet use affects cognition = =
After the publication of Carr 's essay , a developing view unfolded in the media as sociological and neurological studies surfaced that were relevant to determining the cognitive impact of regular Internet usage . Challenges to Carr 's argument were made frequently . As the two most outspoken detractors of electronic media , Carr and Birkerts were both appealed to by Kevin Kelly to each formulate a more precise definition of the faults they perceived regarding electronic media so that their beliefs could be scientifically verified . While Carr firmly believed that his skepticism about the Internet 's benefits to cognition was warranted , he cautioned in both his essay and his book The Big Switch that long @-@ term psychological and neurological studies were required to definitively ascertain how cognition develops under the influence of the Internet .
Scholars at University College London conducted a study titled " Information Behaviour of the Researcher of the Future " , the results of which suggested that students ' research habits tended towards skimming and scanning rather than in @-@ depth reading . The study provoked serious reflection among educators about the implications for educational instruction .
In October 2008 , new insights into the effect of Internet usage on cognition were gleaned from the results , reported in a press release , of a study conducted by UCLA 's Memory and Aging Research Center that had tested two groups of people between the ages of 55 and 76 years old ; only one group of which were experienced web users . While they had read books or performed assigned search tasks their brain activity had been monitored with functional MRI scans , which revealed that both reading and web search utilize the same language , reading , memory , and visual regions of the brain ; however , it was discovered that those searching the web stimulated additional decision @-@ making and complex reasoning regions of the brain , with a two @-@ fold increase in these regions in experienced web users compared with inexperienced web users . Gary Small , the director of the UCLA center and lead investigator of the UCLA study , concurrently released the book iBrain : Surviving the Technological Alteration of the Modern Mind , co @-@ authored with Gigi Vorgan , with the press release .
While one set of critics and bloggers used the UCLA study to dismiss the argument raised in Carr 's essay , another set took a closer look at the conclusions that could be drawn from the study concerning the effects of Internet usage . Among the reflections concerning the possible interpretations of the UCLA study were whether greater breadth of brain activity while using the Internet in comparison with reading a book improved or impaired the quality of a reading session ; and whether the decision @-@ making and complex reasoning skills that are apparently involved in Internet search , according to the study , suggest a high quality of thought or simply the use of puzzle solving skills . Thomas Claburn , in InformationWeek , observed that the study 's findings regarding the cognitive impact of regular Internet usage were inconclusive and stated that " it will take time before it 's clear whether we should mourn the old ways , celebrate the new , or learn to stop worrying and love the Net " .
= Jon Lieber =
Jonathan Ray Lieber ( born April 2 , 1970 ) is a former Major League Baseball ( MLB ) pitcher . He stands 6 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) tall and weighs 240 pounds ( 110 kg ) . He played for the Pittsburgh Pirates ( 1994 – 1998 ) , Chicago Cubs ( 1999 – 2002 and 2008 ) , New York Yankees ( 2004 ) , and Philadelphia Phillies ( 2005 – 2007 ) . He batted left @-@ handed and threw right @-@ handed , and utilized a fastball , a slider , and a changeup for his pitches . In a 14 @-@ season career , Lieber compiled a 131 – 124 record with 1 @,@ 553 strikeouts and a 4 @.@ 27 ERA in 2 @,@ 198 innings pitched .
Lieber attended the University of South Alabama , helping them win the Sun Belt Conference Championship . He was drafted by the Kansas City Royals in the second round of the 1992 Major League Baseball Draft , but he was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates the following season before even throwing a pitch in the major leagues . He made his debut in 1994 and was named the Pirates ' Opening Day starter in 1995 , but it was not until 1997 that he became a full @-@ time major league starter . He was traded to the Chicago Cubs following the 1998 season . In 2000 , he led the National League ( NL ) with 251 innings pitched . He had his best season in 2001 , winning 20 games while losing just six . Lieber underwent Tommy John surgery in 2002 and missed the entire 2003 season . In 2004 , he pitched for the New York Yankees , reaching the playoffs for the only time in his career . He signed with the Philadelphia Phillies in 2005 and tied for fifth in the NL with 17 wins . Injuries cut into his playing time over the next three years ; he finished his career as a reliever with the Cubs in 2008 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Lieber was born in Council Bluffs , Iowa . He graduated from Abraham Lincoln High School in Council Bluffs in 1988 . Lieber initially attended Iowa Western Community College in 1989 and 1990 before transferring to the University of South Alabama . Over the next two years , Lieber experienced great success for South Alabama . He posted 12 – 5 records for them both of his years there , and he led the team in earned run average ( ERA ) and strikeouts both years . He was selected by the Chicago Cubs in the ninth round of the 1991 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) draft , but he did not sign . In 1992 , he helped South Alabama win the Sun Belt Conference Championship .
Lieber received several honors following his senior season . These included the Sun Belt Conference Player of the Year award , a third @-@ team All @-@ America selection by the American Baseball Coaches Association , an all @-@ region award , and an all @-@ league award ( his second ) . In 2013 , he was inducted into the Mobile Sports Hall of Fame . He was drafted by the Kansas City Royals in the second round of the 1992 draft , and this time , he signed .
= = = Minor Leagues ( 1992 – 94 ) = = =
Lieber began his professional career with the A short season Eugene Emeralds of the Northwest League . In five starts with the Emeralds , he had a 3 – 0 record , a 1 @.@ 16 ERA , 23 strikeouts , 22 walks , and 26 hits allowed in 31 innings pitched . He also appeared in seven games ( six starts ) for the Baseball City Royals of the A @-@ Advanced Florida State League , posting a 3 – 3 record , a 4 @.@ 65 ERA , 19 strikeouts , eight walks , and 45 hits allowed in 31 innings pitched .
In 1993 , the Royals switched their A @-@ Advanced affiliate to the Wilmington Blue Rocks of the Carolina League . Lieber began the season with Wilmington , posting a 9 – 3 record , a 2 @.@ 67 ERA , 89 strikeouts , nine walks , 125 hits allowed , and 114 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 17 games ( 16 starts ) . He was promoted to the AA Memphis Chicks of the Southern League on July 11 , where he posted a 2 – 1 record and a 6 @.@ 86 ERA in four starts . On July 31 , seeking pitching help as they contended for the playoffs , the Royals traded Lieber and Dan Miceli to the Pittsburgh Pirates for their closer , Stan Belinda . The Pirates assigned Lieber to the Southern League 's Carolina Mudcats ; in six starts , he had a 4 – 2 record , a 3 @.@ 97 ERA , 28 strikeouts , 10 walks , and 39 hits allowed in 34 innings pitched .
Lieber made three starts with the Mudcats in 1994 , posting a 2 – 0 record , a 1 @.@ 29 ERA , 21 strikeouts , two walks , and 13 hits allowed in 21 innings . He also made three starts for the Buffalo Bisons of the Triple @-@ A American Association , posting a 1 – 1 record , a 1 @.@ 69 ERA , 21 strikeouts , one walk , and 16 hits allowed in 21 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
= = = Pittsburgh Pirates ( 1994 – 98 ) = = =
Lieber was called up by the Pirates in May 1994 to join their starting rotation . In his first major league start on May 15 , he gave up one run in six innings but took the loss as the Philadelphia Phillies defeated the Pirates 1 – 0 . He earned his first career win five days later , pitching eight shutout innings in a 6 – 0 victory over the Montreal Expos . In 17 starts with the Pirates , Lieber had a 6 – 7 record , a 3 @.@ 73 ERA , 71 strikeouts , 25 walks , and 116 hits allowed in 108 2 ⁄ 3 innings .
Following Lieber 's rookie season , Pirates ' manager Jim Leyland named Lieber the team 's Opening Day starter for 1995 . Like many of the young Pirates ' pitchers that year , Lieber struggled ; he was optioned to the Calgary Cannons of the Triple @-@ A Pacific Coast League on June 18 after going 2 – 7 with a 7 @.@ 48 ERA . In 14 starts with Calgary , Lieber had a 1 – 5 record , a 7 @.@ 01 ERA , 34 strikeouts , 19 walks , and 122 hits allowed in 77 innings pitched . He was recalled by the Pirates on September 5 when rosters expanded but was used mostly as a relief pitcher for the rest of the year . In 21 games ( 12 starts ) , Lieber compiled a 4 – 7 record , a 6 @.@ 32 ERA , 45 strikeouts , 14 walks , and 103 hits allowed in 72 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
Lieber remained in the bullpen to begin the 1996 season . In his first 34 games , he posted a 4 @.@ 21 ERA . In July , he returned to the starting rotation following the release of Zane Smith . As a starter , Lieber posted a 7 – 2 record with a 3 @.@ 91 ERA , emerging as the Pirates ' ace by the end of the year . In 51 games ( 15 starts ) in 1996 , Lieber posted a 9 – 5 record , a 3 @.@ 99 ERA , 94 strikeouts , 28 walks , and 156 hits allowed in 142 innings pitched .
Lieber became the Pirates ' Opening Day starter again in 1997 . On June 30 , he threw his only complete game of the year , striking out 10 while allowing one run on five hits in a 3 – 1 victory over the Chicago White Sox . Lieber was inconsistent in 1997 , amassing several winning streaks and several losing streaks during the season . In 33 games ( 32 starts ) , he had an 11 – 14 record , a 4 @.@ 49 ERA , 160 strikeouts , 51 walks , and 193 hits allowed in 188 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He was third in the NL in losses ( behind Mark Leiter 's 17 and teammate Steve Cooke 's 15 ) ; however , he tied Mike Hampton for the most runs batted in by a major league pitcher with eight .
In 1998 , Lieber was the Pirates ' fourth starter . He had a 5 – 10 record over his first 17 starts , partly because he received 15 total runs of support in the losses over that time . Lieber had an 8 – 13 record with a 3 @.@ 90 ERA before getting placed on the disabled list ( DL ) for the first time in his career on August 21 due to a left oblique muscle strain . He returned from the DL on September 15 but posted a 10 @.@ 80 ERA over his last two starts . In 29 games ( 28 starts ) , Lieber posted an 8 – 14 record , a 4 @.@ 11 ERA , 138 strikeouts , 40 walks , and 182 hits allowed in 171 innings pitched . He was tied with seven other pitchers for fifth in the league in losses . Following the season , Lieber was traded to the Chicago Cubs for Brant Brown .
= = = Chicago Cubs ( 1999 – 2002 ) = = =
Lieber began 1999 as the Cubs ' third starter . Prior to the All @-@ Star break , he had an 8 – 3 record with a 3 @.@ 26 ERA ( seventh @-@ best in the NL ) . From April 29 to May 8 , he was on the DL with a right eye contusion . He threw his first major league shutout on May 14 , striking out seven in a 9 – 0 victory over the Atlanta Braves . Lieber went 0 – 8 with a 5 @.@ 71 ERA in his first 13 starts following the All @-@ Star Break before earning wins in his final two starts of the year . In 31 starts , Lieber compiled a 10 – 11 record , a 4 @.@ 07 ERA , and 46 walks in 203 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He was tied for tenth in the league with 226 hits allowed ( along with teammate Steve Trachsel ) , but he finished eighth in the league with 186 strikeouts and tied with six other players for ninth in the league with three complete games .
In 2000 , Lieber was the Cubs ' Opening Day starter . From June 28 to August 14 , he won a career @-@ high six consecutive decisions . On July 3 , he threw a shutout , allowing two hits in a 3 – 0 victory over the Pirates . In his next start , on July 8 , he had 12 strikeouts and threw a complete game in a 9 – 2 win over the White Sox . Lieber was 12 – 7 with a 4 @.@ 12 ERA through his first 29 starts ; however , he went 0 – 4 in September with a 5 @.@ 88 ERA . In 35 starts ( tied for the NL lead with Randy Johnson , Kevin Millwood , Tom Glavine , and Greg Maddux ) , Lieber had a 12 – 11 record , a 4 @.@ 41 ERA , and 54 walks . He tied Darryl Kile for ninth in the league with 192 strikeouts , he led the league with 251 innings pitched , he ranked third in the league with 248 hits allowed ( behind Liván Hernández 's 254 and José Lima 's 251 ) , and he tied Maddux for third with six complete games ( behind Johnson 's and Curt Schilling 's eight ) .
Lieber 's most productive season came in 2001 . On May 24 , he one @-@ hit the Cincinnati Reds , 3 – 0 , ending the team 's NL @-@ record streak of 208 games in a row without being shut out , throwing just 78 pitches . From June 16 to July 15 , he won six straight games . He was named an All @-@ Star for the first and only time in his career . In his final start of the season on October 3 , he allowed five runs in six innings but still earned his 20th win of the season as the Cubs beat the Reds 13 – 7 . In 34 starts , Lieber recorded a career @-@ high 20 victories to go with just six losses , posted a 3 @.@ 80 ERA , and struck out 148 as opposed to 41 walks . His 20 wins ranked fourth in the league ( behind Matt Morris 's and Schilling 's 22 and Johnson 's 21 ) , his 232 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched ranked fifth in the league , and his five complete games tied for second in the league with Javier Vázquez ( behind Johnson 's six ) . He finished fourth in the NL Cy Young Award vote , behind Johnson , Schilling , and Morris .
Lieber 's 2002 season was curtailed by right elbow problems , which plagued him all year . On August 1 , facing the San Diego Padres , Lieber allowed two runs in seven innings but received a no @-@ decision in an 8 – 7 Cubs ' victory . He was placed on the DL with right elbow tendinitis the next day , and he underwent Tommy John surgery on August 8 , ending his season . In 21 starts , Lieber compiled a 6 – 8 record , a 3 @.@ 70 ERA , 87 strikeouts , 12 walks , and 153 hits allowed in 141 innings pitched . He still managed to tie Randy Wolf , Brett Tomko , Pedro Astacio , and teammate Matt Clement for tenth in the league with three complete games . After the season , he became a free agent .
While on the Cubs , Lieber became the only Major League pitcher to give up a hit to a one handed player when he gave up not just one hit , but two to Jim Abbott , also allowing Abbott to drive in three RBIs .
= = = Other teams ( 2004 – 08 ) = = =
Lieber signed a two @-@ year contract with the New York Yankees following the 2002 season . He missed the 2003 season recovering from his injury , although he did make two minor league rehab appearances . Lieber began the 2004 season on the DL with a strained abductor muscle in his right thigh . He returned to the major leagues on May 1 , allowing three runs in seven innings in a 12 – 4 victory over the Kansas City Royals . Through August 1 , he had a 7 – 7 record with a 5 @.@ 06 ERA . From then on , Lieber went 7 – 1 with a 3 @.@ 21 ERA . On September 14 , he took a no @-@ hitter into the seventh inning against the Boston Red Sox and allowed three runs in 8 1 ⁄ 3 innings in a 14 – 4 victory . In 27 starts , Lieber posted a 14 – 8 record , a 4 @.@ 33 ERA , 102 strikeouts , 18 walks , and 216 hits allowed in 176 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . His 14 wins tied with eight other pitchers for eighth in the American League ( AL ) and tied with Javier Vázquez for the most by a Yankee as well as being the largest win total by an ex @-@ 20 game winner returning from a full @-@ season layoff since 1946 .
Dave Caldwell of the New York Times wrote on September 3 that Lieber would " probably end up in the bullpen " in the playoffs , but less than a month later , Mark Feinsand of MLB.com wrote that Lieber " has suddenly become one of the most important cogs in the Yankees ' postseason machine " due an injury to Kevin Brown and late @-@ season struggles by Vázquez . Lieber started Game 2 of the AL Division Series against the Minnesota Twins . He allowed three runs over 6 2 ⁄ 3 innings and was in line for the win , but he received a no @-@ decision in a 12 @-@ inning , 7 – 6 Yankee victory . The Yankees won the series in four games . In Game 2 of the AL Championship Series against the Red Sox , Lieber allowed one run and three hits in seven innings , earning the win in a 3 – 1 victory . In Game 6 , he allowed four runs in 7 1 ⁄ 3 innings and took the loss in a 4 – 2 defeat . The Red Sox become the first MLB team in history to overcome a 3 – 0 series deficit , winning in seven games . 2004 would be Lieber 's only playoff experience , as well as his only stint in the AL .
Before the 2005 season , Lieber signed as a free agent with the Philadelphia Phillies for three years and $ 24 million with a team option for the fourth year . He was named the Phillies ' Opening Day starter in 2005 . He won his first four starts with the team . From May 12 through June 30 , Lieber had a 3 – 7 record and a 7 @.@ 48 ERA . 8 – 8 by the end of that stretch , he managed to post a 9 – 5 record and a 3 @.@ 32 ERA to finish the season . Lieber gave up one run in eight innings on July 21 but took the loss as the Los Angeles Dodgers defeated the Phillies 1 – 0 . On September 22 , he threw eight shutout innings in a 4 – 0 victory over the Braves . Lieber finished the season with a 17 – 13 record , a 4 @.@ 20 ERA , 149 strikeouts , 41 walks , and 223 hits allowed in 218 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . Lieber led the team with 17 wins , which tied with Andy Pettitte for fifth in the league . He tied with six other pitchers for the league lead with 35 starts .
Lieber lost his first four starts of the season in 2006 for the first time in his career . On May 13 , he took a perfect game into the seventh inning against Cincinnati before allowing a two @-@ out single to Adam Dunn ; he threw 8 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in a 2 – 0 victory . He was on the DL from May 30 to July 6 with a groin injury . Before going on the DL , he had a 3 – 5 record and a 5 @.@ 79 ERA . He posted a 6 @.@ 75 ERA in his first five starts after returning from the DL , but he posted a 3 @.@ 38 in his final 11 starts . On August 16 , he threw his first shutout since 2001 against the New York Mets , allowing five hits in a 3 – 0 victory . In 27 starts , Lieber compiled a 9 – 11 record , a 4 @.@ 93 ERA , 100 strikeouts , 24 walks , and 196 hits allowed in 168 innings pitched .
Lieber began 2007 on the DL with a strained right oblique , and when he was activated on April 9 , he was placed in the bullpen . After two relief outings , he returned to the rotation on April 20 when Brett Myers was moved to the bullpen . On June 9 , he struck out 11 and allowed three hits in a 4 – 0 shutout of the Royals . At the time , he was 3 – 4 with a 3 @.@ 72 ERA , but he allowed 14 runs ( 13 earned ) over his next two starts , both losses . On June 23 , Lieber was placed on the DL with a ruptured tendon in his right foot , which ended his tenure with the Phillies . In 14 games ( 12 starts ) , he had a 3 – 6 record , a 4 @.@ 73 ERA , 54 strikeouts , 22 walks , and 91 hits allowed in 78 innings . The Phillies reached the playoffs , but Lieber was left off their postseason roster because of his injury .
On January 16 , 2008 , Lieber signed a one @-@ year contract with the Chicago Cubs . He competed for the starting rotation but failed to earn a spot and was placed in the bullpen as the Cubs ' long reliever . From July 18 to September 1 , he was on the DL with a right foot injury . He appeared in his final major league game on September 5 , giving up four runs in two innings in a 10 – 2 loss to Cincinnati . In 26 games ( one start ) , Lieber posted a 2 – 3 record , a 4 @.@ 05 ERA , 27 strikeouts , six walks , and 59 hits allowed in 46 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . The Cubs reached the playoffs , but Lieber was left off the playoff roster for the second year in a row .
Lieber retired after the 2008 season wanting to spend more time with his family . In his 14 @-@ year career , Lieber had a 131 – 124 record , a 4 @.@ 27 ERA , 1 @,@ 553 strikeouts , 422 walks , 2 @,@ 388 hits allowed , and 2 @,@ 198 innings pitched in 401 games ( 327 starts ) . His strikeout @-@ to @-@ walk ratio of 3 @.@ 680 ranks 11th all @-@ time among major league pitchers as of 2013 .
= = = Pitching style = = =
Lieber threw three pitches : a fastball , a slider , and a changeup . The slider was the pitch Lieber often used to get outs and was most successful against right @-@ handed batters . The changeup darted away from batters . Lieber was not a hard thrower ( his fastball was in the low 90 mph range ) ; he relied on controlling his pitches to have success .
= = = Personal = = =
Lieber married Jessica Conway on September 18 , 1992 . The couple has one daughter : Jillian ( born October 22 , 1997 ) , and three sons : Jared ( born July 27 , 2000 ) , Justin ( born May 8 , 2003 ) , and Jonah ( born June 1 , 2007 ) . They live in Mobile , Alabama . Lieber enjoys hunting as a hobby .
= Destiny Fulfilled =
Destiny Fulfilled is the fifth and final studio album by American R & B trio Destiny 's Child . It was released on November 10 , 2004 in by Columbia Records and Sony Urban Music . A comeback release , it marked the return of Destiny 's Child after the group went into hiatus , which allowed each member to release solo albums . Unlike their previous material , this record saw each member equally contributing to the songwriting and production . Destiny 's Child further worked with frequent collaborators such as Rockwilder , Swizz Beatz and Rodney Jerkins as well as several new producers .
For the album 's theme , the members drew inspiration from the conversations they had during the first week of recording when they discussed about the happenings in their lives while being apart . Composed mostly of mid @-@ tempo songs and ballads that are subsequent continuations of each other , altogether telling one complete story , Destiny Fulfilled is an R & B album . It was released to generally mixed reviews among music critics who criticized its mid @-@ tempo ballads and lyrical content . The album was commercially successful ; it reached number two on the US Billboard 200 , and has since been certified triple platinum in that region . It was also successful in different countries worldwide receiving certifications in Australia , Canada , Germany and the United Kingdom among others .
As part of the album 's promotion , the group performed songs from it on numerous award ceremonies and televised appearances in the US and Europe . They further embarked on the tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It in 2005 with 67 dates across four continents worldwide . Destiny Fulfilled spawned four singles — the lead single " Lose My Breath " , " Soldier " , " Girl " and " Cater 2 U " . After the tour , the band disbanded which made Destiny Fulfilled their last studio album .
= = Background = =
While recording their third studio album Survivor in late 2000 , Beyoncé announced that Destiny 's Child would be on a hiatus that would allow each member to release a solo album , which they hoped would further increase interest in the group . The idea of solo releases emanated from the group 's manager , Beyoncé 's father , Mathew Knowles . Kelly Rowland further explained in an interview that Destiny 's Child has been present in the media for a long time and they wanted to " give the public eye a rest from DC for a minute " . During that same interview , she acknowledged that the trio would return to the studio in fall 2003 to start with the work on a new album .
Two members of the group , Beyoncé and Rowland each released one album , while Michelle Williams released two . While each member achieved domestic success , Beyoncé 's had been regarded as the most successful with the release of Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) , which enjoyed international commercial success and acclaim . This , along with their other ongoing projects , led to speculation over the disbandment of Destiny 's Child . Amidst rumors and speculations , Rowland announced in 2004 their return to the studio to record what would become their fourth and final album . The group claimed that the reunion was destined to happen , and that their affinity to each other kept them together .
Right in the making of the album , they planned to part ways after their fourteen @-@ year career to facilitate their continued pursuit in individual aspirations . Beyoncé has noted that their destinies were already fulfilled ; however , Destiny 's Child claimed that naming the album Destiny Fulfilled was not a coincidence of sort . Beyoncé has said that " the group felt it still had something to offer musically " with the album before adding : " We did this record for ourselves , not to sell a million the first week out ... That doesn 't mean as much to us as just the fact that three friends got back together to do another record . That was our destiny . " . Rowland commented : " We were like , ' You know what , we 're getting older and we want to end on a high note . ' We want to give our fans a great final record " . Beyoncé , also commented regarding the finality of their career : " Who knows what will happen in three , five or 10 years ? The main thing is that we maintain our friendship and that we do it because we want to – not because it 's a good business move . "
= = Production and recording = =
Production of the album began in summer of 2004 with Destiny 's Child taking help from frequent collaborators including Rockwilder , Swizz Beatz and Rodney Jerkins . The group worked on the album within a period of three weeks . Jerkins , who had worked with Beyoncé for her solo album Dangerously in Love , concerned how he would manage the production , saying , " How is this going to work ? ' Cause Beyoncé , she blew up solo , so how 's it going to work in a group together ? " . He stated that once he got inside the studio , however , his skepticism vanished as he saw the group 's " excitement being back in the studio together " , calling the process " natural " . The members of the group stated that the first week of recording was spent solely on conversations about the happenings in their lives while being apart from each other as they hadn 't spent quaility time for a long period . This further inspired them to record the conversations and use it as the main theme of the record .
Differing from Survivor in that previously Beyoncé had taken an active role in writing and producing , Destiny Fulfilled saw each member contributing inputs culled from personal experiences and individual opinions and points of view not dependent from the others ' . In most cases , producers of the album would send them a CD containing a track that would be the group 's basis in the songwriting process ; without the producer 's supervision of which part to sing , that formed a new direction of their style different from their previous records . The traditional approach where each member sang one verse and chimed in the chorus was replaced ; in some songs in Destiny Fulfilled , their vocals were alternated in every line of the lyrics , a technique similar to hip hop artists . Destiny 's Child took the role of executive producing alongside their manager , Mathew Knowles . Beyoncé , who vocally produced the songs , commented that it was important for her to make sure their voices were audible and identifiable . Taking it as one of her goals , the group decided to focus on mid @-@ tempo songs and on few dance numbers and ballads — which they considered people cannot sing with . Beyoncé elaborated " We wanted to make sure that the songs would be something that we were proud of 10 years from now , 20 years from now . We wanted it to be something that people can really feel an emotion to . Up @-@ tempo songs can do that , but they more make you wanna dance . " As Rowland was recently engaged in the time of the writing of the album , it further influenced her songwriting . She also cited that being apart from the group had an impact on the album as well : " All of us have been in three different places ... so there 's a lot to talk about , a lot that 's gone on , personally . I think it 's important to talk about that on this new record , to put what we 've been going through separately into the new record . "
= = Composition = =
During an interview with MTV , Beyoncé stated that the songs put altogether tell a complete story and noted that each song was a subsequent continuation to the next one . She concluded , " [ The album continues with ] this whole journey of this group of women trying to find love . And truly they find it because they love themselves and find it in themselves . It 's friendship , it 's love , it 's maturity and growth , and it 's everything that we wanted it to be . " For the music of the album , the group tried challenging themselves , working with different arrangements , trying to create an original sound ; to succeed in this , they were influenced by The Emotions , Jodeci and SWV mixing elements of their music . Destiny Fulfilled is predominantly an R & B concept album tracing a woman 's relationship journey . Critics further found elements of soul music , dance and hip @-@ hop . The album is mostly composed of mid and slowtempo balladry following the opening two songs ; Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian felt that the ballads showcased " the girliness in the trio , musically and lyrically " . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine found elements of middle of the road music in the ballads .
The album opens with the up @-@ tempo dance song " Lose My Breath " , a track detailing a man full of empty promises to a woman . It is musically complete with military , marching @-@ band drums and keyboard stabs and the backing track contains various sound effects . " Soldier " , the second track with T.I. and Lil Wayne , the only featured artists on the album , contains elements from Southern hip hop and Crunk & B. Unsatisfied and unfulfilled with the lover from the opening song , the protagonists ask for a decent soldier , further singing about finding a gangster . After finding the soldier , the third song , the R & B number " Cater 2 U " , lyrically is about submissively serving the man considered as such . Inspired by him , the protagonists sing about doing various things to make him happy musically accompanied by synthesizer as the song builds a crescendo .
The fourth song " T @-@ Shirt " is complete with inorganic drum sounds , guitar and backwards loop as the trio sings about sleeping in bed with their man 's T @-@ shirt , " craving his presence , and inhailing his scent " . " Is She the Reason " is an R & B ballad which was noted to have a similar chord progression to materials by The Beatles , which lyrically speaks on being in competition with another woman for her mans love & attention . It contains a trumpet @-@ laden sample from Melba Moore 's song " I Don 't Know No One Else to Turn To " . The next song , " Girl " was noted for its Motown influence and a theme talking about friendship . " If " , complete with strings , lyrically talks about men who don 't appreciate their female lovers until their relationship ends and they realize their mistakes . " Free " was described as a " soul classic from 1975 " with critics also noting elements of 1970s funk music , as the trio speaks on being " set free " after being in a relationship where her lover never tending to her desires like she does for him . The midtempo number " Through with Love " was noted for having an " angry " nature as it talks about a break @-@ up . It contains an undulating piano line as the members of the group sing with restrained vocals and later religious redemption with elements of gospel . In " Love " , " capital L kicks the daylights out of the forces of fear , doubt and disappointment " , as the group " thank [ s ] God for love " . They further sing about how people " can 't truly love another until [ they ] love God and then [ themselves ] " . They further proclaim that they have found love and are " madly in it " .
= = Release and promotion = =
The track listing of Destiny Fulfilled was revealed on October 15 , 2004 . The album was first released in Japan on November 10 , 2004 . It was released on November 16 , 2004 , in North America via Columbia Records . Although the original release was intended to be one day earlier , Columbia Records was concerned about " potential for Internet leaks and ' burned ' CD counterfeits " that could " lead consumers to experience inferior and incomplete versions of the album " which led to the postponement of Destiny Fulfilled .
The group performed " Lose My Breath " on ABC 's 2004 National Football League " Opening Kickoff " special after its online release on September 9 , 2004 , to break their yearlong hiatus . On October 25 , 2004 , they appeared at the Radio Music Awards in Las Vegas performing the song with an a cappella jazz opening . The following month they performed three songs from their previous albums and finished with " Lose My Breath " on The Oprah Winfrey Show where they also sat down for an interview with Oprah Winfrey . On November 8 , 2004 , the trio appeared on Total Request Live ( TRL ) and performed the song along with " Say My Name " . They went to the German entertainment TV show Wetten , dass .. ? on November 13 , 2004 , and performed " Lose My Breath " . At BET 's 106 & Park Destiny 's Child performed " Soldier " on November 15 , 2004 . They also performed the song on CBS 's The Early Show on December 8 , 2004 . In early February 2005 they gave another performance of " Soldier " at the British show Top of the Pops . At the 2005 NBA All @-@ Star Game on February 20 , 2005 , they sang both " Soldier " and " Lose My Breath " . They performed the latter song again at the 2005 ESPY Awards on July 13 with the ceremony being aired on ESPN four days later . " Cater 2 U " was performed on June 28 during the 2005 BET Awards in Los Angeles .
When the advanced release date of the album was announced , the group confirmed the initial dates of their worldwide tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It in connection with Destiny Fulfilled 's promotion . Promotions of the tour were aired over the radio and television across the United States and the group further collaborated with McDonald 's , which served as its sponsor . The tour 's set list included songs from Destiny Fulfilled as well as Destiny 's Child 's previous albums and songs from the solo albums of each member performed individually . Numerous costume changes occurred throughout the show ; the concert exhibited products from Beyoncé 's clothing line from the House of Deréon , a company she co @-@ founded with her mother Tina Knowles . A performance from the tour was filmed in Atlanta on July 15 , 2005 , and the DVD Destiny 's Child Live in Atlanta chronicling the concert was released on March 28 , 2006 .
= = Singles = =
The album 's lead single , " Lose My Breath " , premiered on AOL Music on September 9 , 2004 and it was released on September 21 . Its high @-@ mark debut at number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100 prior to its release gave the album an early boost . The single peaked at number three on the chart for the week ending November 6 , 2004 giving the group their ninth top ten single . " Lose My Breath " topped the Hot Dance Club Songs chart for the week ending January 8 , 2005 and was later certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on April 28 , 2005 selling 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US . It was also successful across Europe , peaking at number one on the European Hot 100 Singles chart for the week ending December 4 , 2004 spending four consecutive weeks on top . It managed to top the charts in Belgium , Ireland , Italy and Switzerland and it further appeared in the top ten in almost every other chart . The American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) used the song as the music for their introductory montage at the 2004 NBA Playoffs and through the first few weeks of the 2005 NBA Playoffs .
" Soldier " , released on December 7 , 2004 , peaked at the third position on the Billboard Hot 100 chart becoming the band 's tenth top ten single on that chart . It further became the second single from the album to top the Hot Dance Club Songs chart for the week ending February 26 , 2005 . The RIAA gave it a gold certification for selling 500 @,@ 000 digital copies in the US . " Soldier " further peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart , number 3 on the ARIA Charts in Australia and appeared in the top 20 in many European countries . The third single from the album , " Girl " was released on May 2 , 2005 in the UK and on May 17 in the US . It was successful on the ARIA Chart peaking at number five and number six both on the UK Singles Chart and the New Zealand Singles Chart in addition to appearing in other European charts . In the US , it peaked at number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart becoming the lowest charting single there from the album . The fourth and final single from Destiny Fulfilled was " Cater 2 U " released in the US and Italy only beginning on June 14 , 2005 . It peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number three on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs further being certified gold by the RIAA .
= = Critical reception = =
Destiny Fulfilled received mixed reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 52 based on 17 reviews . Dimitri Ehrlich of Vibe magazine complimented the production of the album , saying that it " showcases advanced production values " with " impressive " songwriting and vocal abilities and concluded that it " offers divine satisfaction " . A writer of Billboard felt that Destiny Fulfilled worked as " a testament to Beyoncé 's evolving multiple talents " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic praised Rowland 's and Williams ' abilities as vocalists and their contributions to the choruses , but felt that Beyoncé " steals every song on Destiny Fulfilled " further commending her for sounding " larger than life even when she 's quiet " ; however he concluded , " as a whole , the album winds up sounding too reserved and heavy @-@ handed , which makes it a disappointment " . Andy Battaglia of The A.V. Club wrote in his review that " Destiny Fulfilled sounds distant and detached " further criticizing its mid @-@ tempo ballads for sounding " uninterrupted at best , uninspired at worst " . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times commented that it is " a surprisingly perfunctory disc that never quite justifies its existence " . Alan Ranta of Tiny Mix Tapes doubted Beyoncé 's lyrical sincerity , saying , " the success of this album depends once again on the complete suspension of die @-@ hard fans ' disbelief that Beyoncé ' Your Ad Here ' Knowles could ever actually truly love another human being as much as she loves herself and her possessions . "
Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian commented that the lead vocals of the songs were likely to be sung by each member equally , noting that it made the album a " democratic " one ; however she criticized them for squandering " the extent of their talents " on the album . Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly also noticed its " overall air of democracy at work " and noted that Destiny Fulfilled " often moves at a molasses @-@ like pace , weighted down with a preponderance of exquisitely executed but ultimately dull ballads " . Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone magazine echoed his comments , saying , " In all but a couple of songs , the verses are divided into three sections , with Beyonce leading things off , followed by Rowland , then Williams " . She noted that after a couple of upbeat songs , " the album slumps into an endless string of overwrought R & B ballads where the only saving grace is ... these ladies can harmonize like nobody 's business . " Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine has commented that the ballads of the album build into " the same sort of standoffish sexual supply @-@ and @-@ demand bartering that has marred their worst tracks " . Most of the critics questioned why Beyoncé had to return to Destiny 's Child after achieving the most success among the members of the group . Henderson lambasted Beyoncé to performing again with the group with the " full intention " of taking advantage to bolster her " divette " status to superstardom . In May 2006 , Destiny Fulfilled was listed at number 24 on a list titled " The 50 Worst Albums Ever ! " complied by Q magazine .
= = = Accolades = = =
The album won in the category for Favorite Soul / R & B Album at the 2005 American Music Awards where Destiny 's Child also won the Favorite Soul / R & B Band award . At the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards Destiny Fulfilled received an award for Best R & B / Soul Album while " Soldier " received Best R & B / Soul Single . The album was nominated in the category for Best Contemporary R & B Album at the 48th Grammy Awards in 2006 but it lost to Mariah Carey 's The Emancipation of Mimi . Its singles " Soldier " and " Cater 2 U " further received nominations in three different categories at the same ceremony . The previous year , " Lose My Breath " was nominated in the category for Best R & B Vocal Performance by a Duo Or Group at the 47th Annual Grammy Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , the album debuted at number 19 on the Billboard 200 for the week ending November 27 , 2004 for amassing sales of 61 @,@ 000 copies prior to a whole tracking week . In its first official week of sales , Destiny Fulfilled sold over 497 @,@ 000 copies , with an increase of 713 % compared to its early sales ; the album 's chart position rocketed to number two on the Billboard 200 for the week ending December 4 , 2004 . In the same week , it debuted at number one on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart becoming the group 's second chart topper following Survivor in 2001 . After being removed from the top position for three consecutive weeks , Destiny Fulfilled returned to number one for the week ending January 1 , 2005 . On January 14 , 2005 it was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . It emerged as the seventh best @-@ selling album and third best @-@ selling R & B album in 2005 . As of October 2009 , the album has sold 3 @.@ 1 million copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan . It was ranked at number 133 on the decade @-@ end chart of the best @-@ selling albums in that country for the period between 2000 and 2009 . The album peaked at number 3 on the Canadian Albums Chart and was awarded platinum certification by Music Canada selling 100 @,@ 000 copies .
In the UK , Destiny Fulfilled debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart on November 27 , 2004 which also became its peak position in that country . Having spent a total of 21 weeks on the chart , it became the group 's third album to enter the top ten in the UK until 2005 and the fourth one in their entire career . On November 19 , 2004 , the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certified it platinum for selling 300 @,@ 000 copies . On the Irish Albums Chart , Destiny Fulfilled debuted and peaked at number 6 on November 18 , 2004 becoming Destiny 's Child third consecutive top ten album in Ireland . It was also successful in other European countries , peaking at number 3 on the German Albums Chart , further being certified platinum in that region . In France , Destiny Fulfilled peaked at number nine in its first week on November 14 , 2004 . It was last seen on the country 's albums chart at number 163 on September 3 , 2005 .
On the Australian ARIA Albums Chart , Destiny Fulfilled debuted at number 11 on November 28 , 2004 , a position which later became its peak . Spending a total of 31 weeks through 2004 and 2005 ascending and descending the chart , the album was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies in that region . In New Zealand , Destiny Fulfilled peaked at number 21 on April 25 , 2005 and the Recorded Music NZ ( RMNZ ) awarded it with a gold certification for 7 @,@ 500 copies sold . In Japan , the album debuted and peaked at number four on the Oricon chart due to the success of " Lose My Breath " which reached number one on the singles chart there . The album has sold over 625 @,@ 000 copies there and was certified double platinum by Oricon making it Destiny 's Child 's biggest success there to date . It won in the category Rock / Pop Album of the Year International at the 19th Japan Gold Disc Award in 2005 organized by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . Destiny Fulfilled was named the eighth best @-@ selling album of 2004 worldwide by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) .
= = Disbandment = =
In a visit at the Palau Sant Jordi in Barcelona , Spain on July 11 , 2005 , Rowland announced before 16 @,@ 000 spectators that Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It would be Destiny 's Child last tour together , revealing their formal disbandment . After their final North American leg , the group parted ways . In a statement released to MTV , the band said that the tour had provided them the opportunity to depart from Destiny 's Child on a " high note " . They also talked about the moment when the group started their musical endeavor and their realizations of pursuing individual careers after working together for several years . Destiny 's Child thanked fans for their support while not closing the chance of seeing them continuing each member 's goals in music , film , and television . In another interview they explained that their disbandment was planned during the making of the album . While in the studio , they discussed individual aspirations and realized that remaining as a group would prevent them in pursuing those interests . Rowland revealed that they wanted to break up while they were still successful and " friends [ with each other ] " . Beyoncé , however , emphasized that Destiny Fulfilled would not be their last album and disclosed the idea of a possible reunion .
= = Track listings = =
Wal @-@ Mart exclusive DVD
A Wal @-@ Mart exclusive DVD titled " Fan Pack " was released on November 9 , 2004 a week before the release of Destiny Fulfilled . It was available at Wal @-@ Mart only for a limited time .
Notes
" Is She the Reason " samples " I Don 't Know No One Else to Turn To " as performed by Melba Moore .
" Girl " samples " Ocean of Thoughts and Dreams " as written by Don Davis and Eddie Robinson and performed by The Dramatics .
" Game Over " samples " Flashback " as performed by Dee Dee Sharp .
" If " samples " Inseparable " as written by Chuck Jackson and Marvin Yancy and performed by Natalie Cole .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Destiny Fulfilled .
Production
Vocal producers : Sean Garrett , Solange Knowles , Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams
Vocal editing : Sam Thomas , Rommel Nino Villanueva
Mixing : Andrew Dawson , Vincent Dilorenzo , Tony Maserati , Dave Pensado , Dexter Simmons , Phil Tan
A & R : Theresa LaBarbera Whites , Huy Nguyen
Production coordination : Candice Childress
Design : Alice Butts , Ian Cuttler
Art direction : Alice Butts , Ian Cuttler
Photography : Fabrizio Ferri
= = Charts = =
= = = Peak positions = = =
= = Certifications = =
= Moses Hardy =
Moses Hardy ( January 6 , 1894 – December 7 , 2006 ) was , at age 112 , the last surviving black veteran of World War I and one of the last surviving American veterans of that war . The son of former slaves , Hardy was born in 1894 and lived a religious and farming life until he signed up to serve overseas in World War I in July 1918 . He served in the segregated 805th infantry , which was assigned a variety of manual labor and support tasks . Hardy himself served as a scout , supplying the front line troops when necessary . Though Hardy did experience combat , he was never seriously injured and rarely discussed his experiences concerning the fighting . Instead , he preferred to recount stories about the food , the bravery of the soldiers and the weather in France .
After the war , he took on a variety of jobs including school bus driver , farmer , deacon and cosmetics salesman , the latter of which he performed well past his 100th birthday . He received the Victory Medal , a special medal from the Mississippi National Guard and the French Légion d 'honneur . In 1999 , the Mississippi Legislature adopted a resolution recognizing him as an outstanding citizen of Mississippi . At the time of his death , at the age of 112 , he was recognized as the oldest combat veteran ever , the oldest male ever recorded in Mississippi and the second @-@ oldest man and World War I veteran in the world .
= = Early life = =
Hardy was born in Aberdeen , Mississippi in 1894 . Hardy 's parents , Morris Hardy — born in the 1840s — and Nancy Hardy , were former slaves who after the Civil War had purchased 265 acres ( 1 @.@ 07 km2 ) of land in Mississippi from a Chickasaw Native American for a dollar . The Hardy family was a deeply religious one , and Moses would later recount that Exodus 20 : 12 , which instructed one to honor their parents , was his favorite Bible passage and one which he lived by . Hardy was married once , to a woman by the name of Fannie Marshall , with whom he would end up having eight children .
= = Military career = =
Hardy 's service in France lasted from July 1918 to July 1919 , and included thirty @-@ nine combat days . As an African American , he served in a segregated army unit , the 805th Pioneer Infantry , which was commanded by white officers . Although the unit 's purpose was to provide support for engineer regiments , it was also an infantry unit that was equipped to fight if necessary . The unit focused mainly of the tasks of stevedores , such as unloading cargo from ships , but also performed other manual labor tasks , such as cooking and organizing burials . Hardy 's outfit was armed solely with rifles , instead of standard @-@ issue machine guns . After the war , Hardy 's division was responsible for cleaning up the battlefields and removing the dead .
Hardy himself admitted to his family that he was " scared to death " when he first arrived overseas , but believed that the soldiers were fed something to make them brave , which he referred to as " brave pills " . After a short time in the military , he claimed that he was not afraid of anything that he experienced from then on . Even in the heat of battle , Hardy professed that he would get " wound up " at times , but never frightened . He recalled many strange experiences with food and drink , such as getting used to drinking green water from canteens and eating hardtacks , which he found to be surprisingly filling . To go with this , there was often little more than small tins of ham or chicken and occasionally coffee to drink and pudding or pie for dessert . Hardy also witnessed many of his friends get killed in action , and relied on his faith in God to get him through the toughest times .
Hardy often acted as a scout who would help bring supplies to troops on the front line . On September 25 , 1918 , he was present at the Meuse River during a mustard gas attack and , at some point during the war , he received an injury to his knee . Hardy rarely spoke about the fighting itself , and preferred to talk about France 's weather when asked about his experiences overseas .
= = Post @-@ World War I = =
Throughout the years , he received the Victory Medal , the Occupational Medal from the Mississippi Army National Guard , an honourable discharge ( which he had not received upon leaving the army ) and the French Légion d 'honneur . In 1999 , when he was 105 years old , the Mississippi Legislature adopted a resolution recognizing him as an outstanding citizen of Mississippi . At the time , he was known as the oldest living World War I veteran , as Emiliano Mercado del Toro had not yet been discovered . He was interviewed by Treehouse Productions in 2006 as part of their Living History Project , a radio tribute to the last surviving World War I veterans that was hosted by Walter Cronkite . Though he could not speak coherently , his son Haywood Hardy , himself 80 years old at the time , recalled some of the stories that his father had told him .
Hardy did not serve in World War II and instead drove a school bus , farmed and sold linaments and wigs for " Lucky Heart " cosmetics until his retirement . He reportedly continued to go door @-@ to @-@ door for several years past his centenary , even resorting to phone sales when his children hid the keys of his 1972 Chevrolet Caprice . The youngest of his eight children , Jean Dukes , was born in the late 1940s . He also served as a deacon and superintendent of a Sunday School class at Mount Olive Church for over 75 years . His son claimed that , until about four years before he died , his father was healthy enough to drive his car into town every day . Hardy 's longevity was also credited to a daily meal that consisted of cabbage , corn bread , butter milk , potatoes and Dr Pepper , and the fact that he never drank alcohol or smoked in his life . Until a few years before his death , it was claimed that Hardy had never had a seriously ill day in his life and that he never took medicine , as it only made him sick . Hardy lived on his own until 2004 when his legs weakened and he found it almost impossible to walk . He was placed in a rest home , but was still able to feed himself and pass the days watching The Oprah Winfrey Show and The Price Is Right .
At the time of his death , he was the oldest United States combat veteran ever , the oldest male ever recorded in Mississippi and had outlived at least three of his eight children . It was reported that he had several dozen grandchildren and great @-@ grandchildren . He was also ranked as the sixth @-@ oldest living verified person in the world , the second @-@ oldest man and World War I veteran behind only del Toro and the last African American one . Although he suffered from mild dementia in his later years , he was reported to have been completely lucid through his final days and his death was attributed to natural causes .
= Fresh Blood ( Supernatural ) =
" Fresh Blood " is the seventh episode of the paranormal drama Supernatural 's third season on The CW , and is the show 's fifty @-@ first episode overall . The episode was written by Sera Gamble and directed by Kim Manners ; it was first broadcast on November 15 , 2007 . The narrative follows the series ' protagonists Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Jensen Ackles ) as they have their final confrontation with hunter Gordon Walker ( Sterling K. Brown ) , who has been turned into a vampire .
It also features the demise of recurring antagonist Gordon Walker . Brown , who was forced to leave the show due to commitments to the Lifetime Television series Army Wives , was horrified at Gordon 's actions in the episode . Mercedes McNab of Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel fame made a cameo appearance , and was also busy filming the television series Reaper during the episode 's production .
The episode received ratings near the season average , and garnered generally positive reviews from critics . Brown 's performance was praised , as well as the twist in his character 's storyline . Also applauded were both Sam 's confrontation with Dean over his recent reckless behavior and the resulting reconciliation at the episode 's end . Many critics found the presence of character Bela Talbot ( Lauren Cohan ) in the episode to be pointless , while the critic for TV Guide enjoyed McNab 's cameo and wished it had been longer .
= = Plot = =
Hunter Gordon Walker ( Brown ) , who believes that Sam Winchester ( Padalecki ) will one day turn evil and become involved in a demonic war against humanity , escapes from prison . He tracks down Bela Talbot ( Cohan ) — a thief and frequent thorn in the Winchesters ' sides — and threatens to kill her unless she reveals the location of the brothers . She refuses at first , but eventually acquiesces in exchange for a priceless mojo bag . Meanwhile , Sam and Dean ( Ackles ) capture the vampire Lucy ( McNab ) , who has previously taken two victims . They interrogate her , and discover that another vampire named Dixon spiked her drink with his own blood at a club , transforming her . Dixon had taken her back to his home , but she escaped to feed . Lucy , still believing that she has only been drugged , is then killed by Dean , as there is no known cure for vampirism .
The brothers locate and confront Dixon , but are interrupted by Gordon and fellow hunter Kubrick . Sam and Dean escape , but in the mayhem , Dixon kidnaps Gordon . The vampire later explains to Gordon that hunters killed his nest , and now he wants to rebuild his family . Though Dixon had planned on using Gordon as food , the hunter 's continuous taunting prompts him to feed him his blood . When the brothers — having been informed by Bela of Gordon 's location , which she discovered via Ouija board — arrive at Dixon 's hideout , they discover that the vampiric Gordon has escaped . Elsewhere , Gordon returns to Kubrick . He requests that he be allowed to live long enough to deal with Sam . Despite this , Kubrick attempts to kill him , so Gordon retaliates by punching into his guts .
As night approaches , the brothers have not been able to find Gordon . Dean decides to go after Gordon while Sam stays hidden , but Sam refuses . He then confronts Dean about his reckless behavior since his deal with a Crossroads Demon , which left him only a year to live . Dean claims that he is not scared of his impending death , but Sam challenges this . Dean eventually relents , agreeing to behave more like his old self again . The two then prepare to wait out the night .
Gordon later calls Sam and Dean , threatening to kill a young woman if they do not meet him . They head to the location and find the woman , but Gordon uses a roller door to separate the brothers . The woman is revealed to be a vampire turned by Gordon , and Dean is forced to shoot her with the Colt — a mystical gun capable of killing anything . He then attempts to help Sam , but Gordon prepares to bite him . Sam prevents this and garrotes Gordon with a razor wire , decapitating the vampire . Sam and Dean later stop on the side of the road to check a rattling noise made by the Impala . Sam is confused when Dean starts explaining the engine 's problem . Dean , however , reasons that Sam should know how to fix the car when his remaining time runs out , and also notes that , as his older brother , he should be showing him the ropes .
= = Production = =
= = = Guest stars = = =
" Fresh Blood " featured the final guest appearance by Sterling K. Brown as the vampire hunter Gordon Walker . The character 's story arc for the season was intended to be longer , but Brown 's commitments to the Lifetime Television series Army Wives limited his return to only two appearances . The episode was " really hard " for the actor ; though he was fine with the character dying , the idea of Gordon turning an innocent girl into a vampire was " horrific " to him . Although Gordon 's actions in previous episodes were questionable , Brown had always believed the character to be " ultimately good " . On this change , Brown commented , " His endgame is to kill Sam , and anyone else who has to experience detrimental effects because of that is not a concern of his . That was tough for me to process and get on board with . " However , series creator Eric Kripke reasoned that the character was now a monster and should follow his instincts instead of logic . The writer of " Fresh Blood " , Sera Gamble , also penned Gordon 's initial episode and helped Kripke conceptualize the character . She felt that she " lucked out " in being able to write the character 's final appearance , and found there to be " something so satisfying about turning him into a vampire and chopping his head off with a razor wire " .
Mercedes McNab , well known for portraying the vampire Harmony Kendall on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel , guest starred as the recently turned vampire Lucy . Although hesitant to play another vampire , McNab came to realize that the character was less of a vampire and more of a " girl who woke up and was basically drugged or was changed and didn 't know what was going on " . The actress also noted that Harmony was generally used for comic relief , whereas Lucy was intended to be " serious and more dramatic " . Her previous experience with director Kim Manners on the television series The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr. also influenced her decision . Because many of her recent characters tended to die , McNab was delighted by Lucy 's offscreen death . The actress was also working on an episode of Reaper during the filming of " Fresh Blood " , and the Supernatural production staff was able to fit her into the shooting schedule . The actress found them to be " really helpful " in making sure that her scenes did not take too long to film . Her portion of the opening scene only took a few hours to shoot , allowing her to return to Reaper the next morning .
Michael Massee returned as the hunter Kubrick , who believes himself to be on a mission from God to kill Sam Winchester . Massee discussed his character with Brown beforehand , and envisioned him as a long @-@ time friend of Gordon who could be depended upon . Brown described Kubrick as a " well @-@ meaning ... sweet guy " , and noted that his wife had a " visceral response " to the character 's death when later viewing the episode . Matthew Humphreys portrayed the vampire Dixon , and considers him a " deeply misunderstood " character . The actor found it " easy to rationalize what he did " because Dixon was at odds with how to start his own family as a vampire , and he maintains that the character had no evil intentions behind his actions . Humphreys hopes to one day return to the role .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography took place in Vancouver , British Columbia . The opening sequence was filmed outside at night , though the subsequent scene — Lucy 's interrogation and execution — occurred in a motel set constructed on a sound stage . Atypical to the series , the motel room did not have a noticeable theme . Production designer John Marcynuk commented , " That motel room was essentially a killing floor for the boys ... and it was kind of a cold interrogation scene , so we tried to keep it not so friendly . When you walked through it , it definitely felt like a place [ where ] a murder had been committed . It wouldn 't have been the first time a murder had been committed in that room , either . It was the type of place where bad things happen . " Marcynuk took a different approach for Gordon 's death scene , utilizing green tones and a cool color palette to create a greater visual contrast with the blood .
= = = Effects = = =
To lend a strong air of realism to Gordon 's death , the scene was created by combining various special effects during filming with post @-@ production visual effects . Plastic razor wire with blood tubing aided in the initial phases of the decapitation ; it would slightly sink into Brown 's neck as pressure was applied , forcing out the fake blood . For the aftermath , Brown laid down on the floor , and the visual effects department removed his head from the shot and recreated it as a three @-@ dimensional model . The department decided to " push it a little bit farther " by having the head rocking into place and the mouth twitching , but Standards and Practices found it too graphic and forced them to remove the motion . Established in the first season episode " Dead Man 's Blood " were the shark @-@ like teeth of vampires , and the design has been subtly improved with each vampire episode . Though the special effects makeup department used molds of the actors ' mouths to create the fanged acrylic dentures , McNab noted that it was very difficult to speak while wearing them . Blood @-@ like makeup around the actors ' mouths helped to round out the vampiric visages .
= = = Music = = =
The synthesized orchestral score of the episode was written by Christopher Lennertz . He feels that " people associate the sound of violins with vampires " due to the " connection with Eastern Europe and counts " , and thus used a " very violin @-@ heavy " score for the episode , avoiding woodwinds , brass , and piano .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
In its original broadcast , " Fresh Blood " was viewed by an estimated 2 @.@ 88 million viewers . The episode received generally positive reviews from critics . Tina Charles of TV Guide praised the episode , commenting that " it was really nice to get an enjoyable episode high on intensity , brotherly interaction , blood and gore " . Although she had grown a " tad bit weary " of the character 's continuous attempts to kill Sam , she was still " really sorry to see Sterling and Gordy go " . Charles felt that his transformation was a " good twist " , and liked that his " black @-@ and @-@ white beliefs " remained the same even after becoming a vampire . She also enjoyed the character of Lucy and her " really sad " ending , and wished that McNab 's role had been larger . It was noted that the " brotherly interaction was front and center " , and Charles was " beyond happy " that Sam confronted Dean about is behavior . The " moment that [ she had ] been waiting for all season long " finally came to be when Dean took Sam seriously and actually listened to him instead of replying with sarcasm . Charles also deemed the final scene with the brothers to be " just heartbreaking " . Likewise , Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune not only gave the episode an A + , but ranked it as the sixth @-@ best episode of the 2007 @-@ 2008 television season . She praised writer Sera Gamble and director Kim Manners for " creating the best bonding scene we 've had all season " , and lauded Padalecki and Ackles for " making us care so much and believe so fully that a scene like this can leave us gasping " .
Brett Love of TV Squad posited that Gordon 's return in the " great " episode was " well worth the wait " . He noted that the revelation that Lucy was just an innocent girl was a " nice twist " , and deemed it a " great choice " to have Gordon turned into a vampire . Love was sad to see Gordon depart from the series , finding the " outstanding " Brown to be " so intense and committed " to the role . However , he considered Bela 's appearance to be unnecessary , and pointed out the implausibility of it being easier for Gordon to track down Bela than it would have been to just track down the Winchesters . Like Love , Julie Pyle of Airlock Alpha believed Bela 's appearance " [ felt ] forced " . She was saddened by the deaths of Gordon and Kubrick , and had hoped that their storylines would have been further explored . Pyle also criticized the episode 's lighting , commenting , " With the added gore this season , the show should seem darker . Instead , it 's like ' Supernatural Lite ' . " While Maureen Ryan of Chicago Tribune found the concept of Gordon hunting down Sam to be " inspired " , she noted that " ' Fresh Blood ' didn 't do much for [ her ] " .
= = = Analysis = = =
Recalling the demon Azazel 's comments about the recently resurrected Sam in the episode " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part Two " — that what came back may not be " one hundred percent pure Sam " — Don Williams of BuddyTV questioned if something really is wrong with Sam . Williams added Gordon 's death to his list of Sam 's recent out @-@ of @-@ character actions , which already included Sam 's brutal execution of Jake Talley in " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part Two " and his killing of the Crossroads Demon in " Bedtime Stories " . However , he did point out that both characters " kind of deserved to bite the dust " . Peterson , too , noted the " cold , dead look in Sam 's eyes " after the killing . On the other hand , Padalecki posited that the " darker side of Sam " was depicted when he killed Gordon " with pure hatred " , but reasoned that Sam was thinking , " He 's a vampire ! He 's killing people ; it 's time for him to go . "
= Spanish conquest of Guatemala =
The Spanish conquest of Guatemala was a protracted conflict during the Spanish colonisation of the Americas , in which Spanish colonisers gradually incorporated the territory that became the modern country of Guatemala into the colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain . Before the conquest , this territory contained a number of competing Mesoamerican kingdoms , the majority of which were Maya . Many conquistadors viewed the Maya as " infidels " who needed to be forcefully converted and pacified , disregarding the achievements of their civilization . The first contact between the Maya and European explorers came in the early 16th century when a Spanish ship sailing from Panama to Santo Domingo was wrecked on the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula in 1511 . Several Spanish expeditions followed in 1517 and 1519 , making landfall on various parts of the Yucatán coast . The Spanish conquest of the Maya was a prolonged affair ; the Maya kingdoms resisted integration into the Spanish Empire with such tenacity that their defeat took almost two centuries .
Pedro de Alvarado arrived in Guatemala from the newly conquered Mexico in early 1524 , commanding a mixed force of Spanish conquistadors and native allies , mostly from Tlaxcala and Cholula . Geographic features across Guatemala now bear Nahuatl placenames owing to the influence of these Mexican allies , who translated for the Spanish . The Kaqchikel Maya initially allied themselves with the Spanish , but soon rebelled against excessive demands for tribute and did not finally surrender until 1530 . In the meantime the other major highland Maya kingdoms had each been defeated in turn by the Spanish and allied warriors from | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
district of Ciudad Vieja , near Antigua Guatemala . The Nahua and Oaxacan allies of the Spanish settled in what is now central Ciudad Vieja , then known as Almolonga ( not to be confused with Almolonga near Quetzaltenango ) ; Zapotec and Mixtec allies also settled San Gaspar Vivar about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) northeast of Almolonga , which they founded in 1530 .
The Kaqchikel kept up resistance against the Spanish for a number of years , but on 9 May 1530 , exhausted by the warfare that had seen the deaths of their best warriors and the enforced abandonment of their crops , the two kings of the most important clans returned from the wilds . A day later they were joined by many nobles and their families and many more people ; they then surrendered at the new Spanish capital at Ciudad Vieja . The former inhabitants of Iximche were dispersed ; some were moved to Tecpán , the rest to Sololá and other towns around Lake Atitlán .
= = = Siege of Zaculeu = = =
Although a state of hostilities existed between the Mam and the K 'iche ' of Q 'umarkaj after the rebellion of the Kaqchikel against their former K 'iche ' allies prior to European contact , when the conquistadors arrived there was a shift in the political landscape . Pedro de Alvarado described how the Mam king Kayb 'il B 'alam was received with great honour in Q 'umarkaj while he was there . The expedition against Zaculeu was apparently initiated after K 'iche ' bitterness at their failure to contain the Spanish at Q 'umarkaj , with the plan to trap the conquistadors in the city having been suggested to them by the Mam king , Kayb 'il B 'alam ; the resulting execution of the K 'iche ' kings was viewed as unjust . The K 'iche ' suggestion of marching on the Mam was quickly taken up by the Spanish .
At the time of the conquest , the main Mam population was situated in Xinabahul ( also spelled Chinabjul ) , now the city of Huehuetenango , but Zaculeu 's fortifications led to its use as a refuge during the conquest . The refuge was attacked by Gonzalo de Alvarado y Contreras , brother of conquistador Pedro de Alvarado , in 1525 , with 40 Spanish cavalry and 80 Spanish infantry , and some 2 @,@ 000 Mexican and K 'iche ' allies . Gonzalo de Alvarado left the Spanish camp at Tecpán Guatemala in July 1525 and marched to the town of Totonicapán , which he used as a supply base . From Totonicapán the expedition headed north to Momostenango , although it was delayed by heavy rains . Momostenango quickly fell to the Spanish after a four @-@ hour battle . The following day Gonzalo de Alvarado marched on Huehuetenango and was confronted by a Mam army of 5 @,@ 000 warriors from nearby Malacatán ( modern Malacatancito ) . The Mam army advanced across the plain in battle formation and was met by a Spanish cavalry charge that threw them into disarray , with the infantry mopping up those Mam that survived the cavalry . Gonzalo de Alvarado slew the Mam leader Canil Acab with his lance , at which point the Mam army 's resistance was broken , and the surviving warriors fled to the hills . Alvarado entered Malacatán unopposed to find it occupied only by the sick and the elderly . Messengers from the community 's leaders arrived from the hills and offered their unconditional surrender , which was accepted by Alvarado . The Spanish army rested for a few days , then continued onwards to Huehuetenango only to find it deserted . Kayb 'il B 'alam had received news of the Spanish advance and had withdrawn to his fortress at Zaculeu . Alvarado sent a message to Zaculeu proposing terms for the peaceful surrender of the Mam king , who chose not to answer .
Zaculeu was defended by Kayb 'il B 'alam commanding some 6 @,@ 000 warriors gathered from Huehuetenango , Zaculeu , Cuilco and Ixtahuacán . The fortress was surrounded on three sides by deep ravines and defended by a formidable system of walls and ditches . Gonzalo de Alvarado , although outnumbered two to one , decided to launch an assault on the weaker northern entrance . Mam warriors initially held the northern approaches against the Spanish infantry but fell back before repeated cavalry charges . The Mam defence was reinforced by an estimated 2 @,@ 000 warriors from within Zaculeu but was unable to push the Spanish back . Kayb 'il B 'alam , seeing that outright victory on an open battlefield was impossible , withdrew his army back within the safety of the walls . As Alvarado dug in and laid siege to the fortress , an army of approximately 8 @,@ 000 Mam warriors descended on Zaculeu from the Cuchumatanes mountains to the north , drawn from those towns allied with the city . Alvarado left Antonio de Salazar to supervise the siege and marched north to confront the Mam army . The Mam army was disorganised , and although it was a match for the Spanish and allied foot soldiers , it was vulnerable to the repeated charges of the experienced Spanish cavalry . The relief army was broken and annihilated , allowing Alvarado to return to reinforce the siege . After several months the Mam were reduced to starvation . Kayb 'il B 'alam finally surrendered the city to the Spanish in the middle of October 1525 . When the Spanish entered the city they found 1 @,@ 800 dead Indians , and the survivors eating the corpses of the dead . After the fall of Zaculeu , a Spanish garrison was established at Huehuetenango under the command of Gonzalo de Solís ; Gonzalo de Alvarado returned to Tecpán Guatemala to report his victory to his brother .
= = = Conquest of the Poqomam = = =
In 1525 Pedro de Alvarado sent a small company to conquer Mixco Viejo ( Chinautla Viejo ) , the capital of the Poqomam . At the Spanish approach , the inhabitants remained enclosed in the fortified city . The Spanish attempted an approach from the west through a narrow pass but were forced back with heavy losses . Alvarado himself launched the second assault with 200 Tlaxcalan allies but was also beaten back . The Poqomam then received reinforcements , possibly from Chinautla , and the two armies clashed on open ground outside of the city . The battle was chaotic and lasted for most of the day but was finally decided by the Spanish cavalry , forcing the Poqomam reinforcements to withdraw . The leaders of the reinforcements surrendered to the Spanish three days after their retreat and revealed that the city had a secret entrance in the form of a cave leading up from a nearby river , allowing the inhabitants to come and go .
Armed with the knowledge gained from their prisoners , Alvarado sent 40 men to cover the exit from the cave and launched another assault along the ravine from the west , in single file owing to its narrowness , with crossbowmen alternating with soldiers bearing muskets , each with a companion sheltering him from arrows and stones with a shield . This tactic allowed the Spanish to break through the pass and storm the entrance of the city . The Poqomam warriors fell back in disorder in a chaotic retreat through the city , and were hunted down by the victorious conquistadors and their allies . Those who managed to retreat down the neighbouring valley were ambushed by Spanish cavalry who had been posted to block the exit from the cave , the survivors were captured and brought back to the city . The siege had lasted more than a month and because of the defensive strength of the city , Alvarado ordered it to be burned and moved the inhabitants to the new colonial village of Mixco .
= = = Resettlement of the Chajoma = = =
There are no direct sources describing the conquest of the Chajoma by the Spanish but it appears to have been a drawn @-@ out campaign rather than a rapid victory . The only description of the conquest of the Chajoma is a secondary account appearing in the work of Francisco Antonio de Fuentes y Guzmán in the 17th century , long after the event . After the conquest , the inhabitants of the eastern part of the kingdom were relocated by the conquerors to San Pedro Sacatepéquez , including some of the inhabitants of the archaeological site now known as Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) . The rest of the population of Mixco Viejo , together with the inhabitants of the western part of the kingdom , were moved to San Martín Jilotepeque . The Chajoma rebelled against the Spanish in 1526 , fighting a battle at Ukub 'il , an unidentified site somewhere near the modern towns of San Juan Sacatepéquez and San Pedro Sacatepéquez .
In the colonial period , most of the surviving Chajoma were forcibly settled in the towns of San Juan Sacatepéquez , San Pedro Sacatepéquez and San Martín Jilotepeque as a result of the Spanish policy of congregaciones ; the people were moved to whichever of the three towns was closest to their pre @-@ conquest land holdings . Some Iximche Kaqchikels seem also to have been relocated to the same towns . After their relocation some of the Chajoma drifted back to their pre @-@ conquest centres , creating informal settlements and provoking hostilities with the Poqomam of Mixco and Chinautla along the former border between the pre @-@ Columbian kingdoms . Some of these settlements eventually received official recognition , such as San Raimundo near Sacul .
= = = El Progreso and Zacapa = = =
The Spanish colonial corregimiento of San Cristóbal Acasaguastlán was established in 1551 with its seat in the town of that name , now in the eastern portion of the modern department of El Progreso . Acasaguastlán was one of few pre @-@ conquest centres of population in the middle Motagua River drainage , due to the arid climate . It covered a broad area that included Cubulco , Rabinal , and Salamá ( all in Baja Verapaz ) , San Agustín de la Real Corona ( modern San Agustín Acasaguastlán ) and La Magdalena in El Progreso , and Chimalapa , Gualán , Usumatlán and Zacapa , all in the department of Zacapa . Chimalapa , Gualán and Usumatlán were all satellite settlements of Acasaguastlán . San Cristóbal Acasaguastlán and the surrounding area were reduced into colonial settlements by friars of the Dominican Order ; at the time of the conquest the area was inhabited by Poqomchi ' Maya and by the Nahuatl @-@ speaking Pipil . In the 1520s , immediately after conquest , the inhabitants paid taxes to the Spanish Crown in the form of cacao , textiles , gold , silver and slaves . Within a few decades taxes were instead paid in beans , cotton and maize . Acasaguastlán was first given in encomienda to conquistador Diego Salvatierra in 1526 .
= = = Chiquimula = = =
Chiquimula de la Sierra ( " Chiquimula in the Highlands " ) , occupying the area of the modern department of Chiquimula to the east of the Poqomam and Chajoma , was inhabited by Ch 'orti ' Maya at the time of the conquest . The first Spanish reconnaissance of this region took place in 1524 by an expedition that included Hernando de Chávez , Juan Durán , Bartolomé Becerra and Cristóbal Salvatierra , amongst others . In 1526 three Spanish captains , Juan Pérez Dardón , Sancho de Barahona and Bartolomé Becerra , invaded Chiquimula on the orders of Pedro de Alvarado . The indigenous population soon rebelled against excessive Spanish demands , but the rebellion was quickly put down in April 1530 . However , the region was not considered fully conquered until a campaign by Jorge de Bocanegra in 1531 – 1532 that also took in parts of Jalapa . The afflictions of Old World diseases , war and overwork in the mines and encomiendas took a heavy toll on the inhabitants of eastern Guatemala , to the extent that indigenous population levels never recovered to their pre @-@ conquest levels .
= = = Campaigns in the Cuchumatanes = = =
In the ten years after the fall of Zaculeu various Spanish expeditions crossed into the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes and engaged in the gradual and complex conquest of the Chuj and Q 'anjob 'al . The Spanish were attracted to the region in the hope of extracting gold , silver and other riches from the mountains but their remoteness , the difficult terrain and relatively low population made their conquest and exploitation extremely difficult . The population of the Cuchumatanes is estimated to have been 260 @,@ 000 before European contact . By the time the Spanish physically arrived in the region this had collapsed to 150 @,@ 000 because of the effects of the Old World diseases that had run ahead of them .
= = = = Uspantán and the Ixil = = = =
After the western portion of the Cuchumatanes fell to the Spanish , the Ixil and Uspantek Maya were sufficiently isolated to evade immediate Spanish attention . The Uspantek and the Ixil were allies and in 1529 , four years after the conquest of Huehuetenango , Uspantek warriors were harassing Spanish forces and Uspantán was trying to foment rebellion among the K 'iche ' . Uspantek activity became sufficiently troublesome that the Spanish decided that military action was necessary . Gaspar Arias , magistrate of Guatemala , penetrated the eastern Cuchumatanes with sixty Spanish infantry and three hundred allied indigenous warriors . By early September he had imposed temporary Spanish authority over the Ixil towns of Chajul and Nebaj . The Spanish army then marched east toward Uspantán itself ; Arias then received notice that the acting governor of Guatemala , Francisco de Orduña , had deposed him as magistrate . Arias handed command over to the inexperienced Pedro de Olmos and returned to confront de Orduña . Although his officers advised against it , Olmos launched a disastrous full @-@ scale frontal assault on the city . As soon as the Spanish began their assault they were ambushed from the rear by more than two thousand Uspantek warriors . The Spanish forces were routed with heavy losses ; many of their indigenous allies were slain , and many more were captured alive by the Uspantek warriors only to be sacrificed on the altar of their deity Exbalamquen . The survivors who managed to evade capture fought their way back to the Spanish garrison at Q 'umarkaj .
A year later Francisco de Castellanos set out from Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala ( by now relocated to Ciudad Vieja ) on another expedition against the Ixil and Uspantek , leading eight corporals , thirty @-@ two cavalry , forty Spanish infantry and several hundred allied indigenous warriors . The expedition rested at Chichicastenango and recruited further forces before marching seven leagues northwards to Sacapulas and climbed the steep southern slopes of the Cuchumatanes . On the upper slopes they clashed with a force of between four and five thousand Ixil warriors from Nebaj and nearby settlements . A lengthy battle followed during which the Spanish cavalry managed to outflank the Ixil army and forced them to retreat to their mountaintop fortress at Nebaj . The Spanish force besieged the city , and their indigenous allies managed to scale the walls , penetrate the stronghold and set it on fire . Many defending Ixil warriors withdrew to fight the fire , which allowed the Spanish to storm the entrance and break the defences . The victorious Spanish rounded up the surviving defenders and the next day Castellanos ordered them all to be branded as slaves as punishment for their resistance . The inhabitants of Chajul immediately capitulated to the Spanish as soon as news of the battle reached them . The Spanish continued east towards Uspantán to find it defended by ten thousand warriors , including forces from Cotzal , Cunén , Sacapulas and Verapaz . The Spaniards were barely able to organise a defence before the defending army attacked . Although heavily outnumbered , the deployment of Spanish cavalry and the firearms of the Spanish infantry eventually decided the battle . The Spanish overran Uspantán and again branded all surviving warriors as slaves . The surrounding towns also surrendered , and December 1530 marked the end of the military stage of the conquest of the Cuchumatanes .
= = = = Reduction of the Chuj and Q 'anjob 'al = = = =
In 1529 the Chuj city of San Mateo Ixtatán ( then known by the name of Ystapalapán ) was given in encomienda to the conquistador Gonzalo de Ovalle , a companion of Pedro de Alvarado , together with Santa Eulalia and Jacaltenango . In 1549 , the first reduction ( reducción in Spanish ) of San Mateo Ixtatán took place , overseen by Dominican missionaries , in the same year the Q 'anjob 'al reducción settlement of Santa Eulalia was founded . Further Q 'anjob 'al reducciones were in place at San Pedro Soloma , San Juan Ixcoy and San Miguel Acatán by 1560 . Q 'anjob 'al resistance was largely passive , based on withdrawal to the inaccessible mountains and forests from the Spanish reducciones . In 1586 the Mercedarian Order built the first church in Santa Eulalia . The Chuj of San Mateo Ixtatán remained rebellious and resisted Spanish control for longer than their highland neighbours , resistance that was possible owing to their alliance with the lowland Lakandon Ch 'ol to the north . The continued resistance was so determined that the Chuj remained pacified only while the immediate effects of the Spanish expeditions lasted .
In the late 17th century , the Spanish missionary Fray Alonso de León reported that about eighty families in San Mateo Ixtatán did not pay tribute to the Spanish Crown or attend the Roman Catholic mass . He described the inhabitants as quarrelsome and complained that they had built a pagan shrine in the hills among the ruins of pre @-@ Columbian temples , where they burnt incense and offerings and sacrificed turkeys . He reported that every March they built bonfires around wooden crosses about two leagues from the town and set them on fire . Fray de León informed the colonial authorities that the practices of the natives were such that they were Christian in name only . Eventually , Fray de León was chased out of San Mateo Ixtatán by the locals .
In 1684 , a council led by Enrique Enríquez de Guzmán , the governor of Guatemala , decided on the reduction of San Mateo Ixtatán and nearby Santa Eulalia , both within the colonial administrative district of the Corregimiento of Huehuetenango .
On 29 January 1686 , Captain Melchor Rodríguez Mazariegos , acting under orders from the governor , left Huehuetenango for San Mateo Ixtatán , where he recruited indigenous warriors from the nearby villages , 61 from San Mateo itself . It was believed by the Spanish colonial authorities that the inhabitants of San Mateo Ixtatán were friendly towards the still unconquered and fiercely hostile inhabitants of the Lacandon region , which included parts of what is now the Mexican state of Chiapas and the western part of the Petén Basin . To prevent news of the Spanish advance reaching the inhabitants of the Lacandon area , the governor ordered the capture of three of San Mateo 's community leaders , named as Cristóbal Domingo , Alonso Delgado and Gaspar Jorge , and had them sent under guard to be imprisoned in Huehuetenango . The governor himself arrived in San Mateo Ixtatán on 3 February , where Captain Rodríguez Mazariegos was already awaiting him . The governor ordered the captain to remain in the village and use it as a base of operations for penetrating the Lacandon region . The Spanish missionaries Fray de Rivas and Fray Pedro de la Concepción also remained in the town . Governor Enriquez de Guzmán subsequently left San Mateo Ixtatán for Comitán in Chiapas , to enter the Lacandon region via Ocosingo .
In 1695 , a three @-@ way invasion of the Lacandon was launched simultaneously from San Mateo Ixtatán , Cobán and Ocosingo . Captain Rodriguez Mazariegos , accompanied by Fray de Rivas and 6 other missionaries together with 50 Spanish soldiers , left Huehuetenango for San Mateo Ixtatán . Following the same route used in 1686 , they managed on the way to recruit 200 indigenous Maya warriors from Santa Eulalia , San Juan Solomá and San Mateo itself . On 28 February 1695 , all three groups left their respective bases of operations to conquer the Lacandon . The San Mateo group headed northeast into the Lacandon Jungle .
= = Pacific lowlands : Pipil and Xinca = =
Before the arrival of the Spanish , the western portion of the Pacific plain was dominated by the K 'iche ' and Kaqchikel states , while the eastern portion was occupied by the Pipil and the Xinca . The Pipil inhabited the area of the modern department of Escuintla and a part of Jutiapa ; the main Xinca territory lay to the east of the main Pipil population in what is now Santa Rosa department ; there were also Xinca in Jutiapa .
In the half century preceding the arrival of the Spanish , the Kaqchikel were frequently at war with the Pipil of Izcuintepeque ( modern Escuintla ) . By March 1524 the K 'iche had been defeated , followed by a Spanish alliance with the Kaqchikel in April of the same year . On 8 May 1524 , soon after his arrival in Iximche and immediately following his subsequent conquest of the Tz 'utujil around Lake Atitlán , Pedro de Alvarado continued southwards to the Pacific coastal plain with an army numbering approximately 6000 , where he defeated the Pipil of Panacal or Panacaltepeque ( called Panatacat in the Annals of the Kaqchikels ) near Izcuintepeque on 9 May . Alvarado described the terrain approaching the town as very difficult , covered with dense vegetation and swampland that made the use of cavalry impossible ; instead he sent men with crossbows ahead . The Pipil withdrew their scouts because of the heavy rain , believing that the Spanish and their allies would not be able to reach the town that day . However , Pedro de Alvarado pressed ahead and when the Spanish entered the town the defenders were completely unprepared , with the Pipil warriors indoors sheltering from the torrential rain . In the battle that ensued , the Spanish and their indigenous allies suffered minor losses but the Pipil were able to flee into the forest , sheltered from Spanish pursuit by the weather and the vegetation . Pedro de Alvarado ordered the town to be burnt and sent messengers to the Pipil lords demanding their surrender , otherwise he would lay waste to their lands . According to Alvarado 's letter to Cortés , the Pipil came back to the town and submitted to him , accepting the king of Spain as their overlord . The Spanish force camped in the captured town for eight days . A few years later , in 1529 , Pedro de Alvarado was accused of using excessive brutality in his conquest of Izcuintepeque , amongst other atrocities .
In Guazacapán , now a municipality in Santa Rosa , Pedro de Alvardo described his encounter with people who were neither Maya nor Pipil , speaking a different language altogether ; these people were probably Xinca . At this point Alvarado 's force consisted of 250 Spanish infantry accompanied by 6 @,@ 000 indigenous allies , mostly Kaqchikel and Cholutec . Alvarado and his army defeated and occupied the most important Xinca city , named as Atiquipaque , usually considered to be in the Taxisco area . The defending warriors were described by Alvarado as engaging in fierce hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat using spears , stakes and poisoned arrows . The battle took place on 26 May 1524 and resulted in a significant reduction of the Xinca population . Alvarado 's army continued eastwards from Atiquipaque , seizing several more Xinca cities . Tacuilula feigned a peaceful reception only to unsuccessfully raise arms against the conquistadors within an hour of their arrival . Taxisco and Nancintla fell soon afterwards . Because Alvarado and his allies could not understand the Xinca language , Alvarado took extra precautions on the march eastward by strengthening his vanguard and rearguard with ten cavalry apiece . In spite of these precautions the baggage train was ambushed by a Xinca army soon after leaving Taxisco . Many indigenous allies were killed and most of the baggage was lost , including all the crossbows and ironwork for the horses . This was a serious setback and Alvarado camped his army in Nancintla for eight days , during which time he sent two expeditions against the attacking army . Jorge de Alvarado led the first attempt with thirty to forty cavalry and although they routed the enemy they were unable to retrieve any of the lost baggage , much of which had been destroyed by the Xinca for use as trophies . Pedro de Portocarrero led the second attempt with a large infantry detachment but was unable to engage with the enemy due to the difficult mountain terrain , so returned to Nancintla . Alvarado sent out Xinca messengers to make contact with the enemy but they failed to return . Messengers from the city of Pazaco , in the modern department of Jutiapa , offered peace to the conquistadors but when Alvarado arrived there the next day the inhabitants were preparing for war . Alvarado 's troops encountered a sizeable quantity of gathered warriors and quickly routed them through the city 's streets . From Pazaco Alvarado crossed the Río Paz and entered what is now El Salvador .
After the conquest of the Pacific plain , the inhabitants paid tribute to the Spanish in the form of valuable products such as cacao , cotton , salt and vanilla , with an emphasis on cacao .
= = Northern lowlands = =
The Contact Period in Guatemala 's northern Petén lowlands lasted from 1525 through to 1700 . Superior Spanish weaponry and the use of cavalry , although decisive in the northern Yucatán , were ill @-@ suited to warfare in the dense forests of lowland Guatemala .
= = = Cortés in Petén = = =
In 1525 , after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , Hernán Cortés led an expedition to Honduras over land , cutting across the Itza kingdom in what is now the northern Petén Department of Guatemala . His aim was to subdue the rebellious Cristóbal de Olid , whom he had sent to conquer Honduras , but Cristóbal de Olid had set himself up independently on his arrival in that territory . Cortés had 140 Spanish soldiers , 93 of them mounted , 3 @,@ 000 Mexican warriors , 150 horses , a herd of pigs , artillery , munitions and other supplies . He also had with him 600 Chontal Maya carriers from Acalan . They arrived at the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá on 13 March 1525 .
Cortés accepted an invitation from Aj Kan Ek ' , the king of the Itza , to visit Nojpetén ( also known as Tayasal ) , and crossed to the Maya city with 20 Spanish soldiers while the rest of his army continued around the lake to meet him on the south shore . On his departure from Nojpetén , Cortés left behind a cross and a lame horse . The Spanish did not officially contact the Itza again until the arrival of Franciscan priests in 1618 , when Cortés ' cross was said to still be standing at Nojpetén . From the lake , Cortés continued south along the western slopes of the Maya Mountains , a particularly arduous journey that took 12 days to cover 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) , during which he lost more than two @-@ thirds of his horses . When he came to a river swollen with the constant torrential rains that had been falling during the expedition , Cortés turned upstream to the Gracias a Dios rapids , which took two days to cross and cost him more horses .
On 15 April 1525 the expedition arrived at the Maya village of Tenciz . With local guides they headed into the hills north of Lake Izabal , where their guides abandoned them to their fate . The expedition became lost in the hills and came close to starvation before they captured a Maya boy who led them out to safety . Cortés found a village on the shore of Lake Izabal , perhaps Xocolo . He crossed the Dulce River to the settlement of Nito , somewhere on the Amatique Bay , with about a dozen companions , and waited there for the rest of his army to regroup over the course of the next week . By this time the remnants of the expedition had been reduced to a few hundred ; Cortés succeeded in contacting the Spaniards he was searching for , only to find that Cristóbal de Olid 's own officers had already put down his rebellion . Cortés then returned to Mexico by sea .
= = = Land of War : Verapaz = = =
By 1537 the area immediately north of the new colony of Guatemala was being referred to as the Tierra de Guerra ( " Land of War " ) . Paradoxically , it was simultaneously known as Verapaz ( " True Peace " ) . The Land of War described an area that was undergoing conquest ; it was a region of dense forest that was difficult for the Spanish to penetrate militarily . Whenever the Spanish located a centre of population in this region , the inhabitants were moved and concentrated in a new colonial settlement near the edge of the jungle where the Spanish could more easily control them . This strategy resulted in the gradual depopulation of the forest , simultaneously converting it into a wilderness refuge for those fleeing Spanish domination , both for individual refugees and for entire communities , especially those congregaciones that were remote from centres of colonial authority . The Land of War , from the 16th century through to the start of the 18th century , included a vast area from Sacapulas in the west to Nito on the Caribbean coast and extended northwards from Rabinal and Salamá , and was an intermediate area between the highlands and the northern lowlands . It includes the modern departments of Baja Verapaz and Alta Verapaz , Izabal and Petén , as well as the eastern part of El Quiché and a part of the Mexican state of Chiapas . The western portion of this area was the territory of the Q 'eqchi ' Maya .
Pedro Orozco , the leader of the Sacatepéquez Mam of San Marcos department , lent willing help to the Dominicans in their campaign to peacefully subject the inhabitants of Verapaz . On 1 May 1543 Carlos V rewarded the Sacatepéquez Mam by issuing a royal order promising never to give them in encomienda .
Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas arrived in the colony of Guatemala in 1537 and immediately campaigned to replace violent military conquest with peaceful missionary work . Las Casas offered to achieve the conquest of the Land of War through the preaching of the Catholic faith . It was the Dominicans who promoted the use of the name Verapaz instead of the Land of War . Because of the fact that the land had not been possible to conquer by military means , the governor of Guatemala , Alonso de Maldonado , agreed to sign a contract promising he would not establish any new encomiendas in the area should Las Casas ' strategy succeed . Las Casas and a group of Dominican friars established themselves in Rabinal , Sacapulas and Cobán , and managed to convert several native chiefs using a strategy of teaching Christian songs to merchant Indian Christians who then ventured into the area .
In this way they congregated a group of Christian Indians in the location of what is now the town of Rabinal . Las Casas became instrumental in the introduction of the New Laws in 1542 , established by the Spanish Crown to control the excesses of the conquistadors and colonists against the indigenous inhabitants of the Americas . As a result , the Dominicans met substantial resistance from the Spanish colonists , who saw their own interests threatened by the New Laws ; this distracted the Dominicans from their efforts to establish peaceful control over the Land of War .
In 1543 the new colonial reducción of Santo Domingo de Cobán was founded at Chi Mon 'a to house the relocated Q 'eqchi ' from Chichen , Xucaneb and Al Run Tax Aj . Santo Tomás Apóstol was founded nearby the same year at Chi Nim Xol , it was used in 1560 as a reducción to resettle Ch 'ol communities from Topiltepeque and Lacandon in the Usumacinta Valley . In 1555 the Acala Ch 'ol and their Lacandon allies killed the Spanish friar Domingo de Vico . De Vico had established a small church among the inhabitants of San Marcos , a region that lay between the territories of the Lacandon and the Manche Ch 'ol ( an area unrelated to the department of San Marcos ) . De Vico had offended the local ruler by repeatedly scolding him for taking several wives . The indigenous leader shot the friar through the throat with an arrow ; the angry natives then seized him , cut open his chest and extracted his heart . His corpse was then decapitated ; the natives carried off his head , which was never recovered by the Spanish . In response a punitive expedition was launched , headed by Juan Matalbatz , a Q 'eqchi ' leader from Chamelco ; the independent Indians captured by the Q 'eqchi ' expedition were taken back to Cobán and resettled in Santo Tomás Apóstol .
= = = Lake Izabal and the lower Motagua River = = =
The Dominicans established themselves in Xocolo on the shore of Lake Izabal in the mid @-@ 16th century . Xocolo became infamous among the Dominican missionaries for the practice of witchcraft by its inhabitants . By 1574 it was the most important staging post for European expeditions into the interior , and it remained important in that role until as late as 1630 , although it was abandoned in 1631 .
In 1598 Alfonso Criado de Castilla became governor of the Captaincy General of Guatemala . Owing to the poor state of Puerto Caballos on the Honduran coast and its exposure to repeated pirate raids he sent a pilot to scout Lake Izabal . As a result of the survey , and after royal permission was granted , Criado de Castilla ordered the construction of a new port , named Santo Tomás de Castilla , at a favourable spot on the Amatique Bay not far from the lake . Work then began on building a highway from the port to the new capital of the colony , modern Antigua Guatemala , following the Motagua Valley into the highlands . Indigenous guides scouting the route from the highlands would not proceed further downriver than three leagues below Quiriguá , because the area was inhabited by the hostile Toquegua .
The leaders of Xocolo and Amatique , backed by the threat of Spanish action , persuaded a community of 190 Toquegua to settle on the Amatique coast in April 1604 . The new settlement immediately suffered a drop in population , but although the Amatique Toquegua were reported extinct before 1613 in some sources , Mercedarian friars were still attending to them in 1625 . In 1628 the towns of the Manche Ch 'ol were placed under the administration of the governor of Verapaz , with Francisco Morán as their ecclesiastical head . Morán favoured a more robust approach to the conversion of the Manche and moved Spanish soldiers into the region to protect against raids from the Itza to the north . The new Spanish garrison in an area that had not previously seen a heavy Spanish military presence provoked the Manche to revolt , which was followed by abandonment of the indigenous settlements . By 1699 the neighbouring Toquegua no longer existed as a separate people because of a combination of high mortality and intermarriage with the Amatique Indians . At around this time the Spanish decided on the reduction of the independent ( or " wild " from the Spanish point of view ) Mopan Maya living to the north of Lake Izabal . The north shore of the lake , although fertile , was by then largely depopulated , therefore the Spanish planned to bring the Mopan out of the forests to the north into an area where they could be more easily controlled .
During the campaign to conquer the Itza of Petén , the Spanish sent expeditions to harass and relocate the Mopan north of Lake Izabal and the Ch 'ol Maya of the Amatique forests to the east . They were resettled in the Colonial reducción of San Antonio de las Bodegas on the south shore of the lake and in San Pedro de Amatique . By the latter half of the 18th century the indigenous population of these towns had disappeared ; the local inhabitants now consisted entirely of Spaniards , mulattos and others of mixed race , all associated with the Castillo de San Felipe de Lara fort guarding the entrance to Lake Izabal . The main cause of the drastic depopulation of Lake Izabal and the Motagua Delta was the constant slave raids by the Miskito Sambu of the Caribbean coast that effectively ended the Maya population of the region ; the captured Maya were sold into slavery in the British colony of Jamaica .
= = = Conquest of Petén = = =
From 1527 onwards the Spanish were increasingly active in the Yucatán Peninsula , establishing a number of colonies and towns by 1544 , including Campeche and Valladolid in what is now Mexico . The Spanish impact on the northern Maya , encompassing invasion , epidemic diseases and the export of up to 50 @,@ 000 Maya slaves , caused many Maya to flee southwards to join the Itza around Lake Petén Itzá , within the modern borders of Guatemala . The Spanish were aware that the Itza Maya had become the centre of anti @-@ Spanish resistance and engaged in a policy of encircling their kingdom and cutting their trade routes over the course of almost two hundred years . The Itza resisted this steady encroachment by recruiting their neighbours as allies against the slow Spanish advance .
Dominican missionaries were active in Verapaz and the southern Petén from the late 16th century through the 17th century , attempting non @-@ violent conversion with limited success . In the 17th century the Franciscans came to the conclusion that the pacification and Christian conversion of the Maya would not be possible as long as the Itza held out at Lake Petén Itzá . The constant flow of escapees fleeing the Spanish @-@ held territories to find refuge with the Itza was a drain on the encomiendas . Fray Bartolomé de Fuensalida visited Nojpetén in 1618 and 1619 . The Franciscan missionaries attempted to use their own reinterpretation of the k 'atun prophecies when they visited Nojpetén at this time , to convince the current Aj Kan Ek ' and his Maya priesthood that the time for conversion had come . But the Itza priesthood interpreted the prophecies differently , and the missionaries were fortunate to escape with their lives . In 1695 the colonial authorities decided to connect the province of Guatemala with Yucatán , and Guatemalan soldiers conquered a number of Ch 'ol communities , the most important being Sakb 'ajlan on the Lacantún River in eastern Chiapas , now in Mexico , which was renamed as Nuestra Señora de Dolores , or Dolores del Lakandon . The Franciscan friar Andrés de Avendaño oversaw a second attempt to overcome the Itza in 1695 , convincing the Itza king that the K 'atun 8 Ajaw , a twenty @-@ year Maya calendrical cycle beginning in 1696 or 1697 , was the right time for the Itza to finally embrace Christianity and to accept the king of Spain as overlord . However the Itza had local Maya enemies who resisted this conversion , and in 1696 Avendaño was fortunate to escape with his life . The Itza 's continued resistance had become a major embarrassment for the Spanish colonial authorities , and soldiers were despatched from Campeche to take Nojpetén once and for all .
= = = = Fall of Nojpetén = = = =
Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi arrived on the western shore of lake Petén Itzá with his soldiers in February 1697 , and once there built a galeota , a large and heavily armed oar @-@ powered attack boat . The Itza capital fell in a bloody waterborne assault on 13 March 1697 . The Spanish bombardment caused heavy loss of life on the island ; many Itza Maya who fled to swim across the lake were killed in the water . After the battle the surviving defenders melted away into the forests , leaving the Spanish to occupy an abandoned Maya town . The Itza and Kowoj kings ( Ajaw Kan Ek ' and Aj Kowoj ) were soon captured , together with other Maya nobles and their families . With Nojpetén safely in the hands of the Spanish , Ursúa returned to Campeche ; he left a small garrison on the island , isolated amongst the hostile Itza and Kowoj who still dominated the mainland . Nojpetén was renamed by the Spanish as Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo , Laguna del Itza ( " Our Lady of Remedy and Saint Paul , Lake of the Itza " ) . The garrison was reinforced in 1699 by a military expedition from Guatemala , accompanied by mixed @-@ race ladino civilians who came to found their own town around the military camp . The settlers brought disease with them , which killed many soldiers and colonists and swept through the indigenous population . The Guatemalans stayed just three months before returning to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala , taking the captive Itza king with them , together with his son and two of his cousins . The cousins died on the long journey to the colonial capital ; Ajaw Kan Ek ' and his son spent the rest of their lives under house arrest in the capital .
= = = Final years of conquest = = =
In the late 17th century the small population of Ch 'ol Maya in southern Petén and Belize was forcibly removed to Alta Verapaz , where the people were absorbed into the Q 'eqchi ' population . The Ch 'ol of the Lacandon Jungle were resettled in Huehuetenango in the early 18th century . Catholic priests from Yucatán founded several mission towns around Lake Petén Itzá in 1702 – 1703 . Surviving Itza and Kowoj were resettled in the new colonial towns by a mixture of persuasion and force . Kowoj and Itza leaders in these mission towns rebelled against their Spanish overlords in 1704 , but although well @-@ planned , the rebellion was quickly crushed . Its leaders were executed and most of the mission towns were abandoned . By 1708 only about 6 @,@ 000 Maya remained in central Petén , compared to ten times that number in 1697 . Although disease was responsible for the majority of deaths , Spanish expeditions and internecine warfare between indigenous groups also played their part .
= = Legacy of the Spanish conquest = =
The initial shock of the Spanish conquest was followed by decades of heavy exploitation of the indigenous peoples , allies and foes alike . Over the following two hundred years colonial rule gradually imposed Spanish cultural standards on the subjugated peoples . The Spanish reducciones created new nucleated settlements laid out in a grid pattern in the Spanish style , with a central plaza , a church and the town hall housing the civil government , known as the ayuntamiento . This style of settlement can still be seen in the villages and towns of the area . The civil government was either run directly by the Spanish and their descendents ( the criollos ) or was tightly controlled by them . The introduction of Catholicism was the main vehicle for cultural change , and resulted in religious syncretism . Old World cultural elements came to be thoroughly adopted by Maya groups , an example being the marimba , a musical instrument of African origin . The greatest change was the sweeping aside of the pre @-@ Columbian economic order and its replacement by European technology and livestock ; this included the introduction of iron and steel tools to replace Neolithic tools , and of cattle , pigs and chickens that largely replaced the consumption of game . New crops were also introduced ; however , sugarcane and coffee led to plantations that economically exploited native labour . Sixty per cent of the modern population of Guatemala is estimated to be Maya , concentrated in the central and western highlands . The eastern portion of the country was the object of intense Spanish migration and hispanicization . Guatemalan society is divided into a class system largely based on race , with Maya peasants and artisans at the bottom , the mixed @-@ race ladino salaried workers and bureaucrats forming the middle and lower class and above them the creole elite of pure European ancestry . Some indigenous elites such as the Xajil did manage to maintain a level of status into the colonial period ; a prominent Kaqchikel noble family , they chronicled the history of their region .
= 1994 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1994 Giro d 'Italia was the 77th edition of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . The Giro started off in Bologna on 22 May with a short 86 km ( 53 @.@ 4 mi ) stage . The race came to a close on 12 June with a flat stage that stretched 198 km ( 123 @.@ 0 mi ) from Turin to Milan . Seventeen teams entered the race , which was won by Evgeni Berzin of the Gewiss – Ballan team . Second and third respectively were the Italian Marco Pantani and the Spanish rider , Miguel Indurain .
Berzin first gained the race lead after the fourth stage where he attacked on the final climb to win the day . The race 's overall classification was first headed by Endrio Leoni who won the Giro 's opening road stage . However , Leoni lost the lead later that day during the afternoon individual time trial to Armand de Las Cuevas . De Las Cuevas held the lead for a single stage before losing it to Moreno Argentin who won the race 's second stage . Argentin held the general classification lead for two stages , before Berzin took it after stage 4 . After gaining the lead , Berzin began to build upon his advantage after winning the stage 8 and 18 individual time trials and maintaining good form throughout the mountains .
Berzin became the first Russian to win the Giro d 'Italia . Berzin also won the young rider classification for the best rider aged 25 or under in the general classification . In the race 's other classifications , Swiss rider Pascal Richard won the mountains classification , and Djamolidine Abdoujaparov of Team Polti – Vaporetto was the winner of the points and intergiro classifications . Carrera Jeans – Tassoni finished as the winners of the team classification , which ranked each of the seventeen teams contesting the race by lowest cumulative time . Team Polti – Vaporetto finished as the winners of the team points classification , where the teams ' riders are awarded points for placing within the top twenty in each stage .
= = Teams = =
A total of 18 teams were invited to participate in the 1994 Giro d 'Italia , of which 17 participated . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , so the Giro began with a peloton of 153 cyclists . The presentation of the teams – where each team 's roster and manager were introduced in front the media and local dignitaries – took place on 22 May , in the courtyard of the Bologna . Of the riders that started this edition of the Giro d 'Italia , a total of 99 riders made it to the finish in Milan .
The teams entering the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
The starting peloton did 1993 winner , Miguel Indurain , came into the race having only raced twenty days during the season according to author Bill McGann . In addition , there were reports surfacing before the race that Indurain 's knee was troubling him . The race did not feature Tony Rominger , who elected to ride the Vuelta a España instead . El País writer Carlos Arribas felt that Evgeni Berzin had a strong spring with his victory in Liège – Bastogne – Liège and second @-@ place finish in the Tour of the Basque Country . Arribas felt that Russian Pavel Tonkov , who had won the young rider classification the previous two years , would challenge for the victory as his normal team leader , Maurizio Fondriest , was absent from the race due to injury .
Avui 's Adrian R. Huber believed that Djamolidine Abdoujaparov , Adriano Baffi , and Fabio Baldato had a great chance to win a stage in the race . Notable sprinter Mario Cipollini did not participate in the race as he was still recovering from injuries sustained in the second stage at the Vuelta a España .
= = Route and stages = =
The route for the 1994 Giro d 'Italia was unveiled by race director Carmine Castellano on 13 November 13 , 1993 in Milan . The race route in its entireity was leaked to the press before Castellano held the official presentation . It contained three time trial events , all of which were individual . There were ten stages containing high mountains , of which three had summit finishes : stage 4 , to Campitello Matese ; stage 20 , to Les Deux Alpes ; and stage 21 , to Sestriere . Another stage with a mountain @-@ top finish was stage 18 , which consisted of a climbing time trial to the summit of the Passo dello Bocco . The organizers chose to include no rest days . When compared to the previous year 's race , the race was 28 km ( 17 mi ) longer , contained one less rest day , and one more stage . The race was televised in Italy by RAI TV .
There were five stages that began or ended outside of Italy . Stage 12 ended in the Slovenian city Kranj and served as the start for the race 's thirteenth stage . Stage 13 ended at Lienz in Austria , and the fourteenth began there . The Giro 's mountainous stage 20 ended on the slopes of Les Deux Alpes , and the penultimate stage began on the mountain the next day .
= = Race overview = =
This edition of the Giro began with a split stage , with the morning leg consisting of a 86 km ( 53 mi ) flat route and the afternoon part being a 7 km ( 4 mi ) flat individual time trial . Italian Endrio Leoni won the morning stage by means of a sprint finish where the speeds were so high the peloton split in the final kilometer . Armand de Las Cuevas won the afternoon time trial by two seconds over Evgeni Berzin and in the process took the overall lead away from Leoni . Stage two featured an uphill finish into the city of Osimo . Moreno Argentin attacked close to the line and was able to distance himself from the rest of the peloton and win the stage , while also taking the lead of the race . Gianni Bugno failed several times to get away from the peloton before finally breaking free on the climb into Loreto Amprutino to win the third stage .
Stage 4 featured the race 's first summit finish , with a final climb to the top of Campitello Matese . While on the climb , Evgeni Berzin attacked and made his way up to the top in first place . Due to his efforts , Berzin gained the overall lead of the race . The next two stages , 5 and 6 , both came down to sprint finishes that were won by Endrio Leoni and Marco Saligari , respectively . The race 's seventh stage saw the Spaniard Laudelino Cubino outsprint his fellow breakaway members for the stage victory . Stage 8 was a 44 km ( 27 mi ) individual time trial that stretched from Grosseto to Follonica . The race leader Evgeni Berzin dominated the time trial as he won the stage by over a minute than the second @-@ place finisher , which also allowed him to extend his lead in the general classification .
The next three stages of the race were all primarily flat , had no real impact on the overall standings , and all concluded with a bunch sprint . Ján Svorada won stage nine and then stage eleven after dodging a crash that marred the stage 's finish . Djamolidine Abdoujaparov out @-@ sprinted the rest of the field to win the race 's tenth stage . The Giro 's twelfth stage featured a few categorized climbs as the race made its way into Slovenia for the stage 's finish in Kranj . Despite the climbs , the stage ended with a field sprint that was won by Andrea Ferrigato . Italian Michele Bartoli won the race 's undulating thirteenth stage by being a part of the stage 's initial breakaway and then attacking later on and soloing to the stage 's conclusion in Lienz , Austria .
As the Giro left Austria , the race began to enter the Dolomites during stage fourteen . The eventual stage winner Marco Pantani was in a chasing group on the final climb of the stage , the Passo di Monte Giovo . He attacked , bridged the gap to the leading group , and left them behind to claim his first professional victory of his career . The next stage saw Pantani win again after he rode away from the attack group on the last climb of the Valico di Santa Cristina and he then soloed to the finish in Stradella . Pantani 's efforts on the day moved him up to second overall in the race . The race 's sixteenth stage took a break from the mountains with the stage being primarily fled , which ultimately led to the sprint finish that was won by Italian Maximilian Sciandri . Ján Svorada won the next day 's stage after attacking from the breakaway group in the closing seconds .
The Giro 's eighteenth stage was a 35 km ( 22 mi ) individual time trial that stretched from Chiavari to the summit finish on the Passo del Bocco . The race leader Evgeni Berzin won the stage by twenty seconds over Miguel Indurain . Stage 19 saw the day of racing come down to a sprint finish that was won by Massimo Ghirotto . The twentieth stage saw the Giro race through the Alps and up to the summit of Les Deux Alpes for the stage finish . The lead group up Les Deux Alpes contained the likes of Evgeni Berzin , Marco Pantani , and Miguel Indurain who had attacked each other multiple times but to no avail . The trio was later joined by Vladimir Poulnikov and Nelson Rodriguez who both eventually left them to go on for the stage win . Poulkinov edged out Rodriguez to the stage win atop the mountain . The penultimate stage of the Giro saw a summit finish atop the Sestriere . The stage saw snow and chilling temperatures which led to the general classification contenders sticking together , while Pascal Richard went on to win the summit finish and solidify his lead atop the mountains classification . The Giro 's final stage came down to a sprint finish that was won by Stefano Zanini as Evgeni Berzin won the Giro d 'Italia .
Success in stages was limited to eleven of the competing teams , six of which achieved multiple stage victories , while four individual riders won multiple stages . The riders that won more than once were Endrio Leoni in stages 1a and 5 , Evgeni Berzin in stages 4 , 8 , and 18 , Ján Svorada in stages 9 , 11 , and 17 , and Marco Pantani in stages 14 and 15 . Jolly Componibili @-@ Cage won two stages with Leoni . Gewiss @-@ Ballan won multiple stages , with Moreno Argentin in stage 2 and three stages with Berzin . Team Polti – Vaporetto won two stages , with Gianni Bugno in stage 3 and Djamolidine Abdoujaparov in stage 10 . GB @-@ MG Maglificio won three stages , with Marco Saligari in stage 6 , Maximilian Sciandri in stage 16 , and Pascal Richard in stage 21 . Lampre – Panaria won three stages with Ján Svorada . ZG Mobili @-@ Selle Italia won two stages , with Andrea Ferrigato in stage 12 and Massimo Ghirotto in stage 19 . Carrera Jeans – Tassoni also won multiple stages , with Marco Pantani in winning two stages and Vladimir Poulnikov in stage 20 .
Castorama , Kelme – Avianca – Gios , Mercatone Uno – Medeghini , and Navigare – Blue Storm each won one stage apiece . Castorama rider Armand de Las Cuevas won stage 1b individual time trial , Kelme @-@ Avianca @-@ Gios 's Laudelino Cubino won stage 7 , Mercatone Uno @-@ Medeghini rider Michele Bartoli won stage 13 , and Navigare @-@ Blue Storm 's Stefano Zanini stage 22 by means of a sprint finish .
= = = Doping = = =
Despite not testing positive during the race or season , the Gewiss @-@ Ballan team has since been speculated to have executed a systematic doping program that utilized EPO throughout the 1994 season . The team achieved several victories in stage races and one @-@ day races during the year , including a sweep of the podium at La Flèche Wallonne weeks before the start of the Giro . Team doctor Michele Ferrari was banned for life from sports in 2012 by United States Anti @-@ Doping Agency for distribution of performance @-@ enhancing drugs to several of his clients .
= = Classification leadership = =
Five different jerseys were worn during the 1994 Giro d 'Italia . The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages – wore a pink jersey . The time bonuses for the 1988 Giro were thirty seconds for first , twenty @-@ five for second , and decreasing by five seconds each place until five seconds for sixth place on the stage . This classification is the most important of the race , and its winner is considered as the winner of the Giro .
For the points classification , which awarded a purple ( or cyclamen ) jersey to its leader , cyclists were given points for finishing a stage in the top 15 ; additional points could also be won in intermediate sprints . The green jersey was awarded to the mountains classification leader . In this ranking , points were won by reaching the summit of a climb ahead of other cyclists . Each climb was ranked as either first , second or third category , with more points available for higher category climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded more points than the other first category climbs . The Cima Coppi for this Giro was the Passo dello Stelvio . The first rider to cross the Stelvio was Italian Franco Vona . The white jersey was worn by the leader of young rider classification , a ranking decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1970 were eligible for it . The intergiro classification was marked by a blue jersey . The calculation for the intergiro is similar to that of the general classification , in each stage there is a midway point that the riders pass through a point and where their time is stopped . As the race goes on , their times compiled and the person with the lowest time is the leader of the intergiro classification and wears the blue jersey . Although no jersey was awarded , there was also one classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time .
The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run .
= = Final standings = =
= = = General classification = = =
= Riverton – Belvidere Bridge =
The Riverton – Belvidere Bridge is a bridge crossing the Delaware River . It connects Belvidere , New Jersey with Riverton , Pennsylvania , United States . There is no toll for crossing on either side , after tolls were abolished by the Joint Commission for the Elimination of Toll Bridges in 1929 . The bridge is 653 feet ( 199 m ) long , holding a load of 8 short tons ( 16 @,@ 000 lb ) of traffic from County Route 620 Spur ( Water Street ) in Belvidere to former Pennsylvania Route 709 on the Riverton side . The bridge was first constructed in 1836 , replacing the local ferry across the river . The board of freeholders in Warren County supported the replacement of the ferry with a bridge for safety of passengers . In 1832 , the state created the Belvidere Delaware Bridge Company , which was funded with the job of building a bridge from Riverton to Belvidere . The new covered bridge was built by Solon Chapin , a contractor from Easton , Pennsylvania . The bridge survived two large storms in 1836 and 1841 , although sustained major damage both times . In 1903 , the floods that destroyed bridges along the Delaware River Valley , including taking out the entire covered structure at Riverton and Belvidere . They rebuilt the structure in 1904 , using steel instead of wood , and the new span has remained since , with rehabilitations at certain points .
= = History = =
= = = The first bridge ( 1836 – 1903 ) = = =
Original reports indicate that a ferry , operated by a doctor who went by " Dr. Belvidere " , once ran along the alignment of the Riverton – Belvidere Bridge . This ferry , crossing one of the most dangerous parts of the Delaware , was reported to have opened as early as 1802 . On May 17 , 1825 , the Board of Chosen Freeholders of the ferry permitted raising the rate to cross the river via ferry . However , by 1832 , the ferry crossing was becoming dangerously busy , and required a bridge be constructed in its place . That year , the Belvidere Delaware Bridge Company was established by both the states of New Jersey and Pennsylvania . However , in constructing the bridge , the company was only allowed $ 20 @,@ 000 ( 1832 USD ) to construct the bridge . The bridge company had the designs for the bridge run by Solon Chapin , a contractor from Easton , Pennsylvania . Chapin was also the construction contractor on the nearby Riegelsville Bridge as well .
Although things seemed to start off smoothly , when construction began on the bridge in 1834 , things went downhill . The bridge was constructed fast , and when completed in the spring of 1836 , it was a wooden covered bridge at a length of 654 feet ( 199 m ) . Within days of opening the bridge , on April 9 , 1836 , a storm blew through the valley , destroying two of the bridges three piers and rendered the new bridge unusable . After restarting construction later , the bridge was redone using the same piers and in 1839 , was completed and opened once again . However , in January 1841 , another storm , dubbed the Bridges Freshet of January 1841 , blew through the valley , destroying most of the bridges in the area , and causing major damage to the structure from Riverton to Belvidere . However , this time , the bridge survived the storm . A local historian stated that because of the constant repairwork on the bridge itself , the bridge company had never paid one dividend of money to its stockholders . Although , after society on both sides of the bridge began to live life with it , money started flowing into the accounts of the stockholders .
In 1903 , the demise of wooden covered bridge would be seen , as a storm , dubbed the Pumpkin Flood of 1903 , struck in October of that year . The storm struck both communities , and the bridge in between , causing the loss of many lives , and on October 17 , the toll collector on the bridge closed off the gate and did not allow any person to cross . At 6 : 40 that evening , a crash was heard , and seconds later , the bridge was no more , after tumbling into the Delaware River below . Remnants of the bridge were swept downstream , and smashed on the side of the new Northampton Street Bridge , constructed just a few years before . After the storm cleared , the community of Belvidere put a ferry to Riverton back in almost immediately .
= = = Construction of the current bridge ( 1904 ) = = =
After the 1903 destruction of the original wooden bridge at Belvidere , plans to construct another bridge started immediately . After the storm , the substructure of the crossing had survived the strong storm . The bridge corporation set a completion date , August 17 , 1904 , which was the day that the Farmer 's Picnic was held in Belvidere . However , the contractor of which they hired to reconstruct the bridge , the New Jersey Bridge Company of Manasquan , New Jersey , believed that the new bridge would need new abutments and piers to be completed by that time , instead of using the old wooden bridge 's piers . The three piers from the wooden bridge were used , and would require them to be heightened to be above any high flood waters . On June 3 , 1904 , the bridge construction began on a barge in the river , with promises to be complete by the set date of August 17 . On August 17 , the bridge was not complete , but usable , that when the Farmer 's Picnic ( the predecessor to the Warren County Fair , occurred , people were allowed to cross a majority of the bridge . The picnic itself was a complete success , attracting over 15 @,@ 000 people , most of which walked the bridge .
Although the bridge was usable , work still had to be completed on the new bridge . The contractor promised the bridge corporation that the bridge would be finished by Labor Day of 1904 , or September 5 , 1904 . The bridge corporation and a local group called The Red Men scheduled festivities and the official turnover of the bridge back to the corporation . On September 5 , 1904 , the day of the transfer , the chief executive of the contracting company , W.H. Keepers arrived , he found the bridge to be unacceptable . Bolts were missing in places of the bridge and paint was not completed , both of which were in violation of the contract . The festivities for the bridge were canceled , and visitors were disappointed . The Red Men held events , but the turnout was light . A high point of the events that day was done by a man named Murphy Jones , who as a stunt , jumped a 65 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) plunge into the Delaware River from the bridge . The festive stunt got Jones a total of $ 15 ( 1904 USD ) and the event became an annual one . Work finally came to a conclusion in 1904 , and the people were beginning to cross the new structure . However , since the turnover had never occurred , the bridge was free of charge .
= = = The current bridge ( 1904 – present ) = = =
On September 5 , 1904 , the bridge finally got its transfer to the bridge corporation , and a new toll @-@ taker was hired for the new bridge . After this , life went back to normal in both communities . In October 1928 , after the charter and opening of the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission , the bridge company was asked to sell the bridge to the commission for $ 60 @,@ 000 ( 1928 USD ) , and on June 14 , 1929 , the commission abolished tolls along the bridge , making it free to cross at either end . With the bridge now under the control of the toll bridge commission , extensive repairs began on the 25 @-@ year @-@ old structure . This construction included new beams for the bridge , new flooring , and an extensive repair to one bridge pier . Although the construction had only taken four months to complete , it still caused havoc in commuting across the structure . In 1940 , the Pennsylvania approach to the bridge was designated as Pennsylvania Route 709 , a designation that would last six years , being decommissioned in 1946 . The structure would face its most recent strength test in 1955 , after the massive flooding from Hurricane Diane wreaked havoc in the area . The structure received minor damage in the flood , and the traffic was only halted for a day or two afterward . The design in the 1904 plan worked , as the structure was not at flood level .
Starting in October 2006 , the Toll Bridge Commission began an $ 8 @.@ 8 @.@ million rehabilitation of the structure . The rehabilitation helped extend the life of the bridge for years rather than shutting the bridge down constantly for the next 15 years for major repairs . The Commission replaced the flooring , repairing or replacing of certain steel portions of the bridge , blast @-@ cleaning and repainted the structure .
= Cleeve Abbey =
Cleeve Abbey is a medieval monastery located near the village of Washford , in Somerset , England . It is a Grade I listed building and has been scheduled as an ancient monument .
The abbey was founded in the late twelfth century as a house for monks of the austere Cistercian order . Over its 350 @-@ year monastic history Cleeve was undistinguished amongst the abbeys of its order , frequently ill @-@ governed and often financially troubled . The sole member of the community to achieve prominence was John Hooper , who became a bishop during the Reformation .
In 1536 Cleeve was closed by Henry VIII in the course of the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the abbey was converted into a country house . Subsequently , the status of the site declined and the abbey was used as farm buildings until the latter half of the nineteenth century when steps were taken to conserve the remains . In the twentieth century Cleeve was taken into state care ; the abbey is now looked after by English Heritage and is open to the public . Today Cleeve Abbey is one of the best @-@ preserved medieval Cistercian monastic sites in Britain . While the church is no longer standing , the conventual buildings are still roofed and habitable and contain many features of particular interest including the ' angel ' roof in the refectory and the wall paintings in the painted chamber .
= = Foundation = =
The abbey was founded by William de Roumare , Earl of Lincoln in a grant of 1191 , on land he had been given by king Æthelred the Unready . On 25 June 1198 a colony of 12 monks led by Abbot Ralph arrived at the site from Revesby Abbey in Lincolnshire . The official name of the abbey was Vallis Florida , ( Latin : ' Flowering Valley ' ) but throughout its history it was generally known as Cleeve after the nearby village . The initial funding for the foundation was increased by land and money from the family of William de Mohun of Dunster , 1st Earl of Somerset and the Beckerolles family . In addition to various landholdings with produced rent for the abbey they held the Right of Wreck , which meant they could claim shipwrecks washed up on the shore of their lands .
= = Abbey buildings = =
Work immediately began on constructing the abbey church , a task that took many decades . It was a conservative design , heavily influenced by the thoughts of St. Bernard and the order 's early churches in its homeland of Burgundy . It was cruciform in shape with an aisled nave of seven bays , a short , square east end , and transepts each with two side chapels . The eastern parts of the church were built first , and were likely finished in 1232 , at which point the abbey received a royal donation of oak to build choir stalls . The remainder was probably completed by mid @-@ century .
To the south of the church a cloister was laid out , surrounded by the domestic buildings of the house . The east range , which was completed first ( probably by around 1250 ) , held the chapter house , sacristy , the monks ' dormitory , day room , and a 19 @.@ 7 metres ( 65 ft ) long reredorter ( latrine ) . The south range was built next , it contained the kitchens , warming house and refectory which projected south beyond the main body of the building , following the usual Cistercian plan .
It is suggested from the heraldry used in the tiled floors of the refectory that it was finished at the end of the thirteenth century . The Encaustic tiles , which are 23 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) square , include the arms of Henry III , Richard , 1st Earl of Cornwall and the Clare family . It is believed they were produced to celebrate the marriage of Edmund , 2nd Earl of Cornwall and Margaret de Clare in 1272 . The final part to be finished was the small west range , which was used for storage and quarters for the lay brothers . East of the core buildings , and linked to them , was a second cloister around which was the monastic infirmary .
The monastery , which is next to the River Washford , would have been surrounded by gardens , fishponds , orchards , barns , guesthouses , stables , a farmyard and industrial buildings . The abbey grounds were defended by a water filled moat and a gatehouse . Excavation has revealed that a large stone cross , like a market cross , stood just west of the main building .
Though Cleeve was by no means a wealthy house , the monks were able to make significant investment in remodelling their home so as to match the rising living standards of the later mediaeval period . In the fourteenth @-@ century elaborate polychrome tiled floors ( an expensive and high status product ) were laid throughout the abbey and in the mid @-@ fifteenth century radical works were undertaken . A wooden shelter was constructed over the tiled floor in 2016 . Abbot David Juyner ( r . 1435 – 87 ) commissioned a complete redesign of the south range of the monastery . He demolished the old refectory and built a new one parallel to the cloister on the first floor . This grand chamber with its wooden vaulted ceiling ( carved with angels ) was the equal of the hall of any contemporary secular lord . Beneath it he built several self @-@ contained apartments . These were probably used by corrodians , pensioners of the abbey . Juyner may also have been responsible for decorating the abbey with wall paintings of religious and allegorical subjects . Some of these wall paintings survive . As well as one depicting the Crucifixion , there is an arrangement of St Catherine and St Margaret on either side of , and facing , a man standing on a bridge : the bridge is over water full of fish , and the man has an angel on either side of his head , and is being attacked by a lion to his left on the bridge , and a dragon to his right . Work continued under Juyner 's successors to the eve of the Dissolution . The last building work to be completed was the remodelling of the gatehouse , performed after 1510 , though as late as 1534 the monks were engaged in a major project of renewing the cloister walks in the latest fashion . As at the neighbouring house of Forde Abbey , this was never completed , due to the dissolution of the abbey .
= = Monastic history = =
Like most of the smaller Cistercian houses , comparatively little is known about the internal history of the abbey . In its early years Cleeve received grants of land and property from local lords and the Crown to supplement its initial endowment and in the prosperous years of the thirteenth century grew steadily , reaching 26 monks in 1297 . The abbey held various local churches , including those at Cleeve , Queen Camel , Woolavington while also holding the rectory of Lundy . The abbey was also responsible for the chapel of Our Lady between Old Cleeve and what is now Blue Anchor ; however although this has since disappeared , the inn for pilgrims attending the chapel has been expanded into the present Chapel Cleeve Manor .
A major source of income was the export of wool . However , the fourteenth century saw a change in fortunes : the Black Death , a worsening economic climate and poor administration left the abbey ( like many others of its order ) with sharply declining numbers of monks and saddled with major debt . The internal discipline and morals of the community declined too : in 1400 – 01 it was reported to the government that the abbot of Cleeve and three other monks were leading a group of 200 bandits and attacking travellers in the region . However , things improved in the fifteenth century and despite the vast expense caused by the extravagant building projects of the last abbots , better management , access to new resources ( for instance from the profits from the right to hold markets granted by the crown ) and a general improvement in the circumstances facing the house meant that just prior to the dissolution Cleeve was enjoying an Indian Summer of comfortable stability .
= = Dissolution = =
In 1535 , the abbey 's income was only assessed at £ 155 in the Valor Ecclesiasticus , Henry VIII 's great survey of church finances . It meant the following year that it came under the terms of the first Suppression Act , Henry 's initial move in the Dissolution of the Monasteries . Abbot William Dovell and his 16 monks were forced to surrender the abbey on 6 September 1536 . There were proposals from local gentry and even some of the king 's officials for the Dissolution such as Sir Thomas Arundell that Cleeve should be granted a reprieve , as a number of others among the smaller monasteries were , however , it was not to be and the monks finally left in the spring of 1537 . Abbot William was given a pension of 40 marks per year , not large but certainly comfortable , which he was still drawing 20 years later . Most of the other monks were given pensions too . One former monk of Cleeve rose to prominence and came to a sticky end . This was John Hooper who became Bishop of Gloucester and Worcester and was killed in 1555 for his Protestant beliefs by Mary I.
= = Later history = =
Soon after Cleeve became Crown property , it was leased to Anthony Busterd for 21 years . In 1538 , the freehold of the site was granted to Robert Radcliffe , 1st Earl of Sussex . The church was demolished , save for the south wall which bounded the cloister , and the rest of the abbey converted into a mansion suitable for a gentleman . By the early seventeenth century , however , Cleeve had turned into a farm . The dormitory was now a large barn , the cloister was the farmyard and the rest of the buildings were used for agricultural purposes and a farm house . A red sandstone barn was built which abuts the south @-@ west corner of the abbey .
George Luttrell of Dunster Castle acquired the site in 1870 . The abbey stopped being used as a farm and extensive archaeological excavations took place . The farm house was converted into rental cottages , and the site became a tourist attraction , partly to bring traffic to the West Somerset Railway . Cleeva Clapp a local farmers daughter , who was named after the abbey , acted as a guide and described her nightly " communings " with the ghosts of the monks for a shilling a head .
Cleeve Abbey was passed back to the Crown in 1950 – 51 to pay Death Duties on the Luttrell estate and was managed by the Department for the Environment . Major restoration and archaeological work followed . In 1984 , English Heritage took over responsibility for Cleeve Abbey , carrying out excavations and earthwork surveys and continues to care for it today .
= = Present day = =
The church and infirmary have almost entirely vanished , but the site boasts some of the finest and best @-@ preserved monks ' living quarters still surviving in southern England . The buildings round the cloister are still roofed and habitable and many of the rooms retain their vaults . Among the most important preserved rooms are the chapter house , the refectory with its magnificent arch braced wooden vault and the painted chamber . Much of the abbey 's medieval tiled flooring remains . Other major survivals include the abbey gatehouse , which still provides entrance to the visitor , the moat and fishponds . Cleeve is open to the public .
The remains of the buildings have been designated by English Heritage as a grade I listed building , and it is listed as a Scheduled monument .
= = Cultural references = =
The Abbey was the original site on which ' Gracedieu ' , the setting for the Abbey Series of books by Elsie J. Oxenham , was based . Many of its features described by Oxenham , who visited Cleeve in the early years of the twentieth century , can be identified at the site today , although literary licence allowed her to add features from elsewhere or from her imagination .
The castle scenes in the children 's musical @-@ comedy television series Maid Marian and her Merry Men were filmed in Cleeve Abbey .
= Serbia – United States relations =
Serbian – American relations are bilateral relations between the governments of Serbia and the United States . They were first established in 1882 . From 1918 to 2006 the United States maintained relations with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , SFR Yugoslavia , and Serbia and Montenegro , of which Serbia is considered the legal successor state .
At the end of the 19th century , the United States sought to take advantage of the Ottoman Empire 's withdrawal from Eastern Europe by establishing diplomatic relations with newly emerged nations , among them Serbia . Serbia and the United States were both allies during World War I. After the first World War , Serbia united with the Kingdom of Montenegro and territories previously held by Austria @-@ Hungary . This unified state became known as Yugoslavia , with which the United States had diplomatic relations up to the beginning of World War II . In the front in Yugoslavia during World War II , the US ultimately supported Serbian royalists known as Chetniks . However , Josip Broz Tito , the leader of Yugoslav Partisans during the war , ended up governing Yugoslavia after World War II , which resulted in a period of cutoff between Yugoslavia and the United States in the late 1940s . The end of World War II also resulted in the mass emigration of refugees from Yugoslavia , many of which were Serbs who ended up moving to the United States . This helped create the first major Serbian diaspora in the United States . Some of the Serbian refugees who settled in the United States after World War II were anti @-@ communist exiles who attempted to undermine Tito during the Cold War , using the United States as a venue for their anti @-@ communist aims .
Through the breakup of Yugoslavia , the United States engaged in both combative and economic conflict , particularly with Serbia , known at the time as Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( successor of SFR Yugoslavia ) . The United States imposed sanctions and spearheaded a NATO bombing campaign of Yugoslavia in 1999 . Throughout the period of conflict during the 1990s , another wave of Serbian emigration ensued , and many Serbian refugees moved to the United States . In the 2000s , diplomatic relations between the United States and Yugoslavia were restored , but were changed when Montenegro seceded in 2006 , after which Serbia was the successor state to continue relations previously held by FR Yugoslavia . In 2008 Kosovo Assembly unilaterally declared independence from Serbia .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ Yugoslavia = = =
Diplomatic relations between the then @-@ Kingdom of Serbia and the United States were established in the 19th century . In 1879 , the Serbian Consulate @-@ General in New York was opened . On February 3 , 1882 , the Serbian Parliament adopted a contract and Convention of diplomatic relations between the Kingdom of Serbia and the United States , given by King Milan Obrenović . The United States Senate adopted both documents on July 5 , 1882 without debate or amendments . On November 10 , 1882 , Eugene Schuyler became the first United States ambassador in Serbia .
= = = US support of Serbian monarchists during World War II = = =
During World War II in Yugoslavia , the United States initially supported the royal government of Yugoslavia . When the Nazis invaded Yugoslavia in the spring of 1941 , the United States decisively supported the Chetniks in the first years of the war . This support took place in the form of extensive clandestine relations between the Office of Strategic Services and Chetniks with William Donovan 's administration . Such cooperation was highlighted by complex operations such as Operation Halyard , in which several hundred American pilots were rescued by Chetniks . However , OSS support for the Chetniks was compromised by the United Kingdom 's MI6 policy of favoring the Yugoslav Partisans over the Chetniks . In 1943 , the US government 's support for the Chetniks over the Yugoslav Partisans was such that president Franklin D. Roosevelt discussed with Winston Churchill in a private conversation that he imagined that Yugoslavia 's boundaries would be completely redrawn into three separate states , with Peter Karađorđević Jr. being the monarch of an independent Serbian kingdom at the end of the war . The USAF and the British RAF began bombing Belgrade indiscriminately in April 1944 when they thought that Nazi occupation could not be removed by home @-@ grown resistance alone . The United States intelligence circles gradually conceded its influence on Yugoslav guerrilla operations to the British . At the end of the war , President Harry S. Truman dedicated a Legion of Merit to Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović , but the award wasn 't revealed publicly until 2005 .
= = = Cold War relations ( 1945 – 1991 ) = = =
After the end of World War II , the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( SFRJ ) was formed . One of the first diplomatic contacts made with the new communist government was the US Department of State 's request for the US Army to testify at the Mihailović trial . However , the request was shunned and early relations between the United States and the government of Josip Broz Tito became strained , as American diplomats were furious over Mihailović 's execution in 1946 . Relations degraded even further a month later , when two USAF C @-@ 47 Skytrain cargo aircraft were shot down over Yugoslavia in the space of two weeks . More USAF aircraft were shot down over Yugoslavia up to 1948 . As a result , U.S. senator Thomas Dodd staunchly opposed American financial aid to Tito 's government , even saying that " Tito had bloodied hands . " In one of Josip Broz Tito 's early visits to the United States , protesters in San Pedro drowned an effigy of him .
The communist governments in Europe deferred to Stalin and rejected Marshall Plan aid from the United States in 1947 . At first , Tito went along and rejected the Marshall plan . However , in 1948 Tito broke decisively with Stalin on other issues , making Yugoslavia an independent communist state . Yugoslavia then requested American aid . American leaders were internally divided , but finally agreed and began sending money on a small scale in 1949 , and on a much larger scale 1950 @-@ 53 . The American aid was not part of the Marshall Plan .
Yugoslavia began opening more diplomatic dialogue to western nations after the Tito – Stalin split , which assured that Yugoslavia was not to become a member of the Warsaw Pact . On January 1 , 1967 , Yugoslavia was the first communist country to open its borders to all foreign visitors and abolish visa requirements . Regular commercial air travel between the United States and Yugoslavia was introduced with Pan Am and JAT Yugoslav Airlines . Due to this , trade opportunities reopened between the United States and Yugoslavia , and American businesses began exporting to Yugoslavia . Likewise , by the 1980s Yugoslavia was even exporting many of its manufactured automobiles from Zastava Automobili 's assembly line in Kragujevac to the United States . U.S. president Jimmy Carter discussed issues regarding Palestine and Egypt with Tito and referred to him as a " great world leader " . Subsequently , the Reagan administration began targeting the Yugoslav economy in a Secret Sensitive 1984 National Security Decision Directive NSDD 133 . " U.S. Policy towards Yugoslavia . " A censored version declassified in 1990 elaborated on NSDD 54 on Eastern Europe , issued in 1982 . The latter advocated " expanded efforts to promote a ' quiet revolution ' to overthrow Communist governments and parties , " while reintegrating the countries of Eastern Europe into a market @-@ oriented economy .
= = = = Serbian radicals in the United States during the existence of Yugoslavia = = = =
For much of the socialist period , the United States was a haven for many Serbian anti @-@ communists living outside Yugoslavia . On 20 June 1979 , a Serbian nationalist named Nikola Kavaja hijacked American Airlines Flight 293 from New York City with the intention of crashing the Boeing 707 into League of Communists of Yugoslavia headquarters in Belgrade . The aircraft , however , landed in Shannon , Ireland , where Kavaja were arrested .
A group of six Serbian nationalists , among them Boško Radonjić , placed a home @-@ made bomb in the home of the Yugoslav consulate in Chicago in 1975 . Radonjić later became the leader of the Westies gang in New York City , where he participated in organized crime and racketeering . He eventually became one of the most feared gangsters in the New York City underworld , and developed extensive friendships with John Gotti and the Gambino family . After Sammy Gravano turned John Gotti in to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in December 1990 , Radonjić was highly suspected to have attempted to fix the trial on John Gotti 's behalf . As a result of this , Radonjić was arrested on December 1999 during a lockdown at Miami International Airport when he was tracked down by the FBI . He was arrested in the United States again in January 2000 for further investigation of the 1992 Gotti trial . Upon release in 2001 , he left the United States and moved back to Serbia where he lived until his death in 2011 . He was also an admirer and long @-@ time friend of Radovan Karadžić until the latter went into hiding in 1996 .
In the 1980s , Vojislav Šešelj taught political science at the University of Michigan after being expelled by the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in 1981 . In June 1989 , he traveled to the United States again to meet with Momčilo Đujić in San Marcos , California , where Đujić named him Chetnik Vojvoda ( duke in Serbian ) . He went on to form the Serbian Radical Party in 1991 and was accused by the ICTY tribunal of leading the Beli Orlovi militants in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in war @-@ state Republic of Serbian Krajina . Radovan Karadžić pursued post @-@ graduate medical studies at Columbia University from 1974 to 1975 , but did so without any specific political agenda at the time being ; he later became the war @-@ time president of the Republika Srpska during the Bosnian War and subsequently went into hiding in Serbia until his capture in 2008 for ICTY charges of war crimes and genocide .
= = = Deteriorating relations and war with FR Yugoslavia ( 1991 – 2000 ) = = =
The first form of sanctions initiated by the US against Yugoslavia took place already from 1990 as the Nickels Amendment , which was sponsored by senators Don Nickles and Bob Dole . The amendment was passed due to concerns about Albanians being arrested in Kosovo . The amendment officially came into legal effect from May 6 , 1992 ; although it applied only to $ 5 million @-@ worth of US foreign aid , it was reported as instrumental in denying SFR Yugoslavia its last application for IMF loans before its breakup and hyperinflation episode .
The breakup of Yugoslavia began in 1992 , the territories consisting of Serbia , Montenegro , and Kosovo composed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . In the midst of the Yugoslav Wars , the United States as well as an overwhelming majority of states from the United Nations severed economic ties and imposed sanctions on FR Yugoslavia on May 30 , 1992 .
= = = = The Panić – Ćosić – Milošević triangle and the United States = = = =
The Yugoslav government of the newly formed FR Yugoslavia ( successor to SFR Yugoslavia ) ended up having three ideologically @-@ opposed leaders occupying executive positions . From 1992 , while Slobodan Milošević was the president of the Federal Republic of Serbia , national theorist Dobrica Ćosić was named President of FR Yugoslavia . Meanwhile , Milan Panić , a business magnate based in Newport Beach , California , accepted Milošević 's invitation to be Prime Minister . Panić was subsequently elected as Prime Minister in the 1992 Yugoslav parliamentary elections . The United States did not revoke Panić 's citizenship even though his occupation of an executive position in the Yugoslav government clearly contradicted the United States Constitution . Nevertheless , Panić would become a person of interest in US diplomatic circles , given his business and residence backgrounds . At a CSCE meeting in Helsinki in July 1992 , US Secretary of State James Baker abruptly dismissed Panić 's appeal to reduce the sanctions to Yugoslavia , even after an agreement ( between Panić , Milošević , and Dušan Mitević ) was reached by which Milošević would resign in return for sanction @-@ relief . This ended up severely damaging Panić 's unique diplomatic position internationally , as well as his standing in Yugoslavia . The Los Angeles Times published an article which described Panić as a doubtful upholder of potential American @-@ Yugoslavian peacemaking , when in fact , many years later made to be known , Panić was actually invited by Baker in the first place rather than voluntarily coming to Helsinki .
Panić and former US ambassador to Yugoslavia John Douglas Scanlan cooperated on a deep level in a campaign to challenge conservative politicians which echoed Baker 's disapproval of giving Yugoslavia sanctions @-@ relief in return for Milošević 's planned resignation . One of Panić 's advisors , academic Ljubiša Rakić , was dispatched to explain to Larry Eagleburger that the H.W. Bush administration was mistaken in seeing Panić as a Milošević puppet . Eagleburger replied , " Don 't worry , we are going to do our own thing " .
The three @-@ pronged government lasted only from May to December 1992 , as Panić and Ćosić decided to challenge Milošević in institutionally @-@ revised elections in December that same year . The December election ended up as a failure for the opposition to Milošević , as Ćosić pulled out of the campaign in the last moment due to health problems . Multiple politicians of the opposition parties criticized the US @-@ instigated fossil @-@ fuel sanctions in the midst of a cold 1992 @-@ 93 winter , saying that they actually further helped sympathy for Milošević and not against him .
= = = = Post @-@ Dayton lull and US macroeconomic influence in Yugoslavia ( 1995 – 1998 ) = = = =
On November 21 , 1995 , Serbian president Slobodan Milošević travelled to the United States to sign the Dayton Peace Accords with Croatian president Franjo Tuđman and Bosnian president Alija Izetbegović near Dayton , Ohio . Months later , sanctions against Yugoslavia were finally lifted in October 1996 .
In 1997 , a group of 17 economists wrote a letter titled " Program Radikalnih Ekonomskih Reformi u Jugoslaviji " , advocating liberal macroeconomic policy by creating alarming predictions of the Yugoslav economy from 1998 to 2010 . Not by coincidence , the letter was first published by B92 , arguably the most West @-@ friendly media outlet in Yugoslavia at the time . This would be the base for what would become a highly controversial political party in Serbia , G17 Plus , which began as an NGO funded by the National Endowment for Democracy . The original writers of the 1997 letter subsequently divided , as some either shunned or even criticized G17 's fundamentals , whereas others would end up occupying positions in the post @-@ Milošević government from 2000 .
= = = = NATO bombing of Yugoslavia = = = =
The United States reinstated sanctions against Yugoslavia in March 1998 when the Kosovo War started . Shortly after the controversies at Račak and Rambouillet , American diplomat Richard Holbrooke traveled to Belgrade in March 1999 to deliver the final ultimatum requesting entry of UN forces into Kosovo . Milošević rejected the ultimatum , so the United States completely severed ties with Yugoslavia on March 23 , 1999 . Bill Clinton became the first president to declare war while bypassing a Congressional majority . The establishment of the bombing campaign was contested by one of the tightest votings ( 213 @-@ 213 ) in the entire history of the House of Representatives . The United States declared war on Yugoslavia on March 24 , 1999 to take part in Operation Allied Force led by U.S. general Wesley Clark . Out of all the territories in Yugoslavia at the time , Serbia was bombed the most due to its concentration of military targets . As a result of Slobodan Milošević granting entry to KFOR in Kosovo , the war against Yugoslavia ceased on June 10 , 1999 .
= = = Post @-@ war relations = = =
= = = = Bulldozer Revolution ( 2000 ) = = = =
A group named Otpor ! , originally formed by students in 1998 with the financial assistance of USAID , International Republican Institute , and NED , was one of multiple significant participants in the Bulldozer Revolution , from which Milošević was overthrown . USAID donated over $ 30 million for Otpor to " purchase cell phones and computers for DOS 's leadership and to recruit and train an army of 20 @,@ 000 election monitors " as well as to supplement them with " a sophisticated marketing campaign with posters , badges and T @-@ shirts . " After the Bulldozer Revolution on October 5 , 2000 , the United States reestablished a diplomatic presence in Belgrade . In 2013 , the Associated Press published an article which reported that a CIA operative , Francis Archibald , participated in the organization of the October 5 coup and that the overthrow was " regarded inside the CIA as a blueprint for running a successful peaceful covert action " .
= = = = Transition with DOS and its party remnants ( 2001 – 2008 ) = = = =
Sanctions against FR Yugoslavia were lifted in January 2001 . The United States under the Bush administration denied giving any aid to Yugoslavia even several months after UN sanctions were lifted before Vojislav Koštunica promised to cooperate with demands from The Hague regarding the Slobodan Milošević trial .
In March 2001 , American economist Joseph Stiglitz traveled to Belgrade to talk to a prominent Democratic Opposition leader , Zoran Đinđić , about the potential consequences of IMF @-@ sponsored austerity . On June 25 , 2001 , Stiglitz published a paper , " Serbia 's Advantages in Coming Late " , about the necessity for Serbia not to rush privatization and not to pursue " shock therapy " , which was the established macroeconomic advise of the Bretton Woods institutions . Đinđić , however , did not live long to analyze the advice of the Bretton Woods institutions or the anti @-@ austerity plan of Stiglitz , as he was assassinated on March 12 , 2003 . This accumulated to a crescendo when G17 Plus got into an intense standoff with the Serbian government , composed mostly by DOS , due to the fact that G17 Plus continuously lobbied for the dissolution of the state union of Serbia and Montenegro . Later , in May 2006 , Montenegro declared independence from the Serbo @-@ Montenegrin state union ; the United States immediately respected the results and urged the new government in Podgorica to keep close ties with Serbia . The United States recognized Serbia as the official successor state of the Serbia and Montenegro and the preceding Yugoslav state .
Outside of fiscal policy , American influence was evident in executive positions . In September 2002 , it was announced that the Military Court in Belgrade was to press charges against Momčilo Perišić , who was the vice president of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia at the time , for espionage in the favour of the CIA . The trial never took place , although upon his release from The Hague on February 28 , 2013 , it was announced by Perišić 's lawyer Novak Lukić that his client was " ready to be judged " on the same 2002 accusations of espionage . As of 2015 no further investigation has taken place .
= = = = 2008 – 12 : Tadić era = = = =
On February 15 , 2008 , it was announced that the pro @-@ Western Boris Tadić won the 2008 Serbian presidential election . The 2008 elections were particularly important to Serbia 's relations with the United States , as the main challenging party which lost the election , SRS , disintegrated when Tomislav Nikolić split with Vojislav Šešelj over integration into the European Union . When Nikolić split from SRS and began pursuing a pro @-@ European profile ( a reversal from SRS 's eurosceptic position ) , he was being advised by American lobbying firm Quinn Gillespie & Associates .
Only a few days after this election result , the declaring of independence by Kosovo on February 17 , 2008 spurred off widespread unrest in Serbia , during which the embassy of the United States was evacuated and then torched by a mob . One man of Serbian nationality was killed inside of the embassy during the unrest . Serbia temporarily withdrew its ambassador from Washington , D.C. , but the U.S. embassy in Belgrade was closed only for several days . Ambassador Cameron Munter said that no degrading of relations were expected regardless of the unrest .
= = = = SNS @-@ era ( 2012 – ) = = = =
On April 19 , 2012 , shortly before the 2012 Serbian parliamentary election , former New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani traveled to Belgrade to attend a news conference with Belgrade mayor candidate Aleksandar Vučić . The US Embassy to Serbia gave a statement that it did not support any specific candidate in the upcoming election . Belgrade mayor Dragan Đilas slammed the conference which Giuliani attended , telling press that " Giuliani should not speak about Belgrade 's future as a man who supported the bombing of Serbia . " After the 2012 presidential elections in Serbia , a large number of local news outlets and even some intellectuals interpreted Philip T. Reeker 's visit to Belgrade in July 2012 as an attempt to create a parliamentary coalition between the Demokratska Stranka and the Serbian Progressive Party as opposed to the Progressive @-@ SPS bloc which had been composed by the election results . The election ultimately gave SNS along with its partners a victory , while Demokratska Stranka was removed into the opposition . The newly elected government ultimately continued largely the same Euro @-@ Atlantic integration programs pursued by the Tadić administration . According to the 2012 U.S. Global Leadership Report , only 20 % of Serbs approved of U.S. leadership , with 57 % disapproving and 22 % uncertain , the fifth @-@ lowest rating for any surveyed European country that year .
= = Immigration , brain drain , and professionals from Serbia = =
There is a sizable Serbian American diaspora in the United States ; in 2007 a total of 172 @,@ 834 people of Serbian nationality or descent were recorded to be inhabiting the U.S. The first documented wave of Serbian immigrants to the United States was recorded in the 1970s when many Serbian factory workers emigrated to Detroit to manufacture automobiles for Ford . In 2011 , Serbia was ranked second in the world ( after Guinea Bissau ) in human capital flight according to USAID . Brain drain to the United States and Canada has been cited as a chronic phenomenon in Serbia , especially from 1990 to 2000 during the decade of UN sanctions and war .
= = Trade and investment = =
Serbia 's strongest exports to the United States include Fiat automobiles manufactured in Kragujevac . Fiat purchased Zastava Automobili in 2008 and subsequently managed the factory in Kragujevac so that it would produce new Fiat automobiles as opposed to Zastava models ( the last Zastavas were produced in 2008 ) ; in May 2013 alone , 3 @,@ 000 Fiat 500L units were shipped from Serbia to Baltimore for sale in the United States . The Fiat 500L is the first automobile to have been exported from Serbia to the United States since the Zastava Koral before 1992 , and is proving to be a popular model with a large amount of advertising in the United States . Serbia is also the largest exporter of raspberries in the world ( as of 2009 ) , and much of the raspberries consumed in the United States are grown in Šumadija . In 2015 , the two states discussed to find ways to increase investments in Serbia .
= M @-@ 221 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 221 is a short state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) of the US state of Michigan that connects M @-@ 28 with the community of Brimley and Brimley State Park . The highway was originally part of M @-@ 28 until the 1940s when it was briefly a local road . It has been a state highway again since it was designated as M @-@ 221 in 1945 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 221 runs for 2 @.@ 494 miles ( 4 @.@ 014 km ) north from M @-@ 28 into the unincorporated community of Brimley in Superior Township . The highway passes through rural fields and woods until it enters downtown . At the corner of Main Street and Lakeshore Drive , the signed portion of M @-@ 221 ends , but state maintenance continues on Lakeshore Drive across the Waiska River . The total length of the highway , including the unsigned segment , is 2 @.@ 545 miles ( 4 @.@ 096 km ) .
M @-@ 221 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2009 showed that the traffic levels along M @-@ 221 were 2 @,@ 940 vehicles daily north of the junction with 7 ½ Mile Road and 1 @,@ 476 vehicles per day south of the intersection ; along the whole highway , 26 trucks were recorded in the survey . No sections of M @-@ 221 have been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 221 was part of the original M @-@ 25 that ran through the eastern UP in 1919 . This specific segment of roadway ran north into Brimley and turned east onto 6 Mile Road to connect with US Highway 2 ( now H @-@ 63 / Mackinac Trail ) The trunkline became part of M @-@ 28 . In early 1942 , M @-@ 28 was rerouted on the current alignment south of Brimley and this highway was turned back to local control . In 1945 , M @-@ 221 was designated along a portion of the former M @-@ 28 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Superior Township , Chippewa County .
= Juniper MX @-@ Series =
The Juniper MX @-@ Series is a family of ethernet routers and switches designed and manufactured by Juniper Networks . In 2006 , Juniper released the first of the MX @-@ series , the MX960 , MX240 , and MX480 . The second generation routers , called MX " 3D " , were first released in 2009 and featured a new Trio chipset and IPv6 support . In 2013 , the MX routers were improved to increase their bandwidth , and a virtualized MX 3D router , the vMX 3D , was released in 2014 . Utilizing the Juniper Extension Toolkit ( JET ) , third party software can be integrated into the routers .
= = History = =
= = = Early releases = = =
On October 18 , 2006 , the MX Series was publicly announced . Before its release , Ethernet aggregation was a missing component of Juniper 's edge network products , which was causing it to lose market @-@ share to Alcatel . The MX Series was late to market , but it was well received by analysts and customers . It was part of a trend at @-@ the @-@ time to incorporate additional software features in routers and switches .
The first product release of the MX series was the MX960 , a 14 @-@ slot , 480 Gbit / s switch and router . In late 2006 , Juniper introduced the MX240 and MX480 , which are smaller versions of the 960 . They had a throughput of 240 Gbit / s and 480 Gbit / s respectively .
= = = Further development = = =
In 2009 a new line of MX " 3D " products were introduced , using Juniper 's programmable Trio chipset . Trio is a proprietary semiconductor technology with custom network instructions . It provides a cross between network processing units and ASICs . IPv6 features were added and the MX80 , a smaller 80Gbit / s router , was introduced the following year .
In 2011 new switch fabric cards increased the capacity of MX 3D routers . In May 2011 Juniper introduced several new products including the MX5 , MX10 and MX40 3D routers , which have a throughput of 20 , 40 and 60 Gbit / s respectively and can each be upgraded to an MX80 . A collection of features called MobileNext was introduced in 2011 at Mobile World Congress , then discontinued in August 2013 . According to Network World , it allowed MX 3D products to serve as a mobile " gateway , an authentication and management control plan for 2G / 3G and LTE mobile packet cores and as a policy manager for subscriber management systems . "
In October 2012 , Juniper introduced the MX2020 and 2010 3D Universal Edge Routers , with throughputs of 80 Tbit / s and 40 Tbit / s respectively . Juniper also released a video caching system for the MX family and a suite of software applications that include parental control , firewall and traffic monitoring . New " Virtual Chassis " features allowed network operators to manage multiple boxes as though they were a single router or switch .
= = = Recent developments = = =
In 2013 , Juniper introduced new line cards for the MX series and a new switch fabric module , intended to upgrade the MX series ' for higher bandwidth needs and for software defined networking applications . The capacity of the MX240 , 480 and 960 were increased by double or more . A new Multiservice Modular Interface Card ( MS @-@ MIC ) was incorporated that supports up to 9 Gbit / s for services like tunneling software .
In March 2013 , Juniper released the EX9200 switch , which isn 't part of the MX Series , but uses the same software and Trio chipset . A virtualized MX series 3D router , the vMX 3D , was introduced in November 2014 . A suite of updates were announced in late 2015 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
The report denied that there had been a massacre at Srebrenica and accused the International Committee of the Red Cross of having " fabricated " its findings on the killings . Its claims were strongly criticised by the international community and the Bosniaks and were eventually disowned by the Republika Srpska government . In a judgment against Miroslav Deronjić , the Hague Tribunal judges described the report as " one of the worst examples of revisionism . " No " second part " has ever been published .
= = Background = =
In July 1995 , forces of the Army of the Republika Srpska ( VRS ) captured the town of Srebrenica in eastern Bosnia , which had been cut off and surrounded despite the presence of soldiers from the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) . Thousands of refugees had crowded into the town to escape the Serb advance . Following the Serb takeover of Srebrenica , an estimated 8 @,@ 000 Bosniak men and boys were systematically massacred by Serb forces between 11 – 15 July and another 25 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 were subjected to ethnic cleansing . It was the largest act of mass murder in Europe since World War II .
Successive governments of Republika Srpska ( and , for a while , Serbia ) sought to deny the massacre and other war crimes committed by the VRS during the war . It was against this background that , as the former United Nations trial attorney Mark B. Harmon commented , " the campaign of misinformation and deceit reached its apotheosis seven years after the crimes were committed with the publication of the Report About Case Srebrenica ( the first part ) . "
= = Contents of the report = =
The report was promoted as an effort " to present the whole truth about crimes committed in Srebrenica region regardless nationality of perpetrators of crimes and time when they were committed [ sic ] . " It asserted that no more than 2 @,@ 000 Bosniaks ( Bosnian Muslims ) had died at Srebrenica – all armed soldiers , not civilians – and that 1 @,@ 600 of them had died in combat or while trying to escape the enclave . It consistently referred to the " alleged massacre " , attributed the deaths of about 100 Bosniaks to " exhaustion " and concluded : " the number of Muslim soldiers who were executed by Bosnian Serb forces for personal revenge or for simple ignorance of international law [ … ] would probably stand less than 100 . " The report dismissed as " mentally disturbed " a Bosnian Serb soldier who had admitted participating in the killings , and claimed that the survivors ' stories were a product of their imaginations : " To walk for almost 20 days in an area that might be full of landmines , without any food and water , under the fear of being shot from any direction was such a trauma that soldiers sometimes mixed reality with illusions . Having looked at dead bodies under such psychological [ pressure ] , some Muslim soldiers could have believed what they imagined . " It asserted that " this combat might have looked like a mass killing in the eyes of frightened Muslim soldiers , although they carried weapons and shot at Bosnian Serb soldiers randomly . "
The report also asserted that the findings of the International Committee of the Red Cross and other humanitarian organisations had been " manipulated " and " fabricated " . It characterised Serbs as the victims of Bosniak war crimes around Srebrenica , asserting that in 1992 and 1993 alone 1300 Serb civilians were killed . This figure has been shown to be inaccurate , and the true number " three to nine times smaller " , by the Research and Documentation Center in Sarajevo , a non @-@ partisan institution with a multi @-@ ethnic staff , whose data have been collected , processed , checked , compared and evaluated by an international team of experts . The instigator of the massacre , General Ratko Mladić , was mentioned only in the context of demanding the surrender of the town and evacuating civilians ; the report asserted that he had tried " discouraging Serbs to take their wild revenge . " The report claimed that " the Muslims inflated the number [ of deaths ] in order to accomplish what they wanted from the very beginning – to involve the international community in the conflict with Serbs . "
According to Dejan Miletić , whom Paddy Ashdown , the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina , removed in April 2004 from his post as Head of the Republika Srpska Secretariat for Relations with the International Criminal Tribunal in The Hague and Research of War Crimes , the report " had based its conclusions on publications found on the Internet , reports from the United Nations and other sources . " It was intended to be sent to lawyers defending Bosnian Serbs on trial for war crimes .
= = ICTY verdict = =
The ICTY reviewed the " Report About Case Srebrenica " and concluded the following :
The Trial Chamber admitted into evidence a document which represents one of the worst examples of revisionism in relation to the mass executions of Bosnian Muslims committed in Srebrenica in July 1995 . This document , titled “ Report about Case Srebrenica ( the First Part ) ” was prepared by the Documentation Centre of Republika Srpska , Bureau of Government of Republika Srpska for Relation with ICTY on 1 September 2002 . Throughout this report reference is made to the “ alleged massacre ” and this misrepresentation of the historical events culminates in the final conclusion of this report , which reads : [ … ] the number of Muslim soldiers who were executed by Bosnian Serb forces for personal revenge or for simple ignorance of international law [ … ] would probably stand less than 100 .
= = Reactions = =
After the report was published on 3 September 2002 , it was condemned by a wide variety of Bosnian and international figures . A spokesman for the ICTY told Radio Free Europe that " any claim that the number of victims after the fall of the Srebrenica enclave was around the 2 @,@ 000 mark , and most of those killed in battle , is an absolutely outrageous claim . It 's utterly false , and it flies in the face of all of the evidence painstakingly collected in the investigation into the tragedy . " He described the effort to minimise the number of victims as " frankly , disgusting . " Carla del Ponte , the chief prosecutor of the ICTY , described the report 's authors as " totally blind , profoundly insensitive and clearly willing to obstruct all efforts to find reconciliation , truth and justice . " Del Ponte 's legal adviser , Jean @-@ Jacques Joris , criticised the report as " a saddening example of revisionism and an element which certainly stands in the way of reconciliation in the region . " The ICTY prosecutors subsequently used the report as evidence in the trial in 2004 of Miroslav Deronjić ; in their verdict , the judges called it " one of the worst examples of revisionism in relation to [ the massacre ] " .
Paddy Ashdown , the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina , condemned it as " tendentious , preposterous and inflammatory " and " so far from the truth as to be almost not worth dignifying with a response . " His office issued a statement calling the report " an irresponsible attempt to deceive voters and to abuse the trauma of massacre survivors " . Ashdown 's spokesman , Julian Braithwaite , noted the report 's publication just before elections in the Republika Srpska : " The question for the RS government is why are they publishing this report now , at the time when it could be easily interpreted as irresponsible electioneering . If they are playing down the fact that civilians were massacred and that children are being exhumed from mass graves with their hands tied behind their backs , then that it is outrageous . " The European Union issued a statement calling on " all responsible people and institutions " to reject the study . The International Commission on Missing Persons issued a strongly worded statement calling the report a gross distortion of the facts :
Manipulation of the issue of the missing for political purposes , including the manipulation of numbers of missing , has been an ongoing practice within Bosnia and Herzegovina that only serves to cause further pain and suffering in a society that has already suffered so much . The study regarding the numbers of missing from the 1995 fall of Srebrenica made by the Republika Srpska 's Government Bureau for Relations with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) contains what ICMP believes to be serious inaccuracies .
The British Foreign Office minister Denis MacShane condemned the report as " an insult to the memory of those who died . The authors of this report belong in the same category as those who deny the Holocaust took place . " The United States embassy in Bosnia and Herzegovina urged the Republika Srpska government to withdraw the report , calling it " an attempt to manipulate and divide the public in this country . "
Bosnian media , political parties and Srebrenica survivors were likewise strongly critical . The Sarajevo @-@ based newspaper Dnevni Avaz described the report as an attempt by the Bosnian Serb government to deny that genocide had taken place . The Srebrenica and Zepa Mothers Association condemned the report as " false , shameful and utterly amoral . " The Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina denounced it as " yet another attempt by the Serb Republic authorities in an unscrupulous and brutal way to negate what probably is the worst crime in Europe after WW2 . " Alija Behmen , the Prime Minister of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina , called it " a surprising forgery which is trying to delude the public and especially the Serbs in BiH . I honestly believe that this is the last attempt to enliven the policy which marked the tragic past of BiH . Negating the genocide cannot be a part of the election campaign . "
On the Bosnian Serb side , opinions of the report were initially favourable . The Bosnian Serb media largely supported the report , and Republika Srpska president Mirko Šarović ( who in October 2002 became the Serb member of the collective presidency ) said that the report " should not be dismissed out of hand but merits careful study " . A number of Bosnian Serb political figures made public statements denying that war crimes had happened and a government spokesman called the report a bid to promote " truth and reconciliation " . The Republika Srpska Socialist Party leader , Lazar Ristić , welcomed the report and accused the Bosniak side of having " hitherto presented only false reports , in which names were listed of persons who are still alive today . "
Nikola Špirić , the speaker of the National Assembly of Republika Srpska , called it " the worst election campaigning I have ever seen . " Milorad Dodik , who was later to become prime minister of Republika Srpska , castigated the report as having been " written by an amateur for the purpose of manipulating public opinion " in advance of the elections and said :
It is a political gaffe of the government , since one can see that the report was written several years ago by one man . The report had been written in 1996 and 1997 , which goes to show that it does not mention the report by the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation . [ ... ] The government shouldn 't have allowed itself to draft such a superficial , amateurish report which put Republika Srpska into such a difficult situation . Responsibility for the consequences of the report 's publication must be borne by those who produced it in such a superficial and amateurish way .
The Republika Srpska government was , however , more equivocal . Its prime minister , Mladen Ivanić , accused the media in the Federation entity of having " made [ a ] fuss over the report for their own purposes . " Nonetheless , the outcry from the international community forced the government of Republika Srpska to distance itself from the report , saying that it had not been fully analysed and endorsed :
The two studies , which the RS Government 's Bureau for Cooperation with the ICTY compiled , are not made by the RS Government . They are part of the report that the RS Government ’ s Bureau for Cooperation with the ICTY submits to the RS Government every three months . The fact that the Srebrenica report had been condemned by the Office of the High Representative before the Bureau 's news conference was held comes as a surprise . The Bureau representatives clearly said at the news conference that the both reports are to be submitted to the RS Government , which tells us that the OHR based its condemnation on news reports from the BiH Federation media , which said that the Bureau reports are RS Government 's report . It also comes as a surprise the fact that the OHR representatives commented on a document , which they have not read . This is another confirmation that the OHR gives in to the pressures coming from the Sarajevo media and that the OHR creates its views by using their [ the Sarajevo media 's ] information and press releases , thus bringing its own [ the OHR 's ] impartiality in question .
The Republika Srpska government subsequently disowned the report with Prime Minister Ivanić saying that it was an " unfinished version " and " not an attitude of the government of Republika Srpska . " Two years later , after further pressure from the international community , the Bosnian Serb government issued an official apology for the massacre and admitted that " enormous crimes " had been " committed in the area of Srebrenica in July 1995 . "
= Ach Gott , wie manches Herzeleid , BWV 3 =
Ach Gott , wie manches Herzeleid ( Oh God , how much heartache ) , BWV 3 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed the chorale cantata in Leipzig for the Second Sunday after Epiphany and first performed it on 14 January 1725 . It is based on the hymn published by Martin Moller in 1587 .
Bach composed the cantata in his second year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig as part of cantata cycle of chorale cantatas , for the second Sunday after Epiphany . The work is based on a hymn without evident connection to the prescribed readings . It is a meditation on Jesus as a comforter in distress , based on a medieval model . An unknown librettist reworked the ideas of the 18 stanzas in six movements , retaining the words of stanzas 1 , 2 and 18 as movements 1 , 2 and 6 . Similarly , Bach retained the choral melody in three movements , set as a chorale fantasia in the opening chorus with the bass singing the cantus firmus , as a four @-@ part setting with interspersed recitatives in the second movement , and in the closing chorale . He scored the cantata for two oboes d 'amore , strings and continuo , with an added trobone to support the bass in the first movement , and a horn to support the soprano in the last movement .
= = History and words = =
Bach composed the cantata in his second year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig as part of his second annual cycle , planned to consist only of chorale cantatas based on Lutheran hymns . He wrote the cantata for the second Sunday after Epiphany . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were taken from the Epistle to the Romans ( we have several gifts – Romans 12 : 6 – 16 ) and from the Gospel of John ( the Marriage at Cana – John 2 : 1 – 11 ) .
The cantata is a chorale cantata based on the hymn " Ach Gott , wie manches Herzeleid " in 18 stanzas attributed to Martin Moller ( 1587 ) . It is a paraphrase of the Latin " Jesu dulcis memoria " , a medieval hymn attributed to Bernard of Clairvaux , a meditation on Jesus as a comforter and helper in distress . The unknown librettist retained the words of stanzas 1 , 2 and 18 as movements 1 , 2 and 6 . In movement 2 , stanza 2 is expanded by paraphrases of stanzas 3 – 5 , while movement 3 is a paraphrase of stanza 6 ; movement 4 incorporates ideas from stanzas 7 – 14 , and movement 5 relies on stanzas 15 and 16.In movement 2 , stanza 2 is expanded by paraphrases of stanzas 3 – 5 . Movement 3 is a paraphrase of stanza 6 . Movement 4 incorporates ideas from stanzas 7 – 14 . Movement 5 relies on stanzas 15 and 16 . The poet did not relate his text to the reading from John 1 : 2 .
Bach led the first performance of the cantata on 14 January 1725 .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach structured the cantata in six movements . An opening chorus and a closing chorale frame a sequence of alternating recitatives and arias . The first recitative is unusual : the chorus sings one line of the hymn 's four lines , continued each time by a soloist in words of the poet . The last aria is a duet . Bach scored the work for four vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) , bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of horn ( Co ) to double the cantus firmus in the closing chorale , trombone ( Tb ) to reinforce the bass in the opening chorus , two oboes d 'amore ( Oa ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo . The autograph score bears the title : " Dominica 2 post Epiphanias / Ach Gott ! Wie manches Hertzeleyd . / à / 4 Voci . / 2 Hautb : d 'Amour / 2 Violini / Viola . / e Continuo / di J. S. Bach " , which means " Sunday 2 after Epiphany ... for four voices , 2 oboes d 'amore , 2 violins , viola and continuo by J. S. Bach " .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring and keys follow the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , played throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
Bach uses a melody of " Herr Jesu Christ , meins Lebens Licht " which appeared first in the Lochamer @-@ Liederbuch . The melody appears in the opening chorus , sung by the bass as a cantus firmus , in the second movement , as a four @-@ part setting with interspersed recitatives , and in the closing chorale .
= = = 1 = = =
In the opening chorus , " Ach Gott , wie manches Herzeleid " ( Ah , God , how much heartache ) , the cantus firmus is in the bass , which is doubled by the trombone , as in Ach Herr , mich armen Sünder , BWV 135 . Its mood of lamentation is supported by " elegiac sounds " of the oboes d 'amore , sighing motifs in the strings , and the upper voices reflecting the oboe motifs . John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage in 2000 , notes that Bach used a repeated motif of six notes in chromatic descent , which is often used in chaconnes of the Baroque opera to express grief . The motif is used for the instrumental opening , each entry of a voice , interludes and conclusion .
= = = 2 = = =
The recitative , " Wie schwerlich läßt sich Fleisch und Blut " ( How difficult it is for flesh and blood ) , combines the hymn tune sung by the four @-@ part choir , with interpolated text sung by the soloists in turn . The lines of the hymn are separated by a joyful ostinato motif derived from the chorale tune . The musicologist Julian Mincham writes that the " hybrid recitative provides an excellent example of Bach 's experiments of investing long texts with sustained musical interest " .
= = = 3 = = =
The bass aria , " Empfind ich Höllenangst und Pein " ( Although I experience the fear and torment of Hell ) , is accompanied by the continuo . It expresses the contrast of Höllenangst ( hell 's anguish ) and Freudenhimmel ( heaven of joy ) , with inestimable sorrows ( unermessnen Schmerzen ) disappearing into light mist ( leichte Nebel ) .
= = = 4 = = =
A tenor recitative , " Es mag mir Leib und Geist verschmachten " ( My body and spirit might despair ) , expresses trust in Jesus to overcome despair .
= = = 5 = = =
In the duet for soprano and alto , " Wenn Sorgen auf mich dringen " ( When cares press upon me ) , in " bright E major " , as the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff writes , the voices are embedded in a " dense quartet texture " . He concludes that the movement " banishes human care by means of joyful singing " . The Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann notes that the obbligato motif , which is later picked up by the voices , is played by the oboes d 'amore and violin in unison , providing " a new and remarkable tone colour " . Bach refers to the Cross , as mentioned in the text , by using a cross @-@ motif in the melody and applying double sharp marked by a cross . The voices intensify words such as " dringen " ( press ) and " singen " ( sing ) by extended coloraturas .
= = = 6 = = =
The closing chorale , " Erhalt mein Herz im Glauben rein " ( If my heart remains pure in faith ) , is a four @-@ part setting . The choral melody , now in the soprano , is reinforced by a horn .
= = Recordings = =
The selection is taken from the listing on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website .
= Hastings Line =
The Hastings Line is a secondary railway line in Kent and East Sussex , England , linking Hastings with the main town of Tunbridge Wells , and from there into London via Tonbridge and Sevenoaks . Although primarily carrying passengers , the railway serves a gypsum mine which is a source of freight traffic . Southeastern operates passenger trains on the line .
The railway was constructed by the South Eastern Railway in the early 1850s across the difficult terrain of the High Weald . Supervision of the building of the line was lax , enabling contractors to skimp on the lining of the tunnels . These deficiencies showed up after the railway had opened . Rectifications led to a restricted loading gauge along the line , requiring the use of dedicated rolling stock .
Served by steam locomotives from opening until the late 1950s , passenger services were then taken over by a fleet of diesel @-@ electric multiple units built to the line 's loading gauge . Diesel locomotives handled freight , also built to fit the loading gauge . The diesel @-@ electric multiple units served on the line until 1986 , when the line was electrified and the most severely affected tunnels were reduced from double track to single .
= = Background = =
The South Eastern Railway ( SER ) completed its main line from London to Dover , Kent in 1844 , branching off the rival London , Brighton and South Coast Railway 's ( LBSC ) line at Redhill . Construction of a single line branch from Tunbridge ( modern spelling " Tonbridge " [ Note 2 ] ) to Tunbridge Wells , a fashionable town where a chalybeate spring had been discovered in 1606 , began in July 1844 . At the time , Parliament had not given assent for the railway . The Act of Parliament enabling the construction of the line had its first reading in the House of Commons on 28 April 1845 . The bill completed its passage through the House of Commons and the House of Lords on 28 July , following which Royal Assent was granted on 31 July by Queen Victoria .
The engineer in charge of the construction was Peter W. Barlow and the contractors were Messrs. Hoof & Son . In April 1845 the SER decided that the branch would be double track . A 410 @-@ yard @-@ long ( 370 m ) tunnel was required 44 chains ( 890 m ) after leaving Tunbridge . This was named " Somerhill Tunnel " after the nearby mansion . A mile and 54 chains ( 2 @.@ 70 km ) after leaving Somerhill Tunnel , a 270 @-@ yard @-@ long ( 250 m ) viaduct was required . Southborough Viaduct stands 40 feet ( 12 m ) high and has 26 arches . A temporary station was built at Tunbridge Wells as the 823 yd ( 753 m ) Wells Tunnel was still under construction . It was 4 miles 7 chains ( 6 @.@ 58 km ) from Tunbridge . The temporary station subsequently became a goods station . The first train , comprising four locomotives and 26 carriages , arrived at Tunbridge Wells on 19 September . Trains from Tunbridge had to reverse before starting the climb to Somerhill Tunnel , as there was no facing junction at Tunbridge . This situation was to remain until 1857 , when a direct link was built at a cost of £ 5 @,@ 700 . The old link remained in use until c . 1913 .
The SER was granted permission to build a line from Ashford in Kent to St Leonards , East Sussex in 1845 . The LBSC reached St Leonards from Lewes the following year . This gave the LBSC a shorter route to Hastings than the SERs route , then still under construction . The SER sought permission to extend their branch from Tunbridge Wells across the High Weald to reach Hastings . Authorisation for the construction of a 25 @-@ mile @-@ 60 @-@ chain ( 41 @.@ 44 km ) line to Hastings was obtained on 18 June 1846 , Parliament deemed the line between Ashford and St Leonards to be of military strategic importance . Therefore , they stipulated that this line was to be completed before any extension was built from Tunbridge Wells . The extension into Tunbridge Wells opened on 25 November 1846 without any public ceremony . In 1847 , the SER unsuccessfully challenged the condition that the line between Ashford and St Leonards be completed first . That line was opened in 1851 , passing through Hastings and making an end @-@ on junction with the LBSC line from Lewes .
= = Construction = =
The Hastings Line is built over the difficult , forested , and hilly terrain across the High Weald and sandstone Hastings Beds , necessitating the construction of eight tunnels between Tonbridge and the south coast seaside resort of Hastings . The SER was anxious to construct the line as economically as possible , since it was in competition with the LBSC to obtain entry into Hastings and was not in a strong financial position in the mid 1840s .
The construction of the line between Tunbridge Wells and Robertsbridge was contracted to Messrs. Hoof & Wyths , subcontracted to Messrs. H. Warden . By March 1851 , the trackbed had been constructed as far as Whatlington , East Sussex , a distance of 19 miles ( 30 @.@ 58 km ) . All tunnels had been completed and a single line of railway had been laid for a distance of 10 miles 40 chains ( 16 @.@ 90 km ) from Tunbridge Wells . When the 15 @-@ mile @-@ 40 @-@ chain ( 24 @.@ 94 km ) section from Tunbridge Wells to Robertsbridge opened on 1 September , a single line of track extended a further 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 44 km ) to Whatlington . On the 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 66 km ) section between Whatlington and St Leonards , 750 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 570 @,@ 000 m3 ) out of 827 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 632 @,@ 000 m3 ) had been excavated . Construction of the line between Tunbridge Wells and Bopeep Junction cost in excess of £ 500 @,@ 000 .
= = = Deficiencies in the construction of the tunnels = = =
Supervision of the construction was lax , which enabled the contractors to skimp on the lining of the tunnels . This manifested itself in March 1855 when part of the brickwork of Mountfield Tunnel collapsed . An inspection of Grove Hill , Strawberry Hill and Wells tunnels revealed that they too had been constructed with too few layers of bricks . Grove Hill Tunnel had been built with just a single ring of bricks and no filling above the crown of the brickwork . The SER took the contractors to court and were awarded £ 3 @,@ 500 in damages . However , rectifying the situation cost the company £ 4 @,@ 700 . Although the contractors had charged for six rings of bricks , they had only used four . Due to the cost of reboring the tunnels , this had to be rectified by the addition of a further two rings of brickwork , reducing the width of the tunnels by 18 inches ( 460 mm ) . The result of this was that the loading gauge on the line was restricted , and special rolling stock had to be built , later becoming known as Restriction 0 rolling stock . This problem would affect the line until 1986 .
Wadhurst Tunnel collapsed in 1862 and it was discovered by the SER that the same situation existed there too . Rectification cost £ 10 @,@ 231 . By 1877 , only one train was permitted in Bopeep Tunnel at a time . The tunnel was partly widened in 1934 – 35 . In November 1949 , serious defects were discovered in the tunnel . Single @-@ line working was put in place on 19 November , but the tunnel had to be closed completely a week later . The tunnel was partially relined with cast iron segments . It reopened to traffic on 5 June 1950 . Mountfield Tunnel was underpinned in 1938 – 39 , remaining open with single @-@ line working in operation . It partially collapsed on 17 November 1974 , resulting in single @-@ line working until 31 January 1975 . The line was then closed until 17 March whilst the track was singled through the tunnel .
= = = Openings = = =
The line was opened by the SER in three main stages : From Tunbridge – Tunbridge Wells , Tunbridge Wells – Robertsbridge and Robertsbridge – Bopeep Junction . A temporary station was opened at Tunbridge Wells on 19 September 1845 while Wells Tunnel was completed . The temporary station later became the goods depot . Tunbridge Wells ( later Tunbridge Wells Central ) station opened on 25 November 1846 . The Tunbridge Wells – Robertsbridge section opened on 1 September 1851 , with the Robertsbridge – Battle section opening on 1 January 1852 . The Battle – Bopeep Junction section opened on 1 February 1852 .
= = = Description of the route = = =
The line climbs steeply out of the Medway Valley at gradients of between 1 in 47 [ Note 3 ] and 1 in 300 to a summit south of Tunbridge Wells , the line undulates as far as Wadhurst at gradients between 1 in 80 and 1 in 155 before descending into the Rother Valley , which it follows as far as Robertsbridge at gradients between 1 in 48 and 1 in 485 . The line then climbs at gradients between 1 in 86 and 1 in 170 before a dip where it crosses the River Brede . This is followed by a climb to Battle with gradients between 1 in 100 and 1 in 227 before the line falls to Hastings at gradients of between 1 in 100 and 1 in 945 .
Bopeep Junction is the junction of the Hastings Line with the East Coastway Line . It lies east of Bopeep Tunnel . There is a pub in Bulverhythe called The Bo Peep . The name was a nickname for Customs and Excise men .
= = = Tunnels = = =
There are eight tunnels between Tonbridge and Hastings . In order from north to south they are :
= = = Stations = = =
The original stations on the Tunbridge Wells to Hastings section of the line are mostly in the Gothic or Italianate styles . These were designed by William Tress . Frant , Wadhurst , Witherenden , Etchingham and Robertsbridge stations opened on 1 September 1851 . Other station openings are detailed below . Stations are listed under their original names .
Tunbridge
Tunbridge station had opened in May 1842 . Following the opening of the branch to Tunbridge Wells in 1845 , it was renamed Tunbridge Junction in January 1852 . The original station stood to the east of the road bridge , whereas the current station , opened in 1864 , stands to the west . Trains leaving Tunbridge had to reverse to reach Tunbridge Wells . This arrangement lasted until 1857 , when a new section of line was constructed enabling trains to reach the Hastings Line without reversal . The station is 29 miles 42 chains ( 47 @.@ 52 km ) from Charing Cross via Orpington .
Southborough
Southborough station opened on 1 March 1893 . It was renamed High Brooms on 21 September 1925 to avoid confusion with Southborough station on the Chatham Main Line , which had already been renamed Bickley . The station is 32 miles 70 chains ( 52 @.@ 91 km ) from Charing Cross .
Tunbridge Wells
The first station at Tunbridge Wells was temporary and was situated north of Wells Tunnel . It opened on 19 September 1845 and was replaced by the present Tunbridge Wells Station on 25 November 1846 . It subsequently became Tunbridge Wells Goods station , later renamed Tunbridge Wells Central Goods station . The goods station closed in 1980 , with a siding retained for engineers use . The original station was 44 miles 23 chains ( 71 @.@ 27 km ) from London Bridge via Redhill . [ Note 4 ]
The building on the up side of the station was built in the Italianate style . A new building by A. H. Blomfield was constructed on the down side in 1911 . The station was renamed Tunbridge Wells Central on 9 July 1923 with the ex @-@ LBSC station being renamed Tunbridge Wells West . Following the closure of the Tunbridge Wells – Eridge railway on 6 July 1985 , the name reverted to Tunbridge Wells . The station is 34 miles 32 chains ( 55 @.@ 36 km ) from Charing Cross .
Frant
Frant station is 36 miles 53 chains ( 59 @.@ 00 km ) from Charing Cross . The station building is on the down side .
Wadhurst
Wadhurst station is 39 miles 23 chains ( 63 @.@ 23 km ) from Charing Cross . The station building is in the Italianate style , with a later one @-@ bay extension . The 1893 @-@ built signal box , decommissioned on 20 April 1986 , was purchased by the Kent and East Sussex Railway .
Witherenden
Witherenden station is 43 miles 66 chains ( 70 @.@ 53 km ) from Charing Cross . It was renamed Ticehurst Road in December 1851 , and Stonegate on 16 June 1947 .
Etchingham
Etchingham station is 47 miles 34 chains ( 76 @.@ 32 km ) from Charing Cross . The building is on the up side .
Robertsbridge
Robertsbridge station is 49 miles 37 chains ( 79 @.@ 60 km ) from Charing Cross . On 26 March 1900 , it became a junction with the opening of the Rother Valley Railway to freight . The line opened to passengers on 2 April 1900 , and was renamed the Kent and East Sussex Railway in 1904 . The Kent and East Sussex Railway closed to passengers on 2 January 1954 and to freight on 12 June 1962 , except for a short section serving a mill at Robertsbridge which closed on 1 January 1970 .
Mountfield Halt
Mountfield Halt opened in 1923 . It closed on 6 October 1969 . The platforms were built of sleepers and were demolished in the early 1970s . The station was 53 miles 37 chains ( 86 @.@ 04 km ) from Charing Cross .
Battle
Battle station opened on 1 September 1851 . The buildings are in the Gothic style and stand on the up side . The station is 55 miles 46 chains ( 89 @.@ 44 km ) from Charing Cross .
Crowhurst
A siding had existed at Crowhurst from 1877 . The station opened on 1 June 1902 and was located at the junction for the Bexhill West Branch Line , which also opened the same day . Despite the line 's closure on 14 June 1964 , Crowhurst station remains open . The station is 57 miles 45 chains ( 92 @.@ 64 km ) from Charing Cross .
West St Leonards
West St Leonards station opened on 1 October 1887 . The buildings are wood framed and covered with weatherboards . The station is 60 miles 59 chains ( 97 @.@ 75 km ) from Charing Cross .
St Leonards Warrior Square
St Leonards Warrior Square station opened on 13 February 1851 along with a new section of line between Hastings and the LBSCs Hastings & St Leonards station . This gave the LBSC better access to Hastings . It lies between Bopeep Tunnel and Hastings Tunnel . The station is 61 miles 55 chains ( 99 @.@ 28 km ) from Charing Cross .
Hastings
Hastings station opened on 13 February 1851 along with the SER branch from Ashford . The station was rebuilt and enlarged by the SER in 1880 as it was then inadequate for the increasing seasonal traffic . In 1930 the station was rebuilt by the Southern Railway . This entailed closure of the engine sheds at Hastings , with locomotives being transferred to St Leonards . The original station building , by Tress , was demolished and a new Neo @-@ Georgian station building by J. R. Scott was erected . The rebuilt station was completed on 5 July 1931 . The station was rebuilt in 2003 by Railtrack . The 1931 @-@ built building was demolished and a new structure erected in its place . The station is 62 miles 33 chains ( 100 @.@ 44 km ) from Charing Cross via Orpington .
= = = Links to other lines = = =
= = = = Built = = = =
In the late 1860s , a single track link was built between the SERs Tunbridge Wells station and the LBSCs Tunbridge Wells station , which had opened in 1866 . It was 1875 before powers were granted to run a passenger service over this section of line . The junction with the main line was Grove Junction . It was removed on 7 July 1985 , following closure of the Tunbridge Wells Central – Eridge line the previous day .
In 1900 , the Rother Valley Railway opened from Robertsbridge to Tenterden . It was extended in stages to Tenterden Town and Headcorn , which was reached in 1905 . The line closed to passengers on 2 January 1954 and freight on 12 June 1961 , except for access to Hodson 's Mill closed in 1970 . The Rother Valley Railway heritage railway are rebuilding the line between Robertsbridge and Junction Road , with completion scheduled by 2018 . In 1902 , a branch line was built to Bexhill West , with a new station at the junction with the main line at Crowhurst . This line closed on 14 June 1964 .
= = = = Authorised = = = =
In 1903 , a railway was authorised to be built from Robertsbridge to Pevensey , East Sussex . The line was authorised under the Light Railways Act 1896 , but was not constructed .
= = = = Proposed = = = =
In 1856 , it was proposed to build a 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 66 km ) long branch from Witherenden to Mayfield , East Sussex . [ Note 5 ] In 1882 , an 18 @-@ mile @-@ 40 @-@ chain ( 29 @.@ 77 km ) long railway was proposed from Ticehurst Road to Langney , East Sussex , giving access to Eastbourne . Stations were proposed at Burwash , Dallington , Bodle Street Green , Boreham Street , Pevensey and Langney .
= = = Planned electrification = = =
Electrification of the Hastings Line was first considered by the SER as early as 1903 . Lack of finance meant that no decision had been made by the time World War I broke out in 1914 . It was stated in 1921 that electrification was a long term aim . In the mid @-@ 1930s , the Southern Railway , which had been formed from the SER , LBSC , London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) and London , Chatham and Dover Railway ( LCDR ) in 1923 under the Railways Act 1921 , electrified a number of lines . The East Coastway Line was electrified in 1935 , with a depot being built at Ore , East Sussex . In 1937 , it was proposed to electrify the line between Sevenoaks and St Leonards Warrior Square at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . The scheme was deferred , with another proposal in 1937 costing £ 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 also failing to gain favour before World War II broke out . One of the main reasons that electrification was not given the go @-@ ahead was the fact that non @-@ standard rolling stock would be required . The Southern Railway had provided the line with 104 new carriages and six Pullman Cars between 1929 and 1934 . Two electric locomotives were ordered in 1937 . They were built to the Hastings Line loading gauge .
In October 1946 , the Southern Railway announced a programme to electrify all lines in Kent and East Sussex in three stages . The Hastings Line between Tonbridge and Bopeep Junction was to be part of the third stage . Track would have been slewed within the affected tunnels with only one train normally allowed in the tunnel . In an emergency , two trains would be allowed in the tunnel at the same time , but restricted to 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) . Standard 9 feet 0 inches ( 2 @.@ 74 m ) wide stock would be used . Following the nationalisation of railways in the United Kingdom under the Transport Act 1947 , the Southern Region of British Railways shelved new electrification schemes , concentrating on the construction of new steam locomotives . In 1952 , the possibility of operating standard rolling stock on the line had been examined . The Operating Department objected to the use of single line sections through the various tunnels . The 1930s stock was refurbished with the aim of extending its service by a further ten years . The first two phases of the Southern Railways ' electrification scheme were revived in 1955 . This did not include the Hastings Line and it was announced in 1956 that a fleet of diesel @-@ electric trains would be constructed to operate the service until the line was electrified . At that time , the rolling stock built in the 1930s was overdue for replacement . The modernisation to the Hastings Line and the introduction of the diesel @-@ electric trains cost £ 797 @,@ 000 , of which £ 595 @,@ 000 was the cost of the first seven trains . A further thirteen trains cost £ 1 @,@ 178 @,@ 840 .
Electrification was finally carried out in the 1980s , as detailed below .
= = Operators = =
From 1845 , the line was operated by the SER . In 1899 , the SER and LCDR entered into a joint working partnership , the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) . On 1 January 1923 , the Railways Act 1921 came into force , resulting in the Grouping . The SECR became part of the Southern Railway ( SR ) . On 1 January 1948 , the Transport Act 1947 came into force , and the SR became part of British Railways , with the former SR lines becoming the Southern Region . British Railways was rebranded British Rail on 1 January 1965 . On 10 June 1986 , Network SouthEast branded trains began operating . On 1 January 1994 , the Railways Act 1993 came into force , privatising British Rail . Passenger services were taken over by Connex South Eastern on 13 October 1996 . On 27 June 2003 , Connex lost the franchise due to poor financial management . The Strategic Rail Authority took over the running of passenger trains from 9 November 2003 , using their South Eastern Trains train operating company . On 1 April 2006 , Southeastern took over the operation of passenger trains on the route .
= = Operation = =
= = = Steam era ( 1845 – 1957 ) = = =
From the opening of the line , passenger stock consisted of 4 @-@ wheel carriages . In 1845 , there were eight passenger trains a day from Tunbridge Wells to London , with half that number on Sundays . On 23 June 1849 , the Royal Train took Queen Victoria and Prince Albert to Tunbridge Wells to visit Queen Adelaide , the Queen Dowager . The train , consisting of the Royal Saloon , two first class carriages and a brake van made the journey from Bricklayers Arms to Tunbridge Wells in 75 minutes . It was driven by James Cudworth , the Locomotive Superintendent of the SER . The return journey took 70 minutes . The Royal Train visited the line again on 18 December 1849 conveying Queen Victoria and Princess Alice from Windsor , Berkshire to Tunbridge Wells on a visit to Princess Louise . The journey via Waterloo took 100 minutes . The train was driven by William Jacomb , Resident Engineer of the LSWR , and Edgar Verringer , Superintendent of the LSWR . At Waterloo , driving of the train was taken over by John Shaw , General Manager of the SER and Mr. Cockburn , Superintendent of the SER . The return journey took 105 minutes .
With the opening of the extension to Robertsbridge , there were three trains a day , with two on Sundays . These were augmented by an additional train daily when the extension to Bopeep Junction opened . In 1860 , there were seven up trains and six down trains daily ; Hastings to London via Redhill taking two hours . From 1861 , Cudworth 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 2 " Little Mail " class locomotives were introduced . In 1876 , the Sub @-@ Wealden Gypsum Co built a 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long line from a junction south of Mountfield Tunnel to a gypsum mine located in Great Wood , Mountfield . This line was still in operation as of 2007 . Bogie carriages entered service on the line in 1880 . In 1890 , the winter service was eleven trains each way , of which five were fast . [ Note 6 ] An additional two trains daily operated between Tunbridge Wells and Wadhurst . By 1910 , this had increased to twenty trains each way , of which twelve were fast , plus the extra two Wadhurst services . Four trains ran on Sundays . The service was reduced during World War I , but Sunday services had increased to seven by 1922 .
By the 1930s the line was worked by L and L1 class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 locomotives . The Schools class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0s were introduced in 1930 ; the width of these was 8 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 54 m ) measured across the cab , and 8 feet 6 1 ⁄ 2 inches ( 2 @.@ 604 m ) measured across the cylinders . The service was again reduced during World War II , with fourteen trains daily in 1942 , of which four were fast ; there were seven trains on Sundays . As built , it was envisaged that the West Country and Battle of Britain class locomotives would be able to work the line . Forty @-@ eight locomotives of the West Country and 22 of the Battle of Britain class were built with cabs that were 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) wide and paired with tenders of the same width . It was subsequently decided not to work these locomotives over the line . Locomotives from these two classes that were rebuilt gained a 9 @-@ foot @-@ 0 @-@ inch @-@ wide ( 2 @.@ 74 m ) cab . Unrebuilt locomotives retained their narrow cab .
By 1948 , the service was sixteen trains , of which seven were fast . An additional three trains ran as far as Wadhurst . In 1957 , the service was eighteen trains daily , of which nine were fast . There were nine trains on Sundays . The Schools Class locomotives worked the line until 1957 when steam was withdrawn on the Hastings Line . Diesel @-@ electric multiple units of what became British Rail Class 201 , 202 and 203 ( the " Hastings Diesels " ) took over working the route .
Under British Railways , classes D1 , E1 , H , N1 , M7 , Q , Q1 , Std 3 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 2T , Std 4 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 Std 4 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4T and U1 were permitted to work between Tonbridge and Grove junction . Freight trains from Tonbridge West Yard were not permitted to depart until the line was clear as far as Southborough Viaduct . Other classes of locomotive known to have worked over this section of line include C , and E4 .
= = = Diesel @-@ electric era ( 1957 – 86 ) = = =
Special narrow bodied diesel electric multiple units were introduced in 1957 – 58 to replace steam traction . British Rail Class 201 ( 6S ) , 202 ( 6L ) and 203 ( 6B ) ( the " Hastings Diesels " ) took over working the route . These units were constructed of narrow rolling stock . They were delivered in six @-@ car formations ( the 6Bs including a buffet car ) and two units were often operated in multiple to form twelve @-@ car trains . In latter years some of the units were reduced to five , and later still , to four cars .
The 6S units were intended to be introduced into service in June 1957 . On 5 April a fire at Cannon Street signal box disabled all signalling equipment there . As a result , locomotive @-@ hauled trains were banned from the station . A temporary signal box was commissioned on 5 May and the 6S units were introduced on peak services the next day . Two units coupled together formed the 06 : 58 and 07 : 26 Hastings – Cannon Street services in the morning , and the 17 : 18 and 18 : 03 Cannon Street – Hastings services in the evening . From 17 June the 6S and 6L units were working services throughout the day . The 6B units entered service between May and August 1958 .
The Hastings Diesels had almost completely replaced steam by June 1958 . With the introduction of the Hastings Diesels , an hourly service was provided . This split at Tunbridge Wells , with the front portion running fast to Crowhurst and the rear portion stopping at all stations . The service ran every two hours on Sundays . The Hastings Diesels also worked services on the Bexhill West Branch Line until closure on 14 June 1964 . On 22 December 1958 , 6L unit 1017 collided with 6B unit 1035 at Tunbridge Wells Central .
In 1962 , twelve Class 33 / 2 diesel locomotives , were also built with narrow bodies for the Hastings line . These enabled the last steam workings , overnight newspaper trains , to be withdrawn from the Hastings Line . Nineteen British Rail Class 207 ( 3D ) diesel electric multiple units were built in 1962 . They operated over the Tonbridge – Grove Junction section of the line as part of a Tonbridge – Eastbourne ( later Tonbridge – Eridge ) service . In 1963 , Frant , Stonegate , Wadhurst and Mountfield Halt were proposed to be closed under the Beeching Axe . One special working took place on 3 April 1966 when one of the ex @-@ Great Western Railway diesel railcars , W20W , was worked between Tonbridge and Robertsbridge as an out of gauge load . The railcar had been purchased by the Kent and East Sussex Railway for £ 415 including delivery to Robertsbridge . After trying to " wriggle out " of the deal , British Rail eventually found a solution . The vehicle was ballasted so that it leant away from the tunnel walls by some 3 inches ( 80 mm ) and was worked to Robertsbridge at a maximum of 20 miles per hour ( 32 km / h ) . From 1977 , there were two trains an hour , one fast and one slow . In May 1980 , the buffet cars were withdrawn from the 6B units , which were recoded as 5L , but retaining the Class 203 designation . The fast trains were withdrawn in January 1981 , with trains now stopping at all stations .
= = = Electric era ( since 1986 ) = = =
On 28 October 1983 , it was announced that the Hastings Line was to be electrified . Reasons that decided the issue included a commitment by British Rail to eliminate asbestos from all stock in service by 1988 and the increasing cost of maintaining the then ageing Hastings Diesels . The scheme was to cost £ 23 @,@ 925 @,@ 000 . Electrification was finally completed in 1986 , the line was electrified using 750 V DC third rail using standard rolling stock , and the expedient of singling the track through the narrow tunnels . The tunnels either side of Tunbridge Wells Central station were not singled because the fact that the south portal of Wells Tunnel and north portal of Grove Hill Tunnel were at the ends of the platforms meant it was impossible to install pointwork without reducing the length of platform available . A speed restriction was imposed through Wells Tunnel . Parliamentary powers were sought in 1979 to bore a second Grove Hill Tunnel , but there was much opposition from local residents . This , and the high cost , caused the proposal to be abandoned . The track in Grove Hill Tunnel was relaid on a concrete base , allowing alignment to be precisely controlled .
The line was declared to conform to the standard C1 loading gauge on 14 March . The first passenger carrying train comprising C1 stock to use the line was a railtour on 15 March hauled by 50 025 Invincible . It was organised by the Southern Electric Group and ran from Paddington to Folkestone Harbour . A preview service of electric trains ran on 27 April 1986 and the full timetabled service commenced on 12 May 1986 . The next day , a wrong @-@ side failure occurred involving three signals between Tonbridge and Hastings . Contractors had made errors in the wiring of the signal heads . With the inauguration of electric services , a half @-@ hourly service was operated , with trains departing from Charing Cross at 15 and 45 minutes past the hour . Those departing at xx : 15 called at Waterloo East , Sevenoaks , Tonbridge , High Brooms , Tunbridge Wells , Wadhurst , Battle , St Leonards Warrior Square and Hastings , taking 84 minutes . Those departing at xx : 45 called at Waterloo East , London Bridge , Orpington , Sevenoaks , Hildenborough , Tonbridge and then all stations to Hastings , taking 99 minutes . The Royal Train visited the line on 6 May , conveying Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother . It was stabled at Wadhurst whilst she ate lunch . The train was hauled by a Class 73 diesel @-@ electric locomotive . Upon electrification , services were operated by 4CEP , 4CIG and 4VEP electric multiple units . Class 508 electric multiple units also operated services on the line . When these units were withdrawn in the mid @-@ 2000s , they were replaced by Class 375 Electrostar , Class 465 Networker and Class 466 Networker units .
Train services on the line are provided by Southeastern , and are mostly operated by Class 375 Electrostar , or occasionally Class 465 / 466 Networker units . The line still sees a freight service to and from British Gypsum 's sidings at Mountfield .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
A number of accidents have occurred on the Hastings Line , none of which have involved the death of a passenger .
On 4 October 1852 , a passenger train was derailed between Ticehurst Road and Etchingham when the formation was flooded and washed away . Both engine crew members were injured .
On 21 June 1856 , a passenger train derailed between Tunbridge Wells and Tunbridge Junction , killing the driver and injuring the fireman and a passenger .
On 30 September 1866 , the slip portion of a train , which was to be worked forwards to Hastings , failed to stop at Tunbridge due to an error by the slip guard . It crashed into a rake of empty carriages 262 yards ( 240 m ) east of the station . Eleven of the 40 passengers were injured .
On 22 February 1892 , a SER locomotive was run into by a LBSC passenger train at Hastings . The passenger train had overrun a danger signal . Both locomotives were damaged .
On 29 August 1896 , the locomotive of a Charing Cross to Hastings train was derailed near Etchingham when it collided with a traction engine and threshing machine using an occupation crossing .
On 29 April 1912 , SECR F1 class locomotive No. 216 was working an empty stock train when it suffered the failure of the firebox crown near Tunbridge Wells due to a lack of water in the boiler . Both engine crew were severely injured by escaping steam and jumping from the moving locomotive .
On 6 January 1930 , the rear carriages of a passenger train from Hastings to London were partially buried by a landslip near Wadhurst tunnel . The train was divided and the front part continued on to Tunbridge Wells , where it arrived 100 minutes late .
On 23 December 1958 , 6L unit 1017 collided with 6B unit 1035 at Tunbridge Wells Central . Eighteen people were injured , with three of them admitted to hospital .
On 8 November 2010 , a passenger train operated by Class 375 unit 375 711 failed to stop at Stonegate station due to maintenance errors in respect of the train 's sanding apparatus . The train overran the station by 2 miles 36 chains ( 3 @.@ 94 km ) . Following the incident , Southeastern reduced the interval that the sand hoppers were to be refilled from seven days to five days . The company was fined £ 65 @,@ 000 and ordered to pay £ 22 @,@ 589 in costs .
On 23 December 2013 , a landslip at Wadhurst was the first in a series of landslips up to February 2014 which led the line between Wadhurst and St. Leonards Warrior Square being closed and reopened three times , with speed restrictions in place following repairs . The train service was replaced by buses during closures . Southeastern was criticised by Hastings and Rye MP Amber Rudd over poor customer service during this period . By 12 March , the section between Wadhurst and Robertsbridge had reopened , with full service being restored on 31 March .
= Music of Final Fantasy IV =
The music of the video game Final Fantasy IV was composed by regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu . The Final Fantasy IV Original Sound Version , a compilation of almost all of the music in the game , was released by Square Co . / NTT Publishing , and subsequently re @-@ released by NTT Publishing . It was released in North America by Tokyopop as Final Fantasy IV Official Soundtrack : Music from Final Fantasy Chronicles , with one additional track . It has since been re @-@ released multiple times with slight changes as part of the Final Fantasy Finest Box and as Final Fantasy IV DS OST . An arranged album entitled Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon , containing a selection of musical tracks from the game performed in the style of Celtic music by Máire Breatnach , was released by Square and later re @-@ released by NTT Publishing . Additionally , a collection of piano arrangements composed by Nobuo Uematsu and played by Toshiyuki Mori titled Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV was released by NTT Publishing .
The music was overall well received ; reviewers have praised the quality of the original composition despite the limitations of the medium , and reacted favorably to the arranged soundtracks . Several tracks , especially " Theme of Love " , remain popular today , and have been performed numerous times in orchestral concert series , as well as been published in arranged and compilation albums by Square as well as outside groups .
= = Concept and creation = =
Uematsu has noted that the process of composing was excruciating , involving trial and error and requiring the sound staff to spend several nights in sleeping bags at Square Co. headquarters . He blamed much of the problem on the fact that this was his first soundtrack to use the new Super Famicom hardware , as opposed to his previous soundtracks composed for the Famicom . The liner notes for the Final Fantasy IV OSV album were humorously signed as being written at 1 : 30 AM " in the office , naturally . " Uematsu has stated that , beginning with the soundtrack to Final Fantasy IV , he started to move away from the idea that the soundtrack had to be solely an orchestral score . In June 2007 , Square Enix held a casting for a vocalist to sing a version of Final Fantasy IV 's " Theme of Love " rearranged by Nobuo Uematsu . Megumi Ida was selected from approximately 800 applicants to perform the song , which was featured on the Japanese Nintendo DS remake of the game , as well as the accompanying soundtrack album .
= = Final Fantasy IV Original Sound Version = =
Final Fantasy IV Original Sound Version is a soundtrack album containing the musical tracks from the game , composed , arranged , produced and performed by Nobuo Uematsu . It spans 44 tracks and covers a duration of 58 : 25 . It was first released on June 14 , 1991 , by Square Co . / NTT Publishing , and subsequently re @-@ released on November 26 , 1994 , and October 1 , 2004 , by NTT Publishing . The original release bears the catalog number N23D @-@ 001 , and the re @-@ release bears the catalog number NTCP @-@ 5014 . After the release of Final Fantasy IV for the Sony PlayStation as part of Final Fantasy Chronicles , the album was released in North America by Tokyopop on August 21 , 2001 as Final Fantasy IV Official Soundtrack : Music from Final Fantasy Chronicles . This is nearly the same release as Final Fantasy IV : Original Sound Version , some track titles were slightly changed , and a 45th track was added , " Theme of Love ( Arranged ) " , which had previously only been released as a piano version on the second track of Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV . This release has the catalog numbers TPCD 0210 @-@ 2 .
The GBA version was again released as part of the Final Fantasy Finest Box by Square Enix on March 28 , 2007 under the catalog number FFFB @-@ 0001 along with the OSTs of Final Fantasy V and Final Fantasy VI after the game was ported to the Game Boy Advance . This version included several tracks which were not included in the original album , such as the " Chocobo Forest " theme , the music for the dancing girl , the short intro to " Cry in Sorrow / Sorrow and Loss " , and various fanfares .
After the release of Final Fantasy IV for the Nintendo DS , a new version of the Soundtrack arranged by Junya Nakano and Kenichiro Fukui , respectively , was released in Japan in January 2008 as Final Fantasy IV Original Soundtrack . Most of the pieces are the same as on the original album , although they were reproduced for the sound hardware of the DS , with new synthesizer effects . A new version of " Theme of Love " was included , with lyrics sung by Megumi Ida . It was released as a two @-@ disk set with a bonus DVD containing the full motion video included in the re @-@ releases of Final Fantasy IV , and has the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10105 @-@ 7 . This version of " Theme of Love " was also released as a single , entitled Moonlight -Final Fantasy IV Theme of Love- . The single also includes the DS version of the song , the original track , and a karaoke version of the Megumi Ida rendition . It was released along with a bonus DVD containing a music video for the song on December 5 , 2007 with the catalog numbers of BVCR @-@ 19727 @-@ 8 and a duration of 16 : 21 .
Final Fantasy IV OSV was well received ; reviewers have praised the quality of the composition despite the limited medium . Soundtrack Central compared it favorably with Uematsu 's later works , especially the soundtrack for Final Fantasy VI , and termed it a " great CD " . However , the length of several tracks as well as of the album as a whole was criticized , with reviewers finding it " too short " and disapproving of the early fade @-@ out of some tracks . Reviewers found the expanded and remastered version found in the Finest Box to be comparable to the quality of the original album , with some tracks improving in their remake , becoming " deeper " or " sharper " as was appropriate .
A new edition of the soundtrack , Final Fantasy IV Original Soundtrack Remaster Version , was released by Square Enix on July 3 , 2013 . This version is expanded to two discs , allowing the tracks to play through two loops rather than just one , as well as the addition of a few short pieces that were left off of the original recording . Despite the name , the album features the original Super NES version of the music , rather than a more modern synthesizer sound . The album has the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10373 ~ 4 , and its 57 tracks have a duration of 1 : 32 : 40 . Joshua Bateman of RPGFan stated that while the remaster edition wasn 't strictly necessary , given that Square Enix still sold the original version online , the new edition was still a superior version and an important step in preserving classic video game music .
= = Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon = =
Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon is a selection of musical tracks from the game , arranged and performed in the style of Celtic music by Máire Breatnach . It spans 15 tracks and covers a duration of 52 : 36 . It was first released on October 28 , 1991 , in Japan , and subsequently re @-@ released on November 26 , 1994 , and on October 1 , 2004 , by NTT Publishing . The original release bears the catalog number N30D @-@ 006 , the first re @-@ release bears the catalog number PSCN @-@ 5017 , and the most recent re @-@ release has the catalog number NTCP @-@ 5017 .
Overall reception of Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon was also positive , though some reviewers felt that several of the tracks were of lesser quality than the rest of the album . Patrick Gann of RPGFan described it as " Awesome . Purely spectacular . " and Matt Brady of Final Fantasy Symphony concurred , saying that the " music quality for this soundtrack was spectacular . " Daniel Space of RPGFan , however , found the quality mixed , and said that " some of the pieces do not live up to the new orchestration , " although others " were a delight to hear . " He also found some of the instruments to be slightly out of tune , which he disliked , though Matt Brady felt it gave the pieces an " ethnic feel " .
= = Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV = =
Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV is a collection of Final Fantasy IV music composed by Nobuo Uematsu , arranged by Shiro Satou and played on piano by Toshiyuki Mori . It spans 14 tracks and covers a duration of 57 : 24 . It was first published by NTT Publishing on April 21 , 1992 , and subsequently re @-@ published on May 23 , 2001 . The original release bears the catalog number N38D @-@ 010 , and the reprint bears the catalog number NTCP @-@ 1001 .
Critical reception for Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV was positive , with reviewers terming the album " fantastic " . Damian Thomas of RPGFan said that the album was " a true gem " and said that despite his dislike of piano arrangements , he " truly appreciated " the album . Some reviewers felt that the pieces in the album were " simplistic " , especially in comparison to the piano collections for Final Fantasy V and Final Fantasy VI , but said that " its simplicity calls for a different feeling , and it is still great , " and that despite the lack of complexity , " all of the songs ... are extremely nicely done . "
= = Final Fantasy IV Minimum Album = =
Final Fantasy IV Minimum Album is a 6 track Mini CD EP released on September 5 , 1991 by NTT Publishing Co . It contains unreleased and arranged tracks from the original soundtrack . The catalog number is N09D @-@ 004 and it has a total playing time of 20 : 25 .
= = Legacy = =
The music of Final Fantasy IV has remained popular since its release , especially in Japan . The track " Theme of Love " has even been taught to Japanese school children as part of the music curriculum . Additionally , The Black Mages have arranged two pieces from Final Fantasy IV . These are " Battle with the Four Fiends " , an arrangement of " The Dreadful Fight " , and " Zeromus " , an arrangement of " The Final Battle " , both of which can be found on the album The Skies Above , published in 2004 . A lyrical version of " Theme of Love " , sung by Risa Ohki , appeared on Final Fantasy : Pray , a compilation album produced by Square . Additionally , lyrical versions of " Main Theme of FINAL FANTASY IV " and " Edward 's Harp " , sung by Risa Ohki and Ikuko Noguchi , appeared on Final Fantasy : Love Will Grow .
Uematsu continues to perform certain pieces in his Dear Friends : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . The music of Final Fantasy IV has also appeared in various official concerts and live albums , such as 20020220 music from FINAL FANTASY , a live recording of an orchestra performing music from the series including several pieces from the game . " Red Wings " , " Theme of Love " , and " Ending Theme " , were played by the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra in their first Orchestral Game Concert in 1991 as part of a five concert tour , which was later released as a series of albums . Additionally , " Theme of Love " was performed by the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra for the Distant Worlds - Music from Final Fantasy concert tour , as well as by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra in the Tour de Japon : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . Independent but officially licensed releases of Final Fantasy IV music have been composed by such groups as Project Majestic Mix , which focuses on arranging video game music . Another popular album release was Echoes of Betrayal , Light of Redemption , an unofficial download @-@ only album release by the remix website OverClocked ReMix on July 19 , 2009 containing 54 remixes over 4 " discs " . Selections also appear on Japanese remix albums , called dojin music , and on English remixing websites .
= Pool of Radiance =
Pool of Radiance is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Strategic Simulations , Inc ( SSI ) in 1988 . It was the first adaptation of TSR 's Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D or D & D ) fantasy role @-@ playing game for home computers , becoming the first episode in a four @-@ part series of D & D computer adventure games . The other games in the " Gold Box " series used the game engine pioneered in Pool of Radiance , as did later D & D titles such as the Neverwinter Nights online game . Pool of Radiance takes place in the Forgotten Realms fantasy setting , with the action centered in and around the port city of Phlan .
Just as in traditional D & D games , the player starts by building a party of up to six characters , deciding the race , sex , class and ability scores for each . The player 's party is enlisted to help the settled part of the city by clearing out the marauding inhabitants that have taken over the surroundings . The characters move on from one area to another , battling bands of enemies as they go and ultimately confronting the powerful leader of the evil forces . During play the player characters gain experience points , which allow them to increase their capabilities . The game primarily uses a first @-@ person perspective , with the screen divided into sections to display pertinent textual information . During combat sequences , the display switches to a top @-@ down " video game isometric " view .
Generally well received by the gaming press , Pool of Radiance won the Origins Award for " Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Computer Game of 1988 " . Some reviewers criticized the game 's similarities to other contemporary games and its slowness in places , but praised the game 's graphics and its role @-@ playing adventure and combat aspects . Also well @-@ regarded was the ability to export player characters from Pool of Radiance to subsequent SSI games in the series .
= = Gameplay = =
Pool of Radiance is based on the same game mechanics as the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rule set . As in many role @-@ playing games ( RPGs ) , each player character in Pool of Radiance has a character race and a character class , determined at the beginning of the game . Six races are offered , including elves and halflings , as well as four classes ( fighter , cleric , wizard , and thief ) . Non @-@ human characters have the option to become multi @-@ classed , which means they gain the capabilities of more than one class , but advance in levels more slowly . During character creation , the computer randomly generates statistics for each character , although the player can alter these attributes . The player also chooses each character 's alignment , or moral philosophy ; while the player controls each character 's actions , alignment can affect how NPCs view their actions . The player can then customize the appearance and colors of each character 's combat icon . Alternatively , the player can load a pre @-@ generated party to be used for introductory play . These characters are combined into a party of six or less , with two slots open for NPCs . Players create their own save @-@ game files , assuring character continuation regardless of events in the game . On an MS @-@ DOS computer , the game can be copied to the hard @-@ disk drive . Other computer systems , such as the Commodore 64 , require a separate save @-@ game disk .
The game 's " exploration " mode uses a three @-@ dimensional first @-@ person perspective , with a rectangle in the top left of the screen displaying the party 's current view ; the rest of the screen displays text information about the party and the area . During gameplay , the player accesses menus to allow characters to use objects ; trade items with other characters ; parley with enemies ; buy , sell , and pool the characters ' money ; cast spells , and learn new magic skills . Players can view characters ' movement from different angles , including an aerial view . The game uses three different versions of each sprite to indicate differences between short- , medium- , and long @-@ range encounters .
In combat mode , the screen changes to a top @-@ down mode with dimetric projection , where the player decides what actions the characters will take in each round . These actions are taken immediately , rather than after all commands have been issued as is standard in some RPGs . Optionally , the player can let the computer choose character moves for each round . Characters and monsters may make an extra attack on a retreating enemy that moves next to them . If a character 's hit points ( HP ) fall below zero , he or she must be bandaged by another character or the character will die . The game contains random encounters , and game reviewers for Dragon magazine observed that random encounters seem to follow standard patterns of encounter tables in pen and paper AD & D game manuals . They also observed that the depictions of monsters confronting the party " looked as though they had jumped from the pages of the Monster Manual . "
Different combat options are available to characters based on class . For example , fighters can wield melee or ranged weapons ; magic @-@ users can cast spells ; thieves have the option to " back @-@ stab " an opponent by strategically positioning themselves . As fighters progress in level , they can attack more than once in a round . Fighters also gain the ability to " sweep " enemies , effectively attacking each nearby low @-@ level creature in the same turn . Magic @-@ users and clerics are allowed to memorize and cast a set number of spells each day . Once cast , a spell must be memorized again before reuse . The process requires hours of inactivity for all characters , during which they rest in a camp ; this also restores lost hit points to damaged characters . This chore of memorizing spells each night significantly added to the amount of game management required by the player .
As characters defeat enemies , they gain experience points ( XP ) . After gaining enough XP , the characters " train up a level " to become more powerful . This training is purchased in special areas within the city walls . In addition to training , mages can learn new spells by transcribing them from scrolls found in the unsettled areas . Defeated enemies in these areas also contain items such as weapons and armor , which characters can sell to city stores .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Pool of Radiance takes place in the Forgotten Realms fantasy world , in and about the city of Phlan . This is located on the northern shore of the Moonsea along the Barren River , between Zhentil Keep and Melvaunt . The party begins in the civilized section of " New Phlan " that is governed by a council . This portion of the city hosts businesses , including shopkeepers who sell holy items for each temple 's worshipers , a jewelry shop , and retailers who provide arms and armor . A party can also contract with the clerk of the city council for various commissions ; proclamations fastened to the halls within City Hall offer bits of information to aid the party . These coded clues can be deciphered by using the Adventurer 's Journal , included with the game .
There are three temples within Phlan , each dedicated to different gods . Each temple can heal those who are wounded , poisoned , or afflicted , and can fully restore deceased comrades for a high price . The party can also visit the hiring hall and hire an experienced NPC adventurer to accompany the party . Encounters with NPCs in shops and taverns offer valuable information . Listening to gossip in taverns can be helpful to characters , although some tavern tales are false and lead characters into great danger .
= = = Plot summary = = =
The ancient trade city of Phlan has fallen into impoverished ruin . Now only a small portion of the city remains inhabited by humans , who are surrounded by evil creatures . To rebuild the city and clean up the Barren River , the city council of New Phlan has decided to recruit adventurers to drive the monsters from the neighboring ruins . Using bards and publications , they spread tales of the riches waiting to be recovered in Phlan , which draws the player 's party to these shores by ship .
At the start of the game , the adventurers ' ship lands in New Phlan , and they receive a brief but informative tour of the civilized area . They learn that the city is plagued with a history of invasions and wars and has been overtaken by a huge band of humanoids and other creatures . Characters hear rumors that a single controlling element is in charge of these forces . The characters begin a block @-@ by @-@ block quest to rid the ruins of monsters and evil spirits .
Beyond the ruins of old Phlan , the party enters the slum area — one of two quests immediately available to new parties . This quest requires the clearing of the slum block and allows a new party to quickly gain experience . The second quest is to clear out Sokol Keep , located on Thorn Island . This fortified area is inhabited by the undead , which can only be defeated with silver weapons and magic . The characters ' adventure is later expanded to encompass the outlying areas of the Moonsea region . Eventually , the player learns that an evil spirit named Tyranthraxus , who has possessed an ancient dragon , is at the root of Phlan 's problems . The characters fight Tyranthraxus the Flamed One in a climactic final battle .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
Pool of Radiance was the first official game based on the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rules . The scenario was created by TSR designers Jim Ward , David Cook , Steve Winter , and Mike Breault , and coded by programmers from Strategic Simulations , Inc 's Special Projects team . The section of the Forgotten Realms world in which Pool of Radiance takes place was intended to be developed only by SSI . The game was created on Apple II and Commodore 64 computers , taking one year with a team of thirty @-@ five people . This game was the first to use the game engine later used in other SSI D & D games known as the " Gold Box " series . The SSI team developing the game was led by Chuck Kroegel . Kroegel stated that the main challenge with the development was interpreting the AD & D rules to an exact format . Developers also worked to balance the graphics with gameplay to provide a faithful AD & D feel , given the restrictions of a home computer . In addition to the core AD & D manuals , the books Unearthed Arcana and Monster Manual II were also used during development . The images of monsters were adapted directly from the Monster Manual book . The game was originally programmed by Keith Brors and Brad Myers , and it was developed by George MacDonald . The game 's graphic arts were by Tom Wahl , Fred Butts , Darla Marasco , and Susan Halbleib .
Pool of Radiance was released in June 1988 ; it was initially available on the Commodore 64 , Apple II series and IBM PC compatible computers . A version for the Atari ST was also announced . The Macintosh version was released in 1989 . The Macintosh version featured a slightly different interface and was intended to work on black @-@ and @-@ white Macs like the Mac Plus and the Mac Classic . The screen was tiled into separate windows including the game screen , text console , and compass . Graphics were monochrome and the display window was relatively small compared to other versions . The Macintosh version featured sound , but no music . The game 's Amiga version was released two years later . The PC 9800 version 『 プール ・ オブ ・ レイディアンス 』 in Japan was fully translated ( like the Japanese Famicom version ) and featured full @-@ color graphics . The game was ported to the Nintendo Entertainment System under the title Advanced Dungeons & Dragons : Pool of Radiance , released in April 1992 .
The original Pool of Radiance game shipped with a 28 @-@ page introductory booklet , which describes secrets relating to the game and the concepts behind it . The booklet guides players through the character creation process , explaining how to create a party . The game also included the 38 @-@ page Adventurer 's Journal , which provides the game 's background . The booklet features depictions of fliers , maps , and information that characters see in the game . The package also included a translation decoder wheel . After the title screen , a copy protection screen was displayed consisting of two pictures and a line . The player was required to use the decoder wheel to line up the pictures , then enter the word revealed on the decoder wheel . After three unsuccessful attempts , the game automatically shut down .
= = = Sequels and Legacy = = =
Pool of Radiance was the first in a four @-@ part series of computer D & D adventures set in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting . The others were released by SSI one year apart : Curse of the Azure Bonds ( 1989 ) , Secret of the Silver Blades ( 1990 ) , and Pools of Darkness ( 1991 ) . The 1989 game Hillsfar was also created by SSI but was not a sequel to Pool of Radiance . Hillsfar is described instead , by the reviewers of Dragon , as " a value @-@ added adventure for those who would like to take a side trip while awaiting the sequel " . A player can import characters from Pool of Radiance into Hillsfar , although the characters are reduced to their basic levels and do not retain weapons or magical items . Original Hillsfar characters cannot be exported to Pool of Radiance , but they can be exported to Curse of the Azure Bonds . A review for Curse of the Azure Bonds in Computer Gaming World noted that " you can transfer your characters from Pool of Radiance and it 's a good idea to do so . It will give you a headstart in the game . "
GameSpot declared that Pool of Radiance , with its detailed art , wide variety of quests and treasure , and tactical combat system , and despite the availability of only four character classes and the low character level cap , " ultimately succeeded in its goal of bringing a standardized form of AD & D to the home computer , and laid the foundation for other future gold box AD & D role @-@ playing games " . Scott Battaglia of GameSpy said Pool of Radiance is " what many gamers consider to be the epitome of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons RPGs . These games were so great that people today are using MoSlo in droves to slow down their Pentium III @-@ 1000 MHz enough to play these gems . " In March 2008 , Dvice.com listed Pool of Radiance among its 13 best electronic versions of Dungeons & Dragons . The contributor felt that " The Pool of Radiance series set the stage for Dungeons & Dragons to make a major splash in the video game world . "
The 1988 Dungeons & Dragons role @-@ playing game module Ruins of Adventure was produced using the same adventure scenario as Pool of Radiance , using the same plot , background , setting , and many of the same characters as the computer game . The module thus contains useful clues to the successful completion of the computer missions . Ruins of Adventure contains four linked miniscenarios , which form the core of Pool of Radiance . According to the editors of Dragon magazine , Pool of Radiance was based on Ruins of Adventure , and not vice versa .
= = = Novelization = = =
In November 1989 a novelization of Pool of Radiance the video game , also called Pool of Radiance , was written by James Ward and Jane Cooper Hong , published by TSR . The novel is set in the Forgotten Realms setting based on the Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role @-@ playing game . Dragon described the novel 's plot : " Five companions find themselves in the unenviable position of defending the soon @-@ to @-@ be ghost town against a rival possessing incredible power . " This book was the first in a trilogy , followed by Pools of Darkness and Pool of Twilight .
= = = Re @-@ release = = =
GOG.com released Pool of Radiance and many Gold Box series games digitally on August 20 , 2015 , as a part of " Forgotten Realms : The Archives - Collection Two " .
= = Reception = =
SSI sold 264 @,@ 536 copies of Pool of Radiance for computers in North America , three times that of Heroes of the Lance , an AD & D @-@ licensed action game SSI also released that year . It became by far the most successful game in the company 's history , and the best @-@ selling RPG created on an 8 @-@ bit computer platform ; even the hint book outsold any earlier SSI game .
In Computer Gaming World 's preview of Pool of Radiance in July 1988 , the writer noted a sense of deja vu . He described the similarity of the game 's screen to earlier computer RPGs . For example , the three @-@ dimensional maze view in the upper @-@ left window was similar to Might & Magic or Bard 's Tale , both released in the mid @-@ 1980s . The window with a listing of characters was featured in 1988 's Wasteland ; and the use of an active character to represent the party was part of Ultima V. The reviewer also noted that the design approach for game play was closer to SSI 's own Wizard 's Crown than to the other games in the genre .
Pool of Radiance received positive reviews . G.M. called the game 's graphics " good " and praised its role @-@ playing and combat aspects . They felt that " roleplayers will find Pools is an essential purchase , but people who are solely computer games oriented may hesitate before buying it [ ... ] it will be their loss " . Tony Dillon from Commodore User giving it a score of 9 out of 10 . The only complaint was a slightly slow disk access , but the reviewer was impressed with the game 's features , awarding it a Commodore User superstar and proclaiming it " the best RPG ever to grace the C64 , or indeed any other computer " . Issue # 84 of the British magazine Computer + Video Games rated the game highly , saying that " Pools is a game which no role player or adventurer should be without and people new to role playing should seriously consider buying as an introductory guide " . Another UK publication , The Games Machine , gave the game an 89 % rating . The reviewer noted that the third @-@ person arcade style combat view is a great improvement for SSI , as they had traditionally incorporated simplistic graphics in their role @-@ playing games . The reviewer was critical that Pool of Radiance was not original in its presentation and that the colors were a little drab , but concluded that the game is " classic Dungeons & Dragons which SSI have recreated excellently " . A review from Zzap was less positive , giving the game a score of 80 % . The reviewer felt that the game required too much " hacking , slicing and chopping " without enough emphasis on puzzle solving . The game was awarded 49 % for its puzzle factor .
Three reviewers for Computer Gaming World had conflicting reactions . Ken St. Andre - designer of the Tunnels & Trolls RPG - approved of the game despite his dislike of the D & D system , praising the art , the mixture of combat and puzzles , and surprises . He concluded , " take it from a ' rival ' designer , Pool of Radiance has my recommendation for every computer fantasy role @-@ playing gamer " . Tracie Forman Hicks , however , stated that over @-@ faithful use of the D & D system left it behind others like Ultima and Wizardry . She also disliked the game 's puzzles and lengthy combat sequences . Scorpia also disliked the amount of fighting in a game she otherwise described as a " well @-@ designed slicer / dicer " , concluding that " patience ( possibly of Job ) [ is ] required to get through this one " . Shay Addams from Compute ! stated that experienced role @-@ playing gamers " won 't find anything new here " , but recommended it to those who " love dungeons , dragons , and drama " . In their March 1989 " The Role of Computers " column in Dragon magazine # 143 , Hartley , Patricia , and Kirk Lesser ( often called " The Lessers " ) gave Pool of Radiance a three @-@ page review . The reviewers praised Pool of Radiance as " the first offering that truly follows AD & D game rules " , calling it a " great fantasy role @-@ playing game " that " falls into the must @-@ buy category for avid AD & D game players " . The reviewers advised readers to " rush out to your local dealer and buy Pool Of Radiance " . They considered it SSI 's flagship product , speculating that it would " undoubtedly bring thousands of computer enthusiasts into the adventure @-@ filled worlds of TSR " . The Dragon reviewers criticized the " notoriously slow " technology of the C64 / 128 system but added that the C64 / 128 version would become nearly unplayable without a software @-@ based fastloader utility which Strategic Simulations integrated into the game . Conversely , the reviewers felt that the MS @-@ DOS version was extremely fast , so much so that they had to slow the game operation down in order to read all the on @-@ screen messages . They found that the MS @-@ DOS version played at twice the speed of the C64 / 128 version when using the Enhanced Graphics Adapter ( EGA ) graphics mode .
Alex Simmons , Doug Johns , and Andy Mitchell reviewed the Amiga version of Pool of Radiance for Amiga Action magazine in 1990 , giving it a 79 % overall rating . Mitchell preferred the game Champions of Krynn , which had been released by the time the Amiga version of Pool of Radiance became available ; he felt that Pool of Radiance was " more of the same " when compared to Champions , but was less playable and with more limited actions for players . Simmons felt that Pool of Radiance looked primitive and seemed less polished when compared with Champions of Krynn ; he felt that although Pool was not up to the standard of Champions , he said it was still " a fine little game " . Johns , on the other hand , felt that Pool of Radiance was well worth the wait , considering it very user @-@ friendly despite being less polished than Champions of Krynn .
Pool of Radiance was well received by the gaming press and won the Origins Award for Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Computer Game of 1988 . For the second annual " Beastie Awards " in 1989 , Dragon 's readers voted Pool of Radiance the most popular fantasy role @-@ playing game of the year , with Ultima V as the runner @-@ up . The Apple II version was the most popular format , the PC DOS / MS @-@ DOS came in a close second , and the Commodore 64 / 128 got the fewest votes . The primary factor given for votes was the game 's faithfulness to the AD & D system as well as the game 's graphics and easy @-@ to @-@ use user interface to activate commands . Pool of Radiance was also selected for the RPGA @-@ sponsored Gamers ' Choice Awards for the Best Computer Game of 1989 . In 1990 the game received the fifth @-@ highest number of votes in a survey of Computer Gaming World readers ' " All @-@ Time Favorites " .
Allen Rausch , writing for GameSpy 's 2004 retrospective " A History of D & D Video Games " , concluded that although the game " certainly had its flaws ( horrendous load times , interface weirdness , and a low @-@ level cap among others ) , it was a huge , expansive adventure that laid a good foundation for every Gold Box game that followed " . Stan Stepanic of GameFreaks365 gave a highly positive , though somewhat reserved , review of the NES port of Pool of Radiance , scoring it at 8 / 10 . He commented , " ... it 's great to see a game like this on the NES because there really wasn 't anything of this caliber at the time , RPG or otherwise . Adults were rarely given anything since nearly every title was aimed at younger audiences , so this is one of the few cases where programmers were trying to appeal to an older audience ... if you 're a fan of a true RPG , this is the game for you , you 'll be thoroughly impressed and absorbed . "
= Elimination Chamber ( 2010 ) =
Elimination Chamber ( 2010 ) ( also known as No Way Out ( 2010 ) in Germany ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on February 21 , 2010 at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis , Missouri . It was the first event in the Elimination Chamber series . Six matches were aired on the broadcast and one dark match occurred prior to the live broadcast .
The concept of the event was that the two main event matches , one each for the World Heavyweight Championship and the WWE Championship , would occur in an Elimination Chamber . Each match featured six competitors : the defending champion and five challengers . Sheamus defended the WWE Championship against Triple H , Ted DiBiase , Randy Orton , John Cena , and Kofi Kingston in the Raw Elimination Chamber . In the SmackDown Elimination Chamber match , The Undertaker defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Chris Jericho , John Morrison , Rey Mysterio , CM Punk and R @-@ Truth . On the undercard , Drew McIntyre defended the WWE Intercontinental Championship against Kane , The Miz defended the WWE United States Championship against Montel Vontavious Porter , and Maryse and Gail Kim competed against LayCool ( Layla and Michelle McCool ) in an interbrand Divas tag team match .
The event received 285 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , an increase on the figure earned by the 2009 No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ view . Despite the increased number of buys , the event received generally negative reviews , with reviewers criticising the undercard of the show as being " weak " and consisting of " filler " material .
= = Production and concept = =
In late 2009 , World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) held a poll on their official website to allow fans to choose a name for their February pay @-@ per @-@ view . The choices included Elimination Chamber , Heavy Metal , Battle Chamber , Chamber of Conflict and No Way Out , which had been the name of the preceding Elimination Chamber @-@ based event . The name Elimination Chamber won , but the event was still promoted as No Way Out in Germany .
The concept of the show was that each main event match was to be contested as an Elimination Chamber match . The Elimination Chamber is a circular steel cage , consisting of chains and girders , that surrounds the ring . Four ' pods ' are enclosed within the chamber , one behind each ring post , which are on a steel platform surrounding the outside of the ring . Six wrestlers compete in the match ; four are enclosed within the pods and released at random at specific time intervals , and two start the match . Wrestlers can only be eliminated via pinfall or submission , and the last wrestler left is the winner . For the Elimination Chamber pay @-@ per @-@ view , both WWE world championships , the WWE Championship and the World Heavyweight Championship , were to be defended in separate Elimination Chamber matches .
= = = Pyrotechnics accident = = =
Just prior to the commencement of the World Heavyweight Championship Elimination Chamber match , The Undertaker was involved in a pyrotechnics accident during his ring entrance . He was temporarily engulfed in flames on three occasions when the pyrotechnics were mistimed , and his jacket briefly caught on fire . He suffered first- and second @-@ degree burns to his neck and chest , and according to a WWE spokesperson the injury " looked like a bad sunburn " . He was only allowed to participate in the match after being cleared by a ringside doctor and was given bottles of water throughout the match to douse himself with to alleviate the discomfort . Chris Jericho , who also competed in the match , has told on multiple occasions how the pyrotechnician responsible was relieved of his employment with WWE and escorted from the arena at the behest of The Undertaker .
= = Background = =
The professional wrestling matches at Elimination Chamber featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre @-@ determined by the hosting promotion , World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE 's weekly television shows Raw and SmackDown with the Raw and SmackDown brands — storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs .
The main event matches for the Elimination Chamber event consisted of two Elimination Chamber matches , with Raw 's WWE Championship defended in one and SmackDown 's World Heavyweight Championship defended in the other . Qualifying matches were held on the February 1 episode of Raw to determine the five challengers who would face the WWE Champion Sheamus in Raw 's Elimination Chamber match . In qualifiers , John Cena defeated Cody Rhodes , Triple H defeated Jack Swagger , Randy Orton defeated Shawn Michaels , Ted DiBiase defeated Mark Henry , and Kofi Kingston defeated The Big Show by disqualification . In the weeks prior to Elimination Chamber the participants faced off in several matches , which included DiBiase vs. Cena ending in a no contest , Sheamus defeating Orton by disqualification , DiBiase defeating Kingston via pinfall , and Cena vs. Triple H ending in a no contest due to Sheamus interfering and attacking both participants . The February 5 episode of SmackDown saw the five wrestlers qualify to challenge The Undertaker for the World Heavyweight Championship in a similar fashion . John Morrison defeated Drew McIntyre and Kane in a triple threat match . Throughout the rest of the episode , this was followed by R @-@ Truth defeating Mike Knox , CM Punk defeating Batista via countout , Chris Jericho defeating Matt Hardy , and Rey Mysterio defeating Dolph Ziggler . In the following weeks , the six wrestlers faced off in different combinations in singles matches that saw Mysterio pin Punk , Morrison vs. R @-@ Truth end in a no contest due to Morrison suffering a storyline ankle injury , and Jericho defeating The Undertaker . On the February 19 episode of SmackDown , Morrison and R @-@ Truth teamed up to face CM Punk and his ' follower ' Luke Gallows in a tag team match , which Morrison and R @-@ Truth lost via referee stoppage .
In late December 2009 , WWE Divas Champion Melina tore her anterior cruciate ligament , and was forced to vacate the championship . As a result , it was announced in January 2010 that a single @-@ elimination tournament would be held to determine a new champion . The tournament began on the January 4 episode of Raw , when Maryse advanced to the semi @-@ finals by defeating Brie Bella . She was followed into the semi @-@ finals by Gail Kim , Alicia Fox , and Eve , who defeated Jillian Hall , Kelly Kelly , and Katie Lea Burchill respectively . In the semi @-@ finals , Maryse defeated Eve and Kim defeated Fox . It was then announced on the February 8 episode of Raw that Maryse and Kim would face one another in the final at the Elimination Chamber pay @-@ per @-@ view .
On the February 12 episode of SmackDown , the WWE Intercontinental Champion Drew McIntyre faced Kane in a non @-@ title match . After the match went to a double @-@ countout , Kane chokeslammed McIntyre . It was announced the following day on WWE 's official website that Kane and McIntyre would meet at Elimination Chamber for the Intercontinental Championship . The following week , on the February 19 episode of SmackDown , Kane defeated Dolph Ziggler in a singles match . Following the match , he was attacked by McIntyre , but Kane was able to fight back and fend off the attack .
= = Event = =
Prior to the live broadcast of the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Christian defeated Ezekiel Jackson in a singles match by pinfall .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match that aired on the pay @-@ per @-@ view was the Raw Elimination Chamber match , which involved Randy Orton , Triple H , Ted DiBiase , Kofi Kingston , John Cena , and the defending WWE Champion Sheamus . Sheamus and Kingston started the match , while the other four competitors were locked inside ' pods ' . One pod at a time opened during the match at intervals of five minutes , releasing a wrestler into the match . Triple H was the first wrestler released , followed by Randy Orton , Ted DiBiase , and finally Cena . After Cena entered the match , Cody Rhodes , an ally of both DiBiase and Orton went to ringside , and threw a steel pipe into the cage . DiBiase used the pipe to hit both Orton and Cena , and then covered Orton to eliminate him from the match after approximately 24 minutes . Kingston used his finishing move , " Trouble in Paradise " ( a 540 kick ) to eliminate DiBiase after 25 @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes . Immediately afterward , Sheamus eliminated Kingston by pinfall , before being eliminated himself by Triple H at approximately 29 minutes , leaving only Cena and Triple H in the match . Cena used a submission hold , the STF on Triple H to eliminate him from the match via submission . As a result , Cena won the WWE Championship for the sixth time , his eight world championship overall .
Immediately following the conclusion of the match , WWE Chairman Vince McMahon interrupted to cut a promo . He told Cena that he would be going to WrestleMania XXVI , only if he could beat Batista , and then ordered Cena to face Batista in a previously unannounced match for the WWE Championship . Batista speared Cena , and then performed a " Batista Bomb " ( a sitout powerbomb ) on him to earn a pinfall victory , making Batista the new WWE Champion .
The third match featured Drew McIntyre defending the WWE Intercontinental Championship against Kane . The match began with Kane taking the advantage over McIntyre by clotheslining him over the top rope to the floor . Towards the end of the match , McIntyre attempted to leave the arena and lose via countout , which would have allowed him to retain the championship , but Kane brought him back inside the ring . When re @-@ entering the ring , McIntyre poked him in the eye and then performed his " Future Shock DDT " ( a double underhook DDT ) to win the match by pinfall and remain the Intercontinental Champion .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The next match was scheduled to be the final of a tournament to determine a new Divas Champion after the championship was vacated . Maryse and Gail Kim had entered the ring when official consultant to the SmackDown General Manager , Vickie Guerrero interrupted . Guerrero stated that a result of the Raw Divas making disparaging remarks about the SmackDown Divas , she was changing the match to an interbrand Divas tag team match , with Raw Divas Kim and Maryse facing LayCool ( Michelle McCool and Layla ) from SmackDown . The story of the match was that Maryse and Kim could not work together , and Maryse attacked Kim , allowing McCool to hit her finishing move for the victory . Following the match , Maryse performed her " French Kiss DDT " on Kim . Following the match , The Miz was interviewed backstage by Josh Mathews about NXT , on which he was a mentor . He was interrupted by Montel Vontavious Porter , who informed The Miz that the two had a match next . This was followed by William Regal cutting an in @-@ ring promo about NXT . He was interrupted by the winner of the 2010 Royal Rumble match , Edge , who stated that he would be deciding which championship to challenge for at WrestleMania on the next episode of Raw . Edge then speared Regal .
The fifth match was a previously unannounced contest which saw The Miz defend his WWE United States Championship against Montel Vontavious Porter . The Miz was accompanied by his tag team partner , The Big Show , while Porter was accompanied by Mark Henry , with whom he had regularly teamed . Porter took the advantage at the beginning of the match , before The Miz was able to fight back with a swinging DDT . When he climbed to the top rope , however , Porter knocked him off to regain the advantage . The Big Show pulled The Miz out of the ring to safety , and then threw Henry into the security barricade at ringside . With the referee distracted by this , The Big Show used his " Knockout Punch " on Porter , and The Miz was able to pin him to retain his championship .
The main event of the pay @-@ per @-@ view was the SmackDown Elimination Chamber match for the World Heavyweight Championship , featuring the defending champion The Undertaker , CM Punk , Rey Mysterio , Chris Jericho , John Morrison , and R @-@ Truth . Mysterio , Morrison , and Jericho entered first and were locked into pods . The Undertaker was the fourth to make his way down to the ring , but an accident occurred during his entrance when his pyrotechnics were mistimed , resulting in him being momentarily engulfed in flames . He was cleared by a ringside doctor to wrestle , however , and was able to compete in the match . The final two , who were to start the match , were CM Punk , who was accompanied by his stable , the Straight Edge Society of Serena and Luke Gallows , and R @-@ Truth . Punk cut a promo on his way to the ring , but was interrupted by R @-@ Truth 's entrance . Punk was able to eliminate R @-@ Truth in approximately three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes , before any other competitor had entered the match , and finished his promo afterward . Mysterio entered after the first five minutes had passed , and eliminated Punk before the next competitor entered . The next entrant was revealed to be Jericho , and he and Mysterio wrestled for five minutes until Morrison was released . Morrison utilised his " Starship Pain " finisher ( a split @-@ legged corkscrew moonsault ) to pin Mysterio and eliminate him from the match . The final entrant into the match was the defending champion The Undertaker , who was able to eliminate Morrison following a chokeslam after approximately 28 minutes . Shawn Michaels , who had requested and been denied a match with The Undertaker for WrestleMania , snuck into the chamber , and performed his " Sweet Chin Music " superkick on The Undertaker . This allowed Jericho to pin The Undertaker to win the match and the World Heavyweight Championship for the third time .
= = Aftermath = =
Following his interference in the Elimination Chamber match to prevent The Undertaker from winning , Shawn Michaels cut a promo on the next episode of Raw , stating that he interfered so that The Undertaker would agree to a rematch at WrestleMania XXVI to get revenge . The Undertaker accepted the match on the condition that if Michaels lost , he would have to retire , to which Michaels agreed . Two weeks later , the pair agreed to make the match a no countout , no disqualification match .
Edge returned from injury at the Royal Rumble as a surprise entrant in the Royal Rumble match , which he won , earning a guaranteed match for any WWE world championship . Following Jericho 's victory in the Elimination Chamber , in which he won the World Heavyweight Championship , Edge speared him the following night on Raw and announced that he had elected to face Jericho at WrestleMania . Following this announcement , Edge began a campaign of surprise attacks on Jericho , spearing him on several occasions in an attempt to play mind games with Jericho . On the March 12 episode of SmackDown , Jericho hosted a special edition of his talk show segment , The Highlight Reel , with Edge as the guest . Edge attempted to spear Jericho again , but Jericho was able to avoid it and hit Edge with the World Heavyweight Championship belt instead .
After Batista won the WWE Championship from John Cena at Elimination Chamber , Cena requested a rematch . Mr. McMahon agreed , on the condition that Cena must defeat Batista in a non @-@ title match that night on Raw . Batista intentionally low @-@ blowed Cena during the match to get disqualified and set up their match at WrestleMania . To build up their match , Batista interfered in several of Cena 's matches in the weeks prior to WrestleMania , both attacking Cena or distracting him so that his opponent could gain the advantage .
Tension within The Legacy faction had been growing since Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase accidentally cost Randy Orton the WWE Championship at the Royal Rumble . After DiBiase eliminated Orton from the Elimination Chamber match , with the help of Rhodes , Orton turned on Rhodes and DiBiase , and attacked them during a six @-@ man tag team match causing The Legacy to lose . In the following weeks , Orton faced DiBiase in a singles match and DiBiase and Rhodes in a two @-@ on @-@ one handicap match , until the guest host of Raw , Steve Austin , booked a triple threat match between Orton , Rhodes , and DiBiase for WrestleMania .
After being eliminated from the Elimination Chamber match by Triple H , Sheamus attacked him on the March 1 episode of Raw in retaliation . The following week , Sheamus challenged Triple H to a match at WrestleMania , which Triple H accepted . On the final episode of Raw before WrestleMania , Sheamus teamed up with Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase to defeat Triple H and Randy Orton in a two @-@ on @-@ three handicap match .
= = = Reception = = =
The event received generally negative reviews . Writing for The Sun , Rob McNichol criticised the majority of the show as being " filler " and stated that the Divas match was " poor fare " . Writing for Canadian Online Explorer 's wrestling section , Dale Plummer and Nick Tylwalk also slammed the Divas match , rating it 0 @.@ 5 out of 10 , and stating that it " was pretty much a complete waste of time " , a sentiment echoed by the Pro Wrestling Torch 's James Caldwell , who stated that the match was a " throwaway " . The non @-@ Elimination Chamber matches on the show were mostly derided as being unimportant , with The Baltimore Sun 's reviewer Kevin Eck stating that they " came off as filler " .
Despite the generally negative reviews , McNichol praised the unannounced championship match between Batista and Cena , stating that " it was good storytelling and played out Batista 's current character traits well " . He singled out John Morrison 's performance in the Elimination Chamber match as " impressive " . His praise was echoed by Caldwell , who stated that Morrison had " some standout moments " throughout the match . Wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer praised the United States Championship match between The Miz and Montel Vontavious Porter , stating that it was " good " . Eck agreed , stating that it was " the best of the three non @-@ chamber matches " .
Overall , Plummer and Tylwalk rated the event 5 out of 10 , stating that it was " a strangely paced , uneven affair that dragged between its pair of namesake matches " , but that it succeeded in building up matches for WrestleMania . McNichol agreed , praising the storyline developments in setting up WrestleMania matches , but ultimately calling the event " forgettable " . He awarded the event 7 out of 10 . Caldwell also criticised the pay @-@ per @-@ view heavily , stating that it was an " underwhelming overall PPV with a weak , weak mid @-@ card " .
17 @,@ 000 people attended Elimination Chamber at the Scottrade Center , drawing a gate of US $ 850 @,@ 000 . The event received 285 @,@ 000 buys on pay @-@ per @-@ view , an increase of 13 @,@ 000 compared to No Way Out 2009 's 272 @,@ 000 buys . The DVD of the event was released on March 23 , 2010 .
= = Results = =
= = = Elimination Chamber entrances and eliminations ( Raw ) = = =
= = = Elimination Chamber entrances and eliminations ( SmackDown ) = = =
= Mario Bros. =
Mario Bros. ( マリオブラザーズ , Mario Burazāzu ) is a platform game published and developed for arcades by Nintendo in 1983 . It was created by Shigeru Miyamoto . It has been featured as a minigame in the Super Mario Advance series and numerous other games . Mario Bros. has been re @-@ released for the Wii 's , Nintendo 3DS 's , and Wii U 's Virtual Console services in Japan , North America , Europe and Australia .
In the game , Mario is portrayed as an Italian @-@ American plumber who , along with his younger brother Luigi , has to defeat creatures that have been coming from the sewers below New York City . The gameplay focuses on Mario 's extermination of them by flipping them on their backs and kicking them away . The original versions of Mario Bros. — the arcade version and the Family Computer / Nintendo Entertainment System ( FC / NES ) version — were received positively by critics .
= = Gameplay = =
Mario Bros. features two plumbers , Mario and Luigi , having to investigate the sewers of New York after strange creatures have been appearing down there . The objective of the game is to defeat all of the enemies in each phase . The mechanics of Mario Bros. involve only running and jumping . Unlike future Mario games , players cannot jump on enemies and squash them , unless they were already turned on their back . Each phase is a series of platforms with pipes at each corner of the screen , along with an object called a " POW " block in the center . Phases use wraparound , meaning that enemies and players that go off to one side will reappear on the opposite side .
The player gains points by defeating multiple enemies consecutively and can participate in a bonus round to gain more points . Enemies are defeated by kicking them over once they have been flipped on their back . This is accomplished by hitting the platform the enemy is on directly beneath them . If the player allows too much time to pass after doing this , the enemy will flip itself back over , changing in color and increasing speed . Each phase has a certain number of enemies , with the final enemy immediately changing color and increasing its speed .
There are four enemies : the Shellcreeper , which simply walks around ; the Sidestepper , which requires two hits to flip over ; the Fighter Fly , which moves by jumping and can only be flipped when it is touching a platform ; and the Slipice , which turns platforms into slippery ice . When bumped from below , the Slipice dies immediately instead of flipping over .
The " POW " block flips all enemies touching a platform or the floor when a player hits it from below . It can be used three times before it disappears . In the Super Mario Bros. 3 in @-@ game Player @-@ Versus @-@ Player version of this minigame , each of the three uses causes the opponent to lose a card and all the enemies to be flipped over . Another feature in this small remake is that the pipes are straight , occasionally spitting out large fireballs at the two plumbers . Coins appear whenever enemies are defeated and may be collected for bonus points .
As the game progresses , elements are added to increase the difficulty . Fireballs either bounce around the screen or travel directly from one side to the other , and icicles form under the platforms and fall loose . Bonus rounds give the players a chance to score extra points and lives by collecting coins without having to deal with enemies ; the " POW " block regenerates itself on each of these screens .
= = Development = =
Mario Bros. was created by Shigeru Miyamoto and Gunpei Yokoi , two of the lead developers for the video game Donkey Kong . In Donkey Kong , Mario dies if he falls too far . Yokoi suggested to Miyamoto that he should be able to fall from any height , which Miyamoto was not sure of , thinking that it would make it " not much of a game . " He eventually agreed , thinking it would be okay for him to have some superhuman abilities . He designed a prototype that had Mario " jumping and bouncing around " , which he was satisfied with . The element of combating enemies from below was introduced after Yokoi suggested it , observing that it would work since there were multiple floors . However , it proved to be too easy to eliminate enemies this way , which the developers fixed by requiring players to touch the enemies after they 've been flipped to defeat them . This was also how they introduced the turtle as an enemy , which they conceived as an enemy that could only be hit from below . Because of Mario 's appearance in Donkey Kong with overalls , a hat , and a thick moustache , Shigeru Miyamoto thought that he should be a plumber as opposed to a carpenter , and designed this game to reflect that . Another contributing factor was the game 's setting : it was a large network of giant pipes , so they felt a change in occupation was necessary for him .
A popular story of how Mario went from Jumpman to Mario is that an Italian @-@ American landlord , Mario Segale , had barged in on Nintendo of America 's staff to demand rent , and they decided to name Jumpman after him . Miyamoto also felt that the best setting for this game was New York because of its " labyrinthine subterranean network of sewage pipes . " The pipes were inspired by several manga , which Miyamoto states feature waste grounds with pipes lying around . In this game , they were used in a way to allow the enemies to enter and exit the stage through them to avoid getting enemies piled up on the bottom of the stage . The green coloring of the pipes , which Nintendo late president Satoru Iwata called an uncommon color , came from Miyamoto having a limited color palette and wanting to keep things colorful . He added that green was the best because it worked well when two shades of it were combined .
Mario Bros. is one of the first platform games ever created , along with Donkey Kong . It also introduced Mario 's brother , Luigi , who was created for the multiplayer mode by doing a palette swap of Mario . The two @-@ player mode and several aspects of gameplay were inspired by an earlier video game called Joust . To date , Mario Bros. has been released for more than a dozen platforms . The first movement from Mozart 's Eine kleine Nachtmusik is used at the start of the game . This song has been used in later video games , including Dance Dance Revolution Mario Mix and Super Smash Bros. Brawl .
= = = Ports and follow @-@ ups = = =
Despite its innovations , Mario Bros. was not a major success in North America due to the video game crash in 1983 . It did however receive a number of home versions on the Apple II , Atari 2600 , Atari 5200 , Atari 8 @-@ bit computers , Atari 7800 , Amstrad CPC , and ZX Spectrum . The Commodore 64 had two versions : an Atarisoft port which was not commercially released and a 1986 version by Ocean Software . The Atari 8 @-@ bit computer version by Sculptured Software , as well as the Apple II port programmed by Jimmy Huey of Designer Software , were the only home versions of the game to feature the falling icicles ( the NES version omitted them due to space constraints on early NES cartridges ) . The latter conversion was not sold either . The game was also rereleased on the Virtual Console service in North America , Australia , Europe and Japan for the Wii , Nintendo 3DS and Wii U. It was also remade on copies of games in the Game Boy Advance 's Super Mario Advance series as well as Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga , and it was included as a mini @-@ game in Super Mario Bros. 3 . The Game Boy Advance version was included in the 10 free games given out by Nintendo in the 3DS ambassador program due to its inclusion on the cart for the GBA port of Yoshi 's Island which was one of the games on the list . Mario Bros. is also potentially slated for a second release , this time a 3D Classics remake , on the Nintendo 3DS , and may feature camera support , 3D support , or analog support . This release was featured among other games from the NES and SNES to be released for the 3DS on a tech demo called Classic Games at E3 2010 .
The NES version was included as a piece of furniture in Animal Crossing for the GameCube , along with many other NES games , though this one required the use of a Nintendo e @-@ Reader , a Game Boy Advance accessory , and a North America @-@ exclusive Animal Crossing e @-@ Card . This version was later re @-@ released in the second series of NES e @-@ Cards , and was even re @-@ released through the Famicom Mini series in Japan . An improved port called Kaette Kita Mario Bros. ( かえ | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
League Cup . Exeter lost the game 3 – 1 . It took until December for McAllister to score his first competitive for the club , when he scored to help Exeter to a 2 – 1 win over Lincoln City . He then scored another two goals later that month , in a 4 – 1 win over north @-@ west club Rochdale . He added just another two goals to his tally in January 2009 , both in Exeter 's 2 – 1 win over Dagenham & Redbridge . The remainder of the 2008 – 09 season saw him only add two more goals , against Macclesfield Town and Darlington , both in the space of a month . After only making five appearances for Exeter in 2009 – 10 , he joined Barnet on loan in November 2009 . McAllister , still without a goal in 2009 – 10 , couldn 't get on the scoresheet in the three games he played for Barnet , and he returned to Exeter in January . In March , still having not played for Exeter since his return from Barnet , he signed an emergency one @-@ month loan deal at Rotherham United . He made his debut for Rotherham in their 1 – 0 away win over Dagenham & Redbridge . After another seven games and still no goals , he returned to Exeter only to be released in May , along with eight other team @-@ mates .
= = = Return to non @-@ League = = =
Following his release from Exeter City , McAllister moved back to non @-@ League , signing for Conference Premier outfit Crawley Town on a one @-@ year contract , in June 2008 . He made his debut in August , when his side lost 1 – 0 to Grimsby Town . Ten days later he scored his first goal in a Crawley shirt , scoring the second in a 2 – 1 win over newly promoted Bath City . Just four days later , he scored two goals as Crawley beat Hayes & Yeading United , 3 – 0 , away from home . In February 2011 , McAllister started in Crawley Town 's FA Cup fifth @-@ round tie against Manchester United at Old Trafford , which Crawley 1 – 0 . At the end of the 2010 – 11 season , after Crawley gained promotion to the Football League , McAllister was released after he rejected a new deal .
McAllister signed for Newport County in May 2011 , deciding to stay in non @-@ League football . He signed for Newport after their manager , Anthony Hudson , had earlier stated , " We are on the verge of two massive additions to the squad , who will take the club in the direction that we want to go . "
After failing to find the net in 26 games for Newport County he joined Conference rivals Luton Town on loan until the end of the 2011 – 12 season . He scored his first goal in over a year against Ebbsfleet United on 17 April 2012 . In June 2012 McAllister rejoined Eastleigh .
= = Style of play = =
McAllister plays as a striker , he is " an explosive front man " , and is described as a " targetman " because of his height . His time at Basingstoke Town was described as " prolific " due to the number of goals he scored . While at Exeter City , manager Paul Tisdale described him as " excellent " , and said that McAllister and fellow Exeter City striker Richard Logan had a good partnership together after McAllister scored a hat @-@ trick for the reserve team .
On signing for Luton Town manager Gary Brabin described McAllister as " adaptable in any role ... he works hard , he 's strong and he chips in with his fair share of goals . "
= = Personal life = =
After his move to Oxford United in January 2008 , he stated that the reason for the move was so that he could be closer to his family home in Southampton . On his arrival at Exeter City in July 2008 , he moved into a house with fellow Exeter forward , Ben Watson . McAllister stated that it would make a huge difference living near the training ground , instead of travelling long distances to get to training and matches .
= = Career statistics = =
As of 23 May 2012 .
= = Honours = =
Crawley Town
Conference Premier winner ( 1 ) : 2010 – 11
Eastleigh
Conference South : 2013 @-@ 14
Sutton United
National League South : 2015 @-@ 16
= Raskovnik =
The raskovnik or razkovniche ( Serbian Cyrillic and Macedonian : расковник , Bulgarian : разковниче , pronounced [ rɐsˈkɔvnitʃɛ ] , Russian : разрыв @-@ трава , Polish : rozryw ) is a magical herb in Slavic ( Bosnian , Bulgarian , Croatian , Macedonian , Montenegrin , Serbian , Slovene , Russian ) and Romanian ( iarba fiarelor ) mythology . According to lore , the raskovnik has the magical property to unlock or uncover anything that is locked or closed . However , legends claim it is notoriously difficult to recognize the herb , and reputedly only certain chthonic animals are able to identify it .
= = Names = =
The herb is known by a multitude of names among the South Slavs , and the names vary significantly by region . While razkovniche and raskovnik are the customary names in Bulgarian and Serbian respectively and the root is also preserved in the Leskovac dialect as raskov , in some parts of Macedonia it is known as ež trava ( " hedgehog grass " ) . In the vicinity of Bar ( southeastern Montenegro ) , the term is demir @-@ bozan , a Turkish borrowing meaning " iron breaker " . In Syrmia , the plant is referred to as špirgasta trava ( a hapax legomenon ) , in Slavonia it is known as zemaljski ključ ( " earth key " ) , and in Slovenia 's Savinja Valley as mavričin koren ( " rainbow root " ) .
= = Description and properties = =
Traditionally , it is considered that few people , if any , could actually recognize the herb . However , in Bulgarian sources the raskovnik is sometimes described as a grass resembling a four @-@ leaf clover . It grows in meadows and may be picked either while green and blooming or in hay , when it is already dry . While it is not necessarily rare , nor does it thrive only in remote locations , it is nevertheless impossible to recognize by the uninitiated . In the words of Serbian linguist and folklorist Vuk Stefanović Karadžić , “ It is some ( may be imaginary ) grass for which it is thought that thanks to it ( when brushed by it ) every lock and every other closure would open by itself . ”
According to the legend , the raskovnik could unlock any gate or padlock , regardless of its size , material or key . It could also uncover treasures buried in the ground : in Bulgarian beliefs , it could split the ground at the place where a treasure lay so that people could locate it . In some regions of Serbia , the treasure itself was a black man in chains who requested that a raskovnik be brought to him . The raskovnik would break the chains and the man would disappear into the ground to be replaced by a cauldron filled with gold coins . Other supernatural properties attributed to the herb by Bulgarians include the alchemic ability to transmute iron into gold , the more general ability to make the one who picked it forever happy or wealthy . In some interpretations , the raskovnik is a wonderful plant that makes true whatever its owner desires .
= = Obtainment = =
The raskovnik is believed to have been sought after by treasure hunters , sorcerers and herbalists who desired its magic powers for personal benefit . In Serbia , it was believed that there exist certain treasures , such as the Treasure of Tsar Radovan , which could not be unlocked in any other way but employing a raskovnik .
As , according to Bulgarian mythology and some other traditions , tortoises were the only beings who knew the appearance of the herb and the location where it grows , such people would try to obtain the raskovnik by deceiving a tortoise . They would find a tortoise nesting site and hem it in with a fence while the tortoise is away . When it returns , the tortoise would be unable to access its eggs , so it would return with a raskovnik in order to breach the fence . Thus , the tortoise would reveal the herb and people would acquire it from the tortoise , which does not need it anymore .
While the tricking of a tortoise was the most popular method in Bulgarian mythology , in Dalmatia the legend refers to snakes , and among Serbs another version involves the locking of young hedgehogs in a box for their mother to unlock . In Serbia , one would also have to be quick to take the raskovnik , as the hedgehog would swallow it after use . In any case , turtles , snakes and hedgehogs are all animals with chthonic characteristics which were often variously associated with the underworld in South Slavic tradition .
Karadžić also mentions another Serbian method to obtain the raskovnik . He recorded a story from the town of Zemun about a merchant who desired to find the herb . The merchant locked an old woman into leg irons and let her wander in a field during the night ; if the irons unlocked by themselves at a certain place , that would be a place where the raskovnik grows .
= = Metaphoric use = =
The legendary herb has entered the modern Bulgarian vocabulary as a metaphor for a magic key or a panacea in the wider sense . The phrase “ to find the razkovniche ” ( „ да намериш разковничето “ „ da namerish razkovnicheto “ ) means to find the solution to a certain problem , usually a complex or difficult one . Razkovniche is also the common Bulgarian name for the plant European waterclover ( Marsilea quadrifolia ) which , in its appearance , has many similarities with the descriptions of the mythical raskovnik . In eastern Serbia , raskovnik also refers to a specific plant used in vernacular medicine , namely Laserpitium siler .
= Donovan Warren =
Donovan Jamelle Warren ( born January 31 , 1989 ) is an American football cornerback who is currently a free agent . Warren was signed by the New York Jets as an undrafted free agent following the 2010 NFL Draft and has also played with the Detroit Lions , Pittsburgh Steelers and Chicago Bears . He attended the University of Michigan through his junior year .
During his three years playing for the Michigan Wolverines football team , he started in 34 of 36 games . As a member of the 2009 Michigan Wolverines football team , whom he led in interceptions , he earned 2009 first team All @-@ Big Ten recognition from the media and second team recognition from the coaches . He had chosen Michigan over his hometown favorite University of Southern California because he believed that he would be able to play immediately there . Warren had played high school football at Long Beach Polytechnic High School in California .
= = Early years = =
A native of Long Beach , California , Warren attended Long Beach Polytechnic High School , where he tallied 114 tackles , 15 pass breakups , five interceptions and three fumble recoveries during his prep career . Considered a five @-@ star recruit by Rivals.com , Warren ranked third among cornerback prospects and twenty @-@ fifth overall in the nation . Scout.com ranked him fourth among cornerbacks , and ESPN ranked him eighth . He was named to the USA Today All @-@ USA second team and the EA Sports All @-@ American second @-@ team at cornerback . Warren participated in the 2007 U.S. Army All @-@ American Bowl . Warren ran a 10 @.@ 6 seconds time in the 100 meters in high school .
At the beginning of the recruiting process , Warren was considered very likely to play for the USC Trojans football team , since they had four players from his high school on the roster and his godfather , Mark Carrier , was a USC alumn . However , USC had a lot of depth at cornerback at the time and Warren ( as well as his father ) had a good relationship with Michigan assistant coach Ron English . When Warren made Michigan his final decision , he was noted as feeling that his heart wanted him to choose USC , which was the school he had grown up rooting for , but his head led him to Michigan where he could play immediately and work under the tutelage of English , who had developed many defensive backs who went on to the National Football League .
= = College career = =
As a true freshman at Michigan , Warren played in all 13 season games while starting 11 of them at cornerback . He recorded 52 tackles , 1 @.@ 5 tackles for loss , one sack , one forced fumble , two fumble recoveries , one interception and six pass breakups . In the September 15 , 2007 Michigan @-@ Notre Dame rivalry game , which Michigan won 38 – 0 , he forced and recovered a Jimmy Clausen fumble on the Notre Dame 21 @-@ yard line while the score was 3 – 0 . The fumble led to a Mike Hart touchdown five plays later . He was named Big Ten Defensive Freshman of the Year by The Sporting News and also made TSN ′ s and College Football News ′ Freshman All @-@ American second team .
As a sophomore , he started ten games at cornerback and one at safety . During the November 1 , 2008 game at Purdue , he recovered a fumble on Purdue 's opening possession that led to a Brandon Minor 45 – yard touchdown run on the next play .
As a junior , he started all 12 games at cornerback . That season , he led the Wolverines with four interceptions , which ranked tied for sixth in the Big Ten Conference and 49th in the nation . He recorded one in each of Michigan 's first three conference games during the 2009 Big Ten Conference football season , including a controversial one to seal the team 's fourth consecutive victory to start the season in their conference opener against the Indiana Hoosiers that withstood instant replay video review . He ran back the third of these interceptions for a 40 @-@ yard touchdown in the first minute of the third conference game against the Iowa Hawkeyes . At the conclusion of the season , he was selected as to the 2009 All @-@ Big Ten conference team by the media ( first @-@ team ) and coaches ( second @-@ team ) .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Pre @-@ draft = = =
On December 20 , 2009 , Warren announced his decision to forgo his final season of collegiate eligibility and enter the 2010 NFL Draft . Warren stated that the NFL 's Draft Advisory Board advised him that if he entered the draft , he would be selected in the first three rounds . When Warren signed Drew Rosenhaus as his sports agent , he was projected as a first or second round draft choice . Warren was considered to be a man @-@ to @-@ man defense specialist who needed to develop his zone defense skills . Some sources , such as Todd McShay , who felt he was just a cut below the top five cornerbacks in the draft prior to the 2010 NFL Combine , had predicted that Warren could be selected in the second round . ESPN draft analyst Mel Kiper , Jr. predicted Warren would be drafted in the third or fourth round of the draft , describing him as “ a physical corner " who " likes going head to head on an island with the best receivers in the country , he ’ s never had an issue with that . Anticipation is good . Gambler , though . Gave up some big plays . ” Warren aggravated an ankle injury shortly before the NFL Combine , where he struggled in position drills and ran the 40 @-@ yard dash in 4 @.@ 59 seconds . His disappointing performance was cited as damaging his draft stock .
= = = New York Jets = = =
Despite earlier predictions , Warren was not selected in the draft . He signed as an undrafted free agent with the New York Jets immediately after the draft . Warren 's godfather , former Pro Bowl defensive back Mark Carrier , is an assistant coach with the Jets . The 2010 New York Jets have several cornerbacks on their roster , including Darrelle Revis , Antonio Cromartie , Dwight Lowery , Drew Coleman , Marquice Cole and first @-@ round pick Kyle Wilson . Some sources speculate that Warren would be converted to safety . Jets head coach Rex Ryan said that although Warren would be practicing at both cornerback and safety , he felt that Warren 's best shot was at safety . Warren , who was sidelined during most of the Jets training camp sessions with a concussion , was waived by New York on September 3 , 2010 . Warren would be signed to the team 's practice squad on September 6 , 2010 . Warren would later be released from the team 's practice squad on September 7 , 2010 .
= = = 2011 = = =
Warren signed a contract with the Pittsburgh Steelers on January 7 , 2011 . He was cut September 4 , 2011 . Warren then signed with the Detroit Lions a few days later and was placed on the practice squad . Warren was released from the Lions practice squad on September 20 , 2011 . On January 6 , 2012 , he signed a reserve / future contract with the Chicago Bears . On June 12 , 2012 , he was waived by the Bears .
= = Personal = =
Warren 's uncle Chuckie Miller played for the Indianapolis Colts and his father , Alvin , played football at New Mexico State . His godfather , Carrier , is an assistant coach for the Cincinnati Bengals .
= Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin =
Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin is a theme area at SeaWorld Orlando headlined by a first @-@ of @-@ its @-@ kind motion @-@ based , trackless dark ride . The attraction opened on May 24 , 2013 as the largest attraction at any SeaWorld Entertainment theme park . The area was generally well received by critics and the public at its opening .
= = History = =
= = = Rumors and announcement = = =
In August and September 2011 , SeaWorld Entertainment filed trademarks for " Antarctica " to be used for a theme area , and " Empire of the Penguins " to be used for an amusement ride . This led to rumors that SeaWorld Orlando would replace its " Penguin Encounter " exhibit with a dark ride . A report by the Orlando Sentinel in October 2011 confirmed these plans , citing " government filings and interviews with people familiar with various elements " . At the time , SeaWorld Orlando would not publicly reveal its plans .
On November 8 , 2011 SeaWorld Orlando announced a multi @-@ year expansion plan featuring the opening of Turtle Trek in 2012 and " Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin " in 2013 . Although details of the ride were not released , creative director Brian Morrow said that the ride would be the coldest attraction in the world and would follow the journey of a tiny penguin . On April 24 , 2012 , the park revealed further details about the attraction : guests would ride in eight @-@ person vehicles , choosing among two levels of intensity ( " Mild " or " Wild " ) . The surrounding area would also feature a new penguin habitat , restaurant and store .
= = = Construction = = =
To allow construction to begin , SeaWorld Orlando closed Penguin Encounter , Friends of the Wild and the Antarctic Market Restaurant on January 3 , 2012 . The former attractions were demolished during the first half of 2012 , with vertical construction beginning in July . Construction continued into 2013 , with construction walls coming down one week before the attraction 's opening . The cost of the attraction was reported to be in excess of $ 40 million .
= = = Opening = = =
On February 19 , 2013 , SeaWorld Orlando announced that " Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin " would open on May 24 . Unlike many attractions , the ride had no soft opening period ; instead , it was open to a select number of employees and their families , travel media and bloggers before its public opening .
On May 24 , 2013 , SeaWorld Orlando opened Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin to the public . The opening drew thousands of guests to the ride , with some waiting more than four hours to board . On May 25 , one of the penguins escaped the open @-@ air enclosure by leaping out of the water and into the public viewing area ; it was returned to the exhibit unharmed .
= = Ride experience and exhibit = =
Guests enter the queue from the Antarctica @-@ themed area of the park . Large groups of riders are admitted into a pre @-@ show room , where multiple projections of an Antarctic landscape are blended with 3D exhibits . In a narrated video , guests are introduced to a gentoo penguin colony in Antarctica featuring a newborn penguin named Puck . After the pre @-@ show guests follow a path to a junction , where they choose a " mild " or " wild " ride . They are then divided into groups of eight riders before boarding the ride vehicles at one of four stations . Riders are seated in two rows of four , and restrained by lap bars .
When the riders have boarded , the vehicle is dispatched . It travels around an indoor Antarctic environment , spinning to view a variety of scenery and projection screens . The story which began in the pre @-@ show continues , with Puck venturing out into the sea . When he is underwater , Puck is chased by a leopard seal before resurfacing on land . The ride 's theme song – " Antarctica : One World , One Family " by Lauren Alaina – is then played as guests watch a live penguin habitat behind glass before the vehicles return to a four @-@ platform unloading station .
Guests disembark in an open @-@ air penguin habitat with an air temperature of approximately 30 ° F ( − 1 ° C ) . This exhibit has minimal barriers between guests and inhabitants , and is designed so guests can hear sounds made by the penguins .
A total of 245 penguins live in the exhibit ; species include gentoo , king , Adélie and rockhopper penguins . Lighting in the exhibit allows the park to control the seasons for the penguins . A 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) glass window allows guests to see them in their 45 ° F ( 7 ° C ) pool from an underwater viewing area . The entire experience takes about 25 minutes . To minimise odors in the open @-@ air environment , SeaWorld staff clean the exhibit several times daily and replace the 20 @,@ 000 pounds ( 9 @,@ 100 kg ) of snow each day .
= = Theme area = =
The Antarctica @-@ themed area is spread across 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) inside SeaWorld Orlando . A 50 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 15 m ) entrance archway is adjacent to the Sea Lion & Otter Theater , and a smaller entrance is near the Journey to Atlantis ride . In addition to the Empire of the Penguin , the theme area is home to several other attractions . A looping 45 @-@ minute soundtrack is played throughout the area . A " South Pole " is in the center of the area , and penguin carvings decorate the surrounding walls . The Expedition Cafe , South Pole Beverages and Glacial Collections sell food , drinks and souvenirs .
= = Production = =
= = = Ride system = = =
Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin features a prototype , motion @-@ based , trackless dark @-@ ride system by Oceaneering International , producer of ride systems for The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man , Transformers : The Ride , and The Curse of DarKastle . The ride is the first of its kind in the world .
When Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin was announced in November 2011 , Oceaneering had already developed a working prototype of the ride vehicle . The first concept art for the attraction was released in April 2012 : a circular ride vehicle , seating eight riders in two rows of four . On May 11 , 2012 Oceaneering filed a patent application for the ride 's technology . At the November 2012 IAAPA Attractions Expo , SeaWorld Orlando and Oceaneering International revealed the trackless , motion simulator @-@ based ride vehicle to the public .
Each battery @-@ powered vehicle , or AGV , is made up of two platforms . Riders sit on the upper platform , which provides three degrees of freedom . A lower platform provides omnidirectional lateral movement . Unlike previous ride designs , the trackless system and the wheel and motor configurations allow movements diagonal to a rider 's perspective . The vehicles use a dead reckoning system developed by Frog AGV to navigate their way through the environment , allowing a vehicle to cross another 's path . Each vehicle features a built @-@ in controller , which wirelessly communicates with a central ride @-@ system controller . Movement commands are issued by the ride @-@ system controller , and executed by the vehicles ' controllers . A specially @-@ designed battery and charge system allow the vehicles to be quickly charged while docked at the loading and unloading platforms .
= = = Marketing = = =
SeaWorld Orlando announced Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin as part of the park 's largest expansion thus far . With 18 months between its announcement and its opening , the park wished to generate demand for the ride . As part of this campaign , SeaWorld released a promotional video in July 2012 and a series of videos ( Behind the Freeze ) featuring creative director Brian Morrow .
= = Reception = =
Dewayne Bevil of the Orlando Sentinel said that " the hottest attraction in Central Florida theme parks this week is also the coldest . " Bevil interviewed several park guests ; comments included " I thought it [ the ride ] was really cool " and " it 's beautiful " , and some described it as better than the attractions it replaced . Barbara Nefer of Examiner.com said that guests would love Puck , the ride 's central character . She preferred the wild version of the ride , describing it as " actually still very family friendly " and saying that the exhibit was a " huge highlight " of the attraction . Robert Niles of Theme Park Insider agreed that the highlight of the attraction was the penguin exhibit . Niles described the dispatch procedure as crucial to the ride : " if SeaWorld can dispatch a quartet of ride vehicles every minute or so , as designed , fans will find this a fun ride " . In a later article Niles highlighted some guests ' criticisms of the ride , describing it as " lacking an engaging story and not delivering enough on @-@ ride views of the attraction 's stars -- SeaWorld 's penguins " . However , he argues that SeaWorld 's promotions were too photorealistic creating " expectations for an experience that the ride did not deliver , perhaps setting up many of those visitors for disappointment " .
Lawrence Goldsmith of the Daily Mirror and Susan and Simon Veness of the Daily Mail , shared the sentiment of other reviewers : the penguins are the stars of the show . Goldsmith said that the ride options ( mild or wild ) allowed everyone , from children to thrill @-@ seekers , to " enjoy the experience equally " . Susan and Simon Veness described the ride section as thrilling , calling it " one of the highlights " of the attraction . Arthur Levine of About.com gave the ride three out of five stars . Levine gave this moderate rating because he felt conflicted : the animations themselves were good , but the overall storyline was sparse ; the ride system was intriguing , yet it was under utilised . He concluded by applauding " SeaWorld for taking the bold initiative to build a major @-@ league attraction " , but stated " the ride feels rushed and too short " .
From a commercial perspective , the opening day of the area saw guests waiting in line for more than four hours to experience the flagship attraction ; SeaWorld had estimated queues of approximately half that time . Dennis Speigel of consulting firm International Theme Park Services expected attendance to increase between five and ten percent . Speigel speculated that this rise would be higher than if a single attraction were unveiled ; however , it would be less than the 36 @-@ percent increase for Islands of Adventure after the opening of The Wizarding World of Harry Potter .
In November 2013 , Oceaneering won a Thea Award from the Themed Entertainment Association for outstanding themed entertainment and experience design , for the trackless ride system developed for Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin .
= Smithfield , London =
Smithfield is a locality in the ward of Farringdon Without situated at the City of London 's northwest in central London , England . The principal street of the area is West Smithfield .
A number of valued City institutions are located in the area , such as St Bartholomew 's Hospital , the Charterhouse , and Livery Halls notably those of the Butchers ' and Haberdashers ' Companies , but Smithfield is best known for its ancient meat market , dating from the 10th century , which is now London 's only remaining wholesale market in continuous operation since medieval times . The area also contains London 's oldest surviving church , St Bartholomew @-@ the @-@ Great , founded in 1123 AD .
Smithfield has borne witness to many bloody executions of heretics and political rebels over the centuries , including major historical figures such as Scottish patriot Sir William Wallace and Wat Tyler , leader of the Peasants ' Revolt , among many other religious reformers and dissenters .
Smithfield Market , a Grade II listed @-@ covered market building , was designed by Victorian architect Sir Horace Jones in the second half of the 19th century , and is the dominant architectural feature of the area . Some of its original market premises fell in to disuse in the late 20th century and faced the prospect of demolition . The Corporation of London 's public enquiry in 2012 drew widespread support for an urban regeneration plan intent upon preserving Smithfield 's historical identity .
= = Smithfield area = =
In the Middle Ages , it was a broad grassy area known as Smooth Field , located beyond London Wall stretching to the eastern bank of the River Fleet . Given its ease of access to grazing and water , Smithfield established itself as London 's livestock market , remaining so for almost 1 @,@ 000 years . Many local toponyms are associated with the livestock trade : while some street names ( such as " Cow Cross Street " and " Cock Lane " ) remain in use , many more ( such as " Chick Lane " , " Duck Lane " , " Cow Lane " , " Pheasant Court " , " Goose Alley " ) have disappeared from the map after the major redevelopment of the area in the Victorian era .
= = = Religious history = = =
In 1123 , the area near Aldersgate was granted by King Henry I for the foundation of St Bartholomew 's Priory at the request of Prior Rahere in thanks for his being nursed back to good health . The Priory exercised its right to enclose land between Aldersgate ( to the east ) , Long Lane ( to the north ) and modern @-@ day Newgate Street ( to the south ) , erecting its main western gate which opened onto Smithfield , and a postern on Long Lane . The Priory thereafter held the manorial rights to hold weekly fairs , which initially took place in its outer court on the site of present @-@ day Cloth Fair , leading to " Fair Gate " .
An additional annual celebration , the Bartholomew Fair , was established in 1133 by the Augustinian friars and this over time became one of London 's pre @-@ eminent summer fairs , opening each year on 24 August . A trading event for cloth and other goods as well as being a pleasure forum , the four @-@ day festival drew crowds from all strata of English society .
In 1855 , however , Bartholomew Fair was closed down by the City authorities after degenerating into a magnet for debauchery and public disorder .
In 1348 , Walter de Manny rented 13 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 05 km2 ) of land at Spital Croft , north of Long Lane , from the Master and Brethren of St Bartholomew 's Hospital for a graveyard and plague pit for victims of the Black Death . A chapel and hermitage were constructed , renamed New Church Haw ; but in 1371 , this land was granted for the foundation of the Charterhouse , originally a Carthusian monastery .
Nearby and to the north of this demesne , the Knights Hospitaller established a Commandery at Clerkenwell dedicated to St John in the mid @-@ 12th century , and in 1194 received a Charter from King Richard I granting the Order formal privileges . Later Augustinian canonesses established the Priory of St Mary , north of the Knights of St John property .
By the end of the 14th century , these religious houses were regarded by City traders as interlopers — occupying what had previously been public open space nearby one of the City gates . On numerous occasions vandals damaged the Charterhouse , eventually demolishing its buildings . By 1405 , a stout wall was built to protect the property and maintain the privacy of the Order , particularly its church where men and women alike came to worship .
The religious houses were dissolved in the Reformation , and their lands broken up . The Priory Church of St John remains , as does St John 's Gate , traditionally regarded as the boundary between Smithfield and Clerkenwell . John Houghton ( later canonized by Pope Paul VI as St John Houghton ) , Prior of Charterhouse , went to Thomas Cromwell accompanied by two other local priors seeking an oath of supremacy that would be acceptable to their communities . This resulted in their being flung into the Tower of London , and on 4 May 1535 , they were taken to Tyburn and hanged — becoming the first Catholic martyrs of the Reformation . On 29 May , the remaining twenty monks and eighteen lay brothers were forced to swear the oath of allegiance ; the ten who refused were taken to Newgate Prison and left to starve .
With the monks expelled , Charterhouse was requisitioned and remained as a private dwelling until its reestablishment by Thomas Sutton in 1611 as a charitable foundation forming the school named Charterhouse and almshouses known as Sutton 's Hospital in Charterhouse on its former site . Some of the property was damaged during The Blitz , but it remains largely intact , whilst the school was relocated to Godalming in 1872 ; part of the site is also now occupied by Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry . Until 1899 Charterhouse was extra @-@ parochial , when it became a civil parish incorporated in the Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury .
From its inception , the Priory of St Bartholomew treated the sick . After the Reformation it was left with neither income nor monastic occupants , but following a petition by the City Corporation , Henry VIII refounded it in December 1546 , as the " House of the Poore in West Smithfield in the suburbs of the City of London of Henry VIII 's Foundation " . Letters Patent were presented to the City , granting property and income to the new foundation the following month . King Henry VIII 's sergeant @-@ surgeon , Thomas Vicary , was appointed as the hospital 's first superintendent The King Henry VIII Gate which opens onto West Smithfield was completed in 1702 and remains the hospital 's main entrance .
The Priory 's principal church , St Bartholomew @-@ the @-@ Great , was reconfigured after the dissolution of the monasteries losing the western third of its nave . Reformed as an Anglican parish church , its parish boundaries were limited to the site of the ancient priory and a small tract of land between the church and Long Lane . The parish of St Bartholomew the Great was designated as a Liberty , responsible for the upkeep and security of its fabric and the land within its boundaries . With the advent of street lighting , mains water and sewerage during the Victorian era , maintenance of such an ancient parish with so few parishioners became increasingly uneconomical after the Industrial Revolution . Thus , in 1910 , it agreed to be incorporated by the Corporation of London which guaranteed financial support and security . Great St Barts ' present parish boundary includes just 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 048 m ) of Smithfield — possibly delineating a former right of way .
After the Reformation , a separate parish likewise dedicated to St Bartholomew was granted in favour of St Bartholomew 's Hospital — named St Bartholomew @-@ the @-@ Less , it remained under the hospital 's patronage , unique in the Church of England , until 1948 when the hospital was nationalized in the National Health Service . The church benefice is nowadays joined again with its ancient partner , the Priory Church of St Bartholomew the Great .
Following the diminished influence of the ancient Priory , predecessor of the two parishes of St Bartholomew , disputes began to arise over rights to tithes and taxes payable by lay residents who claimed allegiance with the nearby and anciently associated parish of St Botolph Aldersgate — an unintended consequence and legacy of King Kenry VIII 's religious reforms .
Smithfield and its Market , mostly situated in the parish of St Sepulchre was founded in 1137 , and was endowed by Prior Rahere , who also founded St Barts . The ancient parish of St Sepulchre extended north to Turnmill Street , to St Paul 's Cathedral and Ludgate Hill in the south , and along the east bank of the Fleet ( now the route of Farringdon Street ) . St Sepulchre 's Tower contains the twelve " bells of Old Bailey " from the nursery rhyme Oranges and Lemons . Traditionally , the Great Bell was rung to announce the execution of a prisoner at Newgate .
= = = Civil history = = =
As a large open space close to the City , Smithfield was a popular place for public gatherings . In 1374 Edward III held a seven @-@ day tournament at Smithfield , for the amusement of his beloved Alice Perrers . Possibly the most famous medieval tournament at Smithfield was that commanded in 1390 by Richard II . Jean Froissart , in his fourth book of Chronicles , reported that sixty knights would come to London to tilt for two days , " accompanied by sixty noble ladies , richly ornamented and dressed " . The tournament was proclaimed by heralds throughout England , Scotland , Hainault , Germany , Flanders and France , so as to rival the jousts given by Charles of France at Paris a few years earlier , upon the arrival of his consort Isabel of Bavaria . Geoffrey Chaucer supervised preparations for the tournament as a clerk to the King .
Along with Tyburn , Smithfield was for centuries the main site for the public execution of heretics and dissidents in London . The Scottish nobleman Sir William Wallace was executed in 1305 at West Smithfield . The market was the meeting place prior to the Peasants ' Revolt and where the Revolt 's leader , Wat Tyler , was slain by Sir William Walworth , Lord Mayor of London on 15 June 1381 .
Religious dissenters ( Catholics as well as other Protestant denominations such as Anabaptists ) were sentenced to death in this area during the Crown 's changing course of religious orientation started by King Henry VIII . About fifty Protestants and religious reformers , known as the Marian martyrs , were executed at Smithfield during the reign of Mary I.
G.K. Chesterton observed ironically :
" It is foolish , generally speaking , for a philosopher to set fire to another philosopher in Smithfield Market because they do not agree in their theory of the universe . That was done very frequently in the last decadence of the Middle Ages , and it failed altogether in its object " .
-Heretics 1905
On 17 November 1558 , several Protestant heretics were saved by a Royal herald 's timely announcement that Queen Mary had died shortly before the wooden faggots were to be lit at the Smithfield Stake . Under English Law Death Warrants were commanded by Sign Manual ( the personal signature of the Monarch ) , invariably upon ministerial recommendation , which if unexercised by the time of a Sovereign 's death required renewed authority which , in this case , Elizabeth I did not give thereby freeing the Protestants . During the 16th century , Smithfield was also used to execute swindlers and coin forgers who were boiled to death in oil . However , by the 18th century the " Tyburn Tree " ( near the present @-@ day Marble Arch ) , became the main place for public executions in London . After 1785 , they were again moved , this time to the gates of Newgate prison — just to the south of Smithfield .
The Smithfield area was fortunate to emerge largely unscathed by the Great Fire of London in 1666 , which was abated near the Fortune of War Tavern , at the junction of Giltspur Street and Cock Lane , where the statue of the Golden Boy of Pye Corner is located . In the late 17th century , several residents of Smithfield emigrated to America where they founded the Town of Smithfield , Rhode Island .
= = = Today = = =
Since the late 1990s , Smithfield and neighbouring Farringdon have developed a reputation for being a cultural hub for up @-@ and @-@ coming professionals who enjoy its vast selection of bars , restaurants and night clubs .
Nightclubs such as Fabric and Turnmills pioneered the area 's reputation for trendy night life , attracting professionals from nearby Holborn , Clerkenwell and the City on weekdays and , at weekends , the clubs and bars in the area , having late licences , draw people into the area from outside London too .
Smithfield has also become a popular venue for sporting events . Until 2002 Smithfield hosted the midnight start of the annual Miglia Quadrato Car Rally , but with the increased night club activity around Smithfield the UHULMC ( a motoring club ) decided to move the event 's start to Finsbury Circus . Since 2007 , Smithfield has been the chosen location of an annual event dedicated to bike racing known as Smithfield Nocturne .
Number 1 , West Smithfield is Head Office of the Churches Conservation Trust .
= = Market = =
= = = Origins = = =
Meat has been traded at Smithfield Market for more than 800 years , making it one of the oldest markets in London . A livestock market occupied the site as early as the 10th century . In 1174 the site was described by William Fitzstephen as :
" a smooth field where every Friday there is a celebrated rendezvous of fine horses to be traded , and in another quarter are placed vendibles of the peasant , swine with their deep flanks , and cows and oxen of immense bulk . "
Costs , customs and rules were meticulously laid down . For instance , for an ox , a cow or a dozen sheep one could get 1 penny . The livestock market expanded over the centuries to meet demand from the growing population of the City . In 1710 , the market was surrounded by a wooden fence containing the livestock within the market ; and until its abolition , the Gate House at Cloth Fair ( " Fair Gate " ) employed a chain ( le cheyne ) on market days . Daniel Defoe referred to the livestock market in 1726 as being " without question , the greatest in the world " , and data available appear to corroborate his statement .
Between 1740 and 1750 the average yearly sales at Smithfield were reported to be around 74 @,@ 000 cattle and 570 @,@ 000 sheep . By the middle of the 19th century , in the course of a single year 220 @,@ 000 head of cattle and 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 sheep would be " violently forced into an area of five acres , in the very heart of London , through its narrowest and most crowded thoroughfares " . The volume of cattle driven daily to Smithfield started to raise major concerns .
The Great North Road traditionally began at Smithfield Market and mileages were measured from here . The specific start was Hicks Hall , and its former location continued to be used for mileages even after it was demolished , soon after 1778 . The road followed St John Street , and continued north , eventually leading to Edinburgh . This ended in 1829 , with the establishment of the General Post Office at St Martin 's @-@ le @-@ Grand , which became the new starting point .
= = = Local campaigning against the cattle market = = =
In the Victorian period , pamphlets started circulating in favour of the removal of the livestock market and its relocation outside of the City , due to its extremely poor hygienic conditions as well as the brutal treatment of the cattle . The conditions at the market in the first half of the 19th century were often described as a major threat to public health :
Of all the horrid abominations with which London has been cursed , there is not one that can come up to that disgusting place , West Smithfield Market , for cruelty , filth , effluvia , pestilence , impiety , horrid language , danger , disgusting and shuddering sights , and every obnoxious item that can be imagined ; and this abomination is suffered to continue year after year , from generation to generation , in the very heart of the most Christian and most polished city in the world .
In 1843 , the Farmer 's Magazine published a petition signed by bankers , salesmen , butchers , aldermen and City residents against further expansion of the meat market , arguing that livestock markets had been systematically banned since the Middle Ages in other areas of London :
Our ancestors appear , in sanitary matters , to have been wiser than we are . There exists , amongst the Rolls of Parliament of the year 1380 , a petition from the citizens of London , praying - that , for the sake of the public health , meat should not be slaughtered nearer than " Knyghtsbrigg " , under penalty , not only of forfeiting such animals as might be killed in the " butcherie " , but of a year 's imprisonment . The prayer of this petition was granted , audits penalties were enforced during several reigns .
Thomas Hood wrote in 1830 an Ode to the Advocates for the Removal of Smithfield Market , applauding those " philanthropic men " who aim at removing to a distance the " vile Zoology " of the market and " routing that great nest of Hornithology " . Charles Dickens criticised locating a livestock market in the heart of the capital in his 1851 essay A Monument of French Folly drawing comparisons with the French market at Poissy outside Paris :
Of a great Institution like Smithfield , [ the French ] are unable to form the least conception . A Beast Market in the heart of Paris would be regarded an impossible nuisance . Nor have they any notion of slaughter @-@ houses in the midst of a city . One of these benighted frog @-@ eaters would scarcely understand your meaning , if you told him of the existence of such a British bulwark .
An Act of Parliament was passed in 1852 , under the provisions of which a new cattle market should be constructed at Copenhagen Fields , Islington . The Metropolitan Cattle Market opened in 1855 , leaving West Smithfield as waste ground for about ten years during the construction of the new market .
= = = Victorian Smithfield : meat and poultry market = = =
The present Smithfield meat market on Charterhouse Street was established by Act of Parliament : the 1860 Metropolitan Meat and Poultry Market Act . It is a large market with permanent buildings , designed by architect Sir Horace Jones , who also designed Billingsgate and Leadenhall Markets . Work on the Central Market , inspired by Italian architecture , began in 1866 and was completed in November 1868 at a cost of £ 993 @,@ 816 ( £ 81 million as of 2016 ) .
The Grade II listed main wings ( known as East and West Market ) are separated by the Grand Avenue , a wide roadway roofed by an elliptical arch with decorations in cast iron . At the two ends of the arcade , four prominent statues represent London , Edinburgh , Liverpool and Dublin depicting bronze dragons charged with the City 's armorial bearings . At the corners of the market four octagonal pavilion towers were built , each with a dome displaying carved stone griffins .
As the Market was being built , a cut and cover railway tunnel was constructed underground City street level to create a triangular junction with the railway between Blackfriars and Kings Cross through Snow Hill Tunnel — closed in 1916 , it has been revived and is now used for Thameslink rail services . The construction of extensive railway sidings , beneath Smithfield Park , facilitated the transfer of animal carcases to its Cold Store , and directly up to the Meat Market via lifts . These sidings closed in the 1960s , and are now used as a car park , accessed via a cobbled descent at the centre of Smithfield Park . Today , much of the meat is delivered to market by road .
The first extension of Smithfield 's meat market took place between 1873 and 1876 with the construction of the Poultry Market immediately west of the Central Market . A rotunda was built at the centre of the old Market Field ( now West Smithfield ) , comprising gardens , a fountain and a ramped carriageway to the station beneath the market building . Further buildings were subsequently added to the market . The General Market , built between 1879 and 1883 , was intended to replace the old Farringdon Market located nearby and established for the sale of fruit and vegetables when the earlier Fleet Market was cleared to enable the laying out of Farringdon Street between 1826 – 1830 .
A further block ( also known as Annexe Market or Triangular Block ) consisting of two separate structures ( the Fish Market and the Red House ) was built between 1886 and 1899 . The Fish Market , built by John Mowlem & Co . , was completed in 1888 , one year after Sir Horace Jones ' death . The Red House , with its imposing red brick and Portland stone façade , was built between 1898 and 1899 for the London Central Markets Cold Storage Co . Ltd .. It was one of the first cold stores to be built outside the London docks and continued to serve Smithfield Market until the mid @-@ 1970s .
= = = 20th century = = =
During World War II , a large underground cold store at Smithfield was the theatre of secret experiments led by Dr Max Perutz on pykrete , a mixture of ice and woodpulp , believed to be possibly tougher than steel . Perutz 's work , inspired by Geoffrey Pyke and part of Project Habakkuk , was meant to test the viability of pykrete as a material to construct floating airstrips in the Atlantic to allow refuelling of cargo planes in support of Admiral the Earl Mountbatten 's operations . The experiments were carried out by Perutz and his colleagues in a refrigerated meat locker in a Smithfield Market butcher 's basement , behind a protective screen of frozen animal carcasses . These experiments became obsolete with the development of longer range aircraft and the project was then abandoned .
At the end of World War II , a V @-@ 2 rocket struck at the north side of Charterhouse Street , near the junction with Farringdon Road ( 1945 ) . The explosion caused massive damage to the market buildings , impacting the railway tunnel structure below , with the loss of over 110 lives .
The original Poultry Market designed by Sir Horace Jones was destroyed by fire in 1958 . Its Grade II listed replacement building was designed by Sir Thomas Bennett in 1962 – 63 , with a reinforced concrete frame , and external cladding of dark blue brick . The main hall is covered by an enormous concrete dome , shaped as an elliptical paraboloid , spanning 225 feet ( 69 m ) by 125 feet ( 38 m ) and only 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) thick at the centre . The dome is believed to have been the largest concrete shell structure built at that time in Europe .
= = = Today = = =
Smithfield is London 's only major wholesale market ( Leadenhall Market nowadays attracting more tourist trade ) which has escaped relocation out of central London to cheaper land , better transport links and more modern facilities ( as have Covent Garden , Spitalfields and Billingsgate ) . The purpose of the market remains to supply inner City butchers , shops and restaurants with quality fresh meat , and so its main trading hours are 4 : 00 a.m. to 12 : 00 noon each weekday . Instead of moving away , Smithfield Market continues to modernise its existing site : its imposing Victorian buildings have had access points added for the loading and unloading of lorries .
The buildings stand above a warren of tunnels : previously , live animals were brought to market by hoof ( from the mid @-@ 19th century onwards they arrived by rail ) and were slaughtered on site . The former railway tunnels are now used for storage , parking and as basements . An impressive cobbled ramp spirals down around West Smithfield 's public garden , on the south side of the Market , providing access to part of this area . Some of the buildings on Charterhouse Street on Smithfield north side maintain access to the tunnels via their basements .
Some of the former meat market buildings have now changed use . For example , the former Central Cold Store , on Charterhouse Street is now , most unusually , a City centre cogeneration power station operated by Citigen . Other former cold storage warehousing ( The Metropolitan Cold Stores ) has been converted into the acclaimed nightclub Fabric .
Smithfield comprises the market as its central feature surrounded many old buildings on three sides and a public open space ( or Rotunda Garden ) at West Smithfield , beneath which there is a public car park . The south side is occupied by St Bartholomew 's Hospital ( known as Barts in common parlance ) , and on the east side by the Priory Church of St Bartholomew the Great . The Church of St Bartholomew the Less is located next to the King Henry VIII Gate , the hospital 's main entrance . The north and south of the square are now closed to through traffic , as part of the City 's security and surveillance cordon known as the Ring of steel . Security for the market is provided by its market constabulary .
= = Demolition and development plans = =
Since 2005 , the General Market ( 1883 ) and the adjacent Fish Market and Red House buildings ( 1898 ) , part of the Victorian complex of the Smithfield Market , have been facing a threat of demolition . The City of London Corporation , ultimate owners of this property has been engaged in public consultation to assess how best to redevelop their disused property and regenerate the area . Former property developers Thornfield Properties had planned to demolish the historic site and build a seven @-@ storey office block , offering 350 @,@ 000 square feet ( 33 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office space with a retail outlet on the ground floor .
Several campaigns , promoted by English Heritage and Save Britain 's Heritage among others , are being run to raise public awareness of this important part of London 's Victorian heritage . Grade II listed building protection was approved for the Red House Cold Store building in 2005 by then @-@ Culture Secretary Dame Tessa Jowell , on the basis of new historical evidence qualifying the complex as " the earliest existing example of a purpose @-@ built powered cold store " .
Whilst the Market continues to trade , its future remains unclear following Government Planning Minister Ruth Kelly 's instigating a major public inquiry in 2007 . The Public Inquiry for the demolition and redevelopment of the General Market Building took place between 6 November 2007 and 25 January 2008 . In August 2008 , Communities Secretary Hazel Blears announced that planning permission for the General Market 's redevelopment had been refused , stating that the threatened buildings made " a significant contribution " to the character and appearance of Farringdon and the surrounding area .
On 12 October 2012 , Henderson Group unveiled its £ 160 million @-@ plan for redeveloping the western side of the Central Market . Henderson proposed that the fish market , General Market and Red House buildings , all over a century @-@ old , make way for restaurants , retailers and office buildings while restoring and retaining much of the Market building 's original perimeter walls , with a new piazza being created in the General Market .
Some of the buildings on Lindsey Street opposite the East Market were demolished in 2010 to allow the construction of the new Crossrail Station at Farringdon . The demolished buildings include Smithfield House ( an early 20th @-@ century unlisted Hennebique concrete building ) , the Edmund Martin Ltd. shop ( an earlier building with alterations dating to the 1930s ) and two Victorian warehouses behind them . Redevelopment proposals are ongoing as of 2014 .
In the March of 2015 , the Museum of London revealed plans to vacate its Barbican site and move into the General Market Building . The cost of the move is estimated to be in the region of £ 70 million and , if funding can be achieved , would be complete by 2021 .
= = Gallery = =
= HMS Havelock ( H88 ) =
HMS Havelock was an H @-@ class destroyer that had originally been ordered by the Brazilian Navy with the name Jutahy in the late 1930s , but was bought by the Royal Navy after the beginning of the Second World War in September 1939 and later renamed . She participated in the Norwegian Campaign in May 1940 and was assigned to convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine patrols with the Western Approaches Command afterwards . The ship was briefly assigned to Force H in 1941 , but her anti @-@ aircraft armament was deemed too weak and she rejoined Western Approaches Command . Havelock became flotilla leader of Escort Group B @-@ 5 of the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force in early 1942 and continued to escort convoys in the North Atlantic for the next two years . The ship was converted to an escort destroyer and sank one submarine during the war . After the end of the war , she escorted the ships carrying the Norwegian government in exile back to Norway and served as a target ship through mid @-@ 1946 . Havelock was scrapped beginning in late 1946 .
= = Description = =
Havelock displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Havelock carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil , giving her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 152 officers and enlisted men .
The vessel was designed for four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear , but ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Havelock had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were originally fitted , but this was increased to three sets of rails and eight throwers while fitting @-@ out . The ship 's load of depth charges was increased from 20 to 110 as well .
Havelock was completed without a director @-@ control tower ( DCT ) so the three remaining 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch low @-@ angle guns fired in local control using ranges provided by a rangefinder . She was fitted with an ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Havelock was fitted with a HF / DF radio direction finder before completion and she had her rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun by October 1940 . The ship 's short @-@ range AA armament was later augmented by two Oerlikon 20 mm guns on the wings of the ship 's bridge and the .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mounts were replaced by a pair of Oerlikons . It is uncertain if the ship 's director @-@ control tower was installed before a Type 271 target indication radar was installed above the bridge . At some point , the ship was converted to an escort destroyer . ' A ' gun was replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar and additional depth charge stowage replaced the 12 @-@ pounder high @-@ angle gun . A Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was fitted and the HF / DF installation was moved to a pole mainmast .
= = History = =
Jutahy was ordered by Brazil on 8 December 1937 from J. Samuel White , Cowes . The ship was laid down on 31 May 1938 and was purchased by the British on 5 September 1939 after the beginning of the Second World War and renamed HMS Havelock . She was launched on 16 October and commissioned on 10 February 1940 . After working up , the ship was assigned to the 9th Destroyer Flotilla of the Western Approaches Command . Havelock was detached to Home Fleet during the Norwegian Campaign and supported the Allied landings on 12 – 13 May at Bjerkvik during the Battle of Narvik . During the initial stages of this battle , she mounted a French mortar battery on her forecastle . She continued to provide fire support during the battle for the rest of the month . During the nights of 30 and 31 May , the ship helped to evacuate troops from Bodø to Harstad and Borkenes to await further evacuation . Havelock was one of the ships that escorted the troop ships evacuating the troops from the Narvik area on 7 and 8 June . She was commanded by Capt. E. Barry Stevens , DSC .
Later in June , the ship rejoined the 9th Destroyer Flotilla and spent most of the next two years escorting convoys . Late in 1940 the Flotilla was redesignated as the 9th Escort Group . Havelock was attached to Force H in Gibraltar to reinforce the escort during Operations Tiger in May 1941 . The ship returned to the Western Approaches command afterwards as her anti @-@ aircraft capability was believed by Admiral James Somerville to be too weak for operations in the Mediterranean .
In March 1942 , Havelock became flotilla leader of Escort Group B @-@ 5 team of the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force and continued to escort convoys in the North Atlantic until early 1944 . From 28 December to 14 January 1943 , the escort group defended Convoy TM 1 , a group of nine oil tankers sailing from Trinidad to Gibraltar . The convoy was attacked by several U @-@ boat wolfpacks en route and lost seven of its ships despite the best efforts of its escort . Havelock only managed to damage U @-@ 436 with depth charges whilst escorting this convoy . Havelock and her consorts escorted Convoy SC 122 through the largest convoy battle of the war some two months later . In mid @-@ 1943 , the escort group was deployed to the Bay of Biscay to attack U @-@ boats in cooperation with the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) as they left their bases on the French Atlantic coast . In late September – early October , the group escorted ships carrying No. 247 Group RAF to the Azores to begin setting up airbases there .
In early 1944 , Havelock was transferred to the 14th Escort Group which was given the task of protecting the convoys supporting Operation Overlord , the impending invasion of Western Europe , in British coastal waters , captained by Earl H. Thomas . Together with the destroyers Fame and Inconstant , the ship sank U @-@ 767 on 18 June . She was refitted in Liverpool from July to September and rejoined the group upon completion . Havelock was under repair again in February – April 1945 , but they were completed by 30 April when the ship , together with her sister Hesperus , attacked the wreck of U @-@ 246 northwest of the island of Anglesey thinking that it was U @-@ 242 which had been spotted by a Short Sunderland flying boat earlier that day .
Two weeks later , Havelock and the 14th Escort Group escorted a group of surrendered German U @-@ boats from Loch Alsh to Lough Foyle . On 27 May , the ship , together with Hesperus , escorted the exiled Norwegian government back to Oslo and remained there until 1 June . Later that month , she began service as an aircraft target , a role that lasted for the next year . The ship was approved for scrapping on 18 February 1946 and was placed in Category C reserve on 2 August . Havelock was sold on 31 October and scrapped at Inverkeithing .
= Sunda slow loris =
The Sunda slow loris ( Nycticebus coucang ) or greater slow loris is a strepsirrhine primate and a species of slow loris native to Indonesia , western Malaysia , southern Thailand and Singapore . It measures 27 to 38 cm ( 11 to 15 in ) from head to tail and weighs between 599 and 685 g ( 21 @.@ 1 and 24 @.@ 2 oz ) . Like other slow lorises , it has a wet nose ( rhinarium ) , a round head , small ears hidden in thick fur , a flat face , large eyes and a vestigial tail .
The Sunda slow loris is nocturnal and arboreal , typically occurring in evergreen forests . It prefers rainforests with continuous dense canopies and has an extremely low metabolic rate compared to other mammals of its size . Its diet consists of sap , floral nectar , fruit and arthropods . It will feed on exudates such as gum and sap by licking wounds in trees . The species is generally solitary ; one study showed only 8 % of its active time was spent near other individuals . Social behavior makes up a very small part of the activity budget , though it has monogamous mating system with the offspring living with the parents . It sleeps during the day , rolled up in a ball in hidden parts of trees above the ground , often on branches , twigs , palm fronds , or lianas . The species is polyoestrous , usually giving birth to a single offspring after a gestation period of 192 days . The young disperses between 16 and 27 months , generally when it is sexually mature .
The species is listed as " Vulnerable " on the IUCN Red List . It is threatened with extinction due to a growing demand in the exotic pet trade , and has become one of the most abundant primate species on sale at Indonesian pet markets . Its teeth are often pulled out before being sold as pets which can result in infection and / or death , this process makes reintroduction to the wild impossible . It also suffers from habitat loss , which has been severe in the areas in which it is found .
= = Etymology = =
The common name , Sunda slow loris , refers to the Sunda Islands , a group of islands in the western part of the Malay archipelago where it is found . Another common name for the species is the Greater Slow Loris . The specific name , coucang , derives from kukang , its common name in Indonesia . It is commonly known as malu @-@ malu , meaning " shy " in Indonesian , and also as bukang or Kalamasan . It is sometimes called Kuskus , because local people do not distinguish between the slow loris and Cuscus , a group of Australasian possums . In Malaysia they are sometimes known as kongkang or kera duku ; kera is Malay for monkey while duku is the fruit @-@ bearing tree , Lansium parasiticum . In Thailand , it is called ling lom ( ลิงลม ) , which translates as " wind monkey " .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Sunda slow loris was first described ( in part ) in 1785 by the Dutch physician and naturalist Pieter Boddaert under the name Tardigradus coucang . However , its discovery dates to 1770 , when the Dutchman Arnout Vosmaer ( 1720 – 1799 ) described a specimen of it as a type of sloth . Vosmaer gave it the French name " le paresseux pentadactyle du Bengale " ( " the five @-@ fingered sloth of Bengal " ) , but Boddaert later argued that it was more closely aligned with the lorises of Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) and Bengal .
Between 1800 and 1907 , several other slow loris species were described , but in 1953 the primatologist William Charles Osman Hill , in his influential book , Primates : Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy , consolidated all the slow lorises into a single species , N. coucang . In 1971 Colin Groves recognized the pygmy slow loris ( N. pygmaeus ) as a separate species , and divided N. coucang into four subspecies . In 2001 Groves opined that there were three species ( N. coucang , N. pygmaeus , and N. bengalensis ) , and that N. coucang itself had three subspecies ( Nycticebus coucang coucang , N. c. menagensis , and N. c. javanicus ) . These three subspecies were promoted in 2010 to species status — the Sunda slow loris , the Javan slow loris ( N. javanicus ) and Bornean slow loris ( N. menagensis ) . Species differentiation was based largely on differences in morphology , such as size , fur color , and head markings . ( At the end of 2012 , the Bornean slow loris was itself divided into four distinct species . ) : 46
When Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire defined the genus Nycticebus in 1812 , he made the Sunda slow loris the type species . This was questioned in 1921 by British zoologist Oldfield Thomas , who noted that there was some confusion over which specimen was used as the type specimen . Instead , he suggested that the type specimen was actually the Bengal slow loris , Lori bengalensis Lacépède , 1800 . There was further confusion during the 1800s when Boddaert 's Tardigradus coucang was routinely mistaken for Carl Linnaeus ' Lemur tardigradus – a species he had described in the 10th edition of Systema Naturæ ( 1758 ) The fact that Lemur tardigradus was actually a slender loris remained obscured until 1902 , when mammalogists Witmer Stone and James A. G. Rehn finally cleared the air .
The species has 50 chromosomes ( 2n = 50 ) , and it genome size is 3 @.@ 58 pg . Of its chromosomes , 22 are metacentric , 26 are submetacentric , and none are acrocentric . Its X chromosome is submetacentric , and its Y chromosome is metacentric .
To help clarify species and subspecies boundaries , and to establish whether morphology @-@ based classifications were consistent with evolutionary relationships , the phylogenetic relationships within the genus Nycticebus have been investigated using DNA sequences derived from the mitochondrial markers D @-@ loop and cytochrome b . Although most of the recognized lineages of Nycticebus ( including the pygmy slow loris ( N. pygmaeus ) , Bornean slow loris ( N. menagensis ) and the Javan slow loris ( N. javanicus ) ) were shown to be genetically distinct , the analysis suggested that DNA sequences from selected individuals of Sunda slow loris ( N. coucang ) and Bengal slow loris ( N. bengalensis ) shared a closer evolutionary relationship with each other than with other members of their own respective species . The authors suggest that this result may be explained by introgressive hybridization , as the tested individuals of these two taxa originated from a region of sympatry in southern Thailand ; the precise origin of one of the N. coucang individuals was not known . This hypothesis was corroborated by a 2007 study that compared the variations in mitochondrial DNA sequences between N. bengalensis and N. coucang , and suggested that there has indeed been gene flow between the two species .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
The Sunda slow loris has dark rings around its large eyes , a white nose with a whitish strip that extends to the forehead and a dark stripe that stretches from the back of the head along the spine . Its soft , thick , woolly fur ranges from light brown to deep reddish brown , with a lighter underside . The species is distinct from the Bengal slow loris due to the dark inverse teardrop markings around the eyes which meet the dark dorsal stripe on the back of the head . It tends to have a much more distinct white stripe between the eyes , more distinct dark coloring around the eyes , and a browner coat than the Bengal slow loris which is larger , grayer , and shows less contrast . The Sunda slow loris has less white facial coloring than the much smaller pygmy slow loris . Local color variations are known to occur .
It measures between 27 and 38 centimetres ( 11 and 15 in ) and weighs 599 and 685 grams ( 21 @.@ 1 and 24 @.@ 2 oz ) . Unlike the Bengal slow loris , the Sunda slow loris does not show sexual dimorphism by weight . The vestigial tail , hidden beneath the fur , is reduced to a stump . It has a toothcomb , six forward @-@ facing teeth on the bottom jaw , which includes the lower incisors and the canine teeth . The structure is generally used for grooming in other strepsirhine primates , but lorises also use it to scrape off gum when foraging . It has a shortened second digit , and the hands have a strong grip . Like other lorises , it excretes a strong @-@ smelling liquid from glands beneath its arms which is used in communication .
One major distinguishing feature between all loris species is locomotion : the Sunda slow loris moves slowly through trees on all four limbs , typically with three limbs attached to a support at a time . Its movement has been described as unique ; similar to crawling , or as if it was climbing in every direction , the Sunda slow loris changes direction or moves between branches with little noise or change in speed . In captivity , about a quarter of its time is spent moving quadrupedally , a quarter suspended or hanging , a quarter climbing , and a quarter clasping multiple branches ( bridging ) . It may hang below a branch by one or both feet for long periods of time .
= = Behavior and ecology = =
Like other slow lorises , the Sunda slow loris is an arboreal and nocturnal primate , resting by day in the forks of trees , or in thick vegetation and feeding on fruit and insects by night . Unlike other loris species , it remains in trees most of its life : while the Bengal slow loris will often sleep on the ground , the Sunda slow loris sleeps in a ball in branches or foliage . It usually sleeps alone but has been observed to sleep with several conspecifics ( individuals of the same species ) , including other adults . Adults live in overlapping ranges of 0 @.@ 004 to 0 @.@ 25 km2 ( 0 @.@ 0015 to 0 @.@ 0965 sq mi ) .
Despite its slow metabolism rate , the Sunda slow loris has a high @-@ energy diet . Its slow lifestyle may be due to the energy costs of detoxifying certain secondary plant compounds in many genera of food plants their diets . The largest amount of time is spent eating phloem sap ( 34 @.@ 9 % ) , floral nectar and nectar @-@ producing plant parts ( 31 @.@ 7 % ) , and fruits ( 22 @.@ 5 % ) . It also consumes gums and arthropods such as spiders and insects . Gum is taken by licking wounds on trees . They are also known to feed on molluscs , including the giant land snail Achatina fulica , and birds ' eggs .
All slow loris species produce a toxin in glands on the insides of their elbows . This is spread across their bodies and those of their offspring using the toothcomb while grooming . When threatened with predators , the Sunda slow loris can bite , roll into a ball exposing its toxic saliva @-@ covered fur , or roll up and drop from the trees . However , the primary method of predator avoidance is crypsis , whereby it hides . The Asiatic reticulated python , the changeable hawk @-@ eagle and the Bornean orangutan have been recorded as predators of the Sunda slow loris .
= = = Social systems = = =
The Sunda slow loris may fit into the monogamous single male / single female social system , though are mainly known to be solitary . One study showed only 8 % of the species ' active time was spent near other individuals . Where home ranges overlap , spatial groups are formed . These groups consist of one male , one female and up to three younger individuals . The interactions between these individuals are largely friendly ; they include allogrooming , following , pant @-@ growling , and click @-@ calling , although social behaviors only make up around 3 % of the activity budget . When it comes into contact with conspecifics from other home ranges there is usually no reaction as home ranges are not defended . In captivity however , it can be aggressive with other individuals . Males have shown antagonistic behaviors such as attacks , pursuits , threats , assertion , fighting , and subordination . The fighting often results in serious injury . Despite this , they are known to be generally sociable in captivity , with allogrooming being the most common social behavior .
= = = Communication = = =
There are eight distinct call types made by Sunda slow loris adults , which can be divided into two categories : contact and contact @-@ seeking calls such as whistles and short keckers ( a social play and attention @-@ seeking call ) , and aggressive and defensive calls such as long keckers , screams , snarls and grunts . Because they rely on crypsis to avoid predators , they do not make alarm calls . Infants emits clicks and squeaks when disturbed . During estrus , females make whistle calls when in visual contact with a male . When exploring new environments and during handling , it makes ultrasonic vocalisations out of the human hearing range .
Olfactory communication is very important in this species . It has roles in alerting others of the identity , physical state and position of the individual . It is also important in reproduction . Like other slow lorises , the Sunda slow loris has glands on its elbows that exude oils . The gland is licked to spread scent and is thought to have evolved for communication , but it is toxic to humans . If the person is allergic to the animal they can go into shock and could even die . It also has glands on its anus and can signal conspecifics by perineal rubbing which deposits urine . When it locates the scent of another slow loris it may rub its face on the substrate where the scent was found . The Sunda slow loris may grin or bare its teeth . When stressed , infants may grin , while adults bear their teeth to show aggression or fear , but also during play .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Reproduction is one of the few times the Sunda slow loris aggregates with conspecifics , as it is largely solitary . One study recorded that the most slow lorises ever seen together was six ; this appeared to be a female in estrus and five males following her . This may suggest a more promiscuous mating system , where females mate with more than one male . Despite this , its testis size is small compared with similar sized promsimians , which is indicative of monogamy . In the wild the mating system of the Sunda slow loris is thought to vary between populations .
Sexual maturity is reached between the ages of 18 and 24 months in females , and can be reached by 17 months in males . It is polyestrous , having many periods of sexual receptivity during a year . In captivity however , there is a clear birth peak between March and May . It has been observed that reproductive patterns of captive prosimians in the northern hemisphere are altered . The estrus cycle lasts 29 – 45 days , with most copulations occurring on the same day .
Females in estrus are followed by males , with copulation initiated by the female . The female will hang from a branch and may vocalise . The male will hold the female and the branch and copulate with her . Urine @-@ marking and vocalising are also used by the female to solicit mating . The male may create a mating plug following copulation .
The gestation period averages 192 @.@ 2 days , after which one young is born , although twinning has been observed . Both males and females will disperse in the wild , this occurs between 16 and 27 months .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Sunda slow loris is found in continuous canopy tropical rainforests . It is adaptable and will also live in other types of habitat . It is found in Indonesia , on the islands of Sumatra , Batam and Galang in the Riau Archipelago , and Pulau Tebingtinggi and Great Natuna ( Bunguran ) in the Natuna Islands ; in Malaysia on the Malay Peninsula and Pulau Tioman ; in the southern peninsular of Thailand ; and Singapore .
The Sunda slow loris is sympatric ( shares its range ) with the Bengal slow loris in Thailand and hybridisation has occurred .
= = Conservation = =
According to the 2008 International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) Red List assessment , the Sunda slow loris was evaluated as " Vulnerable " . In June 2007 it was transferred from CITES Appendix II to Appendix I , indicating a true concern about the state of international trade in this species , an act now forbidden by international law . It is also protected by Indonesian law , though the law does not seem to be strictly enforced . Its population size is unknown and further studies need to be carried out to confirm their conservation status .
The Sunda slow loris is greatly threatened by the pet trade , and is sold as an exotic pet throughout southeast Asia . The slow lorises are the most commonly traded protected primates in southeast Asia . When sold as a pet it often will have its teeth pulled out to prevent injury to the owner . This may cause dental infections which have up to a 90 % death rate . Once it has lost its teeth , reintroduction to the wild is impossible . Due to a very high mortality rate in captivity due to stress , improper nutrition and infection , the pet trade is inflated by replacements . With a greater purchasing power , the increasing human populations in the species ' range could have an even more serious impact .
The Sunda slow loris is further threatened by gathering for illegal traditional medicine . The fur is reported to heal wounds , the flesh to cure epilepsy , eyes are used in love potions , and the meat is reported to cure asthma and stomach problems . It is also killed as a crop pest . Severe habitat loss and degradation over large areas of its range have caused large population declines , even though the species is more adaptable to anthropogenic habitats than other primates in the region . The resulting fragmentation has restricted species dispersal as it depends on continuous canopy cover to move from tree to tree .
= Pichilemu =
Pichilemu ( Mapudungun : Small forest , pronounced : [ pitʃiˈlemu ] ) , originally known as Pichilemo , is a beach resort city and commune in central Chile , and capital of Cardenal Caro Province . The commune comprises an urban centre and twenty @-@ two villages , such as Ciruelos , Cáhuil , and Espinillo . It is located southwest of Santiago , the capital of Chile . Pichilemu had over 13 @,@ 000 residents as of 2012 .
The Pichilemu area was long populated by the indigenous Promaucaes . European @-@ Chilean development began in the mid @-@ sixteenth century , as conquistador Pedro de Valdivia gave Juan Gómez de Almagro the Topocalma encomienda ( which included the current territory of Pichilemu ) in January 1541 . Pichilemu was established as an " autonomous commune " on 22 December 1891 , by decree of the President Jorge Montt and Interior Minister Manuel José Irarrázabal . Agustín Ross Edwards , a Chilean politician and member of the Ross Edwards family , planned to develop it as a beach resort on the Pacific Ocean for upper @-@ class Chileans .
Pichilemu is home to five of the National Monuments of Chile : Agustín Ross Cultural Centre and Park ; the wooden railway station , Estación Pichilemu ; El Árbol tunnel ; and the Caballo de Agua . Part of the city was declared a Zona Típica ( " Traditional Area " or " Heritage Site " ) by the National Monuments Council , in 2004 .
The city is part of District No. 35 and is in the ninth senatorial constituency of O 'Higgins Region electoral division . Pichilemu is home to the main beach in O 'Higgins Region . It is a tourist destination for surfing , windsurfing and funboarding .
Tourism is the main industry of the city , but forestry and handicrafts are also important . Pichilemu has many expansive dark sand beaches . Several surf championships take place in the city each year at Punta de Lobos , which according to Fodor 's is " widely considered the best surfing in South America all year @-@ round . "
= = History = =
Pichilemu was inhabited by Promaucaes , a pre @-@ Columbian tribal group , until the Spanish conquest of Chile . They were hunter @-@ gatherers and fishermen who lived primarily along the Cachapoal and Maule rivers . The remaining Promaucaes were assimilated into Chilean society through a process of hispanicisation and mestisation after the conquest of Chile .
Aureliano Oyarzún , professor of pathology at University of Chile , investigated pre @-@ Ceramic middens from Pichilemu and Cahuil . His book Crónicas de Pichilemu – Cáhuil ( Chronicles of Pichilemu – Cáhuil ) was published posthumously , in 1957 . Tomás Guevara published two volumes of Historia de Chile , Chile Prehispánico ( History of Chile , Pre @-@ Hispanic Chile ) in 1929 , which discusses the indigenous centre of Apalta , the Pichilemu middens , the Malloa petroglyphs , a stone cup from Nancagua , and pottery finds in Peralillo .
José Toribio Medina ( 1852 – 1930 ) , who was a writer and historiographer , spent most of his life in Colchagua Province , and completed his first archeological investigations in Pichilemu . In 1908 , he published Los Restos Indígenas de Pichilemu ( English : The Indigenous Remains of Pichilemu ) , in which he stated that the Indians that were inhabiting Pichilemu when the Spaniards arrived at Chile were Promaucaes , part of the Topocalma encomienda , given on 24 January 1544 , by Pedro de Valdivia to Juan Gómez de Almagro , therefore establishing Pichilemu .
During the colonial and Republican periods , agriculture was promoted by the government . Many Chilean haciendas ( estates ) were successful during this time , including the Pichileminian Hacienda San Antonio de Petrel . Part of the land where San Antonio de Petrel was created was given by the Captaincy General of Chile to Bartolomé de Rojas y Puebla in 1611 , who later acquired more lands in order to establish it . San Antonio de Petrel produced leather , jerky , soles , tallow , and cordovan , as well as other products which would later be exported to Peru , or sold in Santiago and Valparaíso . San Antonio de Petrel was bordered by properties of Lauriano Gaete and Ninfa Vargas , and Pedro Pavez Polanco .
The area around Pichilemu was very densely populated , especially in Cáhuil , where there are salt deposits that were exploited by natives . Pichilemu has had censuses taken since the 17th century .
In 1872 , President of Chile Aníbal Pinto commissioned the corvette captain Francisco Vidal Gormaz to perform a survey of the coast between Tumán Creek and Boca del Mataquito . He concluded that Pichilemu was the best place to construct a ferry . The family of Daniel Ortúzar , inheritors of the hacienda San Antonio de Petrel , constructed a dock in 1875 , which served as a fishing port for a few years , and would be decreed as a " minor dock " by President José Manuel Balmaceda in 1887 . Homes were built along the dock on what currently is the Daniel Ortúzar Avenue ( Avenida Daniel Ortúzar ) . The name Pichilemu comes from the Mapudungún words pichi ( little ) and lemu ( forest ) .
During the 1891 Chilean Civil War , Daniel Ortúzar and the priest of Alcones were transferred as prisoners from Pichilemu to Valparaíso via the dock , which was later burned . The dock was later reconstructed and used until 1912 , but it never reached " port " status .
The inheritors of Lauriano Gaete and Ninfa Vargas , who were proprietors of the land which is currently Central Pichilemu , founded the town in late 1891 after conceiving the design of the city with engineer Emilio Nichón . By decree of President Jorge Montt and his Interior Minister , Manuel José Irarrázabal , the city was officially established as an " autonomous commune " on 22 December 1891 . José María Caro Martínez became the first mayor of the city in 1894 , and regularised and improved the design of the city the same year . Caro Martínez held the mayor office until 1905 .
Agustín Ross Edwards , a Chilean writer , Member of Parliament , minister , and politician , bought a 300 @-@ hectare ( 740 @-@ acre ) tract of land , and named it La Posada , in 1885 . At the time , it was merely a set of thick @-@ walled barracks .
Agustín Ross turned Pichilemu into a summer resort town for affluent people from Santiago . He designed an urban setting that included a park and a forest of over 10 hectares ( 25 acres ) . He transformed La Posada into a hotel , named Gran Hotel Pichilemu , which has since been renamed to Hotel Agustín Ross . He built the Ross Casino ( currently a cultural centre ) , several chalets , terraces , embankments , stone walls , a balcony facing the beach , and several large homes with building materials and furniture imported from France and England . However , Ross was not able to build the dock he had planned for the city . He died in 1926 in Viña del Mar. Agustín Ross ' inheritors donated all of his construction ( streets , avenues , squares , seven hectares of forests , the park in front of the hotel , the perrons , the balcony , and the terraces ) to the Municipality of Pichilemu , on the condition that the municipality would hold them for recreation and public access . The Agustín Ross Casino , constructed in 1905 , and the Agustín Ross Park , constructed in 1885 , have since become an important part of the city , and have been declared Monumentos Históricos ( Historic Monuments ) by the National Monuments Council .
After the creation of the Cardenal Caro Province , by decree of General Augusto Pinochet on 3 October 1979 , Pichilemu became its capital . The province is named after the first Chilean Catholic Cardinal , José María Caro Rodríguez , who was born in Pichilemu .
Pichilemu was severely affected by the 2010 Chile earthquake and its subsequent tsunami , which caused massive destruction in the coastal zone . On 11 March 2010 , at 11 : 39 : 41 ( 14 : 39 : 41 UTC ) , a magnitude 6 @.@ 9 earthquake occurred 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) northwest of Pichilemu , killing one person .
= = Geography = =
Pichilemu is located 126 kilometres ( 78 mi ) west of San Fernando , in the westernmost area of the O 'Higgins Region , on the coast of the Pacific Ocean . It is within a three @-@ hour drive of the Andes Mountains . It is near the Cordillera de la Costa ( Coastal Mountain Range ) which rises to 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) in elevation .
The city is bordered by Litueche to the north , Paredones to the south , and Marchigüe and Pumanque to the east . To the west lies the Pacific Ocean . Pichilemu covers an area of 749 @.@ 1 square kilometres ( 289 @.@ 2 sq mi ) .
Pichilemu is located close to a geological fault ( Pichilemu Fault ) , which is according to reports between the city and Vichuquén at 15 km depth , 40 km in length and 20 km wide . It is not known whether the fault was formed during the March 2010 earthquake or if it was just reactivated .
Although the majority of the forest areas around Pichilemu are covered with pine and eucalyptus plantations , a native forest ( now the Municipal Forest ) remains . It contains species such as Litres , Quillayes , Boldos , Espinos , and Peumos .
The city consists of an urban centre and twenty @-@ two rural villages : Alto Colorado , Alto Ramírez , Barrancas , Cáhuil , Cardonal de Panilonco , Ciruelos , Cóguil , El Maqui , El Guindo , Espinillo , Estación Larraín Alcalde , La Aguada , La Palmilla , La Villa , La Plaza , Las Comillas , Pueblo de Viudas , Quebrada del Nuevo Reino , Pañul , Rodeillo , San Antonio de Petrel , and Tanumé .
Nearby bodies of water ( apart from the Pacific Ocean ) include the Nilahue Estuary , which flows to Cáhuil Lagoon , Petrel Estuary , which flows to Petrel Lagoon , and El Barro , El Bajel , and El Ancho lagoons , the latter of which provides the city with drinking water .
Pichilemu experiences a Mediterranean climate , with winter rains which reach 700 millimetres ( 28 in ) . The rest of the year is dry , often windy , and sometimes with coastal fog . Occasionally the city receives winds as high as 150 kilometres per hour ( 93 mph ) .
= = Demographics = =
By the 17th century , Pichilemu had 1 @,@ 468 inhabitants . In 1787 , Pichilemu held 1 @,@ 688 inhabitants , and the population rose to 11 @,@ 829 by 1895 . From there onward , the city 's population progressively decreased : 7 @,@ 787 inhabitants in 1907 ; 7 @,@ 424 in 1920 ; 6 @,@ 929 in 1930 ; and 6 @,@ 570 in 1940 . In 1952 , the city 's population increased to 7 @,@ 150 inhabitants ; however , the 1960 census showed it decreased to 5 @,@ 724 inhabitants , and to 5 @,@ 459 in 1970 . The number of people in Pichilemu reached 8 @,@ 844 in 1982 , and in 1992 , 10 @,@ 510 . As of the 2002 census , the population comprised 12 @,@ 392 people , and 6 @,@ 228 households .
The 2002 census classified 9 @,@ 459 people ( 76 @.@ 3 % ) as living in an urban area and 2 @,@ 933 people ( 23 @.@ 7 % ) as living in a rural area , with 6 @,@ 440 men ( 52 @.@ 0 % ) and 5 @,@ 952 women ( 48 @.@ 0 % ) . According to the 2002 Casen survey , 544 inhabitants ( 4 @.@ 4 % ) of the population live in extreme poverty compared to the average in the greater O 'Higgins Region of 4 @.@ 5 % , and 1 @,@ 946 inhabitants ( 15 @.@ 7 % ) live in mild poverty , compared to the regional average of 16 @.@ 1 % .
The National Statistics Institute of Chile has estimated that , as of 2010 , 78 @.@ 96 % of the inhabitants in the city were living in an urban area and 21 @.@ 04 % were living in a rural area , with 52 @.@ 4 % men and 47 @.@ 5 % women ; the population density was estimated as 19 @.@ 09 per square mile . In the 2012 census , the population of Pichilemu was 13 @,@ 916 inhabitants ; although earlier estimates put it higher .
Most of the people from Pichilemu are Catholic , as of the 2002 census , 7 @,@ 611 persons ( 83 @.@ 44 % ) , well above the national and regional average ( 69 @.@ 96 % and 79 @.@ 08 % , respectively ) ; the evangelical population is considerably lower , at only 689 people ( 7 @.@ 55 % ) ; 361 ( 3 @.@ 96 % ) said they were Atheists or Agnostic individuals , while the remaining 460 ( 5 @.@ 04 % ) are part of other religions . Based on information from the Casen survey , twenty @-@ four persons living in Pichilemu declared themselves as Aymaras in 2006 , and in 2009 , 390 people said they were part of the Mapuche indigenous ethnic group ; the survey revealed no one living in Pichilemu claimed to be either of the Atacameños or of the Rapa Nui indigenous peoples .
= = Governance = =
Pichilemu , along with the communes of Placilla , Nancagua , Chépica , Santa Cruz , Pumanque , Palmilla , Peralillo , Navidad , Lolol , Litueche , La Estrella , Marchihue , and Paredones , is part of Electoral District No. 35 and belongs to the 9th Senatorial Constituency ( O 'Higgins ) of the electoral divisions of Chile .
Pichilemu is governed by the mayor ( alcalde ) , who manages the executive function . The City Council ( concejo municipal ) manages the legislative function . The mayors and the councilors are elected popularly every four years , with possibility of re @-@ election . Marcelo Cabrera Martínez was elected in 2008 as the new mayor with 42 @.@ 08 percent of the vote ; he served from May to August 2009 , when he was permanently banned from holding public office after being convicted for adulterating tickets . Then , the municipal council elected Roberto Córdova as new mayor on 9 September 2009 . Between 2007 and 2009 , Pichilemu had seven mayors , after Jorge Vargas González was removed from the office for committing the crime of bribery ; he was mayor for over 10 years , from 1996 to 2007 . Vargas was succeeded by Victor Rojas , who was later accused of the same crime and eventually removed from the office too . Roberto Córdova was popularly elected mayor for the first time in 2012 with 47 @.@ 9 percent . The current councilors of Pichilemu are Aldo Polanco Contreras , Andrea Aranda Escudero , Marta Urzúa Púa , Mario Morales Cárceles , Felipe Bustamante Olivares , and Hugo Toro Galaz . Both the mayor and the councilors took office on 6 December 2012 , and their term will expire on 6 December 2016 .
The Pichilemu Police , known in Spanish as Carabineros de Pichilemu , and officially Tercera Comisaría de Carabineros de Pichilemu , are commanded by Tomás Molina Meza . The police station is located in front of the former Pichilemu post office building , in Daniel Ortúzar avenue .
= = Economy = =
Tourism is the main industry of Pichilemu , especially in the urban centre and some rural areas such as Cáhuil and Ciruelos . Forestry , mainly pine and eucalyptus , is another major industry . The area is also known for handicrafts . Although fishing is not very important to O 'Higgins Region , due to unsuitable coastlines , it is common in Pichilemu , Bucalemu , and Navidad .
Pichilemu has a clay deposit in the Pañul area . According to archaeological investigations , pottery was first manufactured in the area around 300 BCE . It is still a stalwart today — Ciruelos and El Copao are well known for the pottery created there .
= = Landmarks = =
The Bosque Municipal ( Municipal Forest ) was donated by the Ross family in 1935 . The main access to the forest is in front of Ross Casino , near Paseo el Sol ; or by a road near the Colegio Preciosa Sangre . The forest has a footpath surrounded by palms , pines , and many other varieties of trees .
Conchal Indígena ( Indigenous Midden ) is an archaeological site of pre @-@ Hispanic times . It is located on the site of an ancient fishing village 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) from Punta de Lobos and 0 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 19 mi ) south of Los Curas Lagoon . Laguna Los Curas ( Los Curas Lagoon ) is a natural area used for eco @-@ tourist activities such as fishing located 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) south of Pichilemu . Another lagoon , the Laguna del Perro ( The Dog 's Lagoon ) is located 8 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) south of Pichilemu . It is used for recreational activities .
Laguna El Alto ( El Alto Lagoon ) is a small , rain @-@ fed lagoon located at Chorrillos Beach that is often used for camping and picnics . The lagoon is an hour and a half drive from Pichilemu , traveling to the north by Chorrillos beach . Poza del Encanto is a lagoon located 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from Pichilemu . It is home to a large variety of native fauna . The Estero Nilahue ( Nilahue Lagoon ) is located 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from Pichilemu . It has several beaches , including El Bronce , El Maquí , and Laguna El Vado .
St. Andrew Church is located in Ciruelos , 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) from Pichilemu . It was constructed in 1779 , and its altar was built in the 1940s . It has a harmonium , confessional boxes , and ancient images of saints . Its original image of St. Andrew was made of papier mache . The old parish was created by Archbishop Rafael Valentín Valdivieso in 1864 . Cardinal José María Caro Rodríguez was baptized there . The feast day of St. Andrew is celebrated every November 30 at the church .
The Museo del Niño Rural ( the Rural Kid Museum ) was created as an initiative of teacher Carlos Leyton and his students . It is a modern building that utilises traditional architecture . Three rooms contain a collection of stone tools , arrowheads , and clay tools made by the indigenous people of the region . Also on display are domestic tools from early colonists .
El Copao is a hamlet located 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) east of Pichilemu . Its main industry is domestic pottery production , using clay as a raw material . Pañul is a settlement located 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) from Pichilemu . Its name in Mapudungun means " medicinal herb . " Pañul produces pottery made with locally obtained clay . Cáhuil is a small settlement located 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) south of Pichilemu . Its name in Mapudungun means " parrot place " . Cahuil lagoon is used for fishing , swimming , and kayaking ; kiteboarding lessons are offered on the lagoon . The Cáhuil Bridge is open to motor traffic , and has a view of the Cahuil zone . The bridge provides access to Curicó , Lolol , Bucalemu , and other nearby places .
Pichilemu was declared a Typical Zone by the National Monuments Council of Chile , by decree No. 1097 on 22 December 2004 .
The city is home to five other National Monuments : Ross Park , Ross Casino , El Árbol Tunnel , the wooden railway station , Estación Pichilemu , and Caballo de Agua .
= = = Agustín Ross Cultural Centre = = =
The current Cultural Centre , in front of Ross Park , is a three @-@ floor casino constructed with imported materials in the early 1900s by Agustín Ross . It originally housed a mail and telegraph service , with a large store . The first casino in Chile was opened in this building on 20 January 1906 . It operated until 1932 , when the Viña del Mar Casino was opened .
The building was renovated and reopened in 2009 as a cultural arts center . It currently houses several gallery spaces and the public library . During its restoration , workers found many historical artifacts , including a copy of Las Últimas Noticias from February 1941 when Ross Casino served as a hotel ; an American telephone battery dating from the period of 1909 to 1915 ; and a tile from the casino 's ceiling signed by workers during the building 's construction in 1914 .
Ross Park , created by Agustín Ross in 1885 , contains hundred @-@ year @-@ old native Chilean palms ( Phoenix canariensis ) and many green spaces . It was restored in December 1987 , and is now a popular walking destination . The former casino was named National Monuments in 1988 .
Ross hotel was created by Agustín Ross in 1885 , and originally named Great Hotel Pichilemu ( Gran Hotel Pichilemu ) . It is one of the oldest hotels in Chile . Although it is still partially open to guests , it is in a state of disrepair .
= = = Railway station = = =
The old wooden railway station , Estación Pichilemu , constructed around 1925 , is one of the National Monuments of Chile . In the O 'Higgins Region , 357 kilometres ( 222 mi ) of railway lines were constructed , but only 161 kilometres ( 100 mi ) still exist . The 119 kilometres ( 74 mi ) San Fernando – Pichilemu section was constructed between 1869 and 1926 . Passenger services operated on the line until 1986 and freight services were operational until 1995 . In 2006 , the Peralillo – Pichilemu section was removed completely .
It remained in operation until the 1990s , and became a National Monument on 16 September 1994 . It has since become an arts and culture centre and tourism information office . It exhibits decorative and practical objects from the 1920s , and features many old clothes .
= = = Beaches = = =
Pichilemu has several expansive dark sand beaches . The water is cool all year @-@ round , and many tourists choose to swim at the shore break during the summer months . Common activities include bodyboarding , surfing , windsurfing , and kitesurfing .
The northernmost of the beaches is Playa Las Terrazas or Playa Principal ( The Terraces Beach or Main Beach ) , which is in front of Ross Park . It is popular for surfing . Near the beach and at Ross Park , there are balustrades and long stairs dating from the early 1900s . There is a balcony over the rocks at the southern end of the beach . It is the busiest during the summer months . Several surf schools , such as La Ola Perfecta , and Lobos del Pacífico , are located nearby , as is the fish market at Fishermen Creek .
Located south of the town and around the other side of the Puntilla , Playa Infiernillo ( Little Hell Beach ) is rocky and has tide @-@ pools . This area is used for fishing . South of Infiernillo is Playa Hermosa ( Beautiful Beach ) , which is popular for walking and fishing .
Further south , 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from Pichilemu , Punta de Lobos has a beach sheltered from the southern winds . It is an increasingly popular destination for tourists and surfers . Several surf contests are held there every year . The size of waves varies throughout the year . Large swells in fall and winter can reach heights of up to 15 metres ( 49 ft ) . It is widely considered one of the best beaches for surfing worldwide . In 2012 , it was named one of the " 50 most thrilling surf destinations " .
Pichilemu is regarded as the prime location for surfing in Chile , particularly at Punta de Lobos . Every October and December , an International Championship of Surf is held at La Puntilla Beach . Punta de Lobos hosts the Campeonato Nacional de Surf ( National Surfing Championship ) every summer .
= = Media = =
There are three local newspapers : El Expreso de la Costa ( " The Express of the Coast " ) is a monthly newspaper directed by Félix Calderón Vargas , first published on 30 June 2000 ; El Faro del Secano ( " The Dryland 's Lighthouse " ) was founded in November 2013 by local journalist Óscar Rojas Connell , and is distributed throughout the Cardenal Caro Province ; and La Voz de la Región ( " The Voice of the Region " ) , published every two weeks , first appeared on 2 January 2014 , and is directed by Patricio Flores Retamales .
Radio services come from Radio Entreolas , Radio Atardecer , Radio Somos Pichilemu ( directed by former Mayor Jorge Vargas González and his wife and current Councilor Andrea Aranda ) , Radio Isla , and Radio Corporación . A television channel , Canal 3 Pichilemu , also broadcasts in the area .
= = Education = =
Education establishments in Pichilemu include Liceo Agustín Ross Edwards ( Agustín Ross Edwards High School ) ; a secondary school in El Llano ; the primary and secondary school named Charly 's School , and the primary school Escuela Digna Camilo Aguilar ( Digna Camilo Aguilar School ) , both also located in El Llano ; Colegio Libertadores ( Liberators School ) , a primary school in Infiernillo ; Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre ( Precious Blood School ) , a primary and secondary school located near El Llano ; Colegio Divino Maestro ( Divine Master School ) , a primary school located near Cáhuil Avenue ; Escuela Pueblo de Viudas ( Pueblo de Viudas School ) , a primary school in Pueblo de Viudas ; and Jardín Amanecer ( Dawn Garden ) , a kindergarten school in El Llano .
Higher education first arrived at Pichilemu in 1970 , when the Centro Medio Profesional de Pichilemu ( Pichilemu Secondary @-@ Professional Centre ) was created ; however , it was discontinued the next year . In 2002 , thirty @-@ one years after the Centro Medio Profesional was discontinued , the Universidad Academia de Humanismo Cristiano ( Academy of Christian Humanism University ) began to give classes of Engineering in Public Gesture Management , and Engineering in Environment Gesture Management . The university worked at the dependencies of Liceo Agustín Ross Edwards until 2008 . At least ten people obtained their professional titles , while other ten are still in the process of obtaining their titles , as of December 2011 . In November 2011 , Governor of Cardenal Caro Province Julio Ibarra announced that an institute of higher education would be brought to the province , whose name , Instituto Profesional IPG ( IPG Professional Institute ) , was disclosed one month later . During the inauguration of the 2012 school year in Pichilemu , Education Regional Secretary Minister ( Seremi ) Pedro Larraín said IPEGE would work in the dependencies of Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre of Pichilemu .
= Amber Room =
The Amber Room ( Russian : Янтарная комната , German : Bernsteinzimmer , Polish : Bursztynowa komnata ) is a world @-@ famous chamber decorated in amber panels backed with gold leaf and mirrors , located in the Catherine Palace of Tsarskoye Selo near Saint Petersburg . Originally constructed in the 18th century in Prussia , the Amber Room disappeared during World War II and was recreated in 2003 . Before the room was lost , it was considered an " Eighth Wonder of the World " .
Construction of the Amber Room first took place around 1701 in Prussia . The room was designed by German baroque sculptor Andreas Schlüter and Danish amber craftsman Gottfried Wolfram . Schlüter and Wolfram worked on the room until 1707 , when work was continued by amber masters Gottfried Turau and Ernst Schacht from Danzig . The amber cabinet remained in the Berlin City Palace until 1716 when it was given by the Prussian King Frederick William I to his then ally , Tsar Peter the Great of the Russian Empire . In Russia , the room was expanded and after several renovations , it covered more than 55 square metres ( 590 sq ft ) and contained over 6 tonnes ( 13 @,@ 000 lb ) of amber .
The Amber Room was looted during World War II by Army Group North of Nazi Germany and brought to Königsberg for reconstruction and display . Its current whereabouts remain a mystery . In 1979 , efforts were undertaken to rebuild the Amber Room at Tsarskoye Selo . In 2003 , after decades of work by Russian craftsmen and donations from Germany , the reconstructed Amber Room was inaugurated at the Catherine Palace near Saint Petersburg .
= = History = =
= = = Creation = = =
The Amber Room was begun in 1701 with the purpose of being installed at Charlottenburg Palace , the residence of Frederick , the first King of Prussia , at the urging of his second wife , Sophie Charlotte . The concept and design of the room was drafted by Andreas Schlüter . It was fabricated by Gottfried Wolfram , master craftsman to the Danish court of King Frederick IV of Denmark , with help from the amber masters Ernst Schacht and Gottfried Turau from Danzig .
Although originally intended for installation at Charlottenburg Palace , the complete panels were eventually installed at Berlin City Palace . The Amber Room did not , however , remain at Berlin City Palace for long . Peter the Great of Russia admired it during a visit and in 1716 , King Frederick I 's son Frederick William I presented the room to Peter as a gift , which forged a Russo @-@ Prussian alliance against Sweden .
The original Berlin design of the Amber Room was reworked in Russia in a joint effort by German and Russian craftsmen . It was Peter 's daughter Empress Elisabeth who decided the amber treasure should be installed at Catherine Palace , where the Russian Imperial family typically spent their summers . After several other 18th @-@ century renovations , the room covered more than 55 square metres ( 590 sq ft ) and contained over 6 tonnes ( 13 @,@ 000 lb ) of amber . The room took over ten years to construct .
= = = Evacuation during World War II = = =
Shortly after the beginning of the German invasion of the Soviet Union in World War II , the curators responsible for removing the art treasures in Leningrad tried to disassemble and remove the Amber Room . However , over the years the amber had dried out and became brittle , making it impossible to move the room without crumbling the amber . The Amber Room was therefore hidden behind mundane wallpaper , in an attempt to keep German forces from seizing it . Predictably , the attempt to hide such a well @-@ known piece of art failed .
German soldiers of Army Group North disassembled the Amber Room within 36 hours under the supervision of two experts . On 14 October 1941 , the priceless room reached Königsberg in East Prussia , for storage and display in the town 's castle . On 13 November 1941 , a Konigsberg newspaper announced an exhibition of the Amber Room at Königsberg Castle .
= = = Last days in Königsberg = = =
Orders given by Hitler on 21 and 24 January 1945 ordered the movement of looted possessions from Königsberg . This allowed Albert Speer , Reichminister of Armaments , and his administration team to transport cultural goods of priority . However , before the Amber Room could be moved , Erich Koch , who was in charge of civil administration in Königsberg during the final months of the war , abandoned his post and fled from the city , leaving General Otto Lasch in command .
In August 1944 , Königsberg was heavily fire bombed by the Royal Air Force . It suffered further extensive damage from artillery from the advancing Red Army before the final occupation on 9 April 1945 .
= = In popular culture = =
A fictional music box from the Amber Room is the macguffin plot device throughout the first two seasons of the USA television series White Collar
The Amber Room is also the central plot device in Steve Berry 's first novel The Amber Room ( 2003 ) .
= = Reconstruction = =
In 1979 , the Soviet government decided to construct a replica of the Amber Room at Tsarskoye Selo , a process that was to last 24 years and require 40 Russian and German experts in amber craftsmanship . Using original drawings and old black @-@ and @-@ white photographs , every attempt was made to duplicate the original Amber Room . This included the 350 shades of amber in the original panels and fixtures that adorned the room . Another major problem was the lack of skilled workers , since amber carving was considered a nearly lost art form .
The financial difficulties that plagued the reconstruction project from the start were solved with the donation of $ 3 @.@ 5 million from the German company E.ON. By 2003 , the work of the Russian craftsmen was mostly completed . The new room was dedicated by Russian President Vladimir Putin and German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder at the 300th anniversary of the city of Saint Petersburg .
In Kleinmachnow , near Berlin , there is a miniature Amber Room , fabricated after the original . The Berlin miniature collector Ulla Klingbeil had this copy made of original East Prussian amber .
= = Architecture = =
The Amber Room is a priceless piece of art , with extraordinary architectural features such as gilding , carvings , 450 kg ( 990 lb ) amber panels , gold leaf , gemstones , and mirrors , all highlighted with candle light . Additional architectural and design features include statues of angels and children . Because of its unique features and singular beauty , the original Amber Room was sometimes dubbed the " Eighth Wonder of the World " . Modern estimates of the room 's value range from $ 142 million ( 2007 ) to over $ 500 million ( 2016 ) .
= = Disappearance and mysteries = =
After the war , the Amber Room was never seen in public again , though reports have occasionally surfaced stating that pieces of the Amber Room survived the war . Several eyewitnesses claimed to have spotted the famous room being loaded on board the Wilhelm Gustloff , which left Gdynia on 30 January 1945 , and was then promptly torpedoed and sunk by a Soviet submarine .
In 1997 , an Italian stone mosaic that was part of a set of four stones which had decorated the Amber Room was found in Germany , in the possession of the family of a soldier who claimed to have helped pack up the amber chamber . The mosaic came into the hands of the Russian authorities and was used in the reconstruction effort .
In 1998 , two separate teams , one German and one Lithuanian , announced they had located the Amber Room . The German team pointed to a silver mine while the Lithuanian team believed the amber treasure was buried in a lagoon ; neither of the two suggestions turned out to hold the Amber Room .
In 2004 , a lengthy investigation by British investigative journalists Catherine Scott @-@ Clark and Adrian Levy concluded that Amber Room was most likely destroyed when Königsberg Castle was heavily damaged , first during the bombing of Königsberg by the Royal Air Force in 1944 , when the castle completely burned down , and later by the Soviet shelling of the remaining walls . Documents from the Russian National Archives revealed this as the assessment of a Soviet report , written by Alexander Brusov , head of the Soviet team charged with locating the Amber Room following the war . The report stated :
These dates correspond with the end of the Battle of Konigsberg , which finished on 9 April with the surrender of the German garrison . A few years later , Brusov publicly voiced a contrary opinion ; this is believed to have been done due to pressure from Soviet authorities , who did not want to be seen as responsible for the loss of the Amber Room .
Among other information retrieved from the archives was the revelation that the remaining Italian stone mosaics were found in the burned debris of the castle . Scott @-@ Clark and Levy concluded in their report that the reason the Soviets conducted extensive searches for the Amber Room , even though their own experts had concluded that it was destroyed , was because they wanted to know if any of their own soldiers had been responsible for the destruction . Scott @-@ Clark and Levy also assessed that others in the Soviet government found the theft of the Amber Room a useful Cold War propaganda tool . Russian government officials have since denied these conclusions . Adelaida Yolkina , senior researcher at the Pavlovsk Palace , reportedly stated : " It is impossible to see the Red Army being so careless that they let the Amber Room be destroyed " .
After the report was made public , Leonid Arinshtein , who was a Lieutenant in the Red Army in charge of a rifle platoon during the Battle of Konigsberg , said : " I probably was one of the last people who saw the Amber Room " . At the same time , he explained that the whole city was burning due to artillery bombardments , but also denied allegations that the Red Army burned the city on purpose by saying : " What soldiers would burn the city where they will have to stay ? "
A variation of this theory by some present @-@ day residents of Kaliningrad ( formerly Königsberg ) , is that at least parts of the room were found in the Königsberg Castle cellars after World War II by the Red Army . The Amber Room was allegedly still in good condition ; this was not admitted at the time so the blame could fall upon the Nazis . To preserve this story , access to the ruins of the castle , which was allowed after World War II , was suddenly restricted to all , including historical and archaeological surveys .
Then in 1968 , despite academic protests worldwide , Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev ordered the destruction of Königsberg Castle , thus making any onsite research of the last known resting place of the Amber Room all but impossible . In more recent years , the search for the Amber Room has continued in different locations including near Wuppertal , Germany .
= = = Printed = = =
Denny , Isabel ( 2007 ) . The Fall of Hitler 's Fortress City : the Battle for Königsberg , 1945 . MBI Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1935149200 .
Khatri , Vikas ( 2012 ) . World Famous Treasures Lost and Found . Pustak Mahal Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 8122312744 .
Lucas , James ( 2000 ) . Last Days of the Reich : The Collapse of Nazi Germany , May 1945 . Cassell Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0304354481 .
Scott @-@ Clark , Catherine ; Levy , Adrian ( 2004 ) . The Amber Room : The Untold Story of the Greatest Hoax of the Twentieth Century . Atlantic Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 84354 @-@ 340 @-@ 0 .
Torney , Austin ( 2009 ) . The Guide to the All @-@ Embracing Realm of the Ultimate . Torney Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1448617272 .
Wermusch , Günter ( 1991 ) . Die Bernsteinzimmer Saga : Spuren , Irrwege , Rätsel ( in German ) . Yale University . ISBN 978 @-@ 3861530190 .
= = = Online = = =
" 60 @-@ year Hunt For Russian Czars ' Missing Amber Room May Be Over After Discovery in Germany " . Daily Mail . 2011 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" A Brief History of the Amber Room " . Smithsonian Institution . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Amber Room Hunt Makes Lake the Tsar Attraction " . Scotland on Sunday . 2006 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Amber Room Remnants Found ? — Discoveries Delight Russian Art Experts " . Seattle Times . 1997 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Catherine Palace " . St. Petersburg . 2001 . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .
" Erich Koch , Regarded as One of Cruelest of Hitler 's SS Men , Dies in Prison at 90 " . Los Angeles Times . 1986 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Greed , Glory and a Tsar 's Lost Treasure " . The Guardian . 2004 . Retrieved 22 February 2015 .
" Inside the £ 300 Million Room : Incredible Story of Amber and Gold Living Space That Once Belonged to Catherine the Great Revealed in BBC Documentary " . Daily Mail . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Mystery of the Amber Room Resurfaces " . ABC News . 2004 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Red Army , Not the Nazis , Destroyed Tsar 's Amber Room " . Telegraph . 2004 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Resurrecting Königsberg : Russian City Looks to German Roots " . Der Spiegel . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Restoration of the Amber Chamber is Coming to an End " . Pravda . 2007 . Retrieved 26 June 2007 .
" Russian Jeweller Recreates the Amber Room In His Workshop " . Russia Beyond the Headlines . 2013 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Top 10 Famous Pieces of Art Stolen by the Nazis " . Toptenz . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" The Amber Room : History , Figures , Facts and Mysteries " ( in Russian ) . RIA Novosti . 2010 . Retrieved 25 February 2015 .
" The Amber Room : Long Lost Treasure " . AskMen . 2004 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" The Amber Room " . About . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
= Lipid =
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats , waxes , sterols , fat @-@ soluble vitamins ( such as vitamins A , D , E , and K ) , monoglycerides , diglycerides , triglycerides , phospholipids , and others . The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy , signaling , and acting as structural components of cell membranes . Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology .
Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules ; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles , multilamellar / unilamellar liposomes , or membranes in an aqueous environment . Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or " building @-@ blocks " : ketoacyl and isoprene groups . Using this approach , lipids may be divided into eight categories : fatty acids , glycerolipids , glycerophospholipids , sphingolipids , saccharolipids , and polyketides ( derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits ) ; and sterol lipids and prenol lipids ( derived from condensation of isoprene subunits ) .
Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats , fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides . Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives ( including tri- , di- , monoglycerides , and phospholipids ) , as well as other sterol @-@ containing metabolites such as cholesterol . Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways both to break down and to synthesize lipids , some essential lipids cannot be made this way and must be obtained from the diet .
= = Categories of lipids = =
= = = Fatty acids = = =
Fatty acids , or fatty acid residues when they are part of a lipid , are a diverse group of molecules synthesized by chain @-@ elongation of an acetyl @-@ CoA primer with malonyl @-@ CoA or methylmalonyl @-@ CoA groups in a process called fatty acid synthesis . They are made of a hydrocarbon chain that terminates with a carboxylic acid group ; this arrangement confers the molecule with a polar , hydrophilic end , and a nonpolar , hydrophobic end that is insoluble in water . The fatty acid structure is one of the most fundamental categories of biological lipids , and is commonly used as a building @-@ block of more structurally complex lipids . The carbon chain , typically between four and 24 carbons long , may be saturated or unsaturated , and may be attached to functional groups containing oxygen , halogens , nitrogen , and sulfur . If a fatty acid contains a double bond , there is the possibility of either a cis or trans geometric isomerism , which significantly affects the molecule 's configuration . Cis @-@ double bonds cause the fatty acid chain to bend , an effect that is compounded with more double bonds in the chain . Three double bonds in 18 @-@ carbon linolenic acid , the most abundant fatty @-@ acyl chains of plant thylakoid membranes , render these membranes highly fluid despite environmental low @-@ temperatures , and also makes linolenic acid give dominating sharp peaks in high resolution 13 @-@ C NMR spectra of chloroplasts . This in turn plays an important role in the structure and function of cell membranes . Most naturally occurring fatty acids are of the cis configuration , although the trans form does exist in some natural and partially hydrogenated fats and oils .
Examples of biologically important fatty acids include the eicosanoids , derived primarily from arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid , that include prostaglandins , leukotrienes , and thromboxanes . Docosahexaenoic acid is also important in biological systems , particularly with respect to sight . Other major lipid classes in the fatty acid category are the fatty esters and fatty amides . Fatty esters include important biochemical intermediates such as wax esters , fatty acid thioester coenzyme A derivatives , fatty acid thioester ACP derivatives and fatty acid carnitines . The fatty amides include N @-@ acyl ethanolamines , such as the cannabinoid neurotransmitter anandamide .
= = = Glycerolipids = = =
Glycerolipids are composed of mono- , di- , and tri @-@ substituted glycerols , the best @-@ known being the fatty acid triesters of glycerol , called triglycerides . The word " triacylglycerol " is sometimes used synonymously with " triglyceride " . In these compounds , the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol are each esterified , typically by different fatty acids . Because they function as an energy store , these lipids comprise the bulk of storage fat in animal tissues . The hydrolysis of the ester bonds of triglycerides and the release of glycerol and fatty acids from adipose tissue are the initial steps in metabolizing fat .
Additional subclasses of glycerolipids are represented by glycosylglycerols , which are characterized by the presence of one or more sugar residues attached to glycerol via a glycosidic linkage . Examples of structures in this category are the digalactosyldiacylglycerols found in plant membranes and seminolipid from mammalian sperm cells .
= = = Glycerophospholipids = = =
Glycerophospholipids , usually referred to as phospholipids , are ubiquitous in nature and are key components of the lipid bilayer of cells , as well as being involved in metabolism and cell signaling . Neural tissue ( including the brain ) contains relatively high amounts of glycerophospholipids , and alterations in their composition has been implicated in various neurological disorders . Glycerophospholipids may be subdivided into distinct classes , based on the nature of the polar headgroup at the sn @-@ 3 position of the glycerol backbone in eukaryotes and eubacteria , or the sn @-@ 1 position in the case of archaebacteria .
Examples of glycerophospholipids found in biological membranes are phosphatidylcholine ( also known as PC , GPCho or lecithin ) , phosphatidylethanolamine ( PE or GPEtn ) and phosphatidylserine ( PS or GPSer ) . In addition to serving as a primary component of cellular membranes and binding sites for intra- and intercellular proteins , some glycerophospholipids in eukaryotic cells , such as phosphatidylinositols and phosphatidic acids are either precursors of or , themselves , membrane @-@ derived second messengers . Typically , one or both of these hydroxyl groups are acylated with long @-@ chain fatty acids , but there are also alkyl @-@ linked and 1Z @-@ alkenyl @-@ linked ( plasmalogen ) glycerophospholipids , as well as dialkylether variants in archaebacteria .
= = = Sphingolipids = = =
Sphingolipids are a complicated family of compounds that share a common structural feature , a sphingoid base backbone that is synthesized de novo from the amino acid serine and a long @-@ chain fatty acyl CoA , then converted into ceramides , phosphosphingolipids , glycosphingolipids and other compounds . The major sphingoid base of mammals is commonly referred to as sphingosine . Ceramides ( N @-@ acyl @-@ sphingoid bases ) are a major subclass of sphingoid base derivatives with an amide @-@ linked fatty acid . The fatty acids are typically saturated or mono @-@ unsaturated with chain lengths from 16 to 26 carbon atoms .
The major phosphosphingolipids of mammals are sphingomyelins ( ceramide phosphocholines ) , whereas insects contain mainly ceramide phosphoethanolamines and fungi have phytoceramide phosphoinositols and mannose @-@ containing headgroups . The glycosphingolipids are a diverse family of molecules composed of one or more sugar residues linked via a glycosidic bond to the sphingoid base . Examples of these are the simple and complex glycosphingolipids such as cerebrosides and gangliosides .
= = = Sterol lipids = = =
Sterol lipids , such as cholesterol and its derivatives , are an important component of membrane lipids , along with the glycerophospholipids and sphingomyelins . The steroids , all derived from the same fused four @-@ ring core structure , have different biological roles as hormones and signaling molecules . The eighteen @-@ carbon ( C18 ) steroids include the estrogen family whereas the C19 steroids comprise the androgens such as testosterone and androsterone . The C21 subclass includes the progestogens as well as the glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids . The secosteroids , comprising various forms of vitamin D , are characterized by cleavage of the B ring of the core structure . Other examples of sterols are the bile acids and their conjugates , which in mammals are oxidized derivatives of cholesterol and are synthesized in the liver . The plant equivalents are the phytosterols , such as β @-@ sitosterol , stigmasterol , and brassicasterol ; the latter compound is also used as a biomarker for algal growth . The predominant sterol in fungal cell membranes is ergosterol .
= = = Prenol lipids = = =
Prenol lipids are synthesized from the five @-@ carbon @-@ unit precursors isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate that are produced mainly via the mevalonic acid ( MVA ) pathway . The simple isoprenoids ( linear alcohols , diphosphates , etc . ) are formed by the successive addition of C5 units , and are classified according to number of these terpene units . Structures containing greater than 40 carbons are known as polyterpenes . Carotenoids are important simple isoprenoids that function as antioxidants and as precursors of vitamin A. Another biologically important class of molecules is exempl | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
song entered the Australian ARIA Singles Chart at number five , becoming the highest new entry that week and Brown 's tenth top @-@ ten single in that country . " Don 't Wake Me Up " peaked at number two in its fifth week on the chart , and number one in its eighth week on the ARIA Urban Singles Chart . The song was certified triple platinum by ARIA , denoting sales of 210 @,@ 000 copies . " Don 't Wake Me Up " reached the top ten in Hungary , Ireland , Japan and Norway , and the top twenty in Denmark , France , Germany , Sweden , Switzerland and both regions of Belgium . In the United States , the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 89 in the issue dated June 9 , 2012 . " Don 't Wake Me Up " entered the top ten in the issue dated November 10 , 2012 at number 10 , where it peaked . It became Brown 's twelfth top @-@ ten single on the chart , and his second top @-@ ten single from Fortune , following " Turn Up the Music " . On the UK Singles Chart , " Don 't Wake Me Up " debuted at number three in the issue dated July 7 , 2012 , with sales of 89 @,@ 223 copies . The following week , the song peaked at number two with sales of 70 @,@ 702 copies . As of January 2013 , " Don 't Wake Me Up " has sold 416 @,@ 684 copies in the UK . In Austria , " Don 't Wake Me Up " reached number one on August 17 , 2012 , where it remained for one week , becoming Brown 's first number @-@ one single in that country .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The accompanying music video for " Don 't Wake Me Up " was directed by Colin Tilley and filmed in a desert on May 14 , 2012 . Several images from the shoot , showing Brown posing shirtless against a vintage car , and images of Brown posing with model Araya Nicks , who plays his love interest in the video , were posted on the Internet the following day . The video premiered online on June 11 , 2012 . Later that day , Brown made a guest appearance on 106 & Park and discussed the video 's concept :
With this video , we wanted to go completely into the dream world . A lot of my videos from ' Turn Up the Music ' and other videos I 'm doing now are in a dream state of believing what you want to believe . So that 's what Fortune kinda encompasses . So it 's basically dreaming and accomplishing your dreams . This video is me dreaming and being taken into this whole kind of maze . I keep waking up within a dream within a dream , almost on some Inception type ... but I don 't want to bite that .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with Brown singing alone in a desert in front of a sunset backdrop . It then cuts to Brown waking up in a bedroom as he notices a mysterious woman ( played by Araya Nicks ) walking through the first of three doors behind him . Each door is labeled with hieroglyphics in gold . During the first chorus , Brown follows the woman through the door and enters a garden maze . This scene is intercut with scenes of Brown singing in the desert . He then returns to bed as the woman walks through the second door . Brown follows her again and appears in a city in the sky . This scene is also intercut with scenes of him in the desert . During the second chorus , Brown is hit by a tidal wave which sends him back to bed . He then enters the third door and appears driving a vintage car in the desert . Brown drives after the woman until he hits a sign that reads " Road Closed " , which causes him to drive off a cliff . The video then cuts to Brown and the woman lying in bed with electrodes attached to their heads .
= = = Reception = = =
Nicole Sia of Idolator called the clip Brown 's " Video of the Year " and complimented its " stunning dream imagery " . A writer for The Edge called it " another visually tantalising music video " from Brown , while Rap @-@ Up described it as surreal . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush described the video as " good visual fun " and wrote that it reminded him of the television series Day Break . He compared the ending to the 1999 film The Matrix . The video was nominated for World 's Best Video at the 2012 World Music Awards .
= = Live performances = =
On June 8 , 2012 , Brown performed " Don 't Wake Me Up " on Today as part of its Summer Concert Series , for which he wore a New York Yankees cap , a multicolored Snow Beach Polo jacket , black jeans and white sneakers . The set list also included " Turn Up the Music " , " Yeah 3x " and " Forever " . At the 2012 BET Awards ceremony on July 1 , 2012 , Brown performed " Don 't Wake Me Up " and " Turn Up the Music " , for which he appeared shirtless with half his body painted gray . Brown performed acrobatic moves with six backup dancers under triangle @-@ shaped beams as green and red flashing lights appeared throughout the stage . Georgette Cline of The Boombox wrote that Brown " put on an energetic show " and described his dance routines during the performance as " eye @-@ catching " .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Fortune
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= Battle of Île Ronde =
The Battle of Île Ronde was a minor naval engagement between small French Navy and British Royal Navy squadrons off Île de France , now named Mauritius , in the early stages of the French Revolutionary Wars . The battle was fought over control of the waters around Île de France , which was under blockade from the British squadron as French warships and privateers operating from the island posed a significant threat to vital British trade routes connected to British India and China .
In an attempt to neutralise the island , the British commander in the region , Peter Rainier ordered the 50 @-@ gun HMS Centurion and 44 @-@ gun HMS Diomede to institute a blockade , which began in October 1794 . Concerned by food shortages and a rebellious slave population the French naval commander Jean @-@ Marie Renaud led his small squadron comprising frigates Cybèle and Prudente and three smaller vessels to drive off the British squadron . On 22 October , the squadrons met off Île Ronde , an islet off northern Île de France .
The battle lasted two and a quarter hours , in which Centurion and Cybèle fought a close duel which left both ships badly damaged . Supported by the remainder of the squadron , Cybèle successfully withdrew under fire , but Centurion , without support from the distant Diomede was also forced to retire for repairs . Unable to continue the blockade the British force returned to India , allowing food supplies to reach Île de France . Due to the necessity for campaigns against Dutch Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies , the British blockade was not renewed , but the French were unable to take advantage due to increasing civil unrest among the island 's population .
= = Background = =
War between the French Republic and Great Britain began on 1 February 1793 , news arriving among the French and British East Indian colonies on 11 June 1793 . The strongest French positions in the Indian Ocean were the islands of Île de France and Réunion , which lay substantially to the west of the British bases at Bombay and Madras in British India . A small French frigate squadron , supported by smaller warships and privateers operated from the islands posing a considerable threat to British maritime trade in the Indian Ocean .
To counter the threat the British commander in the region , Captain Peter Rainier ordered two of his ships to blockade the island during the summer of 1794 . Rainer 's force comprised the 50 @-@ gun fourth rate ship 50 @-@ gun HMS Centurion under Captain Samuel Osborne and the large 44 @-@ gun frigate HMS Diomede under Captain Matthew Smith . Together the ships sailed from Madras on 30 August 1794 , stopping at the allied port of Trincomalee in Dutch Ceylon and the undefended French @-@ controlled island of Rodrigues before arriving off Île de France in October .
Île de France had been in a state of turmoil since the French Revolution and in 1792 the republican party on the island seized control . In 1794 suspected royalists were arrested , including the naval commander Saint @-@ Félix , their executions forestalled by the arrival of news that the French Convention had abolished slavery . Only the intervention of Governor Malartic prevented unrest . The preoccupation of the naval authorities had prevented any offensive operations and the reduced squadron , now commanded by Captain Jean @-@ Marie Renaud , remained in Port Louis .
= = Battle = =
Despite the upheaval on shore , the arrival of the British blockade squadron provoked Renaud into taking action . Although the defences of Île de France were well prepared under Malartic 's orders , food supplies were running low , with only rice still available in quantity . The potential for famine and consequent social unrest among the slave population was severe and Renaud sailed immediately to intercept Centurion and Diomede . The French squadron comprised the 40 @-@ gun frigate Cybèle under Captain Pierre Tréhouart , the 36 @-@ gun Prudente under Renaud and the 14 @-@ gun brig Courier under Lieutenant Garreau . The force was accompanied by the 20 @-@ gun privateer corvettes Jean @-@ Bart and Rosalie was well as the aviso Sans @-@ Culottes . The ships ' crews were heavily augmented by volunteers , including a young Robert Surcouf on Cybèle , as well as a detachment of soldiers .
Renaud 's squadron sailed on 19 October , seeking the British to the north of the island . At 11 : 00 on 22 October , close to the uninhabited islet of Île Ronde northwest of Île de France the British ships were sighted . Osborne issued orders to advance on the French squadron , Renaud responding by forming his ships in a line of battle and advancing to meet Osborne . Prudente led the French line , closely followed by Cybèle , Jean @-@ Bart and Courier , Osborne focusing on the former and ordering Smith to engage the latter . Firing began at 15 : 29 when Prudente unleashed a close range broadside at Centurion , followed immediately by fire from the ships of both sides . Centurion was damaged in the opening exchanges and by 16 : 00 had most of her sails and rigging torn . At this Renaud ordered his squadron to pull back to leeward out of range , each firing on Centurion as they passed .
As Cybèle came within range of Centurion the frigate 's fire brought down the British ship 's mizen topmast and fore topgallantmast . Return fire from Centurion managed however to sufficiently damage the French ship that she was unable to retreat in the light winds and the two largely immobilised ships began a close range duel . For more than an hour the exchange continued , Renaud unable to intervene from leeward and Smith repeatedly refusing Osborne 's orders to support his ship , Diomede remaining at long range and contributing an intermittent and inaccurate fire on the distant Cybèle . At 17 : 15 a light breeze enabled Tréhouart to slowly pull his ship towards Renaud 's force despite the loss of the main topgallantmast . At 17 : 45 , with Prudente close by , the main topmast fell on Cybèle , which had 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water in the hold , but Osborne , outnumbered and with his ship damaged reluctantly withdrew . The threat lifted , Renaud was able to take Cybèle under tow and retire in the direction of Île de France , followed distantly and ineffectually by Diomede until night fell .
= = = Combatant summary = = =
In this table , " Guns " refers to all cannon carried by the ship , including the maindeck guns which were taken into consideration when calculating it 's rate , as well as any carronades carried aboard . Broadside weight records the combined weight of shot which could be fired in a single simultaneous discharge of an entire broadside .
= = Aftermath = =
The immediate result of the battle was inconclusive , both squadrons retiring with one ship damaged apiece . French losses had been heavy , with 15 killed and 20 wounded on Prudente , the latter including Renaud and 22 killed and 62 wounded on Cybèle . One sailor was killed and five wounded on Jean @-@ Bart and no casualties were reported on Courier . By contrast , Centurion had only three men killed and 23 wounded and Diomede none at all , but the damage to Osborne 's ship was more severe ; while Renaud could repair and resupply his ships in nearby Port Louis , repairs to Centurion could only be affected in India , several thousand miles away . Osborne was thus forced to abandon the blockade and retire , Centurion to Bombay and Diomede to Madras .
The action brought repercussions for Smith , whose failure to support Osborne was noted ; although Smith claimed that he was simply maintaining the line of battle , it subsequently emerged that the captains had engaged in a personal dispute in result of which Smith had decided to refuse Osborne 's orders . After his behaviour had featured in Osborne 's initial dispatch , Smith challenged his account and Osborne demanded a court @-@ martial held to investigate . This panel decided that Smith 's behaviour was unacceptable and he was dismissed from the Navy , by which time he had lost Diomede , wrecked on a rock in Trincomalee Bay on 2 August 1795 during the invasion of Ceylon . Although Smith appealed his sentence and was restored to the captain 's list in 1798 he was never again called to service and retired in 1806 .
British historians have considered that Smith 's refusal to participate probably cost Osborne the battle . William James wrote that his behaviour was " the principle reason that Cybèle , at least , was not made a prize of by the British " . C. Northcote Parkinson considers the action " indecisive " but concurs with James ' assessment that Smith 's intervention could have resulted in a British victory but instead that " the first encounter of the war between the French and English in the East Indies had resulted in what was tantamount to defeat for the latter " .
On Île de France the relief of the blockade meant that shipping , particularly American vessels laden with food supplies from Tamatave on Madagascar , could reach the island and the threatened famine was averted . French privateers were also again free to operate against British trade , particularly in the Bay of Bengal . With Renaud 's squadron still at Port Louis , Rainier considered renewing the blockade , but was dissuaded by the dangers of the monsoon season and a false report that a squadron of French ships of the line was soon due to arrive on Île de France . In 1795 he was distracted by the sudden need to guard against the Dutch East India colonies following the French conquest of the Netherlands , and he supervised the invasion of Ceylon and operations against the Dutch East Indies . By the time his attention turned once more to Île de France , it had been heavily reinforced in early 1796 by a frigate squadron commanded by Contre @-@ amiral Sercey .
= Jean @-@ Marie Defrance =
Jean @-@ Marie Defrance ( 1771 – 1855 ) was a French General of the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . He was also a member of the Council of Five Hundred ( the lower house of the legislative branch of the French government under The Directory ) , and a teacher at the military school of Rebais , Champagne .
Defrance had an extensive and successful military career in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . After the First Battle of Zurich , he refused a battlefield promotion to brigadier general , asking instead for a cavalry regiment ; he received command of the 12th Regiment of Chasseurs @-@ a @-@ Cheval ( light cavalry ) as Chef @-@ de @-@ Brigade , a rank equivalent to colonel . He led this brigade in the campaigns of 1799 – 1800 in southwestern Germany and northern Italy . By 1805 , he had been promoted to brigadier general . At the Battle of Austerlitz and the Battle of Jena @-@ Auerstadt , he commanded a cavalry brigade of carabiniers in Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty 's First Division . By the Battle of Borodino in September 1812 , he had been promoted to general of division , commanding the 4th Cuirassier Division of Nansouty 's reserves , where they charged the Shevardino redoubt . He fought his way across Germany to the Rhine River after the French loss at Leipzig and participated in the Six Days Campaign .
In the Hundred Days , he commanded part of Jean Maximilien Lamarque 's Army of the West . At the second Bourbon Restoration , he retained his titles and honors and subsequently held several command posts until retirement in 1829 . He died in 1855 .
= = Family = =
Jean @-@ Marie Defrance was born on 21 September 1771 at Vassy , in the Champagne province and died 6 July 1855 . On his mother 's side , he was the grandson of the French writer Pierre Chompré ( 1698 – 1760 ) ; his father , Jean @-@ Claude Defrance , was the medical doctor at the Royal Military School of Rebais , in Champagne . Jean @-@ Marie Defrance married the daughter of the richest jeweler in Paris , by the name Foncier .
= = Military career = =
Defrance was stationed in Saint @-@ Domingue during the first Haitian revolt and served in the volunteers Cape Dragoons . On his return to France in 1792 , he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the cavalry regiment royal @-@ étranger . After serving in the Army of the North , he was appointed adjutant @-@ general brigadier in the Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse . He also served in the Council of the Five Hundred .
Defrance also served in the Swiss Campaign of 1799 as divisional Chief of Staff of the 1st Division of Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan 's Army of the Danube ; after the losses at the battles of Ostrach and Stockach in March 1799 , the Army of the Danube was combined with the Army of Helvetia , under the command of Andre Massena . Defrance continued in his capacity as divisional chief of staff . At the First Battle of Zurich in June 1799 , he was appointed on the field as brigadier general , an honor which he declined , asking instead to be given command of a cavalry regiment . He received command of the 12th Regiment of Chasseurs @-@ a @-@ Cheval . As Chef @-@ de @-@ Brigade , the equivalent of colonel in France 's revolutionary @-@ era field army , Defrance went to Italy and participated in the actions leading up to the Battle of Marengo . During the winter of 1800 – 1801 , he campaigned in the Grisons in Switzerland and returned to France after the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801 .
= = = Career during the Napoleonic Wars = = =
In 1803 , with Napoleon 's military reorganization , the title Chef @-@ de @-@ Brigade reverted to colonel ; Defrance retained his command of the 12th Regiment of Chasseurs @-@ a @-@ Cheval . He was named Officer of the Légion d 'honneur on 14 June 1804 . On 1 February 1805 , he accepted a promotion to brigadier general and commanded a brigade in the Danube campaign against Austria and Russia at the battles of Ulm and Austerlitz .
In 1806 , he campaigned against Kingdom of Prussia and Russia at the Battle of Jena @-@ Auerstadt . There , and at the Battle of Friedland on 14 June 1807 , he commanded a carabinier brigade — the first and second regiments — in Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty 's First Division . Napoleon raised him to Count of the Empire on 2 July 1808 . At the Battle of Wagram ( 1809 ) , he again commanded the carabinier brigade .
The confiscation of the Prussian cavalry and draft stock required supervision to integrate the acquisitions into the Grande Armée . After completing several terms as an inspector general of cavalry , Defrance was appointed general of division in August 1811 and joined Joachim Murat 's Cavalry in February 1812 for Napoleon 's Invasion of Russia . At the Battle of Borodino , he commanded 4th Cuirassier Division , which included three brigades and two horse artillery units of 12 guns . These were assigned to Nansouty 's Reserves and assaulted the Shevardino redoubt on 5 – 6 September .
During the Saxon campaign , Defrance was appointed Inspector General for the Grande Armée . He also commanded the 4th Heavy Cavalry Division at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813 , and one of his brigades remained at Lindenau to cover a possible retreat .
In January 1814 , for the last few months of Napoleon 's rule , Defrance commanded four regiments of Imperial Guard and fought in the action of 11 February at Montmirail , during the Six Days Campaign . On 7 March , with much smaller force than his opponent , he repulsed the Russian assault at Rheims , but on 12 March was forced to relinquish the city as more Coalition troops arrived . The following day , he attacked the Russian cavalry , but was again forced to withdraw when faced with superior numbers .
= = Late military career = =
During the first Bourbon Restoration , Louis XVIII appointed Defrance as inspector general of cavalry . During the Hundred Days , Napoleon 's brief return to France , Jean @-@ Marie Defrance commanded part of the Armée de l 'Ouest . This Army of the West was also called the Army of the Vendée and the Army of the Loire . Under overall command of Jean Maximilien Lamarque , one of Napoleon 's fiercest supporters , it was formed to suppress potential Royalist insurrection in the Vendée region of France . Defrance did not participate in the Battle of Rocheserviere , in which Lemarque 's army brutally crushed the anticipated Vendéen uprising . He remained instead at his post of the 18th military division , inspecting the cavalry depots in the upper Loire . Defrance retained his rank after the second restoration and commanded the First Military Division in Paris from 1819 to 1822 . He also taught at the military school in Rebais .
Defrance 's name is engraved on the east side of the Arc de Triomphe .
= California Southern Railroad =
The California Southern Railroad was a subsidiary railroad of the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway ( Santa Fe ) in Southern California . It was organized July 10 , 1880 , and chartered on October 23 , 1880 , to build a rail connection between what has become the city of Barstow and San Diego , California .
Construction began in National City , just south of San Diego , in 1881 , and proceeded northward to the present day city of Oceanside . From there , the line turned to the northeast through Temecula Canyon , then on to the present cities of Lake Elsinore , Perris and Riverside before a connection to the Southern Pacific Railroad ( SP ) in Colton . Following a frog war where the SP refused to let the California Southern cross its tracks , a dispute that was resolved by court order in favor of the California Southern , construction continued northward through Cajon Pass to the present day cities of Victorville and Barstow . The line , completed on November 9 , 1885 , formed the western end of Santa Fe 's transcontinental railroad connection to Chicago . Portions of the original line are still in use today as some of the busiest rail freight and passenger routes in the United States .
= = History = =
The California Southern was organized on July 10 , 1880 , as a means to connect San Diego to a connection with the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad at an as @-@ yet undetermined point . Among the organizers were Frank Kimball , a prominent landowner and rancher from San Diego who also represented the Chamber of Commerce and the Board of City Trustees of San Diego , Kidder , Peabody & Co . , one of the main financial investment companies involved in the Santa Fe , B.P. Cheney , L.G. Pratt , George B. Wilbur and Thomas Nickerson who was president of the Santa Fe . The organizers set a deadline of January 1 , 1884 , to complete the connection , a deadline that was later adjusted due to problems in the construction of the Atlantic and Pacific that forced it to stop at Needles , California .
The California Southern built its track northward from a point in National City , south of San Diego . The route , portions of which are still in use , connected the present day cities of National City , San Diego , Fallbrook , Temecula , Lake Elsinore , Perris , Riverside , San Bernardino , Colton , Cajon ( not to be confused with El Cajon ) , Victorville and Barstow .
In Barstow , then known as Waterman , the California Southern would connect to another Santa Fe subsidiary , the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad . The Atlantic and Pacific was chartered in 1866 to build a railroad connection westward from Springfield , Missouri , connecting Albuquerque , New Mexico , then along the 35th parallel to the Colorado River . From there , the railroad was to continue to the Pacific Ocean following whatever proved to be the best route . The route was scheduled to be completed by July 4 , 1878 . However , the Southern Pacific was able to get a clause favorable to their own interests inserted into the charter :
" ... the Southern Pacific Railroad ... is hereby authorized to connect with the said Atlantic and Pacific railroad formed under this act , at such point , near the boundary line of the State of California , as they shall deem most suitable for a railroad line to San Francisco . "
Southern Pacific had already established a connection to Mojave , so their crews built eastward from there through Barstow ( then called Waterman ) to Needles , California , completing the connection across the Colorado River on August 3 , 1883 . The California segment was leased to the Santa Fe in August 1884 , and fully acquired by the Santa Fe under foreclosure in 1897 .
= = = San Diego = = =
The California Southern began construction in National City on land originally acquired by Frank Kimball . The railroad 's main yards and locomotive maintenance shops were located here , and until the connection was made with Barstow , all tools and equipment ordered by the railroad arrived here by ship around Cape Horn from points in the eastern United States , while the wooden ties arrived by ship from Oregon . Surveys and construction between National City and San Diego were well underway by March 1881 . The railroad reached Fallbrook and opened between there and San Diego in January 1882 .
In 1881 and 1882 , the California Southern received ten locomotive shipments by sea at National City . The last three of these , delivered in November 1882 aboard the ship Anna Camp , have been identified as the last three locomotives ever delivered to the United States Pacific coast after traveling around Cape Horn .
= = = Temecula Canyon = = =
To connect to the Atlantic and Pacific line in the quickest way possible , surveyors and engineers for the California Southern pushed the route through Fallbrook and Temecula — bypassing what was , at the time , the pueblo of Los Angeles . The railroad , however , didn 't understand the nature of Southern California 's dry washes . Local inhabitants warned the railroad of the dangers of building through such an area , that it could become a raging torrent of water , but the railroad built through the canyon anyway .
Despite the warnings , track work through the canyon proceeded at a quick pace . They completed the line to Fallbrook on January 2 , 1882 , then to Temecula on March 27 , 1882 .
Many parts of the canyon had suffered storms . In February 1884 , a storm hit . The train was delayed and the canyon walls brought boulders crashing down on the rails . On February 3 , the train was unable to get through . A few days later , the wires were down . The train from Colton to San Diego could not get through . Disaster was averted because a local resident , Charlie Howell , hurried up the tracks from his family homestead near Willow Glen and managed to stop the train . A series of devastating washouts on the section through Temecula Canyon occurred amid heavy rain storms that flooded the area starting on February 16 , 1884 , just six months after the first trains operated the entire route between San Diego and San Bernardino . The storms brought more than 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) of rain in a four @-@ week period . Two thirds of the mainline through the canyon were washed out with ties seen floating as far as 80 miles ( 129 km ) away in the ocean . Temporary track repairs were made after the first storms , but later in the month , additional rains and flooding washed out the entire route through the canyon . Repairs were estimated at nearly $ 320 @,@ 000 , a figure that could not be recouped effectively .
The canyon was finally bypassed completely with the completion of the Surf Line on August 12 , 1888 , and the line through the canyon was relegated to branch line status . By 1900 it had been abandoned by AT & SF . Finally , the 1928 construction of Railroad Canyon Dam submerged the section of track between Elsinore and Perris beneath Railroad Canyon Lake ( now known as Canyon Lake ) .
= = = The crossing at Colton = = =
Construction of the California Southern was repeatedly interrupted by Santa Fe 's rival , Southern Pacific Railroad ( SP ) . In one instance , the California Southern was set to build a level junction across the SP tracks in Colton , a move that would end Southern Pacific 's monopoly in Southern California .
The Colton Crossing was the site of one of the more notable frog wars in American railroad history . In the summer of 1882 , tensions reached their boiling point when construction of tracks for the California Southern reached Colton , California . In an attempt to forcibly prevent the California Southern Railroad crews from completing construction , the Southern Pacific ( SP ) parked and then slowly moved a locomotive and gondola along the SP track at the location of the planned crossing . In addition , the SP hired armed men , including the famous Virgil Earp , to guard the tracks . Before the violence could get out of hand , Governor Robert Waterman ordered San Bernardino County Sheriff J.B. Burkhart to enforce the state court order . Waterman personally ordered Earp and the crowd to comply with the court order . Earp backed down and told the SP engineer to move the locomotive . The crossing was built , ending the Southern Pacific 's monopoly in Southern California .
= = = Cajon Pass = = =
The first structure that the California Southern used as a depot in San Bernardino was a converted boxcar . Building north from San Bernardino , the California Southern was able to piggyback on the survey work done by the Los Angeles and Independence Railroad up to a point near Cajon .
The original grade of the line up the pass rose at a 2 @.@ 2 % slope between San Bernardino and Cajon , where the grade steepened to 3 % until reaching the summit 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) further . The route over Cajon Pass was completed with a " last spike " on November 9 , 1885 , and the first train to use the pass carried a load of rails southward from Barstow on November 12 to be installed near Riverside . The first through train from Chicago via Santa Fe lines arrived in San Diego on November 17 , 1885 .
Construction of the original route through Cajon Pass was overseen by Jacob Nash Victor , who by this time had become General Manager of the California Southern . He operated the first train through the pass in 1885 , proclaiming " No other railroad will ever have the nerve to build through these mountains . All who follow will prefer to rent trackage from us . " Victor 's assertion remained true for a while as the San Pedro , Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad ( which later became part of Union Pacific Railroad ) signed an agreement to operate over the California Southern track via trackage rights on April 26 , 1905 , but Victor was proven wrong eighty years later when SP built the Palmdale Cutoff in 1967 at a slightly higher elevation through the pass . In honor of his work through the pass , the city of Victorville was named after Victor .
= = = Consolidation = = =
To reach Los Angeles , the Santa Fe leased trackage rights over the Southern Pacific from San Bernardino on November 29 , 1885 , at $ 1 @,@ 200 per mile per year . Naturally , the Santa Fe sought ways to reduce the fees . On November 20 , 1886 , the Santa Fe incorporated the San Bernardino and Los Angeles Railway to build a rail connection between its namesake cities . California Southern track crews performed the construction work , and the first train on the new line arrived in Los Angeles on May 31 , 1887 .
During construction , Santa Fe officials worked to consolidate the many subsidiary railroads in Southern California to reduce costs . At a stockholder meeting on April 23 , the eight railroads and their prominent stockholders , minus the California Southern , voted in favor of consolidation , and the California Central Railway was formed as a result on May 20 , 1887 . After the consolidation , although the California Southern remained a separate subsidiary , the National City shops were downgraded and the services provided there were moved to the newly constructed shops in San Bernardino . One of the first official lists of stations on the California Southern and California Central railroads published on July 13 , 1887 , shows the California Southern divided operationally into two divisions : the San Diego division covered the territory between National City and Colton ; from there , the San Bernardino Division covered the route through Cajon Pass to Barstow .
The Santa Fe underwent a massive financial overhaul in 1889 . The major investors in Boston , Massachusetts , were mostly replaced by investors from New York and London at the annual meeting on May 9 . The investors replaced the company 's board of directors with a new board that included George C. Magoun ( who would later be linked with the company 's 1893 receivership ) . The new investors disliked the number of subsidiary companies and sought to further consolidate them . The California Southern , California Central and Redondo Beach Railway companies were consolidated into the Southern California Railway on November 7 , 1889 . The California Central had consolidated with the Los Angeles and San Gabriel Valley Railroad in 1887 , giving it ROW through the San Gabriel Valley . The Santa Fe finally purchased outright the holdings of the Southern California railroad on January 17 , 1906 , ending the railway 's subsidiary status and making it fully a part of the Santa Fe railroad .
= = Company officers = =
Presidents of the California Southern Railroad were :
Benjamin Kimball 1880
Thomas Nickerson 1880 @-@ 1885
George B. Wilbur 1885 @-@ 1887
George O. Manchester 1887- _ _
= = Visible remnants = =
Much of the right @-@ of @-@ way graded and used by the California Southern is still in use . Several structures built for or by the railroad , or in some cases their remains , can still be seen . Some of the buildings that remain are still in use in their primary purposes .
The two ends of the former railroad are still in use as of 2013 . The section between Barstow and Riverside through Cajon Pass , which includes the disputed crossing in Colton , remains one of the busiest rail freight corridors in the United States , seeing trains of BNSF Railway and Union Pacific Railroad as well as Amtrak 's daily Southwest Chief passenger train . At Cajon the concrete pads that served as the foundations for the railroad 's station facilities and water tanks there remain long after the buildings atop them were removed . The Santa Fe realigned the track at several places during the 20th century to straighten curves along Cajon Creek ( between Cajon and San Bernardino ) , lower grades for eastbound trains with the 1913 addition of a separate track through what has come to be known as Sullivan 's Curve , and to reduce some curvature and lower the pass 's summit elevation by 50 ft ( 15 m ) .
The maintenance shops in San Bernardino are still in use by BNSF Railway , although not to the extent that they were used in the 20th century . The San Bernardino station that was opened by the California Southern was destroyed by fire on November 16 , 1916 . It was replaced in 1918 by the Santa Fe with the current structure that now serves Metrolink 's San Bernardino Line commuter trains on runs that terminate at Los Angeles Union Station . Until the introduction of weekend service on the 91 Line in July 2014 , limited service from San Bernardino to Riverside was provided by some San Bernardino Line trains , and the Metrolink Riverside Line terminates at the Riverside station although it reaches the station via a more southerly route . South of Riverside the track is still in place to Perris , where the Orange Empire Railway Museum has a connection to the mainline . This section is being rehabilitated to the Perris Valley Line , an extension of Metrolink 91 Line service to stations at Hunter Park , March Air Reserve Base , Perris , and South Perris .
At the southern end the section between San Diego and Oceanside also sees heavy use by Amtrak California 's Pacific Surfliner trains as well as those of the San Diego Coaster . As part of the Santa Fe 's rail network , it was part of what has come to be known as the Surf Line . As of January 2006 , this line is the second busiest passenger rail line in the United States .
Although San Diego 's Union Station replaced the railroad 's original station there in 1915 , the California Southern 's station and office building in National City has been preserved and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= Salt =
Common salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride ( NaCl ) , a chemical compound belonging to the larger class of salts ; salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite . Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater , where it is the main mineral constituent . The open ocean has about 35 grams ( 1 @.@ 2 oz ) of solids per litre , a salinity of 3 @.@ 5 % .
Salt is essential for human life , and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes . The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues . Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings , and salting is an important method of food preservation .
Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 8 @,@ 000 years ago , when people living in an area in what is now known as the country of Romania were boiling spring water to extract the salts ; a salt @-@ works in China dates to approximately the same period . Salt was prized by the ancient Hebrews , the Greeks , the Romans , the Byzantines , the Hittites and the Egyptians . Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea , along specially built salt roads , and across the Sahara in camel caravans . The scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over salt and use it to raise tax revenues . Salt is also used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural significance .
Salt is processed from salt mines , or by the evaporation of seawater ( sea salt ) or mineral @-@ rich spring water in shallow pools . Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine , and is used in many industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride , plastics , paper pulp and many other products . Of the annual global production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt , only about 6 % is used for human consumption . Other uses include water conditioning processes , deicing highways , and agricultural use . Edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti @-@ caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency . As well as its use in cooking and at the table , salt is present in many processed foods .
Sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute . Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases , such as hypertension , in children and adults . Such health effects of salt have long been studied . Accordingly , numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods . The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2 @,@ 000 mg of sodium , equivalent to 5 grams of salt per day .
= = History = =
Humans have always tended to build communities either around sources of salt , or where they can trade for it .
All through history the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization . The word " salary " comes from the Latin word for salt because the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt , which was quite literally worth its weight in gold . In Britain , the suffix " -wich " in a placename means it was once a source of salt , as in Sandwich and Norwich . The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north , because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name , natron .
Even before this , what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata , in Bulgaria , which was a salt mine , providing the area now known as the Balkans with salt since 5400 BC . Even the name Solnisata means " salt works " .
While people have used canning and artificial refrigeration to preserve food for the last hundred years or so , salt has been the best @-@ known food preservative , especially for meat , for many thousands of years . A very ancient salt @-@ works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a salt spring in Lunca , Neamț County , Romania . Evidence indicates that Neolithic people of the Precucuteni Culture were boiling the salt @-@ laden spring water through the process of briquetage to extract the salt as far back as 6050 BC . The salt extracted from this operation may have had a direct correlation to the rapid growth of this society 's population soon after its initial production began . The harvest of salt from the surface of Xiechi Lake near Yuncheng in Shanxi , China , dates back to at least 6000 BC , making it one of the oldest verifiable saltworks .
There is more salt in animal tissues such as meat , blood and milk , than there is in plant tissues . Nomads who subsist on their flocks and herds do not eat salt with their food , but agriculturalists , feeding mainly on cereals and vegetable matter , need to supplement their diet with salt . With the spread of civilization , salt became one of the world 's main trading commodities . It was of high value to the ancient Hebrews , the Greeks , the Romans , the Byzantines , the Hittites and other peoples of antiquity . In the Middle East , salt was used to ceremonially seal an agreement , and the ancient Hebrews made a " covenant of salt " with God and sprinkled salt on their offerings to show their trust in him . An ancient practice in time of war was salting the earth : scattering salt around in a defeated city in order to prevent plant growth . The Bible tells the story of King Abimelech who was ordered by God to do this at Shechem , and various texts claim that the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus Africanus ploughed over and sowed the city of Carthage with salt after it was defeated in the Third Punic War ( 146 BC ) .
Salt may have been used for barter in connection with the obsidian trade in Anatolia in the Neolithic Era . Herodotus described salt trading routes across Libya back in the 5th century BC . In the early years of the Roman Empire , roads such as the Via Salaria were built for the transportation of salt from the salt pans of Ostia to the capital . Salt was included among funeral offerings found in ancient Egyptian tombs from the third millennium BC , as were salted birds , and salt fish . From about 2800 BC , the Egyptians began exporting salt fish to the Phoenicians in return for Lebanon cedar , glass and the dye Tyrian purple ; the Phoenicians traded Egyptian salt fish and salt from North Africa throughout their Mediterranean trade empire .
In Africa , salt was used as currency south of the Sahara , and slabs of rock salt were used as coins in Abyssinia . Moorish merchants in the 6th century traded salt for gold , weight for weight . The Tuareg have traditionally maintained routes across the Sahara especially for the transportation of salt by Azalai ( salt caravans ) . The caravans still cross the desert from southern Niger to Bilma , although much of the trade now takes place by truck . Each camel takes two bales of fodder and two of trade goods northwards and returns laden with salt pillars and dates .
Salzburg , Hallstatt , and Hallein lie within 17 km ( 11 mi ) of each other on the river Salzach in central Austria in an area with extensive salt deposits . Salzach literally means " salt river " and Salzburg " salt castle " , both taking their names from the German word Salz meaning salt and Hallstatt was the site of the world 's first salt mine . The town gave its name to the Hallstatt culture that began mining for salt in the area in about 800 BC . Around 400 BC , the townsfolk , who had previously used pickaxes and shovels , began open pan salt making . During the first millennium BC , Celtic communities grew rich trading salt and salted meat to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in exchange for wine and other luxuries . The word salary originates from Latin : salarium which referred to the money paid to the Roman Army 's soldiers for the purchase of salt . The word salad literally means " salted " , and comes from the ancient Roman practice of salting leaf vegetables .
Wars have been fought over salt . Venice fought and won a war with Genoa over the product , and it played an important part in the American Revolution . Cities on overland trade routes grew rich by levying duties , and towns like Liverpool flourished on the export of salt extracted from the salt mines of Cheshire . Various governments have at different times imposed salt taxes on their peoples . The voyages of Christopher Columbus are said to have been financed from salt production in southern Spain , and the oppressive salt tax in France was one of the causes of the French Revolution . After being repealed , this tax was reimposed by Napoleon when he became emperor to pay for his foreign wars , and was not finally abolished until 1945 . In 1930 , Mahatma Gandhi led at least 100 @,@ 000 people on the " Dandi March " or " Salt Satyagraha " , in which protesters made their own salt from the sea thus defying British rule and avoiding paying the salt tax . This civil disobedience inspired millions of common people , and elevated the Indian independence movement from an elitist movement to a national struggle .
= = Chemistry = =
Salt is mostly sodium chloride , the ionic compound with the formula NaCl , representing equal proportions of sodium and chlorine . Sea salt and freshly mined salt ( much of which is sea salt from prehistoric seas ) also contain small amounts of trace elements ( which in these small amounts are generally good for plant and animal health ) . Mined salt is often refined in the production of table salt ; it is dissolved in water , purified via precipitation of other minerals out of solution , and re @-@ evaporated . During this same refining process it is often also iodized . Salt crystals are translucent and cubic in shape ; they normally appear white but impurities may give them a blue or purple tinge . The molar mass of salt is 58 @.@ 443 g / mol , its melting point is 801 ° C ( 1 @,@ 474 ° F ) and its boiling point 1 @,@ 465 ° C ( 2 @,@ 669 ° F ) . Its density is 2 @.@ 17 grams per cubic centimetre and it is readily soluble in water . When dissolved in water it separates into Na + and Cl − ions and the solubility is 359 grams per litre . From cold solutions , salt crystallises as the dihydrate NaCl · 2H2O . Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from those of pure water ; the freezing point is − 21 @.@ 12 ° C ( − 6 @.@ 02 ° F ) for 23 @.@ 31 wt % of salt , and the boiling point of saturated salt solution is around 108 @.@ 7 ° C ( 227 @.@ 7 ° F ) .
= = Edible salt = =
Salt is essential to the health of humans and animals , and is one of the five basic taste sensations .
Salt is used in many cuisines around the world , and is often found in salt shakers on diners ' eating tables for their personal use on food . Salt is also an ingredient in many manufactured foodstuffs . Table salt is a refined salt containing about 97 to 99 percent sodium chloride . Usually , anticaking agents such as sodium aluminosilicate or magnesium carbonate are added to make it free @-@ flowing . Iodized salt , containing potassium iodide , is widely available . Some people put a desiccant , such as a few grains of uncooked rice or a saltine cracker , in their salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help break up salt clumps that may otherwise form .
= = = Fortified table salt = = =
Some table salt sold for consumption contain additives which address a variety of health concerns , especially in the developing world . The identities and amounts of additives vary widely from country to country . Iodine is an important micronutrient for humans , and a deficiency of the element can cause lowered production of thyroxine ( hypothyroidism ) and enlargement of the thyroid gland ( endemic goitre ) in adults or cretinism in children . Iodized salt has been used to correct these conditions since 1924 and consists of table salt mixed with a minute amount of potassium iodide , sodium iodide or sodium iodate . A small amount of dextrose may also be added to stabilize the iodine . Iodine deficiency affects about two billion people around the world and is the leading preventable cause of mental retardation . Iodized table salt has significantly reduced disorders of iodine deficiency in countries where it is used .
The amount of iodine and the specific iodine compound added to salt varies from country to country . In the United States , the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) recommends [ 21 CFR 101 @.@ 9 ( c ) ( 8 ) ( iv ) ] 150 micrograms of iodine per day for both men and women . US iodized salt contains 46 – 77 ppm ( parts per million ) , whereas in the UK the iodine content of iodized salt is recommended to be 10 – 22 ppm .
Sodium ferrocyanide , also known as yellow prussiate of soda , is sometimes added to salt as an anticaking agent . The additive is considered safe for human consumption . Such anti @-@ caking agents have been added since at least 1911 when magnesium carbonate was first added to salt to make it flow more freely . The safety of sodium ferrocyanide as a food additive was found to be provisionally acceptable by the Committee on Toxicity in 1988 . Other anticaking agents sometimes used include tricalcium phosphate , calcium or magnesium carbonates , fatty acid salts ( acid salts ) , magnesium oxide , silicon dioxide , calcium silicate , sodium aluminosilicate and calcium aluminosilicate . Both the European Union and the United States Food and Drug Administration permitted the use of aluminium in the latter two compounds .
In " doubly fortified salt " , both iodide and iron salts are added . The latter alleviates iron deficiency anaemia , which interferes with the mental development of an estimated 40 % of infants in the developing world . A typical iron source is ferrous fumarate . Another additive , especially important for pregnant women , is folic acid ( vitamin B9 ) , which gives the table salt a yellow color . Folic acid helps prevent neural tube defects and anaemia , which affect young mothers , especially in developing countries .
A lack of fluorine in the diet is the cause of a greatly increased incidence of dental caries . Fluoride salts can be added to table salt with the goal of reducing tooth decay , especially in countries that have not benefited from fluoridated toothpastes and fluoridated water . The practice is more common in some European countries where water fluoridation is not carried out . In France , 35 % of the table salt sold contains added sodium fluoride .
= = = Other kinds = = =
Unrefined sea salt contains small amounts of magnesium and calcium halides and sulfates , traces of algal products , salt @-@ resistant bacteria and sediment particles . The calcium and magnesium salts confer a faintly bitter overtone , and they make unrefined sea salt hygroscopic ( i.e. , it gradually absorbs moisture from air if stored uncovered ) . Algal products contribute a mildly " fishy " or " sea @-@ air " odour , the latter from organobromine compounds . Sediments , the proportion of which varies with the source , give the salt a dull grey appearance . Since taste and aroma compounds are often detectable by humans in minute concentrations , sea salt may have a more complex flavor than pure sodium chloride when sprinkled on top of food . When salt is added during cooking however , these flavors would likely be overwhelmed by those of the food ingredients . The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea and rock salts do not contain enough iodine salts to prevent iodine deficiency diseases .
Different natural salts have different mineralities depending on their source , giving each one a unique flavour . Fleur de sel , a natural sea salt from the surface of evaporating brine in salt pans , has a unique flavour varying with the region from which it is produced . In traditional Korean cuisine , so @-@ called " bamboo salt " is prepared by roasting salt in a bamboo container plugged with mud at both ends . This product absorbs minerals from the bamboo and the mud , and has been claimed to increase the anticlastogenic and antimutagenic properties of doenjang ( a fermented bean paste ) .
Kosher salt , though refined , contains no iodine and has a much larger grain size than most refined salts . This can give it different properties when used in cooking , and can be useful for preparing kosher meat . Some kosher salt has been certified to meet kosher requirements by a hechsher , but this is not true for all products labelled as kosher salt .
Pickling salt is ultrafine to speed dissolving to make brine . Gourmet salts may be used for specific tastes .
= = = Salt in food = = =
Salt is present in most foods , but in naturally occurring foodstuffs such as meats , vegetables and fruit , it is present in very small quantities . It is often added to processed foods ( such as canned foods and especially salted foods , pickled foods , and snack foods or other convenience foods ) , where it functions as both a preservative and a flavoring . Dairy salt is used in the preparation of butter and cheese products . Before the advent of electrically powered refrigeration , salting was one of the main methods of food preservation . Thus , herring contains 67 mg sodium per 100 g , while kipper , its preserved form , contains 990 mg . Similarly , pork typically contains 63 mg while bacon contains 1 @,@ 480 mg , and potatoes contain 7 mg but potato crisps 800 mg per 100 g . The main sources of salt in the diet , apart from direct use of sodium chloride , are bread and cereal products , meat products and milk and dairy products .
In many East Asian cultures , salt is not traditionally used as a condiment . In its place , condiments such as soy sauce , fish sauce and oyster sauce tend to have a high sodium content and fill a similar role to table salt in western cultures . They are most often used for cooking rather than as table condiments .
= = = Sodium consumption and health = = =
Table salt is made up of just under 40 % sodium by weight , so a 6 g serving ( 1 teaspoon ) contains about 2 @,@ 300 mg of sodium . Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body : via its role as an electrolyte , it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly , and it is one factor involved in the osmotic regulation of water content in body organs ( fluid balance ) . Most of the sodium in the Western diet comes from salt . The habitual salt intake in many Western countries is about 10 g per day , and it is higher than that in many countries in Eastern Europe and Asia . The high level of sodium in many processed foods has a major impact on the total amount consumed . In the United States , 75 % of the sodium eaten comes from processed and restaurant foods , 11 % from cooking and table use and the rest from what is found naturally in foodstuffs .
Because consuming too much salt increases risk of cardiovascular diseases , health organizations generally recommend that people reduce their dietary intake of salt . High salt intake is associated with a greater risk of stroke , total cardiovascular disease and kidney disease . A reduction in sodium intake by 1 @,@ 000 mg per day may reduce cardiovascular disease by about 30 percent . In adults and children with no acute illness , a decrease in the intake of sodium from the typical high levels reduces blood pressure . A low salt diet results in a greater improvement in blood pressure in people with hypertension .
The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2 @,@ 000 mg of sodium ( which is contained in 5 g of salt ) per day . Guidelines by the United States recommend that people with hypertension , African Americans , and middle @-@ aged and older adults should limit consumption to no more than 1 @,@ 500 mg of sodium per day and meet the potassium recommendation of 4 @,@ 700 mg / day with a healthy diet of fruits and vegetables .
While reduction of salt intake to less than 2 @,@ 300 mg per day is recommended by developed countries , one review recommended that salt intake be no less than 1 @,@ 200 mg ( contained in 3 g ) per day , as it is an essential nutrient required from the diet . Another review indicated that reducing sodium intake to lower than 2 @,@ 300 mg per day may not be beneficial .
= = Non @-@ dietary uses = =
Only about 6 % of the salt manufactured in the world is used in food . Of the remainder , 12 % is used in water conditioning processes , 8 % goes for de @-@ icing highways and 6 % is used in agriculture . The rest ( 68 % ) is used for manufacturing and other industrial processes , and sodium chloride is one of the largest inorganic raw materials used by volume . Its major chemical products are caustic soda and chlorine , which are separated by the electrolysis of a pure brine solution . These are used in the manufacture of PVC , plastics , paper pulp and many other inorganic and organic compounds . Salt is also used as a flux in the production of aluminium . For this purpose , a layer of melted salt floats on top of the molten metal and removes iron and other metal contaminants . It is also used in the manufacture of soaps and glycerine , where it is added to the vat to precipitate out the saponified products . As an emulsifier , salt is used in the manufacture of synthetic rubber , and another use is in the firing of pottery , when salt added to the furnace vaporises before condensing onto the surface of the ceramic material , forming a strong glaze .
When drilling through loose materials such as sand or gravel , salt may be added to the drilling fluid to provide a stable " wall " to prevent the hole collapsing . There are many other processes in which salt is involved . These include its use as a mordant in textile dying , to regenerate resins in water softening , for the tanning of hides , the preservation of meat and fish and the canning of meat and vegetables .
= = Production = =
Food grade salt accounts for only a small part of salt production in industrialized countries ( 7 % in Europe ) , although worldwide , food uses account for 17 @.@ 5 % of total production .
In 2013 , total world production of salt was 264 million tonnes , the top five producers being China ( 71 million ) , the United States ( 40 million ) , India ( 18 million ) , Germany ( 12 million ) and Canada ( 11 million ) .
The manufacture of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries . A major source of salt is seawater , which has a salinity of approximately 3 @.@ 5 % . This means that there are about 35 grams ( 1 @.@ 2 oz ) of dissolved salts , predominantly sodium ( Na + ) and chloride ( Cl − ) ions , per kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lbs ) of water . The world 's oceans are a virtually inexhaustible source of salt , and this abundance of supply means that reserves have not been calculated . The evaporation of seawater is the production method of choice in marine countries with high evaporation and low precipitation rates . Salt evaporation ponds are filled from the ocean and salt crystals can be harvested as the water dries up . Sometimes these ponds have vivid colours , as some species of algae and other micro @-@ organisms thrive in conditions of high salinity .
Elsewhere , salt is extracted from the vast sedimentary deposits which have been laid down over the millennia from the evaporation of seas and lakes . These are either mined directly , producing rock salt , or are extracted in solution by pumping water into the deposit . In either case , the salt may be purified by mechanical evaporation of brine . Traditionally , this was done in shallow open pans which were heated to increase the rate of evaporation . More recently , the process is performed in pans under vacuum . The raw salt is refined to purify it and improve its storage and handling characteristics . This usually involves recrystallization during which a brine solution is treated with chemicals that precipitate most impurities ( largely magnesium and calcium salts ) . Multiple stages of evaporation are then used to collect pure sodium chloride crystals , which are kiln @-@ dried . Some salt is produced using the Alberger process , which involves vacuum pan evaporation combined with the seeding of the solution with cubic crystals , and produces a grainy @-@ type flake . The Ayoreo , an indigenous group from the Paraguayan Chaco , obtain their salt from the ash produced by burning the timber of the Indian salt tree ( Maytenus vitis @-@ idaea ) and other trees .
One of the largest salt mining operations in the world is at the Khewra Salt Mine in Pakistan . The mine has nineteen storeys , eleven of which are underground , and 400 km ( 250 mi ) of passages . The salt is dug out by the room and pillar method , where about half the material is left in place to support the upper levels . Extraction of Himalayan salt is expected to last 350 years at the present rate of extraction of around 385 @,@ 000 tons per annum .
= = Usage in religion = =
Salt has long held an important place in religion and culture . At the time of Brahmanic sacrifices , in Hittite rituals and during festivals held by Semites and Greeks at the time of the new moon , salt was thrown into a fire where it produced crackling noises . The ancient Egyptians , Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and water and some people think this to be the origin of Holy Water in the Christian faith . In Aztec mythology , Huixtocihuatl was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt water .
Salt is considered to be a very auspicious substance in Hinduism and is used in particular religious ceremonies like house @-@ warmings and weddings . In Jainism , devotees lay an offering of raw rice with a pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion and salt is sprinkled on a person 's cremated remains before the ashes are buried . Salt is believed to ward off evil spirits in Mahayana Buddhist tradition , and when returning home from a funeral , a pinch of salt is thrown over the left shoulder as this prevents evil spirits from entering the house . In Shinto , salt is used for ritual purification of locations and people ( harae , specifically shubatsu ) , and small piles of salt are placed in dishes by the entrance of establishments for the two @-@ fold purposes of warding off evil and attracting patrons .
In the Hebrew Bible , there are thirty @-@ five verses which mention salt . One of these is the story of Lot 's wife , who was turned into a pillar of salt when she looked back at the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah ( Genesis 19 : 26 ) as they were destroyed . When the judge Abimelech destroyed the city of Shechem , he is said to have " sown salt on it , " probably as a curse on anyone who would re @-@ inhabit it ( Judges 9 : 45 ) . The Book of Job contains the first mention of salt as a condiment . " Can that which is unsavoury be eaten without salt ? or is there any taste in the white of an egg ? " ( Job 6 : 6 ) . In the New Testament , six verses mention salt . In the Sermon on the Mount , Jesus referred to his followers as the " salt of the earth " . The apostle Paul also encouraged Christians to " let your conversation be always full of grace , seasoned with salt " ( Colossians 4 : 6 ) . Salt is mandatory in the rite of the Tridentine Mass . Salt is used in the third item ( which includes an Exorcism ) of the Celtic Consecration ( cf . Gallican Rite ) that is employed in the consecration of a church . Salt may be added to the water " where it is customary " in the Roman Catholic rite of Holy water .
In Judaism , it is recommended to have either a salty bread or to add salt to the bread if this bread is unsalted when doing Kiddush for Shabbat . It is customary to spread some salt over the bread or to dip the bread in a little salt when passing the bread around the table after the Kiddush . To preserve the covenant between their people and God , Jews dip the Sabbath bread in salt . In Wicca , salt is symbolic of the element Earth . It is also believed to cleanse an area of harmful or negative energies . A dish of salt and a dish of water are almost always present on an altar , and salt is used in a wide variety of rituals and ceremonies .
= = Books = =
Kurlansky , Mark ( 2002 ) . Salt : A World History . New York : Walker & Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 8027 @-@ 1373 @-@ 4 . OCLC 48573453 .
Multhauf , Robert ( 1996 ) . Neptune 's Gift : A History of Common Salt . The Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0801854699 .
= SMS Heimdall =
SMS Heimdall was the fourth vessel of the six @-@ member Siegfried class of coastal defense ships ( Küstenpanzerschiffe ) built for the German Imperial Navy . Her sister ships were Siegfried , Beowulf , Frithjof , Hildebrand , and Hagen . Heimdall was built by the Kaiserliche Werft Wilhelmshaven shipyard between 1891 and 1894 , and was armed with a main battery of three 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns . She served in the German fleet throughout the 1890s and was rebuilt in 1900 – 1902 . She served in the VI Battle Squadron after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but saw no action . Heimdall was demobilized in 1915 and used as a barracks ship thereafter . She was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1921 .
= = Design = =
Heimdall was 79 meters ( 259 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 @.@ 9 m ( 49 ft ) and a maximum draft of 5 @.@ 74 m ( 18 @.@ 8 ft ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 741 long tons ( 3 @,@ 801 t ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two vertical 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by four coal @-@ fired boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 14 @.@ 6 kn ( 27 @.@ 0 km / h ; 16 @.@ 8 mph ) and a range of approximately 1 @,@ 490 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 760 km ; 1 @,@ 710 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Heimdall had a crew of 20 officers and 256 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with three 24 cm K L / 35 guns mounted in three single gun turrets . Two were placed side by side forward , and the third was located aft of the main superstructure . They were supplied with a total of 204 rounds of ammunition . The ship was also equipped with eight 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns in single mounts . Heimdall also carried four 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , all in swivel mounts on the deck . One was at the bow , another at the stern , and two amidships . The ship was protected by an armored belt that was 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) amidships , and an armored deck that was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The conning tower had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides . Heimdall 's armor consisted of new Krupp steel , a more effective type of armor than the compound steel the other members of the class received .
= = Service history = =
Heimdall was laid down in 1891 at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven . She was launched on 27 July 1892 , and completed on 7 April 1894 . In 1897 , Heimdall participated in the annual summer maneuvers in the IV Division , along with Frithjof and Hagen . Her other three sisters were assigned to the III Division . Heimdall participated in the 1900 summer maneuvers , where she and Siegfried , Hildebrand , and Ägir simulated the hostile fleet . She served on active duty with the fleet until 1901 , when she was taken into drydock at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel for an extensive reconstruction . The ship was lengthened to 86 @.@ 13 m ( 282 @.@ 6 ft ) , which increased displacement to 4 @,@ 436 t ( 4 @,@ 366 long tons ; 4 @,@ 890 short tons ) . Her old boilers were replaced with eight new Marine type boilers , and a second funnel was added . Her secondary battery was increased to ten 8 @.@ 8 cm guns , and the 35 cm torpedo tubes were replaced with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) tubes . Work was completed by 1902 .
After emerging from her modernization , she returned to service with the fleet , assigned to the II Squadron , alongside Hildebrand , Hagen , and Beowulf . She remained in the fleet until the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , when she was mobilized into the VI Battle Squadron for coastal defense , along with her sister ships . On 31 August 1915 , the VI Battle Squadron was demobilized , and Heimdall 's crew was transferred to other warships . She was then used as a barracks ship in for U @-@ boat crews , along with crews for the coastal defense flotillas stationed on the Ems river . On 17 June 1919 , she was stricken from the naval register . The navy planned to convert Heimdall into a salvage ship , but the plan fell through and she was instead sold and broken up for scrap in 1921 in Rönnebeck .
= Thomas Bryan Martin =
Thomas Bryan Martin ( 1731 – 1798 ) was an 18th @-@ century English American land agent , justice , legislator , and planter in the colony ( and later U.S. state ) of Virginia and in present @-@ day West Virginia . Martin was the land agent of the Northern Neck Proprietary for his uncle Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1693 – 1781 ) and served two terms in the House of Burgesses .
Martin was born in Kent in 1731 , and was the grandson of Thomas Fairfax , 5th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1657 – 1710 ) through his mother , Frances Fairfax Martin . Raised in humble surroundings in England , Martin relocated to Virginia in 1751 to assist his uncle , Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( known as Lord Fairfax ) , in administering the Northern Neck Proprietary , which encompassed up to 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 km2 ) . Martin resided with his uncle on their frontier Greenway Court estate in present @-@ day Clarke County , Virginia . He earned the affections of Lord Fairfax on account of his energetic nature and loyalty , and through Martin 's growing influence Lord Fairfax relocated the proprietary 's base of operations to Greenway Court in 1762 and made Martin steward and land agent of the proprietary .
Martin took an active role in political and civil affairs within the proprietary 's domain . He served as a vestryman for the Anglican Frederick Parish , and upon the creation of Hampshire County in 1754 , he presided as the county 's first justice and was further appointed the County Lieutenant . He later represented Hampshire County in the House of Burgesses from 1756 to 1758 and serving with George Washington , represented Fredrick County from 1758 until 1761 . Martin was appointed a trustee of the frontier towns of Winchester , Stephensburg ( present @-@ day Stephens City ) , and Bath ( present @-@ day Berkeley Springs ) . He was also appointed as the colonel of the Frederick County militia . Though not in the best of health , Martin was relied upon by the settlers of the proprietary to use his considerable resources in response to Native American attacks . Following the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War , Martin refused reappointment by Governor Patrick Henry as a justice of the Frederick County Commission of Peace . Afterward , Martin retreated from civil service entirely , and retired to Greenway Court .
He maintained a low profile during the war , and his uncle Lord Fairfax was treated with respect and consideration despite being the only resident peer in the American colonies . Following the death of Lord Fairfax in 1781 , Martin 's brother Reverend Denny Martin Fairfax inherited the Northern Neck Proprietary , and Martin was given the Greenway Court estate . He took his uncle 's housekeeper Mrs. Crawford as his mistress and died unmarried in 1798 . Martin bequeathed his Greenway Court estate and an adjoining 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) to his housekeeper Betsy Powers . Martin 's brother Denny Fairfax was unable to properly maintain the proprietary and conveyed the remaining lands in 1797 , thus terminating the Fairfax and Martin families ' interests in the proprietary before it was formally dissolved in 1806 . The city of Martinsburg , West Virginia , was named for Martin by his friend Adam Stephen .
= = Early life and family = =
Thomas Bryan Martin was born in Kent , England , in 1731 and was the son of Denny Martin ( 1695 – 1762 ) of Salts Manor and his wife Frances Fairfax Martin ( 1703 – 1791 ) . His father and mother married in Loose , Kent . Martin 's mother was the daughter of Thomas Fairfax , 5th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1657 – 1710 ) and his wife Catherine Colepeper Fairfax , and thus a sister of Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1693 – 1781 ) and Robert Fairfax , 7th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1707 – 1793 ) . His grandmother Catherine Colepeper Fairfax was the daughter of Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper and his wife Margaretta van Hesse , who was from a Dutch noble family . Martin was named in honor of his uncle Thomas . He was baptized into the Anglican faith as " Thomas Brian " in Loose on April 11 , 1731 . Martin and his siblings were raised amid humble surroundings in England . He had seven siblings , including four brothers and three sisters :
Edward Martin ( 1723 – 1775 )
John Martin ( 1724 – 1746 )
Reverend Denny Martin ( later Fairfax , 1725 – 1800 )
Frances Martin ( 1727 – 1813 )
Sibylla Martin ( 1729 – 1816 )
Philip Martin ( 1733 – 1821 )
Anna Susanna Martin ( 1736 – 1817 )
= = Northern Neck Proprietary administration = =
Martin 's uncle Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( known as Lord Fairfax ) owned the Northern Neck Proprietary land grant , which he had inherited from Martin 's great @-@ grandfather Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper in 1719 . The proprietary constituted up to 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 km2 ) of Virginia 's Northern Neck and a vast area spanning west to the North Branch Potomac River headwaters . The Northern Neck Proprietary had been awarded by Charles II of England to seven of his supporters in 1649 , and again in 1688 by official patent . One of these seven supporters , Lord Colepeper , acquired the right to the entire proprietary in 1681 , and his grandson , Lord Fairfax , inherited the land grant upon his | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
influence on the story . IGN 's Ingenito called it " woefully outdated " , and felt that making evil choices severely jarred with Delsin 's character . He found the system redundant because Delsin became more powerful when he strictly adhered to either a good or evil play @-@ style , rather than crossing in @-@ between . GameSpot 's Mc Shea felt that the morality system was too binary because there was no " moral gray area " between playing good and evil . Polygon 's Kollar reflected Mc Shea 's opinion that the morality choices were too binary , and had difficulty connecting to his choices because they were too polarized between good and evil . OPM 's Meikleham felt that the morality system had " little to no impact on gameplay " . Danny Cowan of Joystiq thought that the morality system was well @-@ balanced , with equal incentive and drawback tied to Delsin 's choices .
GameSpot 's Mc Shea found Second Son 's open world beholden to a dated formula . He described Seattle as " a playground for you to go nuts in " instead of " a living , breathing world " , with the Seattleites existing only as fodder for players . CVG 's Hussain called Seattle " hauntingly empty " , with the sparsely distributed NPCs behaving inanimately . He felt that the open world 's lifelessness was the game 's biggest detractor , and he drew unfavorable comparison with Grand Theft Auto V , Sleeping Dogs and Assassin 's Creed IV : Black Flag , which he felt featured better open worlds . Eurogamer 's Welsh felt that Second Son did not innovate the open world genre as well as it could have because it relied too heavily on many of the genre 's tropes . Polygon 's Kollar felt that there was not enough variation in the missions and activities , as " virtually all culminate in the goal of beating up more soldiers or thugs " . Edge found the amount of content in the game thin , finding little merit in additional playthroughs because of the repetitive side @-@ missions . " Approach [ Second Son ] as an action game that just happens to be set in a nonlinear environment and it makes more sense " , they wrote . Destructoid 's Carter found the amount of content ample , and enjoyed liberating the city and collecting Blast Shards .
= = = Sales = = =
Infamous Second Son sold over one million copies nine days after its launch .
= 1973 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1973 Pacific hurricane season was an event in tropical cyclone meteorology . The most important system this year was Hurricane Ava , which was the most intense Pacific hurricane known at the time . Several other much weaker tropical cyclones came close to , or made landfall on , the Pacific coast of Mexico . The most serious of these was Hurricane Irah , which downed power and communication lines in parts of the Baja California Peninsula ; the other landfalling storms caused rain and some flooding . No tropical cyclone this season caused any deaths .
This season had a quick start but a slow end . Overall activity was below average , with twelve named systems in total . Of these , five were tropical storms , seven were hurricanes , of which three were major ( Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale ) . Just one storm formed in August , one of the least active Augusts ever in the east Pacific . The season officially started May 15 , 1973 in the eastern Pacific , and June 1 , 1973 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1973 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . All tropical cyclones this season formed in the eastern north Pacific Ocean , often off the coast of Mexico . As is usual in the northern hemisphere , most traveled generally westward or northwestward , and two reached as far as the waters south of the Hawaiian Islands .
= = Season summary = =
The season began with the formation of the pre @-@ Ava tropical depression on June 2 and ended with the dissipation of Tropical Lillian on October 9 . The season lasted a total of 129 days . No named storms formed in May , three in June , four in July , one in August , three in September , one in October , and none in November . Another six tropical depressions formed during the year , but data on them is unavailable . All of these tropical cyclones formed in the eastern north Pacific tropical cyclone basin , which encompasses the Pacific Ocean north of the equator east of 140 ° W. None formed in the central north Pacific , which is the remainder of the Pacific Ocean east of the international dateline .
Of the tropical cyclones that formed this year , were twelve tropical storms and seven were hurricanes . Of those hurricanes , three of them were major hurricanes because they reached Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Scale . These totals are all below the long @-@ term averages of thirteen tropical storms , nine hurricanes , and four major hurricanes . At the time , this season 's total of twelve named tropical cyclones was exactly average , although at the time the climatology in this basin was weak because satellite coverage was spotty before 1966 .
This season , all advisories and tropical cyclone data were released and collected by two agencies , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center in Redwood City , California , and the Central Pacific Hurricane Center in Honolulu , Hawaii , both of which were coextensive with the National Weather Service Forecast Offices in their respective cities . The EPHC covered the area between the coast of North America and 140 ° W , and the CPHC the remainder of the area .
= = = Hurricane Ava = = =
A tropical depression formed on June 2 . It steadily strengthened and headed in a generally westerly direction . It moved slowly and became Hurricane Ava on June 4 . Two days later , it became a major hurricane and it sped up . On June 7 , it became a Category 5 hurricane . It then started weakening and slowed down until it dissipated on June 12 . No deaths or damages were attributed to Hurricane Ava .
Ava 's minimum central pressure was 915 millibars , and its maximum sustained winds reached 140 knots ( 260 km / h ) . This made Ava the most intense recorded east Pacific hurricane at the time . Ava reached Category 5 intensity on June 7 , the earliest date in an east Pacific season that a hurricane has done so . It was also the second known Category 5 storm in the east Pacific ; ( behind Patsy in 1959 ) . Ava is the strongest June storm , the fifth most intense east Pacific hurricane , and was the only June Category 5 on record until 2010 .
Ava was also flown into by hurricane hunter aircraft in what was the first penetration of a Pacific hurricane by NOAA aircraft . During these flights , radars and other devices were tested , and wind speed , pressure , and wave heights were measured . This is the reason why Hurricane Ava 's pressure is measured instead of estimated . Ava was also photographed from Skylab because it was visible during one of the missions . At that time , it was coincidentally on the surface of the Earth directly underneath the space station . All in all , these made Hurricane Ava one of the best @-@ observed Pacific hurricanes at the time .
= = = Tropical Storm Bernice = = =
A nearly stationary disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone spent three days organizing and finally developed into a tropical depression on June 22 . The cyclone started heading northwest . After intensifying into a tropical storm , Bernice made landfall on June 23 at a location roughly 50 mi ( 80 km ) southwest of Zihuatanejo . It dissipated later that day . Bernice exposed two ships to gales , but otherwise neither deaths nor significant impact was reported . At its peak , Tropical Storm Bernice had winds of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) .
= = = Tropical Storm Claudia = = =
A tropical depression formed June 26 from a westward @-@ moving area of disturbed weather . The next day , it developed gale @-@ force winds and was named Claudia . Claudia headed northwesterly and then northwards and made landfall on June 28 approximately 30 mi ( 50 km ) east of Acapulco . It dissipated inland the next day . No deaths or casualties were reported due to this tropical cyclone .
= = = Hurricane Doreen = = =
On July 18 , a tropical storm formed from a disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone and was named Doreen . It steadily intensified , and became a hurricane on July 19 . Doreen briefly reached Category 4 strength on July 21 with a relatively high central pressure of 972 mb ( 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) . It then weakened steadily as its path carried it on a direct path to the Big Island of Hawaii . Doreen weakened to a tropical storm as it entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility on July 25 . A frontal system stuck between two high @-@ pressure areas weakened as the two areas merged , creating a larger high pressure area that turned Doreen to the southwest on July 27 . The hurricane then turned back to the northwest and strengthened back into a hurricane . It became a major hurricane again before weakening . Doreen dissipated August 3 . Its remnant vortex continued westward until it dissipated under a trough near the dateline . Doreen 's sudden change of track and restrengthening was unusual .
From formation to dissipation , Doreen lasted 16 @.@ 25 days and traveled a distance of 4 @,@ 200 mi ( 6 @,@ 760 km ) . This tied Hurricane Celeste 's record for longest @-@ lasting Pacific hurricane . Doreen was also the longest @-@ lasting July tropical cyclone . Hurricane Fico broke both of these records in the 1978 season . Doreen remains the eighth @-@ longest lasting Pacific tropical cyclone , tied with two other storms . Several ships encountered Doreen . The most serious incident involved a Greek ship called Cornelia which lost its rudder in 35 ft ( 10 m ) waves , but managed to escape and continue on its way to Panama . On the afternoon of July 29 , 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) swells and 3 @.@ 5 ft ( 0 m ) waves were seen from Kapoho . Otherwise , no damages or deaths were blamed on this tropical cyclone .
= = = Hurricane Emily = = =
A depression formed July 21 from squalls in the Gulf of Tehuantepec and headed west @-@ northwest and strengthened into a tropical storm . Emily continued moving nearly parallel to the coast before turning to the west while steadily intensifying . Emily eventually reached Category 4 intensity on July 22 . Emily then weakened as it turned to the northwest . It dissipated on July 28 . Emily 's wind field was large enough to bring gales areas 300 mi ( 480 km ) east of the hurricane from July 22 to 24 . This tropical cyclone caused no deaths or damage .
= = = Hurricane Florence = = =
On July 25 , a depression formed off the coast of Guatemala . The storm made a close approach to the Mexican coast as a depression , but did not make landfall . Just after that , it strengthened into a tropical storm . Florence headed west and then west @-@ northwest . It became a hurricane on July 29 . It began weakening thereafter . Florence dissipated on July 30 . No damages or deaths were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Glenda = = =
A depression that had formed on July 30 from a tropical disturbance quickly strengthened into a tropical storm and was named Glenda . It took a path similar to both Florence and Emily , but further from the shore . Glenda dissipated August 5 . At the time it still had winds of 40 knots ( 70 km / h ) , down from its peak of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . No deaths , damage , or other impact was reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Heather = = =
The only storm to form in August this year formed on August 31 from an area of circulation in the ITCZ over the Gulf of Tehuantepec . It became a tropical depression on August 30 . After moving northwest for a bit , it became a tropical storm and headed almost due north towards Mexico . Heather dissipated September 1 , just before making landfall . Tropical Storm Heather caused no deaths or damage to any location in the coastal area of the Gulf of Tehuantepec .
= = = Hurricane Irah = = =
A depression formed September 22 . It became a tropical storm on September 23 and a hurricane on September 24 . Irah took a northwesterly path and reached Category 2 strength on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and then dropped back down to a 1 as it recurved . It made landfall on Baja California and entered the Gulf of California as a tropical storm , making landfall again in northwestern Mexico approximately 30 mi ( 50 km ) northwest of Los Mochis . Irah 's first landfall was the strongest of the season . The hurricane dissipated on September 27 while heading east @-@ northeast over mainland Mexico .
Irah blew over some power and communication lines during its passage over the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula . Heavy rain fell over parts of Mexico , with the highest total being 10 @.@ 24 in ( 260 mm ) at Sierra de la Laguna . One person was injured and at least ten houses were destroyed in Cabo San Lucas . No one was killed . There was some concern that the hurricane could disrupt splashdown procedures for astronauts at the end of Skylab 3 ; however , the return to Earth was not seriously affected .
= = = Tropical Storm Jennifer = = =
On September 23 , another depression formed . It took a northeasterly path , rotating around the southern periphery of Hurricane Irah as part of a Fujiwara interaction . It strengthened into a tropical storm late on September 24 . The peak windspeed of this tropical cyclone was 40 miles per hour ( 60 km / h ) . Jennifer then weakened to a depression and turned to the north @-@ northeast . Jennifer brushed the Islas Marías . The cyclone made landfall near just southeast of Mazatlán and dissipated September 27 . Tropical Depression Jennifer caused rain over several parts of Mexico . The highest total was 7 @.@ 48 in ( 190 mm ) at Navarette / San Blas . No one was killed and no damage was reported .
= = = Hurricane Katherine = = =
Katherine became a tropical storm on September 29 , just six hours after forming . It headed out to sea . On October 1 , it became a hurricane . It peaked in windspeed the next day . After weakening to storm strength , it crossed 140 ° W and entered the central Pacific . Katherine continued its slightly south of westward track . It dropped to a depression on October 9 , and dissipated shortly after that due to the influence of a cold trough . The storm never threatened land , causing no casualties or damage .
= = = Hurricane Lillian = = =
A depression that formed October 5 reached storm strength the same day . It generally paralleled the coast of Mexico far offshore . Lillian reached minimal hurricane strength on October 7 and peaked the next day . The hurricane began to weaken immediately thereafter and dissipated on October 9 . Through its life , Lillian at first traveled generally west @-@ northwestward , and then westward . Lillian never threatened land , causing no known impact .
= = 1973 Storm Names = =
These names were used for storms that formed in the eastern Pacific during this season . It is the same list used in the 1969 season . Storms were named Katherine and Lillian for the first time this year . No names were retired , so this list was used again in the 1977 season . Names that weren 't assigned are colored gray .
The Central Pacific used names and numbers from the Western Pacific 's typhoon list . No systems formed in the area , and thus no names were required .
= Varaha Upanishad =
Varaha Upanishad ( Sanskrit : वराह उपनिषत ् , " boar " ) is a minor Upanishad of Hinduism composed between the 13th and 16th centuries CE . Composed in Sanskrit , it is listed as one of the 32 Krishna Yajurveda Upanishads , and classified as one of 20 Yoga Upanishads .
The text has five chapters , structured primarily as a discussion between Vishnu in his Varaha ( boar ) avatar and the sage Ribhu . The discussion covers the subjects of Tattvas , the nature and relationship between the individual soul ( Self , Atman ) and the Ultimate Reality ( Brahman ) , the seven stages of learning , the characteristics of Jivanmukti ( inner sense of freedom while living ) , and the four types of Jivanmuktas ( liberated persons ) . The last chapter of the text is dedicated to Yoga , its goals and methods .
It is , as an Upanishad , a part of the corpus of Vedanta literature that presents the philosophical concepts of Hinduism . The Varaha Upanishad emphasizes that liberation from sorrow and fear requires a human being to know the non @-@ dualistic nature of existence , oneness between Self , Brahman and Vishnu , and the role of Yoga in self @-@ liberation , and lists ten Yamas ( virtues ) as essential to a liberation of one 's soul : nonviolence , satya , asteya , brahmacharya , compassion , rectitude , kshama , non @-@ hypocrisy , mitahara , and shaucha . The text describes the Jivanmukta as one whose inner state , amongst other things , is neither affected by happiness nor by suffering inflicted on him , who does not shrink out of fear from the world , nor the world shrinks from him with fear , and whose sense of calm and inner contentment is free from anger , fear , and joy toward others .
= = Etymology and anthology = =
Varaha means boar , specifically referring to the incarnation of Vishnu as a boar in Indian mythology . The term Upanishad means it is knowledge or " hidden doctrine " text that belongs to the corpus of Vedanta literature presenting the philosophical concepts of Hinduism and considered the highest purpose of its scripture , the Vedas . The text is also known as Varahopanishad .
The text is listed as 98th in the modern era anthology that consists of 108 Upanishads . A Sanskrit text , it is considered one of the 32 Upanishads under the Krishna Yajurveda or Black Yajurveda . Classified as a Yoga Upanishad , the author , authenticity , and source of this Hindu text has been in question , and it is a late Upanishad . Varaha Upanishad was not listed in the anthology of known Upanishads published in the 17th century by Dara Shikoh , in the early 19th @-@ century Henry Thomas Colebrooke anthology , or in the Narayana compilations of Upanishads .
= = Chronology = =
The text opens by acknowledging Itihasa ( Epics , Ramayana and Mahabharata ) and other post @-@ Vedic era texts , thus implying that it was composed in the common era . The text incorporates terminology such as Yogi Siddhi , suggesting that , like other Yoga Upanishads , it was composed after Yoga Sutras of Patanjali and other major Yoga texts . The text also incorporates sections on tantra terminology such as Chakra and Nāḍi in its discussion of Laya , Mantra , and Hatha yoga . The minor Yoga Upanishads , according to Antonio Rigopoulos , a professor of Indology at the University Ca ' Foscari of Venice , were recorded in the medieval period of India 's Advaita and Yoga @-@ rooted traditions , possibly in the middle of the 2nd millennium CE , but may well represent already established ideas and practices before the epic and medieval period , given that they use concepts and terminology rooted in the 1st millennium BCE Vedic era text , such as pranava , Atman , and Brahman .
According to Ananda , the text was likely composed between the 13th and 16th centuries .
= = Contents = =
= = = Structure = = =
Ribhu , after observing Tapas ( penance ) for 12 long deva years , is visited by Vishnu in his Varaha avatar ; the latter asks Ribhu what boon he would like . Ribhu declines all worldly pleasures , and asks Vishnu to explain " that science of Brahman which treats of thy nature , a knowledge which leads to salvation " . From this point on , the Upanishad is structured as a sermon by Varaha to the sage Ribhu . It has five chapters with a total of 247 verses .
= = = Tattvas = = =
In Chapter 1 of the text , Varaha tells Ribhu first about the science of Tattvas , meaning " principles " . The Tattvas are said to be 24 , 36 , or even 96 by some teachers , which Varaha elaborates .
In the Tattvas , asserts Varaha , are included the five sensory organs , five organs of action , five vital airs essential to a living body ( " Vital airs " of Prāṇa , Apāna , Uḍāna , Samāna , and Vyāna ) , five rudimentary principles of perception , and the faculties of knowledge – Manas ( mind ) which produces uncertain knowledge , Buddhi ( intelligence ) which leads to certain knowledge , " Chitta " ( emotional consciousness ) which produces doubts and fluctuations in knowledge , and " Ahankara " ( ego ) which produces egoism . These total 24 tattvas , states the text .
Some scholars , asserts Varaha , expand the list of tattvas of a human body to 36 , by including the five elements – earth ( Prithvi ) , air ( Vayu ) , water ( Ap ) , ether ( Akasha ) , and fire ( Agni ) ; the three bodies – the gross , the subtle and the causal ( Karana ) ; three states of consciousness – when awake , when dreaming , and when in dreamless sleep ; and one jiva ( soul ) .
Varaha then describes how the list of tattva increases to 96 in verses 1 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 14 . It includes the six stages of changes ( Aiyar translates this to " existence , birth , growth , transformation , decay , and destruction " ) ; six maladies or " infirmities " ( hunger , thirst , suffering , delusion , age , and death ) ; koshas or six sheaths ( " skin , blood , flesh , fat , marrow , and bones " ) ; six adversities or foes of a body ( " longing , anger , craving , arrogance , and malice " ) ; three aspects of " jiva " – " Vishva " ( world ) , " Taijasa " ( endowed with light ) , and " Prajna " ( insight into nature of reality ) ; three " Guṇas " or qualities , innate psyche ( " Sattva , Rajas , and Tamas " ) ; three types of Karmas ( " Prarabdha " ( past karma now being enjoyed ) , " Sanchita " ( past karma yet to be enjoyed ) , and " Agamin " ( current karma to be enjoyed later ) ) ; five actions ( " talking , lifting , walking , excreting , and enjoying " ) ; and tattvas of " thought , certainty , egoism , compassion , kindness , anticipation , sympathy , and indifference " . To complete its list of 96 , the Varaha adds " Dik " , or the four quarters , all Vedic deities who are part of the human body , namely " Vayu " ( air , ear ) , Sun ( light , eye ) , " Varuna " ( water , tongue ) , Ashvini Devas ( nose ) , Agni ( fire ) , Indra , Upendra , and Mrityu ( death ) ; it includes the moon , the four @-@ faced Brahma , Rudra , Kshetrajna ( the conscious knower of the body ) , and Ishvara .
Vishnu , as Varaha , asserts in verses 1 @.@ 15 to 1 @.@ 17 , that he is " other than aggregate of these 96 Tattvas " , and those who worship him in his Varaha avatar and know these 96 tattvas remove their Ajnana ( ignorance ) , achieve salvation regardless of which order of life they are in , whether they have shaven head , or head full of hair , or maintain a head with only a tuft of hair .
= = = Brahmavidya = = =
The Varaha , in the 83 verses of Chapter 2 , explains to Ribhu how to achieve the most exalted knowledge of Brahmavidya , and then what it is . He tells Ribhu that the four means of this knowledge are to practice conduct of one 's Varna ( caste ) and one 's Ashrama ( stage in life ) , from ascetic austerity and with the help of a Guru ( spiritual teacher ) . The Varaha then states that the path to Brahmavidya is through the capacity to distinguish between the ephemeral and the eternal , detachment from the material world unto the spiritual world . A sincere longing for spiritual liberation and six virtuous qualities ( shama ) are essential in order to achieve Brahmavidya , asserts the Upanishad , these being tranquility , self @-@ restraint , doing work without craving for rewards , endurance , faith , and meditation . Varaha states in verse 2 @.@ 4 that the truly blessed are those who know Brahman and Atman and have thus become one with them .
Ribhu then asks Varaha , " Taking birth as a human , that is also a male and a Brahmin is difficult , a yogi who has studied the Vedanta but who does not know the form of Vishnu , how can such an ignorant one become liberated ? "
Varaha replies in verses 2 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 9 that he alone is Supreme Bliss , that apart from the Atman ( soul ) there exists no Ishvara or phenomenal world . Those who know their Atman ( soul ) have no notions of Varna ( caste ) or Ashrama ( stage in life ) ; they see Atman as Brahman , they become Brahman and reach " Moksha " salvation even without seeking . That which is of the character of Truth , Knowledge , Bliss , and Fullness , states Varaha Upanishad in verse 2 @.@ 16 , stands farthest away from Tamas ( darkness , destruction , chaos ) .
Varaha states that what one aspires to is part of His own " light " , which is all @-@ encompassing . As Atman , self effulgent , Varaha states that " Brahma @-@ Jnanis " are those who see nothing but the Brahman , and they are happy and content in the universe despite being subject to sufferings .
The Varaha Upanishad asserts the non @-@ dualistic premise that Brahman and Atman are one , and those who know this fear nothing , suffer nothing , and possess fortitude . He is I , states Vishnu . " Become that , Ribhu ; Thou am I verily " , suggests Vishnu . Those high souled ones , who with the firm conviction that " I am the Brahman " , are the Jivanmukta , states verse 2 @.@ 43 of the text .
= = = = Sankalpa = = = =
According to the Upanishad , the entire universe evolves by Sankalpa ( a thinking , ideation process ) , one becomes what one thinks , metaphysics affects physics , and it is ideation that helps retain the appearances of the world . Following renunciation from this universe , which is also called a Sankalpa , the meditating mind is to be focused on the Nirvikalpa ( the unchangeable ) or the unchangeable part ( metaphysical reality ) . Varaha in verse 2 @.@ 64 compares the " samsara " ( cycle of rebirth ) to the domain of karma , states Billington , one that is like a long dream ( " swapna " ) , a delusion , a sea of sorrow . It defines jivanmukta as someone who has overcome and attained liberation from this samsara through self @-@ knowledge .
= = = = Meditation = = = =
Varaha explains that through obeisance to Him who is found in everything , and doing meditation for just 48 minutes ( a muhurtha ) , will expand his wisdom to the state of " Pratyagatman " , the state of Atman which is forever liberated . It means living close to Jivatma ( soul ) and Paramatman ( the Supreme Soul ) .
The Upanishad states that knowledge of Brahman results in knowing spiritual truth in the Paroksha ( indirect cognition ) way , but Sakshatkara ( direct realization ) results in knowing that his own soul is Brahman . And when a practitioner of Yoga becomes a Jivamukta ( liberated soul ) , he knows that his Atman is the ultimate perfection . To an enlightened person who has realized Brahman , the two words " bondage " and " moksha " mean " mine " and " not mine " . " Mine " is linked to a person , but " not mine " relates to one who is liberated from all thinking and knows Atman .
= = = = Samadhi = = = =
In verses 2 @.@ 75 through 2 @.@ 87 , the Varaha Upanishad defines the goal of Yoga and what is " Samadhi " , as follows :
The state of Samadhi , it explains , is akin to salt dissolving in water , and the quality of oneness that results .
= = = Vishnu is Shiva = = =
The Upanishad , in Chapter 3 , continues the sermon of Vishnu to Ribhu , that " Ribhu should develop the conviction that he himself is palpable Existence and Consciousness , indivisible , without a counterpart , devoid of all visibility , non @-@ ailing , flawless , the Shiva without a double " . The text reasserts its non @-@ dualism in Chapter 3 , adding that bhakti to Vishnu is the path to liberating knowledge of Brahman . In verse 3 @.@ 14 – 3 @.@ 15 , states Ayyangar , everyone is equal in the eyes of god , there is no difference between living forms and human beings based on law , family , caste , or clan , and everyone is one Truth and Absolute Brahman . The " Vishnu is Shiva " and " all is Shiva " theme repeats in verse 4 @.@ 32 , which declares , " The Guru is Shiva , the Veda is Shiva , the Deva is Shiva , the Lord is Shiva , I Varaha am Shiva , all is Shiva , other than Shiva there is naught " .
The Ultimate Truth , states the text , is that which always is , which preserves its nature over time , and which is unaffected by anything . The Atman , the Brahman , the " Chit , Sat and Ananda " , and Janardhana ( Vishnu ) is such Truth , and they are synonymous , one . Some try to seek Sidhis , asserts the Upanishad , through mantras , religious rituals , time , skill , medicine , or wealth , but such Sidhis are fleeting and fruitless . Be an Atmajnani ( one with Self @-@ knowledge ) through Yoga , says Vishnu to Ribhu , and to such a person Siddhis are of no importance .
= = = Seven stages of knowledge = = =
The Varaha Upanishad , in Chapter 4 , states that individuals gain knowledge through seven stages : First , one must have virtuous desire to learn , discover ( Subh @-@ echchha ) . The second stage is inquiry , investigation ( Vichārana ) . Discernment and thinning of mind toward other objects ( Tanumanasi ) is the third stage , states the text . The fourth stage is harmony , creative union with the subject of knowledge ( Sattva @-@ patti ) . Detachment from everything else ( Asamsakti ) is the fifth stage . Conceptual analysis and gaining complete , correct meaning of the topic ( Pad @-@ artha @-@ bhavana ) is the sixth stage . The seventh or last stage is Turiya , complete consciousness .
The text states that AUM is a means for meditating on the nature of Atman and Brahman , wherein " A " represents Akara and Visva , " U " represents Ukara and Taijasa , M represents Makara and Prajna , the Ardhamatra that follows AUM , represents the Turiya .
= = = = The characteristics of a Jivanmukta = = = =
The Varaha Upanishad , in a manner similar to many ancient and medieval era Hindu texts , discusses moksha in this life ( rather than afterlife ) , or Jivanmukti , calling those who have reached such a state a Jivanmukta ( self @-@ realized person ) . The verses 4 @.@ 21 – 4 @.@ 30 describe the characteristics of a Jivanmukta ; Ayyangar and Aiyar state as follows :
He who is engrossed in the ways of the world , yet his mind is steady , like ether , is said to be Jivanmukta
He whose mental radiance neither rises nor sets , whose inner state is neither affected by happiness nor by misery inflicted on him , is said to be Jivanmukta
He who is wakeful while remaining asleep , he whose mental alertness is devoid of impressions , is known as Jivanmukta
He who responds to influences such as hatred , fear , love , yet his heart remains pure like Akasha ( aether , space ) , is said to be Jivanmukta
He whose attitude is not be attached to anything , his intellect never clouded whether active or passive , is a Jivanmukta
He who does not shrink out of fear from the world , nor the world shrinks from him , who is free from anger , fear and joy , is a Jivanmukta
He whose mind is not agitated , though participating in the world , who rests in state of calmness and absolute consciousness , no matter what , is known as Jivanmukta
The concept and characteristics of Jivanmukta in Varaha Upanishad is similar , states Sprockhoff , but other Upanishads develop these ideas further and in greater depth .
= = = Yoga = = =
Chapter 5 of the Varaha Upanishad is dedicated to Yoga , as a discussion between Ribhu and his student Nidagha . There are three types of Yoga , states the text , and these are Laya ( soft ) , Mantra ( mystic ) , and Hatha ( middle ) , recommending Hatha Yoga as foremost of three . It discusses various aspects of Yoga , ranging from recommending that healthy food should be eaten in temperate quantities , in small portions , several times a day , to recommending that Yoga should not be performed when one is not feeling well or is very hungry . The goal of Yoga , states Varaha , is manifold , including the gain of body strength and suppleness , acquisition of knowledge of one 's own body and its auras , meditation , and Self ( soul ) knowledge .
= = = = Axiology : Yamas and Niyamas = = = =
The axiology in the Varaha Upanishad is presented in Chapter 5 as ten Yamas and ten Niyamas . This list is similar to the list found in other Yoga texts such as the Shandilya Upanishad , as well as by Svātmārāma :
Ahiṃsā ( अहिंसा ) : nonviolence
Satya ( सत ् य ) : truthfulness
Asteya ( अस ् तेय ) : not stealing
Brahmacharya ( ब ् रह ् मचर ् य ) : celibacy when single , not cheating on one 's partner
Kṣamā ( क ् षमा ) : forgiveness
Dhṛti ( धृति ) : fortitude
Dayā ( दया ) : compassion
Ārjava ( आर ् जव ) : non @-@ hypocrisy , sincerity
Mitāhāra ( मितहार ) : measured diet
Śauca ( शौच ) : purity , cleanliness
The Varaha Upanishad along with the Shandilya , suggests ten niyamas in the sense of positive duties , desirable behaviors , and discipline . The Varaha 's axiological list in Chapter 5 for observances include :
Tapas : persistence , perseverance in one 's purpose , penance austerity
Santoṣa : contentment , acceptance of others and of one 's circumstances as they are , joy
Āstika : faith in Real Self ( jnana yoga , raja yoga ) , belief in God ( bhakti yoga ) , conviction in Vedas / Upanishads ( orthodox school )
Dāna : generosity , charity , sharing with others
Īśvarapūjana : worship of the Ishvara ( God / Supreme Being , Brahman , True Self , Unchanging Reality )
Siddhānta śrāvaṇa : listening to the ancient scriptures , texts about ethics , values , and principles
Hrī : remorse and acceptance of one 's past , modesty , humility
Mati : think and reflect to understand , reconcile conflicting ideas
Japa : mantra repetition , reciting prayers or knowledge
Vrata : keeping promises , fast rituals , observing pilgrimage and yajna
= = = = Yogasanas = = = =
The Upanishad makes mention of eleven asanas ( Yogic postures ) , of which two pertain to physiological postures : the Peacock and the Rooster . It describes squatting with folded legs known as Sukhasana , a meditative pose .
Varaha gives a simile of an artist practicing dance to an orchestra , balancing a vessel on her head . She is focused only on the stability of the pot , in the same manner a practitioner of Yoga always contemplates on the Brahman . The yogic practice should be centered on the " spiritual sound " only . Immersion and self @-@ absorption in music is a form of yoga . Varaha encourages introspection , and states that a person discerning his own mistakes will be free of attachments in life .
= = = = Kundalini = = = =
Varaha emphatically states that Kundalini or corporeal energy is the ultimate power of truth . It is further states that prana , the life force , exists in the Nadis ( channels , pipes or tubes ) , which run in the body , emanating from the sole of the foot and running to the skull of the head . The six Chakras beginning with Muladhara are said to be the seat of Shakti . From the neck to the top of the head is said to be the seat of Shambu .
= Vettor Pisani @-@ class cruiser =
The Vettor Pisani class consisted of two armoured cruisers built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the 1890s . The two ships of the class , Vettor Pisani and Carlo Alberto , were frequently deployed overseas during their careers . The former served in the Far East during the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 while the latter was involved in pioneering long @-@ range radio experiments several years later before deploying to South American waters . Carlo Alberto then served as a training ship for several years . Both ships participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 and played minor roles in World War I , during which time Carlo Alberto was converted into a troop transport and Vettor Pisani into a repair ship . They were both discarded in 1920 and subsequently scrapped .
= = Design and description = =
The ships of the class had a length between perpendiculars of 99 meters ( 324 ft 10 in ) and an overall length of 105 @.@ 7 meters ( 346 ft 9 in ) . They had a beam of 18 @.@ 04 meters ( 59 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 2 meters ( 23 ft 7 in ) . They displaced 6 @,@ 397 – 6 @,@ 614 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 296 – 6 @,@ 510 long tons ) at normal load , and 7 @,@ 057 – 7 @,@ 128 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 946 – 7 @,@ 015 long tons ) at deep load . The Vettor Pisani class had a complement of 28 officers and 472 to 476 enlisted men .
The ships were powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was supplied by eight Scotch marine boilers and their exhausts were trunked into a pair of funnels amidships . Designed for a maximum output of 13 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 700 kW ) and a speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , both ships exceeded their designed power during their sea trials although only Carlo Alberto met her designed speed . The two had a cruising radius of about 5 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 000 km ; 6 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament of the Vettor Pisani @-@ class ships consisted of twelve quick @-@ firing ( QF ) Cannone da 152 / 40 A Modello 1891 guns in single mounts . These 152 mm ( 6 in ) weapons had 40 @-@ caliber barrels . All of these guns were mounted on the broadside , eight on the upper deck and four at the corners of the central citadel in armored casemates . The M1891 guns weighed 6 @.@ 6 metric tons ( 6 @.@ 5 long tons ) and fired a 45 @.@ 4 @-@ kilogram ( 100 lb ) , armor @-@ piercing , capped shell at a muzzle velocity of 700 m / s ( 2 @,@ 297 ft / s ) .
Single 40 @-@ caliber QF Cannone da 120 / 40 A Modello 1891 guns were mounted at the bow and stern and the remaining two or four 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns were positioned on the main deck between the 152 mm guns . The 20 @.@ 4 @-@ kilogram ( 45 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shell had a muzzle velocity of 645 m / s ( 2 @,@ 116 ft / s ) when fired by these guns . For defense against torpedo boats , the ships carried fourteen QF 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) Hotchkiss guns and six or eight QF 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns . They were also equipped with four 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes .
The ships were protected by an armored belt that was 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) at the bow and stern . The upper strake of armor was also 15 cm thick and protected just the middle of the ship , up to the height of the upper deck . The curved armored deck was 3 @.@ 7 cm thick . The conning tower armor was also 15 cm thick and each 15 @.@ 2 cm gun was protected by a 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) gun shield .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Vettor Pisani was the flagship of Rear Admiral Candiani , commander of the Cruising Squadron dispatched to China in 1900 during the Boxer Rebellion . She arrived at La Spezia in early 1902 , but only remained in Italian waters for a year before returning to the Far East for another year @-@ long cruise .
Carlo Alberto acted as the royal yacht for King Victor Emmanuel III when he attended the coronation ceremony for King Edward VII of the United Kingdom in 1902 . Victor Emmanuel invited Guglielmo Marconi to accompany him and conduct radio experiments en route . When the coronation was delayed by Edward 's illness , the ship took Victor Emmanuel to meetings with Tsar Nicholas II of Russia in Kronstadt . She then ferried Marconi across the Atlantic to Nova Scotia for experiments transmitting radio messages across the ocean . After 15 December , when Marconi successfully transmitted messages from Canada to England , Carlo Alberto was sent to Venezuelan waters during the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 , when an international force of British , German , and Italian warships blockaded Venezuela over the country 's refusal to pay foreign debts . From 1907 to 1910 she served as a gunnery and torpedo training ship .
Both ships participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 . Vettor Pisani supported operations in the Adriatic and Aegean Seas and in the Dardanelles while Carlo Alberto took part in the assaults on Tripoli and Zuara and thereafter provided gunfire support to Italian forces in North Africa .
Obsolescent by the beginning of World War I , neither ship was very active during the war . Vettor Pisani spent the war in the Adriatic and participated in an abortive attempt in mid @-@ 1915 to bombard a rail line near Ragusa Vecchia on the Dalmatian coast . An Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine , U @-@ 4 , intercepted the Italian ships and sank the armored cruiser Giuseppe Garibaldi . Vettor Pisani subsequently became a repair ship in 1916 and was stricken from the Navy List on 2 January 1920 . She was sold for scrap and broken up beginning on 13 March .
Carlo Alberto spent the almost the entire war based in Venice . She began conversion into a troop transport there in 1917 and the work was finished in Taranto early the next year ; she was recommissioned with the new name of Zenson . The ship was discarded on 12 June 1920 and subsequently scrapped .
= Radius of maximum wind =
The radius of maximum wind ( RMW ) is the distance between the center of a cyclone and its band of strongest winds . It is a parameter in atmospheric dynamics and tropical cyclone forecasting . The highest rainfall rates occur near the RMW of tropical cyclones . The extent of a cyclone 's storm surge and its maximum potential intensity can be determined using the RMW . As maximum sustained winds increase , the RMW decreases . Recently , RMW has been used in descriptions of tornadoes . When designing buildings to prevent against failure from atmospheric pressure change , RMW can be used in the calculations .
= = Determination = =
The RMW is traditionally measured by reconnaissance aircraft in the Atlantic basin . It can also be determined on weather maps as the distance between the cyclone center and the system 's greatest pressure gradient . Using weather satellite data , the distance between the coldest cloud top temperature and the warmest temperatature within the eye , in infrared satellite imagery , is one method of determining RMW . The reason why this method has merit is that the strongest winds within tropical cyclones tend to be located under the deepest convection , which is seen on satellite imagery as the coldest cloud tops . Use of velocity data from Doppler weather radar can also be used to determine this quantity , both for tornadoes and tropical cyclones near the coast .
= = Tornadoes = =
In the case of tornadoes , knowledge of the RMW is important as atmospheric pressure change ( APC ) within sealed buildings can cause failure of the structure . Most buildings have openings totaling one square foot per 1 @,@ 000 @-@ cubic @-@ foot ( 28 m3 ) volume to help equalize air pressure between the inside and outside of the structures . The APC is around one @-@ half of its maximum value at the RMW , which normally ranges between 150 feet ( 46 m ) and 500 feet ( 150 m ) from the center ( or eye ) of the tornado . The widest tornado as measured by actual radar wind measurements was the Mulhall tornado in northern Oklahoma , part of the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak , which had a radius of maximum wind of over 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) .
= = Tropical cyclones = =
An average value for the RMW of 47 kilometres ( 29 mi ) was calculated as the mean ( or average ) of all hurricanes with a lowest central atmospheric pressure between a pressure of 909 hectopascals ( 26 @.@ 8 inHg ) and 993 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . As tropical cyclones intensify , maximum sustained winds increase as the RMW decreases . The heaviest rainfall within intense tropical cyclones has been observed in the vicinity of the RMW .
The radius of maximum wind helps determine the direct strikes of tropical cyclones . Tropical cyclones are considered to have made a direct strike to a landmass when a tropical cyclone passes close enough to a landmass that areas inside the radius of maximum wind are experienced on land . The radius of maximum wind is used within the maximum potential intensity equation . The Emanuel equation for Maximum Intensity Potential relies upon the winds near the RMW of a tropical cyclone to determine its ultimate potential .
The highest storm surge is normally coincident with the radius of maximum wind . Because the strongest winds within a tropical cyclone lie at the RMW , this is the region of a tropical cyclone which generates the dominant waves near the storm , and ultimately ocean swell away from the cyclone . Tropical cyclones mix the ocean water within a radius three times that of the RMW , which lowers sea surface temperatures due to upwelling .
Much is still unknown about the radius of maximum wind in tropical cyclones , including whether or not it can be predictable .
= William Wilberforce =
William Wilberforce ( 24 August 1759 – 29 July 1833 ) was an English politician , philanthropist , and a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade . A native of Kingston upon Hull , Yorkshire , he began his political career in 1780 , eventually becoming the independent Member of Parliament for Yorkshire ( 1784 – 1812 ) . In 1785 , he became an Evangelical Christian , which resulted in major changes to his lifestyle and a lifelong concern for reform .
In 1787 , he came into contact with Thomas Clarkson and a group of anti @-@ slave @-@ trade activists , including Granville Sharp , Hannah More and Charles Middleton . They persuaded Wilberforce to take on the cause of abolition , and he soon became one of the leading English abolitionists . He headed the parliamentary campaign against the British slave trade for twenty years until the passage of the Slave Trade Act of 1807 .
Wilberforce was convinced of the importance of religion , morality and education . He championed causes and campaigns such as the Society for the Suppression of Vice , British missionary work in India , the creation of a free colony in Sierra Leone , the foundation of the Church Mission Society , and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals . His underlying conservatism led him to support politically and socially controversial legislation , and resulted in criticism that he was ignoring injustices at home while campaigning for the enslaved abroad .
In later years , Wilberforce supported the campaign for the complete abolition of slavery , and continued his involvement after 1826 , when he resigned from Parliament because of his failing health . That campaign led to the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 , which abolished slavery in most of the British Empire ; Wilberforce died just three days after hearing that the passage of the Act through Parliament was assured . He was buried in Westminster Abbey , close to his friend William Pitt .
= = Early life and education = =
Wilberforce was born in a house on the High Street of Hull , in the East Riding of Yorkshire : England , on 24 August 1759 , the only son of Robert Wilberforce ( 1728 – 68 ) , a wealthy merchant , and his wife Elizabeth Bird ( 1730 – 98 ) . His grandfather William ( 1690 – 1774 or 1776 ) had made the family fortune in the maritime trade with Baltic countries , and had twice been elected mayor of Hull .
Wilberforce was a small , sickly and delicate child , with poor eyesight . In 1767 he began attending Hull Grammar School , at the time headed by a young , dynamic headmaster , Joseph Milner , who was to become a lifelong friend . Wilberforce profited from the supportive atmosphere at the school until the death of his father in 1768 . With his mother struggling to cope , the nine @-@ year @-@ old Wilberforce was sent to a prosperous uncle and aunt with houses in both St James ' Place , London , and Wimbledon , at that time a village 7 miles ( 11 km ) south @-@ west of London . He attended an " indifferent " boarding school in Putney for two years , spending his holidays in Wimbledon , where he grew extremely fond of his relatives . He became interested in evangelical Christianity because of their influence , especially that of his aunt Hannah , sister of the wealthy Christian merchant John Thornton , a philanthropist and a supporter of the leading Methodist preacher George Whitefield .
Wilberforce 's staunchly Church of England mother and grandfather , alarmed at these nonconformist influences and at his leanings towards evangelicalism , brought the 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy back to Hull in 1771 . Wilberforce was heartbroken to be separated from his aunt and uncle . His family opposed a return to Hull Grammar School because the headmaster had become a Methodist ; Wilberforce therefore continued his education at nearby Pocklington School from 1771 to 1776 . Influenced by Methodist scruples , he initially resisted Hull 's lively social life , but as his religious fervour diminished , he embraced theatre @-@ going , attended balls and played cards .
In October 1776 , at the age of 17 , Wilberforce went up to St John 's College , Cambridge . The deaths of his grandfather and uncle in 1777 had left him independently wealthy , and as a result he had little inclination or need to apply himself to serious study . Instead , he immersed himself in the social round of student life , and pursued a hedonistic lifestyle enjoying cards , gambling and late @-@ night drinking sessions — although he found the excesses of some of his fellow students distasteful . Witty , generous , and an excellent conversationalist , Wilberforce was a popular figure . He made many friends , including the more studious future Prime Minister , William Pitt . Despite his lifestyle and lack of interest in studying , he managed to pass his examinations , and was awarded a B.A. in 1781 and an M.A. in 1788 .
= = Early parliamentary career = =
Wilberforce began to consider a political career while still at university , and during the winter of 1779 – 80 , he and Pitt frequently watched House of Commons debates from the gallery . Pitt , already set on a political career , encouraged Wilberforce to join him in obtaining a parliamentary seat . In September 1780 , at the age of twenty @-@ one and while still a student , Wilberforce was elected Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Kingston upon Hull , spending over £ 8 @,@ 000 to ensure he received the necessary votes , as was the custom of the time . Free from financial pressures , Wilberforce sat as an independent , resolving to be " no party man " . Criticised at times for inconsistency , he supported both Tory and Whig governments according to his conscience , working closely with the party in power , and voting on specific measures according to their merits .
Wilberforce attended Parliament regularly , but he also maintained a lively social life , becoming an habitué of gentlemen 's gambling clubs such as Goostree 's and Boodle 's in Pall Mall , London . The writer and socialite Madame de Staël described him as the " wittiest man in England " and , according to Georgiana , Duchess of Devonshire , the Prince of Wales said that he would go anywhere to hear Wilberforce sing .
Wilberforce used his speaking voice to great effect in political speeches ; the diarist and author James Boswell witnessed Wilberforce 's eloquence in the House of Commons and noted , " I saw what seemed a mere shrimp mount upon the table ; but as I listened , he grew , and grew , until the shrimp became a whale . " During the frequent government changes of 1781 – 84 , Wilberforce supported his friend Pitt in parliamentary debates .
In autumn 1783 , Pitt , Wilberforce and Edward Eliot ( later to become Pitt 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) , travelled to France for a six @-@ week holiday together . After a difficult start in Rheims , where their presence aroused police suspicion that they were English spies , they visited Paris , meeting Benjamin Franklin , General Lafayette , Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI , and joined the French court at Fontainebleau .
Pitt became Prime Minister in December 1783 , with Wilberforce a key supporter of his minority government . Despite their close friendship , there is no record that Pitt offered Wilberforce a ministerial position in this or future governments . This may have been due to Wilberforce 's wish to remain an independent MP . Alternatively , Wilberforce 's frequent tardiness and disorganisation , as well as the chronic eye problems that at times made reading impossible , may have convinced Pitt that his trusted friend was not ministerial material . When Parliament was dissolved in the spring of 1784 , Wilberforce decided to stand as a candidate for the county of Yorkshire in the 1784 general election . On 6 April , he was returned as MP for Yorkshire at the age of twenty @-@ four .
= = Conversion = =
In October 1784 , Wilberforce embarked upon a tour of Europe which would ultimately change his life and determine his future career . He travelled with his mother and sister in the company of Isaac Milner , the brilliant younger brother of his former headmaster , who had been Fellow of Queens ' College , Cambridge , in the year when Wilberforce first went up . They visited the French Riviera and enjoyed the usual pastimes of dinners , cards , and gambling . In February 1785 , Wilberforce returned to the United Kingdom temporarily , to support Pitt 's proposals for parliamentary reforms . He rejoined the party in Genoa , Italy , from where they continued their tour to Switzerland . Milner accompanied Wilberforce to England , and on the journey they read The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul by Philip Doddridge , a leading early 18th @-@ century English nonconformist .
Wilberforce 's spiritual journey is thought to have begun at this time . He started to rise early to read the Bible and pray and kept a private journal . He underwent an evangelical conversion , regretting his past life and resolving to commit his future life and work to the service of God . His conversion changed some of his habits , but not his nature : he remained outwardly cheerful , interested and respectful , tactfully urging others towards his new faith . Inwardly , he underwent an agonising struggle and became relentlessly self @-@ critical , harshly judging his spirituality , use of time , vanity , self @-@ control and relationships with others .
At the time , religious enthusiasm was generally regarded as a social transgression and was stigmatised in polite society . Evangelicals in the upper classes , such as Sir Richard Hill , the Methodist MP for Shropshire , and Selina Hastings , Countess of Huntingdon , were exposed to contempt and ridicule , and Wilberforce 's conversion led him to question whether he should remain in public life . He sought guidance from John Newton , a leading Evangelical Anglican clergyman of the day and Rector of St Mary Woolnoth in the City of London . Both Newton and Pitt counselled him to remain in politics , and he resolved to do so " with increased diligence and conscientiousness " . Thereafter , his political views were informed by his faith and by his desire to promote Christianity and Christian ethics in private and public life . His views were often deeply conservative , opposed to radical changes in a God @-@ given political and social order , and focused on issues such as the observance of the Sabbath and the eradication of immorality through education and reform . As a result , he was often distrusted by progressive voices because of his conservatism , and regarded with suspicion by many Tories who saw Evangelicals as radicals , bent on the overthrow of church and state .
In 1786 , Wilberforce leased a house in Old Palace Yard , Westminster , in order to be near Parliament . He began using his parliamentary position to advocate reform by introducing a Registration Bill , proposing limited changes to parliamentary election procedures . He brought forward a bill to extend the measure permitting the dissection after execution of criminals such as rapists , arsonists and thieves . The bill also advocated the reduction of sentences for women convicted of treason , a crime that at the time included a husband 's murder . The House of Commons passed both bills , but they were defeated in the House of Lords .
= = Abolition of the slave trade = =
= = = Initial decision = = =
The British initially became involved in the slave trade during the 16th century . By 1783 , the triangular route that took British @-@ made goods to Africa to buy slaves , transported the enslaved to the West Indies , and then brought slave @-@ grown products such as sugar , tobacco , and cotton to Britain , represented about 80 percent of Great Britain 's foreign income . British ships dominated the trade , supplying French , Spanish , Dutch , Portuguese and British colonies , and in peak years carried forty thousand enslaved men , women and children across the Atlantic in the horrific conditions of the middle passage . Of the estimated 11 million Africans transported into slavery , about 1 @.@ 4 million died during the voyage .
The British campaign to abolish the slave trade is generally considered to have begun in the 1780s with the establishment of the Quakers ' antislavery committees , and their presentation to Parliament of the first slave trade petition in 1783 . The same year , Wilberforce , while dining with his old Cambridge friend Gerard Edwards , met Rev. James Ramsay , a ship 's surgeon who had become a clergyman on the island of St Christopher ( later St Kitts ) in the Leeward Islands , and a medical supervisor of the plantations there . What Ramsay had witnessed of the conditions endured by the slaves , both at sea and on the plantations , horrified him . Returning to England after fifteen years , he accepted the living of Teston , Kent in 1781 , and there met Sir Charles Middleton , Lady Middleton , Thomas Clarkson , Hannah More and others , a group that later became known as the Testonites . Interested in promoting Christianity and moral improvement in Britain and overseas , they were appalled by Ramsay 's reports of the depraved lifestyles of slave owners , the cruel treatment meted out to the enslaved , and the lack of Christian instruction provided to the slaves . With their encouragement and help , Ramsay spent three years writing An essay on the treatment and conversion of African slaves in the British sugar colonies , which was highly critical of slavery in the West Indies . The book , published in 1784 , was to have an important impact in raising public awareness and interest , and it excited the ire of West Indian planters who in the coming years attacked both Ramsay and his ideas in a series of pro @-@ slavery tracts .
Wilberforce apparently did not follow up on his meeting with Ramsay . However , three years later , and inspired by his new faith , Wilberforce was growing interested in humanitarian reform . In November 1786 , he received a letter from Sir Charles Middleton that re @-@ opened his interest in the slave trade . At the urging of Lady Middleton , Sir Charles suggested that Wilberforce bring forward the abolition of the slave trade in Parliament . Wilberforce responded that he " felt the great importance of the subject , and thought himself unequal to the task allotted to him , but yet would not positively decline it " . He began to read widely on the subject , and met with the Testonites at Middleton 's home at Barham Court in Teston in the early winter of 1786 – 87 .
In early 1787 , Thomas Clarkson , a fellow graduate of St John 's , Cambridge , who had become convinced of the need to end the slave trade after writing a prize @-@ winning essay on the subject while at Cambridge , called upon Wilberforce at Old Palace Yard with a published copy of the work . This was the first time the two men had met ; their collaboration would last nearly fifty years . Clarkson began to visit Wilberforce on a weekly basis , bringing first @-@ hand evidence he had obtained about the slave trade . The Quakers , already working for abolition , also recognised the need for influence within Parliament , and urged Clarkson to secure a commitment from Wilberforce to bring forward the case for abolition in the House of Commons .
It was arranged that Bennet Langton , a Lincolnshire landowner and mutual acquaintance of Wilberforce and Clarkson , would organize a dinner party in order to ask Wilberforce formally to lead the parliamentary campaign . The dinner took place on 13 March 1787 ; other guests included Charles Middleton , Sir Joshua Reynolds , William Windham , MP , James Boswell and Isaac Hawkins Browne , MP . By the end of the evening , Wilberforce had agreed in general terms that he would bring forward the abolition of the slave trade in Parliament , " provided that no person more proper could be found " .
The same spring , on 12 May 1787 , the still hesitant Wilberforce held a conversation with William Pitt and the future Prime Minister William Grenville as they sat under a large oak tree on Pitt 's estate in Kent . Under what came to be known as the " Wilberforce Oak " at Holwood , Pitt challenged his friend : " Wilberforce , why don 't you give notice of a motion on the subject of the Slave Trade ? You have already taken great pains to collect evidence , and are therefore fully entitled to the credit which doing so will ensure you . Do not lose time , or the ground will be occupied by another . " Wilberforce 's response is not recorded , but he later declared in old age that he could " distinctly remember the very knoll on which I was sitting near Pitt and Grenville " where he made his decision .
Wilberforce 's involvement in the abolition movement was motivated by a desire to put his Christian principles into action and to serve God in public life . He and other Evangelicals were horrified by what they perceived was a depraved and unchristian trade , and the greed and avarice of the owners and traders . Wilberforce sensed a call from God , writing in a journal entry in 1787 that " God Almighty has set before me two great objects , the suppression of the Slave Trade and the Reformation of Manners [ moral values ] " . The conspicuous involvement of Evangelicals in the highly popular anti @-@ slavery movement served to improve the status of a group otherwise associated with the less popular campaigns against vice and immorality .
= = = Early parliamentary action = = =
On 22 May 1787 , the first meeting of the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade took place , bringing like @-@ minded British Quakers and Anglicans together in the same organisation for the first time . The committee chose to campaign against the slave trade rather than slavery itself , with many members believing that slavery would eventually disappear as a natural consequence of the abolition of the trade . Wilberforce , though involved informally , did not join the committee officially until 1791 .
The society was highly successful in raising public awareness and support , and local chapters sprang up throughout Great Britain . Clarkson travelled the country researching and collecting first @-@ hand testimony and statistics , while the committee promoted the campaign , pioneering techniques such as lobbying , writing pamphlets , holding public meetings , gaining press attention , organising boycotts and even using a campaign logo : an image of a kneeling slave above the motto " Am I not a Man and a Brother ? " , designed by the renowned pottery @-@ maker Josiah Wedgwood . The committee also sought to influence slave @-@ trading nations such as France , Spain , Portugal , Denmark , Holland and the United States , corresponding with anti @-@ slavery activists in other countries and organising the translation of English @-@ language books and pamphlets . These included books by former slaves Ottobah Cugoano and Olaudah Equiano , who had published influential works on slavery and the slave trade in 1787 and 1789 respectively . They and other free blacks , collectively known as " Sons of Africa " , spoke at debating societies and wrote spirited letters to newspapers , periodicals and prominent figures , as well as public letters of support to campaign allies . Hundreds of parliamentary petitions opposing the slave trade were received in 1788 and following years , with hundreds of thousands of signatories in total . The campaign proved to be the world 's first grassroots human rights campaign , in which men and women from different social classes and backgrounds volunteered to try to end the injustices suffered by others .
Wilberforce had planned to introduce a motion giving notice that he would bring forward a bill for the Abolition of the Slave Trade during the 1789 parliamentary session . However , in January 1788 , he was taken ill with a probable stress @-@ related condition , now thought to be ulcerative colitis . It was several months before he was able to resume work , and he spent time convalescing at Bath and Cambridge . His regular bouts of gastrointestinal illnesses precipitated the use of moderate quantities of opium , which proved effective in alleviating his condition , and which he continued to use for the rest of his life .
In Wilberforce 's absence , Pitt , who had long been supportive of abolition , introduced the preparatory motion himself , and ordered a Privy Council investigation into the slave trade , followed by a House of Commons review .
With the publication of the Privy Council report in April 1789 and following months of planning , Wilberforce commenced his parliamentary campaign . On 12 May 1789 , he made his first major speech on the subject of abolition in the House of Commons , in which he reasoned that the trade was morally reprehensible and an issue of natural justice . Drawing on Thomas Clarkson 's mass of evidence , he described in detail the appalling conditions in which slaves travelled from Africa in the middle passage , and argued that abolishing the trade would also bring an improvement to the conditions of existing slaves in the West Indies . He moved 12 resolutions condemning the slave trade , but made no reference to the abolition of slavery itself , instead dwelling on the potential for reproduction in the existing slave population should the trade be abolished . With the tide running against them , the opponents of abolition delayed the vote by proposing that the House of Commons hear its own evidence , and Wilberforce , in a move that has subsequently been criticised for prolonging the slave trade , reluctantly agreed . The hearings were not completed by the end of the parliamentary session , and were deferred until the following year . In the meantime , Wilberforce and Clarkson tried unsuccessfully to take advantage of the egalitarian atmosphere of the French Revolution to press for France 's abolition of the trade , which was , in any event , to be abolished in 1794 as a result of the bloody slave revolt in St. Domingue ( later to be known as Haiti ) , although later briefly restored by Napoleon in 1802 .
In January 1790 , Wilberforce succeeded in speeding up the hearings by gaining approval for a smaller parliamentary select committee to consider the vast quantity of evidence which had been accumulated . Wilberforce 's house in Old Palace Yard became a centre for the abolitionists ' campaign and a focus for many strategy meetings . Petitioners for other causes also besieged him there , and his ante @-@ room was thronged from an early hour , like " Noah 's Ark , full of beasts clean and unclean " , according to Hannah More .
Interrupted by a general election in June 1790 , the committee finally finished hearing witnesses , and in April 1791 with a closely reasoned four @-@ hour speech , Wilberforce introduced the first parliamentary bill to abolish the slave trade . However , after two evenings of debate , the bill was easily defeated by 163 votes to 88 , the political climate having swung in a conservative direction in the wake of the French Revolution and in reaction to an increase in radicalism and to slave revolts in the French West Indies . Such was the public hysteria of the time that even Wilberforce himself was suspected by some of being a Jacobin agitator .
This was the beginning of a protracted parliamentary campaign , during which Wilberforce 's commitment never wavered , despite frustration and hostility . He was supported in his work by fellow members of the so @-@ called Clapham Sect , among whom was his best friend and cousin Henry Thornton . Holding evangelical Christian convictions , and consequently dubbed " the Saints " , the group mainly lived in large houses surrounding the common in Clapham , then a village to the south @-@ west of London . Wilberforce accepted an invitation to share a house with Henry Thornton in 1792 , moving into his own home after Thornton 's marriage in 1796 . The " Saints " were an informal community , characterised by considerable intimacy as well as a commitment to practical Christianity and an opposition to slavery . They developed a relaxed family atmosphere , wandering freely in and out of each other 's homes and gardens , and discussing the many religious , social and political topics that engaged them .
Pro @-@ slavery advocates claimed that enslaved Africans were lesser human beings who benefited from their bondage . Wilberforce , the Clapham Sect and others were anxious to demonstrate that Africans , and particularly freed slaves , had human and economic abilities beyond the slave trade , and that they were capable of sustaining a well @-@ ordered society , trade and cultivation . Inspired in part by the utopian vision of Granville Sharp , they became involved in the establishment in 1792 of a free colony in Sierra Leone with black settlers from the United Kingdom , Nova Scotia and Jamaica , as well as native Africans and some whites . They formed the Sierra Leone Company , with Wilberforce subscribing liberally to the project in money and time . The dream was of an ideal society in which races would mix on equal terms ; the reality was fraught with tension , crop failures , disease , death , war and defections to the slave trade . Initially a commercial venture , the British government assumed responsibility for the colony in 1808 . The colony , although troubled at times , was to become a symbol of anti @-@ slavery in which residents , communities and African tribal chiefs , worked together to prevent enslavement at the source , supported by a British naval blockade to stem the region 's slave trade .
On 2 April 1792 , Wilberforce again brought a bill calling for abolition . The memorable debate that followed drew contributions from the greatest orators in the house , William Pitt and Charles James Fox , as well as from Wilberforce himself . Lord Melville , as Home Secretary , proposed a compromise solution of so @-@ called " gradual abolition " over a number of years . This was passed by 230 to 85 votes , but the compromise was little more than a clever ploy , with the intention of ensuring that total abolition would be delayed indefinitely .
= = = War with France = = =
On 26 February 1793 , another vote to abolish the slave trade was narrowly defeated by eight votes . The outbreak of war with France the same month effectively prevented any further serious consideration of the issue , as politicians concentrated on the national crisis and the threat of invasion . The same year , and again in 1794 , Wilberforce unsuccessfully brought before Parliament a bill to outlaw British ships from supplying slaves to foreign colonies . He voiced his concern about the war and urged Pitt and his government to make greater efforts to end hostilities . Growing more alarmed , on 31 December 1794 , Wilberforce moved that the government seek a peaceful resolution with France , a stance that created a temporary breach in his long friendship with Pitt .
Abolition continued to be associated in the public consciousness with the French Revolution and with British radical groups , resulting in a decline in public support . In 1795 , the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade ceased to meet , and Clarkson retired in ill @-@ health to the Lake District . However , despite the decreased interest in abolition , Wilberforce continued to introduce abolition bills throughout the 1790s .
The early years of the 19th century once again saw an increased public interest in abolition . Since Napoleon had reintroduced slavery in the French colonies , support of abolition was no longer perceived as being pro @-@ French .
In 1804 , Clarkson resumed his work and the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade began meeting again , strengthened with prominent new members such as Zachary Macaulay , Henry Brougham and James Stephen . In June 1804 , Wilberforce 's bill to abolish the slave trade successfully passed all its stages through the House of Commons . However , it was too late in the parliamentary session for it to complete its passage through the House of Lords . On its reintroduction during the 1805 session , it was defeated , with even the usually sympathetic Pitt failing to support it . On this occasion and throughout the campaign , abolition was held back by Wilberforce 's trusting , even credulous nature , and his deferential attitude towards those in power . He found it difficult to believe that men of rank would not do what he perceived to be the right thing , and was reluctant to confront them when they did not .
= = = Final phase of the campaign = = =
Following Pitt 's death in January 1806 , Wilberforce began to collaborate more with the Whigs , especially the abolitionists . He gave general support to the Grenville – Fox administration , which brought more abolitionists into the cabinet ; Wilberforce and Charles Fox led the campaign in the House of Commons , while Lord Grenville advocated the cause in the House of Lords .
A radical change of tactics , which involved the introduction of a bill to ban British subjects from aiding or participating in the slave trade to the French colonies , was suggested by maritime lawyer James Stephen . It was a shrewd move , since the majority of British ships were now flying American flags and supplying slaves to foreign colonies with whom Britain was at war . A bill was introduced and approved by the cabinet , and Wilberforce and other abolitionists maintained a self @-@ imposed silence , so as not to draw any attention to the effect of the bill . The approach proved successful , and the new Foreign Slave Trade Bill was quickly passed , and received royal assent on 23 May 1806 . Wilberforce and Clarkson had collected a large volume of evidence against the slave trade over the previous two decades , and Wilberforce spent the latter part of 1806 writing A Letter on the Abolition of the Slave Trade , which was a comprehensive restatement of the abolitionists ' case . The death of Fox in September 1806 was a blow , and was followed quickly by a general election in the autumn of 1806 . Slavery became an election issue , bringing more abolitionist MPs into the House of Commons , including former military men who had personally experienced the horrors of slavery and slave revolts . Wilberforce was re @-@ elected as an MP for Yorkshire , after which he returned to finishing and publishing his Letter , in reality a 400 @-@ page book which formed the basis for the final phase of the campaign .
Lord Grenville , the Prime Minister , was determined to introduce an Abolition Bill in the House of Lords , rather than in the House of Commons , taking it through its greatest challenge first . When a final vote was taken , the bill was passed in the House of Lords by a large margin . Sensing a breakthrough that had been long anticipated , Charles Grey moved for a second reading in the Commons on 23 February 1807 . As tributes were made to Wilberforce , whose face streamed with tears , the bill was carried by 283 votes to 16 . Excited supporters suggested taking advantage of the large majority to seek the abolition of slavery itself , but Wilberforce made it clear that total emancipation was not the immediate goal : " They had for the present no object immediately before them , but that of putting stop directly to the carrying of men in British ships to be sold as slaves . " The Slave Trade Act received royal assent on 25 March 1807 .
= = Personal life = =
In his youth , Wilberforce showed little interest in women , but in his late thirties , twenty @-@ year @-@ old Barbara Ann Spooner ( 1777 – 1847 ) was recommended by his friend Thomas Babington as a potential bride . Wilberforce met her two days later on 15 April 1797 , and was immediately smitten ; following an eight @-@ day whirlwind romance , he proposed . Despite the urgings of friends to slow down , the couple married at the Church of St Swithin in Bath , Somerset , on 30 May 1797 . They were devoted to each other , and Barbara was very attentive and supportive to Wilberforce in his increasing ill health , though she showed little interest in his political activities . They had six children in fewer than ten years : William ( b . 1798 ) , Barbara ( b . 1799 ) , Elizabeth ( b . 1801 ) , Robert Isaac Wilberforce ( b . 1802 ) , Samuel Wilberforce ( b . 1805 ) and Henry William Wilberforce ( b . 1807 ) . Wilberforce was an indulgent and adoring father who revelled in his time at home and at play with his children .
= = Other concerns = =
= = = Political and social reform = = =
Wilberforce was deeply conservative when it came to challenges to the existing political and social order . He advocated change in society through Christianity and improvement in morals , education and religion , fearing and opposing radical causes and revolution . The radical writer William Cobbett was among those who attacked what they saw as Wilberforce 's hypocrisy in campaigning for better working conditions for slaves while British workers lived in terrible conditions at home . " Never have you done one single act , in favour of the labourers of this country " , he wrote . Critics noted Wilberforce 's support of the suspension of habeas corpus in 1795 and his votes for Pitt 's " Gagging Bills " , which banned meetings of more than 50 people , allowing speakers to be arrested and imposing harsh penalties on those who attacked the constitution . Wilberforce was opposed to giving workers ' rights to organise into unions , in 1799 speaking in favour of the Combination Act , which suppressed trade union activity throughout the United Kingdom , and calling unions " a general disease in our society " . He also opposed an enquiry into the 1819 Peterloo Massacre in which eleven protesters were killed at a political rally demanding reform . Concerned about " bad men who wished to produce anarchy and confusion " , he approved of the government 's Six Acts , which further limited public meetings and seditious writings . Wilberforce 's actions led the essayist William Hazlitt to condemn him as one " who preaches vital Christianity to untutored savages , and tolerates its worst abuses in civilised states . "
Wilberforce 's views of women and religion were also conservative . He disapproved of women anti @-@ slavery activists such as Elizabeth Heyrick , who organised women 's abolitionist groups in the 1820s , protesting : " [ F ] or ladies to meet , to publish , to go from house to house stirring up petitions – these appear to me proceedings unsuited to the female character as delineated in Scripture . " Wilberforce initially strongly opposed bills for Catholic emancipation , which would have allowed Catholics to become MPs , hold public office and serve in the army , although by 1813 , he had changed his views and spoke in favour of a similar bill .
More progressively , Wilberforce advocated legislation to improve the working conditions for chimney @-@ sweeps and textile workers , engaged in prison reform , and supported campaigns to restrict capital punishment and the severe punishments meted out under the Game Laws . He recognised the importance of education in alleviating poverty , and when Hannah More and her sister established Sunday schools for the poor in Somerset and the Mendips , he provided financial and moral support as they faced opposition from landowners and Anglican clergy . From the late 1780s onward , Wilberforce campaigned for limited parliamentary reform , such as the abolition of rotten boroughs and the redistribution of Commons seats to growing towns and cities , though by 1832 , he feared that such measures went too far . With others , Wilberforce founded the world 's first animal welfare organisation , the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ( later the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ) . In 1824 , Wilberforce was one of over 30 eminent gentlemen who put their names at the inaugural public meeting to the fledgling National Institution for the Preservation of Life from Shipwreck , later named the Royal National Lifeboat Institution . He was also opposed to duelling , which he described as the " disgrace of a Christian society " and was appalled when his friend Pitt engaged in a duel in 1798 , particularly as it occurred on a Sunday , the Christian day of rest .
Wilberforce was generous with his time and money , believing that those with wealth had a duty to give a significant portion of their income to the needy . Yearly , he gave away thousands of pounds , much of it to clergymen to distribute in their parishes . He paid off the debts of others , supported education and missions , and in a year of food shortages , gave to charity more than his own yearly income . He was exceptionally hospitable , and could not bear to sack any of his servants . As a result , his home was full of old and incompetent servants kept on in charity . Although he was often months behind in his correspondence , Wilberforce responded to numerous requests for advice or for help in obtaining professorships , military promotions and livings for clergymen , or for the reprieve of death sentences .
= = = Evangelical Christianity = = =
A supporter of the evangelical wing of the Church of England , Wilberforce believed that the revitalisation of the Church and individual Christian observance would lead to a harmonious , moral society . He sought to elevate the status of religion in public and private life , making piety fashionable in both the upper- and middle @-@ classes of society . To this end , in April 1797 , Wilberforce published A Practical View of the Prevailing Religious System of Professed Christians in the Higher and Middle Classes of This Country Contrasted With Real Christianity , on which he had been working since 1793 . This was an exposition of New Testament doctrine and teachings and a call for a revival of Christianity , as a response to the moral decline of the nation , illustrating his own personal testimony and the views which inspired him . The book proved to be influential and a best @-@ seller by the standards of the day ; 7 @,@ 500 copies were sold within six months , and it was translated into several languages .
Wilberforce fostered and supported missionary activity in Britain and abroad . He was a founding member of the Church Missionary Society ( since renamed the Church Mission Society ) and was involved , with other members of the Clapham Sect , in numerous other evangelical and charitable organisations . Horrified by the lack of Christian evangelism in India , Wilberforce used the 1793 renewal of the British East India Company 's charter to propose the addition of clauses requiring the company to provide teachers and chaplains and to commit to the " religious improvement " of Indians . The plan was unsuccessful due to lobbying by the directors of the company , who feared that their commercial interests would be damaged . Wilberforce tried again in 1813 , when the charter next came up for renewal . Using petitions , meetings , lobbying and letter writing , he successfully campaigned for changes to the charter . Speaking in favour of the Charter Act 1813 , he criticised the British in India for their hypocrisy and racial prejudice , while also condemning aspects of Hinduism including the caste system , infanticide , polygamy and suttee . " Our religion is sublime , pure beneficent " , he said , " theirs is mean , licentious and cruel " .
= = = Moral reform = = =
Greatly concerned by what he perceived to be the degeneracy of British society , Wilberforce was also active in matters of moral reform , lobbying against " the torrent of profaneness that every day makes more rapid advances " , and considered this issue and the abolition of the slave trade as equally important goals . At the suggestion of Wilberforce and Bishop Porteus , King George III was requested by the Archbishop of Canterbury to issue in 1787 the Proclamation for the Discouragement of Vice , as a remedy for the rising tide of immorality . The proclamation commanded the prosecution of those guilty of " excessive drinking , blasphemy , profane swearing and cursing , lewdness , profanation of the Lord 's Day , and other dissolute , immoral , or disorderly practices " . Greeted largely with public indifference , Wilberforce sought to increase its impact by mobilising public figures to the cause , and by founding the Society for the Suppression of Vice . This and other societies in which Wilberforce was a prime mover , such as the Proclamation Society , mustered support for the prosecution of those who had been charged with violating relevant laws , including brothel keepers , distributors of pornographic material , and those who did not respect the Sabbath . Years later , the writer and clergyman Sydney Smith criticised Wilberforce for being more interested in the sins of the poor than those of the rich , and suggested that a better name would have been the Society for " suppressing the vices of persons whose income does not exceed £ 500 per annum " . The societies were not highly successful in terms of membership and support , although their activities did lead to the imprisonment of Thomas Williams , the London printer of Thomas Paine 's The Age of Reason . Wilberforce 's attempts to legislate against adultery and Sunday newspapers were also in vain ; his involvement and leadership in other , less punitive , approaches were more successful in the long @-@ term , however . By the end of his life , British morals , manners , and sense of social responsibility had increased , paving the way for future changes in societal conventions and attitudes during the Victorian era .
= = = Emancipation of enslaved Africans = = =
The hopes of the abolitionists notwithstanding , slavery did not wither with the end of the slave trade in the British Empire , nor did the living conditions of the enslaved improve . The trade continued , with few countries following suit by abolishing the trade , and with some British ships disregarding the legislation . Wilberforce worked with the members of the African Institution to ensure the enforcement of abolition and to promote abolitionist negotiations with other countries . In particular , the US had abolished the slave trade in 1808 , and Wilberforce lobbied the American government to enforce its own prohibition more strongly .
The same year , Wilberforce moved his family from Clapham to a sizeable mansion with a large garden in Kensington Gore , closer to the Houses of Parliament . Never strong , and by 1812 in worsening health , Wilberforce resigned his Yorkshire seat , and became MP for the rotten borough of Bramber in Sussex , a seat with little or no constituency obligations , thus allowing him more time for his family and the causes that interested him . From 1816 Wilberforce introduced a series of bills which would require the compulsory registration of slaves , together with details of their country of origin , permitting the illegal importation of foreign slaves to be detected . Later in the same year he began publicly to denounce slavery itself , though he did not demand immediate emancipation , as " They had always thought the slaves incapable of liberty at present , but hoped that by degrees a change might take place as the natural result of the abolition . "
In 1820 , after a period of poor health , and with his eyesight failing , Wilberforce took the decision to further limit his public activities , although he became embroiled in unsuccessful mediation attempts between King George IV , and his estranged wife Caroline of Brunswick , who had sought her rights as queen . Nevertheless , Wilberforce still hoped " to lay a foundation for some future measures for the emancipation of the poor slaves " , which he believed should come about gradually in stages . Aware that the cause would need younger men to continue the work , in 1821 he asked fellow MP Thomas Fowell Buxton to take over leadership of the campaign in the Commons . As the 1820s wore on , Wilberforce increasingly became a figurehead for the abolitionist movement , although he continued to appear at anti @-@ slavery meetings , welcoming visitors , and maintaining a busy correspondence on the subject .
The year 1823 saw the founding of the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery ( later the Anti @-@ Slavery Society ) , and the publication of Wilberforce 's 56 @-@ page Appeal to the Religion , Justice and Humanity of the Inhabitants of the British Empire in Behalf of the Negro Slaves in the West Indies . In his treatise , Wilberforce urged that total emancipation was morally and ethically required , and that slavery was a national crime that must be ended by parliamentary legislation to gradually abolish slavery . Members of Parliament did not quickly agree , and government opposition in March 1823 stymied Wilberforce 's call for abolition . On 15 May 1823 , Buxton moved another resolution in Parliament for gradual emancipation . Subsequent debates followed on 16 March and 11 June 1824 in which Wilberforce made his last speeches in the Commons , and which again saw the emancipationists outmanoeuvred by the government .
= = Last years = =
Wilberforce 's health was continuing to fail , and he suffered further illnesses in 1824 and 1825 . With his family concerned that his life was endangered , he declined a peerage and resigned his seat in Parliament , leaving the campaign in the hands of others . Thomas Clarkson continued to travel , visiting anti @-@ slavery groups throughout Britain , motivating activists and acting as an ambassador for the anti @-@ slavery cause to other countries , while Buxton pursued the cause of reform in Parliament . Public meetings and petitions demanding emancipation continued , with an increasing number supporting immediate abolition rather than the gradual approach favoured by Wilberforce , Clarkson and their colleagues .
In 1826 , Wilberforce moved from his large house in Kensington Gore to Highwood Hill , a more modest property in the countryside of Mill Hill , north of London , where he was soon joined by his son William and family . William had attempted a series of educational and career paths , and a venture into farming in 1830 led to huge losses , which his father repaid in full , despite offers from others to assist . This left Wilberforce with little income , and he was obliged to let his home and spend the rest of his life visiting family members and friends . He continued his support for the anti @-@ slavery cause , including attending and chairing meetings of the Anti @-@ Slavery Society .
Wilberforce approved of the 1830 election victory of the more progressive Whigs , though he was concerned about the implications of their Reform Bill which proposed the redistribution of parliamentary seats towards newer towns and cities and an extension of the franchise . In the event , the Reform Act 1832 was to bring more abolitionist MPs into Parliament as a result of intense and increasing public agitation against slavery . In addition , the 1832 slave revolt in Jamaica convinced government ministers that abolition was essential to avoid further rebellion . In 1833 , Wilberforce 's health declined further and he suffered a severe attack of influenza from which he never fully recovered . He made a final anti @-@ slavery speech in April 1833 at a public meeting in Maidstone , Kent . The following month , the Whig government introduced the Bill for the Abolition of Slavery , formally saluting Wilberforce in the process . On 26 July 1833 , Wilberforce heard of government concessions that guaranteed the passing of the Bill for the Abolition of Slavery . The following day he grew much weaker , and he died early on the morning of 29 July at his cousin 's house in Cadogan Place , London .
One month later , the House of Lords passed the Slavery Abolition Act , which abolished slavery in most of the British Empire from August 1834 . They voted plantation owners £ 20 million in compensation , giving full emancipation to children younger than six , and instituting a system of apprenticeship requiring other enslaved peoples to work for their former masters for four to six years in the British West Indies , South Africa , Mauritius , British Honduras and Canada . Nearly 800 @,@ 000 African slaves were freed , the vast majority in the Caribbean .
= = = Funeral = = =
Wilberforce had requested that he was to be buried with his sister and daughter at Stoke Newington , just north of London . However , the leading members of both Houses of Parliament urged that he be honoured with a burial in Westminster Abbey . The family agreed and , on 3 August 1833 , Wilberforce was buried in the north transept , close to his friend William Pitt . The funeral was attended by many Members of Parliament , as well as by members of the public . The pallbearers included the Duke of Gloucester , the Lord Chancellor Henry Brougham and the Speaker of the House of Commons Charles Manners @-@ Sutton . While tributes were paid and Wilberforce was laid to rest , both Houses of Parliament suspended their business as a mark of respect .
= = Legacy = =
Five years after his death , sons Robert and Samuel Wilberforce published a five @-@ volume biography about their father , and subsequently a collection of his letters in 1840 . The biography was controversial in that the authors emphasised Wilberforce 's role in the abolition movement and played down the important work of Thomas Clarkson . Incensed , Clarkson came out of retirement to write a book refuting their version of events , and the sons eventually made a half @-@ hearted private apology to him and removed the offending passages in a revision of their biography . However , for more than a century , Wilberforce 's role in the campaign dominated the history books . Later historians have noted the warm and highly productive relationship between Clarkson and Wilberforce , and have termed it one of history 's great partnerships : without both the parliamentary leadership supplied by Wilberforce and the research and public mobilisation organised by Clarkson , abolition could not have been achieved .
As his sons had desired and planned , Wilberforce has long been viewed as a Christian hero , a statesman @-@ saint held up as a role model for putting his faith into action . More broadly , he has also been described as a humanitarian reformer who contributed significantly to reshaping the political and social attitudes of the time by promoting concepts of social responsibility and action . In the 1940s , the role of Wilberforce and the Clapham Sect in abolition was downplayed by historian Eric Williams , who argued that abolition was motivated not by humanitarianism but by economics , as the West Indian sugar industry was in decline . Williams ' approach strongly influenced historians for much of the latter part of the 20th century . However , more recent historians have noted that the sugar industry was still making large profits at the time of abolition , and this has led to a renewed interest in Wilberforce and the Evangelicals , as well as a recognition of the anti @-@ slavery movement as a prototype for subsequent humanitarian campaigns .
= = Memorials = =
Wilberforce 's life and work have been commemorated in the United Kingdom and elsewhere . In Westminster Abbey , a seated statue of Wilberforce by Samuel Joseph was erected in 1840 , bearing an epitaph praising his Christian character and his long labour to abolish the slave trade and slavery itself .
In Wilberforce 's home town of Hull , a public subscription in 1834 funded the Wilberforce Monument , a 31 @-@ metre ( 102 ft ) Greek Doric column topped by a statue of Wilberforce , which now stands in the grounds of Hull College near Queen 's Gardens . Wilberforce 's birthplace was acquired by the city corporation in 1903 and , following renovation , Wilberforce House in Hull was opened as Britain 's first slavery museum . Wilberforce Memorial School for the Blind in York was established in 1833 in his honour , and in 2006 the University of Hull established the Wilberforce Institute for the study of Slavery and Emancipation in Oriel Chambers , a building adjoining Wilberforce 's birthplace . Various churches within the Anglican Communion commemorate Wilberforce in their liturgical calendars , and Wilberforce University in Ohio , United States , founded in 1856 , is named after him . The university was the first owned by African @-@ American people , and is a historically black college . In Ontario , Canada , Wilberforce Colony was founded by black reformers , and inhabited by free slaves from the United States .
Amazing Grace , a film about Wilberforce and the struggle against the slave trade , directed by Michael Apted and starring Ioan Gruffudd and Benedict Cumberbatch was released in 2007 to coincide with the 200th anniversary of Parliament 's anti @-@ slave trade legislation .
= Clover ( creature ) =
Clover is the production name given to the giant monster and the main antagonist in the 2008 film Cloverfield . The creature was originally conceived by producer J. J. Abrams and was designed by artist Neville Page . In the film , the monster 's name is never mentioned ; the name " Cloverfield " is only given to the US Department of Defense case file of the incidents depicted in the film . The Department of Defense names the creature " LSA " for Large @-@ Scale Aggressor in the film 's Blu @-@ ray special feature called " Cloverfield Special Investigation Mode " . The name Clover was the nickname affectionately given to the monster among the production staff .
= = Appearances = =
The monster was first referred to in the viral marketing campaign for the 2008 film including a recording of its roar , foreign news clips about a monster attack and sonar images .
A similar monster appears in a four @-@ part manga series Cloverfield / Kishin by Yoshiki Togawa , which serves as a spin @-@ off to the film . The monster made a first full appearance in Cloverfield , where it was seen rampaging through New York City and being attacked by the United States military .
= = History = =
In the film , it is mentioned that the brand Tagruato belongs to the oil company where Rob was hired as vice president and is the company that owns the platform that is being destroyed by the monster . Tagruato produces a drink called Slusho ! and in the movie , some guests at a Tagruato party can be seen wearing shirts with the Slusho ! brand . However , Tagruato and Slusho ! have two different official websites .
= = Concept and creation = =
J. J. Abrams conceived of a new monster after he and his son visited a toy store in Japan while promoting Mission : Impossible III . He explained , " We saw all these Godzilla toys , and I thought , we need our own [ American ] monster , and not like King Kong , King Kong 's adorable . But I wanted something that was just insane and intense " .
The monster was designed by artist Neville Page . He sought a biological rationale for the creature , though many of his ideas would not show up on screen . Page designed the creature as immature and suffering from " separation anxiety " . He compared the creature to a rampaging elephant , saying " there 's nothing scarier than something huge that 's spooked " . Page said of the creature 's backstory , " For me , one of the most key moments in our collective brainstorming was the choice to make the creature be something that we would empathize with . It is not out there just killing . It is confused , lost , scared . It 's a newborn . Having this be a story point ( one that the audience does not know ) , it allowed for some purposeful choices about its anatomy , movement and , yes , motivations " . The creature was developed by visual effects supervisor Kevin Blank and Phil Tippett 's company Tippett Studio . Blank described the intended goal of the creature , " Rather than the monster having a personality [ like Godzilla or King Kong ] , it 's more of an entity or an event " .
Reeves described the creature 's reaction to its surroundings thus : " It ’ s this new environment that it finds frightening " . To indicate this , Reeves suggested the addition of white in the creature 's eyes so it would look similar to a spooked horse . The filmmakers generated and used the idea of parasites because the film could not realistically have scenes between the human protagonists and the enormous creature .
= = = Creature design = = =
Although conceived by the film 's creators as infantile , the creature is 25 stories tall ( compared as 240 – 300 feet , or 70 – 90 meters ) and withstands missiles , artillery shells , and bombs with minimal injury .
It is vaguely quadrupedal , though capable of standing upright over short distances . The limbs are comparatively long and thin compared with the body core , and according to creator Neville Page , this , coupled with its quadrupedal stance , is meant to imply that it is a newborn : he speculates that the adults may be bipedal . The forelimbs are large in proportion to the body , and the hind legs stubby . The creature 's head at first glance appears to be a solid sphere ; but it can open its mouth extremely wide . Above the eyes on either side of the head are fleshy pouches which it inflates when agitated .
The creature 's design includes appendages on its underbelly , described by Neville Page as an " elongated , and articulated external esophagus with the business end terminating in teethlike fingers " . They were designed to relate the scale of human prey to the huge scale of the creature . The scenes from the film where people were consumed by these appendages were cut from the final edit , but the fourth and final chapter of Cloverfield / Kishin shows this .
The creature is covered with parasites , which it sheds as part of a " post @-@ birth ritual " . Abrams described the parasites as " horrifying , dog @-@ sized creatures that just scatter around the city and add to the nightmare of the evening " . Reeves added that " The parasites have a voracious , rabid , bounding nature , but they also have a crab @-@ like crawl . They have the viciousness of a dog , but with the ability to climb walls and stick to objects . " The top half of the parasite 's head is the mandible . The top and lower jaws end in serrated edges and have four pairs of eyes each . The rest of the parasite consists of a crustacean @-@ like carapace , several pairs of claws , and arms . A deep blue @-@ purple muscular membrane stretches between the top and lower jaws . When a human is bitten , the victim becomes ill and bleeds profusely , mainly from the eyes , and shortly after this , the torso expands and explodes . They are called HSPs ( Human Scale Parasites ) on the Blu @-@ ray Special Investigation Mode .
Artist Neville Page , in response to claims that the design of the creature was similar to that of the 2006 South Korean film The Host , said , " They are [ similar ] in that they ravage and seem to originate from the water , but the end results are quite different . However , when I finally saw some of the concept art , there were some very obvious similarities . But then again , I think that we were both channeling similar biological possibilities . "
= = Merchandise = =
Based on the success of Cloverfield , which earned over $ 40 million over its opening weekend in the United States and Canadian box office , the toy company Hasbro began accepting orders for a 14 @-@ inch limited edition toy figure of the monster to be shipped to fans starting December 24 , 2008 . It also comes with several accessories , including the disembodied head of the Statue of Liberty , two changeable heads ( one with an open mouth , one with a closed mouth ) , and 10 static figures of the monster 's parasites .
= = Critical analysis = =
Reviewing the film Cloverfield , the San Jose Mercury News described the creature as " a monster for the MySpace generation " . Reviewer James Berardinelli noted , " The movie follows the Jaws rule that monsters are usually more intimidating when they are shown infrequently and only in brief glimpses " . Amy Biancolli of the Houston Chronicle described the creature as retaining " an air of mystery — a monstrous je ne sais quoi that makes him all the freakier . " Richard Corliss of Time complained of the recycled elements of the creature , such as its emergence mimicking the original Godzilla film and its parasites being similar to the " toy meanies " from the 1984 film Gremlins .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times expressed acceptance of the lack of explanation for the creature 's origin , explaining that it " is all right with me after the tiresome opening speeches in so many of the 30 or more Godzilla films " . Peter Howell of the Toronto Star thought that the " main " creature was disappointing , while he considered the " mutant spider crabs " that came from it as " way scarier " . Lawrence Person of Locus Online describes it as " like a cross between a truly giant mantis and Johnny the Skeletal Torso . " Todd McCarthy of Variety found that the creature was more reassuring as it appeared more in the film , explaining , " Its very nature as a walking , stalking being suggests it can somehow be killed by conventional means " . Chris Vognar of The Dallas Morning News applauded the creature 's appearance as cinematic :
= = Popular culture = =
The monster appears in the Robot Chicken episode " Especially the Animal Keith Crofford " . It rampages through New York until it reaches the future site of the Freedom Tower where it builds it in its own vision .
The monster is parodied in the South Park season 12 episode " Pandemic 2 : The Startling " . The episode is a parody of the Cloverfield , with the monster replaced by giant guinea pigs .
In Sam & Max Season 3 , at the end of " Beyond the Alley of the Dolls " , Max is transformed into a creature similar to the monster ( or more rather Cthulhu ) , and smashes off the Statue of Liberty 's head , and goes on to rampage through New York .
In a strip from Starslip by Kris Straub ( # 705 - Jan 28 , 2008 ) , one of the main characters makes a reference to a supposed " Cousin Cloverfield " , " a member of [ their ] Behemoth class " who escaped and laid waste to one of Earth cities .
On September 12 , 2010 , the strip Lio by Mark Tatulli featured Lio trying to lure the Cloverfield monster into a giant hamster cage as a pet .
An episode of Mad parodies the movie with stars from The Disney Channel and Nickelodeon in New York being attacked by Clifford the Big Red Dog .
= Knut ( polar bear ) =
Knut ( German pronunciation : [ ˈknuːt ] ; 5 December 2006 – 19 March 2011 ) was an orphaned polar bear born in captivity at the Berlin Zoological Garden . Rejected by his mother at birth , he was raised by zookeepers . He was the first polar bear cub to survive past infancy at the Berlin Zoo in more than 30 years . At one time the subject of international controversy , he became a tourist attraction and commercial success . After the German tabloid newspaper Bild ran a quote from an animal rights activist that decried keeping the cub in captivity , fans worldwide rallied in support of his being hand @-@ raised by humans . Children protested outside the zoo , and e @-@ mails and letters expressing sympathy for the cub 's life were sent from around the world .
Knut became the center of a mass media phenomenon dubbed " Knutmania " that spanned the globe and spawned toys , media specials , DVDs , and books . Because of this , the cub was largely responsible for a significant increase in revenue , estimated at about five million euros , at the Berlin Zoo in 2007 . Attendance figures for the year increased by an estimated 30 percent , making it the most profitable year in its 163 @-@ year history .
On 19 March 2011 , Knut unexpectedly died at the age of four . His death was caused by drowning after he collapsed into his enclosure 's pool while suffering from Anti @-@ NMDA receptor encephalitis .
= = Infancy = =
Knut was born at the Berlin Zoo to 20 @-@ year @-@ old Tosca , a former circus performer from East Germany who was born in Canada , and her 13 @-@ year @-@ old mate Lars , who was originally from the Tierpark Hellabrunn in Munich . After an uncomplicated gestation , Knut and his unnamed brother were born on 5 December 2006 . Tosca rejected her cubs for unknown reasons , abandoning them on a rock in the polar bear enclosure . Zookeepers rescued the cubs by scooping them out of the enclosure with an extended fishing net , but Knut 's brother died of an infection four days later . Knut was the first polar bear to have been born and survive in the Berlin Zoo in over 30 years . Only the size of a guinea pig , he spent the first 44 days of his life in an incubator before zookeeper Thomas Dörflein began raising the cub .
Knut 's need for round @-@ the @-@ clock care required that Dörflein not only sleep on a mattress next to Knut 's sleeping crate at night , but also play with , bathe , and feed the cub daily . Knut 's diet began with a bottle of baby formula mixed with cod liver oil every two hours , before graduating at the age of four months to a milk porridge mixed with cat food and vitamins . Dörflein also accompanied Knut on his twice @-@ daily one @-@ hour shows for the public and therefore appeared in many videos and photographs alongside the cub . As a result , Dörflein became a minor celebrity in Germany and was awarded Berlin 's Medal of Merit in honour of his continuous care for the cub . Dörflein died of a heart attack on 22 September 2008 . He was 44 years old .
= = Controversy and media coverage = =
In early March 2007 , German tabloid Bild @-@ Zeitung carried a quote by animal rights activist Frank Albrecht who said that Knut should have been killed rather than be raised by humans . He declared that the zoo was violating animal protection legislation by keeping him alive . Wolfram Graf @-@ Rudolf , the director of the Aachen Zoo , agreed with Albrecht and stated that the zookeepers " should have had the courage to let the bear die " after it was rejected , arguing that the bear will " die a little " every time it is separated from its caretaker . A group of children protested at the zoo , holding up placards reading " Knut Must Live " and " We Love Knut " , and others sent numerous emails and letters asking for the cub 's life to be spared . Threatening letters were also sent to Albrecht . The Berlin Zoo rallied in support of the baby polar bear , vowing not to harm him and rejecting the suggestion that it would be kinder to euthanise him .
Albrecht stated his original aim was to draw attention to the law , not to have Knut put down . In December 2006 he had taken legal action against Leipzig Zoo to prevent them from killing a sloth bear cub rejected by its mother . His case was dismissed on the grounds that humans raising the animal would have been against the law of nature . In response to the criticism against him , Albrecht said that he was merely drawing parallels between the two cubs . The publicity from this coverage raised Knut 's profile from national to international .
= = Debut and first year = =
On 23 March 2007 , Knut was presented to the public for the first time . Around 400 journalists visited the Berlin Zoo on what was dubbed " Knut Day " to report on the cub 's first public appearance to a worldwide audience . Because Knut became the focus of worldwide media at a very young age , many stories and false alarms regarding the cub 's health and well @-@ being were circulated during his first year . For example , on 16 April 2007 , Knut was removed from display due to teething pains resulting from the growth of his right upper canine tooth , but initial reports vaguely stated that he was suffering from an unknown illness and subsequently put on antibiotics . Much ado was also made about a death threat that was sent shortly before 15 : 00 local time on Wednesday 18 April 2007 . The zoo had received an anonymous letter by fax which said " Knut ist tot ! Donnerstag Mittag . " ( " Knut is dead ! Thursday noon . " ) In response , the police increased their security measures around the bear . The time frame for the threat passed without incident or harm to Knut .
Despite Der Spiegel reporting on 30 April 2007 that Knut was " steadily getting less cute " as he increased in age , Knut continued to bring in record crowds to the zoo that summer . After reaching seven months old and 50 kg ( 110 lb ) in July 2007 , Knut 's scheduled twice daily public appearances were canceled due to the zoo 's concern for the safety of his keeper . Zoo spokeswoman Regine Damm also said it was time for the bear to " associate with other bears and not with other people . " After living in the same enclosure as Ernst , a Malaysian black bear cub who was born a month before Knut , and its mother , Knut was then moved to his own private living space . While visitor numbers dwindled from extreme highs in March and April , Knut remained a major attraction at the zoo for the rest of 2007 . 400 @,@ 000 guests were recorded in August 2007 , which was an all @-@ time high .
News of Knut and his life at the zoo was still being reported internationally in late 2007 . Knut 's restricted diet , necessary to curtail his natural weight gain necessary to survive harsh winters , made headlines outside of Germany . His daily meals were reduced in number from four to three , and treats , such as croissants , which were favored by the young polar bear , were restricted . After hurting his foot while slipping on a wet rock in his enclosure a month later in September , there was an outpouring of concern and support from fans worldwide .
In November 2007 and weighing over 90 kg ( 198 lb ) , Knut was deemed too dangerous for close handling and his interaction with human handlers was further diminished . The celebration of the cub 's first birthday , which was attended by hundreds of children , was broadcast live on German television . The national mint also issued 25 @,@ 000 special commemorative silver coins to mark his birthday . Knut 's role at the Berlin Zoo was to have included his becoming an " attractive stud " for other zoos in order to help preserve his species . When Flocke was born at the Nuremberg Zoo in December 2007 under similar circumstances , Bild dubbed her Mrs. Knut , suggesting that the two German @-@ born polar bears might become mates when they matured .
= = 2008 – 2010 = =
A year after his public debut , Knut was reported as weighing more than 130 kg ( 286 lb ) . A plate of six @-@ inch glass , strong enough to resist a mortar blast , was erected between him and zoo visitors . At the end of March 2008 , Markus Röbke , one of the keepers who helped rear Knut , reported that the bear should leave the zoo as soon as possible in order to help him acclimate to a life alone . Röbke also said that Knut plainly misses his past father @-@ figure , Thomas Dörflein , and has become so used to attention that he cries when no one is near his enclosure . " Knut needs an audience , " Röbke stated . " That has to change " . In April , animal welfare campaigners criticized the zoo for allowing Knut to kill and eat ten carp from the moat surrounding his enclosure , saying that it was a breach of German animal protection regulations . The zoo 's bear expert , Heiner Klös , however , said that Knut 's behavior was " all part of being a polar bear . "
In July 2008 , it was announced that the Neumünster Zoo in northern Germany , which owns Knut 's father , was suing the Berlin Zoo for the profits from Knut 's success . Although the Berlin Zoo conceded Neumünster 's ownership of Knut due to a previous agreement , it contended that the other zoo has no right to its proceeds . Neumünster had previously tried to negotiate with Berlin Zoo , but later sought a court ruling in their favor . Peter Drüwa , the zoo director at Neumünster , stated that they " do not want to remove Knut from his environment , but we have a right to our request for money . " Shortly before Knut 's second birthday , reports began circulating that the bear would have to be relocated to another zoo because he was becoming too large for his enclosure . The zoo later released statements that they wish to keep Knut , and the mayor of Berlin , Klaus Wowereit , also declared he wanted the still @-@ adolescent cub to stay in the capital .
Disputes between the two zoos continued into 2009 . On 19 May , the Berlin Zoo offered to buy Knut from Neumünster and therefore negate their financial claim on the two @-@ year @-@ old polar bear . Although Neumünster Zoo set a price of € 700 @,@ 000 , the Berlin Zoo stated that they would not pay " a cent more " than € 350 @,@ 000 ( $ 488 @,@ 145 ) . On 8 July , the Berlin Zoo agreed to pay € 430 @,@ 000 ( $ 599 @,@ 721 ) to keep Knut in Berlin .
Giovanna , a female polar bear roughly the same age as Knut , was relocated to Berlin from Munich 's Hellabrunn Animal Garden in September 2009 . She was presented to the public on 23 September , and was due to briefly share Knut 's enclosure while her regular home in Munich underwent repairs . Her arrival sparked international interest , as many sources mused that the two bears ( although sexually immature ) would soon be " dating " . However , in March 2010 , the German chapter of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals called for Knut to be castrated in order to avoid inbreeding ; he and Giovanna share a grandfather and , according to PETA spokesman Frank Albrecht , the same animal rights activist who spoke out about Knut 's handraising three years earlier , their offspring would threaten the genetic diversity of the German polar bear population . The Berlin Zoo declined to comment on the matter , only noting that Giovanna 's stay in Berlin was still temporary . In August 2010 , Giovanna was moved back to Munich after repairs on her enclosure were completed .
Until his death , Knut shared an enclosure with three female polar bears : Nancy , Katjuscha and his mother Tosca . The older bears were reportedly aggressive towards the young male bear , causing news reports in late 2010 to question whether Knut was being bullied . One of the zookeepers disagreed , stating publicly that " For the time being , Knut is not yet an adult male and doesn 't yet know how to get respect like his father did . But day by day , he is imposing himself and with time , this type of problem will go away . "
= = Death = =
On 19 March 2011 , at the age of four , Knut collapsed and died in his enclosure . Witnesses reported that after the bear 's rear left leg began shaking , he became agitated before convulsing several times and falling backwards into the pool . Approximately 600 to 700 zoo visitors witnessed Knut 's death . A statement made on 22 March in relation to | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the past " . The duo noted that the session players were enthusiastic to reunite in the context of the new album and the perceived prestige of the studio locations .
Drummer Omar Hakim recalled being asked by Daft Punk to perform on the album , and was surprised by what they wanted of him . He at first assumed that the duo wanted electronic drum work , since Hakim had done some drum programming in his career . Daft Punk instead specified that they were looking to record Hakim performing acoustic drum riffs that the duo had conceived . Rather than play out the entire structure of a song , Hakim would perform individual patterns for extended periods , thus creating a library for the duo to cull from . Daft Punk conveyed their ideas to session musicians via sheet music and in some instances by humming melodies . Bangalter recalled an example in which he hummed a complex drum and bass line to Hakim , who replicated and improved upon it for the track " Giorgio by Moroder " .
Most of the vocal sessions took place in Paris , whereas the rhythm sections were recorded in the United States . The album incorporates a variety of accompanying performances including a horn section , woodwind instruments , a string orchestra and choir . Orchestral parts in particular were recorded for almost every track , but were only included on a few songs in the final product . The use of such performers and places came at great monetary expense , as noted by Bangalter : " There used to be a time where people that had means to experiment would do it , you know ? That 's what this record is about . " He estimated a cost of over one million dollars , but felt that the number was not important . Bangalter stated that the sessions were financed by Daft Punk themselves , which allowed them the luxury of abandoning the project if they had so wished . He also specified that " there are songs on the album that traveled into five studios over two and a half years . "
Various sound effects were newly recorded with the help of film experts from Warner Bros. Bangalter noted one example in which the sound of a busy restaurant was achieved by placing microphones in front of the forks of a group of people . In another instance , the effect of dripping water was recorded on a soundstage . Use of electronics was limited to drum machines that appear on only two tracks , a large custom @-@ built Modcan modular synthesizer performed live by the duo , and vintage vocoders . When asked which of the two Daft Punk members performed the robotic vocals on the album , Bangalter expressed that it did not matter . The duo produced most of the vocoder tracks in their own private studio in Paris , with later processing done by Mick Guzauski at Capitol . Moroder elaborated that Daft Punk would take " a week or so " to find an adequate vocoder sound , and an additional few days to record the lyrics .
Although the duo felt that the presets and parameters of digital tools would inhibit creativity and innovation , they admitted that Random Access Memories could not have been made in the complete absence of computer technology . The sessions were recorded simultaneously onto Ampex reels and as Pro Tools tracks ; Daft Punk and Guzauski would then listen to each recording in both analogue and digital iterations , deciding which of the two they preferred . Subsequently the elements were edited by the duo with Pro Tools in a manner similar to how they would work with samples .
In an interview conducted in November 2012 by Guitar World magazine , Fourplay member Nathan East mentioned that he had contributed to the project . The percussionist Quinn also stated that he performed on " every drum [ he ] own [ s ] " for the album . Pedal steel guitar work on the record was performed by Greg Leisz . Daft Punk sought to use the instrument in a way that bordered between electronic and acoustic . Additional session players include John " J.R. " Robinson , Paul Jackson , Jr . , James Genus , Thomas Bloch and Chris Caswell .
= = Composition = =
= = = Theme and influences = = =
Bangalter described the album 's title as encapsulating Daft Punk 's interest in the past , referencing both random @-@ access memory technology and the human experience : " We were drawing a parallel between the brain and the hard drive – the random way that memories are stored . " Daft Punk felt that while current technology allows for an unlimited capacity to store recorded material , the content produced by contemporary artists had diminished in quality . Their goal was therefore to maximize the potential of infinite storage by recording a sprawling amount of elements . The duo pointed to the process as being further inspiration for the album 's title , as they sought to make connections out of the random series of ideas .
Regarding the style of the album , they sought a " west coast vibe " , referencing such acts as Fleetwood Mac , the Doobie Brothers and the Eagles . Daft Punk also acknowledged that the record pays homage to Michael Jackson , the Cars and Steely Dan . The recording of live synthesizer parts was done in a progressive rock fashion , with the pop sensibilities of Wizzard and the Move . Daft Punk specifically looked to the album Rumours by Fleetwood Mac and The Dark Side of the Moon by Pink Floyd as models . Bangalter felt that " the most important records in music , whether it 's Led Zeppelin [ ... ] or The White Album or Sgt. Pepper 's ... or Quadrophenia or Tommy , are the ones that take you on a journey for miles and miles . "
= = = Structure = = =
The initial demos of Random Access Memories were created without a clear plan for an album . Over the course of the sessions , numerous tracks were created and discarded . At one point Daft Punk had considered sorting the entire album into one continuous track , similar to the Prince record Lovesexy . They had also considered releasing it as a four @-@ disc box set to accommodate the large volume of content produced . Thus the album lacked structure until the final months of production .
The opening track , " Give Life Back to Music " , features guitar work by Rodgers and Paul Jackson , Jr . , drums by John " J.R. " Robinson , and lyrics performed by Daft Punk using vocoders . The song reflects the duo 's goal to create a light yet polished and elegant record . As stated by NME , the album begins with " a stupendously vast rock intro that obliterates any trace of Human After All 's brittle techno " . The following track , " The Game of Love " , also features vocoder singing by the duo . Bangalter said , " There ’ s this thing today where the recorded human voice is processed to try to feel robotic . " He explained that the duo 's intention was to produce robotic vocals with expressiveness and emotion . " Giorgio by Moroder " was created to serve as a metaphor about musical freedom . The duo believed that a monologue by Moroder about his career would be an analogue for music 's history regarding exploration of genres and tastes .
" Within " was one of the first tracks to be recorded for the album . It features Gonzales on piano with minimal accompaniment consisting of bass and a percussion track , as well as vocoder . In the context of the album , " Within " marks the transition from the key of A minor of the previous three songs , to the key of B @-@ flat minor of subsequent tracks . Regarding the lyrics , critic Nick Stevenson observed , " A deep vocoder sings about not understanding the world , being lost and not even remembering his own name . " Jeremy Abbott of Mixmag added , " So many things I don 't understand is the prominent lyric and Chilly 's chords combined with grazing cymbals make for a beautiful summer lullaby . "
" Instant Crush " was based on a demo that Daft Punk presented to Julian Casablancas ; he became enthused upon hearing it and provided vocals . The song contains rock influences and a guitar solo . Critic John Balfe considered it " appropriately Strokes @-@ ish , even if [ Casablancas ' ] trademark drawl is fed quite substantially through a vocoder . " De Homem @-@ Christo noted , " It is true that it is not his usual register , it is the way Julian reacted to the track so for us it is even more exciting . " " Lose Yourself to Dance " features Pharrell Williams and was the result of a desire to create dance music with live drummers . To that end , Robinson appears as session player . A vocoder chant of " come on " appears in the song alongside Pharrell Williams 's singing .
" Touch " features lyrics written and performed by Paul Williams . Daft Punk noted that the song is the most complex piece on the record , being composed of over 250 elements . As Pitchfork observed , " the song warps and bends , floating through genres , epochs , and emotions with a sense of hallucinatory wonder " and recalls the Beatles song " A Day in the Life " . In Rolling Stone , Will Hermes observes , " It 's completely ridiculous . It 's also remarkably beautiful and affecting . " Louis Lepron of Kombini believed the multitude of styles and science fiction aesthetics on the track is an homage to musical films including Phantom of the Paradise , the soundtrack of which Williams had composed . The song 's opening is a specific reference to a scene in the film in which the title character 's voice is gradually enhanced in a studio booth . De Homem @-@ Christo stated that " Touch " is " like the core of the record , and the memories of the other tracks are revolving around it . "
" Get Lucky " is the second song on the album to feature Pharrell Williams , who clarified that the title phrase does not simply refer to a sexual act , but to the potential fortune of finding chemistry with another person . When he had first heard the song , Pharrell Williams said it evoked the image of a " peachy color [ ed ] " sunrise on an exotic island . Daft Punk discussed the concept of the song " Beyond " with Paul Williams , who then translated the ideas into lyrics for it . The track begins with an orchestral string section and timpani before settling into what NME called " reupholstered Warren G ' Regulate ' grooves " . Stevenson similarly described " Beyond " as " a lot like the sample used in Nate Dogg and Warren G ’ s ‘ Regulate ’ " , Michael McDonald 's song " I Keep Forgettin ' " , which he noted as " no bad thing " , and stated that the vocoder @-@ affected lyrics detail " the existential world beyond oceans and mountains – a land beyond love . "
" Motherboard " was described by Daft Punk as being " a futuristic composition that could be from the year 4000 " . A review elaborated that the instrumental piece can " carry you away like a track by Sébastien Tellier " . Todd Edwards commented that the lyrics of " Fragments of Time " were inspired by his desire to capture the moments he experienced during his visit to the duo 's studio sessions in California . " Doin ' It Right " was the last song to be recorded and features vocals performed by Panda Bear . The duo referred to it as the only purely electronic piece on the album , with a modern style . The closing track , " Contact " , is co @-@ produced by DJ Falcon and features a sample of the song " We Ride Tonight " by Australian rock band the Sherbs .
The Japan @-@ exclusive bonus track " Horizon " , written by Bangalter and de Homem Christo , is a slow @-@ tempo composition reminiscent of Pink Floyd . It is characterized by a consistent guitar strum while several additional instruments are progressively layered over , including a bass guitar and drums . The song is stylistically different from other tracks on the album , and is one of the few to feature no lyrics .
= = Promotion and release = =
In January 2013 , de Homem @-@ Christo first revealed that Daft Punk was in the process of signing with Sony Music Entertainment through the Columbia Records label , and that the album would have a spring release . A report from The Guardian followed specifying a release date of May 2013 . On 26 February 2013 , Daft Punk 's official website and Facebook page announced the signing to Columbia with a picture of the duo 's helmets , and a " Columbia " logo in the corner . Billboards and posters featuring the helmets and logo then appeared in several major cities .
On 2 March , a 15 @-@ second television ad aired during Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) depicting an animated , stylized version of the band 's logo and the aforementioned image of the helmets . The music featured in the ad was a result of the collaboration with Rodgers , who noted that various fan remixes of the clip appeared online after the airing . A second TV ad also premiered that was similar to the first on Saturday Night Live , but with a different music clip and the title Random Access Memories in place of the stylized Daft Punk logo . During the first night of Coachella Festival 2013 , a third trailer debuted that featured Daft Punk , Pharrell Williams and Rodgers performing , as well as a list of collaborators on the album . The trailer also aired during Saturday Night Live the following evening , but without a list of collaborators .
The gradual rollout of promotion was inspired by advertising of the past , reflecting the theme of the album . Daft Punk approached Columbia with a specific agenda for the campaign ; Rob Stringer of the label recalled that the duo had showed him the book Rock ' n ' Roll Billboards of the Sunset Strip as an example of what they wanted . Bangalter felt that physical billboards are more affecting than banner ads and that " SNL is this part of American culture with a certain timelessness to it . " The campaign was handled by a small group led by Daft Punk and manager Paul Hahn , with assistance from Kathryn Frazier of the public @-@ relations firm Biz 3 . The duo had pursued Columbia in particular because of its long @-@ standing history , as expressed by Bangalter : " It felt interesting conceptually to write this story with a record company like Columbia , with a 125 @-@ year legacy . " Furthermore , the vinyl labels of the album feature the classic yellow on red Columbia label used on records during said time period .
Central to the promotion was the limiting of exposure to the album 's content , as well as a focus on face @-@ to @-@ face contact for press previews . As Hahn stated , " There is a minimalism in our approach that creates an absence of information , and we notice our fans tend to throw themselves into the breach , or try to fill the empty spaces . " The album 's track titles were initially withheld from online retailers and later revealed through Columbia 's Vine account on 16 April 2013 as a video relaying a series of images . Following a reported leak of the song days earlier , " Get Lucky " was released as a digital download single on 19 April 2013 . On 13 May , Daft Punk 's official Vevo channel posted a video revealing the artwork packaging of the vinyl version of the album , as well as the first few seconds of the opening track . Later that day , a limited @-@ time preview stream of the full album was launched via the iTunes Store .
Daft Punk were scheduled to appear on 6 August episode of The Colbert Report to promote Random Access Memories , but were unable to do so because of conflicting obligations regarding the duo 's future appearance at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards . According to Stephen Colbert , Daft Punk were unaware of any exclusivity agreement and were halted by MTV executives the morning prior to the taping . Colbert nevertheless broadcast an elaborate sketch of himself dancing to " Get Lucky " with various celebrities , including Hugh Laurie , Jeff Bridges , Jimmy Fallon , Bryan Cranston , Jon Stewart , Henry Kissinger , Matt Damon , and the Rockettes .
Columbia released a deluxe box set of Random Access Memories containing a 56 @-@ page hardcover book , the vinyl edition of the album , a partial 70mm film strip of the " Lose Yourself to Dance " video , and USB drives containing bonus audio as well as video content .
= = = The Collaborators = = =
The Random Access Memories official website features a video series called The Collaborators , directed by Ed Lachman and produced by The Creators Project , a partnership between Intel and Vice . Eight episodes were released in the series , which features interviews with participant artists that were involved in the making of the album . All featured album artists appear in the series with the exception of Casablancas , who would go on to appear prominently in the music video for " Instant Crush " . Excerpts of the lead single " Get Lucky " appear in the opening and ending of each Collaborators episode as well as excerpts of other songs from the album , corresponding to each featured musician .
The first episode features disco pioneer Moroder speaking about his experiences with the genre such as his records with Donna Summer and experimenting with synthesizers . Moroder also talks about his visit with Daft Punk in their recording studio . When asked how he first found out about the duo , he replied that he first heard their 2000 single " One More Time " and especially liked the breakdown middle section . He concluded that he views Daft Punk as " perfectionists " and described the album 's style as " something [ ... ] different . Still dance , still electronic ; but [ they ] give that human touch back " .
Episode two revealed that Edwards had contributed to the album ; he expressed that it was difficult keeping his involvement a secret . Edwards had previously collaborated with Daft Punk to create the song " Face to Face " on the 2001 album Discovery . He summarized his experience in the studio recording " Fragments of Time " as being life @-@ changing , as the sessions inspired him to move from New Jersey to California on a permanent basis . Edwards also pointed out the irony of " two androids [ ... ] bringing soul back to music " .
The third episode features Rodgers , who spoke of his background as a founding member of Chic , as well as his numerous collaborations with other artists throughout his career , such as David Bowie , Madonna , and Duran Duran . He expressed that working with Daft Punk " [ felt ] like [ ... ] working with contemporaries " and that they motivated each other to excel when collaborating on the album . At the end of the episode , Rodgers played a portion of a then @-@ unspecified song in which he participated , which was later identified as " Lose Yourself to Dance " , and remarked that the duo 's style has evolved whilst simultaneously exploring music 's past , suggesting that " they went back to go forward . "
Pharrell Williams participated in the fourth episode in which he elaborated on his experience with the creation of the album . Pharrell remarked upon the organic sound of the album , surmising that it " feels like the only click track they had was [ ... ] the human heartbeat " . He felt that the record can be enjoyed by people of all ages due to the accessible nature of music , and concluded that Daft Punk " could just get back on the spaceship that brought them here and go , and leave us . But they 're gracious , they 're nice robots . They chose to stay " .
Episode five features Noah Lennox , better known by his stage name Panda Bear , who spoke about his contribution to the album as well as his history with the band Animal Collective . He had first heard of Daft Punk through the music video of the song " Around the World " , which introduced him to many aspects of electronic dance music . He added that Homework was one of the few albums he and his older brother both enjoyed . Regarding Random Access Memories , Lennox remarked upon the approach of having live musicians , but structuring their performances in a minimal , sample @-@ like fashion .
For the sixth episode , Gonzales spoke about his contribution to the album . He recalled Daft Punk 's visible joy in listening to the raw session recordings made early in the production of the album , as well as the impending years @-@ long challenge that would be faced in completing the record . Gonzales expressed that the duo were aware of how the keys of each song would contribute to the emotional progression of the album as a whole . He therefore performed the piano in the song " Within " to accommodate the cycle . Gonzales concluded by pointing out that Daft Punk rarely collaborate with others , and thus felt that they did so on Random Access Memories to " make the work be transcendent " .
The seventh episode features Stéphane Quême , otherwise known as DJ Falcon , who spoke of first meeting Daft Punk when the duo began recording their debut album Homework . Quême noted that the group 's sound had changed since their debut , and that each of their albums had had a distinct influence . He also felt that the recording of Random Access Memories was such that a producer could potentially sample a track from it in the same way that Daft Punk themselves had sampled older records in their previous albums . Quême concluded that the duo were always sincere and although their first single was released 20 years ago , it still felt modern .
Episode eight features Paul Williams , who likened Daft Punk 's personas to a character from the film Phantom of the Paradise , in which he starred . He also added that their masks hide who they are from the public and allow the listeners to enjoy the music for what it is . Paul Williams worked with the duo at Henson Recording Studios , the former studio of A & M Records where he had worked previously , including his compositions for Jim Henson 's films featuring the Muppets , such as " Rainbow Connection " . He also stated that the song he penned was to be sung from the point of view of an unidentified first person , setting the emotion , but the lyrics came from the music itself . Paul Williams said that he felt vulnerable while writing the record , and said he writes best when he is allowed to be honest and vulnerable , a situation that Daft Punk allowed . He also stated that his sobriety added a sense of wonder to the song he wrote , as every day for him being sober has been wonderful compared to his prior life of excess .
= = = Global album launch = = =
The 79th Annual Wee Waa Show , held on 17 May 2013 in the rural Australian town of Wee Waa , was selected as the venue for the worldwide album launch . The tickets for the Wee Waa album launch were completely sold within thirteen minutes of release , even though it was widely understood that Daft Punk would not be in attendance at the launch — the album launch details revealed that the album would be streamed live to the 4 @,@ 000 audience members . Australian police in the local Wee Waa area initiated Operation Hadrian to prevent alcohol @-@ related problems and anti @-@ social behaviour at the launch event .
Sony commissioned the design and construction of a custom @-@ built stage for the Wee Waa album launch event , and the Daft Arts production house assembled a LED circular music space that became Australia 's biggest @-@ ever outdoor dance floor . The record label described the creation , which was illuminated by a giant disco ball and complemented by four speaker towers and flood lights , as " Saturday Night Fever meets Close Encounters of the Third Kind " . The prelude to the streaming of the album was a pyrotechnic show provided by Father Anthony Koppman and his company " Holy Smoke " from Guyra , New South Wales .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album gained an average score of 87 , based on 47 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim " and scoring higher than any other album by the duo . Q referred to it as " by some margin Daft Punk 's best album in a career that 's already redefined dance music at least twice . It is , in short , a mind blower . " The Independent stated , " Random Access Memories breathes life into the safe music that dominates today ’ s charts , with its sheer ambition … It 's an exciting journey , and one that , for all its musical twists and turns , has its feet planted on the dancefloor . " Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly called it " a headphones album in an age of radio singles ; a bravura live performance that stands out against pro forma knob @-@ twiddling ; a jazzy disco attack on the basic house beat ; a full collaboration at a time when the superstar DJ stands alone . " She concluded her review by saying that " if EDM is turning humans into robots , Daft Punk are working hard to make robot pop feel human again . "
Several critics commented on the variety of content on the album . NME said , " There 's a creeping notion that every musical idea that 's ever been so much as thought up is on this album . " In addition , Random Access Memories is ranked # 497 on NME 's list , " The 500 Greatest Albums Of All Time " . Mark Richardson of Pitchfork Media echoed this sentiment , calling the record " a mix of disco , soft rock , and prog @-@ pop , along with some Broadway @-@ style pop bombast and even a few pinches of their squelching stadium @-@ dance aesthetic " . Richardson praised the engineering and recording on the album , but did say that " though everything about RAM , from the session musicians to the guests to the means of production , is meant to sound more ' human , ' the album at points sounds more sterile , almost too perfect . " Pitchfork deemed the album the seventh best of 2013 . DJ Magazine commented on the shift in Daft Punk 's musical style : " While Daft Punk clearly want to move on and evolve , ditching the electronic beats , house and techno that first elevated them to fame , it 's that music that forms the bedrock of their best tunes , and still , that 's what they 're best at making . " In a four @-@ star review , Resident Advisor stated that " it 's an album rooted in a now @-@ ancient aesthetic : ' 70s staples , like crisply recorded California studio music , or the kind of deceptively sophisticated New York disco that Nile Rogers [ sic ] , one of the album 's key guest artists , popularized with Chic . " In a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star review , Heather Phares of AllMusic said that the record " taps into the wonder and excitement " of music from the 1970s and early 1980s . Phares concluded her review by saying , " Random Access Memories is also Daft Punk 's most personal work , and richly rewarding for listeners willing to spend time with it . "
Aaron Payne of musicOMH wrote , " Daft Punk somehow misplace the wit and the light touch that 's pretty much their trademark . Instead , these long epics become somewhat tedious and there is a strong whiff of egoism and self @-@ indulgence . … At over 70 minutes , the album feels rather bloated . Quite a few of the songs are too long , or too empty of ideas , or too willing to repeat themselves , or too willing to play to type " . Dan Weiss of Paste noted that " none of the admittedly eclectic pilferings of Random Access Memories challenge or defy anything . They all evoke specific eras of film soundtrack or disco trend . The beats have grown less , not more , complex over time . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Random Access Memories received Grammy Awards for Album of the Year , Best Dance / Electronica Album and Best Engineered Album , Non @-@ Classical for the 56th Annual Grammy Awards . The lead single , " Get Lucky " , also won for Record of the Year and Best Pop Duo / Group Performance . " Get Lucky " had previously been nominated for Best Song of the Summer at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards and Best Song at the 2013 MTV Europe Music Awards . In January 2015 , the album was placed at number 9 on Billboard 's list of " The 20 Best Albums of 2010s ( so far ) " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Random Access Memories debuted at number one on the French Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 195 @,@ 013 copies ( 127 @,@ 361 physical sales and 67 @,@ 652 digital sales ) , earning Daft Punk their first number @-@ one album in France . The next week , it sold 49 @,@ 600 copies to remain at the top spot with a 75 % sales decrease . The album secured a third consecutive week atop the French chart , withstanding a 29 % sales drop to 35 @,@ 500 copies .
Random Access Memories debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart with 165 @,@ 091 copies sold in its first week , becoming the duo 's first UK number @-@ one album , as well as the second fastest @-@ selling artist album of 2013 after One Direction 's Midnight Memories . The album remained at number one on the UK chart the following week , selling 52 @,@ 801 copies . In its third week , it fell to number three on sales of 28 @,@ 182 copies .
In the United States , the album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 339 @,@ 000 copies , the duo 's first number one album on the chart . The album maintained the number one spot in its second week , selling 93 @,@ 000 copies . In the album 's third week of release , it sold an additional 62 @,@ 000 copies , while falling to number two on the Billboard 200 . The album 's vinyl LP format also proved popular ; it was 2013 's top @-@ selling LP , with 49 @,@ 000 US copies shifted . The album had sold 922 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of January 2014 . On 6 February 2014 , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Following the duo 's Album of the Year win at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards , Random Access Memories jumped from number thirty @-@ nine to number ten on the Billboard 200 with a 300 % sales increase , selling 30 @,@ 000 copies that week .
Random Access Memories entered the Canadian Albums Chart at number one with 46 @,@ 000 copies sold , the biggest one @-@ week sales total in Canada of 2013 . The album remained at number one the next week , selling 17 @,@ 000 copies . In Japan , the album debuted at number three on the Oricon Weekly Albums Chart , selling 25 @,@ 970 copies .
The album debuted at number one in several countries across continental Europe , including Austria , Belgium , Czech Republic , Denmark ( where the album sold 5 @,@ 392 copies in its first week ) , Finland , Germany , Ireland , Italy , Norway , Portugal , Spain and Switzerland . In Oceania , Random Access Memories debuted at number one in Australia and New Zealand ; it was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) and gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) in its first week .
As of 2014 Random Access Memories has sold 3 @.@ 2 million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Production
Bob Ludwig – mastering
Chab ( Antoine Chabert ) - mastering
Paul Hahn – management
Cédric Hervet – creative director , cover art
Warren Fu – cover art , illustrations
Mick Guzauski – recording , mixing engineer
Peter Franco – recording engineer
Florian Lagatta – recording engineer
Daniel Lerner – digital audio engineer
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Release history = =
On 23 March , the album became available for pre @-@ order on the iTunes Store via digital download , revealing a release date of 17 May in Australia , 20 May in the United Kingdom , and 21 May in the United States . It later appeared as an Amazon.com pre @-@ order on CD , vinyl and directly from the Random Access Memories official website . The album became available for preview streaming via the iTunes Store on 13 May 2013 . It was also released for streaming on Spotify , with the lead single , " Get Lucky " , topping Spotify 's first digital streaming chart in the process .
= Peyton Manning =
Peyton Williams Manning ( born March 24 , 1976 ) is a former American football quarterback who played 18 seasons in the National Football League ( NFL ) . Considered to be one of the greatest quarterbacks of all @-@ time , he spent the majority of his career with Indianapolis Colts . In his last four seasons , he played with the Denver Broncos . Manning played college football for the University of Tennessee , leading the Tennessee Volunteers to the 1997 SEC Championship in his senior season . He is the second son of former NFL quarterback Archie Manning and older brother of New York Giants quarterback Eli Manning .
Manning was selected by the Indianapolis Colts as the first overall pick in the 1998 NFL Draft . From 1998 to 2010 , he improved the fortunes of the struggling Colts franchise and helped transform them into playoff contenders , leading the team to eight division championships , two AFC championships , and one Super Bowl , the franchise 's first since 1971 , as well as their first since relocating to Indianapolis .
After undergoing neck surgery that forced him to miss the entire 2011 season , Manning was released by the Colts and signed with the Denver Broncos . Serving as the Broncos ' starting quarterback from 2012 to 2015 , his tenure saw the Broncos reach the top of their division each year and his playing career concluded with a victory in Super Bowl 50 .
Manning holds many NFL records , including combined regular and postseason career wins ( 200 ) , AP MVP awards ( 5 ) , Pro Bowl appearances ( 14 ) , 4 @,@ 000 @-@ yard passing seasons ( 14 ) , passing yards ( 71 @,@ 940 ) , and touchdown passes ( 539 ) . A two @-@ time Super Bowl winner and the most valuable player of Super Bowl XLI , Manning is also the only quarterback to start the Super Bowl for two different franchises more than once each and the only starting quarterback to win a Super Bowl with two different franchises .
During a 2009 Monday Night Football game , Manning received the nickname " The Sheriff " from color commentator Jon Gruden due to his tendency to audible prior to the snap , and he was one of the most recognizable and parodied players in the NFL . Teams led by Manning typically utilized the hurry @-@ up offense in place of the standard huddle .
= = High school career = =
Manning attended Isidore Newman School in New Orleans , Louisiana , and led their football team to a 34 – 5 record during his three seasons as starter . He was named Gatorade Circle of Champions National Player @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Year and Columbus ( Ohio ) Touchdown Club National Offensive Player @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Year in 1993 . While at Newman he began wearing the number 18 in honor of his older brother Cooper , who was forced to give up football due to spinal stenosis . Younger brother Eli also wore the number when he became starting quarterback . Newman has since retired the number 18 jersey and it can be seen hanging in the school gym . Manning was among the most sought after high school players in the country and was recruited by about 60 colleges , led by Florida , Florida State , LSU , Michigan , Tennessee , Texas , Texas A & M , and his father 's alma mater , Ole Miss .
= = College career = =
Manning chose to play college football for the University of Tennessee Volunteers . Some were surprised that he did not pick the Ole Miss Rebels , for whom his father Archie played . He became Tennessee 's all @-@ time leading passer with 11 @,@ 201 yards and 89 touchdowns and won 39 of 45 games as a starter , breaking the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) record for career wins .
As a freshman , Manning began the season as the third @-@ string quarterback . In the season opener against UCLA , Manning was one of three quarterbacks to come off the bench after starter Jerry Colquitt suffered a season @-@ ending injury on the seventh play of the game . However , Manning wasn 't able to generate any offense and was pulled from the game . During the season 's fourth game , against Mississippi State , starter Todd Helton got injured and Manning took over . The Vols lost 24 – 21 , but Manning was named the team 's starter and remained so for the rest of his college career . In his first start , the following week against Washington State , the Vols won 10 – 9 . They won all but one of their remaining games , finishing the season 8 – 4 with a 45 – 23 victory over Virginia Tech in the Gator Bowl .
Manning and the Vols started off the 1995 season with victories over East Carolina and Georgia , before heading off to Gainesville to play the Gators . Against Florida , he threw for 326 yards and 2 touchdowns , leading the Vols to a 30 – 21 halftime lead . However , the Gators outscored the Vols 41 – 7 in the second half , winning 62 – 37 . This was the Vols ' only loss of the season , as they won their remaining 8 regular season games , including a 41 – 14 win over Alabama and then defeated Ohio State in the Citrus Bowl . The Vols ended the season ranked third and Manning came in sixth in Heisman Trophy voting .
The Vols opened the 1996 season ranked second behind Nebraska and one of the favorites to win the national championship . However , after winning their first 2 games against UNLV and UCLA , the Vols again lost to Florida 35 – 29 , with Manning throwing 4 interceptions . After winning their next four games , the Vols were upset by Memphis , despite Manning passing for 296 yards .
The Vols won the remainder of their games , including a 48 – 28 win in the Citrus Bowl over Northwestern , a game in which Manning passed for 408 yards and 4 touchdowns ; he was named the game 's MVP .
Manning completed his degree in three years , a Bachelor of Arts in speech communication , and was projected to be the top overall pick in the NFL Draft , but returned to Tennessee for his senior year . In his senior season , the Vols opened the season with victories against Texas Tech and UCLA , but for the third time in his career , Manning fell to Florida 33 – 20 . The Vols won the rest of their regular season games , finishing 10 – 1 , and advanced to the SEC Championship game against Auburn . Down 20 – 7 , Manning led the Vols to a 30 – 29 victory . Throwing for 4 touchdowns , he was named the game 's MVP , but injured himself in the process . The 3rd @-@ ranked Vols were matched @-@ up with second @-@ ranked Nebraska in the Orange Bowl ; if Tennessee won and top @-@ ranked Michigan lost to Washington State in the Rose Bowl , the Vols would win the national championship . However , the Vols ' defense could not stop Nebraska 's rushing attack , giving up over 400 rushing yards in a 42 – 17 loss . As a senior , Manning won numerous awards ; he was a consensus first @-@ team All @-@ American , the Maxwell Award winner , the Davey O 'Brien Award winner , the Johnny Unitas Award winner , and the Best College Player ESPY award winner , among others . In 2005 , Tennessee retired Manning 's number ( No. 16 ) . One of the streets leading to Neyland Stadium has been renamed Peyton Manning Pass . Manning also excelled academically and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa Society in 1997 and awarded the National Football Foundation National Scholar @-@ Athlete Award .
In 1996 , while attending the University of Tennessee , Manning was accused by female trainer Jamie Ann Naughright of exposing his buttocks during a foot examination . Manning said that he was just pulling a prank by " mooning " another athlete in the room as Naughright bent over to examine him . Naughright settled with the university for $ 300 @,@ 000 for its alleged failure in four incidents , and resigned from the school . She had initially made a list of 33 complaints about the school .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Overview = = =
Manning was selected by the Indianapolis Colts with the first overall pick of the 1998 NFL draft . He would start as a rookie and go on to play for the Colts for 13 full seasons before being sidelined by a neck injury , which cost him the entire 2011 season . After recovering from the injury , he joined the Denver Broncos for whom he played from the 2012 season through the 2015 season . Excluding the year lost to injury , Manning played in 17 NFL seasons .
Manning is often referred to as one of the greatest passing quarterbacks of all time . He was named the NFL 's most valuable player a record five times ( four times as a Colt , once as a Bronco ) , was named to the Pro Bowl 14 times ( a record ) and named to the first team All @-@ Pro seven times . As a starter up to the end of 2015 season he had a career winning percentage of .702 in the regular season . He holds the NFL record for career touchdown passes and career passing yards , achieved in 2014 and 2015 respectively .
The most commonly cited criticism of Peyton Manning 's professional career is that despite great success and gaudy statistics during the regular season , he did not enjoy similar levels of success in the post @-@ season . His career post @-@ season record as a starter was a more modest 14 @-@ 13 , compared to his regular season record through the 2015 season which was 186 @-@ 79 . Manning won two Super Bowls ( Super Bowl XLI and Super Bowl 50 ) and played in two others ( Super Bowl XLIV and Super Bowl XLVIII ) , being named MVP of XLI , while losing XLIV in an upset , and managing just one successful touchdown drive in each of XLVIII and 50 . During the early part of Manning 's career " his record @-@ breaking stats were written off because of the Colts ' postseason failures " ; conversely he posted poor stats in the 2015 regular season and Super Bowl 50 ( which would be his final season ) but nonetheless won his second league championship thanks to his team 's defense .
= = = Indianapolis Colts = = =
= = = = 1998 season : rookie season = = = =
Despite concerns about his arm strength and mobility , Manning was selected first overall in the 1998 draft by the Indianapolis Colts . Although many considered Ryan Leaf his rival for the first selection in the draft , and Leaf 's quarterback rating was higher , all six experts Sports Illustrated consulted believed that Manning was superior . Five said that they would take him first in the draft ; Sid Gillman said of Manning , " this is a pro quarterback " . The Colts ' scouts initially favored Leaf , but the team 's management and coaches were gradually won over by Manning 's attitude , particularly as Manning showed up prepared to a scheduled interview meeting with the Colts ' staff while Leaf arrived late . Colts general manager Bill Polian who had the final say on the draft selection recalled Manning saying " I 'll leave you with this thought . If you take me , I promise you we will win a championship . If you don 't , I promise I 'll come back and kick your ass . "
In his rookie season , he passed for 3 @,@ 739 yards with 26 touchdowns , set five different NFL rookie records including most touchdown passes in a season , and was named to the NFL All @-@ Rookie First Team . Manning 's first win came against fellow rookie Leaf , 17 – 12 over the Chargers . Weeks later , Manning faced off against Steve Young ; he threw three touchdowns , tying a Colts rookie record , but the 49ers kicked a late field goal to win 34 – 31 . In November against the Jets , Manning threw for three touchdowns in a 24 – 23 win ; he was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this performance . It was the first game @-@ winning drive of Manning 's career , as he threw the game @-@ winning TD pass to Marcus Pollard . Manning was certainly a bright spot in 1998 for the Colts , but he also threw a league high 28 interceptions as the team struggled to a 3 – 13 record with a defense that gave up more than 27 points per game . The Colts lost many close games , including five games in which they had led by double @-@ digits at some point .
= = = = 1999 – 2001 = = = =
The Indianapolis Colts opened the 1999 season with a 31 – 14 victory over Buffalo , but gave up a 28 – 7 lead the following week against the Patriots and lost . After defeating San Diego 27 – 19 in a game in which Manning threw for over 400 yards , and was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week , they lost again , to Miami . The Colts responded by winning 11 of their remaining 12 games , finishing 13 – 3 and the AFC East champions . The 10 game turnaround from the previous year set an NFL record . As the second seed in the AFC , the Colts earned a first round bye , and faced Tennessee in the playoffs . The Colts lost 19 – 16 to the Super Bowl bound Titans and Manning was limited to one touchdown run . Manning finished the year with 4 @,@ 135 passing yards and 26 passing touchdowns , and was named both Second @-@ team All @-@ Pro and to the Pro Bowl , both firsts for him . In the Pro Bowl , he passed for 270 yards with 2 touchdowns .
The Colts started the 2000 season inconsistently . Following an opening week victory against Kansas City , they blew a 21 – 0 lead against the Raiders . The Colts responded with a Monday Night victory against Jacksonville , a 43 – 14 win in which Manning threw for 430 yards and 4 touchdowns ; Manning was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this performance . The Colts won 4 of their next 5 games , including one against New England in which Manning posted the first perfect passer rating of his career , but then lost 4 of the 5 games following that . The Colts regained their momentum , winning their final 3 games , including a 31 – 10 win over Minnesota on Week 17 . Manning threw for 4 touchdowns in the win and was again named AFC Offensive Player of the Week and the win gave the Colts a 10 – 6 record as well as a wild card spot in the playoffs . In the wild card game , the Colts fell to the Dolphins 23 – 17 in overtime . Manning passed for 194 yards and a touchdown in the loss . He finished the season with 4 @,@ 413 passing yards and 33 passing touchdowns and was named Second @-@ team All @-@ Pro and to the Pro Bowl . At the Pro Bowl , Manning threw two touchdown passes .
Manning and the Colts introduced their now @-@ signature no @-@ huddle offense , and used it to great effect in a Week 1 rout of the Jets , 45 – 24 . Two weeks later ( Week 2 games were not played as scheduled due to the 9 / 11 attacks ) the Colts advanced to 2 – 0 with a win over Buffalo , behind Manning 's 421 yards passing . He was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this game . However , the Colts lost the following week to New England , and continued their slide , losing their following two games . The Colts briefly rebounded , winning two games , but then lost 7 of their last 9 , including a 40 – 21 home loss to the 49ers . After Manning threw a career @-@ high four interceptions in that game , coach Jim Mora uttered his infamous " Playoffs ? Don 't talk about playoffs . Are you kidding me . Playoffs ? I 'm just hoping we can win a game , another game " press conference . Despite the 6 – 10 record , Manning finished the season with 4 @,@ 131 passing yards , 26 passing touchdowns , and 4 rushing touchdowns as the offense produced the second most points in the league . However , the defense allowed the most points and Jim Mora was fired after the season .
= = = = 2002 season = = = =
Tony Dungy would become Manning 's second head coach in the NFL . The Colts started off the 2002 season 4 – 1 , before a 3 @-@ game losing streak sent them to 4 – 4 . The Colts responded by winning all but two of their remaining games , including a 35 – 13 upset of the Eagles in which Manning had a perfect passer rating for the second time in his career , giving them a 10 – 6 record and a spot in the playoffs . However , the Colts were pummeled by the Jets in the Wild Card game , 41 – 0 , with Manning passing for only 137 yards . He finished the year with 4 @,@ 200 passing yards and 27 passing touchdowns and was named to the Pro Bowl team . In the Pro Bowl , Manning completed five of eleven passes for 100 yards and a touchdown .
= = = = 2003 season : first MVP = = = =
The 2003 Colts began the season 5 – 0 , including a 55 – 21 blowout of the Saints in which Manning played his third perfect passer rating game and threw a career @-@ high six TD passes , earning him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors . On Monday Night Football against the defending champion Buccaneers , Manning and the Colts trailed 35 – 14 in the final five minutes . After one short TD drive , the Colts recovered the onside kick . Manning threw a 28 @-@ yard TD pass to Marvin Harrison on 4th & 6 to make it 35 – 28 . With 1 : 41 remaining , Manning got the ball back and drove the offense 85 yards for the game @-@ tying TD . He set up the winning 29 @-@ yard field goal in overtime for a stunning 38 – 35 win . It was the only time in NFL history a team won a game after trailing by 21 points in the final 4 minutes of regulation . Manning passed for 386 yards in the game .
After an overtime loss to Carolina , the Colts won all but three of their remaining games , finishing 12 – 4 . On November 30 the Colts hosted the 9 – 2 Patriots in what would be the beginning of the NFL 's top rivalry of the 2000s . The Colts trailed 31 – 10 late in the third quarter before Manning threw three TD passes in a span of six minutes to tie the game . Trailing 38 – 34 in the final minutes , the Colts had 3 plays at the 1 @-@ yard line to try and score the winning TD . Edgerrin James was stopped on 4th down by Willie McGinest and the Patriots won . In a Week 14 win against Atlanta , Manning threw for five touchdowns and was named player of the week a second time . He also earned AFC Offensive Player of the Month honors for the month of October .
In the Wild Card playoff round Manning and the Colts defeated the Denver Broncos 41 – 10 for his first playoff win . He passed for 377 yards and 5 touchdowns in the game , earning him a perfect passer rating , his second of the season and the fourth of his career . After the game , Manning was awarded Player of the Week honors for the third time that season . In the divisional playoffs , Manning led the Colts to a 38 – 31 win over the Kansas City Chiefs . Neither team punted in the game . In the AFC title game Manning was shut down by the New England Patriots top @-@ ranked defense and posted the third lowest passer rating of his career at 35 @.@ 5 . The Patriots defense intercepted Manning four times and sacked him another four , as the Colts lost the game 24 – 14 .
During the season , Manning was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Month for September and was named the AP NFL co @-@ MVP along with Titans quarterback Steve McNair . Manning also received the ESPY Award for Best NFL Player . Manning led the league with 4 @,@ 267 passing yards and threw 29 touchdowns ; he was named first @-@ team All @-@ Pro and to the Pro Bowl . He passed for 342 yards and 3 touchdowns in the Pro Bowl , a 55 – 52 loss .
= = = = 2004 season : second MVP = = = =
The 2004 Colts opened the season with a 27 – 24 loss to the Patriots , after Mike Vanderjagt missed a game tying field goal in the closing seconds of the game . The Colts won their next four games including a 45 – 31 win over Green Bay in which Manning threw 5 touchdowns , earning him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors , but then lost their next two games , to Jacksonville and Kansas City , despite Manning throwing for 840 yards combined in the two games . The Colts responded well , winning their next 8 games before losing their final regular season game to Denver , a game in which Manning played only the first series . During the month of November , Manning was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week twice ; once for his 5 touchdown performance in a 49 – 14 blowout of Houston and once for his performance in a 41 – 9 win at Detroit on Thanksgiving in which he threw 6 touchdowns in less than three quarters . Due to his performances in November , Manning earned AFC Offensive Player of the Month honors . He was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for a fourth time in the week 16 game against San Diego where he led the Colts to a 34 – 31 victory after trailing by fifteen in the fourth quarter . With the Colts facing a 4th & 4 at their own 26 , Manning waved the punt team off the field and completed a 19 @-@ yard pass to Reggie Wayne for the first down . He finished the drive with a 21 @-@ yard TD pass to Brandon Stokley , his 49th TD pass of the season , breaking Dan Marino 's record of 48 . After the two @-@ point conversion to tie , Manning got the ball first in overtime and set up the winning field goal . The Colts clinched the AFC 's third seed with the win .
During the season , Manning threw for 4 @,@ 557 yards , had a then record 121 @.@ 1 passer rating and a then @-@ record 49 touchdown passes while throwing only 10 interceptions . Manning 's 2004 season was voted the second greatest passing season of all time by ESPN in 2013 . He achieved this despite the 2004 season being his only season of his career where he attempted less than 500 passes . His 9 @.@ 9 % touchdown passing percentage is currently the highest in NFL history . His 49 touchdown passes is currently the third highest ever and his 121 @.@ 1 passer rating is the second highest ever . He was selected as the 2004 NFL MVP drawing 49 of 50 votes , was named NFL Offensive Player of the Year and was named the Best NFL Player at the ESPY Awards for the second consecutive year ; Manning also received the ESPY Award for Best Record @-@ Breaking Performance for his 49 touchdown passes . The Colts finished the season with a 12 – 4 record and their second straight AFC South title . The Colts scored a franchise record 522 points . Three Colts receivers had 1 @,@ 000 yard seasons with at least 10 touchdowns that season , also a record . Sports statistics cite Football Outsiders calculates that Manning had the best season ever by a quarterback , play @-@ for @-@ play , in 2004 .
In the Wild Card game against Denver , Manning passed for 458 yards and 4 touchdowns . However , the Colts ' 2004 season ended in Foxborough for a second straight year with a 20 – 3 loss against New England , when Manning recorded a season @-@ low passer rating of 69 @.@ 3 . It was Manning 's seventh consecutive loss to the Patriots in Foxborough and the Colts ' three points were their lowest single game point total since their opening game of the 2003 season . Manning was named a Pro Bowl starter ; in the Pro Bowl , he threw 3 touchdowns in a 38 – 27 victory and was named the game 's MVP . Manning was also a unanimous first @-@ team All @-@ Pro selection .
= = = = 2005 season = = = =
In 2005 , the Colts had a greatly improved defense over that of recent years . Combining this with their offense , they won their first 13 games , including a 40 – 21 rout of the two @-@ time defending Super Bowl Champions , New England . This was Manning 's first road win against the Patriots in 8 attempts , and his 3 touchdowns passes earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors . By week 15 , the Colts had a perfect 13 – 0 record , and had secured the AFC South and home @-@ field advantage throughout the playoffs . Nevertheless , Tony Dungy made the decision to play all of his regular starters against the Chargers . However , the Colts played a sub @-@ par game against the Chargers and fell short of the win ; the score was 26 – 17 . Manning finished the season with 3 @,@ 747 passing yards , the first time he had thrown for under 4 @,@ 000 yards since his rookie season of 1998 , largely because Manning sat out much of the final two games with the top AFC seed clinched . His quarterback rating of 104 @.@ 1 was the highest in the league for the season .
In the playoffs , the Pittsburgh Steelers visited the RCA Dome for the second AFC divisional playoff game of the 2005 season . In the 4th quarter with only a few minutes left in the game , Manning threw what looked to be the game @-@ ending interception to Troy Polamalu , but the interception was overturned ( a call the NFL later admitted was incorrect ) . The Colts went on to score , and were able to get the ball back down three points near the end of the game . On 4th down , Manning was sacked near his own goal line , and the game seemed to be over as the Steelers were one yard from a touchdown . On the next play , the ball was fumbled by Jerome Bettis and picked up by Colts defender Nick Harper who appeared to have a clear path down the sideline for what might have been the game @-@ winning score . However , Steelers ' quarterback Ben Roethlisberger managed to dive in front of Harper and tackle him by the leg , saving a touchdown . Then the Colts drove down the field to the Steelers 27 @-@ yard line , before Mike Vanderjagt missed a field goal as time ran out .
Manning came in second in voting for the MVP award to Shaun Alexander ending his streak at two years . He was named the 2005 winner of the Walter Payton Man of the Year Award and nominated for the FedEx Air Player of the Year Award , along with Tom Brady and Carson Palmer . Manning was also named first @-@ team All @-@ Pro for the third consecutive year and named to the Pro Bowl squad ; in the Pro Bowl , he threw one touchdown pass and three interceptions .
= = = = 2006 season : First Super Bowl championship = = = =
Manning opened the 2006 season against his brother Eli 's New York Giants on Sunday Night Football . It was the first NFL game with starting quarterbacks that were brothers , and Peyton 's team won 26 – 21 . Manning passed for 400 yards against the Texans in a 43 – 24 victory , which earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors ( he also won the award for his 345 yards and 4 TD passes against the Redskins in week 7 ) . A second trip to New Jersey , this time to play the Jets , produced another Colts win . After taking the lead twice in the fourth quarter , Manning had to lead a third scoring drive , this time finishing with a 1 @-@ yard quarterback sneak rushing touchdown in the last minute for a 31 – 28 win .
At Denver , Manning again led three scoring drives in the fourth quarter in a 34 – 31 shootout win . He completed 32 of 39 passes for 345 yards and 3 TDs . Following a second straight season with a win at New England , then a home win against Buffalo , the Colts were the NFL 's last unbeaten team at 9 – 0 . Their first loss would come in Dallas . Plagued by a run defense that would allow over 100 yards in every game , the Colts were 11 – 4 heading into their final game . Against Miami , Manning threw for 282 yards , 2 TDs and rushed for another TD . The Colts won 27 – 22 , were AFC South division champions , and clinched the third seed in the AFC playoffs . Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week . He ended the regular season with 4 @,@ 397 passing yards and a league @-@ leading 31 touchdown passes . His passer rating ( 101 @.@ 0 ) was the highest in the league for the third year in a row . Manning helped the offense set an NFL record for third down conversion rate in a season ( 56 @.@ 1 % ) .
Despite three interceptions , Manning completed 30 out of 38 passes as the Colts beat the Kansas City Chiefs in the Wild Card playoff game by a score of 23 – 8 . The following week they were limited to five field goals and no touchdowns , but defeated the Baltimore Ravens , 15 – 6 . In the AFC Championship game against the rival Patriots , the Colts trailed 14 – 3 when Manning threw an interception that was returned for a TD by Asante Samuel to give New England a 21 – 3 lead . Manning led the Colts to 32 points in the second half for a 38 – 34 victory , the final score coming late in the fourth quarter as Manning led the Colts on an 80 @-@ yard TD drive to take the lead for the first time in the game . He finished the game with 349 yards passing and two touchdowns ( 1 rushing ) . The comeback was the largest deficit ever overcome in a conference championship .
Completing 25 of 38 passes for 247 yards with a touchdown and one interception , Manning led the Colts to a 29 – 17 victory over the Chicago Bears in Super Bowl XLI and was voted Super Bowl MVP . Manning , who had been criticized for failing to win big games , exorcised his big @-@ game demons with the win . " In years ' past when our team 's come up short , it 's been disappointing " , he told reporters . " Somehow we found a way to have learned from some of those losses and we 've been a better team because of it . " For his role in the Colts ' championship run , Manning was awarded the ESPY for Best Championship Performance . Manning was again named to the Pro Bowl and was also named Second @-@ team All @-@ Pro ; in the Pro Bowl he played only two series , passing for 67 yards . Following the Super Bowl win , Manning agreed to restructure his contract to save the Colts $ 8 @.@ 2 million in salary cap space .
= = = = 2007 season = = = =
Manning 's Colts opened the NFL season with 7 wins , pitting them against an undefeated Patriots squad in a match @-@ up that was being called " Super Bowl 41 1 / 2 " . Manning and Addai helped the Colts to a 13 – 7 halftime lead , and an early fourth @-@ quarter touchdown upped the lead to 20 – 10 . However , Brady led the Patriots to two late touchdowns , to hand Manning his first loss of the season , 24 – 20 . Manning finished the game with 225 yards passing , including a passing touchdown . He also had a rushing touchdown .
Manning did not bounce back from the loss well . Against the San Diego Chargers he threw for a career @-@ worst and franchise @-@ record 6 interceptions . Despite this , he was able to rally the Colts from a 23 – 0 deficit to 23 – 21 , and gave Adam Vinatieri an opportunity to take the lead with a 29 @-@ yard field goal . Vinatieri 's miss sunk the Colts to 7 – 2 . Manning did not play particularly well against the Kansas City Chiefs either , throwing no touchdowns . However , he managed to lead the Colts on a late drive for a game @-@ winning field goal , rushing for two yards on 4th and 1 in the process . Manning finished the game with 163 passing yards , allowing him to overtake 40 @,@ 000 in his career . The victory was Manning 's 100th . The Colts won their next 5 games , securing yet another AFC South title , as well as the AFC 's number two seed in the play @-@ offs . In the final game of the regular season , Manning played only two series before being replaced with back @-@ up Jim Sorgi ; the Colts lost the game to the Titans , 16 – 10 . Manning finished the season with 4 @,@ 040 passing yards , 31 touchdown passes , and a quarterback rating of 98 @.@ 0 . In the divisional round of the playoffs , Manning and the Colts lost to the Chargers , 28 – 24 . Manning helped the Colts to 4 different leads but could not lead a final touchdown drive for the win . Manning finished the game with 402 yards passing and 3 passing touchdowns . Peyton was widely viewed during Super Bowl XLII as he cheered on brother Eli and the New York Giants in their upset of the New England Patriots . Manning was named a Pro Bowl starter and passed for 147 yards and a touchdown in three series .
= = = = 2008 season : third MVP = = = =
On July 14 , 2008 , Manning had surgery to remove an infected bursa sac in his left knee . Manning , who had worn a knee brace due to problems since he was in college , sat out all four preseason games and missed most of training camp .
In the first regular season game at new Lucas Oil Stadium , the Colts lost 29 – 13 to the Chicago Bears . The following week they fell behind 15 – 0 to the Minnesota Vikings in the second half before rallying to win the game on Adam Vinatieri 's 47 @-@ yard field goal . Manning passed for 311 yards as the Colts avoided their first 0 – 2 start since Manning 's rookie season . Week 3 matched the Colts with division rival Jacksonville . Manning threw 2 interceptions in the game , including one that was returned for a TD by Rashean Mathis . Jacksonville rushed for 236 yards and held the ball for over 41 minutes . Still , trailing by 6 late in the game Manning led the Colts on a 77 @-@ yard TD drive to take a 21 – 20 lead . Jacksonville kicker Josh Scobee made a 51 @-@ yard field goal to win the game and drop the Colts to 1 – 2 .
For the third week in a row , Manning used the 4th quarter to bring the Colts back from a 27 – 10 deficit in the last 5 minutes against the Houston Texans to a 31 – 27 victory . It was the first time an NFL team had won a game in regulation after trailing by 17 points in the last 5 minutes . Manning threw a 7 @-@ yard TD pass on 4th & 6 to rookie tight end Tom Santi to make the deficit 27 – 17 . Houston QB Sage Rosenfels , starting for the injured Matt Schaub , then fumbled the ball on a scramble , and it was returned 68 yards for a TD by Gary Brackett . After another Rosenfels fumble , Manning threw the 5 @-@ yard game @-@ winning TD pass to Reggie Wayne . The Colts scored 3 TDs in 2 : 10 .
On October 12 Manning led the Colts to a 31 – 3 blow out win at Lucas Oil Stadium against the Baltimore Ravens to avoid their first 0 – 3 start at home since 1997 . Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the 17th time in his career for his effort of 3 TD passes and 271 yards passing . It was revealed during the game by CBS commentators Jim Nantz and Phil Simms that Manning had a second surgery on his knee before the season started . Colts coach Tony Dungy confirmed this report the day after the Baltimore game .
The Colts suffered their largest margin of defeat , 34 – 14 , in Green Bay the following week . Manning threw 2 interceptions that were returned for touchdowns ( for the second time in his career ; the first was on 09 / 30 / 01 vs. New England Patriots ) . The next week the Colts went into Tennessee on Monday Night Football to face the 6 – 0 Titans . They led 14 – 6 in the 3rd quarter , but Tennessee scored 25 unanswered for a 31 – 21 victory and almost assured the Colts they would not win the AFC South division title for the first time in 6 seasons . At 3 – 4 the Colts opened up November with their annual showdown against the New England Patriots on Sunday Night Football . Tied at 15 in the 4th quarter , Manning set up Adam Vinatieri for a 52 @-@ yard field goal that proved to be the winning points in an 18 – 15 victory . Manning completed 21 of 29 passes for 254 yards , 2 touchdowns and no interceptions . The Colts were 4 – 4 halfway through the season and still alive in the AFC playoff race .
In week 10 the Colts traveled to Pittsburgh , who had the league 's No. 1 defense . They trailed 17 – 7 in the second quarter before Manning found Dallas Clark for a 2 @-@ yard TD to end the half 17 – 14 . Down 20 – 17 in the 4th quarter , Manning found Dominic Rhodes uncovered for a 17 @-@ yard TD pass that would put the Colts up 24 – 20 for the rest of the game . It was Manning 's 4th game @-@ winning drive ( 35th of his career ) this season . He completed 21 of 40 for 240 yards and 3 touchdowns ( the 50th game of his career with 3 + TD passes ) . It was the first time the Colts have won in Pittsburgh since 1968 ( 12 straight losses before this win ) . Against Houston , Manning passed for 320 yards and 2 TDs while leading 5 consecutive scoring drives in a 33 – 27 victory , the third in a row for the Colts . Manning won AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the second time this season ( 18th time , career ) .
At San Diego , Manning threw for 255 yards , 2 TDs and 1 INT in a 23 – 20 victory . The interception snapped a career @-@ best streak of 140 pass attempts without an interception . After the Chargers rallied from a 10 @-@ point deficit in the 4th to tie the game , Manning led the game @-@ winning drive by completing a 14 @-@ yard pass to Marvin Harrison on 4th and inches at midfield . Adam Vinateri kicked the winning 51 @-@ yard field goal three plays later . It was Manning 's 5th game @-@ winning drive this season . Manning passed for a season @-@ low 125 yards at Cleveland , but the Colts won their 5th straight game , by a final of 10 – 6 .
In a 35 – 3 victory against the Cincinnati Bengals , Manning threw 3 TD passes while completing 26 of 32 passes for 277 yards . It marked the 11th straight season Manning had thrown at least 20 TD passes , the second longest streak ever . Against the 0 – 13 Detroit Lions , the Colts found themselves in a 21 – 21 game in the 4th quarter . Manning led his 6th game @-@ winning drive of the season and the Colts pulled away 31 – 21 . It marked their 7th straight win , 7th straight season with 10 + wins , and they became the only team in NFL history to have a winning streak of at least 7 games in 5 straight seasons . Manning completed 28 of 37 passes for 318 yards and 1 TD .
Needing a win to clinch the 5th seed in the playoffs , Manning had one of his best career performances in Jacksonville on Thursday Night Football . He completed his first 17 passes of the game . In addition to completing his last 6 against Detroit , Manning 's 23 straight completions fell one shy of the NFL record ( Donovan McNabb – 24 ) . The Colts trailed 14 – 0 in the first half and 24 – 14 to start the 4th quarter . Manning led his 7th 4th quarter win of the season and the Colts put the game away with a defensive TD for a 31 – 24 victory to clinch a 7th consecutive playoff berth . Manning completed 29 of 34 passes ( 85 @.@ 7 % ) for 364 yards and 3 TDs . It increased his NFL record streak of seasons with 25 TD passes to 11 . Manning and the Colts tied an NFL record by winning 3 games in a season in which they trailed by at least 14 points . For his efforts Manning won AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the third time in 2008 . It was the 19th time he has won the award , passing Dan Marino for the most all @-@ time since the award was originated in 1984 . He also was selected as the FedEx Air Player of the Week . With the playoff seed secured , Manning only played the opening drive in a shutout against the division @-@ leading Titans in Week 17 . He completed all 7 of his passes for 95 yards and a TD , extending his NFL record to nine seasons with 4000 yards passing , and also extended the record to a sixth straight season he led the Colts to at least 12 wins . At the end of the 2008 season , Manning was named NFL MVP for the 3rd time , tying Brett Favre for the most MVP awards in NFL history .
The day following the MVP award , the Colts played their 2007 nemesis , the Chargers , in their wild @-@ card playoff game . Down 14 – 10 at the half , Manning put the Colts ahead 17 – 14 in the third quarter as he completed a 72 @-@ yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Reggie Wayne . But the Chargers tied the game in the fourth quarter as kicker Nate Kaeding nailed a 22 @-@ yard field goal . When San Diego won the coin toss , they scored on the first possession , ending the Colts season .
= = = = 2009 season : fourth MVP and second Super Bowl appearance = = = =
Under new head coach Jim Caldwell , Manning started the 2009 season with a victory by throwing for 301 yards . In week two Manning led his 29th fourth quarter comeback ( 38th game @-@ winning drive ) by throwing for 303 yards and 2 TD passes , despite only having the ball for 14 : 53 , the lowest time of possession for a winning team in the NFL since they began tracking the statistic in 1977 . Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Month for the fourth time in his career in September . Against the Seattle Seahawks Manning passed for 353 yards and 2 TDs for his fourth consecutive 300 @-@ yard passing game set a new franchise record .
Against Houston Texans in week 9 he became the first quarterback to pass for over 40 @,@ 000 yards in a decade . He threw a career @-@ high 25 passes in the 1st quarter ( most in any opening quarter since 1991 ) , and had a career @-@ high 40 pass attempts in the first half . He set a franchise record for most 300 @-@ yard passing games in a season with his seventh 300 @-@ yard effort of the season ( also an NFL record through the first 8 games of a season ) . Against Houston 3 weeks later Manning claimed his 34th comeback win in the 4th quarter , tying him with John Elway and Johnny Unitas for the second most in NFL history . On week 15 against the Jacksonville Jaguars Manning won his 23rd consecutive regular season game breaking Jim McMahon 's NFL record of 22 straight wins with the Chicago Bears from 1984 – 87 . At the end of the regular season Manning was awarded his fourth MVP , breaking the NFL record for most MVPs by a single player . He was also selected to the AP All @-@ Pro team for the fifth time in his career .
In the AFC Divisional against the Baltimore Ravens Manning threw 2 TD passes late in the first half to build a 17 – 3 halftime lead . He completed 30 passes for 246 yards in leading his eight straight victory over the Ravens . In the AFC Championship against New York Jets Manning overcame a 17 – 6 deficit late in the second quarter to lead the Colts to 24 unanswered points in a 30 – 17 win . The 11 @-@ point comeback was the third largest in a championship game . Manning set a playoff record with his seventh 300 @-@ yard passing game in the postseason . In Super Bowl XLIV against New Orleans Saints , Manning led the Colts to a 10 – 0 lead after their two first quarter drives , throwing a TD pass to Pierre Garcon to cap off a 96 @-@ yard drive ( tied for longest in Super Bowl history ) . After running just six plays in the second quarter , the Colts led 10 – 6 at halftime . The Saints recovered an onside kick to start the second half and took their first lead , 13 – 10 . Manning led a go ahead TD drive to regain the lead . Leading 17 – 16 at the start of the 4th quarter , Matt Stover missed a 51 @-@ yard field goal for the Colts . The Saints scored the go ahead TD and two @-@ point conversion to take a 24 – 17 lead with 5 : 42 left . Manning took over and moved the Colts to the Saints ' 31 @-@ yard line . Facing a 3rd & 5 with 3 : 24 left , his pass intended for Reggie Wayne was intercepted by Tracy Porter , who returned it 74 yards for a critical TD and 31 – 17 Saints lead . Manning drove the Colts down to the 5 @-@ yard line in the last minute , but his 4th & goal pass was dropped by Reggie Wayne at the goal line . The Saints won their first Super Bowl , dropping Manning to 9 – 9 in the postseason ( 1 – 1 Super Bowl record ) . Manning passed for 333 yards on 31 / 45 , with 1 TD and 1 interception .
= = = = 2010 season = = = =
In a season @-@ opening loss in Houston , Manning set career highs in pass attempts ( 57 ) and completions ( 40 ) , throwing for 3 TDs and 433 yards , the fourth highest opening @-@ weekend total ever . In his third game Manning passed for 325 yards , 3 TDs and no interceptions , marking the first time since 1960 a QB began a season with three consecutive games of at least 3 TD passes and zero interceptions . Against the Kansas City Chiefs Manning failed to throw a TD for the first time in 2010 , but led the Colts on a game @-@ winning drive in the 4th quarter ( 45th of his career ) to hand the Chiefs their first loss of the season . In week 6 against the Washington Redskins he passed for 307 yards and 2 TDs . Including the playoffs , that was 68 career games with 300 + yards passing , moving him ahead of Dan Marino ( 67 ) for the most in NFL history . Week 9 against the Philadelphia Eagles marked his 200th consecutive regular season start .
Against the New England Patriots Manning passed for 396 yards , 4 TDs and 3 interceptions , the second time Manning threw 4 TDs in a game and breaking a tie with Dan Marino for second @-@ most all @-@ time . The next week was resulted in the largest margin of defeat at home in his NFL career , 36 – 14 to the San Diego Chargers . Against the Tennessee Titans he went over 4000 yards passing for the 11th time in a season , and tied Dan Marino with his 63rd regular season game with 300 + yards passing . Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this game . The Colts ended up winning the AFC South for the seventh time in eight years , and Manning became the first QB in NFL history to lead his team to nine consecutive postseason berths ( 2002 – 2010 ) . It was the 208th consecutive regular season start of his career , breaking Gene Upshaw 's record . For the season , Manning finished with an NFL record 450 completions on 679 attempts ( third most in history ) , and a career @-@ high 4700 yards passing . The season ended in a one @-@ point defeat to the New York Jets in the play @-@ off .
In 2010 , he was chosen as the 14th @-@ smartest athlete in sports by Sporting News .
= = = = 2011 season : Lost season = = = =
The Colts placed their franchise tag on Manning on February 15 , 2011 . On July 30 , 2011 , the Colts signed Manning to a 5 @-@ year , $ 90 million contract after negotiations in which he made it clear that he did not need to be the highest @-@ paid player in the NFL .
After a May 23 neck surgery , Manning could not use the Colts ' facilities for practice and workouts due to the NFL lockout . Reluctant to have witnesses to his recovery , he used the Colorado Rockies baseball team 's trainers at Coors Field in Denver . Manning was unable to complete his throwing motion , and his arm strength had significantly diminished . Based on an MRI , doctors told him in the late summer that he needed spinal fusion surgery and that at his age they could not guarantee his return to the NFL . On September 7 , the Colts officially ruled Manning out for the season opener against Houston , ending his consecutive starts streak of 208 games ( 227 including playoffs ) ; the team signed Kerry Collins out of retirement and named him interim starting quarterback . After seeking other opinions , Manning had the second surgery on September 8 .
Manning stated that while he did intend to play during the 2011 season , he would not " fight " the front office to stay off injured reserve if his roster spot was needed . Manning started practicing throwing footballs again in mid @-@ December , with teammate Joseph Addai even claiming his passes looked " game ready . " Ultimately , Manning did not play a single game in 2011 , and the Colts went 2 – 14 without him ; only the third season since Manning was a rookie that the Colts did not win at least 10 games .
With the Colts having the first overall pick in the upcoming 2012 draft ( which contained highly rated quarterback Andrew Luck ) and with Manning due a $ 28m roster bonus , he was released on March 7 , 2012 . Earlier , the Colts had dismissed vice @-@ chairman Bill Polian ( who in his previous capacity as general manager had drafted Manning ) , general manager Chris Polian , and head coach Jim Caldwell , as a precursor to the rebuilding of the team .
In an emotional press conference , Manning told Colts fans , " Thank you for letting me be your quarterback . " Upon his release , Colts owner Jim Irsay announced that no Colt will ever wear the No. 18 jersey again , and it was formally retired on March 18 , 2016 .
= = = Denver Broncos = = =
As one of the most highly sought @-@ after free agents , Manning selected the Denver Broncos after meeting with John Elway , a retired Broncos Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer quarterback who was now the team 's Executive Vice President of Football Operations and General Manager , and Broncos head coach John Fox . Manning reached an agreement with the Broncos on a five @-@ year contract worth $ 96 million on March 20 , 2012 . Although No. 18 is retired in honor of Frank Tripucka , he gave Manning permission to wear it .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
On Thursday , August 9 , 2012 , Manning made his first appearance as a Bronco in a preseason game against the Chicago Bears , where he completed 4 of 7 passes for 44 yards , and was intercepted once by Bears safety Major Wright .
Manning made his regular season debut as a Denver Bronco in the prime time game on the first Sunday of the 2012 NFL Season , against the Pittsburgh Steelers . In the game , Manning completed 19 of 26 passes for 253 yards , 2 touchdowns , and no interceptions . He posted a 129 @.@ 2 QB rating in the 31 – 19 win , and made history in the third quarter when he connected with Demaryius Thomas on a 71 @-@ yard touchdown pass . The touchdown was Manning 's first in the NFL with a team other than the Colts , and marked the 400th of his career , making him the third quarterback , after Dan Marino and Brett Favre , to accomplish the feat and the fastest of the three to reach that mark . Despite the preseason concerns about his recovery , by late October ESPN stated that Manning " has silenced the critics " about his arm strength . Manning was later named to the 2013 Pro Bowl , his twelfth .
The Broncos made the playoffs , but lost 38 – 35 in double overtime to Baltimore , who went on to win Super Bowl XLVII that season .
On February 2 , 2013 , Manning was awarded the AP National Football League Comeback Player of the Year Award and was named a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro selection , in addition to finishing second in MVP voting .
= = = = 2013 season : fifth MVP and third Super Bowl appearance = = = =
On the opening game of the 2013 NFL season , Manning became one of only six players in NFL history to throw seven touchdowns in a game , doing so against the defending Super Bowl XLVII champions , the Baltimore Ravens . He added to this feat by not throwing an interception , tying Y. A. Tittle as one of the only two players to have a 7 : 0 touchdown to interception ratio in a single game ( although Nick Foles would later match that feat in week 9 of the same season ) . Against the Oakland Raiders in week three , Manning broke the record for most touchdown passes in the first three games of a season after throwing 12 , surpassing Tom Brady 's 2011 record . In Week 5 , Manning threw his first interception of the season , in a win against the Dallas Cowboys . He was intercepted by Morris Claiborne . Two weeks later , Manning returned to Indianapolis for the first time in the regular season since being released by the Indianapolis Colts . In an emotional pregame ceremony , the Indianapolis Colts showed a tribute video to Manning .
In Week 16 against the Houston Texans , Manning broke Brady 's record for most touchdown passes in a season with 51 on a 25 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Julius Thomas , he finished the regular season with 55 touchdown passes , in addition to throwing for a league record 5 @,@ 477 yards . His 450 completions are tied for second most all time . The Broncos scored an NFL record 606 points , becoming the first team ever to eclipse 600 points in a season . They had more 50 @-@ point games in a season than any other team in NFL history , with 3 . Four Broncos receivers recorded at least ten touchdowns — an NFL record — and Manning set a season record with nine games with four or more touchdown passes . His 115 @.@ 1 passer rating ranks fifth all time and he joined Tom Brady as the only two quarterbacks to achieve a passer rating of 110 @.@ 0 or higher in more than one season . The Broncos went on to win their divisional round playoff game against the San Diego Chargers by a score of 24 – 17 . They beat the New England Patriots in the AFC championship game by a score of 26 @-@ 16 . Manning became the third starting quarterback to reach the Super Bowl two different teams , after Craig Morton and Kurt Warner .
In Super Bowl XLVIII , Manning 's Broncos lost to the Seattle Seahawks by a score of 43 – 8 . Manning was up against the Seahawks ' young starting quarterback Russell Wilson , who idolized Manning and attended one of Manning 's passing camps as a teenager , and later met Manning at a Broncos pre @-@ draft interview . The Seahawks ' number one ranked defense proved too much for the Broncos ' number one ranked offense to overcome , while the Broncos ' defense also struggled due to injuries . The Broncos ' first play from scrimmage set the tone for the game . While Manning was stepping forward to call an audible , center Manny Ramirez snapped the ball too early and it flew past Manning 's head into the end zone , where running back Knowshon Moreno downed it for a safety . Manning set a Super Bowl record with 34 completions ( broken by Tom Brady the following year in Super Bowl XLIX ) , but the record @-@ setting offense didn 't record a first down until the 2nd quarter , and didn 't score any points until the final seconds of the 3rd quarter . While Manning threw one touchdown pass , he also threw two costly interceptions , one of which was returned for a touchdown .
= = = = 2014 season : NFL all @-@ time leader in passing touchdowns = = = =
On August 28 , 2014 , Manning was fined $ 8 @,@ 268 for taunting D. J. Swearinger during a preseason game against the Houston Texans . With the Broncos ' win in their opening game of the 2014 NFL season against the Indianapolis Colts , Manning became , along with Brett Favre , one of only two starting quarterbacks in NFL history who have beaten all 32 teams . On October 5 , 2014 , Manning threw his 500th career touchdown pass to Julius Thomas against the Arizona Cardinals , and also tied Dan Marino for the most 400 yard games by a quarterback .
On October 19 , 2014 , against the San Francisco 49ers , Manning threw his 509th career touchdown pass to Demaryius Thomas , passing Brett Favre to become the NFL 's all @-@ time leader in passing touchdowns . By the end of the regular season , Manning would be selected to his 14th Pro Bowl appearance , tying him with Tony Gonzalez , Bruce Matthews , and Merlin Olsen for most Pro Bowl selections in a career . However , his season ended after the Broncos lost in the divisional round of the playoffs to his former team , the Indianapolis Colts , 24 – 13 .
= = = = 2015 season : Final season and second Super Bowl championship = = = =
After much speculation , Manning announced in the offseason that he would return for his 18th season in the NFL . In the season opener , Manning 's play seemed to have deteriorated , going 24 – 40 for 175 yards and 1 interception , but a pick @-@ 6 by cornerback Aqib Talib allowed the Broncos to win 19 – 13 . The Broncos got off to a dominant 7 – 0 start to the season ; however , the streak ended in a loss at Indianapolis , losing 24 – 27 . During that winning streak , and the loss in Indianapolis , Manning played better , putting up over 250 yards in 6 of the 7 games , and he scored 9 touchdowns . However , he never had a game without an interception bringing his 8 @-@ game TD – INT ratio to 9 – 13 and the Broncos needed a hardworking defense to contribute for victories .
In Week 10 against Kansas City , the game 's biggest highlight was Manning breaking Brett Favre 's record for career passing yards with a 4 @-@ yard pass to Ronnie Hillman in the first quarter . Despite the accomplishment , however , Manning went 5 @-@ for @-@ 20 for 35 yards and four interceptions with a 0 @.@ 0 passer rating before head coach Gary Kubiak benched him during the third quarter . Brock Osweiler filled in for Manning for the rest of the game as the Broncos would eventually lose 29 – 13 . A day later , sources said that Manning had suffered a bout of plantar fasciitis . It was later announced that this injury would keep him out of Week 11 , marking the first time Peyton had missed a game in a season he played . Osweiler replaced Manning and performed well in a 17 – 15 win over the Chicago Bears , leading to questions about whether Manning would retain his role when healthy in a Week 12 showdown against the New England Patriots . The next day , head coach Gary Kubiak , citing Manning 's injuries , announced that Osweiler would start against New England . On December 15 , it was announced that Osweiler would make his fifth consecutive start , against the Pittsburgh Steelers , even though Manning had returned to practice and the Broncos had gone seven straight quarters without scoring a touchdown on offense . Overall , the Broncos went 4 @-@ 2 in six games without Manning , giving them an 11 @-@ 4 record heading into the final week of the regular season .
Manning was listed as active for the Week 17 regular season finale against the San Diego Chargers , but for the first time since his freshman year at college , he was listed as a backup . In the third quarter , with the Broncos down 13 – 7 , Manning entered the game in relief of Brock Osweiler , who had been intercepted twice and fumbled once . The Broncos went on to beat the Chargers , 27 – 20 , and secure the top seed in the AFC . Despite the Broncos ' 12 – 4 record ( and Manning 's 8 – 2 record in games that he played in ) , Manning had the worst season statistically of his career , as he threw a career low 9 touchdown passes and 17 interceptions in just 10 games , and posting a quarterback rating of 67 @.@ 9 , the lowest rating of his career , and first time he had a rating below 84 since his rookie season . Manning 's 59 @.@ 8 completion percentage was the second lowest of his | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ways to provide the principal access to the stadium .
= = Locks = =
The locks on the Bow Back Rivers are not built to a single standard , and sizes vary .
= = Points of interest = =
= OSI ( band ) =
OSI is an American progressive rock band , originally formed by Fates Warning guitarist Jim Matheos in 2002 . Chroma Key keyboardist and vocalist Kevin Moore is the only other full @-@ time member of the band . The collaboration may be considered a studio project , as its members and contributors write and track most of their material independently , sharing and developing tracks long @-@ distance , only coming together at the end of the process for mixing and additional tracking . The band 's name is a reference to the Office of Strategic Influence , a short @-@ lived American government agency formed in 2001 to support the War on Terror through propaganda . The band has featured a number of guest musicians on its albums , including Sean Malone , Steven Wilson , Mikael Åkerfeldt , Joey Vera and Gavin Harrison .
Matheos recruited Moore , Dream Theater 's then @-@ drummer Mike Portnoy and Sean Malone ( Fretless Bass and Chapman Stickist ) to perform on what was originally planned to be a Matheos solo album . Matheos and Portnoy originally planned to produce a progressive metal album similar to Matheos ' work in Fates Warning , however Moore 's impact changed the music 's direction and genre , incorporating electronica into the original progressive metal sound . The band 's debut album was released by InsideOut Music in 2003 .
OSI was originally intended to be a one @-@ off project , but Matheos and Moore found they both had gaps in their schedules so produced a follow @-@ up . Free was released in 2006 , with Portnoy returning to play drums as a session musician rather than a full band member , due to personal and musical differences between him and Moore . Blood was released in 2009 , with Porcupine Tree drummer Gavin Harrison replacing Portnoy . The fourth album Fire Make Thunder was released in 2012 by Metal Blade Records , with Harrison once again on drums .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and Office of Strategic Influence ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = =
Fates Warning guitarist Jim Matheos originally intended to create a progressive metal supergroup while Fates Warning went on hiatus . He recruited Cynic & Gordian Knot Fretless Bass and Chapman Stickist Sean Malone and then @-@ Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy to work on the project . Matheos then asked Chroma Key and ex @-@ Dream Theater keyboardist Kevin Moore to contribute by adding keyboard arrangements to the music he had written . Moore instead heavily edited the music , changing the song structures and adding vocals . Matheos decided to pursue this new direction , sounding closer to Chroma Key than standard progressive metal , over his and Portnoy 's original idea .
Many vocalists were considered to perform on the album ; Matheos and Portnoy briefly considered having a different vocalist perform on each track . Daniel Gildenlöw of Pain of Salvation wrote some vocal melodies and lyrics , but Moore ultimately performed most of the vocals and wrote most of the lyrics . Steven Wilson of Porcupine Tree wrote lyrics and performed vocals on one track . Cynic and Gordian Knot bassist Sean Malone performed bass , but was credited as a guest musician because his schedule meant he was unable to join Matheos , Moore and Portnoy for the basic tracking sessions .
Matheos , Moore and Portnoy recorded the album at Carriage House Studios in Stamford , Connecticut from June 2 to June 9 , 2002 . Songs with a strong progressive metal influence were mostly written by Matheos , while Moore had greater influence over the vocal @-@ driven tracks . Portnoy made minor arrangement suggestions but did not take part in the actual writing of the album . The album 's recording sessions were the first time Moore and Portnoy collaborated since 1994 in their work in Dream Theater . In 2009 , Portnoy recalled that he found the experience of making the record difficult , and that he was frustrated by the lack of collaboration between him and Moore . Differences between Moore and Portnoy led to his return on the follow @-@ up album as a session drummer rather than full @-@ time member .
InsideOut Music released Office of Strategic Influence on February 17 , 2003 . Moore chose the group 's name and album 's title , referring to the Office of Strategic Influence , established by the US Government after the September 11 attacks to spread propaganda . The album was critically well received . Critics praised the members ' musicianship and the fact that the album differed significantly from the members ' other projects .
= = = Free and Blood ( 2005 – 2009 ) = = =
Matheos and Moore did not plan to make a second OSI album , and returned to their own projects after the first album 's completion . In 2005 , they both had free schedules , so decided to produce a follow @-@ up album . Joey Vera ( also of Fates Warning ) played bass on the album . Portnoy originally told Matheos and Moore that he did not want to perform drums on the album , but was persuaded to perform on the album as a session musician .
Free was released on April 24 , 2006 , receiving generally positive critical reception . Critics noted that the album was darker and more keyboard @-@ focused than the band 's debut. re : free , an EP featuring remixes of three tracks from Free , was released on October 24 , 2006 . The band were keen to tour in support of Free , but no live shows materialised . " The reality of it is in order to [ tour ] the way we would like ... and present it the way we would want to present it ... would cost too much money for the kind of fan base that we have right now , " Matheos said in 2009 . In 2010 he anticipated that OSI will " remain a studio band . "
In September 2008 , Moore posted an update on the Chroma Key website , stating that he and Matheos had been working on a third OSI album for several months . Portnoy was replaced by Porcupine Tree drummer Gavin Harrison and Matheos played bass on the album . Opeth vocalist and guitarist Mikael Åkerfeldt and No @-@ Man vocalist Tim Bowness wrote lyrics and sang on one track each .
Blood was released on April 27 , 2009 in Europe and May 19 in North America . The album received positive reviews : Andrew Reilly of Madeloud said that " with Blood the two have finally found the stylistic fusion their first two discs hinted at " , and praised Harrison 's drumming .
= = = Fire Make Thunder ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = =
In 2010 , OSI signed with Metal Blade Records . The label reissued Office of Strategic Influence on September 28 , 2010 .
Written and recorded throughout most of 2011 , OSI 's fourth album " Fire Make Thunder " was released on March 27 , 2012 . Gavin Harrison of Porcupine Tree was once again enlisted as session drummer along with a co @-@ writing credit for the song " Enemy Prayer " . All other instruments and programming were performed by Matheos and Moore , while lyrics and vocals were handled exclusively by Moore . The recordings for the album , with the exception of drums , were performed at the musician 's respective home studio . In July 2011 at Sound Farm Studio & Recording Environment final overdubs as well as some additional writing and arranging were completed . The band mixed the album alongside engineer Matt Sepanic . Engineer Roger Siebel handled the final mastering . The record was produced by both Moore and Matheos . During the development process , Kevin Moore kept frequent updates referring to the mixing process of the album on his official Facebook and Twitter accounts .
= = Musical style = =
Moore has described OSI 's sound as " a new approach to progressive rock " , combining elements of progressive metal and electronica . Moore considers the two genres to be " almost natural enemies " , and that the conflict between the two genres " keeps [ the music ] interesting " . Matheos cites progressive rock and heavy metal bands such as Genesis , Jethro Tull , Black Sabbath and UFO as influences . Moore described his influences as minimal techno , experimental , electronic musicians and " bands that play live and then chop it up " .
Matheos and Moore primarily work alone , exchanging files and ideas by email . The writing process for all OSI 's albums has been the same , with Matheos sending Moore an idea " from just a guitar riff to elaborate , almost completed songs " , which Moore then edits and sends back to Matheos . Moore , the band 's vocalist and lyricist , has described the process of writing lyrics as an " audio Rorschach test " . The lyrics on Office of Strategic Influence feature political themes , but the lyrics on later releases are less political , instead being based on Moore 's personal experiences . " I 'll start writing a song that has a little bit of a world view or political view or something , " he said , " but then by the time I 'm finished the lyrics it 'll be about a relationship or something like that . " On Blood , Moore largely abandoned his earlier stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness approach to writing lyrics , in an attempt to make the lyrics more coherent . " I didn 't want it to be like ' Oh , you get your own impression of the lyrics . Everybody has their own idea ! ' I wanted to have an idea that I wanted to communicate , and something communicable , " he explained .
Moore has acknowledged the narrow range of his vocals . He considers his vocal style to " [ come ] from how I feel when I ’ m singing , when I 'm in the zone of writing lyrics and recording which , a lot of times , comes as the same time . It 's sort of an introspective time . A lot of the material lends itself to that kind of voice and that kind of spirit . "
= = Members = =
Current members
Jim Matheos ( Fates Warning ) – guitars , bass ( Since Blood ) , keyboards , programming
Kevin Moore ( Chroma Key , ex @-@ Dream Theater ) – vocals , keyboards , programming
Former members
Mike Portnoy ( ex @-@ Dream Theater ) – drums on Office of Strategic Influence as a full band member and on Free as a session musician
Guest musicians
Gavin Harrison ( Porcupine Tree ) – drums on Blood and Fire Make Thunder
Sean Malone ( Gordian Knot , Cynic ) – bass , Chapman Stick on Office of Strategic Influence
Joey Vera ( Fates Warning ) – bass on Free
Steven Wilson ( Porcupine Tree ) – vocals on the track " shutDOWN " on Office of Strategic Influence
Tim Bowness ( No @-@ Man ) – vocals on the track " No Celebrations " on Blood
Mikael Åkerfeldt ( Opeth ) – vocals on the track " Stockholm " on Blood
= = Discography = =
= First interracial kiss on television =
The first interracial kiss on television is a much debated topic concerning who the first two persons of different races to kiss on television were . For a time , it was understood to have occurred during an episode of the British soap opera Emergency – Ward 10 in 1964 . However , in November 2015 , a Granada Play of the Week , You in Your Small Corner , was uncovered which was broadcast in June 1962 ; that quickly led to the rediscovery of another play featuring the same young Jamaican actor , Hot Summer Night , televised in Britain on 1 February 1959 . Competing claims have also been made in favor of I Love Lucy .
= = Claims = =
= = = I Love Lucy = = =
The 1950s American television program I Love Lucy broadcast multiple instances of real @-@ life husband and wife Desi Arnaz , an Hispanic male , and Lucille Ball , a woman of North European ancestry , kissing . However , despite Arnaz and Ball being frequently described as an " interracial couple , " " Hispanic " is generally understood to be a catchall indicating persons of a Latin American or Iberian cultural background , as opposed to a race . Arnaz was usually considered to be a white male of Cuban ancestry .
= = = You in Your Small Corner and Hot Summer Night = = =
In June 1962 , a live performance of the play You in Your Small Corner by Barry Reckord was broadcast on British television as part of the series Granada Play of the Week . The central theme of the play is a relationship between a young black intellectual and a white working class girl . During the play , a kiss takes place between actors Lloyd Reckord and Elizabeth MacLennan , and what has been described as an " explicit post @-@ coital scene " .
You In Your Small Corner was rediscovered during preparations for a November 2015 British Film Institute panel discussion on " Race and Romance on TV " and was used in publicity for the event . As a result , panel moderator Samira Ahmed was able , on the night , to announce the rediscovery of an even earlier TV kiss by Lloyd Reckord , with Andrée Melly , in the ITV Armchair Theatre adaptation of Ted Willis 's play Hot Summer Night , broadcast on 1 February 1959 .
= = = Emergency Ward 10 = = =
One of the earliest interracial kisses on television occurred in a July 1964 episode of British soap opera Emergency Ward 10 , during which characters Louise Mahler ( portrayed by Joan Hooley ) and Giles Farmer ( portrayed by John White ) kissed . The scene in which Mahler and Farmer kissed was originally scripted to occur in Mahler 's bedroom , but was rewritten so as to occur outdoors , due to concerns it would otherwise be too risqué ( the earlier Lloyd Reckord plays had both been shown well after the 9pm adult @-@ content watershed ) . According to an issue of the Daily Express published after the episode aired , " not a viewer rang @-@ up to complain " . In a 2015 interview , conducted prior to the discovery of the You in Your Small Corner footage , Hooley noted that the historic importance of what had been known as the " first interracial kiss on television " had been inflated in popular memory :
A lot of people spoke about it more ten years later than they did at the time it was happening . So , it was much later that it occurred to me that I was part of history . I find it odd to have to admit that I was part of history because I don 't see why there should be anything to do about it . I don 't think there should have been all this fuss about it .
= = Star Trek claim = =
The first interracial kiss on American network television is often attributed to a 1968 episode of Star Trek , " Plato 's Stepchildren " .
Other sources contend that both The Wild Wild West ( " The Night the Dragon Screamed " , aired 1966 Jan. 14 ) and I Spy had broadcast interracial kisses between Caucasian and Asian actors prior to the Star Trek episode . In addition , a December 1967 episode of Movin ' with Nancy featured a kiss between Nancy Sinatra and Sammy Davis , Jr . , more than a year before " Plato 's Stepchildren " aired . Further , some contend that " Plato 's Stepchildren " did not include an interracial kiss at all , full lip contact between William Shatner and Nichelle Nichols not having occurred , the actors having turned their heads away from the camera at the last moment to present the illusion of a kiss . The latter point has been disputed , Shatner claiming that he and Nichols ' lips never fully touched , while Nichols has alternately asserted that the kiss was , in fact , real .
= Geographical name changes in Turkey =
Geographical name changes in Turkey have been undertaken , periodically , in bulk from 1913 to the present by successive Turkish governments . Thousands of names within the Turkish Republic or the Ottoman Empire have lost or departed from their popular or historic alternatives in favour of recognizably Turkish names , as part of the Turkification policy . The governments have argued that such names are foreign and / or divisive against Turkish unity . Names changed were usually of Armenian , Greek , Laz , Georgian , Bulgarian , Kurdish , Assyrian , or Arabic origin .
Turkey 's efforts to join the European Union in the early 21st century has led to a decrease in the incidence of such changes from local , and particularly the central government . In some cases legislation has restored the names of certain villages ( primarily those housing Kurdish minorities ) . Place names that have formally changed frequently persist in local dialects and languages throughout the ethnically diverse country .
The policy commenced during the final years of the Ottoman Empire and continued into the Turkish Republic . Under the Kemalist oriented government , specialized governmental commissions were created for the purpose of changing names . Approximately 28 @,@ 000 topographic names were changed , which included 12 @,@ 211 village and town names and 4 @,@ 000 mountain , river , and other topographic names . Most name changes occurred in the eastern regions of the country where minority ethnicities form a large part or a majority of the population . Policies at times included banning the use of foreign names that were considered divisive and inappropriate .
= = History = =
= = = Ottoman Empire = = =
The Committee of Union and Progress took the reins of the Ottoman government through a coup d 'état in 1913 . At the height of World War I and during the final years of the Ottoman Empire , when the ethnic cleansing policies of non @-@ Muslim Greek , Armenian , and Assyrian minorities were underway , Minister of War Enver Pasha issued an edict ( ferman ) on October 6 , 1916 , declaring :
It has been decided that provinces , districts , towns , villages , mountains , and rivers , which are named in languages belonging to non @-@ Muslim nations such as Armenian , Greek or Bulgarian , will be renamed into Turkish . In order to benefit from this suitable moment , this aim should be achieved in due course .
General Directorate of State Archives of the Republic of Turkey , İstanbul Vilayet Mektupçuluğu , no . 000955 , 23 Kânunuevvel 1331 ( October 6 , 1916 ) Ordinance of Enver Paşa
Enver Pasha did not change the geographical names belonging to Muslim minorities ( i.e. Arabs and Kurds ) due to the Ottoman government 's role as a Caliphate . His decree inspired many Turkish intellectuals to write in support of such measures . One such intellectual , Hüseyin Avni Alparslan ( 1877 – 1921 ) , a Turkish soldier and author of books about Turkish language and culture , was inspired by the efforts of Enver Pasha , writing in his book Trabzon İli Lâz mı ? Türk mü ? ( Is the Trabzon province Laz or Turkish ? ) that :
If we want to be the owner of our country , then we should turn even the name of the smallest village into Turkish and not leave its Armenian , Greek or Arabic variants .
Only in this way can we paint our country with its colors .
It is not known how many geographical names were changed under the ordinance . The ultimate overarching objective behind it failed due to the collapse of the Ottoman government and trials of its leaders before Ottoman and European courts for massacres against ethnic minorities committed in 1915 .
A decreased level of cultural repression has taken place in the Turkish Republic , however non @-@ mainstream Turkic origin place names have invariably been officially renamed over the course of time .
= = = Republic of Turkey = = =
Turkish nationalism and secularism were two of the six founding principles of the Turkish Republic . Mustafa Kemal Ataturk , the leader of the early decades of the Republic , aimed to create a nation state ( Turkish : Ulus ) from the Turkish remnants of the Ottoman Empire . During the first three decades of the Republic , efforts to Turkify geographical names were a recurring theme . Imported maps containing references to historical regions such as Armenia , Kurdistan , or Lazistan ( the official name of the province of Rize until 1921 ) were prohibited ( as was the case with Der Grosse Weltatlas , a map published in Leipzig ) .
Journalist and writer Ayşe Hür has noted that after the death of Ataturk and during the Democratic period of the Turkish Republic in the late 1940s and 50s , " ugly , humiliating , insulting or derisive names , even if they were Turkish , were subjected to changes . Village names with lexical components meaning red ( kizil ) , bell ( çan ) , church ( kilise , e.g. Kirk Kilise ) were all changed . To do away with " separatist notions " , the Arabic , Persian , Armenian , Kurdish , Georgian , Tatar , Circassian , and Laz village names were also changed . "
The Special Commission for Name Change ( Ad Degistirme Ihtisas Komisyonu ) was created under the supervision of the Ministry of the Interior . It brought together professors , politicians , generals , linguists , and academicians throughout Turkey to take up the task of official name changing . Among the commission 's participants were members of the Office of the General Staff , Ministry of Defense , Ministry of Education , and history and geography professors from Ankara University . The initiative proved successful , as approximately 28 @,@ 000 topographic names were changed , including 12 @,@ 211 village and town names and 4 @,@ 000 mountain , river , and other topographic names . This figure also included names of streets , monuments , quarters , neighborhoods , and other components that make up certain municipalities . By 1927 , all street and square names in Istanbul which were not of Turkish origin were changed . The campaign continued until 1978 , and was reintroduced after the military coup of 1980 in 1981 – 83 . During the heightened tension between Kurdish rebels and the Turkish government , the focus of geographical name changing in the 1980s was on Kurdish villages , towns , rivers , etc .
In 1981 , the Turkish government stated in the preface of Köylerimiz , a publication dedicated to names of Turkish villages , that :
Approximately 12 @,@ 000 village names that are non @-@ Turkish , understood to originate from non @-@ Turkish roots , and identified as causing confusion have been examined and replaced with Turkish names , and put into effect by the Substitution Committee for Foreign Names functioning at the Directorate General for Provincial Governments in our Ministry .
At the culmination of the policy , no geographical or topographical names of non @-@ Turkish origin remained . Some of the newer names resembled their native names , but with revised Turkish connotations ( i.e. Aghtamar was changed to Akdamar ) .
= = = Current status = = =
Although geographical names have been formally changed in Turkey , their native names persist and continue in local dialects throughout the country . At times , Turkish politicians have also used the native names of cities during their speeches . In 2009 , when addressing a crowd in the town of Güroymak , president Abdullah Gul used the native name Norşin . Also that year , when talking about his family origins , Prime Minister Recep Tayip Erdogan used the native Greek name of Potamya instead of Güneysu .
Efforts at restoring the former names of geographical terms have been recently introduced in Turkey . In September 2012 , legislation was introduced to restore the names of ( primarily Kurdish ) villages to their former native names . According to the bill , the province of Tunceli would be named Dersim , Güroymak would be named Norşin , and Aydınlar would be named Tilo .
= = Comparative analysis = =
Most of the geographical name changes occurred in the eastern provinces of the country and on the coast of the eastern Black Sea , where minority populations tend to live . Through independent study , etymologist Sevan Nisanyan estimates that , of the geographical location name changes , 4 @,@ 200 were Greek , 4 @,@ 000 Kurdish , 3 @,@ 600 Armenian , 750 Arabic , 400 Assyrian , 300 Georgian , 200 Laz , and 50 others . The official statistics of The Special Commission for Name Change ( Ad Degistirme Ihtisas Komisyonu ) claim that the total number of villages , towns , cities , and settlements renamed is 12 @,@ 211 . The chart below lists the provinces and the number of villages or towns renamed .
= = Notable geographical name changes = =
= = = Armenian = = =
Armenian geographic names were first changed under the reign of Sultan Abdulhamit II . In 1880 , the word Armenia was banned from use in the press , schoolbooks , and governmental establishments , to be replaced with words like Anatolia or Kurdistan . Armenian name changing continued under the early Republican era up until the 21st century . It included the Turkification of last names , change of animal names , change of the names of Armenian historical figures ( i.e. the name of the prominent Balyan family was concealed under the identity of a superficial Italian family called Baliani ) , and the change and distortion of Armenian historical events .
Most Armenian geographical names were in the eastern provinces of the Ottoman empire . Villages , settlements , or towns that contain the suffix -kert , meaning built or built by ( i.e. Manavazkert ( today Malazgirt ) , Norakert , Dikranagert , Noyakert ) , -shen , meaning village ( i.e. Aratashen , Pemzashen , Norashen ) , and -van , meaning town ( i.e. Charentsavan , Nakhichevan , Tatvan ) , signify an Armenian name . Throughout Ottoman history , Turkish and Kurdish tribesmen have settled into Armenian villages and changed the native Armenian names ( i.e. the Armenian Norashen was changed to Norşin ) . This was especially true after the Armenian genocide , when much of eastern Turkey was depopulated of its Armenian population .
Sevan Nişanyan estimates that 3 @,@ 600 Armenian geographical locations have been changed .
Notable name changes of Armenian geographical locations :
= = = Assyrian = = =
Most Assyrian name changes occurred in the southeast of Turkey near the Syrian border in the Tur Abdin region . The Tur Abdin ( Syriac : ܛܘܼܪ ܥܒ ݂ ܕܝܼܢ ) is a hilly region incorporating the eastern half of Mardin Province , and Şırnak Province west of the Tigris , on the border with Syria . The name ' Tur Abdin ' is from the Syriac language meaning ' mountain of the servants ( of God ) ' . Tur Abdin is of great importance to Syriac Orthodox Christians , for whom the region used to be a monastic and cultural heartland . The Assyrian / Syriac people of Tur Abdin call themselves Suroye and Suryoye , and traditionally speak an Eastern Aramaic dialect called Turoyo .
After the Assyrian genocide , the Assyrians of the region were either depopulated or massacred . Currently , there are 5 , 000 Assyrians living in the region .
Nişanyan estimates that 400 Assyrian geographical locations have been changed .
Notable name changes of Assyrian geographical locations :
= = = Greek = = =
Many of the Greek names have maintained their origins from the Byzantine empire and Empire of Trebizond era .
With the establishment of the Ottoman empire , many Turkish name changes have continued to retain their Greek origins . For example , the modern name " İzmir " derives from the former Greek name Σμύρνη " Smyrna " , through the first two syllables of the phrase " εις Σμύρνην " ( pronounced " is Smirnin " ) , which means " to Smyrna " in Greek . A similar etymology also applies to other Turkish cities with former Greek names , such as İznik ( from the phrase " is Nikaean " , meaning " to Nicaea " ) , Istanbul ( from the phrase " is tan Polin " or " to the City " ) , or even for the Greek island of Kos , called " İstanköy " in Turkish .
Nişanyan estimates that 4 @,@ 200 Greek geographical locations have been changed , the most of any ethnic minority .
Notable name changes of Greek geographical locations :
= = = Kurdish = = =
The Kurdish geographical name changes were exempt under the Ottoman Empire due to the Islamic religious orientation of Kurds . During the Republican era and especially after the Dersim massacre , Kurdish geographical name changes became more common . During the Turkish Republican era , the words Kurdistan and Kurds were banned . The Turkish government had disguised the presence of the Kurds statistically by categorizing them as Mountain Turks . This classification was changed to the new euphemism of Eastern Turk in 1980 .
Also included in the category of Kurdish geographical name changes are Zazaki , which is considered among Kurdish group , along with Kurmanci . Nişanyan estimates that 4 @,@ 000 Kurdish geographical locations have been changed .
Notable name changes of Kurdish geographical locations :
= Solar energy =
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever @-@ evolving technologies such as solar heating , photovoltaics , solar thermal energy , solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis .
It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power . Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems , concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy . Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun , selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light @-@ dispersing properties , and designing spaces that naturally circulate air .
The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity . The United Nations Development Programme in its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy was 1 @,@ 575 – 49 @,@ 837 exajoules ( EJ ) . This is several times larger than the total world energy consumption , which was 559 @.@ 8 EJ in 2012 .
In 2011 , the International Energy Agency said that " the development of affordable , inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer @-@ term benefits . It will increase countries ’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import @-@ independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating global warming , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . These advantages are global . Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared " .
= = Potential = =
The Earth receives 174 @,@ 000 terawatts ( TW ) of incoming solar radiation ( insolation ) at the upper atmosphere . Approximately 30 % is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds , oceans and land masses . The spectrum of solar light at the Earth 's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near @-@ infrared ranges with a small part in the near @-@ ultraviolet . Most of the world 's population live in areas with insolation levels of 150 @-@ 300 watts / m ² , or 3 @.@ 5 @-@ 7 @.@ 0 kWh / m ² per day .
Solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth 's land surface , oceans – which cover about 71 % of the globe – and atmosphere . Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises , causing atmospheric circulation or convection . When the air reaches a high altitude , where the temperature is low , water vapor condenses into clouds , which rain onto the Earth 's surface , completing the water cycle . The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection , producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind , cyclones and anti @-@ cyclones . Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 ° C. By photosynthesis , green plants convert solar energy into chemically stored energy , which produces food , wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived .
The total solar energy absorbed by Earth 's atmosphere , oceans and land masses is approximately 3 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 exajoules ( EJ ) per year . In 2002 , this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year . Photosynthesis captures approximately 3 @,@ 000 EJ per year in biomass . The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth 's non @-@ renewable resources of coal , oil , natural gas , and mined uranium combined ,
The potential solar energy that could be used by humans differs from the amount of solar energy present near the surface of the planet because factors such as geography , time variation , cloud cover , and the land available to humans limit the amount of solar energy that we can acquire .
Geography affects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of solar radiation . However , the use of photovoltaics that can follow the position of the sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator . Time variation effects the potential of solar energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for solar panels to absorb . This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day . Cloud cover can affect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells .
In addition , land availability has a large effect on the available solar energy because solar panels can only be set up on land that is otherwise unused and suitable for solar panels . Roofs have been found to be a suitable place for solar cells , as many people have discovered that they can collect energy directly from their homes this way . Other areas that are suitable for solar cells are lands that are not being used for businesses where solar plants can be established .
Solar technologies are characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture , convert and distribute sunlight and enable solar energy to be harnessed at different levels around the world , mostly depending on distance from the equator . Although solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends , all renewable energies , other than Geothermal power and Tidal power , derive their energy either directly or indirectly from the Sun .
Active solar techniques use photovoltaics , concentrated solar power , solar thermal collectors , pumps , and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs . Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties , designing spaces that naturally circulate air , and referencing the position of a building to the Sun . Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies , while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies .
In 2000 , the United Nations Development Programme , UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs , and World Energy Council published an estimate of the potential solar energy that could be used by humans each year that took into account factors such as insolation , cloud cover , and the land that is usable by humans . The estimate found that solar energy has a global potential of 1 @,@ 575 – 49 @,@ 837 EJ per year ( see table below ) .
= = Thermal energy = =
Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating , space heating , space cooling and process heat generation .
= = = Early commercial adaptation = = =
In 1897 , Frank Shuman , a U.S. inventor , engineer and solar energy pioneer built a small demonstration solar engine that worked by reflecting solar energy onto square boxes filled with ether , which has a lower boiling point than water , and were fitted internally with black pipes which in turn powered a steam engine . In 1908 Shuman formed the Sun Power Company with the intent of building larger solar power plants . He , along with his technical advisor A.S.E. Ackermann and British physicist Sir Charles Vernon Boys , developed an improved system using mirrors to reflect solar energy upon collector boxes , increasing heating capacity to the extent that water could now be used instead of ether . Shuman then constructed a full @-@ scale steam engine powered by low @-@ pressure water , enabling him to patent the entire solar engine system by 1912 .
Shuman built the world ’ s first solar thermal power station in Maadi , Egypt , between 1912 and 1913 . His plant used parabolic troughs to power a 45 – 52 kilowatts ( 60 – 70 hp ) engine that pumped more than 22 @,@ 000 litres ( 4 @,@ 800 imp gal ; 5 @,@ 800 US gal ) of water per minute from the Nile River to adjacent cotton fields . Although the outbreak of World War I and the discovery of cheap oil in the 1930s discouraged the advancement of solar energy , Shuman ’ s vision and basic design were resurrected in the 1970s with a new wave of interest in solar thermal energy . In 1916 Shuman was quoted in the media advocating solar energy 's utilization , saying :
We have proved the commercial profit of sun power in the tropics and have more particularly proved that after our stores of oil and coal are exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the sun .
= = = Water heating = = =
Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water . In low geographical latitudes ( below 40 degrees ) from 60 to 70 % of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 ° C can be provided by solar heating systems . The most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube collectors ( 44 % ) and glazed flat plate collectors ( 34 % ) generally used for domestic hot water ; and unglazed plastic collectors ( 21 % ) used mainly to heat swimming pools .
As of 2007 , the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems was approximately 154 thermal gigawatt ( GWth ) . China is the world leader in their deployment with 70 GWth installed as of 2006 and a long @-@ term goal of 210 GWth by 2020 . Israel and Cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar hot water systems with over 90 % of homes using them . In the United States , Canada , and Australia , heating swimming pools is the dominant application of solar hot water with an installed capacity of 18 GWth as of 2005 .
= = = Heating , cooling and ventilation = = =
In the United States , heating , ventilation and air conditioning ( HVAC ) systems account for 30 % ( 4 @.@ 65 EJ / yr ) of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50 % ( 10 @.@ 1 EJ / yr ) of the energy used in residential buildings . Solar heating , cooling and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy .
Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat — heat from the Sun in the case of solar energy . Common thermal mass materials include stone , cement and water . Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night . However , they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as well . The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate , daylighting and shading conditions . When properly incorporated , thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment .
A solar chimney ( or thermal chimney , in this context ) is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building . As the chimney warms , the air inside is heated causing an updraft that pulls air through the building . Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials in a way that mimics greenhouses .
Deciduous trees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating and cooling . When planted on the southern side of a building in the northern hemisphere or the northern side in the southern hemisphere , their leaves provide shade during the summer , while the bare limbs allow light to pass during the winter . Since bare , leafless trees shade 1 / 3 to 1 / 2 of incident solar radiation , there is a balance between the benefits of summer shading and the corresponding loss of winter heating . In climates with significant heating loads , deciduous trees should not be planted on the Equator @-@ facing side of a building because they will interfere with winter solar availability . They can , however , be used on the east and west sides to provide a degree of summer shading without appreciably affecting winter solar gain .
= = = Cooking = = =
Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking , drying and pasteurization . They can be grouped into three broad categories : box cookers , panel cookers and reflector cookers . The simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built by Horace de Saussure in 1767 . A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid . It can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90 – 150 ° C ( 194 – 302 ° F ) . Panel cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and reach temperatures comparable to box cookers . Reflector cookers use various concentrating geometries ( dish , trough , Fresnel mirrors ) to focus light on a cooking container . These cookers reach temperatures of 315 ° C ( 599 ° F ) and above but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun .
= = = Process heat = = =
Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish , trough and Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications . The first commercial system was the Solar Total Energy Project ( STEP ) in Shenandoah , Georgia , USA where a field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50 % of the process heating , air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory . This grid @-@ connected cogeneration system provided 400 kW of electricity plus thermal energy in the form of 401 kW steam and 468 kW chilled water , and had a one @-@ hour peak load thermal storage . Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved solids through evaporation . The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from seawater is one of the oldest applications of solar energy . Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams . Clothes lines , clotheshorses , and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas . In some states of the United States legislation protects the " right to dry " clothes . Unglazed transpired collectors ( UTC ) are perforated sun @-@ facing walls used for preheating ventilation air . UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 ° C ( 40 ° F ) and deliver outlet temperatures of 45 – 60 ° C ( 113 – 140 ° F ) . The short payback period of transpired collectors ( 3 to 12 years ) makes them a more cost @-@ effective alternative than glazed collection systems . As of 2003 , over 80 systems with a combined collector area of 35 @,@ 000 square metres ( 380 @,@ 000 sq ft ) had been installed worldwide , including an 860 m2 ( 9 @,@ 300 sq ft ) collector in Costa Rica used for drying coffee beans and a 1 @,@ 300 m2 ( 14 @,@ 000 sq ft ) collector in Coimbatore , India , used for drying marigolds .
= = = Water treatment = = =
Solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water potable . The first recorded instance of this was by 16th @-@ century Arab alchemists . A large @-@ scale solar distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town of Las Salinas . The plant , which had solar collection area of 4 @,@ 700 m2 ( 51 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , could produce up to 22 @,@ 700 L ( 5 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 6 @,@ 000 US gal ) per day and operate for 40 years . Individual still designs include single @-@ slope , double @-@ slope ( or greenhouse type ) , vertical , conical , inverted absorber , multi @-@ wick , and multiple effect . These stills can operate in passive , active , or hybrid modes . Double @-@ slope stills are the most economical for decentralized domestic purposes , while active multiple effect units are more suitable for large @-@ scale applications .
Solar water disinfection ( SODIS ) involves exposing water @-@ filled plastic polyethylene terephthalate ( PET ) bottles to sunlight for several hours . Exposure times vary depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast conditions . It is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage . Over two million people in developing countries use this method for their daily drinking water .
Solar energy may be used in a water stabilization pond to treat waste water without chemicals or electricity . A further environmental advantage is that algae grow in such ponds and consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis , although algae may produce toxic chemicals that make the water unusable .
= = Electricity production = =
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity , either directly using photovoltaics ( PV ) , or indirectly using concentrated solar power ( CSP ) . CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam . PV converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect .
Solar power is anticipated to become the world 's largest source of electricity by 2050 , with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power contributing 16 and 11 percent to the global overall consumption , respectively .
Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the 1980s . Since 1985 the eventually 354 MW SEGS CSP installation , in the Mojave Desert of California , is the largest solar power plant in the world . Other large CSP plants include the 150 MW Solnova Solar Power Station and the 100 MW Andasol solar power station , both in Spain . The 250 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project , in the United States , and the 221 MW Charanka Solar Park in India , are the world ’ s largest photovoltaic plants . Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being developed , but most of the deployed photovoltaics are in small rooftop arrays of less than 5 kW , which are connected to the grid using net metering and / or a feed @-@ in tariff . In 2013 solar generated less than 1 % of the world 's total grid electricity .
= = = Photovoltaics = = =
In the last two decades , photovoltaics ( PV ) , also known as solar PV , has evolved from a pure niche market of small scale applications towards becoming a mainstream electricity source . A solar cell is a device that converts light directly into electricity using the photoelectric effect . The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s . In 1931 a German engineer , Dr Bruno Lange , developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide . Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1 % of incident light into electricity , both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the importance of this discovery . Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s , researchers Gerald Pearson , Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the crystalline silicon solar cell in 1954 . These early solar cells cost 286 USD / watt and reached efficiencies of 4 @.@ 5 – 6 % . By 2012 available efficiencies exceeded 20 % , and the maximum efficiency of research photovoltaics was in excess of 40 % .
= = = Concentrated solar power = = =
Concentrating Solar Power ( CSP ) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam . The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant . A wide range of concentrating technologies exists ; the most developed are the parabolic trough , the concentrating linear fresnel reflector , the Stirling dish and the solar power tower . Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light . In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight , and is then used for power generation or energy storage .
= = Architecture and urban planning = =
Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history . Advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the Greeks and Chinese , who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth .
The common features of passive solar architecture are orientation relative to the Sun , compact proportion ( a low surface area to volume ratio ) , selective shading ( overhangs ) and thermal mass . When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can produce well @-@ lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range . Socrates ' Megaron House is a classic example of passive solar design . The most recent approaches to solar design use computer modeling tying together solar lighting , heating and ventilation systems in an integrated solar design package . Active solar equipment such as pumps , fans and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance .
Urban heat islands ( UHI ) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of the surrounding environment . The higher temperatures result from increased absorption of solar energy by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete , which have lower albedos and higher heat capacities than those in the natural environment . A straightforward method of counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white , and to plant trees in the area . Using these methods , a hypothetical " cool communities " program in Los Angeles has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 ° C at an estimated cost of US $ 1 billion , giving estimated total annual benefits of US $ 530 million from reduced air @-@ conditioning costs and healthcare savings .
= = Agriculture and horticulture = =
Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize the productivity of plants . Techniques such as timed planting cycles , tailored row orientation , staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields . While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource , the exceptions highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture . During the short growing seasons of the Little Ice Age , French and English farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energy . These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm . Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground and facing south , but over time , sloping walls were developed to make better use of sunlight . In 1699 , Nicolas Fatio de Duillier even suggested using a tracking mechanism which could pivot to follow the Sun . Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops include pumping water , drying crops , brooding chicks and drying chicken manure . More recently the technology has been embraced by vintners , who use the energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses .
Greenhouses convert solar light to heat , enabling year @-@ round production and the growth ( in enclosed environments ) of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local climate . Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to produce cucumbers year @-@ round for the Roman emperor Tiberius . The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad . Greenhouses remain an important part of horticulture today , and plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect in polytunnels and row covers .
= = Transport = =
Development of a solar @-@ powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s . The World Solar Challenge is a biannual solar @-@ powered car race , where teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3 @,@ 021 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 877 mi ) across central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide . In 1987 , when it was founded , the winner 's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour ( 42 mph ) and by 2007 the winner 's average speed had improved to 90 @.@ 87 kilometres per hour ( 56 @.@ 46 mph ) . The North American Solar Challenge and the planned South African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles .
Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power , such as for air conditioning , to keep the interior cool , thus reducing fuel consumption .
In 1975 , the first practical solar boat was constructed in England . By 1995 , passenger boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively . In 1996 , Kenichi Horie made the first solar @-@ powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean , and the Sun21 catamaran made the first solar @-@ powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006 – 2007 . There were plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010 .
In 1974 , the unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise airplane made the first solar flight . On 29 April 1979 , the Solar Riser made the first flight in a solar @-@ powered , fully controlled , man @-@ carrying flying machine , reaching an altitude of 40 feet ( 12 m ) . In 1980 , the Gossamer Penguin made the first piloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics . This was quickly followed by the Solar Challenger which crossed the English Channel in July 1981 . In 1990 Eric Scott Raymond in 21 hops flew from California to North Carolina using solar power . Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles ( UAV ) with the Pathfinder ( 1997 ) and subsequent designs , culminating in the Helios which set the altitude record for a non @-@ rocket @-@ propelled aircraft at 29 @,@ 524 metres ( 96 @,@ 864 ft ) in 2001 . The Zephyr , developed by BAE Systems , is the latest in a line of record @-@ breaking solar aircraft , making a 54 @-@ hour flight in 2007 , and month @-@ long flights were envisioned by 2010 . As of 2016 , Solar Impulse , an electric aircraft , is currently circumnavigating the globe . It is a single @-@ seat plane powered by solar cells and capable of taking off under its own power . The design allows the aircraft to remain airborne for several days .
A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air . As sunlight shines on the balloon , the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward buoyancy force , much like an artificially heated hot air balloon . Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight , but usage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface @-@ area to payload @-@ weight ratio is relatively high .
= = Fuel production = =
Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions . These processes offset energy that would otherwise come from a fossil fuel source and can also convert solar energy into storable and transportable fuels . Solar induced chemical reactions can be divided into thermochemical or photochemical . A variety of fuels can be produced by artificial photosynthesis . The multielectron catalytic chemistry involved in making carbon @-@ based fuels ( such as methanol ) from reduction of carbon dioxide is challenging ; a feasible alternative is hydrogen production from protons , though use of water as the source of electrons ( as plants do ) requires mastering the multielectron oxidation of two water molecules to molecular oxygen . Some have envisaged working solar fuel plants in coastal metropolitan areas by 2050 – the splitting of sea water providing hydrogen to be run through adjacent fuel @-@ cell electric power plants and the pure water by @-@ product going directly into the municipal water system . Another vision involves all human structures covering the earth 's surface ( i.e. , roads , vehicles and buildings ) doing photosynthesis more efficiently than plants .
Hydrogen production technologies have been a significant area of solar chemical research since the 1970s . Aside from electrolysis driven by photovoltaic or photochemical cells , several thermochemical processes have also been explored . One such route uses concentrators to split water into oxygen and hydrogen at high temperatures ( 2 @,@ 300 – 2 @,@ 600 ° C or 4 @,@ 200 – 4 @,@ 700 ° F ) . Another approach uses the heat from solar concentrators to drive the steam reformation of natural gas thereby increasing the overall hydrogen yield compared to conventional reforming methods . Thermochemical cycles characterized by the decomposition and regeneration of reactants present another avenue for hydrogen production . The Solzinc process under development at the Weizmann Institute of Science uses a 1 MW solar furnace to decompose zinc oxide ( ZnO ) at temperatures above 1 @,@ 200 ° C ( 2 @,@ 200 ° F ) . This initial reaction produces pure zinc , which can subsequently be reacted with water to produce hydrogen .
= = Energy storage methods = =
Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful temperatures for daily or interseasonal durations . Thermal storage systems generally use readily available materials with high specific heat capacities such as water , earth and stone . Well @-@ designed systems can lower peak demand , shift time @-@ of @-@ use to off @-@ peak hours and reduce overall heating and cooling requirements .
Phase change materials such as paraffin wax and Glauber 's salt are another thermal storage medium . These materials are inexpensive , readily available , and can deliver domestically useful temperatures ( approximately 64 ° C or 147 ° F ) . The " Dover House " ( in Dover , Massachusetts ) was the first to use a Glauber 's salt heating system , in 1948 . Solar energy can also be stored at high temperatures using molten salts . Salts are an effective storage medium because they are low @-@ cost , have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems . The Solar Two project used this method of energy storage , allowing it to store 1 @.@ 44 terajoules ( 400 @,@ 000 kWh ) in its 68 m ³ storage tank with an annual storage efficiency of about 99 % .
Off @-@ grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity . With grid @-@ tied systems , excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid , while standard grid electricity can be used to meet shortfalls . Net metering programs give household systems a credit for any electricity they deliver to the grid . This is handled by ' rolling back ' the meter whenever the home produces more electricity than it consumes . If the net electricity use is below zero , the utility then rolls over the kilowatt hour credit to the next month . Other approaches involve the use of two meters , to measure electricity consumed vs. electricity produced . This is less common due to the increased installation cost of the second meter . Most standard meters accurately measure in both directions , making a second meter unnecessary .
Pumped @-@ storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when energy is available from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one . The energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water , with the pump becoming a hydroelectric power generator .
= = Development , deployment and economics = =
Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial Revolution , energy consumption has steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels . The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce . However , development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability , economy , and utility of coal and petroleum .
The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies . Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the U.S. and the Sunshine Program in Japan . Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the U.S. ( SERI , now NREL ) , Japan ( NEDO ) , and Germany ( Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE ) .
Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s . These systems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more reliable heating fuels . As with photovoltaics , solar water heating attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices . Development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s and annual growth rates have averaged 20 % since 1999 . Although generally underestimated , solar water heating and cooling is by far the most widely deployed solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007 .
The International Energy Agency has said that solar energy can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces :
The development of affordable , inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer @-@ term benefits . It will increase countries ’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import @-@ independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating climate change , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . These advantages are global . Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared .
In 2011 , a report by the International Energy Agency found that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics , solar hot water and concentrated solar power could provide a third of the world ’ s energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting climate change . The energy from the sun could play a key role in de @-@ carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in energy efficiency and imposing costs on greenhouse gas emitters . " The strength of solar is the incredible variety and flexibility of applications , from small scale to big scale " .
We have proved ... that after our stores of oil and coal are exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the sun .
= = ISO standards = =
The International Organization for Standardization has established several standards relating to solar energy equipment . For example , ISO 9050 relates to glass in building while ISO 10217 relates to the materials used in solar water heaters .
= The Garden of Earthly Delights =
The Garden of Earthly Delights is the modern title given to a triptych painted by the Early Netherlandish master Hieronymus Bosch , housed in the Museo del Prado in Madrid since 1939 . It dates from between 1490 and 1510 , when Bosch was between about 40 and 60 years old , and is his best @-@ known and most ambitious surviving work .
The triptych is painted in oil on oak and is formed from a square middle panel flanked by two other oak rectangular wings that close over the center as shutters . The outer wings , when folded , show a grisaille painting of the earth during the biblical narrative of Creation . The three scenes of the inner triptych are probably ( but not necessarily ) intended to be read chronologically from left to right . The left panel depicts God presenting Eve to Adam , the central panel is a broad panorama of socially engaged nude figures , fantastical animals , oversized fruit and hybrid stone formations . The right panel is a hellscape and portrays the torments of damnation .
Art historians frequently interpret the painting as a didactic warning on the perils of life 's temptations . However , the intricacy of its symbolism , particularly that of the central panel , has led to a wide range of scholarly interpretations over the centuries . Twentieth @-@ century art historians are divided as to whether the triptych 's central panel is a moral warning or a panorama of paradise lost . American writer Peter S. Beagle describes it as an " erotic derangement that turns us all into voyeurs , a place filled with the intoxicating air of perfect liberty " .
Bosch painted three large triptychs ( the others are The Last Judgment of c . 1482 and The Haywain Triptych of c . 1516 ) that can be read from left to right and in which each panel was essential to the meaning of the whole . Each of these three works presents distinct yet linked themes addressing history and faith . Triptychs from this period were generally intended to be read sequentially , the left and right panels often portraying Eden and the Last Judgment respectively , while the main subject was contained in the center piece . It is not known whether " The Garden " was intended as an altarpiece , but the general view is that the extreme subject matter of the inner center and right panels make it unlikely that it was intended to function in a church or monastery , but was instead commissioned by a lay patron .
= = Description = =
= = = Exterior = = =
When the triptych 's wings are closed , the design of the outer panels becomes visible . Rendered in a green – gray grisaille , these panels lack colour , probably because most Netherlandish triptychs were thus painted , but possibly indicating that the painting reflects a time before the creation of the sun and moon , which were formed , according to Christian theology , to " give light to the earth " . It was common for the outer panels of Netherlandish altarpieces to be in grisaille , such that their blandness highlighted the splendid colour inside .
The outer panels are generally thought to depict the creation of the world , showing greenery beginning to clothe the still @-@ pristine Earth . God , wearing a crown similar to a papal tiara ( a common convention in Netherlandish painting ) , is visible as a tiny figure at the upper left . Bosch shows God as the father sitting with a Bible on his lap , creating the Earth in a passive manner by divine fiat . Above him is inscribed a quote from Psalm 33 reading " Ipse dixit , et facta sunt : ipse mandāvit , et creāta sunt " — For he spake and it was done ; he commanded , and it stood fast . The Earth is encapsulated in a transparent sphere recalling the traditional depiction of the created world as a crystal sphere held by God or Christ . It hangs suspended in the cosmos , which is shown as an impermeable darkness , whose only other inhabitant is God himself .
Despite the presence of vegetation , the earth does not yet contain human or animal life , indicating that the scene represents the events of the biblical Third Day . Bosch renders the plant life in an unusual fashion , using uniformly gray tints which make it difficult to determine whether the subjects are purely vegetable or perhaps include some mineral formations . Surrounding the interior of the globe is the sea , partially illuminated by beams of light shining through clouds . The exterior wings have a clear position within the sequential narrative of the work as a whole . They show an unpopulated earth composed solely of rock and plants , contrasting sharply with the inner central panel which contains a paradise teeming with lustful humanity .
= = = Interior = = =
Scholars have proposed that Bosch used the outer panels to establish a Biblical setting for the inner elements of the work , and the exterior image is generally interpreted as set in an earlier time than those in the interior . As with Bosch 's Haywain triptych , the inner centerpiece is flanked by heavenly and hellish imagery . The scenes depicted in the triptych are thought to follow a chronological order : flowing from left @-@ to @-@ right they represent Eden , the garden of earthly delights , and Hell . God appears as the creator of humanity in the left hand wing , while the consequences of humanity 's failure to follow his will are shown in the right .
However , in contrast to Bosch 's two other complete triptychs , The Last Judgment ( around 1482 ) and The Haywain ( after 1510 ) , God is absent from the central panel . Instead , this panel shows humanity acting with apparent free will as naked men and women engage in various pleasure @-@ seeking activities . According to some interpretations , the right hand panel is believed to show God 's penalties in a hellscape .
Art historian Charles de Tolnay believed that , through the seductive gaze of Adam , the left panel already shows God 's waning influence upon the newly created earth . This view is reinforced by the rendering of God in the outer panels as a tiny figure in comparison to the immensity of the earth . According to Belting , the three inner panels seek to broadly convey the Old Testament notion that , before the Fall , there was no defined boundary between good and evil ; humanity in its innocence was unaware of consequence .
= = = = Left panel = = = =
The left panel ( 220 × 97 @.@ 5 cm , 87 × 38 @.@ 4 in ) ( sometimes known as the Joining of Adam and Eve ) depicts a scene from the paradise of the Garden of Eden commonly interpreted as the moment when God presents Eve to Adam . The painting shows Adam waking from a deep sleep to find God holding Eve by her wrist and giving the sign of his blessing to their union . God is younger @-@ looking than on the outer panels , blue @-@ eyed and with golden curls . His youthful appearance may be a device by the artist to illustrate the concept of Christ as the incarnation of the Word of God . God 's right hand is raised in blessing , while he holds Eve 's wrist with his left . According to the work 's most controversial interpreter , the 20th @-@ century folklorist and art historian Wilhelm Fraenger :
... " As though enjoying the pulsation of the living blood and as though too he were setting a seal on the eternal and immutable communion between this human blood and his own . This physical contact between the Creator and Eve is repeated even more noticeably in the way Adam 's toes touch the Lord 's foot . Here is the stressing of a rapport : Adam seems indeed to be stretching to his full length in order to make contact with the Creator . And the billowing out of the cloak around the Creator 's heart , from where the garment falls in marked folds and contours to Adam 's feet , also seems to indicate that here a current of divine power flows down , so that this group of three actually forms a closed circuit , a complex of magical energy " ...
Eve avoids Adam 's gaze , although , according to art historian Walter S. Gibson , she is shown " seductively presenting her body to Adam " . Adam 's expression is one of amazement , and Fraenger has identified three elements to his seeming astonishment . Firstly , there is surprise at the presence of the God . Secondly , he is reacting to an awareness that Eve is of the same nature as himself , and has been created from his own body . Finally , from the intensity of Adam 's gaze , it can be concluded that he is experiencing sexual arousal and the primal urge to reproduce for the first time .
The surrounding landscape is populated by hut @-@ shaped forms , some of which are made from stone , while others are at least partially organic . Behind Eve rabbits , symbolising fecundity , play in the grass , and a dragon tree opposite is thought to represent eternal life . The background reveals several animals that would have been exotic to contemporaneous Europeans , including a giraffe , an elephant and a lion that has killed and is about to devour his prey . In the foreground , from a large hole in the ground , emerge birds and winged animals , some of which are realistic , some fantastic . Behind a fish , a person clothed in a short @-@ sleeved hooded jacket and with a duck 's beak holds an open book as if reading . To the left of the area a cat holds a small lizard @-@ like creature in its jaws . Belting observes that , despite the fact that the creatures in the foreground are fantastical imaginings , many of the animals in the mid and background are drawn from contemporary travel literature , and here Bosch is appealing to " the knowledge of a humanistic and aristocratic readership " . Erhard Reuwich 's pictures for Bernhard von Breydenbach 's 1486 Pilgrimages to the Holy Land were long thought to be the source for both the elephant and the giraffe , though more recent research indicates the mid @-@ 15th @-@ century humanist scholar Cyriac of Ancona 's travelogues served as Bosch 's exposure to these exotic animals .
According to art historian Virginia Tuttle , the scene is " highly unconventional [ and ] cannot be identified as any of the events from the Book of Genesis traditionally depicted in Western art " . Some of the image 's details seem to contradict the innocence that might be expected in the Garden of Eden before the expulsion . Tuttle and other critics have interpreted the gaze of Adam upon his wife as lustful , and indicative of the Christian belief that humanity was doomed from the beginning . Gibson believes that Adam 's facial expression betrays not just surprise but also expectation . According to a belief common in the Middle Ages , before the Fall Adam and Eve would have copulated without lust , solely to reproduce . Many believed that the first sin committed after Eve tasted the forbidden fruit was carnal lust . On a tree to the right a snake curls around a tree trunk , while to its right a mouse creeps ; according to Fraenger , both animals are universal phallic symbols .
= = = = Center panel = = = =
The skyline of the center panel ( 220 × 195 cm , 87 × 77 in ) matches exactly with that of the left wing , while the positioning of its central pool and the lake behind it echoes the lake in the earlier scene . The center image depicts the expansive " garden " landscape which gives the triptych its name . The panel shares a common horizon with the left wing , suggesting a spatial connection between the two scenes . The garden is teeming with male and female nudes , together with a variety of animals , plants and fruit . The setting is not the paradise shown in the left panel , but neither is it based in the terrestrial realm . Fantastic creatures mingle with the real ; otherwise ordinary fruits appear engorged to a gigantic size . The figures are engaged in diverse amorous sports and activities , both in couples and in groups . Gibson describes them as behaving " overtly and without shame " , while art historian Laurinda Dixon writes that the human figures exhibit " a certain adolescent sexual curiosity " .
Many of the numerous human figures revel in an innocent , self @-@ absorbed joy as they engage in a wide range of activities : some appear to enjoy sensory pleasures , others play unselfconsciously in the water , and yet others cavort in meadows with a variety of animals , seemingly at one with nature . In the middle of the background , a large blue globe resembling a fruit pod rises in the middle of a lake . Visible through its circular window is a man holding his right hand close to his partner 's genitals , and the bare buttocks of yet another figure hover in the vicinity . According to Fraenger , the eroticism of the center frame could be considered either as an allegory of spiritual transition or a playground of corruption .
On the right @-@ hand side of the foreground stand a group of three fair and one black @-@ skinned figures . The fair @-@ skinned figures , two males and one female , are covered from head to foot in light @-@ brown body hair . Scholars generally agree that these hirsute figures represent wild or primeval humanity but disagree on the symbolism of their inclusion . Art historian Patrik Reuterswärd , for example , posits that they may be seen as " the noble savage " who represents " an imagined alternative to our civilized life " , imbuing the panel with " a more clear @-@ cut primitivistic note " . Writer Peter Glum , in contrast , sees the figures as intrinsically connected with whoredom and lust .
In a cave to their lower right a male figure points towards a reclining female who is also covered in hair . ( image ) The pointing man is the only clothed figure in the panel , and as Fraenger observes , " he is clothed with emphatic austerity right up to his throat " . In addition , he is one of the few human figures with dark hair . According to Fraenger :
The way this man 's dark hair grows , with the sharp dip in the middle of his high forehead , as though concentrating there all the energy of the masculine M , makes his face different from all the others . His coal @-@ black eyes are rigidly focused in a gaze that expresses compelling force . The nose is unusually long and boldly curved . The mouth is wide and sensual , but the lips are firmly shut in a straight line , the corners strongly marked and tightened into final points , and this strengthens the impression — already suggested by the eyes — of a strong controlling will . It is an extraordinarily fascinating face , reminding us of faces of famous men , especially of Machiavelli 's ; and indeed the whole aspect of the head suggests something Mediterranean , as though this man had acquired his frank , searching , superior air at Italian academies .
The pointing man has variously been described as either the patron of the work ( Fraenger in 1947 ) , as an advocate of Adam denouncing Eve ( Dirk Bax in 1956 ) , as Saint John the Baptist in his camel 's skin ( Isabel Mateo Goméz in 1963 ) , or as a self @-@ portrait . The woman below him lies within a semicylindrical transparent shield , while her mouth is sealed , devices implying that she bears a secret . To their left , a man crowned by leaves lies on top of what appears to be an actual but gigantic strawberry , and is joined by a male and female who contemplate another equally huge strawberry . ( image )
There is no perspectival order in the foreground ; instead it comprises a series of small motifs wherein proportion and terrestrial logic are abandoned . Bosch presents the viewer with gigantic ducks playing with tiny humans under the cover of oversized fruit ; ( image ) fish walking on land while birds dwell in the water ; a passionate couple encased in an amniotic fluid bubble ; and a man inside of a red fruit staring at a mouse in a transparent cylinder .
The pools in the fore and background contain bathers of both sexes . In the central circular pool , the sexes are mostly segregated , with several females adorned by peacocks and fruit . Four women carry cherry @-@ like fruits on their heads , perhaps a symbol of pride at the time , as has been deduced from the contemporaneous saying : " Don 't eat cherries with great lords — they 'll throw the pits in your face . " The women are surrounded by a parade of naked men riding horses , donkeys , unicorns , camels and other exotic or fantastic creatures . Several men show acrobatics while riding , apparently acts designed to gain the females ' attention , which highlights the attraction felt between the two sexes as groups . The two outer springs also contain both men and women cavorting with abandon . Around them , birds infest the water while winged fish crawl on land . Humans inhabit giant shells . All are surrounded by oversized fruit pods and eggshells , and both humans and animals feast on strawberries and cherries .
The impression of a life lived without consequence , or what art historian Hans Belting describes as " unspoilt and pre @-@ moral existence " , is underscored by the absence of children and old people . According to the second and third chapters of Genesis , Adam and Eve 's children were born after they were expelled from Eden . This has led some commentators , in particular Belting , to theorise that the panel represents the world if the two had not been driven out " among the thorns and thistles of the world " . In Fraenger 's view , the scene illustrates " a utopia , a garden of divine delight before the Fall , or — since Bosch could not deny the existence of the dogma of original sin — a millennial condition that would arise if , after expiation of Original Sin , humanity were permitted to return to Paradise and to a state of tranquil harmony embracing all Creation . "
In the high distance of the background , above the hybrid stone formations , four groups of people and creatures are seen in flight . On the immediate left a human male rides on a chthonic solar eagle @-@ lion . The human carries a triple @-@ branched tree of life on which perches a bird ; according to Fraenger " a symbolic bird of death " . Fraenger believes the man is intended to represent a genius , " he is the symbol of the extinction of the duality of the sexes , which are resolved in the ether into their original state of unity " . To their right a knight with a dolphin tail sails on a winged fish . The knight 's tail curls back to touch the back of his head , which references the common symbol of eternity : the snake biting its own tail . On the immediate right of the panel , a winged youth soars upwards carrying a fish in his hands and a falcon on his back . According to Belting , in these passages Bosch 's " imagination triumphs ... the ambivalence of [ his ] visual syntax exceeds even the enigma of content , opening up that new dimension of freedom by which painting becomes art . " Fraenger titled his chapter on the high background " The Ascent to Heaven " , and wrote that the airborne figures were likely intended as a link between " what is above " and " what is below " , just as the left and right hand panels represent " what was " and " what will be " .
= = = = Right panel = = = =
The right panel ( 220 × 97 @.@ 5 cm , 87 × 38 @.@ 4 in ) illustrates Hell , the setting of a number of Bosch paintings . Bosch depicts a world in which humans have succumbed to temptations that lead to evil and reap eternal damnation . The tone of this final panel strikes a harsh contrast to those preceding it . The scene is set at night , and the natural beauty that adorned the earlier panels is noticeably absent . Compared to the warmth of the center panel , the right wing possesses a chilling quality — rendered through cold colourisation and frozen waterways — and presents a tableau that has shifted from the paradise of the center image to a spectacle of cruel torture and retribution . In a single , densely detailed scene , the viewer is made witness to cities on fire in the background ; war , torture chambers , infernal taverns , and demons in the midground ; and mutated animals feeding on human flesh in the foreground . The nakedness of the human figures has lost all its eroticism , and many now attempt to cover their genitalia and breasts with their hands .
Large explosions in the background throw light through the city gate and spill forth onto the water in the midground ; according to writer Walter S. Gibson , " their fiery reflection turning the water below into blood " . The light illuminates a road filled with fleeing figures , while hordes of tormentors prepare to burn a neighbouring village . A short distance away , a rabbit carries an impaled and bleeding corpse , while a group of victims above are thrown into a burning lantern . The foreground is populated by a variety of distressed or tortured figures . Some are shown vomiting or excreting , others are crucified by harp and lute , in an allegory of music , thus sharpening the contrast between pleasure and torture . A choir sings from a score inscribed on a pair of buttocks , part of a group that has been described as the " Musicians ' Hell " .
The focal point of the scene is the " Tree @-@ Man " , whose cavernous torso is supported by what could be contorted arms or rotting tree trunks . His head supports a disk populated by demons and victims parading around a huge set of bagpipes — often used as a dual sexual symbol — reminiscent of human scrotum and penis . The tree @-@ man 's torso is formed from a broken eggshell , and the supporting trunk has thorn @-@ like branches which pierce the fragile body . A grey figure in a hood bearing an arrow jammed between his buttocks climbs a ladder into the tree @-@ man 's central cavity , where nude men sit in a tavern @-@ like setting . The tree @-@ man gazes outwards beyond the viewer , his conspiratorial expression a mix of wistfulness and resignation . Belting wondered if the tree @-@ man 's face is a self @-@ portrait , citing the figure 's " expression of irony and the slightly sideways gaze [ which would ] then constitute the signature of an artist who claimed a bizarre pictorial world for his own personal imagination " .
Many elements in the panel incorporate earlier iconographical conventions depicting hell . However , Bosch is innovative in that he describes hell not as a fantastical space , but as a realistic world containing many elements from day @-@ to @-@ day human life .
Animals are shown punishing humans , subjecting them to nightmarish torments that may symbolise the seven deadly sins , matching the torment to the sin . Sitting on an object that may be a toilet or a throne , the panel 's centerpiece is a gigantic bird @-@ headed monster feasting on human corpses , which he excretes through a cavity below him , into the transparent chamber pot on which he sits . The monster is sometimes referred to as the " Prince of Hell " , a name derived from the cauldron he wears on his head , perhaps representing a debased crown . To his feet a female has her face reflected on the buttocks of a demon . Further to the left , next to a hare @-@ headed demon , a group of naked persons around a toppled gambling table are being massacred with swords and knives . Other brutal violence is shown by a knight torn down and eaten up by a pack of wolves to the right of the tree @-@ man .
During the Middle Ages , sexuality and lust were seen , by some , as evidence of humanity 's fall from grace , and the most foul of the seven deadly sins . In the eyes of some viewers , this sin is depicted in the left @-@ hand panel through Adam 's , allegedly lustful , gaze towards Eve , and it has been proposed that the center panel was created as a warning to the viewer to avoid a life of sinful pleasure . According to this view , the penalty for such sins is shown in the right panel of the triptych . In the lower right @-@ hand corner , a man is approached by a pig wearing the veil of a nun . The pig is shown trying to seduce the man to sign legal documents . Lust is further said to be symbolised by the gigantic musical instruments and by the choral singers in the left foreground of the panel . Musical instruments often carried erotic connotations in works of art of the period , and lust was referred to in moralising sources as the " music of the flesh " . There has also been the view that Bosch 's use of music here might be a rebuke against traveling minstrels , often thought of as purveyors of bawdy song and verse .
= = Dating and provenance = =
The dating of The Garden of Earthly Delights is uncertain . Ludwig von Baldass ( 1917 ) considered the painting to be an early work by Bosch . However , since De Tolnay ( 1937 ) consensus among 20th @-@ century art historians placed the work in 1503 – 1504 or even later . Both early and late datings were based on the " archaic " treatment of space . Dendrochronology dates the oak of the panels between the years 1460 and 1466 , providing a terminus post quem for the work . Wood used for panel paintings during this period customarily underwent a lengthy period of storage for seasoning purposes , so the age of the oak might be expected to predate the actual date of the painting by several years . Internal evidence , specifically the depiction of a pineapple ( a " New World " fruit ) , suggests that the painting itself postdates Columbus ' voyages to the Americas , between 1492 and 1504 . The dendrochronological research brought Vermet to reconsider an early dating and , consequently , to dispute the presence of any " New World " objects , stressing the presence of African ones instead . He considers De Tolnay 's idea of Bosch developing towards more archaism as an anachronism , based on the development of modern art and suggests that the triptych was ordered by Engelbrecht II of Nassau , in or shortly after 1481 , when he attended the Chapter of the Order of the Golden Fleece in ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch .
The Garden was first documented in 1517 , one year after the artist 's death , when Antonio de Beatis , a canon from Molfetta , Italy , described the work as part of the decoration in the town palace of the Counts of the House of Nassau in Brussels . The palace was a high @-@ profile location , a house often visited by heads of state and leading court figures . The prominence of the painting has led some to conclude that the work was commissioned , and not " solely ... a flight of the imagination " . A description of the triptych in 1605 called it the " strawberry painting " , because the fruit of the strawberry tree ( madroño in Spanish ) features prominently in the center panel . Early Spanish writers referred to the work as La Lujuria ( " Lust " ) .
The aristocracy of the Burgundian Netherlands , influenced by the humanist movement , were the most likely collectors of Bosch 's paintings , but there are few records of the location of his works in the years immediately following his death . It is probable that the patron of the work was Engelbrecht II of Nassau , who died in 1504 , or his successor Henry III of Nassau @-@ Breda , the governor of several of the Habsburg provinces in the Low Countries . De Beatis wrote in his travel journal that " there are some panels on which bizarre things have been painted . They represent seas , skies , woods , meadows , and many other things , such as people crawling out of a shell , others that bring forth birds , men and women , white and blacks doing all sorts of different activities and poses . " Because the triptych was publicly displayed in the palace of the House of Nassau , it was visible to many , and Bosch 's reputation and fame quickly spread across Europe . The work 's popularity can be measured by the numerous surviving copies — in oil , engraving and tapestry — commissioned by wealthy patrons , as well as by the number of forgeries in circulation after his death . Most are of the central panel only and do not deviate from the original . These copies were usually painted on a much smaller scale , and they vary considerably in quality . Many were created a generation after Bosch , and some took the form of wall tapestries .
The De Beatis description , only rediscovered by Steppe in the 1960s , cast new light on the commissioning of a work that was previously thought — since it has no central religious image — to be an atypical altarpiece . Many Netherlandish diptychs intended for private use are known , and even a few triptychs , but the Bosch panels are unusually large compared with these and contain no donor portraits . Possibly they were commissioned to celebrate a wedding , as large Italian paintings for private houses frequently were . Nevertheless , The Garden 's bold depictions do not rule out a church commission , such was the contemporaneous fervor to warn against immorality . In 1566 , the triptych served as the model for a tapestry that hangs at El Escorial monastery near Madrid .
Upon the death of Henry III , the painting passed into the hands of his nephew William the Silent , the founder of the House of Orange @-@ Nassau and leader of the Dutch Revolt against Spain . In 1568 , however , the Duke of Alba confiscated the picture and brought it to Spain , where it became the property of one Don Fernando , the Duke 's illegitimate son and heir and the Spanish commander in the Netherlands . Phillip II acquired the painting at auction in 1591 ; two years later he presented it to El Escorial . A contemporaneous description of the transfer records the gift on 8 July 1593 of a " painting in oils , with two wings depicting the variety of the world , illustrated with grotesqueries by Hieronymus Bosch , known as ' Del Madroño ' " . After an unbroken 342 years at El Escorial , the work moved to the Museo del Prado in 1939 , along with other works by Bosch . The triptych is not particularly well @-@ preserved ; the paint of the middle panel especially has flaked off around joints in the wood .
= = Interpretation = =
Because only bare details are known of Bosch 's life , biographical interpretation of his work becomes extremely difficult for academics , who must largely rely on conjecture . Individual motifs and elements of symbolism may be explained , but so far relating these to each other and to his work as a whole has remained elusive . The enigmatic scenes depicted on the panels of the inner triptych of The Garden of Earthly Delights have been studied by many scholars , who have often arrived at contradictory interpretations . Analyses based on symbolic systems ranging from the alchemical , astrological , and heretical to the folkloric and subconscious have all attempted to explain the complex objects and ideas presented in the work . Until the early 20th century , Bosch 's paintings were generally thought to incorporate attitudes of Medieval didactic literature and sermons . Charles De Tolnay wrote :
The oldest writers , Dominicus Lampsonius and Karel van Mander , attached themselves to his most evident side , to the subject ; their conception of Bosch , inventor of fantastic pieces of devilry and of infernal scenes , which prevails today ( 1937 ) in the public at large , and prevailed with historians until the last quarter of the 19th century .
= = = Warning against sin = = =
Some critics have interpreted the triptych as a warning on the transience of earthly pleasure . In 1960 art historian Ludwig von Baldass wrote that Bosch shows " how sin came into the world through the Creation of Eve , how fleshly lusts spread over the entire earth , promoting all the Deadly Sins , and how this necessarily leads straight to Hell " . Charles De Tolnay wrote that the center panel represents " the nightmare of humanity " , where " the artist 's purpose above all is to show the evil consequences of sensual pleasure and to stress its ephemeral character " . Supporters of this view see the painting as a sequential narrative , with the left @-@ hand panel showing humanity 's innocence in Eden , the central panel the corruption of that innocence , and finally humanity 's punishment in Hell . At various times in its history , the triptych was known as La Lujuria ( Lust ) , The Sins of the World and The Wages of Sin .
= = = Woman 's temptation = = =
Proponents of this idea point out that moralists during Bosch 's era believed that it was woman 's — ultimately Eve 's — temptation that drew men into a life of lechery and sin . This would explain why the women in the center panel are very much among the active participants in bringing about the Fall . At the time , the power of femininity was often rendered by showing a female surrounded by a circle of males . A late 15th @-@ century engraving by Israhel van Meckenem shows a group of men prancing ecstatically around a female figure . The Master of the Banderoles 's 1460 work the Pool of Youth similarly shows a group of females standing in a space surrounded by admiring figures . Here in Bosch 's center panel the image of males circulating around females has grown into fully grotesque dimensions . The 31 females in the central pool are surrounded by about 100 males performing stunts while riding on fancy animals in an endless , circular caravan .
= = = A false paradise = = =
This line of reasoning is consistent with interpretations of Bosch 's other major moralising works which hold up the folly of humans , e.g. , the Death and the Miser and the Haywain Triptych . The rendering of each of these works is such that , according to the art historian Walter Bosing , it is difficult to believe " Bosch intended to condemn what he painted with such visually enchanting forms and colors " . Bosing concluded however that a medieval mindset was naturally suspicious of material beauty , in any form , and that the sumptuousness of Bosch 's description may have been intended to convey a false paradise , teeming with transient beauty .
= = = Rebirth of a joyous world = = =
In 1947 , Wilhelm Fraenger argued that the triptych 's center panel portrays a joyous world when humanity will experience a rebirth of the innocence enjoyed by Adam and Eve before their fall . In his book The Millennium of Hieronymus Bosch , Fraenger wrote that Bosch was a member of the heretical sect known as the Adamites — who were also known as the Homines intelligentia and Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit . This radical group , active in the area of the Rhine and the Netherlands , strove for a form of spirituality immune from sin even in the flesh and imbued the concept of lust with a paradisical innocence .
Fraenger believed The Garden of Earthly Delights was commissioned by the order 's Grand Master . Later critics have agreed that , because of their obscure complexity , Bosch 's " altarpieces " may well have been commissioned for non @-@ devotional purposes . The Homines intelligentia cult sought to regain the innocent sexuality enjoyed by Adam and Eve before the Fall . Fraenger writes that the figures in Bosch 's work " are peacefully frolicking about the tranquil garden in vegetative innocence , at one with animals and plants and the sexuality that inspires them seems to be pure joy , pure bliss . " Fraenger argued against the notion that the hellscape shows the retribution handed down for sins committed in the center panel . Fraenger saw the figures in the garden as peaceful , naïve , and innocent in expressing their sexuality , and at one with nature . In contrast , those being punished in Hell comprise " musicians , gamblers , desecrators of judgment and punishment " .
Examining the symbolism in Bosch 's art — " the freakish riddles ... the irresponsible phantasmagoria of an ecstatic " — Fraenger concluded that his interpretation applied to Bosch 's three ( fully survived ) triptychs only : The Garden of Earthly Delights , Temptation of Saint Anthony , and The Haywain Triptych . Fraenger distinguished these pieces from the artist 's other works and argued that despite their anti @-@ cleric polemic they were nevertheless all altarpieces , probably commissioned for the devotional purposes of a mystery cult . While commentators accept Fraenger 's analysis as astute and broad in scope , they have often questioned his final conclusions . These are regarded by many scholars as hypothesis only , and built on an unstable foundation and what can only be conjecture . Critics argue that artists during this period painted not for their own pleasure but for commission , while the language and secularization of a post @-@ Renaissance mind @-@ set projected onto Bosch would have been alien to the late @-@ medieval painter .
= = = Humanity on the eve of the Flood = = =
Fraenger 's thesis stimulated others to examine The Garden more closely . Writer Carl Linfert also senses the joyfulness of the people in the center panel , but rejects Fraenger 's assertion that the painting is a " doctrinaire " work espousing the " guiltless sexuality " of the Adamite sect . While the figures engage in amorous acts without any suggestion of the forbidden , Linfert points to the elements in the center panel suggesting death and temporality : some figures turn away from the activity , seeming to lose hope in deriving pleasure from the passionate frolicking of their cohorts . Writing in 1969 , art historian E. H. Gombrich drew on a close reading of Genesis and the Gospel According to Saint Matthew to suggest that the central panel is , according to Linfert , " the state of mankind on the eve of the Flood , when men still pursued pleasure with no thought of the morrow , their only sin the unawareness of sin " .
= = = Irony and anachronisms = = =
In recent years several art historians have emphasized the ironic elements of The Garden . Erwin Pokorny concluded after many years of research on the complete work of Bosch , including the drawings , that in The Garden Bosch presented " a moralizing ironical wisdom that is sometimes reminiscent of Sebastian Brant ( 1457 – 1521 ) or Erasmus of Rotterdam ( 1465 – 1536 ) " . He pointed out that literature and art of Bosch 's time reflected not only the belief in hell after life , but also the belief in paradise after life . But then he listed many examples from the center panel showing that Bosch presented a new perspective by ridiculing this longing for paradise . Examples are fantastic acrobatics , equivalence of fruits and body parts , the parade of 100 males riding around the pool of females , and women signaling boredom by holding their heads in their hands .
Art historian Guido Boulboullé arrived at a similar conclusion concerning the two side panels . Adam and Eve are created within a mockery of a paradise that is already polluted by ugly and hideous creatures . About the hellscape he writes : " [ A ] gruesome comedy pervades the whole panel " . While the " Prince of Hell " ( see above ) clearly alluded to earlier devil images , he can no longer be taken seriously here because of the many ridiculous attributes that he is equipped with . Boulboullé concludes that " Bosch does not present a clear , but an ambiguous world . ... It can be understood as a moral insight into the incurability of human folly , whose ridiculousness only becomes endurable by laughing . "
Bosch 's ironic intention is also conspicuous in the three anachronisms in the lower right corner of each of the three panels . During the creation of Adam and Eve there is already a book in the hands of a fantastic creature . In The Garden a clothed person appears ; and in the hell , objects from the real world of contracts and business — pen , paper , and seal — enter the scene . " Bosch 's innovative concept of vice allusions in the Garden of Delights " thus can be viewed both as a grim warning and as an entertaining satire . These two contrasting interpretations are documented already in 1605 ( José de Sigüenza ) and 1627 ( Francisco de Quevedo ) , respectively .
= = = The corrupt gardens of Coudenberg = = =
Following this perspective , the triptych allegorically represents the gardens of the old Palace of Coudenberg ( Brussels ) , which were actually often depicted as an expression of the luxurious and corrupting headquarters of the Habsburg domination .
In brief , the first panel represents the once heavenly Burgundian Netherlands starting to be defiled ( after the death of Charles the Bold ) . The large central panel expresses the current situation , with the local Flemish @-@ Dutch elites being completely corrupted . The last panel anticipates the tragic fate of the region under the imperial government .
All details were carefully planned and are meaningful . For instance , the so @-@ called " Tree @-@ Man " symbolizes Bosch ( e.g. , " forest " , " wood " ) in the role of an eternal hangover ( the consequence of the dissolute party ) . By this way the artist punished himself because he was receiving well @-@ paid commissions from both the Habsburgs and the Nassau ( at that time , the imperial mais courtiers ) . In this context , Bosch systematically selected Maximilian Habsburg ( the Holy Roman Emperor ) to be his nemesis , whose anthropomorphic head is even shaped into the right limb of the " Tree @-@ Man " , aggravating the expiatory punishment of the artist .
= = Legacy = =
Because Bosch was such a unique and visionary artist , his influence has not spread as widely as that of other major painters of his era . However , there have been instances of later artists incorporating elements of The Garden of Earthly Delights into their own work . Pieter Bruegel the Elder ( c . 1525 – 1569 ) in particular directly acknowledged Bosch as an important influence and inspiration , and incorporated many elements of the inner right panel into several of his most popular works . Bruegel 's Mad Meg depicts a peasant woman leading an army of women to pillage Hell , while his The Triumph of Death ( c . 1562 ) echoes the monstrous Hellscape of The Garden , and utilizes , according to the Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp , the same " unbridled imagination and the fascinating colours " .
While the Italian court painter Giuseppe Arcimboldo ( c . 1527 – 1593 ) did not create Hellscapes , he painted a body of strange and " fantastic " vegetable portraits — generally heads of people composed of plants , roots , webs and various other organic matter . These strange portraits rely on and echo a motif that was in part inspired by Bosch 's willingness to break from strict and faithful representations of nature .
David Teniers the Younger ( c . 1610 – 1690 ) was a Flemish painter who quoted both Bosch and Bruegel throughout his career in such works as his versions of the Temptation of St Anthony , the Rich Man in Hell and his version of Mad Meg .
During the early 20th century , Bosch 's work enjoyed a popular resurrection . The early surrealists ' fascination with dreamscapes , the autonomy of the imagination , and a free @-@ flowing connection to the unconscious brought about a renewed interest in his work . Bosch 's imagery struck a chord with Joan Miró and Salvador Dalí in particular . Both knew his paintings firsthand , having seen The Garden of Earthly Delights in the Museo del Prado , and both regarded him as an art @-@ historical mentor . Miró 's The Tilled Field contains several parallels to Bosch 's Garden : similar flocks of birds ; pools from which living creatures emerge ; and oversize disembodied ears all echo the Dutch master 's work . Dalí 's 1929 The Great Masturbator is similar to an image on the right side of the left panel of Bosch 's Garden , composed of rocks , bushes and little animals resembling a face with a prominent nose and long eyelashes .
When André Breton wrote his first Surrealist Manifesto in 1924 , his historical precedents as inclusions named only Gustave Moreau , Georges Seurat and Uccello . However , the Surrealist movement soon rediscovered Bosch and Breughel , who quickly became popular among the Surrealist painters . René Magritte and Max Ernst both were inspired by Bosch 's The Garden of Earthly Delights .
The triptych has also been the inspiration for works of fiction , among them Ian Watson 's science fiction novel The Garden of Delights , based around the discovery of a planet which resembles Bosch 's painting .
= 1994 Gator Bowl =
The 1994 Gator Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Tennessee Volunteers at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium in Gainesville , Florida on December 30 , 1994 . The game was the final contest of the 1994 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 45 @-@ 23 victory for Tennessee .
The 1994 Gator Bowl saw 17th @-@ ranked Virginia Tech face off against regional rival Tennessee at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium on the campus of the University of Florida . The game was moved to Gainesville in 1994 due to renovations to the Gator Bowl for the Jacksonville Jaguars . Virginia Tech came into the game with an 8 – 3 regular @-@ season record that included a record of 5 – 2 in Big East Conference competition . The Tennessee Volunteers came entered the game with a regular @-@ season record of 7 – 4 under head coach Phillip Fulmer that included a 5 – 3 record in Southeastern Conference competition .
The game kicked off on December 30 , 1994 in Gainesville , Florida . From the start , Tennessee 's high @-@ scoring offense dominated . The Volunteers scored two touchdowns in the first quarter and three in the second , while Virginia Tech was able to muster a lone touchdown and field goal in the second quarter . At halftime , Tennessee had a commanding 35 – 10 lead , behind the strong play of Freshman QB Peyton Manning .
The Hokies struggled back in the third quarter , scoring six unanswered points to close the score to 35 – 16 . In the fourth quarter , however , Tennessee answered Virginia Tech 's effort with 10 points , putting the game out of reach for the Hokies , who managed only a single touchdown in the fourth quarter . The Hokies fumbled the ball five times — losing it once — and threw two interceptions , allowing Tennessee to cruise to an easy victory , 45 – 23 . Tennessee running back James Stewart was named the game 's most valuable player .
= = Renovations = =
In early 1994 , Jacksonville Mayor Ed Austin proposed $ 49 million in renovations to Jacksonville 's aging Gator Bowl Stadium in order to keep the stadium up to date for the annual Florida @-@ Georgia rivalry game . After Florida and Georgia accepted the renovations , agreeing to play the rivalry game in Athens , Georgia during the renovations , Jacksonville investors proposed expanding the renovation plan in order to attract a National Football League team . The price tag was revised upward — to $ 121 million — and the city successfully attracted a team . Shortly after Jacksonville was awarded its new franchise — the Jacksonville Jaguars — the final plans were unveiled . The stadium would have additional luxury boxes , expanded seating , and upgraded facilities for teams and fans .
The renovations were much more extensive than had initially been proposed , and required more time to be completed . Instead of beginning in early 1995 , work would have to begin in 1994 , leaving the site of the 1994 Gator Bowl ( played on Dec. 30 ) in doubt . By the end of January 1994 , as the Gator Bowl was being demolished , that doubt was also demolished when a deal was struck to host the Gator Bowl at the University of Florida , in that school 's Ben Hill Griffin Stadium . The game 's title sponsor , Outback Steakhouse , and its television sponsor , TBS , would remain constant , and both were in their final year of contracts with the Gator Bowl .
= = Team selection = =
Prior to the start of the 1994 @-@ 1995 college football season , the Gator Bowl was snubbed by the newly formed Bowl Alliance , a group of football conferences , bowl games , and television networks created to match up the No. 1 and No. 2 college football teams at the conclusion of each season . Though the Gator Bowl offered to pay $ 115 million for the right to become a Bowl Alliance game , the Orange Bowl was selected in place of the Gator Bowl . This event had repercussions at the end of the season , when the bowl was passed over by high @-@ ranked teams that elected to accept bids to bowls in the new Bowl Alliance .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
During the annual preseason poll of media members covering the Big East conference , Virginia Tech was picked to finish second among Big East teams , behind only Miami . The Hokies entered the 1994 college football season having finished the 1993 season with a win in the 1993 Independence Bowl , and hopes were high that they would return to a bowl game again in 1994 .
The Hokies started the season well , winning their first four games in succession and culminating with a victory against West Virginia in the annual battle for the Black Diamond Trophy . The Hokies , who had begun the season ranked No. 21 in the country , rose to No. 14 by their fifth game of the season , a trip to Syracuse , New York , to play the Syracuse Orange . There , Virginia Tech suffered its first loss of the season , permitting 100 @-@ yard rushing games from Syracuse 's Malcolm Thomas and Kirby Dar Dar , the last time the Hokies allowed two hundred @-@ yard rushers in the same game . Tech responded to the loss by reeling off another three wins in succession . That winning streak ended at No. 6 Miami , when Tech lost its second game of the season , a loss that was followed by a season @-@ ending defeat to perennial rival Virginia . The Hokies concluded the regular season with an 8 – 4 record overall and a 5 – 2 record in the Big East . Ironically , despite their season @-@ ending loss to Virginia , the Hokies were awarded an invitation to the Gator Bowl over the Cavaliers , who lost to North Carolina State in their season @-@ ending game . In addition to that loss , Gator Bowl officials later stated they were reluctant to invite an Atlantic Coast Conference team for a fourth straight year , thus opening the door for the Hokies from the Big East .
= = = Tennessee = = =
The Tennessee Volunteers had finished the 1993 season with a 10 – 2 record and a season @-@ ending loss to the Penn State Nittany Lions under first @-@ year head coach Phillip Fulmer in the Citrus Bowl . Hopes were high that Tennessee 's second year under Fulmer 's command would end better than its first .
Tennessee was ranked No. 13 in the Associated Press preseason poll at the start of the season , but won just one game in its first four of the season , causing the Volunteers to drop out of the top 25 for the first time since 1989 , breaking a streak of 84 consecutive weeks in the poll . To make matters worse , Tennessee 's two starting quarterbacks suffered season @-@ ending injuries during that four @-@ game span . In the Volunteers ' season @-@ opener against UCLA , Jerry Colquitt suffered a knee injury . Backup quarterback Todd Helton was hurt in the fourth game of the season , a loss to Mississippi State . In response to the poor start , Fulmer overhauled his defense and coped with the loss of his first- and second @-@ string quarterbacks by bringing in acclaimed freshman Peyton Manning , son of National Football League star Archie Manning .
Manning 's first start , a Tennessee homecoming game against Washington State , resulted in a 10 – 9 win . Things got progressively better for the Volunteers after Manning assumed the starting role , as they won six of their final regular @-@ season games . The sole loss was a 13 – 17 defeat at the hands of then @-@ No. 10 Alabama in Knoxville . The loss was merely a bump in the road , however , as Tennessee won all four regular @-@ season games that followed , ending the regular season with a 65 – 0 drubbing of in @-@ state rival Vanderbilt . In response to Fulmer 's success at turning the team around from a slow start , he was awarded with a one @-@ year contract extension by the university .
= = Pregame buildup = =
The matchup of Virginia Tech and Tennessee was the first game between the two teams since 1937 , an unusual fact since both teams are located in the Appalachian Mountains and the two schools are just 3 @.@ 5 hours by car apart . This proximity generated multiple news stories about towns lying between the two schools and the divided loyalties of their fans . In Washington County , Virginia , which lies along the Tennessee border , the county supervisor — a Virginia Tech graduate — proclaimed the week of the Gator Bowl to be " Hokie Week " over the objections of the county attorney , who graduated from Tennessee . This natural rivalry was amplified by a basketball game held the day prior to the Gator Bowl that pitted the two schools ' varsity teams against each other . In exchange for participating in the game , each team received $ 1 @.@ 5 million from the Gator Bowl Association .
Ticket sales were brisk in the month between the announcement of the Tech @-@ Tennessee matchup and the day of the game . By December 14 , two weeks after the initial announcement , Virginia Tech had sold 16 @,@ 000 tickets to Tennessee 's 9 @,@ 000 . On December 23 , one week before the game , Tech had sold 17 @,@ 653 tickets . By the day of the game , the two teams had combined to sell approximately 33 @,@ 000 tickets . Two days prior to the game , spread bettors favored Tennessee to win by seven points .
= = = Tennessee offense = = =
The Tennessee offense was led by freshman quarterback Peyton Manning , son of NFL great Archie Manning , who had played against the Hokies in the 1968 Liberty Bowl . During the regular season , Peyton played in seven games , winning six of them and completing 86 of his 139 pass attempts for 1 @,@ 114 yards , 11 touchdowns , and six interceptions . Manning 's passer rating of 145 @.@ 2 was the third @-@ highest among starting quarterbacks in the SEC . In recognition of his achievements , Manning was named the Southeastern Conference Freshman of the Year . One of Manning 's more prominent passing targets was Billy Williams , who , despite suffering a stress fracture in the first game of the season , recovered to catch 20 passes for 217 yards and two touchdowns . He also returned 17 kickoffs for an average of 20 @.@ 8 yards per return . Manning 's favorite target was Joey Kent , who caught 36 passes for 470 yards during the regular season , but slightly injured his ankle in a pre @-@ Gator Bowl practice .
The Volunteers ' rushing offense had been led by Aaron Hayden during the regular season , but Hayden broke his leg during Tennessee 's final regular season game . Due to the injury , James Stewart was forecast to start the game at running back for the Volunteers . During the regular season , Tennessee was ranked No. 13 in rushing , accumulating an average of 231 @.@ 2 rushing yards per game . Stewart accounted for 93 @.@ 5 yards of that total , having carried the ball 170 times for 1 @,@ 028 yards and 11 touchdowns during the regular season . One of Tennessee 's other backup running backs , Jay Graham , was predicted to be kept out of the game due to an injury , but played after undergoing surgery . Graham , who rushed 61 times for 275 yards during the regular season , suffered a broken jaw after being punched in the face by a teammate . Because of the injury to Graham , fourth @-@ string running back Ronnie Pillow , who had carried the ball just five times during the regular season , was predicted to back up Stewart during the game .
Prior to the game , Tennessee coach Fulmer pronounced himself unsatisfied with the Vols ' performance in opponents ' red zone during the regular season . Tennessee scored on just 36 of 52 possessions inside the opposition 's 20 @-@ yard line , a conversion rate of 69 @.@ 2 percent . Fulmer vowed to raise that percentage to what it had been the previous season , when Tennessee converted 41 of 46 possessions , or 89 @.@ 1 percent .
= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =
On offense , the Virginia Tech Hokies were led by quarterback Maurice DeShazo , who completed 164 of his 296 pass attempts during the regular season for 2 @,@ 110 yards , 13 touchdowns , and 13 interceptions . DeShazo 's success during the season helped him become the No. 4 all @-@ time passing leader in Virginia Tech history , finishing his career with 5 @,@ 720 passing yards . DeShazo 's favorite passing target was wide receiver Antonio Freeman , who finished the season having caught 38 passes for 586 yards and five touchdowns . The Gator Bowl was Freeman 's final collegiate game , just as it was DeShazo 's . Freeman finished his career as the No. 1 receiver in Virginia Tech history in terms of yardage ( bowl games were not counted in statistics until 2003 ) with 2 @,@ 207 receiving yards . Freeman also was the team 's leading punt returner , having returned 39 kicks for 467 yards and a touchdown , and received second @-@ team All @-@ Big East honors .
On the ground , Virginia Tech 's rushing offense was led by running back Dwayne Thomas , who carried the ball 142 times for 642 yards and five touchdowns . Backing up Thomas was Tommy Edwards , son of former Virginia Tech player Ken Edwards , who played with the Hokies from 1967 to 1969 , including the Hokies ' trip to the 1968 Liberty Bowl . By participating in the Gator Bowl and in the previous season 's Independence Bowl , the Edwardses became the first father @-@ son combo in Virginia Tech history to have competed in a bowl game .
At the beginning of December , Virginia Tech 's offensive preparations for the Gator Bowl were disrupted when offensive coordinator Gary Tranquill abruptly quit the team in order to join friend Nick Saban , who had been hired as the head coach at Michigan State . Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer announced simultaneous with Tranquill 's departure that assistant head coach Billy Hite would control the offense during the Gator Bowl . Shortly after the announcement of Tranquill 's departure , Virginia Tech announced that former offensive coordinator Ricky Bustle would be returning to the team to fill the position after the Gator Bowl . Though he was not able to actively coach the team during the Gator Bowl , Bustle offered advice and strategy to Beamer during the weeks before the game .
Virginia Tech receiver Cornelius White fractured his patella while playing pick @-@ up basketball .
= = = Tennessee defense = = =
During the regular season , the Volunteers ' scoring defense was ranked the second @-@ best in the SEC , allowing an average of just 16 @.@ 82 points per game . Tennessee also allowed just eight passing touchdowns and 20 touchdowns overall . One of Tennessee 's defensive leaders was defensive end Steve White , who led the Volunteers in sacks and tackles for loss with seven and eight , respectively . Tennessee 's leader in interceptions was Ronald Davis , who had two during the regular season . Scott Galyon had the most tackles on the team , with 93 .
Strong safety Ray Austin , who had been named most valuable player in the Volunteers ' loss to Penn State during the 1993 Citrus Bowl , had 50 tackles — second @-@ best among Tennessee defensive backs — two fumble recoveries , a sack , and two tackles for loss despite playing in only six games . The Volunteers ' defense also featured a cornerback named Tony Edge , a player from Virginia 's Phoebus High School who had been heavily recruited by both Virginia Tech and Tennessee . Edge suffered a dislocated shoulder in the Volunteers ' last regular @-@ season game , but pledged he would play against the Hokies despite doctors ' disapproval .
= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =
Defensively , the Virginia Tech Hokies allowed an average of 308 yards per game and 18 @.@ 4 points per game . During the last two games of the regular season , however , the Hokies permitted 34 points and 42 points to Rutgers and Virginia , respectively . The Virginia Tech defense was led by two strong performers in the defensive secondary . Safety Torrian Gray intercepted four passes during the regular season , returning one of the catches for a touchdown . He tied with cornerback William Yarborough for the most interceptions on the team during the regular season . Neither player was the team 's leading tackler , however . That honor went to linebacker George DelRicco , who had 130 tackles during the regular season .
Fellow linebacker Ken Brown was named a first @-@ team All @-@ Big East selection , signifying his status as one of the best players at his position in the conference . He finished the season with 93 tackles , including six for loss and two sacks , enough for No. 3 on the team in tackles . Despite that success , Brown suffered a pulled hamstring before Virginia Tech 's final regular @-@ season game and his presence in the Gator Bowl was doubtful . Virginia Tech sophomore defensive end Cornell Brown was named the best defensive college player in the state of Virginia by the Roanoke Times after earning 20 tackles for loss , including 11 sacks , and 35 quarterback hurries during the regular season .
= = Game summary = =
The 1994 Gator Bowl kicked off on December 30 , 1994 at 8 p.m. EST at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium in Gainesville , Florida . An estimated 62 @,@ 200 fans were in attendance , and millions more people watched the game on television . TBS televised the game in the United States , and Gary Bender , Pat Haden , and Craig Sager were the broadcasters . Tennessee won the ceremonial pre @-@ game coin toss and elected to kick off to Virginia Tech to begin the game .
= = = First quarter = = =
Virginia Tech 's Tommy Edwards fielded the opening kickoff , which was returned to the Tech 29 @-@ yard line , where the Hokies ' offense began the first play of the game , an incomplete pass by Virginia Tech quarterback Maurice DeShazo . On the second play of the game , DeShazo again attempted a forward pass . This time , however , the ball was intercepted by Tennessee linebacker Tyrone Hines . Hines returned the ball to the Tech 28 @-@ yard line , allowing the Volunteers ' offense to begin the game already in scoring position . Tennessee 's first play was a run up the middle by James Stewart , who gained three yards . On the second play , Tennessee quarterback Peyton Manning completed a nine @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Nilo Silvan . During the play , Silvan suffered a broken ankle and did not return to the game . Now at the 16 @-@ yard line , Tennessee continued its drive with a rush by Stewart , who wasn 't able to advance the ball . On the next play , the Volunteers were penalized 10 yards for a block in the back of a Virginia Tech player . Despite the penalty and an incomplete pass on a subsequent play , Tennessee was able to gain a first down to the five @-@ yard line with a pass from Manning to Joey Kent . Two plays later , the Volunteers scored on a one @-@ yard touchdown run by Stewart . The extra point kick was successful , and Tennessee took a 7 – 0 lead with 11 : 41 remaining in the first quarter .
Following Tennessee 's touchdown , the two teams traded possessions , each going three and out . Virginia Tech regained the ball after a Tennessee punt to its 20 @-@ yard line with 7 : 31 remaining in the quarter . After a Tech fumble that was recovered by the Hokies , Tech running back Dwayne Thomas ran nine yards for the first Tech first down of the game . After an incomplete pass , DeShazo and Thomas connected on an eight @-@ yard pass before Thomas broke free for an 11 @-@ yard run and another first down . Thomas continued advancing the ball , picking up eight yards on two rushing plays . DeShazo then completed a four @-@ yard pass for a first down at the Tennessee 39 @-@ yard line . There , however , Tennessee 's defense stiffened and did not allow the Hokies another first down . The Tech punt was downed at the Tennessee 7 @-@ yard line , where the Volunteers began their third possession of the game .
On the first play of the drive , Tennessee committed a five @-@ yard false start penalty , pushing the Volunteers back toward their goal line . A Tennessee rush was stopped for no gain , then Stewart picked up eight yards on a running play . Needing eight yards for a first down , Manning threw an 11 @-@ yard pass to Kent for the first down . On the next play , Manning completed a 43 @-@ yard toss to Kent , driving the Volunteers into the Virginia Tech half of the field . Manning 's next throw was a 35 @-@ yard touchdown throw to Marcus Nash . The extra point was good , and Tennessee took a 14 – 0 lead with 1 : 08 remaining in the quarter .
Tennessee 's kickoff went out of bounds , allowing Tech 's offense to start at its 35 @-@ yard line . DeShazo threw an incomplete pass , then completed one for a nine @-@ yard gain . Needing one yard for a first down , Tech fullback Bryan Edwards was stopped for a loss and the Hokies were forced to punt . Tennessee fair caught the ball at their 20 @-@ yard line , where the Volunteers ' offense again began to work . A five @-@ yard penalty pushed the Volunteers backward , but running back Jay Graham regained the lost five yards with a run on the next play and the clock ran out in the quarter . At the end of the first quarter , Tennessee led , 14 – 0 .
= = = Second quarter = = =
At the beginning of the second quarter , Tennessee had the ball at its 19 @-@ yard line , facing a second down and ten . On the first play of the quarter , Tennessee ran an end @-@ around to Kendrick Jones , who ran the ball for 76 yards , giving the Volunteers a | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
with other sifaka species , non @-@ maternal infant care is common . Group members of all ages and both sexes will often groom , play with , occasionally carry , and even nurse infants that are not their own . The silky sifaka vocalizes frequently despite its moderately sized vocal repertoire consisting of seven adult calls . Like all lemurs , it relies strongly on scent for communication . Males will frequently scent @-@ mark on top of scent @-@ marks made by other group members , particularly females . Males also gouge trees with their toothcomb ( a special arrangement of the bottom , front teeth ) prior to chest scent @-@ marking . This chest marking results in males having brown @-@ stained chests , the only visible trait that can be used to distinguish between adult males and adult females .
The species is only found within a few protected areas in the rainforests of northeastern Madagascar , with the majority of the remaining population in Marojejy National Park and Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve . A few groups have also been found in the Makira Forest Protected Area , the Betaolana Corridor , and some unprotected forest fragments . The silky sifaka is hunted throughout its range as there is no local fady ( taboo ) against eating this species . Habitat disturbance , such as slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture ( tavy ) , illegal logging of precious woods ( particularly , rosewood ) and fuel @-@ wood , also occurs within the protected areas where it is found .
= = Etymology = =
The name " sifaka " is a reference to a common general alarm vocalization given by western dry forest sifakas in which they emit an explosive , hiss @-@ like " shee @-@ faak " call several times in succession . On the east coast , local residents refer to the larger bodied diademed sifaka as simpona , a name which refers to the species ' sneeze @-@ like " zzuss " alarm vocalizations . The calls are emitted in a variety of stressful circumstances such as presence of humans , falling trees , terrestrial predators , and after aggression between group members . The specific name , candidus , is Latin for " white " , while the specific name of the taxonomic synonym sericeus is derived from the Greek word for " silk " .
= = Taxonomy = =
The silky sifaka was initially described in 1871 by French naturalist Alfred Grandidier in a formally published letter to French zoologist Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards . Grandidier 's description was based on his own observations north of Antongil Bay in the last few months of 1870 . He then named the species Propithecus candidus due to its white color , which he likened to that of the Verreaux 's sifaka ( Propithecus verreauxi ) , but without the dark fur on its head or the ash @-@ colored spot on the back . The first specimen was obtained in 1872 and provided by " Monsieur Guinet " , a planter from Sambava . The specimen allowed both Grandidier and Milne @-@ Edwards to more thoroughly describe the species based on its skin , coat , and skull . Upon those findings , they changed the name to P. sericeus . Upon further review in 1875 , Grandidier demoted the silky sifaka to a variety or " race " of the diademed sifaka . By the time German zoologist Ernst Schwarz standardized lemur taxonomy in 1931 , P. sericeus had become a taxonomic synonym for the species , with the original name , Propithecus candidus , taking priority .
Schwarz placed all sifakas into two species , the larger diademed sifaka from the eastern rainforests and the smaller Verreaux 's sifaka from the dry forests and spiny forests of the west and south . At the time , both species comprised four subspecies , and the silky sifaka was listed as P. diadema candidus , a subspecies of the diademed sifaka . In his 1982 book Primates of Madagascar , anthropologist Ian Tattersall upheld this classification . When anthropologist Colin Groves reviewed the taxonomy in his book Primate Taxonomy in 2001 , he also upheld the subspecies status of the silky sifaka because variations in fur coloration between the available specimens suggested converging similarities with the diademed sifaka 's coloration . Groves later noted that the coloration of the two species did not overlap , suggesting that the populations were distinct .
In 2004 , Mayor et al. showed that despite having a similar karyotype ( the number and appearance of chromosomes ) of 42 chromosomes ( 2n = 42 ) , the silky sifaka was distinct from the diademed sifaka . This was shown through genetic tests ( D @-@ loop sequencing ) and by comparing external proportions . For example , the silky sifaka has a shorter tail . Their analysis indicated a closer relationship with Perrier 's sifaka ( Propithecus perrieri ) . Russell Mittermeier and colleagues followed by adopting the full species status of the silky sifaka for the 2nd edition of Lemurs of Madagascar in 2006 . Although Groves maintained the silky sifaka as a subspecies in the 3rd edition of Mammal Species of the World in 2005 , he recognized it as a distinct species in 2007 by acknowledging the work of Mayor et al. and also noting the additional distinction that the silky sifaka has relatively long molar teeth compared to the length of its toothrow . Despite the promotion to full species status , the silky sifaka is still considered to be a member of the P. diadema group , a group of four closely related , large @-@ bodied , eastern rainforest sifakas . The other three members of this group are the diademed sifaka , Perrier 's sifaka , and Milne @-@ Edwards ' sifaka ( Propithecus edwardsi ) . The species status of the silky sifaka , as well as other sifakas , does not have universal support : in 2007 , Tattersall argued against species distinctions within Propithecus , claiming the decisions were made prematurely .
In 1974 , Tattersall spotted what he thought was a color variant of the silky sifaka north of Vohemar in northeast Madagascar . Describing it as such eight years later in The Primates of Madagascar , he not only cited its mostly white fur , but also uncharacteristic traits such as a patch of orange on its crown and tufted ears . It was not observed again until 1986 , when a team led by paleoanthropologist Elwyn L. Simons captured specimens for captive breeding and identified it as a new species , named as the golden @-@ crowned sifaka ( Propithecus tattersalli ) in 1988 .
= = Geographic range and habitat = =
The silky sifaka is confined to a small region of northeastern Madagascar within a strip of humid forest stretching from Maroantsetra in the south to the Andapa Basin and the Marojejy Massif in the north . Marojejy National Park represents the northern limit of its current distribution , although historical sifaka range maps created by Grandidier and Milne @-@ Edwards in the late 19th century show the silky sifaka as far north as the Bemarivo River , north of Sambava . The Androranga River may represent the northwestern range limit within the Tsaratanana Corridor . The southern limit of its range appears to be the Antainambalana River , within the Makira Conservation Site . It is not known if the silky sifaka has ever ranged as far south as the Masoala Peninsula . As of 2009 , new observations of a few groups of the silky sifaka in unprotected forest fragments adjacent to northeastern Makira ( Antohaka Lava and Maherivaratra ) may slightly enlarge the known geographic range of this species . The presence of the silky sifaka has been documented within Marojejy National Park , Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve , the Makira Forest Protected Area , the Betaolana Corridor , and the Tsaratanana Corridor . In 2008 , 16 groups were discovered in western Marojejy near Antsahaberoaka .
The silky sifaka tends to be found at higher elevations than any of the other sifaka species and also occupies the greatest range of elevations for the group . In Marojejy National Park and Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve , where most of the remaining groups exist , it is not found below 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) of elevation and not above 1 @,@ 875 m ( 6 @,@ 152 ft ) . However , at its southernmost location in Makira ( Andaparaty ) , several groups inhabit forest fragments at an unusually low elevation of 300 m ( 980 ft ) . The silky sifaka inhabits three types of elevation @-@ specific habitats : primary montane rainforest , sclerophyllous forest , and the most elevated portions of low ericoid bush . It is unknown how sensitive the silky sifaka is to disturbance or whether it avoids habitat edges ( " edge @-@ intolerant " ) or is more edge @-@ tolerant like the diademed sifaka . Like other rainforest sifaka species , it seldom crosses unforested regions between forest fragments .
In the Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve , the silky sifaka is sympatric ( shares the same geographic range ) with the white @-@ fronted brown lemur ( Eulemur albifrons ) and an all @-@ black population of indri ( Indri indri ) . In Marojejy National Park , it is sympatric with the white @-@ fronted brown lemur . In 2008 , it was suggested that the silky sifaka may be sympatric with the red ruffed lemur ( Varecia rubra ) near Maherivaratra and Andaparaty .
= = Description = =
The silky sifaka is one of the larger sifaka species , with a head @-@ body length of 48 – 54 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 8 ft ) , a tail length of 45 – 51 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 7 ft ) , a total length of 93 – 105 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 4 ft ) , and a weight of 5 – 6 @.@ 5 kg ( 11 – 14 lb ) . As its common English name suggests , its long , white fur has a silky texture . Not all individuals are completely white : some have silver @-@ gray or black tints on the crown , back , and limbs . The base of the tail ( " pygal region " ) can be yellow . The ears and face are hairless , and the skin may be a mix of pink and black , completely black , or completely pink . The tips of the ears protrude slightly above the fur on the rest of the head . Its eyes have a deep orange @-@ red coloration . Its appearance is distinctive , and since no other sifakas share its range , it is not easily confused with other lemur species .
While it is difficult to distinguish adult males and females in other eastern rainforest sifakas , such as the Perrier 's sifaka and Milne @-@ Edwards ' sifaka , gender in the silky sifaka is easily discerned due to differences in fur coloration of the upper chest . Females have white fur , while males have a large brown patch of fur that results from scent marking with a gland on the chest and throat ( the sternal gular gland ) . During mating season , the size of the " chest patch " increases to cover both the chest and abdomen as a result of increased scent marking .
= = Behavior = =
Until the 21st century , brief observations and lemur surveys had merely documented the presence of the silky sifaka in special reserves and national parks . More recently , a 14 @-@ month study and two short @-@ term studies in Marojejy National Park have revealed previously unknown details about its behavioral biology , communication , and feeding ecology . The silky sifaka has a variable social structure and is known to live in male @-@ female pairs , one @-@ male groups , and multi @-@ male / multi @-@ female groups . Group sizes range from two to nine individuals , while the home ranges are estimated to range from 34 to 47 ha ( 0 @.@ 13 to 0 @.@ 18 sq mi ) , varying in size by location .
According to some studies , the silky sifaka spends most of its day resting and feeding ( approximately 44 @.@ 4 % and 25 % respectively ) . It also devotes approximately 16 @.@ 8 % of the day to social behavior , such as personal grooming , social grooming ( allogrooming ) , and play . The rest of the day is spent traveling and sleeping . Other sources report that the species divides half of the day between traveling and foraging , while the rest is spent resting . Daily foraging usually starts at dawn unless delayed by rain . Group movement is usually led by females , and groups usually travel 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) per day , and may climb 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) along vertical slopes . Although the species spends its time in the trees , terrestrial play is not uncommon , even among adults , with play sessions lasting 30 minutes or more . Like other sifakas , it uses a type of arboreal locomotion known as vertical clinging and leaping . Dominance hierarchies have not been documented among female sifakas , including the silky sifaka , although seasonal hierarchies are known to occur . Aggression , which is generally infrequent , occurs primarily during feeding , where females take priority over males , although submissive signals are not always obvious .
The silky sifaka 's diet is similar to that of other eastern rainforest sifakas , consisting primarily of leaves ( folivory ) and seeds ( seed predation ) . It is highly varied and includes many plant species . A two @-@ month study from the mid @-@ 2000s showed that the silky sifaka can feed on as many as 76 species of plant from 42 families . Its favorites included primarily tree species , but also some lianas . The most prominent plant families in the diet were Moraceae ( 20 @.@ 30 % ) , Fabaceae ( 12 @.@ 87 % ) , Myrtaceae ( 12 @.@ 65 % ) , Clusiaceae ( 10 @.@ 13 % ) and Apocynaceae ( 9 @.@ 49 % ) . In the study , feeding upon these four plant families took up as much as 37 @.@ 06 % of the total feeding time for the silky sifaka : 16 @.@ 09 % on the fruit of Pachytrophe dimepate , 8 @.@ 43 % on the seeds of Senna sp . , 6 @.@ 52 % on the young leaves of Plectaneia thouarsii , and 6 @.@ 02 % on the fruit of Eugenia sp . In sum , folivory accounted for 52 % of the feeding time , while frugivory ( fruit @-@ eating ) accounted for 34 % , and seed predation made up 11 % . The consumption of flowers , as well as soil ( geophagy ) , was rarely observed in this study . Prior to this , preliminary studies had reported that folivory account for 75 % of the diet , while fruits and 15 % was seed predation , 7 % was flower consumption , and bark and soil made up the remainder .
Like all other lemurs , the silky sifaka is a seasonal breeder , and it is thought that it mates only one day a year during the start of the rainy season sometime in December or January . Infants are born six months later in June or July . Females typically give birth to a single infant once every two years , although births in consecutive years have been observed . Infants initially cling to the fur of their mother 's chest for nearly four weeks and then switch to riding on her back . As with other eastern rainforest sifakas , the infants of this species develop rapidly . This may be due to assistance in the care of infants by all group members ( known as alloparental care ) — a trait typical among all sifakas . Non @-@ maternal care usually takes the form of allogrooming , but also playing , occasional carrying , and in rare cases , nursing . The dispersal of offspring is thought to be similar to that of other eastern rainforest sifakas , with both males and females transferring out of the group at sexual maturity . However , dispersal has only been observed once with a young adult male , who left its natal group and proceeded to oust an older male from a group in which he had been a member for seven years . Female dispersal and group transfer has not yet been observed .
The only documented predator of the silky sifaka , other than humans , is the fossa , a cat @-@ like carnivore found only on Madagascar . Although no aerial predators are known , the silky sifaka often watch the sky and emit loud " aerial disturbance " roars at the sight of the large Madagascar buzzard ( Buteo brachypterus ) and other small birds . Another more general alarm call is the loud , sneeze @-@ like " zzuss " vocalization , which are emitted in response to terrestrial disturbances , calls from lost group members , and aggression by other group members . Acoustic analyses of the " zzuss " vocalization have shown that the call 's acoustic structure differs between individuals and by gender .
Adult eastern sifakas have a moderately sized vocal repertoire of about seven call types . It is uncertain if their vocalizations have specific or varied contexts , and as with other primates , arousal level may play a role in the acoustic structure of its calls . Despite the limited size of the silky sifaka 's vocal repertoire , it does exhibit high call rates of seven calls per hour , on average . Even infants are known to have several specialized vocalizations . The most frequently emitted silky sifaka vocalizations are low @-@ amplitude , low @-@ frequency , tonal " hum " and " mum " vocalizations . These contact calls are used in a variety of circumstances including group movement , affiliation , foraging , and while resting .
The silky sifaka uses well @-@ developed olfactory ( smell @-@ based ) communication , as with all other strepsirrhine primates . Like other eastern rainforest sifakas , it has several specialized glands for scent @-@ marking , including a sebaceous gland on the chest , found only in males , and mixed apocrine @-@ sebaceous glands on the genitals in both sexes . Unlike the true lemurs of the genus Eulemur , the silky sifaka does not directly scent @-@ mark its conspecifics ( allomarking ) , although it does scent @-@ mark its territory . Both sexes will often urinate while scent @-@ marking . Males and females scent @-@ mark in different ways : females rub their genital glands in an up @-@ and @-@ down motion against trees , while males may use their chest gland , genital glands , or a combination of both . Males will also use their specialized toothcomb to gouge trees before scent @-@ marking with their chest — a behavior that leaves long @-@ lasting visible marks . The gouging is thought to serve a role in communication and has no dietary component , since males do not eat the bark or tree gum .
Males scent @-@ mark more frequently than females , as much as two or three times as often . Males also respond to female scent @-@ marking by overmarking with their own scent glands , usually by combining chest and genital marking . They will also overmark other males , although less quickly and less often . In a one @-@ year study , males responded to 71 % of the marks made by females within an average of 61 seconds while only 17 % of male marks received a response from other group members . Because males overmark frequently , this results in " totem @-@ tree marking " , where certain trees become covered by male scent and gouge marks . However , no observations of widespread home range border scent @-@ marking have been reported . Scent @-@ marks are usually left on trees in the core area of the home range , as opposed to the territorial boundaries .
= = Conservation = =
According to the most recent IUCN Red List assessment , the silky sifaka is Critically Endangered . It is one of the rarest and most critically endangered lemurs . The silky sifaka is one of five lemurs listed as one of " The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates " and has been on the list all five times since its inception in 2000 . Its population size is estimated to range between 100 and 1 @,@ 000 individuals , while the number of mature individuals is thought to be less than 250 . There are no silky sifakas in captivity , such as in zoos .
The silky sifaka is the flagship species for the protected areas in which it is found , particularly for Marojejy , which has recently been inaugurated as part of a World Heritage Site cluster known as the Rainforests of the Atsinanana . Habitat disturbance , such as slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture ( known locally as tavy ) , logging of precious woods ( e.g. , rosewood ) and fuel @-@ wood , also occurs within the protected areas where it is found . Unlike the golden @-@ crowned sifaka ( Propithecus tattersalli ) , there is no local taboo ( fady ) against eating this species , and the hunting of bushmeat is a known issue within its range . It is most heavily hunted in the northern and western parts of Marojejy , as well as other areas around the Andapa Basin . The species is restricted to 90 @,@ 000 ha ( 350 sq mi ) of protected areas , although this may be an overestimation because in much of its range the silky sifaka is not found below 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) in altitude , possibly due to either hunting pressure or habitat preference .
Illegal logging of precious hardwoods , such as rosewood and ebony , has become one of the greatest threats to the silky sifaka 's habitat , especially since the 2009 Malagasy political crisis . Its two largest protected areas , Masoala National Park and Marojejy National Park , have been the hardest hit . The disturbance caused by selective logging increases the likelihood of forest fires , helps invasive species take root , impairs habitat , and causes the loss of genetic diversity .
Local villages adjacent to its remaining protected areas adopted a two @-@ pronged strategy towards silky sifaka conservation education . First , a " cognitive component " was implemented to increase knowledge and awareness through radio interviews , slide presentations , and the disbursement of literature in twelve primary and secondary schools . Additionally , an " emotional component " was begun to link silky sifaka conservation with positive emotional experiences , with the goal of establishing a psychological connection between the children and the lemur . To do this , groups of children were taken on three @-@ day educational eco @-@ tours in Marojejy National Park . Both the teachers and the students showed interest and genuine concern about the plight of the silky sifaka .
Plans are being made to both expand Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve and link existing parks and reserves in the region with wildlife corridors . These corridors include the Betaolana Corridor between Marojejy and Anjananharibe @-@ Sud and Makira , which will connect Anjananharibe @-@ Sud with Masoala National Park to the south . In addition to providing additional habitat for the silky sifaka , the corridors would promote genetic exchange between currently isolated populations .
= = = Books cited = = =
= Transformer =
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction . Electromagnetic induction produces an electromotive force within a conductor which is exposed to time varying magnetic fields . Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications .
A varying current in the transformer 's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core and a varying field impinging on the transformer 's secondary winding . This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force ( EMF ) or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction . Making use of Faraday 's Law ( discovered in 1831 ) in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core properties , transformers can be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to another within power networks .
Since the invention of the first constant potential transformer in 1885 , transformers have become essential for the transmission , distribution , and utilization of alternating current electrical energy . A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications . Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons .
= = Basic principles = =
= = = Ideal transformer = = =
For simplification or approximation purposes , it is very common to analyze the transformer as an ideal transformer model as presented in the two images . An ideal transformer is a theoretical , linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled ; that is , there are no energy losses and flux is completely confined within the magnetic core . Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding inductances and zero net magnetomotive force .
A varying current in the transformer 's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding . This varying magnetic field at the secondary induces a varying electromotive force ( EMF ) or voltage in the secondary winding . The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings . With a voltage source connected to the primary winding and load impedance connected to the secondary winding , the transformer currents flow in the indicated directions . ( See also Polarity . )
According to Faraday 's Law , since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer , a voltage is induced in each winding , according to eq . ( 1 ) in the secondary winding case , according to eq . ( 2 ) in the primary winding case . The primary EMF is sometimes termed counter EMF . This is in accordance with Lenz 's law , which states that induction of EMF always opposes development of any such change in magnetic field .
The transformer winding voltage ratio is thus shown to be directly proportional to the winding turns ratio according to eq . ( 3 ) .
According to the law of conservation of energy , any load impedance connected to the ideal transformer 's secondary winding results in conservation of apparent , real and reactive power consistent with eq . ( 4 ) .
The ideal transformer identity shown in eq . ( 5 ) is a reasonable approximation for the typical commercial transformer , with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio .
By Ohm 's law and the ideal transformer identity :
the secondary circuit load impedance can be expressed as eq . ( 6 )
the apparent load impedance referred to the primary circuit is derived in eq . ( 7 ) to be equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load impedance .
= = = = Polarity = = = =
A dot convention is often used in transformer circuit diagrams , nameplates or terminal markings to define the relative polarity of transformer windings . Positively increasing instantaneous current entering the primary winding 's dot end induces positive polarity voltage at the secondary winding 's dot end .
= = = Real transformer = = =
= = = = Deviations from ideal = = = =
The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects in real transformers .
Core losses , collectively called magnetizing current losses , consist of
Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear application of the voltage applied in the transformer core , and
Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to the square of the transformer 's applied voltage .
Whereas windings in the ideal model have no resistances and infinite inductances , the windings in a real transformer have finite non @-@ zero resistances and inductances associated with :
Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings
Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding only resulting in primary and secondary reactive impedance .
= = = = Leakage flux = = = =
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding , including itself . In practice , some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings . Such flux is termed leakage flux , and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings . Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply . It is not directly a power loss , but results in inferior voltage regulation , causing the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage , particularly under heavy load . Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance .
In some applications increased leakage is desired , and long magnetic paths , air gaps , or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit the short @-@ circuit current it will supply . Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance , such as electric arcs , mercury vapor lamps , and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become periodically short @-@ circuited such as electric arc welders .
Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating , especially audio @-@ frequency transformers in circuits that have a DC component flowing in the windings .
Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel . It can be shown that if the percent impedance and associated winding leakage reactance @-@ to @-@ resistance ( X / R ) ratio of two transformers were hypothetically exactly the same , the transformers would share power in proportion to their respective volt @-@ ampere ratings ( e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1 @,@ 000 kVA unit , the larger unit would carry twice the current ) . However , the impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant . Also , the Z impedance and X / R ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary , corresponding 1 @,@ 000 kVA and 500 kVA units ' values being , to illustrate , respectively , Z ≈ 5 @.@ 75 % , X / R ≈ 3 @.@ 75 and Z ≈ 5 % , X / R ≈ 4 @.@ 75 .
= = = = Equivalent circuit = = = =
Referring to the diagram , a practical transformer 's physical behavior may be represented by an equivalent circuit model , which can incorporate an ideal transformer .
Winding joule losses and leakage reactances are represented by the following series loop impedances of the model :
Primary winding : RP , XP
Secondary winding : RS , XS .
In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation , RS and XS are in practice usually referred to the primary side by multiplying these impedances by the turns ratio squared , ( NP / NS ) 2 = a2 .
Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg impedances of the model :
Core or iron losses : RC
Magnetizing reactance : XM .
RC and XM are collectively termed the magnetizing branch of the model .
Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core and are proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency . The finite permeability core requires a magnetizing current IM to maintain mutual flux in the core . Magnetizing current is in phase with the flux , the relationship between the two being non @-@ linear due to saturation effects . However , all impedances of the equivalent circuit shown are by definition linear and such non @-@ linearity effects are not typically reflected in transformer equivalent circuits . With sinusoidal supply , core flux lags the induced EMF by 90 ° . With open @-@ circuited secondary winding , magnetizing branch current I0 equals transformer no @-@ load current .
The resulting model , though sometimes termed ' exact ' equivalent circuit based on linearity assumptions , retains a number of approximations . Analysis may be simplified by assuming that magnetizing branch impedance is relatively high and relocating the branch to the left of the primary impedances . This introduces error but allows combination of primary and referred secondary resistances and reactances by simple summation as two series impedances .
Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and transformer ratio parameters can be derived from the following tests : open @-@ circuit test , short @-@ circuit test , winding resistance test , and transformer ratio test .
= = Basic transformer parameters and construction = =
= = = Effect of frequency = = =
By Faraday 's Law of induction shown in eq . ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , transformer EMFs vary according to the derivative of flux with respect to time . The ideal transformer 's core behaves linearly with time for any non @-@ zero frequency . Flux in a real transformer 's core behaves non @-@ linearly in relation to magnetization current as the instantaneous flux increases beyond a finite linear range resulting in magnetic saturation associated with increasingly large magnetizing current , which eventually leads to transformer overheating .
The EMF of a transformer at a given flux density increases with frequency . By operating at higher frequencies , transformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same impedance . However , properties such as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with frequency . Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding weight . Conversely , frequencies used for some railway electrification systems were much lower ( e.g. 16 @.@ 7 Hz and 25 Hz ) than normal utility frequencies ( 50 – 60 Hz ) for historical reasons concerned mainly with the limitations of early electric traction motors . Consequently , the transformers used to step @-@ down the high overhead line voltages ( e.g. 15 kV ) were much larger and heavier for the same power rating than those required for the higher frequencies .
Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current . At a lower frequency , the magnetizing current will increase . Operation of a transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages , losses , and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical . For example , transformers may need to be equipped with ' volts per hertz ' over @-@ excitation relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency .
One example is in traction transformers used for electric multiple unit and high @-@ speed train service operating across regions with different electrical standards . The converter equipment and traction transformers have to accommodate different input frequencies and voltage ( ranging from as high as 50 Hz down to 16 @.@ 7 Hz and rated up to 25 kV ) while being suitable for multiple AC asynchronous motor and DC converters and motors with varying harmonics mitigation filtering requirements .
Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to transient voltages with high @-@ frequency components , such as caused in switching or by lightning .
At much higher frequencies the transformer core size required drops dramatically : a physically small and cheap transformer can handle power levels that would require a massive iron core at mains frequency . The development of switching power semiconductor devices and complex integrated circuits made switch @-@ mode power supplies viable , to generate a high frequency from a much lower one ( or DC ) , change the voltage level with a small transformer , and , if necessary , rectify the changed voltage .
= = = Energy losses = = =
Real transformer energy losses are dominated by winding resistance joule and core losses . Transformers ' efficiency tends to improve with increasing transformer capacity . The efficiency of typical distribution transformers is between about 98 and 99 percent .
As transformer losses vary with load , it is often useful to express these losses in terms of no @-@ load loss , full @-@ load loss , half @-@ load loss , and so on . Hysteresis and eddy current losses are constant at all load levels and dominate overwhelmingly without load , while variable winding joule losses dominating increasingly as load increases . The no @-@ load loss can be significant , so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply . Designing energy efficient transformers for lower loss requires a larger core , good @-@ quality silicon steel , or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire , increasing initial cost . The choice of construction represents a trade @-@ off between initial cost and operating cost .
Transformer losses arise from :
Winding joule losses
Current flowing through a winding 's conductor causes joule heating . As frequency increases , skin effect and proximity effect causes the winding 's resistance and , hence , losses to increase .
Core losses
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed , a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core . According to Steinmetz 's formula , the heat energy due to hysteresis is given by
<formula> , and ,
hysteresis loss is thus given by
<formula>
where , f is the frequency , η is the hysteresis coefficient and βmax is the maximum flux density , the empirical exponent of which varies from about 1 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 8 but is often given as 1 @.@ 6 for iron .
Eddy current losses
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors and a core made from such a material also constitutes a single short @-@ circuited turn throughout its entire length . Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux , and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material . The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness . Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of plates electrically insulated from each other , rather than a solid block ; all transformers operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores .
Magnetostriction related transformer hum
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material , such as the core , causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field , an effect known as magnetostriction , the frictional energy of which produces an audible noise known as mains hum or transformer hum . This transformer hum is especially objectionable in transformers supplied at power frequencies and in high @-@ frequency flyback transformers associated with television CRTs .
Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless , since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half @-@ cycle . However , any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer 's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat . There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small .
Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission
In addition to magnetostriction , the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings . This energy incites vibration transmission in interconnected metalwork , thus amplifying audible transformer hum .
= = = Core form and shell form transformers = = =
Closed @-@ core transformers are constructed in ' core form ' or ' shell form ' . When windings surround the core , the transformer is core form ; when windings are surrounded by the core , the transformer is shell form . Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils . Core form design tends to , as a general rule , be more economical , and therefore more prevalent , than shell form design for high voltage power transformer applications at the lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges ( less than or equal to , nominally , 230 kV or 75 MVA ) . At higher voltage and power ratings , shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent . Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra @-@ high voltage and higher MVA applications because , though more labor @-@ intensive to manufacture , shell form transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA @-@ to @-@ weight ratio , better short @-@ circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage .
= = Construction = =
= = = Cores = = =
= = = = Laminated steel cores = = = =
Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high permeability silicon steel . The steel has a permeability many times that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings . Early transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses , and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires . Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations , a principle that has remained in use . Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non @-@ conducting layer of insulation . The universal transformer equation indicates a minimum cross @-@ sectional area for the core to avoid saturation .
The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that enclose little flux , and so reduce their magnitude . Thinner laminations reduce losses , but are more laborious and expensive to construct . Thin laminations are generally used on high @-@ frequency transformers , with some of very thin steel laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz .
One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E @-@ shaped steel sheets capped with I @-@ shaped pieces , leading to its name of ' E @-@ I transformer ' . Such a design tends to exhibit more losses , but is very economical to manufacture . The cut @-@ core or C @-@ core type is made by winding a steel strip around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together . It is then cut in two , forming two C shapes , and the core assembled by binding the two C halves together with a steel strap . They have the advantage that the flux is always oriented parallel to the metal grains , reducing reluctance .
A steel core 's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed . When power is then reapplied , the residual field will cause a high inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced , usually after a few cycles of the applied AC waveform . Overcurrent protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass . On transformers connected to long , overhead power transmission lines , induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer protection devices .
Distribution transformers can achieve low no @-@ load losses by using cores made with low @-@ loss high @-@ permeability silicon steel or amorphous ( non @-@ crystalline ) metal alloy . The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at light load .
= = = = Solid cores = = = =
Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch @-@ mode power supplies that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz . These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical resistivity . For frequencies extending beyond the VHF band , cores made from non @-@ conductive magnetic ceramic materials called ferrites are common . Some radio @-@ frequency transformers also have movable cores ( sometimes called ' slugs ' ) which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient ( and bandwidth ) of tuned radio @-@ frequency circuits .
= = = = Toroidal cores = = = =
Toroidal transformers are built around a ring @-@ shaped core , which , depending on operating frequency , is made from a long strip of silicon steel or permalloy wound into a coil , powdered iron , or ferrite . A strip construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned , improving the transformer 's efficiency by reducing the core 's reluctance . The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an E @-@ I core . The cross @-@ section of the ring is usually square or rectangular , but more expensive cores with circular cross @-@ sections are also available . The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core . This minimizes the length of wire needed and provides screening to minimize the core 's magnetic field from generating electromagnetic interference .
Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E @-@ I types for a similar power level . Other advantages compared to E @-@ I types , include smaller size ( about half ) , lower weight ( about half ) , less mechanical hum ( making them superior in audio amplifiers ) , lower exterior magnetic field ( about one tenth ) , low off @-@ load losses ( making them more efficient in standby circuits ) , single @-@ bolt mounting , and greater choice of shapes . The main disadvantages are higher cost and limited power capacity ( see Classification parameters below ) . Because of the lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path , toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit higher inrush current , compared to laminated E @-@ I types .
Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies , typically between a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz , to reduce losses , physical size , and weight of inductive components . A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher labor cost of winding . This is because it is necessary to pass the entire length of a coil winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil . As a consequence , toroidal transformers rated more than a few kVA are uncommon . Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open , then inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings .
= = = = Air cores = = = =
A physical core is not an absolute requisite and a functioning transformer can be produced simply by placing the windings near each other , an arrangement termed an ' air @-@ core ' transformer . The air which comprises the magnetic circuit is essentially lossless , and so an air @-@ core transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material . The leakage inductance is inevitably high , resulting in very poor regulation , and so such designs are unsuitable for use in power distribution . They have however very high bandwidth , and are frequently employed in radio @-@ frequency applications , for which a satisfactory coupling coefficient is maintained by carefully overlapping the primary and secondary windings . They 're also used for resonant transformers such as Tesla coils where they can achieve reasonably low loss in spite of the high leakage inductance .
= = = Windings = = =
The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the application , but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout every turn . For small power and signal transformers , in which currents are low and the potential difference between adjacent turns is small , the coils are often wound from enamelled magnet wire , such as Formvar wire . Larger power transformers operating at high voltages may be wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil @-@ impregnated paper and blocks of pressboard .
High @-@ frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize the skin @-@ effect and proximity effect losses . Large power transformers use multiple @-@ stranded conductors as well , since even at low power frequencies non @-@ uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high @-@ current windings . Each strand is individually insulated , and the strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding , or throughout the whole winding , each portion occupies different relative positions in the complete conductor . The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the conductor , and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself . The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size , aiding manufacture .
The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve high @-@ frequency response . Coils are split into sections , and those sections interleaved between the sections of the other winding .
Power @-@ frequency transformers may have taps at intermediate points on the winding , usually on the higher voltage winding side , for voltage adjustment . Taps may be manually reconnected , or a manual or automatic switch may be provided for changing taps . Automatic on @-@ load tap changers are used in electric power transmission or distribution , on equipment such as arc furnace transformers , or for automatic voltage regulators for sensitive loads . Audio @-@ frequency transformers , used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers , have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker . A center @-@ tapped transformer is often used in the output stage of an audio power amplifier in a push @-@ pull circuit . Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar .
Dry @-@ type transformer winding insulation systems can be either of standard open @-@ wound ' dip @-@ and @-@ bake ' construction or of higher quality designs that include vacuum pressure impregnation ( VPI ) , vacuum pressure encapsulation ( VPE ) , and cast coil encapsulation processes . In the VPI process , a combination of heat , vacuum and pressure is used to thoroughly seal , bind , and eliminate entrained air voids in the winding polyester resin insulation coat layer , thus increasing resistance to corona . VPE windings are similar to VPI windings but provide more protection against environmental effects , such as from water , dirt or corrosive ambients , by multiple dips including typically in terms of final epoxy coat .
= = = Cooling = = =
To place the cooling problem in perspective , the accepted rule of thumb is that the life expectancy of insulation in all electrics , including all transformers , is halved for about every 7 ° C to 10 ° C increase in operating temperature , this life expectancy halving rule holding more narrowly when the increase is between about 7 ° C to 8 ° C in the case of transformer winding cellulose insulation .
Small dry @-@ type and liquid @-@ immersed transformers are often self @-@ cooled by natural convection and radiation heat dissipation . As power ratings increase , transformers are often cooled by forced @-@ air cooling , forced @-@ oil cooling , water @-@ cooling , or combinations of these . Large transformers are filled with transformer oil that both cools and insulates the windings . Transformer oil is a highly refined mineral oil that cools the windings and insulation by circulating within the transformer tank . The mineral oil and paper insulation system has been extensively studied and used for more than 100 years . It is estimated that 50 % of power transformers will survive 50 years of use , that the average age of failure of power transformers is about 10 to 15 years , and that about 30 % of power transformer failures are due to insulation and overloading failures . Prolonged operation at elevated temperature degrades insulating properties of winding insulation and dielectric coolant , which not only shortens transformer life but can ultimately lead to catastrophic transformer failure . With a great body of empirical study as a guide , transformer oil testing including dissolved gas analysis provides valuable maintenance information . This underlines the need to monitor , model , forecast and manage oil and winding conductor insulation temperature conditions under varying , possibly difficult , power loading conditions .
Building regulations in many jurisdictions require indoor liquid @-@ filled transformers to either use dielectric fluids that are less flammable than oil , or be installed in fire @-@ resistant rooms . Air @-@ cooled dry transformers can be more economical where they eliminate the cost of a fire @-@ resistant transformer room .
The tank of liquid filled transformers often has radiators through which the liquid coolant circulates by natural convection or fins . Some large transformers employ electric fans for forced @-@ air cooling , pumps for forced @-@ liquid cooling , or have heat exchangers for water @-@ cooling . An oil @-@ immersed transformer may be equipped with a Buchholz relay , which , depending on severity of gas accumulation due to internal arcing , is used to either alarm or de @-@ energize the transformer . Oil @-@ immersed transformer installations usually include fire protection measures such as walls , oil containment , and fire @-@ suppression sprinkler systems .
Polychlorinated biphenyls have properties that once favored their use as a dielectric coolant , though concerns over their environmental persistence led to a widespread ban on their use . Today , non @-@ toxic , stable silicone @-@ based oils , or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where the expense of a fire @-@ resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault . PCBs for new equipment were banned in 1981 and in 2000 for use in existing equipment in United Kingdom Legislation enacted in Canada between 1977 and 1985 essentially bans PCB use in transformers manufactured in or imported into the country after 1980 , the maximum allowable level of PCB contamination in existing mineral oil transformers being 50 ppm .
Some transformers , instead of being liquid @-@ filled , have their windings enclosed in sealed , pressurized tanks and cooled by nitrogen or sulfur hexafluoride gas .
Experimental power transformers in the 500 ‐ to ‐ 1 @,@ 000 kVA range have been built with liquid nitrogen or helium cooled superconducting windings , which eliminates winding losses without affecting core losses .
= = = Insulation drying = = =
Construction of oil @-@ filled transformers requires that the insulation covering the windings be thoroughly dried of residual moisture before the oil is introduced . Drying is carried out at the factory , and may also be required as a field service . Drying may be done by circulating hot air around the core , or by vapor @-@ phase drying ( VPD ) where an evaporated solvent transfers heat by condensation on the coil and core .
For small transformers , resistance heating by injection of current into the windings is used . The heating can be controlled very well , and it is energy efficient . The method is called low @-@ frequency heating ( LFH ) since the current used is at a much lower frequency than that of the power grid , which is normally 50 or 60 Hz . A lower frequency reduces the effect of inductance , so the voltage required can be reduced . The LFH drying method is also used for service of older transformers .
= = = Bushings = = =
Larger transformers are provided with high @-@ voltage insulated bushings made of polymers or porcelain . A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide careful control of the electric field gradient without letting the transformer leak oil .
= = Classification parameters = =
Transformers can be classified in many ways , such as the following :
Power capacity : From a fraction of a volt @-@ ampere ( VA ) to over a thousand MVA .
Duty of a transformer : Continuous , short @-@ time , intermittent , periodic , varying .
Frequency range : Power @-@ frequency , audio @-@ frequency , or radio @-@ frequency .
Voltage class : From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts .
Cooling type : Dry and liquid @-@ immersed – self @-@ cooled , forced air @-@ cooled ; liquid @-@ immersed – forced oil @-@ cooled , water @-@ cooled .
Circuit application : Such as power supply , impedance matching , output voltage and current stabilizer or circuit isolation .
Utilization : Pulse , power , distribution , rectifier , arc furnace , amplifier output , etc ..
Basic magnetic form : Core form , shell form .
Constant @-@ potential transformer descriptor : Step @-@ up , step @-@ down , isolation .
General winding configuration : By EIC vector group – various possible two @-@ winding combinations of the phase designations delta , wye or star , and zigzag or interconnected star ; other – autotransformer , Scott @-@ T , zigzag grounding transformer winding .
Rectifier phase @-@ shift winding configuration : 2 @-@ winding , 6 @-@ pulse ; 3 @-@ winding , 12 @-@ pulse ; . . . n @-@ winding , [ n @-@ 1 ] * 6 @-@ pulse ; polygon ; etc ..
= = Types = =
Various specific electrical application designs require a variety of transformer types . Although they all share the basic characteristic transformer principles , they are customize in construction or electrical properties for certain installation requirements or circuit conditions .
Autotransformer : Transformer in which part of the winding is common to both primary and secondary circuits .
Capacitor voltage transformer : Transformer in which capacitor divider is used to reduce high voltage before application to the primary winding .
Distribution transformer , power transformer : International standards make a distinction in terms of distribution transformers being used to distribute energy from transmission lines and networks for local consumption and power transformers being used to transfer electric energy between the generator and distribution primary circuits .
Phase angle regulating transformer : A specialised transformer used to control the flow of real power on three @-@ phase electricity transmission networks .
Scott @-@ T transformer : Transformer used for phase transformation from three @-@ phase to two @-@ phase and vice versa .
Polyphase transformer : Any transformer with more than one phase .
Grounding transformer : Transformer used for grounding three @-@ phase circuits to create a neutral in a three wire system , using a wye @-@ delta transformer , or more commonly , a zigzag grounding winding .
Leakage transformer : Transformer that has loosely coupled windings .
Resonant transformer : Transformer that uses resonance to generate a high secondary voltage .
Audio transformer : Transformer used in audio equipment .
Output transformer : Transformer used to match the output of a valve amplifier to its load .
Instrument transformer : Potential or current transformer used to accurately and safely represent voltage , current or phase position of high voltage or high power circuits .
Pulse transformer : Specialized small @-@ signal transformer used to transmit digital signaling while providing electrical isolation , commonly used in Ethernet computer networks as 10BASE @-@ T , 100BASE @-@ T and 1000BASE @-@ T.
= = Applications = =
Transformers are used to increase ( or step @-@ up ) voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires . Wires have resistance which loses energy through joule heating at a rate corresponding to square of the current . By transforming power to a higher voltage transformers enable economical transmission of power and distribution . Consequently , transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry , permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand . All but a tiny fraction of the world 's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer .
Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to decrease ( or step @-@ down ) the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain . The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage .
Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers . Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two @-@ way conversation over a single pair of wires . A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to ground , such as between external cables and internal circuits .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery of induction = = =
Electromagnetic induction , the principle of the operation of the transformer , was discovered independently by Michael Faraday in 1831 , Joseph Henry in 1832 , and others . The relationship between EMF and magnetic flux is an equation now known as Faraday 's law of induction :
<formula> .
where <formula> is the magnitude of the EMF in Volts and ΦB is the magnetic flux through the circuit in webers .
Preceded by Francesco Zantedeschi in 1830 , Faraday performed early experiments on induction between coils of wire , including winding a pair of coils around an iron ring , thus creating the first toroidal closed @-@ core transformer . However he only applied individual pulses of current to his transformer , and never discovered the relation between the turns ratio and EMF in the windings .
= = = Induction coils = = =
The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil , invented by Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College , Ireland in 1836 . He was one of the first researchers to realize the more turns the secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding , the larger the induced secondary EMF will be . Induction coils evolved from scientists ' and inventors ' efforts to get higher voltages from batteries . Since batteries produce direct current ( DC ) rather than AC , induction coils relied upon vibrating electrical contacts that regularly interrupted the current in the primary to create the flux changes necessary for induction . Between the 1830s and the 1870s , efforts to build better induction coils , mostly by trial and error , slowly revealed the basic principles of transformers .
= = = First alternating current transformers = = =
By the 1870s , efficient generators producing alternating current ( AC ) were available , and it was found AC could power an induction coil directly , without an interrupter .
In 1876 , Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented a lighting system based on a set of induction coils where the primary windings were connected to a source of AC . The secondary windings could be connected to several ' electric candles ' ( arc lamps ) of his own design . The coils Yablochkov employed functioned essentially as transformers .
In 1878 , the Ganz factory , Budapest , Hungary , began equipment for electric lighting and , by 1883 , had installed over fifty systems in Austria @-@ Hungary . Their AC systems used arc and incandescent lamps , generators , and other equipment .
Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs first exhibited a device with an open iron core called a ' secondary generator ' in London in 1882 , then sold the idea to the Westinghouse company in the United States . They also exhibited the invention in Turin , Italy in 1884 , where it was adopted for an electric lighting system . However , the efficiency of their open @-@ core bipolar apparatus remained very low .
= = = Early series circuit transformer distribution = = =
Induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient at transferring power to loads . Until about 1880 , the paradigm for AC power transmission from a high voltage supply to a low voltage load was a series circuit . Open @-@ core transformers with a ratio near 1 : 1 were connected with their primaries in series to allow use of a high voltage for transmission while presenting a low voltage to the lamps . The inherent flaw in this method was that turning off a single lamp ( or other electric device ) affected the voltage supplied to all others on the same circuit . Many adjustable transformer designs were introduced to compensate for this problematic characteristic of the series circuit , including those employing methods of adjusting the core or bypassing the magnetic flux around part of a coil . Efficient , practical transformer designs did not appear until the 1880s , but within a decade , the transformer would be instrumental in the War of Currents , and in seeing AC distribution systems triumph over their DC counterparts , a position in which they have remained dominant ever since .
= = = Closed @-@ core transformers and parallel power distribution = = =
In the autumn of 1884 , Károly Zipernowsky , Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri ( ZBD ) , three engineers associated with the Ganz factory , had determined that open @-@ core devices were impracticable , as they were incapable of reliably regulating voltage . In their joint 1885 patent applications for novel transformers ( later called ZBD transformers ) , they described two designs with closed magnetic circuits where copper windings were either a ) wound around iron wire ring core or b ) surrounded by iron wire core . The two designs were the first application of the two basic transformer constructions in common use to this day , which can as a class all be termed as either core form or shell form ( or alternatively , core type or shell type ) , as in a ) or b ) , respectively ( see images ) . The Ganz factory had also in the autumn of 1884 made delivery of the world 's first five high @-@ efficiency AC transformers , the first of these units having been shipped on September 16 , 1884 . This first unit had been manufactured to the following specifications : 1 @,@ 400 W , 40 Hz , 120 : 72 V , 11 @.@ 6 : 19 @.@ 4 A , ratio 1 @.@ 67 : 1 , one @-@ phase , shell form .
In both designs , the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings traveled almost entirely within the confines of the iron core , with no intentional path through air ( see Toroidal cores below ) . The new transformers were 3 @.@ 4 times more efficient than the open @-@ core bipolar devices of Gaulard and Gibbs . The ZBD patents included two other major interrelated innovations : one concerning the use of parallel connected , instead of series connected , utilization loads , the other concerning the ability to have high turns ratio transformers such that the supply network voltage could be much higher ( initially 1 @,@ 400 to 2 @,@ 000 V ) than the voltage of utilization loads ( 100 V initially preferred ) . When employed in parallel connected electric distribution systems , closed @-@ core transformers finally made it technically and economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes , businesses and public spaces . Bláthy had suggested the use of closed cores , Zipernowsky had suggested the use of parallel shunt connections , and Déri had performed the experiments ;
Transformers today are designed on the principles discovered by the three engineers . They also popularized the word ' transformer ' to describe a device for altering the EMF of an electric current , although the term had already been in use by 1882 . In 1886 , the ZBD engineers designed , and the Ganz factory supplied electrical equipment for , the world 's first power station that used AC generators to power a parallel connected common electrical network , the steam @-@ powered Rome @-@ Cerchi power plant .
Although George Westinghouse had bought Gaulard and Gibbs ' patents in 1885 , the Edison Electric Light Company held an option on the US rights for the ZBD transformers , requiring Westinghouse to pursue alternative designs on the same principles . He assigned to William Stanley the task of developing a device for commercial use in United States . Stanley 's first patented design was for induction coils with single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to regulate the EMF present in the secondary winding ( see image ) . This design was first used commercially in the US in 1886 but Westinghouse was intent on improving the Stanley design to make it ( unlike the ZBD type ) easy and cheap to produce .
Westinghouse , Stanley and associates soon developed an easier to manufacture core , consisting of a stack of thin ' E ‑ shaped ' iron plates , insulated by thin sheets of paper or other insulating material . Prewound copper coils could then be slid into place , and straight iron plates laid in to create a closed magnetic circuit . Westinghouse applied for a patent for the new low @-@ cost design in December 1886 ; it was granted in July 1887 .
= = = Other early transformer designs = = =
In 1889 , Russian @-@ born engineer Mikhail Dolivo @-@ Dobrovolsky developed the first three @-@ phase transformer at the Allgemeine Elektricitäts @-@ Gesellschaft ( ' General Electricity Company ' ) in Germany .
In 1891 , Nikola Tesla invented the Tesla coil , an air @-@ cored , dual @-@ tuned resonant transformer for producing very high voltages at high frequency .
= Jeff Hanneman =
Jeffrey John " Jeff " Hanneman ( January 31 , 1964 – May 2 , 2013 ) was an American musician , best known as a founding member of the American thrash metal band Slayer . Hanneman contributed both lyrical and musical material to every Slayer album and wrote the songs " Raining Blood " , " War Ensemble , " " South of Heaven , " " Seasons in the Abyss , " and " Angel of Death , " all of which have been played at almost every live Slayer performance after their respective compositions . He had his own signature guitar , the ESP Jeff Hanneman Signature model .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Hanneman was born January 31 , 1964 , in Oakland , California , and grew up in Long Beach in a family containing several war veterans : his father fought in Normandy during World War II and his brothers in Vietnam , making warfare a common conversation topic at the dinner table . War films were popular on TV at the time , and Hanneman often joined his brothers in constructing and coloring tank and plane models . His interest in warfare and military history has been attributed to his upbringing .
In a 2009 interview with Decibel magazine , he stated his father is German , but fought for the Allied side in World War II . In the same interview , he also goes into detail of what district of Germany his father and grandparents hail from . His grandfather was fluent in German .
Hanneman was introduced to heavy metal music as a child through his older sister Mary , when she was listening to Black Sabbath at her house . Once he reached high school , he discovered hardcore punk , which had a significant influence on his style and attitude .
= = = Slayer = = =
In 1981 Hanneman , who was working as a telemarketer at the time , met Kerry King , when King was auditioning for a southern rock band called " Ledger " . King remembered : " As I was leaving , I saw Jeff just kinda standing around playing guitar , and he was playing stuff that I was into , like Def Leppard 's ' Wasted ' and AC / DC and Priest " . After the try @-@ out session , the two guitarists started talking and playing Iron Maiden and Judas Priest songs . Slayer was born when King asked " Why don 't we start our own band ? " , to which Hanneman replied " ... Fuck yeah ! " .
Hanneman stated that he was playing guitar " for like a month " by the time he met King and put an effort into improving his skills after watching him play . Hanneman , who was heavily influenced by hardcore punk music , got the other members into the genre , leading Slayer into a faster and more aggressive approach . The band 's drummer Dave Lombardo asserted that his hardcore influences pushed him to play faster , contributing to shape his drumming style .
In 1984 , Hanneman , Lombardo and Suicidal Tendencies guitarist Rocky George had a brief hardcore punk side project called " Pap Smear " – the band had many tracks and was due to start recording when Hanneman was advised to avoid the side project by Slayer 's producer , Rick Rubin , who is quoted as saying " Ahhhh , don 't do it , man – this is the kind of thing that breaks bands up ! " and Hanneman took Rubin 's advice . Only a demo was recorded , consisting of Hanneman on vocals and bass , Lombardo on drums and George on guitar . Later two of the songs were re @-@ recorded on Slayer 's 1996 album Undisputed Attitude .
= = = Illness and death = = =
In early 2011 , Hanneman contracted necrotizing fasciitis . Reports linked this illness with a spider bite he claimed to have received while in a friend 's hot tub .
In light of his illness and Slayer 's upcoming participation in the Australian Soundwave Festival tour that was set to begin on February 26 , 2011 , the band made the decision to play the dates without Hanneman , and on February 16 , 2011 , brought on Gary Holt ( guitarist of the band Exodus ) to fill in for him . Pat O 'Brien joined as Slayer 's temporary second guitarist when Holt left the tour to play with Exodus . In 2012 , bandmate Tom Araya announced a recovery from the disease . However , later in February 2013 , Kerry King revealed continuing health problems that kept Hanneman from working .
Hanneman died of liver failure on May 2 , 2013 , in a Southern California hospital near his home . On May 9 , 2013 , the official cause of death was announced as alcohol @-@ related cirrhosis . Hanneman and his family had apparently been unaware of the extent of the condition until shortly before his death .
= = Personal life = =
In 1989 , Hanneman married Kathryn in Las Vegas . They had met in 1983 before the release of the debut album Show No Mercy , during a Slayer show in Buena Park , California . The couple had no children and lived in Los Angeles . Kathryn stayed at home when Slayer toured ; Hanneman claimed to prefer this , having said that when he came home , she was " all brand new again . " Kathryn only toured with the band twice in twenty years .
Hanneman was a reserved person when he was offstage . Unlike the other members , he was very selective in socializing and rarely gave interviews . As vocalist / bassist Araya said : " If he didn 't like you , he wouldn 't hang with you . " Hanneman was a reformed cocaine and pill abuser , much like Araya . They decided to quit when they realized " this can lead to only death or something , this is going too far . " Hanneman was a long @-@ time fan of the Oakland Raiders and the Los Angeles Kings .
= = German history = =
Hanneman 's interest in German war medals and Nazi Germany was illustrated by many of his lyrics . Those interests in the Wehrmacht and Waffen @-@ SS began with medals given to him by his father , including some taken from a dead German soldier . His most prized medal was his Knight 's Cross , which he had bought from a Slayer fan for $ 1000 . While touring with Motörhead , Hanneman discovered Motörhead vocalist Lemmy 's interest in medals , and the two discussed medal designs , weapons and tactics used by the Wehrmacht .
Hanneman 's lyrics for the song " Angel of Death " led to accusations of Slayer being Nazi sympathizers . Hanneman defended himself with " nothing I put in the lyrics that says necessarily he ( Josef Mengele ) was a bad man , because to me – well , isn 't that obvious ? I shouldn 't have to tell you that . " The band has stated numerous times that they are not Nazis and do not condone Nazism .
= = Influences and style = =
Hanneman 's major influences included hard rock and heavy metal bands like Led Zeppelin , Iron Maiden , Judas Priest , Black Sabbath , Aerosmith and hardcore punk acts such as Wasted Youth , Minor Threat , Dead Kennedys , Black Flag , T.S.O.L. , which led to Slayer 's 1996 album Undisputed Attitude . Hanneman 's and King 's dual guitar solos have been called " wildly chaotic , " and " twisted genius " . Early albums , such as Hell Awaits and Reign in Blood , featured a " wailing style " and " demented soloing often mimicking the screams of the song 's victims . " South of Heaven featured " more technical " guitar riffs , utilizing the aforementioned tremolo picking and down @-@ picked notes , improving musicianship while retaining a melodic sense . Both Hanneman and King were ranked # 10 in Guitar World 's " 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists of All Time . "
= = Legacy = =
Hanneman 's guitar work had a notable impact on the heavy metal scene . Musicians like Robb Flynn ( Machine Head ) , Dino Cazares ( Fear Factory , Divine Heresy ) , Mille Petrozza ( Kreator ) , Andreas Kisser ( Sepultura ) , Dan Lilker ( Anthrax , Nuclear Assault ) , Eric Hoffman ( Deicide , Amon ) , Trevor Peres ( Obituary ) , Mark Morton ( Lamb of God ) and Kelly Shaefer ( Atheist ) cited him as an influence on their playing and songwriting . Jeff Walker said that " Hanneman 's playing and riff writing and attitude has had a big impact on Carcass " . Shavo Odadjian declared that " without Jeff Hanneman , there would be no System of a Down " .
John Consterdine of Terrorizer magazine noted : " without Jeff Hanneman , Slayer certainly would not have created some of the most famous riffs in metal , which undoubtedly changed the entire genre " . According to Jeff Kitts of Guitar World , he " influenced a generation and changed the course of metal forever " . Alex Webster of Cannibal Corpse , who considers Hanneman his major influence as a composer , regarded him as " one of the greatest musicians and songwriters in metal " and Alexi Laiho of Children of Bodom described him as " one of the fathers of metal " .
Alex Skolnick of Testament asserted that he " wrote some of the best riffs of all @-@ time " and " he impacted music in such a way that an entire genre will never be the same " . According to Corey Taylor of Slipknot and Stone Sour , Hanneman is " one of the most underrated writers and underrated players that ever was " while Slash of Guns n ' Roses and Velvet Revolver defined him " the king of thrash / speed metal guitar " .
= = Lyrics and music = =
Hanneman wrote the music for most of the band 's fan favorites , songs such as " Angel of Death " , " Raining Blood " , " Die by the Sword " , " South of Heaven " , " War Ensemble " , " Postmortem " , " Dead Skin Mask " and " Seasons in the Abyss " , which have all become staples for live performance at Slayer shows . Hanneman 's favorite album was Reign in Blood , and he enjoyed performing the songs " Raining Blood " and " Angel of Death . " He contributed lyrics and music to every Slayer album , having formed a music and lyric writing partnership with Araya , which sometimes overshadowed King 's creative input .
When writing new material , the band writes the music before the lyrics . Hanneman often composed riffs at his house , using a 24 @-@ track and a drum machine and then by gathering opinions from the other band members ; King and Lombardo made suggestions of alterations . The band will play the riff to get the basic song structure , and then figure out where the lyrics and solos go . Hanneman stated that writing lyrics and music is a " free for all " ; " It 's all just whoever comes up with what . Sometimes I 'll be more on a roll and I 'll have more stuff , same with Kerry – it 's whoever 's hot , really . Anybody can write anything ; if it 's good we use it , if not we don 't . "
= = Equipment = =
In Slayer 's early days , Hanneman used a black Gibson Les Paul modified with a Kahler Pro tremolo and a Joe Barden Two / Tone Humbucker bridge pickup during the Show No Mercy and Hell Awaits era . In mid 1985 he began playing B.C. Rich , notably a Rich Bich model he bought off his band colleague Kerry King , he subsequently applied various graphics to . His first Bich had a 3x3 headstock , chrome hardware ( including the Kahler Pro bridge ) and the pickups were DiMarzio Super Distortions . He and King can both also be seen with a second set of BC Rich 's around 1986 @-@ 1987 , which had 6 @-@ in @-@ line headstocks , black hardware and DiMarzio pickups . More rarely he also used a BC Rich Ironbird model . From 1987 he was seen using a custom made BC Rich Gunslinger with similar specs as his ' 86- ' 87 era Bich , he shortly after had the pickups replaced with two active EMG @-@ 81 humbuckers . In 1988 he began playing the famous Jackson Soloist that he would use constantly as his main guitar for songs played in E @-@ flat tuning until 2001 . It originally shipped to him with passive Jackson pickups ( probably a J @-@ 50 and J @-@ 80 ) and a JE @-@ 1200 mid @-@ boost circuit , but were soon changed for EMG @-@ 81 pickups as well . Around 1990 @-@ 1991 Hanneman began using ESP guitars , he mostly used as backup for this Jackson Soloist and other tunings . He had his own signature model made , based on the specs of his original Jackson Soloist . When touring , Hanneman carried six guitars due to the different tunings he utilized . Most albums such as Haunting the Chapel – Divine Intervention and World Painted Blood have E @-@ flat tuning . However , albums such as Diabolus in Musica – Christ Illusion feature alternate tunings such as Drop B and utilizing seven string guitars . The first album , Show No Mercy , was recorded in standard tuning , while live performances of those songs were played in E @-@ flat since about 1984 .
= = = Guitars = = =
ESP Jeff Hanneman Signature model
Jackson Custom Shop Soloist
EMG 81 / 85 Pickups with EMG SPC Mid @-@ Boost circuit
Kahler Pro bridges
Dunlop .009-.042 Strings
D 'Addario .009-.042 Strings ( earlier )
= = = Effects = = =
Shure Wireless System
Eventide H3000S Harmonizer
Yamaha SPX @-@ 90 Effects Processor
Rocktron Super C HUSH
MXR Smart Gate
BOSS RGE @-@ 10 ( 10 band EQ )
= = = Amplification = = =
Marshall JCM800 2203 amplifiers
Marshall JCM800 1960 Cabinets , later ModeFour Speaker Cabinet , supposedly loaded with Celestion G12T @-@ 75 Speakers
= = Discography = =
1983 : Show No Mercy
1984 : Haunting the Chapel
1985 : Hell Awaits
1986 : Reign in Blood
1988 : South of Heaven
1990 : Seasons in the Abyss
1994 : Divine Intervention
1996 : Undisputed Attitude
1998 : Diabolus in Musica
2001 : God Hates Us All
2006 : Christ Illusion
2009 : World Painted Blood
2015 : Repentless ( writing credit " Piano Wire " )
= Robert McLachlan ( cinematographer ) =
Robert McLachlan is a Canadian cinematographer . A successful cyclist in his youth , McLachlan quit the sport to take up cinematography , and entered the field after studying at Simon Fraser University , McLachlan was mentored by Richard Leiterman . His professional career began with documentary work for Greenpeace , before he became involved in both television and feature films ; his work has subsequently earned him several industry awards and award nominations .
McLachlan , who was inspired by both his father 's photography and his own appreciation for the films Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid and Walkabout to choose his career path , would go on to find recognition as the chief cinematographer for the television series Millennium , for which he was scouted specifically . McLachlan 's style on this series led to several industry awards and briefly became popular in the medium , as well as leading him directly to future work on Game of Thrones . He founded the documentary production company Omni Film Productions in the 1970s , later selling his share of the company .
= = Early life and education = =
In his youth , McLachlan was an avid cyclist , accrediting this to the fact that his home town Vancouver was not cold enough for ponds to freeze over to play ice hockey on . During his teenage years , he trained upwards of six hours a day , and won several national championships in the sport . He qualified to represent Canada in the 1976 Summer Olympics , but the lack of funding for cycling in North America at the time would have necessitated him funding his own journey and leaving school to do so ; McLachlan opted instead to remain in education and focus on his interest in photography .
McLachlan first became interested in cinematography after viewing the 1969 film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid ; Nicolas Roeg 's work on the 1971 film Walkabout further cemented his interest in the field . McLachlan was also motivated by his father , who was an avid photographer . An early school assignment to create a Super 8 film project , for which he received an A grade , also proved a formative influence .
McLachlan studied fine art at the University of British Columbia for a year , before changing courses to attend classes at Simon Fraser University 's film department . McLachlan 's education focussed on the documentary style of John Grierson ; however , when he began work in 1987 , he was mentored by Richard Leiterman . McLachlan also cites influences outside the field of cinematography , drawing influence from the chiaroscuro , Dutch art and pre @-@ Raphaelite movements of visual art , and the works of Andrew Wyeth and Georges de La Tour in particular .
= = Career = =
Having graduated , McLachlan and Michael Chechik founded the production company Omni Film Productions in 1979 , and began to work with Greenpeace , filming documentary footage on a range of subjects . McLachlan narrowly avoided trouble on several of these shoots , finding himself arrested for filming too close to an Exxon oil tanker and scarcely missing being assaulted by trophy hunters in British Columbia . McLachlan would later sell his stake in Omni , but remains proud of their documentary work . At the time , McLachlan was unsuccessful in joining an industry union , relegating his work to advertising and small @-@ scale productions ; his first union @-@ backed project was on the revival of the television series Sea Hunt .
McLachlan found success on the Fox television series Millennium , earning several awards for his work on the show . He was head @-@ hunted for the series by its creator Chris Carter , who had seen his work on the series Strange Luck . McLachlan was initially offered a position shooting Carter 's other active series , The X @-@ Files , then in its third season , but was unable to start work in time . He developed a distinctive style for the series , shooting it with desaturated colours and lighting scenes as though they were to be filmed in black and white ; he also made use of high @-@ intensity strobe lighting usually employed for advertising and macro cinematography . McLachlan has noted that this style briefly became popular after the series ' broadcast but that other cinematographers had difficulty adjusting to it .
Having worked on Millennium with director David Nutter , McLachlan was able to parley this connection into a role on the HBO fantasy series Game of Thrones . McLachlan has called working on the show 's ten @-@ person cinematography team " a major logistical challenge " , noting the complexity of its out @-@ of @-@ sequence filming schedules as something unseen on a television series before . McLachlan has also worked on the programme Ray Donovan , and has based that series ' cinematography on both film noir aesthetics and thse of 1970s cinema , specifically citing The Long Goodbye , The Parallax View and All the President 's Men , as well as the work of Gordon Willis .
= = Accolades = =
McLachlan has been nominated for , and won , several awards over the course of his career . He has been nominated four times for the American Society of Cinematographers awards , three times for his work on the television series Millennium and once for the television film High Noon . He has also won several Canadian Society of Cinematographers awards , including wins for the films Willard and Impolite , as well as for several episodes of Millennium and The Lone Gunmen . McLachlan 's work on Game of Thrones received Emmy Award nominations in 2013 and 2015 , and a Canadian Society of Cinematographers award nomination in 2015 ; he was also nominated by the latter society for his cinematography on the series Ray Donovan .
= = Partial filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= Otto Julius Zobel =
Otto Julius Zobel ( October 20 , 1887 – January 1970 ) was an electrical engineer who worked for the American Telephone & Telegraph Company ( AT & T ) in the early part of the 20th century . Zobel 's work on filter design was revolutionary and led , in conjunction with the work of John R. Carson , to significant commercial advances for AT & T in the field of frequency division multiplex ( FDM ) telephone transmissions .
Although much of Zobel 's work has been superseded by more modern filter designs , it remains the basis of filter theory and his papers are still referenced today . Zobel invented the m @-@ derived filter and the constant @-@ resistance filter , which remains in use .
Zobel and Carson helped to establish the nature of noise in electric circuits , concluding that — contrary to mainstream belief — it is not even theoretically possible to filter out noise entirely and that noise will always be a limiting factor in what is possible to transmit . Thus , they anticipated the later work of Claude Shannon , who showed how the theoretical information rate of a channel is related to the noise of the channel .
= = Life = =
Otto Julius Zobel was born on October 20 , 1887 in Ripon , Wisconsin . He first studied at Ripon College , where he received his BA in 1909 with a thesis on Theoretical and experimental treatment of electrical condensers . He later received a Distinguished Alumnus Award from Ripon . He then went to the University of Wisconsin and graduated with an MA in physics in 1910 . Zobel stayed at the University of Wisconsin as a physics instructor from 1910 to 1915 , and graduated with his PhD in 1914 ; his dissertation concerned " Thermal Conduction and Radiation " . This followed his 1913 co @-@ authoring of a book on the subject of geophysical thermodynamics . From 1915 to 1916 he taught physics at the University of Minnesota . Having moved to Maplewood , New Jersey , he joined AT & T in 1916 , where he worked on transmission techniques . In 1926 , still with the company , he moved to New York and in 1934 , he transferred to Bell Telephone Laboratories ( Bell Labs ) , the research organisation created jointly by AT & T and Western Electric a few years earlier .
The last of his prolific list of patents occurred for Bell Labs in the 1950s , by which time he was residing in Morristown , New Jersey . He died there in January 1970 .
= = Thermal conduction = =
Zobel 's early work on heat conduction was not pursued in his later career . There are , however , some interesting connections . Lord Kelvin in his early work on the transmission line derived the properties of the electric line by analogy with heat conduction . This is based on Fourier 's law and the Fourier conduction equation . Ingersoll and Zobel describe the work of Kelvin and Fourier in their book and Kelvin 's approach to the representation of transmission functions would consequently have been very familiar to Zobel . It is therefore no surprise that in Zobel 's paper on the electric wave filter a very similar representation is found for the transmission function of filters .
Solutions to the Fourier equation can be provided by Fourier series . Ingersoll and Zobel state that in many cases the calculation involved makes the solution " well @-@ nigh impossible " by analytical means . With modern technology such a calculation is trivially easy , but Ingersoll and Zobel recommend the use of harmonic analysers , which are the mechanical counterpart of today 's spectrum analysers . These machines add together mechanical oscillations of various frequencies , phases and amplitudes by combining them through a set of pulleys or springs ; one for each oscillator . The reverse process is also possible , driving the machine with the function and measuring the Fourier components as output .
= = Background to AT & T research = =
After the work of John R. Carson in 1915 it became clear that multiplexed telephone transmissions could be greatly improved by the use of single sideband suppressed carrier ( SSB ) transmission . Compared to basic amplitude modulation ( AM ) SSB has the advantage of half the bandwidth and a fraction of the power ( one sideband can have no more than 1 / 6 of the total power and would typically be a lot less ) . AM analysed in the frequency domain consists of a carrier and two sidebands . The carrier wave in AM represents the majority of the transmitted power but contains no information whatsoever . The two sidebands both contain identical information so only one is required , at least from an information transmission point of view . Up to this point filtering had been by simple tuned circuits . However , SSB required a flat response over the sideband of interest and maximum rejection of the other sideband with a very sharp transition between the two . As the idea was to put another ( completely different ) signal in the slot vacated by the unwanted sideband it was important that all traces of it were removed to prevent crosstalk . At the same time minimum distortion ( i.e. flat response ) is obviously desirable for the sideband being retained . This requirement led to a big research effort in the design of electric wave filters .
George A. Campbell and Zobel worked on this problem of extracting a single sideband from an amplitude @-@ modulated composite wave for use in multiplexing telephone channels and the related problem of extracting ( de @-@ multiplexing ) the signal at the far end of the transmission .
Initially , the baseband pass range used was 200 Hz to 2500 Hz but later the International Telecommunication Union set a standard of 300 Hz to 3 @.@ 4 kHz with 4 kHz spacing . Thus the filtering was required to go from fully pass to fully stop in the space of 900 Hz . This standard in telephony is still in use today and had remained widespread until it began to be supplanted by digital techniques from the 1980s onwards .
Campbell had previously utilised the condition discovered in the work of Oliver Heaviside for lossless transmission to improve the frequency response of transmission lines using lumped component inductors ( loading coils ) . When Campbell started investigating electric wave filter design from 1910 , this previous work naturally led him to filters using ladder network topology using capacitors and inductors . Low @-@ pass , high @-@ pass and band @-@ pass filters were designed . Sharper cut @-@ offs and higher stop @-@ band rejection to any arbitrary design specification could be achieved merely by increasing the length of the ladder . The filter designs used by Campbell were described by Zobel as constant k filters although this was not a term used by Campbell himself .
= = Innovations = =
After Zobel arrived at the Engineering Department of AT & T he used his mathematical skills to further improve the design of electric wave filters . Carson and Zobel developed the mathematical method of analyzing the behavior of filters now known as the image method whereby the impedance and transmission parameters of each section are calculated as if it is part of an infinite chain of identical sections .
= = = Wave filters = = =
Zobel invented the m @-@ derived ( or m @-@ type ) filter section in 1920 , the distinguishing feature of this design being a pole of attenuation close to the filter cut @-@ off frequency . The result of this design is a filter response which falls very rapidly past the cut @-@ off frequency . To use a well known quaint engineer 's expression it " goes off like the side of a house " . A fast transition between pass @-@ band and stop @-@ band was , of course , one of the primary requirements for cramming as many telephone channels as possible into one cable .
One disadvantage of the m @-@ type section was that at frequencies past the pole of attenuation , the response of the filter started to increase again , reaching a peak somewhere in the stop @-@ band and then falling again . Zobel overcame this problem by designing hybrid filters using a mixture of constant k and m @-@ type sections . This gave Zobel the advantages of both : the fast transition of the m @-@ type and good stop @-@ band rejection of the constant k .
By 1921 Zobel had further perfected his composite filter designs . He was now using , in addition , m @-@ type half sections at the ends of his composite filters to improve the impedance matching of the filter to the source and the load , a technique in which he held a patent . The difficulty that he was trying to overcome was that the image impedance techniques being used to design filter sections only gave the mathematically predicted response if they were terminated in their respective image impedances . Technically , this was easy to do within the filter as it could always be arranged that adjacent filter sections had matching image impedances ( one of the characteristics of m @-@ type sections is that one side or the other of the m @-@ type section will have an image impedance identical to the equivalent constant k section ) . However , the terminating impedances are a different story . These are normally required to be resistive but the image impedance will be complex . Even worse , it is not even mathematically possible to construct a filter image impedance out of discrete components . The result of impedance mismatch is reflections and a degraded filter performance . Zobel found that a value of m = 0 @.@ 6 for the end half sections , while not mathematically exact , gave a good match to resistive terminations in the pass @-@ band .
Around 1923 , Zobel 's filter designs were reaching the peak of their complexity . He now had a filter section to which he had doubly applied the m @-@ derivation process resulting in filter sections which he called the mm ' -type . This had all the advantages of the previous m @-@ type , but more so . An even faster transition into the stop @-@ band and an even more constant characteristic impedance in the pass @-@ band . At the same time one side would match into the old m @-@ type , just as the m @-@ type could match into the k @-@ type . Because there were now two arbitrary parameters ( m and m ' ) that the filter designer could adjust , much better end matching half @-@ sections could be designed . A composite filter using these sections would have been the very best that could have been achieved at that time . However , the mm ' -type sections never became as widespread and well known as the m @-@ type sections , possibly because their greater complexity has deterred designers . They would have been inconvenient to implement with microwave technology and the increased count of components , especially wound components , made them more expensive to implement with conventional LC technology . Certainly , it is hard to find a textbook from any period which covers their design .
= = = Transmission line simulation = = =
Zobel directed much of his effort in the 1920s to constructing networks which could simulate transmission lines . These networks were derived from filter sections , which themselves had been derived from transmission line theory and the filters were used on transmission line signals . In turn , these artificial lines were used to develop and test better filter sections . Zobel used a design technique based on his theoretical discovery that the impedance looking into the end of a filter chain was practically the same ( within the limits of component tolerances ) as the theoretical impedance of an infinite chain after only a small number of sections had been added to the chain . These " image " impedances have a mathematical characterization impossible to construct simply out of discrete components , and can only ever be approximated . Zobel found that using these impedances constructed out of small filter chains as components in a greater network allowed him to build realistic line simulators . These were not in any sense intended as practical filters in the field , but rather the intention was to construct good controllable line simulators without having the inconvenience of miles of cable to contend with .
= = = Equalisers = = =
Zobel invented several filters whose defining characteristic was a constant resistance as the input impedance . The resistance remained constant through the pass band and the stop band . With these designs Zobel had completely solved the impedance matching problem . The main application of these sections has been not so much for filtering out unwanted frequencies , the k @-@ type and m @-@ type filters remained best for this , but rather to equalize the response in the pass band to a flat response .
Perhaps one of Zobel 's most fascinating inventions is the lattice filter section . This section is both constant resistance and flat response zero attenuation across the band , yet it is constructed out of inductors and capacitors . The only signal parameter it modifies is the phase of the signal at different frequencies .
= = = Impedance matching = = =
A common theme throughout Zobel 's work is the issue of impedance matching . The obvious approach to filter design is to design directly for the attenuation characteristics desired . With modern computing power , a brute force approach is possible and easy , simply incrementally adjusting each component while recalculating in an iterative process until the desired response is achieved . However , Zobel developed a more indirect line of attack . He realized very early on that mismatched impedances inevitably meant reflections , and reflections meant a loss of signal . Improving the impedance match , conversely , would automatically improve a filter 's pass @-@ band response .
This impedance matching approach not only led to better filters but the techniques developed could be used to construct circuits whose sole purpose was to match together two disparate impedances . Zobel continued to invent impedance matching networks throughout his career . During World War II he moved on to waveguide filters for use in the newly developed radar technology . Little was published during the war for obvious reasons but towards the end with Bell Labs in the 1950s , Zobel designs for sections to match physically different waveguide sizes appear . However , the circuit noted above which still bears Zobel 's name today , the constant @-@ resistance network , can be viewed as an impedance matching circuit and remains Zobel 's finest achievement in this regard .
= = Loudspeaker equalisation = =
The name of Zobel is , perhaps , most well known with regard to impedance compensation networks for loudspeakers . Clearly , his designs have applications in this field . However , none of Zobel 's patents or articles appear to discuss this topic . It is unclear whether he actually designed anything specifically for loudspeakers . The closest we get to this is where he speaks of impedance matching into a transducer , but here he is discussing a circuit to equalize a submarine cable , or in another instance where clearly he has in mind the hybrid transformer which terminates a line going into a telephone instrument on a phantom circuit .
= = Noise = =
While Carson led the way theoretically , Zobel was involved in the design of filters for the purpose of noise reduction on transmission systems .
= = = Background = = =
At the beginning of the 1920s and through to the 1930s , the thinking on noise was dominated by the radio engineers ' concern with external static . In modern terminology , this would include random ( thermal and shot ) noise but those concepts were relatively unknown and little understood at the time despite an early paper by Schottky in 1918 on shot noise . To the radio engineers of the time , static meant externally generated interference . The line of attack against noise from the radio engineers included developing directional antennae and moving to higher frequencies where the problem was known not to be so severe .
For telephone engineers , what was then called " fluctuating noise " , and would now be described as random noise , i.e. shot and thermal noise , was much more noticeable than with early radio systems . Carson broadened the radio engineers ' concept of signal @-@ to @-@ static ratio to a more general signal @-@ to @-@ noise ratio and introduced a figure of merit for noise .
= = = Impossibility of noise cancellation = = =
The radio engineers ' preoccupation with static and the techniques being used to reduce it led to the idea that noise could be totally eliminated by , in some way , compensating for it or canceling it out . The culmination of this viewpoint was expressed in a 1928 paper by Edwin Armstrong . This led to a famous retort by Carson in a subsequent paper , " Noise , like the poor , will always be with us " . Armstrong was technically in the wrong in this exchange , but in 1933 , ironically and paradoxically , went on to invent wide @-@ band FM which enormously improved the noise performance of radio by increasing the bandwidth .
Carson and Zobel in 1923 had conclusively shown that filtering cannot remove noise to the same degree as , say , interference from another station could be removed . To do this they had analyzed random noise in the frequency domain and postulated that it contains all frequencies in its spectrum . This was the first use of Fourier analysis to describe random noise and hence described it in terms of a spread of frequencies . Also first published in this paper was the concept of what we would now call band @-@ limited white noise . For Zobel this meant that characteristics of the receiving filter completely determine the figure of merit in the presence of white noise and that the filter design was key to achieving the optimum noise performance .
Although this work by Carson and Zobel was very early , it was not universally accepted that noise could be analyzed in the frequency domain in this way . For this reason , the aforementioned exchange between Carson and Armstrong was still possible years later . The precise mathematical relationship between noise power and bandwidth for random noise was finally determined by Harry Nyquist in 1928 thus giving a theoretical limit to what could be achieved by filtering .
This work on noise produced the concept , and led Zobel to pursue the design , of matched filters . This is the concept that the noise performance of the equipment is optimal when the filter is perfectly matched to the signal one is attempting to transmit and is the culmination of theoretical research into the application of removing noise by means of linear filters . This became important in the development of radar during the Second World War in which Zobel played a part .
= = Use of work in genetic programming research = =
Zobel 's work has recently found an application in research into genetic programming . The purpose of this research is to attempt to demonstrate that the results obtained from genetic programming are comparable to human achievements . Two of the measures that are used to determine whether a genetic programming result is human @-@ competitive are :
The result is a patented invention .
The result is equal to or better than a result that was considered an achievement in its field at the time of discovery .
One such problem set as a task for a genetic program was to design a crossover filter for woofer and tweeter loudspeakers . The output design was identical in topology to a design found in a patent of Zobel 's for a filter to separate multiplexed low and high frequencies on a transmission line . This was judged to be human @-@ comparable , not only because of the patent , but also because the high @-@ pass and low @-@ pass sections were " decomposed " as in Zobel 's design , but not specifically required to be so in the programs parameters . Whether or not Zobel 's filter design would be good for a hi @-@ fi system is another question . The design does not actually cross over , but rather , there is a gap between the two pass @-@ bands where the signal is not transmitted to either output . Essential for multiplexing , but not so desirable for sound reproduction .
A later genetic programming experiment produced a filter design which consisted of a chain of constant k sections terminated in an m @-@ type half section . This was also determined to have been a design patented by Zobel .
= The M + M 's Tour =
The M + M 's Tour was the sixth concert tour by American recording artist Britney Spears , consisting of six brief shows at clubs in the United States . Spears expressed interested to tour again as early as February 2006 . She started rehearsing for a show at House of Blues venues in secret , and pulled out of a surprise performance on April 25 , 2007 , at Los Angeles nightclub Forty Deuce . After a marquee reading " The M + M 's " at the House of Blues in San Diego , California , appeared in late April 2007 , media sources identified the act as Spears , and the show quickly sold out . The tour marked the first time Spears performed live since The Onyx Hotel Tour in June 2004 .
The show , which ran 12 – 16 minutes in length , featured Spears accompanied by four female back @-@ up dancers performing choreographed dance numbers to shortened versions of five songs , including hits such as " ... Baby One More Time " and " Toxic " . During the performance of one song , a male audience member participated onstage . Spears ' vocals during the performance were lip @-@ synched . The shows received mixed reviews from critics and fans . Some said that Spears looked happy and in great shape , while others deemed the show as subpar . Scalpers outside the San Diego venue sold tickets with a face value of $ 35 for prices between $ 200 and $ 500 .
= = Background and development = =
The shows took place against a backdrop of Spears ' life struggles the previous few years that had made her fodder for tabloid reports . These included a two @-@ day marriage , a stormy two @-@ year marriage and divorce and having two children , shaving her head , entering rehabilitation for substance abuse , and various run @-@ ins with the paparazzi .
In an interview with People in February 2006 , Spears explained that she was anxious to resume her career , saying , " This may sound weird , but I miss traveling . I miss the road , seeing different places and being with the dancers and having fun . That feeling of being on the stage , knowing it 's your best — I love that . I needed a break . I needed to be hungry again . " On April 26 , 2007 , Ivan Kane , the owner of Los Angeles nightclub Forty Deuce , told E ! News that Spears had pulled out of a surprise performance at the venue the previous night . Kane stated that during rehearsal , she was " looking very hot , with four backup dancers and [ she ] sang three songs . They ran through the set several times , the choreography was smokin ' , and she sounded great . " Marc Malkin of E ! News said that Spears thought she might need more time to prepare . He also reported that she was planning to tour House of Blues venues in the United States . Spears wanted to keep the rehearsals a secret , and did not even inform the owners of the different dance studios the reason for the preparation . In late April 2007 , a marquee reading " The M + M 's " appeared at the House of Blues in San Diego . Several gossip websites and local media sources identified the act as Spears , prompting the show to quickly sell out . On May 1 , 2007 , a front @-@ page story on The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune fueled the speculation . The same day , the doors opened at 19 : 00 PST ( 03 : 00 UTC ) , and Spears took the stage at 22 : 00 PST ( 06 : 00 UTC ) . It marked the first time Spears was on stage since her knee injury caused The Onyx Hotel Tour to be canceled in June 2004 .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The concert opened with Spears taking the stage accompanied by four blonde female dancers to perform a short version of " ... Baby One More Time " , wearing a silver beaded bra , a pleated white skirt and white boots . She wore a long brown wig to cover the head she had shaved two and a half months previously and appeared in physically good shape . ( By now her hair was about an inch long , and one of her dancers said of her hair without the wig , " It ' s getting longer and she looks beautiful . " ) The show then segued into a flashy shortened version of " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . Though while Spears performed the original choreography to " Slave " , the performance was compared to the style of the Pussycat Dolls . The dancers then left Spears alone onstage to perform a chair routine of " Breathe on Me " . They re @-@ entered with a male fan from the audience with them and Spears giving him a lap dance . Half way through the lap dance , Spears disappeared for a costume change leaving her dancers to continue the performance . She then reappeared in a hot pink bra , white fur coat and jean skirt to perform " Do Somethin ' " with Spears throwing air guitars to the crowd . The show then concluded with " Toxic " , which featured Spears and her dancers performing in a mix of Spears and Shakira dance styles . As the performance came to an end , Spears said " Thank you so much . These are my dancers " – her only words during the show – and left the stage . The show lasted around 12 – 16 minutes .
The first show in San Diego began two hours after the stated time . There was no live band for the shows ; Spears and the dancers performed to recorded tracks . Spears ' vocals during the show were also not live but rather were lip @-@ synched to the recording . At some points , she was chewing gum while performing . The lack of live singing became most prominent during the Orlando stop of the tour , when the CD to which Spears was miming began skipping during " Do Somethin ' " , reportedly caused some in the audience to start booing . By the Florida shows , Spears was up to four costume changes .
= = Reception = =
Teri VanHorn of MTV said that with " Her body newly toned and her smile beaming , she looked every bit like a woman who had emerged from her quarter @-@ life crisis stronger than yesterday . " She also said Spears performed with " a naughty , free @-@ spirited attitude " , as though she " had invited 900 friends to her dirty little dance party , and too bad for you if you couldn 't roll with the fun . " SuChin Pak , also from MTV stated the show was " no huge revelation " , explaining , " It was not the kind of show that says : ' She 's back . She 's going to come out with the biggest album of her career . ' Nor did it say that she 's lost forever and we 'll never see the old Britney back again . These are all really tiny baby steps . " Thomas K. Arnold of USA Today said the show " turned out to be more rehearsal than comeback " , although " all those post @-@ rehab workouts were worth the effort . " On May 2 , 2007 , scalpers outside the House of Blues in San Diego were selling tickets with a face value of $ 35 for prices between $ 200 and $ 500 . Chris Lee of the Los Angeles Times wrote that " her ' comeback ' – if you want to call it that – cemented Spears ' place as pop music 's reigning drama queen , capable of capturing worldwide tabloid headlines with a bare minimum of creative expenditure . "
Most of the shows sold out , although there were some empty seats for the Las Vegas one despite tickets being available cheaply on the secondary market . Fan reaction to the show was generally divided . Some fans attending the show were dissatisfied with its short length , with one quoted afterward as saying , " That was so disappointing . " Some fans were also disappointed by the performance quality , with one quoted as saying , " It looked like she lip @-@ synched her way through the whole thing . " Other fans were more accommodating , pleased to be seeing her in good health and appearance and with one quoted as saying , " Whatever , we love her . She 's amazing . " One group of female fans wore matching pink tops that said " Bald Ambition " on one side and " The Comeback 2007 " on the other . Jim Abbott of the Orlando Sentinel summed up some of the reaction by writing that fans at the tail end of the tour " knew that the show would be short . ... They also knew that she would be lip @-@ synching , but this wasn 't about music as much as it was about celebrity , loyalty and beating adversity . "
= = Setlist = =
" ... Baby One More Time "
" I 'm A Slave 4 U "
" Breathe on Me "
" Do Somethin ' "
" Toxic "
= = Shows = =
= Gateway Protection Programme =
The Gateway Protection Programme is a scheme operated by the British government in partnership with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) and co @-@ funded by the European Union ( EU ) , offering a legal route for a quota of UNHCR @-@ identified refugees to be resettled in the United Kingdom . Following a proposal by the British Home Secretary , David Blunkett , in October 2001 , the legal basis was established by the Nationality , Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 and the programme itself launched in March 2004 . Since its inception , the programme has enjoyed broad support from the UK 's main political parties .
The Gateway Protection Programme initially had a quota of 500 refugees per year , which was later increased to 750 , but the actual number of refugees resettled in most years has been fewer than the quota permitted . Liberian , Congolese , Sudanese , Burmese , Ethiopian , Mauritanian , Iraqi , Bhutanese , Eritrean , Palestinian , Sierra Leonean and Somali refugees have been resettled under the programme . Refugees have been resettled to a number of locations in England and Scotland . Of the 18 local authorities participating as resettlement locations by 2012 , eight are in the North West region of England and three in Yorkshire and Humberside . Evaluations of the programme have praised it as having a positive impact on the reception of refugees by local communities , but have also noted the difficulties these refugees have faced in securing employment .
= = Programme details = =
The programme is the UK 's " quota refugee " resettlement scheme . Refugees designated as particularly vulnerable by the UNHCR are assessed by the Home Office for eligibility under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees . If they meet the eligibility criteria they are then brought to the UK and granted indefinite leave to remain . The International Organization for Migration ( IOM ) helps facilitate pre @-@ departure medical screening , counselling , dossier preparation , transport and immediate arrival assistance . Once in the UK , refugees are entered into a 12 @-@ month support programme intended to aid their integration . The programme has involved local authorities and NGOs including the British Red Cross , the International Rescue Committee , Migrant Helpline , Refugee Action , the Refugee Arrivals Project , the Refugee Council , Scottish Refugee Council and Refugee Support . These organisations formed the Resettlement Inter @-@ Agency Partnership at the planning stage of the programme , in order to pool their resources and form a partnership for the delivery of services to the resettled refugees .
The programme is distinct from and in addition to ordinary provisions for claiming asylum in the United Kingdom . Since 2008 , it has been co @-@ funded by the European Union , first through the European Refugee Fund and then through its successor , the Asylum , Migration and Integration Fund ( AMIF ) . Over the period 2009 – 14 , the Home Office provided £ 29 @.@ 97 million in funding and the EU £ 18 @.@ 67 million . Anna Musgrave of the Refugee Council argues that the programme " is rarely talked about and the Home Office , in the main , stay fairly quiet about it . "
= = History = =
The Gateway Protection Programme is not the first British refugee resettlement programme . Other , informal resettlement programmes include the Mandate Refugee Scheme , and the UK has also participated in the Ten or More Plan . The former is for so @-@ called " mandate " refugees who have been granted refugee status by UNHCR in third countries . To qualify for the scheme , refugees must have close ties to the UK and it must also be demonstrated that the UK is the most appropriate country for their resettlement . The Ten or More Plan , established by UNHCR in 1973 and administered in the UK by the British Red Cross , is for refugees requiring medical attention not available in their current location . During the 1990s , 2 @,@ 620 refugees were settled in the UK through these two programmes . In 2003 , the UK 's Ten or More Plan had a resettlement goal of 10 people and the Mandate Refugee Scheme 300 . Refugees have also been resettled through specific programmes following emergencies . For example , 42 @,@ 000 Ugandan Asians expelled from Uganda during 1972 – 74 , 22 @,@ 500 Vietnamese during 1979 – 92 , over 2 @,@ 500 Bosnians in the 1990s , and over 4 @,@ 000 Kosovars in 1999 .
A new resettlement programme was proposed by the British Home Secretary , David Blunkett in October 2001 , having been hinted at by the previous Home Secretary , Jack Straw , in a speech to the European Conference on Asylum in Lisbon in June 2000 . The legal basis for the programme 's funding was established by Section 59 of the Nationality , Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 . This act was passed by the House of Commons by 362 votes to 74 in June 2002 and by the House of Lords – at the ninth attempt , following concern about the introduction of measures allowing for the detention of asylum seekers in rural areas ) – in November 2002 .
The Gateway Protection Programme was subsequently established in March 2004 , with the first refugees arriving in the UK on 19 March . Initially , the programme quota was set at 500 per year . The British government has faced criticism from academics and practitioners over the small number of refugees it has resettled in comparison with other developed states . For example , in 2001 the countries with the largest quota schemes were the United States ( 80 @,@ 000 refugees ) , Canada ( 11 @,@ 000 ) and Australia ( 10 @,@ 000 ) . Initially , David Blunkett had intended to raise the quota to 1 @,@ 000 in the second year of the programme 's operation , but local councils ' reluctance to participate in the scheme meant that it was slow to take off . It has been argued that their reluctance showed that hostile attitudes towards asylum seekers had carried over to affect the most genuinely needy refugees . The quota remained at 500 per year until the 2008 / 09 financial year , when it was increased to 750 refugees per year . The number of refugees resettled under the scheme is small in comparison to the number of asylum seekers offered protection in the UK . For example , in 2013 , 17 @,@ 647 initial decisions on asylum claims were made by the Home Office , of which 5 @,@ 734 ( 32 @.@ 5 per cent ) determined the applicant to be a refugee and granted them asylum , 53 ( 0 @.@ 3 per cent ) granted humanitarian protection and 540 ( 3 @.@ 1 per cent ) granted discretionary leave . 11 @,@ 105 applications ( 62 @.@ 9 per cent ) were refused . Worldwide , there were 51 @.@ 2 million forcibly displaced people at the end of 2013 , 16 @.@ 7 million of whom were refugees .
The programme has been supported by the main British political parties at the national level since its inception , and there has also been support from councillors from each of the main parties at the local authority level . On the occasion of the tenth anniversary of the scheme in 2014 , refugee groups and others praised it as a successful programme and called for it to be expanded , particularly in light of the Syrian refugee crisis . In early 2014 , Amnesty International and the Refugee Council campaigned for the government to offer resettlement or humanitarian protection to Syrian refugees above and beyond the Gateway quota of 750 per year , " to ensure that resettlement opportunities continue to be available to refugees from the rest of the world " . The anniversary of the programme was also the occasion of further criticism of the 750 quota , with some commentators arguing that this is mean @-@ spirited and continues to compare unfavourably with the refugee resettlement programmes of states including the United States , Canada and Australia . Others , such as academic Jonathan Darling , have been more skeptical about expanding the scheme , for fear that any such move will be accompanied by greater restrictions on the ability of people to claim asylum in the UK . He argues that " we must be critical of any attempts to expand such a quota @-@ based scheme at the expense of a more progressive asylum system " . Furthermore , he argues that the " hospitality " of the scheme is highly conditional and can be viewed as a form of " compassionate repression " , with the UNHCR , the Home Office and local authorities all involved in " sorting , decision , and consideration over which individuals are the ' exceptional cases ' " , to the exclusion of others .
In September 2015 , in the context of the European migrant crisis , Labour Party leadership candidate Yvette Cooper called for an increase in the number of refugees resettled in the UK to 10 @,@ 000 . The prime minister , David Cameron , subsequently announced that the UK would resettle 20 @,@ 000 refugees from camps in countries bordering Syria over the period to 2020 under the Vulnerable Persons Relocation Scheme , which was established in early 2014 and is distinct from , but modelled on , the Gateway Protection Programme .
= = Refugees resettled = =
The number of refugees resettled under the programme has been below the quota in every year except for 2009 , 2012 and 2013 . Refugees resettled have included Liberians from Guinea and Sierra Leone , Congolese ( DRC ) from Uganda and Zambia , Sudanese from Uganda , Burmese ( including Karen , Mon , Pa 'O and Rohingya people ) from Thailand , Ethiopians from Kenya , and Mauritanians from Senegal . Provision was made for 1 @,@ 000 Iraqi refugees to be resettled in the UK between 1 April 2008 and the end of March 2010 . In 2008 , 236 Iraqis were resettled and as of 18 May , a further 212 had been resettled in 2009 . However , in May 2009 the programme was shut down for those Iraqis resettling due to having worked in support of British occupying forces and therefore at risk for reprisals . This decision was criticised as premature and " mean @-@ spirited " by some members of Parliament . Nonetheless , other Iraqis continue to be resettled under the Gateway Protection Programme and between 2004 and 2014 , a total of 1 @,@ 344 Iraqis were resettled as part of the programme . Other nationalities of refugees resettled under the scheme include Bhutanese , Eritreans , Palestinians , Sierra Leoneans and Somalis .
= = Resettlement locations = =
In March 2009 , out of the 434 local authorities in the UK , 15 were participating in the programme . By 2012 , a total of 18 local authorities had participated . In a review of the scheme , academics Duncan Sim and Kait Laughlin note that " it is clear that , as with asylum seekers dispersed by the UK Borders Agency under Home Office dispersal policy , most refugees have been resettled away from London and south east England , a policy which may lead to separation of extended families " . Of the 18 local authorities , eight are in North West England and three in Yorkshire and Humberside .
The first refugees resettled under the programme were housed in Sheffield , which was the first city to join the scheme and which had branded itself the UK 's first ' City of Sanctuary ' . Others have been housed in cities and towns including Bradford , Brighton and Hove , Bromley , Colchester , Hull , Middlesbrough , Motherwell , Norwich , and the Manchester area including Bolton , Bury , Oldham , Rochdale , Salford , Stockport and Tameside . Sheffield , Bolton and Hull have received the largest numbers , accounting for just under half of all refugees resettled under the programme between 2004 and 2012 . The large proportion of refugees who have been resettled in North West England has been attributed partly to strong leadership on migration issues in Greater Manchester .
In 2007 , North Lanarkshire Council won the " Creating Integrated Communities " category in the UK Housing Awards for its involvement in the Gateway Protection Programme . Research with Congolese refugees settled with North Lanarkshire Council in Motherwell has found that the majority want to stay in the town and that they view it positively both as a location in its own right , and in comparison with other resettlement locations .
In April 2007 , Bolton Museum held an exhibition of photos of Sudanese refugees resettled in the town under the programme . A film , titled Moving to Mars was made about two ethnic Karen families resettled from Burma to Sheffield under the Gateway Protection Programme . The film opened the Sheffield International Documentary Festival in November 2009 and was aired on the television channel More4 on 2 February 2010 . One ethnic Karen refugee resettled with his family in Sheffield in 2006 , Kler Heh , signed a professional contract to play football for Sheffield United F.C. in March 2015 .
On 17 July 2009 , three Congolese men resettled in Norwich under the programme were killed in a car crash on the A1 road . The Home Office released a promotional video in October 2009 that highlighted the success of the programme in resettling the first 15 Congolese families in Norwich in 2006 . In 2011 , the Home Office stopped using Norwich as a resettlement location in favour of locations in Yorkshire and Lancashire , reportedly to the disappointment of the local council .
= = Evaluations = =
Resettlement has been presented as a means of the UK fulfilling its obligations towards displaced people in the context of hostile public attitudes towards asylum seekers . Research has shown that members of the British public are generally well disposed to providing protection to genuine refugees , but are sceptical about the validity of asylum seekers ' claims . A report published in 2005 states that " some participating agencies have been reluctant to pursue a proactive media strategy due to local political considerations and issues relating to the dispersal of asylum seekers " . However , in February 2006 , the Parliamentary Under @-@ Secretary of State for the Home Department Andy Burnham , when asked about how the programme fitted in with community cohesion strategies , stated in the House of Commons that :
" The early evidence from areas in which authorities have participated in the programme shows that it has been successful in challenging some of the attacks on the notion of political asylum that we have heard in recent years . In Bolton and Sheffield in particular , the towns have rallied around the individuals who have come to them . The programme has been a positive experience for the receiving community and , of course , for the vulnerable individuals who have benefited from the protection that those towns have offered " .
A report into the experience of refugees resettled in Brighton and Hove under the scheme between October 2006 and October 2007 was published by the Sussex Centre for Migration Research at the University of Sussex in December 2007 . The report found that the refugees had struggled to gain employment and English language skills . Another evaluation report undertaken for the Home Office and published in 2011 also found that only small numbers of resettled refugees were in paid employment , noting that many were still more concerned about meeting their basic needs .
In February 2009 , the Home Office published a report evaluating the effectiveness of the Gateway Protection Programme . The research it was based upon focused on refugees ' integration into British society in the 18 months following their resettlement . The research found that refugees showed signs of integration , including the formation of social bonds through community groups and places of worship . The report noted that low employment rates and slow progress with acquiring English language skills were particular concerns . Younger refugees and children had made the most progress . No specific language lessons are provided under the Gateway Protection Programme . Instead , Gateway refugees who require help with their English language skills are provided with access to mainstream English for Speakers of Other Languages ( ESOL ) courses , which are run by a range of state , voluntary and community @-@ based organisations . However , the International Catholic Migration Commission ( ICMC ) Europe reports that in Sheffield , it can be difficult for resettled refugees to gain access to ESOL classes because demand has generally exceeded supply – a situation also noted by an evaluation of the scheme 's operation in Motherwell undertaken in 2013 . The Motherwell evaluation found that most of the male refugees were in employment , but that many of them were not in jobs that allowed them to use their skills . The majority of women were not in work , reflecting a lack of job opportunities but also a lack of childcare provision .
A number of programme evaluations have found that many resettled refugees have been the victims of verbal or physical attacks in the UK . The Home Office 's 2009 evaluation notes that between one @-@ quarter and half of each of four groups of Liberian and Congolese refugees resettled under the programme had suffered verbal or physical harassment . An evaluation undertaken by academics at Sheffield Hallam University for the Home Office in 2011 found that one @-@ fifth of the refugees surveyed for the evaluation ( who had been in the UK for a year ) had been the victims of verbal or physical attacks in their first six months in the UK , and just over a fifth had been attacked in the second six months of their resettlement . Many of the victims of this abuse had not reported it to the authorities , and the authors of the evaluation suggest that this is a reason why there was a gap between the perceptions of refugee and service providers , who generally suggested that community relations were good . Verbal and physical attacks against refugees were also noted in the 2013 Motherwell evaluation .
= Dreamcast =
The Dreamcast ( Japanese : ドリームキャスト , Hepburn : Dorīmukyasuto ) is a home video game console released by Sega on November 27 , 1998 in Japan , September 9 , 1999 in North America , and October 14 , 1999 in Europe . It was the first in the sixth generation of video game consoles , preceding Sony 's PlayStation 2 , Nintendo 's GameCube and Microsoft 's Xbox . The Dreamcast is Sega 's final home console , marking the end of the company 's 18 years in the console market .
In contrast to the expensive hardware of the unsuccessful Sega Saturn , the Dreamcast was designed to reduce costs with " off @-@ the @-@ shelf " components , including a Hitachi SH @-@ 4 CPU and an NEC PowerVR2 GPU . Released in Japan to a subdued reception , the Dreamcast enjoyed a successful U.S. launch backed by a large marketing campaign , but interest in the system steadily declined as Sony built hype for the upcoming PlayStation 2 . Sales did not meet Sega 's expectations despite several price cuts , and the company continued to incur significant financial losses . After a change in leadership , Sega discontinued the Dreamcast on March 31 , 2001 , withdrawing from the console business and restructuring itself as a third @-@ party publisher . 9 @.@ 13 million Dreamcast units were sold worldwide .
Although the Dreamcast had a short lifespan and limited third @-@ party support , reviewers have considered the console ahead of its time . Its library contains many games considered creative and innovative , including Crazy Taxi , Jet Set Radio and Shenmue , as well as high @-@ quality ports from Sega 's NAOMI arcade system board . The Dreamcast was also the first console to include a built @-@ in modem for Internet support and online play .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Released in 1988 , the Sega Genesis ( known as the Sega Mega Drive in Europe and Japan ) was Sega 's entry into the fourth generation of video game consoles . Selling 30 @.@ 75 million units worldwide , the Genesis was the most successful console Sega ever released . The successor to the Genesis , the Sega Saturn , was released in Japan in 1994 . The Saturn was a CD @-@ ROM @-@ based console that displayed both 2D and 3D computer graphics , but its complex dual @-@ CPU architecture made it more difficult to program for than its chief competitor , the Sony PlayStation . Although the Saturn debuted before the PlayStation in both Japan and the United States , its surprise U.S. launch — which came four months earlier than originally scheduled — was marred by a lack of distribution , which remained a continuing problem for the system . Moreover , Sega 's early release was undermined by Sony 's simultaneous announcement that the PlayStation would retail for US $ 299 — compared to the Saturn 's initial price of $ 399 . Nintendo 's long delay in releasing a competing 3D console and the damage done to Sega 's reputation by poorly supported add @-@ ons for the Genesis ( particularly the Sega 32X ) allowed Sony to establish a foothold in the market . The PlayStation was immediately successful in the U.S. , in part due to a massive advertising campaign and strong third @-@ party support engendered by Sony 's excellent development tools and liberal $ 10 licensing fee . Sony 's success was further aided by a price war in which Sega lowered the price of the Saturn from $ 399 to $ 299 and then from $ 299 to $ 199 in order to match the price of the PlayStation – even though Saturn hardware was more expensive to manufacture and the PlayStation enjoyed a larger software library . Losses on the Saturn hardware contributed to Sega 's financial problems , which saw the company 's revenue decline between 1992 and 1995 as part of an industry @-@ wide slowdown . Furthermore , Sega 's focus on the Saturn over the Genesis prevented it from fully capitalizing on the continued strength of the 16 @-@ bit market .
Due to long @-@ standing disagreements with Sega of Japan , Sega of America CEO Tom Kalinske became less interested in his position . On July 16 , 1996 Sega announced that Shoichiro Irimajiri had been appointed chairman and CEO of Sega of America , while Kalinske would be leaving Sega after September 30 of that year . Sega also announced that Sega Enterprises cofounder David Rosen and Sega of Japan CEO Hayao Nakayama had resigned from their positions as chairman and co @-@ chairman of Sega of America , though both men remained with the company . Bernie Stolar , a former executive at Sony Computer Entertainment of America , was named Sega of America 's executive vice president in charge of product development and third @-@ party relations . Stolar did not support the Saturn due to his belief that the hardware was poorly designed and publicly announced at E3 1997 that " The Saturn is not our future . " After the launch of the Nintendo 64 , sales of the Saturn and Sega 's 32 @-@ bit software were sharply reduced . As of August 1997 , Sony | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ko II . According to the Hungarian chronicles , Béla participated in a Polish expedition against the pagan Pomeranians and defeated their duke " in single combat " . The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that the Polish monarch " praised the boldness and strength of Duke Béla and bestowed on him all the Pomeranian tribute " . The King even gave his daughter — named either Richeza or Adelaide — in marriage to Béla and granted " a goodly quantity of land " to him . Makk says that Béla was not baptized until just before his marriage ; his baptismal name was the Germanic one of Adalbert .
At that time the Pomeranians refused to pay their yearly tribute to the Duke of Poland , to whom they were subject . The Duke set out to exact by force of arms the tribute due to him from the Pomeranians . Then the Pomeranians , who were pagans , and the Poles , who were Christians , agreed together that their leaders should meet each other in a duel , and if the Pomeranian fell defeated , he would render the customary tribute ; and if the Pole , then he might bewail its loss . Since [ the ] Duke [ Mieszko ] and his sons shrank in fear from the duel to be fought , [ Béla ] presented himself before them and through an interpreter spoke thus : ' If it is pleasing to you , Poles , and to the lord Duke , although I am of nobler birth than that pagan , yet I will fight for the advantage of your kingdom and for the honour of the Duke . ' This was pleasing both to the Pomeranians and to the Poles . When they met in combat , armed with lances , [ Béla ] is said to have struck the Pomeranian so manfully that he unseated him from his horse ; and the Pomeranian could not move from the spot where he had fallen , and [ Béla ] smote him with his sword . Then the Duke of the Pomeranians confessed himself at fault ; and the Pomeranians , seeing this , humbly submitted to the Duke of Poland and paid the accustomed tribute without murmuring .
King Mieszko II died in 1034 ; his son and heir , Casimir was forced to leave Poland . A period of anarchy followed , which lasted at least until 1039 when Casimir returned . According to Kristó and Makk , Béla was staying in Poland during this period ; he even may have administered the kingdom in the name of his absent brother @-@ in @-@ law . On the other hand , the Polish historian , Manteuffel writes that Béla and his two brothers , in contrast with the unanimous report of the Hungarian chronicles , arrived in Poland only with Casimir , after 1039 . It is beyond a doubt that Levente and Andrew departed from Poland in about 1038 , because — according to the Illuminated Chronicle — they did not want to " live the life of hangers @-@ on in the Duke of Poland 's court , regarded only as Béla 's brothers " .
= = = Duke in Hungary ( c . 1048 – 1060 ) = = =
Upon leaving Poland , Andrew and Levente settled in Kiev . They returned to Hungary after a rebellion which was dominated by pagans broke out against King Peter Orseolo in 1046 . The King was dethroned , and Andrew was proclaimed king . Levente died in the same year and Andrew , still childless , decided to invite Béla back to Hungary .
Having lost one brother , King Andreas sent to Poland to his other brother Bela , calling him with great love and saying : " Once we shared poverty and labour together , and now I ask you , most beloved brother , that you come to me without tarrying , so that we may be companions in joy and share in the good things of the kingdom , rejoicing in each other 's presence . For I have neither heir nor brother except you . You shall be my heir , and you shall succeed me in the kingdom . " Won by these words , Béla came to the King with all his family . When the King saw him , he rejoiced with a great joy , because he was fortified by his brother 's strength . Then the King and his brother Bela held a council and divided the kingdom into three parts , of which two remained under the proprietorship of the royal majesty or power and the third was put under the proprietorship of the Duke . This first division of the kingdom became the seed of discord and wars between the dukes and the kings of Hungary .
Urged by his brother , Béla returned in 1048 and received one @-@ third of the kingdom , with the title of duke . Béla 's ducatus or " duchy " encompassed large territories along the eastern and northern borders , including the regions of Nyitra ( Nitra , Slovakia ) and Bihar ( Biharia , Romania ) . He possessed a wide range of royal prerogatives , including coinage . The half @-@ denars minted for him bore the inscription BELA DUX ( " Duke Béla " ) . According to Steinhübel , the mid @-@ 11th @-@ century timber and earth walls of the fortress of Nyitra were erected in Béla 's reign .
The two brothers closely collaborated in the subsequent years . According to the Illuminated Chronicle , they together worked out a military strategy against the Germans , who were frequently invading the kingdom in the early 1050s . Ferenc Makk writes that Béla 's epithets — the Champion or the Wisent — are connected to his fighting against the Germans . The chronicler emphasizes that Andrew and Béla " lived in a great tranquillity of peace " even after Andrew fathered a son , Solomon , in 1053 . Béla was one of the lords witnessing the deed of the foundation of the Tihany Abbey , a Benedictine monastery that his brother established in 1055 .
The two brothers ' good relationship deteriorated after King Andrew had the child Solomon crowned king in 1057 or 1058 . The coronation was the consequence of the peace negotiations with the Holy Roman Empire , because the Germans did not acquiesce in a marriage between Solomon and Judith — the sister of the young German monarch , Henry IV — until Solomon 's right to succeed his father was declared and publicly confirmed . Thereafter Andrew was determined to secure the throne for his son . He invited Béla to his manor in Tiszavárkony , where the King offered his brother a seemingly free choice between a crown and a sword ( which were the symbols of the royal and ducal power , respectively ) . However , he had ordered that Béla be murdered if he chose the crown . Having been informed of his brother 's secret plan by one of his own partisans in the royal court , Béla opted for the sword , but he departed for Poland after the meeting .
He returned to Hungary , in the autumn of 1060 , with Polish troops that Duke Boleslaus the Bold of Poland had provided . Around the same time , German reinforcements arrived in Hungary to assist Andrew against Béla . The ensuing civil war ended with the victory of Béla , who defeated his brother in two successive battles fought at the river Tisza and at Moson . The King was seriously injured and died soon afterward . His partisans took his son , the child Solomon , to Germany .
= = = Reign ( 1060 – 1063 ) = = =
Béla was crowned king in Székesfehérvár on 6 December 1060 . He ordered that " the wives and sons and all the property of all those who had followed " his nephew to Germany " should be protected and kept safe and sound " , which induced many of Solomon 's partisans to reconcile themselves to Béla 's rule and return to Hungary . He reformed the coinage and introduced " large coins of purest silver " into circulation . In order to stabilize the new currency , Béla maximized the prices and eliminated the black market . He also ordered that weekly markets should be held on Saturdays , instead of Sundays , in the kingdom . The historian Nora Berend says that the latter measure " may have adversely affected Jewish activities " , because Jews , who observed the Sabbath , could not work on Saturdays .
Béla decided to discuss his innovations with the representatives of the freemen , and " sent heralds throughout all Hungary to summon two elders with gift of speech from each village to a royal council " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle . A great crowd of commoners gathered in Székesfehérvár in 1061 . They demanded the restoration of paganism and the murder of clergymen , but Béla collected his army and suppressed their uprising within three days .
Béla attempted to conclude a peace treaty with the Holy Roman Empire . For this purpose , shortly after his coronation , he released all German commanders who had assisted his brother during the civil war . However , the young German monarch 's advisors refused Béla 's proposals . In the summer of 1063 , an assembly of the German princes decided to launch a military expedition against Hungary to restore young Solomon to the throne . Béla was planning to abdicate in favor of his nephew if the latter restored his former ducatus , but he was seriously injured when " his throne broke beneath him " in his manor at Dömös . The King — who was " half @-@ dead " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle — was taken to the western borders of his kingdom , where he died at the creek Kinizsa on 11 September 1063 . Béla was buried in the Benedictine Szekszárd Abbey , which he had set up in 1061 . Following Béla 's death , his three sons — Géza , Ladislaus and Lampert — sought refuge in Poland , and Solomon ascended the throne .
= = Family = =
Béla married , in about 1033 , a daughter of King Mieszko II of Poland . According to Makk , her name was either Richesa or Adelheid . Their eldest children , Géza and Ladislaus — who became kings of Hungary in 1074 and 1077 , respectively — were born in Poland in the 1040s . Béla 's third son , Lampert , was born after Béla 's return to Hungary .
Lampert was followed by a daughter named Sophia , who was first married to Margrave Ulric I of Carniola , and later to Duke Magnus of Saxony . Her younger sister , Euphemia , became the wife of Duke Otto I of Olomouc . Béla 's third daughter , Helena , was the queen of King Demetrius Zvonimir of Croatia . An unnamed daughter of Béla became the first wife of a Hungarian nobleman , Lampert of the Clan Hont @-@ Pázmány . According to the historian Martin Dimnik , Béla also fathered a fifth daughter , Lanka , who was the wife of Prince Rostislav Vladimirovich of Tmutarakan .
The following family tree presents Béla 's ancestry , his offspring , and some of his relatives mentioned in the article .
* A Khazar , Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian lady . * * Györffy writes that she may have been a member of the Bulgarian Cometopuli dynasty . * * * Lanka is not mentioned as Béla I 's daughter by all specialists .
= Su Song =
Su Song ( simplified Chinese : 苏颂 ; traditional Chinese : 蘇頌 ; pinyin : Sū Sòng ; courtesy name : Zirong 子容 ) ( 1020 – 1101 AD ) was a renowned Han Chinese polymath who was described as a scientist , mathematician , statesman , astronomer , cartographer , horologist , medical doctor , pharmacologist , mineralogist , zoologist , botanist , mechanical and architectural engineer , poet , antiquarian , and ambassador of the Song Dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) .
Su Song was the engineer of a hydro @-@ mechanical astronomical clock tower in medieval Kaifeng , which employed the use of an early escapement mechanism . The escapement mechanism of Su 's clock tower had been invented by Buddhist monk Yi Xing and government official Liang Lingzan in 725 AD to operate a water @-@ powered armillary sphere , although Su 's armillary sphere was the first to be provided with a mechanical clock drive . Su 's clock tower also featured the oldest known endless power @-@ transmitting chain drive , called the tian ti ( 天梯 ) , or " celestial ladder " , as depicted in his horological treatise . The clock tower had 133 different clock jacks to indicate and sound the hours . Su Song 's treatise about the clock tower , Xinyi Xiangfayao ( 新儀象法要 ) , has survived since its written form in 1092 and official printed publication in 1094 . The book has been analyzed by many historians , such as Joseph Needham . The clock itself , however , was dismantled by the invading Jurchen army in AD 1127 , and although attempts were made to reassemble it , the tower was never successfully reinstated .
The Xinyi Xiangfayao was Su 's best @-@ known treatise , but the polymath compiled other works as well . He completed a large celestial atlas of several star maps , several terrestrial maps , as well as a treatise on pharmacology . The latter discussed related subjects on mineralogy , zoology , botany , and metallurgy .
European Jesuit visitors to China like Matteo Ricci and Nicolas Trigault briefly wrote about Chinese clocks with wheel drives , but others mistakenly believed that the Chinese had never advanced beyond the stage of the clepsydra , incense clock , and sundial . They thought that advanced mechanical clockworks were new to China and that these mechanisms were something valuable that Europeans could offer to the Chinese . Although not as prominent as in the Song period , contemporary Chinese texts of the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) described a relatively unbroken history of mechanical clocks in China , from the 13th century to the 16th .
= = Life and works = =
= = = Career as a scholar @-@ official = = =
Su Song was born in modern @-@ day Fujian , near medieval Quanzhou . Like a contemporary , Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) , Su Song was a polymath , a person whose expertise spans a significant number of different interests . It was written by his junior colleague and Hanlin scholar Ye Mengde ( 1077 – 1148 ) that in Su 's youth , he mastered the provincial exams and rose to the top of the examination list for writing the best essay on general principles and structure of the Chinese calendar . From an early age , his interests in astronomy and calendrical science led him onto a distinguished path as a state bureaucrat . In his spare time he was fond of writing poetry , which he used to praise the works of artists such as the painter Li Gonglin ( 1049 – 1106 ) . He also was an antiquarian and collector of old artworks from previous dynasties .
In matters of administrative government , he had attained the rank of Ambassador and President of the Ministry of Personnel at the capital of Kaifeng , and was known also as an expert in administration and finance . After serving in the Ministry of Personnel , he became a Minister of Justice in 1086 . He was appointed as a distinguished editor for the Academy of Scholarly Worthies , where in 1063 he edited , redacted , commented on , and added a preface for the classic work Huainanzi of the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) . Eventually , Su rose to the post of Vice President of the Chancellery Secretariat . Among many honorable positions and titles conferred upon him , Su Song was also one of the ' Deputy Tutors of the Heir Apparent ' . At court , he chose to distance himself from the political rivalries of the Conservatives , led by Prime Minister Sima Guang ( 1019 – 1086 ) , and the Reformists , led by Prime Minister Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) ; although many of his associates were of the Conservative faction . In 1077 he was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to the Liao Dynasty of the Khitan people to the north , sharing ideas about calendrical science , as the Liao state had created its own calendar in 994 AD . In a finding that reportedly embarrassed the court , Su Song acknowledged to the emperor that the calendar of the Khitan people was in fact a bit more accurate than their own , resulting in the fining and punishment of officials in the Bureau of Astronomy and Calendar . Su was supposed to travel north to Liao and arrive promptly for a birthday celebration and feast on a day which coincided with the winter solstice of the Song calendar , but was actually a day behind the Liao calendar . Historian Liu Heping states that Emperor Zhezong of Song sponsored Su Song 's clocktower in 1086 in order to compete with the Liao for " scientific and national superiority . " In 1081 , the court instructed Su Song to compile into a book the diplomatic history of Song @-@ Liao relations , an elaborate task that , once complete , filled 200 volumes . With his extensive knowledge of cartography , Su Song was able to settle a heated border dispute between the Song and Liao dynasties .
= = = Astronomy = = =
Su Song also created a celestial atlas ( in five separate maps ) , which had the hour circles between the xiu ( lunar mansions ) forming the astronomical meridians , with stars marked in an equidistant cylindrical projection on each side of the equator , and thus , was in accordance to their north polar distances . Furthermore , Su Song must have taken advantage of the astronomical findings of his political rival and contemporary astronomer Shen Kuo . This is so because Su Song 's fourth star map places the position of the pole star halfway between Tian shu ( − 350 degrees ) and the current Polaris ; this was the more accurate calculation ( by 3 degrees ) that Shen Kuo had made when he observed the pole star over a period of three months with his width @-@ improved sighting tube . There were many star maps written before Song 's book , but the greatest significance of these star maps by Su Song is , that they represent the oldest extant star maps in printed form .
= = = Pharmacology , botany , zoology , and mineralogy = = =
In 1070 , Su Song and a team of scholars compiled and edited the Bencao Tujing ( ' Illustrated Pharmacopoeia ' , original source material from 1058 – 1061 ) , which was a groundbreaking treatise on pharmaceutical botany , zoology , and mineralogy . In compiling information for pharmaceutical knowledge , Su Song worked with such notable scholars as Zhang Yuxi , Lin Yi , Zhang Dong , and many others .
This treatise documented a wide range of pharmaceutical practices , including the use of ephedrine as a drug . It includes valuable information on metallurgy and the steel and iron industries during 11th century China . He created a systematic approach to listing various different minerals and their use in medicinal concoctions , such as all the variously known forms of mica that could be used to cure ills through digestion . He wrote of the subconchoidal fracture of native cinnabar , signs of ore beds , and provided description on crystal form . Similar to the ore channels formed by circulation of ground water written of by the later German scientist Georgius Agricola , Su Song made similar statements concerning copper carbonate , as did the earlier Rihua Bencao of 970 with copper sulphate . Su 's book was also the first pharmaceutical treatise written in China to describe the flax , Urtica thunbergiana , and Corchoropsis tomentosa ( crenata ) plants . According to Edward H. Schafer , Su accurately described the translucent quality of fine realgar , its origin from pods found in rocky river gorges , its matrix being pitted with holes and having a deep red , almost purple color , and that the mineral varied in sizes ranging from the size of a pea to a walnut .
Citing evidence from an ancient work by Zheng Xuan ( 127 – 200 ) , Su believed that physicians of the ancient Zhou Dynasty ( 1046 – 256 BC ) used realgar as a remedy for ulcers . As believed in Su 's day , the " five poisons " used by Zhou era physicians for this purpose were thought to be cinnabar , realgar , chalcanthite , alum , and magnetite . Su made systematic descriptions of animals and the environmental regions they could be found , such as different species of freshwater , marine , and shore crabs . For example , he noted that the freshwater crab species Eriocher sinensis could be found in the Huai River running through Anhui , in waterways near the capital city , as well as reservoirs and marshes of Hebei . Su 's book was preserved and copied into the Bencao Gangmu of the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) physician and pharmacologist Li Shizhen ( 1518 – 1593 ) .
= = = Horology and mechanical engineering = = =
Su Song compiled one of the greatest Chinese horological treatises of the Middle Ages , surrounding himself with an entourage of notable engineers and astronomers to assist in various projects . Xinyi Xiangfayao ( lit . " Essentials of a New Method for Mechanizing the Rotation of an Armillary Sphere and a Celestial Globe " ) , written in 1092 , was the final product of his life 's achievements in horology and clockwork . Fortunately , this book of Su 's that was handed down included 47 different illustrations of great detail of the mechanical workings for his astronomical clocktower .
Su Song 's greatest project was the 40 @-@ foot @-@ tall water @-@ powered astronomical clocktower constructed in Kaifeng , the wooden pilot model completed in 1088 , the bronze components cast by 1090 , while the wholly finished work was completed by 1094 during the reign of Emperor Zhezong of Song . The emperor had previously commissioned Han Gonglian , Acting Secretary of the Ministry of Personnel , to head the project , but the leadership position was instead handed down to Su Song . The emperor ordered in 1086 for Su to reconstruct the hun yi , or " armillary clock " , for a new clock @-@ tower in the capital city . Su worked with the aid of Han Gong @-@ lian , who applied his extensive knowledge of mathematics to the construction of the clock @-@ tower . A small @-@ scale wooden model was first crafted by Su Song , testing its intricate parts before applying it to an actual full @-@ scale clock tower . In the end , the clock @-@ tower had many impressive features , such as the hydro @-@ mechanical , rotating armillary sphere crowning the top level and weighing some 10 to 20 tons , a bronze celestial globe located in the middle that was 4 @.@ 5 feet in diameter , mechanically @-@ timed and rotating mannequins dressed in miniature Chinese clothes that exited miniature opening doors to announce the time of day by presenting designated reading plaques , ringing bells and gongs , or beating drums , a sophisticated use of oblique gears and an escapement mechanism , as well as an exterior facade of a fanciful Chinese pagoda . Upon its completion , the tower was called the Shui Yun Yi Xiang Tai , or " Tower for the Water @-@ Powered Sphere and Globe " . Joseph Needham writes :
After the invention of the escapement in ~ AD 725 ( Tang Dynasty ) , there was a great flourishing of gear @-@ wheels in clockwork and jackwork , culminating in the bronze and iron of Su Song 's elaborate masterpiece in ~ AD 1088 .
Years after Su 's death , the capital city of Kaifeng was besieged and captured in 1127 by the Jurchens of the Manchuria @-@ based Jin Dynasty during the Jin – Song wars . The clock @-@ tower was dismantled piece by piece by the Jurchens , who carted its components back to their own capital in modern @-@ day Beijing . However , due to the complexity of the tower , they were unable to successfully piece it back together . The new Emperor Gaozong of Song instructed Su 's son , Su Xie , to construct a new astronomical clock @-@ tower in its place , and Su Xie set to work studying his father 's texts with a team of other experts . However , they were also unsuccessful in creating another clock tower , and Su Xie was convinced that Su Song had purposefully left out essential components in his written work and diagrams so that others would not steal his ideas .
As the sinologist historian Derk Bodde points out , Su Song 's astronomical clock did not lead to a new generation of mass @-@ produced clockworks throughout China since his work was largely a government @-@ sponsored endeavor for the use of astronomers and astrologers in the imperial court . Yet the mechanical legacy of Su Song did not end with his work . In about 1150 , the writer Xue Jixuan noted that there were four types of clocks in his day , the basic waterclock , the incense clock , the sundial , and the clock with ' revolving and snapping springs ' ( ' gun tan ' ) . The rulers of the continuing Yuan Dynasty ( 1279 – 1368 AD ) had a vested interest in the advancement of mechanical clockworks . The astronomer Guo Shoujing helped restore the Beijing Ancient Observatory beginning in 1276 , where he crafted a water @-@ powered armillary sphere and clock with clock jacks being fully implemented and sounding the hours . Complex gearing for uniquely Chinese clockworks were continued in the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) , with new designs driven by the power of falling sand instead of water to provide motive power to the wheel drive , and some Ming clocks perhaps featured reduction gearing rather than the earlier escapement of Su Song . The earliest such design of a sand @-@ clock was made by Zhan Xiyuan around 1370 , which featured not only the scoop wheel of Su Song ' device , but also a new addition of a stationary dial face over which a pointer circulated , much like new European clocks of the same period .
= = Su Song 's escapement mechanism = =
In Su Song 's waterwheel linkwork device the action of the escapement 's arrest and release was achieved by gravity exerted periodically as the continuous flow of liquid filled containers of a limited size . In a single line of evolution , Su Song 's clock therefore united the concept of the clepsydra and the mechanical clock into one device run by mechanics and hydraulics . In his memorial , Su Song wrote about this concept :
According to your servant 's opinion there have been many systems and designs for astronomical instruments during past dynasties all differing from one another in minor respects . But the principle of the use of water @-@ power for the driving mechanism has always been the same . The heavens move without ceasing but so also does water flow ( and fall ) . Thus if the water is made to pour with perfect evenness , then the comparison of the rotary movements ( of the heavens and the machine ) will show no discrepancy or contradiction ; for the unresting follows the unceasing .
In his writing , Su Song credited , as the predecessor of his working clock , the hydraulic @-@ powered armillary sphere of Zhang Heng ( 78 – 139 AD ) , an earlier Chinese scientist . Su Song was also strongly influenced by the earlier armillary sphere created by Zhang Sixun ( 976 AD ) , who also employed the escapement mechanism and used liquid mercury instead of water in the waterwheel of his astronomical clock tower ( since liquid mercury would not freeze during winter and would not corrode and rust metal components over time ) . However , Su Song stated in his writing that after Zhang 's death , no one was able to replicate his device , much like his own .
The mechanical clockworks for Su Song 's astronomical tower featured a great driving @-@ wheel that was 11 feet in diameter , carrying 36 scoops , into each of which water poured at a uniform rate from the " constant @-@ level tank " ( Needham , Fig . 653 ) . The main driving shaft of iron , with its cylindrical necks supported on iron crescent @-@ shaped bearings , ended in a pinion which engaged a gear wheel at the lower end of the main vertical transmission shaft .
Joseph Needham gives a general description of the clock @-@ tower itself :
( Su Song 's ) clockwork , driven by a water @-@ wheel , and fully enclosed within the tower , rotated an observational armillary sphere on the top platform and a celestial globe in the upper story . Its time @-@ announcing function was further fulfilled visually and audibly by the performances of numerous jacks mounted on the eight superimposed wheels of a time @-@ keeping shaft and appearing at windows in the pagoda @-@ like structure at the front of the tower . Within the building , some 40 ft. high , the driving @-@ wheel was provided with a special form of escapement , and the water was pumped back into the tanks periodically by manual means . The time @-@ annunciator must have included conversion gearing , since it gave ' unequal ' as well as equal time signals , and the sphere probably had this . Su Song 's treatise on the clock , the Hsin I Hsiang Fa Yao , constitutes a classic of horological engineering .
That was figure Fig . 650 , while Fig . 656 displays the upper and lower norias with their tanks and the manual wheel for operating them .
Fig . 657 displays a rather miniature and scaled @-@ down pic for the basics of the escapement mechanism in an illustration ( from Su 's book ) , with Needham 's caption here in this quote : " The ' celestial balance ' or escapement mechanism of Su Song 's clockwork ( Xinyi Xiangfayao , ch . 3 , p . 18b ) " . The latter figure carefully labels :
a right upper lock
upper link
left upper lock
axle or pivot
long chain
upper counterweight
sump
checking fork of the lower balancing lever
coupling tongue
main ( i.e. lower ) counterweight .
Figure 658 @.@ displays a more intricate and most @-@ telling half @-@ page scale drawing of Su Song 's large escapement mechanism , labeling these individual parts as they interact with one another :
arrested spoke
left upper lock
scoop being filled by
water jet from constant @-@ level tank
small counterweight
checking fork tripped by a projection pin on the scoop , and forming the near end of
the lower balancing lever with
its lower counterweight
coupling tongue , connected by
the long chain with
the upper balancing lever , which has at its far end
the upper counterweight , and at its near end
a short length chain connecting it with the upper lock beneath it ;
right upper lock
= = The endless chain drive = =
The world 's oldest illustrated depiction of an endless power @-@ transmitting chain drive is from Su Song 's horological treatise . It was used in the clockworks for coupling the main drive shaft to the armillary sphere gearbox ( rotating three small pinions ) , as seen in Needham 's Fig . 410 and Fig . 652 . This belonged to the uppermost end of the main vertical transmission shaft , incorporating right angle gears and oblique gears connected by a short idling shaft . The toothed ring gear called the diurnal motion gear ring was fit around the shell of the armillary sphere along the declination parallel near the southern pole . Although the ancient Greek Philo of Byzantium ( 3rd century BC ) featured a sort of endless belt for his magazine arcuballista , which did not transmit continuous power , the influential source for Su Song 's chain drive is most likely the continuously @-@ driven chain pump known in China since the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) . From his horological treatise , Su Song states :
The chain drive ( lit. celestial ladder ) is 19 @.@ 5 ft long ( 5 @.@ 9 m ) . The system is as follows : an iron chain with its links joined together to form an endless circuit hangs down from the upper chain @-@ wheel which is concealed by the tortoise @-@ and @-@ cloud ( column supporting the armillary sphere centrally ) , and passes also round the lower chain @-@ wheel which is mounted on the main driving @-@ shaft . Whenever one link moves , it moves forward one tooth of the diurnal motion gear @-@ ring and rotates the Component of the Three Arrangers of Time , thus following the motion of the heavens .
In addition , the motion gear rings and the upper drive wheel both had 600 teeth , which by Su 's mathematical precision carefully calculated measured units of the day in a division of 1 / 600 . These gears , having 600 teeth , thus ensured the division of the day into measurements of 2 minutes and 24 seconds each .
= = Su Song 's armillary sphere = =
In Joseph Needham 's third volume of Science and Civilization in China , the drawing for Fig . 159 displays a drawing of Su Song 's armillary sphere ( as depicted in his 11th century treatise ) , complete with three ' nests ' or layers of mechanically @-@ rotated rings . It was the earlier Chinese astronomer Li Chun @-@ feng of the Tang Dynasty who in 633 AD created the first armillary sphere with three layers to calibrate multiple aspects of astronomical observation . Zhang 's armillary sphere has often been compared to that of the 13th century monarch Alfonso X of Castile in Islamic @-@ era Spain . The chief difference was that Alfonso 's instrument featured an arrangement for making measurements of the azimuth and altitude , which was present in the Arabic tradition , while Su Song 's armillary sphere was duly graduated . For the drawing of Su 's armillary sphere , the listing of components are :
The Outer Nestmeridian circle
horizon circle
outer equator circle
The Middle Nestsolstitial colure circle
ecliptic circle
diurnal motion gear @-@ ring , connecting with the power @-@ drive
The Inner Nestpolar @-@ mounted declination ring or hour @-@ angle circle , with
sighting tube attached to it and strengthened by a
diametral brace
Other Partsvertical column concealing the transmission shaft
supporting columns in the form of dragons
cross @-@ piece of the base , incorporating water @-@ levels
south polar pivot
north polar pivit
= = Transmission of Su 's text and his legacy = =
When Su Song 's Xinyi Xiangfayao was written in 1092 and the horological monograph finalized and presented in 1094 , his work was published and widely printed in the north ( see woodblock printing and movable type of Bi Sheng ) . In the south , printing and circulation of his work was not widely distributed until Shi Yuanzhi of Jiangsu had it printed there in 1172 .
When presenting his clocktower design to the Emperor Zhezong , Su Song equated the constant flow of water with the continuous movements of the heavens , the latter of which symbolized the unceasing power of the emperor . This appealed to emperor , who featured artwork representing the clocktower on vehicles of major imperial processions , as illustrated in the Illustration of the Imperial Grand Carriage Procession of 1053 .
The later Ming Dynasty / Qing Dynasty scholar Qian Zeng ( 1629 – 1699 ) held an old volume of Su 's work , which he faithfully reproduced in a newly printed edition . He took special care in avoiding any rewording or inconsistencies with the original text as well . Again , it was later reprinted by Zhang Xizu ( 1799 – 1844 ) .
Interestingly enough , Su Song 's treatise on astronomical clockwork was not the only one made in China during his day , as the Song Shi ( compiled in 1345 ) records the written treatise of the Shuiyunhun Tianjiyao ( Wade – Giles : Shui Yun Hun Thien Chi Yao ; lit . Essentials of the [ Technique of ] making Astronomical Apparatus revolve by Water @-@ Power ) , written by Juan Taifa . However , this treatise no longer survives .
In the realm of modern research , the late British biochemist and historian of Chinese science Joseph Needham ( 1900 – 1995 ) ( known as Li Yuese in China ) did extensive research and analysis of Su Song 's texts and various achievements in his Science and Civilization in China book series . Joseph Needham also related many detailed passages from Su 's contemporary medieval Chinese sources on the life of Su and his achievements known in his day . In 1956 , John Christiansen reconstructed a model of Su Song 's clocktower in a famous drawing , which garnered attention in the West towards 11th @-@ century Chinese engineering . A miniature model of Su Song 's clock was reconstructed by John Cambridge and is now on display at the National Science Museum at South Kensington , London . In China , the clocktower was reconstructed to one @-@ fifth its actual scale by Wang Zhenduo , who worked for the Chinese Historical Museum in Beijing in the 1950s .
= Periyar E. V. Ramasamy =
Erode Venkata Ramasamy ( 17 September 1879 – 24 December 1973 ) , commonly known as Periyar also referred as E. V. R. or Thanthai Periyar , was an Indian social activist , freedom fighter and politician who started the Self @-@ Respect Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam .
E.V. Ramasamy was born in Erode , Madras Presidency to a wealthy family of Balijas . At a young age , he witnessed numerous incidents of caste and gender discrimination . E.V. Ramasamy married when he was 19 , and had a daughter who lived for only 5 months . His first wife , Nagammai , died in 1933 . E.V. Ramasamy married for a second time in July 1948 . His second wife , Maniammai , continued E.V. Ramasamy 's social work after his death in 1973 , but his thoughts and ideas then were advocated by Dravidar Kazhagam .
E.V. Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919 , but resigned in 1925 when he felt that the party was only serving the interests of the Brahmins . In 1924 , E.V. Ramasamy participated in a non @-@ violent agitation ( satyagraha ) in Vaikam , Kerala . From 1929 to 1932 Ramasamy toured British Malaya , Europe , and Russia , which had an influence on him . In 1939 , E.V. Ramasamy became the head of the Justice Party , and in 1944 , he changed its name to Dravidar Kazhagam . The party later split and one group led by C. N. Annadurai formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) in 1949 . While continuing the Self @-@ Respect Movement , he advocated for an independent Dravida Nadu ( Dravidistan ) .
E.V. Ramasamy propagated the principles of rationalism , self @-@ respect , women ’ s rights and eradication of caste . He opposed the exploitation and marginalisation of the non @-@ Brahmin Dravidian people of South India and the imposition of what he considered Indo @-@ Aryan India . His work has greatly revolutionised the Tamil society and has significantly removed caste @-@ based discrimination . He is also responsible for bringing new changes to the Tamil alphabet . The citation awarded by the UNESCO described E.V. Ramasamy as " the prophet of the new age , the Socrates of South East Asia , father of social reform movement and arch enemy of ignorance , superstitions , meaningless customs and base manners . "
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Erode Venkata Ramasami was born on 17 September 1879 , in Erode , then a part of the Coimbatore district of the Madras Presidency . E.V. Ramasamy 's father , a rich businessman , was Venkatappa Naicker ( or Venkata ) , and his mother was Chinna Thayammal , alias Muthammal . He had one elder brother named Krishnaswamy and two sisters named Kannamma and Ponnuthoy . He later came to be known as " Periyar " meaning ' respected one ' or ' elder ' in Tamil .
In 1929 , E.V. Ramasamy announced the deletion of his caste surname Naicker ( Balija Naicker ) from his name at the First Provincial Self @-@ Respect Conference of Chenggalpattu . He could speak three Dravidian languages : Mother tongue Kannada , Telugu and Tamil . His mother tongue was Kannada . Periyar attended school for five years after which he joined his father 's trade at the age of 12 . He used to listen to Tamil Vaishnavite gurus who gave discourses in his house enjoying his father 's hospitality . At a young age , he began questioning the apparent contradictions in the Hindu mythological stories . As Periyar grew , he felt that people used religion only as a mask to deceive innocent people and therefore took it as one of his duties in life to warn people against superstitions and priests .
E.V. Ramasamy 's father arranged for his wedding when he was nineteen . The bride , Nagammai , was only thirteen . Despite having an arranged marriage , Periyar and Nagammai were already in love with each other . Nagammai actively supported her husband in his later public activities and agitations . Two years after their marriage , a daughter was born to them . However , their daughter died when she was five months old . The couple had no more children .
= = = Kasi Pilgrimage Incident = = =
In 1904 , E.V. Ramasamy went on a pilgrimage to Kasi to visit the revered Siva temple of Kashi Vishwanath . Though regarded as one of the holiest sites of Hinduism , he witnessed immoral activities such as begging , and floating dead bodies . His frustrations extended to functional Hinduism in general when he experienced what he called Brahmanic exploitation .
However , one particular incident in Kasi had a profound impact on E.V. Ramasamy 's ideology and future work . At the worship site there were free meals offered to guests . To E.V. Ramasamy 's shock , he was refused meals at choultries , which exclusively fed Brahmins . Due to extreme hunger , E.V. Ramasamy felt compelled to enter one of the eateries disguised as a Brahmin with a sacred thread on his bare chest , but was betrayed by his moustache . The gatekeeper at the temple concluded that E.V. Ramasamy was not a Brahmin , as Brahmins were not permitted by the Hindu shastras to have moustaches . He not only prevented Periyar 's entry but also pushed him rudely into the street .
As his hunger became intolerable , Periyar was forced to feed on leftovers from the streets . Around this time , he realised that the eatery which had refused him entry was built by a wealthy non @-@ Brahmin from South India . This discriminatory attitude dealt a blow to Periyar 's regard for Hinduism , for the events he had witnessed at Kasi were completely different from the picture of Kasi he had in mind , as a holy place which welcomed all . Ramasami was a theist until his visit to Kasi , after which his views changed and he became an atheist .
= = = Member of Congress Party ( 1919 – 1925 ) = = =
E.V. Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919 after quitting his business and resigning from public posts . He held the chairmanship of Erode Municipality and wholeheartedly undertook constructive programs spreading the use of Khadi , picketing toddy shops , boycotting shops selling foreign cloth , and eradicating untouchability . In 1921 , Periyar courted imprisonment for picketing toddy shops in Erode . When his wife as well as his sister joined the agitation , it gained momentum , and the administration was forced to come to a compromise . He was again arrested during the Non @-@ Cooperation movement and the Temperance movement . In 1922 , periyar was elected the President of the Madras Presidency Congress Committee during the Tirupur session , where he advocated strongly for reservation in government jobs and education . His attempts were defeated in the Congress party due to a strong presence of discrimination and indifference , which led to his leaving the party in 1925 .
= = = Vaikom Satyagraha ( 1924 – 1925 ) = = =
In Vaikom , a small town in Kerala state , then Travancore , there were strict laws of untouchability in and around the temple area . Dalits , also known as Harijans were not allowed into the close streets around and leading to the temple , let alone inside it . Anti @-@ caste feelings were growing and in 1924 Vaikom was chosen as a suitable place for an organised Satyagraha . Under his guidance a movement had already begun with the aim of giving all castes the right to enter the temples . Thus , agitations and demonstrations took place . On the fourteenth of April , Periyar and his wife Nagamma arrived in Vaikom . They were immediately arrested and imprisoned for participation . In spite of Gandhi 's objection to non @-@ Keralites and non @-@ Hindus taking part , Periyar and his followers continued to give support to the movement until it was withdrawn . He received the title Vaikom Veeran , given by his followers who participated in the Satyagraha .
The way in which the Vaikom Satyagraha events have been recorded provides a clue to the image of the respective organisers . In an article entitle Gandhi and Ambedkar , A Study in Leadership , Eleanor Zelliot relates the ' Vaikom Satyagraha ' , including Gandhi 's negotiations with the temple authorities in relation to the event . Furthermore , the editor of E.V. Ramasamy 's Thoughts states that Brahmins purposely suppressed news about E.V. Ramasamy 's participation . A leading Congress magazine , Young India , in its extensive reports on Vaikom never mentions E.V. Ramasamy .
= = = Self @-@ Respect Movement = = =
Periyar and his followers campaigned constantly to influence and pressure the government to take measures to remove social inequality , even while other nationalist forerunners focused on the struggle for political independence . The Self @-@ Respect Movement was described from the beginning as " dedicated to the goal of giving non @-@ Brahmins a sense of pride based on their Dravidian past " .
In 1952 , the Periyar Self @-@ Respect Movement Institution was registered with a list of objectives of the institution from which may be quoted as
for the diffusion of useful knowledge of political education ; to allow people to live a life of freedom from slavery to anything against reason and self respect ; to do away with needless customs , meaningless ceremonies , and blind superstitious beliefs in society ; to put an end to the present social system in which caste , religion , community and traditional occupations based on the accident of birth , have chained the mass of the people and created " superior " and " inferior " classes ... and to give people equal rights ; to completely eradicate untouchability and to establish a united society based on brother / sisterhood ; to give equal rights to women ; to prevent child marriages and marriages based on law favourable to one sect , to conduct and encourage love marriages , widow marriages , inter caste and inter @-@ religious marriages and to have the marriages registered under the Civil Law ; and to establish and maintain homes for orphans and widows and to run educational institutions .
Propagation of the philosophy of self respect became the full @-@ time activity of Periyar since 1925 . A Tamil weekly Kudi Arasu started in 1925 , while the English journal Revolt started in 1928 carried on the propaganda among the English educated people . The Self @-@ Respect Movement began to grow fast and received the sympathy of the heads of the Justice Party from the beginning . In May 1929 , a conference of Self @-@ Respect Volunteers was held at Pattukkotai under the presidency of S. Guruswami . K.V. Alagiriswami took charge as the head of the volunteer band . Conferences followed in succession throughout the Tamil districts of the former Madras Presidency . A training school in Self @-@ Respect was opened at Erode , the home town of Periyar . The object was not just to introduce social reform but to bring about a social revolution to foster a new spirit and build a new society .
= = = International travel ( 1929 – 1932 ) = = =
Between 1929 and 1935 , under the strain of World Depression , political thinking worldwide received a jolt from the spread of international communism . Indian political parties , movements and considerable sections of leadership were also affected by inter @-@ continental ideologies . The Self @-@ Respect Movement also came under the influence of the leftist philosophies and institutions . E.V. Ramasamy , after establishing the Self @-@ Respect Movement as an independent institution , began to look for ways to strengthen it politically and socially . To accomplish this , he studied the history and politics of different countries , and personally observed these systems at work .
E.V. Ramasamy toured Malaya for a month , from December 1929 to January 1930 , to propagate the self @-@ respect philosophy . Embarking on his journey from Nagapattinam with his wife Nagammal and his followers , E.V. Ramasamy was received by 50 @,@ 000 Tamil Malaysians in Penang . During the same month , he inaugurated the Tamils Conference , convened by the Tamils Reformatory Sangam in Ipoh , and then went to Singapore . In December 1931 he undertook a tour of Europe , accompanied by S. Ramanathan and Erode Ramu , to personally acquaint himself with their political systems , social movements , way of life , economic and social progress and administration of public bodies . He visited Egypt , Greece , Turkey , Russia , Germany , England , Spain , France and Portugal , staying in Russia for three months . On his return journey he halted at Ceylon and returned to India in November 1932 .
The tour shaped the political ideology of E.V. Ramasamy to achieve the social concept of Self @-@ Respect . The communist system obtained in Russia appealed to him as appropriately suited to deal with the social ills of the country . Thus , on socio @-@ economic issues Periyar was Marxist , but he did not advocate for abolishing private ownership . Immediately after his return , samy , E.V. Rama in alliance with the enthusiastic communist , M. Singaravelu Chettiar , began to work out a socio @-@ political scheme incorporating socialist and self @-@ respect ideals . This marked a crucial stage of development in the Self @-@ Respect Movement which got politicised and found its compatibility in Tamil Nadu .
= = = Opposition to Hindi = = =
In 1937 , when Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari became the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency , he introduced Hindi as a compulsory language of study in schools , thereby igniting a series of anti @-@ Hindi agitations . Tamil nationalists , the Justice Party under Sir A. T. Panneerselvam , and E.V. Ramasamy organised anti @-@ Hindi protests in 1938 which ended with numerous arrests by the Rajaji government .
During the same year , the slogan " Tamil Nadu for Tamilians " was first raised by E.V. Ramasamy in protest against the introduction of Hindi in schools . He explained that the introduction of Hindi was a dangerous mechanism used by the Aryans to infiltrate Dravidian culture . He reasoned that the adoption of Hindi would make Tamils subordinate to the Hindi speaking North Indians . E.V. Ramasamy explained that Hindi would not only halt the progress of Tamil people , but would also completely destroy their culture and nullify the progressive ideas that had been successfully inculcated through Tamil in the recent decades .
Cutting across party lines , South Indian politicians rallied together in their opposition to Hindi . There were recurrent anti @-@ Hindi agitations in 1948 , 1952 and 1965 .
= = = As President of the Justice Party ( 1938 – 1944 ) = = =
A political party known as the South Indian Libertarian Federation ( commonly referred to as Justice Party ) was founded in 1916 , principally to oppose the economic and political power of the Brahmin groups . The party 's goal was to render social justice to the non @-@ Brahmin groups . To gain the support of the masses , non @-@ Brahmin politicians began propagating an ideology of equality among non @-@ Brahmin castes . Brahmanical priesthood and Sanskritic social class @-@ value hierarchy were blamed for the existence of inequalities among non @-@ Brahmin caste groups .
In 1937 , when the government required that Hindi be taught in the school system , E.V. Ramasamy organised opposition to this policy through the Justice Party . After 1937 , the Dravidian movement derived considerable support from the student community . In later years , opposition to Hindi played a big role in the politics of Tamil Nadu . The fear of the Hindi language had its origin in the conflict between Brahmins and non @-@ Brahmins . To the Tamils , acceptance of Hindi in the school system was a form of bondage . When the Justice Party weakened in the absence of mass support , E.V. Ramasamy took over the leadership of the party after being jailed for opposing Hindi in 1939 . Under his tutelage the party prospered , but the party 's conservative members , most of whom were rich and educated , withdrew from active participation .
= = = Dravidar Kazhagam ( 1944 – onwards ) = = =
= = = = Formation of the Dravidar Kazhagam = = = =
At a rally in 1944 , Periyar , in his capacity as the leader of the Justice Party , declared that the party would henceforth be known as the Dravidar Kazhagam , or " Dravidian Association " . However , a few who disagreed with Periyar started a splinter group , claiming to be the original Justice Party . This party was led by veteran Justice Party leader P. T. Rajan and survived until 1957 .
The Dravidar Kazhagam came to be well known among the urban communities and students . Villages were influenced by its message . Hindi , and ceremonies that had become associated with Brahmanical priesthood , were identified as alien symbols that should be eliminated from Tamil culture . Brahmins , who were regarded as the guardians of such symbols , came under verbal attack . From 1949 onwards , the Dravidar Kazhagam intensified social reformist work and put forward the fact that superstitions were the cause for the degeneration of Dravidians . The Dravidar Kazhagam vehemently fought for the abolition of untouchability amongst the Dalits . It also focused its attention on the liberation of women , women 's education , willing marriage , widow marriage , orphanages and mercy homes .
= = = = Split with Annadurai = = = =
In 1949 , E.V. Ramasamy 's chief lieutenant , Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai , established a separate association called the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) , or Dravidian Advancement Association . This was due to differences between the two , while Periyar advocated a separate independent Dravidian or Tamil state , Annadurai compromised with the Delhi government , at the same time claiming increased state independence . E.V. Ramasamy was convinced that individuals and movements that undertake the task of eradicating the social evils in the Indian sub @-@ continent have to pursue the goal with devotion and dedication without deviating from the path and with uncompromising zeal . Thus , if they contest elections aiming to assume political power , they would lose vigour and sense of purpose . But among his followers , there were those who had a different view , wanting to enter into politics and have a share in running the government . They were looking for an opportunity to part with E.V. Ramasamy . Thus , when E.V. Ramasamy married Maniammai on 9 July 1948 , they quit the Dravidar Kazhagam , stating that E.V. Ramasamy set a bad example by marrying a young woman that took his foster child in his old age – he was 70 and she 30 . Those who parted company with E.V. Ramasamy joined the DMK . Though the DMK split from the Dravidar Kazhagam , the organisation made efforts to carry on E.V. Ramasamy 's Self @-@ Respect Movement to villagers and urban students . The DMK advocated the thesis that the Tamil language was much richer than Sanskrit and Hindi in content , and thus was a key which opened the door to subjects to be learned . The Dravidar Kazhagam continued to counter Brahminism , Indo @-@ Aryan propaganda , and uphold the Dravidians ' right of self @-@ determination .
= = = = Later years = = = =
In 1956 , despite warnings from P. Kakkan , the President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee , Periyar organised a procession to the Marina to burn pictures of the Hindu God Rama . Periyar was subsequently arrested and confined to prison .
The activities of Periyar continued when he went to Bangalore in 1958 to participate in the All India Official Language Conference . There he stressed the need to retain English as the Union Official Language instead of Hindi . Five years later , Periyar travelled to North India to advocate the eradication of the caste system . Nearing Periyar 's last years , an award was given to him by the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) , and it was presented to him by the Union Education Minister , Triguna Sen in Madras ( Chennai ) , on 27 June 1970 . In his last meeting at Thiagaraya Nagar , Chennai on 19 December 1973 , Periyar declared a call for action to gain social equality and a dignified way of life . On 24 December 1973 , Periyar died at the age of 94 .
= = Principles and legacy = =
Periyar spent over fifty years giving speeches , propagating the realisation that everyone is an equal citizen and the differences on basis of caste and creeds were man @-@ made to keep the innocent and ignorant as underdogs in the society . Although Periyar 's speeches were targeted towards the illiterate and more mundane mass , scores of educated people were also swayed . Periyar viewed reasoning as a special tool . According to him , all were blessed with this tool , but very few used it . Thus Periyar used reasoning , with respect to subjects of social interest , in his presentations to his audiences . Communal differences in Tamil society were considered by many to be deep @-@ rooted features until Periyar came to the scene . Cho Ramaswamy remarked in India Today : + −
" Periyar was accepted and acclaimed as the leader by a significant section of the Tamil population in spite of all his contempt for Tamil and disdain for Tamils only because he was perceived to be a genuine individual , a rarity among those in public life . There was no shade of hypocrisy in him and he never attempted sophistry while propounding his social philosophy . "
= = = Rationalism = = =
The bedrock of E.V. Ramasamy ’ s principles and the movements that he started was rationalism . He thought that an insignificant minority in society was exploiting the majority and trying to keep it in a subordinate position forever . He wanted the exploited to sit up and think about their position , and use their reason to realise that they were being exploited by a handful of people . If they started thinking , they would realise that they were human beings like the rest , that birth did not and should not endow superiority over others and that they must awaken themselves and do everything possible to improve their own lot .
Likewise , E.V. Ramasamy explained that wisdom lies in thinking and that the spear @-@ head of thinking is rationalism . On caste , he stated that no other living being harms or degrades its own class . But man , said to be a rational living being , does these evils . The differences , hatred , enmity , degradation , poverty , and wickedness , now prevalent in the society are due to lack of wisdom and rationalism and not due to God or the cruelty of time . E.V. Ramasamy had written in his books and magazines dozens of times of various occasions that the British rule is better than self @-@ rule
E.V. Ramasamy also blamed the capitalists for their control of machineries , creating difficulties for the workers . According to his philosophy , rationalism , which has to lead the way for peaceful life to all , had resulted in causing poverty and worries to the people because of dominating forces . He stated that there is no use of simply acquiring titles or amassing wealth if one has no self @-@ respect or scientific knowledge . An example he gave was the West sending messages to the planets , while the Tamil society in India were sending rice and cereals to their dead forefathers through the Brahmins .
In a message to the Brahmin community , Periyar stated , " in the name of god , religion , and sastras you have duped us . We were the ruling people . Stop this life of cheating us from this year . Give room for rationalism and humanism " . He added that " any opposition not based on rationalism , science , or experience will one day or another , reveal the fraud , selfishness , lies and conspiracies " .
= = = Self @-@ respect = = =
Periyar 's philosophy of self @-@ respect was based on his image of an ideal world and a universally accepted one . His philosophy preaches that human actions should be based on rational thinking . Further , the outcome of the natural instinct of human beings is to examine every object and every action and even nature with a spirit of inquiry , and to refuse to submit to anything irrational as equivalent to slavery . Thus , the philosophy of self @-@ respect taught that human actions should be guided by reason , right and wrong should follow from rational thinking and conclusions drawn from reason should be respected under circumstances . Freedom means respect to thoughts and actions considered ' right ' by human beings on the basis of ' reason ' . There is not much difference between ' freedom ' and ' self @-@ respect ' .
Periyar 's foremost appeal to people was to develop self @-@ respect . He preached that the Brahmins had monopolised and cheated other communities for decades and deprived them of self @-@ respect . He stated that most Brahmins claimed to belong to a " superior " community with the reserved privilege of being in charge of temples and performing archanas . He felt that they were trying to reassert their control over religion by using their superior caste status to claim the exclusive privilege to touch idols or enter the sanctum sanctorum .
= = = Women ’ s rights = = =
As a rationalist and ardent social reformer , Periyar advocated forcefully throughout his life that women should be given their legitimate position in society as the equals of men and that they should be given good education and have the right to property . He thought age and social customs was not a bar in marrying women . He was keen that women should realise their rights and be worthy citizens of their country .
Periyar fought against the orthodox traditions of marriage as suppression of women in Tamil Nadu and throughout the Indian sub @-@ continent . Though arranged marriages were meant to enable a couple to live together throughout life , it was manipulated to enslave women . Much worse was the practice of child marriages practised throughout India at the time . Periyar married Maniammai who is 40 years younger than him though . It was believed that it would be a sin to marry after puberty . Another practice , which is prevalent today , is the dowry system where the bride 's family is supposed to give the husband a huge payment for the bride . The purpose of this was to assist the newly wedded couple financially , but in many instances dowries were misused by bridegrooms . The outcome of this abuse turned to the exploitation of the bride 's parents wealth , and in certain circumstances , lead to dowry deaths . There have been hundreds of thousands of cases where wives have been murdered , mutilated , and burned alive because the father of the bride was unable to make the dowry payment to the husband . Periyar fiercely stood up against this abuse meted out against women .
Women in India also did not have rights to their families ' or husbands ' property . Periyar fought fiercely for this and also advocated for the women to have the right to separate or divorce their husbands under reasonable circumstances . While birth control remained taboo in society of Periyar 's time , he advocated for it not only for the health of women and population control , but for the liberation of women .
He criticised the hypocrisy of chastity for women and argued that it should also either belong to men , or not at all for both individuals . While fighting against this , Periyar advocated to get rid of the Devadasi system . In his view it was an example of a list of degradations of women attaching them to temples for the entertainment of others , and as temple prostitutes . As a further liberation of women , Periyar pushed for the right of women to have an education and to join the armed services and the police force .
According to biographer M.D. Gopalakrishnan , Periyar and his movement achieved a better status for women in Tamil society . Periyar held that in matters of education and employment there should be no difference between men and women . Gopalakrishnan states that Periyar 's influence in the State departments and even the Center made it possible for women to join police departments and the army . Periyar also spoke out against child marriage .
= = = Social reform and eradication of caste = = =
Periyar wanted thinking people to see their society as far from perfect and in urgent need of reform . He wanted the government , the political parties and social workers to identify the evils in society and boldly adopt measures to remove them . Periyar 's philosophy did not differentiate social and political service . According to him , the first duty of a government is to run the social organisation efficiently , and the philosophy of religion was to organise the social system . Periyar stated that while Christian and Islamic religions were fulfilling this role , the Hindu religion remained totally unsuitable for social progress . He argued that the government was not for the people , but , in a " topsy @-@ turvy " manner , the people were for the government . He attributed this situation to the state of the social system contrived for the advantage of a small group of people .
One of the areas of Periyar 's focus was on the upliftment of rural communities . In a booklet called Village Uplift , Periyar pleaded for rural reform . At that time rural India still formed the largest part of the Indian subcontinent , in spite of the ongoing process of urbanisation . Thus , the distinction between rural and urban had meant an economic and social degradation for rural inhabitants . Periyar wanted to eradicate the concept of " village " as a discrimination word among places , just as the concept of " outcast " among social groups . Periyar advocated for a location where neither the name nor the situation or its conditions imply differences among people . He further advocated for the modernisation of villages by providing public facilities such as schools , libraries , radio stations , roads , bus transport , and police stations .
Periyar felt that a small number of cunning people created caste distinctions to dominate over society , so he emphasised that individuals must first develop self @-@ respect and learn to analyse propositions rationally . According to Periyar , a self @-@ respecting rationalist would readily realise that caste system had been stifling self @-@ respect and therefore he or she would strive to get rid of this menace .
Periyar stated that the caste system in south India is , due to Indo @-@ Aryan influence , linked with the arrival of Brahmins from the north . Ancient Tamil Nadu ( part of Tamilakkam ) had a different stratification of society in four or five regions ( Tinai ) , determined by natural surroundings and adequate means of living . Periyar also argued that birds , animals , and worms , which are considered to be devoid of rationalism do not create castes , or differences of high and low in their own species . But man , considered to be a rational being , was suffering from these because of religion and discrimination .
= = = Tamil language and writing = = =
Periyar claimed that Tamil , Telugu , Malayalam , and Kannada came from the same mother language of Old Tamil . He explained that the Tamil language is called by four different names since it is spoken in four different Dravidian states . Nevertheless , current understanding of Dravidian languages contains statements contradicting such claims . For example , the currently known classification of Dravidian languages provides the following distinct classes : Southern ( including Tamil – Kannada ( Malayalam ) and Tulu ) ; Central ( including Telugu – Kui and Kolami – Parji ) ; and , Northern ( including Kurukh – Malto and Brahui ) . Additionally , statements on the presence of evidence for linking Dravidian languages and Indo @-@ European languages are available .
With relation to writing , Periyar stated that using the Tamil script about the arts , which are useful to the people in their life and foster knowledge , talent and courage , and propagating them among the masses , will enlighten the people . Further , he explained that it will enrich the language , and thus it can be regarded as a zeal for Tamil . Periyar also stated that if words of North Indian origin ( Sanskrit ) are removed from Telugu , Kannada , and Malayalam , only Tamil will be left . On the Brahmin usage of Tamil , he stated how the Tamil spoken by the Andhras and the Malayalee peoples was far better than the Tamil spoken by the Brahmins . Periyar believed that Tamil language will make the Dravidian people unite under the banner of Tamil culture , and that it will make the Kannadigas , Andhras and the Malayalees be vigilant . With regards to a Dravidian alliance under a common umbrella language , Periyar stated that " a time will come for unity . This will go on until there is an end to the North Indian domination . We shall reclaim an independent sovereign state for us " .
At the same time , Periyar was also known to have made controversial remarks on the Tamil language and people from time to time . On one occasion , he referred to the Tamil people as " barbarians " and the Tamil language as the " language of barbarians " . However , Anita Diehl explains that Periyar made these remarks on Tamil because it had no respective feminine verbal forms .
Periyar 's ideas on Tamil alphabet reforms and his reasons were for the following such as the vowel ' ஈ ' ( i ) , having a cursive and looped representation of the short form , ' இ ' ( I ) . In stone inscriptions from 400 or 500 years ago , many Tamil letters are found in other shapes . As a matter of necessity and advantage to cope with printing technology , Periyar thought that it was sensible to change a few letters , reduce the number of letters , and alter a few signs . He further explained that the older and the more divine a language and its letters were said to be , the more they needed reform . Because of changes brought about by means of modern transport and international contact , and happenings that have attracted words and products from many countries , foreign words and their pronunciations have been assimilated into Tamil quite easily . Just as a few compound characters have separate signs to indicate their length as in ' கா ' , ' கே ' ( kA : , kE : ) , Periyar argued why should not other compound characters like ' கி ' , ' கீ ' , ' கு ' , ' கூ ' ( kI , ki : , kU , ku : ) ( indicated integrally as of now ) , also have separate signs . Further , changing the shape of letters , creating new symbols and adding new letters and similarly , dropping those that are redundant , were quite essential according to Periyar . Thus , the glory and excellence of a language and its script depend on how easily they can be understood or learned and on nothing else "
= = = Thoughts on Thirukkural = = =
Periyar hailed the Thirukkural as a valuable scripture which contained many scientific and philosophical truths . He also praised the secular nature of the work . Periyar praised Thiruvalluvar for his description of God as a formless entity with only positive attributes . He also suggested that one who reads the Thirukkural will become a Self @-@ respecter , absorbing knowledge in politics , society , and economics . According to him , though certain items in this ancient book of ethics may not relate to today , it permitted such changes for modern society .
On caste , he believed that the Kural illustrates how Vedic laws of Manu were against the Sudras and other communities of the Dravidian race . On the other hand , Periyar opined that the ethics from the Kural was comparable to the Christian Bible . The Dravidar Kazhagam adopted the Thirukkural and advocated that Thiruvalluvar 's Kural alone was enough to educate the people of the country . One of Periyar 's quotes on the Thirukkural from Veeramani 's Collected Works of Periyar was " when Dravida Nadu ( Dravidistan ) was a victim to Indo @-@ Aryan deceit , Thirukkural was written by a great Dravidian Thiruvalluvar to free the Dravidians " .
= = = Self @-@ determination of Dravida Nadu = = =
The Dravidian @-@ Aryan conflict was believed to be a continuous historical phenomenon that started when the Aryans first set their foot in the Dravidian lands . Even a decade before the idea of separation appeared , Periyar stated that , " as long as Aryan religion , Indo @-@ Aryan domination , propagation of Aryan Vedas and Aryan " Varnashrama " existed , there was need for a " Dravidian Progressive Movement " and a " Self @-@ Respect Movement " . Periyar became very concerned about the growing north Indian domination over the south which appeared to him no different from foreign domination . He wanted to secure the fruits of labour of the Dravidians to the Dravidians , and lamented that fields such as political , economic , industrial , social , art , and spiritual were dominated by the north for the benefit of the north Indians . Thus , with the approach of independence from Britain , this fear that North India would take the place of Britain to dominate south India became more and more intense .
Periyar was clear about the concept of a separate nation , comprising Tamil areas , that is part of the then existing Madras Presidency with adjoining areas into a federation guaranteeing protection of minorities , including religious , linguistic , and cultural freedom of the people . A separatist conference was held in June 1940 at Kanchipuram when Periyar released the map of the proposed Dravida Nadu , but failed to get British approval . On the contrary , Periyar received sympathy and support from people such as Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar and Muhammad Ali Jinnah for his views on the Congress , and for his opposition to Hindi . They then decided to convene a movement to resist the Congress .
The concept of Dravida Nadu was later modified down to Tamil Nadu This led to a proposal of a union of the Tamil people of not only South India but including those of Ceylon as well . In 1953 , Periyar helped to preserve Madras as the capital of Tamil Nadu , which later was the name he substituted for the more general Dravida Nadu . In 1955 Periyar threatened to burn the national flag , but on Chief Minister Kamaraj 's pledge that Hindi should not be compulsory he postponed the action . In his speech of 1957 called Suthantara Tamil Nadu En ? ( Why an independent Tamil Nadu ? ) , he criticised the Central Government of India inducing thousands of Tamilians to burn the constitution of India . The reason for this action was that Periyar held the Government responsible for maintaining the caste system . After stating reasons for separation and turning down opinions against it he closed his speech with a " war cry " to join and burn the map of India on 5 June . Periyar was sentenced to six months imprisonment for burning the Indian constitution .
Advocacy of such a nation became illegal when separatist demands were banned by law in 1957 . Regardless of these measures , a Dravida Nadu Separation Day was observed on 17 September 1960 resulting in numerous arrests . However , Periyar resumed his campaign in 1968 . He wrote an editorial on ' Tamil Nadu for Tamilians ' in which he stated , that by nationalism only Brahmins had prospered and nationalism had been developed to abolish the rights of Tamils . He advocated that there was need to establish a Tamil Nadu Freedom Organization and that it was necessary to work towards it .
= = = Anti @-@ Brahmanism vs. Anti @-@ Brahmin = = =
Periyar was a radical advocate of anti @-@ Brahmanism . Periyar 's ideology of anti @-@ Brahmanism is quite often confused as being anti @-@ Brahmin . Brahmanism is accepting social inequality based on birth . Even a non @-@ Brahmin who supports inequality based on caste was seen as a supporter of brahmanism . Periyar called on both Brahmins and non @-@ Brahmins to shun brahmanism .
In 1920 , when the Justice Party came to power , Brahmins occupied about 70 percent of the high level posts in government . After reservation was introduced by the Justice Party , it reversed this trend , allowing non @-@ Brahmins to rise in the government of the Madras Presidency . Periyar , through the Justice Party , advocated against the imbalance of the domination of Brahmins who constituted only 3 percent of the Population over Government jobs , judiciary and the Madras University . His Self @-@ Respect Movement espoused rationalism and atheism and the movement had currents of anti @-@ Brahminism . Furthermore , Periyar stated that :
" Our Dravidian movement does not exist against the Brahmins or the Banias ( a North Indian merchant caste ) . If anyone thinks so , I would only pity him . But we will not tolerate the ways in which Brahminism and the Bandiaism is degrading Dravidanadu . Whatever support they may have from the government , neither myself nor my movement will be of cowardice " .
Periyar also criticised Subramanya Bharathi in the journal Ticutar for portraying Mother Tamil as a sister of Sanskrit in his poems :
" They say Bharati is an immortal poet . … Even if a rat dies in an akrakāram , they would declare it to be immortal . … of Tamilnadu praises him . Why should this be so ? Supposedly because he sang fulsome praises of Tamil and Tamilnadu . What else could he sing ? His own mother tongue , Sanskrit , has been dead for years . What other language did he know ? He cannot sing in Sanskrit . … He says Tamilnadu is the land of Aryas . "
= = = Comparisons with Gandhi = = =
In the Vaikom Satyagraha of 1924 , Periyar and Gandhi both cooperated and confronted each other in socio @-@ political action . Periyar and his followers emphasised the difference in point of view between Gandhi and himself on the social issues , such as fighting the Untouchability Laws and eradication of the caste system .
According to the booklet Gandhi and Periyar Periyar wrote in his paper Kudi Arasu , in 1925 , reporting on the fact that Gandhi was ousted from the Mahasabha , because he opposed resolutions for the maintaining of caste and Untouchability Laws which would spoil his efforts to bring about Hindu @-@ Muslim unity . From this Gandhi learned the need of pleasing the Brahmins if anything was to be achieved .
Peiryar in his references to Gandhi used opportunities to present Gandhi as on principle serving the interests of the Brahmins. in 1927 , Periyar and Gandhi met at Bangalore to discuss this matter . The main difference between them came out when Periyar stood for the total eradication of Hinduism to which Gandhi objected saying that Hinduism is not fixed in doctrines but can be changed . In the Kudi Arasu , Periyar explained that :
" With all his good qualities , Gandhi did not bring the people forward from foolish and evil ways . His murderer was an educated man . Therefore nobody can say this is a time of high culture . If you eat poison you will die . If electricity hits the body you will die . If you oppose the Brahmin you will die . Gandhi did not advocate the eradication of Varnasrama Dharma structure but sees in it a task for the humanisation of society and social change possible within its structure . The consequence of this would be continued high @-@ caste leadership . Gandhi adapted Brahmins to social change without depriving them of their leadership " .
Thus , Gandhi did not advocate the eradication of the Varnasrama Dharma structure but saw in it a task for the humanisation of society and social change possible within its structure . The consequence of this would be continued high @-@ caste leadership . Gandhi accepted karma in the sense that " the Untouchables reap the reward of their karma , but was against discrimination against them using the revaluing term Harijans . As shown in the negotiations at Vaikom his methods of abolishing discrimination were : to stress on the orthodox inhumane treatment of Untouchables ; to secure voluntary lifting of the ban by changing the hearts of caste Hindus ; and to work within a Hindu framework of ideas .
On the Temple Entry issue Gandhi never advocated the opening of Garbha Griha to Harijans in consequence of his Hindu belief . These sources which can be labelled " pro @-@ Periyar " with the exception of M. Mahar and D.S. Sharma , clearly show that Periyar and his followers emphasised that Periyar was the real fighter for the removal of Untouchability and the true uplift of Hairjans , whereas Gandhi was not . This did not prevent Periyar from having faith in Gandhi on certain matters .
= = = Religion and atheism = = =
Periyar was generally regarded as a pragmatic propagandist who attacked the evils of religious influence on society , mainly what he regarded as Brahmin domination . At a young age , he felt that some people used religion only as a mask to deceive innocent people and considered it as his life 's mission to warn people against superstitions and priests . Anita Diehl explains that Periyar cannot be called an atheist philosopher . Periyar , however , qualified for the definition of what the term ' atheist ' implies in his address on philosophy . He repudiated the term as without real sense : " … the talk of the atheist should be considered thoughtless and erroneous . The thing I call god ... that makes all people equal and free , the god that does not stop free thinking and research , the god that does not ask for money , flattery and temples can certainly be an object of worship . For saying this much I have been called an atheist , a term that has no meaning " . EVR Periyar a born Hindu was vehemently opposed to Hinduism and Christianity . He did not criticize Islam .
Anita Diehl explains that Periyar was against incompatibility of faith with social equality and not religion itself . In a book on revolution published in 1961 , Periyar stated , " be of help to people . Do not use treachery or deceit . Speak the truth and do not cheat . That indeed is service to God " .
On Hinduism , Periyar believed that it was a religion with no distinctive sacred book ( bhagawad gita ) , or origins , but to be an imaginary faith preaching the " superiority " of the Brahmins , the inferiority of the Shudras , and the untouchability of the Dalits ( Panchamas ) . Maria Misra , a lecturer at Oxford University , compares him to the philosophes , by stating , " his contemptuous attitude to the baleful influence of Hinduism in Indian public life is strikingly akin to the anti @-@ Catholic diatribes of the enlightenment philosophes " . In 1955 , Periyar was arrested for his public agitation of burning the pictures of Rama at public places , as a symbolic protest against the Indo @-@ Aryan domination and degradation of the Dravidian leadership according to the Ramayana epic . Periyar also shoed the images of Krishna and Rama , stating that they were Aryan gods that considered the Dravidian Shudras to be " sons of prostitutes " .
Periyar openly suggested to those who were marginalised within the Hindu communities to consider converting to other faiths such as Islam , Christianity , or Buddhism . On Islam , he stated how it was good for abolishing the disgrace in human relationship , based on one of his speeches to railway employees at Tiruchirapalli in 1947 . Periyar also commended Islam for its belief in one invisible and formless God ; proclamation of equal rights for men and women ; and advocating of social unity .
At the rally in Tiruchi , Periyar said :
" Muslims are following the ancient philosophies of the Dravidians . The Arabic word for Dravidian religion is Islam . When Brahmanism was imposed in this country , it was Mohammad Nabi who opposed it , by instilling the Dravidian religion 's policies as Islam in the minds of the people "
Periyar viewed Christianity similar to the monotheistic faith of Islam . He explained that their faith says that there can be only one God which has no name or shape . Periyar took an interest in Rev. Martin Luther , where both he and his followers wanted to liken him and his role to that of the European reformer . Thus , Christian views such as that of Ram Mohan Roy 's The Precepts of Jesus has had at least an indirect influence on Periyar .
Apart from Islam and Christianity , Periyar also found in Buddhism a basis for his philosophy though he did not accept that religion . It was again an alternative in the search for self @-@ respect and the object was to get liberation from the discrimination of Hinduism . Through Periyar 's movement Temple Entry Acts of 1924 , 1931 , and up to 1950 were created for the non @-@ Brahmins . Another accomplishment took place during the 1970s when Tamil replaced Sanskrit as the Temple language in Tamil Nadu , while Dalits were finally eligible for priesthood .
= = = Controversies = = =
= = = = Factionism in the Justice Party = = = =
When B. Munuswamy Naidu became the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency in 1930 , he endorsed the inclusion of Brahmins in the Justice Party , saying :
So long as we exclude one community , we cannot as a political speak on behalf of or claim to represent all the people of our presidency . If , as | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Highlands Front , under General Hoang Minh Thao 's command , ordered all combat units to follow the second option and destroy the defences around Ban Me Thuot , but to be ready to switch to the first option when the opportunity presented itself .
= = = = South Vietnam = = = =
The 23rd Division ( South Vietnam ) under the command of Brigadier General Tran Van Cam was the main unit defending Ban Me Thuot and the surrounding areas . Major General Pham Van Phu had at his disposal five artillery battalions equipped with 146 artillery guns , and one armoured brigade of about 117 tanks and armoured vehicles . The South Vietnamese military also stationed air force and naval units in Ban Me Thuot .
The Army of the Republic of Vietnam also had the 22nd Division ( South Vietnam ) , seven ranger battalions , 36 regional force battalions , eight artillery battalions equipped with 230 artillery guns , and four armoured brigades in the Central Highlands . To support those ground units , the South Vietnamese air force had 32 fighter @-@ bombers , 86 helicopters , and 32 transport and reconnaissance aircraft .
Across the Central Highlands of Vietnam , the South Vietnamese military enjoyed a numerical superiority of about 78 @,@ 300 soldiers against North Vietnam ’ s 65 @,@ 141 soldiers . However , within the vicinity of Ban Me Thuot , the South Vietnamese were actually outnumbered by a ratio of 5 : 1 . The North Vietnamese had more tanks , armoured vehicles , and heavy artillery , with a ratio of about 2 : 1 . North Vietnamese General Van Tien Dung believed his tank and artillery units in the Central Highlands were the key factors that guaranteed a quick victory , because South Vietnam simply lacked the capability to withstand such large numbers of heavy weaponry .
= = = = South Vietnamese preparations = = = =
On February 18 , 1975 , President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu gathered all his commanders at the Independence Palace to discuss the Ly Thuong Kiet Military Plan , which was approved by the National Security Council in December 1974 . During a briefing by ARVN Colonel Hoang Ngoc Lung , Head of the ARVN General Staff , several important issues were brought to the attention of President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu and the ARVN Corps commanders . Firstly , information gathered by the South Vietnamese army showed there were seven North Vietnamese divisions in the northern areas of South Vietnam ’ s I Corps Tactical Zone . Secondly , there were signs which suggested that the North Vietnamese might launch a large @-@ scale attack during the spring @-@ summer season of 1975 . And thirdly , the II Corps Tactical Zone under the command of Major General Pham Van Phu was most likely North Vietnam ’ s first target . On February 19 General Phu returned to Pleiku to draw up a defence plan .
During the next few days , reports from South Vietnamese intelligence showed that North Vietnam ’ s 968th Infantry Division had arrived in South Vietnam ’ s II Corps from Laos . Two divisions ( 10th and 320A Infantry Divisions ) had taken up positions around Pleiku and Kon Tum , while two regiments ( 271st and 202nd Regiments ) had set up their base in Quang Duc . On March 2 a CIA officer flew out from Nha Trang to inform ARVN Colonel Nguyen Trong Luat of North Vietnamese preparations to attack Ban Me Thuot , without offering information on the strength of North Vietnamese formations . In response to the CIA report , General Phu ordered the 53rd Regiment to move from Quang Duc to Ban Me Thuot , and the 45th Regiment from Thuan Man to Thanh An @-@ Don Tham . General Phu did not make any further changes to the South Vietnamese order of battle in or around Ban Me Thuot . Thus , by the time the North Vietnamese opened fire on Ban Me Thuot , General Phu had simply failed to implement an effective plan to save II Corps .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Diversions = = =
In February 1975 , during the midst of Tet New Year celebrations , a North Vietnamese deserter surrendered himself to the ARVN 2nd Brigade Headquarters . Through extensive interrogations , the North Vietnamese soldier revealed the whereabouts of North Vietnamese units ; the 10th Infantry Division had encircled Duc Lap , while the 320A Infantry Division had arrived in Ea H ’ leo and were gearing up for an assault on Thuan Man , and an unknown unit was heading towards Ban Me Thuot . In late February , North Vietnamese artillery shells began to rain down on Pleiku , which convinced General Phu that the North Vietnamese would attack Pleiku instead of Ban Me Thuot . South Vietnamese military intelligence and information received from the American Embassy in Saigon showed the presence of about two or three North Vietnamese combat divisions positioned about 20 kilometres away from Kontum and Pleiku . Indeed , the movements around Pleiku and Kontum during the month of February were designed by the North Vietnamese Tay Nguyen Front to fool South Vietnamese military commanders in the Central Highlands .
Since December 1974 , the North Vietnamese prepared for the offensive by conducting raids on various South Vietnamese outposts and broadcasting fake radio messages to keep South Vietnamese commanders guessing about the location of their next assault . While the South Vietnamese units were kept occupied by Communist diversions , North Vietnamese General Hoang Minh Thao began moving his troops into attacking positions . The VPA 7th Combat Engineer Regiment was tasked with connecting Route 14 at North Vo Dinh with Highway 19 near Mang Yang Pass , which surpassed the district of Kontum . The VPA 10th Infantry Division began withdrawing from Duc Lap , and only left a small force behind to continue the bombardment of Pleiku , as artillery and tanks units took positions north of Kontum . The 320A Infantry Division deployed a small unit west of Pleiku to apply additional pressure on South Vietnamese positions at La Son , Thanh An , and Don Tam . Elements of the 95th Regiment conducted blocking operations along Highway 19 to stop South Vietnamese reinforcements from reaching their destination . The 198th Special Forces Regiment raided South Vietnamese depots at Pleiku , while the main formation of the 10th and 320A Infantry Divisions marched on Ban Me Thuot .
Personnel from local Viet Cong units infiltrated Kontum and Pleiku to spread rumours of a ‘ big Communist offensive ’ on the aforementioned districts . In response to the rumours , the ARVN 45th Infantry Regiment was sent out to sweep the areas near Ban Me Thuot , Thuan Man , and Duc Lap . To maintain the secrecy of their operations , the North Vietnamese Tay Nguyen Front ordered the 320A Infantry Division , which had by then set up camp west of Ban Me Thuot , to avoid contact with the South Vietnamese . Upon their arrival from Laos , the 316th Infantry Division received similar orders , and was not allowed to open fire under any circumstances . As the events in South Vietnam ’ s II Corps Tactical Zone were beginning to unfold , intelligence reports from Saigon continued to warn General Phu of an imminent Communist onslaught on Ban Me Thuot . Despite the numerous warnings which he had received from the CIA and his own military intelligence , General Phu remained convinced that Pleiku would be North Vietnam ’ s next target . As a result , on February 18 , 1975 , he ordered the 23rd Infantry Division to remain at their positions in Kontum and Pleiku , thereby reversing his earlier decision to bolster South Vietnamese defences at Ban Me Thuot .
= = = Closing in = = =
On March 3 , 1975 , North Vietnam ’ s Campaign 275 against South Vietnamese military forces in the Central Highlands began . The 95A Regiment was the first unit to go into action when they destroyed one South Vietnamese regional force battalion and successfully secured a 20 @-@ kilometre stretch of road on Highway 19 connecting Ayun with Pleibon and Phu Yen . Later , elements of the North Vietnamese 3rd ‘ Gold Star ’ Division secured a section of Highway 19 at Thuong An that connected with Bridge no.13 at Dong An Khe , killing about 300 South Vietnamese soldiers . On the night of March 5 , the North Vietnamese 25th Regiment ambushed a South Vietnamese transportation convoy at Chi Cuc and cut off Highway 21 west of Ban Me Thuot . To keep all the main roads open , Phu sent reinforcements to defend a section of Highway 19 at the eastern side of Peiku and ordered the ARVN 45th Infantry Regiment to march back from Thuan Man to defend Route 14 at southern Pleiku . The ARVN 53rd Infantry Regiment , under the command of Colonel Vu The Quang , was redeployed from Quang Duc Province to defend Ban Me Thuot . By March 8 , the North Vietnamese army had completely isolated the South Vietnamese II Corps Tactical Zone from the rest of the country . Route 7 , which had not been used for a long time due to neglect , was the only road still open .
On March 5 Quang sent one of his battalions to Ban Me Thuot in a convoy of 14 vehicles . They were ambushed by the North Vietnamese 9th Regiment , 320A Infantry Division at Thuan Man . Eight vehicles were destroyed , while two 150mm artillery guns were captured by the North Vietnamese . The remaining seven vehicles had to turn back , and Quang returned to Ban Me Thuot on a helicopter . On March 7 the North Vietnamese 48th Regiment , 320A Infantry Division , captured Chu Se and Thuan Man , and took 121 soldiers prisoner . On March 9 Phu ordered the 21st Ranger Battalion to fly out from Pleiku to support the 53rd Infantry Regiment in their efforts to retake Thuan Man . During the early hours of March 9 , as the 21st Ranger Battalion and the 53rd Infantry Regiment were repeatedly beaten back in their attempts to retake Thuan Man , the under @-@ strength North Vietnamese 10th Regiment captured Duc Lap and the surrounding areas .
At 11 am on March 9 , Phu flew out to Ban Me Thuot to assess the military situation with Brigadier General Le Trung Tuong , Colonel Vu The Quang , and Colonel Nguyen Trong Luat . Phu admitted that the situation at Duc Lap was irreversible . The 21st Ranger Battalion was reassigned to the north of Ban Me Thuot , the 2nd Battalion of the 53rd Infantry Regiment was to defend Dac Sac , and when the opportunity arose they would be tasked with retaking Duc Lap . Subsequently , Quang was entrusted with the task of defending Ban Me Thuot . Despite the strong presence of two North Vietnamese divisions outside Ban Me Thuot , Phu believed the situation outside the district was only a mere diversion attempt , and the real target would be Pleiku . Thus , upon arrival at his Pleiku headquarters , he raised the level of alertness there to 100 % . While Phu was waiting for the enemy to assault Pleiku , the North Vietnamese 7th and 575th Combat Engineer Regiments cleared the main roads into Ban Me Thuot to ensure tanks and heavy artillery could be directed at the district without hindrance . By the early hours of March 10 , the North Vietnamese army was in a strong position to strike at Ban Me Thuot .
= = Battle = =
= = = Fall of Ban Me Thuot = = =
At 2 am on March 10 , 1975 , the North Vietnamese army began their assault on South Vietnamese forces at Ban Me Thuot . The North Vietnamese 198th Special Forces Regiment spearheaded the attack by hitting the Hoa Binh Airfield , the district of Mai Hac De , and the headquarters of the ARVN 53rd Infantry Regiment . The initial North Vietnamese attack , which was marked by heavy artillery bombardment and actions initiated by the 198th Special Forces Regiment , had shocked ARVN Colonels Nguyen Trong Luat and Vu The Quang , both subordinates of Major General Pham Van Phu . Despite the strength of the initial assault , Quang believed the North Vietnamese only wanted to cause disruption and would withdraw their forces by daybreak . By 3 : 30 am , the 4th Battalion , 198th Special Forces Regiment , had successfully secured Phan Chu Trinh Road and the southern part of Hoa Binh airport , and they waited there for the regular infantry and tank units to arrive .
The North Vietnamese 5th Battalion , 198th Special Forces Regiment continued their assault on South Vietnamese installations at Mai Hac De district and the headquarters of the ARVN 53rd Infantry Regiment . The 5th Battalion successfully overran the nearby South Vietnamese artillery position and the tactical operations centre , thereby establishing control over the battlefield . By 5 am all main roads leading into the city of Ban Me Thuot were completely under North Vietnamese control . As the sun rose , the North Vietnamese continued to pound South Vietnamese positions around Ban Me Thuot with heavy artillery to cover the next wave of infantry assaults . During the morning of March 10 , North Vietnamese infantry units attacked Ban Me Thuot from different directions along the main roads . The 174th Regiment , with one armoured battalion in support , marched through Chi Lang , Chu Di , and Mai Hac De from the northwest . As the 95B Regiment approached Ban Me Thuot from the northeast , the main formation of the 149th Regiment secured Chu Blom and marched towards Ban Me Thuot from the southeast . The 1st Battalion , 3rd Regiment and the 1st Battalion , 149th Regiment launched an assault on Hoa Binh airfield from the northeast and southwest respectively . At the same time , the 2nd Regiment captured the South Vietnamese installation at Phuoc An .
In an attempt to halt the North Vietnamese assault , Luat ordered two squadrons of M @-@ 113 armoured personnel carriers to confront the enemy at Nga Sau , but they were forced to turn back by tanks from the North Vietnamese 3rd Tank Battalion , 273rd Armoured Regiment . At around 5 : 30 pm , a South Vietnamese ranger battalion was forced to abandon the nearby installation at Dac Lac after continuous assaults from the 95B Regiment . In the northeast , the South Vietnamese 9th Ranger Battalion held off the North Vietnamese 95B Regiment until they abandoned their positions on the next day . In the western outskirts of Ban Me Thuot , eight A @-@ 37 Dragonfly bombers from the South Vietnamese 6th Air Force Division inflicted light casualties on the North Vietnamese 24th Regiment , but failed to stop their enemies ’ momentum . In the southwest , Quang tried to retake Mai Hac De by mobilising his reserve units with tactical air support . Meanwhile , in the south @-@ eastern end of Ban Me Thuot , the North Vietnamese 149th Regiment defeated the South Vietnamese 53rd Infantry Regiment , after they sustained heavy casualties from repeated air attacks from A @-@ 37 bombers .
Earlier in the day , at about 2 : 30 pm , South Vietnamese Colonel Trinh Tieu , Chief of the ARVN 2nd Brigade in II Corps , discovered that the North Vietnamese 316th Infantry Division had moved into positions south of Ban Me Thuot from their base in Laos . To stop them from advancing any further , Phu ordered his soldiers to destroy every bridge connected to Highway 14 . By the time Phu ’ s order was carried out , elements of the North Vietnamese 316th Infantry Division had engaged in clashes with the South Vietnamese for more than 10 hours . By 5 pm the North Vietnamese 8th Battalion , 149th Regiment , in combination with the 198th Special Forces Regiment , tried but failed to capture Hoa Binh airfield , which was defended by one South Vietnamese ranger battalion .
During the night of March 10 , there was a lull in the fighting around Ban Me Thuot . South Vietnamese soldiers began retreating to various points around the headquarters of the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division , the Hoa Binh airfield , and the radio station . Colonel Quang , in a desperate attempt to save Ban Me Thuot , called on Brigadier General Le Trung Tuong to send reinforcements ; none were sent . In the early hours of March 11 , the North Vietnamese army resumed their assault under continuous bombing runs from South Vietnamese air force A @-@ 37 Dragonfly bombers . At 7 : 55 am , the South Vietnamese air force , while trying to stop a dozen North Vietnamese tanks from advancing toward their objective , accidentally dropped two bombs on the headquarters of the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division . From that point on , the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division lost all contact with the ARVN 2nd Brigade Command Headquarters . At 11 am on March 11 , the North Vietnamese 316th Infantry Division established full control over Ban Me Thuot after South Vietnamese soldiers within the city realised that they had been defeated and that no reinforcements had been sent . Thus , only Hoa Binh airfield was still in South Vietnamese hands , with the under @-@ strength ARVN 21st Ranger Battalion and the 53rd Infantry Regiment defending the area .
= = = Counterattack = = =
On March 12 , all South Vietnamese soldiers who had survived the North Vietnamese assault gathered at the headquarters of the 23rd Infantry Division and Hoa Binh airfield . Unfortunately , those soldiers were without their leaders , because both Colonels Nguyen Trong Luat and Vu The Quang were captured by the North Vietnamese in the early hours of the day . From Saigon , President Nguyen Van Thieu ordered Phu to hold all South Vietnamese positions at the eastern end of Ban Me Thuot , where they could stage a counter @-@ attack . Phu drew up a plan to retake Ban Me Thuot that would involve the last two remaining regiments ( 44th and 45th Infantry Regiments ) of the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division and the soldiers who had gathered at the 23rd Infantry Division headquarters and Hoa Binh airfield . Thieu approved the plan at dawn , and authorised Phu to make full use of three South Vietnamese air force units ( 6th Air Force Division belonging to the ARVN 2nd Brigade , 1st Air Force Division at Da Nang Air Base , and the 4th Air Force Division at Cần Thơ ) .
On the afternoon of March 12 , elements of the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division were dropped off at designated landing zones around Phuoc An . Initially about 100 South Vietnamese helicopters participated in the operation , and 81 fighter @-@ bombers were deployed to strike at North Vietnamese positions to cover the landings . At 3 : 10 pm , Phu took off in his Cessna U @-@ 17 to direct the operation over the skies of Ban Me Thuot . As he approached the battlefield , Phu phoned the South Vietnamese units at Hoa Binh airfield to notify them that an operation was underway , and he encouraged the soldiers to hold on to their positions . On the morning of March 13 , another 145 helicopters were used to complete the first phase of the operation with the entire 44th Infantry Regiment , the last soldiers of the 45th Infantry Regiment , and the 232nd Artillery Battalion dropped off at various points in Nong Trai , Phuoc An and along Highway 21 . At the completion of the landing operation , Phu returned to Pleiku to have a meeting with Thieu , during which they discussed the sudden appearance of the North Vietnamese 316th Infantry Division .
While the South Vietnamese air force was transporting the 23rd Infantry Division to the battlefield , their airbase at Cu Hanh was subjected to artillery bombardment from the North Vietnamese 968th Infantry Division . The North Vietnamese Central Highlands Front had anticipated the South Vietnamese military 's movements , so they built up their forces in and around Ban Me Thuot to prepare for a South Vietnamese counter @-@ attack . On March 13 , the North Vietnamese 24th and 28th Regiments received two companies of armoured vehicles and one artillery battalion , which had begun raining artillery shells on Phuoc An . At 7 : 07 am on March 14 , even before the ARVN 44th and 45th Infantry Regiments began their combat operations , the North Vietnamese 24th Regiment opened fire and attacked the South Vietnamese , with support from the 273rd Armoured Regiment .
By midday on March 14 , the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the ARVN 45th Infantry Regiment slowly melted away , as they were squeezed from all sides by the North Vietnamese 24th Regiment . Rather than marching on to Ban Me Thuot to relieve the soldiers of the 45th Infantry Regiment , the ARVN 44th Infantry Regiment were pinned down to fight the enemies ’ 24th Regiment . On March 16 , South Vietnamese formations at Phuoc An and Nong Trai came under heavy attack . At 8 : 15 am the 3rd Battalion , the last unit from the ARVN 45th Infantry Regiment , was completely wiped out . Subsequently , all South Vietnamese soldiers at Nong Trai were captured along with one helicopter .
On March 17 General Hoang Minh Thao ordered the 28th Regiment and the rest of the 273rd Armoured Regiment to support the 24th Regiment in their efforts to capture Phuoc An . At the same time , the North Vietnamese 66th Regiment and the 198th Special Forces Regiment began their final push on Hoa Binh airfield . At 11 : 30 am , South Vietnamese soldiers at Hoa Binh airfield , mainly drawn from the 53rd Infantry Regiment and the 21st Ranger Battalion , were finally defeated . Simultaneously , the remnants of the ARVN 44th Infantry Regiment abandoned Phuoc An , leaving the North Vietnamese in complete control of Ban Me Thuot .
= = = Retreat = = =
While battles were raging in and around Ban Me Thuot , South Vietnamese military forces in I Corps Tactical Zone were under pressure by the North Vietnamese 324th and 325th Infantry Divisions . During the period from March 8 to March 13 , there were clashes in Truoi in southern Hue , Mai Linh , Mo Tau , Thien Phuoc , and Quang Ngai . As a result of the immense pressure placed upon I Corps , the ARVN General Staff could not deploy strong units from the region to defend Ban Me Thuot and the rest of II Corps . On March 11 Thieu convened a meeting with Prime Minister Trần Thiện Khiêm , Chief of the ARVN General Staff General Cao Văn Viên , and Lieutenant General Dang Van Quang to discuss the military situation in the northern provinces of South Vietnam . In this meeting , Thieu decided to withdraw what was left of his army from the northern provinces to defend the Mekong region , where most of the nation ’ s population and vital economic resources were located . Thieu justified his decision on the basis that the South Vietnamese military could not defend every inch of South Vietnam ’ s territory , so the military had to be ‘ lightened at the top and heavy at the bottom ’ .
Starting at 11 am on March 14 , Thieu flew out to Cam Ranh for a briefing with General Phu . The events which took place after this briefing would go down as one of the greatest failures in military history . After Phu had outlined the military situation in the Central Highlands , he asked Thieu to bolster the South Vietnamese 6th Air Force Division with more aircraft and additional brigades to defend Kontum and Pleiku . Thieu refused to send further reinforcements because the South Vietnamese military no longer had the resources . Phu was ordered to move all his units down to the Mekong region where they could continue fighting . General Vien cautioned against moving large military formations down Highway 19 ; he reminded Thieu of the destruction suffered by the French Mobile Group 100 in the region in 1954 . Thieu and his commanders made the decision to use Route 7 instead , in an attempt to surprise the North Vietnamese , who would not expect them to use that road due to its poor condition .
After the briefing Phu immediately returned to his headquarters in Pleiku , where he began planning for the withdrawal with Brigadier Generals Tran Van Cam , Pham Ngoc Sang , Pham Duy Tat , and Colonel Le Khac Ly . To maintain secrecy , Phu ordered his officers to issue orders using only word of mouth instead of written documents , and not to reveal the withdrawal plan to local regional forces . Furthermore , he stated that the abandonment of II Corps Tactical Zone had to be quick , with the army taking only enough military equipment and ammunition to fight one last battle . Generals Tat and Cam were assigned the task of supervising the movements of soldiers and their dependents on the ground . Sang was responsible for the movement of vital military equipment and supplies via air transport and to sweep Route 7 using air force fighter @-@ bombers . Ly was ordered to lead a group of combat engineers to repair the road and bridges on Route 7 , as well as maintain contact with the ARVN 2nd Brigade Headquarters in Nha Trang . The plan was destined to fail , as Phu was unaware that General Ngo Quang Truong , commander of I Corps Tactical Zone , had also received similar orders to evacuate .
= = = Disaster on Route 7 = = =
Although local commanders in II Corps Tactical Zone tried their best to maintain secrecy , the unusual movement of transport aircraft in Pleiku on March 14 stirred up concern and suspicion amongst soldiers and civilians in the area . On March 15 the concerns of civilians were further heightened when a convoy of transport vehicles belonging to the 6th and 23rd Ranger Battalions headed south from Kontum . On the afternoon of March 15 , the withdrawal of South Vietnamese forces began to pick up momentum . The ARVN 19th Armoured Cavalry Squadron and the 6th Ranger Battalion opened the main road which stretched from Pleiku to Phu Tuc . Behind them were various infantry , armoured vehicle , and support units . During the early phases of the operation , Phu was confident that his plan would succeed for two reasons . Firstly , he believed most North Vietnamese units were busy stopping the counter @-@ attack at Phuoc An waged by the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division and would not have the time to disrupt the withdrawal . Secondly , if the North Vietnamese 968th Infantry Division near Pleiku was deployed to stop the operation , it would have to overcome the formidable ARVN 25th Ranger Battalion which was tasked with stopping any North Vietnamese attacks .
For North Vietnamese field commanders of the Tay Nguyen Front , the withdrawal of South Vietnamese military forces from II Corps Tactical Zone came as a surprise , but it was not totally unexpected . What surprised the North Vietnamese the most was the speed of the withdrawal . Indeed , it was not until the evening of March 15 , when the ARVN 19th Armoured Cavalry Squadron reached Cheo Reo , that the North Vietnamese began to receive information of Saigon ’ s decision to abandon the Central Highlands . At 8 pm on March 16 , the Tay Nguyen Front Command issued the first orders to pursue the South Vietnamese . The North Vietnamese 9th Battalion , 64th Regiment , part of the 320A Infantry Division , was the first unit to be mobilised to intercept the South Vietnamese column south of Cheo Reo district . Subsequently , the entire North Vietnamese 320A Infantry Division was sent to destroy the South Vietnamese column along Route 7 , with the 2nd Tank Battalion of the 273rd Armoured Regiment , the 675th Regiment , and the 593rd Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment in support . By the early hours of March 17 , tanks from the ARVN 19th Armoured Cavalry Squadron and the 6th Ranger Battalion clashed with the North Vietnamese 9th Battalion , 64th Regiment at Tuna Pass , about 4 kilometres away from the district of Cheo Reo .
During the evening of March 17 , General Tat organised a counter @-@ attack against the enemy 's 9th Battalion with support from fighter @-@ bombers , tanks and artillery , but his troops were repeatedly beaten back in their attempt to keep the road open . By the early hours of March 18 , the entire North Vietnamese 64th Regiment had blocked all the routes around Tuna Pass , while the 48th Regiment and elements of the North Vietnamese 968th Infantry Division began closing in on Cheo Reo from three directions . In the afternoon , Phu sent the 25th Ranger Battalion and the 2nd Armoured Cavalry Brigade to reopen Route 7 . At the same time the North Vietnamese 675th Artillery Regiment began shelling the main South Vietnamese column in Cheo Reo as three infantry regiments attacked the convoy from all sides . Unfortunately for the South Vietnamese , all their attempts to organise strong resistance were stifled by the chaos created by North Vietnamese artillery bombardments . At 3 pm , General Tat was ordered to destroy all heavy weaponry so the North Vietnamese could not make use of it . About 30 minutes later , a UH @-@ 1 helicopter landed on the grounds of Phu Bon primary school to pick up Tat and flew off to Nha Trang . At 9 am on March 19 , all South Vietnamese soldiers in the district of Cheo Reo stopped fighting . The 6th Ranger Battalion and the 19th Armoured Cavalry Squadron became the only units to arrive at their destination at Cung Son with only light casualties .
= = Aftermath = =
The loss of Ban Me Thuot and the subsequent evacuation from the Central Highlands cost South Vietnam ’ s II Corps Tactical Zone more than 75 % of its combat units — the 23rd Infantry Division , the Ranger groups , tanks , armoured cavalry , artillery , and combat engineering units . Overall about 3 / 4 of all South Vietnamese army soldiers were killed , wounded , deserted , or missing . North Vietnamese casualties were light in comparison , with 600 soldiers killed and 2 @,@ 416 wounded . Official Vietnamese history informs that during the eight days of fighting , North Vietnam 's army put 28 @,@ 514 South Vietnamese officers and soldiers out of action ; 4 @,@ 502 were killed in action and 16 @,@ 822 were captured . The North Vietnamese army destroyed 17 @,@ 183 small arms of various kinds , 79 artillery pieces , and 207 tanks and armoured vehicles ; 44 aircraft were shot down and another 110 were damaged .
Civilians who took part in the evacuation suffered the consequences of the military action along Route 7 . Most of the civilians who followed the military convoy were either relatives of soldiers or officers in the army , or were government civil servants . Of the estimated 400 @,@ 000 civilians who initially took part in the march , only a handful actually reached their destinations in the Mekong region . In addition to the casualties inflicted upon them by North Vietnamese artillery , the civilians were also hit by air strikes from the South Vietnamese air force . As a result of those huge losses , Route 7 became known as the ‘ convoy of tears ’ .
= = = South Vietnamese mistakes = = =
The collapse of South Vietnamese forces in the Central Highlands came about as a result of three major factors . Firstly , during much of the war , President Nguyen Van Thieu ’ s confidence in the ARVN ’ s intelligence could not be shaken . However , following the capitulation of Ban Me Thuot , Thieu lost all faith in his own military intelligence agencies , when it became evidently clear that the strength of North Vietnamese forces was far greater than what South Vietnamese intelligence agencies had gathered . Consequently , Thieu completely ignored his own military intelligence and the CIA , and made all military decisions by himself without consulting the Joint General Staff . Thus , when Major @-@ General Pham Van Phu requested that Thieu send reinforcements to bolster the strength of South Vietnamese forces in the Central Highlands , Thieu gave him two options : either carry out the President ’ s orders , or be replaced by somebody who was willing to do so . General Phu chose to implement Thieu ’ s orders and evacuated his units from II Corps .
The second factor which contributed to the destruction of the ARVN 2nd Brigade , II Corps Tactical Zone , was the inability of South Vietnamese commanders to coordinate the withdrawal . In the process of pulling out from the Central Highlands , large numbers of South Vietnamese soldiers and heavy military equipment were stretched out along the narrow corridor of Route 7 . Behind the military formation were huge numbers of South Vietnamese civilians who were relatives of the military personnel , as well as government officials and their families . Unfortunately for the South Vietnamese soldiers on the ground , their army simply lacked the logistical system required to maintain the element of secrecy , which South Vietnamese commanders had hoped would enable them to pull out from the region without drawing too much attention from the North Vietnamese . It is hard to fathom how South Vietnamese commanders hoped to move 400 @,@ 000 civilians in utmost secrecy . So when North Vietnamese forces attacked the South Vietnamese column along Route 7 , there was little South Vietnamese commanders could do to prevent the destruction of their units .
The third factor which led to the quick disintegration of II Corps was the poor state of morale amongst the soldiers of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam . By 1975 , the morale of South Vietnamese soldiers and their commanding officers had reached its lowest point as the war continued to drag on with no end in sight . The determination of the ARVN officer corps had taken a serious blow when South Vietnamese Foreign Minister Tran Van Lam returned from the United States in February 1975 , and reported that no additional military or economic aid had been offered . When the order was given to abandon the Central Highlands , the primary concern of South Vietnamese military personnel was not battlefield victories , but the welfare of their families . Consequently , when the North Vietnamese attacked South Vietnamese forces on Route 7 , large numbers of South Vietnamese soldiers left the battlefield to search for their families amidst the chaos . During the final days of South Vietnam ’ s existence , the average South Vietnamese soldier showed more loyalty to his family than to his commanding officer , which had a significant impact on his willingness to fight on .
During the First Indochina War ( 1945 to 1954 ) , both Viet Minh and French forces considered the Central Highlands to be their ‘ home ’ , as it was considered the key to domination in Indochina . Both sides recognised that in order to occupy the Central Highlands , they had to possess a sufficient reserve of manpower with which to control the strategic areas within the region . By 1975 , the South Vietnamese military could no longer afford to maintain a large strategic reserve . South Vietnamese units in II Corps were overstretched in various locations across the Central Highlands , and could easily be overrun by enemy forces . Although Thieu ’ s decision to abandon the region was made with the aim of saving the military formations of II Corps , the decision nonetheless turned into a death warrant for General Phu ’ s men and their families . The lack of coordination and poor organisation during the withdrawal operation not only led to the destruction of II Corps , but marked the beginning of the end for South Vietnam .
= Art Farmer =
Arthur Stewart " Art " Farmer ( August 21 , 1928 – October 4 , 1999 ) was an American jazz trumpeter and flugelhorn player . He also played flumpet , a trumpet – flugelhorn combination specially designed for him . He and his identical twin brother , double bassist Addison Farmer , started playing professionally while in high school . Art gained greater attention after the release of a recording of his composition " Farmer 's Market " in 1952 . He subsequently moved from Los Angeles to New York , where he performed and recorded with musicians such as Horace Silver , Sonny Rollins , and Gigi Gryce and became known principally as a bebop player .
As Farmer 's reputation grew , he expanded from bebop into more experimental forms through working with composers such as George Russell and Teddy Charles . He went on to join Gerry Mulligan 's quartet and , with Benny Golson , to co @-@ found the Jazztet . Continuing to develop his own sound , Farmer switched from trumpet to the warmer flugelhorn in the early 1960s , and he helped to establish the flugelhorn as a soloist 's instrument in jazz . He settled in Europe in 1968 and continued to tour internationally until his death . Farmer recorded more than 50 albums under his own name , a dozen with the Jazztet , and dozens more with other leaders . His playing is known for its individuality – most noticeably , its lyricism , warmth of tone and sensitivity .
= = Early life = =
Art Farmer was born an hour before his twin brother , on August 21 , 1928 , in Council Bluffs , Iowa , reportedly at 2201 Fourth Avenue . Their parents , James Arthur Farmer and Hazel Stewart Farmer , divorced when the boys were four , and their steelworker father was killed in a work accident not long after this . Art moved with his grandfather , grandmother , mother , brother and sister to Phoenix , Arizona when he was still four . He started to play the piano while in elementary school , then moved on to bass tuba and violin before settling on cornet and then trumpet at the age of thirteen . His family was musical : most of them played as a hobby , and one was a professional trombonist . Art 's grandfather was a minister in the African Methodist Episcopal Church . This influenced Farmer 's first choice of instrument , as his mother played piano for the church choir . The bass tuba was for use in a marching band and was Farmer 's instrument for a year , until a cornet became available . Phoenix schools were segregated , and no one at Farmer 's school could provide useful music lessons . He taught himself to read music and practiced his new main instrument , the trumpet .
Farmer and his brother moved to Los Angeles in 1945 , attending the music @-@ oriented Jefferson High School , where they got music instruction and met other developing musicians such as Sonny Criss , Ernie Andrews , Big Jay McNeely , and Ed Thigpen . The brothers earned money by working in a cold @-@ storage warehouse and by playing professionally . Art started playing trumpet professionally at the age of 16 , performing in the bands of Horace Henderson , Jimmy Mundy , and Floyd Ray , among others . These opportunities came about through a combination of his ability and the absence of numerous older musicians , who were still in the armed forces following World War II . Around this time in Los Angeles , there were abundant opportunities for musical development , according to Farmer : " During the day you would go to somebody 's house and play . At night there were after @-@ hours clubs [ ... and ] anybody who wanted to play was free to come up and play " . Farmer left high school early but persuaded the principal to give him a diploma , which he did not collect until a visit to the school in 1958 .
At this time , as an adolescent in Los Angeles , bebop and the swing era big bands both attracted Farmer 's attention . Decades later , he stated that , at that time , " I knew I had to be in jazz . Two things decided me – the sound of a trumpet section in a big band and hearing a jam session " . Farmer 's trumpet influences in the 1940s were Dizzy Gillespie , Miles Davis and Fats Navarro , but , in his own words , " then I heard Freddie Webster , and I loved his sound . I decided to work on sound because it seemed like most of the guys my age were just working on speed " .
= = Later life and career = =
= = = Early career in Los Angeles and New York = = =
Farmer left school to tour with a group led by Johnny Otis , but this job lasted for only four months , as Farmer 's lip gave out . Performing for long periods seven days a week for this job put great pressure on his technique , which was insufficiently developed to cope with such physical demands . His lip eventually became lacerated , and he could no longer play . He then received technique training in New York , where he worked for a time as a janitor and played as a freelance musician during 1947 and 1948 . An audition for Dizzy Gillespie 's big band was unsuccessful , and Farmer returned to the West Coast in 1948 as a member of Jay McShann 's band . Club and studio work was hard to get in Los Angeles from the late 1940s and into the 1950s , as it was dominated by white musicians . Farmer played and toured with Benny Carter , Roy Porter and Gerald Wilson , then played with Wardell Gray in 1951 – 52 . The hazards of the touring jazz musician 's lifestyle were also present : while travelling overnight by car between Phoenix and El Paso , to get to another Roy Porter @-@ led gig , the car that Farmer was in overturned at high speed , leaving him concussed and Porter with broken ribs .
Farmer 's first studio recording appears to have been on June 28 or July 2 , 1948 , in Los Angeles , under the leadership of vocalist Big Joe Turner and pianist Pete Johnson . They recorded " Radar Blues " , and at some point in the same or the following year they added a further seven sides ; the eight tracks were released as four singles by Swing Time Records . Farmer recorded further singles with Roy Porter and then , on January 21 , 1952 , as a member of Wardell Gray 's sextet . The latter session produced six tracks that were released as singles . These included " Farmer 's Market " , a piece that was written by Farmer and brought him greater attention .
= = = Career after second move to New York = = =
Farmer worked in Los Angeles for a time as a hotel janitor and a hospital file clerk , before joining Lionel Hampton 's orchestra in 1952 . He toured Europe with the orchestra , and shared the organization 's trumpet chairs with Clifford Brown , Quincy Jones and Benny Bailey . This aided his musical development considerably , as did his 1953 membership of Teddy Charles ' New Directions band – the compositions he encountered in this band allowed him to consider a broader range of expression during improvisation .
Farmer relocated to New York and , on July 2 , 1953 , had his first recording session as leader . This was combined with another recorded 11 months later to form the eight @-@ track Prestige LP , The Art Farmer Septet , featuring arrangements by Quincy Jones and Gigi Gryce . Farmer became " one of the most sought @-@ after trumpeters of the fifties " : he continued to work with Gryce ( 1954 – 56 ) , and also with Horace Silver ( 1956 – 58 ) and Gerry Mulligan ( 1958 – 59 ) , among others . One of the others was pianist Thelonious Monk , who led a sextet that included Farmer on its performances on a version of the Steve Allen Show , broadcast on television on June 10 , 1955 . The following month , Farmer played in the Charles Mingus sextet 's performance at the Newport Jazz Festival .
Farmer recorded only twice with Horace Silver 's group , as Silver recorded for Blue Note Records , while Farmer was signed to Prestige . Feuds between the label bosses ruled out extensive cross @-@ label collaboration . The transition from Silver 's piano @-@ led quintet to Mulligan 's piano @-@ less quartet was not straightforward : " to suddenly find yourself in a pianoless group was like walking down the street naked " , commented Farmer . As a member of Mulligan 's band , Farmer appeared on film twice – in I Want to Live ! ( 1958 ) and The Subterraneans ( 1960 ) – and again toured Europe , as part of a Jazz at the Philharmonic tour , helping him to develop an international reputation . In New York , Farmer worked with Lester Young , who told him to " tighten up and tell a ' story ' in each solo " . At this time , Farmer also rented his trumpet on a nightly basis to Miles Davis , who had pawned his own due to his drug dependency .
From the middle of the 1950s , Farmer featured in recordings by leading arrangers of the day , including George Russell , Quincy Jones and Oliver Nelson , being in demand because of his reputation for being able to play anything . The wide range of styles these arrangers represented was extended when Farmer took part in a series of experimental sessions with composer Edgard Varèse in 1957 . Varèse used approximate notation and wanted the musicians to improvise within its structure ; at least some of the seasoned jazz musicians present regarded this process of creation as similar to their own familiar creations of spontaneously produced head arrangements , but their efforts influenced Varèse 's composition , Poème électronique . Farmer 's playing around this time is summarized by critic Whitney Balliett , commenting on his performance on Hal McKusick 's 1957 album Hal McKusick Quintet : " Farmer has become one of the few genuinely individual modern trumpeters . ( Nine out of ten modern trumpeters are true copies of Dizzy Gillespie or Miles Davis . ) " Farmer was one of 57 jazz musicians to appear in the 1958 photograph " A Great Day in Harlem " and was later interviewed for the 1994 documentary of the same title .
Farmer formed the Jazztet in 1959 , with the composer and tenor saxophonist Benny Golson , after each man independently came to the conclusion that the other should be a member of his new sextet . The Jazztet lasted until 1962 , recorded several albums for Argo and Mercury Records , and assisted in the early careers of pianist McCoy Tyner and trombonist Grachan Moncur III . In the early 1960s Farmer established a trio with guitarist Jim Hall and bassist Steve Swallow ; his relationship with Hall lasted from 1962 to 1964 , and included two tours of Europe , one of which had concerts recorded for the BBC 's Jazz 625 programme , which were later released on DVD . Hall left the second tour while the quartet , which included Swallow and drummer Pete La Roca , was engaged in Berlin , and a pianist replaced him ; this was ultimately Steve Kuhn . In 1964 , this new quartet recorded the album Sing Me Softly of the Blues for the Atlantic label . These bands played laid back , melodious music during a period when avant @-@ garde jazz was becoming more common .
Farmer toured Europe in 1965 – 66 , then returned to the US and led a small group with Jimmy Heath . His stylistic development continued during this period of his career , in part because he " absorbed , understood , and had the technical and artistic gifts to put to personal use the [ John ] Coltrane innovations of the ' Giant Steps ' period of the early 1960s " . Work opportunities , however , were diminishing as rock became more popular in the mid @-@ 1960s , so Farmer joined the pit orchestra of Elliot Lawrence for the production of The Apple Tree on Broadway , for six months .
= = = Career after permanent move to Europe = = =
The visits to Europe continued . Farmer moved there in 1968 and ultimately settled in Vienna , where he performed with The Kenny Clarke / Francy Boland Big Band and joined the Austrian Radio Orchestra . The latter job initially required only ten days a month of his time , so he was able to play with other well @-@ known expatriates such as Don Byas , Dexter Gordon , and Ben Webster . As the orchestra 's music gradually changed in style from jazz to simpler forms and took up more of Farmer 's time , he found that it was getting in the way of his musical ambitions , so he left after three or four years . Pursuing these ambitions meant that Farmer traveled extensively worldwide . He said in 1976 that " I 'm traveling 90 percent of the time . I can live anywhere . It 's just a matter of getting to the airport " . A 1982 revival of the Jazztet , with Golson , led him to play more frequently in the United States than he had over the previous decade . In the 1980s Farmer also created a quintet , featuring saxophonist Clifford Jordan , that toured internationally . In the early 1980s , Farmer had also made some changes to his lifestyle . Interviewed for a 1985 article in The New Yorker , he reported losing 30 pounds in weight a couple of years earlier , and stopping smoking and drinking a couple of years before that ; Farmer " used to think he couldn 't play without drinking ; now he couldn 't play and drink " , was the interviewer 's summary of Farmer 's habits , which appear to have avoided the drug @-@ related problems of many of his contemporaries .
From the early 1990s , Farmer had a second house in New York and divided his time between Vienna and there . He had regular gigs with Clifford Jordan at the Sweet Basil Jazz Club and , later , with Ran Blake and Jerome Richardson at the Village Vanguard , both in New York . Farmer was awarded the Austrian Gold Medal of Merit in 1994 . In the same year , a concert in honor of his achievements was held at the Alice Tully Hall in New York . Farmer also recorded extensively as a leader throughout his later career , including some pieces of classical music with US and European orchestras . Farmer 's level of playing even towards the end of his career was noted in a review by Scott Yanow of one of his last recordings , Silk Road , from 1996 : " the warm @-@ toned and swinging Farmer is consistently the main star , and at age 68 he proves to still be in his prime " . In 1999 Farmer was selected as a National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Master . A few months later , on October 4 , Farmer died of a heart attack at home in Manhattan , aged 71 .
= = Personality and family life = =
Farmer first married in the mid @-@ 1950s , to a woman from South America ; the couple had one son , Arthur Jr , who died in 1994 , and they divorced after about a year . Farmer 's second wife was a distant cousin ; this also ended in divorce . He married again , to a Viennese banker named Mechtilde Lawgger , and their son , Georg , was born in the early 1970s . They lived together in a house that they had built in Vienna , and Farmer reported contentment with his lifestyle ; notably , in contrast with his homeland , he did not experience racism in Europe . Farmer described himself in 1985 as " an introvert , and kind of reclusive " ; a soundproof room in his Austrian house allowed him to practice alone for the four or five hours a day that he desired . His personality was often described by others as mirroring his playing : Leonard Feather , for instance , observed in 1990 that Farmer was " mellow , relaxed and [ ... ] gentle " .
Farmer was affected by the sudden death of his twin brother in 1963 : more than 20 years later , he said that he still dreamed of his sibling , and admitted that , " It seems there 's a part of him I haven 't fully gotten over " . Farmer 's third wife died from cancer in 1992 ; speaking three years later , he remarked that " I guess I never will really recover from that because we had been together for over 20 years when she died " . After his own death , he was described as being survived by his companion and manager , Lynne Mueller , and son .
= = Playing style = =
Descriptions of Farmer 's playing style typically stress his lyricism and the warmth of his sound . The Los Angeles Times obituary writers noted that his playing had " a sweetly lyrical tone and a melodic approach to phrasing , neither of which minimized his capacity to produce rhythmically swinging phrases " . The equivalent comments in The Guardian were that " Farmer avoided the bright , penetrating sound of orthodox trumpet playing and was influenced by the more reserved articulation of Miles Davis and Kenny Dorham " , and that , although he could seem more restrained than Davis or Lee Morgan , " Farmer was in his way a true original . His phrasing was always distinctive , letting the beat run ahead of him rather in the manner of Billie Holiday 's vocals " .
Farmer moved from trumpet to playing mostly flugelhorn from the early 1960s , utilising the latter instrument 's more mellow sound and Farmer 's ability to get what he wanted from it without having to use a mute . In 1989 , he played a major part in creating a trumpet – flugelhorn hybrid , the flumpet , which was constructed for him by instrument maker David Monette . This instrument allowed him to play with more expression in a range of settings , from small groups to big bands . In 1997 , Monette presented him with a personalized flumpet , with decorations symbolising important people and places in Farmer 's life .
Farmer 's determination to keep exploring forms of expression continued throughout his life . One comment on a concert given when Farmer was 67 was that " his style was continuing to evolve " ; he " delivered several solos in which his characteristically flowing lines were interrupted by sudden , wide melodic leaps and disjunct rhythmic accents " . A few months before his death , although faster numbers had become perhaps too challenging , The Guardian observed , Farmer 's playing on slower tunes achieved a new level of emotional expression .
= = Discography and filmography = =
= Karim Benzema =
Karim Mostafa Benzema ( born 19 December 1987 ) is a French professional footballer of Algerian descent who plays for Spanish club Real Madrid and the France national team as a striker . He has been described as an " immensely talented striker " who is " strong and powerful " and " a potent finisher from inside the box " .
Benzema was born in the city of Lyon and began his football career with local club Bron Terraillon . In 1996 , he joined the biggest club in the city , Olympique Lyonnais , and subsequently came through the club 's youth academy . Benzema made his professional debut in the 2004 – 05 season and appeared sporadically in his first three seasons as Lyon won three titles in that span . In the 2007 – 08 season , Benzema became a starter and had a breakthrough year scoring over 30 goals as Lyon won its seventh straight league title . For his performances , he was named the National Union of Professional Footballers ( UNFP ) Ligue 1 Player of the Year and named to the organization 's Team of the Year . Benzema was also the league 's top scorer and given the Bravo Award by Italian magazine Guerin Sportivo . After another season at Lyon , in July 2009 , Benzema moved to Real Madrid in a transfer fee worth over € 35 million ( $ 50 million ) , and signed a six @-@ year contract . After struggling to establish himself in his debut season with the club , in the ensuing two seasons , Benzema reached prominence , scoring 32 goals en route to helping Real Madrid win the Copa del Rey in 2011 and the 2011 – 12 edition of La Liga . He has been named French Player of the Year thrice for his performances in 2011 , 2012 and 2014 .
Benzema is a former French youth international and has represented his nation from under @-@ 17 level onwards . Prior to playing for the senior team , he played on the under @-@ 17 team that won the 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Championship . Benzema made his senior international debut in March 2007 in a friendly match against Austria , scoring in a 1 – 0 win . Benzema has earned over 70 caps and represented France at three major international tournaments : the 2008 and 2012 editions of the UEFA European Football Championship and the 2014 FIFA World Cup . However , Benzema has twice been intentionally left off major tournament squads ( 2010 World Cup and 2016 Euros ) due to various scandals .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Benzema began his football career at his hometown club Bron Terraillon SC at the age of eight . While at the club , he was nicknamed Coco by friends and , after scoring two goals in an under @-@ 10 match against the Lyon youth academy , began attracting attention from the biggest club in the city . According to Serge Santa Cruz , who was president of Bron Terraillon in the 1990s , Lyon officials had visited him directly in an attempt to sign the youngster ; however , Santa Cruz refused . After talking with Benzema 's father , the club allowed the player to undergo a trial with Lyon . Following the trial , Benzema officially joined Lyon and was inserted into the club 's academy .
= = = Lyon = = =
Benzema quickly ascended up the youth categories in the academy . He served as a ballboy during Lyon senior team matches and performed well in school being described as a student who was " discreet and respectful " . At under @-@ 16 level , Benzema scored 38 goals in the Championnat National des 16 ans , the domestic league for under @-@ 16 youth players in France . Ahead of the 2004 – 05 season , Benzema was promoted to the club 's reserve team , which was playing in the Championnat de France amateur , the fourth division of French football . Despite only playing with the team during the autumn campaign , he scored a team @-@ high ten goals as the Lyon reserve team finished second in its group .
= = = = 2004 – 2007 = = = =
Benzema was called up to the senior team for the first time under manager Paul Le Guen during the break leading up to the second half of the season . As is customary with new players arriving at Lyon , the young striker had to stand up and speak to his new teammates , which at that time included the likes of Michael Essien , Sylvain Wiltord , Florent Malouda and Éric Abidal . While speaking , Benzema was subjected to jokes and laughter , which prompted the youngster to declare " Do not laugh , I 'm here to take your place " . He , subsequently , made his professional debut on 15 January 2005 against Metz , appearing as a substitute for Pierre @-@ Alain Frau . Lyon won the match 2 – 0 as Benzema provided the assist on the second goal scored by Bryan Bergougnoux . He would subsequently sign his first professional contract , agreeing to a three @-@ year deal . After making three more appearances as a substitute , on 2 April , Benzema made his first professional start in a 1 – 0 win over Lens . He finished the campaign with six appearances as Lyon won its fourth @-@ straight league title .
Benzema began the 2005 – 06 season under the tutelage of new manager Gérard Houllier . Under Houllier , he struggled for meaningful minutes due to the presence of newly signed Brazilian striker Fred , as well as Sylvain Wiltord . Benzema made his season debut on 2 October 2005 in a league win over Rennes , appearing as a substitute . On 6 December , he made his UEFA Champions League debut in Lyon 's final group stage match against Norwegian club Rosenborg . On his competition debut , he scored his first professional goal in a 2 – 1 win . A month later , Benzema scored his first professional double in a 4 – 0 win over Grenoble in the Coupe de France . On 4 March 2006 , Benzema scored his first professional league goal against Ajaccio in a 3 – 1 win .
Benzema began earning more playing time in the 2006 – 07 season and made his competitive season debut in the 2006 Trophée des Champions against Paris Saint @-@ Germain . In the French Supercup , Benzema converted a penalty which drew the match at 1 – 1 . Lyon later won the league curtain @-@ raiser 5 – 4 on penalties . Benzema opened the league campaign on a quick note scoring in the team 's first match of the season against Nantes . Three weeks later , on 26 August 2006 , Benzema appeared as a substitute and scored two goals in a 4 – 1 away win over Nice . He also converted two goals in the Champions League group stage against Romanian outfit Steaua București and Ukrainian club Dynamo Kyiv . After appearing regularly during the autumn campaign , on 10 November , Benzema suffered a severe thigh injury . The injury resulted in the striker missing three months of action before returning in February 2007 . Benzema failed to score a goal until the final league match of the season against Nantes as Lyon recorded its sixth consecutive league title .
= = = = 2007 – 08 season = = = =
For the 2007 – 08 season , with the likes of Florent Malouda , John Carew and Sylvain Wiltord all departing from the club , Benzema switched to the number 10 shirt and was inserted into the lead striker role . After forming a special relationship with new manager Alain Perrin , he responded with 31 goals in 51 games . He topped the league with 20 goals , scored four goals in the Champions League , one in the Coupe de la Ligue and totaled six goals in six Coupe de France matches , helping Lyon win their first ever double . Some of his more dazzling performances that season included a hat @-@ trick against Metz on 15 September , an equalizing goal in the 90th minute from a free kick against Derby du Rhône rivals Saint @-@ Étienne , and a goal against Lens that was nominated for goal of the season by fans .
In the Champions League , Benzema scored an important double against Rangers at Ibrox Stadium on the last match day of the group stage . The 3 – 0 victory assured Lyon progression to the knockout rounds . In the knockout rounds , Lyon faced Manchester United and Benzema continued to score , this time it was from outside the penalty box in the first leg match which ended in a 1 – 1 draw and United eventually won the tie 1 – 2 on aggregate . Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson and players praised Benzema for his performance . Lyon President Jean @-@ Michel Aulas later accused Ferguson of tapping @-@ up Benzema .
On 13 March 2008 , Benzema extended his contract with Lyon until 2013 with a one @-@ year extension option . After signing his new contract , Benzema became one of the highest paid footballers in France . For his efforts that season , he was named the Ligue 1 Player of the Year , selected to the Team of the Year and awarded the Trophée du Meilleur Buteur for being the league 's top scorer . He was also shortlisted by French magazine France Football for the 2008 Ballon d 'Or award , eventually won by Cristiano Ronaldo .
= = = = 2008 – 09 season = = = =
Benzema got off to a good start for the 2008 – 09 season , scoring twice in Lyon 's opening league match against Toulouse . The following three weeks , he scored goals against Rhône @-@ Alpes rivals Grenoble and Saint @-@ Étienne and scored a goal against Nice , converting a penalty in the dying seconds . Lyon won all three matches . As a result of his early goals , Olympique Lyonnais President Jean @-@ Michel Aulas quelled the many transfer rumors surrounding Benzema by placing a € 100 million price tag on the striker . He was also nominated alongside Franck Ribéry to be featured on the French cover of the video game FIFA 09 .
He scored his seventh goal of the league on 29 October , scoring in the 2 – 0 win over Sochaux . Benzema scored again the following weekend in a 2 – 0 win over Le Mans . He was among the top scorers in the Champions League group stage , scoring five goals , a double against Steaua București , two goals in two matches against Fiorentina , and a goal against the eventual group winners Bayern Munich on the final match day .
Following the winter break , Benzema endured a rough patch going scoreless the first three games before recording his 11th goal of the season against Nice in a 3 – 1 victory . Two weeks later , he scored his 12th goal against Nancy in a 2 – 0 victory . The next nine matches , both Benzema and Lyon 's form dwindled losing four matches , drawing three , and winning only two with Benzema scoring only two goals in that stretch , both of them against Le Mans in a 3 – 1 victory . The bad form resulted in Lyon losing their grip on first @-@ place position and eventually falling out of the title race , thus ending their streak of seven consecutive Ligue 1 titles . Benzema was a part of four of those title runs .
Despite losing the title , Benzema got back on track scoring his 15th and 16th goals of the season on 17 May in a 3 – 1 away victory over rivals Marseille , the first goal being a penalty . He scored his 17th goal the following weekend against Caen in a 3 – 1 victory moving him into third place among Ligue 1 top scorers .
= = = Real Madrid = = =
= = = = 2009 – 10 season = = = =
On 1 July 2009 , it was announced that Lyon had reached an agreement with Spanish club Real Madrid for the transfer of Benzema . The transfer fee was priced at € 35 million with the fee rising to as much as € 41 million based on incentives . On 9 July , Benzema successfully passed his medical and signed his contract , a six @-@ year deal , later that afternoon . He was presented officially as a Real Madrid player later that night at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium , similarly to the previous signings of Kaká and Cristiano Ronaldo . Benzema made his Real Madrid debut on 20 July in the club 's opening pre @-@ season friendly against Irish club Shamrock Rovers in Dublin , appearing as a half @-@ time substitute . He scored the lone goal in the club 's 1 – 0 win , scoring in the 87th minute . On 24 August , Benzema netted two goals in Real Madrid 's 4 – 0 victory over Norwegian club Rosenborg in an annual friendly tournament organized for the Santiago Bernabeu Trophy . The goals brought his total tally in the pre @-@ season with Real Madrid to five , making him the joint top scorer alongside fellow striker Raúl .
Benzema made his league debut for Madrid on 29 August 2009 against Deportivo La Coruña . He started the match , but was substituted out in the second half as Madrid won 3 – 2 . A month later , he scored his first goal for the club in a 5 – 0 victory against newly promoted Xerez . After missing the mid @-@ week match against Villarreal , against Tenerife at the weekend , Benzema scored his first double for Madrid in a 3 – 0 home victory . He made his Champions League debut for the club on 30 September in a group stage tie against Marseille . In the match , Benzema assisted on a Cristiano Ronaldo goal . After failing to score a goal in the month of October , in the team 's first match in November against Italian club Milan in the Champions League , Benzema scored the opener to give Madrid a 1 – 0 lead . His goal was later cancelled out by a Ronaldinho penalty . On 7 November , in the El Derbi madrileño against Atlético Madrid , Benzema assisted on Madrid 's second goal , scored by Marcelo . Madrid won the match 3 – 2 .
In late November , Benzema began appearing mainly as a substitute as manager Manuel Pellegrini preferred Gonzalo Higuaín in the lead striker role . To coincide with his benching , the striker was also being criticized by the Spanish media for his under @-@ performance and difficulties settling in the country as he had not yet begun learning the Spanish language . He was even declared the " new Anelka " by a Spanish newspaper Marca blogger , referring to former Real Madrid striker Nicolas Anelka who had a tumultuous year at the club before being sold . Benzema was defended by his compatriot Zinedine Zidane , who admitted " after two months , I was also criticized " and that Benzema was " a talented player and talented players in Madrid must win " .
On 5 December , Benzema appeared as a substitute for Rafael van der Vaart and scored the third goal in a 6 – 0 romp of Almería . The day after the match against Almería , Benzema responded to the criticism by stating , " I am totally integrated and very happy at Real Madrid , " and , " Yes , I have improved my adaptation . I have a new home and I 'm learning Spanish to understand myself better with my teammates . " After nearly a month coming off of the bench , he started alongside Higuaín away to Valencia on 12 December and responded by assisting on one of Higuaín 's two goals . A week later , Benzema returned to the bench . On his 22nd birthday , he scored in a 6 – 0 home win against Real Zaragoza . Following an injury to Higuaín in early January 2010 , Pellegrini inserted Benzema back into the starting lineup . After failing to score in his first two starts in the absence of Higuaín , against Deportivo La Coruña on 30 January , he scored a double in an important 3 – 1 away win . Following the return of Higuaín , Benzema was relegated back to a substitute 's role and finished the campaign by making eight consecutive appearances off the bench . Included in one of the those appearances was his final goal of the season against Athletic Bilbao in a 5 – 1 win .
= = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = =
Ahead of the 2010 – 11 season , Benzema switched to the number nine shirt as Real Madrid were under the tutelage of new incoming manager José Mourinho . The striker immediately drew the ire of Mourinho who declared to reporters during a pre @-@ season media session that " Benzema must understand that he is extremely talented , but that in itself is not enough " , while also stating that " [ Madrid ] need a striker who is sparky , not one that is listless " . Mourinho sentiments were later echoed by incoming France national team coach Laurent Blanc who acknowledged that Benzema was " not used to working " . Blanc also stated that the striker needed to shed weight in order to fulfill his potential .
Due to Mourinho preferring Ronaldo and Higuaín as his forwards , Benzema began the campaign as a substitute coming off the bench in the team 's opening league match of the season against Mallorca . Following the September international break , he made his first start in a 1 – 0 win over Osasuna . On 21 September , Benzema made a substitute appearance and scored his first goal of the season in a 3 – 0 home win against Espanyol . Afterwards , the striker failed to score a domestic goal for nearly two months . The striker did assist on goals in back @-@ to @-@ back weeks against Hércules in the league and Milan in the Champions League .
On 10 November , Benzema scored his second goal of the campaign against Real Murcia in the 2010 – 11 edition of the Copa del Rey . In late November , Benzema was inserted into the starting eleven following a severe back injury to Higuaín , along with the team 's lack of senior strikers . In his first match since being inserted into the starting lineup permanently , he scored his first Champions League goal of the season in a group stage fixture against Dutch club Ajax . In Madrid 's final group stage tie against French outfit Auxerre , Benzema scored his first hat trick for the club in a 4 – 0 win . The first goal he scored was Real Madrid 's 300th goal in the Champions League era . Two weeks later , Benzema converted another hat trick , this time in an 8 – 0 thrashing of Levante in the Copa del Rey . In the team 's first fixture of the 2011 calendar year , he assisted on the game @-@ winning goal scored by Ronaldo in a 3 – 2 win over Getafe . In late January , for the first time in his Real Madrid career , Benzema scored goals in back @-@ to @-@ back matches . On 23 January , he scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 win at home against Mallorca . Three days later , Benzema repeated his efforts scoring the only goal in a win over Sevilla in the first leg of the team 's Copa del Rey semi @-@ final tie . Real Madrid later advanced to its 37th Copa del Rey final in club history after beating Sevilla 2 – 0 in the second leg .
Following the arrival of Emmanuel Adebayor on loan , Benzema went unused in two consecutive league matches in February 2011 . He returned to the starting lineup on 19 February and embarked on a run in which he scored ten goals in eight matches . Included in those ten goals were doubles in three straight matches against Málaga , Racing Santander and Hércules , as well as a goal in the first leg of Madrid 's Round of 16 tie against former club Lyon . The strike against his hometown club was the 100th goal of his professional career , and also the first goal for Real Madrid at the Stade de Gerland in six years , though despite the honours associated with netting the goal , Benzema did not celebrate out of respect for his former club .
On 19 March , he scored the opener in the El Derbi madrileño as Real Madrid went on to win the match 2 – 1 . Despite his form , Benzema appeared in only one of the four highly anticipated matches against El Clásico rivals Barcelona , in which the two clubs met in the league , the 2011 Copa del Rey Final and the Champions League knockout stage . In between those clashes , on 23 April 2011 , Benzema scored a goal and assisted on another in a 6 – 3 win over Valencia . On 30 April , he scored a goal in the team 's 3 – 2 loss to Real Zaragoza . It was the only match of the campaign that Real Madrid loss , in which Benzema scored . To close out the campaign , Benzema scored another double in an 8 – 1 win over Almería . He finished the campaign second on the team behind Ronaldo with 26 goals as Real Madrid captured the Copa del Rey giving Benzema his first honour with the club . For his performances during the campaign , particularly during the second half , Benzema was praised by Mourinho , club officials Florentino Pérez and Emilio Butragueño , as well as national team manager Laurent Blanc .
= = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = =
Prior to the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Benzema , taking the advice of compatriots Blanc and Zidane , ventured to Merano , Italy , to attend a high performance clinic where he underwent treatment to reduce his weight . The spell at the clinic was ultimately a success after the striker arrived at pre @-@ season 8 kilograms ( 18 lb ) lighter . While at the clinic , Benzema also underwent physical training to build up his muscle mass . The striker was impressive in the pre @-@ season scoring eight goals in seven matches . His performances during the pre @-@ season resulted in Mourinho naming him the starting lead striker for the new campaign . Mourinho was later credited with Benzema 's transformation , but denied full responsibility and , instead , gave credit to the striker himself .
Benzema made his 2011 – 12 competitive debut for Madrid in the first leg of the 2011 Supercopa de España against Barcelona . In the match , he started and assisted on the opening goal of the match , scored by Mesut Özil . In the second leg , with Madrid trailing 4 – 3 on aggregate late in the match , Benzema scored the equalizing goal to even the tie at 4 – 4 . However , six minutes later , a Lionel Messi strike gave Barcelona the supercup . Benzema made his league debut for Madrid in the team 's 6 – 0 away win over Real Zaragoza . In the team 's next league match two weeks later against Getafe , Benzema scored a double in a 4 – 2 victory . After going scoreless in three consecutive league matches , he scored his third league goal of the campaign against Rayo Vallecano in a 4 – 2 win . In the team 's ensuing match against Ajax in the Champions League , Benzema scored Madrid 's third goal in a 3 – 0 home win . He also assisted on the opener , which was scored by Ronaldo . In the club 's next Champions League match against Lyon , Benzema scored again netting the opener . He also turned provider for the second consecutive match assisting on a goal by Sami Khedira . Madrid won the match 4 – 0 .
In November 2011 , Benzema scored five goals ; three in the league and two in Europe . In the league , he converted his three goals in wins over Osasuna and Valencia , while he scored his two Champions League goals in a 6 – 2 group stage win over Croatian club Dinamo Zagreb . On 10 December 2011 , Benzema scored the opener in Madrid 's 3 – 1 defeat to Barcelona in the El Clásico . The goal , scored just 21 seconds into the match , was the fastest goal ever scored in a match between the two rivals . Three days after his record @-@ breaking goal , for his performances during the 2011 calendar year , Benzema was named the France Football French Player of the Year , beating out Barcelona defender Éric Abidal and Lyon goalkeeper Hugo Lloris . He became only the second French player based in Spain to win the award , and also the second Real Madrid player to capture it . Zidane was the first to achieve both honorable mentions . Benzema expressed gratitude at winning the award , stating , " It is a pleasure to win an individual trophy . When I see the previous winners — Zidane , Henry and other major players — it makes me proud to join them on the list . " In the team 's next match after winning the award , against Sevilla , Benzema assisted on two goals in a 6 – 2 triumph .
Benzema opened the 2012 portion of the campaign in positive form . He scored goals against Granada and Málaga . Benzema scored against the latter club in the Copa del Rey in each leg of the Round of 16 . The 4 – 2 aggregate win advanced Real Madrid to the quarter @-@ finals where the club faced Barcelona . After failing to score in the first leg , which ended 2 – 1 in favor of Barça , in the second leg on 25 January 2012 , Benzema scored his third goal of the season against the Blaugrana , but Madrid failed to win the tie losing 4 – 3 on aggregate . On 12 February , Benzema scored his first league goal in over a month against Levante . A week later , he scored a double in a 4 – 0 shutout of Racing Santander . On 24 March , Benzema scored two goals in a league win over Real Sociedad . The two goals made him the top French scorer in La Liga history surpassing Zidane . Three days later , Benzema scored another double in a 3 – 0 first leg away win over Cypriot club APOEL in the Champions League quarter @-@ finals . On 29 April , Benzema put in a masterpiece performance scoring two goals and assisting on another in a 3 – 0 win over Sevilla . The double was his seventh of the season and allowed Madrid to close in on its first Primera Division title in four years . Los Blancos captured their 32nd league title the following week cruising to a 3 – 0 win over Athletic Bilbao . Benzema appeared as a second @-@ half substitute in the match .
= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =
On the first matchday of the UEFA Champions League , Benzema scored an equalizer against Manchester City in 3 – 2 win at Santiago Bernabéu . On 4 October 2012 , Benzema scored a bicycle kick goal off a cross by Kaká in a 4 – 1 win against Ajax in Amsterdam . On 18 December 2012 , one day before his 25th birthday , his fine form saw him earn the award for best French footballer of 2012 , for the second year running .
On 2 March 2013 , Benzema opened the scoring against Barcelona in the league game at the Santiago Bernabéu . Real went on to win the game 2 – 1 , the second time they beat Barcelona in a week . On 30 April 2013 , Benzema scored one goal and assisted to Sergio Ramos against Dortmund .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
Benzema started new season by scoring in a 2 – 1 win over Real Betis at the Santiago Bernabéu . He scored again one week later in a 1 – 0 away over Granada , assisted by Cristiano Ronaldo . After four matches without scoring ( two with Real Madrid and two with France ) , he returned to goal @-@ scoring form by netting twice in a 6 – 1 away win over Galatasaray in Champions League . On 18 January 2014 , he scored his 100th goal for Madrid in a 5 – 0 victory at Real Betis . On 23 March , Benzema scored two goals against fierce rivals Barcelona in El Clásico at the Bernabéu from two crosses by Ángel Di María , taking his goal tally in La Liga to 17 goals , though Barcelona won the match 4 – 3 .
Benzema was part of Real Madrid 's starting eleven in the 2014 Copa del Rey Final on 16 April at the Mestalla Stadium , and assisted Di María 's opening goal before Gareth Bale hit the winner for Madrid in a 2 – 1 victory . One week later , Benzema scored the only goal of the game to win the first leg of a Champions League semi @-@ final against Bayern Munich . The club went on to win the final in May . Real Madrid 's attacking trio of Bale , Benzema and Cristiano , dubbed " BBC " , finished the season with 97 goals .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
On 6 August 2014 , Real Madrid announced that Benzema had signed a new five @-@ year deal that will keep him at the club until 2019 . On 12 August 2014 , Benzema played the whole 90 minutes in Real Madrid 's 2 – 0 win against Sevilla in Cardiff to claim the UEFA Super Cup .
On 16 September 2014 , Benzema scored Real Madrid 's 1,000th goal in European competition after netting a goal in a 5 – 1 victory over FC Basel in the first match of the Champions League group stage . He scored the winning goal in Real Madrid 's 2 – 1 away victory against Ludogorets Razgrad in the Champions League after coming on as a second @-@ half substitute . The next weekend , he scored a brace in the 5 – 0 victory against Athletic Bilbao in La Liga .
Benzema was chosen as La Liga Player of the Month for October 2014 , with his manager Carlo Ancelotti winning the equivalent award . He scored three of Real Madrid 's 13 goals of the month , in which they won three matches and only conceded just one goal .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
Benzema scored a hatrick in an 8 – 0 thrashing against Malmö FF on 8 December 2015 . On 20 December 2015 , he scored another hatrick in a 10 – 2 victory over Rayo Vallecano .
He was a regular starter when the team won the 2015 – 16 UEFA Champions League .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth = = =
Benzema is a former France youth international having earned caps at all levels for which he was eligible , excluding the under @-@ 16 team . He is a member of the group , commonly known in France as the Génération 1987 , a youth class that produced current internationals Hatem Ben Arfa , Jérémy Ménez and Samir Nasri , alongside himself . Benzema was the last of the four to make his youth international debut under coach Philippe Bergeroo and officially joined the team ahead of the 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Football Championship that was played on home soil . In the competition , he appeared in two matches . On his tournament debut , Benzema scored the opening goal in a 3 – 1 win over Northern Ireland . His lone other appearance in the competition was in a 1 – 0 group stage win over Spain as France went on to win the tournament defeated the same team in the final .
Benzema was a regular starter in the team at under @-@ 18 level . He made his debut with the team at a local tournament in the Czech Republic . Benzema scored his first goal at under @-@ 18 level in the competition against Poland in the team 's final group stage match . In the final against the hosts , he scored the opening goal in a 2 – 0 win as France were declared champions of the competition . On 30 September 2004 , Benzema was one of three goalscorers in France 's 3 – 0 away win over Norway . In the team 's next match against Russia , he scored a double in a 3 – 1 victory . Due to France winning the 2004 U17 European title , the under @-@ 18 team was allowed participation in the 2005 edition of the UEFA @-@ CAF Meridian Cup . Benzema was called up to the team for the competition and played in all four matches scoring a tournament @-@ high five goals as France were crowned champions of the tournament . He opened the tournament by scoring two goals in a 7 – 0 victory over Cameroon . After going scoreless in the team 's next match against Sierra Leone , Benzema responded by scoring a goal in a shutout victory over Nigeria and netting another double in a 4 – 1 win against Egypt . On 19 May 2005 , in the team 's final match of the season against Slovakia , Benzema scored all four goals in a 4 – 1 victory . He finished the under @-@ 18 campaign with 18 appearances and a team @-@ high 14 goals and was , subsequently , praised by Bergeroo who , following the campaign , declared that Benzema was " quite efficient " .
The foursome of Benzema , Ben Arfa , Ménez and Nasri returned to international play together for under @-@ 19 duty . The four were joined by Issiar Dia , Blaise Matuidi and Serge Gakpé with the objective of winning the 2006 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship . The team opened the campaign with two friendly matches against Norway . Over the course of the two matches , Benzema scored one goal , which came in the first match , a 4 – 0 win . In the first round of qualification for the UEFA @-@ sanctioned tournament , he scored his only goal in the final group match against Austria . France won the match 2 – 0 , which resulted in the team progressing to the Elite Round . In the ensuing round , France were placed in a relatively easy group alongside Scotland , Bulgaria , and Belarus . In the opening group game against Bulgaria , Benzema scored a double converting a penalty and scoring in play as France won 4 – 0 . Both of his goals were scored within a minute of each other . After surprisingly drawing 0 – 0 with Belarus , France faced Scotland in the final group stage match . Benzema opened the scoring in the 11th minute , but his goal was cancelled out by Steven Fletcher in the second half . The match ultimately finished 1 – 1 and , despite finishing the round undefeated , France were eliminated after being beaten on points by the Scots .
Benzema made his under @-@ 21 debut for Les Espoirs under coach René Girard in the team 's first match following the 2006 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship against Belgium . He started the match and was replaced at half @-@ time by Yoann Gourcuff . He featured in qualification matches for the 2007 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship and appeared as a starter and substitute in the first leg and second leg , respectively , of the team 's surprising defeat to Israel in the qualifying playoffs . Despite still being eligible to represent the under @-@ 21 team until 2009 , his appearance in the second leg defeat to Israel was Benzema 's last with the team and he finished his under @-@ 21 career with five appearances and no goals . Prior to representing France at senior international level , Benzema was courted by the Algerian Football Federation ( FAF ) who sought for the player to represent Algeria at senior international level . In December 2006 , the striker was approached by former federation president Hamid Haddadj and then @-@ national team coach Jean @-@ Michel Cavalli , but turned down the invite citing his desire to continue his international career with France . Benzema later told French radio station Radio Monte Carlo " Algeria is my parents ’ country and it is in my heart , but football @-@ wise , I will only play for the French national team " .
= = = Senior = = =
= = = = Euro 2008 = = = =
Benzema was called up for the first time to the senior national team by Raymond Domenech on 9 November 2006 for the team 's friendly match against Greece that would be played on 15 November . Benzema described the call @-@ up as " a reward " , while also stating " I am pleased , of course , me and my family . A ( the senior national team ) , is the national team 's highest honor " . Two days before the match , he was forced to withdraw from the team due to a thigh injury , which he suffered while playing domestically for Lyon . After failing to make the squad for the team 's February 2007 match against Argentina , Benzema returned to the team in March for a UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying match against Lithuania and a friendly against Austria . After failing to appear in the qualifier , he made his international debut on 28 March 2007 against Austria . Benzema appeared as a half @-@ time substitute for Djibril Cissé and scored the only goal of the match after a free @-@ kick from Samir Nasri . On 13 October , Benzema scored a double in a 6 – 0 win against the Faroe Islands . After appearing regularly in the team for the rest of the 2007 – 08 season , he was named to the 23 @-@ man squad to participate in UEFA Euro 2008 .
Benzema made his debut in the competition on 9 June 2008 in the team 's opening match against Romania . Benzema started the match , but was substituted out for Nasri in the second half after a frustrating performance . The match finished 0 – 0 and Benzema was , subsequently , criticized by the French media for his performance with newspaper Le Point declaring that Benzema was " unrecognizable " and that he " symbolized the impotence of France in the attack " . The newspaper also cited his lack of international experience for his subdued performance . In the team 's next group game against the Netherlands , Benzema played no part in the 4 – 1 defeat . He returned to the team in its final group game against Italy and was given a place in the starting lineup . However , France lost 2 – 0 and were eliminated from the competition .
In November 2008 , Benzema , among several other young players in the team , was accused of being insolent during the team 's campaign at the European Championship . The accusation came from international teammate William Gallas who inserted the charge in his autobiography . Though most of Gallas ' accusations were directed at Nasri , during the competition , it was reported by newspaper Le Parisien that several of the national team players described Benzema as " arrogant " and that the striker was scolded by midfielder Claude Makélélé following the team 's loss to the Netherlands .
= = = = 2010 World Cup = = = =
Despite the reports from after Euro 2008 , Benzema remained a regular in the team and , ahead of qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup , switched to the number ten shirt after previously wearing the number nine . In the team 's first match following its elimination from Euro 2008 , Benzema scored a goal in a 3 – 2 friendly win over Sweden in Göteborg . Two months later , he scored another goal in a 3 – 1 victory against Tunisia at the Stade de France . On 5 June 2009 , Benzema converted the only goal of the match , a penalty shot , in a 1 – 0 win over Turkey at the Stade de Gerland , his home stadium . He scored his first World Cup qualification goals in victories over the Faroe Islands and Austria in October 2009 . His cap against Austria would be his last of the Domenech era as he failed to make France 's preliminary 30 @-@ man squad for the World Cup . Domenech cited Benzema 's struggle for form with his new club Real Madrid , rather than his alleged involvement in a sex scandal as his reason for leaving the striker out . Prior to the list being unveiled , Benzema informed Radio Monte Carlo that if he was not selected he would be " very disappointed , but not killed " and " I will support the France team no matter what " .
= = = = Euro 2012 = = = =
Following the World Cup , Benzema returned to the national team under the reign of new coach Laurent Blanc . Blanc , an admirer of Benzema , sought to build the attack around the striker and , after going almost a year without representing France , Benzema made his return to the team in its 2 – 1 defeat to Norway in Oslo . Alongside Gourcuff , Benzema led the team in scoring in qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012 netting three . He scored his three goals in wins over Bosnia and Herzegovina , Luxembourg , and Albania . On 17 November 2010 , Benzema scored the opening goal in France 's 2 – 1 win over England at Wembley Stadium . In the team 's next match against Brazil in February 2011 , he scored the only goal for France in a 1 – 0 win . After appearing regularly in qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012 , on 29 May 2012 , Benzema was named to the squad to participate in the competition . On 5 June , in the team 's final warm @-@ up friendly ahead of the European Championship , Benzema scored two goals in a 4 – 0 shutout win over Estonia . At UEFA Euro 2012 , Benzema started the team 's opening match against England , which ended in a 1 – 1 draw . In the team 's ensuing group stage match against the Ukraine , he assisted on both team goals in a 2 – 0 win .
= = = = 2014 World Cup = = = =
On 11 October 2013 , Benzema scored his first goal for the France national team since June 2012 in a friendly against Australia , thus ending a scoring drought for his national team which had lasted 1 @,@ 222 minutes . In that match played at the Parc des Princes stadium in Paris , which France won 6 – 0 , Benzema scored France 's sixth and final goal in the 50th minute after turning home Franck Ribéry 's left @-@ wing cross . In the second leg of the 2014 World Cup qualification play @-@ off against Ukraine held on 19 November 2013 at the Stade de France , Benzema scored France 's second goal in the 34th minute to level the aggregate score at 2 – 2 . Benzema scored his goal when he side @-@ footed home after a huge scramble in the Ukrainian penalty box , although he was shown on television replays to be offside by almost one metre when the ball took a final touch off Mathieu Valbuena 's chest . Benzema had four minutes earlier been denied a legitimate goal , the offside flag wrongly raised when he turned in Ribéry 's low cross into the net with his torso a metre from the Ukrainian goal @-@ line . Ukraine had won the first leg of the play @-@ off 2 – 0 in Kiev just four days earlier . France would eventually win the second leg 3 – 0 to advance to the 2014 World Cup finals in Brazil with a 3 – 2 aggregate scoreline .
On 6 June 2014 , Benzema was named in France 's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup , making his debut in the tournament . In the team 's first match , a 3 – 0 win against Honduras in Porto Alegre on 15 June , he scored a goal in each half , the first from a penalty kick . He also assisted the team 's second goal when his shot rebounded off the post and was fumbled over the goal @-@ line by Honduran goalkeeper Noel Valladares for an own goal , the first World Cup goal given by goal @-@ line technology . He was named by FIFA as man of the match for his performance . In the second group fixture , he scored and had a penalty saved in a 5 – 2 defeat of Switzerland , as Les Bleus all but secured qualification to the knockout stage . France were later knocked out by Germany in the quarter @-@ final stage of the tournament .
= = = = Euro 2016 = = = =
On 13 April 2016 , French Football Federation announced that Benzema would not be picked for Euro 2016 tournament on home soil . He responded on 1 June 2016 in Marca , in an interview entitled ' Benzema : " Deschamps folded due to pressure from France 's racist element " ' .
= = Style of play = =
A skillful , quick , agile , and prolific forward , who is good in the air , Benzema has been described as an " immensely talented striker " who is " strong and powerful " and " a potent finisher from inside the box " with both feet , despite being naturally right footed . An atypical number 9 , although he is usually deployed as a centre @-@ forward , Benzema is also capable of playing in several other offensive positions , and has been used on the wing , or even behind the main striker . In addition to his goalscoring , Benzema is indeed known for his willingness and ability to drop into deeper or wider positions , and either link @-@ up play with midfielders as a number 10 , or use his strength and technical ability to hold up the ball to provide assists for teammates , courtesy of his vision , creativity , passing , and eye for the final ball . He has also been praised for his work @-@ rate and tactical intelligence off the ball , as well as his attacking movement as a forward , which often draws opposition defenders out of position , and in turn creates spaces for Cristiano Ronaldo to make attacking runs into the centre of the area from the left wing .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 28 May 2016
1Includes Coupe de France , Coupe de la Ligue , Trophée des Champions , Copa del Rey and Supercopa de España2Includes UEFA Super Cup and FIFA Club World Cup
= = = International = = =
As of 8 October 2015
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Lyon
Ligue 1 : 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06 , 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08
Coupe de France : 2007 – 08
Trophée des Champions : 2006 , 2007
Real Madrid
UEFA Champions League : 2013 – 14 , 2015 – 16
UEFA Super Cup : 2014
FIFA Club World Cup : 2014
La Liga : 2011 – 12
Copa del Rey : 2010 – 11 , 2013 – 14
Supercopa de España : 2012
= = = International = = =
France
UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Football Championship ( 1 ) : 2004
= = = Individual = = =
Bravo Award : 2008
Ligue 1 Top Goalscorer : 2007 – 08
UNFP Ligue 1 Player of the Year : 2007 – 08
UNFP Ligue 1 Team of the Year : 2007 – 08
Étoile d 'Or : 2007 – 08
French Player of the Year ( 3 ) : 2011 , 2012 , 2014
Fastest goal in an El Clásico on 10 December 2011 ( 21 seconds )
= = Personal life = =
Karim Benzema was born in the city of Lyon , France to French nationals of Algerian descent . As a practicing Muslim , he observes fasting during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan . His grandfather , Da Lakehal Benzema , lived in the village of Tigzirt , located in the northern town of Beni Djellil in Algeria before migrating to Lyon , where he eventually settled in the 1950s . Benzema 's father , Hafid , was born in Tigzirt , while his mother , Wahida Djebbara , was born and raised in Lyon ; her family originated from Oran . Benzema is the third youngest in the family and grew up with eight other siblings in Bron , an eastern suburb of Lyon . His younger brothers Gressy and Sabri are also footballers . The former currently plies his trade at the amateur level with Vaulx @-@ le @-@ Velin in the Division d 'Honneur , the sixth division of French football , while the latter plays in the youth academy of a club in the family 's hometown of Bron . Since establishing himself as an international footballer , Benzema has been involved in numerous promotional campaigns . Since 2008 , he has regularly appeared on the cover of the French version of the annual FIFA video game . Benzema is sponsored by German sportswear company Adidas and has , subsequently , appeared in several television advertisements for the brand .
On 3 February 2014 , his longtime girlfriend , Chloé de Launay , gave birth to his daughter , Mélia .
= = = Legal issues = = =
On 18 April 2010 , it was first reported by French television channel M6 that four members of the French national team were being investigated for their roles as clients in a prostitute ring operated inside of a Paris nightclub , with some of the women possibly being underage or transgender . The players were eventually revealed to be Franck Ribéry , Sidney Govou , Hatem Ben Arfa and Benzema . Benzema was alleged to have had a sexual rendezvous with a prostitute when she was 16 years of age , an act Benzema denied through his lawyer . On 20 July , Benzema was questioned by Paris police and indicted on the charge of " solicitation of a minor prostitute " . In November 2011 , prosecutors asked for the cases against Ribéry and Benzema to be dropped , saying that the players were not aware that the escort , identified as Zahia Dehar , was 16 years old . However , the case has gone on to trial . The first hearing was held in June 2013 .
On 4 November 2015 , Benzema was arrested by French police for his alleged part in blackmailing fellow France international player Mathieu Valbuena . During the investigation over the blackmail plot , French Prime Minister Manuel Valls stated , " A great athlete should be exemplary . If he is not , he has no place in the France team . There are so many kids , so many youngsters in our suburbs that relate to great athletes . They wear the blue jersey , the colours of France , which are so important in these moments . "
= Roanoke Building =
11 South LaSalle Street Building or Eleven South LaSalle Street Building ( formerly Roanoke Building and Tower and originally Lumber Exchange Building and Tower Addition or simply the Roanoke Building and Lumber Exchange Building ) is a Chicago Landmark building that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and that is located at 11 South LaSalle Street in the Loop community area of Chicago , Illinois , United States . This address is located on the southeast corner of LaSalle and Madison Street in Cook County , Illinois across the Madison Street from the One North LaSalle Building . The building sits on a site of a former Roanoke building ( once known as Major Block 2 ) that once served as a National Weather Service Weather Forecast official climate site and replaced Major Block 1 after the Great Chicago Fire . The current building has incorporated the frontage of other buildings east of the original site of Major Block 1 .
The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places ( under the name Lumber Exchange Building and Tower Addition ) on December 6 , 2007 , and named a Chicago Landmark on December 12 , 2007 . It incorporates the lands of the former DeSoto Building and former Farewell Hall .
= = Original Roanoke Building = =
A four @-@ story Major Block 1 building , designed by T. V. Widskier , sat on this location until the Great Chicago Fire . After the fire , this was replaced with the Major Block 2 , which eventually became known as the Roanoke Building . Major Block 2 stood from 1872 – 1912 as a seven @-@ story building on spread foundations . It was designed by Dixon & Hamilton and had a length of 136 feet ( 41 @.@ 5 m ) along South LaSalle Street and a width of 66 feet ( 20 @.@ 1 m ) along West Madison Street . A commonly published illustration of this building shows it as a five @-@ story building . From June 8 , 1873 to January 1 , 1887 the original Roanoke building served as the Chicago location for the National Weather Service Weather Forecast official climate site . The building is mentioned in Saul Bellow 's More Die of Heartbreak but there it is referred to as a wealthy residence building and not as an office building .
= = Current Roanoke Building = =
= = = The original current building = = =
The current building was designed in three phases : in 1915 Holabird & Roche 's design for the first 16 floors was built , and five floors were added in 1922 . It was built originally as the sixteen @-@ story high Lumber Exchange Building and later renamed as the 11 South LaSalle Street Building . The Holabird & Roche design had three basements and rock caissons . The original 16 @-@ floor building was a late Chicago school commercial building that incorporated arches at both the fourth and the top floor , but when the top five floors were added in 1922 under the original cornice , the top rank of arches disappeared . The building uses dark terra cotta with italianate designs . The vaulted ceiling and marble wall lobby contribute to what is described as a classical entrance and lobby . The Palladian entrance uses contrasting white varigated and black marble .
= = = Tower addition = = =
In 1925 , the building was built to its current 35 story height by the addition of an adjacent tower to the east of the Madison street frontage . The entire building contains 330 @,@ 000 square feet ( 31 @,@ 000 m2 ) . The 36 @-@ story tower was added east of the original structure on the site of the former DeSoto Building at 125 @-@ 129 West Madison . The tower was an early example of the use of setbacks and it uses ranks of paired windows . When the Tower was built four bronze bells were installed and were set to chime an original composition called " Samheim " which is Norse for " Tomorrow " every quarter @-@ hour . The largest of these chimes is 7 @,@ 000 pounds ( 3 @,@ 200 kg ; 500 st ) and inscribed with the name " Leander " in honor of Leander McCormick . The current Roanoke building is the city 's only example of a building in the style of Portuguese Gothic architecture . According to the press release from the city announcing the landmark promotion , the building 's terra cotta ornamentation is derived from Portuguese Gothic precedents . The building was modernized in the 1950s and went through a postmodern renovation in 1984 to evoke the original ornamentation . The building has the same frontage as the original Roanoke building plus that of the former Farewell Hall ( built by William W. Boyington at 131 @-@ 3 West Madison Street ) .
From 1920 until 1969 the building hosted the offices of the law firm Sidley & Austin . Today the building is leased by small service industry firms , such as second @-@ floor tenant Thomas P. Gohagan & Co . , which arranges travel trips and tours for non @-@ profit organizations .
The building is undergoing renovation to the lobby , the façade , the elevators and the exterior lighting . The recent National Register listing has made the renovation feasible by making the building eligible for federal tax credits and reduced property taxes . The building qualified for the landmark Class L tax status , which makes it eligible for twelve years of reduced property taxes and other economic incentives for repair and rehab of historic buildings > In order to perform the renovation the owners took out a $ 43 @.@ 3 million loan against the property according to Form 8 @-@ K filings with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission . Its National Registered Historic Places announcement listed it under the name " Lumber Exchange Building and Tower Addition " although its Chicago Landmark listing is under the name " Roanoke Building and Tower . "
= Donnie Fatso =
" Donnie Fatso " is the ninth episode of the twenty @-@ second season of the animated comedy series The Simpsons . It first aired on Fox in the United States on December 12 , 2010 . The plot revolves around an FBI agent , who helps Homer go undercover to infiltrate Fat Tony 's mob . Homer agrees to this in hopes of decreasing his sentence after being charged for bribery . This episode is a reference to Goodfellas as well as real @-@ life FBI agent Donnie Brasco .
" Donnie Fatso " was written by Chris Cluess and directed by Ralph Sosa . Critics were polarized with the episode , with criticism stemming from its main plot and cultural references . Upon its initial airing , the episode received 7 @.@ 32 million viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . " Donnie Fatso " featured guest appearances from Jon Hamm and Joe Mantegna , as well as several recurring voice actors and actresses for the series .
= = Plot = =
Homer and Marge wake on New Year 's Day with hangovers after the family 's New Year 's Eve celebration . As Homer takes out the garbage , Chief Wiggum , Eddie , and Lou arrive and issue him multiple citations and fines - the result of recently passed , frivolous laws intended to bring in revenue for the city when broken . Taking Moe 's suggestion that he bribe a city official to clear up the fines , Homer leaves a sack full of cash on the official 's desk but is promptly arrested , convicted , and sentenced to 10 years in prison . Wiggum takes pity on Homer and tells him to meet with an FBI agent , who offers to reduce the sentence if Homer will go undercover in the prison to investigate Fat Tony , who is also serving time along with his top henchmen .
Homer quickly gains favor with Fat Tony , due to a confrontation engineered by the FBI agent , and Fat Tony breaks him and the entire group out of prison and offers him a chance to join the syndicate . Homer 's first task is to burn down Moe 's Tavern in revenge for Moe 's rudeness toward Fat Tony on the phone , but Homer finds that Moe has already done the deed himself . Fat Tony accepts Homer into the syndicate and the two develop a special bond ; however , complications over a scheme to import weapons put the syndicate under severe stress . Eventually Fat Tony discovers Homer 's undercover status and , emotionally devastated by his betrayal , suffers a fatal heart attack .
Meanwhile , Marge has begun to panic over being unable to communicate with Homer , as she knows nothing of his undercover work and cannot get any information on his whereabouts . She is surprised and thrilled when he returns home with his prison sentence lifted , but Homer feels guilt for Fat Tony 's death and bitterness toward the government over being used to bring him down . Homer visits Fat Tony 's grave to apologize , but is kidnapped by his cousin Fit Tony , who plans to kill him for revenge . However , Fit Tony spares his life after Homer tells of the time he and Fat Tony spent together , seeing that Fat Tony lives on in Homer 's memories . Fit Tony takes charge of the syndicate , but the stress of the position causes him to overeat and gain weight , becoming known first as Fit Fat Tony and then simply Fat Tony - now physically indistinguishable from the original .
= = Production = =
Donnie Fatso was written by Chris Cluess and directed by Ralph Sosa . In July 2010 , it was announced that Jon Hamm would make a guest appearance in the episode as an agent for the FBI . In his interview with Entertainment Weekly , showrunner Al Jean was pleased with Hamm 's performance , opining : " You gave him one note and he immediately did twelve great things with it . He was really funny . And handsome . He had it all . Hamm stated that appearing on the show was " an incredible experience " . In his interview with Access Hollywood , he continued , " I got to work on The Simpsons , which I watched for 20 years and the show is still fresh and still funny and the characters still resonate . It ’ s one of the best shows on television . It was an honor to be asked to be a part of it . " Joe Mantegna returned as Fat Tony , and voiced Fat Tony 's cousin Fit Tony .
" Donnie Fatso " features several references to music , film , media , and other pop culture phenomenon . The episode 's plot and title are parodical to that of the film Donnie Brasco . At the end of the episode , Homer 's monologue serves as a homage to monologue of Henry Hill in Goodfellas . Similarly , the parodying monologue is set to Sid Vicious ' version of " My Way " . Near the end of the episode , Fit Tony narrowly avoids a car bomb , a scene similar to that in Casino . The final scene between Fat Tony and Homer is reminiscent to that of the television show Wiseguy .
The opening sequence of " Donnie Fatso " featured a Fox News helicopter with the words " Merry Christmas from Fox News … But no other holidays . " It was the third episode of the season to satirize Fox News in its opening sequence , having first done so in " The Fool Monty " , in which helicopter can be seen hovering over New York City with the slogan " Fox News : Not Racist , But # 1 With Racists " . Bill O 'Reilly , host of the The O 'Reilly Factor , harshly criticized the show , calling the producers " pinheads " . He resumed : " Continuing to bite the hand that feeds part of it , Fox broadcasting once again allows its cartoon characters to run wild . " In response , producers added a brief scene at the beginning of the opening sequence in the following episode , " How Munched is That Birdie in the Window ? " , in which a helicopter appears bearing the slogan " Fox News : Unsuitable for Viewers Under 75 . " The scene was later removed from the opening sequence of " How Munched is That Birdie in the Window ? " , and was replaced by one reminiscing the film King Kong . According to showrunner Al Jean , the producers of the show were pleased that they had annoyed O 'Reilly , exclaiming that it was " very entertaining for [ them ] . "
= = Reception = =
" Donnie Fatso " was first broadcast on December 12 , 2010 in the United States as part of the animation television night on Fox . It was succeeded by episodes of Family Guy and American Dad ! . The episode was viewed by an estimated 7 @.@ 32 million viewers , despite airing simultaneously with Extreme Makeover Home Edition on ABC , The Amazing Race on CBS , and a game between the Philadelphia Eagles and the Dallas Cowboys as part of the 2010 NFL season on NBC . " Donnie Fatso " garnered a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to the Nielsen ratings . The episode also became the third highest rated show of the week on Fox , only behind Glee and Family Guy . Total viewership and ratings were significantly down from the previous episode , " The Fight Before Christmas " , which received 9 @.@ 56 million viewers and achieved a 4 @.@ 2 / 11 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic .
The episode attained mixed receptions from television critics . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a ' C ' grade , scoring lower than " Road to the North Pole " of Family Guy and " For Whom the Sleigh Bell Tolls " of American Dad . VanDerWerff felt that the episode was " fairly lazy " , and commented that the main plot was " too much of a mob movie pastiche . " Eric Hochberger of TV Fanatic criticized the humor of the episode , opining that " for an episode with such an overdone story , we could have forgiven things if it were at least funnier . " He continued : " Unfortunately , there just weren 't enough jokes to make the episode worth it . " In conclusion of his review , Hochberger gave " Donnie Fatso " a 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars .
Critics were also polarized with the conclusion of Fat Tony , and the addition of Fit Tony . Entertainment Weekly writer Darren Franich named Fat Tony 's death the ninth Best TV Character Death of 2010 , writing , " give the writers some credit for doing something different : In the middle of an otherwise straightforward mob @-@ themed episode , they actually went ahead and killed off Fat Tony , a character who was first introduced almost twenty years ago . "
Dan Castellaneta 's performance in the episode , as Homer , Barney , Krusty and Louie , was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , but lost to Maurice LaMarche , who received the award for his role in the Futurama episode " Lrrreconcilable Ndndifferences " .
= Hand in Glove =
" Hand in Glove " is a song by the British alternative rock band The Smiths , written by singer Morrissey and guitarist Johnny Marr . It was released as the band 's first single in May 1983 on independent record label Rough Trade Records . " Hand in Glove " peaked at number three on the UK Indie Chart . It did not chart ( top 75 ) but made number 124 outside the UK singles chart . A remixed version of the song was featured on the band 's debut album , The Smiths , in 1984 . That same year , a cover version recorded by singer Sandie Shaw featuring Smiths members Marr , Andy Rourke and Mike Joyce as backing musicians reached number 27 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Background and recording = =
Morrissey and Marr wrote " Hand in Glove " in January 1983 , between the second and third concerts The Smiths ever played . Morrissey claimed that after Marr gave him a demo cassette of the song , he went home and wrote lyrics for it in the span of two hours , conscious of the fact that it would be the group 's first recorded work . Even prior to performing the song live , the group was unanimous in the opinion that " Hand in Glove " was their strongest song to date .
The Smiths asked their manager Joe Moss to fund the recording of " Hand in Glove " . In late February , the group booked a one @-@ day recording session at Strawberry Studios in Stockport at the cost of £ 250 , which they produced themselves . Morrissey claimed in later years that he was dissatisfied with his vocal and returned a week later to re @-@ record his part , the day after which the entire group travelled to London and convinced Rough Trade owner Geoff Travis to release the record . However , author Simon Goddard noted that it was not until April 1983 that Marr and bassist Andy Rourke visited the Rough Trade offices . On that occasion , Marr handed Travis a cassette featuring " Hand in Glove " and a live recording of " Handsome Devil " , telling Travis , " [ L ] isten to this , it 's not just another tape " . Impressed , Travis promised he would . The following Monday , Travis called the group and invited them back to London to release " Hand in Glove " as a single . Both parties agreed to release the single as a temporary arrangement before agreeing to any long @-@ term partnership .
Two months after the single 's release , The Smiths recorded the song again during aborted sessions for their debut album with producer Troy Tate . This version was recorded a tone lower than the original in the key of F # minor , and features a shorter introduction . The Smiths recorded the song again with producer John Porter in October at Manchester 's Pluto Studios . Morrissey rejected this version of the song . Due to impending deadlines , the version that ultimately appeared on the band 's first album The Smiths was a remix of the original master recording from the Strawberry Studios session . For this version , Porter increased the separation between Marr 's guitar tracks and Morrissey 's vocals , emphasised drummer Mike Joyce 's drum beat , pushed Rourke 's bass back in the mix , and created a more dramatic opening and conclusion to the song .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
The original recorded version of " Hand in Glove " is in the key of G minor . The song begins with an overdub of Marr playing a harmonica over the rest of the music . Simon Goddard wrote that Marr 's use of the instrument " purposefully evoked the very same ' blunt vitality of working @-@ class " northernness " that Ian McDonald attributes to The Beatles ' parallel 1962 single ' Love Me Do ' , though infinitely more melancholy . " Of the backing music , Goddard wrote , " Marr 's redolent minor chord wash weeps with a rain @-@ soaked hopelessness while Rourke contributes one of his most inspired bass patterns " .
Morrissey explained that the song 's theme was " complete loneliness , " going on to state : " It was important to me that that there 'd be something searingly poetic about it , in a lyrical sense , and yet jubilant at the same time . " Goddard described " Hand in Glove " as " a bleak proclamation of doomed happiness [ . . . ] a shattering left @-@ hook of self @-@ loathing , loss and desperation " . Years later Morrissey considered the song to be the group 's " most special . " The singer said he was particularly proud of the song 's second verse , which included the lines " Though we may be hidden by rags / We have something they 'll never have . " Morrissey explained that the verse described " how I felt when I couldn 't afford clothes and used to dress in rags but I didn 't really feel mentally impoverished . "
In the song 's lyrics , Morrissey referenced works by playwright Shelagh Delaney , whom he would reference in several later songs . The song 's line " I 'll probably never see you again " appears in Delaney 's kitchen sink realism play A Taste of Honey and The Lion in Love . Morrissey paraphrased the line " Everything depends upon how near you stand next to me " from the 1974 Leonard Cohen song " Take This Longing " . Goddard conjectures that the song 's title was inspired by the 1947 detective novel Hand in Glove by Ngaio Marsh .
The song starts with the lines " Hand in glove / the sun shines out of our behinds " and then states that " No it 's not like any other love / this one 's different / because it 's us . " The lyrics then state that " the people stare " and " the Good People laugh " , " but we have something they 'll never have . " The song ends with the repeated line " I 'll probably never see you again " which is also taken from A Taste of Honey . The intro to the song uses the chords F major ( sus2 ) , Eb major and Bb major . The verse uses the chord G minor 7 , F7 ( sus2 ) and Eb major . ( The transcription cited is transposed to E minor instead of G minor . )
= = Release and reception = =
" Hand in Glove " was released as The Smiths ' debut recording in May 1983 . The single sold consistently for the next 18 months . Although the single failed to reach the UK Singles Chart , it reached number three on the UK Indie Chart . Its relative success earned the group a listing in the Guinness Book of Records in January 1984 when it and the group 's next two singles ' " This Charming Man " and " What Difference Does It Make ? " ' held the top three position on the UK Indie Chart . " It should have been a massive hit " , Morrissey later said , " it was so urgent . To me , it was a complete cry in every direction . It really was a landmark . " The single did raise the band 's profile ; a week after its release the band gained its first major live reviews in the music press , which in turn led to their first radio session with BBC Radio 1 disc jockey John Peel .
While reviewing a 1983 concert by The Smiths and The Go @-@ Betweens at The Venue in London , Barney Hoskyns , writing for the NME , described " Hand in Glove " as " one of the year 's few masterpieces , a thing of beauty and a joy forever " . In the 1984 edition of The Rock Yearbook , Hoskyns said the song " swept into my heart " . Bill Black , writing for Sounds , described it as a " daunting " debut . Writing for Allmusic , Ned Raggett calls the song a " stunning , surprising debut " and describes the music as " sparkling " stating that it relied on Marr 's " careful overdubbing of acoustic and electric guitars " . Raggett went on to describe Rourke 's bass and Joyce 's drumming as " sparse but effective " , and claimed that Joyce " especially shone " .
Reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine says lyrics to the Smiths single " Hand in Glove " contain " veiled references to homosexuality " .
= = Packaging = =
Morrissey had specific instructions on how he wanted the " Hand in Glove " single to be packaged . He told Rough Trade 's art department that the single should have a paper label centre with four vents encircling the middle , in homage to singles from the 1960s . The cover to the single features a photograph of George O 'Mara by Jim French , taken from Margaret Walters ' history The Nude Male . The sleeve 's homoerotic undertones elicited the reaction Morrissey was hoping for of unease and outrage . Rourke noted when he showed the recording to his parents his father was " mortified . He said to me , ' that 's a bloke 's bum ' and I said , ' yeah ' but when he asked me why I just didn 't have an answer for him " .
= = Track listing = =
Both songs written by Morrissey and Johnny Marr .
" Hand in Glove " – 3 : 16
" Handsome Devil " ( live , Manchester Hacienda , 4 / 2 / 83 ) – 2 : 53
= = Etchings on vinyl = =
British 7 " : KISS MY SHADES / KISS MY SHADES TOO
" Kiss my shades " is a lyric from the title track .
= = Sandie Shaw collaboration = =
Despite having established themselves as a group , Morrissey and Marr still harboured ambitions that they would be recognised as songwriters by having their songs covered by others . Their top choice was singer Sandie Shaw , who had scored several hits throughout the 1960s and was one of the most prominent British vocalists of her era . In the summer of 1983 , Marr and Morrissey began asking Shaw to cover their song " I Don 't Owe You Anything " , which they had conceived with her in mind to perform . The pair sent Shaw various letters coupled with song demos . Shaw was sceptical at first ; she was discouraged by the negative media attention that accompanied the Smiths song " Reel Around the Fountain " , and when she received a copy of " Hand in Glove " in the mail , she reportedly exclaimed to her husband " he 's started sending me pictures of naked men with their bums showing ! "
Shaw was eventually won over by the intervention of Geoff Travis and by Morrissey 's praise of her in the press . In January 1984 , NME announced that Shaw and The Smiths would release a collaborative recording of " I Don 't Owe You Anything " as a single on Rough Trade . In February , Shaw and The Smiths journeyed to Matrix Studios in London , where Shaw recorded three Smiths songs with Marr , Joyce and Rourke . The version of " Hand in Glove " recorded at Matrix was performed in the key of D minor , while Marr placed the intro riff 's accent on a major scale and Shaw altered some lyrics . Shaw ended up selecting their recording of " Hand in Glove " as the single 's A @-@ side , placing " I Don 't Owe You Anything " as the B @-@ side . The cover features a still of Rita Tushingham from the movie A Taste of Honey , an adaptation of the play of the same name that was written by Shelagh Delaney , who appeared on the covers of the single " Girlfriend In a Coma " and the compilation album Louder Than Bombs .
Released as a single in April 1984 solely under Shaw 's name , the recording became Shaw 's first hit in a decade when it reached number 27 on the UK Singles Chart . Marr , Rourke and Joyce backed Shaw on two mimed television performances of the song , first on Channel 4 's Earsay in March 1984 , and then on Top of the Pops on 26 April , where the band appeared barefoot in homage to the singer , who did so often in the 1960s .
= = = Track listing = = =
7 "
" Hand in Glove " – 2 : 58
" I Don 't Owe You Anything " – 4 : 06
12 "
" Hand in Glove " – 2 : 58
" I Don 't Owe You Anything " – 4 : 06
" Jeane " – 2 : 52
= = = Etchings on vinyl = = =
British 7 " : KISS MY SHADES / JM
= = = Charts = = =
= Darlington F.C. =
Darlington Football Club was an English football club based in Darlington , County Durham . The club was founded in 1883 , and played its games at Feethams , before moving to the Darlington Arena in 2003 . The arena is an all @-@ seater stadium with a capacity of 25 @,@ 000 , although this was restricted to 10 @,@ 000 . The cost of the stadium was a major factor in driving the club into administration . The club originally played in regionally organised leagues , and were one of the founding members of the Northern League in 1889 . They were first admitted to the Football League when the Third Division North was formed in 1921 .
They won the Third Division North title in 1925 , and their 15th place in the Second Division in 1926 remained their highest ever league finish . After their admission to the League , they spent most of their history in the bottom tier . They won the Third Division North Cup in 1934 ; their first victory in nationally organised cup competition . They reached the last 16 of the FA Cup twice , and the quarter @-@ final of the Football League Cup once , in 1968 . In the early 1990s they won successive titles , with the Conference National in 1990 and the Fourth Division in 1991 . In 2011 they won the FA Trophy , defeating Mansfield Town 1 – 0 at Wembley Stadium .
In May 2012 , the club was bought out of a period of administration without entering into a Creditors Voluntary Agreement ( CVA ) . The Football Association ruled that it should be treated as a new club , which required a change of playing name . The name chosen was Darlington 1883 , and that team was placed in the Northern League Division One , which is the ninth tier of English football , for the 2012 – 13 season .
The club 's main rivals were Hartlepool United . The club 's traditional colours were black and white shirts , black shorts and black and white socks . The club 's crest depicted Locomotion No 1 , referring to the town 's railway history ; as well as a stylised Quaker hat , referring to the religious movement that had a historic influence on the town , and which was the source of the team 's nickname , the Quakers .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and pre @-@ war = = =
In July 1883 , a meeting was called in Darlington Grammar School to address concerns that so few Darlington @-@ based football clubs were entering the major competition in the region , the Durham Challenge Cup . The meeting agreed with the view expressed by the Darlington & Stockton Times newspaper , that there was " no club , urban or rural , sufficiently powerful to worthily represent Darlington " , decided to form a new club , and elected one Charles Samuel Craven , a local engineer , as secretary . Darlington Football Club duly entered the Durham Challenge Cup , reached the final in their first season , and won the trophy in 1885 . The following season Darlington entered the FA Cup for the first time , only to lose 8 – 0 to Grimsby Town . Craven was instrumental in the formation of the Northern League in 1889 . Darlington were one of the founder members , and went on to win the league title in 1896 and 1900 ; they reached the semi @-@ final of the FA Amateur Cup in the same two seasons .
The club turned professional in 1908 and joined the North Eastern League . The 1910 – 11 season saw Darlington reach the last 16 of the FA Cup , progressing through five qualifying rounds to lose to Swindon Town in the Third Round Proper , and two years later they won the North Eastern League . Ground improvements begun before the First World War left the club in financial difficulty during it ; the chairman of Darlington Forge Albion financed the completion of the East Stand and cleared the debts , allowing them to continue to compete . When competitive football resumed after the war , Darlington finished second in the North Eastern League , and were champions for a second time the following year . This victory was well timed , as it coincided with the formation of the Northern Section of the Football League 's Third Division , which Darlington were invited to join .
Their first season in the Third Division was a successful one and they ended up in second place . Three years later , in 1924 – 25 , they were champions and won promotion to the Football League Second Division . The 15th @-@ place finish in 1926 remains Darlington 's best League performance , but they were relegated back to the Third Division in 1927 , where they remained until the Second World War put an end to competitive football . They came as high as third in 1929 – 30 , but twice had to apply for re @-@ election to the League , in 1932 – 33 and 1936 – 37 , after finishing in last place in the section . In 1934 , they enjoyed their first success in a nationally @-@ organised cup competition , defeating Stockport County 4 – 3 at Old Trafford to win the Football League Third Division North Cup , and reached the final again two years later , this time losing 2 – 1 at home to Chester .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
Soon after the Football Association gave permission for competitive matches to be played under floodlights , Darlington beat Carlisle United 3 – 1 in the first floodlit FA Cup match between Football League clubs , a replay held at St James ' Park , Newcastle United 's ground , in November 1955 . The 1957 – 58 season saw the club equal their previous best FA Cup run , reaching the last 16 by defeating Chelsea , Football League champions only three years earlier , in the Fourth Round . After letting slip a three @-@ goal lead at Stamford Bridge , Darlington won the replay 4 – 1 after extra time , described as " a most meritorious win , earned by a combination of sound tactics and an enthusiasm that Chelsea never equalled " by The Times ' correspondent , who felt it " surprising that extra time was necessary , for Darlington always seemed to have the match well in hand " . In the League , Darlington 's fourth place in 1948 – 49 was their only top @-@ half finish in the first twelve seasons after the war , and when the regional sections of the Third Division were merged , they were allocated to the new Fourth Division .
The Supporters ' Club raised £ 20 @,@ 000 to pay for a roof at one end of the Feethams ground and for floodlights , which were first used on 19 September 1960 . Later that night , the West Stand burned down due to an electrical fault . Darlington 's attendance record , of 21 @,@ 023 against Bolton Wanderers in the League Cup fourth round , was set two months later . Under the management of Lol Morgan , they won promotion to the Third Division in 1966 . A crowd of 16 @,@ 000 watched the draw against Torquay United on the last day of the season which ensured they finished as runners @-@ up , but they were relegated the following year .
Darlington reached the quarter @-@ finals of the 1968 League Cup ; drawn away to Brian Clough 's Derby County , they took the lead , only to lose 5 – 4 . During the 1970s the club had to apply for re @-@ election to the League five times , and by 1982 they were facing a financial crisis which they survived thanks to fundraising efforts in the town . Three years later they won promotion by finishing third in the league under manager Cyril Knowles . Darlington spent two seasons in the Third Division ; the 13th @-@ place finish in 1986 was the highest position they achieved in the Football League since the introduction of the four @-@ division structure in 1958 , but they were relegated the following season .
Though Brian Little 's appointment as manager in February 1989 failed to stave off relegation to the Conference , he went on to lead them to successive promotions . An immediate return to the Football League as Conference champions preceded the Fourth Division title in 1990 – 91 , but Little 's departure for Leicester City was followed by relegation and a succession of short @-@ term managers . They came close to a return to the Third Division via the play @-@ offs in 1996 ; on their first visit to Wembley , against Plymouth Argyle , they were beaten by a Ronnie Mauge goal .
= = = Reynolds and after = = =
The 1999 – 2000 season , the first under new chairman George Reynolds , was marked by Darlington becoming the first team to lose an FA Cup tie and still qualify for the next round . Manchester United 's involvement in the FIFA Club World Championship meant they did not enter the FA Cup . To decide who took their place , a " lucky losers " draw was held from the 20 teams knocked out in the second round ; Darlington were selected , and lost their third @-@ round tie 2 – 1 to Aston Villa at Villa Park . Their second Wembley appearance came later that season , facing Peterborough United in the play @-@ off final after automatic promotion had seemed certain earlier in the season . After a 3 – 0 aggregate semi @-@ final win over Hartlepool United , Quakers missed numerous chances and were again undone by a single goal , this time from Andy Clarke .
In 2002 , Darlington made unsuccessful approaches to sign Paul Gascoigne and Faustino Asprilla , and moved into their new stadium , named the Reynolds Arena , in summer 2003 . Reynolds had paid the club 's debts when he took over , but the cost of the stadium , partly financed with high @-@ interest loans and built without realistic expectation of filling it , drove the club into administration six months later . Reynolds resigned as a director in January 2004 with the club under threat of imminent closure . A benefit match , featuring footballers such as Gascoigne , Bryan Robson and Kenny Dalglish , played in front of a crowd of over 14 @,@ 000 , raised £ 100 @,@ 000 to help ensure survival in the short term . Despite the off @-@ field problems , David Hodgson , in his third spell as manager , and his players produced some fine performances as the team avoided relegation .
At the end of the season , Reynolds was obliged to hand over control to the Sterling Consortium to bring the club out of administration , Stewart Davies taking over as chairman . He and his staff adopted a fan @-@ friendly approach , in contrast to the abrasive Reynolds , before in 2006 , the club was sold to property developer George Houghton . For four consecutive seasons , under Hodgson , sacked in 2006 , and then under successor Dave Penney , the Quakers finished in the top half of the table , reaching the play @-@ off semi @-@ final in 2008 only to lose to Rochdale on penalties . In February 2009 , Darlington again went into administration , triggering an automatic 10 @-@ point deduction , without which they would have again reached the play @-@ offs . Fundraising efforts kept the club going , but when no buyer was found for the club by a May deadline , the administrators made the majority of the first @-@ team squad available for transfer and cut staff numbers to a minimum . On 20 May , Houghton returned to the club as chairman , appointed former Middlesbrough boss Colin Todd as manager , and brokered an agreement which led to the club coming out of administration and ownership passing to local businessman Raj Singh , enabling the club to compete in the 2009 – 10 season without any points deduction . Todd left the club after losing seven of his first nine games and was replaced by former Republic of Ireland manager Steve Staunton , who only won four of 23 league games .
The club were eventually relegated to the Conference , and suffered more managerial turmoil during the summer when Simon Davey and successor Ryan Kidd both left within 11 days , to leave Mark Cooper in charge . He led the club to victory | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
in the 2011 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium , defeating Mansfield Town 1 – 0 with a goal from Chris Senior in the last minute of extra time . Following a succession of poor performances at the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Cooper and his assistant Richard Dryden were sacked by the club on 24 October 2011 . A little more than two months later , Singh placed the club into administration for a third time in less than a decade . A number of players were released and allowed to join other clubs for nominal fees in January before interim manager Craig Liddle and the remaining playing staff had their contracts terminated by Darlington 's administrator . Two days later , the club was spared from liquidation after a last @-@ minute injection of funding by supporters ' groups . Enough funds were raised for Darlington to complete the season , but relegation was confirmed with three matches remaining . After the club was taken over with the intention of moving into community ownership , without entering into a Creditors Voluntary Agreement ( CVA ) , Darlington were relegated four divisions , to the Northern League Division One , on the recommendation of the Football Association . Martin Gray was appointed manager . On 21 June 2012 , the Football Association rejected an appeal , confirming that the club was to be treated as a new club entered into the Northern League , and would no longer be able to play under the name Darlington F.C. The new owners opted to rename the new club Darlington 1883 .
= = Colours and badge = =
In 1888 , Darlington 's kit consisted of a shirt with black and white vertical stripes , black shorts and black socks . Apart from a period between the 1910s and 1936 , when blue shorts were worn , the basic colours of the home kit have remained black and white . The shirt design has varied , from the 1888 vertical stripes , through hoops , plain white , and back to hoops again in the 1990s . Sponsors ' names have appeared on Darlington 's shirts since the 1980s . A table of kit manufacturers ( since the 1970s ) and shirt sponsors appears on the right .
Supporters were invited to vote for the design of the 2010 – 11 kit , to be manufactured by Erreà ; options for the home shirt each had black @-@ and @-@ white hoops , while the proposed away colours were either the traditional red or sky @-@ blue and white . The front of the home shirt has black @-@ and @-@ white hoops with a curved white panel , the back is largely white , and it has black sleeves with white trim and a black collar ; shorts are white and socks have black @-@ and @-@ white hoops . The design originally chosen had to be changed to comply with Conference rules prohibiting predominantly black kit ( to avoid a clash with match officials ' colours ) . The away kit is all red with black trim on the shirt . The shirts bear the name of hotel The Morritt , winners of the right to sponsor the shirt in a draw from among seven local businesses , each of which had purchased a hospitality package .
The club badge is in the form of a shield , divided diagonally into two parts ; the smaller section , to the upper right , is in the club 's home colour of white , the larger is red , their traditional away colour . In the white section is a stylised Quaker hat , emblematic of the major role played by the Religious Society of Friends ( Quakers ) in the history of the town . The larger section depicts George Stephenson 's Locomotion No 1 , the steam locomotive that hauled the first train on the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 , representing the importance of the railway industry to the area . Across the bottom of the shield is a ribbon bearing the club 's nickname , The Quakers , and the whole rests on a bed of oak leaves , symbolic of strength and endurance .
= = Stadia = =
Feethams was originally used by Darlington Cricket Club , but began to be used for football in the 1860s . Darlington F.C. began playing there when they formed in 1883 . With growing crowd figures , the ground was expanded with the construction of the West stand at the turn of the twentieth century , and the construction of the Polam Lane end in 1905 . In 1913 , a pair of towers were built at the entrance to the ground , and in 1920 , offices and changing rooms were built underneath the East stand . Floodlights were installed in September 1960 , but after their first use an electrical fault gutted the West stand in a fire , prompting its rebuilding . In 1997 , the East stand was demolished and rebuilt as an all seater stand . The new stand brought the capacity of the stadium up to 8 @,@ 000 . However , the £ 3 million cost of the stand had a major negative effect on the club , and George Reynolds came in to stabilise the club . He initiated the construction of the 25 @,@ 000 seat Darlington Arena . The last match played at Feethams was a 2 – 2 draw with Leyton Orient on 3 May 2003 . Following the closure of the ground , the floodlights were sold to Workington A.F.C. and the stadium demolished . A 160 @-@ house housing estate was planned for the cleared site .
The all @-@ seater Darlington Arena was opened in 2003 , at a cost of £ 18 million . The first game at the new stadium was a 2 – 0 loss to Kidderminster Harriers on 16 August 2003 . The attendance of 11 @,@ 600 still stands as a record for the ground . Though the stadium can seat up to 25 @,@ 000 people , the club is restricted to just 10 @,@ 000 because of county and local planning regulations . The club struggled to fill the new stadium and entered administration in February 2009 .
Although generally known as the Darlington Arena , the ground has had a number of official names due to sponsorship reasons ; between 2003 and 2004 it was known as the Reynolds Arena , the Williamson Motors Stadium from 2004 to 2005 , the 96 @.@ 6 TFM Darlington Arena from 2005 to 2007 , the Balfour Webnet Darlington Arena between 2007 and 2009 , and since then it has been known as The Northern Echo Darlington Arena .
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
Darlington 's supporters consider Hartlepool United as their main rivals . The feeling is reciprocated : in a 2008 survey , 95 % of supporters of both clubs named the other as their bitterest rivals . The clubs , based 25 miles ( 40 km ) apart , with Middlesbrough directly between the two towns , had met 147 times ( as of 2009 – 10 ) , of which Hartlepool won 60 to Darlington 's 57 . The meeting between the two clubs in 2007 attracted a crowd of 10 @,@ 121 to the Darlington Arena , the largest attendance for that League fixture for 50 years , though the average League attendance at the stadium declined from over 5 @,@ 000 in its opening season to 2 @,@ 744 in 2009 – 10 .
Darlington has an official supporters ' club and an away supporters group , known as Darlington Away Far Travelling Supporters ( DAFTS ) , who represent Darlington supporters from places elsewhere in the country . A supporters ' trust was founded in 2002 ; it established a Disabled Supporters Group , tried to maintain a working relationship between club and supporters , and , together with the Darlington Camera Club , staged a " Farewell to Feethams " exhibition in celebration of the club 's longtime home . Together with the supporters ' club , the trust has been actively involved in fund @-@ raising particularly during the club 's periods of administration .
Fanzines included Mission Impossible , first published in the early 1990s , and Where 's The Money Gone , whose teenage editor , along with the editor of website Darlo Uncovered , Scott Thornberry , were among several supporters banned from the ground by chairman George Reynolds for criticising the running of the club .
The team mascot was Mr Q , described as " a flat @-@ looking cartoon man with a very big hat " . In 2006 , he was joined , and later replaced , by Darlo Dog , a Dalmatian , who was once ejected from the ground for climbing on the advertising boards in front of television cameras . Darlo Dog retired at the end of the 2009 – 10 season ; his successor , a panda named Feethams , was chosen via a design competition .
= = Honours = =
Honours achieved by Darlington since their foundation in 1883 include the following :
= = = League = = =
Football League Third Division North : 1
1924 – 25
Runners @-@ up : 1921 – 22
Fourth Division : 1990 – 91
Runners @-@ up : 1965 – 66
Football Conference : 1
1989 – 90
Northern League : 2
1895 – 96 , 1899 – 1900
Runners @-@ up : 1896 – 97 , 1898 – 99
North Eastern League : 2
1912 – 13 , 1920 – 21
Runners @-@ up : 1919 – 20
= = = Cup = = =
FA Trophy : 1
2010 – 11
Football League Third Division North Cup : 1
1933 – 34
Runners @-@ up : 1935 – 36
Durham Challenge Cup : 6
1884 – 85 , 1890 – 91 , 1892 – 93 , 1896 – 97 , 1919 – 20 , 1999 – 2000
= = Records = =
Darlington 's highest league finish was fifteenth in the Football League Second Division , during the 1925 – 26 season . The club 's best performance in the FA Cup has been two appearances in the last 16 of the competition . This first was in 1910 – 11 , when they lost to Swindon Town in the third round . The second was in the 1957 – 58 season , when they beat Chelsea 4 – 1 in a replay to reach the fifth round , in which they lost 6 – 1 to Wolverhampton Wanderers . The club 's best League Cup performance was reaching the quarter @-@ final in the 1967 – 68 season .
The Quakers ' biggest home win was a 13 – 1 defeat of Scarborough in the FA Cup on 24 October 1891 . Their best away win was on 22 October 1921 , when they beat Durham City 7 – 3 in the Third Division North .
The player with the most league appearances for Darlington is Ron Greener with 439 between 1955 and 1967 . He made a total of 490 senior appearances for the club . Alan Walsh scored a club @-@ record 87 league goals between 1978 and 1984 , and scored 100 goals for Darlington overall . The most league goals scored for the club by a single player in a season is 39 , by David Brown in the 1924 – 25 season . Franz Burgmeier has the most senior international appearances while a Darlington player , with seven caps for Liechtenstein in the 2008 – 09 season .
= = = Dream team = = =
As part of the " Farewell to Feethams " celebrations , a competition in the club programme in 2003 selected the following all @-@ time " Dream Team " : Mark Prudhoe , Ron Greener , Craig Liddle , Kevan Smith , John Peverell , Andy Toman , David McLean , Alan Sproates , Alan Walsh , Marco Gabbiadini and Colin Sinclair . Gabbiadini , scorer of 53 goals in his two seasons at Darlington , was voted greatest ever player .
= Andry Rajoelina =
Andry Rajoelina ( Malagasy : [ ˈjanɖʐʲ nʲˈrinə radzoˈel ] ) ( born 30 May 1974 ) was the President of the High Transitional Authority of Madagascar . He became president on 21 March 2009 during a political crisis , having held the office of Mayor of Antananarivo for one year prior , and stepped down on 25 January 2014 following internationally recognized general elections held in 2013 . Before entering the political arena , Rajoelina launched several successful enterprises , including a printing and advertising company called Injet in 1999 and the Viva radio and television networks in 2007 . He began his career as an entrepreneur in his teenage years , first as a disc jockey at local clubs and parties , and later by organizing and promoting musical events in the capital .
Upon rising to power , Rajoelina dissolved the Senate and National Assembly and transferred their powers to a variety of new governance structures he made responsible for overseeing the transition toward a new constitutional authority . These administrative structures repeatedly conflicted with the internationally mediated process to establish a transitional government of consensus . Voters approved a new constitution in a national referendum unilaterally organized by the Rajoelina administration in November 2010 , ushering in the Fourth Republic and putting in place the conditions enabling Rajoelina to stand in the next general election . In January 2013 he announced his decision to abstain from running in the 2013 general election , but in May 2013 he reversed this decision and submitted his candidature . A special electoral court ruled in August 2013 that his candidature was invalid and that Rajoelina would not be permitted to run in the 2013 election . He has declared an interest in presenting himself as a presidential candidate in a future election .
= = Early years = =
Andry Rajoelina was born on 30 May 1974 to a relatively wealthy family in Antananarivo . His father , now @-@ retired Colonel Roger Yves Rajoelina , held dual nationality and fought for the French army in the Algerian War . At the age of 13 , Rajoelina became the 1987 junior @-@ class national karate champion . While still in high school , Rajoelina began working as a disc jockey at parties and clubs in Antananarivo to earn pocket money . Although Rajoelina 's family could afford a college education for their son , he opted to discontinue his studies after completing his baccalaureat to launch a career as an entrepreneur .
In 1994 , Rajoelina met his future spouse Mialy Razakandisa , who was then completing her senior year at a high school in Antananarivo . The couple courted long @-@ distance for six years while Mialy completed her undergraduate and masters studies in finance and accounting in Paris ; they were reunited in Madagascar in 2000 and wed the same year . Their marriage produced two boys , Arena ( born 2002 ) and Ilonstoa ( born 2005 ) , and a daughter born in 2007 that the couple named Andrialy , a contraction of their own names .
= = Media entrepreneur = =
In 1993 , at the age of 19 , Rajoelina established his first enterprise : a small event production company called Show Business . The connections and influence of his father , then a prominent military officer , in combination with Rajoelina 's own knowledge of Antananarivo nightlife , were factors in the company 's success . By the following year , he had firmly established his reputation among the youth elite of the capital for organizing an annual concert called Live that brought together foreign and Malagasy musical artists . The event continued to grow in popularity with each passing year , attracting 50 @,@ 000 participants on its tenth anniversary .
In 1999 , he launched Injet , an advertising and digital printing company that quickly grew in prominence with its expansion of billboard advertising throughout the capital . The business was the first to make digital printing technology available on the island . Local magazine Echo Australe , which named then @-@ mayor of Antananarivo Marc Ravalomanana their Entrepreneur of the Year in 1999 , bestowed the same honor on Rajoelina in 2000 . Following Rajoelina 's marriage in 2000 , his wife 's wealthy parents invested in Injet and allowed Rajoelina in 2001 to acquire Domapub , a competing Antananarivo @-@ based billboard advertising business that they owned . The couple worked together to manage the family businesses , with Rajoelina responsible for Injet and his wife handling the affairs of Domapub . A competition organized by French bank BNI Crédit Lyonnais awarded first prize for best young entrepreneur in Madagascar to Rajoelina in 2003 .
Rajoelina 's business affairs gradually drew him into the political arena . Shortly after Ravalomanana won the presidential elections in 2001 , Rajoelina befriended the new president 's daughter and continued to expand his relationship with the capital 's political elite over the course of the Ravalomanana presidency . He assumed an increasingly political role after the policies of Ravalomanana 's Tiako I Madagasikara ( TIM ) -dominated government increasingly obstructed the expansion of his business activities , such as requiring the removal of Antananarivo 's first LED advertising panels , which Rajoelina had installed at a major roundabout in the capital . In May 2007 he purchased the Ravinala television and radio stations , which he renamed Viva TV and Viva FM . The official launch of these newly acquired media channels on 27 May was attended by many of the capital 's political and cultural elite , including Antananarivo mayor Hery Rafalimanana and Jacques Sylla , president of the TIM political party . Rajoelina used these media channels as outlets for voicing criticism of the Ravalomanana administration , quickly transforming his public image into that of an opposition leader .
= = Mayor of Antananarivo = =
In 2007 Rajoelina created and led the political association Tanora malaGasy Vonona ( TGV ) , meaning " determined Malagasy youth " . Shortly afterward he announced his candidacy for the position of Mayor of Antananarivo . Rajoelina was elected on 12 December 2007 with 63 @.@ 3 % of the vote and a 75 % voter turnout , beating TIM party incumbent Hery Rafalimanana . Although Rafalimanana enjoyed strong popularity during his tenure as mayor , having been nationally and internationally credited with effectively managing the capital and achieving significant transformation of the urban landscape in the city , his campaign suffered from inadequate TIM promotional support and the increasingly unpopular image of the TIM party .
Rajoelina faced significant challenges in his tenure as mayor . Upon taking office , he was confronted with redressing the city 's treasury , which had accumulated 8 @.@ 2 billion Malagasy Ariary ( approximately 4 @.@ 6 million U.S. dollars ) in debts under previous mayors , including Ravalomanana himself . Beginning 4 January 2008 , Ravalomanana ordered water cutoffs at public pumps and brownouts of Antananarivo 's street lights run by the state utilities company Jirama , due to 3 @.@ 3 million ariary of unpaid debts to Jirama by the City of Antananarivo . Rajoelina responded by condemning the move as political and proceeded to undertake an audit that identified and addressed long @-@ standing procedural irregularities and issues of corruption within the city 's administration . Following a series of crimes against members of Rajoelina 's inner circle in 2008 that comprised the burgling of his cabinet director 's car , the kidnapping and ransoming of one of his special advisers , and the death of an assistant under mysterious circumstances , rumors spread that the Rajoelina administration was being deliberately intimidated by supporters of the president .
= = = Confrontation with Ravalomanana = = =
On 13 December 2008 , the Government closed Andry Rajoelina 's Viva TV , stating that a Viva interview with exiled former head of state Didier Ratsiraka was " likely to disturb peace and security " . This move catalyzed the political opposition and a public already dissatisfied with other recent actions undertaken by Ravalomanana , including the July 2008 deal with Daewoo Logistics to lease half the island 's arable land for South Korean cultivation of corn and palm oil , and the November 2008 purchase of a second presidential jet at a cost of 60 million U.S. dollars . Within a week Rajoelina met with twenty of Madagascar 's most prominent opposition leaders , referred to in the press as the " Club of 20 " , to develop a joint statement demanding that the Ravalomanana administration improve its adherence to democratic principles . The demand was broadcast at a public press conference where Rajoelina also promised to dedicate a politically open public space in the capital which he would call Place de la democratie ( " Democracy Place " ) .
Beginning in January 2009 , Andry Rajoelina led a series of political rallies in downtown Antananarivo where he gave voice to the frustration that Ravalomanana 's policies had triggered , particularly among the economically marginalized and members of the political opposition . On 17 January he gathered 30 @,@ 000 supporters at a public park and declared it renamed Place de la democratie . At a rally on 31 January 2009 Rajoelina announced that he was in charge of the entire Malagasy Republic , declaring : " Since the president and the government have not assumed their responsibilities , I therefore proclaim that I will run all national affairs as of today . " He added that a request for President Ravalomanana to formally resign would shortly be filed with the Parliament of Madagascar . This self @-@ declaration of power discredited Rajoelina in the eyes of many of the supporters who had rallied around his original pro @-@ democracy message , and the number of attendees at subsequent rallies declined , averaging around 3 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 participants .
On 3 February , Ravalomanana dismissed Rajoelina as mayor of Antananarivo and appointed a special delegation headed by Guy Randrianarisoa to manage the affairs of the capital . Rajoelina denounced the decision and warned that it would not be accepted by the populace . The following day Rajoelina instead designated Michele Ratsivalaka to succeed him as mayor . Rajoelina incited demonstrators on 7 February to occupy the presidential palace , prompting the presidential guard to open fire on the advancing crowd , killing 31 and wounding more than 200 . Popular disapproval of Ravalomanana intensified and polarized some in favor of his resignation , although perceptions of Rajoelina as an alternative remained mixed . Conflicts between pro @-@ Rajoelina demonstrators and security forces continued over the following weeks , resulting in several additional deaths . The security forces unsuccessfully attempted to arrest Rajoelina at his compound on 5 March ; they also raided the offices of his Viva media network . Initially they surrounded Viva , and after thirty minutes the staff attempted to remove Viva property , at which point the security forces stormed the building and confiscated the equipment . For the next several days Rajoelina took refuge in the home of the French ambassador , reporting to the press that he feared for his safety .
On 11 March , following a declaration of neutrality by army leadership , pro @-@ opposition soldiers from the CAPSAT ( Army Corps of Personnel and Administrative and Technical Services ) stormed the army headquarters and forced the army chief of staff to resign . Over the next several days the army deployed forces to enable the opposition to occupy key ministries , the chief of military police transferred his loyalty to Rajoelina , and the army sent tanks against the president 's Iavoloha Palace . Rajoelina rejected Ravalomanana 's offer on 15 March to hold a national referendum to determine whether the president should resign , and called on security forces to arrest the president . The following day , the army stormed the president 's Ambohitsorohitra Palace and captured the Central Bank . Hours later Ravalomanana transferred his power to group of senior army personnel , an act described by the opposition as a voluntary resignation , although Ravalomanana later declared he had been forced at gunpoint to relinquish power . The military council would have been charged with organizing elections within 24 months and re @-@ writing the constitution for the " Fourth Republic " . However , Vice Admiral Hyppolite Ramaroson announced on 18 March that it would transfer power directly to Rajoelina , making him president of the opposition @-@ dominated High Transitional Authority ( HAT ) that he had appointed weeks earlier . With the military 's backing , the authority was charged with taking up the task previously accorded to Ravalomanana 's proposed military directorate . Madagascar 's constitutional court deemed the transfer of power , from Ravalomanana to the military board and then to Rajoelina , to be legal ; the court 's statement did not include a justification for its decision .
Upon the army 's transfer of power to Rajoelina , Malagasy navy troops called for his resignation by 25 March , threatening to use force otherwise to protect the constitution of Madagascar and denouncing Rajoelina for the " civil war occurring in Madagascar " . The navy troops claimed there was " irrefutable " evidence that Rajoelina had paid the army corps hundreds of millions of ariary and that they should face trial in accordance with military law , but called for other nations not to get involved in what they considered a purely domestic affair . Rajoelina was sworn in as President on 21 March at Mahamasina stadium before a crowd of 40 @,@ 000 supporters . He was 35 years of age when sworn in , making him the youngest president in the country 's history and the youngest head of government in the world at that time .
The Southern African Development Community , a bloc of 15 nations including Madagascar , announced on 19 March that it would not recognize Rajoelina 's presidency since the takeover was unconstitutional . His ascension to the presidency was also condemned by the European Union and the United States , and the African Union suspended Madagascar and threatened sanctions if the constitutional government had not been restored in six months . No foreign diplomats attended Rajoelina 's investiture ; the HAT foreign minister said none had been invited .
= = President of the High Transitional Authority = =
Rajoelina took power in an atmosphere of national tension and international pressure to re @-@ establish constitutional authority . The new head of state announced on 17 March that a new constitution would be presented for voter approval and general elections would be held within 24 months . Immediately after taking office , Rajoelina began naming opposition leaders to positions within the HAT . He dissolved the Senate and Parliament and transferred their powers to his cabinet , the officials of the HAT , and the newly established Council for social and economic strengthening , through which his policies were issued as decrees . Legislative authority rested in practice with Rajoelina and his cabinet , composed of his closest advisers . A military committee established in April increased HAT control over security and defense policy . The following month , after the suspension of the country 's 22 regional governors , Rajoelina strengthened his influence over local government by naming replacements despite the fact that regional governorships were normally elected positions . The National Inquiry Commission ( CNME ) was established shortly thereafter ; although its official purpose was to strengthen HAT effectiveness in addressing judicial and legal matters , the new entity carried out investigations and arrests of TIM supporters and other opponents of the TGV party . In addition , the new administration launched a strong crackdown on demonstrations by the new opposition , composed largely of Ravalomanana supporters ; at two demonstrations in April 2009 security forces opened fire on unarmed civilians protesting the HAT 's closure of three media networks formerly controlled by Ravalomanana , killing four and wounding sixty . Political analysts have criticized Rajoelina for using his position primarily to consolidate power and protect his political position and business interests and those of his supporters , observing that his initially broad range of supporters within the opposition movement has significantly diminished over time .
While in power , Rajoelina periodically engaged in ongoing negotiations to establish conditions under which free and fair elections could be held to restore government constitutionality and legitimacy in the eyes of the international community . On 4 August 2009 Rajoelina met with former Madagascar presidents Ravalomanana , Ratsiraka and Zafy along with former Mozambican President Joaquim Chissano acting as mediator at the four @-@ day mediation crisis talks held in Maputo , Mozambique . The Maputo Accords signed by the four leaders in August and further accords signed in Addis @-@ Abeba in November provided guidelines for a period of consensual political transition . In the months that followed , however , Rajoelina obstructed the implementation of the accords , making unilateral political decisions and filling all important government posts with TGV party representatives .
After being pushed back repeatedly , a constitutional referendum was held on 17 November 2010 that resulted in adoption of the state 's fourth constitution with 73 % in favor and a voter turnout of 52 @.@ 6 % . The independent Malagasy political watchdog group KMF @-@ CNOE , as well as the political opposition and the international community , cited numerous irregularities in the process , which was carried out unilaterally by the HAT . The constitution in effect at the time Rajoelina took office required that presidential candidates attain a minimum of 40 years of age . One substantive change made by the new constitution was to lower the minimum age for presidential candidates from 40 to 35 , making Rajoelina eligible to stand in presidential elections . In addition , the new constitution mandated the leader of the High Transitional Authority – the position held by Rajoelina – be kept as interim president until an election could take place . The new constitution also contained a clause that required presidential candidates to have lived in Madagascar for at least six months prior to the elections , effectively barring Ravalomanana and other opposition leaders living in exile from running in the next election . After being repeatedly postponed , the general election was held on 25 October 2013 .
= = = Policies and governance = = =
The HAT under Rajoelina 's leadership affected highly visible , concrete activities that appealed to popular concerns . Rajoelina occasionally organized events to distribute basic items to groups of poor recipients , including medicines , clothing , house maintenance materials and school supplies . Rajoelina 's administration also spent billions of ariary to subsidize basic needs like electricity , petrol , and food staples . Public works construction projects featured prominently among Rajoelina 's activities . In 2010 , two years after Rajoelina launched the project as mayor of Antananarivo , the HAT completed the reconstruction of the Hotel de Ville ( town hall ) of Antananarivo which had been destroyed by arson during the rotaka political protests of 1972 . Also in 2010 , Rajoelina oversaw the construction of a hospital built to international standards in Toamasina . Through its trano mora ( " cheap house " ) initiative , the HAT built several subsidized housing developments intended for young middle class couples . Numerous other construction projects were planned or completed , including the restoration of historic staircases in Antananarivo built in the 19th century during the reign of Queen Ranavalona I , renovation of Toamasina 's two main markets and its principal boulevard , repaving of the heavily traveled road between Toamasina and Foulpointe , and the construction of a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity municipal stadium and new town hall in Toamasina .
On the national level , sanctions and suspension of donor aid amounting to 50 percent of the national budget and 70 percent of public investments obstructed the Rajoelina administration 's management of state affairs and its ability to systematically combat poverty on a wider scale . A United Nations envoy concluded in 2011 that Rajoelina 's controversial accession to the presidency had reduced food security , with Madagascar ranking among the worst in the world for child nutrition . The frequent non @-@ payment of civil servant and military salaries resulted in regular school and hospital closures , general strikes and widespread increases in corruption . Crime and insecurity grew dramatically , with a sharp upswing in violent crime and theft in Antananarivo and increasingly frequent and deadly incidences of armed cattle rustling in the central southern region of the island . Key development indicators steeply declined between 2009 and 2013 , including maternal and child mortality , education enrollment and completion , per capita income and employment rates . In 2010 the United Nations ranked Madagascar among the ten poorest countries in the world , noting that economic gains made under Ravalomanana had been lost following Rajoelina 's unconstitutional rise to power . In 2011 , Forbes magazine ranked Madagascar as the worst economy in the world , faulting its political instability and poor governance .
Environmental conditions on the island also worsened under Rajoelina . The illegal exportation of endangered rosewood from protected national forests abruptly increased under the HAT , with several business leaders and politicians linked to the HAT having been implicated in trafficking the valuable wood to China ; NGOs and the US government accused the Rajoelina administration of selling the wood to supplement the national budget and finance its public works projects . A large , unexplained stash of rosewood logs was discovered at the presidential palace after the end of Rajoelina 's term in office . Due to accelerating deforestation and a spike in bush meat consumption linked with deepening poverty , the island 's lemurs moved closer toward extinction under Rajoelina 's tenure . A July 2012 assessment found that 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction , an increase from 38 percent in 2008 . Lack of funds for pesticides and systematic spraying resulted in the March 2013 outbreak of a locust infestation that was anticipated to persist for five to ten years and require $ 41 million U.S. dollars to bring under control , deepening the risk of nationwide famine and destruction of habitat for endangered species .
After coming to power , Rajoelina 's HAT pursued action against Ravalomanana and his business interests . On 2 June 2009 , Ravalomanana was fined 70 million US dollars ( 42 million British pounds ) and sentenced to four years in prison for alleged abuse of office which , according to HAT Justice Minister Christine Razanamahasoa , included the December 2008 purchase of a second presidential jet ( " Air Force II " ) worth $ 60 million . Rajoelina sold the controversial jet in 2012 and pursued legal action against Ravalomanana 's company Tiko to reclaim 35 million US dollars in back taxes . Additionally , on 28 August 2010 , the HAT sentenced Ravalomanana in absentia to hard labor for life and issued an arrest warrant for his role in the protests and ensuing deaths . Rajoelina likewise sought to distinguish himself from his predecessor in policy choices . One of Rajoelina 's first measures as president was to cancel Ravalomanana 's unpopular deal with Daewoo Logistics . He also rejected Ravalomanana 's medium term development strategy , termed the Madagascar Action Plan , and abandoned education reforms initiated by his predecessor that adopted Malagasy and English as languages of instruction , instead returning to the traditional use of French .
= = = Diplomatic relations = = =
The international community maintained that Rajoelina 's legitimacy was conditional to free and fair elections . A number of key international organizations in which Madagascar had been a member , including the Southern African Development Community ( SADC ) and the African Union , withheld recognition of Rajoelina 's legitimacy throughout his tenure . The United States , Madagascar 's largest bilateral donor and provider of humanitarian aid , also refused to acknowledge the Rajoelina administration . The United Nations responded to the power transfer by freezing 600 million euros in planned aid . The United States suspended Madagascar from the list of beneficiaries of the African Growth and Opportunity Act ( AGOA ) , which had ensured preferential tariffs for the import of Malagasy textiles . This sanction resulted in the loss of over 50 @,@ 000 jobs and dealt a severe blow to the textile sector , which had accounted for half of Madagascar 's exports . Rajoelina initially sought to persuade former donors to recommence their support ; when these efforts failed to yield results , the he explored the possibility of foregoing the support of traditional partners through new or strengthened relations with such alternatives as Libya , China and Saudi Arabia but was again unable to secure the desired partnerships .
Rajoelina 's relations with France were characterized by an initial period of gradually increasing diplomatic engagement that weakened after 2012 . On 13 May 2011 , Andry Rajoelina met with Alain Juppé , the French Minister of Foreign Affairs , and was received by the French President Nicolas Sarkozy on 7 December 2011 . According to the French presidency , " The interview was devoted to the situation in Madagascar and the completion of the political transition initiated in 2009 through the implementation of the roadmap for the return of constitutional order , validated by the international community " . Following Rajoelina 's announcement to run in the 2013 election , however , France responded by suspending the visas issued to Rajoelina and his family , and refusing to issue new visas requested by his ministers .
The Rajoelina administration was gradually afforded increasing entry to the United Nations . From 9 to 13 May 2011 , Rajoelina was invited to participate in the Fourth United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries , held in Istanbul , Turkey . Rajoelina also spoke during the 66th Session of the United Nations General Assembly which took place on 23 September 2011 in New York City .
= = 2013 presidential candidacy = =
On 15 January 2013 , Rajoelina officially renounced his candidature in the next presidential election , then planned for May 2013 . This decision followed a similar declaration on the part of former president Ravalomanana . Exclusion of both political figures from the next general election was a key precondition to international recognition of the elections , as defined by the Southern African Development Community in its roadmap toward ending the political crisis . Rajoelina expressed support for Edgar Razafindravahy , interim mayor of Antananarivo and the official candidate of the TGV party among several other party candidates , and declared his intention to run in the 2018 presidential election .
However , on 3 May 2013 , Rajoelina made last @-@ minute arrangements to stand in the 2013 presidential elections , declaring the roadmap agreement had been breached when former president Ravalomanana 's wife , Lalao , decided to stand . The candidacy of former president Didier Ratsiraka was also permitted ; the candidature of all three prominent politicians was rejected by the international community . At the time that Rajoelina submitted his candidacy , he would have run against forty other candidates in total , of whom seven were affiliated with his own political movement .
The African Union urged Rajoelina , Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka to withdraw their controversial candidacies , and the European Union responded by suspended funding to the election . The French government sanctioned all three candidates by revoking their French visas , effectively barring them from French territory , and considered freezing their financial and real estate assets . Following the suspension of election funding , the HAT again pushed back the election date , citing inadequate financial resources . A special electoral court ruled in August 2013 that the candidatures of Rajoelina , Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka were invalid and that Rajoelina and his two chief rivals would not be permitted to run in the 2013 election . Rajoelina then announced his endorsement of presidential candidate Hery Rajaonarimampianina , who successfully progressed from the first round voting held 25 October 2013 alongside the candidate backed by Ravalomanana , Jean Louis Robinson . The run @-@ off between the two candidates was held on 20 December 2013 . Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the election , and Rajoelina officially stepped down on 25 January 2014 .
= = Post @-@ presidency = =
Following Rajaonarimampianina 's election , the international community offered " conditional recognition " of the new government . This tentative validation of the results was motivated by the concern that the new president was a puppet for Rajoelina , as well as the allegations by Robinson of massive electoral fraud after losing the runoff despite a wide lead over his opponent in the first round . Rajaonarimampianina set up the MAPAR committee to organize the selection of his cabinet , a process that extended over several months . During this time , Rajoelina sought to be nominated for the position of Prime Minister of Madagascar and claimed the MAPAR had promised he would be nominated . In April 2014 , Rajaonarimampianina instead announced the selection of Roger Kolo , following a consultation round which showed he had support from a majority in the parliament . On 18 April , a cabinet was announced that comprised 31 members with varied political affiliations . Rajoelina qualified Rajaonarimampianina 's decision to exclude him and form alliances with the political opposition , including Ravalomanana 's supporters , as " hypocrisy and betrayal " , and has declared a refusal to seek reconciliation with Rajaonarimampianina .
Following the end of Rajoelina 's term , the French government lifted its sanctions against him and 108 other HAT members . He and his family have since maintained a discreet profile , traveling to France , Dubai , South Africa and other foreign destinations . He has also made occasional visits to Madagascar . Rajoelina has declared an interest in presenting himself as a presidential candidate in the 2018 presidential election .
= Supergirl ( Hannah Montana song ) =
" Supergirl " is a pop song by American recording artist and actress Miley Cyrus , performing as Hannah Montana – the alter ego of Miley Stewart – a character she played on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana . The song was written by Kara DioGuardi , in collaboration with Daniel James , and produced by Dreamlab . " Supergirl " was released on August 28 , 2009 , by Walt Disney Records as the lead and only single from the series ' third soundtrack , Hannah Montana 3 . A karaoke version is available in Disney 's Karaoke Series : Hannah Montana 3 . The song is characterized by dance @-@ pop elements in its musical composition and contains lyrics regarding the lows of pop stardom .
The song received average to mixed reception from contemporary critics and garnered average commercial outcomes for Cyrus in several countries , compared to those of her previous efforts as Montana . In the United States , it peaked at number five on Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles ( Hot 100 – 105 ) . It marked Cyrus ' first entry as Montana in Austria ; it peaked at number fifty @-@ eight on the Austrian Singles Chart . A music video for " Supergirl " was released , taken from footage of a concert performance .
= = Background = =
" Supergirl " was co @-@ written by Kara DioGuardi , who composed a total of four songs on Hannah Montana 3 , and Dan James . A karaoke version is available in Disney 's Karaoke Series : Hannah Montana 3 . " Supergirl " leaked into the Internet in November 2008 , along with six other songs from Hannah Montana 3 . The song first premiered on Radio Disney on July 2 , 2009 , in order to promote the soundtrack and was afterward released as the lead and only single from Hannah Montana 3 on August 28 , 2009 .
= = Composition = =
" Supergirl " is pop song with a length of two minutes and fifty @-@ five seconds . According to Allmusic , the song contains dance @-@ pop and teen pop elements in its music , while Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly cited rock music as its main influence . Peter Larsen of The Orange County Register described the track as a bouncy dance @-@ pop number also . The song is set in common time and has a moderate rock tempo . It is written in the key of C major and it follows the chord progression Am11 – Fmaj7 – C – G. Warren Truitt of About.com interpreted the lyrics of " Supergirl " to be about the lows of pop stardom . Larsen believed the line " You just wanna be like me " was a representation of Cyrus , " a super duper girl " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Supergirl " received average to mixed reception from contemporary critics . Heather Phares of Allmusic said , " That feeling of familiarity extends to the songs that haven 't appeared anywhere else . Whether it 's the happy side of Hannah ( ' It 's All Right Here , ' ' Supergirl ' ) [ ... ] they sound very much like what came before them . " Warren Truitt of About.com agreed but stated , " [ The song ] may be a little cookie @-@ cutter , but at least the songwriters realize who their audience is and they deliver the goods " . Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly compared the song 's style to that of Kelly Clarkson . While reviewing a concert before the release of the soundtrack , Peter Larsen of The Orange County Register predicted it would be released as a single and become popular with children , yet " saturate [ parents ' ] ears for a month or two " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
On the week ending July 25 , 2009 , in the United States , " Supergirl " debuted at number five on Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles Chart ( Hot 100 – 105 ) upon Hannah Montana 3 's release . The song dropped from the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles Chart in the following week . On the week ending September 11 , 2009 , " Supergirl " debuted and peaked at number fifty @-@ eight on the Austrian Singles Chart , marking Cyrus ' first appearance in the country as Montana ; it also dropped from the Austrian Singles Chart after one week . Along with its B @-@ side , " Every Part of Me " , the song peaked at number forty @-@ two on the German Singles Chart .
= = Live performances = =
On October 10 , 2008 , Cyrus , dressed as Montana , premiered " Supergirl " , along with eight other songs , at the concert taping for the third season of Hannah Montana , which was set on October 10 in Irvine , California at the Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre . The performance began with Montana , dressed in a white and pink tie @-@ dye tee shirt , white pants , pink leather jacket , and large sunglasses . The performance begins with Cyrus sitting in a bench , facing a mirror , as backup dancers apply makeup on her and attend her . She stands up and roams around the stage to sing afterward . Peter Larsen of The Orange County Register called it one of " hits of the night " . The performance was later premiered as the song 's music video on July 2 , 2009 , on Disney Channel to promote Hannah Montana 3 .
= = Track listings = =
U.S. / EU Vinyl CD Single / Digital Download
" Supergirl " ( Album Version ) – 2 : 55
" Supergirl " ( Instrumental ) – 2 : 55
" Every Part of Me " – 3 : 30
EU 2 @-@ Track CD Single
" Supergirl " ( Album Version ) – 2 : 55
" Every Part of Me " – 3 : 30
= = Charts = =
= Leccinum manzanitae =
Leccinum manzanitae is an edible species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae . Described as new to science in 1971 , it is commonly known as the manzanita bolete for its usual mycorrhizal association with manzanita trees . Its fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) have sticky reddish to brown caps up to 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) , and its stipes are up to 16 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) long and 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick . They have a whitish background color punctuated with small black scales known as scabers . Found only in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada , it is the most common Leccinum species in California . The mushroom is edible , although opinions vary as to its quality . L. manzanitae can be usually distinguished from other similar bolete mushrooms by its large size , reddish cap , dark scabers on a whitish stipe , and association with manzanita and madrone .
= = Taxonomy = =
Leccinum manzanitae was first described by the American mycologist Harry Delbert Thiers in 1971 , from collections made in San Mateo County , California , the previous year . In that state , it is known as the manzanita bolete because of its close association with manzanita trees . It is classified in subsection Versicolores of the section Leccinum in the genus Leccinum . Closely related species in this section include L. piceinum , L. monticola , L. albostipitatum , and L. versipelle .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Leccinum manzanitae are sometimes massive , occasionally reaching weights of several pounds . The cap is 7 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , spherical to convex when young , and broadly convex to flattened or cushion @-@ shaped ( pulvinate ) . The surface of the cap is often shallowly to deeply pitted or reticulate , sticky , and covered with pressed @-@ down hairs that are more conspicuous toward the edge of the cap . Its color is dark red during all stages of development . The cap 's flesh is 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick , white when first exposed , but slowly and irregularly changing to dark brownish @-@ gray with no reddish intermediate state . The change in color upon bruising or injury is often more pronounced in young specimens .
The tubes comprising the hymenophore are 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) long , with an adnate attachment to the stipe ; their color is pale olive when young and darkens when bruised . Pores are up to 1 mm in diameter , angular , and the same color as the tubes . The stipe is 10 – 16 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) long , and 1 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick at the apex , and either club @-@ shaped or swollen in the middle . It is solid ( i.e. , not hollow ) , with a dry surface , and covered with small , stiff , granular projections called scabers . The scabers are usually whitish when young , but eventually turn dark brownish @-@ grey with age . The stipe flesh stains a bluish color when bruised , although this reaction is variable and sometimes slow to occur . It has no distinctive taste or odor .
Leccinum manzanitae mushroom produce a cinnamon @-@ brown spore print . Spores are 13 – 17 by 4 – 5 @.@ 5 µm , somewhat elliptical to cylindrical , and tapered on each end ( fusoid ) ; their walls are smooth and moderately thick . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are 27 – 32 by 6 – 9 µm , club @-@ shaped to pear @-@ shaped ( pyriform ) and four @-@ spored . The cystidia are 23 – 32 by 4 – 6 µm , fusoid to club @-@ shaped with narrow , elongated apices . Caulocystidia ( found on the stipe surface ) are thin @-@ walled , club @-@ shaped to somewhat fusoid , and sometimes end in a sharp point ; they measure 35 – 45 by 9 – 14 µm . Clamp connections are absent in the hyphae of Leccinum manzanitae . The hyphae of the cap cuticle are arranged in the form of a trichoderm ( wherein the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel , perpendicular to the cap surface ) .
Several chemical tests can be used to help confirm the identify of the mushroom : a drop of dilute ( 3 – 10 % ) potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) solution will turn the tubes pale red whereas nitric acid ( HNO3 ) on the tubes produces orange @-@ yellow ; a solution of Iron ( II ) sulfate ( FeSO4 ) applied to the flesh results in a pale grey color .
Thiers also described the variety L. manzanitae var. angustisporae from Mendocino County . Similar to the main form in appearance and habitat , it has smaller , narrowly elongated spores , typically 3 – 4 µm wide and 1 – 2 µm longer .
= = = Edibility = = =
Leccinum manzanitae is edible , and its taste is sometimes rated highly , although others have described the flavor as bland . Drying the mushroom may improve the flavor . One field guide advises caution when selecting this species for the table , as there have been poisonings reported with similar @-@ looking mushrooms found in the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest region of the United States .
= = = Similar species = = =
In the field , Leccinum manzanitae fruit bodies can be usually distinguished from those of other similar bolete species by its large size , reddish cap , dark scabers on a whitish stipe , and association with manzanita and madrone . L. ponderosum also has a dark red sticky cap , but its flesh does not darken upon exposure , and its cap is smooth when young . L. armeniacum also grows with manzanita and madrone , but its cap is more orange . L. aeneum , known only from California , is another species that associates with manzanitae and madrone . It has an orangish cap and whitish scabers on the stipe that do not darken significantly as the mushroom matures . L. insigne , found in coniferous forests with aspens , has a coloration similar to L. manzanitae . The brown @-@ capped L. scabrum is associated with ornamental birch , usually in cultivated landscapes . L. constans , also found exclusively in California , is paler , and does not undergo color changes when the cut flesh is exposed to air ; it is found near madrone in coastal regions . The species L. largentii , found in northern regions of the West Coast , has a dry cap with a fibrillose to scaly edge , dark olive pores , and densely arranged scabers on the stipe . It associates with toyon ( Heteromeles arbutifolia ) .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Leccinum manzanitae is a mycorrhizal species . Its fruit bodies grow singly to scattered in soil under madrone and manzanita . Known to occur only in North America , it is commonly found from central California to southern Oregon , but has also been reported further north in Washington and British Columbia ( Canada ) . Thiers considered it the most abundant Leccinum in California .
= Ramariopsis kunzei =
Ramariopsis kunzei is an edible species of coral fungi in the Clavariaceae family , and the type species of the genus Ramariopsis . It is commonly known as white coral because of the branched structure of the fruit bodies that resemble marine coral . The fruit bodies are up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) tall by 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide , with numerous branches originating from a short rudimentary stem . The branches are one to two millimeters thick , smooth , and white , sometimes with yellowish tips in age . Ramariopsis kunzei has a widespread distribution , and is found in North America , Europe , Asia , and Australia .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described as Clavaria kunzei by pioneer mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in 1821 . E.J.H. Corner transferred the species to Ramariopsis in 1950 , and made it the type species . In general , coral fungi often have extensive taxonomic histories , as mycologists have not agreed on the best way to classify them . In addition to Clavaria and Ramariopsis , the R. kunzei has been placed in the genera Ramaria by Lucien Quélet in 1888 , and Clavulinopsis by Walter Jülich in 1985 . According to the taxonomic database MycoBank , the species has acquired a sizable list of synonyms , listed in the taxobox . It is commonly known as white coral because of the branched structure of the fruit bodies that resemble marine coral .
A phylogenetic analysis of clavarioid fungi concluded that R. kunzei is in a phylogenetic lineage together with several Clavulinopsis species ( including C. sulcata , C. helvola and C. fusiformis ) , and that this clade ( the ramariopsis clade ) is nested within a group of species representing the Clavariaceae family .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Ramariopsis kunzei are white to whitish @-@ yellow in color , and are highly branched structures resembling coral ; the dimensions are typically up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) tall and 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide . Older specimens may have a pinkish tinge . The tips of the branches are blunt , not crested as in some other species of coral fungi , like Clavulina cristata ; branches are between 1 and 5 millimeters thick . The branch tips of mature specimens may be yellow . A stem , if present , may be up to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) long and scurfy — covered with small flakes or scales . The texture of the flesh may range from pliable to brittle . This fungus does not undergo any color changes upon bruising or injury , however , a 10 % solution of FeSO4 ( a chemical test known as " iron salts " ) applied to the flesh will turn it green .
In deposit , the spores are white . Viewed with a light microscope , the spores are translucent and have an ellipsoid to roughly spherical shape with spines on the surface , and dimensions of 3 – 5 @.@ 5 by 2 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 µm . Spores are non @-@ amyloid , meaning that they do not absorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are usually 25 – 45 µm long by 6 – 7 µm wide , and 4 @-@ spored . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of this species .
= = = Edibility = = =
The species is edible , but " fleshless and flavorless . " Other authors concur that the odor and taste are not distinctive .
= = = Similar species = = =
The " crested coral " ( Clavulina cristata , edible ) is similar in appearance to R. kunzei , but its branches have fringed , feathery tips . The " jellied false coral " ( Tremellodendron pallidum , edible ) has whitish , tough , cartilaginous branches with blunt tips .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The species is thought to be saprobic and can be found growing on the ground , in duff , or less frequently on well @-@ decayed wood . Fruit bodies may grow singly , in groups , or clustered together . David Arora has noted a preference for growing under conifers , as well as a prevalence in redwood forests of North America . In contrast , an earlier author claimed this species grows " rarely in coniferous woods . "
In Europe , Ramariopsis kunzei has been collected in Scotland ( specifically , on the islands of Arran , Gigha and Kintyre peninsula ) , the Netherlands , Norway , former Czechoslovakia , Germany , Poland , and Russia ( Zhiguli Mountains ) . It has also been found in China , India , Iran , the Solomon Islands , and Australia . In North America , the distribution extends north to Canada , and includes the United States ( including Hawaii and Puerto Rico ) .
= By the Grace of God ( song ) =
" By the Grace of God " is a song by American singer Katy Perry from her fourth studio album , Prism ( 2013 ) , included as its closing track . The song was written and produced by Perry and Canadian record producer Greg Wells . It was conceived following Perry 's divorce from English actor and comedian Russell Brand . This initially made Perry consider making a " darker " album , but instead was channeled into the song . Throughout its autobiographical lyrics , Perry is depicted finding her strength and standing up for herself .
The track was first unveiled at Perry 's headlining set at the 2013 iTunes Festival . Upon the release of Prism , " By the Grace of God " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who appreciated its vulnerability and picked it as one of the musical highlights from the album , but criticized its placement on the record . Following the album 's release , it has entered various musical charts due to strong digital downloads .
= = Background and production = =
After English actor and comedian Russell Brand divorced Perry in late December 2011 , she was so distraught over the event that she considered committing suicide . Greg Wells , who assisted Perry with the composition of " By the Grace of God " , commented on the situation : " I think she felt so kicked in the head and so publicly embarrassed at being divorced by a text message " . After overcoming her suicidal thoughts and initial shock , she felt prompted to create a " darker " project as compared to her previous albums . Instead , she channelled the entire divorce event into " By the Grace of God " , in which its lyrics depict Perry battling against her suicidal thoughts while lying on her bathroom floor . During an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Perry spoke on how she felt during the breakup : " Imagine what you go through . Imagine what happens when you go through a break up . We all go through break ups and we all get very depressed and desperate . "
" By the Grace of God " was unveiled to industry insiders during a listening party for Prism held in Manhattan , while its inclusion on the album track list was confirmed on October 1 , 2013 . Perry confirmed that the song was the only one included in Prism about her divorce from Brand . However , the song " Ghost " , also present on Prism , includes references to the divorce , particularly the lyric " You sent a text , it was like the wind changed your mind " , although Perry stated that the track was not about the split . She further stated : " That 's the funny thing - it 's not about that chapter in my life , people think that certain songs are about certain people and there is only one song about that time in my life and that song is ' By the Grace of God ' " .
Unlike many of the album 's songs which were written by a multitude of collaborators , " By the Grace of God " was composed solely by Perry and Greg Wells . Wells also co @-@ wrote " Choose Your Battles " , the third bonus track from the album 's deluxe edition . For this track , he contributed with playing drums , piano , and the synthesizer . The song was engineered by Ian McGregor at Rocket Carousel Studio in Los Angeles , and mixed by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios , Virginia Beach .
= = Composition = =
At a length of four minutes and twenty @-@ seven seconds , " By the Grace of God " is a pop piano @-@ driven power ballad . With a stripped @-@ down production , its instrumental is essentially composed of the sounds of various musical instruments , such as drums , piano and synthesizers along with military drums . Throughout the song , drums , piano , and synthesizers are used in its instrumental . According to the sheet music published by Alfred Publishing Co . , Inc. on Musicnotes.com , it is composed in the key of G minor and set in a 44 time signature at a tempo of 82 beats per minute . The melody spans the tonal range of B ♭ 3 to D5 , while the music follows the chord progression of Gm — E ♭ sus2 — B ♭ — Gm — E ♭ sus2 — Fsus4 .
Lyrically , Perry is depicted as having suicidal thoughts and lying on the floor of a bathroom . The song opens with only piano and Perry 's vocals , while she sings " Was twenty @-@ seven , surviving my return from Saturn " , and as the song carries on , she finds her strength , singing " By the grace of God / I picked myself back up / I put one foot in front of the other and I / Looked in the mirror and decided to stay / Wasn 't gonna let love take me out that way " . Perry commented on the lyrics : " [ They ] are very exact and autobiographical . That 's how I write . But the one thing about those lyrics is you can hear me finding my strength throughout the song . It starts off really low and then I kind of stand up for myself and say , ' No ! ' . " The song also sees Perry rejecting the idea that the relationship ended because of her .
Kitty Empire from The Guardian observed that the song served as a " vulnerable yin " to Perry 's hit single " Roar " ' s " righteous yang " . Josh Duboff from Vanity Fair highlighted the titles of " By the Grace of God " and deluxe edition song " Spiritual " , concluding that the religious undertones were " more prominent " in Prism . Helen Brown from The Daily Telegraph deemed the song " tender " , and Jason Lipshutz from Billboard said it " is the most revealing song Perry will likely ever pen " .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , " By the Grace of God " received critical acclaim . Jason Lipshutz from Billboard thought the song was " obviously not the radio fare fans are used to from the pop star ( Perry ) " , but that it was " crucial for anyone trying to understand Perry 's Prism mind set " . Philip Matusavage from musicOMH considered that " the fact that [ " By the Grace of God " ] is the album highlight and is the only song written by less than three people " is an indicator of what Perry should do next . Greg Kot from Chicago Tribune appreciated " Ghost " and " By the Grace of God " for allowing Perry 's vulnerability " to seep through " . In his review of Prism , Sam Lansky from Idolator showed himself divided relatively to the song : he classified it as the " most sonically conventional thing [ in the album ] " although he immediately stated it was " also the most emotionally gripping " in it .
Randall Roberts from Los Angeles Times affirmed that the song was " cosmic " and that it had a " humming , dark tension in which Perry and melody float like red balloons " . Helen Brown from The Daily Telegraph declared that , in the song , Perry " sounds like a woman , and an artist , who 's finally found herself " . Allison Stewart from The Washington Post said that " By the Grace of God " ranked " among Perry 's strongest ( tracks ) " , and that it was " her most strangely sensible and affecting song ever , one that distances her from her suddenly @-@ more @-@ callow @-@ seeming peers and also from Brand " . John Walker from MTV highlighted the fact that the song is " light on figures of speech and all @-@ too accessible platitudes " , as compared to the metaphors present on the lyrics of " Wide Awake " .
In contrast , Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine described it as " a sappy Paula Cole @-@ style statement of self @-@ actualization " . Jon Dolan from Rolling Stone criticized its lyrics and negatively likened them to those of Alanis Morissette . Kitty Empire from The Guardian found the song to be " ridden with cliché " . Mesfin Fekadu from ABC News thought both tracks were " good " , but stated that they " could be great if Perry didn 't hold back and explored more lyrically and sonically " . Chris Bosman from Consequence of Sound criticized its placement on the album track listing and thought that they " would stand out more if they ( By The Grace of God , and closing track Double Rainbow ) hadn 't been forced to rub elbows , thus stealing momentum and impact from each other " . Carl Williott from Idolator praised the track as a " nice counterpart to Roar " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Following the album 's release , " By the Grace of God " entered the UK Singles Chart at number 179 on the week of November 2 , 2013 , and peaked on the US Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number 10 , which represents the 25 songs which failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 . It also appeared on the US Hot Digital Songs chart at number 71 , where it stayed for only one week . It also entered the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 77 with sales of 2 @,@ 104 .
= = Live performances = =
" By the Grace of God " was debuted during Perry 's headlining set at the Roundhouse in London , England for her iTunes Festival , held on September 30 , 2013 . Once she finished singing , Perry thanked her fans for " letting [ her ] stay " . On October 22 , 2013 , Perry held a release party for Prism where she performed " By the Grace of God " along with the other songs from Prism . Tiffany Lee from Yahoo ! Music wrote that Perry 's renditions of " Unconditionally " and " By the Grace of God " " shone like lights through a prism in their acoustic setting " . The song was included as part of the setlist on The Prismatic World Tour .
Perry performed the song at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards which were held on February 8 , 2015 . The performance was in support of domestic violence and sexual assault victims . Before she appeared on stage , a prerecorded video message from U.S. President Barack Obama was screened , which featured him encouraging musicians to support the " # ItsOnUs " sexual assault campaign . Then , domestic violence victim Brooke Axtell delivered a brief speech about her story . During the performance , Perry was clothed in a white dress , while shadows danced behind her . MTV 's John Walker labelled it as her most " powerful performance yet " , while Arienne Thompson of USA Today wrote that it was " powerful and subdued " compared to the " flamboyant and playful " set Perry was known for .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Rocket Carousel Studios in Los Angeles , California .
Mixed at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia .
Personnel
Lead vocals - Katy Perry
Songwriting – Katy Perry , Greg Wells
Production – Katy Perry , Greg Wells
Vocal production – Katy Perry
Mixing – Serban Ghenea
Mixing engineer – John Hanes
Drums , piano , synths , and programming – Greg Wells
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Prism , Capitol Records .
= = Charts = =
= Young at Heart ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Young at Heart " is the sixteenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 11 , 1994 . It was written by Scott Kaufer and series creator Chris Carter , and directed by Michael Lange . The episode featured guest appearances by Dick Anthony Williams , William B. Davis and Alan Boyce , and saw Jerry Hardin reprise his role as Deep Throat . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Young at Heart " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 2 , being watched by 6 @.@ 8 million households in its initial broadcast ; and received mostly negative reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . When Mulder and Scully aid a former colleague of Mulder 's in an investigation into a series of robberies , it becomes apparent that the culprit is an old nemesis of Mulder 's — who had seemingly died in prison several years previously .
" Young at Heart " originated as a script from freelance writer Scott Kaufer , who was a friend of series creator Chris Carter and former employee of California magazine and Warner Bros comedy development department . Chris Carter rewrote the script , which included the addition of Barnett 's salamander hand . Director Michael Lange felt the episode offered him excellent scope to try new techniques , noting that the series producers " encourage cinematic stuff " . William B. Davis makes his second appearance of the series in this episode , although his role is simply credited as " CIA Agent " , rather than the more well @-@ known " Smoking Man " .
= = Plot = =
In 1989 , Joe Crandall , an inmate at a federal penitentiary in Pennsylvania , hears screaming from the infirmary . Inside , he discovers the prison 's doctor , Joe Ridley , amputating the hand of fellow inmate John Barnett . Ridley tells Crandall that Barnett is dead , threatening him with a scalpel . However , as Crandall leaves the room , he sees Barnett blinking at him .
Four years later , Fox Mulder is notified by his former FBI supervisor , Reggie Purdue , about a note from a jewelry store robbery mocking Mulder by name . Mulder recognizes the message as being from Barnett , a sociopathic multiple murderer whom he helped capture on his first case with the Bureau . Even though Barnett supposedly died in prison , the note bears his handwriting . Purdue shows Dana Scully a video of Barnett 's capture , which shows that Mulder didn 't fire on Barnett due to him having a hostage , per FBI regulations . Mulder 's hesitancy allowed Barnett to kill both the hostage and a fellow agent .
Scully looks into Barnett 's cause of death and discovers that despite it being listed as heart attack , he had no history of heart problems ; he had been sent to the infirmary over problems with his hand . Meanwhile , Barnett leaves Mulder another note in his car , along with photos of him and Scully .
Mulder and Scully visit the prison and meet Crandall , who recounts his experiences with Barnett and Ridley . Barnett makes taunting phone calls to Mulder , and strangles Purdue with his salamander @-@ like hand . Scully looks into Ridley 's past and finds that his medical license was revoked in 1979 due to malpractice ; he had performed illegal medical trials on children with progeria , a disease that causes premature aging . Mulder theorizes that Ridley 's experiments helped him find a way to reverse the aging process .
Scully summons Mulder when Ridley suddenly appears at her apartment . He tells the agents that he succeeded in making Barnett age in reverse after replacing his hand using salamander cells . However , Barnett stole Ridley 's government @-@ sponsored research . Deep Throat meets with Mulder and confirms Ridley 's story , saying that the government is negotiating with Barnett to purchase Ridley 's work .
Scully hears someone dialing into her answering machine and spots Barnett 's fingerprint on it . After Barnett calls again , Mulder decides to set up a sting operation at the cello recital for a friend of Scully 's , which Barnett learned about from her answering @-@ machine .
That night , FBI agents wait at the concert hall for Barnett 's arrival . Barnett , who goes completely unseen due to his youthful appearance , poses as a piano tuner . He shoots Scully in the chest during the recital and then flees , taking the cellist hostage . Mulder doesn 't hesitate this time around and fires at Barnett , fatally wounding him . Scully is revealed to have survived the attack , having worn a bullet @-@ proof vest . Despite the efforts of doctors and a mysterious CIA agent to resuscitate Barnett , he dies , and takes the secrets of Ridley 's research to the grave . The episode ends with the camera zooming in on locker number 935 in a train station , implying the secrets along with Barnett 's precaution , a bomb , are contained within and one day will be discovered .
= = Production = =
This episode originated as a script from freelance writer Scott Kaufer , who was an acquaintance of Chris Carter and former employee of California magazine and Warner Bros comedy development department . Chris Carter rewrote the script , which included the addition of Barnett 's salamander hand . Fox 's standards and practices department fought with the producers over the scene where Barnett strangles Reggie Purdue , and as a result the producers were forced to reduce the length of the scene . The footage of the young girl with progeria was filmed after the production crew contacted the Progeria Society and were put in touch with the family of Courtney Arciaga , who was a young girl with the disease . She and her family were fans of the series , and were flown from their San Diego home to Vancouver to shoot the scene .
Director Michael Lange felt the episode offered him excellent scope to try new techniques , noting that the series producers " encourage cinematic stuff " . He felt a highlight of this approach was in shooting the episode 's climactic stand @-@ off , explaining that " instead of shooting at a normal eye level as the Salamander Man takes the gun , I tilt up , and now I 'm shooting up his nose almost , and it was kind of like very disorienting . The show 's got a certain ennui that appeals to me , the film noir @-@ y movies of the ' 40s look , an undercurrent of tension and anxiety ' cause of all the weird things going on " .
William B. Davis makes his second appearance of the series in this episode , although his role is simply credited as " CIA Agent " , rather than " Smoking Man " , as per his credit in the pilot episode . The character of Reggie Purdue would later be referenced in the fourth season episode " Paper Hearts " , and the fifth season episode " Unusual Suspects " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Young at Heart " premiered on the Fox network on February 11 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on January 12 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 2 with an 11 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching TV , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 6 @.@ 8 million households watched this episode during its original airing .
Director Michael Lange said that he " liked the script very much , and I think I stayed fairly close to the original draft . I liked it because it had a good spookiness to it . To me , the intriguing part was the doctor 's research into being able to reverse the aging process , which I wish we could have explored more . " Executive Producer Robert Goodwin considered the episode one of the most emotional episodes of the first season , due to the time spent working with Courtney Arciaga , the little girl with progeria . In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , the episode was rated a C , being called " far @-@ fetched " and criticised for its unoriginal themes . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , described it as " sloppy , poorly edited " and " thoroughly unexciting " , pointing out the " forced " nature of the supporting characters ' past involvement with Fox Mulder . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , expressed mixed feelings over the episode , comparing it to Quincy , M.E. and stating that it " just wasn 't weird enough " for an episode of The X @-@ Files . " Young at Heart " has been cited , along with the fourth season episode " Paper Hearts " , as representing " the supreme irony and the hidden agenda of the series " — in both cases , Mulder , directly through his work on the X @-@ Files , puts information permanently beyond reach by killing those who hold it , showing that " despite the fact that Mulder drives the car , he frequently ends up — and goes — nowhere " .
= SMS Stralsund =
SMS Stralsund was a Magdeburg @-@ class light cruiser of the German Kaiserliche Marine . Her class included three other ships : Magdeburg , Breslau , and Strassburg . She was built at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen from 1910 to December 1912 , when she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns and had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Stralsund was assigned to the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of her career . She saw significant action in the early years of World War I , including several operations off the British coast and the Battles of Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank , in August 1914 and November 1915 , respectively . She was not damaged in either action . The ship was in dockyard hands during the Battle of Jutland , and so she missed the engagement . After the end of the war , she served briefly in the Reichsmarine before being surrendered to the Allies . She was ceded to the French Navy , where she served as Mulhouse until 1925 . She was formally stricken in 1933 and broken up for scrap two years later .
= = Design = =
Stralsund was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Cormoran " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1910 and launched on 4 November 1911 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 10 December 1912 . The ship was 138 @.@ 7 meters ( 455 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 4 m ( 14 ft ) forward . She displaced 4 @,@ 570 t ( 4 @,@ 500 long tons ; 5 @,@ 040 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of AEG @-@ Vulcan steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 4 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 25 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but reached 33 @,@ 482 shp ( 24 @,@ 968 kW ) in service . These were powered by sixteen coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers , although they were later altered to use fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Stralsund carried 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 106 tonnes ( 104 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of approximately 5 @,@ | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
moved into a position in the northeastern end of the harbour where it would not obstruct traffic . It was subsequently buried by landfill underneath the current car ferry terminal .
= = Background = =
Bjørgvin was ordered by Norway in 1913 to supplement the older Eidsvold class and Tordenskjold class classes of coastal defense ships . She would have been known in Norway as P / S Bjørgvin ; P / S stands for Panserskip ( " armoured ship " ) , while Bjørgvin was the old name for the Norwegian city of Bergen . However , when World War I broke out , the Royal Navy requisitioned most warships under construction in Britain for foreign powers and refunded the two @-@ thirds of Bjørgvin 's £ 370 @,@ 000 purchase price already paid by the Norwegians .
= = Construction and description = =
Bjørgvin was laid down by Armstrong Whitworth at Elswick on 26 May 1913 and launched on 8 August 1914 . She was renamed Glatton after an earlier breastwork monitor of 1871 . Her completion was greatly delayed by the modifications made by the British , which included modifying the boilers to use both oil and coal and conversion of 12 double @-@ bottom tanks to carry the oil . This work began on 9 January 1915 , but was suspended the following May , when it was estimated that only another 10 – 12 months of work remained , to allow for faster progress to be made on the large light cruisers Furious and Courageous that were building in Armstrong 's Naval Yard downriver . In September 1917 , work was resumed to a new design that added a large anti @-@ torpedo bulge along about 75 % of the hull 's length , suppression of the torpedo tubes and 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns planned by the Norwegians , and a large tripod mast was to be fitted behind the single funnel to carry the directors for both the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) and 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) guns . Both of these guns had to be relined to use standard British ammunition and the mount for the 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch gun was modified to give a maximum elevation of 40 ° which gave the gun a maximum range of 39 @,@ 000 yards ( 36 @,@ 000 m ) . Addition of the bulges cost 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) in speed , but prevented the extra weight resulting from all of these changes from deepening her draft . She was finally completed on 8 September 1918 .
Glatton displaced 5 @,@ 746 long tons ( 5 @,@ 838 t ) at deep load as built , with a length of 310 ft ( 94 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 7 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) at maximum , although her main hull only had a beam of 55 feet ( 16 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 16 feet 4 inches ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) . She was powered by two vertical triple expansion steam engines , which developed a total of 4 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 000 kW ) from four Yarrow watertube boilers and gave a maximum speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
She was armed with two 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns arranged in two single @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . Her secondary armament consisted of four six @-@ inch guns , also in single @-@ gun turrets , two of which superfired over the 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch turrets . The other two were positioned on each side of the superstructure . One 3 in ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft gun was mounted on each center @-@ line 6 @-@ inch turret . She also carried four 3 @-@ pounder and two 2 @-@ pounder guns on high @-@ angle mounts .
= = Fate = =
After completion , Glatton sailed for Dover on 11 September 1918 to prepare for the offensive planned for later that month . At 6 : 15 on the evening of 16 September , Glatton 's midships 6 @-@ inch magazine had a low @-@ order explosion that ignited the cordite stored there . Flames shot through the roof of ' Q ' turret , starboard midside , and started to spread aft . The ship 's captain — Commander N. W. Diggle — ordered the forward magazines flooded , but the crew were unable to flood the rear magazines as the flames blocked access to the magazine flooding controls . The presence of the ammunition ship Gransha only 150 yards ( 140 m ) away risked a massive explosion that would devastate Dover if Glatton 's rear magazine exploded and set off Gransha 's ammunition . Vice @-@ Admiral Keyes — who had been walking with Commander Diggle when Glatton 's magazine exploded — boarded the recently arrived destroyer Cossack once apprised of the danger . He ordered Cossack to torpedo Glatton in an attempt to flood the magazine before it detonated . Cossack 's first 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) torpedo struck the anti @-@ torpedo bulge amidships , but failed to explode because it had been fired too close to Glatton . Her second torpedo blew a hole in Glatton at 7 : 40 , but the torpedo 's 200 @-@ pound ( 91 kg ) warhead was too small to penetrate through her bulge and Glatton remained afloat , still burning . Keyes transferred to the destroyer Myngs and ordered her to fire on Glatton with her 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedoes at 8 : 15 . They were aimed at the hole blown in Glatton 's starboard side by Cossack 's second torpedo and succeeded in causing Glatton to capsize until her masts and superstructure rested on the harbour bottom and dousing the fire . Casualties were heavy : 60 men were killed outright and 124 were injured of whom 19 later died of their burns .
= = = Inquiry = = =
A Court of Enquiry held immediately afterwards found that the explosion had occurred in the midships 6 @-@ inch magazine situated between the boiler and engine rooms . The cause was more difficult to establish , but the Court did note that the stokers were in the habit of piling the red @-@ hot clinker and ashes from the boilers against the bulkhead directly adjoining the magazine to cool down before they were sent up the ash ejector . The magazine was well insulated with 5 inches ( 13 cm ) of cork , covered by wood planking .75 inches ( 1 @.@ 9 cm ) thick and provided with special cooling equipment so it was not likely that the cordite had spontaneously combusted . The magazine of Glatton 's sister ship Gorgon was emptied and examined . The red lead paint on the bulkhead was blistered beneath the lagging and tests at the National Physical Laboratory demonstrated that it had been subject to temperatures of at least 400 ° F ( 204 ° C ) . Recorded temperatures inside the magazine did not exceed 83 ° F ( 28 ° C ) and a test of red @-@ hot ashes was inconclusive as the temperature in the lagging only reached 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) with occasional hot spots of 150 ° F ( 66 ° C ) . Other tests did reveal that the cork could give off flammable fumes under high heat and pressurized air . While not entirely satisfied with this conclusion it found in April 1919 that " The slow combustion of the cork lagging of the 6 @-@ inch midship magazine of the Glatton led to the ignition of the magazine and then to the ignition of the cordite in it and so caused the explosion . "
As a precaution , Gorgon 's lagging was stripped out and replaced with silicate wool , revealing the real cause . Part of the cork was missing and folded newspapers were found in the empty space which were left there by the dockyard workers during construction . Furthermore , a number of rivets were entirely missing which meant that 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) holes were present , which could have allowed the hot ashes to ignite the newspapers . The forced @-@ draught pressure in the boiler room would have supplied air through the rivet holes , causing the cork to give off flammable gases , and eventually ignite the cordite charges .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Glatton remained in Dover Harbour , an obstruction to shipping , with her hull visible at low tide as the Harbour Board could not afford the £ 45 @,@ 000 quoted on average by salvage companies . Finally they asked the Harbourmaster , Captain John Iron , if he could do it for less . He estimated it would cost about £ 5 @,@ 000 if he was granted use of the salvage craft already at Dover . The Board accepted his offer and work began in May 1925 . Some 12 @,@ 000 short tons ( 11 @,@ 000 t ) of silt were removed from underneath Glatton and her mainmast and superstructure were blasted away from the wreck . Four lifting lighters , with a capacity of 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) , were hired , but they would not suffice to lift a water @-@ logged 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) ship . It was necessary to seal all of the holes on her topside and pump air into each compartment at a rate of 70 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 2 @,@ 000 m3 ) per minute to restore her buoyancy . The first attempt to lift her began on 2 December 1925 and was successful in breaking the suction holding her to the bottom in combination with the rising tide . That was enough for the first try and the major lifting effort began the following day . Slowly she was moved , taking advantage of the tides , until on 16 March 1926 she was moved to a deep gully next to the western pier of the submarine harbour , close by the shore . The total cost was considerably more than originally estimated , but still far less than that quoted by the salvage companies , at no more than £ 12 @,@ 000 . There she remains , buried by landfill underneath the current car ferry terminal .
= = Memorial = =
A memorial was erected at St Mary 's Church and Grange Road cemetery in Gillingham , Kent . It was used from 1867 until 1973 when the site was largely cleared of memorials to provide a community open space for the local population . Then Woodlands Road Cemetery was used and this is the site of HMS Glatton 's Memorial with the graves of one officer and 56 men .
= Leo Martello =
Leo Martello ( September 26 , 1931 – June 29 , 2000 ) was a Sicilian @-@ American witch and gay rights activist , and author . He was a founding member of the Strega Tradition of Witchcraft , a form of the modern Pagan new religious movement which drew upon his own Sicilian heritage . During his lifetime he published a number of books on such esoteric subjects as Witchcraft , astrology , and tarot reading .
Born to a working @-@ class Italian American family in Dudley , Massachusetts , he was raised Roman Catholic although became interested in esotericism as a teenager . He later claimed that when he was 21 , relatives initiated him into a tradition of witchcraft inherited from their Sicilian ancestors ; this conflicts with other statements that he made , and there is no independent evidence to corroborate his claim . During the 1950s , he was based in New York City , where he worked as a graphologist and hypnotist . After beginning to publish books on paranormal topics in the early 1960s , he publicly began identifying as Wiccan in 1969 , and stated that he was involved in a New York coven .
After the Stonewall riots of 1969 , Martello – himself a gay man – involved himself in gay rights activism , becoming a member of the Gay Liberation Front ( GLF ) . Leaving the GLF following an internal schism , he became a founding member of the Gay Activist Alliance ( GAA ) and authored a regular column , " The Gay Witch " , for its newspaper . In 1970 he founded the Witches International Craft Associates ( WICA ) as a networking organization for Wiccans , and under its auspices organized a " Witch In " that took place in Central Park at Halloween 1970 , despite opposition from the New York City Parks Department . To campaign for the civil rights of Wiccans , he founded the Witches Anti @-@ Defamation League , which was later renamed the Alternative Religions Education Network . In 1973 , he visited England , there being initiated into Gardnerian Wicca by the Gardnerian High Priestess Patricia Crowther . He continued practicing Wicca into the 1990s , when he retreated from public life , eventually succumbing to cancer in 2000 .
= = Early life = =
= = = Youth : 1930 – 49 = = =
Martello was born on September 26 , 1930 , in Dudley , Massachusetts , being raised on a small farm rented by his father , the Italian immigrant Rocco Luigi Martello . Following the economic turmoil of the Great Depression , the Martellos were forced from their land and moved first to Worcester , Massachusetts and then to Southbridge , Massachusetts . It was here that Leo was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church , but his parents divorced soon after . Unable to care for him alone , his father sent Martello to the Catholic boarding preparatory school attached to Assumption College , Worcester , which was run by the Augustinians of the Assumption . He spent six years at the school , later describing it as the unhappiest period of his life . He studied graphology and from the age of 16 began making radio appearances as a graphologist , also writing stories for magazines .
Martello later claimed to have experienced psychic phenomena as a child , sparking his interest in occultism . By his early teenage years , he had begun studying palmistry and tarot card reading with a Gypsy named Marta . He also later claimed that his father had informed him that his grandmother , Maria Concetta , had been a psychic known as a Strega Maga ( " Great Witch " ) in her hometown of Enna , Sicily , Italy . According to Martello 's account , Concetta had worked as a folk magician and tarot card reader , and attracted the hatred and envy of the local Catholic clergy . He also related that on one occasion , she had killed a Mafioso using magic when he threatened her husband for not paying protection money . Martello related that when he was 16 , his father told him that he had cousins in New York City who wished to meet him . He proceeded to do so and – according to his account – they informed him that they were initiates of an ancient Italian witchcraft religion , La Vecchia ( " the Old Religion " ) . After identifying his possession of psychic powers , they initiated him into the tradition on his 21st birthday in 1951 , making him swear an oath never to reveal the secrets of the La Vecchia . Moving to the city , he studied at Hunter College and the Institute for Psychotherapy .
Martello never produced any proof to support his claims , and there is no independent evidence that corroborate them . An anonymous woman who had known Martello informed the researcher Michael G. Lloyd that during the 1980s , he had told her that he had never been initiated into a tradition of Witchcraft , and that he had simply embraced occultism in the 1960s in order to earn a living . The Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White expressed criticism of Martello 's claims , noting that it was " extremely doubtful " that a tradition of Wicca could have been passed down through Martello 's Sicilian family . Instead , he suggested that Martello might have been instructed in a tradition of folk magic that he later embellished into a form of Wicca , that the cousins themselves had constructed a form of Wicca that they passed on to Martello , or that the entire scenario had been a fabrication of Martello 's .
= = = New York City : 1950 – 68 = = =
Based in New York City , in 1950 Martello founded the American Hypnotism Academy , continuing to direct the organization until 1954 . From 1955 to 1957 , he served as treasurer of the American Graphological Society , and worked as a freelance graphologist for such corporate clients as the Unifonic Corporation of America and the Associated Special Investigators International . He also published a column titled " Your Handwriting Tells " for eight years that ran in the Chelsea Clinton News , and supplied various articles on the subject of graphology to different magazines . In the city , he also began to frequent the gay scene . In 1955 , Martello was awarded a Doctorate in Divinity by a non @-@ accredited organization , the National Congress of Spiritual Consultants , a clearing house for registered yet unaffiliated ministers . That year , he founded the Temple of Spiritual Guidance , taking on the role of Pastor , which he would continue in until 1960 , when he began to focus on his writing and his new philosophy of " psychoselfism " . In 1961 he published his first book , Your Pen Personality , in which he discussed the manner in which handwriting could be used to reveal the personality of the writer . Martello corresponded with California @-@ based Pagan Victor Henry Anderson , and it was at Martello 's encouragement that Anderson established his Mahaelani Coven circa 1960 .
Martello claimed that in the summer of 1964 , he moved to Tangier , Morocco , where he researched the history of the tarot , resulting in the publication of It 's in the Cards ( 1964 ) . Returning to the U.S. in 1965 , he moved in to an apartment in Greenwich Village , New York City , writing a book on astrology , It 's Written in the Stars , and a book on psychic protection , How to Prevent Psychic Blackmail . He also began attending the Spiritualist gatherings that were operated by Clifford Bias at the Ansonia Hotel . At some point High Priestess Lori Bruno founded a witchcraft coven and church , Our Lord and Lady of the Trinacrian Rose , in which Leo was acknowledged as Elder . In 1969 he publicly revealed himself to be a practitioner of Witchcraft ; claiming that he had gained the permission of his coven to do so . Intent on countering the negative publicity that Wicca had been receiving , he published The Weird Ways of Witchcraft in 1969 , the same year that he also published The Hidden World of Hypnotism .
= = Public activism = =
= = = Gay Liberation : 1969 – 70 = = =
In July 1969 , Martello attended an open meeting of the Mattachine Society 's New York branch . He was appalled at the Society 's negative reaction to the Stonewall riots , and castigated those gay people in the audience who accepted the categorization of homosexuality as a mental illness , accusing them of being self @-@ loathing . He proceeded to publish his thoughts in an essay in which he stated that " homosexuality is not a problem in itself . The problem is society 's attitude towards it . " Those gay rights activists who rejected the Mattachine Society 's approach and who favored a confrontational stance against the police and authorities founded the Gay Liberation Front ( GLF ) , with Martello elected the group 's first moderator . Martello supported the GLF 's stance that condemned " this rotten , dirty , vile , fucked @-@ up capitalist conspiracy " that dominated American society , and he volunteered by producing articles both for the group 's newsletter Come Out ! and for the wider press . He was involved in the GLF 's campaign against The Village Voice 's decision to ban the word " gay " from advertisements ; the magazine preferred the term " homophile " , which had also been used by the Mattachine Society . Wanting to break from previous gay liberation organizations , the GLF embraced the term " gay " , with Martello dismissing " homophile " as sounding like a nail file for homosexuals .
The GLF was structured around a system of anarchic consensus , which made it difficult for the group to reach conclusions on any issue , and heated arguments became commonplace at its meetings . In November 1969 , the group 's membership voted to provide political and financial support to the Black Panthers , an armed African @-@ American leftist group . This was heavily controversial among the GLF , given the homophobic nature of the Black Panthers , and resulted in a walk @-@ out of many senior members , including Martello , Arthur Evans , Arthur Bell , Lige Clarke , and Jack Nichols . That month , Martello was invited to a private meeting of these disaffected GLF members which resulted in the formation of the Gay Activist Alliance ( GAA ) . Although continuing the GLF 's emphasis on taking a confrontational approach to conventional American society and authority , the group was more tightly organized and structured , and focused exclusively on attaining equal rights for gay and lesbian people . The businessman Al Goldstein agreed to invest $ 25 @,@ 000 in the GAA 's new venture , a newspaper written by , and aimed at , the country 's gay community . It was launched in December 1969 as GAY , and it soon gained a readership of 25 @,@ 000 . Martello contributed a regular column known as " The Gay Witch " , reaching his widest audience to date , also authoring a variety of other articles that appeared in it .
= = = WICA and WADL : 1970 – 74 = = =
In 1970 , Martello founded the Witches International Craft Associates ( WICA ) , through which he issued The WICA Newsletter , set up to explain what Witchcraft and Wicca was to the wider public and to serve as a resource through which occultists could contact one another . In April 1970 he appeared on the WNEW @-@ TV Channel 5 documentary series Helluva Town , performing Witchcraft rites with several assistants in Central Park . That year saw one of New York 's first substantial gatherings of occultists , the Festival of Occult Arts , as well as the first Earth Day celebration and the first Christopher Street Gay Liberation Day parade . These events inspired Martello 's desire to hold a public Witchcraft Sabbat celebration . Acting under the auspices of WICA , in late summer he approached the New York City Parks Department asking for permission to hold a " Witch @-@ In " in Sheep Meadow , at the south end of Central Park , on October 31 , 1970 . The Department refused , and when Martello stated that the Witchcraft community would gather there regardless in their capacity as private individuals , he was threatened with police action . Martello gained the legal assistance of the New York Civil Liberties Union ( NYCLU ) , who informed the Parks Department that they were in breach of the First Amendment . The Department subsequently reversed their decision , and the event went ahead .
Inspired by his victory over the Parks Department , Martello founded an organization devoted to campaigning for the religious rights of Witches , the Witches Anti @-@ Defamation League ( WADL ) , which would eventually be renamed the Alternative Religions Education Network ( AREN ) . For WADL , he authored an essay titled " The Witch Manifesto " , likely influenced by Carl Wittman 's " Refugees from Amerika : A Gay Manifesto " ( 1970 ) , which demanded that the Roman Catholic Church face a tribunal for crimes committed against accused witches in the Early Modern period and that they pay reparations to the modern Witchcraft community for those actions . During this decade he authored a column for Gnostica magazine which was titled " Wicca Basket " , a pun on the phonetic similarity between " Wicca " and " wicker " .
In 1971 , a young gay Wiccan named Eddie Buczynski contacted Martello , and requested initiation . Due to Buczynski 's inexperience in the religion , Martello turned him down , although developed a friendship with him . Martello introduced Buczynski both to other covens who might initiate him , and to Herman Slater , who would become his long @-@ time partner . Slater was ill with various medical complications , and on one occasion was rehabilitating at the New York University Medical Center when Martello performed a healing ritual on him with the assistance of Buczynski . Martello would come to be known as a regular at The Warlock Shop , an occult store opened by Slater in New York . Through The WICA Newsletter , Martello had met Lady Gwen Thompson , the founder of the New England Covens of Traditionalist Witches ( NECTW ) , and decided to introduce Buczynski to her , resulting in Buczynski 's initiation into the tradition in Spring 1972 . Martello and Thompson later fell out , with some unconfirmed accounts claiming that it was because he lent her money and she did not pay him back . In October 1972 , Buczynski founded his own tradition of Wicca , termed Welsh Traditionalist Witchcraft , with Martello becoming an early initiate and taking on the name of " Nemesis " within that tradition . In turn , Martello welcomed Buczynski into his La Vecchia tradition , and initiated him through its three degree system .
In November 1972 , Martello lectured at the first Friends of the Craft conference , held at New York 's First Unitarian Church . In April 1973 , he moved to England for six months , where he was initiated and trained in the three degrees of Gardnerian Wicca by the Sheffield coven run by Patricia Crowther and her husband Arnold Crowther . He continued to encourage acceptance of homosexuality within the Pagan and Witchcraft community , authoring an article titled " The Gay Pagan " for Green Egg magazine . He expressed the view that homophobic Wiccans were " sexually insecure " and that they viewed the religion simply as " a ritual means of fornication " . He was also among the prominent male Pagans to endorse feminist and female @-@ only variants of Wicca , such as the Dianic Wicca promoted by Zsuzsanna Budapest .
= = = Later life = = =
During the 1990s , Martello retired from his public work . Doyle White noted that while Martello faded from prominence as the head of the Strega Wicca movement , the tradition gained a " new public advocate " in Raven Grimassi . Martello died of cancer on 29 June 2000 . Bruno was the executrix of his estate .
= = Personal life = =
Lloyd described Martello as " a lanky , hungry scrapper with piercing eyes , the face of a dark angel , and a mouth like a bear trap " , while in her encyclopaedia on Wicca , Rosemary Ellen Guiley described him as " a colourful figure , known for his humor " . Bruno described him as " a loving man , yet sometimes caustic " , stating that to know him " was an honor , and ever a challenge " . He was often noted for his scruffy appearance , with him typically wearing second @-@ hand clothes .
= = = Beliefs = = =
Martello defended the growing rise of feminists in Wicca during the 1970s , criticizing what he deemed as the continual repression of women within the Pagan movement . He also espoused the view that any Pagan who was involved in the U.S. government or military was a hypocrite . He was critical of Wiccans who espoused a division between white magic and black magic , commenting that it had racial overtones and that many of those advocating such a view were racist .
Although aware that historians had criticized the witch @-@ cult hypothesis of Margaret Murray , Martello stood by her claims , believing that the cult had been passed through oral tradition and thus evaded appearing in the textual sources studied by historians . Martello thought it unimportant that many Wiccans had lied about the origins of their beliefs , being quoted by Pagan journalist Margot Adler in her book Drawing Down the Moon as having stated " Let 's assume that many people lied about their lineage . Let 's further assume that there are no covens on the current scene that have any historical basis . The fact remains : they do exist now . And they can claim a spiritual lineage going back thousands of years . All of our pre @-@ Judeo @-@ Christian or Moslem ancestors were Pagans ! "
= = Publications = =
= Tropical Storm Julio ( 2008 ) =
Tropical Storm Julio was a tropical storm that made landfall on the southern tip of Baja California Sur in August 2008 . The tenth named storm of the 2008 Pacific hurricane season , it developed from a tropical wave on August 23 off the coast of Mexico . It moved parallel to the coast , reaching peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) before moving ashore and weakening . On August 26 it dissipated in the Gulf of California . Julio was the third tropical cyclone to make landfall in the Pacific Ocean basin during the season , after Tropical Storm Alma , which struck Nicaragua in May , and Tropical Depression Five @-@ E , which moved ashore along southwestern Mexico in July . The storm brought locally heavy rainfall to southern Baja California , killing one person and leaving several towns isolated . Moisture from Julio reached Arizona , producing thunderstorms , including one which damaged ten small planes in Chandler .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 20 , a tropical wave became discernible about 800 miles ( 1300 km ) off the coast of Mexico , which in the next day developed a large area of convection , or thunderstorms . Initially , conditions were unfavorable for development , due to strong upper @-@ level wind shear . Tracking northwestward parallel to the Mexican coast , the system became better organized on August 22 , though later that day its structure deteriorated . On August 23 , a strong area of convection developed and persisted near a circulation center , despite strong wind shear . With banding features becoming more prominent , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E about 345 miles ( 555 km ) south @-@ southeast of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula .
The tropical depression initially moved northwestward around the southwestern periphery of a ridge over Mexico . Convection continued to develop to the west of the center , and late on August 23 , a ship report confirmed the depression intensified Tropical Storm Julio . Initially , the persistent shear left the center partially exposed from the thunderstorm activity , though upper level conditions gradually became more favorable for strengthening . On August 24 , Tropical Storm Julio attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) as intense convection developed near the center . Shortly thereafter , the center became difficult to locate , and late on August 24 the storm moved ashore along the southwestern coast of the Baja California Peninsula .
Tropical Storm Julio quickly weakened over land , although it initially maintained strong convection near its center . By early on August 26 , however , the low @-@ level and upper @-@ level circulations separated , with the upper @-@ circulation continuing quickly northeastward into mainland Mexico ; the low @-@ level circulation slowed as it entered the Gulf of California , after having been separated from its deep convection . Later in the day , the NHC discontinued advisories after the storm failed to maintain enough organized convection to be considered a tropical cyclone .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Shortly before it was named , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch in the state of Baja California Sur , from Santa Fe on the Pacific coast around the peninsula to Buenavista along the Gulf of California . About 24 hours prior to landfall , the watch was replaced with a warning from Santa Fe to San Evaristo , and the tropical storm watch was extended along both sides of the peninsula . Prior to it making landfall , more than 2 @,@ 500 families in susceptible areas left their homes . Officials opened several shelters in the area where the storm struck .
As Julio made landfall , it produced lightning and locally heavy rainfall , which left more than a dozen communities isolated due to flooding . The flooding damaged several houses and killed two people . Winds were generally light , although strong enough to damage a few electrical poles and small buildings . In nearby Sinaloa , rainfall from the storm led to an emergency evacuation of 500 residents .
Moisture from Julio developed thunderstorms across Arizona , including one near Chandler which produced winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) ; the storm damaged ten small planes at Chandler Municipal Airport , as well as a hangar . The damages at the airport were estimated at $ 1 million ( USD ) . The storms also dropped heavy rainfall , reaching over 1 inch ( 25 mm ) in Gilbert , which caused flooding on Interstate 17 .
= Hubble Space Telescope =
The Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990 , and remains in operation . Although not the first space telescope , Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile , and is well known as both a vital research tool and a public relations boon for astronomy . The HST is named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble , and is one of NASA 's Great Observatories , along with the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory , the Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory , and the Spitzer Space Telescope .
With a 2 @.@ 4 @-@ meter ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) mirror , Hubble 's four main instruments observe in the near ultraviolet , visible , and near infrared spectra . Hubble 's orbit outside the distortion of Earth 's atmosphere allows it to take extremely high @-@ resolution images , with substantially lower background light than ground @-@ based telescopes . Hubble has recorded some of the most detailed visible @-@ light images ever , allowing a deep view into space and time . Many Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics , such as accurately determining the rate of expansion of the universe .
The HST was built by the United States space agency NASA , with contributions from the European Space Agency . The Space Telescope Science Institute ( STScI ) selects Hubble 's targets and processes the resulting data , while the Goddard Space Flight Center controls the spacecraft .
Space telescopes were proposed as early as 1923 . Hubble was funded in the 1970s , with a proposed launch in 1983 , but the project was beset by technical delays , budget problems , and the Challenger disaster ( 1986 ) . When finally launched in 1990 , Hubble 's main mirror was found to have been ground incorrectly , compromising the telescope 's capabilities . The optics were corrected to their intended quality by a servicing mission in 1993 .
Hubble is the only telescope designed to be serviced in space by astronauts . After launch by Space Shuttle Discovery in 1990 , four subsequent Space Shuttle missions repaired , upgraded , and replaced systems on the telescope . A fifth mission was canceled on safety grounds following the Columbia disaster ( 2003 ) . However , after spirited public discussion , NASA administrator Mike Griffin approved one final servicing mission , completed in 2009 . The telescope is operating as of 2016 , and could last until 2030 – 2040 . Its scientific successor , the James Webb Space Telescope ( JWST ) , is scheduled for launch in 2018 .
= = Conception , design and aim = =
= = = Proposals and precursors = = =
In 1923 , Hermann Oberth — considered a father of modern rocketry , along with Robert H. Goddard and Konstantin Tsiolkovsky — published Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen ( " The Rocket into Planetary Space " ) , which mentioned how a telescope could be propelled into Earth orbit by a rocket .
The history of the Hubble Space Telescope can be traced back as far as 1946 , to the astronomer Lyman Spitzer 's paper " Astronomical advantages of an extraterrestrial observatory " . In it , he discussed the two main advantages that a space @-@ based observatory would have over ground @-@ based telescopes . First , the angular resolution ( the smallest separation at which objects can be clearly distinguished ) would be limited only by diffraction , rather than by the turbulence in the atmosphere , which causes stars to twinkle , known to astronomers as seeing . At that time ground @-@ based telescopes were limited to resolutions of 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 0 arcseconds , compared to a theoretical diffraction @-@ limited resolution of about 0 @.@ 05 arcsec for a telescope with a mirror 2 @.@ 5 m in diameter . Second , a space @-@ based telescope could observe infrared and ultraviolet light , which are strongly absorbed by the atmosphere .
Spitzer devoted much of his career to pushing for the development of a space telescope . In 1962 , a report by the US National Academy of Sciences recommended the development of a space telescope as part of the space program , and in 1965 Spitzer was appointed as head of a committee given the task of defining scientific objectives for a large space telescope .
Space @-@ based astronomy had begun on a very small scale following World War II , as scientists made use of developments that had taken place in rocket technology . The first ultraviolet spectrum of the Sun was obtained in 1946 , and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) launched the Orbiting Solar Observatory ( OSO ) to obtain UV , X @-@ ray , and gamma @-@ ray spectra in 1962 . An orbiting solar telescope was launched in 1962 by the United Kingdom as part of the Ariel space program , and in 1966 NASA launched the first Orbiting Astronomical Observatory ( OAO ) mission . OAO @-@ 1 's battery failed after three days , terminating the mission . It was followed by OAO @-@ 2 , which carried out ultraviolet observations of stars and galaxies from its launch in 1968 until 1972 , well beyond its original planned lifetime of one year .
The OSO and OAO missions demonstrated the important role space @-@ based observations could play in astronomy , and in 1968 , NASA developed firm plans for a space @-@ based reflecting telescope with a mirror 3 m in diameter , known provisionally as the Large Orbiting Telescope or Large Space Telescope ( LST ) , with a launch slated for 1979 . These plans emphasized the need for manned maintenance missions to the telescope to ensure such a costly program had a lengthy working life , and the concurrent development of plans for the reusable space shuttle indicated that the technology to allow this was soon to become available .
= = = Quest for funding = = =
The continuing success of the OAO program encouraged increasingly strong consensus within the astronomical community that the LST should be a major goal . In 1970 , NASA established two committees , one to plan the engineering side of the space telescope project , and the other to determine the scientific goals of the mission . Once these had been established , the next hurdle for NASA was to obtain funding for the instrument , which would be far more costly than any Earth @-@ based telescope . The U.S. Congress questioned many aspects of the proposed budget for the telescope and forced cuts in the budget for the planning stages , which at the time consisted of very detailed studies of potential instruments and hardware for the telescope . In 1974 , public spending cuts led to Congress deleting all funding for the telescope project .
In response to this , a nationwide lobbying effort was coordinated among astronomers . Many astronomers met congressmen and senators in person , and large scale letter @-@ writing campaigns were organized . The National Academy of Sciences published a report emphasizing the need for a space telescope , and eventually the Senate agreed to half of the budget that had originally been approved by Congress .
The funding issues led to something of a reduction in the scale of the project , with the proposed mirror diameter reduced from 3 m to 2 @.@ 4 m , both to cut costs and to allow a more compact and effective configuration for the telescope hardware . A proposed precursor 1 @.@ 5 m space telescope to test the systems to be used on the main satellite was dropped , and budgetary concerns also prompted collaboration with the European Space Agency . ESA agreed to provide funding and supply one of the first generation instruments for the telescope , as well as the solar cells that would power it , and staff to work on the telescope in the United States , in return for European astronomers being guaranteed at least 15 % of the observing time on the telescope . Congress eventually approved funding of US $ 36 million for 1978 , and the design of the LST began in earnest , aiming for a launch date of 1983 . In 1983 the telescope was named after Edwin Hubble , who made one of the greatest scientific breakthroughs of the 20th century when he discovered that the universe is expanding .
= = = Construction and engineering = = =
Once the Space Telescope project had been given the go @-@ ahead , work on the program was divided among many institutions . Marshall Space Flight Center ( MSFC ) was given responsibility for the design , development , and construction of the telescope , while Goddard Space Flight Center was given overall control of the scientific instruments and ground @-@ control center for the mission . MSFC commissioned the optics company Perkin @-@ Elmer to design and build the Optical Telescope Assembly ( OTA ) and Fine Guidance Sensors for the space telescope . Lockheed was commissioned to construct and integrate the spacecraft in which the telescope would be housed .
= = = Optical Telescope Assembly ( OTA ) = = =
Optically , the HST is a Cassegrain reflector of Ritchey – Chrétien design , as are most large professional telescopes . This design , with two hyperbolic mirrors , is known for good imaging performance over a wide field of view , with the disadvantage that the mirrors have shapes that are hard to fabricate and test . The mirror and optical systems of the telescope determine the final performance , and they were designed to exacting specifications . Optical telescopes typically have mirrors polished to an accuracy of about a tenth of the wavelength of visible light , but the Space Telescope was to be used for observations from the visible through the ultraviolet ( shorter wavelengths ) and was specified to be diffraction limited to take full advantage of the space environment . Therefore , its mirror needed to be polished to an accuracy of 10 nanometers , or about 1 / 65 of the wavelength of red light . On the long wavelength end , the OTA was not designed with optimum IR performance in mind — for example , the mirrors are kept at stable ( and warm , about 15 ° C ) temperatures by heaters . This limits Hubble 's performance as an infrared telescope .
Perkin @-@ Elmer intended to use custom @-@ built and extremely sophisticated computer @-@ controlled polishing machines to grind the mirror to the required shape . However , in case their cutting @-@ edge technology ran into difficulties , NASA demanded that PE sub @-@ contract to Kodak to construct a back @-@ up mirror using traditional mirror @-@ polishing techniques . ( The team of Kodak and Itek also bid on the original mirror polishing work . Their bid called for the two companies to double @-@ check each other 's work , which would have almost certainly caught the polishing error that later caused such problems . ) The Kodak mirror is now on permanent display at the National Air and Space Museum . An Itek mirror built as part of the effort is now used in the 2 @.@ 4 m telescope at the Magdalena Ridge Observatory .
Construction of the Perkin @-@ Elmer mirror began in 1979 , starting with a blank manufactured by Corning from their ultra @-@ low expansion glass . To keep the mirror 's weight to a minimum it consisted of top and bottom plates , each one inch ( 25 @.@ 4 mm ) thick , sandwiching a honeycomb lattice . Perkin @-@ Elmer simulated microgravity by supporting the mirror from the back with 130 rods that exerted varying amounts of force . This ensured that the mirror 's final shape would be correct and to specification when finally deployed . Mirror polishing continued until May 1981 . NASA reports at the time questioned Perkin @-@ Elmer 's managerial structure , and the polishing began to slip behind schedule and over budget . To save money , NASA halted work on the back @-@ up mirror and put the launch date of the telescope back to October 1984 . The mirror was completed by the end of 1981 ; it was washed using 2 @,@ 400 gallons ( 9 @,@ 100 L ) of hot , deionized water and then received a reflective coating of 65 nm @-@ thick aluminum and a protective coating of 25 nm @-@ thick magnesium fluoride .
Doubts continued to be expressed about Perkin @-@ Elmer 's competence on a project of this importance , as their budget and timescale for producing the rest of the OTA continued to inflate . In response to a schedule described as " unsettled and changing daily " , NASA postponed the launch date of the telescope until April 1985 . Perkin @-@ Elmer 's schedules continued to slip at a rate of about one month per quarter , and at times delays reached one day for each day of work . NASA was forced to postpone the launch date until March and then September 1986 . By this time , the total project budget had risen to US $ 1 @.@ 175 billion .
= = = Spacecraft systems = = =
The spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments were to be housed was another major engineering challenge . It would have to withstand frequent passages from direct sunlight into the darkness of Earth 's shadow , which would cause major changes in temperature , while being stable enough to allow extremely accurate pointing of the telescope . A shroud of multi @-@ layer insulation keeps the temperature within the telescope stable , and surrounds a light aluminum shell in which the telescope and instruments sit . Within the shell , a graphite @-@ epoxy frame keeps the working parts of the telescope firmly aligned . Because graphite composites are hygroscopic , there was a risk that water vapor absorbed by the truss while in Lockheed 's clean room would later be expressed in the vacuum of space ; resulting in the telescope 's instruments being covered by ice . To reduce that risk , a nitrogen gas purge was performed before launching the telescope into space .
While construction of the spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments would be housed proceeded somewhat more smoothly than the construction of the OTA , Lockheed still experienced some budget and schedule slippage , and by the summer of 1985 , construction of the spacecraft was 30 % over budget and three months behind schedule . An MSFC report said that Lockheed tended to rely on NASA directions rather than take their own initiative in the construction .
= = = Computer systems and data processing = = =
The two initial , primary computers on the HST were the 1 @.@ 25 MHz DF @-@ 224 system , built by Rockwell Autonetics , which contained three redundant CPUs , and two redundant NSSC @-@ 1 ( NASA Standard Spacecraft Computer , Model 1 ) systems , developed by Westinghouse and GSFC using diode @-@ transistor logic ( DTL ) . A co @-@ processor for the DF @-@ 224 was added during Servicing Mission 1 in 1993 , which consisted of two redundant strings of an Intel @-@ based 80386 processor with an 80387 math co @-@ processor . The DF @-@ 224 and its 386 co @-@ processor were replaced by a 25 MHz Intel @-@ based 80486 processor system during Servicing Mission 3A in 1999 .
Additionally , some of the science instruments and components had their own embedded microprocessor @-@ based control systems . The MATs ( Multiple Access Transponder ) components , MAT @-@ 1 and MAT @-@ 2 , utilize Hughes Aircraft CDP1802CD microprocessors . The Wide Field and Planetary Camera ( WFPC ) also utilized an RCA 1802 microprocessor ( or possibly the older 1801 version ) . The WFPC @-@ 1 was replaced by the WFPC @-@ 2 during Servicing Mission 1 in 1993 , which was then replaced by the Wide Field Camera 3 ( WFC3 ) during Servicing Mission 4 in 2009 .
= = = Initial instruments = = =
When launched , the HST carried five scientific instruments : the Wide Field and Planetary Camera ( WF / PC ) , Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph ( GHRS ) , High Speed Photometer ( HSP ) , Faint Object Camera ( FOC ) and the Faint Object Spectrograph ( FOS ) . WF / PC was a high @-@ resolution imaging device primarily intended for optical observations . It was built by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , and incorporated a set of 48 filters isolating spectral lines of particular astrophysical interest . The instrument contained eight charge @-@ coupled device ( CCD ) chips divided between two cameras , each using four CCDs . Each CCD has a resolution of 0 @.@ 64 megapixels . The " wide field camera " ( WFC ) covered a large angular field at the expense of resolution , while the " planetary camera " ( PC ) took images at a longer effective focal length than the WF chips , giving it a greater magnification .
The GHRS was a spectrograph designed to operate in the ultraviolet . It was built by the Goddard Space Flight Center and could achieve a spectral resolution of 90 @,@ 000 . Also optimized for ultraviolet observations were the FOC and FOS , which were capable of the highest spatial resolution of any instruments on Hubble . Rather than CCDs these three instruments used photon @-@ counting digicons as their detectors . The FOC was constructed by ESA , while the University of California , San Diego , and Martin Marietta Corporation built the FOS .
The final instrument was the HSP , designed and built at the University of Wisconsin – Madison . It was optimized for visible and ultraviolet light observations of variable stars and other astronomical objects varying in brightness . It could take up to 100 @,@ 000 measurements per second with a photometric accuracy of about 2 % or better .
HST 's guidance system can also be used as a scientific instrument . Its three Fine Guidance Sensors ( FGS ) are primarily used to keep the telescope accurately pointed during an observation , but can also be used to carry out extremely accurate astrometry ; measurements accurate to within 0 @.@ 0003 arcseconds have been achieved .
= = = Ground support = = =
The Space Telescope Science Institute ( STScI ) is responsible for the scientific operation of the telescope and the delivery of data products to astronomers . STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy ( AURA ) and is physically located in Baltimore , Maryland on the Homewood campus of Johns Hopkins University , one of the 39 US universities and seven international affiliates that make up the AURA consortium . STScI was established in 1981 after something of a power struggle between NASA and the scientific community at large . NASA had wanted to keep this function in @-@ house , but scientists wanted it to be based in an academic establishment . The Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility ( ST @-@ ECF ) , established at Garching bei München near Munich in 1984 , provided similar support for European astronomers until 2011 , when these activities were moved to the European Space Astronomy Centre .
One rather complex task that falls to STScI is scheduling observations for the telescope . Hubble is in a low @-@ Earth orbit to enable servicing missions , but this means that most astronomical targets are occulted by the Earth for slightly less than half of each orbit . Observations cannot take place when the telescope passes through the South Atlantic Anomaly due to elevated radiation levels , and there are also sizable exclusion zones around the Sun ( precluding observations of Mercury ) , Moon and Earth . The solar avoidance angle is about 50 ° , to keep sunlight from illuminating any part of the OTA . Earth and Moon avoidance keeps bright light out of the FGSs , and keeps scattered light from entering the instruments . If the FGSs are turned off , however , the Moon and Earth can be observed . Earth observations were used very early in the program to generate flat @-@ fields for the WFPC1 instrument . There is a so @-@ called continuous viewing zone ( CVZ ) , at roughly 90 ° to the plane of Hubble 's orbit , in which targets are not occulted for long periods . Due to the precession of the orbit , the location of the CVZ moves slowly over a period of eight weeks . Because the limb of the Earth is always within about 30 ° of regions within the CVZ , the brightness of scattered earthshine may be elevated for long periods during CVZ observations .
Hubble orbits in the upper atmosphere at an altitude of approximately 569 kilometers ( 354 mi ) and an inclination of 28 @.@ 5 ° . The position along its orbit changes over time in a way that is not accurately predictable . The density of the upper atmosphere varies according to many factors , and this means that Hubble 's predicted position for six weeks ' time could be in error by up to 4 @,@ 000 km ( 2 @,@ 500 mi ) . Observation schedules are typically finalized only a few days in advance , as a longer lead time would mean there was a chance that the target would be unobservable by the time it was due to be observed .
Engineering support for HST is provided by NASA and contractor personnel at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Maryland , 48 km ( 30 mi ) south of the STScI . Hubble 's operation is monitored 24 hours per day by four teams of flight controllers who make up Hubble 's Flight Operations Team .
= = = Challenger disaster , delays , and eventual launch = = =
By early 1986 , the planned launch date of October that year looked feasible , but the Challenger accident brought the U.S. space program to a halt , grounding the Space Shuttle fleet and forcing the launch of Hubble to be postponed for several years . The telescope had to be kept in a clean room , powered up and purged with nitrogen , until a launch could be rescheduled . This costly situation ( about $ 6 million per month ) pushed the overall costs of the project even higher . This delay did allow time for engineers to perform extensive tests , swap out a possibly failure @-@ prone battery , and make other improvements . Furthermore , the ground software needed to control Hubble was not ready in 1986 , and in fact was barely ready by the 1990 launch .
Eventually , following the resumption of shuttle flights in 1988 , the launch of the telescope was scheduled for 1990 . On April 24 , 1990 , shuttle mission STS @-@ 31 saw Discovery launch the telescope successfully into its planned orbit .
From its original total cost estimate of about US $ 400 million , the telescope had by now cost over $ 2 @.@ 5 billion to construct . Hubble 's cumulative costs were estimated to be about US $ 10 billion in 2010 , twenty years after launch .
= = Flawed mirror = =
Within weeks of the launch of the telescope , the returned images indicated a serious problem with the optical system . Although the first images appeared to be sharper than those of ground @-@ based telescopes , Hubble failed to achieve a final sharp focus and the best image quality obtained was drastically lower than expected . Images of point sources spread out over a radius of more than one arcsecond , instead of having a point spread function ( PSF ) concentrated within a circle 0 @.@ 1 arcsec in diameter as had been specified in the design criteria .
Analysis of the flawed images showed that the cause of the problem was that the primary mirror had been ground to the wrong shape . Although it was probably the most precisely figured mirror ever made , with variations from the prescribed curve of only 10 nanometers , at the perimeter it was too flat by about 2 @,@ 200 nanometers ( 2 @.@ 2 micrometers ) . This difference was catastrophic , introducing severe spherical aberration , a flaw in which light reflecting off the edge of a mirror focuses on a different point from the light reflecting off its center .
The effect of the mirror flaw on scientific observations depended on the particular observation — the core of the aberrated PSF was sharp enough to permit high @-@ resolution observations of bright objects , and spectroscopy of point sources was only affected through a sensitivity loss . However , the loss of light to the large , out of focus halo severely reduced the usefulness of the telescope for faint objects or high @-@ contrast imaging . This meant that nearly all of the cosmological programs were essentially impossible , since they required observation of exceptionally faint objects . NASA and the telescope became the butt of many jokes , and the project was popularly regarded as a white elephant . For instance , in the 1991 comedy The Naked Gun 2 ½ : The Smell of Fear , Hubble was pictured with the Titanic , the Hindenburg , and the Edsel . Nonetheless , during the first three years of the Hubble mission , before the optical corrections , the telescope still carried out a large number of productive observations of less demanding targets . The error was well characterized and stable , enabling astronomers to partially compensate for the defective mirror by using sophisticated image processing techniques such as deconvolution .
= = = Origin of the problem = = =
A commission headed by Lew Allen , director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , was established to determine how the error could have arisen . The Allen Commission found that the main null corrector , a testing device used to achieve a properly shaped non @-@ spherical mirror , had been incorrectly assembled — one lens was out of position by 1 @.@ 3 mm . During the initial grinding and polishing of the mirror , Perkin @-@ Elmer analyzed its surface with two conventional null correctors . However , for the final manufacturing step ( figuring ) , they switched to a custom @-@ built null corrector , designed explicitly to meet very strict tolerances . The incorrect assembly of the device resulted in the mirror being ground very precisely but to the wrong shape . There was one later opportunity to catch the error , since for technical reasons a few of the final tests needed to use the two conventional null correctors . These tests correctly reported spherical aberration , but were dismissed since the reflective null corrector was considered more accurate .
The commission blamed the failings primarily on Perkin @-@ Elmer . Relations between NASA and the optics company had been severely strained during the telescope construction , due to frequent schedule slippage and cost overruns . NASA found that Perkin @-@ Elmer did not review or supervise the mirror construction adequately , did not assign its best optical scientists to the project ( as it had for the prototype ) , and in particular did not involve the optical designers in the construction and verification of the mirror . While the commission heavily criticized Perkin @-@ Elmer for these managerial failings , NASA was also criticized for not picking up on the quality control shortcomings , such as relying totally on test results from a single instrument .
= = = Design of a solution = = =
The design of the telescope had always incorporated servicing missions , and astronomers immediately began to seek potential solutions to the problem that could be applied at the first servicing mission , scheduled for 1993 . While Kodak had ground a back @-@ up mirror for Hubble , it would have been impossible to replace the mirror in orbit , and too expensive and time @-@ consuming to bring the telescope back to Earth for a refit . Instead , the fact that the mirror had been ground so precisely to the wrong shape led to the design of new optical components with exactly the same error but in the opposite sense , to be added to the telescope at the servicing mission , effectively acting as " spectacles " to correct the spherical aberration .
The first step was a precise characterization of the error in the main mirror . Working backwards from images of point sources , astronomers determined that the conic constant of the mirror as built was − 1 @.@ 01390 ± 0 @.@ 0002 , instead of the intended − 1 @.@ 00230 . The same number was also derived by analyzing the null corrector used by Perkin @-@ Elmer to figure the mirror , as well as by analyzing interferograms obtained during ground testing of the mirror .
Because of the way the HST 's instruments were designed , two different sets of correctors were required . The design of the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 , already planned to replace the existing WF / PC , included relay mirrors to direct light onto the four separate charge @-@ coupled device ( CCD ) chips making up its two cameras . An inverse error built into their surfaces could completely cancel the aberration of the primary . However , the other instruments lacked any intermediate surfaces that could be figured in this way , and so required an external correction device .
The Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement ( COSTAR ) system was designed to correct the spherical aberration for light focused at the FOC , FOS , and GHRS . It consists of two mirrors in the light path with one ground to correct the aberration . To fit the COSTAR system onto the telescope , one of the other instruments had to be removed , and astronomers selected the High Speed Photometer to be sacrificed . By 2002 , all of the original instruments requiring COSTAR had been replaced by instruments with their own corrective optics . COSTAR was removed and returned to Earth in 2009 where it is exhibited at the National Air and Space Museum . The area previously used by COSTAR is now occupied by the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph .
= = Servicing missions and new instruments = =
Hubble was designed to accommodate regular servicing and equipment upgrades . Five servicing missions ( SM 1 , 2 , 3A , 3B , and 4 ) were flown by NASA space shuttles , the first in December 1993 and the last in May 2009 . Servicing missions were delicate operations that began with maneuvering to intercept the telescope in orbit and carefully retrieving it with the shuttle 's mechanical arm . The necessary work was then carried out in multiple tethered spacewalks over a period of four to five days . After a visual inspection of the telescope , astronauts conducted repairs , replaced failed or degraded components , upgraded equipment , and installed new instruments . Once work was completed , the telescope was redeployed , typically after boosting to a higher orbit to address the orbital decay caused by atmospheric drag .
= = = Servicing Mission 1 = = =
After the problems with Hubble 's mirror were discovered , the first servicing mission assumed greater importance , as the astronauts would need to do extensive work to install corrective optics . The seven astronauts for the mission were trained to use about a hundred specialized tools . SM1 flew aboard Endeavour in December 1993 , and involved installation of several instruments and other equipment over ten days .
Most importantly , the High Speed Photometer was replaced with the COSTAR corrective optics package , and WFPC was replaced with the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 ( WFPC2 ) with an internal optical correction system . The solar arrays and their drive electronics were also replaced , as well as four gyroscopes in the telescope pointing system , two electrical control units and other electrical components , and two magnetometers . The onboard computers were upgraded with added coprocessors , and Hubble 's orbit was boosted .
On January 13 , 1994 , NASA declared the mission a complete success and showed the first sharper images . At the time , the mission was one of the most complex , involving five long extra @-@ vehicular activity periods . Its success was a boon for NASA , as well as for the astronomers with a more capable space telescope .
= = = Servicing Mission 2 = = =
Servicing Mission 2 , flown by Discovery in February 1997 , replaced the GHRS and the FOS with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph ( STIS ) and the Near Infrared Camera and Multi @-@ Object Spectrometer ( NICMOS ) , replaced an Engineering and Science Tape Recorder with a new Solid State Recorder , and repaired thermal insulation . NICMOS contained a heat sink of solid nitrogen to reduce the thermal noise from the instrument , but shortly after it was installed , an unexpected thermal expansion resulted in part of the heat sink coming into contact with an optical baffle . This led to an increased warming rate for the instrument and reduced its original expected lifetime of 4 @.@ 5 years to about 2 years .
= = = Servicing Mission 3A = = =
Servicing Mission 3A , flown by Discovery , took place in December 1999 , and was a split @-@ off from Servicing Mission 3 after three of the six onboard gyroscopes had failed . The fourth failed a few weeks before the mission , rendering the telescope incapable of performing scientific observations . The mission replaced all six gyroscopes , replaced a Fine Guidance Sensor and the computer , installed a Voltage / temperature Improvement Kit ( VIK ) to prevent battery overcharging , and replaced thermal insulation blankets . The new computer is 20 times faster , with six times more memory , than the DF @-@ 224 it replaced . It increases throughput by moving some computing tasks from the ground to the spacecraft , and saves money by allowing the use of modern programming languages .
= = = Servicing Mission 3B = = =
Servicing Mission 3B flown by Columbia in March 2002 saw the installation of a new instrument , with the FOC ( which , except for the Fine Guidance Sensors when used for astrometry , was the last of the original instruments ) being replaced by the Advanced Camera for Surveys ( ACS ) . This meant that COSTAR was no longer required , since all new instruments had built @-@ in correction for the main mirror aberration . The mission also revived NICMOS by installing a closed @-@ cycle cooler and replaced the solar arrays for the second time , providing 30 percent more power .
= = = Servicing Mission 4 = = =
Plans called for Hubble to be serviced in February 2005 , but the Columbia disaster in 2003 , in which the orbiter disintegrated on re @-@ entry into the atmosphere , had wide @-@ ranging effects on the Hubble program . NASA Administrator Sean O 'Keefe decided that all future shuttle missions had to be able to reach the safe haven of the International Space Station should in @-@ flight problems develop . As no shuttles were capable of reaching both HST and the ISS during the same mission , future manned service missions were canceled . This decision was assailed by numerous astronomers , who felt that Hubble was valuable enough to merit the human risk . HST 's planned successor , the James Webb Telescope ( JWST ) , is not expected to launch until at least 2018 . A gap in space @-@ observing capabilities between a decommissioning of Hubble and the commissioning of a successor is of major concern to many astronomers , given the significant scientific impact of HST . The consideration that JWST will not be located in low Earth orbit , and therefore cannot be easily upgraded or repaired in the event of an early failure , only makes these concerns more acute . On the other hand , many astronomers felt strongly that the servicing of Hubble should not take place if the expense were to come from the JWST budget .
In January 2004 , O 'Keefe said he would review his decision to cancel the final servicing mission to HST due to public outcry and requests from Congress for NASA to look for a way to save it . The National Academy of Sciences convened an official panel , which recommended in July 2004 that the HST should be preserved despite the apparent risks . Their report urged " NASA should take no actions that would preclude a space shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope " . In August 2004 , O 'Keefe asked Goddard Space Flight Center to prepare a detailed proposal for a robotic service mission . These plans were later canceled , the robotic mission being described as " not feasible " . In late 2004 , several Congressional members , led by Senator Barbara Mikulski , held public hearings and carried on a fight with much public support ( including thousands of letters from school children across the country ) to get the Bush Administration and NASA to reconsider the decision to drop plans for a Hubble rescue mission .
The nomination in April 2005 of a new NASA Administrator with an engineering rather than accounting background , Michael D. Griffin , changed the situation , as Griffin stated he would consider a manned servicing mission . Soon after his appointment Griffin authorized Goddard to proceed with preparations for a manned Hubble maintenance flight , saying he would make the final decision after the next two shuttle missions . In October 2006 Griffin gave the final go @-@ ahead , and the 11 @-@ day mission by Atlantis was scheduled for October 2008 . Hubble 's main data @-@ handling unit failed in September 2008 , halting all reporting of scientific data until its back @-@ up was brought online on October 25 , 2008 . Since a failure of the backup unit would leave the HST helpless , the service mission was postponed to incorporate a replacement for the primary unit .
Servicing Mission 4 , flown by Atlantis in May 2009 , was the last scheduled shuttle mission for HST . SM4 installed the replacement data @-@ handling unit , repaired the ACS and STIS systems , installed improved nickel hydrogen batteries , and replaced other components . SM4 also installed two new observation instruments — Wide Field Camera 3 ( WFC3 ) and the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph ( COS ) — and the Soft Capture and Rendezvous System , which will enable the future rendezvous , capture , and safe disposal of Hubble by either a crewed or robotic mission . Except for the High Resolution Channel of the ACS which was unable to be repaired , the work accomplished during SM4 rendered the telescope fully functional , and it remains so as of 2015 .
= = Major projects = =
Since the start of the program , a number of research projects have been carried out , some of them almost solely with Hubble , others coordinated facilities such as Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory and ESO 's Very Large Telescope . Although the Hubble observatory is nearing the end of its life , there are still major projects scheduled for it . One example is the upcoming Frontier Fields program , inspired by the results of Hubble 's deep observation of the galaxy cluster Abell 1689 .
= = = Cosmic Assembly Near @-@ infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey = = =
In an August 2013 press release , CANDELS was referred to as " the largest project in the history of Hubble " . The survey " aims to explore galactic evolution in the early Universe , and the very first seeds of cosmic structure at less than one billion years after the Big Bang . " The CANDELS project site describes the survey 's goals as the following :
The Cosmic Assembly Near @-@ IR Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey is designed to document the first third of galactic evolution from z = 8 to 1 @.@ 5 via deep imaging of more than 250 @,@ 000 galaxies with WFC3 / IR and ACS . It will also find the first Type Ia SNe beyond z > 1 @.@ 5 and establish their accuracy as standard candles for cosmology . Five premier multi @-@ wavelength sky regions are selected ; each has multi @-@ wavelength data from Spitzer and other facilities , and has extensive spectroscopy of the brighter galaxies . The use of five widely separated fields mitigates cosmic variance and yields statistically robust and complete samples of galaxies down to 109 solar masses out to z ~ 8 .
= = = Frontier Fields program = = =
The program , officially named " Hubble Deep Fields Initiative 2012 " , is aimed to advance the knowledge of early galaxy formation by studying high @-@ redshift galaxies in blank fields with the help of gravitational lensing to see the " faintest galaxies in the distant universe . " The Frontier Fields web page describes the goals of the program being :
to reveal hitherto inaccessible populations of z = 5 – 10 galaxies that are 10 to 50 times fainter intrinsically than any presently known
to solidify our understanding of the stellar masses and star formation histories of sub @-@ L * galaxies at the earliest times
to provide the first statistically meaningful morphological characterization of star forming galaxies at z > 5
to find z > 8 galaxies stretched out enough by cluster lensing to discern internal structure and / or magnified enough by cluster lensing for spectroscopic follow @-@ up .
= = Public use = =
Anyone can apply for time on the telescope ; there are no restrictions on nationality or academic affiliation , but funding for analysis is only available to US institutions . Competition for time on the telescope is intense , with about one @-@ fifth of the proposals submitted in each cycle earning time on the schedule .
Calls for proposals are issued roughly annually , with time allocated for a cycle lasting about one year . Proposals are divided into several categories ; " general observer " proposals are the most common , covering routine observations . " Snapshot observations " are those in which targets require only 45 minutes or less of telescope time , including overheads such as acquiring the target . Snapshot observations are used to fill in gaps in the telescope schedule that cannot be filled by regular GO programs .
Astronomers may make " Target of Opportunity " proposals , in which observations are scheduled if a transient event covered by the proposal occurs during the scheduling cycle . In addition , up to 10 % of the telescope time is designated " director 's discretionary " ( DD ) time . Astronomers can apply to use DD time at any time of year , and it is typically awarded for study of unexpected transient phenomena such as supernovae .
Other uses of DD time have included the observations that led to views of the Hubble Deep Field and Hubble Ultra Deep Field , and in the first four cycles of telescope time , observations that were carried out by amateur astronomers .
= = = Amateur observations = = =
The first director of STScI , Riccardo Giacconi , announced in 1986 that he intended to devote some of his director discretionary time to allowing amateur astronomers to use the telescope . The total time to be allocated was only a few hours per cycle but excited great interest among amateur astronomers .
Proposals for amateur time were stringently reviewed by a committee of amateur astronomers , and time was awarded only to proposals that were deemed to have genuine scientific merit , did not duplicate proposals made by professionals , and required the unique capabilities of the space telescope . Thirteen amateur astronomers were awarded time on the telescope , with observations being carried out between 1990 and 1997 . One such study was " Transition Comets — UV Search for OH " . The very first proposal , " A Hubble Space Telescope Study of Posteclipse Brightening and Albedo Changes on Io " , was published in Icarus , a journal devoted to solar system studies . A second study from another group of amateurs was also published in Icarus . After that time , however , budget reductions at STScI made the support of work by amateur astronomers untenable , and no additional amateur programs have been carried out .
= = = 20th and 25th anniversaries = = =
The Hubble Space Telescope celebrated its 20th anniversary in space on April 24 , 2010 . To commemorate the occasion , NASA , ESA , and the Space Telescope Science Institute ( STScI ) released an image from the Carina Nebula .
To commemorate Hubble 's 25th anniversary in space on April 24 , 2015 , STScI released images of the Westerlund 2 cluster , located about 20 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 6 @,@ 100 pc ) away in the constellation Carina , through its Hubble 25 website . The European Space Agency created a dedicated 25th anniversary page on its website .
= = Scientific results = =
= = = Key projects = = =
In the early 1980s , NASA and STScI convened four panels to discuss Key Projects . These were projects that were both scientifically important and would require significant telescope time , which would be explicitly dedicated to each project . This guaranteed that these particular projects would be completed early , in case the telescope failed sooner than expected . The panels identified three such projects : 1 ) a study of the nearby intergalactic medium using quasar absorption lines to determine the properties of the intergalactic medium and the gaseous content of galaxies and groups of galaxies ; 2 ) a medium deep survey using the Wide Field Camera to take data whenever one of the other instruments was being used and 3 ) a project to determine the Hubble Constant within ten percent by reducing the errors , both external and internal , in the calibration of the distance scale .
= = = Important discoveries = = =
Hubble has helped resolve some long @-@ standing problems in astronomy , as well as raising new questions . Some results have required new theories to explain them . Among its primary mission targets was to measure distances to Cepheid variable stars more accurately than ever before , and thus constrain the value of the Hubble constant , the measure of the rate at which the universe is expanding , which is also related to its age . Before the launch of HST , estimates of the Hubble constant typically had errors of up to 50 % , but Hubble measurements of Cepheid variables in the Virgo Cluster and other distant galaxy clusters provided a measured value with an accuracy of ± 10 % , which is consistent with other more accurate measurements made since Hubble 's launch using other techniques . The estimated age is now about 13 @.@ 7 billion years , but before the Hubble Telescope scientists predicted an age ranging from 10 to 20 billion years .
While Hubble helped to refine estimates of the age of the universe , it also cast doubt on theories about its future . Astronomers from the High @-@ z Supernova Search Team and the Supernova Cosmology Project used ground @-@ based telescopes and HST to observe distant supernovae and uncovered evidence that , far from decelerating under the influence of gravity , the expansion of the universe may in fact be accelerating . The cause of this acceleration remains poorly understood ; the most common cause attributed is dark energy .
The high @-@ resolution spectra and images provided by the HST have been especially well @-@ suited to establishing the prevalence of black holes in the nuclei of nearby galaxies . While it had been hypothesized in the early 1960s that black holes would be found at the centers of some galaxies , and astronomers in the 1980s identified a number of good black hole candidates , work conducted with Hubble shows that black holes are probably common to the centers of all galaxies . The Hubble programs further established that the masses of the nuclear black holes and properties of the galaxies are closely related . The legacy of the Hubble programs on black holes in galaxies is thus to demonstrate a deep connection between galaxies and their central black holes .
The collision of Comet Shoemaker @-@ Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994 was fortuitously timed for astronomers , coming just a few months after Servicing Mission 1 had restored Hubble 's optical performance . Hubble images of the planet were sharper than any taken since the passage of Voyager 2 in 1979 , and were crucial in studying the dynamics of the collision of a comet with Jupiter , an event believed to occur once every few centuries .
Other discoveries made with Hubble data include proto @-@ planetary disks ( proplyds ) in the Orion Nebula ; evidence for the presence of extrasolar planets around Sun @-@ like stars ; and the optical counterparts of the still @-@ mysterious gamma ray bursts . HST has also been used to study objects in the outer reaches of the Solar System , including the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris .
A unique window on the Universe enabled by Hubble are the Hubble Deep Field , Hubble Ultra @-@ Deep Field , and Hubble Extreme Deep Field images , which used Hubble 's unmatched sensitivity at visible wavelengths to create images of small patches of sky that are the deepest ever obtained at optical wavelengths . The images reveal galaxies billions of light years away , and have generated a wealth of scientific papers , providing a new window on the early Universe . The Wide Field Camera 3 improved the view of these fields in the infrared and ultraviolet , supporting the discovery of some of the most distant objects yet discovered , such as MACS0647 @-@ JD .
The non @-@ standard object SCP 06F6 was discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope in February 2006 . During June and July 2012 , US astronomers using Hubble discovered a tiny fifth moon moving around icy Pluto .
In March 2015 , researchers announced that measurements of aurorae around Ganymede revealed that the moon has a subsurface ocean . Using Hubble to study the motion of its aurorae , the researchers determined that a large saltwater ocean was helping to suppress the interaction between Jupiter 's magnetic field and that of Ganymede . The ocean is estimated to be 100 km ( 60 mi ) deep , trapped beneath a 150 km ( 90 mi ) ice crust .
On December 11 , 2015 , Hubble captured an image of the first @-@ ever predicted reappearance of a supernova , dubbed " Refsdal " , which was calculated using different mass models of a galaxy cluster whose gravity is warping the supernova 's light . The supernova was previously seen in November 2014 behind galaxy cluster MACS J1149.5 + 2223 as part of Hubble 's Frontier Fields program . Astronomers spotted four separate images of the supernova in an arrangement known as an Einstein Cross . The light from the cluster has taken about five billion years to reach Earth , though the supernova exploded some 10 billion years ago . The detection of Refsdal 's reappearance served as a unique opportunity for astronomers to test their models of how mass , especially dark matter , is distributed within this galaxy cluster .
On March 3 , 2016 , researchers using Hubble data announced the discovery of the farthest known galaxy to date : GN @-@ z11 . The Hubble observations occurred on February 11 , 2015 , and April 3 , 2015 , as part of the CANDELS / GOODS @-@ North surveys .
= = = Impact on astronomy = = =
Many objective measures show the positive impact of Hubble data on astronomy . Over 9 @,@ 000 papers based on Hubble data have been published in peer @-@ reviewed journals , and countless more have appeared in conference proceedings . Looking at papers several years after their publication , about one @-@ third of all astronomy papers have no citations , while only 2 % of papers based on Hubble data have no citations . On average , a paper based on Hubble data receives about twice as many citations as papers based on non @-@ Hubble data . Of the 200 papers published each year that receive the most citations , about 10 % are based on Hubble data .
Although the HST has clearly helped astronomical research , its financial cost has been large . A study on the relative astronomical benefits of different sizes of telescopes found that while papers based on HST data generate 15 times as many citations as a 4 m ( 13 ft ) ground @-@ based telescope such as the William Herschel Telescope , the HST costs about 100 times as much to build and maintain .
Deciding between building ground- versus space @-@ based telescopes is complex . Even before Hubble was launched , specialized ground @-@ based techniques such as aperture masking interferometry had obtained higher @-@ resolution optical and infrared images than Hubble would achieve , though restricted to targets about 108 times brighter than | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
sters that have long flagella on their first antennae .
= = Related species = =
The California spiny lobster is one of 19 species in the genus Panulirus , which is one of several genera of spiny lobsters whose names are anagrams of the original spiny lobster genus , Palinurus . Its closest relatives are not the other species that occur in the East Pacific , but rather Panulirus argus from the Caribbean Sea and West Pacific species such as Panulirus japonicus , Panulirus marginatus , Panulirus pascuensis , Panulirus cygnus and Panulirus longipes ; this relationship has been recovered from comparative studies of adult and larval morphology , as well as from molecular phylogenetics , using the sequences from cytochrome c oxidase and 16S ribosomal RNA genes .
The California spiny lobster can be differentiated from the other species in the genus by the interrupted grooves across the abdomen ; other species either lack grooves , or have grooves which span the entire body segment .
= Hybrid Theory =
Hybrid Theory is the debut album by the American rock band Linkin Park , released on October 24 , 2000 through Warner Bros. Records . The album was a commercial success , having been certified Diamond for sales of over 11 million units in the United States alone as of 2010 , peaking at number two on the Billboard 200 , and also reaching high positions on other charts worldwide .
Recorded at NRG Recordings in North Hollywood , California , and produced by Don Gilmore , the album 's lyrical themes deal with problems lead vocalist Chester Bennington experienced during his adolescence , including drug abuse and the constant fighting and divorce of his parents . Hybrid Theory takes its title from the previous name of the band as well as the concept of music theory and combining different styles .
Four singles were released from the album : " One Step Closer " , " Crawling " , " Papercut " , and " In the End " , all of them being responsible for launching Linkin Park into mainstream popularity . While " In the End " was the most successful of the four , all of the singles in the album remain some of the band 's most successful songs to date . Although " Runaway " , " Points of Authority " , and " My December " from the special edition bonus disc album were not released as singles , they were minor hits on alternative rock radio stations thanks to the success of all of the band 's singles and the album . At the 2002 Grammy Awards , Hybrid Theory was nominated for Best Rock Album . The album is listed in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . It was ranked # 11 on Billboard 's Hot 200 Albums of the Decade . A special edition of Hybrid Theory was released March 11 , 2002 , a year and a half after its original pressing . Hybrid Theory has sold over 28 million copies worldwide , which makes it the best selling debut album of the 2000s . Linkin Park performed the album in its entirety for the first time at the Download Festival on June 14 , 2014 .
= = Background = =
Linkin Park was founded in 1996 as the rap rock band , Xero : lead guitarist Brad Delson , vocalist and rhythm guitarist Mike Shinoda , drummer Rob Bourdon , turntablist Joe Hahn , lead vocalist Mark Wakefield and bassist Dave Farrell ( who was not with the band during this point to tour with Tasty Snax ) . In 1999 , after Wakefield 's departure , lead vocalist Chester Bennington joined the five members Xero and the band was renamed to Linkin Park . Bennington 's previous band , Grey Daze , had recently disbanded , so his lawyer recommended him to Jeff Blue , vice president of A & R coordination for Zomba , who at the time was seeking a lead vocalist for Xero . Blue sent Bennington two tapes of Xero 's unreleased recordings — one with vocals by former Xero member Mark Wakefield , and the other with only the instrumental tracks — asking for his " interpretation of the songs " . Bennington wrote and recorded new vocals over the instrumentals and sent the tapes back to Blue . As Delson recalls , " [ Bennington ] really was kind of the final piece of the puzzle [ ... ] We didn 't see anything close to his talent in anybody else . " After Bennington joined , the group first renamed itself to Hybrid Theory and released a self @-@ titled EP . Legal complications with Welsh electronic music group Hybrid prompted a second name change , thus deciding on " Linkin Park " . Throughout 1999 , Linkin Park was a regular act at the Los Angeles club , The Whisky .
= = Writing and recording = =
The music that would ultimately become the Hybrid Theory album was first produced by Linkin Park in 1999 as a nine @-@ track demo tape . The band sent this tape to various recording companies and played forty @-@ two different showcases for recording industry representatives , including performances for Los Angeles promoter and impresario , Mike Galaxy 's showcase at The Gig on melrose . However , they were initially turned down by most of the major labels and several independent record labels . The band was signed by Warner Bros. Records in 1999 , due in large part to the constant recommendations of Jeff Blue , who had joined the label after resigning from Zomba .
Despite initial difficulties in finding a producer willing to take charge of the debut album of a newly signed band , Don Gilmore ultimately agreed to head up the project , with Andy Wallace hired as the mixer . Recording sessions , which mostly involved re @-@ recording the songs off the demo tape , began at NRG Recordings in North Hollywood , California in early 2000 and lasted four weeks . Shinoda 's rapping sections in most of the songs were significantly altered from the original , while most choruses remained largely unchanged . Due to the absence of Dave Farrell and Kyle Christener , who took part in the 1999 extended play , the band hired Scott Koziol and Ian Hornbeck as stand @-@ in bassists ; Delson also played bass throughout most of the album . The Dust Brothers provided additional beats for the track “ With You ” .
Bennington and Shinoda wrote the lyrics of Hybrid Theory based in part on early demos with Mark Wakefield . Shinoda characterized the lyrics as interpretations of universal feelings , emotions , and experiences , and as “ everyday emotions you talk about and think about . ” Bennington later described the songwriting experience to Rolling Stone magazine in early 2002 :
= = Composition = =
The music of Hybrid Theory draws from diverse inspirations . Bennington 's singing style is influenced by acts such as Depeche Mode and Stone Temple Pilots , while the riffs and playing techniques of guitarist Brad Delson are modeled after Deftones , Guns N ' Roses , U2 , and The Smiths . Mike Shinoda 's rapping , present in seven tracks , is very close to The Roots ' style . The lyrical content of the songs primarily touches upon the problems that Bennington encountered during his childhood , including child abuse , constant and excessive drug and alcohol abuse , the divorce of his parents , isolation , disappointments , and the aftermath feelings of failed relationships . Stylistically , the album has been described as nu metal , rap metal and alternative metal .
The album eventually produced four singles . " One Step Closer " , the album 's second track and first single , was gradually recorded in increments after Linkin Park struggled with " Runaway " , and features a guitar riff and electronic percussion in the introduction transitioning into a bridge with distortion @-@ heavy guitars and aggressive drums . It is also infamous for the " Shut up when I 'm talkin ' to you ! " refrain screamed by Bennington one minute and 48 seconds into the song . The music video for " One Step Closer " was shot in a Los Angeles subway and became an instant hit , eventually receiving heavy rotation on MTV and other music television networks . Stand @-@ in bassist Scott Koziol is shown performing with the band in the video .
The second single was " Crawling " . Lyrically , the song focuses on Bennington 's personal experiences with child abuse — the physical violence , the difficulty in breaking the cycle of abuse , and the subsequent loss of self @-@ esteem . This concept is echoed in the music video , in which a girl ( Katelyn Rosaasen ) is abused by her father and can be seen in the beginning of the video with several visible bruises .
" Papercut " was the album 's third single , and its lyrics describe paranoia . The music video for " Papercut " features the band performing in a hallway opposite a completely dark room on the walls of which are scribbled the song 's lyrics . Various supernatural themes are present in the video , and special effects are used to create eerie renditions , such as the " stretching " of Shinoda 's fingers and the “ melting ” of Bourdon 's face .
The fourth single to come from Hybrid Theory was " In the End " , which prominently features a signature piano riff performed by Shinoda . His rapping also dominates the verses of the song and is later joined by Bennington 's vocals in the chorus . The song 's concept is mainly based on one person 's failure . It is considered symbolic of an ending relationship , however , it can also represent broken trust in a once long @-@ lasting friendship . The music video for " In the End " was shot at various stops along the 2001 Ozzfest tour and was directed by Nathan " Karma " Cox and the band 's DJ Joe Hahn , who would go on to direct many of Linkin Park 's future videos ( the two also directed the music video for " Papercut " ) . Although the background for the " In the End " video was filmed in a California desert , the band itself performed on a studio stage in Los Angeles , with prominent CGI effects and compositing being used to create the finished version . Performing on a studio stage allowed Hahn and Cox to set off water pipes above the stage near the end and drench the band . The music video won the Best Rock Video award at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards .
" Points of Authority " , the fourth track on the album , has its own music video that can be found on Frat Party at the Pankake Festival , the band 's first DVD . Drummer Rob Bourdon describes the recording process of the song : “ Brad wrote this riff , then went home . Mike decided to cut it up into different pieces and rearranged them on the computer [ ... ] Brad had to learn his own part from the computer . ” Regarding the song , Delson praised Shinoda 's skill , describing him as “ a genius ” and “ Trent Reznor @-@ talented ” . On live performances of the song , when Shinoda raps the line , " Forfeit the game " verse for the third time in the song , Bennington would rap the verse along with Mike .
= = Artwork = =
With Hybrid Theory being Linkin Park 's first album , Mike Shinoda , who had worked as a graphic designer before becoming a professional musician , has stated that the band had looked through books for inspiration on how to present themselves for the first time . The result was a winged @-@ soldier which Shinoda illustrated himself . According to Chester Bennington , the idea of the soldier with dragonfly wings was to describe the blending of hard and soft musical elements by the use of the jaded looks of the soldier and frail touches of the wings . The art style was largely influenced by stencil graffiti , including early works by Banksy . The cover also features scrambled lyrics of the album 's songs within the background , though the lyrics of " One Step Closer " are the most prominent . A different version of the soldier can be seen on some of the album 's singles . The cover of Reanimation , a remix album of Hybrid Theory , features a robotic version of the soldier that is similar in appearance to a mobile suit Gundam , a line of robotic combat machines that are featured in the popular Gundam Wing anime series .
= = Release = =
Hybrid Theory was released in the United States on October 24 , 2000 following radio airplay of " One Step Closer " . Hybrid Theory also sold 50 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , entering the U.S. Billboard 200 charts at # 16 in late 2000 , and was certified gold by the RIAA five weeks after its release . In 2001 , Hybrid Theory sold 4 @.@ 8 million copies in the United States , making it the best @-@ selling album of the year , and it was estimated that the album continued selling 100 @,@ 000 copies per week in early 2002 . Throughout the following years , the album continued to sell at a fast pace and was certified diamond by the RIAA in 2005 for shipment of 10 million copies in the US . As of June 2014 , the album has sold 10 @,@ 222 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
Four singles from the album were released throughout 2001 ( though " Points of Authority " was released as a promotional single ) , three of which were chart successes on the US Billboard Modern Rock Tracks charts . The single " In the End " was the highest charting single from the album , which peaked at # 1 on the Modern Rock Tracks charts and appearing on charts worldwide . The success of " In the End " was partly responsible for Hybrid Theory 's chart success ; it reached # 2 in the Billboard 200 in early 2002 behind Weathered by Creed and by J to tha L – O ! : The Remixes by Jennifer Lopez . Hybrid Theory was the 11th best performing album on the Billboard 200 during the decade , the album reached the top ten in its 38th week on the chart and stayed in the top ten for 34 weeks . The album spent 105 weeks on the chart ( roughly 2 years ) and re entered at # 167 in February 2011 . The album also charted in 11 other countries at fairly high positions and ranked among the top ten in the charts of the United Kingdom , Sweden , New Zealand , Austria , Finland , and Switzerland . At the 44th Grammy Awards in 2002 , Linkin Park won Best Hard Rock Performance for their song " Crawling " . Additional nominations for Best New Artist and Best Rock Album lost out to Alicia Keys and All That You Can 't Leave Behind by U2 .
Following the success of Hybrid Theory , Linkin Park received invitations to perform at various rock concerts and tours , including Ozzfest , the Family Values Tour , KROQ @-@ FM 's Almost Acoustic Christmas , and the band 's self @-@ created tour , Projekt Revolution , which was headlined by Linkin Park and featured other bands such as Cypress Hill and Adema . During this time , Linkin Park reunited with their original bassist , Dave “ Phoenix ” Farrell . The band kept an online journal on their official website throughout their 2001 and 2002 touring regime , in which each band member made a respective notation . Although the notes are no longer on their website , they are available on fansites . Linkin Park played 324 shows in 2001 .
= = = Special editions = = =
A two @-@ disc special edition of Hybrid Theory was released on March 11 , 2002 in Asia . The first disc contains the original album , and the second disc features live performances of " Papercut " , " Points of Authority " , and " A Place for My Head " recorded at the Docklands Arena for BBC Radio 1 . Also featured on the second disc are two studio tracks : " My December " — a song written after the release of Hybrid Theory for inclusion on KROQ 's " Slim Santa " CD , and " High Voltage " , a remix of the song originally on the Hybrid Theory EP .
On August 12 , 2014 , the band released a Live CD of the Download Festival 2014 performance where they played their debut album in its entirely , " Hybrid Theory : Live at Download Festival 2014 " .
= = Critical reception = =
Hybrid Theory received generally positive reviews from critics . Stephanie Dickison of PopMatters commented that the band was a " far more complex and talented group than the hard rock boy bands of late " , and claimed that " they will continue to fascinate and challenge music 's standard sounds . " Q magazine gave Hybrid Theory four out of five stars . Robert Christgau of The Village Voice wrote that “ the men don 't know what the angry boys understand ” , and gave the album a " two @-@ star honorable mention rating " , citing " Papercut " and " Points of Authority " as highlights of the album . Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone gave the album two and a half stars and commented that Hybrid Theory had " as much potency as albums by Limp Bizkit or Korn " and called it an album that " reflects the frustration of life " .
AllMusic writer William Ruhlmann said that " Linkin Park sounds like a Johnny @-@ come @-@ lately to an already overdone musical style " and called " One Step Closer " " a typical effort " , referring to the lyrics of the song 's chorus . Johan Wippsson from Melodic praised Don Gilmore 's production and described the albums as " destructive and angry but always with a well controlled melodic feeling all over . " NME 's Noel Gardner commented that " otherwise damn fine soaring emo @-@ crunchers like ' With You ' and ' A Place for My Head ' are pointlessly jazzed up with tokenistic scratching , " giving the album a score of six out of ten . Tyler Fisher at Sputnikmusic gave the album a 3 @.@ 0 / 5 , saying " Hybrid Theory stands as a defining mainstream album at the turn of the century , and for good reason . " , but calling the guitar riffs " often bland and unoriginal " . Mike Ross of Jam ! declares the albums as a combination of the best of hip hop and heavy metal . He goes on to state " ... they can actually rap . They can actually crank out a ferocious , head @-@ banging groove . They can write introspective lyrics with intelligence . It adds up to one of the finest new rap metal bands I 've ever heard . "
Later in 2002 , Linkin Park released an album entitled Reanimation . It included the songs of Hybrid Theory remixed and reinterpreted by nu metal and underground hip hop artists . Contributors to the album included Black Thought , Pharoahe Monch , Jonathan Davis , Stephen Carpenter , and Aaron Lewis . The sound of later Linkin Park albums would involve experimentation with classical instruments such as strings and piano , both of which , along with the same elements of electronica from Hybrid Theory , are prominently included in the band 's second studio album Meteora . As Shinoda explains the difference in the sound between Hybrid Theory and Meteora : " That electronic element has always been there in the band – it 's just that sometimes we bring it closer to the front . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Accolades = = =
Hybrid Theory found itself in several " must have " lists that were compiled by various music publications , networks , and other media . In 2012 , Rock Sound named Hybrid Theory the best modern classic album of the last 15 years . In 2013 , Loudwire ranked it at # 10 in its Best Hard Rock Debut Albums list . Some of the more prominent of these lists to feature Hybrid Theory are shown below :
* denotes an unordered list
= = Track listing = =
= = Hybrid Theory – Live Around the World = =
Hybrid Theory – Live Around the World is a live album which features live versions of eight songs from the debut studio album , Hybrid Theory . They were recorded in various cities around the world from 2007 to 2010 .
= = = Track listing = = =
All songs written and composed by Linkin Park , except " A Place for My Head " Linkin Park , Wakefield , Farrell .
= = Personnel = =
Linkin Park
Chester Bennington – lead vocals
Mike Shinoda – lead vocals , rapping , rhythm guitar , keyboard , piano
Brad Delson – lead guitar , bass guitar , backing vocals
Joe Hahn – turntables , samples , programming , backing vocals
Rob Bourdon – drums , percussion , backing vocals
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
An en @-@ dash ( – ) denotes countries in which the singles were not released or did not chart .
= Eurasian wryneck =
The Eurasian wryneck ( Jynx torquilla ) is a species of wryneck in the woodpecker family . This species mainly breeds in temperate regions of Europe and Asia . Most populations are migratory , wintering in tropical Africa and in southern Asia from Iran to the Indian Subcontinent , but some are resident in northwestern Africa . It is a bird of open countryside , woodland and orchards .
Eurasian wrynecks measure about 16 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) in length and have bills shorter and less dagger @-@ like than those of other woodpeckers . Their upperparts are barred and mottled in shades of pale brown with rufous and blackish bars and wider black streaks . Their underparts are cream speckled and spotted with brown . Their chief prey is ants and other insects , which they find in decaying wood or on the ground . The eggs are white as is the case with many birds that nest in holes and a clutch of seven to ten eggs is laid during May and June .
These birds get their English name from their ability to turn their heads through almost 180 degrees . When disturbed at the nest , they use this snake @-@ like head twisting and hissing as a threat display . This odd behaviour led to their use in witchcraft , hence to put a " jinx " on someone .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The Eurasian wryneck was first described by Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae in 1758 . The type species came from Sweden .
The genus name Jynx is from the Ancient Greek name for this bird , iunx . The specific torquilla is Medieval Latin derived from torquere , to twist , referring to the strange snake @-@ head movements . The bird was used a a charm to bring back an errant lover , the bird being tied to a piece of string and whirled around . The English " wryneck " refers to the same twisting movement and was first recorded in 1585 .
The Picidae family has four subfamilies , the Picinae ( woodpeckers ) , the Picumninae ( piculets ) , the Jynginae ( wrynecks ) and the monotypic Nesoctitinae ( Antillean piculet ) . Based on morphology and behaviour , the Picumninae was considered to be the sister clade of the Picinae . This has now been confirmed by phylogenetic analysis and the Jynginae are placed basal to the Picinae , Nesoctitinae and Picumninae .
Jynginae includes one genus ( Jynx ) and two species , the Eurasian wryneck and the red @-@ throated wryneck ( Jynx ruficollis ) , resident in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . There are six subspecies of Jynx torquilla :
Jynx torquilla chinensis Hesse , 1911
Jynx torquilla himalayana Vaurie , 1959
Jynx torquilla mauretanica Rothschild , 1909
Jynx torquilla sarudnyi Loudon , 1912
Jynx torquilla torquilla Linnaeus , 1758
Jynx torquilla tschusii O. Kleinschmidt , 1907
= = Description = =
The Eurasian wryneck grows to about 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) in length . The subspecies Jynx torquilla tschusii weighs 26 to 50 g ( 0 @.@ 92 to 1 @.@ 76 oz ) . It is a slim , elongated @-@ looking bird with a body shape more like a thrush than a woodpecker . The upperparts are barred and mottled in shades of pale brown with rufous and blackish bars and wider black streaks . The rump and upper tail coverts are grey with speckles and irregular bands of brown . The rounded tail is grey , speckled with brown , with faint bands of greyish @-@ brown and a few more clearly defined bands of brownish @-@ black . The cheeks and throat are buff barred with brown . The underparts are creamy white with brown markings shaped like arrow @-@ heads which are reduced to spots on the lower breast and belly . The flanks are buff with similar markings and the under @-@ tail coverts are buff with narrow brown bars . The primaries and secondaries are brown with rufous @-@ buff markings . The beak is brown , long and slender with a broad base and sharp tip . The irises are hazel and the slender legs and feet are pale brown . The first and second toes are shorter than the others . The first and fourth toes point backwards and the second and third point forwards , a good arrangement for clinging to vertical surfaces .
The call of the Eurasian wryneck is a series of repeated harsh , shrill notes quee @-@ quee @-@ quee @-@ quee lasting for several seconds and is reminiscent of the voice of the lesser spotted woodpecker . Its alarm call is a short series of staccato " tuck " s and when disturbed on the nest it hisses .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Eurasian wryneck has a palearctic distribution . The breeding range of the nominate subspecies includes all of Europe from Britain to the Urals . In the north it reaches the Arctic Circle and the range includes Spain in the southwest . In the south and east it intergrades with J. t. tschusii ( smaller and more reddish brown ) which is found in Corsica , Italy , Dalmatia and parts of the Balkans . J. t. mauretanica ( also smaller than the nominate form , light , with whitish throat and breast ) is resident in Algeria and Morocco and possibly also the Balearic Islands , Sardinia and parts of Sicily . J. t. sarudnyi ( considerably paler than the nominate with fainter markings ) occurs in the Urals and then in a wide strip of Asia through southern Siberia , Central Asia , including the north @-@ western Himalayas to the Pacific coast . J. t. chinensis breeds in eastern Siberia and northeastern and central China while J. t. himalayana breeds in Pakistan and the northwestern Himalayas . Eurasian wrynecks also inhabit the island of Sakhalin , Japan and the coastal areas of southern China .
The Eurasian wryneck is the only European woodpecker to undertake long distance migrations . The wintering area of European species is located south of the Sahara , in a wide strip across Africa extending from Senegal , Gambia and Sierra Leone in the west to Ethiopia in the east . Its southern limit extends to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon . The populations from West Asia use the same wintering areas . The Central and East Asian breeding birds winter in the Indian subcontinent or southern East Asia including southern Japan .
During the summer the bird is found in open countryside , parkland , gardens , orchards , heaths and hedgerows , especially where there are some old trees . It may also inhabit deciduous woodland and in Scandinavia it also occurs in coniferous forests .
= = Behaviour = =
The Eurasian wryneck sometimes forms small groups during migration and in its winter quarters but in the summer is usually found in pairs . It characteristically holds its head high with its beak pointing slightly upwards . A mutual display that occurs at any time of year involves two birds perched facing each other with their heads far back and beaks wide open , bobbing their heads up and down . Sometimes the head is allowed to slump sideways and hang limply . On other occasions , when excited , the head is shaken and twisted about violently . When disturbed on the nest or held in the hand , the neck contorts and twists in all directions . The bird sometimes feigns death and hangs limply with eyes closed .
On returning to the breeding area after migration , the birds set up territories . On farmland in Switzerland it has been found that old pear orchards with large numbers of ant nests are preferentially selected over other habitata . Areas used for vegetable cultivation provided useful habitat when they include areas of bare ground on which the birds can forage . Territories are not chosen at random as arriving birds favoured certain areas over others with the same territories being colonised first year after year . The presence of other Eurasian wrynecks in the vicinity is also a positive influence . Orchards in general , and older ones in particular , provide favoured territories , probably because the dense foliage is more likely to support high numbers of aphids and the ground beneath has scant vegetation cover , both of which factors increase the availability of ants , the birds ' main prey . Despite some territories being consistently chosen over others , reproductive success in these territories was no higher than in others . Limiting factors for such crevice @-@ nesting species as Eurasian wrynecks are both the availability of nesting sites and the number of ants and their ease of discovery . Modern farming practices such as the removal of hedges , forest patches and isolated trees and the increasing use of fertilisers and pesticides are disadvantageous to such birds .
The diet of the Eurasian wryneck consists chiefly of ants but beetles and their larvae , moths , spiders and woodlice are also eaten . Although much time is spent in the upper branches of trees , the bird sometimes perches in low bushes and mostly forages on the ground , moving around with short hops with its tail held in a raised position . It can cling to tree trunks , often moving obliquely , and sometimes pressing its tail against the surface as a prop . It does not make holes in bark with its beak but picks up prey with a rapid extension and retraction of its tongue and it sometimes catches insects while on the wing . Its flight is rather slow and undulating .
= = Breeding = =
The nesting site is variable and may be in a pre @-@ existing hole in a tree trunk , a crevice in a wall , a hole in a bank , a sand martin 's burrow or a nesting box . In its search for a safe , protected site out of reach of predators , it sometimes evicts a previous occupant , its eggs and nestlings . It uses no nesting material and a clutch of normally seven to ten eggs is laid ( occasionally five , six , eleven or twelve ) . The eggs average 20 @.@ 8 by 15 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 82 in × 0 @.@ 61 in ) and weigh about 0 @.@ 2 g ( 0 @.@ 007 oz ) . They are a dull white colour and partially opaque . Both sexes are involved in incubation which takes twelve days , but the female plays the greater part . Both parents feed the chicks for about twenty days before they fledge . There is usually a single brood .
= = Status = =
The IUCN lists the Eurasian wryneck as being of " Least Concern " in its Red List of Threatened Species . This is because it has a world population estimated at up to fifteen million individual birds and a very wide geographical range . The population may be decreasing to a certain extent but not at such a rate as to make the bird reach the threshold for a more threatened category . In continental Europe , the largest populations are in Spain , Italy , Germany , Poland , Romania , Hungary , Belarus and Ukraine , and only in Romania is the population trend believed to be upward . In Russia , where there are believed to be 300 @,@ 000 to 800 @,@ 000 individuals , the population trend is unknown . In the United Kingdom the numbers of bird are on the decrease and it is protected under Schedule 1 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention . It is protected as a migratory species under the Birds Directive in the European Union .
= Dream a Little Dream of Me ( Supernatural ) =
" Dream a Little Dream of Me " is the tenth episode of the paranormal drama television series Supernatural 's third season . It was first broadcast on The CW on February 7 , 2008 . The narrative follows series protagonists Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Jensen Ackles ) as they enter the dreamscape to rescue the comatose Bobby Singer ( Jim Beaver ) .
Developed by Sera Gamble and Cathryn Humphris , the episode was written by the latter and directed by Steve Boyum . It delves into the backstory of Bobby , and also features a major turning point in Dean 's search for self @-@ worth . Many dream sequences had to be altered due to production issues , though series creator Eric Kripke believes it ultimately benefited the episode .
Critics gave generally positive reviews that praised Ackles for his dual performance and the production staff for their work on the dream sequences . However , they heavily criticized the actions of character Bela Talbot ( Lauren Cohan ) .
= = Plot = =
Within a dreamscape , hunter Bobby Singer ( Beaver ) searches around an old house and is suddenly attacked by a woman ( Elizabeth Marleau ) . A maid tries to no avail to wake him up in his motel room . Meanwhile , Dean Winchester ( Ackles ) finds his brother Sam ( Padalecki ) drinking at a bar in the middle of the afternoon . When Dean questions him about it , a drunken Sam admits that he is upset about not being able to save Dean from his demonic pact , which left him only a year to live . What bothers Sam even more is that Dean , who has little self @-@ worth , is not even concerned about his fate . Their conversation is interrupted by a call from the hospital .
After the brothers visit Bobby , who is in an unexplainable coma , they search his motel room and find a newspaper article about a doctor who suffered a sleep @-@ related death . Dean visits the doctor 's office , and learns that he was conducting secret dream experiments for his study on sleep disorders . Dean tracks down Jeremy , a young man who was part of the sleep study because he could not dream . While they talk , Jeremy offers Dean a beer , and he drinks it . Jeremy ( G. Michael Gray ) reveals that the experiment allowed him to dream by drinking a yellow tea , but the dreams scared him so much that he dropped out of the study . Sam , who has been busy conducting research , later tells Dean that a plant known as " African Dream Root " allegedly allows a person to enter and manipulate others ' dreams ; they believe someone killed the doctor in this manner and is now targeting Bobby . As a terrified Bobby hides in a closet within his dream , Dean suggests to Sam that they themselves use the dream root to save him .
The brothers contact Bela Talbot ( Cohan ) — a thief and frequent thorn in the Winchesters ' sides — to supply them with dream root . She enters the motel room wearing a trench coat , and removes it to reveal the lingerie underneath . She begins to passionately kiss Sam , and they lie on the bed . However , Sam is soon awakened from his dream by Dean , and Bela arrives moments later . She gives them the dream root without argument — she claims Bobby saved her life in Flagstaff — but is then kicked out . The brothers use the root to make tea , and soon find themselves in a clean version of Bobby 's house . Sam goes outside into brightly lit scenery of flowers and singing birds , but becomes locked out of the house . Inside , Dean locates Bobby , who does not believe that he is dreaming . A woman with stab wounds approaches them , and Bobby reveals that she is his wife . Years prior , she became possessed , and Bobby was forced to stab her because he did not know how to exorcise the demon from her ; her death led him to become a hunter . As Sam is attacked outside by an angry Jeremy , Bobby takes control of the dream , and they awaken .
Bobby explains that the man who attacked Sam is Jeremy Frost ; he was unable to dream because his father brutally hit him in the head with a baseball bat . The target 's DNA is a required ingredient for the dream @-@ root tea , and Jeremy acquired Bobby 's by offering him a beer . Dean realizes that he made the same mistake . Vulnerable to Jeremy , they both stay awake for two days while attempting to track him down . Unable to endure it any longer , Dean goes to sleep to face Jeremy , and Sam uses the dream root to enter his dream . The brothers encounter a dream version of Lisa Braeden ( Cindy Sampson ) — Dean 's former love interest — outstide on a blanket with a picnic basket . She invites Dean to join her , and tells him that she loves him before disappearing . Though Dean denies ever having that dream before , it is an obvious lie . Sam then sees Jeremy nearby and chases after him , and Dean finds himself in a long hallway . He enters his motel room , and comes face @-@ to @-@ face with a dream version of him ; he is his own worst nightmare . The Dream Dean comments on the real Dean 's feelings of worthlessness and self @-@ loathing ; he also deems Dean to be as " mindless and obedient as an attack dog " , noting that his possessions , personality , and motives all stem from his father . When the Dream Dean calls him a " good soldier and nothing else " , the real Dean reacts violently and exclaims that he did not deserve the burdens that his father put onto him and that he does not deserve to go to Hell . The real Dean shoots his doppelganger with a shotgun , but he returns to life as a demon . The Dream Dean taunts him that he cannot escape his fate , and reminds him that exposure to Hell will transform him into a demon .
Elsewhere , Sam finds and confronts Jeremy . The latter manipulates the dreamscape to his favor , but Sam retaliates by summoning the form of Jeremy 's father . A terrified Jeremy is distracted , and Sam kills him with a baseball bat . The brothers then awaken from their dreams . When they find that Bela lied about Bobby saving her life , they realize that she stole the Colt — a mystical gun capable of killing anything — from them . As the brothers prepare to leave to hunt her down , Dean admits that he does not want to die . Sam promises him that they will figure out a way to save him .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Deemed by series creator Eric Kripke to be his homage to the film Dreamscape , the episode was the culmination of many previous pitches . Series writer Sera Gamble had been suggesting a dream @-@ based episode since the show 's first season , but it was not until the third season that the writers found the concept feasible . Although Cathryn Humphris was selected to pen " Dream a Little Dream of Me " due to her position on the writers ' rotation , she was teamed with Gamble to develop the story . On this pairing , Humphris commented , " I think that we complement each other well . Sera 's great at the really scary moments , and I think I 'm pretty good at some of the connective tissue and putting stuff together in the larger landscape . "
= = = Writing = = =
" Dream a Little Dream of Me " delves into the backstory of hunter Bobby Singer . The writers always knew his history would be " grounded in family " . Reflecting this , the original teaser depicted the supernatural deaths of Bobby 's children ; while eating dinner with his family , his children 's throats are supernaturally slit , and they would ask him , " Why , daddy , why did you let this happen ? " However , the writers could not determine where to go from there . Following Humphris ' earlier pitch of Bobby being an expert exorcist because of a previous failed exorcism , the focus changed to Bobby 's torment about killing his demonically possessed wife .
Other planned dream sequences were drastically altered due to production issues . One such scene , made to look like 80 's @-@ style film stock , had Dean being confronted by serial killer Jason Voorhees of the Friday the 13th film series . After production cleared the rights to use the character , Kripke made everyone view Friday the 13th : The Final Chapter to help them create the " perfect facsimile " of Jason . However , the film studio that had granted permission realized a few days before filming that it did not actually own the rights . In dire need of a new concept , the writers recalled Sam 's dream sequence with Bela ; since Sam is revealed to be a " horn dog " underneath , the writers wanted Dean to be the opposite . Dean secretly desires a normal family , so they had Cindy Sampson reprise her role as Lisa Braeden — Dean 's love interest from " The Kids are Alright " . On retrospect , Kripke preferred this scene over Jason because it is more illuminating of Dean 's character .
Dean 's other dream is a major turning point in the character 's storyline , after which he starts gaining self @-@ respect and realizes that he truly wants to live . He begins the season with little self @-@ worth , and the writers realized that this outlook stems from his father , John Winchester . Initially , they planned to have Jeffrey Dean Morgan reprise his role as John , who would browbeat Dean within the dreamscape . When they learned that Morgan was busy filming Watchmen , the writers instead found inspiration in the junkyard scene from the film Superman III , in which good and evil versions of Superman confront one another . Kripke noted , however , that the conversation between the two Deans still focuses on John .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal filming took place in Vancouver , British Columbia , with Bobby 's hospital scenes being filmed at Eagle Ridge Hospital in Port Moody , British Columbia . To distinguish the dream sequences , director of photography Serge Ladouceur used full blue lighting in the backgrounds — he normally uses half . The seamless transitions between dream scenes were accomplished by compressing the background with a long lens .
= = Reception = =
On its initial broadcast , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 68 million viewers . It received generally positive reviews from critics . Tina Charles of TV Guide was happy to see Jim Beaver become more involved in the storyline , and praised Ackles for his " amazing job " during the confrontation between the two Deans . She described the latter scenes as " seamless , yet painful to watch " . Although Charles was happy to see the Colt get stolen — she thought the weapon was " too easy " and had lost its mystique — she noted her annoyance that the brothers continue to " look ridiculous " because Bela is able to steal things from them . Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune gave the episode an A- . Despite the " sluggish pacing " of the first half , the " paternal baggage " and monster of the week " built up enough emotional resonance to triumph " . She noted the actors ' performances , such as the " great Winchester moment " in which Sam discusses Dean 's demonic pact ; for Peterson , " ... the dark , wounded look in Jared Padalecki 's eyes totally sells it " . The " brutally good character writing " and " truly impressive work " done for Dean 's dream @-@ encounter with himself was also lauded , with Peterson writing , " Ackles gives two of his best performances in the history of the show . At the same time . " Like Charles , however , she pointed out how " uncharacteristically stupid about Bela " the Winchesters have been . She commented , " Bela appears to have eaten the writers ' brains for breakfast . " The episode received a score of 7 out of 7 from TV Squad 's Brett Love . Bobby 's backstory at first was a " bit of a shock " for him , but he eventually came to realize that it " fits very well " . Love also thought that the dream root aspect " worked out great " , and deemed the dreamscapes " creepy and unsettling " .
= W. S. Gilbert =
Sir William Schwenck Gilbert ( 18 November 1836 – 29 May 1911 ) was an English dramatist , librettist , poet and illustrator best known for the fourteen comic operas ( known as the Savoy operas ) produced in collaboration with the composer Sir Arthur Sullivan . The most famous of these include H.M.S. Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance and one of the most frequently performed works in the history of musical theatre , The Mikado . These , as well as several of the other Savoy operas , continue to be frequently performed in the English @-@ speaking world and beyond by opera companies , repertory companies , schools and community theatre groups . Lines from these works have become part of the English language , such as " short , sharp shock " , " What , never ? Well , hardly ever ! " , and " Let the punishment fit the crime " .
Gilbert also wrote the Bab Ballads , an extensive collection of light verse accompanied by his own comical drawings . His creative output included over 75 plays and libretti , numerous stories , poems , lyrics and various other comic and serious pieces . His plays and realistic style of stage direction inspired other dramatists , including Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw . According to The Cambridge History of English and American Literature , Gilbert 's " lyrical facility and his mastery of metre raised the poetical quality of comic opera to a position that it had never reached before and has not reached since " .
= = Early life and career = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
Gilbert was born at 17 Southampton Street , Strand , London . His father , also named William , was briefly a naval surgeon , who later became a writer of novels and short stories , some of which were illustrated by his son . Gilbert 's mother was the former Anne Mary Bye Morris ( 1812 – 1888 ) , the daughter of Thomas Morris , an apothecary . Gilbert 's parents were distant and stern , and he did not have a particularly close relationship with either of them . They quarrelled increasingly , and following the break @-@ up of their marriage in 1876 , his relationships with them , especially his mother , became even more strained . Gilbert had three younger sisters , two of whom were born outside England because of the family 's travels during these years : Jane Morris ( b . 1838 in Milan , Italy – 1906 ) , who married Alfred Weigall , a miniatures painter ; Anne Maude ( 1845 – 1932 ) and Mary Florence ( b . 1843 in Boulogne , France – 1911 ) , neither of whom married . Gilbert was nicknamed " Bab " as a baby , and then " Schwenck " , after his father 's godparents .
As a child , Gilbert travelled to Italy in 1838 and then France for two years with his parents , who finally returned to settle in London in 1847 . He was educated at Boulogne , France from the age of seven ( he later kept his diary in French so that the servants could not read it ) , then at Western Grammar School , Brompton , London , and then at the Great Ealing School , where he became head boy and wrote plays for school performances and painted scenery . He then attended King 's College London , graduating in 1856 . He intended to take the examinations for a commission in the Royal Artillery , but with the end of the Crimean War , fewer recruits were needed , and the only commission available to Gilbert would have been in a line regiment . Instead he joined the Civil Service : he was an assistant clerk in the Privy Council Office for four years and hated it . In 1859 he joined the Militia , a part @-@ time volunteer force formed for the defence of Britain , with which he served until 1878 ( in between writing and other work ) , reaching the rank of Captain . In 1863 he received a bequest of £ 300 that he used to leave the civil service and take up a brief career as a barrister ( he had already entered the Inner Temple as a student ) , but his legal practice was not successful , averaging just five clients a year .
To supplement his income from 1861 on , Gilbert wrote a variety of stories , comic rants , grotesque illustrations , theatre reviews ( many in the form of a parody of the play being reviewed ) , and , under the pseudonym " Bab " ( his childhood nickname ) , illustrated poems for several comic magazines , primarily Fun , started in 1861 by H. J. Byron . He published stories , articles , and reviews in papers such as the Cornhill Magazine , London Society , Tinsley 's Magazine and Temple Bar . In addition , Gilbert was the London correspondent for L 'Invalide Russe and a drama critic for the Illustrated London Times . In the 1860s he also contributed to Tom Hood 's Christmas annuals , to Saturday Night , the Comic News and the Savage Club Papers . The Observer newspaper in 1870 sent him to France as a war correspondent reporting on the Franco @-@ Prussian War .
The poems , illustrated humorously by Gilbert , proved immensely popular and were reprinted in book form as the Bab Ballads . He would later return to many of these as source material for his plays and comic operas . Gilbert and his colleagues from Fun , including Tom Robertson , Tom Hood , Clement Scott and F. C. Burnand ( who defected to Punch in 1862 ) frequented the Arundel Club , the Savage Club , and especially Evans 's café , where they had a table in competition with the Punch ' Round table ' .
After a relationship in the mid @-@ 1860s with novelist Annie Thomas , Gilbert married Lucy Agnes Turner , whom he called " Kitty " , in 1867 ; she was 11 years his junior . He wrote many affectionate letters to her over the years . Gilbert and Lucy were socially active both in London and later at Grim 's Dyke , often holding dinner parties and being invited to others ' homes for dinner , in contrast to the picture painted by fictionalisations such as the film Topsy @-@ Turvy . The Gilberts had no children , but they had many pets , including some exotic ones .
= = = First plays = = =
Gilbert wrote and directed a number of plays at school , but his first professionally produced play was Uncle Baby , which ran for seven weeks in the autumn of 1863 .
In 1865 – 66 , Gilbert collaborated with Charles Millward on several pantomimes , including one called Hush @-@ a @-@ Bye , Baby , On the Tree Top , or , Harlequin Fortunia , King Frog of Frog Island , and the Magic Toys of Lowther Arcade ( 1866 ) . Gilbert 's first solo success , however , came a few days after Hush @-@ a @-@ Bye Baby premiered . His friend and mentor , Tom Robertson , was asked to write a pantomime but did not think he could do it in the two weeks available , and so he recommended Gilbert instead . Written and rushed to the stage in 10 days , Dulcamara , or the Little Duck and the Great Quack , a burlesque of Gaetano Donizetti 's L 'elisir d 'amore , proved extremely popular . This led to a long series of further Gilbert opera burlesques , pantomimes and farces , full of awful puns ( traditional in burlesques of the period ) , though showing , at times , signs of the satire that would later be a defining part of Gilbert 's work . For instance :
This was followed by Gilbert 's penultimate operatic parody , Robert the Devil , a burlesque of Giacomo Meyerbeer 's opera , Robert le diable , which was part of a triple bill that opened the Gaiety Theatre , London in 1868 . The piece was Gilbert 's biggest success to date , running for over 100 nights and being frequently revived and played continuously in the provinces for three years thereafter .
In Victorian theatre , " [ to degrade ] high and beautiful themes ... had been the regular proceeding in burlesque , and the age almost expected it " However , Gilbert 's burlesques were considered unusually tasteful compared to the others on the London stage . Isaac Goldberg wrote that these pieces " reveal how a playwright may begin by making burlesque of opera and end by making opera of burlesque . " Gilbert would depart even further from the burlesque style from about 1869 with plays containing original plots and fewer puns . His first full @-@ length prose comedy was An Old Score ( 1869 ) .
= = = German Reed entertainments and other plays of the early 1870s = = =
Theatre , at the time Gilbert began writing , had fallen into disrepute . Badly translated and adapted French operettas and poorly written , prurient Victorian burlesques dominated the London stage . As Jessie Bond vividly described it , " stilted tragedy and vulgar farce were all the would @-@ be playgoer had to choose from , and the theatre had become a place of evil repute to the righteous British householder . "
From 1869 to 1875 , Gilbert joined with one of the leading figures in theatrical reform , Thomas German Reed ( and his wife Priscilla ) , whose Gallery of Illustration sought to regain some of theatre 's lost respectability by offering family entertainments in London . So successful were they that by 1885 Gilbert stated that original British plays were appropriate for an innocent 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl in the audience . Three months before the opening of Gilbert 's last burlesque ( The Pretty Druidess ) , the first of his pieces for the Gallery of Illustration , No Cards , was produced . Gilbert created six musical entertainments for the German Reeds , some with music composed by Thomas German Reed himself .
The environment of the German Reeds ' intimate theatre allowed Gilbert quickly to develop a personal style and freedom to control all aspects of production , including set , costumes , direction and stage management . These works were a success , with Gilbert 's first big hit at the Gallery of Illustration , Ages Ago , opening in 1869 . Ages Ago was also the beginning of a collaboration with the composer Frederic Clay that would last seven years and produce four works . It was at a rehearsal for Ages Ago that Clay formally introduced Gilbert to his friend , Arthur Sullivan . The Bab Ballads and Gilbert 's many early musical works gave him much practice as a lyricist even before his collaboration with Sullivan .
Many of the plot elements of the German Reed Entertainments ( as well as some from his earlier plays and Bab Ballads ) would be reused by Gilbert later in the Gilbert and Sullivan operas . These elements include paintings coming to life ( Ages Ago , used again in Ruddigore ) , a deaf nursemaid binding a respectable man 's son to a " pirate " instead of to a " pilot " by mistake ( Our Island Home , 1870 , reused in The Pirates of Penzance ) , and the forceful mature lady who is " an acquired taste " ( Eyes and No Eyes , 1875 , reused in The Mikado ) . During this time , Gilbert perfected the ' topsy @-@ turvy ' style that he had been developing in his Bab Ballads , where the humour was derived by setting up a ridiculous premise and working out its logical consequences , however absurd . Mike Leigh describes the " Gilbertian " style as follows : " With great fluidity and freedom , [ Gilbert ] continually challenges our natural expectations . First , within the framework of the story , he makes bizarre things happen , and turns the world on its head . Thus the Learned Judge marries the Plaintiff , the soldiers metamorphose into aesthetes , and so on , and nearly every opera is resolved by a deft moving of the goalposts ... His genius is to fuse opposites with an imperceptible sleight of hand , to blend the surreal with the real , and the caricature with the natural . In other words , to tell a perfectly outrageous story in a completely deadpan way . "
At the same time , Gilbert created several ' fairy comedies ' at the Haymarket Theatre . This series of plays was founded upon the idea of self @-@ revelation by characters under the influence of some magic or some supernatural interference . The first was The Palace of Truth ( 1870 ) , based partly on a story by Madame de Genlis . In 1871 , with Pygmalion and Galatea , one of seven plays that he produced that year , Gilbert scored his greatest hit to date . Together , these plays and their successors such as The Wicked World ( 1873 ) , Sweethearts ( 1874 ) , and Broken Hearts ( 1875 ) , did for Gilbert on the dramatic stage what the German Reed entertainments had done for him on the musical stage : they established that his capabilities extended far beyond burlesque , won him artistic credentials , and demonstrated that he was a writer of wide range , as comfortable with human drama as with farcical humour . The success of these plays , especially Pygmalion and Galatea , gave Gilbert a prestige that would be crucial to his later collaboration with as respected a musician as Sullivan .
During this period , Gilbert also pushed the boundaries of how far satire could go in the theatre . He collaborated with Gilbert Arthur à Beckett on The Happy Land ( 1873 ) , a political satire ( in part , a parody of his own The Wicked World ) , which was briefly banned because of its unflattering caricatures of Gladstone and his ministers . Similarly , The Realm of Joy ( 1873 ) was set in the lobby of a theatre performing a scandalous play ( implied to be the Happy Land ) , with many jokes at the expense of the Lord Chamberlain ( the " Lord High Disinfectant " , as he 's referred to in the play ) . In Charity ( 1874 ) , however , Gilbert uses the freedom of the stage in a different way : to provide a tightly @-@ written critique of the contrasting ways in which Victorian society treated men and women who had sex outside of marriage , which anticipated the ' problem plays ' of Shaw and Ibsen .
= = = As a director = = =
Once he became established , Gilbert was the stage director for his plays and operas and had strong opinions on how they should best be performed . He was strongly influenced by the innovations in ' stagecraft ' , now called stage direction , by the playwrights James Planché and especially Tom Robertson . Gilbert attended rehearsals directed by Robertson to learn this art firsthand from the older director , and he began to apply it in some of his earliest plays . He sought realism in acting , settings , costumes and movement , if not in content of his plays ( although he did write a romantic comedy in the " naturalist " style , as a tribute to Robertson , Sweethearts ) , shunned self @-@ conscious interaction with the audience , and insisted on a style of portrayal in which the characters were never aware of their own absurdity , but were coherent internal wholes .
In Gilbert 's 1874 burlesque , Rosencrantz and Guildenstern , the character Hamlet , in his speech to the players , sums up Gilbert 's theory of comic acting : " I hold that there is no such antick fellow as your bombastical hero who doth so earnestly spout forth his folly as to make his hearers believe that he is unconscious of all incongruity " . Robertson " introduced Gilbert both to the revolutionary notion of disciplined rehearsals and to mise @-@ en @-@ scène or unity of style in the whole presentation – direction , design , music , acting . " Like Robertson , Gilbert demanded discipline in his actors . He required that his actors know their words perfectly , enunciate them clearly and obey his stage directions , which was something quite new to many actors of the day . A major innovation was the replacement of the star actor with the disciplined ensemble , " raising the director to a new position of dominance " in the theatre . " That Gilbert was a good director is not in doubt . He was able to extract from his actors natural , clear performances , which served the Gilbertian requirements of outrageousness delivered straight . "
Gilbert prepared meticulously for each new work , making models of the stage , actors and set pieces , and designing every action and bit of business in advance . Gilbert would not work with actors who challenged his authority . Even during long runs and revivals , Gilbert closely supervised the performances of his plays , making sure that the actors did not make unauthorised additions , deletions or paraphrases . Gilbert was famous for demonstrating the action himself , even as he grew older . Gilbert himself went on stage in a number of productions throughout his lifetime , including several performances as the Associate in Trial by Jury , as substitute for an ailing actor in his play Broken Hearts , and in charity matinees of his one @-@ act plays , such as King Claudius in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern .
= = Collaboration with Sullivan = =
= = = First collaborations amidst other works = = =
In 1871 , John Hollingshead commissioned Gilbert to work with Sullivan on a holiday piece for Christmas , Thespis , or The Gods Grown Old , at the Gaiety Theatre . Thespis outran five of its nine competitors for the 1871 holiday season , and its run was extended beyond the length of a normal run at the Gaiety , However , nothing more came of it at that point , and Gilbert and Sullivan went their separate ways . Gilbert worked again with Clay on Happy Arcadia ( 1872 ) , and with Alfred Cellier on Topsyturveydom ( 1874 ) , as well as writing several farces , operetta libretti , extravaganzas , fairy comedies , adaptations from novels , translations from the French , and the dramas described above . Also in 1874 , he published his last contribution for Fun magazine ( " Rosencrantz and Guildenstern " ) , after a gap of three years , then resigned due to disapproval of the new owner 's other publishing interests .
It would be nearly four years after Thespis was produced before the two men worked together again . In 1868 , Gilbert had published a short comic sketch libretto in Fun magazine entitled " Trial by Jury : An Operetta " . In 1873 , Gilbert arranged with the theatrical manager and composer , Carl Rosa , to expand the piece into a one @-@ act libretto . Rosa 's wife was to sing the role of the plaintiff . However , Rosa 's wife died in childbirth in 1874 . Later in 1874 Gilbert offered the libretto to Richard D 'Oyly Carte , but Carte could not use the piece at that time . By early 1875 , Carte was managing the Royalty Theatre , and he needed a short opera to be played as an afterpiece to Offenbach 's La Périchole . He contacted Gilbert , asked about the piece , and suggested Sullivan to set the work . Sullivan was enthusiastic , and Trial by Jury was composed in a matter of weeks . The little piece was a runaway hit , outlasting the run of La Périchole and being revived at another theatre .
Gilbert continued his quest to gain respect in and respectability for his profession . One thing that may have been holding dramatists back from respectability was that plays were not published in a form suitable for a " gentleman 's library " , as , at the time , they were generally cheaply and unattractively published for the use of actors rather than the home reader . To help rectify this , at least for himself , Gilbert arranged in late 1875 for publishers Chatto and Windus to print a volume of his plays in a format designed to appeal to the general reader , with an attractive binding and clear type , containing Gilbert 's most respectable plays , including his most serious works , but mischievously capped off with Trial by Jury .
After the success of Trial by Jury , there were discussions towards reviving Thespis , but Gilbert and Sullivan were not able to agree on terms with Carte and his backers . The score to Thespis was never published , and most of the music is now lost . It took some time for Carte to gather funds for another Gilbert and Sullivan opera , and in this gap Gilbert produced several works including Tom Cobb ( 1875 ) , Eyes and No Eyes ( 1875 , his last German Reed Entertainment ) , and Princess Toto ( 1876 ) , his last and most ambitious work with Clay , a three @-@ act comic opera with full orchestra , as opposed to the shorter works for much reduced accompaniment that came before . Gilbert also wrote two serious works during this time , Broken Hearts ( 1875 ) and Dan 'l Druce , Blacksmith ( 1876 ) .
Also during this period , Gilbert wrote his most successful comic play , Engaged ( 1877 ) , which inspired Oscar Wilde 's The Importance of Being Earnest . Engaged is a parody of romantic drama written in the " topsy @-@ turvy " satiric style of many of Gilbert 's Bab Ballads and the Savoy Operas , with one character pledging his love , in the most poetic and romantic language possible , to every single woman in the play ; the " innocent " Scottish rustics being revealed to be making a living through throwing trains off the lines and then charging the passengers for services , and , in general , romance being gladly thrown over in favour of monetary gain . Engaged continues to be performed today by both professional and amateur companies .
= = = Peak collaborative years = = =
Carte finally assembled a syndicate in 1877 and formed the Comedy Opera Company to launch a series of original English comic operas , beginning with a third collaboration between Gilbert and Sullivan , The Sorcerer , in November 1877 . This work was a modest success , and H.M.S. Pinafore followed in May 1878 . Despite a slow start , mainly due to a scorching summer , Pinafore became a red @-@ hot favourite by autumn . After a dispute with Carte over the division of profits , the other Comedy Opera Company partners hired thugs to storm the theatre one night to steal the sets and costumes , intending to mount a rival production . The attempt was repelled by stagehands and others at the theatre loyal to Carte , and Carte continued as sole impresario of the newly renamed D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company . Indeed , Pinafore was so successful that over a hundred unauthorised productions sprang up in America alone . Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte tried for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas , without success .
For the next decade , the Savoy Operas ( as the series came to be known , after the theatre Carte later built to house them ) were Gilbert 's principal activity . The successful comic operas with Sullivan continued to appear every year or two , several of them being among the longest @-@ running productions up to that point in the history of the musical stage . After Pinafore came The Pirates of Penzance ( 1879 ) , Patience ( 1881 ) , Iolanthe ( 1882 ) , Princess Ida ( 1884 , based on Gilbert 's earlier farce , The Princess ) , The Mikado ( 1885 ) , Ruddigore ( 1887 ) , The Yeomen of the Guard ( 1888 ) , and The Gondoliers ( 1889 ) . Gilbert not only directed and oversaw all aspects of production for these works , but he actually designed the costumes himself for Patience , Iolanthe , Princess Ida , and Ruddigore . He insisted on precise and authentic sets and costumes , which provided a foundation to ground and focus his absurd characters and situations .
During this time , Gilbert and Sullivan also collaborated on one other major work , the oratorio The Martyr of Antioch , premiered at the Leeds music festival in October 1880 . Gilbert arranged the original epic poem by Henry Hart Milman into a libretto suitable for the music , and it contains some original work . During this period , also , Gilbert occasionally wrote plays to be performed elsewhere – both serious dramas ( for example The Ne 'er @-@ Do @-@ Weel , 1878 ; and Gretchen , 1879 ) and humorous works ( for example Foggerty 's Fairy , 1881 ) . However , he no longer needed to turn out multiple plays each year , as he had done before . Indeed , during the more than nine years that separated The Pirates of Penzance and The Gondoliers , he wrote just three plays outside of the partnership with Sullivan . Only one of these works , Comedy and Tragedy , proved successful .
In 1878 , Gilbert realised a lifelong dream to play Harlequin , which he did at the Gaiety Theatre as part of an amateur charity production of The Forty Thieves , partly written by himself . Gilbert trained for Harlequin 's stylised dancing with his friend John D 'Auban , who had arranged the dances for some of his plays and would choreograph most of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas . Producer John Hollingshead later remembered , " the gem of the performance was the grimly earnest and determined Harlequin of W. S. Gilbert . It gave me an idea of what Oliver Cromwell would have made of the character . " Another member of the cast recalled that Gilbert was tirelessly enthusiastic about the piece and often invited the cast to his home for dinner extra rehearsals . " A pleasanter , more genial , or agreeable companion than he was it would have been difficult , if not impossible , to find . " In 1882 , Gilbert had a telephone installed in his home and at the prompt desk at the Savoy Theatre , so that he could monitor performances and rehearsals from his home study . Gilbert had referred to the new technology in Pinafore in 1878 , only two years after the device was invented and before London even had telephone service .
= = = Carpet quarrel and end of the collaboration = = =
Gilbert sometimes had a strained working relationship with Sullivan , partly because each man saw himself allowing his work to be subjugated to the other 's , and partly due to their opposing personalities . Gilbert was often confrontational and notoriously thin @-@ skinned , though prone to acts of extraordinary kindness , while Sullivan eschewed conflict . In addition , Gilbert imbued his libretti with " topsy @-@ turvy " situations in which the social order was turned upside down . After a time , these subjects were often at odds with Sullivan 's desire for realism and emotional content . In addition , Gilbert 's political satire often poked fun at those in the circles of privilege , while Sullivan was eager to socialise among the wealthy and titled people who would become his friends and patrons .
Throughout their collaboration , Gilbert and Sullivan disagreed several times over the choice of a subject . After both Princess Ida and Ruddigore , which were less successful than the seven other operas from H.M.S. Pinafore to The Gondoliers , Sullivan asked to leave the partnership , saying that he found Gilbert 's plots repetitive and that the operas were not artistically satisfying to him . While the two artists worked out their differences , Carte kept the Savoy open with revivals of their earlier works . On each occasion , after a few months ' pause , Gilbert responded with a libretto that met Sullivan 's objections , and the partnership continued successfully .
In April 1890 , during the run of The Gondoliers , however , Gilbert challenged Carte over the expenses of the production . Among other items to which Gilbert objected , Carte had charged the cost of a new carpet for the Savoy Theatre lobby to the partnership . Gilbert believed that this was a maintenance expense that should be charged to Carte alone . Gilbert confronted Carte , who refused to reconsider the accounts . Gilbert stormed out and wrote to Sullivan that " I left him with the remark that it was a mistake to kick down the ladder by which he had risen " . Helen Carte wrote that Gilbert had addressed Carte " in a way that I should not have thought you would have used to an offending menial . " As scholar Andrew Crowther has explained :
After all , the carpet was only one of a number of disputed items , and the real issue lay not in the mere money value of these things , but in whether Carte could be trusted with the financial affairs of Gilbert and Sullivan . Gilbert contended that Carte had at best made a series of serious blunders in the accounts , and at worst deliberately attempted to swindle the others . It is not easy to settle the rights and wrongs of the issue at this distance , but it does seem fairly clear that there was something very wrong with the accounts at this time . Gilbert wrote to Sullivan on 28 May 1891 , a year after the end of the " Quarrel " , that Carte had admitted " an unintentional overcharge of nearly £ 1 @,@ 000 in the electric lighting accounts alone . "
Gilbert brought suit , and after The Gondoliers closed in 1891 , he withdrew the performance rights to his libretti , vowing to write no more operas for the Savoy . Gilbert next wrote The Mountebanks with Alfred Cellier and the flop Haste to the Wedding with George Grossmith , and Sullivan wrote Haddon Hall with Sydney Grundy . Gilbert eventually won the lawsuit and felt vindicated , but his actions and statements had been hurtful to his partners . Nevertheless , the partnership had been so profitable that , after the financial failure of the Royal English Opera House , Carte and his wife sought to reunite the author and composer .
In 1891 , after many failed attempts at reconciliation by the pair , Tom Chappell , the music publisher responsible for printing the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , stepped in to mediate between two of his most profitable artists , and within two weeks had succeeded . Two more operas resulted : Utopia , Limited ( 1893 ) and The Grand Duke ( 1896 ) . Gilbert also offered a third libretto to Sullivan ( His Excellency , 1894 ) , but Gilbert 's insistence on casting Nancy McIntosh , his protegée from Utopia , led to Sullivan 's refusal . Utopia , concerning an attempt to " anglicise " a south Pacific island kingdom , was only a modest success , and The Grand Duke , in which a theatrical troupe , by means of a " statutory duel " and a conspiracy , takes political control of a grand duchy , was an outright failure . After that , the partnership ended for good . Sullivan continued to compose comic opera with other librettists but died four years later . In 1904 , Gilbert would write , " ... Savoy opera was snuffed out by the deplorable death of my distinguished collaborator , Sir Arthur Sullivan . When that event occurred , I saw no one with whom I felt that I could work with satisfaction and success , and so I discontinued to write libretti . "
= = Later years = =
Gilbert built the Garrick Theatre in 1889 . The Gilberts moved to Grim 's Dyke in Harrow in 1890 , which he purchased from Robert Heriot , to whom the artist Frederick Goodall had sold the property in 1880 . In 1891 , Gilbert was appointed Justice of the Peace for Middlesex . After casting Nancy McIntosh in Utopia , Limited , he and Lady Gilbert developed an affection for her , and she eventually gained the status of an unofficially adopted daughter , moving to Grim 's Dyke to live with them . She continued living there , even after Gilbert 's death , until Lady Gilbert 's death in 1936 . A statue of Charles II , carved by Danish sculptor Caius Gabriel Cibber in 1681 , was moved in 1875 from Soho Square to an island in the lake at Grim 's Dyke , where it remained when Gilbert purchased the property . On Lady Gilbert 's direction , it was restored to Soho Square in 1938 .
Although Gilbert announced a retirement from the theatre after the poor initial run of his last work with Sullivan , The Grand Duke ( 1896 ) and the poor reception of his 1897 play The Fortune Hunter , he produced at least three more plays over the last dozen years of his life , including an unsuccessful opera , Fallen Fairies ( 1909 ) , with Edward German . Gilbert also continued to supervise the various revivals of his works by the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , including its London Repertory seasons in 1906 – 09 . His last play , The Hooligan , produced just four months before his death , is a study of a young condemned thug in a prison cell . Gilbert shows sympathy for his protagonist , the son of a thief who , brought up among thieves , kills his girlfriend . As in some earlier work , the playwright displays " his conviction that nurture rather than nature often accounted for criminal behaviour " . The grim and powerful piece became one of Gilbert 's most successful serious dramas , and experts conclude that , in those last months of Gilbert 's life , he was developing a new style , a " mixture of irony , of social theme , and of grubby realism , " to replace the old " Gilbertianism " of which he had grown weary . In these last years , Gilbert also wrote children 's book versions of H.M.S. Pinafore and The Mikado giving , in some cases , backstory that is not found in the librettos .
Gilbert was knighted on 15 July 1907 in recognition of his contributions to drama . Sullivan had been knighted for his contributions to music almost a quarter of a century earlier , in 1883 . Gilbert was , however , the first British writer ever to receive a knighthood for his plays alone — earlier dramatist knights , such as Sir William Davenant and Sir John Vanbrugh , were knighted for political and other services .
On 29 May 1911 , Gilbert was about to give a swimming lesson to two young women , Winifred Isabel Emery ( 1890 – 1972 ) , and 17 @-@ year @-@ old Ruby Preece in the lake of his home , Grim 's Dyke , when Preece lost her footing and called for help . Gilbert dived in to save her but suffered a heart attack in the middle of the lake and died . He was cremated at Golders Green and his ashes buried at the Church of St. John the Evangelist , Stanmore . The inscription on Gilbert 's memorial on the south wall of the Thames Embankment in London reads : " His Foe was Folly , and his Weapon Wit " . There is also a memorial plaque at All Saints ' Church , Harrow Weald .
= = Personality = =
Gilbert was known for being prickly . Aware of this general impression , he claimed that " If you give me your attention " , the misanthrope 's song from Princess Ida , was a satiric self @-@ reference , saying : " I thought it my duty to live up to my reputation . " However , many people have defended him , often citing his generosity . Actress May Fortescue recalled , " His kindness was extraordinary . On wet nights and when rehearsals were late and the last buses were gone , he would pay the cab @-@ fares of the girls whether they were pretty or not , instead of letting them trudge home on foot ... He was just as large @-@ hearted when he was poor as when he was rich and successful . For money as money he cared less than nothing . Gilbert was no plaster saint , but he was an ideal friend . " Journalist Frank M. Boyd wrote :
I fancy that seldom was a man more generally given credit for a personality quite other than his own , than was the case with Sir W. S. Gilbert ... Till one actually came to know the man , one shared the opinion held by so many , that he was a gruff , disagreeable person ; but nothing could be less true of the really great humorist . He had rather a severe appearance ... and like many other clever people , he had precious little use for fools of either sex , but he was at heart as kindly and lovable a man as you could wish to meet .
Jessie Bond wrote that Gilbert " was quick @-@ tempered , often unreasonable , and he could not bear to be thwarted , but how anyone could call him unamiable I cannot understand . " George Grossmith wrote to The Daily Telegraph that , although Gilbert had been described as an autocrat at rehearsals , " That was really only his manner when he was playing the part of stage director at rehearsals . As a matter of fact , he was a generous , kind true gentleman , and I use the word in the purest and original sense . "
Aside from his occasional creative disagreements with , and eventual rift from , Sullivan , Gilbert 's temper led to the loss of friendships with a number of people . For instance , he quarrelled with his old associate C. H. Workman , over the firing of Nancy McIntosh from the production of Fallen Fairies , and with actress Henrietta Hodson . He also saw his friendship with theatre critic Clement Scott turn bitter . However , Gilbert could be extraordinarily kind . During Scott 's final illness in 1904 , for instance , Gilbert donated to a fund for him , visited nearly every day , and assisted Scott 's wife , despite having not been on friendly terms with him for the previous sixteen years . Similarly , Gilbert had written several plays at the behest of comic actor Ned Sothern . However , Sothern died before he could perform the last of these , Foggerty 's Fairy . Gilbert purchased the play back from his grateful widow . According to one London society lady :
[ Gilbert ] ' s wit was innate , and his rapier @-@ like retorts slipped out with instantaneous ease . His mind was naturally fastidious and clean ; he never asserted himself , never tried to make an effect . He was great @-@ hearted and most understanding , with an underlying poetry of fancy that made him the most delicious companion . They spoke of his quick temper , but that was entirely free from malice or guile . He was soft @-@ hearted as a babe , but there was nothing of the hypocrite about him . What he thought he said on the instant , and though by people of sensitive vanity this might on occasion be resented , to a sensitiveness of a finer kind it was an added link , binding one to a faithful , valued friend .
As the writings about Gilbert by husband and wife Seymour Hicks and Ellaline Terriss ( frequent guests at his home ) vividly illustrate , Gilbert 's relationships with women were generally more successful than his relationships with men . According to George Grossmith , Gilbert " was to those who knew him a courteous and amiable gentleman – a gentleman without veneer . " Grossmith and many others wrote of how Gilbert loved to amuse children :
During my dangerous illness , Mr. Gilbert never failed a day to come up and enquire after me ... and kept me in roars of laughter the whole time ... But to see Gilbert at his best , is to see him at one of his juvenile parties . Though he has no children of his own , he loves them , and there is nothing he would not do to please them . I was never so astonished as when on one occasion he put off some of his own friends to come with Mrs. Gilbert to a juvenile party at my own house .
Gilbert 's niece Mary Carter confirmed , " ... he loved children very much and lost no opportunity of making them happy ... [ He was ] the kindest and most human of uncles . " Grossmith quoted Gilbert as saying , " Deer @-@ stalking would be a very fine sport if only the deer had guns . "
= = Legacy = =
In 1957 , a review in The Times explained " the continued vitality of the Savoy operas " as follows :
[ T ] hey were never really contemporary in their idiom ... Gilbert and Sullivan 's [ world ] , from the first moment was obviously not the audience 's world , [ it was ] an artificial world , with a neatly controlled and shapely precision which has not gone out of fashion – because it was never in fashion in the sense of using the fleeting conventions and ways of thought of contemporary human society ... The neat articulation of incredibilities in Gilbert 's plots is perfectly matched by his language ... His dialogue , with its primly mocking formality , satisfies both the ear and the intelligence . His verses show an unequalled and very delicate gift for creating a comic effect by the contrast between poetic form and prosaic thought and wording ... How deliciously [ his lines ] prick the bubble of sentiment . Gilbert had many imitators , but no equals , at this sort of thing ... [ Of ] equal importance ... Gilbert 's lyrics almost invariably take on extra point and sparkle when set to Sullivan 's music ... The two men together remain endlessly and incomparably delightful ... Light , and even trifling , though [ the operas ] may seem upon grave consideration , they yet have the shapeliness and elegance that can make a trifle into a work of art .
Gilbert 's legacy , aside from building the Garrick Theatre and writing the Savoy Operas and other works that are still being performed or in print over a hundred and twenty @-@ five years after their creation , is felt perhaps most strongly today through his influence on the American and British musical theatre . The innovations in content and form of the works that he and Sullivan developed , and in Gilbert 's theories of acting and stage direction , directly influenced the development of the modern musical throughout the 20th century . Gilbert 's lyrics employ punning , as well as complex internal and two and three @-@ syllable rhyme schemes , and served as a model for such 20th century Broadway lyricists as P.G. Wodehouse , Cole Porter , Ira Gershwin , and Lorenz Hart .
Gilbert 's influence on the English language has also been marked , with well @-@ known phrases such as " A policeman 's lot is not a happy one " , " short , sharp shock " , " What never ? Well , hardly ever ! " , and " let the punishment fit the crime " arising from his pen . In addition , biographies continue to be written about Gilbert 's life and career , and his work is not only performed , but frequently parodied , pastiched , quoted and imitated in comedy routines , film , television and other popular media .
Ian Bradley , in connection with the 100th anniversary of Gilbert 's death in 2011 wrote :
There has been much discussion about Gilbert 's proper place in British literary and dramatic history . Was he essentially a writer of burlesque , a satirist , or , as some have argued , the forerunner of the theatre of the absurd ? ... Perhaps he stands most clearly in that distinctively English satirical tradition which stretches back to Jonathan Swift . ... Its leading exponents lampoon and send up the major institutions and public figures of the day , wielding the weapon of grave and temperate irony with devastating effect , while themselves remaining firmly within the Establishment and displaying a deep underlying affection for the objects of their often merciless attacks . It is a combination that remains a continuing enigma .
= Ned Manning =
Ned Manning is an Australian playwright , actor and teacher , whose film credits include the lead role in Dead End Drive @-@ In ( 1986 ) and an appearance in the teen film Looking for Alibrandi ( 2000 ) . Manning 's television credits include Bodyline , The Shiralee , " Prisoner " " , and Brides of Christ . His first major play was Us or Them , and its production by Griffin Theatre Company marked the company 's transition to being staffed by professional actors . Other plays have included Milo , Kenny 's Coming Home and Close to the Bone ; in 2007 Manning played the lead in his own play Last One Standing at the Old Fitzroy theatre in Sydney . The plays have received mixed reviews , with Last One Standing in particular being criticised for its formulaic and predictable narrative . Manning has written for the Bell Shakespeare Company 's Actors at Work program , a travelling community and schools theatrical education initiative .
At one time the husband of Indigenous Australian artist Bronwyn Bancroft , Manning has since remarried , to theatre director Marion Potts . His children include New South Wales Young Australian of the Year for 2010 , Jack Manning Bancroft .
= = Life = =
Ned Manning was born in 1950 and grew up on a property in Coonabarabran , New South Wales . He married Bronwyn Bancroft , an Indigenous Australian artist , with whom he had two children , including New South Wales Young Australian of the Year for 2010 , Jack Manning Bancroft . Manning remarried to theatre director Marion Potts , with whom he had two children . In 2010 , they relocated from Sydney to Melbourne when she was appointed director of the Malthouse Theatre .
= = Playwright and author = =
Manning 's first play , Us or Them , was initially produced at the Childers Street Hall in Canberra on 1 November 1977 . It was then re @-@ written and performed in 1984 at the Stables Theatre for the Griffin Theatre Company , where it marked a turning point in Griffin 's history as the play 's success led to the cast and creatives being paid full professional rates . The play then transferred to the Philip St Theatre and on to the Q Theatre in Penrith .
Milo premiered at the Sydney Theatre Company 's Wharf 2 Theatre in October 1984 before productions at the Q Theatre , Theatre Up North in Townsville , Theatre South in Wollongong and regional performances . Milo has been recorded for Radio National , had numerous other productions , and also been published by Currency Press . However a 2001 production in Sydney was panned by the reviewer , who described it as " formulaic and obvious , complete with clunky and unconvincing pat ending " , and thought the play should be " put out to pasture " . The same year , The Australian 's reviewer was more positive , considering the performance to be " passionate and funny . Seven years after it first appeared , it remains one of the best plays written about the bush @-@ city divide " .
Manning 's next play , Kenny 's Coming Home ( 1991 ) , was performed at the Q Theatre , Penrith and was subsequently recorded for radio on ABC Radio National . The play is centred on a Rugby league footballer , Kenny , who gets caught up in a preselection battle between two of his family members . Kenny 's Coming Home included songs by Shane McNamara .
Close to the Bone was written in collaboration with the Indigenous students at the EORA Centre for Performing and Visual Arts in Redfern , and first produced there in September 1991 . Luck of the Draw was produced by the Darwin Theatre Company in May 1999 and was the first play written by a non @-@ Indigenous writer to be produced by Kooemba Jdarra theatre company in Brisbane . Last One Standing was performed at Sydney theatre the Old Fitzroy in 2007 . Manning played lead character Joe in the Old Fitzroy production ; The Sydney Morning Herald 's reviewer Bryce Hallett described his performance as " terrific " , providing the play " with an emotional anchor " , but considered the play itself to be predictable , lacking in depth and with " nothing revelatory on offer " ; The Sun @-@ Herald reviewer was of a similar view .
Manning has created many works for young audiences . He has prepared scripts for ten works for The Bell Shakespeare Company 's Actors at Work program , a travelling community and schools theatrical education initiative . Other plays for young people have included Alice Dreaming , which is one of the Australian Script Centre 's anthology | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Story Mode ; Team Ninja tweaked the encounters and artificial intelligence ( AI ) of Ryu 's foes to increase the difficulty of the game . The pack introduced additional foes such as humanoid cats , giants wearing dinosaur skulls , and cyborgs , and Team Ninja made a key change to the camera system by which the on @-@ screen action is displayed ; players could now control the camera and change its viewing angle . Another feature of the pack was to enhance the combat engine ; the new " Intercept " skill let players counter any enemy attack with the proper timing .
Hurricane Pack 2 kept the enhancements of the first , but took place in an alternative world comprising only two regions , where players have to fight through several encounters to rescue Rachel from two new bosses ( Nicchae and Ishtaros ) . This expansion introduced fiends who wield giant swords and cast fireballs .
Team Ninja later compiled both expansion packs , and added new features , to create Ninja Gaiden Black . This game , which Itagaki viewed as the final version of Ninja Gaiden , went on sale on September 20 , 2005 . A few years later , Team Ninja upgraded the graphics of the game and ported it to the PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) . This version was released as Ninja Gaiden Sigma on June 14 , 2007 . Black became an Xbox Original game on February 11 , 2008 .
= = = Online competition = = =
The Master Ninja Tournaments were a series of three online contests held by Microsoft and Tecmo in 2004 . They took place over Xbox Live , and were open to participants in Europe , Japan , and North America . Winner selection was based on the scores achieved through playing Ninja Gaiden or its Hurricane Packs . Players had 14 to 24 days to complete the required games and submit their scores to an online scoreboard .
The first two tournaments formed regional qualification stages for a live Ninja Gaiden Master Tournament World Championship , held on September 25 at the TGS 2004 . Competition for places was intense , with both tournaments breaking records for online participation in Xbox Live events . Six of the highest scoring players from Europe and North America won bokkens bearing Itagaki 's signature , and five regional winners were selected to proceed to the final . Here , the finalists simultaneously played a custom game drawn from Hurricane Pack 2 while commentators called out the action . They had 15 minutes to complete the game and post the highest score ; the winner emerged only in the last 20 seconds , when Yasunori Otsuka cleared the game and outscored his rivals . At the award ceremony , the finalists received their prize plaques from Itagaki .
The tournaments were not without controversy . Players complained about Microsoft 's tardiness in posting the official rules for the first playoff , and it was believed that the top posted score was not achievable by fair means . Officials , however , stated that the score was possible , and allowed the results to stand . In the second playoff , Microsoft initially named the runner up as the North American finalist , after disqualifying the winner for no publicly stated reason , but eventually had to send the second runner up to Tokyo when the first was unable to produce a passport in time .
Master Ninja Tournament 3 started on September 27 and lasted 26 days . Rankings were decided by scores obtained while playing Hurricane Pack 2 , and the prizes were Tecmo apparel and Team Ninja games . This marked the end of official tournaments for Ninja Gaiden , although Microsoft have retained the ranking boards for players to upload their scores .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Tecmo has built up a line of merchandise around the Ninja Gaiden name . Its online shop carries apparel and accessories such as caps , wristbands , T @-@ shirts , key holders , and mugs . Most of the merchandise is based on that associated with the various Ninja Gaiden game launches or given as prizes in the Master Ninja Tournaments . Tecmo also published the original soundtrack of the game under their record label Wake Up on March 20 , 2004 . Kotobukiya , a figurine maker , includes 1 / 6 scale plastic figurines of Ninja Gaiden characters in their range of products . As of 2007 , they have produced figures of Ryu , Ayane , Kureha and Rachel .
= = Other versions = =
Tecmo published two versions of Ninja Gaiden : Ninja Gaiden Black for Xbox and Ninja Gaiden Sigma for PS3 . Essentially the same game as the original , they tell the same story of Ryu and the Dark Dragon Blade , but include additional content and updated game mechanics . Itagaki deemed Black to be the final version of Ninja Gaiden , but with the release of the PS3 , Tecmo ported the game to this platform as Sigma .
In addition to the narrative Story Mode , Black and Sigma introduced a gameplay variation called Mission Mode . Focused on action rather than character development , this provides combat @-@ based missions set mainly in small areas , where the player 's goal is to " destroy all enemies " . In both Story and Mission modes , game scoring is based on the player 's speed in clearing encounters , the number of kills achieved , the number of unused ninpo spells remaining at the end , and the amount of cash collected . Players can compare their scores on online ranking boards .
= = = Ninja Gaiden Black = = =
Tecmo announced at E3 2005 that Team Ninja was working on Ninja Gaiden Black , and later exhibited a working version of the game at the TGS 2005 . Black is a reworked compilation of the original Ninja Gaiden and the two Hurricane Packs . The game features new foes , such as exploding bats and doppelgänger fiends who can imitate Ryu . It contains more costumes than the original , and swaps Ninja Gaiden 's unlockable NES games for an arcade version .
One key feature of this version is its two new difficulty settings — the easy Ninja Dog and the very hard Master Ninja . Itagaki added Ninja Dog after receiving complaints of Ninja Gaiden being too hard in its default incarnation , although he believed that , with persistence , any player was capable of completing the game . Hence he ensured that those players selecting Ninja Dog would be subjected to gentle mockery by the game — players on this difficulty setting receive colored ribbons as accessories , and Ayane treats Ryu as an inferior . In compensation , Itagaki made the other difficulty settings harder than in Ninja Gaiden . Another feature of Black is its Mission Mode , which comprises 50 combat missions , one of which is adapted from the custom game designed for the Ninja Gaiden Master Tournament World Championship final . The last five missions are based on those in Hurricane Pack 2 and form a linked series known as " Eternal Legend " . While most of the improvements made in the Hurricane Packs carried forward through this game , including the camera system tweaks and new boss battles , the Intercept maneuver , introduced in Hurricane Pack 1 , was not included in Black , adding to its increased challenge .
= = = Ninja Gaiden Sigma = = =
In 2006 , Tecmo and Sony announced the development of Ninja Gaiden Sigma for the PS3 . Eidos obtained the European publishing rights for this game . Itagaki had no direct role in Sigma and judged it a flawed game , although he acknowledged that Sigma gave PlayStation owners a taste of Ninja Gaiden . A version for PlayStation Vita , titled Ninja Gaiden Sigma Plus , was released in North America and Europe on February 22 , 2012 .
= = Reception = =
Ninja Gaiden was released to much critical acclaim . Greg Kasavin of GameSpot called it " one of the best most challenging action adventure games ever made " , and IGN 's Erik Brudvig said that it " sets a new standard for third @-@ person action games in terms of length , depth , speed , and gore . " Electronic Gaming Monthly ( EGM ) called it " an unmissable instant classic " , and declared that " no Xbox should go without [ Ninja ] Gaiden . " Critics also regarded it to be one of the most difficult games released prior to 2007 .
Its enhanced version , Ninja Gaiden Black , also impressed reviewers . GameSpot noted that it had the best visual and audio presentation on the Xbox , and praised its new Mission Mode for " [ distilling ] the game down to its purest essentials . " IGN called its release " a rare and welcome day " , which brought their " excitement levels back to the first time [ they ] played the game . "
From a technical point of view , critics regarded Ninja Gaiden and Black as the best of the available Xbox software at the time ; the console hardware had been pushed to its limits without showing significant drops in performance . GameSpot 's Kasavin was impressed with their " first @-@ rate presentation " and said that no other games at that time came close in visuals and audio . According to IGN , the games could " make [ them ] momentarily forget about the next generation of consoles " . Both Ninja Gaiden and Black were top @-@ sellers , which led to them being compatible with the Xbox 360 for all regions on the new platform 's release . Ninja Gaiden attracted criticism for the way on @-@ screen action is framed by the game 's camera . The default camera system centers the action on Ryu and his surroundings , but reviewers were frustrated by occasions when the camera locked on to part of the scenery , thus losing track of Ryu . Tecmo attempted to address this with the introduction of manual camera controls in the Hurricane Packs , and most critics judged that either the camera frame was usually acceptable , or that Ninja Gaiden was a good enough game that its flaws could be overlooked .
Consumers purchased 1 @.@ 5 million copies of Ninja Gaiden and Black to August 2007 , with the bulk of these sales going to North America and Europe . According to the NPD Group , in its first month Ninja Gaiden sold 362 @,@ 441 copies in the United States . These sales figures reflect Tecmo 's decision to target the non @-@ Japanese market . Japanese gamers were not particularly excited — according to Itagaki , only 60 @,@ 000 copies of Ninja Gaiden were sold in Japan in the four months following its release . The critical and commercial successes of Ninja Gaiden have led CNET and GameSpot Asia to induct the game into their halls of fame .
The Ninja Gaiden games gained a reputation throughout the gaming community for their difficulty and attention to detail . Although they appealed to gamers who , like Pro @-@ G 's Struan Robertson , wanted a " bloody hard , but also bloody good " challenge , it was feared that casual gamers would find the learning curve daunting . IGN warned that gamers with lesser skills might not " get as much out of this game as others due to [ its ] incredible difficulty " , and Edge commented that " Tecmo ’ s refusal to extend any kind of handhold to less dedicated players is simply a failure of design , not a badge of hardcore honour " and " it ’ s impossible to believe they couldn ’ t have found a way to increase the accessibility of the game without undermining the gloriously intractable nature of the challenges it contains . " EGM found the challenge to be " rewarding " as it " motivates you to actually get better at the game . " Clive Thompson focused on Ninja Gaiden in his Slate article examining the motivation for playing difficult games . He contends that extreme levels of challenge can be initially very frustrating and may cause a game to be abandoned in disgust . However , where a game also rewards a player 's perseverance by teaching the skills required to overcome its challenges , that player will have the motivation to finish the game . Ninja Gaiden , in his opinion , strikes the correct balance between challenge and reward ; completion brings " a sort of exhausted exhilaration , like finally reaching the end of War and Peace . " In 2012 , CraveOnline included it on their list of five " badass ninja games " , calling it " the pinnacle of action gaming at the time , holding onto that crown for an entire year until God of War released in 2005 " and " a true video game classic , and maybe the best ninja game of all time . " That same year , G4tv ranked it as the 83rd top video game of all time , also calling it " the best ninja game ever made and one of the all around hardest . "
= Milutin Bojić =
Milutin Bojić ( Serbian Cyrillic : Милутин Бојић ; 18 May [ O.S. 7 May ] 1892 – 8 November [ O.S. 25 October ] 1917 ) was a Serbian poet , theatre critic , playwright , and soldier .
A native of Belgrade , he began writing poetry at an early age and published a number of literary reviews under a pseudonym while he was still a teenager . He rose to prominence during the Balkan Wars , writing about his experiences in territories newly retaken from the Ottoman Empire . The outbreak of World War I interrupted Bojić 's studies at the University of Belgrade and forced him to postpone marrying his girlfriend , Radmila Todorović . The couple were separated in the chaos of war , and Bojić left Belgrade with his family and relocated to Niš , where he worked as a military censor and wrote articles for a local newspaper to pay his family 's bills . In October 1915 , the Serbian Army was overwhelmed by a combined Austro @-@ Hungarian , Bulgarian and German invasion and forced to retreat to neutral Greece via Albania . Bojić and his younger brother joined the exodus , marching for several weeks through Kosovo , Montenegro and northern Albania , where they were finally reunited with Bojić 's fiancée . Bojić was not allowed to accompany his brother and fiancée on a ship destined for Italy because he was of fighting age , and had to continue marching to Greece without them .
In early 1916 , Bojić reached the Greek island of Corfu , where he was recruited to work for Serbian military intelligence . That summer , he was transferred to Thessaloniki , where he continued working for the military . In August , he was granted leave and sailed to France , where he reunited with his fiancée and his brother . Bojić returned to Greece several weeks later , and was diagnosed with tuberculosis in September the following year . Owing to the political connections of his patrons , he managed to find care at an exclusive military hospital in Thessaloniki , but by late October his condition worsened . He died in early November at the age of 25 . He was initially buried at the Allied military cemetery at Zeitenlik , but in 1922 , his siblings had his remains relocated to Belgrade , where they were reburied beside those of his parents .
Bojić 's popularity grew exponentially following his death . Many of his poems received widespread critical acclaim for their portrayal of the Serbian Army 's retreat during the winter of 1915 – 16 and its stay on Corfu , where thousands of soldiers succumbed to disease and exhaustion and were buried at sea . Bojić 's work remained popular in Yugoslavia for much of the 20th century , cementing his reputation as one of the greatest Serbian poets of the Romantic period .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Family = = =
Milutin Bojić was born in Belgrade on 18 May [ O.S. 7 May ] 1892 , the eldest child of Jovan and Sofia Bojić ( née Bogojević ) . His father 's family was originally from Herzegovina . Following the First Serbian Uprising , Bojić 's great @-@ grandfather fled his ancestral homeland and settled in the Austro @-@ Hungarian city of Semlin ( modern Zemun ) to escape Ottoman persecution . Bojić 's father and grandfather were born in Semlin , and were good @-@ standing members of the town 's fledgling Serb community . In 1875 , Bojić 's father was conscripted into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army . Shortly afterwards , he entered into an argument with a high @-@ ranking Hungarian officer , insulted him , then fled to the Serbian capital to escape punishment . He attended trade school in Belgrade and became a successful shoemaker .
Bojić 's matrilineal line traces its origins to the town of Tetovo , in what is now northern Macedonia . His mother 's family had fled the town in 1690 as part of the Great Serb Migration and settled in Bečkerek ( modern Zrenjanin ) . Bojić 's maternal grandfather , Jovan , had lived in the border town of Pančevo since he was a child , married and started a family there . Much like Bojić 's father , he was a successful shoemaker , and in 1890 he offered to marry his only daughter to him . After initial disagreement over the price of the dowry , Bogojević gave the marriage his blessing and Bojić 's parents were soon married .
At the time of Bojić 's birth , his parents were living in a small flat at No. 4 Sremska Street , situated just above his father 's shop in Belgrade 's Stari Grad . Over the next decade , they had four more children – Jelica ( b . 1894 ) , Danica ( b . 1896 ) , Radivoje ( b . 1900 ) and Dragoljub ( b . 1905 ) . All of their children survived to adulthood . When Bojić was a child , he and his family were frequently visited by his mother 's cousin Jovan Sremac , the brother of humourist Stevan Sremac . Jovan is said to have greatly influenced the young Bojić , having introduced him to Serbian folk tales and medieval legends at an early age .
= = = Education and first publications = = =
Bojić began attending the Terazije Elementary School in 1898 , and finished with excellent grades . He likely began writing poetry between the ages of eight and ten , and this caught the attention of some of his teachers . Jovan Dravić , who taught Serbian in Bojić 's school , wrote : " One of my pupils has been writing poetry since his first year of elementary school . His father , a shoemaker on Sremska Street , is very proud of his son 's work . He keeps his poems locked away in a safe as great treasures , convinced that they are of immense value and proof of his son 's brilliant future . "
In 1902 , the Bojićes moved into a small house on Hilandarska Street . That autumn , Bojić enrolled into Belgrade 's Secondary School No. 2 , which taught children from the ages of ten to eighteen . Over the next several years , Bojić distinguished himself as an excellent student . In 1907 , he was recognized as the best student in his school , and was exempt from final examinations . By this time , Bojić 's poems started appearing in his school 's periodical . He also began writing literary reviews for Jovan Skerlić and Milan Grol 's Daily News ( Dnevni list ) , and became the paper 's youngest contributor . All of Bojić 's contributions there were written under a pseudonym because he feared he would not be taken seriously if his true age was uncovered . Bojić also authored articles in the newspapers Artwork ( Delo ) , Wreath ( Venac ) and The Serbian Literary Gazette ( Srpski književni glasnik ) . In 1908 , during the Austro @-@ Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina , Bojić penned his first stage play , titled " The Blind Despot " ( Slepi despot ) . It was meant to be the first play of a trilogy titled " The Despot 's Crown " ( Despotova kruna ) . Bojić shared the play with his friend Radoslav Vesnić , who then showed it to Rista Odović , the director of the National Theatre in Belgrade .
By the end of his secondary school studies , Bojić was elected chairman of his school 's literary club . Upon turning eighteen , in May 1910 , he was deemed unfit to serve in the Serbian Army and excused from mandatory service . After graduation , in the autumn of 1910 , he enrolled in the University of Belgrade 's Faculty of Philosophy , where he studied the works of Immanuel Kant , as well as German , Italian and South Slavic literature with varying rates of success . Shortly after entering the university , Bojić began contributing theatrical reviews to Pijemont , an ultra @-@ nationalist daily strongly opposed to the Prime Minister of Serbia , Nikola Pašić , and his People 's Radical Party ( Serbian : Narodna radikalna stranka ; NRS ) . Pijemont was also the quasi @-@ official paper of the secret organization Unification or Death ( better known as the Black Hand ) , which played an important role in Serbian political life between 1903 and 1914 .
Milutin K. Dragutinović was one of Bojić 's greatest influences during his teenage years . Dragutinović was one of Bojić 's former secondary school teachers , as well as a literary critic and member of the National Theatre 's artistic committee . He advised Bojić to continue writing poetry and dramatic verse . In 1911 , Bojić shared the first draft of a stage play titled " Chains " ( Lanci ) with Dragutinović , who encouraged him to submit it to a competition held by the Literary Committee of the National Theatre in Belgrade . Bojić 's play was one of forty @-@ two works that were submitted . A number of prominent writers took part in the competition , including Ivo Vojnović , Branislav Nušić , Aleksa Šantić , and Svetozar Ćorović . " Chains " was rejected as being too " naïve " and " full of youthful exaggerations " , and the prize went to another contestant . In May , Bojić 's father died suddenly of a heart attack , aged 56 .
= = = Rise to prominence and coverage of the Balkan Wars = = =
Despite his busy schedule , during his university years Bojić spent many of his nights in cafés and bars , mingling with other artists in Skadarlija , Belgrade 's Bohemian quarter . He was extremely popular among the writers and artists of his generation .
During this time , many of Belgrade 's merchant elite became art patrons . Bojić 's patrons were Ljuba Jovanović @-@ Patak and his wife Simka , who used their power and influence to publicize his works . During the Balkan Wars , Bojić accompanied the Serbian Army as a war reporter and wrote several travelogues about his experiences in Kosovo and Macedonia . The expulsion of the Turks , who had occupied much of the Balkans for 500 years , seemed to fill Bojić with optimism about the future . Helena Malířová , a Czech volunteer nurse with the 17th Reserve Hospital of the Serbian Army 's 7th Regiment , recalled : " His spirit was in constant opposition to everything ; at the same time he was an enthusiast . He was bursting with desires , and he drank the sap of life through his senses . " Historian Mihailo Đorđević writes :
[ Bojić ] was an impulsive young man . From rare photographs and the testimony of his contemporaries emerges [ ... ] a figure of medium stature , with slightly drooped shoulders , thick brown hair , and a pale oval face . His eyebrows were dark , and one of them was almost always raised , giving his face an expression of intense irony . His eyes burned with constant passion , and his lips were full and sensuous . There was also something young and vulnerable in his smile . He smiled often , and his conversation was reputed to be brilliant .
As the wars raged , Bojić wrote a historical drama titled " The King 's Autumn " ( Kraljeva jesen ) , which received considerable praise from Skerlić . The drama premiered at the National Theatre in October 1913 . Another one of Bojić 's works , " Ms. Olga " ( Gospođa Olga ) premiered soon after . In early 1914 , publishing magnate Svetislav Cvijanović printed Bojić 's first poetry collection , consisting of 48 works .
= = = Outbreak of World War I and retreat to Corfu = = =
At the outbreak of World War I , Bojić was in his final year at the University of Belgrade and had gotten engaged to his girlfriend , Radmila Todorović . The war put a stop to his education , and Bojić decided to postpone the marriage until peace was restored . He remained employed at Pijemont until 1915 , when he left Belgrade with his family , never to return . While Todorović remained in the city , the Bojićes moved to the town of Aranđelovac in the Serbian interior . Shortly after , they moved to Niš as it was further from the frontlines . There , Bojić worked as a military censor . He wrote articles for the Niš Gazette ( Niški glasnik ) to pay his family 's bills . In early February 1915 , Bojić 's mother died of cancer , leaving him to take care of his younger siblings .
Bojić devoted most of his creative energy to the completion of an epic poem titled Cain , which was published just before the combined Austro @-@ Hungarian , Bulgarian and German invasion of Serbia in October 1915 . A deeply patriotic work , Cain compares Bulgaria 's impending attack on Serbia to the Biblical story of Cain jealously murdering his brother Abel . Upon capturing Niš , the Bulgarians burned every copy of the poem , and the only one that survived was the one that Bojić carried with him out of the city . Upon leaving Niš , Bojić and his brother Radivoje joined the Serbian Army in its retreat to the Adriatic coast . Their sisters and infant brother went to live with a cousin in occupied Kraljevo . The Bojić brothers ' journey took them through Kuršumlija , Mitrovica , Pristina , Prizren , Đakovica , Dečani and Peć , from where they continued to Andrijevica and Podgorica . The two intended to join retreating Montenegrin Army columns and head on to Scutari , where they hoped that Allied ships would evacuate them and other Serbian troops to Italy .
The Serbs quickly realized that they had no hope of being evacuated at Scutari due to the Austro @-@ Hungarian naval presence off the northern Albanian coast , and the Serbian and Montenegrin military leaderships elected to retreat further into the Albanian interior rather than surrender . The Serbs and Montenegrins marched south , first to Durrës and then to Vlorë . From there , they intended to meet up with a French expeditionary force that was to evacuate them to the Greek island of Corfu . Thousands of soldiers either died of hunger or succumbed to the cold . Many were ambushed by hostile Albanian tribesmen and killed while traversing the countryside . While marching through the wilderness , Bojić began writing a poetry anthology titled " Songs of Pride and Suffering " ( Pesme bola i ponosa ) , which would comprise some of his best known works . He also started working on a new drama in verse titled " The Marriage of Uroš " ( Uroševa ženidba ) .
Stojan Živadinović , a friend who accompanied Bojić on the difficult journey , recalled :
He was dressed in a strange way . A šajkača was pulled to the front of his head and almost completely covered his forehead . His eyebrows were hardly visible . Under its weight , the ears seemed to have collapsed . He wore a kind of long , black coat , covered in mud and held in place by a string . He used another piece of string for a belt , and from it hung a pot for boiling water , a tea strainer , a canteen , and other useful things . He walked slightly bent forward , followed everywhere by the noise of the things clashing at his waist .
The occupation of Serbia by the Central Powers pained Bojić far more than the everyday struggles of the exodus itself . He is said to have slept very little , telling Živadinović : " You don 't realize what you are missing by sleeping . In circumstances like these , the entire soul must be kept constantly awake . Whole centuries have never painted such a vast fresco . Never has death been so greedy , nor heroes so indifferent to it . " In December 1915 , Bojić reached Shëngjin with the others and reunited with his fiancée . Živadinović recalled : " I shall never forget the day that we saw the sea . Only then did Bojić begin to speak about the future . He was making plans for a vast novel in verse , for comedies , dramas , tragedies , all intended to bring the great events of our history back to life . " Upon reaching the coast , Bojić was told that he could not board the ship to Italy because he was of fighting age . His fiancée was allowed to board and his fifteen @-@ year @-@ old brother was judged to be too young for military service and granted passage as well . Unable to go with them , Bojić and his companions continued down the length of the Albanian coast until they reached Corfu , where the Allies had sent ships to transport the remnants of the Serbian Army to the Greek mainland .
Upon reaching Corfu , thousands of Serb troops began showing symptoms of typhus and had to be quarantined on the island of Vido , where 11 @,@ 000 died over the span of two months . Seven thousand of these had to be buried at sea because there was not enough space for their remains to be interred on land ; corpses were simply piled onto barges and tossed overboard . Bojić was appalled by the suffering . " Our church bells toll dead instead of hours , " he wrote . Witnessing the disposal of bodies inspired Bojić to write the poem " Ode to a Blue Sea Tomb " ( Plava Grobnica ) , which Đorđević describes as " Bojić 's best ... a masterpiece of Serbian patriotic poetry . " Shortly after arriving at Corfu , Bojić was recruited to work for Serbian military intelligence . In mid @-@ 1916 , he was transferred to Thessaloniki .
= = = Last years and death = = =
Upon reaching Thessaloniki , Bojić spent much of his spare time reading the works of French authors and writing poetry . In August 1916 , he received a month 's leave and sailed for France , where his fiancée and brother had gone to escape from the war , shortly after landing in Italy . Bojić spent the month with his fiancée in Nice . Upon returning to Greece , Bojić resumed his army service , and continued writing poetry . " Songs of Pride and Suffering " was first published in Thessaloniki in mid @-@ 1917 . Nearly every copy of the anthology was destroyed in the Great Fire of Thessaloniki , in August 1917 . The only copy that survived was one sent by Bojić to his fiancée in France and this became the basis for the post @-@ war edition .
In September 1917 , Bojić was diagnosed with tuberculosis . Owing to the influence of his old patron , Ljuba Jovanović @-@ Patak , he was admitted to a military hospital in central Thessaloniki which tended exclusively to Serbian Army officers , where Jovanović 's wife often visited him . Bojić continued writing poetry , and as his condition deteriorated , his poems began to take a melancholy tone . Nevertheless , he remained optimistic that he would recover from his illness and see his family again . One month before his death , he sent his fiancée and brother a telegram assuring them that he was " ... only slightly ill " and promised they would be reunited . Bojić died of tuberculosis on 8 November [ O.S. 25 October ] 1917 . Even a few hours before his death , he appeared convinced of his survival . According to a fellow patient , Bojić " ... died choking in half @-@ sleep from a fit of coughing that destroyed the tissues of his lungs . " He was buried at the Zeitenlik military cemetery in Thessaloniki . His family was shocked by the news of his death , particularly his brother and fiancée , who believed him to be on the road to recovery . In 1922 , Bojić 's remains were exhumed and transferred to Belgrade 's New Cemetery , where they were reburied beside those of his parents .
All of Bojić 's siblings survived the war ; his brother Radivoje became a diplomat and worked in the Yugoslav Ministry of Foreign Affairs until the Axis invasion of the country in April 1941 , when he left Yugoslavia with his family and emigrated to the West . Bojić 's youngest brother , Dragoljub , spent the rest of his life in Belgrade and became a high school geography teacher . His sister Jelica married and lived in Belgrade until her death in 1942 . His youngest sister , Danica , died single in 1952 . Bojić 's fiancée Radmila remained loyal to him and never married after his death ; she returned to Serbia after the war and died in Belgrade in 1971 .
= = Influences , themes and legacy = =
While at the University of Belgrade , Bojić studied The Bible in his free time and read the works of Victor Hugo , Friedrich Nietzsche , Charles Baudelaire , Leo Tolstoy , Anton Chekhov and Sigmund Freud , among others . Đorđević notes that Bojić 's early poems reflect the degree to which he was influenced by the " exalted sensuality " of Baudelaire 's works . He contends that Baudelaire 's influence on Bojić 's early work is " rather unfortunate " , as by striving to imitate Baudelaire 's style , Bojić failed to achieve originality and instead merely used Baudelaire as a " crutch in the absence of spontaneous emotion " .
As he matured , Bojić was influenced by the works of Irish writer Oscar Wilde , particularly the play Salome , which was being performed at the National Theatre in Belgrade during Bojić 's university years . The play influenced Bojić to such an extent that he later composed a poem of the same name . According to Đorđević , Bojić was " thrilled by the beauty of Wilde 's descriptions " , and reading his work inspired Bojić to use Biblical rhythm and accentuation . Đorđević notes that the archaic phrase " thou art " only appears in Bojić 's poems after he began reading Wilde . Wilde 's influence can also be observed in Bojić 's lyric plays , especially " The King 's Autumn " . Bojić was also inspired by French playwright Edmond Rostand , whose play L 'Aiglon was Bojić 's " dramatic ideal incarnate " . Rostand 's influence is most clearly felt in " The Marriage of Uroš " , where Bojić paid homage to Rostand by writing the entire drama in verse , a style that was considered obsolete at the time . Serbian history and medieval legends had the greatest influence on Bojić 's plays ; Đorđević notes that " all Bojić 's dramas , published or not , are inspired by Serbian medieval motifs " .
The Balkan Wars inspired Bojić to write his first patriotic poetry , where he attempted to emulate Hugo 's rhetorical verse . By 1914 , much of Bojić 's poetry revolved around patriotic themes , and by 1917 this theme had overtaken all others . In his last months , the only non @-@ patriotic poems that Bojić wrote were about the love he felt towards his fiancée . The historian John K. Cox opines that Bojić 's " personal suffering ... [ embodied ] Serbian history at the crossroads of greatness and disaster . "
Cox considers Bojić the most famous of the many Serbian artists and writers who perished during World War I. Đorđević contends that Bojić achieved more during his short career than a number of other writers and poets who led far longer lives . He writes that Bojić 's influence on Serbian literature would have been even greater had he survived the war , and praises him as " one of the great poets of the 20th century " .
In May 2014 , the inaugural Milutin Bojić Prize was awarded to a student from Čačak by the Milutin Bojić Library , a Belgrade @-@ based learning institution dedicated exclusively to studies on Bojić 's life and work . The Library is funded by the Serbian Ministry of Culture , and operates an extensive online database known as the Milutin Bojić Virtual Library . In August 2014 , researchers discovered the original manuscript of " Ode to a Blue Sea Tomb " in the Library 's archives . The yellowed slip of paper was immediately given to experts at the National Library of Serbia , who went about restoring it so as to prevent further decay .
= = = Endnotes = = =
= The Target ( The Office ) =
" The Target " is the eighth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the 184th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC on November 29 , 2012 . It features guest star Chris Gethard as Trevor .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) goes to Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) for help when she learns that her husband is having an affair . Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) and Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) take advantage of Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) when he needs a favor , and Pete ( Jake Lacy ) distracts Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) as she begins painting her mural .
" The Target " received positive reviews from critics , with many commenting on Nunez and Kinsey 's performances . The episode was viewed by 3 @.@ 88 million viewers and received 1 @.@ 9 / 5 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking fourth in its timeslot . The episode , however , ultimately ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) believes that Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) does not know about his affair with her husband , but in fact she is playing dumb in order to keep Oscar off his guard while she makes arrangements to have him killed . She goes to Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) for help , without telling him the details , and he calls a fellow former volunteer sheriff 's deputy named Trevor ( Chris Gethard ) for assistance . After Trevor shows his credentials , Angela says she wants the target murdered , which Dwight protests is too extreme , so they compromise to breaking the target 's kneecaps . Dwight realizes the target is Oscar when Angela angrily crushes a cookie given to her by Oscar . Dwight tries to get Angela to reconsider , but Trevor has already arrived to carry out the job . Dwight rushes to get Oscar out . They run into Trevor outside . A struggle between the three men ensues , with Oscar ultimately managing to take away Trevor 's lead pipe . When Trevor runs away , Oscar and Dwight are confronted by Angela , who blames Oscar for turning her husband gay . Oscar says that he was always gay , and refuses to hand the lead pipe over to Angela . She kicks him in the shin instead . Upset that they don 't understand homosexuality , Dwight and Angela go to Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) , who is confounded by their outlandish questions over homosexual activity .
Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) asks Dunder Mifflin CEO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) if he can work part @-@ time so he can go to Philadelphia to help with his sports marketing job . David Wallace says that he might be needed in the office if there 's a crisis with one of his clients , to which he responds that Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) and Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) have agreed to cover for him , though he in fact hasn 't asked them yet . Stanley and Phyllis respond with their usual disinterest in helping others , so Jim offers to treat them to lunch . Stanley and Phyllis order extra side dishes and help themselves to an excess of wine , annoying Jim with drunken behavior and silencing him whenever he brings up the subject of their covering for him . When they arrive back at the office , a drunk Stanley and Phyllis are seemingly passed out in Jim 's backseat . When Jim puts his coat on them to keep them warm , Phyllis and Stanley say they will cover for him as they care for Jim and his family , laughing as they reveal they were only pranking him . Jim gives both of them a hug .
Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) decides to start painting her mural in the warehouse , but has a hard time getting started as she is afraid of it not being perfect . Meanwhile , bored with having to fill out customer complaint cards ( which he finds redundant because the complaints are already in the computer ) , Pete ( Jake Lacy ) uses them to build a card tower in the annex with other employees . The card tower takes on a deeper meaning for the employees when Pete points out that it is composed of failures made by every one of them ( excepting only Pam ) , and thus proves that they should not be ashamed of their failures . They decide to try to make it go all the way to the ceiling , but end up one complaint card short . Not wanting to use a blank card as it would defy the point of the tower , Pam offers to complete the tower by getting her first customer complaint . She calls one of their smaller clients , delivers a yo mama joke , and hangs up . The client , whose mother was actually obese and is now deceased , drops Dunder Mifflin as their paper supplier , leaving them simultaneously excited over getting that last complaint and disappointed over losing a client . After celebrating the completion of the card tower , Pam finally starts painting the mural , saying artists should not care too much in what others think , further asserting this by telling off Hide ( Hidetoshi Imura ) when he insults her artwork .
= = Production = =
" The Target " was written by producer Graham Wagner , marking his debut writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff in the ninth season . It was directed by executive producer Brent Forrester , his fourth directing credit for the series and first since the eighth season episode , " Test the Store " . Ed Helms and Clark Duke did not appear in the episode . This is due to the fact that they were both written out of several episodes of the season in order to film The Hangover Part III and Kick @-@ Ass 2 , respectively .
The official website of The Office included several cut scenes from " The Target " within a week of the episode 's release . In the first 58 @-@ second clip , Pam feels further pressure over her mural and reveals that several of the warehouse workers think her name is Pat . In the second 60 @-@ second clip , The Senator comes by the office , Jim pretends to beg to Stanley and Phyllis while they are sleeping , and Pam talks more about her mural . In the third 66 @-@ second clip , Angela checks out Trevor 's qualifications .
= = Cultural references = =
Dwight assures Angela that she is not stupid , rather " Jazz is stupid . " Angela concurs , saying : " Just play the right notes ! " " The Target " features several meta @-@ references and references to previous episodes . Dwight tells Angela and Trevor that " this documentary crew has been following our every move for the past nine years but I don 't see them so I think we 're good " , when they are in Trevor 's van . Angela and Dwight question Toby about the tendencies of homosexuals in a way similar to how Dwight questions Toby about the appearance of female genitalia in the second season episode " Sexual Harassment " . While working on her mural , Pam is seen wearing a Pratt Institute hoodie , which she attended for three months during the fifth season . Angela tells Dwight to meet up in the " usual place " , which Dwight shows up to nude , referencing their previous secretive relationship .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Target " originally aired on NBC on November 29 , 2012 . In its original American broadcast , the episode was viewed by 3 @.@ 88 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 9 rating / 5 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This made " The Target " the lowest rated episode of the series , tying with " Here Comes Treble " . The episode also ranks as the least @-@ viewed episode of the series and the first one to fall below the 4 @-@ million viewer mark . Despite this , The Office was the highest @-@ rated NBC television program . When DVR ratings were taken into account , the episode was viewed by 6 @.@ 047 million viewers , a 56 percent increase .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Target " received mostly positive reviews from critics , with many praising the performances of Oscar Nunez and Angela Kinsey . The A.V. Club reviewer Erik Adams wrote that the episode was a perfect mix , between the more subtle , realistic style of the early seasons , and the more @-@ farcical style of the most recent seasons . He named the Oscar @-@ Angela plotline a " season highlight " , and complimented Angela Kinsey 's commitment to Angela throughout the plotline . He also praised the other storylines of the episode for showing the family @-@ like bond between the whole ensemble . He ultimately gave the episode an " A – " . Cindy White of IGN commented that the episode proved the series did not need a character in the role of the boss . She complimented the confrontation between Oscar and Angela and the Pam subplot for marking some " development " in her character , but criticized the Jim @-@ Stanley @-@ Phyllis subplot for being " over the top " . She ultimately gave the episode an 8 @.@ 0 / 10 . Paste writer Bonnie Stiernberg called the episode " strong " , and compared it to the older episodes . She praised the Oscar @-@ Angela plotline , calling it Oscar Nunez and Kinsey 's best performance of the year . She also complimented the Jim @-@ Stanley @-@ Phyllis subplot , calling the ending to it sweet , and the Pam @-@ Pete @-@ Erin subplot , calling it " more complex @-@ but no less enjoyable " and praised the development of Pam 's character , considering it to be " touching " . Stiernberg ultimately gave the episode an 8 @.@ 6 / 10 .
Michael Tedder of New York praised the writers work and for giving " nice character moments " to the cast , particularly Kinsey . He also praised them for giving Kinsey " more to work with " , comparing her role in previous episodes which featured her character being " exaggerated to cartoon levels for the sake of a laugh " . ScreenCrush reviewer Damon Houx was slightly more critical with his review , writing that while the cast was quite good , the episode was too struggled with " find [ ing ] stuff for everyone to do " , and that the Pete @-@ Erin @-@ Pam and Jim @-@ Stanley @-@ Phyllis subplots " ultimately have nowhere interesting to go " . Multiple critics noted similarities between the style of this episode with the early seasons of the series , particularly for its use of callbacks .
= Royal Question =
The Royal Question ( French : Question royale , Dutch : Koningskwestie ) was a major political crisis in Belgium that lasted from 1945 to 1951 , coming to a head between March and August 1950 . The " Question " at stake surrounded whether King Leopold III could resume his royal powers and duties as King of the Belgians amid allegations that his actions during World War II had gone contrary to the provisions of the Belgian Constitution . It was eventually resolved by the abdication of Leopold in favour of his son , Baudouin , in 1951 .
The crisis emerged from the division between Leopold and his government , led by Hubert Pierlot , during the German invasion of 1940 . Leopold , who was suspected of authoritarian sympathies , had taken over command of the Belgian Army at the outbreak of war . Considering his constitutional position as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief to take precedence over his civil role as head of state , he refused to leave his army and join the Belgian government in exile in France . Leopold 's refusal to obey the Government marked a constitutional crisis and , after having negotiated the surrender to the Germans on 28 May , Leopold was widely condemned . During the subsequent German occupation , Leopold was held under house arrest in his palace where he was praised for stoically sharing the suffering of ordinary Belgians . Shortly before the Allies liberated the country in 1944 , he was deported to Germany by the Nazis .
With Belgium liberated but the King still in captivity , a regency was proclaimed and Leopold 's brother , Prince Charles , Count of Flanders , was elected as prince regent . The King was declared officially " unable to rule " in accordance with the Constitution . With the country divided along political lines over whether the King could ever return to his functions , and with the left wing dominant politically , Leopold went into exile in Switzerland . In 1950 , a national referendum was organised by a new centre @-@ right government to decide on whether Leopold could return . Although the result was a victory for the Leopoldists , it produced a strong regional split between Flanders , which was broadly in favour of the King 's return , and Brussels and Wallonia which generally opposed it . Leopold 's return to Belgium in July 1950 was greeted with widespread protests in Wallonia and a general strike . The unrest culminated in the killing of four workers by police on 31 July . With the situation fast deteriorating , on 1 August 1950 Leopold announced his intention to resign . After a transition period , he formally abdicated in favour of Baudouin in July 1951 .
= = Background = =
= = = Monarchy and the Constitution = = =
Belgium gained its independence from the United Netherlands in 1830 and was established as a popular and constitutional monarchy under a bicameral parliamentary democracy . A liberal Constitution was written in 1831 which codified the responsibilities and restrictions imposed on the monarch . Although the King , as head of state , was prevented from acting without the approval of a government minister , he was allowed full control of military matters in his capacity as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . Which responsibility would take precedence if they became incompatible was left ambiguous and this uncertainty would lie at the heart of the Royal Question . The first king , King Leopold I , accepted the terms of the Constitution but attempted to use its ambiguities to subtly increase his own powers . This was continued by his successors , although with little real success .
= = = King Leopold III = = =
King Leopold III came to the throne in 1934 after his father , Albert I , died in a mountaineering accident . Albert , known as the " Knight King " ( roi @-@ chevalier or koning @-@ ridder ) , had been hugely popular in Belgium after commanding the Belgian army during World War I ( 1914 – 18 ) while much of the country was under German occupation . Leopold 's reign was marked by economic crisis in the wake of the Great Depression , and political agitation by both far @-@ left and far @-@ right parties . Amid this period of crisis , Leopold attempted to expand the powers of the monarch . He was widely suspected of holding authoritarian and right @-@ wing political views . From 1936 , Leopold was a strong supporter of Belgium 's " independence policy " of political neutrality in the face of Nazi Germany 's increasingly aggressive territorial expansion .
= = German invasion and occupation , 1940 – 44 = =
On 10 May 1940 , German forces invaded neutral Belgium without a formal declaration of war . Leopold headed immediately to Fort Breendonk , the headquarters of the Belgian army near Mechelen , to take control of the army . He refused to address the Belgian parliament beforehand , as Albert I had famously done at the outbreak of World War I. The speed of the German advance , using the new Blitzkrieg approach , soon pushed the Belgian army westwards despite British and French support . On 16 May , the Belgian government left Brussels .
= = = Break between King and Government = = =
Soon after the outbreak of war , the King and Government began to disagree . While the Government argued that the German invasion had violated Belgian neutrality and made Belgium one of the Allies , Leopold argued that Belgium was still a neutral country and had no obligations beyond defending its borders . Leopold opposed allowing British and French forces into Belgian territory to fight alongside Belgian troops , as a breach of its neutrality .
On 25 May 1940 , Leopold met senior representatives of his Government for a final time at the Kasteel van Wijnendale in West Flanders . The meeting is frequently cited as the start of the Royal Question and the moment of the decisive break between King and Government . Four ministers of the Government were present : Hubert Pierlot , Paul @-@ Henri Spaak , Henri Denis and Arthur Vanderpoorten . By the time of the meeting , against the backdrop of the bloody Battle of the Lys , the Belgian government was preparing to continue the fight against Germany from exile in France . They urged the King to join them , following the examples of Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands and Charlotte , Grand Duchess of Luxembourg . The King rejected their arguments and hardened his own position . He refused to leave Belgian territory and his army in Flanders at any cost . The ministers suspected that Leopold 's aides were already negotiating with the Germans . The meeting broke up with no agreement and the Belgian Government left for France .
Leopold negotiated a cease @-@ fire with the Germans on 27 May 1940 , and the Belgian armed forces officially surrendered the following day . Leopold became a prisoner of war and was placed under house arrest at the Royal Palace of Laeken , near Brussels . Furious that the King had both ignored the government and negotiated a surrender without consulting them , Pierlot gave an angry speech on Radio Paris , condemning the King and announcing the Government 's intention to continue fighting alongside the Allies . French politicians , notably Paul Reynaud , blamed Leopold for the growing disaster of the Battle of France and angrily condemned him as a " criminal king " ( roi @-@ félon ) .
= = = Leopold during the German occupation = = =
With the Belgian surrender on 28 May 1940 , Belgium was placed under German occupation and a military administration was established under General Alexander von Falkenhausen to govern the country . Belgian civil servants were ordered to remain at their posts in order to ensure the continued functioning of the state and to attempt to protect the population from the demands of the German authorities .
With France 's defeat and the installation of the pro @-@ German Vichy regime , it was widely believed that Germany was about to win the war . Leopold was hailed as a " martyr " or a symbol of national resilience , in contrast to a Government that appeared to place its ideology above the interests of the Belgian people . On 31 May 1940 , the senior representative of the Catholic Church in Belgium , Cardinal Jozef @-@ Ernest van Roey , circulated a pastoral letter calling for all Belgians to unite around the King . Other figures in the King 's entourage , particularly the authoritarian socialist Henri De Man , believed that democracy had failed and that the end of the war would see the King as the ruler of an authoritarian Belgian state .
Imprisoned , the King continued to follow his own political programme . He believed that after the German victory a " New Order " would be established in Europe and that , as the senior Belgian figure in occupied Europe , he could negotiate with the German authorities . Leopold corresponded with Adolf Hitler and tried to organise a meeting with him . Hitler remained uninterested and distrustful of the King , but on 19 November 1940 Leopold succeeded in gaining an unproductive audience with him at Berchtesgaden .
Popular support for Leopold in Belgium declined sharply in December 1941 when news of Leopold 's remarriage to Lilian Baels was made public . The marriage was deeply unpopular with the Belgian public . The image of the " prisoner @-@ king " ( roi prisonnier ) , sharing the suffering of the Belgian prisoners of war , was undermined and his popularity fell sharply , especially in Wallonia , the home of the majority of the Belgian prisoners still detained . Popular opinion also turned on the king for his perceived unwillingness to speak out against German occupation policies .
Amid German defeats against the Russians on the Eastern Front after 1942 , the King prepared for the end of the war . He ordered the preparation of a document , known as the Political Testament ( Testament Politique ) , which would justify his behaviour under the occupation and detail his interventions on behalf of Belgian prisoners of war and deported workers . Leopold however continued to condemn the action of the Belgian government in exile ( based in London after October 1940 ) . On 7 June 1944 , following D @-@ Day , he was deported to Germany . He was finally liberated by American forces on 7 May 1945 .
= = Regency and the early crisis , 1944 – 49 = =
= = = Leopold declared " unable to reign " , 1944 = = =
After D @-@ Day , Allied troops crossed the Belgian frontier on 1 September 1944 . German forces did little to oppose the liberating forces , which by 4 September were in control of Brussels , although the last occupied parts of Belgian territory were only liberated in February 1945 . On 8 September 1944 , the government in exile returned to Brussels and was greeted with general indifference . Although the King was no longer in the country , his Political Testament was presented to the returned Government as he had wished , and was soon circulated publicly . At the same time , a copy was presented to the British king , George VI , and was seen by the Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden . The text reignited the divisions within the Government which had been largely hidden since earlier in the war .
Since the King was still in German custody , there was no opposition to the creation of a regent in his absence . On 20 September 1944 , a meeting of both Chambers of Parliament was called . Article 82 of the Constitution was invoked , declaring the King " unable to reign " ( dans l 'impossibilité de régner ) . Leopold 's reclusive brother , Prince Charles , Count of Flanders , was elected prince regent and took the oath the following day . Further action on the Royal Question was pushed aside by more pressing economic and political issues that occupied most of the Government 's time .
= = = Political recovery and revival of the Royal Question = = =
Soon after the liberation , Belgium began a period of rapid economic recovery and the process of political reconstruction began . The traditional party system had been torn apart by the war and occupation . The two major ideological blocks proceeded to create their own parties : socialists created the Belgian Socialist Party ( PSB @-@ BSP ) , while Catholics and conservatives created the Christian Social Party ( PSC @-@ CVP ) . The biggest change in early post @-@ liberation politics was the surge of support for the Communist Party of Belgium , which become the third party in Belgian politics until 1949 , temporarily displacing the Liberal Party . The Walloon Movement also re @-@ emerged after the war , promoting the culture and economic interests of the French @-@ speaking areas in the south . The period saw major reform of trade unions following the creation of the first large unified union , the General Federation of Belgian Labour ( FGTB @-@ ABVV ) , in April 1945 with 248 @,@ 000 members nationwide . By 1947 , however , the political structure of the Belgian state had stabilised .
Under the early regency , both the Pierlot and subsequent Achille Van Acker governments attempted to avoid confronting the issue of Leopold 's return despite calls from Communists , some Socialists and trade unionists for the King 's resignation in April and May 1945 . Soon after the King 's liberation , Van Acker and a government delegation headed to Strobl , Austria to negotiate with Leopold . At a series of meetings between 9 and 11 May 1945 , Van Acker insisted that the King publicly announce his support for the Allied cause and his commitment to parliamentary democracy . No agreement was reached . In the meantime , Leopold took up residence in Pregny ( near Geneva ) in Switzerland under the pretext that heart palpitations made further negotiations or thoughts of return to political life impossible .
In Belgium , political debate about the Royal Question continued and grew after the war , and remained a polemical topic in the popular press , notably in the Francophone newspaper Le Soir . In the general election of 1949 , the PSC @-@ CVP campaigned on a pro @-@ Leopold royalist platform . The results reshaped the political landscape ; the Communists were routed and the PSB @-@ BSP lost seats to both the Liberals and Catholics . The Catholics gained a new majority in the Senate and a plurality in the Chamber of Representatives , their best results since the war . Gaston Eyskens took over as Prime Minister at the head of a Liberal @-@ Catholic coalition . Both parties in the government ( and Leopold himself ) supported a referendum on the King 's return , which became the focus of political attention .
= = Culmination of the crisis , 1950 = =
= = = Referendum of March 1950 = = =
The Eyskens government agreed to a national referendum , known as the " popular consultation " ( consultation populaire or volksraadpleging ) , which was scheduled for 12 March 1950 . Although campaigning was vigorous on both sides , there was little disruption to the polls .
The results of the referendum were indecisive . Leopold 's return won a clear 57 @.@ 68 per cent majority in the national vote , with majorities in seven of the nine provinces . However , the vote was heavily divided by region . In Flanders , 72 per cent voted in favour of Leopold 's return , but in Brussels the Leopoldists won only a minority of 48 per cent . In Wallonia a mere 42 per cent voted for the restitution of the King . The final results , in percentages by province , were :
* The majority in the arrondissement of Verviers voted in favour of the King 's return . ‡ The arrondissement of Namur voted against the return .
The result confirmed the worries of some , including Spaak , that the vote would not be sufficiently decisive in either direction and could divide the country along regional and linguistic lines . On 13 March , Eyskens traveled to Pregny to attempt to encourage Leopold to abdicate . Paul Van Zeeland and Spaak attempted to broker a new agreement by which Leopold would resign in favour of his son . On 15 April 1950 , Leopold announced that he was willing to temporarily delegate his authority . Many within the PSC @-@ CVP realised that , despite the referendum 's result , their party 's lack of a parliamentary majority would undermine their ability to build a national reconciliation around the King as long as their Liberal coalition partners and Socialist opponents were unwilling to accept the King 's return .
= = = Leopold 's return to Belgium = = =
On 29 April 1950 , Charles dissolved parliament pending fresh elections . His intention was probably to prevent the formation of a PSC @-@ CVP government under Van Zeeland , a staunch Leopoldist , which would lead to the return of the King without further discussion . The following election produced an absolute PSC @-@ CVP majority in both Chamber and Senate , and a new single @-@ party government under Jean Duvieusart was formed .
One of the first acts of the Duvieusart government was to introduce a bill bringing the " impossibility to reign " to an end . On 22 July 1950 , Leopold returned to Belgium for the first time since June 1944 and resumed his functions .
= = = General strike and abdication = = =
In 1949 , the FGTB @-@ ABVV voted a special budget of ten million Belgian francs to establish a Committee of Common Action ( Comité d 'action commune ) aimed at supporting strike action taken in event of the King 's return . The union took the lead in the opposition which emerged in the summer of 1950 . André Renard , a Walloon trade union leader , called for " insurrection " and " revolution " in the newspaper La Wallonie shortly after the King 's return in July 1950 . Modern historians have noted that " the smell of revolution was on the air " as Walloon nationalists called for the immediate secession of Wallonia and the creation of a republic .
The general strike of 1950 began in the coal mining centres of Hainaut and quickly spread . Workers were soon on strike across Wallonia , Brussels , and , to a lesser extent , Flanders . The port of Antwerp was one of the key sites affected and the country was virtually paralysed . On 30 July , four workers were shot dead by the Gendarmerie at Grâce @-@ Berleur , near Liège and the violence intensified . Staunch Leopoldists in the Government called for a stronger stance but found themselves in a minority , even in the PSC @-@ CVP . Frustrated at the lack of progress , the Government threatened to resign en masse .
As the situation escalated , the National Confederation of Political Prisoners and their Dependents ( Confédération nationale des prisonniers politiques et des ayants droit , Nationale Confederatie van Politieke Gevangenen en Rechthebbenden , or CNPPA @-@ NCPGR ) , the organisation representing political prisoners detained during the German occupation , offered to act as intermediaries between the different parties because of their respected status . The CNPPA @-@ NCPGR succeeded in persuading both parties to reopen negotiations . A tense meeting between the King and Government took place during the night of 31 July to 1 August at Laeken . In the afternoon on 1 August , Leopold publicly announced his intention to resign in favour of his eldest son , Baudouin , to avoid further bloodshed . Baudouin , at the age of 19 , formally became prince royal on 11 August 1950 .
= = Accession of Baudouin , 1951 = =
Leopold 's abdication message of 1 August 1950 was premised on a reconciliation in the person of his eldest son over the course of a year . Baudouin was seen by most parties as an acceptable alternative candidate . According to a law approved on 11 August , executive powers were transferred to Baudouin in advance of the official abdication . Leopold formally abdicated on 16 July 1951 . His son succeeded him the following day .
= = = Assassination of Julien Lahaut = = =
On 17 July 1951 , as Baudouin was taking the oath of allegiance to the Constitution in front of the Parliament , an unidentified individual in the Communist benches shouted " vive la république ! " ( " Long Live the Republic ! " ) . The interruption caused outrage . It was widely suspected that the culprit was Julien Lahaut , the noted Communist leader , who had been one of the leading opponents of Leopold 's return . On 18 August , Lahaut was shot dead by an unidentified assassin outside his house in Seraing , near Liège . The murder shocked the Belgian public and an estimated 200 @,@ 000 people attended Lahaut 's funeral . Although no @-@ one was ever prosecuted for the murder , it was widely attributed to clandestine Leopoldist militia like the Ligue Eltrois or the Bloc anticommuniste belge who operated with the knowledge of the security services .
= = Aftermath and significance = =
In the aftermath of the Royal Question , national priorities shifted to other political questions . On 17 September 1950 , the government of Joseph Pholien announced its intention of dispatching Belgian volunteers to fight in the Korean War . Negotiations about the European Defence Community followed and , by the mid @-@ 1950s , Belgium was immersed in a new political crisis , known as the Second School War , surrounding the secularisation of education .
Modern historians describe the Royal Question as an important moment in Belgian recovery after World War II . The opposition between Leopoldists and anti @-@ Leopoldists led to the re @-@ establishment of Socialist and Catholic political parties from before the war . The Question was also an important moment in the Belgian linguistic conflict . It also put an end to the federalisation of Belgian institutions which might exacerbate the regional tensions exposed by the Royal Question . In addition , the perceived failure of the PSC @-@ CVP to realise Flemish demands for the return of Leopold helped to strengthen support for the Flemish nationalist Volksunie party after 1954 . In Wallonia , the legacy of trade union and socialist political mobilisation during the general strike paved the way for a left @-@ wing revival of the Walloon Movement .
The Lahaut assassination was not solved , and it remains contentious as the only political murder in Belgian history apart from the death of the socialist politician André Cools in 1991 . Leopoldists were suspected , but no individual was prosecuted in the aftermath . An enquiry by historians Rudy Van Doorslaer and Etienne Verhoeyen named an alleged culprit . A final report , commissioned by the Belgian government , was submitted in 2015 .
= The Indian Princess ( play ) =
The Indian Princess ; or , La Belle Sauvage , is a musical play with a libretto by James Nelson Barker and music by John Bray , based on the Pocahontas story as originally recorded in John Smith 's The Generall Historie of Virginia ( 1624 ) . The piece is structured in the style of a Ballad @-@ opera , with songs and choruses , and also has music underlying dialogue , like a melodrama . Pocahontas persuades her father , King Powhatan , to free Smith and becomes attracted to John Rolfe , breaking off her arranged marriage with a neighboring tribal prince , an action that leads to war . Her tribe wins the war , but her father loses trust in the white settlers ; Pocahontas warns the settlers who reconcile with Powhatan . Several comic romances end happily , and Smith predicts a great future for the new country .
The play deals with relations between Native Americans and the first European settlers in America . Scholars have debated whether the piece is progressive in its depiction of the natives and have commented that the work reflects an emerging American dramatic and musical sensibility . It served to popularize and romanticize the Pocahontas story as an important American myth .
The comedy was first performed in 1808 at The Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia . It has been cited as the first play about American Indians by an American playwright known to be produced on a professional stage , and possibly the first play produced in America to be then performed in England , although the validity of both statements has been questioned . Its portrayal of Native Americans has been criticized as racially insensitive , but the piece is credited with inspiring a whole new genre of plays about Pocahontas specifically and Native Americans in general , that was prevalent throughout the 19th and early 20th Century . The play was subsequently produced throughout the country .
= = Background = =
Barker was motivated to create a truly " American " style of drama to counteract what he saw as " mental colonialism " and the American tendency to feel culturally inferior to Europe . For this reason , he looked to native subject matter for the play , as opposed to other American dramatists like John Howard Payne who neglected American subject matter and locations .
Although in his preface , Barker cites his primary source of inspiration as John Smith 's The Generall Historie of Virginia ( 1624 ) , he was likely more influenced by a series of popular books by John Davis , including , Travels of Four Years and a Half in the United States of America ( 1803 ) , Captain Smith and Princess Pocahontas ( 1805 ) , and The First Settlers of Virginia ( 1806 ) which featured a more sexualized and romanticized characterization of Pocahontas .
Much of the known background about the piece comes from a letter Barker wrote to William Dunlop , dated June 10 , 1832 . In it , he indicates that he had been working on The Indian Princess for a number of years before it was first produced in 1808 . In fact in 1805 , he wrote a Masque entitled " America " ( which has not survived ) that he intended to serve as a conclusion to the play , in which characters called " America , " " Science , " and " Liberty " sing and engage in political debate . Barker originally intended the piece as a play without music , but John Bray , an actor / translator / composer employed by The New Theatre in Philadelphia , convinced him to add a musical score .
= = Character list = =
The published dramatis personæ divides the character list into “ Europeans ” ( the settlers ) and “ Virginians ” ( the natives ) , listing the men first , by rank , followed by the women and the supernumeraries .
= = Plot synopsis = =
= = = Act I = = =
At the Powhatan River , Smith , Rolfe , Percy , Walter , Larry , Robin , and Alice disembark from a barge as the chorus of soldiers and adventurers sing about the joy of reaching the shore . Larry , Walter , Alice ( Walter ’ s wife ) , and Robin reminisce about love , and Robin admits to Larry his lustful feelings about Alice . Meanwhile , Nima is preparing a bridal gown for Pocahontas in the royal village of Werocomoco , but Pocahontas expresses displeasure about the arrangement her father made for her to marry Miami , a rival Indian prince . Smith is then attacked by a party of Indians , including Nantaquas , Pocahontas ’ s brother . Due to his fighting prowess , Nantaquas thinks he is a god , but Smith explains he is only a trained warrior from across the sea . The Indians capture Smith to bring him to their chief . Back at the Powhatan River , Robin attempts to seduce Alice , but is foiled by Walter and Larry . When Walter tells the group about Smith ’ s capture , they depart to go after him . Before they leave , Rolfe tries to convince Percy to move on after his lover , Geraldine , apparently was unfaithful .
= = = Act II = = =
When King Powhatan is presented with the captured Smith , he decides , at the urging of the tribe ’ s priest Grimosco , to execute him . Pocahontas , having been moved by Smith ’ s nobility , says she will not allow Smith to be killed unless she herself dies with him . This persuades Powhatan to free Smith . Soon , Percy and Rolfe encounter Smith and his Indian allies on the way back to the settlement , and Rolfe is immediately struck by Pocahontas , whose manner suggests the attraction is mutual . They speak of love , but Rolfe must soon depart with Smith . Pocahontas confesses her love for Rolfe to Miami , who receives the news with anger , jealousy and rage . Pocahontas convinces her father to dissolve her arranged engagement with Miami , which will mean war between their two tribes .
= = = Act III = = =
Jamestown has now been built and Walter tells his wife Alice about Powhatan ’ s victory over Miami . They then discuss a banquet hosted by Powhatan that Smith , Rolfe and Percy will attend . Meanwhile , Pocahontas and Nima witness Grimosco and Miami plotting to kill the European settlers . When Grimosco coerces Powhatan into believing he should kill all the White men , by casting doubt about their intentions , creating fear about how they will act in the future , and invoking religious imagery , Pocahontas runs to warn the settlers about the danger . Back in Jamestown , a comic bit ensues in which Larry ’ s wife Kate has arrived disguised as a male page , and teases him before revealing herself . She says she has come with Percy ’ s lover , Geraldine , also disguised as a page , who has come to convince Percy he was wrong about her infidelity . Pocahontas arrives and convinces the settlers to go to Powhatan ’ s palace to rescue their colleagues from Grimosco ’ s plot . They arrive just in time to prevent the disaster . Grimosco is taken away , and Miami stabs himself in shame . Everyone else has a happy ending : Pocahontas is with Rolfe , Walter is with Alice , Larry is with Kate , Percy is with Geraldine , and even Robin is with Nima . Smith forgives Powhatan , and gives the play 's final speech , predicting a great future for the new country that will form in this land .
= = Score = =
The surviving published version of the musical score appears in the format of a simplified keyboard transcription using a two @-@ staff system ( treble and bass ) . It includes only occasional notations about the instruments used in the original full orchestral score , which has not survived . Therefore , musical elements from the original production such as inner harmonic parts , countermelodies , and accompaniment figurations are no longer known . Based on records of payments made to musicians at The Chestnut Street Theatre at the time of the premiere , it was likely that the production employed approximately 25 pieces , which may have consisted of pairs of woodwinds ( flutes , oboes , clarinets , and bassoons ) and brasses ( horns and trumpets ) as well as some timpani and strings . Typically , however , the entire orchestra was used only for the overture and selected large chorus numbers , while solo numbers were accompanied by strings and one or two pairs of woodwinds . The brasses and timpani may have been used to invoke a sense of the military in numbers like Walter ’ s “ Captain Smith . ”
= = Performances = =
The play first premiered at The Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia on April 6 , 1808 . In Barker 's letter to Dunlop , he writes the performance was done as a benefit for Mr. Bray ( who also played the role of Walter ) . However , other sources suggest it was a benefit for a Mrs. Woodham . In any case , it is clear that the performance was interrupted by an offstage commotion which may have cut the performance short . Mr. Webster , a tenor who played the role of Larry , was an object of public scorn at the time because of his effeminate manner and dress , and audience members rioted in outrage at his participation , causing Barker himself to order the curtain to be dropped . The play was subsequently performed again in Philadelphia on February 1 , 1809 , although it was advertised for January 25 .
There is some discrepancy about the date of the New York premiere , which took place at The Park Theatre , either on June 14 , 1808 , or on January 14 , 1809 , as a benefit for English actress Mrs. Lipman . It was performed again in New York as a benefit for Dunlop on June 23 , 1809 , There was a performance benefiting Bray and an actor named Mr. Cone advertised for August 25 , 1808 , at The Alexandria Theatre in Virginia . There was also a gala premiere on an unspecified date in Baltimore . Barker wrote in his letter to Dunlop that the play was subsequently and frequently performed in all the theatres across the country . It was the standard practice in all these productions for the Native American roles to be played by white actors wearing dark makeup .
The The Indian Princess has been cited as the first well @-@ documented case of a play that was originally performed in America being subsequently staged in England . Although records indicate there was a play called Pocahontas ; or the Indian Princess , credited as being adapted by T.A. Cooper , that played The Theatre Royal at Drury Lane in London on December 15 , 1820 , and subsequently on December 16 and December 19 , the piece differed drastically from Barker 's original and featured a completely different cast of characters . Barker himself wrote that the production was done without his permission or even his knowledge , and based on a critical response he read of the London performance , he deduced that there was very little in the play that was his own . Other evidence suggests that the script used in England was not only a completely different play , but that it was likely not even originated by an American . This assertion is based primarily on three factors : the kinder and meeker portrayal of the Natives , which reduces the grandeur of the play 's American heroes , the more vague listing of the setting as " North America " rather than specifically " Virginia , " and the lack of implications about America 's great destiny that was evident in Barker 's version . The distinction between the London and American versions is also supported by a review of the London production , in which the reviewer cites a lack of comic characters ( Barker ’ s version included several ) , and the presence of a character named “ Opechancaough , ” who is nowhere to be found in Barker ’ s play .
= = Style and structure = =
Structurally , the play resembles a typical English Ballad @-@ opera . The plot of the play can be seen as a blending of a comedy of racial and cultural stereotypes with a love story and an historical drama . Barker borrows heavily from Shakespearean comedy , as can be seen most blatantly in the gender disguises employed by the characters of Kate and Geraldine . The use of verse writing for higher class characters and prose for those of lesser status also borrows from the Shakespearean tradition . It is of note that Pocahontas switches from prose to verse after falling in love with Rolfe .
The Indian Princess is also one of the first American plays to call itself a “ melo @-@ drame ” ( or melodrama ) which literally is French for “ play with music . ” Like the French and German melodramas typical of the period , the score contained open @-@ ended snippets of background mood music that can be repeated as much as necessary to heighten the sentimentality of the drama , although some have argued that it bears no other resemblance to the typical French melodrama of the period . Still others have said that the categorization of the piece as a melodrama is accurate , considering the play ’ s portrayal of the genre ’ s typical persecuted heroine ( Pocahontas ) , villainous antagonists ( Miami and Grimosco ) , virtuous hero ( Smith ) , and comic relief ( Robin and others ) .
The play can also be seen as a predecessor to the exaggerated emotionalism of later American drama , and as an early example of how background music would be used in more modern American drama and films .
= = Analysis and criticism = =
The Indian Princess is one example of an attempt by an artist of the early 19th Century to define an American national identity . Pocahontas , representing the spirit of America , literally shields Smith from injury and serves as foster mother , protecting colonists from famine and attack , achieving mythic status as a heroic mother , and preserving , nurturing and legitimizing America as a country . The play allows for an acknowledgement of the troubling aspects of the nation ’ s history of conquest , violence , and greed , by couching the negative implications in a romantic plot . In other words , the romantic conquest helps to soften the harshness and brutality of the colonial conquest . The success of the play reflects a larger cultural desire to express its sense of self through the Pocahontas myth .
Barker also had commercial interests , and was motivated by a drive for artistic and financial success . In this vein , the play was an attempt to please the anglophile public , but create something truly American in setting and theme . The portrayals of the Indians in the play , from a perspective of racial sensitivity , have been met with mixed reviews by modern critics . Some write positively about the portrayals , saying that , other than Grimosco and Miami , the natives are noble , though primitive , and have a more “ American ” value system than the savages traditionally portrayed in British media of the period . Others , however , see the characters portrayed stereotypically as lusty , childlike , weak and corruptible beings , with the exceptions of Pocahontas and Nantaquas , who are portrayed positively only because they accept English values . Still others take a middle ground , noting the range of representations . In any case , the play can be seen as a justification of White assimilation of the natives , especially when examining Pocahontas ’ s choice to be with Rolfe as a microcosm of their societies .
Critics have pointed out several inherent flaws in the script , including the early placement of the play ’ s climax ( Smith at the chopping block ) at the beginning of Act II , loose construction , song lyrics that trivialize characters , and a main character in Pocahontas that is somewhat stilted and overly poetic . In contrast , however others have argued that Pocahontas ’ s love scene in Act III is where the truest poetry of the piece emerges .
There has been less critique of Bray ’ s musical work , but Victor Fell Yellin tried to recreate what he felt was the score 's melodic expressiveness and sonorous grandeur in his 1978 recording of it . In the liner notes , he points out that the music does not critically compare with the great musical masters of its time , but its success is derived from its charm . While it lacks modulation , it contains well @-@ turned melodic and rhythmic phrases , and syncopations that add to its American style .
The Indian Princess certainly began a long American tradition of romanticizing and sexualizing Pocahontas , who was only a child in Smith ’ s original accounts . Therefore , it deserves recognition for inaugurating a genre , but it can be criticized for diminishing the potential richness of the subject matter .
= = Historical significance = =
Barker 's The Indian Princess has been cited as the first American play featuring Native American characters to ever be staged , although Barker 's play is predated by at least two offerings by Europeans featuring Native Americans , including Tammany in 1794 by British playwright Ann Kemble Hatton , and German writer Johann Wilhelm Rose 's Pocahontas : Schauspiel mit Gesang , in fünf Akten ( A Play with Songs , in five Acts ) in 1784 . At least one American play was also written before Barker 's : Ponteach , published by Robert Rogers in 1766 , though the piece was apparently never produced . However , more recently uncovered evidence shows a record of an anonymous melodrama entitled Captain Smith and the Princess Pocahontas produced at The Chestnut Street Theatre in 1806 , calling into question whether Barker ’ s play was really the first of its kind ( though no further information is known about the earlier piece ) . Barker 's play has also been cited as the earliest surviving dramatized account of Smith and Pocahontas , although this idea is debunked by the availability of the aforementioned Johann Wilhelm Rose work .
In any case , The Indian Princess is credited as being primarily responsible for elevating the Pocahontas story to one of the nation 's most celebrated myths , and is thought to mark the beginning of the popular American genre of Indian Drama . The piece is also of note as one of very few of its time to have the entire musical score published and available today , as opposed to only individual popular songs .
Barker ’ s play directly or indirectly inspired many other stage adaptations of the Pocahontas story , including :
Pocahontas , or the Settlers of Virginia by George Washington Parke Custis ( 1830 )
Pocahontas by Robert Dale Owen ( 1837 )
The Forest Princess by Charlotte B. Conner ( 1848 )
Po @-@ ca @-@ hon @-@ tas , or The Gentle Savage by John Brougham ( 1855 )
Pocahontas by Welland Hendrick ( 1886 )
Pocahontas by Edwin O. Ropp ( 1906 )
Royalty in Old Virginia by Effie Koogle ( 1908 )
Pokey ; Or , The Beautiful Legend on the Amorous Indian by Phillip Moeller ( 1918 )
Pocahontas and the Elders by Virgil Geddes ( 1933 )
The Founders by Paul Green ( 1957 )
Additionally , there were approximately 40 plays with Indian themes recorded from 1825 to 1860 that likely were directly influenced by The Indian Princess . Edward Henry Corbould ’ s engraving ( c . 1850 ) , “ Smith Rescued by Pocahontas ” was possibly also directly inspired by The Indian Princess . Disney ’ s animated Pocahontas ( 1995 ) is one of the more recent of several films also in the same tradition as Barker ’ s play .
= 1996 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1996 Atlantic hurricane season had the most major hurricanes since 1964 , which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . Featuring a total of thirteen named storms , nine hurricanes , and six major hurricanes , the season officially began on June 1 , 1996 , and ended on November 30 , 1996 , dates which conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The season 's first tropical cyclone , Tropical Storm Arthur , developed on June 17 , while the final cyclone , Hurricane Marco dissipated on November 26 . The most intense hurricane , Edouard , was a powerful Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane that affected portions of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and New England . The season featured nine tropical cyclone landfalls , including six hurricanes , one of which was a major hurricane . In total , six major hurricanes formed during the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season — the highest number produced in a single season since 1964 .
The four most notable tropical cyclones of the season were hurricanes Bertha , Cesar , Fran , and Hortense . Bertha made landfall as a Category 2 hurricane on the coast of North Carolina , causing a total of 12 deaths and $ 335 million ( 1996 USD ) in damage . Hurricane Fran made landfall in the same general area a little over a month later as a Category 3 hurricane , causing 37 deaths and $ 6 @.@ 9 billion in damage . Hurricane Cesar developed in the east Caribbean during late @-@ July and crossed Nicaragua into the east Pacific as a strong tropical storm several days later , at which time it earned the name Douglas . The system produced strong winds and flooding , leading to 113 deaths and $ 202 @.@ 96 million in damage . Finally , Hurricane Hortense formed in the east Atlantic during the month of September and crossed Hispaniola and Puerto Rico , causing 39 direct deaths and $ 158 million in damage . Collectively , the tropical cyclones of the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season caused $ 8 @.@ 41 billion in damage and 256 deaths .
= = Season summary = =
= = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = =
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts such as Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University ( CSU ) and the Weather Research Center ( WRC ) . A normal season , as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , has 12 @.@ 1 named storms , of these 6 @.@ 4 reach hurricane strength , and 2 @.@ 7 major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Additional , the 1950 @-@ 2000 CSU average for a normal season is 9 @.@ 6 named storms , of these 5 @.@ 9 reach hurricane strength , and 2 @.@ 3 become major hurricanes . In December 1995 , CSU predicted that only 8 named storms would form and 5 of those would become hurricanes ; no specific number of major hurricanes was given . However , in April 1996 , CSU revised their forecast , stating that 11 named storms would develop , with seven of those intensifying into a hurricane , and three reaching major hurricane intensity . In June , CSU predicted 10 named storms , 6 hurricanes , and 2 major hurricanes . The forecast by the WRC in early 1996 was 10 named storms and 6 hurricanes , though there was no prediction on the number of major hurricanes .
= = = Seasonal activity = = =
The 1996 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , but the first named storm did not form until seventeen days later . It was an above average season in which 13 tropical cyclones formed , with all cyclones attaining tropical storm status . Nine of these sixteen attained hurricane status and six of those reached major hurricane status , which was well above the 1980 – 2010 average of 2 @.@ 7 per season . Although there was neither an El Niño or a La Niña , the above average activity in the season was likely due to abnormally warm sea surface temperatures . Six hurricanes and three tropical storms made landfall during the season , causing 256 deaths and more than $ 8 @.@ 41 billion in damage . Hurricane Edouard and Hurricane Marco also caused damage and fatalities , but neither storm made an official landfall .
Tropical cyclogenesis in the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season began with the development of Tropical Storm Arthur on June 17 . In the month of July , two tropical cyclones formed , both of which later attained hurricane status . August was the most active month of the season , with a total of four storms developing in that period of time . The month of August also featured the strongest and costliest tropical cyclones of the season , Hurricane Edouard and Hurricane Fran , respectively . Although September is the climatological peak of hurricane season , only two tropical cyclones developed in that month . Despite this , both reached major hurricane status . Three tropical cyclones formed in October , with one attaining hurricane status . Finally , one tropical cyclone developed in November , Hurricane Marco . The storm lasted 10 days before dissipating on November 26 , only four days before the official end of the season on November 30 .
The season 's activity was reflected with an Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) index of 166 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Arthur = = =
An area of increasing convection , possibly associated with a tropical wave , developed into Tropical Depression One on June 17 at 1800 UTC , while located near Grand Bahama . Initially , the depression moved north @-@ northwestward and then northward around the western periphery of a Atlantic subtropical ridge . Despite moderately strong wind shear , the depression strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Arthur while re @-@ curving northeastward at 0000 UTC on June 19 . About 24 hours later , Arthur made landfall near Cape Lookout , North Carolina with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . The storm weakened to a tropical depression early on June 20 , before becoming extratropical the next day .
As the center of Arthur passed east of Cape Romain , South Carolina , minor increases in surf were reported . Rainfall peaked at 5 @.@ 85 inches ( 149 mm ) in Georgetown , South Carolina , though because it fell gradually , no significant flooding was reported , other than minor ponding of water on roads . In addition , Arthur also brought precipitation to Georgia and Virginia , though amounts rarely exceeded 3 inches ( 76 mm ) . In North Carolina , swells ranged as high as 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) . A C @-@ Man station located about 34 @.@ 5 miles ( 55 @.@ 5 km ) southeast of Cape Fear reported sustained winds of 39 mph ( 64 km / h ) and gusts up to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Overall , damage caused by Arthur was minimal , totaling only $ 1 million .
= = = Hurricane Bertha = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Two at 0000 UTC on July 5 , while located about 575 miles ( 925 km ) east of Cape Verde . Twelve hours later , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Bertha . Over the next few days , it continued to strengthen , becoming a hurricane on July 7 , prior to moving through the northern Leeward Islands . A period of rapid intensification began late on July 8 , with Bertha peaking as a Category 3 hurricane with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on the following day . Moving around the western periphery of a subtropical ridge , Bertha passed north of the Bahamas as a weakening hurricane before turning towards the north @-@ northeast and re @-@ strengthened . Late on July 12 , Bertha made landfall between Wrightsville Beach and Topsail Beach , North Carolina with winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Gradual weakening ensued the following day as Bertha moved up the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and into New England before becoming extratropical on July 14 .
In the United States Virgin Islands , heavy rainfall and hurricane @-@ force winds damaged about 2 @,@ 500 homes , of which 43 lost their roofs . Many boats were destroyed . Total damage was estimated near $ 7 @.@ 5 million . The storm caused 3 deaths in Puerto Rico . Additionally , damage in Puerto Rico totaled $ 7 @.@ 5 million . Two deaths were confirmed in Saint Martin . The storm caused numerous power outages and damaged 10 homes in Antigua and Barbuda . Four deaths occurred in Florida , three of which due to rip currents . North Carolina bore the brunt of the hurricane in the United States . Storm surge destroyed several fishing piers , marinas , and boats . A combination of storm surge and strong winds damaged over 5 @,@ 000 homes and buildings , with at least 4 destroyed . There were 2 deaths in the state . The remnants brought local flooding and minor wind damage to the Mid @-@ Atlantic , New England , and Atlantic Canada . One surfer died in New Jersey . Overall , the storm caused 12 deaths and about $ 285 million in damage , primarily in eastern North Carolina .
= = = Hurricane Cesar = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on July 17 . It developed into Tropical Depression Three near Isla Margarita of Venezuela on July 24 . The depression headed westward , steered by a strong high pressure area over the Bahamas . On July 25 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Cesar . Around that time , it struck Curaçao . Cesar caused minor damage in the ABC islands to roofs and trees ; one person drowned in heavy surf on Curçao . An additional three people drowned offshore Venezuela . In Colombia , heavy rainfall caused 3 deaths , 2 of which were from a mudslide in Pueblo Bello . Strong winds and significant amounts of precipitation lashed the Archipelago of San Andrés , Providencia and Santa Catalina , unroofing 60 homes , and resulting in 11 fatalities , and resulting in 800 million COP ( $ 440 @,@ 00 USD ) in damage . The storm continued westward and intensified into a hurricane on July 27 .
At 0400 UTC on July 28 , Cesar made landfall near Bluefields , Nicaragua , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . After weakening to a tropical storm later that day , Cesar moved into the Pacific and was reclassified as Tropical Storm Douglas on July 29 . In Nicaragua , the storm wrought about $ 50 @.@ 5 million in losses . More than 2 @,@ 500 homes , 39 bridges and 25 miles ( 40 km ) of roads were destroyed . The storm killed 42 people and left an estimated 100 @,@ 000 homeless in Nicaragua . In Costa Rica , river flooding damaged or destroyed 3 @,@ 874 homes ; 150 bridges were also destroyed . The road network was significantly damaged . Across the country , at least 39 people were killed and damage amounted to $ 151 million . Additionally , 12 people died in El Salvador . Overall , Cesar caused 113 deaths and $ 202 @.@ 96 million in damage .
= = = Hurricane Dolly = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Four at 0600 UTC on August 19 , while located west @-@ southwest of Jamaica . The system strengthened into Tropical Storm Dolly about twelve hours later . Dolly headed westward and intensified into a Category 1 hurricane late on August 20 . It then made landfall near Chetumal , Quintana Roo with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The system weakened to a tropical depression on August 21 . Later that day or early on August 22 , Dolly emerged into the Bay of Campeche and quickly re @-@ strengthened into a tropical storm . The storm deepened further and was upgraded to a hurricane again at 1200 UTC on August 23 ; Dolly simultaneously peaked with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Around that time , it struck between Tuxpan , Veracruz and Tampico , Tamaulipas . Dolly quickly weakened to a tropical depression early on August 24 , but remained intact while crossing Mexico and dissipated over the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 25 .
The storm brought heavy rainfall to much of Mexico , peaking at 37 @.@ 41 inches ( 950 mm ) . In Quintana Roo , flooding destroyed a large amount of farmlands . Widespread flooding occurred after a river in the Pueblo Viejo area overflowed its banks . Hundreds of homes were destroyed , displacing about 35 @,@ 000 people . Large scale evacuations occurred in San Luis Potosí , while about 6 @,@ 500 fled their homes in the Tampico area . Communications and power outages were reported as far west as Mazatlán , Sinaloa . Throughout Mexico , there were fourteen fatalities reported , six in Veracruz , three in Nuevo León , one in Monterrey , and one in . Additionally , two people were left missing in Nuevo León . The outer bands of Dolly brought rainfall to southern Texas , which caused minor flooding , but was mostly beneficial due to drought conditions in the state .
= = = Hurricane Edouard = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Five on August 19 , while located about 345 miles ( 555 km ) southeast of Cape Verde . The depression moved westward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Edouard on August 22 . Further intensification occurred , with the storm being upgraded to a hurricane on the following day . Early on August 24 , the storm re @-@ curved west @-@ northwestward and began | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
to undergo rapid deepening . At 0600 UTC on August 25 , Edouard attained its maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 933 mbar ( 27 @.@ 6 inHg ) ; it was the most intense tropical cyclone of the season . The storm remained a major hurricane for nearly eight days . Edouard passed well north of the Lesser Antilles and then began re @-@ curving northward on August 29 . Later , the storm passed midway between Cape Hatteras and Bermuda on September 1 .
Edouard approached Nantucket , Massachusetts , but turned to the east before reaching land . On September 3 , the storm weakened and became extratropical . It was absorbed by a larger system on the September 7 . Edouard brought rough seas and gusty winds along the East Coast of the United States from South Carolina northward . Strong waves in New Jersey drowned 2 people . Minor erosion and coastal flooding also occurred in several states , especially in New York and Massachusetts . In the latter , wind gusts up to 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) left two @-@ thirds of Nantucket , most of Cape Cod , and all of Martha 's Vineyard without electricity . Gusty winds in Maine left about 1 @,@ 900 without power in Portland . Damage in the United States totaled about $ 20 million . In Canada , the storm brought rainfall up to 5 @.@ 35 inches ( 136 mm ) and gusts to 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) . Rough seas disrupted ferry service and caused the closure of several beaches .
= = = Hurricane Fran = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Six on August 23 , while located southeast of Cape Verde . The depression moved westward for several days and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Fran on August 27 while 1 @,@ 035 miles ( 1 @,@ 665 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . Fran tracked west @-@ northwestward and intensified into a hurricane on August 29 . However , Fran became less organized after a disruption to inflow due to Hurricane Edouard and weakened back to a tropical storm . Fran quickly re @-@ intensified into a hurricane by August 31 . While moving west @-@ northwestward and then north @-@ northwestward , the storm slowly strengthened . At 0000 UTC on September 5 , Fran peaked as a Category 3 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 946 mbar ( 27 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Early on the following day , the storm made landfall near Cape Fear , North Carolina at the same intensity . Fran weakened and moved inland , becoming extratropical over Ontario on September 8 . Its remnants moved over the Great Lakes and were absorbed by a front on September 10 .
In South Carolina , the outer bands of Fran produced high winds and light to moderate rainfall , downing numerous trees and power lines . As a result , a number of cars were damaged and over 63 @,@ 000 people were left without electricity . Damage in South Carolina reached about $ 40 million . The state of North Carolina bore the brunt of the storm . Wind gusts as strong as 137 mph ( 220 km / h ) were reported . Additionally , storm tide heights ranging from 8 to 12 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 7 m ) lashed the coast . Damage was most severe in the Raleigh area , exceeding $ 2 billion . Several hundred thousand falling trees damaged at least 10 @,@ 000 homes . Throughout the state , approximately 1 @.@ 7 million people were left without electricity . Damage in North Carolina reached about $ 5 @.@ 1 billion , with about $ 2 @.@ 3 billion to homes and businesses , $ 1 @.@ 1 billion to public property , $ 1 billion to forestry and timber , and $ 700 million to agriculture . Elsewhere , Fran brought flooding to several states , including Virginia , West Virginia , Maryland , Ohio , and Pennsylvania , as well as Washington , D.C. Outside North Carolina , effects were worst in Virginia , where flooding and winds left 400 @,@ 000 people without electricity and caused about $ 350 million in damage . Hurricane Fran was responsible for 37 deaths , with 24 of them in North Carolina . Property damage in the United States was estimated at $ 6 @.@ 9 billion .
= = = Tropical Storm Gustav = = =
An area of disturbed weather , accompanied with a low @-@ level circulation , emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on August 24 . It organized further over the next few days , becoming Tropical Depression Seven on August 26 , while located about 150 miles ( 240 km ) south of Cape Verde . With a ridge to its north , the system moved west @-@ southwestward . Conditions were initially unfavorable for development due to outflow from Hurricane Fran . On August 28 , the depression began moving northwestward due to an approaching trough . Around the same time , the influence from Fran decreased , allowing it to intensify into Tropical Storm Gustav on August 28 .
At 0000 UTC on August 29 , Gustav reached its peak intensity as a 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 005 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . Thereafter , the trough previously causing the storm 's northwestward motion transitioned into an upper @-@ level low , increasing shear across the region . As a result , the storm slowly weakened and was downgraded to a tropical depression late on September 1 . Gustav dissipated at 0600 UTC on the following day , while situated about 1 @,@ 015 miles ( 1 @,@ 633 km ) east @-@ northeast of the northernmost Lesser Antilles .
= = = Hurricane Hortense = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Eight on September 3 , while located about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . The depression headed westward and barely strengthened until becoming Tropical Storm Hortense early on September 7 . Hortense passed over Guadeloupe on the following day and entered the Caribbean Sea . It strengthened into a hurricane on September 9 and then curved northwestward . The storm intensified slightly further , before making landfall near Guánica , Puerto Rico with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at 0600 UTC on September 10 . It soon moved back offshore and brushed Dominican Republic while crossing the Mona Passage . After re @-@ entering the Atlantic , Hortense substantially strengthened and peaked as a 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane early on September 13 . Thereafter , the storm weakened as it tracked rapidly north @-@ northeastward . Early on September 15 , Hortense made landfall in Nova Scotia as a minimal Category 1 hurricane . It quickly weakened further to a tropical storm before re @-@ entering the Atlantic and became extratropical later that day .
The storm produced heavy rainfall and gusty winds as it passed through the Lesser Antilles . On Guadeloupe , damage was most significant to crops , with over 50 % of banana plantains destroyed . Localized flooding was reported on Martinique . Impact was most significant in Puerto Rico . Across the island , 11 @,@ 463 houses were severely damaged . About 1 @.@ 4 million people on Puerto Rico were left without electricity – equivalent to about 40 % of the island 's population . Damage in Puerto Rico was estimated at $ 153 @.@ 4 million . There were also 19 deaths , most of which due to drowning during flash floods . In the Dominican Republic , strong winds damaged a number of buildings and houses , and downed several power lines . Flooding also forced the closure of several roads and impacted 80 % of crops in Samaná Province . At least 3 fatalities were confirmed in that country . The storm brought strong winds to the Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands , and lesser winds to Bermuda . Later in its duration , Hortense struck Nova Scotia , bringing heavy rainfall and hurricane force winds to isolated locations . There were many power outages , trees blown down , roofs torn away , and roads damaged in the state . New Brunswick , Newfoundland , and Prince Edward Island were also impacted , though not as severely as in Nova Scotia . Damage in Atlantic Canada reached approximately $ 3 @.@ 64 million .
= = = Hurricane Isidore = = =
A tropical wave with a well @-@ defined circulation developed into Tropical Depression Nine at 1200 UTC on September 24 , while located south of Cape Verde . Due to an anticyclone to its north , the depression initially moved west @-@ northwestward . After convection wrapped around the circulation and banding features increased , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Isidore on September 25 . Isidore deepened further and began developing an eye feature . Early on September 26 , the storm was upgraded to a hurricane . About 24 hours later , it reached Category 2 intensity . At 0000 UTC on September 28 , Isidore attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 960 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 35 inHg ) .
After reaching peak intensity on September 28 , steering current from a quasi @-@ stationary mid- to upper @-@ level low pressure area turned Isidore northward . Later that day , the eye feature disappeared and the storm began weakening due to strong upper @-@ level winds . On September 28 , Isidore weakened to a Category 2 hurricane . By the following day , it was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane . Early on September 30 , Isidore weakened to a tropical storm . The storm deteriorated further and was downgraded to a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on the following day . Because much of the deep convection diminished , Isidore was declared extratropical at 0000 UTC on October 1 , while located about 490 miles ( 790 km ) west @-@ southwest of Flores Island in the Azores .
= = = Tropical Storm Josephine = = =
Tropical Depression Ten developed from the remnants of a cold front in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico on October 6 . Moving generally eastward , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Josephine on October 6 . The next day , it peaked with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Josephine made landfall in Taylor County , Florida near peak intensity early on October 8 . Shortly after moving inland , the storm became extratropical . Early in its duration , the system interacted with a ridge , resulting in strong winds and high tides in Texas . The outer bands caused flooding rainfall in southern Texas , and in Louisiana , high tides flooded roads and stranded residents on Grand Isle . In Florida , the storm produced a storm surge reaching 9 @.@ 3 feet ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) in Suwannee . High tides flooded about 3 @,@ 600 houses along the west coast . Strong winds left about 400 @,@ 000 people without power . The storm also spawned at least 16 tornadoes , one of which damaged 130 homes .
The extratropical remnants of Josephine moved along the eastern coast of the United States , producing wind gusts as strong as 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) in St. Mary 's County and in Ocean City , Maryland . The winds caused widespread power outages , including 26 @,@ 000 in Virginia and 31 @,@ 000 in New Jersey . Heavy rainfall flooded low @-@ lying areas and rivers along the storm 's path , including in North Carolina which had previously been affected by hurricanes Bertha and Fran earlier in the year . In the Southeastern United States , the storm contributed to dozens of traffic accidents , which killed a person each in Georgia , North Carolina , and Virginia . Damage throughout the United States totaled about $ 130 million . Josephine later moved offshore , and after passing southeast of Cape Cod , moved through Atlantic Canada with moderate rainfall and gusty winds .
= = = Tropical Storm Kyle = = =
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on September 27 and crossed the Atlantic and Caribbean before eventually developing into Tropical Depression Eleven on October 11 . The depression drifted slowly southwestward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Kyle later that day . Slightly further intensification occurred and Kyle peaked as a 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) tropical storm early on October 12 . However , upper @-@ level southwesterly shear caused Kyle to quickly weaken back to a tropical depression later that day . At 1800 UTC on October 12 , Kyle made landfall in eastern Guatemala with winds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) . By early on October 13 , the storm had completely dissipated inland .
Portions of the coasts of Belize , Guatemala , Honduras , and Mexico were under a tropical storm warning or hurricane watch as Kyle was approaching ; however they were cancelled after Kyle weakened back to a tropical depression . Impact from Kyle was minimal and limited to light rainfall in the countries of Belize , Guatemala , Honduras , and the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico . In Belize , rainfall peaked at 2 @.@ 32 inches ( 59 mm ) . Rainfall to the northwest of the center of Kyle was heavier , with some areas of Mexico 's Yucatán Peninsula receiving over 3 inches ( 76 mm ) ; precipitation peaked at 5 @.@ 71 inches ( 145 mm ) in Tulum .
= = = Hurricane Lili = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Twelve on October 14 . After the storm formed , further strengthening of Lili was gradual , first to tropical storm status on October 16 and then to hurricane status on October 17 . The next day , Lili made landfall in Matanzas Province , Cuba with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and moved across the central portion of the island ; it was first hurricane to hit the country since Kate in 1985 . After emerging into the Atlantic Ocean , the hurricane accelerated northeastward , briefly peaking as a Category 3 hurricane with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) near the Bahamas on October 19 . For almost an entire week , Hurricane Lili oscillated in intensity while fluctuating several times in forward speed . About two weeks passed before Lili transitioned into an extratropical storm north of the Azores on October 27 , which subsequently moved across Ireland and Great Britain .
Early in its duration , Lili caused flooding in Central America that left thousands homeless and killed 14 people . In Cuba , 269 @,@ 995 people were evacuated in advance of Lili , resulting in no deaths in the country . Damage was heaviest in Cuba , mostly due to the hurricane 's heavy rainfall peaking at 29 @.@ 41 inches ( 747 mm ) . The hurricane affected 11 Cuban provinces , damaging 92 @,@ 542 houses and destroying another 6 @,@ 369 . The rains heavily damaged the sugar cane and banana crops . Overall , damage in the country was estimated at $ 362 million . In nearby Florida , one person died after being swept into a drain during the storm 's heavy rains . Moisture from Lili also fueled a storm that struck the northeastern United States , which contributed indirectly to a death when a man in Maine tried to drive across a flooded roadway . Damage in the Bahamas was not severe and was limited to some damaged roofs and downed trees . When the remnants of Lili struck Ireland and the United Kingdom , it produced strong winds and high seas that damaged hundreds of houses , causing $ 300 million in damage and six deaths .
= = = Hurricane Marco = = =
A cold front interacted with several tropical waves , eventually spawning Tropical Depression Thirteen late on November 16 , while southwest of Jamaica . Initially a tropical depression , it remained weak while tracking southwestward and eventually southward . On November 19 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Marco . It re @-@ curved eastward and continued to strengthen , briefly becoming a hurricane on November 20 . Marco weakened back to a tropical storm later that day . The storm turned northeastward toward Hispanola , but later became stationary before curing eastward . Afterwards Marco doubled @-@ back to the west . After weakening to a tropical depression on November 23 , Marco became a tropical storm again on the following day . Thereafter , it tracked northwestward while fluctuating in intensity , before dissipating on November 26 .
Although it did not make landfall , Marco produced heavy rainfall in the Greater Antilles and Central America , which caused significant flooding in some areas . In Honduras , 4 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed , 40 bridges washed away , and nearly 50 @,@ 000 acres of fruit plantations were flooded . Nine deaths were also reported . Flood damage in other Central American countries was also reported , though affects were less severe . Heavy rainfall was also reported in Cuba . Marco also contributed to an ongoing flood in Jamaica and caused three additional fatalities in Dominican Republic . Overall , Marco caused 15 fatalities and approximately $ 8 @.@ 2 million in damage .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1996 . The World Meteorological Organization retired three names in the spring of 1997 : Cesar , Fran , and Hortense . They were replaced in the 2002 season by Cristobal , Fay , and Hanna . The names not retired from this list were used again in the 2002 season . This is the same list used for the 1990 season except for Dolly and Kyle , which replaced Diana and Klaus , respectively . A storm was named Kyle for the first time in 1996 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) – denoted by bold location names – damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still related to that storm . Damage and death include totals while a tropical cyclone was in its pre @-@ formative or post @-@ formative stages .
= Riot Act ( album ) =
Riot Act is the seventh studio album by American rock band Pearl Jam , released on November 12 , 2002 through Epic Records . Following a full @-@ scale tour in support of its previous album , Binaural ( 2000 ) , Pearl Jam took a year @-@ long break . The band then reconvened in the beginning of 2002 and commenced work on a new album . The music on the record featured a diverse sound , including songs influenced by folk , art rock , and experimental rock . The lyrics deal with mortality and existentialism , with much influence from both the political climate after the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks and the accidental death of nine fans during Pearl Jam 's performance at the 2000 Roskilde Festival .
The band supported the album with a politically charged concert tour in 2003 . Riot Act was the band 's last album of all @-@ new material for Epic . The album received mostly positive reviews , and has been certified gold by the RIAA in the United States .
= = Recording = =
Producer Adam Kasper was brought in to work with the band on its seventh album . Kasper had engineered other Pearl Jam albums , and was brought to produce following a suggestion by drummer Matt Cameron , who worked with Kasper on his previous groups Wellwater Conspiracy and Soundgarden . Riot Act was recorded in two sessions in February 2002 and April 2002 at Studio X in Seattle , Washington . The album was mixed by Brendan O 'Brien at Studio X.
Similar to the process for Yield and Binaural , band members worked on material individually before starting the recording sessions together . According to Cameron , everyone in the band had " four or five " ideas coming into the sessions , and there was " a lot to just kind of weed through and work on . " The band often recorded material intended to be demo recordings , but lead vocalist Eddie Vedder would come along and record his vocals afterwards , stating , " I just sang it , that 's the take . " Regarding the creative process , guitarist Stone Gossard said that while playing alone " the anal @-@ retentive side of you goes , ' I think I could play better . ' " , but when reuniting " the entire band goes ' No , it 's great as it is , ' then you just get in the mood and embrace it . " Gossard stated that " the process of letting go is constant in this band " , adding that bandmembers would arrive with " a clear idea of what a song is going to be " but eschew for other musical ideas while discussing the song with the group . Riot Act was the first Pearl Jam album to feature Kenneth " Boom " Gaspar on Keyboards , most notably on the song " Love Boat Captain " . According to Gaspar , the song initially developed out of a jam session he had with Vedder in Hawaii shortly after the two first met . When they were done , Vedder asked Gaspar if he was " ready to go to Seattle . " According to Gossard , bringing in Gaspar was about being " open to new things , " while Vedder stated Gaspar " was able to find his place " and fit in easily with the band dynamics . Guitarist Mike McCready said that he had always wanted the band to feature keyboards .
McCready described the recording environment as " a pretty positive one " and " very intense and spiritual . " Cameron said that producer Adam Kasper created a " really relaxed " atmosphere and that the band was able to complete lot of material in a short amount of time . Vedder set up his typewriter in a corner of the studio and would write lyrics as the band members played their material . Most of the album was recorded live , with Cameron describing the album as " our anti @-@ Pro Tools record . " Gossard said that the band fed off Cameron 's playing as well as Vedder 's excitement about the recording process .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Riot Act features a diverse sound , including folk @-@ based and experimental songs . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said " Riot Act is the album that Pearl Jam has been wanting to make since Vitalogy — a muscular art rock record , one that still hits hard but that 's filled with ragged edges and odd detours . " Gossard said " Riot Act really seems to showcase all of our thing . There 's the simple rock songs we could have written in the earlier era , but it covers all the different times and dynamics we 've had and still holds together . " The musical experiments also lead several songs on the album to use alternate tunings , including " You Are " , " All or None " and " Bu $ hleaguer " .
The lyrics on Riot Act were more direct than on preceding records , in response to the political climate after the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks . Bassist Jeff Ament commented that he felt that love was a major theme of the album , and Vedder tried to convey themes such as love , loss and struggle to make a difference because of the difficulty in leading with events such as the September 11 attacks and the accidental death of nine fans during Pearl Jam 's performance at the 2000 Roskilde Festival - " You start feeling like , ' What do I have to say ? What is my opinion ? ' Then I realized I did have an opinion . Not only did I have one , but I felt like it was formed by processing a lot of information and having good influences . Ament also told that " I think the time 's right to turn our voice up a bit [ . . . ] And Ed did it in a great way , with humour and a mystical , magical approach . It isn 't just , ' We 're pissed off , and fuck you ! Riot ! Anarchy ! ' Cos I don 't think that 's the method . At least at this point . " Vedder , however , said , " I have to admit this record came out a bit one @-@ sided . But I think we as a country need to understand why we 're involved in the Middle East . This hollow patriotism frightens me . " The singer added that the Riot Act lyrics " represent [ ed ] my state of mind these days . I 'm optimistic yet disillusioned , hopeful yet frustrated . " Several songs on the album were inspired by Roskilde tragedy , with the album 's first single , " I Am Mine " , being written by Vedder in 2000 in a hotel room before the band 's first show after Roskilde , and " Love Boat Captain " including a brief lyrical reference ( " Lost nine friends we 'll never know ... two years ago today " ) . Regarding the time period when the lyrics were being written , Vedder said , " There 's been a lot of mortality ... It 's a weird time to be writing . Roskilde changed the shape of us as people , and our filter for seeing the world changed . "
A few songs feature lyrical collaborations between Vedder and other members of the group , including one with Ament ( " Ghost " ) , one with Cameron ( " You Are " ) , and two with Gossard ( " Bu $ hleaguer " and " All or None " ) . Sole lyrical contributions from band members other than Vedder include Cameron with " Get Right " and Ament with " Help Help " . The album 's lyrics tackle existential matters ( " Love Boat Captain " , " Cropduster " , and " I Am Mine " ) , as well as social and political concerns ( " Green Disease " , " Bu $ hleaguer " , and " 1 / 2 Full " ) . The lyrics of " Save You " represent the anger felt by anyone who watches a close friend waste away his or her life . Regarding " Love Boat Captain " , Vedder said , " Love is one resource that the corporations aren 't going to be able to monopolize . " Vedder said that " Cropduster " is " about man 's giant ego , that he 's the most important thing on the planet . " Regarding " Green Disease " , Vedder stated he was " mystified " at CEO and corporate @-@ management salaries and " how someone can justify taking that much at the cost of other people 's livelihoods . " " Bu $ hleaguer " is a satirical commentary on President George W. Bush .
= = Packaging = =
The album 's cover art , photographed by Ament , features two skeletons wearing crowns , suggesting the possibility that the two represent a king and a queen . The forged metal figurines were created by blacksmith Kelly Gilliam . According to Ament , the band had trouble coming up with a name for the album . After the artwork had been finalized and the tracks were sequenced , the band spent weeks trying to come up with a title . Vedder suggested Riot Act , and the band members went with it as they were tired with trying to come up with a title . McCready stated that the title has no real significance . He said , " I guess we were trying to come up with a title that reflected some of the music on the record , which we thought was urgent @-@ sounding and kind of loud ... It just seemed to fit . " Ament implied that the title has to do with " getting your act together . "
= = Tour = =
Pearl Jam promoted the album with tours in Australia , Japan , and North America in 2003 . The tours were the band 's first with keyboardist Boom Gaspar . The two legs of the North American tour focused on the Midwestern United States , the East Coast , and the West Coast , and had more concerts in arenas . The trauma of Roskilde lead the tour to lack performances on festivals and open floor venues .
The band received much publicity for its energetic politically charged performances during the tour . At many shows during the 2003 North American tour , Vedder performed " Bu $ hleaguer " with a rubber mask of George W. Bush , wearing it at the beginning of the song and then hanging it on a mic stand to allow him to sing . The band made news when it was reported that several fans left after Vedder had " impaled " the Bush mask on his mic stand at the band 's April 1 , 2003 show in Denver , Colorado show at the Pepsi Center . Following a performance of the song at Pearl Jam 's April 30 , 2003 show in Uniondale , New York at the Nassau Coliseum , the band was met with boos from the crowd and chants of " U @-@ S @-@ A. " Vedder responded by defending his right to free speech and the band followed with a performance of The Clash 's " Know Your Rights " . The song " Arc " was performed by Vedder at nine shows during the second North American leg of the tour as a tribute to the victims of the Roskilde disaster . The concerts were documented by a long series of official bootlegs , all of which were available through the band 's official website , and six of which were released in record stores : Perth , Tokyo , State College , Pennsylvania , two shows from Madison Square Garden , and Mansfield , Massachusetts . Two concerts became DVDs , the Seattle one being issued as Live at the Showbox , and the first of two shows at Madison Square Garden was released as the Live at the Garden DVD . Pearl Jam also supported the album 's material at a series of political rallies and benefit concerts while preparing for its eighth studio album .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Riot Act reached number five in the U.S. on the Billboard 200 album chart , with 166 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week of release . The album would end up selling only 508 @,@ 000 copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan , short of the 718 @,@ 000 sold by predecessor Binaural . Riot Act has been certified gold by the RIAA . The international response to Riot Act was more positive . The album topped the charts in Australia , where it went platinum and ended among the best @-@ selling records of the year in both 2002 and 2003 . Riot Act also went to number two in both Italy , and New Zealand , three in Norway , and number four in Canada .
Three singles were released from Riot Act . Lead single " I Am Mine " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 43 , and reached number six on the Modern Rock charts . While " Save You " was released as the second single for North America , " Love Boat Captain " was the second single for international markets . " Save You " did not chart on the Hot 100 , but it did place on the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts . Music videos for several songs from the album , including " I Am Mine " , " Save You " , " Love Boat Captain " , " Thumbing My Way " , and " 1 / 2 Full " , were filmed at Seattle 's Chop Suey club in September 2002 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Riot Act received mixed to favorable reviews from music critics according to Metacritic , where it holds a 73 after 20 reviews . NME gave Riot Act an eight out of ten . Reviewer Louis Pattison stated that " Riot Act is the sound of a band entering a powerful middle @-@ age . They still deserve your attention . " AllMusic staff writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album four out of five stars , saying " given several plays , this does indeed seem like the richest record Pearl Jam has made in a long time . " Spin gave the album seven out of ten stars . The review said , " Pearl Jam 's seventh studio album balances emotive bombast with a taut @-@ sweaty hard @-@ rock attack . " Critic Robert Christgau described Pearl Jam on the album as " masters of their own audio , with soft spots where their emotions can go . " Rolling Stone staff writer Keith Harris gave the album three out of five stars , saying that " like Neil Young at his most deliberately despondent , Pearl Jam sound purposefully tired . " Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B , saying that Vedder ’ s lyrics " rarely cohere , " and that " too few of the tense rhythmic setups build to the kind of ... catharsis that would be something to Riot home about . " Q gave the album three out of five stars . The review called the album " An adult rock record in which nuance succeeds over bombast . "
Hugo Lindgren of The New York Times stated that the " record sounds as if it were made to slip quietly into the marketplace , connect with the faithful and leave everyone else alone , " and that " there 's no catchy single , and not even the slightest echo of anything else happening in pop music now . " He added that the " band 's grooves still sound taut , emotive and world @-@ class . " Adam Sweeting of The Guardian gave the album two out of five stars . In the review he stated that " Riot Act isn 't one thing or the other : tracks such as " Ghost " or " Get Right " gesture towards hard rock without really putting the hammer down , while a more reflective piece like " All or None " doesn 't exploit its own possibilities . " Sweeting observed , " On full , Pearl Jam sound like Stillwater , Cameron Crowe 's fictional 1970s second @-@ raters from his film Almost Famous . " Kyle Reiter of Pitchfork Media said that the album " meanders from one song to the next with an overwhelming insipidness , " and stated that it " [ brings ] them ever closer to homogenous bar @-@ band territory . "
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Eddie Vedder , except where noted .
= = = Outtakes = = =
The album 's singles featured three B @-@ sides from the Riot Act recording sessions that weren 't included on the album : " Down , " " Undone " and " Other Side . " " Down " and " Undone " were B @-@ sides on the " I Am Mine " single , and " Other Side " was featured on the " Save You " and " Love Boat Captain " singles . All three songs were included on the 2003 Lost Dogs collection of rarities , although " Undone " appeared in a slightly different form . McCready said that " Down " came out lighter than intended , and was ultimately left off Riot Act because it did not fit with the other songs on the album . Also recorded during the sessions was " 4 / 20 / 02 , " a song honoring Alice in Chains frontman Layne Staley which Vedder wrote the same day that he heard the news of Staley 's death . According to Vedder , " 4 / 20 / 02 " was not included on Riot Act because the band already had too many songs . It was included on Lost Dogs as well , albeit in the form of a hidden track . A recording of " Severed Hand , " a song that later appeared on the band 's next studio album Pearl Jam , was attempted during the recording sessions ; however the band only spent a few hours on the song before it was shelved . " Last Soldier , " which appeared on the band 's 2001 fan club Christmas single as a live version recorded at the 2001 Bridge School Benefit , was written by McCready following September 11 , 2001 . McCready said the band played around with the song , but never seriously considered recording it for Riot Act .
= = Personnel = =
= Oasis ( band ) =
Oasis were an English rock band formed in Manchester in 1991 . Developed from an earlier group , the Rain , the band originally consisted of Liam Gallagher ( vocals and tambourine ) , Paul " Bonehead " Arthurs ( guitar ) , Paul " Guigsy " McGuigan ( bass guitar ) , and Tony McCarroll ( drums , percussion ) . They were later joined by Liam 's older brother Noel Gallagher ( lead guitar and vocals ) as a fifth member , becoming the band 's settled line @-@ up until April 1995 .
Oasis signed to independent record label Creation Records in 1993 and released their record @-@ setting debut album Definitely Maybe ( 1994 ) . The following year the band recorded ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( 1995 ) with their new drummer Alan White , formerly of Starclub , in the midst of a chart rivalry with Britpop peers Blur . Along with Suede , Pulp and the aforementioned Blur , Oasis came to be regarded as a component of the Britpop " big four " , and the Gallagher brothers were featured regularly in tabloid newspapers for their sibling disputes and wild lifestyles . In 1997 Oasis released their third album , Be Here Now ( 1997 ) , and although it became the fastest @-@ selling album in UK chart history , the album 's popularity tapered off quickly , not before selling 8 million copies . McGuigan and Arthurs left Oasis in 1999 as the band went on to record and release Standing on the Shoulder of Giants ( 2000 ) . After their departures , they were replaced by former Heavy Stereo guitarist / frontman Gem Archer and former Hurricane No. 1 guitarist / frontman Andy Bell who joined the group for the tour in support of Standing on the Shoulder of Giants , which had moderate success . Their fifth studio album Heathen Chemistry ( 2002 ) saw Noel Gallagher 's releasing strict creative control in the band 's output with all members contributing songs , which led to more relaxed recording sessions . In 2004 the band were joined by The Who 's drummer Zak Starkey , replacing Alan White , and found renewed success and popularity with Don 't Believe the Truth ( 2005 ) .
Following the recording of the band 's seventh album Dig Out Your Soul ( 2008 ) , Starkey left and was replaced by Chris Sharrock on Oasis ' last tour as a collective band . During the tour the brothers ' increasingly deteriorating relationship ultimately led to Noel Gallagher announcing in August 2009 that he would be leaving the band after a backstage altercation with Liam before a festival appearance . The band , comprising the remaining members of Oasis and led by Liam Gallagher , decided to continue working together under the name Beady Eye until breaking up in 2014 , while Noel went on to form his solo project Noel Gallagher 's High Flying Birds .
Oasis have had eight UK number @-@ one singles and eight UK number @-@ one albums , and won fifteen NME Awards , nine Q Awards , four MTV Europe Music Awards and six Brit Awards , including one in 2007 for Outstanding Contribution to Music and one for the Best Album of the Last 30 Years as voted by BBC Radio 2 listeners ; they have been nominated for three Grammy Awards . By 2009 , the band had sold over 70 million records worldwide . The band were listed in the Guinness World Records book in 2010 for " Longest Top 10 UK Chart Run by a Group " after an unprecedented run of 22 top 10 hits in the UK . The band also holds the Guinness World Record for being the most successful act in the UK between the years 1995 and 2005 , spending 765 weeks in the Top 75 singles and albums charts .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years : 1991 – 92 = = =
Oasis evolved from an earlier band called the Rain , composed of Paul McGuigan ( bass guitar ) , Paul Arthurs ( guitar ) , Tony McCarroll ( drums ) and Chris Hutton ( vocals ) . Unsatisfied with Hutton , Arthurs invited and auditioned acquaintance Liam Gallagher as a replacement . Liam suggested that the band name be changed to Oasis . This change was inspired by an Inspiral Carpets tour poster that hung in the Gallagher brothers ' bedroom . One of the venues the poster listed was the Oasis Leisure Centre in Swindon , Wiltshire .
Oasis played their first ever live gig on 18 August 1991 at the Boardwalk club in Manchester . Liam 's brother Noel Gallagher , who was a roadie for Inspiral Carpets , went with the band to watch his younger brother 's band play . Whilst Noel and his friends did not think Oasis sounded particularly spectacular , he did begin to consider the possibility of using his brother 's group as a possible outlet for a series of songs he had been writing for several years . Noel approached the group about joining with the proviso that he would become the band 's sole songwriter and leader , and that they would commit to an earnest pursuit of commercial success . " He had loads of stuff written , " Arthurs recalled . " When he walked in , we were a band making a racket with four tunes . All of a sudden , there were loads of ideas . " Oasis under Noel Gallagher crafted a musical approach that relied on simplicity , with Arthurs and McGuigan restricted to playing barre chords and root bass notes ; McCarroll playing basic rhythms , and the band 's amplifiers turned up to create distortion , Oasis created a sound " so devoid of finesse and complexity that it came out sounding pretty much unstoppable . "
= = = Definitely Maybe : 1993 – 94 = = =
After over a year of live shows , rehearsals and a recording of a proper demo ( known as the Live Demonstration tape ) , the band 's big break came in May 1993 when they were spotted by Creation Records co @-@ owner Alan McGee . Oasis were invited to play a gig at King Tut 's Wah Wah Hut club in Glasgow , Scotland , by a band called Sister Lovers , who shared their rehearsal rooms . Oasis , along with a group of friends , found the money to hire a van and make the journey to Glasgow . When they arrived , they were refused entry to the club as they were not on that night 's set list , which reportedly caused the band to bully their way in ( although both the band and McGee have given contradicting statements about how they actually managed to get into the club on that night ) . They were given the opening slot and impressed McGee , who was there to see 18 Wheeler , one of his own bands , that night . McGee was so impressed by what he saw he offered them a recording contract then and there ; they however did not sign until several months later . Due to problems securing an American contract , Oasis ended up signing a worldwide contract with Sony , which in turn licensed Oasis to Creation in the UK . Following a limited white label release of the demo of their song " Columbia " , their first single , " Supersonic " , was released in April 1994 , reaching number 31 in the charts . The release was followed by " Shakermaker " . This song would become the subject of a plagiarism suit , with Oasis paying $ 500 @,@ 000 in damages . Their third single , " Live Forever " , was their first to enter the top ten of the UK charts . After troubled recording and mixing sessions , their debut album , Definitely Maybe , was released on 29 August 1994 , entering the charts at number one within a week of its release , and at the time becoming the fastest selling debut album in the UK .
The best part of a year of constant live performances and recordings , along with a hedonistic lifestyle , were taking their toll on the band . This behaviour culminated during a gig in Los Angeles in September 1994 , leading to inept performance by Liam during which he made offensive remarks about American audiences and hit Noel with a tambourine . The incident upset Noel to such an extent that he temporarily quit the band immediately after and flew to San Francisco ( it was from this incident that the song " Talk Tonight " was written ) . He was tracked down by Creation 's Tim Abbot and they made a trip to Las Vegas . Once there , the elder Gallagher was persuaded to continue with the band . He reconciled with his brother and the tour resumed in Minneapolis . The group followed up the fourth single from Definitely Maybe , " Cigarettes & Alcohol " , with the Christmas single " Whatever " , which entered the British charts at number three . This song would later carry a co @-@ writer 's credit for Neil Innes , who sued and also won damages .
= = = ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? : 1995 = = =
Oasis had their first UK number one single in April 1995 with " Some Might Say " . At the same time , drummer Tony McCarroll was ousted from the band . McCarroll said , on leaving Oasis , that he was " unlawfully expelled from the partnership " for what he called a " personality clash " with the brothers . The Gallaghers , on the other hand , doubted McCarroll 's musical ability , with Noel saying : " I like Tony as a geezer but he wouldn 't have been able to drum the new songs " . McCarroll was replaced by Alan White , formerly of Starclub and younger brother of renowned studio percussionist Steve White , whom Paul Weller recommended to Noel . White made his debut for the band at a Top of the Pops performance of " Some Might Say " . Oasis began recording material for their second album in May of that year in Rockfield Studios near Monmouth . The band , by this point , had recorded the concert that would see release in August as Live by the Sea .
During this period , the British press seized upon a supposed rivalry between Oasis and Britpop band Blur . Previously , Oasis did not associate themselves with the Britpop movement and were not invited to perform on the BBC 's " Britpop Now " programme introduced by Blur singer Damon Albarn . On 14 August 1995 , Blur and Oasis released new singles on the same day , setting up " The Battle of Britpop " that dominated the national news . Blur 's " Country House " outsold Oasis ' " Roll with It " 274 @,@ 000 copies to 216 @,@ 000 during the week . Oasis ' management came up with several reasons for this , claiming " Country House " sold more because it was less expensive ( £ 1 @.@ 99 vs £ 3 @.@ 99 ) and because there were two different versions of " Country House " with different B @-@ sides forcing serious fans to buy two copies . An alternative explanation given at the time by Creation was that there were problems associated with the barcode on the " Roll with It " single case , which did not record all sales . Noel Gallagher told The Observer in September that he hoped Damon Albarn and Alex James of Blur would " catch AIDS and die " , which caused a media furore . He subsequently apologised for this in a formal letter to various publications .
Bassist Paul McGuigan briefly left the band in September 1995 , citing nervous exhaustion . He was replaced by Scott McLeod , formerly of The Ya Ya 's , who was featured on some of the tour dates as well as in the " Wonderwall " video before leaving abruptly while on tour in the US . McLeod later contacted Noel Gallagher claiming he felt he had made the wrong decision . Gallagher curtly replied " I think you have too . Good luck signing on . " To complete the tour , McGuigan was successfully convinced to return to the band .
Although a softer sound led to mixed reviews , Oasis ' second album , ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? was a commercial success , becoming the fourth best @-@ selling album in UK Chart history with over four million copies sold . The album spawned two further hit singles , " Wonderwall " and " Don 't Look Back in Anger " , which reached numbers two and one respectively . It also contained the non @-@ UK single " Champagne Supernova " — featuring guitar and backing vocals by Paul Weller — that received widespread critical acclaim and peaked at number one on the US modern rock chart .
= = = Be Here Now : 1996 – 98 = = =
The group played their first headline outdoor concerts at Maine Road football stadium , home of Manchester City F.C. whom the Gallagher brothers have been fans of since childhood , on 27 and 28 April 1996 . Highlights from the second night featured on the video ... There and Then , released later the same year . As their career reached its zenith , Oasis performed back @-@ to @-@ back concerts at Knebworth on 10 and 11 August . The band sold out both shows within minutes . The audience of 125 @,@ 000 people each night for two nights ( 2 @.@ 5 million people applied for tickets , and 250 @,@ 000 were actually sold , meaning the possibility of 20 sold out nights ) , was at the time a record @-@ breaking number for an outdoor concert held in the UK , and to this day the largest demand for a show in British history .
The rest of the month proved to be difficult for the group . Oasis were due to record an episode of MTV Unplugged at the Royal Festival Hall but Liam pulled out , citing a sore throat . He watched the performance from a balcony with cold beer and cigarettes , heckling Noel 's singing between songs . Four days later the group left for a tour of American arenas but Liam refused to go ; the band decided to continue the tour with Noel on vocals . Liam rejoined the tour on 30 August , and on 4 September 1996 , Oasis performed " Champagne Supernova " at the 1996 MTV Video Music Awards at Radio City Music Hall in New York City . Liam made gestures at Noel during his guitar solo , then spat beer all over the stage before storming off . A few weeks later Noel flew home without the band , who followed on another flight . This event prompted media speculation that the group were splitting up . The brothers soon reconciled and decided to complete the tour .
Oasis spent the end of 1996 and the first quarter of 1997 at Abbey Road Studios in London and Ridge Farm Studios in Surrey recording their third album . Quarrels between the Gallagher brothers plagued the recording sessions . Be Here Now was released in August 1997 . Preceded by the UK number one single " D 'You Know What I Mean ? " , the album was their most anticipated effort , and as such became the subject of considerable media attention . By the end of the first day of release , Be Here Now sold 424 @,@ 000 units and by the end of business on Saturday of that week sales had reached 696 @,@ 000 , making it the fastest @-@ selling album in British history . The album debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 in the US , but its first week sales of 152 @,@ 000 — below expected sales of 400 @,@ 000 copies — were considered a disappointment . Although early media reviews were positive , once the hype had died down , the album was criticised for being bloated and derivative with most of the critics focused on the extensive length of several songs , the heavier sound , and overproduction .
By this time the Britpop movement was in decline , and the band had failed to meet expectations with their third album . After the conclusion of the Be Here Now Tour in early 1998 , amidst much media criticism the group kept a low profile . Later in the year , Oasis released a compilation album of fourteen B @-@ sides , entitled The Masterplan . " The really interesting stuff from around that period is the B @-@ sides . There 's a lot more inspired music on the B @-@ sides than there is on Be Here Now itself , I think " , related Noel in an interview in 2008 .
= = = Standing on the Shoulder of Giants : 1999 – 2000 = = =
In early 1999 , the band began work on their fourth studio album . First details were announced in February with Mark " Spike " Stent revealed to be taking a co @-@ producing role . Things were not going well and the shock departure of founding member Paul " Bonehead " Arthurs was announced in August . This departure was reported at the time as amicable , with Noel stating that Arthurs wanted to spend more time with his family . Arthurs ' statement clarified his leaving as " to concentrate on other things " . However , Noel has since offered a contradicting version : that a series of violations of Noel 's " no drink or drugs " policy ( imposed by Noel so that Liam could sing properly ) for the album 's sessions resulted in a confrontation between the two . Two weeks later the departure of bassist Paul McGuigan was announced . The Gallagher brothers held a press conference shortly thereafter where they assured reporters that " the future of Oasis is secure . The story and the glory will go on . "
The now three @-@ piece Oasis chose to continue recording the album , with Noel Gallagher re @-@ recording most of Arthurs ' guitar and McGuigan 's bass parts . After the completion of the recording sessions , the band began searching for replacement members . The first new member to be announced was new lead / rhythm guitarist Colin " Gem " Archer , formerly of Heavy Stereo , who later claimed to have been approached by Noel Gallagher only a couple of days after Arthurs ' departure was publicly announced . Finding a replacement bassist took more time and effort . The band were rehearsing with David Potts , but he quickly resigned , and they brought in Andy Bell , former guitarist / songwriter of Ride and Hurricane No. 1 as their new bassist . Bell had never played bass before and had to learn to play it ( with Noel since saying that Liam said , " If he can play the guitar , he can play the fookin ' bass " ) , along with a handful of songs from Oasis ' back catalogue , in preparation for a scheduled tour of America in December 1999 .
With the folding of Creation Records , Oasis formed their own label , Big Brother , which released all of Oasis ' subsequent records in the UK and Ireland . Oasis ' fourth album , Standing on the Shoulder of Giants , was released in February 2000 to good first @-@ week sales . It peaked at number one on the British charts and number 24 on the Billboard charts . Three singles were released from the album : " Go Let It Out " , " Who Feels Love ? " and " Sunday Morning Call " , all of which were top five UK singles . The " Go Let It Out " video was shot before Bell joined the group and therefore featured the unusual line @-@ up of Liam on rhythm guitar , Archer on lead guitar and Noel on bass . With the departure of the founding members , the band made several small changes to their image and sound . The cover featured a new " Oasis " logo , designed by Gem Archer , and the album was also the first Oasis release to include a song written by Liam Gallagher , entitled " Little James " . The songs also had more experimental , psychedelic influences . Standing on the Shoulder of Giants received only lukewarm reviews and is the band 's lowest selling studio album .
To support the record the band staged an eventful world tour . While touring in Barcelona in 2000 , Oasis were forced to cancel a gig when an attack of tendinitis caused Alan White 's arm to seize up , and the band spent the night drinking instead . After a row between the two brothers , Noel declared he was quitting touring overseas altogether , and Oasis were supposed to finish the tour without him . Noel eventually returned for the Irish and British legs of the tour , which included two major shows at Wembley Stadium . A live album of the first show , called Familiar to Millions , was released in late 2000 to mixed reviews .
= = = Heathen Chemistry : 2001 – 03 = = =
Throughout 2001 , Oasis split time between sessions for their fifth studio album and live shows around the world . Some gigs included the month @-@ long Tour of Brotherly Love with The Black Crowes and Spacehog and a show in Paris supporting Neil Young . The album , Heathen Chemistry , Oasis ' first album with new members Andy Bell and Gem Archer , was released in July 2002 . The album reached number 1 in the UK and number 23 in the US , although critics gave it mixed reviews . There were four singles released from the album : " The Hindu Times " , " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " , " Little by Little / She Is Love " , and " Songbird " , written by Liam – Oasis ' first single not written by Noel . The record blended the band 's sonic experiments from their last albums , but also went for a more basic rock sound . The recording of Heathen Chemistry was much more balanced for the band , with all of the members , apart from White , writing songs . Johnny Marr provided additional guitar as well as backup vocals on a couple of songs .
After the album 's release , the band embarked on a successful world tour that was once again filled with incidents . In late summer 2002 , whilst the band were on tour in the US , Noel , Bell and touring keyboardist Jay Darlington were involved in a car accident in Indianapolis . While none of the band members sustained any major injuries , some shows were cancelled as a result . In December 2002 , the latter half of the German leg of the band 's European tour had to be postponed after Liam Gallagher , Alan White and three other members of the band 's entourage were arrested after a violent brawl at a Munich nightclub . The band had been drinking heavily and tests showed that Liam had used cocaine . Liam lost two front teeth and kicked a police officer in the ribs , while Alan suffered minor head injuries after getting hit with an ashtray . Two years later Liam was fined around £ 40 @,@ 000 . The band finished their tour in March 2003 after returning to those postponed dates .
= = = Don 't Believe the Truth : 2004 – 06 = = =
Liam Gallagher said Oasis began recording a sixth album in late December 2003 with producers Death in Vegas at Sawmills Studios in Cornwall . The album was originally planned for a September 2004 release to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the release of Definitely Maybe . However , long @-@ time drummer Alan White , who at this time had played on nearly all of the band 's material , left the band in early January 2004 . At the time , his brother Steve White stated on his own website that " the spirit of being in a band was kicked out of him " and he wanted to be with his current girlfriend . White was replaced by Zak Starkey , drummer of The Who and the son of The Beatles ' Ringo Starr . Though Starkey performed on studio recordings and toured with the band , he was not officially a member and the band were a four @-@ piece for the first time in their career . Starkey played publicly for the first time at Poole Lighthouse .
A few days later , Oasis , with Starkey , headlined the Glastonbury Festival for the second time in their career and performed a largely greatest hits set , which included two new songs — Gem Archer 's " A Bell Will Ring " and Liam Gallagher 's " The Meaning of Soul " . The performance received negative reviews , with NME calling it a " disaster . " The BBC 's Tom Bishop called Oasis ' set " lacklustre and uneventful ... prompting a mixed reception from fans " , mainly because of Liam 's uninspired singing and Starkey 's lack of experience with the band 's material .
After much turbulence , the band 's sixth album was finally recorded in Los Angeles @-@ based Capitol Studios from October to December the same year . Producer Dave Sardy took over the lead producing role from Noel , who decided to step back from these duties after a decade of producing leadership over the band . In May 2005 , after three years and as many scrapped recording sessions , the band released their sixth studio album , Don 't Believe the Truth , fulfilling their contract with Sony BMG . It followed the path of Heathen Chemistry as being a collaborative project again , rather than a Noel @-@ written album . The album was the first in a decade not to feature drumming by Alan White , marking the recording debut of Starkey . The record was generally hailed as the band 's best effort since Morning Glory by fans and critics alike , spawning two UK number one singles : " Lyla " and " The Importance of Being Idle " , whilst " Let There Be Love " entered at number 2 . Oasis picked up two awards at the Q Awards : one People 's Choice Award and the second for Don 't Believe the Truth as Best Album . Following in the footsteps of Oasis ' previous five albums , Don 't Believe the Truth also entered the UK album charts at number one . To date the album has sold more than 7 million copies worldwide .
In May 2005 , the band 's new line @-@ up embarked on a large scale world tour . Beginning on 10 May 2005 at the London Astoria , and finishing on 31 March 2006 in front of a sold out gig in Mexico City , Oasis played more live shows than at any time since the Definitely Maybe tour , visiting 26 countries and headlining 113 shows for over 3 @.@ 2 million people . The tour passed without any major incidents and was the band 's most successful in more than a decade . The tour included sold out shows at New York 's Madison Square Garden and LA 's Hollywood Bowl . A rockumentary film made during the tour , entitled Lord Don 't Slow Me Down directed by Dick Carruthers was released in October 2007 . A second DVD included live footage from an Oasis gig in Manchester from 2 July 2005 .
Oasis released a compilation double album entitled Stop the Clocks in 2006 , featuring what the band considers to be their " definitive " songs . The band received the Brit Award for outstanding contribution to music in February 2007 , playing several of their most famous songs afterwards . Oasis released their first ever digital @-@ only release , " Lord Don 't Slow Me Down " , in October 2007 . The song debuted at number ten in the UK singles chart .
= = = Dig Out Your Soul : 2007 – 09 = = =
The band 's resurgence in popularity since the success of Don 't Believe The Truth was highlighted in February 2008 when , in a poll to find the fifty greatest British albums of the last fifty years conducted by Q magazine and HMV , two Oasis albums were voted first and second ( Definitely Maybe and ( What 's The Story ) Morning Glory ? respectively ) . Two other albums by the band appeared in the list – Don 't Believe The Truth came in at number fourteen , and the album that has previously been heavily criticised by some of the media , Be Here Now , made the list at No.22.
Oasis recorded for a couple of months in 2007 – between July and September — completing work on two new songs and demoing the rest . They took a two @-@ month break , because of the birth of Noel 's son . The band re @-@ entered the studio on 5 November 2007 and finished recording around March 2008 with producer Dave Sardy . In May 2008 , Zak Starkey left the band after recording Dig Out Your Soul , the band 's seventh studio album . He was replaced by former Icicle Works drummer Chris Sharrock on their tour and , like Zak , Chris was not an official member of the band and Oasis remained as a four @-@ piece . The first single from the record was " The Shock of the Lightning " written by Noel Gallagher , and was pre @-@ released on 29 September 2008 . Dig Out Your Soul , the band 's seventh studio album , was released on 6 October and went to number one in the UK and number five on the Billboard 200 . The band started touring for a projected 18 @-@ month @-@ long tour expected to last till September 2009 , with support from Kasabian , The Enemy and Twisted Wheel . On 7 September 2008 , while performing at Virgin Festival in Toronto , a member of the audience ran on stage and physically assaulted Noel . Noel suffered three broken and dislodged ribs as a result from the attack , and the group had to cancel several shows while he recovered . In June 2008 , the band re @-@ signed with Sony BMG for a three @-@ album deal .
On 25 February 2009 , Oasis received the NME Award for Best British Band of 2009 as well as best blog for Noel 's ' Tales from the Middle of Nowhere ' .
On 4 June 2009 , Oasis played the first of three concerts at Manchester 's Heaton Park and after having to leave the stage twice due to a generator failure , came on the third time to declare the gig was now a free concert ; it delighted the 70 @,@ 000 ticket holders , 20 @,@ 000 of whom claimed the refund . The band 's two following gigs at the venue , on 6 and 7 June , proved a great success , with fans turning out in their thousands despite the changeable weather and first night 's sound issues .
= = = Split and aftermath : 2009 – present = = =
As a result of Liam suffering laryngitis , Oasis cancelled a planned gig at V Festival in Chelmsford on 23 August 2009 . Noel Gallagher later made a statement saying the gig was cancelled due to Liam having ' a hangover ' . Tension between the brothers rose and a fight between them in a backstage area on 28 August 2009 reportedly resulted in Liam throwing a plum and wielding Noel 's guitar like an axe . The group 's manager announced the cancellation of their concert at the Rock en Seine festival near Paris just minutes before it was about to begin , along with the cancellation of the last date at I @-@ Day Festival and a statement that the group " does not exist anymore " . Two hours later , a statement from Noel appeared on the band 's website :
" It is with some sadness and great relief ... I quit Oasis tonight . People will write and say what they like , but I simply could not go on working with Liam a day longer . "
On the 6th of July 2011 Absolute Radio uploaded a video to YouTube where Noel Gallagher speaks about the night Oasis ended . Noel states within this video . ' If i had my time again i would have gone back and done the gig . I 'd have done that gig and i 'd have done the next gig and we 'd have all gone away and we could have probably discussed it . We may never have split up.'
On 16 February 2010 , Oasis won the award for Best Brit Album of the Last 30 Years at the 2010 Brit Awards . Liam Gallagher collected the award alone before presenting his speech , which thanked Bonehead , McGuigan and Alan White but not his brother , Noel . Liam threw his microphone and the band 's award into the crowd . On 15 March 2010 , Liam defended his actions at the awards ceremony , saying " I 'm sick of it all being about me and Noel , the last couple of months has pretty much been all about me and him so I thought it was only right to mention the other lads who played on the album and the best fans in the world , " and " I thought it was a nice gesture to give this to the fans , obviously it was misinterpreted as per usual . " about throwing the award .
Time Flies ... 1994 – 2009 , a compilation album containing singles by the group , was released on 14 June 2010 . The decision to make the compilation a singles collection , and the track order , was decided by Noel Gallagher , who released a number of videos to the Oasis YouTube account relating to the collection .
On 26 February 2014 , Noel via the band 's official website announced that the first three studio albums would be reissued , remastered and re @-@ released throughout the remainder of 2014 to commemorate the 20th anniversary of Definitely Maybe . A remastered 3 @-@ disc version of Definitely Maybe was released on 19 May 2014 .
A documentary titled Supersonic is set to be released in October 2016 , and will tell the story of Oasis from their beginnings to the height of their fame during the summer of 1996 . Produced by the same team behind the Academy Award @-@ winning biopic Amy , Supersonic is said to feature up close and personal footage , as well as never before seen archive material and interviews with the band .
= = Influences = =
Oasis were most heavily influenced by the Beatles , an influence that was frequently labelled as an " obsession " by the British media . In addition , members of Oasis have cited the Stone Roses , U2 , Bee Gees , T. Rex , Sex Pistols , Slade , Small Faces , the Who , Nirvana , the Rolling Stones , the Stooges , the La 's , the Doors , Jimi Hendrix , Bob Dylan , Neil Young , Humble Pie , Happy Mondays , the Hollies , Inspiral Carpets , Peter Green @-@ era Fleetwood Mac , the Kinks , the Jam , Pink Floyd , the Verve , Led Zeppelin , David Bowie , the Velvet Underground , Talking Heads , and the Smiths as an influence or inspiration .
= = Legal battles over songwriter credits = =
Legal action has been taken against Noel Gallagher and Oasis for plagiarism on three separate occasions during the course of Oasis ' career . The first was the case of Neil Innes ( formerly of the Bonzo Dog Doo @-@ Dah Band and the Rutles ) suing to prove the Oasis song " Whatever " borrowed from his song " How Sweet to Be an Idiot " . Innes was eventually awarded royalties and a co @-@ writer credit . Noel Gallagher claimed in 2010 that the plagiarism was unintentional and he was unaware of the similarities until informed of Innes 's legal case . In the second incident , Oasis were also sued by Coca @-@ Cola and forced to pay $ 500 @,@ 000 in damages to the New Seekers after it was alleged that the Oasis song " Shakermaker " had lifted words and melody from " I 'd Like to Teach the World to Sing " . When asked about the incident , Noel Gallagher joked " Now we all drink Pepsi . " On the third and final occasion , when promotional copies of ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? were originally distributed , they contained a previously unreleased bonus song called " Step Out " . This promotional CD was quickly withdrawn and replaced with a version that omitted the controversial song , which was allegedly similar to the Stevie Wonder song " Uptight ( Everything 's Alright ) " . " Step Out " later reappeared as the B @-@ side to " Don 't Look Back in Anger " , albeit now listing " Wonder , et. al " as co @-@ writers .
On the flip side , the 2003 song " Life Got Cold " by UK girl band Girls Aloud received attention due to similarities between the guitar riff and melody of " Life Got Cold " and that of the song " Wonderwall " . A BBC review stated " part of the chorus sounds like it is going to turn into Wonderwall by Oasis . " A source told The Sun that Girls Aloud " are all big Oasis fans so I 'm sure they won 't mind comparisons with their classic love song . " Warner / Chappell Music has since credited Oasis songwriter Noel Gallagher .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Many bands and artists have cited Oasis as an influence or inspiration , including the Killers , Arctic Monkeys , the Enemy , Elliott Smith , Lily Allen , the View , Drake Bell , Hurts , Coldplay , Maroon 5 , the Coral , Ryan Adams , the Kooks , the Rifles , the Pigeon Detectives , Keane and Kasabian .
= = Band members = =
Liam Gallagher – lead vocals , tambourine , acoustic guitar ( 1991 – 2009 )
Noel Gallagher – lead guitar , acoustic guitar , rhythm guitar , vocals , bass , keyboard ( 1991 – 2009 )
Gem Archer – rhythm guitar , lead guitar , acoustic guitar , harmonica ( 1999 – 2009 )
Andy Bell – bass , acoustic guitar ( 1999 – 2009 )
Alan White – drums , percussion ( 1995 – 2004 )
Paul " Guigsy " McGuigan – bass ( 1991 – 1999 )
Paul " Bonehead " Arthurs – rhythm guitar , acoustic guitar , piano ( 1991 – 1999 )
Tony McCarroll – drums ( 1991 – 1995 )
Touring musicians
Jay Darlington – keyboard ( 2004 – 2009 )
Zak Starkey – drums , percussion ( 2004 – 2008 )
Chris Sharrock – drums ( 2008 – 2009 )
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Definitely Maybe ( 1994 )
( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( 1995 )
Be Here Now ( 1997 )
Standing on the Shoulder of Giants ( 2000 )
Heathen Chemistry ( 2002 )
Don 't Believe the Truth ( 2005 )
Dig Out Your Soul ( 2008 )
= = Awards = =
= Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows =
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is the seventh and final novel of the Harry Potter series , written by British author J. K. Rowling . The book was released on 21 July 2007 by Bloomsbury Publishing in the United Kingdom , in the United States by Scholastic , and in Canada by Raincoast Books , ending the series that began in 1997 with the publication of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone . The novel chronicles the events directly following Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince ( 2005 ) , and the final confrontation between the wizards Harry Potter and Lord Voldemort , as well as revealing the previously concealed back story of several main characters . The title of the book refers to three mythical objects featured in the story , collectively known as the " Deathly Hallows " — an unbeatable wand , a stone to bring the dead to life , and a cloak of invisibility .
Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in January 2007 . Before its release , Bloomsbury reportedly spent £ 10 million to keep the book 's contents safe before its release date . American publisher Arthur Levine refused any copies of the novel to be released in advance for press review , although two reviews were submitted early . Shortly before release , photos of all 759 pages of the U.S. edition were leaked and transcribed , leading Scholastic to look for the source that had leaked it .
Released globally in 93 countries , Deathly Hallows broke sales records as the fastest @-@ selling book ever , a record it still held in 2012 . It sold 15 million copies in the first 24 hours following its release , including more than 11 million in the U.S. and UK alone . The previous record , 9 million in its first day , had been held by Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince . The novel has also been translated into over 120 languages . The title proved difficult to translate and was often rendered closer to " Harry Potter and the Relics of Death " in other languages .
Major themes in the novel are death and living in a corrupted society , and critics have compared them to Christian allegories . Generally well @-@ received , the book won the 2008 Colorado Blue Spruce Book Award , and the American Library Association named it a " Best Book for Young Adults " . A two @-@ part film adaptation began showing in November 2010 when Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 was released ; Part 2 was released on 15 July 2011 .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
Throughout the six previous novels in the series , the titular character Harry Potter has struggled with the difficulties of adolescence along with being famous as the only wizard to survive the Killing Curse . The curse was cast by the evil Tom Riddle , better known as Lord Voldemort , a powerful evil wizard , who had murdered Harry 's parents and attempted to kill Harry as a baby , in the belief this would frustrate a prophecy that Harry would become his equal . As an orphan , Harry was placed in the care of his Muggle ( non @-@ magical ) relatives Aunt Petunia and Uncle Vernon .
In Philosopher 's Stone , Harry re @-@ enters the wizarding world at age 11 and enrols in Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . He makes friends with fellow students Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger , and is mentored by the school 's headmaster , Albus Dumbledore . He also meets Professor Severus Snape , who intensely dislikes and bullies him . Harry fights Voldemort several times while at school , as the wizard tries to regain a physical form . In Goblet of Fire , Harry is mysteriously entered in a dangerous magical competition called the Triwizard Tournament , which he discovers is a trap designed to allow the return of Lord Voldemort to full strength . During Order of the Phoenix , Harry and several of his friends face off against Voldemort 's Death Eaters , a group of Dark witches and wizards , and narrowly defeat them . In Half @-@ Blood Prince , Harry learns that Voldemort has divided his soul into several parts , creating " horcruxes " from various unknown objects to contain them ; in this way he has ensured his immortality as long as at least one of the horcruxes still exists . Two of these had already been destroyed , one a diary destroyed by Harry in the events of Chamber of Secrets and one a ring destroyed by Dumbledore shortly before the events of Half @-@ Blood Prince . Dumbledore takes Harry along in the attempt to destroy a third horcrux contained in a locket . However the horcrux has been taken by an unknown wizard , and upon their return Dumbledore is ambushed and disarmed by Draco Malfoy who cannot bring himself to kill him , then killed by Snape .
= = = Summary = = =
Following Dumbledore 's death , Voldemort consolidates his support and power , including covert control of the Ministry of Magic , while Harry is about to turn seventeen , losing the protection of his home . The Order of the Phoenix move Harry to a new location before his birthday , but are attacked upon departure . Mad @-@ Eye is killed , and George Weasley wounded , the rest arrive safely .
Abandoning school , Ron and Hermione accompany Harry to finish Dumbledore 's quest : to hunt and destroy Voldemort 's four remaining Horcruxes . Initially they have very few clues — one is a locket once owned by Hogwarts ' co @-@ founder Salazar Slytherin which was stolen by the mysterious " R.A.B. " , one is possibly a cup originally belonging to co @-@ founder Helga Hufflepuff , a third might be connected to co @-@ founder Rowena Ravenclaw , and the fourth might be Nagini , Voldemort 's snake familiar . They also receive apparently meaningless bequests from Dumbledore 's possessions — a Golden Snitch for Harry , a Deluminator for Ron , and a book of fairy tales for Hermione .
Before leaving , they attend Ron 's brother Bill 's wedding , but the Ministry of Magic finally falls to Voldemort and the wedding is attacked . They flee to 12 Grimmauld Place in London , the family home of Sirius Black and headquarters of the Order of the Phoenix , where they identify R.A.B. as Sirius ' brother Regulus Black , and learn from the house @-@ elf Kreacher that Slytherin 's locket was stolen from the house and then seized by Dolores Umbridge of the Ministry of Magic . They infiltrate the Ministry of Magic and take back the locket , but have no way to destroy it . Under the object 's evil influence and the strain of constant vigilance , they argue and Ron leaves .
Harry and Hermione continue the quest , discovering more about Dumbledore 's past , including the death of Dumbledore 's younger sister and his connection to the dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald . They travel to Godric 's Hollow , Harry 's birthplace and the place where his parents died , and meet the elderly magical historian Bathilda Bagshot , but she turns out to be Nagini in disguise , awaiting their arrival ; the snake attacks Harry and again they barely escape , this time to the Forest of Dean , where their luck appears to turn . A mysterious silver doe , similar to a Patronus , appears and silently guides Harry to an icy pond containing the Sword of Hogwarts co @-@ founder Godric Gryffindor , a Goblin @-@ made weapon and one of the few objects able to destroy Horcruxes . During Harry 's attempt to recover the sword , the Horcrux attempts to kill him . He is saved by Ron , who was guided back by the deluminator , and they realise Dumbledore 's gifts may be meaningful . Ron obtains the sword , and uses it to destroy the locket .
Harry continues to have visions of Voldemort torturing and killing wizards , apparently in pursuit of some object . Hermione identifies in her book , a strange symbol also worn at the wedding by Xenophilius Lovegood . They visit him and are told the symbol represents the mythical Deathly Hallows , three objects from an old fairy tale titled The Tale of the Three Brothers : the Elder Wand , an unbeatable wand ; the Resurrection Stone , able to summon the dead ; and an infallible Invisibility Cloak . Harry realises that Voldemort is seeking ( and shortly afterwards , successfully obtains ) the Elder Wand , won by Dumbledore after Grindelwald 's defeat , recognises the Resurrection Stone as that found by Dumbledore which had become the second Horcrux , and his own inherited Invisibility Cloak as the third Hallow .
The trio are captured and taken to Malfoy Manor , where Bellatrix Lestrange tortures Hermione to learn how the three acquired the sword , which she had believed was in her vault at Gringotts bank . They escape , along with Luna Lovegood , Ollivander , Dean Thomas , and the goblin Griphook , aided by the elf Dobby . During the escape Harry disarms Draco Malfoy and Dobby dies . Bellatrix ' terror in interrogating Hermione suggests to Harry that some exceptional object is in her vault , and when questioned , Griphook confirms that a gold cup is indeed in her vault . They break into the vault , retrieve the cup , and escape on a dragon , although they lose the sword . Harry has a vision of Voldemort and sees that he now understands their plan , and intends to make his remaining horcruxes even safer . The vision also confirms that the unidentified horcrux is at Hogwarts .
They enter the school through an undiscovered secret entrance . The teachers drive out Snape , and defend the school to win time for Harry to locate the penultimate horcrux . Voldemort had set a guard in the Ravenclaw tower , corroborating Harry 's belief that the horcrux is Rowena Ravenclaw 's diadem , lost centuries ago . The Ravenclaw ghost 's story further confirms this belief , and Harry remembers an old diadem in the Room of Requirement . Ron and Hermione destroy the cup with basilisk fangs from the Chamber of Secrets as Voldemort and his army besiege the castle . They find the diadem but are ambushed by Draco Malfoy and his friends Crabbe and Goyle . Crabbe tries to kill them using Fiendfyre , a cursed fire , but is unable to control it ; the fire destroys the diadem and himself . Harry and his friends save Malfoy and Goyle , and several major characters are killed in the battle , including Remus Lupin , Nymphadora Tonks , and Fred Weasley .
In his encampment , Voldemort feels that the Elder Wand is not performing as he expected . According to legend , its allegiance must be won by killing the previous owner , and Voldemort concludes — incorrectly — that as Snape killed Dumbledore , he will not be able to fully wield the wand 's power until he kills Snape , which he does . Harry arrives as Snape is dying , and Snape passes him memories to view in a pensieve . They reveal finally , that Snape had a lifelong love for Harry 's mother , and felt haunted by causing her death , that despite hating Harry 's father he agreed at Dumbledore 's request to watch over their son Harry and act as a double agent against Voldemort , that Dumbledore 's death was planned with Snape in advance , that Snape cast the doe Patronus to lead Harry to the sword , and that — apparently — he himself must die if Voldemort is to be killed . He accepts his death and Dumbledore 's scheming that has guided his life , and goes to seek out and be killed by Voldemort . On the way he tells Neville Longbottom that Voldemort 's snake Nagini — the last known horcrux — must be killed to make Voldemort vulnerable . He uses the Resurrection Stone to seek comfort and courage from his dead loved ones — his parents , Sirius and Lupin — dropping the stone in the forest before reaching Voldemort 's camp . Voldemort uses the Killing Curse and Harry does not defend himself .
Harry awakens in a dreamlike location somewhat like Kings Cross Station , and is greeted by Dumbledore who explains that Voldemort 's original Killing Curse left a fragment of Voldemort 's soul in Harry which caused the connection they had felt , that when Voldemort used Harry 's blood to regain his full strength , this further protected Harry from Voldemort , that this fragment of Voldemort 's soul has now been killed by Voldemort 's own spell , and that Harry is free to return or " go on " . Harry chooses to return and feigns death . Voldemort displays Harry 's body and offers a truce if the defenders surrender , but Neville kills Nagini with the sword , leaving Voldemort unprotected , and Harry escapes under his cloak as the battle resumes .
In a final onslaught , Bellatrix is killed and Harry reveals to Voldemort that he is alive . He explains to Voldemort that the Elder Wand 's loyalty transfers upon the defeat , not necessarily the killing , of its previous master . Although Voldemort believed he has won the wand 's allegiance by killing Snape , who killed Dumbledore , in fact he ( Harry ) had defeated Draco Malfoy who had previously disarmed Dumbledore . Therefore , the outcome of their duel will depend upon whether the Elder Wand knows its previous master was disarmed , which will have left Harry as its true master , even though neither Draco nor Harry ever physically held it . He also explains that his attempted self @-@ sacrifice has protected the remaining defendants , who can now no longer be hurt by Voldemort . Harry urges Voldemort to feel remorse , in order to save his soul . Enraged , Voldemort attempts one final Killing Curse , but the Elder Wand refuses to act against Harry and the spell rebounds , killing him finally .
After Voldemort 's death , Harry uses the Elder Wand to repair his original broken wand , saying that he will return it to Dumbledore 's tomb , where its power may vanish if Harry dies undefeated and where it may drop out of history , and the wizarding world returns to peace once more .
Epilogue
In an epilogue set in King 's Cross station 19 years later , Harry and Ginny Weasley are a couple with three children : James Sirius , Albus Severus , and Lily Luna . Ron and Hermione also have two children , Rose and Hugo ; Harry 's godson Teddy Lupin , is found kissing Bill and Fleur Weasley 's daughter Victoire ; Neville Longbottom is now a Hogwarts professor ; and Draco Malfoy and his wife are also at the station to send off their son , Scorpius . Albus is departing for his first year at Hogwarts , and is worried he will be placed into Slytherin House . Harry reassures him , telling his son that he is named for two Hogwarts headmasters , and one of them ( Snape ) was a Slytherin and " the bravest man he had ever met " , but that the Sorting Hat could take account of personal preferences , as it did for Harry . The book ends with the words : " The scar had not pained Harry for nineteen years . All was well . "
= = Background = =
= = = Franchise = = =
Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone was published by Bloomsbury , the publisher of all Harry Potter books in the United Kingdom , on 30 June 1997 . It was released in the United States on 1 September 1998 by Scholastic — the American publisher of the books — as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone , after Rowling had received US $ 105 @,@ 000 for the American rights — an unprecedented amount for a children 's book by a then @-@ unknown author .
The second book , Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 , and in the US on 2 June 1999 . Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 , and in the US on 8 September 1999 . Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic . Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version . It was published worldwide in English on 21 June 2003 . Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005 , and it sold 9 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release .
= = = Choice of title = = =
Shortly before releasing the title , J. K. Rowling announced that she had considered three titles for the book . The final title , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , named after the mythical Deathly Hallows in the novel , was released to the public on 21 December 2006 , via a special Christmas @-@ themed hangman puzzle on Rowling 's website , confirmed shortly afterwards by the book 's publishers . When asked during a live chat about the other titles she had been considering , Rowling mentioned Harry Potter and the Elder Wand and Harry Potter and the Peverell Quest .
= = = Rowling on finishing the book = = =
Rowling completed the book while staying at the Balmoral Hotel in Edinburgh in January 2007 , and left a signed statement on a marble bust of Hermes in her room which read : " J. K. Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in this room ( 552 ) on 11 January 2007 " . In a statement on her website , she said , " I 've never felt such a mixture of extreme emotions in my life , never dreamed I could feel simultaneously heartbroken and euphoric . " She compared her mixed feelings to those expressed by Charles Dickens in the preface of the 1850 edition of David Copperfield , " a two @-@ years ' imaginative task " . " To which , " she added , " I can only sigh , try seventeen years , Charles " . She ended her message by saying " Deathly Hallows is my favourite , and that is the most wonderful way to finish the series " .
When asked before publication about the forthcoming book , Rowling stated that she could not change the ending even if she wanted . " These books have been plotted for such a long time , and for six books now , that they 're all leading a certain direction . So , I really can 't " . She also commented that the final volume related closely to the previous book in the series , Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince , " almost as though they are two @-@ halves of the same novel " . She has said that the last chapter of the book was written " in something like 1990 " , as part of her earliest work on the series . Rowling also revealed she originally wrote the last words to be " something like : ' Only those who he loved could see his lightning scar ' " . Rowling changed this because she did not want people to think Voldemort would rise again and to say that Harry 's mission was over .
= = Major themes = =
= = = Death = = =
In a 2006 interview , J. K. Rowling said that the main theme of the series is Harry dealing with death , which was influenced by her mother 's death in 1990 , from multiple sclerosis . Lev Grossman of Time stated that the main theme of the series was the overwhelming importance of continuing to love in the face of death .
= = = Living in a corrupted society = = =
Academics and journalists have developed many other interpretations of themes in the books , some more complex than others , and some including political subtexts . Themes such as normality , oppression , survival , and overcoming imposing odds have all been considered as prevalent throughout the series . Similarly , the theme of making one 's way through adolescence and " going over one 's most harrowing ordeals — and thus coming to terms with them " has also been considered . Rowling has stated that the books comprise " a prolonged argument for tolerance , a prolonged plea for an end to bigotry " and that also pass on a message to " question authority and ... not assume that the establishment or the press tells you all of the truth " .
Some political commentators have seen J. K. Rowling 's portrayal of the bureaucratised Ministry of Magic and the oppressive measures taken by the Ministry in the later books ( like making attendance at Hogwarts School compulsory and the " registration of Mudbloods " with the Ministry ) as an allegory of criticising the state .
= = = Christian allegories = = =
The Harry Potter series has been criticised for supposedly supporting witchcraft and the occult . Before publication of Deathly Hallows , Rowling refused to speak out about her religion , stating , " If I talk too freely , every reader , whether 10 or 60 , will be able to guess what 's coming in the books " . However , many have noted Christian allegories apparent in Deathly Hallows . For example , Harry dies and then comes back to life to save mankind , like Christ . The location where this occurs is King 's Cross . Harry also urges Voldemort to show remorse , to restore his shattered soul . Rowling also stated that " my belief and my struggling with religious belief ... I think is quite apparent in this book " , which is shown as Harry struggles with his faith in Dumbledore .
Deathly Hallows begins with a pair of epigraphs , one by Quaker leader William Penn and one from Aeschylus ' The Libation Bearers . Of this , Rowling said " I really enjoyed choosing those two quotations because one is pagan , of course , and one is from a Christian tradition . I 'd known it was going to be those two passages since Chamber was published . I always knew [ that ] if I could use them at the beginning of book seven then I 'd cued up the ending perfectly . If they were relevant , then I went where I needed to go . They just say it all to me , they really do " .
When Harry visits his parents ' grave , the biblical reference " The last enemy that shall be destroyed is death " ( 1 Corinthians 15 : 26 ) is inscribed on the grave . The Dumbledores ' family tomb also holds a biblical quote : " Where your treasure is , there your heart will be also " , which is from Matthew 6 : 21 . Rowling states , " They 're very British books , so on a very practical note Harry was going to find biblical quotations on tombstones ... [ but ] I think those two particular quotations he finds on the tombstones at Godric 's Hollow , they sum up – they almost epitomise the whole series " .
Harry Potter pundit John Granger additionally noted that one of the reasons the Harry Potter books were so popular is their use of literary alchemy ( similar to Romeo and Juliet , C. S. Lewis 's Perelandra and Charles Dickens 's A Tale of Two Cities ) and vision symbolism . In this model , authors weave allegorical tales along the alchemical magnum opus . Since the medieval period , alchemical allegory has mirrored the passion , death and resurrection of Christ . While the entire series utilises symbols common in alchemy , the Deathly Hallows completes this cycle , tying themes of death , rebirth , and the Resurrection Stone to the principal motif of alchemical allegory , and topics presented in the first book of the series .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing and promotion = = =
The launch was celebrated by an all @-@ night book signing and reading at the Natural History Museum in London , which Rowling attended along with 1 @,@ 700 guests chosen by ballot . Rowling toured the US in October 2007 , where another event was held at Carnegie Hall in New York City with tickets allocated by sweepstake .
Scholastic , the American publisher of the Harry Potter series , launched a multimillion @-@ dollar " There will soon be 7 " marketing campaign with a " Knight Bus " travelling to 40 libraries across the United States , online fan discussions and competitions , collectible bookmarks , tattoos , and the staged release of seven Deathly Hallows questions most debated by fans . In the build @-@ up to the book 's release , Scholastic released seven questions that fans would find answered in the final book :
Who will live ? Who will die ?
Is Snape good or evil ?
Will Hogwarts reopen ?
Who ends up with whom ?
Where are the Horcruxes ?
Will Voldemort be defeated ?
What are the Deathly Hallows ?
J. K. Rowling arranged with her publishers for a poster bearing the face of the missing British child Madeleine McCann to be made available to book sellers when Deathly Hallows was launched on 21 July 2007 , and said that she hoped that the posters would be displayed prominently in shops all over the world .
After it was told that the novel would be released on 21 July 2007 , Warner Bros. shortly thereafter said that the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix would be released shortly before the novel would be released , on 13 July 2007 , making many people proclaim that July 2007 , was the month of Harry Potter .
= = = Spoiler embargo = = =
Bloomsbury invested £ 10 million in an attempt to keep the book 's contents secure until 21 July , the release date . Arthur Levine , U.S. editor of the Harry Potter series , denied distributing any copies of Deathly Hallows in advance for press review , but two U.S. papers published early reviews anyway . There was speculation that some shops would break the embargo and distribute copies of the book early , as the penalty imposed for previous instalments — that the distributor would not be supplied with any further copies of the series — would no longer be a deterrent .
= = = Online leaks and early delivery = = =
In the week before its release , a number of texts purporting to be genuine leaks appeared in various forms . On 16 July , a set of photographs representing all 759 pages of the U.S. edition was leaked and was fully transcribed prior to the official release date . The photographs later appeared on websites and peer @-@ to @-@ peer networks , leading Scholastic to seek a subpoena in order to identify one source . This represented the most serious security breach in the Harry Potter series ' history . Rowling and her lawyer confirmed that there were genuine online leaks . Reviews published in both The Baltimore Sun and The New York Times on 18 July 2007 , corroborated many of the plot elements from this leak , and about one day prior to release , The New York Times confirmed that the main circulating leak was real .
Scholastic announced that approximately one @-@ ten @-@ thousandth ( 0 @.@ 0001 ) of the U.S. supply had been shipped early — interpreted to mean about 1 @,@ 200 copies . One reader in Maryland received a copy of the book in the mail from DeepDiscount.com four days before it was launched , which evoked incredulous responses from both Scholastic and DeepDiscount . Scholastic initially reported that they were satisfied it had been a " human error " and would not discuss possible penalties ; however , the following day Scholastic announced that it would be launching legal action against DeepDiscount.com and its distributor , Levy Home Entertainment . Scholastic filed for damages in Chicago 's Circuit Court of Cook County , claiming that DeepDiscount engaged in a " complete and flagrant violation of the agreements that they knew were part of the carefully constructed release of this eagerly awaited book . " Some of the early release books soon appeared on eBay , in one case being sold to Publishers Weekly for US $ 250 from an initial price of US $ 18 .
= = = Price wars and other controversies = = =
Asda , along with several other UK supermarkets , having already taken pre @-@ orders for the book at a heavily discounted price , sparked a price war two days before the book 's launch by announcing they would sell it for just £ 5 a copy . Other retail chains then also offered the book at discounted prices . At these prices the book became a loss leader . This caused uproar from traditional UK booksellers who argued they had no hope of competing in those conditions . Independent shops protested loudest , but even Waterstone 's , the UK 's largest dedicated chain bookstore , could not compete with the supermarket price . Some small bookstores hit back by buying their stock from the supermarkets rather than their wholesalers . Asda attempted to counter this by imposing a limit of two copies per customer to prevent bulk purchases . Philip Wicks , a spokesman for the UK Booksellers Association , said , " It is a war we can 't even participate in . We think it 's a crying shame that the supermarkets have decided to treat it as a loss @-@ leader , like a can of baked beans . " Michael Norris , an analyst at Simba Information , said : " You are not only lowering the price of the book . At this point , you are lowering the value of reading . "
In Malaysia , a similar price war caused controversy regarding sales of the book . Four of the biggest bookstore chains in Malaysia , MPH Bookstores , Popular Bookstores , Times and Harris , decided to pull Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows off their shelves as a protest against Tesco and Carrefour hypermarkets . The retail price of the book in Malaysia is MYR 109 @.@ 90 , while the hypermarkets Tesco and Carrefour sold the book at MYR 69 @.@ 90 . The move by the bookstores was seen as an attempt to pressure the distributor Penguin Books to remove the books from the hypermarkets . However , as of 24 July 2007 , the price war has ended , with the four bookstores involved resuming selling the books in their stores with discount . Penguin Books has also confirmed that Tesco and Carrefour are selling the book at a loss , urging them to practice good business sense and fair trade .
The book 's early Saturday morning release in Israel was criticised for violating Shabbat . Trade and Industry Minister Eli Yishai commented " It is forbidden , according to Jewish values and Jewish culture , that a thing like this should take place at 2 am on Saturday . Let them do it on another day . " Yishai indicated that he would issue indictments and fines based on the Hours of Work and Rest Law .
= = Publication and reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The Baltimore Sun 's critic , Mary Carole McCauley , noted that the book was more serious than the previous novels in the series and had more straightforward prose . Furthermore , reviewer Alice Fordham from The Times wrote that " Rowling 's genius is not just her total realisation of a fantasy world , but the quieter skill of creating characters that bounce off the page , real and flawed and brave and lovable " . Fordham concluded , " We have been a long way together , and neither Rowling nor Harry let us down in the end " . The New York Times writer Michiko Kakutani agreed , praising Rowling 's ability to make Harry both a hero and a character that can be related to .
Time magazine 's Lev Grossman named it one of the Top 10 Fiction Books of 2007 , ranking it at No. 8 , and praised Rowling for proving that books can still be a global mass medium . Novelist Elizabeth Hand criticised that " ... the spectacularly complex interplay of narrative and character often reads as though an entire trilogy 's worth of summing @-@ up has been crammed into one volume . " In a starred review from Kirkus Reviews , the reviewer said , " Rowling has shown uncommon skill in playing them with and against each other , and also woven them into a darn good bildungsroman , populated by memorable characters and infused with a saving , irrepressible sense of fun " . They also praised the second half of the novel , but criticised the epilogue , calling it " provocatively sketchy " . In another review from The Times , reviewer Amanda Craig said that while Rowling was " not an original , high @-@ concept author " , she was " right up there with other greats of children 's fiction " . Craig went on to say that the novel was " beautifully judged , and a triumphant return to form " , and that Rowling 's imagination changed the perception of an entire generation , which " is more than all but a handful of living authors , in any genre , have achieved in the past half @-@ century " .
In contrast , Jenny Sawyer of The Christian Science Monitor said that , " There is much to love about the Harry Potter series , from its brilliantly realised magical world to its multilayered narrative " , however , " A story is about someone who changes . And , puberty aside , Harry doesn 't change much . As envisioned by Rowling , he walks the path of good so unwaveringly that his final victory over Voldemort feels , not just inevitable , but hollow " . In The New York Times , Christopher Hitchens compared the series to World War Two @-@ era English boarding school stories , and while he wrote that " Rowling has won imperishable renown " for the series as a whole , he also stated that he disliked Rowling 's use of deus ex machina , that the mid @-@ book camping chapters are " abysmally long " , and Voldemort " becomes more tiresome than an Ian Fleming villain " . Catherine Bennett of The Guardian praised Rowling for putting small details from the previous books and making them large in Deathly Hallows , such as Grindelwald being mentioned on a Chocolate Frog Card in the first book . While she points out " as her critics say , Rowling is no Dickens " , she says that Rowling " has willed into a fictional being , in every book , legions of new characters , places , spells , rules and scores of unimagined twists and subplots " .
Stephen King criticised the reactions of some reviewers to the books , including McCauley , for jumping too quickly to surface conclusions of the work . He felt this was inevitable , because of the extreme secrecy before launch which did not allow reviewers time to read and consider the book , but meant that many early reviews lacked depth . Rather than finding the writing style disappointing , he felt it had matured and improved . He acknowledged that the subject matter of the books had become more adult , and that Rowling had clearly been writing with the adult audience firmly in mind since the middle of the series . He compared the works in this respect to Huckleberry Finn and Alice in Wonderland which achieved success and have become established classics , in part by appealing to the adult audience as well as children .
= = = Sales , awards and honours = = =
Sales for Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows were record setting . The initial U.S. print run for Deathly Hallows was 12 million copies , and more than a million were pre @-@ ordered through Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble , 500 percent higher than pre @-@ sales had been for Half @-@ Blood Prince . On 12 April 2007 , Barnes & Noble declared that Deathly Hallows had broken its pre @-@ order record , with more than 500 @,@ 000 copies pre @-@ ordered through its site . On opening day , a record 8 @.@ 3 million copies were sold in the United States ( over 96 per second ) , and 2 @.@ 65 million copies in the United Kingdom . It holds the Guinness World record for fastest selling book of fiction in 24 hours for U.S. sales . At WH Smith , sales reportedly reached a rate of 15 books sold per second . By June 2008 , nearly a year after it was published , worldwide sales were reportedly around 44 million .
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows has won several awards . In 2007 , the book was named one of The New York Times 100 Notable Books , and one of its Notable Children 's Books . The novel was named the best book of 2007 , by Newsweek 's critic Malcolm Jones . Publishers Weekly also listed Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows among their Best Books of 2007 . In 2008 , the American Library Association named the novel one of its Best Books for Young Adults , and also listed it as a Notable Children 's Book . Furthermore , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows received the 2008 Colorado Blue Spruce Book Award .
= = Translations = =
Due to its worldwide fame , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows has been translated into many languages . The first translation to be released was the Ukrainian translation , on 25 September 2007 ( as Гаррі Поттер і смертельні реліквії – Harry Potter i smertel 'ni relikviji ) . The Swedish title of the book was revealed by Rowling as Harry Potter and the Relics of Death ( Harry Potter och Dödsrelikerna ) , following a pre @-@ release question from the Swedish publisher about the difficulty of translating the two words " Deathly Hallows " without having read the book . This is also the title used for the French translation ( Harry Potter et les reliques de la mort ) , the Spanish translation ( Harry Potter y las Reliquias de la Muerte ) , the Dutch translation ( Harry Potter en de Relieken van de Dood ) and the Brazilian Portuguese translation ( Harry Potter e as Relíquias da Morte ) . The first Polish translation was released with a new title : Harry Potter i Insygnia Śmierci – Harry Potter and the Insignia of Death . The Hindi translation Harry Potter aur Maut ke Tohfe ( हैरी पॉटर और मौत के तोहफे ) , which means " Harry Potter and the Gifts of Death " , was released by Manjul Publication in India on 27 June 2008 . The Romanian version was released on the 1st of December 2007 using the title ( Harry Potter și Talismanele Morții ) .
= = Editions = =
Deathly Hallows was released in hardcover on 21 July 2007 and in paperback in the United Kingdom on 10 July 2008 and the United States on 7 July 2009 . In SoHo , New York , there was a release party for the American paperback edition , with many games and activities . An " Adult Edition " with a different cover illustration was released by Bloomsbury on 21 July 2007 . To be released simultaneously with the original U.S. hardcover on 21 July with only 100 @,@ 000 copies was a Scholastic deluxe edition , highlighting a new cover illustration by Mary GrandPré . In October 2010 , Bloomsbury released a " Celebratory " paperback edition , which featured a foiled and starred cover . Lastly , on 1 November 2010 , a " Signature " edition of the novel was released in paperback by Bloomsbury .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Film = = =
A two @-@ part film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is directed by David Yates , written by Steve Kloves and produced by David Heyman , David Barron and J. K. Rowling . Part 1 was released on 19 November 2010 , and Part 2 on 15 July 2011 . Filming began in February 2009 , and ended on 12 June 2010 . However , the cast confirmed they would reshoot the epilogue scene as they only had two days to shoot the original . Reshoots officially ended around December 2010 . Part 1 ended at Chapter 24 of the book , when Voldemort regained the Elder Wand . However , there were a few omissions , such as the appearances of Dean Thomas and Viktor Krum , and Peter Pettigrew 's death . James Bernadelli of Reelviews said that the script stuck closest to the text since Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , yet this was met with negativity from some audiences as the film inherited " the book 's own problems " .
= = = Audiobooks = = =
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows was released simultaneously on 21 July 2007 , in both the UK and the United States . The UK edition features the voice of Stephen Fry and runs about 24 hours while the U.S. edition features the voice of Jim Dale and runs about 21 hours . Both Fry and Dale recorded 146 different and distinguishable character voices , and was the most recorded by an individual on an audiobook at the time .
For his work on Deathly Hallows , Dale won the 2008 Grammy Award for the Best Spoken Word Album for Children . He also was awarded an Earphone Award by AudioFile , who claimed , " Dale has raised the bar on audiobook interpretation so high it 's hard to imagine any narrator vaulting over it . "
= = The Tales of Beedle the Bard = =
On 4 December 2008 , Rowling released The Tales of Beedle the Bard both in the UK and US . The Tales of Beedle the Bard is a spin @-@ off of Deathly Hallows and contains fairy tales that are told to children in the " Wizarding World " . The book includes five short stories , including " The Tale of the Three Brothers " which is the story of the Deathly Hallows .
Amazon.com released an exclusive collector 's edition of the book which is a replica of the book that Amazon.com purchased at auction in December 2007 . Seven copies were auctioned off in London by Sotheby 's . Each was illustrated and handwritten by Rowling and is 157 pages . It was bound in brown Moroccan leather and embellished with five hand @-@ chased hallmarked sterling silver ornaments and mounted moonstones .
= Apollo Global Management =
Apollo Global Management , LLC is an American private equity firm , founded in 1990 by former Drexel Burnham Lambert banker Leon Black . The firm specializes in leveraged buyout transactions and purchases of distressed securities involving corporate restructuring , special situations , and industry consolidations . Apollo is headquartered in New York City , and also has offices in Purchase , New York , Los Angeles , Houston , London , Frankfurt , Luxembourg , Singapore , Hong Kong and Mumbai .
As of August 2015 , Apollo managed over US $ 162 billion of investor commitments across its private equity , credit and real estate funds and other investment vehicles making it one of the largest alternative investment management firms globally . Among the most notable companies currently owned by Apollo are Claire 's , Caesars Entertainment Corporation , Norwegian Cruise Line , Novitex Enterprise Solutions , and CORE Media Group ( American Idol ) .
= = History = =
Apollo , originally referred to as Apollo Advisors , was founded in 1990 , on the heels of the collapse of Drexel Burnham Lambert in February 1990 . It was founded by Leon Black , the former head of Drexel 's mergers and acquisitions department , along with other Drexel alumni . Among the most notable founders are John Hannan , Drexel 's former co @-@ director of international finance ; Craig Cogut , a lawyer who worked with Drexel 's high @-@ yield division in Los Angeles ; and Arthur Bilger , the former head of the corporate finance department . Other founding partners included Marc Rowan , Josh Harris and Michael Gross , who both worked under Black in the mergers and acquisitions department , and Antony Ressler , who worked as a senior vice president in Drexel 's high yield department with responsibility for the new issue / syndicate desk .
Less than six months after the collapse of Drexel , the founders of Apollo had already begun a series of ventures . Apollo Investment Fund L.P. , the first of their private equity investment funds , was formed to make investments in distressed companies . Apollo 's first fund raised approximately $ 400 million of investor commitments on the strength of Black 's reputation as a prominent lieutenant of Michael Milken and key player in the buyout boom of the 1980s . Lion Advisors was set up to provide investment services to Credit Lyonnais , which was seeking to profit from depressed prices in the high yield market .
= = = 1990s = = =
At the time of Apollo 's founding , financing for new leveraged buyouts was minimal and Apollo turned instead to a strategy of distressed @-@ to @-@ control takeovers . Apollo would purchase distressed securities which could be converted into a controlling interest in the equity of the company through a bankruptcy reorganization or other restructuring . Apollo used distressed debt as an entry point , enabling the firm to invest in such firms as Vail Resorts , Walter Industries , Culligan and Samsonite .
Early on , Apollo made a name for itself by acquiring interests in companies that Drexel had helped finance by purchasing high @-@ yield bonds from failed savings and loans and insurance companies . Apollo acquired several large portfolios of assets from the U.S. government 's Resolution Trust Corporation . One of Apollo 's earliest and most successful deals involved the acquisition of Executive Life Insurance Company 's bond portfolio . Using this vehicle , Apollo would purchase the Executive Life portfolio , generating tremendous profits when the value of high yield bonds recovered , but also resulting in a variety of state regulatory issues for Apollo and Credit Lyonnais over the purchase . More than a decade after the purchase , in 2002 , California Attorney General Bill Lockyer accused Apollo , Leon Black , and an investor group led by French bank Credit Lyonnais , of illegally acquiring the assets and bond portfolio of Executive Life Insurance Co. in 1991 . According to the State of California , Lion allegedly violated a California law that prohibited foreign government @-@ owned banks from owning California insurance companies .
In 1993 , Apollo Real Estate Advisers was founded in collaboration with William Mack to seek opportunities in the U.S. property markets . Apollo Real Estate Investment Fund , L.P. , the first in a family of real estate " opportunity funds " was closed in April 1993 with $ 500 million of investor commitments . In 2000 , Apollo exited the partnership , which continued to operate as Apollo Real Estate Advisers until changing its name to AREA Property Partners , effective January 15 , 2009 . That firm is owned and controlled by its remaining principals , who include William Mack , Lee Neibart , William Benjamin , John Jacobsson , Stuart Koenig and Richard Mack . Apollo Real Estate Investment Fund , L.P. , the first in a family of real estate " opportunity funds " was closed in April 1993 with $ 500 million of investor commitments . As of 2008 , the firm was investing out of three funds : Apollo Real Estate Investment Fund V , Apollo European Real Estate Fund II and Apollo Value Enhancement Fund VII . In 2004 , Apollo Real Estate acquired the Value Enhancement Funds family of investment vehicles to broaden its offerings in the " value @-@ added " segment of the real estate investment spectrum . Apollo also operates a real estate mezzanine lending program and real estate securities hedge fund called Claros Real Estate Securities Fund , L.P.
In 1995 , Apollo raised its third private equity fund , Apollo Investment Fund III with $ 1 @.@ 5 billion of investor commitments from investors that included CalPERS and the General Motors pension fund . Unlike its first two funds and later funds , Fund III would ultimately prove only an average performer for private equity funds of its vintage . Among the investments made in Fund III ( invested through 1998 ) were : Alliance Imaging , Allied Waste Industries , Breuners Home Furnishings , Levitz Furniture , Communications Corporation of America , Dominick 's , Ralphs ( acquired Apollo 's Food @-@ 4 @-@ Less ) , Move.com , NRT Incorporated , Pillowtex Corporation , Telemundo and WMC Mortgage Corporation .
Also in 1995 , Apollo founding partner Craig Cogut left the firm to found a smaller competitor Pegasus Capital Advisors . Since inception Pegasus has raised $ 1 @.@ 8 billion in four private equity funds focused on investments in middle @-@ market companies in financial distress . In 1997 , Apollo co @-@ founder Tony Ressler founded Ares Management as the successor to its Lion Advisors business which would manage collateralized debt obligation vehicles .
In 1998 , Apollo raised its fourth private equity fund , Apollo Investment Fund IV , with $ 3 @.@ 6 billion of investor commitments . Among the investments made in Fund IV ( invested through 2001 ) were : Allied Waste Industries , AMC Entertainment , Berlitz International , Clark Retail Enterprises , Corporate Express ( Buhrmann ) , Encompass Services Corporation , National Financial Partners , Pacer International , Rent @-@ A @-@ Center , Resolution Performance Products , Resolution Specialty Materials , Sirius Satellite Radio , SkyTerra Communications , United Rentals and Wyndham Worldwide .
= = = 2000 @-@ 2005 = = =
Apollo deployed its fourth fund during the booming markets of the late 1990s , only to experience difficulties with the collapse of the Internet bubble and the onset of the recession . Amid the turmoil of collapsing markets , Apollo was able to raise its fifth private equity fund in 2001 , Apollo Investment Fund V , with $ 3 @.@ 7 billion of investor commitments , roughly the same amount raised as for its previous fund . Among the investments made in Fund V ( invested through 2006 ) were Affinion Group , AMC Entertainment , Berry Plastics , Cablecom , Compass Minerals , General Nutrition Centers ( GNC ) , Goodman Global , Hexion Specialty Chemicals ( Borden ) , Intelsat , Linens ‘ n Things , Metals USA , Nalco Investment Holdings , Sourcecorp , Spectrasite Communications , and Unity Media .
Meanwhile , Ares continued to grow through the late 1990s , and profited significantly from investments made after the collapse of the high yield market in 2000 and 2001 . Although technically , the founders of Ares had completed a spin out with the formation of the firm in 1997 , they had maintained a close relationship with Apollo over its first five years and operated as the West Coast affiliate of Apollo . By 2002 , when Ares raised its first corporate opportunities fund , the firm announced that it was more formally separating itself from its former parent company . The timing of this separation also coincided with Apollo 's legal difficulties with the State of California over its purchase of Executive Life Insurance Company in 1991 .
Following the spin @-@ off of Ares in 2002 , Apollo developed two new affiliates to continue its investment activities in the capital markets . The first of these new affiliates , founded in 2003 , was Apollo Distressed Investment Fund ( DIF ) Management a credit opportunity investment vehicle . The following year , in April 2004 , Apollo raised $ 930 million through an initial public offering ( IPO ) for a listed business development company , Apollo Investment Corporation ( NASDAQ : AINV ) ) . Apollo Investment Corporation was formed to invest primarily in middle @-@ market companies in the form of mezzanine debt and senior secured loans , as well as by making certain direct equity investments in companies . The Company also invests in the securities of public companies .
= = = 2005 @-@ 2010 = = =
The 2005 - 2007 period marked a boom period in private equity with new " largest buyout " records set and surpassed several times in an 18 @-@ month window from the beginning of 2006 through the middle of 2007 . Apollo was among the most active investors in leveraged buyout transactions during this period . Although Apollo was involved in a number of notable and large buyouts , the firm largely avoided the very largest transactions of this period . Among Apollo 's most notable investments during this period included Harrah 's Entertainment , a leading US gaming and casino company ; Norwegian Cruise Line , the cruise line operator ; Claire 's Stores , the retailer of costume jewelry ; and Realogy , the real estate franchisor that owns Coldwell Banker , Century 21 and Sotheby 's International Realty .
In August 2006 , Apollo launched a $ 2 billion publicly traded private equity vehicle in Europe , AP Alternative Assets ( ENXTAM : AAA ) . The IPO of this new vehicle followed in the footsteps of Kohlberg Kravis Roberts , which raised $ 5 billion for its KKR Private Equity Investors vehicle in May 2006 . Apollo initially attempted to raise $ 2 @.@ 5 billion for the public vehicle , but fell short when it offered the shares in June , raising only $ 1 @.@ 5 billion . Apollo raised an additional $ 500 million via private placements in the weeks following that sale .
As the private equity industry expanded through 2006 and 2007 , several of the largest private equity firms , most notably The Blackstone Group and Kohlberg Kravis Roberts , announced plans to realize value from their firms through the sale of shares in the public equity markets . Apollo Management chose a slightly different path , by completing a private placement of shares in its management company in July 2007 . By pursuing a private placement rather than a public offering , Apollo would be able to avoid much of the public scrutiny applied to Blackstone and KKR . In November 2007 , Apollo was able to realize additional value from the sale of a 9 % ownership interest in its management company to the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority ( ADIA ) . Ultimately , in April 2008 , Apollo would file with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) to permit some holders of its privately traded stock to sell their shares on the New York Stock Exchange and in March 2011 , Apollo completed its initial public offering ( NYSE : APO ) . In 2008 , the firm opened an office in India , marking their first push into Asia .
As the deterioration of the financial markets worsened into 2008 , Apollo saw several of its investments come under pressure . Apollo 's 2005 investment in the struggling US retailer , Linens ' n Things suffered from a significant debt burden and softening consumer demand . In May 2008 , Linens was forced to file for bankruptcy protection , one of several high profile retail bankruptcies in 2008 , costing Apollo all of its $ 365 million investment in the company . At the same time , Apollo 's investment in Claire 's , Realogy and Harrah 's Entertainment came under pressure . Apollo would respond actively to its investment difficulties seeking to exchange a portion of the existing debt at Harrah 's and Realogy to more favorable securities . At Claire 's , Apollo exercised its " PIK toggle " option to shut off cash interest payments to its bondholders and issue more debt instead , in order to provide the company with additional financial flexibility .
In December 2008 , Apollo completed fundraising for its latest fund , Apollo Investment Fund VII with approximately $ 14 @.@ 7 billion of investor commitments . Apollo had been targeting $ 15 billion , but had been in fundraising for more than 16 months , with the bulk of the capital raised in 2007 .
In December 2009 , it was announced that Apollo would acquire Cedar Fair Entertainment Company shares and the company would be become private underneath the management group . The deal includes a cash payment of $ 635 million and assumed debt which gives the transaction a value of $ 2 @.@ 4 billion . It was later announced in April 2010 that the deal was pulled due to poor shareholder response .
= = = 2010 @-@ 2015 = = =
In March 2012 it made a second attempt to acquire an amusement park operator with a $ 225 @.@ 7 million offer for Great Wolf Resorts .
In November 2012 , The McGraw @-@ Hill Companies sold their education division ( " McGraw @-@ Hill Education " ) to Apollo Global Management , in a deal totaling $ 2 @.@ 5 billion .
On 11 March 2013 , Apollo Global Management made the only bid for the snacks business of Hostess Brands , including Twinkies , for $ 410 million .
In December 2013 , Apollo bought a portfolio of Irish home loans from Lloyds Bank for € 307m , less than half their nominal £ 610m ( € 367m ) value . The shares were bought by an Apollo Global Management subsidiary , Tanager Limited . The portfolio made a £ 33m loss last year .
On 16 January 2014 , The Financial Times reported Apollo will buy CEC Entertainment , the parent of Chuck E. Cheese 's , for about $ 1 billion .
In June 2015 , Apollo Global Management made a successful offer of around $ 1 @.@ 03 billion in cash to privatise OM Group . Also that month , Apollo won the bidding during an auction for Saint @-@ Gobain ’ s Verallia glass bottle manufacturing unit for a rumoured fee of around 2 @.@ 95 billion .
In June 2016 , Apollo Global Management made a successful offer to purchase Diamond Resorts International .
= = Operations = =
Apollo is operated by its managing partners , Leon Black , Joshua Harris and Marc Rowan and a team of more than 250 investment professionals , as of March 31 , 2013 . The firm 's headquarters are located in the Solow Building at 9 West 57th Street in New York City , and the firm operates additional offices in Purchase , New York , Los Angeles , Houston , London , Frankfurt , Luxembourg , Singapore , Hong Kong and Mumbai
Apollo ’ s executive committee includes : Leon Black , chairman and chief executive officer ; Josh Harris , senior managing director ; Marc Rowan , senior managing director ; and Marc Spilker who was hired as President in November 2010 .
Apollo operates three business lines in an integrated manner :
Private equity — The private equity business is the cornerstone of Apollo 's investment activities . Apollo invests through a variety of private equity strategies , most notably leveraged buyouts and distressed buyouts and debt investments . This business operates primarily through the firm 's family of private equity investment funds ( See : Investment funds )
Credit — Apollo invests through a variety of credit strategies to complement its core private equity business . Apollo invests through a variety of investment vehicles including mezzanine funds , hedge funds , European non @-@ performing loan funds and senior credit opportunity funds .
Real Estate — Apollo Global Real Estate ( AGRE ) was established in 2008 to build upon Apollo 's history of investing in real estate @-@ related sectors such as hotels and lodging , leisure and logistics . AGRE manages a number of debt and equity @-@ oriented real estate investment funds .
= = Investment vehicles = =
= = = Private equity funds = = =
Apollo has historically relied primarily on private equity funds , pools of committed capital from pension funds , insurance companies , endowments , fund of funds , high @-@ net @-@ worth individuals , family offices , sovereign wealth funds and other institutional investors . Since 2014 , Apollo has begun investing its eighth private equity fund , Apollo Investment Fund VIII , which raised approximately $ 18 billion of investor commitments , making it the largest private equity fund raised since the financial crisis . Since inception in 1990 , Apollo has raised a total of eight private equity funds , including :
= = = Apollo Investment Corporation = = =
Apollo Investment Corporation is a US @-@ domiciled publicly traded private equity closed @-@ end fund and an affiliate of Apollo . AIC was formed to invest primarily in middle @-@ market companies in the form of mezzanine debt and senior secured loans , as well as by making certain direct equity investments in companies . The Company also invests in the securities of public companies .
AIC is structured as a business development company , a type of publicly traded private equity vehicle that is designed to generate interest income and long term capital appreciation . AIC historically has not invested in companies controlled by Apollo 's private equity funds .
= = = AP Alternative Assets = = =
AP Alternative Assets ( Euronext : AAA ) is a Guernsey @-@ domiciled publicly traded private equity closed @-@ end limited partnership , managed by Apollo Alternative Assets , an affiliate of Apollo Management . AAA was formed to invest alongside Apollo 's main private equity funds and hedge funds .
AAA was launched in August 2006 , shortly after Kohlberg Kravis Roberts completed an initial public offering for its $ 5 billion for its KKR Private Equity Investors vehicle in May 2006 . Apollo raised a total of $ 2 billion for AAA including the vehicle 's $ 1 @.@ 5 billion IPO and a subsequent private placement .
AAA 's investment portfolio is made up of a mix of private equity and capital markets investments :
= = Portfolio investments = =
Apollo has been an active private equity investor through the mid @-@ 2000s buyout boom . The following is a list of Apollo 's most recent and currently active private equity investments . The bulk of these investments are held in Apollo Investment Fund V , VI and VII .
Other investments include Connections Academy and Unity Media GMBH .
= = Affiliated businesses = =
From its inception , Apollo built as part of a network of affiliated businesses focusing on private equity and a variety of distressed investment strategies .
= = = Lion Advisors = = =
Lion Advisors ( or Lion Capital ) , which was founded at the same time as Apollo in 1990 , focused on investment management and consulting services to foreign institutional accounts targeting investments in public and private high yield debt securities in the US . In 1992 , Lion entered into a more formal arrangement to manage the $ 3 billion high @-@ yield portfolio for Credit Lyonnais which together with a consortium of other international investors provided the capital for Lion 's investment activities . The Lion business would ultimately be replaced by Ares Management .
= = = Ares Management = = =
Ares Management , founded in 1997 , was initially established to manage a $ 1 @.@ 2 billion market value collateralized debt obligation vehicle . Ares would grow to manage a family of collateralized loan obligation ( CLO ) vehicles that would invest in capital markets @-@ based securities including senior bank loans and high @-@ yield and mezzanine debt . Ares was founded by Antony Ressler and John H. Kissick , both partners at Apollo as well as Bennett Rosenthal , who joined the group from the global leveraged finance group at Merrill Lynch .
Ares I and II which were raised were structured as market value CLOs . Ares III though Ares X were structured as cash flow CLOs . In 2002 , Ares completed a spinout from Apollo management . Although technically , the founders of Ares had completed a spinout with the formation of the firm in 1997 , they had maintained a close relationship with Apollo over its first five years and operated as the West Coast affiliate of Apollo . Shortly thereafter , Ares completed fundraising for Ares Corporate Opportunities Fund , a special situations investment fund with $ 750 million of capital under management .
In 2004 , Ares debuted a publicly traded business development company , Ares Capital Corporation ( NASDAQ : ARCC ) . In 2006 , Ares raised a $ 2 @.@ 1 billion successor special situations fund ( Ares Corporate Opportunities Fund II ) .
= Bankers ' Toadies incident =
The Bankers ' Toadies incident occurred in 1937 in Alberta , Canada when a pamphlet was discovered advocating the " extermination " of nine men identified as " Bankers ' Toadies " . The men were opponents of the Social Credit government of Premier William Aberhart , which had been elected on a platform of giving all Albertans monthly dividends ; Aberhart blamed the banking system for his failure to follow through on this pledge .
After David Duggan , leader of the Conservative Party and one of the men named , raised his concern over the pamphlet in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta , police raided the Social Credit League 's Edmonton headquarters . Social Credit whip Joe Unwin and Social Credit Board advisor George Frederick Powell were arrested and charged with criminal libel and counselling to murder . Both were convicted of the libel charge , and Justice William Carlos Ives sentenced them to hard labour .
= = Background = =
William Aberhart 's Social Credit League won a substantial victory in the 1935 Alberta provincial election on the strength of its promise to implement social credit , an economic theory proposed by British engineer C. H. Douglas . Social credit held that the poverty of the Great Depression was in part the fault of bankers , who kept the cost of credit , and by extension of production , high . Aberhart 's solution involved , among other things , monthly " credit dividends " to Albertans in the amount of C $ 25 .
By 1937 , Aberhart 's failure to implement these dividends or make other progress towards implementing social credit made many of his backbenchers suspect that he was either unwilling or unable to do so . This belief , combined with a suspicion that he did not properly understand Douglas 's theories , led to the 1937 Social Credit backbenchers ' revolt . One outcome of the revolt was Aberhart 's ceding a number of the government 's powers to the Social Credit Board , made up of five Social Credit backbenchers . Glenville MacLachlan , its chair , travelled to the United Kingdom , where he asked Douglas to come to Alberta and serve as its advisor . Douglas declined , but in his stead sent two of his lieutenants , L. D. Byrne and George Frederick Powell . Part of the Board 's mandate was to educate the public about social credit ; to this end , Powell and Social Credit whip Joseph Unwin were assigned to write educational materials .
In response to what they saw as the radically anti @-@ business views of the Aberhart government and the Social Credit Board , Alberta 's mainstream opposition parties — chiefly the Liberals and the Conservatives — began to cooperate under the auspices of the newly formed People 's League .
= = Leaflet = =
In October 1937 , Conservative leader David Duggan rose in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta to draw its attention to a pamphlet distributed in and around the legislature building that called for his " extermination " . The front of the leaflet read as follows :
My child , you should NEVER say hard or unkind things about Bankers ' Toadies . God made snakes , slugs , snails and other creepy @-@ crawly , treacherous , and poisonous things . NEVER , therefore , abuse them — just exterminate them ! And to prevent all evasion demand the RESULT you want — $ 25 @.@ 00 a month and a lower cost to live .
The back of the pamphlet listed nine men identified as " toadies " . Besides Duggan , they were
S. W. Field , lawyer and president of the People 's League
H. H. Parlee , lawyer and president of the Liberals ' Edmonton constituency association
John Lymburn , lawyer , member of the People 's League , and former Attorney @-@ General of Alberta
H. R. Milner , lawyer and president of the Conservatives ' Edmonton constituency association
G. D. Hunt , investment broker
L. Y. Cairns , lawyer , member of the Conservatives ' provincial executive
G. W. Auxier , lawyer and secretary of the People 's League
William Antrobus Griesbach , lawyer , member of the Canadian Senate , and former member of the Canadian House of Commons and mayor of Edmonton
Below this list of names were the words " Exterminate Them . And to prevent all Evasion , Demand the Result You Want — $ 25 @.@ 00 a MONTH and a lower cost to live . "
On October 3 , the police raided the Social Credit League 's Edmonton office and seized 4 @,@ 000 copies of the pamphlet . Griesbach pressed charges against Powell and Unwin for criminal libel and counselling to murder .
= = Trial = =
Aberhart , who besides being Premier was Attorney @-@ General , tried to prevent the trial from proceeding by withdrawing the Crown prosecutor assigned to it . Either trial judge William Carlos Ives or a justice of the peace countered by appointing a private prosecutor so the case could go ahead . Both defendants were held on | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
de Blois , it is now significantly smaller than it was originally as the north and west wings were destroyed between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries .
Built between 1498 ( or 1500 ) and 1508 , the hôtel particulier is one of the first examples of Renaissance architecture in Blois . Its façades consist of Gothic , French Renaissance and Italian Renaissance architecture . The Hôtel d 'Alluye was owned by the Robertet family from 1508 until 1606 before undergoing frequent changes in ownership ; since 2007 , it has been divided into ten apartments and a large office .
As a result of its ownership changes the building has been considerably altered , with only the east and south wings retaining their original appearance . Destruction of the west wing began during the seventeenth century , and the north wing was destroyed in 1812 . The Hôtel d 'Alluye was classified as a monument historique on 6 November 1929 , and its courtyard has been open to the public on European Heritage Days since 2011 .
= = Location = =
Built near Blois Cathedral and the Royal Château de Blois , the Hôtel d 'Alluye is located on Rue Saint @-@ Honoré . Its south side originally extended along Rue Saint @-@ Honoré between the current No. 4 and No. 10 , and its west side extended along Rue Porte @-@ Chartraine . Records indicate that the north side was extended to Rue Beauvoir in 1643 , enlarging the hôtel particulier over a large quadrangle 30 m ( 98 ft ) wide .
How Robertet obtained such a large plot in the centre of Blois is unknown ; he may have acquired the land gradually for the building 's future construction , or could have been granted a fief by the Crown for his services . Although , it is known that Robertet sought to acquire an adjoining building ( the Hôtel Denis @-@ Dupont ) to extend his property . Lawyer Denis Dupont ( the building 's owner ) strongly opposed the idea , and over half of the former Hôtel Denis @-@ Dupont remains .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
Under Louis XII the courtesans of France settled in Blois from 1498 to 1515 , and the city became the capital of the Kingdom of France . As a result , many people purchased residences in Blois and the Loire Valley . Named after Robertet 's barony of Alluyes , construction of the Hôtel d 'Alluye began in 1498 or 1500 and was completed in 1508 . It was built during his tenure as secretary and notary to Louis XII , and a diplomatic document from the Republic of Florence described the hôtel as new in September 1508 . The hôtel particulier is an example of French Renaissance architecture ; this , coupled with its ornamentation , were intended to reflect the tastes of Robertet , who was well known for his artistic collections . One of the first examples of Renaissance architecture in Blois , the hôtel indicates the influence of the Quattrocento on him .
The Hôtel d 'Alluye was owned by the descendants of Robertet and Michelle Gaillard de Longjumeau until the early sixteenth century . In 1588 , it hosted Louis II , Cardinal of Guise , the brother of Henry I , Duke of Guise ( " Scarface " ) , who was on the Estates General of Blois until his assassination was ordered by Henry III . Robertet 's grandson , Baron François Robertet of Alluyes , died in 1603 with no male offspring ; three years later , the residence and its surrounding property were seized by the Crown .
= = = Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries = = =
The 1620s saw the fragmentation of the west wing of the original residence . Sold to a number of owners , this part of the building was gradually distorted until only a few remnants were left . The other three wings of the building were acquired by the Huraults of Saint @-@ Denis in 1621 , and on 5 July 1637 the residence was acquired by the Bégon family . In 1644 , major restoration work was done on the north wing under Charles Turmel . The Hôtel d 'Alluye was sold by Michel Bégon de la Picardière to the Terrouanne family on 5 August 1718 for 9 @,@ 000 livres .
= = = Modern era = = =
Around 1812 Lambert Rosey , a member of the Terrouanne family , demolished the building 's north wing . In 1832 , Rosey sold the building to Amédée Naudin for 12 @,@ 000 francs . Work began in the east wing , with its depth reduced and its layout becoming more irregular . Naudin died on 21 November 1864 , and his two daughters sold the residence on 5 June 1866 for 40 @,@ 000 francs . From 1868 to 1869 , it was restored under the direction of Félix Duban ; in 1877 , further restoration work was planned but not done .
From 1890 to 1895 major changes were made to the Rue Saint @-@ Honoré section , with many attics and roofs transformed . In 2007 , the residence was purchased by a developer , who divided it into ten apartments three years later . This helped save the rear of the residence , which had a badly @-@ damaged roof . Currently , the building comprises ten apartments and a large office .
= = Buildings = =
Destroyed in 1812 , the original layout of the north wing is unknown but it is described in a 1644 document . Narrower than the other wings , the wing and its gallery were no more than 8 m ( 26 ft ) wide and contained two bedrooms . A staircase at the northeast corner linked it to the other wings .
Although the east wing is well @-@ preserved , it has undergone many changes and its initial appearance is unknown . The wing has two levels overlooking the courtyard retaining their arcades ( now glassed @-@ in ) , which are the same shape as those in the south wing . The southeast end of the wing contained a kitchen ( with a well ) and a large pantry .
Opening onto Rue Saint @-@ Honoré with a large portal , the south wing was the hotel 's main building ; like the east wing , it is well @-@ preserved . To the left of the portal is an area which previously served as a stable . The ground floor has a large room opening onto the courtyard and another , smaller room . The first floor consists of three rooms : two small rooms and a garderobe . During the eighteenth century , it was recorded that the top floor had two chambres de bonne .
The west wing 's design is known only from archival records , since it was almost totally destroyed between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries . The first part of the wing consisted of stables , a spiral staircase leading to the exterior façade , a corridor linking the courtyard to the street and a large pantry . During the seventeenth century , the second part held an indoor jeu de paume court and a chapel ; its first floor had three large bedrooms .
= = Façades , entrances and courtyard = =
The hotel 's exterior façade was inspired by the Louis XII wing of the Château de Blois . Since its construction , dormers have been added and the window design has changed . The original façade can be seen in the decoration of some ground @-@ floor windows and the portal , and the walls , windows and corbels of this hôtel particulier are in the Gothic style .
More modern than the exterior façades and contrary to French architectural tradition , the interior façades embrace the Italian Renaissance style . The hotel 's galleries had two levels of " basket @-@ handle " arches , columns on the first floor and rectangular pillars . Italian influence on the buildings appears in the moldings and carvings on its doors and pillars — for example , facing birds .
Thirteen antique terracotta medallions adorn the balustrade of the gallery 's first floor , representing Roman emperors and influenced by Italian architecture . Surrounded by a thick garland of fruits and flowers , these medallions were originally painted green to suggest bronze and distinguish the façade . The building 's perforated railings are inspired by the François I wing of the Château de Blois . The windows were probably added during the late @-@ nineteenth @-@ century restoration . Dismantled in 1812 , the northern galleries were originally supported by two sets of six white marble columns ( rarely found in sixteenth @-@ century buildings ) .
The hôtel d 'Alluye originally had three entrances linking it to shopping areas . The original main entrance , on the south side of the hotel , has been preserved . The hotel was accessible from the west by a path from Rue Porte @-@ Chartraine ; that entrance was bricked up in 1606 . A third , seventeenth @-@ century entrance linked the north side of the hotel to Rue Beauvoir .
The inner courtyard was originally decorated with a bronze copy of Donatello 's David , which was inspired by Michelangelo . Placed in 1509 , the statue was given to Robertet by the Florentine Republic . As early as 1513 , it was moved to his Château de Bury .
= = Interior decoration = =
Much of the hôtel d 'Alluye 's original interior decoration remains . A notable exception is the fireplace in the largest room of the south wing , which was repainted and redecorated by Martin Monestier during the nineteenth century . On the sides of the fireplace , two maxims ( maxima propositio ) are engraved in ancient Greek . The first reads , " Remember the common fate " ( " ΜΕΜΝΗΣΟ ΤΗΣ ΚΟΙΝΗΣ ΤΥΧΗΣ " ) and the second " Above all , respect the divine " ( " ΠΡΟ ΠΑΝΤΩΝ ΣΕΒΟΥ ΤΟ ΘΕΙΟΝ " ) .
= = Conservation = =
The hôtel d 'Alluye , classified as a monument historique on 6 November 1929 , is privately owned . Since 2011 , its courtyard has been open to the public on European Heritage Days .
= The Last Temptation of Homer =
" The Last Temptation of Homer " is the ninth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 9 , 1993 . In the episode , a female employee named Mindy is hired at the nuclear power plant . Homer and Mindy find themselves attracted to each other , but even though Homer is very tempted by her , he stays faithful to his wife Marge . Meanwhile , Bart becomes an outcast and makes friends with a group of nerds after he is prescribed glasses , special shoes , and throat spray which changes his voice .
The episode was written by Frank Mula and directed by Carlos Baeza . It did not get the usual amount of laughs at the test screenings , which made the staff worry the show was not as funny as they expected . Michelle Pfeiffer guest starred in the episode as Mindy and received praise for her performance , including a spot on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the 16 best guest appearances on The Simpsons . The episode features cultural references to films such as The Wizard of Oz , It 's A Wonderful Life , and A Christmas Carol . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 7 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
After Homer and his coworkers barely escape from a gas leak at the nuclear power plant , Homer 's coworker is fired when he asks Mr. Burns to put in a real emergency exit . After breaking numerous labor laws in hiring a replacement , such as hiring illegal aliens and ducks , the United States Department of Labor demands that Burns make changes in the power plant 's policies , including hiring at least one female worker . A beautiful woman named Mindy Simmons is brought in and Homer finds he is falling in love with her . Barney advises Homer to talk to Mindy because they will most likely have nothing in common . Homer does so , and to his horror , he finds they have exactly the same personality and interests . Meanwhile , Marge is sick with a bad cold , which makes her very unattractive to Homer .
Meanwhile , Bart is sent to an eye specialist after it is discovered he has poor vision . The optometrist decides he has lazy eye and fits him with special , thick glasses he has to wear for two weeks . Bart also finds out he has a dry scalp that can only be treated by matting his hair down with a medicated salve , therefore parting his hair to both sides . He also receives a pair of oversized shoes to help his posture , and a spray in his throat to cure the redness , which temporarily gives him a squeaky voice . These adjustments give Bart the appearance of , and gradually turn him into , a nerd . He is picked on and beaten up regularly by bullies for the duration of the two weeks . Eventually , Bart comes back to school in his normal appearance , explaining he is no longer a nerd , but the bullies still decide to beat him up anyway .
Homer does his best to avoid Mindy , who is falling in love with Homer , but despite his best efforts , they keep ending up together . Eventually , Homer decides to talk to Mindy , and say that due to their attraction , they should completely avoid each other . However , things get worse when Homer and Mindy are sent to represent the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant at the National Energy Convention in Capital City . After a romantic dinner as an award for winning the Convention , Homer and Mindy go back to their hotel room , and Homer expresses his worries . Mindy tells Homer how she feels about him , but assures him that nothing has to happen between them , and that it is up to him to decide how far their relationship will go . Even though he is very tempted by her , Homer declares his faithfulness to Marge . Mindy accepts his decision and leaves after they share a kiss . Later , Marge shows up with Homer to share a romantic evening together .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Frank Mula and directed by Carlos Baeza . The idea was conceived by the then @-@ show runner David Mirkin . When he was hired to work on The Simpsons , one of his goals was to study the aspect of Homer 's character if he was " really tempted away " from Marge . Mirkin wanted to find out what would happen in a situation where Homer finds himself attracted to another woman . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening had previously written an episode for the show 's third season , called " Colonel Homer " , where Homer finds himself attracted to a country singer named Lurleen Lumpkin . In that episode , Lurleen immediately had a " crush " on Homer , but Homer was not aware of it until later on . With this episode , Mirkin wanted Homer to immediately know he was attracted to Mindy . Mirkin thought it was a " great exploration " to see what happened to Homer in this particular case . The episode did not get the usual amount of laughs at the animatic test screening , which made the staff worry it was not as funny as they expected . Mirkin said it had to do with the fact that because there were very " subtle " performances in the episode , the animation had to be " exactly right " for it to be funny . Baeza and David Silverman , another animation director on the show , worked " hard " on the episode . Mirkin said from the very beginning it was a " huge group effort " from both the writing and the animation staff .
Many scenes in the animatic portrayed Mindy as flirty . Mirkin did not like this because the secret of the episode was Homer and Mindy are two good people who are thrown into the situation and " can 't help that their libidos are going crazy upon seeing each other " . He added that the two characters have " so much in common " that it is " not just a physical relationship , but a mental connection as well " , and that Mindy is not a seductress but rather a woman just as nervous as Homer . Mirkin also pointed out that while Homer is being tempted by a " seemingly perfect " woman at work , his wife could not be more " imperfect " since she has got a cold and looks sick . " He 's trying to connect with his family , but with Marge looking sick and Bart looking like a nerd , everything is just not working , " Mirkin said .
American actress Michelle Pfeiffer provided the voice of Mindy Simmons in the episode . All the writers showed up at the recording studio in West Los Angeles to see her record her lines . When Pfeiffer entered the room with her daughter , Pfeiffer was " mobbed " by the energy of the writers and directors , who were excited to see her . Mirkin , who directed Pfeiffer in the studio , was nervous because he thought she was a beautiful woman who was on a " completely different level " than the other actors and actresses he had directed on the show . Pfeiffer was also nervous because she had never voiced an animated character . Mirkin told her : " You 're gonna love this more than anything you have ever done because it 's calm and pleasant , and we have so much time to play and experiment . " This helped her calm down and by the end of the session , she was " really relaxed " and they had a " fantastic " time . Silverman told Pfeiffer to not sound too flirty , and that she should just act herself . In one scene in the episode , Mindy drools as she eats doughnuts , much like Homer does . To get the right drool sound , Pfeiffer put broccoli and water in her mouth . Mirkin said he did not have to give much direction during the recording of Homer and Mindy 's final scene together , in which Mindy tells Homer how she feels about him . Pfeiffer " hit it really well " and they did it several times to get it " more and more real " . Mirkin also thought that Pfeiffer completely understood the part and played it perfectly . He described her as " one of those actresses that you don 't even have to see to know they 're great , instead you can hear from her voice what a brilliant actress she is . " Dan Castellaneta was also praised by Mirkin for his performance as Homer . Castellaneta struggled to be " sweet " and " moving " in his performance .
When Homer calls a marriage counseling hotline in the episode , he accidentally knocks himself unconscious in the phone booth . In a dream , he is approached by his guardian angel . The angel , in the form of Colonel Klink , shows Homer what his life would be like without Marge . Colonel Klink is a character on the American television series Hogan 's Heroes . Klink 's actor in Hogan 's Heroes , Werner Klemperer , provided the voice of Klink in this episode . Mirkin said Klemperer was a " fantastic sport " to do the character . Since Hogan 's Heroes had gone off the air in 1971 , he had forgotten how to play Klink . Mirkin therefore had to do an impression of Klink that Klemperer could imitate to get it right .
= = Cultural references = =
When Bart receives new glasses , scalp treatment , orthopedic shoes , and throat spray , he does an impersonation of Jerry Lewis ' nerdy character in The Nutty Professor . When Homer first meets Mindy , he imagines her as Venus in Sandro Botticelli 's painting The Birth of Venus . To deal with Homer and Mindy charging room service to the company , Mr. Burns unleashes flying monkeys in the manner of the Wicked Witch of the West , as seen in the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz . However , the attempt fails as the monkeys all fall to their deaths . The scene between Homer and Colonel Klink from Hogan 's Heroes , wondering what his life would have been like if he married Mindy and not Marge , draws from the films It 's A Wonderful Life and A Christmas Carol . When Homer meets Mindy in the elevator , he thinks " unsexy thoughts " to avoid being seduced by her . He imagines Barney in a bikini and humming the theme tune to the American sitcom I Dream of Jeannie . Homer attempts to read the notes for Mindy that he wrote on his hand , but they have smeared out because of sweat . In his attempt , Homer unknowingly babbles the Nam Myoho Renge Kyo , a Buddhist chant in Nichiren Buddhism and SGI . This is a reference to an Akbar and Jeff cartoon , written by Matt Groening , in which the same mantra is used . When Homer notices the sweat , he says he is " sweating like [ film critic ] Roger Ebert " . In the bathroom , Homer sings a rough version of the song " Mandy " by Barry Manilow , replacing " Mandy " with " Mindy " . Homer refers to comic strip Ziggy when he wonders if Mindy agrees the title character has become " too preachy " . Barry White 's song " Can 't Get Enough of Your Love , Babe " is played in the episode 's final scene where Homer and Marge make out at the hotel room . When Bart is being fitted for correctional glasses the optician reveals former Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin had a pair just like Bart 's .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Last Temptation of Homer " finished 24th ( tied with The Fresh Prince of Bel Air ) in the ratings for the week of December 6 – 12 , 1993 . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 7 . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . In 2003 , it was placed tenth on Entertainment Weekly 's top 25 The Simpsons episode list , and The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of " The 10 Best Simpsons Television Episodes " . Nancy Basile of About.com named it one of her top twenty favorite episodes of the show , and said Michelle Pfeiffer " is so elegant and beautiful , that the irony of her playing a burping love interest for Homer Simpson is funny enough . " She added " the thorny issue of adultery is tackled in a way only The Simpsons could , " and " though Homer is contemplating cheating , he 's a sympathetic and almost innocent character . " Robert Canning of IGN called the episode " smart , touching and funny " , and said " it did a great job showing Homer 's struggle to deal with the flirtations of a co @-@ worker . "
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it a " wonderfully scripted episode " . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said , " Given Homer ’ s utter devotion to Marge , it may seem off @-@ character for him to fall for Mindy , but the show makes it fit , as his obsession doesn ’ t come across as inconsistent . " He added the plot with Bart becoming a nerd is the " funnier one " of the two . Bill Gibron of DVD Talk called it a " jest fest loaded with insight into the human heart and hilarious over @-@ the @-@ top goofiness . " TV DVD Reviews 's Kay Daly called it the season 's finest episode with the " greatest foray into emotional resonance " . Matt Groening thought it was an amazing episode with " a lot of fun " in it . David Mirkin said Frank Mula 's script was great .
In a 2008 article , Entertainment Weekly named Pfeiffer 's role as Mindy one of the 16 best guest appearances on The Simpsons . She also appeared on AOL 's list of their top favorite guest stars on the show . Brett Buckalew of Metromix Indianapolis wrote that Pfeiffer " gives arguably the best celebrity guest @-@ vocal performance in series history . " Total Film 's Nathan Ditum ranked her performance as the 15th best guest appearance in the show 's history .
= European storm petrel =
The European storm petrel , British storm petrel or just storm petrel ( Hydrobates pelagicus ) is a seabird in the storm petrel family , Hydrobatidae . It is the only member of the genus Hydrobates . The small , square @-@ tailed bird is entirely black except for a broad white rump and a white band on the underwings , and it has a fluttering , bat @-@ like flight . The large majority of the population breeds on islands off the coasts of Europe , with the greatest numbers in the Faroe Islands , United Kingdom , Ireland and Iceland . The Mediterranean population is a separate subspecies , but is inseparable at sea from its Atlantic relatives ; its strongholds are Filfla Island ( Malta ) , Sicily and the Balearic Islands .
The storm petrel nests in crevices and burrows , sometimes shared with other seabirds or rabbits , and lays a single white egg , usually on bare soil . The adults share the lengthy incubation and both feed the chick , which is not normally brooded after the first week . This bird is strongly migratory , spending the northern hemisphere winter mainly off the coasts of South Africa and Namibia , with some birds stopping in the seas adjoining West Africa , and a few remaining near their Mediterranean breeding islands . This petrel is strictly oceanic outside the breeding season . It feeds on small fish , squid and zooplankton while pattering on the sea 's surface , and can find oily edible items by smell . The food is converted in the bird 's stomach to an oily orange liquid which is regurgitated when the chick is fed . Although usually silent at sea , the storm petrel has a chattering call given by both members of a pair in their courtship flight , and the male has a purring song given from the breeding chamber .
The storm petrel cannot survive on islands where land mammals such as rats and cats have been introduced , and it suffers natural predation from gulls , skuas , owls and falcons . Although the population may be declining slightly , this petrel is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of Least Concern due to its high total numbers . Its presence in rough weather at sea has led to various mariners ' superstitions , and , by analogy , to its use as a symbol by revolutionary and anarchist groups .
= = Taxonomy = =
The storm petrels , Hydrobatidae , are one of the four major families of the Procellariiformes or " tubenoses " , an order of seabirds that also includes the albatrosses , the Procellariidae , and the diving petrels . The family is an ancient group of small species which is thought to have diverged early from the rest of the tubenoses ; the supporting fossil record is poor , with specimens from California dating back only to the Late Miocene ( 11 @.@ 6 – 5 @.@ 3 million years ago ) . The Hydrobatidae are often divided into two subfamilies , the mainly southern hemisphere Oceanitinae and the northern Hydrobatinae ; cytochrome b DNA sequence analysis suggests that these might be full families . The European storm petrel is the only member of the genus Hydrobates , the remainder of the Hydrobatinae being placed in Oceanodroma , although the least storm petrel is sometimes separated as the sole member of Halocyptena . The relationships within the Hydrobatinae are complex and uncertain , and it has been suggested that all the members of the subfamily could be subsumed into an enlarged Hydrobates .
The storm petrel was first described from by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 as Procellaria pelagica . It was moved to the genus Hydrobates by Friedrich Boie in 1822 . Petrel , first recorded in 1602 , is a corruption of pitteral , referring to the bird 's pitter @-@ pattering across the water . The suggestion that the word refers to St Peter walking on the waves is a later invention . Storm arises from seamen 's association of this bird with bad weather . In English , the name of the species was written as " stormy petrel " by some 19th @-@ century authors .
The scientific name derives from Greek ; Hydrobates is from hudro , water , and bates , walker , and pelagicus is from pelagikos , of the sea . There are two recognised subspecies , the North Atlantic nominate subspecies , H. p. pelagicus ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) , and the Mediterranean H. p. melitensis ( Schembri , 1843 ) . Although there is some genetic support for classifying the southern form as a separate species , the morphology is not considered sufficiently different from that of the nominate subspecies to justify a split .
= = Description = =
The storm petrel is a small bird , 14 – 18 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) in length with a 36 – 39 cm ( 14 – 15 in ) wingspan . It weighs 20 – 38 g ( 0 @.@ 71 – 1 @.@ 34 oz ) , with an average of 28 g ( 0 @.@ 99 oz ) . It is square @-@ tailed and has all @-@ black plumage except for a snow @-@ white rump that extends to the sides of the tail base and a broad white band on the underwings . Juveniles in fresh plumage can also show a narrow white bar on the upperwing . The plumage becomes dark brown rather than black as it becomes worn . There are no obvious differences between the sexes , although in the Mediterranean subspecies , at least , most captured birds can be sexed using a formula which involves multiplying the wing length by the length of the white rump band ; females are slightly larger and have a longer white rump than males . The Mediterranean subspecies has longer wings and a heavier bill on average than the nominate form , but neither sex nor subspecies can be determined by observation at sea .
Moult is prolonged in all tubenoses , since they must maintain an ability to fly . Northern populations start replacing their plumage after those further south , reflecting the later start to their breeding season . Birds in a Welsh colony commenced moulting in early August , while populations in northern Spain and the Balearics started in early July and mid @-@ June respectively . Breeding birds moult later than non @-@ breeders .
The storm petrel 's large nasal olfactory bulbs facilitate a keen sense of smell , and the birds themselves have a distinctive musty aroma which can help researchers to locate breeding colonies . Individual petrels recognise their own body scent and can use it to locate their nest in the dark .
The flight is weak @-@ looking and resembles that of a bat , with fluttering interspersed with short glides . When feeding , the birds hang with raised wings and patter on the surface with their feet , but , unlike the Wilson 's storm petrel , do not look as if they are walking on the water . Birds will sometimes settle on the sea . Like other petrels , the European storm petrel cannot walk properly on land , but shuffles on its tarsi ; once there is enough room , the bird flaps its wings to support itself on its toes .
The European storm petrel can be distinguished from related Western Palaearctic species by the white bar on its underwing and its distinctive fluttering flight . Compared to Leach 's storm petrel , band @-@ rumped storm petrel , and the recently described Monteiro 's storm petrel , it is also smaller , darker , shorter @-@ winged and has a square tail . Wilson 's storm petrel lacks an underwing bar , and has long legs with the feet visible beyond the tail .
= = = Voice = = =
In its display flight , the storm petrel gives a call consisting of eight or more repetitions of a fast ter @-@ CHICK sounds ending in a trill ( rapid alternation of notes ) . This chattering , staccato call is highly variable in pitch , stress and length . Both sexes make the call , which is used as an advertisement for a mate , for pair recognition , and in the nuptial flight . The details of the vocalisation vary geographically , including between the Atlantic and Mediterranean populations , and birds recognise calls from their own breeding area . The chatter @-@ call of the Mediterranean subspecies is distinctive . It has the first two notes running into each other , and the final element is sometimes doubled . The storm petrel is usually silent at sea , but sometimes gives the chattering call . A purring song arrr @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r … ending with a sharp chikka is given in the burrow by the male only ; it was described by Charles Oldham as " like a fairy being sick " . Other vocalisations include a fast wick @-@ wick @-@ wick , sometimes given in flight , and an up @-@ CHERRK alarm which resembles the chatter @-@ call . Chicks give a whistling pee @-@ pee @-@ pee call when being fed , and a faster version of this vocalisation is used by adults and young to signal distress .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Storm petrels breed only in the Western Palaearctic on islands off the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Europe . The largest colonies are in the Faroe Islands ( 150 @,@ 000 @-@ 400 @,@ 000 pairs ) , United Kingdom ( 20 @,@ 000 @-@ 150 @,@ 000 ) , Ireland ( 50 @,@ 000 @-@ 100 @,@ 000 ) and Iceland ( 50 @,@ 000 @-@ 100 @,@ 000 ) , with smaller breeding areas off Norway , Malta , Spain , the Canary Islands , Italy , France and Greece . The strongholds of the melitensis subspecies are the island of Filfla ( Malta ) , Sicily and the Balearic Islands , with smaller sites elsewhere in the Mediterranean . This latter form also breeds in North Africa ; definitely in Tunisia , probably in Algeria and possibly in Morocco . Because of its nocturnal habits and the problems of accessing some of the small islands on which it breeds , the distribution is poorly known . A colony was discovered as recently as 2009 , on Lampedusa . The storm petrel has been recorded as a vagrant in several European countries as far east as the Ukraine , in the Guinea region of West Africa , and in Turkey , Israel , Lebanon , and the US . Although there were no North American records for more than 30 years after the first in 1970 , this bird has been more or less annual in small numbers since 2003 .
The storm petrel breeds on exposed and usually uninhabited islands which it visits only at night . It otherwise frequents mid @-@ depth waters away from the coastal zone , but not over the ocean deeps . In the breeding season , it is mainly found between the 10 – 25 ° C July isotherms . In Europe , it is rarely seen from land except in autumn storms .
The storm petrel is migratory , spending the northern hemisphere winter mainly in cool waters off the coasts of South Africa and Namibia , south to latitude 38 ° S and east to KwaZulu @-@ Natal . Some birds stay north of the equator in the seas adjoining Mauritania and Rio de Oro , and a few remain near the breeding islands , especially in the Mediterranean . It is strictly oceanic outside the breeding season , although it is described as regularly seen from land in West Africa . Young birds do not return to the breeding colonies until their second or third year . Birds mostly head south from the breeding islands between September and November , reaching West Africa by mid @-@ November and the south Atlantic by the end of the year . The return passage starts in April , with late records from the tropics and further south probably representing sub @-@ adult birds that will not breed that year .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
The storm petrel is sexually mature at age 4 – 5 years , with the Mediterranean subspecies typically breeding a year earlier than the Atlantic form . Breeding happens in colonies and normally begins in late May or June . Pairs have a repeated nocturnal display flight in which the male chases the female , the chase being accompanied by flight calls . Some near @-@ adult birds may pair up and occupy a hole at the same time , prior to breeding in the following year .
Storm petrels normally nest in crevices between or under rocks , or burrow in the soil . When they make their own tunnels , they loosen the earth with their bills and kick out the debris with their feet . The birds less commonly nest in walls , under buildings or down rabbit burrows . Disused or occupied burrows of Atlantic puffins and Manx shearwaters are sometimes used , and the petrel pair may share a common entrance with those seabirds , rabbits or other pairs of its own species . Where other occupants are present , the petrels dig a side burrow or use an existing low @-@ roofed tunnel which the larger birds or rabbits cannot easily enter . Even so , puffins and shearwaters will sometimes access and destroy nests , and adult petrels may be killed by their larger neighbours . Human @-@ made plastic nesting tubes are readily used , and may provide protection against predators . Birds usually mate for life and use the same hole every year .
The nest tunnel is 10 – 300 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 118 @.@ 1 in ) long and 5 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) across , with a slightly narrower entrance . The nest chamber is typically unlined , although pairs may bring in some grass , bracken or seaweed . Although the storm petrel is generally non @-@ territorial when breeding , a pair will defend the nest chamber itself after the eggs have been laid .
The clutch is a single egg , usually pure white , sometimes with some reddish brown spots that soon disappear . The average size of the egg is 28 mm × 21 mm ( 1 @.@ 10 in × 0 @.@ 83 in ) , and it weighs 6 @.@ 8 g ( 0 @.@ 24 oz ) , of which 6 % is shell . If an egg is lost early enough , on rare occasions a replacement may be laid . This is very unusual for tubenoses . The eggs are incubated by both parents for 38 – 50 days , the longer periods arising when the eggs have become chilled through adult absence . One adult typically spends three days at a time on the egg while its partner feeds at sea . The chicks are altricial and covered with silver @-@ grey down , and are fed by both parents with their regurgitated oily stomach contents . The adults do not normally stay with the chick after first week , visiting only to bring food . After about 50 days , the chicks are fed less regularly , sometimes with gaps of several days , and the parents may stop visiting completely shortly before the chick leaves the nest . The chicks fledge about 56 – 86 days after hatching , and receive no parental support after leaving the nest hole .
Tubenoses have smaller egg clutches and much longer and more variable incubation and fledging times than passerines with similarly sized eggs , resembling swifts in these developmental factors . Tubenoses and swifts have generally secure nest sites , but their food sources are unreliable , whereas passerines are vulnerable in the nest but food is usually plentiful . In the particular case of the storm petrel , it has a body temperature perhaps 3 ° C lower than other small birds , and this may also contribute to the lengthy incubation .
The adult petrel 's annual death rate is 12 – 13 % , and the typical life span is 11 years . Longevity records established from bird ringing recoveries include a bird aged 31 years 11 months 9 days , and another aged more than 33 years .
= = = Feeding = = =
The storm petrel normally flies within 10 m ( 33 ft ) of the water surface and typically feeds by picking items off the sea as it patters over the surface . Birds have been observed diving for food to a depth of not more than 0 @.@ 5 m ( 20 in ) . and it is claimed , using indirect measurements , that the Mediterranean subspecies reaches depths of up to 5 m ( 16 ft ) ) . A bird may range up to 200 km ( 120 mi ) over the course of two or three days in search of food . Although the bird usually feeds during the day , in the breeding season petrels will often feed at night close to the shore .
The typical prey consists of surface organisms such as small fish , squid , crustaceans and jellyfish . The storm petrel will also eat offal and oily food , often located by smell , and will follow ships . In the Atlantic , more than half the food items are zooplankton and the fish caught include small herring and sprats ; whale carcasses are scavenged where available . During digestion , the plankton is quickly converted to an oily orange liquid that owes its colour to carotenoids . Larger prey items take longer to digest . The oil , rich in vitamin A , is produced by a large gland in the stomach . The Mediterranean subspecies ' diet is mainly fish , particularly Mediterranean sand eels . Petrels also catch opossum shrimps from waters close to the colony . Bluefin tuna farms are exploited on the Maltese island of Filfla ; birds from the large local colony feed on the unwashed food fed to the farmed tuna , a mixture of fish , squid and prawns which produces a sizeable oily slick . Small numbers of insects are caught near breeding colonies , and some plant material , including angiosperm seeds and sorrel , has been found in the stomach contents . A study on Leach 's storm petrel , which consumes similar items , showed that the petrels were snipping pieces off plant leaves in flight , but it could not be confirmed that this was in the course of catching insects . Nasal glands remove excess salt from seawater consumed by the petrel as a concentrated solution excreted through the nostrils .
Petrels can be attracted to boats with " chum " , a malodorous mixture typically containing fish heads , bones and offal , with added fish oil and popcorn to aid flotation . An apparently empty ocean will soon fill with hundreds of birds attracted by the smell . The attraction of the fishy odour is sometimes enhanced by the addition of dimethylsulphide ( DMS ) a chemical also naturally produced by some planktonic organisms , although there are doubts about the safety of this possible carcinogen .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Adults and young are vulnerable to predation at the breeding colonies , their only defence being to spit oil . Petrels cannot breed on islands where rats have been introduced , and feral cats frequently kill these birds on Foula in the Shetland Islands . The American mink , a non @-@ native species in Europe , is a strong swimmer , and can colonise islands up to 2 km ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) from the mainland . Natural predators of petrels and other seabirds include skuas and large gulls . The yellow @-@ legged gull is a particular problem in the Mediterranean , and great skuas were estimated to kill 7 @,@ 500 petrels a year on St Kilda , an unsustainable number . Some great black @-@ backed gulls on the Atlantic islands specialise in taking seabird chicks at night , and peregrine falcons hunt adults at sea . Localised predators include Eleonora 's falcon on the Columbretes Islands and the nocturnal barn owl on the Balearics ; a few owls can wipe out a colony . The little owl is also a predator of both adults and young where it occurs .
Feather mites of at least two species have been found on the storm petrel , with Halipeurus pelagicus occurring at much higher densities than Philoceanus robertsi . The flea Xenopsylla gratiosa and dermanyssid mites are commonly found , with lower numbers of ticks . These blood @-@ sucking parasites slow the growth rate of nestlings and may affect their survival rate .
Storm petrels seem to be largely free of blood parasites , even when in close proximity to carrier species such as the yellow @-@ legged gull . It has been suggested that seabird species with long incubation periods and long lives have well @-@ developed immune systems that prevent serious blood parasitism .
= = Status = =
The European population of the storm petrel has been estimated at 430 @,@ 000 – 510 @,@ 000 breeding pairs or 1 @,@ 290 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 530 @,@ 000 individual birds and makes up 95 % of the world total numbers . The population estimate includes about 11 @,@ 000 to 16 @,@ 000 breeding pairs of the Mediterranean subspecies .
Although this species ' population now appears to be declining , the decrease is not rapid or large enough to trigger conservation vulnerability criteria . Given its high numbers , this petrel is therefore classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of Least Concern . The perceived decline may be due increased predation from gulls , skuas and introduced mammals . Eradication of rats protects seabird colonies and may enable recolonisation of islands cleared of rodents . Predation of cave @-@ nesting petrels in the Balearics by yellow @-@ legged gulls is restricted to relatively few individual gulls specialising in this prey item ; this means that the problems can be controlled by selective culling and the provision of plastic nest boxes .
Because it feeds in flight , the storm petrel is less affected by oil pollution than other seabirds , and may be able to use its good sense of smell to avoid slicks , although a large spill near a breeding colony could have serious consequences .
= = In culture = =
Its association with storms makes the storm petrel a bird of bad omen to mariners ; they are said to either foretell or cause bad weather . A more prosaic explanation of their appearance in rough weather is that , like most oceanic seabirds , they rely on the winds to support them in flight and just sit on the water surface when becalmed . The birds were sometimes thought to be the souls of perished sailors , and killing a petrel was believed to bring bad luck . The petrel 's reputation led to the old name of witch , although the commonest of the folk names is Mother Carey 's Chicken , a name also used for storm petrels in general in the UK and USA from at least 1767 . This is believed to be a corruption of mater cara ( dear mother , the Virgin Mary ) , a reference to the supernatural Mother Carey , or a superstitious modification of an earlier Mother Mary 's Chicken to reduce the potency of the religious name . The Mother Carey character appears a number of times in literature . In the Cicely Fox Smith poem " Mother Carey " , she calls old sailors to return to the sea , but in John Masefield 's poem of the same name she is seen as a wrecker of ships . She appears as a fairy in Charles Kingsley 's The Water Babies and is depicted in one of Jessie Willcox Smith 's illustrations for the book .
The association of the storm petrel with turbulent weather has led to its use as a metaphor for revolutionary views , the epithet " stormy petrel " being applied by various authors to characters as disparate as Roman tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher , a Presbyterian minister in the early Carolinas , an Afghan governor , or an Arkansas politician .
A 1901 poem by Russian writer Maxim Gorky is invariably titled in English as " The Song of the Stormy Petrel " , although that may not be a perfectly accurate translation of the Russian title " Песня о Буревестнике " , because " Буревестник " ( the name of the bird in Russian ) translates to the English general term " storm bird " . The poem was called " the battle anthem of the revolution " , and earned Gorky the nickname " The Storm Petrel of the Revolution " .
Various revolutionary anarchist groups adopted the bird 's name , either as a group identifier , as in the Spanish Civil War , or for their publications . The Stormy Petrel ( Burevestnik ) was the title of the magazine of the Anarchist Communist Federation in Russia around the time of the 1905 revolution , and is still an imprint of the London group of the Anarchist Federation ( Britain and Ireland ) . To honor Gorky and his work , the name Burevestnik was bestowed on a variety of institutions , locations , and products in the USSR .
= Bluespotted ribbontail ray =
Not to be confused with the bluespotted stingray , Neotrygon kuhlii .
The bluespotted ribbontail ray ( Taeniura lymma ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . Found from the intertidal zone to a depth of 30 m ( 100 ft ) , this species is common throughout the tropical Indian and western Pacific Oceans in nearshore , coral reef @-@ associated habitats . It is a fairly small ray , not exceeding 35 cm ( 14 in ) in width , with a mostly smooth , oval pectoral fin disc , large protruding eyes , and a relatively short and thick tail with a deep fin fold underneath . It can be easily identified by its striking color pattern of many electric blue spots on a yellowish background , with a pair of blue stripes on the tail .
At night , small groups of bluespotted ribbontail rays follow the rising tide onto sandy flats to root for small benthic invertebrates and bony fishes in the sediment . When the tide recedes , the rays separate and withdraw to shelters on the reef . Reproduction is aplacental viviparous , with females giving birth to litters of up to seven young . This ray is capable of injuring humans with its venomous tail spines , though it prefers to flee if threatened . Because of its beauty and size , the bluespotted ribbontail ray is popular with private aquarists despite being poorly suited to captivity . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species as Near Threatened , as it faces widespread habitat degradation and intensive fishing pressure throughout its range .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The bluespotted ribbontail ray was originally described as Raja lymma by Swedish naturalist Peter Forsskål , in his 1775 Descriptiones Animalium quae in itinere ad maris australis terras per annos 1772 , 1773 , et 1774 suscepto collegit , observavit , et delineavit Joannes Reinlioldus Forster , etc . , curante Henrico Lichtenstein . The specific epithet lymma means " dirt " . Forsskål did not designate a type specimen . In 1837 , German biologists Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle created the genus Taeniura for Trygon ornatus , now known to be a junior synonym of this species .
Other common names used for this species include bluespotted ray , bluespotted fantail ray , bluespotted lagoon ray , bluespotted stingray , fantail ray , lesser fantail ray , lagoon ray , reef ray , ribbon @-@ tailed stingray , and ribbontail stingray . Morphological examination has suggested that the bluespotted ribbontail ray is more closely related to the amphi @-@ American Himantura ( H. pacifica and H. schmardae ) and the river stingrays ( Potamotrygonidae ) than to the congeneric blotched fantail ray ( T. meyeni ) , which is closer to Dasyatis and Indo @-@ Pacific Himantura .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Widespread in the nearshore waters of the tropical Indo @-@ Pacific region , the bluespotted ribbontail ray has a range that extends around the periphery of the Indian Ocean from South Africa to the Arabian Peninsula to Southeast Asia , including Madagascar , Mauritius , Zanzibar , the Seychelles , Sri Lanka , and the Maldives . It is rare in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman . In the Pacific Ocean , this species is found from the Philippines to northern Australia , as well as around numerous Melanesian and Polynesian islands as far east as the Solomon Islands . Rarely found deeper than 30 m ( 100 ft ) , the bluespotted ribbontail ray is a bottom @-@ dwelling species that frequents coral reefs and adjacent sandy flats . It is also commonly encountered in the intertidal zone and tidal pools , and has been sighted near seagrass beds . Every summer , considerable numbers of bluespotted ribbontail rays arrive off South Africa .
= = Description = =
The pectoral fin disc of the bluespotted ribbontail ray is oval in shape , around four @-@ fifths as wide as long , with a rounded to broadly angular snout . The large , protruding eyes are immediately followed by the broad spiracles . There is a narrow flap of skin between the nares with a fringed posterior margin , reaching past the mouth . The lower jaw dips at the middle and deep furrows are present at the mouth corners . There are 15 – 24 tooth rows in either jaw , arranged into pavement @-@ like plates , and two large papillae on the floor of the mouth . The pelvic fins are narrow and angular . The thick , depressed tail measures about 1 @.@ 5 times the disc length and bears one or two ( usually two ) serrated spines well behind the tail base ; there is a deep fin fold on the ventral surface , reaching the tip of the tail , and a low midline ridge on the upper surface .
The skin is generally smooth , save for perhaps a scattering of small thorns on the middle of the back . The dorsal coloration is striking , consisting of numerous circular , neon blue spots on a yellowish brown or green background ; the spots vary in size , becoming smaller and denser towards the disc margin . The tail has two stripes of the same blue running along each side as far as the spines . The eyes are bright yellow and the belly is white . Individuals found off southern Africa may lack the blue tail stripes . The bluespotted ribbontail ray grows to 35 cm ( 14 in ) across , 80 cm ( 31 in ) long , and 5 kg ( 11 lb ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
One of the most abundant stingrays inhabiting Indo @-@ Pacific reefs , the bluespotted ribbontail ray generally spends the day hidden alone inside caves or under coral ledges or other debris ( including from shipwrecks ) , often with only its tail showing . At night , small groups assemble and swim onto shallow sandy flats with the rising tide to feed . Unlike many other stingrays , this species seldom buries itself in sand . The bluespotted ribbontail ray excavates sand pits in search of molluscs , polychaete worms , shrimps , crabs , and small benthic bony fishes ; when prey is located , it is trapped by the body of the ray and maneuvered into the mouth with the disc . Other fishes , such as goatfish , frequently follow foraging rays , seeking food missed by the ray .
Breeding in the bluespotted ribbontail ray occurs from late spring to summer ; the male follows the female and nips at her disc , eventually biting and holding onto her for copulation . There is also a documented instance of a male holding onto the disc of a smaller male bluespotted stingray ( Dasyatis kuhlii ) , in a possible case of mistaken identity . Adult males have been observed gathering in shallow water , which may relate to reproduction . Like other stingrays , this species is aplacental viviparous : the embryos are initially sustained by yolk , which later in development is supplemented by histotroph ( " uterine milk " , containing mucus , fat , and proteins ) produced by the mother . The gestation period is uncertain , but is thought to be between four and twelve months long . Females bear litters of up to seven young , each a miniature version of the adult measuring around 13 – 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) across . Males attain sexual maturity at a disc width of 20 – 21 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) ; the maturation size of females is unknown .
Known predators of the bluespotted ribbontail ray include hammerhead sharks ( Sphyrna ) and bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops ) ; it is also potentially preyed upon by other large fishes and marine mammals . When threatened , this ray tends to flee at high speed in a zigzag pattern , to throw off pursuers . Numerous parasites have been identified from this species : the tapeworms Aberrapex manjajiae , Anthobothrium taeniuri , Cephalobothrium taeniurai , Echinobothrium elegans and E. helmymohamedi , Kotorelliella jonesi , Polypocephalus saoudi , and Rhinebothrium ghardaguensis and R. taeniuri , the monogeneans Decacotyle lymmae , Empruthotrema quindecima , Entobdella australis , and Pseudohexabothrium taeniurae , the flatworms Pedunculacetabulum ghardaguensis and Anaporrhutum albidum , the nematode Mawsonascaris australis , the copepod Sheina orri , and the protozoan Trypanosoma taeniurae . This ray has been observed soliciting cleanings from the bluestreak cleaner wrasse ( Labroides dimidiatus ) by raising the margins of its disc and pelvic fins .
= = Human interactions = =
While timid and innocuous towards humans , the bluespotted ribbontail ray is capable of inflicting an excruciating wound with its venomous tail spines . Its attractive appearance and relatively small size has resulted in its being the most common stingray found in the home aquarium trade . However , it seldom fares well in captivity and very few hobbyists are able to maintain one for long . Many specimens refuse to feed in the aquarium , and even seemingly healthy individuals often inexplicably die or stop feeding . A higher degree of success has been achieved by public aquariums and a breeding project is maintained by the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria ( for example , a total of 15 pubs were born at Lisbon Oceanarium from 2011 to 2013 ) . The bluespotted ribbontail ray is utilized as food in East Africa , Southeast Asia , and Australia ; it is captured intentionally or incidentally using gillnets , longlines , spears , and fence traps .
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the bluespotted ribbontail ray as Near Threatened . Although still relatively common and widely distributed , this species faces continuing degradation of its coral reef habitat throughout its range , from development and destructive fishing practices using cyanide or dynamite . In addition , its populations are under heavy pressure by artisanal and commercial fisheries , and by local collecting for the aquarium trade .
= Douglas Jardine =
Douglas Robert Jardine ( 23 October 1900 – 18 June 1958 ) was a cricketer who played 22 Test matches for England , captaining the side in 15 of those matches between 1931 and 1934 . A right @-@ handed batsman , he is best known for captaining the English team during the 1932 – 33 Ashes tour of Australia . During that series , England employed " Bodyline " tactics against the Australian batsmen , wherein bowlers pitched the ball short on the line of leg stump to rise towards the bodies of the batsmen in a manner that most contemporary players and critics viewed as intimidatory and physically dangerous . Jardine is generally believed to be the person responsible for the implementation of Bodyline . A controversial figure among cricketers , he was well known for his dislike of Australian players and crowds and was unpopular in Australia , particularly for his manner and especially after the Bodyline tour . Many who played under his leadership regarded him as an excellent captain ; not all regarded him as good at managing people . He was also famous in cricket circles for wearing a multi @-@ coloured Harlequin cap .
After establishing an early reputation as a prolific schoolboy batsman , Jardine played cricket for Winchester College , attended the University of Oxford , playing for its cricket team , and played for Surrey County Cricket Club as an amateur . He developed a defensive method of batting which was unusual for an amateur , receiving occasional criticism for negative batting . Despite this , Jardine was selected in Test matches for the first time in 1928 , and went on to play with some success in the Test series in Australia in 1928 – 29 . Following this tour , his business commitments prevented him from playing as much cricket . However , in 1931 , he was asked to captain England in a Test against New Zealand . Although there were some initial misgivings about his captaincy , Jardine led England in the next three cricket seasons and on two overseas tours , one of which was the Australian tour of 1932 – 33 . Of his 15 Tests as captain , he won nine , lost one and drew five . He retired from all first @-@ class cricket in 1934 following a tour to India .
Although Jardine was a qualified solicitor he did not work much in law , choosing instead to devote most of his working life to banking and , later on , journalism . He joined the Territorial Army in the Second World War and spent most of it posted in India . After the war , he worked as company secretary at a paper manufacturer and also returned to journalism . While on a business trip in 1957 , he became ill with what proved to be lung cancer and died , aged 57 , in 1958 .
= = Early life = =
Douglas Jardine was born on 23 October 1900 in Bombay , British India , to Scottish parents . His parents were Malcolm Jardine , also a former first @-@ class cricketer but later a barrister , and Alison Moir . At the age of nine , Douglas was sent to stay with his mother 's sister in St Andrews , Scotland . She lived in a large mansion where he spent most of his school holidays while going to Horris Hill School near Newbury , Berkshire , from May 1910 . The school had high standards and Jardine was moderately successful academically . From 1912 , he played cricket for the school first eleven , enjoying success as a bowler and as a batsman . He captained the team in his final term , when the team were unbeaten . Jardine was influenced by the writing of former England captain C. B. Fry on batting technique , which contradicted the advice of his coach at Horris Hill . The coach disapproved of Jardine 's batting methods , but Jardine did not back down and quoted a book by Fry to support his viewpoint .
In 1914 , Jardine entered Winchester College . At the time , life at Winchester was arduous and austere ; discipline was harsh . Sport and exercise were vital parts of the school day . In Jardine 's time , preparing the pupils for war was also important . According to Jardine 's biographer , Christopher Douglas , the pupils were " taught to be honest , impervious to physical pain , uncomplaining and civilised . " All pupils were required to be academically competent and Jardine was able to get along without exhibiting brilliance ; successful sportsmen , on the other hand , were revered . Jardine enjoyed a slightly better position than some other pupils , already possessing when he arrived a reputation as a cricketer and soon excelling at other sports , representing the school at football as a goalkeeper and rackets , and playing Winchester College football , a sport which has resemblances to rugby union . However , his main sporting reputation came from cricket . He was in the first eleven for three years from 1917 and received coaching from Harry Altham , Rockley Wilson and Schofield Haigh , the latter two of whom were distinguished cricketers . Jardine later said that Wilson helped to develop his batting . In 1919 , his final year , Jardine came top of the school batting averages with 997 runs at an average of 66 @.@ 46 . He also became captain although there were doubts within the school about his ability to unify the team . Despite these doubts , Winchester won their annual match against Eton College in 1919 , a fixture in which Eton usually held the upper hand . Jardine 's batting ( 35 and 89 in the match ) and captaincy were believed by critics to be the key factors in his side 's first victory over Eton for 12 years . After his retirement from cricket , he named his 89 in that match as his favourite innings . Jardine went on to score 135 not out against Harrow School .
Jardine 's achievements in the season were widely reported in the local and national press . He went on to play in two representative schools matches at Lord 's Cricket Ground , where he scored 44 , 91 , 57 and 55 in two matches and won favourable reviews in the press . Wisden , in 1928 , described Jardine at this time as being obviously of a much higher standard than his contemporaries , particularly in defence and on side batting . However , at this stage in his batting , he was sometimes criticised for being too cautious and not using all the batting strokes of which he was capable . His good batting technique gave the impression that he could easily score more quickly .
= = First @-@ class career = =
= = = Oxford University = = =
Jardine entered New College , Oxford , in September 1919 at a time when the university was more crowded than usual due to the arrival of men whose entrance had been delayed due to the war . He still took part in several sports , representing New College as goalkeeper in matches between the colleges , and being given a trial for the University football team , although he was not chosen . He continued to play rackets and began to play real tennis , making such progress and showing such promise that he went on to represent the University successfully and won his Blue . In cricket , Jardine came under the coaching of Tom Hayward who influenced his footwork and defence . Wisden commented in 1928 that Jardine had come with an excellent reputation , but did not quite achieve the success which was expected . However , his batting ability , particularly defensively , remained unquestionable .
In the 1920 season , Jardine made his first @-@ class debut , played eight first @-@ class matches and scored two fifties . Playing mainly as an opening batsman , he won his Blue , appearing in the University Match against Cambridge but fell short of expectations , according to Wisden . Although his batting technique was excellent , he received criticism from those who saw him bat as they believed him to be too cautious . At this stage in his career , Jardine did limit his strokes , not feeling confident enough to play them all safely enough . In all , he scored 217 runs at an average of 22 @.@ 64 . In the match for Oxford against Essex , he took six wickets for six runs in a bowling spell of 45 balls , bowling leg breaks , to have bowling figures of six for 28 . It was the only occasion in his career where he took five or more wickets in an innings .
Playing more confidently and fluently in 1921 , Jardine began the season well , scoring three fifties in his first three first @-@ class matches . Then Oxford played against the Australian touring side which dominated the season . In the second innings , Jardine scored 96 not out to save the game but was unable to complete his century before the game ended . Even so , the innings was praised by those who saw it . The tourists were criticised in the press for not allowing Jardine to reach his hundred , particularly as the match was reduced from three days to two days at the request of the Australians , who wished to have a rest day in between matches . The Australians had tried to help him with some easy bowling but the situation was confused by the batsmen 's scores not being displayed on a scoreboard at the cricket ground . There has been speculation that this incident led to Jardine 's later hatred of Australians , although Christopher Douglas denies this was the case . Cricket historian David Frith believed it is possible that Australian captain Warwick Armstrong could have addressed sarcastic comments to Jardine but Wisden believed his slow approach cost him his century . The Australian manager expressed regret that he missed out . This innings was the highest that had been played to that point in the season against the Australians , and only one higher score was made before the first Test . It could have led to Jardine playing for England in 1921 as Plum Warner , an influential figure who had recently captained Middlesex , suggested in The Cricketer magazine that Jardine should play in the first Test , which followed the Oxford match . He had been impressed by Jardine on the other occasions he had seen him bat . He remained in Test contention for a short time , but was not selected . In the meantime , he scored his first first @-@ class hundred in a match against The Army and another followed against Sussex . Both innings were cautious , with defence his main priority for much of the innings , but he failed in the match against Cambridge . Jardine then went on to play for Surrey , for whom he was qualified , replacing the injured Jack Hobbs as an opening batsman before dropping down to number five in the batting order . Jardine played in a vital match against reigning County Champions Middlesex which would determine the champions for the season . In a situation of great pressure , Jardine scored a vital 55 to hold the innings together after the loss of early wickets , although Surrey went on to lose the match . Jardine finished the season with 1 @,@ 015 runs at an average of 39 @.@ 03 , although critics still did not believe his potential had been fulfilled .
Jardine missed most of the 1922 season due to a serious knee injury , playing only four matches at a time when he was expected to make a big impression . There was speculation in the newspapers about whether he would be fit for the match against Cambridge , but he missed it and was also unable to play for Surrey that season . Even so , in 1922 he was selected by The Isis as one of its men of the year . After some early problems with his troublesome knee , Jardine returned to cricket by May of the 1923 season . He was not given the Oxford captaincy in his final year , which has led to speculation that his manner and unfriendliness prevented him from being made captain . However , his injury and the availability of other deserving candidates may have provided at least part of the explanation . After a cautious start on his return , Jardine gradually found his batting form , and contributed to Oxford 's only win over Cambridge in the decade . During one innings of another match , he received criticism for using his pads to stop the ball from hitting the wickets : this was within the laws of the game but was controversial and seen by critics to be against the spirit of the game . Christopher Douglas traces Jardine 's hostility towards the press and critics to this incident . He also received criticism for his slow batting for Oxford , again being singled out due to his known ability to play attacking shots . Partly this was because Jardine held a responsible position , the team often reliant on his success . The complaints were a manifestation of wider criticism of young amateur batting at the time for its lack of enterprise , as commentators began to hark back to the " golden age " before the war . Jardine left Oxford in 1923 having scored a total of 1 @,@ 381 runs and a fourth class degree in modern history .
When Jardine went on to play for Surrey that season , a strong batting side , he played with more freedom and in a varied style . Batting at number five , he had to play different types of innings , either attacking or defensive , depending on the match situation . He made a success of it , playing long defensive innings or sacrificing his innings in an attempt to hit quick runs . His captain Percy Fender seemed satisfied with his role , keeping him in it all season despite his reputation for caution . He scored his first century for Surrey against Yorkshire and was awarded his County Cap , making 916 runs at an average of 38 @.@ 16 in the whole season .
= = = County cricketer = = =
Once Jardine left Oxford , he began to qualify as a solicitor while still playing for Surrey . He made steady progress over the next three seasons but was overshadowed by other amateur batsmen . His contemporaries at Oxford and Cambridge attracted much attention in the press , as did the next generation of amateur batsmen . He was appointed vice @-@ captain to Fender for the 1924 season , due in large part to the stigma attached to professional cricketers being appointed as captain . There were professionals such as Jack Hobbs playing for Surrey who could have been made captain , but Jardine was preferred as an amateur . In that season , Jardine was selected for the Gentlemen v Players match for the first time and came third in the Surrey averages . In all first @-@ class matches , he scored 1 @,@ 249 runs at an average of 40 @.@ 29 . The following season , Jardine was less successful , scoring fewer runs at a lower average and with a highest score of 87 ( 1 @,@ 020 runs at 30 @.@ 90 ) . It had also been suggested in the press that Jardine should captain the Gentlemen , with a view towards the future of the England Test team , but this did not happen . In fact , owing to an injury sustained playing village cricket at Ashtead for a team called C.E. McIver 's XI , he was unable to appear in the Gentlemen v Players match at Lord 's . In 1926 , Jardine had his most successful season to date , with 1 @,@ 473 runs ( average 46 @.@ 03 ) , although he was again overshadowed by other players and by the attention given to the Ashes series being played . Towards the end of the season , his batting became more attractive and his rate of scoring increased as he began to play more shots . His assurance and judgement against all bowling , even international bowlers , became noticed and he scored 538 runs in his final ten innings .
In 1927 , Jardine achieved his highest average in a season , scoring 1 @,@ 002 runs and averaging 91 @.@ 09 in a very wet summer which led to difficult wickets to bat on . Wisden named him as one of its Cricketers of the Year , commenting that he had improved his style and footwork . That season , he could only play 11 matches due to work commitments as a clerk with Barings Bank , for whom he had worked since qualifying as a solicitor . Despite his lack of practice , he scored hundreds in his first three matches and came top of the Surrey batting averages . He scored a century in the Gentlemen v Players match , which impressed influential people at Lord 's , and represented England in a trial match against The Rest . In this latter match , when Percy Chapman withdrew at the last minute , Jardine took over the captaincy , earning praise in the press for his performance . By this stage , he was considered a certainty to tour Australia the following winter .
= = = Test cricketer = = =
Jardine 's batting performance in 1928 was similar to that from the previous season . He played 14 matches , but scored 1 @,@ 133 runs at an average of 87 @.@ 15 . He also enjoyed success in high profile matches , scoring 193 for Gentlemen at the Oval , where the crowd had booed his slow start ( at one stage , he took half an hour to score two runs ) but later cheered him as his last fifty runs were scored in half an hour . For the same team at Lord 's , he scored 86 and 40 . He captained The Rest against England in a Test trial and made the highest score in each innings , scoring 74 not out in the fourth innings to help his team to draw the game on a difficult pitch , against international bowlers Maurice Tate and Harold Larwood .
Immediately after this match , Jardine made his Test debut against the West Indies who were touring England that season . This was West Indies ' first ever Test match . The team possessed several fast bowlers who bowled with hostility and enjoyed some success on the tour of England . Many batsmen only played them with difficulty , particularly on the occasional fast @-@ paced pitch , but Jardine played them confidently in the Test series . Jardine played in the first two Tests , both of which were won by England by an innings , but missed the third for unknown reasons . He scored 22 on his debut , but was more successful in the second Test . He scored an eventful 83 : when he had scored 26 , he hit his wicket when setting off for a run , but was given not out . At the time , a batsman was not out if he had completed his shot and was setting off for a run . West Indian cricketer Learie Constantine later recalled that Jardine would have been given out except that the batsman informed the umpire that he had already finished his shot . Jardine was later run out by Tate , a player with whom he did not enjoy a good relationship , when they were batting together in the England innings : Tate refused to go for a run causing Jardine to be run out .
= = = First tour to Australia = = =
Jardine was selected to tour Australia with the M.C.C. team in 1928 – 29 as part of a very strong batting side , playing in all five Test matches and scoring 341 runs at an average of 42 @.@ 62 . In all first @-@ class matches , he scored 1 @,@ 168 runs ( average 64 @.@ 88 ) . He was also on the five @-@ man selection committee for the tour , which chose teams to play in specific games but had not chosen the touring party . Wisden judged that he had been as great a success as had been expected and impressed everyone with the strength of his defensive shots and his play on the back foot . It said that he played some delightful innings . Percy Fender , covering the tour as a journalist , believed that Jardine never had the chance to play a normal innings in the Test , having to provide the stability to the batting , and often seeming to come out to bat in a crisis .
Jardine was the centre of attention at the start of the tour . He began the tour with three consecutive hundreds and was seen as one of the main English threats . In his first hundred , the crowd engaged in some good @-@ natured joking at Jardine 's expense , but he was jeered by the crowd in his second hundred for batting too slowly . His third hundred was described by Bradman as one of the finest exhibitions of strokeplay that he had seen ; Jardine accelerated after another slow start , during which he was again barracked , to play some excellent shots . The crowds took an increasing dislike to him , partially for his success with the bat , but mainly for his superior attitude and bearing , his awkward fielding , and particularly his choice of headwear . His first public action in South Australia was to take out the members of the South Australian team who had been to Oxford or Cambridge Universities . Then , he wore a Harlequin cap , given to people who played good cricket at Oxford . It was not unusual for Oxford and Cambridge cricketers to wear similar caps while batting , as both Jardine and M.C.C. captain Percy Chapman did so on this tour , although it was slightly unorthodox to wear them while fielding . However , this was neither understood nor acceptable to the Australian crowds . They quickly took exception to the importance he seemed to place on class distinction . Although Jardine may simply have worn the cap out of superstition , it conveyed a negative impression to the spectators , with his general demeanour drawing one comment of " Where 's the butler to carry the bat for you ? " Jardine 's cap became a focus for criticism and mockery from the crowds throughout the tour . Nevertheless , Jack Fingleton later claimed that Jardine could still have brought the crowds onto his side by exchanging jokes or pleasantries with them . It is certain that Jardine by this stage had developed an intense dislike for Australian crowds . During his third century at the start of the tour , during a period of abuse from the spectators , he observed to a sympathetic Hunter Hendry that " All Australians are uneducated , and an unruly mob " . After the innings , when Patsy Hendren said that the Australian crowds did not like Jardine , he replied " It 's fucking mutual " . Due to the large number of good close fielders in the side , Jardine did not field in the slips , his usual position for Surrey , but next to the crowd on the boundary . There , he was roundly abused and mocked , particularly when chasing the ball : he was not a good fielder on the boundary . In one of the Test matches , he spat towards the crowd while fielding on the boundary as he changed position for the final time .
In the first Test , Jardine scored 35 and 65 not out . His first innings began with England in an uncertain position , having lost three wickets for 108 on a very good batting wicket . His innings led England to a stronger position . He played very cautiously , being troubled by Clarrie Grimmett and Bert Ironmonger , the Australian spinners . Jardine believed that Ironmonger threw the ball , and this bowler gave him considerable trouble throughout his career . Thanks to the bowling of Harold Larwood , England took a huge first innings lead . In his second innings , although he played well in his 65 , Jardine was not under much pressure . He scored a large number of singles , giving his partners most of the bowling and building up the lead to the point where England achieved a massive victory by 675 runs . This victory surprised and troubled the Australian cricketing public . Jardine played a similar role in the second Test , batting with Wally Hammond to retrieve a poor start for England in his only innings as they won by eight wickets . Jardine scored 62 in the third Test , supporting Hammond who made a double century . However , when Australia batted a second time , they built up a big lead and left England needing 332 to win on an exceptionally bad wicket which had been damaged by rain . Jack Hobbs and Herbert Sutcliffe , in one of their most famous partnerships , put on 105 . Hobbs sent a message to the team that Jardine should be the next batsmen to come in , even though he usually batted later on , as he was the batsman most likely to survive in the conditions . When Hobbs was dismissed , Jardine came in to bat . He survived , although finding batting exceptionally difficult , until the day 's play ended . Percy Fender believed that Jardine was the only batsman in the side who could have coped with the difficult conditions . He went on to make 33 next day , and England won by three wickets .
During the team 's brief visit to Tasmania , Jardine made his highest first @-@ class score of 214 . In the fourth Test , Jardine only scored one run in the first innings , before he was given out leg before wicket ( lbw ) despite obviously hitting the ball . In the second innings , coming out to bat with the score 21 for two , Jardine scored 98 in a partnership of 262 with Hammond which was then the highest partnership for the third wicket in all Test matches . The scoring was very slow , and the crowd protested throughout Jardine 's innings , even though he scored faster than Hammond . He was out when Wisden believed he looked certain to reach a century . England went on to win the match by 12 runs .
Jardine was not successful in the final Test , won by Australia . He was used as an opener , due to an injury to Sutcliffe , and made just 19 and a first ball duck . Once both of his innings were completed , on the fifth day of a match which lasted eight days , he left the match and set off across Australia to catch a boat to India for a holiday . It is not clear if this was planned or if he had simply had enough . Jardine never provided an explanation , to the Australian press nor afterwards . Later , Jardine wrote about the Australian crowds , complaining over their involvement , but praising their knowledge and judgement of the game and describing them as more informed than English crowds . He also expressed later reservations to Bob Wyatt about Percy Chapman , saying that he would have shot him if a gun was available . Jardine did not appear in first @-@ class cricket in the 1929 season due to business commitments .
= = England captain = =
= = = Appointment as captain = = =
At the beginning of the 1930 season , Jardine was offered the vice @-@ captaincy of Surrey . He was unable to accept owing to business commitments and played just nine matches for the season , scoring 402 runs at an average of 36 @.@ 54 and managing one century and one fifty . He was never in the running for Test selection that season , although his presence may have been missed as the English batting was unreliable in the Tests . Christopher Douglas argues that had Jardine been playing regularly , he would have been made captain for the final Test , when Chapman was dropped in favour of the sounder batsman Bob Wyatt . The sensation of the Test series was Donald Bradman , who dominated the English bowling to score 974 runs with unprecedented speed and certainty , making the English selectors realise that something must be done to address his skill . With Bradman at the fore , Australia regained the Ashes 2 – 1 .
Jardine played a full season of cricket in 1931 . In June , he was appointed as captain for the Test against New Zealand ( two more Tests were later added ) . The English selectors were searching for possible captains for the 1932 – 33 tour of Australia , with Bradman and Australia 's strong batting line up foremost in their minds . Christopher Douglas believes that , as Jardine was not a regular county captain , the selectors wanted to assess his leadership ability but had probably not settled on him as a final choice . He was also chosen as a dependable , proven batsman . While Percy Fender approved of his appointment , The Times ' correspondent believed that he was unproven and others were more deserving of the leadership . Ian Peebles , writing 40 years later , claimed that Jardine 's appointment was popular but cricket administrators had misgivings . Alan Gibson believed that Jardine was chosen because the other candidates were either not worth their place in the side , too old or had controversy attached to them . Furthermore , Jardine impressed the chairman of selectors , Pelham Warner , who stated that he was very effective in selection meetings through his knowledge of cricket history and went into great detail to choose the correct players ; it seems that Warner was the driving force behind Jardine 's appointment .
In his first Test as captain , Jardine clashed with several players . Frank Woolley was unhappy with his captain 's manner , feeling humiliated at his treatment in the field at one point . He also rebuked Ian Peebles and Walter Robins , two young amateur bowlers , for their amusement over an incident in the match . The home team 's fortunes were mixed , as New Zealand put up a very good fight in their first Test in England , and both sides could have won . The New Zealanders were so successful that a further two Tests were arranged . Jardine was criticised in the press for not instructing his batsmen to score quickly enough to win in the fourth innings , although this strategy was unlikely to succeed , and the match was drawn . England won the second Test by an innings and the third Test was drawn , sealing the series 1 – 0 . Jardine had a top score of just 38 in the series , but only batted four times and was not out in three of the innings . At the beginning of the following season , Wisden 's editor believed that , as Jardine had failed to impress ( unspecified ) people with his captaincy , he was no longer a certainty to lead the side to Australia , and only Percy Chapman 's lack of form prevented his reinstatement at Jardine 's expense . As a batsman , Jardine was more impressive in Wisden 's opinion , showing himself to be good in defence despite his lack of cricket in the past two seasons . A notable innings was his 104 for The Rest to prevent defeat against champion county Yorkshire . The opposition bowling , particularly from Bill Bowes , was short and hostile , but Jardine survived for over four hours . He scored 1 @,@ 104 first @-@ class runs for the season at an average of 64 @.@ 94 .
At the beginning of the 1932 season , Jardine became captain of Surrey . There was much speculation that Fender had been replaced due to disputes with the Surrey committee but it was some time before this , and Jardine 's appointment , was confirmed . Fender was supportive of Jardine and happy to play under him . Jardine overcame a cautious beginning to develop a more aggressive captaincy style , and Surrey finished in their highest position in the championship for six years . England played one international match that season , India 's first ever Test match , and Jardine was selected as captain . India possessed a very effective bowling attack on this tour , which surprised many teams , and England 's batsmen struggled against them . Jardine , who had played a long innings against the tourists for M.C.C. earlier in the season , was the only English batsman to pass 30 in both innings . He scored 79 and 85 not out , and was praised for two excellent defensive innings in a difficult situation by Wisden and The Cricketer . During the match , Jardine again clashed with his team . He gave Bill Bowes and Bill Voce the very unusual instruction to bowl one full toss each over to take advantage of the batsmen 's trouble seeing the ball against the crowd . The bowlers did not do so , and were later reprimanded by Jardine who told them to obey orders . Jardine himself went on to score 1 @,@ 464 runs in the season at an average of 52 @.@ 28 .
= = = Planning for the 1932 – 33 tour = = =
A week after the Test , it was announced that Jardine would captain the M.C.C. team to Australia that winter , although he seemed to have had last minute doubts about accepting . Others were also concerned about whether he was the best choice . For example , Rockley Wilson is reputed to have said that with Jardine as captain , " We shall win the Ashes ... but we may well lose a Dominion " . However , the selectors thought that a determined leader was needed to defeat the Australians and a more disciplined approach than that of Percy Chapman on the previous tour was needed . Jardine began to plan tactics from this point , discussing ideas with various people . He was aware that Bradman , Australia 's star batsman and the main worry of the selectors , had occasionally shown vulnerability to pace bowling . During the final Test of the 1930 Ashes at the Oval , during Bradman 's innings of 232 , the wicket became difficult for a time following rain . Bradman was briefly seen to be uncomfortable facing deliveries that bounced higher than usual at a faster pace . Percy Fender was one of many cricketers who noticed , and he discussed this with Jardine in 1932 . When Jardine later saw film footage of the Oval incident and noticed Bradman 's discomfort , he shouted , " I 've got it ! He 's yellow ! " Further details that developed his plans came from letters Fender received from Australia in 1932 describing how Australian batsmen were increasingly moving across the stumps towards the off @-@ side to play the ball on the on @-@ side . Fender showed these letters to Jardine . It was also known in England that Bradman had shown some discomfort during the 1931 – 32 Australian season against pace bowling .
Following Jardine 's appointment , a meeting was arranged with Nottinghamshire captain Arthur Carr and his two fast bowlers Larwood and Voce at London 's Piccadilly Hotel . Jardine explained his belief that Bradman was weak against bowling directed at leg stump and that if this line of attack could be maintained , it would restrict Bradman 's scoring to one side of the field , giving the bowlers greater control of his scoring . Jardine asked Larwood and Voce if they could bowl accurately on leg stump and make the ball rise up into the body of the batsman . The bowlers agreed that they could , and that it might prove effective , but Jardine stressed that bowling accurately was vitally important , or Bradman would dominate the bowling . Larwood believed that Jardine saw Bradman as his main target and wished to attack him psychologically as well as in a cricketing sense . At the same time , other Australian batsmen were also discussed . Larwood and Voce practised the plan over the remainder of the 1932 season with mixed success . Jardine also visited Frank Foster who had toured Australia in 1911 – 12 to discuss field placings appropriate to Australian conditions . Foster had bowled leg theory on that tour with his fielders placed close in on the leg @-@ side , as had George Hirst in 1903 – 04 . During the second half of the season , the team to tour Australia was announced . The selection of four fast bowlers and a few medium pacers was very unusual at the time , and it was commented on by the hosts ' media , including Bradman . The selection of Eddie Paynter , who did not have a strong record , to replace the ill Kumar Shri Duleepsinhji was very likely a choice of Jardine . He had a history of good performances against Yorkshire , and Jardine considered that a player 's record against northern counties was a good indication of his potential at international level .
= = Bodyline tour = =
= = = Beginning of the tour = = =
In Jardine 's obituary , Wisden described this tour as " probably the most controversial tour in history . England won four of the five Tests , but it was the methods they employed rather than the results which caused so much discussion and acrimony . " On the journey to Australia , by the boat Orontes , Jardine kept away from his team . He issued some instructions on their conduct , such as giving autographs or keeping out of the sun . He also began to have disagreements with Plum Warner , who was one of the two team managers along with Richard Palairet . He discussed tactics with Harold Larwood and other bowlers , spoke to Hedley Verity about his role in the team , and he may have met batsmen Wally Hammond and Herbert Sutcliffe . Some players reported that Jardine told them to hate the Australians in order to defeat them , while instructing them to refer to Bradman as " the little bastard . " At this stage , he seems to have settled on leg theory , if not full Bodyline , as his main tactic .
Once the team arrived in Australia , Jardine quickly alienated the press by refusing to give team details before a match and being uncooperative when interviewed by journalists . The press printed some negative stories as a result and the crowds barracked as they had done on his previous tour , which made him angry . Jardine still wore his Harlequin cap and began the tour well with 98 and 127 before the first Test . Once again , he clashed with paceman Bill Bowes , refusing to give his bowler the requested field placings in an early match . As a result , Bowes deliberately gave away easy runs in an attempt to get his way , but following a discussion , Bowes was converted to Jardine 's tactics and ultimately to his ability as a captain . In a tour match , Jardine also instructed Hammond to attack the bowling of Chuck Fleetwood @-@ Smith , whom he considered dangerous and thus did not want him to play in the Tests . Up until this point , there had been little unusual about the English bowling except the number of fast bowlers . Larwood and Voce were given a light workload in the early matches by Jardine . This changed in the match against an Australian XI , from which Jardine rested himself , where the bowlers first used the tactics that came to be known as Bodyline . Under the captaincy of Wyatt , the bowlers bowled short and around leg stump , with fielders positioned close by on the leg side to catch any deflections . Wyatt later claimed that this was not planned beforehand and he simply passed on to Jardine what happened after the match . These tactics continued in the next match ; several players were hit . Many commentators criticised this style of bowling ; although bowlers had previously used leg theory bowling , where bowlers bowled outside leg stump with a concentration of fielders on the leg side , using these tactics with fast bowlers dropping the ball short was almost unprecedented . It was seen as dangerous and against the spirit of the game . In a letter , Jardine told Fender that his information about the Australian batting technique was correct and that it meant he was having to move more and more fielders onto the leg side . He said that " if this goes on I shall have to move the whole bloody lot to the leg side . " Jardine increasingly came into disagreement with Warner over Bodyline as the tour progressed , but his tactics were successful in one respect : in six innings against the tourists ahead of the Tests , Bradman had scored only 103 runs , causing concern among the Australian public who expected much more from him .
= = = Test matches = = =
When the first Test began , Jardine persisted with Bodyline tactics , even though Bradman , the main target , did not play in the match . David Frith has pointed out that Bradman would have been watching and seeing the tactics that England were using . However , when Stan McCabe was scoring 187 not out , Jardine was briefly seen to be unsettled as runs came quickly , and he may not have been fully convinced that the tactics would be successful . England eventually won the match comfortably . In the second Test , Jardine completely misjudged the pitch and left out a specialist spinner when conditions later in the match favoured one . The match seemed to be going well when Bill Bowes unexpectedly bowled the returning Bradman first ball in the first innings ; Jardine was seen to be so delighted that he had clasped his hands above his head and performed a " war dance " . This was an extremely unusual reaction in the 1930s , particularly from Jardine who rarely showed any emotion while playing cricket . In the second innings , Bradman scored an unbeaten century which helped Australia to win the match and level the series at one match each . This made it seem to critics that Bodyline was not quite the threat that had been perceived and Bradman 's reputation , which had suffered slightly with his earlier failures , was restored . On the other hand , the pitch was slightly slower than was customary throughout the series , and Larwood was suffering from problems with his boots which reduced his effectiveness .
Jardine had clashed with more of his team by this stage : he had argued with Gubby Allen at least twice about his refusal to bowl Bodyline ( although he did bowl bouncers and fielded in the " leg trap " , the fielders who waited for catches close in on the leg side ) ; and the Nawab of Pataudi had refused to field in the " leg trap " , to which Jardine responded , " I see his highness is a conscientious objector " , and subsequently allowed Pataudi to play little part in the tour .
The teams went into the third Test with the series level ; England won that match but the controversy nearly ended the tour . Jardine , concerned by his poor run of batting form , had promoted himself to open the batting but was part of a drastic England collapse to 30 for four in the first innings . However , the trouble began when Bill Woodfull was struck on the chest by a Larwood delivery , drawing the comment from Jardine of " Well bowled , Harold " , aimed mainly at Bradman who was also batting at the time . For the next ball faced by Woodfull , at the start of Larwood 's next over , the fielders moved into the Bodyline fielding positions for the next ball he faced . Jardine wrote that Larwood had asked for the field to be moved , while Larwood said that it was Jardine 's decision . The crowd became noisily angry as the ill feeling caused by the English bowling tactics spilled out , and Jardine later expressed regret that he had moved the fielders when he did . There was further anger later in the innings when Bert Oldfield suffered a fractured skull . At this point , several of the players feared that there may be a riot and that the crowd would jump onto the field to attack them ; mounted police were deployed as a precaution , but the spectators remained behind the fences . Jardine then batted very slowly in an innings of 56 , during which he was continuously barracked by the crowd . Despite England 's win , Wisden believed that it was probably the most unpleasant match ever played . However , it commended Jardine 's courage , claimed that praise of his leadership was unanimous , and said that " above all he captained his team in this particular match like a genius " . In the immediate aftermath , journalists in England and Australia took up viewpoints both for and against Jardine . The M.C.C. sent a telegram congratulating him on winning the match .
Following the third Test , strongly worded cables passed between the Australian Board of Control and the M.C.C. at Lord 's . The Australian Board accused the English team of unsportsmanlike tactics , stating that " Bodyline bowling has assumed such proportions as to menace the best interests of the game , making protection of the body the main consideration . " The M.C.C. responded angrily to the accusations of unsporting conduct , played down the Australian claims about the danger of Bodyline and threatened to call off the tour . The series was becoming a major diplomatic incident by this stage , and many people saw Bodyline as damaging to an international relationship that needed to remain strong . Public reaction in both England and Australia was outrage directed at the other nation . The Governor of South Australia , Alexander Hore @-@ Ruthven , who was in England at the time , expressed his concern to British Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs James Henry Thomas that this would cause a significant impact on trade between the nations . The standoff was settled only when Australian Prime Minister Joseph Lyons met members of the Australian Board and outlined to them the severe economic hardships that could be caused in Australia if the British public boycotted Australian trade . Given this understanding , the Board withdrew the allegation of unsportsmanlike behaviour two days before the fourth Test , thus saving the tour . However , correspondence continued for almost a year . Jardine was shaken by the events and by the hostile reactions that his team were receiving . Stories appeared in the press , possibly leaked by the disenchanted Nawab of Pataudi , about fights and arguments between the England players . Jardine offered to stop using Bodyline if the team did not support him , but after a private meeting ( not attended by Jardine or either of the team managers ) the players released a statement fully supporting Jardine and the Bodyline tactics . It was subsequently revealed that several of the players had private reservations , but they did not express them publicly at the time . Even so , Jardine would not have played in the fourth Test without the withdrawal of the unsportsmanlike accusation .
Once the fourth Test got underway , England won the match to take the series . Partly prompted by Jardine , Eddie Paynter scored 83 having released himself from hospital . Jardine went on to make a painstaking 24 , at one point facing 82 balls without scoring a single run . He was not proud of his batting performance , being shamefaced to Australian Test opener Jack Fingleton , and describing his batting to Bill O 'Reilly as being " like an old maid defending her virginity . " England also won the final Test ending on 28 February , with a final clash taking place between Jardine and Larwood . After a long bowling spell , Larwood was furious when Jardine sent him in to bat as nightwatchman but went on to score 98 runs . Later , Larwood broke his foot while bowling in the second innings , but Jardine was not convinced that he was seriously injured . He made him stay on the field until Bradman was out . Larwood , partly through this injury and partly through political repercussions from this series , never played another Test . Also in this match , Jardine enraged Harry Alexander by asking him not to run on the pitch as he was damaging it and giving his side an advantage . He proceeded to bowl hostile bouncers at Jardine , who was struck painfully to the delight of the crowd .
While Jardine won the series as captain , he contributed just 199 runs at an average of 22 @.@ 11 in the Tests , and 628 runs ( average 36 @.@ 94 ) in all first @-@ class cricket in Australia . Jardine only played in the first Test of the short series which followed in New Zealand , due to rheumatism . All the players enjoyed the short tour although rain ruined the cricket , and Jardine was observed to show signs of paranoia towards all things Australian . Pelham Warner , although he later stated that he disapproved of Bodyline bowling , praised Jardine 's captaincy on the tour and believed that he was cruelly treated by the Australian crowds . He further believed that Jardine was convinced that the tactics were legitimate .
= = = Aftermath and 1933 season = = =
Controversy over Bodyline continued throughout the following summer . Jardine himself contributed his opinion in a book , In Quest for the Ashes , a first @-@ hand account of the Bodyline tour . He defended his tactics and heavily criticised the Australian barrackers , to the extent of suggesting that fixtures between England and Australia should be halted until this problem was solved . While arguments continued to rage in print and discussion , even at government level , Jardine received a hero 's welcome on his return to England , making several public appearances . Despite his fears that the M.C.C. might sack him in the face of criticism , he was appointed as England captain for the series against the West Indies in 1933 . He continued to captain Surrey during his infrequent first @-@ class appearances that summer , although business commitments prevented him from playing a full season . He was cheered by the crowd or given a standing ovation when he came out to bat as M.C.C. captain against the West Indians in May , at Sheffield for Surrey against Yorkshire , and in the first and second Test matches . In all first @-@ class cricket that season , Jardine scored 779 runs at an average of 51 @.@ 93 , including three hundreds . One of these centuries came in the second Test ( Jardine missed the third with an injury that ended his season ) .
Some bowlers had experimented with Bodyline in the season , and the West Indian team , 1 – 0 down in the series and frustrated by the lack of pace in the pitches , decided to experiment with the tactic . Facing a good West Indies total , England suffered a batting collapse , at one point falling to 134 for four . With Les Ames in difficulty against the short @-@ pitched bowling , Jardine said , " You get yourself down this end , Les . I 'll take care of this bloody nonsense . " He went right back to the bouncers , standing on tiptoe , and stopped them with a dead bat , sometimes playing the ball one handed for more control . Wisden described how he never flinched despite facing the greatest amount of Bodyline . It also believed that he played it " probably better than any other man in the world was capable of doing . " He batted for nearly five hours , scoring 127 , his only Test century . England then retaliated by bowling Bodyline in the West Indies ' second innings , but the slow pitch meant that the match was drawn . However , this performance played a large part in turning English opinion against Bodyline . The Times used the word " Bodyline " , without using inverted commas or using the qualification " so @-@ called " , for the first time . Wisden said that " most of those watching it for the first time must have come to the conclusion that , while strictly within the law , it was not nice . "
= = = Retirement = = =
During the 1933 season , Jardine was appointed as captain for the M.C.C. tour of India that winter which would feature the hosts ' first Tests at home . This continued support for Jardine in the face of growing unhappiness towards Bodyline bowling came with some reservations , as the President and Secretary of the M.C.C. met Jardine for discussions prior to his appointment . This was probably about the need for diplomacy and tact on what may have proved to be a sensitive tour . With only two players from the Bodyline tour , Jardine and Verity , taking part , it was not a full @-@ strength side but won the Test series 2 – 0 . India were weaker than expected , and lacked a large group of quality players . Jardine nevertheless won praise from Wisden for his captaincy and his batting . He approached the matches with a very competitive spirit , seeking to gain every advantage with his tactics and research . At the same time , he was far more willing to take up speaking engagements than on the Bodyline tour , showed an appreciation and regard for Indian crowds which he had never extended to Australia , and played the diplomatic role that was usually expected of a captain of the M.C.C. at the time . He often spoke of his affection for India , describing it as the land of his birth and seemed to be relaxed and happy on this tour .
England won the Test series 2 – 0 . Jardine contributed three fifties in four innings in the series , scoring 221 runs at an average of 73 @.@ 66 . He scored 60 , 61 and 65 before his final Test innings ended at 35 not out . Jardine scored 831 first @-@ class runs on the Indian leg of the tour — he played one match in Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) — averaging 55 @.@ 40 . Although Jardine enjoyed the tour , there were still clashes evident . There was an argument with the Viceroy over Jardine selecting the Maharaja of Patiala to play for the M.C.C. in one match ; in a subsequent match , Jardine complained that the pitch was rolled for too long . He also clashed , later on , with the umpire Frank Tarrant , initially due to suspicion over the number of lbw decisions given against the M.C.C. , but also because Tarrant had warned him against using Bodyline and was employed by Indian princes . Jardine threatened to stop him umpiring and sent a telegram to Lord 's , with the result that Tarrant , having officiated the first two Tests , was not used in the third . For much of the time , Jardine used different tactics to those employed in Australia . Slow bowling , particularly that of Hedley Verity , played a key part in the bowling attack . At times , the faster bowlers Nobby Clark and Stan Nichols bowled Bodyline , resulting in several injuries . In this case , the Indian bowlers Mohammad Nissar and Amar Singh retaliated with Bodyline bowling of their own .
As the tour went on , there was discussion at a high level over Jardine 's future . The M.C.C. authorities had realised that Bodyline was dangerous and should not be continued , but some figures such as Lord Hawke did not want to let Jardine down . Australians saw him as more of a problem ; the likes of Alexander Hore @-@ Ruthven wanted guarantees that Jardine would not use Bodyline and even that he not play . Plum Warner also believed that Jardine should no longer captain . Jardine himself saved the English selectors from any possible dilemma . In March 1934 , he first told Surrey that he would be unable to play regularly any more and he resigned as captain . Then in an announcement in the Evening Standard , he stated that " I have neither the intention nor the desire to play cricket against Australia this summer . " It is unclear whether this was due to the pressure over Bodyline , over assurances that the M.C.C. may have asked him to give or simply due to financial worries . This decision effectively ended his first @-@ class career . He never played another Test and played only two more first @-@ class matches in England , in 1937 and 1948 , and one in India in 1943 – 44 .
Jardine played in 22 Test matches for England , scoring 1 @,@ 296 runs at an average of 48 @.@ 00 . In his first @-@ class cricket career , he played 262 matches , scoring 14 @,@ 848 runs at an average of 46 @.@ 83 . His occasional bowling brought him 48 wickets at an average of 31 @.@ 10 .
= = Style and personality = =
= = = Batting = = =
Jardine was seen as having a classical technique . While batting , he stood very straight and side on to the bowler . His off @-@ driving was powerful , his defence was excellent , and he was superb at judging the line of the ball and letting it pass by if it was going to miss his wickets . His on @-@ side play was also excellent , being able to place the ball between fielders for easy runs . Christopher Douglas described Jardine as " the epitome of the old @-@ fashioned amateur " . However , he also comments that his approach to batting was like that of a professional and that his back @-@ foot batting was of a quality that few amateurs could manage . In 1928 , Wisden 's correspondent described Jardine as the most secure amateur batsman of the time , and identified his greatest strength as his defence and his " mental gifts . " He played very straight and hit the ball hard in defence , but could not play all the strokes , particularly on the off side . R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow believed that Jardine had modelled himself on C. B. Fry . He also noted that Jardine displayed good concentration , a strong desire to improve his batting and a fighting spirit that brought out his best in a crisis . He also said that Jardine could play every recognised cricket shot , but would not do so in a match and Robertson @-@ Glasgow believed it was Jardine 's one weakness as a batsman . The more important the occasion , the more defensive and restricted Jardine 's batting became : " In general , as the task grew greater , the strokes grew fewer . "
Christopher Douglas argues that Jardine liked to make his runs when his side was in difficulty and enjoyed being tested ; his approach would often lead his team to recovery from an unfavourable situation . Douglas comments that Jardine held his place in the England side despite strong competition from other batsmen . His defensive technique rescued England from weak positions in around a dozen innings and only played in two losses with England ( which were his two least successful games with the bat ) . He also excelled in the main Gentlemen v Players fixture at Lord 's , making a good score in each of his appearances in this match . Jack Hobbs classed him as a great batsman and believed that he was under @-@ rated by his contemporaries .
Wisden believed that Jardine 's effective batting technique meant that fast bowlers troubled him less than other batsmen . He did have difficulties with a few bowlers . Alec Kennedy , a medium paced inswing bowler , took Jardine 's wicket eleven times , eight of these occasions before the batsman had scored 20 runs . Kennedy found that Jardine had slightly slow footwork , often bowling him or trapping him lbw . Bert Ironmonger also troubled Jardine , taking his wicket in five of the eleven Test innings in which they faced each other . Jardine displayed a slight weakness against Australian slow bowlers , not moving his feet well enough against them . In 16 Test innings in Australia , he was out to slow bowlers ten times , but he rarely experienced similar difficulties against English spinners . One other bowler to cause Jardine problems was the Australian paceman Tim Wall , who took his wicket five times on the nine occasions he bowled to him .
= = = Captaincy = = =
As a captain , Jardine inspired great loyalty in his players , even if they did not approve of his tactics . Christopher Douglas judges that Jardine did very well to keep the team united and loyal on the Bodyline tour . He points out that team spirit was always excellent and the players showed great determination and resolve . Jardine particularly impressed Yorkshiremen who played under him , as they believed he thought about cricket in a similar way to their county colleagues . He became close to Herbert Sutcliffe during the Bodyline tour , even though Sutcliffe was sceptical about Jardine on the previous Australian tour in 1928 – 29 . Hedley Verity was impressed by Jardine 's tactical understanding and named his younger son Douglas after the captain . Bill Bowes expressed approval of his leadership after initial misgivings , and went on to call him England 's greatest captain . Nevertheless , some players such as Arthur Mitchell who played under Jardine believed he was intolerant and unsupportive of players of lesser talent , expecting everyone to perform at world @-@ class standards .
Jardine insisted on strict discipline from his players but in return he went to great lengths to look after them , such as organising dental treatment or providing champagne for his tired bowlers . Critics praised his skill in field placing , which was sometimes interpreted as panic when he made frequent changes if the batsmen were on top . He also displayed great physical courage , such as when he was struck by a ball hard enough to draw blood on the Bodyline tour , but refused to show pain before reaching the dressing room . On the same tour , he instructed his men not to be friendly or to socialise with the Australian players ; Gubby Allen even claimed that Jardine instructed the team to hate the Australians . Robertson @-@ Glasgow wrote that Jardine made thorough preparation for games in which he was captain , studying individual batsmen at great length to find weaknesses . He had very clear plans , judged the strengths and weaknesses of his teams and knew how to get the best out of individual players . However , Robertson @-@ Glasgow considered it a grave misjudgement to make Jardine captain of England , particularly given his known antipathy towards Australia . Pelham Warner described how Jardine " was a master of tactics and strategy , and was especially adept in managing fast bowlers and thereby preserving their energy . He possessed a great capacity for taking pains , which , it has been said , is the mark of a genius ... As a field tactician and selector of teams he was , I consider , surpassed by no one and equalled by few , if any . "
Laurence Le Quesne argues that one of Jardine 's greatest talents , and at the same time greatest weaknesses , was his ability to formulate a winning strategy without consideration of wider contexts such as the social aspect of the game . On the Bodyline tour , he ignored the diplomacy required of an M.C.C. delegation . Instead , he embarked , according to Le Quesne , to win the Tests and settle personal scores with the Australians . Jardine was personally incapable of reacting to the crowds or responding to the controversy in a way that would have eased tensions , and so was not a good choice as captain given what the selectors already knew of him . Nevertheless , Le Quesne believed that when trouble arose , Jardine conducted himself with " great moral courage and an impressive degree of dignity and restraint . "
In his Wisden obituary , Jardine was described as one of England 's best captains , while Jack Hobbs rated him the second best captain after Percy Fender . Warner also said that he was a fine captain on and off the field , and in dealing with administrators . In fact , he stated that , " If ever there was a cricket match between England and the rest of the world and the fate of England depended upon its result , I would pick Jardine as England captain every time . "
= = = Personality = = =
Jardine divided opinion among those with whom he played . He could be charming and witty or ruthless and harsh , while many people who knew him believed him to be innately shy . David Frith describes him as a complex figure who could change moods quickly . Although he could be friendly off the field , he became hostile and determined once he stepped onto the field . At his memorial service , he was described by Hubert Ashton as being " provocative , austere , brusque , shy , humble , thoughtful , kindly , proud , sensitive , single @-@ minded and possessed of immense moral and physical courage , " and Frith argues that these varied qualities are easily proven by what was said about him .
Harold Larwood maintained great respect for Jardine , treasuring a gift his captain gave him after the Bodyline tour and believing him to be a great man . Jardine showed affection for Larwood in return even after both of their retirements ; he expressed his concern for the way Larwood was treated , hosted a lunch for the former fast bowler shortly before he emigrated to Australia and met him there in 1954 . On the other hand , Donald Bradman would never speak to journalists about Bodyline or Jardine , and refused to give a tribute when Jardine died in 1958 . Jack Fingleton admitted that he had liked Jardine and stated that he and Larwood had each done their job on the Bodyline tour , and expressed regret at the way both left cricket in acrimonious circumstances . Fingleton also described Jardine as an aloof individual who preferred to take his time in judging a person before befriending them , a quality that caused problems in Australia . Bill O 'Reilly stated that he disliked Jardine at the time of Bodyline , but on meeting him later found him agreeable and even charming .
Alan Gibson said that Jardine had " irony rather than humour " . He sent Herbert Sutcliffe an umbrella as a joke on the day of his benefit match , when rain would have ruined the match and lost Sutcliffe a considerable amount of money . Many people who knew Jardine later in his life described him as having a sense of humour . Robertson @-@ Glasgow noted that while he could curse very eloquently , Jardine displayed " dislike of waste in material or words . " He also commented that " if he has sometimes been a fierce enemy , he has also been a wonderful friend . "
= = Later life = =
= = = Career after cricket = = =
Shortly before the tour of India in 1933 – 34 , Jardine became engaged and on 14 September 1934 , married Irene " Isla " Margaret Peat in London . She had met Jardine at shooting parties at her father 's Norfolk home . According to Gerald Howat , Jardine 's marriage was the probable reason for his giving up playing first @-@ class cricket . Jardine 's father @-@ in @-@ law was keen for him to pursue his law career but he instead continued as a bank clerk and began to work as a journalist . He reported on the 1934 Ashes for the Evening Standard . His writing for the press , and in a follow @-@ up book on the series , was critical of selectors but less so of the players . In 1936 , he penned Cricket : how to succeed , which was written as an instruction book for the National Union of Teachers . There was a possibility of his going to Australia as a journalist to cover the M.C.C. tour of 1936 – 37 , to the dismay of Hore @-@ Ruthven , but nothing came of this . With alterations to the law in 1935 , changing the lbw law and preventing Bodyline bowling , Jardine became increasingly disillusioned with top @-@ level cricket . He had grown uncomfortable with the nationalism stirred up by Tests , the greed of clubs and the large public following of individual players , particularly Bradman . At the same time , Jardine seemed to be ostracised by cricket writers and commentators , who simply ignored him . For example , Wisden made no mention of his retirement . Christopher Douglas believes that Jardine was used as a scapegoat for Bodyline once the M.C.C. stopped supporting the tactic and that a stigma was attached to him for the rest of his life and beyond .
Although Jardine had retired from regular first @-@ class competition , he continued to play club cricket . Jardine and his wife initially lived in Kensington but moved to Reading after the birth of their first child , daughter Fianach . A second daughter , Marion , followed but the family suffered from financial worries . Jardine , as well as working in journalism , earned money from playing bridge . The family also tried unsuccessfully to engage in market gardening . To make more money , Jardine became a salesman with Cable & Wireless before working for a coal mining company in the late 1930s . In 1939 , he returned to cricket journalism and according to Christopher Douglas , achieved his highest standard as a writer .
= = = Career in the Second World War = = =
Jardine joined the Territorial Army in August 1939 . Once World War II began , he was commissioned into the Royal Berkshire Regiment and went with the British Expeditionary Force to France . He served at Dunkirk , where he was fortunate to escape but suffered some injuries . After serving as staff captain at St. Albans , he was posted to India for the remainder of the war . He served in Quetta , then Simla as a major in the Central Provisions Directorate . He became fluent in the Hindustani language and although friendly , never formed close relationships with other officers . He gave lectures and played some cricket while in India . He left the army in 1945 only to find his job with the coal mining company was no longer available .
In the meantime , his wife had moved to Somerset . In 1940 , she gave birth to a son , Euan , who had many medical problems , and in 1943 she bore a third daughter , Iona . The pressure of running the household and caring for Euan led Isla to have a nervous breakdown after Iona 's birth . When Jardine returned from the war , the family moved to Radlett to be closer to London . Isla recovered and Jardine found a job with paper manufacturers Wiggins | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
mocking in tone , and drew complaints from Buchman 's organisation about news bias . The trial period at the Express was extended , and in July 1928 Driberg filed an exclusive report on a society party at the swimming baths in Buckingham Palace Road , where the guests included Lytton Strachey and Tallulah Bankhead . This evidence of Driberg 's social contacts led to a permanent contract with the Express , as assistant to Percy Sewell who , under the name " The Dragoman " , wrote a daily feature called " The Talk of London " . Driberg later defended his association with an inconsequential society column by arguing that his approach was satirical , and that he deliberately exaggerated the doings of the idle rich as a way of enraging working @-@ class opinion and helping the Communist Party .
Driberg used the column to introduce readers to up @-@ and @-@ coming socialites and literary figures , Acton , Betjeman , Nancy Mitford and Peter Quennell among them . Sometimes he introduced more serious causes : capital punishment , modern architecture , the works of D. H. Lawrence and Jacob Epstein , and the lesbian novel The Well of Loneliness by Radclyffe Hall , which had been denounced in the Express editorial columns as " infamous " . By prior arrangement with Waugh , the column included a discreet announcement in September 1930 of Waugh 's conversion to Roman Catholicism ; Driberg was his only guest at the service . He further assisted Waugh in 1932 by giving him space in the column to attack the editor of the Catholic journal The Tablet , after it had described Waugh 's Black Mischief as blasphemous .
= = = As William Hickey = = =
Sewell retired in 1932 , leaving Driberg in sole charge of " The Talk of London " column . He grew increasingly frustrated with the trivial nature of his work . Following the intervention of Express proprietor Lord Beaverbrook , the column was relaunched in May 1933 as " These Names Make News " , and its by @-@ line changed to " William Hickey " , after the 18th century diarist and rake . Driberg described the new feature as " ... an intimate biographical column about ... men and women who matter . Artists , statesmen , airmen , writers , financiers , explorers ... " Historian David Kynaston calls Driberg the " founder of the modern gossip column " , although it soon began to move decisively away from chit @-@ chat and towards social and political issues . The tone of the column was described by Driberg 's ODNB biographer Richard Davenport @-@ Hines as " wry , compassionate , and brimm [ ing ] with ... open @-@ minded intelligence " .
Beaverbrook , who had developed a fondness for Driberg , was amused by the disparity between his columnist 's professed left @-@ wing sympathies and bon vivant lifestyle . The proprietor knew of Driberg 's persistent mismanagement of his personal finances , and on various occasions helped out with loans and gifts . During his time in London , Driberg had continued to indulge his taste for rough , casual sex ; his memoir records many such instances . In the autumn of 1935 he was charged with indecent assault , after an incident in which he had shared his bed with two Scotsmen picked up late one night , in the bohemian district of London which Driberg had christened " Fitzrovia " in the Hickey column . Beaverbrook paid for a leading counsel , J. D. Cassels , and two unimpeachable character witnesses were recruited by the defence . Driberg was acquitted , and Beaverbrook 's influence ensured that the case went unreported by the press . This was the first known instance of what writer Kingsley Amis called the " baffling immunity [ Driberg ] enjoyed from the law and the Press to the end of his days " .
In the latter part of the 1930s Driberg travelled widely : twice to Spain , to observe the Spanish Civil War , to Germany after the Munich Agreement of 1938 , to Rome for the coronation of Pope Pius XII and to New York for the 1939 New York World 's Fair . After the Nazi @-@ Soviet Pact was announced in August 1939 , he informed his readers that there would be " no war this crisis " . Nine days later , after the German invasion of Poland precipitated the Second World War , he apologised for his mistake , and ended his first wartime column with the words " We 're all in it " . His opposition to the Nazi @-@ Soviet Pact and his support for the war in September 1939 may have been the reason for his expulsion from the Communist Party in 1941 . An alternative explanation , proffered later , is that he was reported by Anthony Blunt for passing information on the Party to Maxwell Knight of MI5 . Driberg and Knight were long @-@ standing acquaintances who met frequently and , among other things , shared a mutual interest in the works of Aleister Crowley .
Driberg 's mother had died in July 1939 . With his share of her money and the help of a substantial mortgage , he bought and renovated Bradwell Lodge , a country house in Bradwell @-@ on @-@ Sea on the Essex coast , where he lived and entertained until the house was requisitioned by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in 1940 . He continued to write the Hickey column , not always to his editor 's satisfaction ; his protestations against indiscriminate bombing of German civilians were particularly frowned on . In November 1941 he went to America and was in Washington on Monday 8 December , after the attack on Pearl Harbor , to report President Roosevelt 's speech to Congress announcing America 's entry into the war .
= = Early parliamentary career = =
= = = Independent Member for Maldon , 1942 – 45 = = =
When Driberg returned to Britain in March 1942 he found widespread public dissatisfaction with the government 's conduct of the war . This mood was reflected in a series of parliamentary by @-@ elections in which candidates supporting the wartime coalition government were defeated by Independents — the major parties had agreed to a pact under which they would not contest by @-@ elections in seats held by their respective parties . Driberg , in his column , generally welcomed this trend , while questioning " the merit of some of the candidates likely to get in if the reaction against the Party machines continues " . On 12 May 1942 the death was announced of Sir Edward Ruggles @-@ Brise , the Conservative member for Maldon — the constituency in which Bradwell Lodge was situated . Next day , Driberg requested three weeks ' leave from his column to fight the by @-@ election . Contrary to the belief of prime minister Winston Churchill and others that Driberg was being " run " by Beaverbrook , the Express proprietor was unenthusiastic ; an editorial on 25 May drew attention to Driberg 's individual viewpoint and stated that " The Daily Express does not support his candidature " .
Driberg 's campaign slogan was " A Candid Friend For Churchill " , personally supportive but critical of many of the prime minister 's circle . The lacklustre campaign of his right @-@ wing Conservative opponent helped to secure Driberg a wide range of support , from moderate Conservatives , Liberals and socialists . His fame as " William Hickey " , and his stance as the only candidate with a home in the constituency , gave him a strong local profile . His previous Communist Party associations were not revealed . At the poll , on 25 June , he overturned a previous Conservative majority of 8 @,@ 000 to finish 6 @,@ 000 votes ahead of his opponent . In his war memoirs , Churchill called the result " one of the by @-@ products of Tobruk " — which had fallen to Rommel on 21 June . Waugh , in his diary , remarked that the presentation of Driberg during the by @-@ election merely as a journalist and churchwarden gave " a very imperfect picture of that sinister character " .
On 2 July 1942 Driberg cast his first vote in the House of Commons , in support of Churchill against a rebel motion of censure on the government 's conduct of the war . The rebels ' case was put incompetently , which ensured that the motion gained only 25 votes , as against 477 cast for the government . Driberg delivered his maiden speech on 7 July , in a debate on the use of propaganda . He called for the lifting of the ban on the Communist Party 's newspaper , the Daily Worker , which he saw as a potentially valuable weapon of home propaganda .
In the following months he tabled questions and intervened in debates on behalf of various progressive causes . For example , on 29 September 1942 he asked the prime minister to " make friendly representations to the American military authorities asking them to instruct their men that the colour bar is not a custom in this country " . He continued to write the Hickey column , and used his parliamentary salary to fund a constituency office in Maldon .
In January 1943 , while in Edinburgh to campaign in another by @-@ election , Driberg was caught by a policeman while in the act of fellating a Norwegian sailor . In his own account of the incident Driberg records that he escaped arrest by identifying himself as " William Hickey " and as a member of parliament . These disclosures evidently overawed the constable , who took no further action ; indeed , Driberg says , the incident began a chaste friendship with the officer that endured for more than 10 years . Meanwhile , Beaverbrook had become disenchanted with him , and did not intervene when Arthur Christiansen , the Express editor , sacked the columnist in June 1943 over a story detrimental to a government minister , Andrew Rae Duncan . Driberg subsequently signed up with Reynolds News , a Sunday newspaper owned by the Co @-@ operative Group , and undertook a regular parliamentary column for the New Statesman . He also contributed to a weekly BBC European Service broadcast until , in October 1943 , he was banned after government pressure . He reported the post @-@ D @-@ Day allied advances in France and Belgium as a war correspondent for Reynolds News , and as a member of a parliamentary delegation witnessed the aftermath of the liberation of Buchenwald concentration camp in April 1945 .
= = = Labour Member , 1945 – 55 = = =
In the General election of July 1945 Driberg increased his majority at Maldon to 7 @,@ 727 . Before the election he had joined the Labour Party and had been welcomed by the local constituency party as their candidate . He was thus one of the 393 Labour MPs in the landslide election victory that replaced Churchill as prime minister with Clement Attlee .
Within a few days of his victory , Driberg left for the Far East , to report on the conditions of the allied troops in Burma . The Supreme Allied Commander , Lord Mountbatten , knew him slightly and made him an unofficial temporary special adviser . In this role he met the Patriotic Burmese Forces leader , Aung San , who impressed him as honest and incorruptible , " unlike some of the older Burmese politicians " . Later , he visited Saigon and offered to mediate with Ho Chi Minh , who had recently declared an independent Vietnam state . Driberg later maintained that , had his offer been taken up , he might have prevented the Vietnam War .
Because of his journalism , Driberg was a well @-@ known figure within the Labour Party generally , and in 1949 was elected to the party 's National Executive Committee ( NEC ) . In the February 1950 General Election he was again elected at Maldon , while nationally Labour lost 68 seats , reducing its parliamentary majority to six . With so small a majority , members ' regular attendance in the Commons chamber became important ; however , in August 1950 Driberg left the country for Korea , where Britain had joined the United States in a United Nations military expedition to repel the North Korean invasion of the South . Driberg and a few other left @-@ wing MPs had objected to British involvement ; In his Reynolds News column , Driberg had written of " Tories ( Conservatives ) who ... cannot help baying their delight at the smell of blood in the air " , a comment that caused outrage in parliament among the Conservative members . Whatever his reservations , Driberg 's war dispatches to Reynolds News were strongly supportive of the British troops . He participated in several night operations , and won respect from many of the soldiers for his courage despite , as one Marine put it " being a bit bent " . He was away from parliament for three months , missing many critical House of Commons divisions , and on his return was severely censured by his fellow Labour MPs for neglecting his duties . His general standing in the party was unaffected ; he had been re @-@ elected in absentia to the NEC in September 1950 .
In April 1951 the Labour government was hit by the resignations of three ministers — Aneurin Bevan , the future prime minister Harold Wilson , and John Freeman — over the imposition of prescription charges to pay for an increased armaments programme . Driberg was sympathetic to the rebels , though he tried to find a basis for compromise that would avoid resignations . The former ministers strengthened the small Labour group known as " Keep Left " , in which Driberg was prominent ; the group would henceforth be known as " Bevanites " . In the October 1951 General Election the Labour Party was defeated , and Churchill resumed office ; Driberg held on to his Maldon seat by 704 votes . Through the years of Labour government he had neither received nor sought office , having what historian Kenneth O. Morgan called a " backbench mindset " . He still enjoyed aspects of his parliamentary life , such as in 1953 when he showed the American singing sensation Johnnie Ray round the House of Commons ; his attempts to seduce the singer were politely resisted . However , he needed to earn more money , and in the spring of 1952 responded to a suggestion that he should write a biography of Beaverbrook . The press lord was amenable , and work began in the summer of 1953 . The project extended over several years , by which time Driberg was no longer in parliament ; he had announced in March 1954 that he was standing down from Maldon , which at the General Election of May 1955 fell , as he had expected , to the Conservatives .
= = Marriage = =
On 16 February 1951 Driberg surprised his friends by announcing his engagement to Ena Mary Binfield ( née Lyttelton ) . A former Suffolk county councillor , she worked as an administrator at the Marie Curie Hospital in London and was well known in senior Labour circles ; she had met Driberg in 1949 , at a weekend party given by the government minister George Strauss . According to her son , she was fully aware of Driberg 's sexual preferences , but looked forward to some political excitement , and " thought they could do a useful job as Mr. and Mrs. " Driberg 's motives are less clear , but he told his friend John Freeman that he needed someone to run Bradwell Lodge , to which he had returned in 1946 after its release by the RAF .
At Driberg 's insistence , Ena , a non @-@ practising Jew , was baptised into the Church of England before the wedding at St Mary the Virgin , Pimlico , on 30 June 1951 . The bride entered the church to a chorale arranged from the Labour Party anthem " The Red Flag " ; this was followed by a nuptial mass described by Driberg 's biographer Francis Wheen as " outrageously ornate " . Four hundred guests then attended an elaborate reception at the House of Commons .
In the ensuing years Ena tried hard to adapt to Driberg 's way of life and to control his wayward finances , but with little success . He continued his frequent travels and casual homosexual liaisons , and was hostile to her efforts to control or change any aspect of his life . In 1961 she wrote to him : " I have tried for ten years to make a compromise with you in your extraordinary mode of life and have now given up . " Thereafter they often lived apart , though they never formally separated . Even after a final breach in 1971 , they remained legally married .
= = Later career = =
= = = Out of parliament = = =
On leaving parliament in 1955 , Driberg 's main task was to complete the Beaverbrook biography . Although Beaverbrook had initially promised no interference with the text , he changed his mind when he began to read Driberg 's drafts . In the course of a prolonged disagreement , Beaverbrook accused his biographer of being driven by " malice and hatred " . When the manuscript was finally cleared for publication , much of the objectionable material had been removed ; nevertheless , Beaverbrook used the Daily Express to campaign against the book and denounce its hostile tone . Evelyn Waugh , to whom Driberg sent a copy , expressed disappointment that the work was in fact " a honeyed eulogy " .
In an effort to build his post @-@ parliamentary career , Driberg turned briefly to creative writing , but without success . In his more familiar field of journalism he caused a sensation by flying to Moscow in August 1956 to interview Guy Burgess , the former British diplomat who in 1951 had defected to Russia with his colleague Donald Maclean . The pair had emerged in Moscow in March 1956 , to give a brief press conference . Driberg had known Burgess in the 1940s , and the two shared similar homosexual inclinations ; this acquaintance was sufficient to secure the Moscow interview . On his return home Driberg rapidly wrote a book from the interview material , the serial rights of which were sold to the Daily Mail . Critics drew attention to the book 's relatively sympathetic portrayal of Burgess ; some believed the book had been vetted by the KGB , while others saw it as part of an MI5 plot to trap Burgess into revealing secret information for which he could be prosecuted should he ever return to Britain .
In 1956 Driberg convened a group of Christian socialists that met regularly at the Lamb public house in Bloomsbury to discuss issues such as imperialism , colonialism , immigration and nuclear disarmament . The group 's dispatches , Papers from the Lamb , led to the foundation in 1960 of the Christian Socialist Movement . Although no longer an MP , Driberg remained a member of the Labour Party 's NEC and was active in party affairs . In 1957 , in the face of antagonism from trade union leaders repelled by his lifestyle , he became Labour Party chairman , a largely ceremonial role . He travelled widely during his year in office , generally as a Reynolds News correspondent but using the party title to advantage whenever he could . Thus , in a 1958 visit to Moscow to interview space scientists , he obtained two meetings with Nikita Khrushchev .
In his final speech as chairman , to the party conference in 1958 , Driberg angered the Conservatives and their press supporters by referring to the Tory ideology as not essentially different from the German Herrenvolk philosophy . He had been contemplating for some time a return to the House of Commons , and in February 1959 was adopted as a candidate by the safe Barking constituency . In the General Election of October 1959 , which delivered a 100 @-@ seat majority to Harold Macmillan 's Conservative government , he won at Barking with a majority of exactly 12 @,@ 000 .
= = = Member for Barking , 1959 – 74 = = =
A dominant issue when Driberg returned to Westminster was that of the use or outlawing of nuclear weapons . The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament ( CND ) had been launched on 17 February 1958 , though Driberg 's involvement with the issue predated CND by three years . On 2 March 1955 , in an amendment to a House of Commons motion , he had called for Great Britain to " regain the moral leadership of the world by taking an initiative ... that may lead to the outlawing of ... thermo @-@ nuclear weapons " .
In October 1960 he supported the unilateralist motions passed at the Labour Party conference , and fought unsuccessfully in the NEC for them to be adopted as party policy . The conference motion was reversed the following year , but he continued to pursue the matter in parliament . On 29 May 1962 he urged that Britain not be a party to the renewal of nuclear tests , and in a speech on 23 July he said : " The unilateral abandonment of testing — or , better still , a test ban agreement — would be the most valuable first step towards general and complete disarmament . "
According to his colleague Ian Mikardo , Driberg was less than enthusiastic about his duties in Barking — " a very , very bad constituency MP " . Even his strongest supporters acknowledged that he attended as few local events as possible . In the Commons chamber he was a regular speaker on issues that concerned him , in particular disarmament , church affairs and racial discrimination . He supported the lowering of the voting age to 18 , and the broadcasting of parliamentary debates ; he opposed increases to judges ' salaries , and the extension of Stansted Airport . After the General Election of 1964 , which narrowly returned Labour to power under Harold Wilson , he was not offered a place in the new government , and soon found himself in opposition to Wilson 's policies on Vietnam , the Common Market , immigration and other major issues . He joined with Mikardo and other dissidents to form the " Tribune Group " , with the aim of promoting more left @-@ wing policies . The group 's influence lessened after March 1966 , when in another General Election Wilson increased his majority to 98 .
Driberg embraced enthusiastically the climate of the 1960s and the social and cultural freedoms that the decade introduced . In 1963 he met the Kray twins , prominent London gangland figures , and began a lengthy friendship with them and their associates . In July 1964 two backbench Conservative MPs reported to their Chief Whip that Driberg and Lord Boothby ( a well @-@ known Conservative peer ) had been importuning males at a dog track , and were involved with gangs of thugs .
At parties which Driberg and Boothby attended at the Krays ' flat , " rough but compliant East End lads were served like so many canapés " , according to Wheen . While Driberg avoided publicity , Boothby was hounded by the press and forced to issue a series of denials . After the twins had been convicted of murder in 1969 , Driberg frequently lobbied the Home Office about their prison conditions , requesting that they be given more visits and allowed regular reunions . Driberg was impressed with Mick Jagger , to whom he was introduced in 1965 , and tried hard over a number of years to persuade the singer to take up active Labour politics . He also began a long association with the satirical magazine Private Eye , supplying it with political gossip and , under the pseudonym " Tiresias " , compiling a regular , highly risqué prize cryptic crossword puzzle which on one occasion was won by the wife of the Archbishop of Canterbury .
In 1964 Driberg published a critical study of Moral Re @-@ armament , which brought him attacks from the movement on the basis of his homosexuality and communist past . Although he made money from this book , throughout the 1960s he was beset by financial problems . When Reynolds News , which had evolved into the Sunday Citizen , finally folded in 1967 , he became fully dependent on his parliamentary salary and casual journalism . He had long considered selling Bradwell Lodge , preferably to the National Trust on a basis that would allow him to continue living there . However , the Trust required the property to be mortgage @-@ free and endowed with a substantial fund to cover future repairs , neither of which terms could be arranged . In the event the house remained unsold until 1971 . As the 1970 election approached , Driberg wished to retire from parliament , and asked Wilson to appoint him as ambassador to the Vatican . Wilson refused , citing Driberg 's age — at 65 he was beyond the retirement age for senior diplomats . Against his will , but with few other sources of income available to him , Driberg fought the June 1970 General Election . He was returned for Barking with a comfortable though reduced majority ; nationally , Wilson 's government was defeated by Edward Heath 's Conservatives .
= = Retirement , ennoblement and death = =
Hampered by age and declining health , Driberg became less active politically , and in 1972 was voted off Labour 's NEC . The sale of Bradwell Lodge to a private buyer removed his main burden of debt , and he rented a small flat in the Barbican development in the City of London . In February 1974 , at the age of 68 , he retired from the House of Commons with the intention of writing his memoirs . Still short of income , he first completed a biography of his fellow @-@ journalist Hannen Swaffer , which was indifferently received — " a feeble potboiler " , according to Davenport @-@ Hines . Friends organised an elaborate 70th birthday party for him on 21 May 1975 ; " one duke , two dukes ' daughters , sundry lords , a bishop , a poet laureate — not bad for an old left @-@ wing MP " , Driberg observed to a guest .
In November 1975 he was granted a life peerage , and on 21 January 1976 was introduced to the House of Lords as Baron Bradwell of Bradwell juxta Mare . On 14 April he tabled a motion in the Lords calling on the government to consider the withdrawal of troops from Northern Ireland , but won little support . His health was failing , though he continued to work on his memoirs . His final contribution to the House of Lords was on 22 July , in a debate on entry vouchers for the dependents of immigrants .
Three weeks later , on 12 August 1976 , while travelling by taxi from Paddington to his Barbican flat , he suffered a fatal heart attack . The funeral was held on 19 August at St Matthew 's , Westminster ; he was buried in the cemetery attached to St Thomas 's Church , Bradwell .
= = Allegations of treachery = =
After the publication of his relatively sympathetic portrait of Burgess in 1956 , Driberg had been denounced as a " dupe of Moscow " by some elements of the press . Two years after Driberg 's death , the veteran investigative reporter Chapman Pincher alleged that he had been " a Kremlin agent of sympathy " and a supporter of Communist front organisations . In 1979 Andrew Boyle published The Climate of Treason , which exposed Anthony Blunt and led to a period of " spy mania " in Britain . Boyle 's exhaustive account of the Burgess – Maclean – Philby – Blunt circle mentioned Driberg as a friend of Burgess , " of much the same background , tastes and views " , but made no allegations that he was part of any espionage ring .
In this atmosphere , Pincher published Their Trade is Treachery ( 1981 ) , in which he maintained that Driberg had been recruited by MI5 to spy on the Communist Party while still a schoolboy at Lancing , and that he was later " in the KGB 's pay as a double agent " . Other writers added further details ; the former British Intelligence officer Peter Wright , in Spycatcher ( 1987 ) , alleged that Driberg had been " providing material to a Czech controller for money " . The former Kremlin archivist Vasili Mitrokhin asserted that the Soviets had blackmailed Driberg into working for the KGB by threatening to expose his homosexuality .
The weight of information , and its constant repetition , made an apparently strong case against Driberg , and former friends such as Mervyn Stockwood , the Bishop of Southwark , became convinced that he had indeed betrayed his country . Other friends and colleagues were more sceptical . According to ex @-@ Labour MP Reginald Paget , not even the security services were " lunatic enough to recruit a man like Driberg " , who was famously indiscreet and could never keep a secret . Mitrokhin 's " blackmail " story is questioned by historian Jeff Sharlet , on the grounds that by the 1950s and 1960s Driberg 's homosexuality had been an open secret in British political circles for many years ; he frequently boasted of his " rough trade " conquests to his colleagues . The journalist A. N. Wilson quotes Churchill commenting years before that " Tom Driberg is the sort of person who gives sodomy a bad name " .
Pincher , however , argued that as homosexual acts were criminal offences in Britain until 1967 , Driberg was still vulnerable to blackmail , although he also asserted that the MI5 connection secured Driberg a lifelong immunity from prosecution . Driberg 's colleague Michael Foot denied Pincher 's claim that Margaret Thatcher , when prime minister , had made a secret agreement with Foot to protect Driberg if Foot , in turn , would remain silent about the supposed treachery of Roger Hollis , another of Pincher 's recently dead targets .
Wheen asserts that Pincher was not an objective commentator ; the Labour Party , and its supposed infiltration by Communist agents , had been his target over many years . Pincher 's verdict on Driberg is that " in journalism , in politics and intelligence ... eventually he betrayed everybody " . Wheen argues that Driberg 's greatest vice was indiscretion ; he gossiped about everyone , but " indiscretion is not synonymous with betrayal " . Driberg 's Labour Party colleague , Leo Abse , offers a more complex explanation : Driberg was an adventurer who loved taking risks and played many parts . " Driberg could have played the part of the spy with superb skill , and if the officers of MI5 were indeed inept enough to have attempted to recruit him , then , in turn , Tom Driberg would have gained special pleasure in fooling and betraying them " .
= = Appraisal = =
In his will Driberg had stipulated that at his funeral his friend Gerald Irvine should deliver an " anti @-@ panegyric " in place of the normal eulogy . Irvine obliged , with a detailed assessment of Driberg against the Seven Deadly Sins , finding him guilty of Gluttony , Lust and Wrath , but relatively free from Avarice and Envy and entirely untouched by Sloth . Pride , Irvine maintained , was in Driberg 's case mitigated by " the contrary virtue of humility " . Ena did not attend the funeral ; she gave a single press interview in which she expressed " huge respect for Tom 's journalistic skills , political power and championship of the underdog " . She added that if her admiration for him did not extend to their personal life together , that was a private matter .
Driberg prided himself on being an exception to a rule propounded by Cyril Connolly , that the war between the generations is the one war in which everyone changes sides eventually . Mervyn Stockwood , in his address at the funeral service , praised Driberg as " a searcher for truth " , whose loyalty to the socialist cause was beyond question . This verdict was echoed by Michael Foot , who in a postscript to Driberg 's memoir wrote of Driberg 's " great services " to the Labour Party in the various offices that he occupied . Foot believed that Driberg 's homosexual passion , rather than bringing him fulfilment , had " condemned him to a lifetime of deep loneliness " The Times obituarist described Driberg as " A journalist , an intellectual , a drinking man , a gossip , a high churchman , a liturgist , a homosexual " , the first time , according to journalist Christopher Hitchens , that the newspaper had ever defined a public figure specifically as homosexual .
Nevertheless , Driberg 's incomplete memoir Ruling Passions , when published in June 1977 , was a shock to the public and to some of his erstwhile associates , despite advance hints of the book 's scandalous content . Driberg 's candid revelations of his " cottaging " and his descriptions of casual oral sex were called by one commentator " the biggest outpouring of literary dung a public figure has ever flung into print . " The comedians Peter Cook and Dudley Moore depicted Driberg as a sexual predator , wearing " fine fishnet stockings " and cavorting with a rent boy , in a sketch , " Back of the Cab " , which they recorded in 1977 .
More vituperation followed when Pincher 's allegations of Driberg 's links with the Russian secret service were published in 1981 ; Pincher christened him " Lord of the Spies " . However , Foot dismissed these accusations as typical of the " fantasies of the secret service world that seem to have taken possession of Pincher 's mind " . Foot added that Driberg " had always been much too ready to look forgivingly on Communist misdeeds , but this attitude was combined with an absolutely genuine devotion to the cause of peace " .
In his 2004 biographical sketch Davenport @-@ Hines describes Driberg as " a sincere if eccentric Christian socialist who detested racism and colonialism " , who at the same time " could be pompous , mannered , wayward , self @-@ indulgent , ungrateful , bullying and indiscreet " . As to the apparent contradiction between sincere Christianity and promiscuous homosexuality , Wheen argues that " there had been a recognisable male homosexual subculture in the Anglo @-@ Catholic movement since the late nineteenth century " . This theme is explored in a paper by David Hilliard of Flinders University , who maintains that " the [ 19th century ] conflict between Protestantism and Anglo @-@ Catholicism within the Church of England was ... regularly depicted by Protestant propagandists as a struggle between masculine and feminine styles of religion " .
Driberg throughout his life was a devout Anglo @-@ Catholic ; Wheen suggests that Evelyn Waugh , in Brideshead Revisited , may have had Driberg in mind when the novel 's protagonist Charles Ryder is warned on arrival at Oxford to " beware of Anglo @-@ Catholics — they 're all sodomites with unpleasant accents . "
Driberg was the subject of a play , Tom and Clem , which was staged at London 's Aldwych Theatre in April 1997 . The action takes place during Driberg 's brief visit to the Potsdam Conference in July 1945 , and deals with the contrast of compromise , represented by the pragmatic Clement Attlee , and post @-@ war idealism , personified by Driberg . Michael Gambon 's portrayal of Driberg , as " a slovenly , paunchy Bacchus with a mouth that can suddenly gape like a painfully @-@ hooked fish " , won special praise from The Times critic Benedict Nightingale .
= SMS Pommern =
SMS Pommern was one of five Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Kaiserliche Marine between 1904 and 1906 . Named after the Prussian province of Pomerania , she was built at the AG Vulcan yard at Stettin , where she was laid down on 22 March 1904 and launched on 2 December 1905 . She was commissioned into the navy on 6 August 1907 . The ships of her class were already outdated by the time they entered the service , being inferior in size , armor , firepower , and speed to the revolutionary new battleship HMS Dreadnought .
After commissioning , Pommern was assigned to the II Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet , where she served throughout her peacetime career and the first two years of World War I. During this period , Pommern participated in several fruitless sorties into the North Sea in attempts to lure out and destroy a portion of the British Grand Fleet . The ship was present at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . She and her sisters briefly engaged the British battlecruisers commanded by David Beatty ; Pommern was hit once by a 12 in ( 30 @.@ 5 cm ) shell from the battlecruiser HMS Indomitable . During the confused night actions in the early hours of 1 June , she was hit by one , or possibly two , torpedoes from the British destroyer HMS Onslaught , which detonated one of Pommern 's 17 @-@ centimeter ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) gun magazines . The resulting explosion broke the ship in half and killed the entire crew . Pommern was the only battleship of either side sunk during the battle .
= = Construction = =
Pommern was ordered under the contract name " O " . She was laid down on 22 March 1904 at the AG Vulcan dockyard in Stettin . She was originally scheduled to be launched on 19 November 1905 , but the water level in the harbor was too low . As a result , the ship could not be launched until 2 December . The Oberpräsident of Pommern , Helmuth von Maltzahn , gave the launching speech . In July 1907 Pommern was transferred to Kiel where she had her main battery of four 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns installed . She was commissioned for trials on 6 August ; during her speed run , she made 18 @.@ 7 knots ( 34 @.@ 6 km / h ; 21 @.@ 5 mph ) , which made her the fastest pre @-@ dreadnought battleship in the world .
The ship was 127 @.@ 6 m ( 418 ft 8 in ) long and had a beam of 22 @.@ 2 m ( 72 ft 10 in ) , and a draft of 8 @.@ 21 m ( 26 ft 11 in ) . Her full @-@ load displacement was 14 @,@ 218 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 993 long tons ) . She was equipped with triple expansion engines that were rated at 17 @,@ 453 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 015 kW ) and a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Steam was provided by twelve Schulz @-@ Thornycroft boilers . In addition to being the fastest ship of her class , Pommern was the most fuel efficient . At a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , she could steam for 5 @,@ 830 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 800 km ; 6 @,@ 710 mi ) . The ship had a peacetime crew of 35 officers and 708 enlisted men , though during military operations , the size of the crew expanded .
Pommern 's primary armament consisted of four 28 cm ( 11 in ) SK L / 40 guns in two twin turrets . She was equipped with fourteen 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) guns mounted in casemates and twenty 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns in pivot mounts . The ship was also armed with six 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , all submerged in the hull . One was in the bow , one in the stern , and four on the broadside . Her armored belt was 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships and she had a 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick armored deck . The main battery turrets had 280 mm ( 11 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Pommern was assigned to the II Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet alongside her sisters . She took part in the annual training cruises and maneuvers with the rest of the High Seas Fleet between 1908 and 1914 . This included fleet training in the Baltic in 1908 and a cruise into the Atlantic the following year . In May 1910 Pommern took part in fleet training in the Kattegat between Denmark and Norway , followed by a cruise to Norway in the summer . At the end of 1910 , the fleet conducted another cruise into the Baltic . The next two years followed a similar pattern , though the summer cruise in 1912 was interrupted by the Agadir Crisis . As a result , the cruise was only into the Baltic . Later in the year Pommern took part in maneuvers off the island of Helgoland in the North Sea .
In July 1914 , about two weeks after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo , Pommern was with the High Seas Fleet during its annual summer cruise to Norway . As a result of rising international tensions , the cruise was cut short and the German fleet was back in Wilhelmshaven by 29 July . At midnight on 4 August , the United Kingdom declared war on Germany . Pommern remained with the High Seas Fleet throughout the first two years of the naval war . At the outbreak of war , the ship and her sisters in the II Battle Squadron were deployed to the mouth of the Elbe River to guard the area from possible British incursions .
Pommern and the rest of the II Battle Squadron then rejoined the High Seas Fleet as part of the battleship support for the battlecruisers in the I Scouting Group that bombarded Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 . During the operation , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens convinced Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl that he was confronted with the entire Grand Fleet , and so he broke off the engagement and turned for home . Two fruitless fleet advances followed on 17 – 18 and 21 – 23 April 1915 . A third took place on 17 – 18 May , and a fourth occurred on 23 – 24 October .
On 24 – 25 April 1916 , Pommern and her sisters joined the dreadnoughts of the High Seas Fleet to support the battlecruisers , which were again tasked with conducting a raid of the English coast . While en route to the target , the battlecruiser Seydlitz was damaged by a mine . Seydlitz was detached to return home , and the rest of the ships continued with the mission . Due to poor visibility , the battlecruisers conducted a brief bombardment of the ports of Yarmouth and Lowestoft . The operation was quickly called off , which prevented the British fleet from being able to intervene .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the new commander of the High Seas Fleet , immediately planned another foray into the North Sea , but the damage to Seydlitz delayed the operation until the end of May . Pommern remained assigned to the II Battle Squadron , now under the command of Rear Admiral Franz Mauve . The squadron was positioned at the rear of the German line . During the " Run to the North , " Scheer ordered the fleet to pursue the British V Battle Squadron at top speed . The slower Deutschland @-@ class ships could not keep up with the faster dreadnoughts and quickly fell behind .
Later in the evening of the first day of the battle , the hard @-@ pressed battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group were being pursued by their British opponents . Pommern and the other so @-@ called " five @-@ minute ships " came to their aid by steaming in between the opposing battlecruiser squadrons . Pommern could not make out a target in the darkness , though her several of her sisters could . Despite this , their shooting was ineffective . The British battlecruisers scored several hits on the German ships , including one on Pommern by a 12 in ( 30 @.@ 5 cm ) shell fired by Indomitable , forcing her to haul out of line . Admiral Mauve ordered an 8 @-@ point turn to the south to disengage from the British , and they did not follow .
At 3 : 10 on the morning of 1 June , Pommern was torpedoed by the British destroyer Onslaught . At least one torpedo , and possibly a second , struck the ship , detonating one of the 17 cm ammunition magazines . A tremendous explosion broke the ship in half . The stern capsized and remained afloat for at least 20 minutes with her propellers jutting into the air . Hannover , the ship directly astern of Pommern , was forced to haul out of line to avoid the wreck . Pommern 's entire crew of 839 officers and enlisted men were killed when the ship sank . She was the only battleship , pre @-@ dreadnought or dreadnought , in either fleet to be sunk at Jutland ; her loss , coupled with the vulnerabilities of the surviving pre @-@ dreadnoughts , prompted Scheer to leave them behind during the sortie of 18 – 19 August 1916 .
= Sleaford =
Sleaford is a market town and civil parish in the North Kesteven district of Lincolnshire , a non @-@ metropolitan county in the east of England . It is on the edge of the fertile Fenlands , about 11 miles ( 18 km ) north @-@ east of Grantham , 16 miles ( 26 km ) west of Boston , and 17 miles ( 27 km ) south of the city and county town of Lincoln . With an estimated resident population of 17 @,@ 671 at the time of the 2011 Census , the town is the largest settlement in North Kesteven , and makes up roughly 15 % of its total population . Bypassed by the A17 and the A15 , it is connected to Lincoln , Newark , Peterborough and King 's Lynn . Sleaford railway station is on the Nottingham to Skegness ( via Grantham ) and Peterborough to Lincoln Lines .
The first settlement formed during the Iron Age where a prehistoric track crossed the River Slea . It was a tribal centre and home to a mint for the Corieltauvi during the 1st centuries BC and AD . Evidence of Roman and Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement has been uncovered , and by the late Saxon period the town was an economic and jurisdictional centre with a court and market . During the medieval period , records differentiate between Old and New Sleaford , the latter emerging in the areas around the present day market place and St Denys ' Church . Sleaford Castle was constructed in the 12th century for the Bishops of Lincoln , who owned the manor . Granted the right to hold a market in the mid @-@ 12th century , New Sleaford developed into a market town and became locally important in the wool trade , while Old Sleaford declined .
From the 16th century , the landowners were the Carre family , who operated tight control over the town , and it grew little in the early modern period . The manor passed from the Carre family to the Hervey family by the marriage of Isabella Carre to John Hervey , 1st Earl of Bristol , in 1688 . The town 's common land and fields were legally enclosed by 1794 , giving ownership mostly to the Hervey family ; this coincided with making the Slea into a canal , and heralded the first steps towards modern industry . The Sleaford Navigation brought economic growth until it was superseded by the railways in the mid @-@ 1850s . In the 20th century , the sale of farmland around Sleaford by Bristol Estates led to the development of large housing estates . The subsequent availability of affordable housing combined with the town 's educational facilities and low crime rates made it an attractive destination for home @-@ buyers . As a result , the town 's population underwent the fastest growth of any town in the county during the 1990s .
Sleaford was primarily an agricultural town until the 20th century , supporting a cattle market , with seed companies , such as Hubbard and Phillips , and Sharpes International Seeds , being established in the late 19th century . The arrival of the railway made the town favourable for malting . Industry has declined , and in 2011 the most common occupations are in wholesale and retail trade , health and social care , public administration and defence and manufacturing . Regeneration of the town centre has led to the redevelopment of the old industrial areas , including the construction of the National Centre for Craft & Design on an old wharf .
= = History = =
= = = Etymology = = =
The earliest records of the place @-@ name Sleaford are found in a charter of 852 as Slioford and in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as Sliowaford . In the Domesday Book ( 1086 ) , it is recorded as Eslaforde and in the early 13th century as Sliforde . In the 13th century Book of Fees the name appears as Lafford . The name is formed from the Old English words sliow and ford , which together mean ' ford over a muddy or slimy river ' .
= = = Early = = =
Archaeological material from the Bronze Age and earlier has been recovered and excavations have shown that there was unsustained late @-@ Neolithic and Bronze Age human activity in the vicinity . The earliest known permanent settlement dates from the Iron Age and began where a track running northwards from Bourne crossed the River Slea . Although only sparse pottery evidence has been found for the middle Iron Age period , 4 @,@ 290 pellet mould fragments , likely used for minting and dated to 50 BC – AD 50 , have been uncovered south east of the modern town centre , south of a crossing of the River Slea and near Mareham Lane in Old Sleaford . The largest of its kind in Europe , the deposit has led archaeologists to consider that the site in Old Sleaford was probably one of the largest Corieltauvian settlements during this period and may have been a tribal centre .
During the Roman occupation of Britain ( AD 43 – 409 ) , the settlement was " extensive and of considerable importance . " Its location along the fen @-@ edge may have made it economically and administratively significant as a centre for managers and owners of fenland estates . There is evidence to suggest that a road connected Old Sleaford to Heckington ( about 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) east ) , where Roman tile kilns have been uncovered and may imply the presence of a market at Sleaford . When the first roads were constructed by the Romans , Sleaford was bypassed due to it being " less conveniently located " and more " geared to native needs " . A smaller road , Mareham Lane , which the Romans renewed , ran through Old Sleaford , and southwards along the fen edge , towards Bourne . Where it passed through Old Sleaford , excavations have revealed a large stone @-@ built domestic residence , associated farm buildings , corn @-@ driers , ovens and field systems , all from the Roman period , and a number of burials . Other Roman remains , including a burial , have been excavated in the town .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
There is little evidence of continuous settlement between the late Roman and Anglo @-@ Saxon periods but the Saxons did establish themselves eventually . South of the modern town , a 6th – 7th century cemetery has been uncovered containing an estimated 600 burials , many showing signs of pagan burial rites . It is possible that the Anglo @-@ Saxon inhabitants were foederati first brought over by the Romano @-@ Britons to defend settlements from other Saxon invaders . The now ruined Church of St Giles / All Saints at Old Sleaford has been discovered and excavations of the Market Place in 1979 uncovered Anglo @-@ Saxon remains from the 8th – 9th centuries , indicating some form of enclosure with domestic features . The earliest documentary reference to Sleaford is in a charter from the 9th century , when it was owned by Medehamstede Abbey in Peterborough , a Mercian royal foundation . There is little evidence of estate structure until the late Saxon period , but there may have been a market and court in pre @-@ Conquest Sleaford and it was probably an economic and jurisdictional centre for surrounding settlements . The Slea played an important role in the town 's economy : it never ran dry nor froze , and by the 11th century a dozen watermills lined its banks . The mills and others in nearby Quarrington and the lost hamlet of Millsthorpe , constituted the " most important mill cluster in Lincolnshire " .
Later in the Middle Ages , the Romano @-@ British settlement became known as " Old Sleaford " , while " New Sleaford " was used to describe the settlement centred on St Denys ' Church and the Market Place . The Domesday Book ( 1086 ) has two entries under Eslaforde ( Sleaford ) recording land held by Ramsey Abbey and the Bishop of Lincoln . The location of the manors recorded in Domesday is not made clear in the text . One theory endorsed by Maurice Beresford is that they focused on the settlement at Old Sleaford because of evidence that New Sleaford was planted in the 12th century by the bishop to increase his income , which was associated with the construction of Sleaford Castle between 1123 and 1139 . Beresford 's theory has been criticised by the local historians Christine Mahany and David Roffe who have reinterpreted the Domesday material and argued that by 1086 the Bishop 's manor included a church and associated settlement in what became New Sleaford .
The right to hold a fair on the feast day of St Denis was granted by a charter of King Stephen to Alexander , Bishop of Lincoln , in 1136 – 40 . Between 1154 and 1165 , Henry II granted the bishop of Lincoln the right to hold a market at Sleaford ; bishop Oliver Sutton argued in 1281 that his right to hold a market and fair had existed since time immemorial . In 1329 , Edward III confirmed the market and , in 1401 , Henry IV granted the bishop fairs on the feast days of St Denis and St Peter 's Chains . A survey of 1258 is the first to mention burgage tenure ; tenants in the nearby hamlet of Holdingham held tofts with other land , while those in New Sleaford held only tofts , indicating that demesne farming centred on the hamlet . The town later had at least two guilds comparable to those found in developed towns . However , there was no formal charter outlining the town 's freedoms ; it was not a centre of trade and tight control by the bishops meant the economy was primarily geared to serve them . Hence , it retained a strong tradition of demesne farming well into the 14th century . As the economic initiative fell more to the burgesses and middlemen who formed connections with nearby towns , such as Boston , evidence suggests that Sleaford developed a locally important role in the wool trade . In the Lay Subsidy of 1334 , New Sleaford was the wealthiest settlement in the Flaxwell wapentake , with a value of £ 16 0s . 81 / 4d . Meanwhile , Old Sleaford , an " insignificant " place since the end of the Roman period , declined and may have been deserted by the 16th century .
= = = Early modern = = =
During the late 15th and early 16th centuries , the Hussey family owned the manor of Old Sleaford . John Hussey , 1st Baron Hussey of Sleaford was executed for treason for his part in the Lincolnshire Rising . The manor and his residence at Old Place reverted to the Crown and were later sold to Robert Carre . George Carre or Carr from Northumberland had settled in Sleaford by 1522 when he was described as a wool merchant . His son Robert bought Hussey 's land and the castle and manor of New Sleaford from Edward Clinton , 1st Earl of Lincoln . His eldest surviving son Robert , founded Carre 's Grammar School in 1604 , and his youngest son Edward was created a baronet ; his son founded Sleaford Hospital in 1636 . The last male descendent died in 1683 and the heiress , Isabella Carre , married John Hervey , Earl of Bristol , in whose family the estates remained until the 1970s . The Carres and Herveys had a strong influence : in addition to extracting dues from their tenants , they took leading tradesmen to the Exchequer Court to gain legal force behind their monopoly on charging tolls on market and cattle traders and for driving animals through the town .
Industry was slow to take hold , and by the second half of the 18th century , Cogglesford Mill was the only working corn mill in the town . An old mill at the junction of Westgate and Castle Causeway supplied hemp to the growing rope @-@ making business of the Foster and Hill families . As local historian Simon Pawley wrote , " in many respects , things had changed little [ by 1783 ] since the survey of 1692 " , with few of the buildings or infrastructure being improved . Major changes to agriculture and industry took place in the last decade of that century . From the Middle Ages , Sleaford was surrounded by three open fields : North , West and Sleaford Fields . At the enclosure of the open fields in 1794 more than 90 % of the 1 @,@ 096 acres of open land was owned by Lord Bristol . Despite the costs of fencing and re @-@ organising the fields , the system was easier to farm , and cottages were built closer to fields , while the landowner could charge more rent owing to the increased profitability of the land ; those who lost out were the cottagers , who could no longer keep a few animals grazing on the common land at no cost . The process allowed the land boundaries and pathways to be tidied up ; Drove Lane , which ran to Rauceby , was shifted north and straightened .
= = = Industrial = = =
Canalisation of the River Slea began in the 1790s . Canals in England were constructed from the 1760s to make inland trade easier ; Sleaford 's businessmen were keen to benefit from the improved communication they allowed . The Sleaford Navigation opened in 1794 . It facilitated the export of agricultural produce to the Midlands , and the import of coal and oil . Mills along the Slea benefited and wharves were constructed around Carre Street . Between 1829 and 1836 the navigation 's toll rights increased in value by 27 times . The railways emerged in the 19th century as an alternative to canals and arrived at the town in 1857 , when a line from Grantham to Sleaford opened . It made agricultural trade easier and improved communication , but led to the decline of the Navigation Company . Income from tolls decreased by 80 % between 1858 and 1868 ; it made its first loss in 1873 and was abandoned in 1878 . The town 's rural location and transport links meant that the late 19th century saw the rise of two local seed merchants : Hubbard and Phillips , and Charles Sharpe ; the former took over the Navigation Wharves , and the latter was trading in the US and Europe by the 1880s . The railway , Sleaford 's rural location and its artesian wells , were key factors in the development of the 13 @-@ acre Bass & Co maltings complex at Mareham Lane ( 1892 – 1905 ) .
In the first half of the 19th century , Sleaford 's population more than doubled from 1 @,@ 596 in 1801 to 3 @,@ 539 in 1851 . Coinciding with this is the construction or extension of public buildings , often by the local contractors Charles Kirk and Thomas Parry . The gasworks opened in 1839 to provide gas lighting in the town . Sleaford 's Poor Law Union was formed in 1836 to cater for the town and the surrounding 54 parishes . The workhouse was constructed by 1838 and could house 181 inmates . Despite these advances , the slums around Westgate were over @-@ crowded , lacking sanitation and disease @-@ ridden ; the local administration failed to deal with the matter until 1850 , when a report on the town 's public health by the General Board of Health heavily criticised the situation and set up a Local Board of Health to undertake public works . By the 1880s , Lord Bristol had allowed clean water to be pumped into the town , but engineering problems and a reluctance to sell land to house the turbines had delayed the introduction of sewers .
= = = Post @-@ industrial = = =
Although largely undamaged in the First and Second World Wars , Sleaford has close links with the Royal Air Force due to its proximity to several RAF bases , including RAF Cranwell and RAF Waddington . Lincolnshire 's topography — flat and open countryside — and its location on the east of the country made it ideal for the development of Britain 's airfields , constructed in the First World War . Work began on Cranwell in late 1915 ; it was designated an RAF base in 1918 and the RAF College opened in 1920 as he world 's first air academy . The Cranwell branch railway linking Sleaford station to the RAF base opened in 1917 and closed in 1956 . During the Second World War , Lincolnshire was " the most significant location for bomber command " and Rauceby Hospital , south @-@ west of Sleaford , was requisitioned by the RAF as a specialist burns unit which plastic surgeon Archibald McIndoe regularly visited .
In the inter @-@ war period , Sleaford 's population remained static , but the Great Depression in the 1930s caused unemployment to rise . Council @-@ housing developments along Drove Lane proved insufficient to house low @-@ income families after the Westgate slums were cleared in the 1930s so Jubilee Grove opened in that decade to meet the demand . In the post @-@ war period , there were new housing developments at St Giles Avenue , the Hoplands , Russell Crescent , Jubilee Grove , and Grantham Road . Parts of the town were redeveloped : in 1958 , the Bristol Arms Arcade opened , the Corn Exchange was demolished in the 1960s , and the Waterside Shopping Precinct opened in 1973 , as did Flaxwell House , designed to house a department store , though later becoming the national headquarters for Interflora .
By 1979 , the major landowner , Victor Hervey , 6th Marquess of Bristol , heavily in debt , had sold most of his estates in Sleaford and Quarrington and the estate 's office closed in 1989 . Much of the land was sold to property developers and in the following decades saw the construction of residential buildings and a considerable population increase . According to a council report , " the quality of life , low crime rates , relatively low house prices and good @-@ quality education " attracted people to the town . From 1981 to 2011 , Sleaford 's population rose from 8 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 000 ; the growth rate from 1991 to 2001 was the fastest of any town in the county . Its infrastructure struggled to cope , especially with increased traffic congestion ; two bypasses around the town and a one @-@ way system were introduced , a process which Simon Pawley argues accelerated the decline of the High Street . In the early 2000s , the Single Regeneration Budget of £ 15 million granted to Sleaford improved the town centre and funded development of the Hub ( since 2011 , the National Centre for Craft & Design ) in the old Navigation wharves area .
= = Geography = =
= = = Topography = = =
Sleaford is the principal market town in the North Kesteven district of Lincolnshire . The civil parish includes the hamlet of Holdingham to the north east and the village of Quarrington to the south east , both of which merge with the town . The County Council 's State of the Environment Report ( 1994 ) found that roughly three @-@ quarters of Lincolnshire is low @-@ lying , with much of it near sea @-@ level ; Sleaford lies approximately 43 feet ( 13 m ) above sea level close to Lincoln Cliff , a Limestone scarp running north – south through Lindsey and Kesteven . The bedrock under the western half of the town belongs to the Great Oolite Group of Jurassic Sandstone , Limestone and Argillaceous rocks formed 168 − 165 million years ago ; Kellaways and Oxford Clay formations , dated to 165 – 156 million years ago , underlie the eastern half . Alluvium deposits are found along the Slea 's course , and Fen sand and gravel are found to the east and south . The county 's agricultural land is generally of " very good " quality ; as a result , intensive arable and vegetable farming is predominant and pastoral farming declined over the course of the 20th century . Sleaford is on the edge of the Fens , a low @-@ lying region of the East of England which , before drainage from the 17th to the 20th centuries , were marshy and liable to flooding . Draining has revealed nutrient @-@ rich soils and enabled 88 % of the land to be cultivated , especially for arable farming , and most of it is graded amongst the most productive farmland in the country .
= = = Climate = = =
According to the Köppen classification , the British Isles experience a maritime climate characterised by relatively cool summers and mild winters . Lincolnshire 's position on the east of the Isles allows for a sunnier and warmer climate relative to the national average , and it is one of the driest counties in the United Kingdom . Although it may vary depending on altitude and proximity to the coast , the mean average temperature for the East of England is approximately 9 ° C to 10 @.@ 5 ° C ; the highest temperature recorded in the region was 37 @.@ 3 ° C at Cavendish on 10 August 2003 . On average , the region experiences 30 days of rainfall in winter and 25 in summer , with 15 days of thunder and 6 – 8 days of hail per year ; on 25 August 2001 , hail the size of golf balls were reported in Sleaford and other parts of central Lincolnshire . Wind tends to affect the north and west of the country more than the East , and Lincolnshire tends to receive no more than 2 days of gale per year ( where gale is a gust of wind at > 34 knots , sustained for at least 10 minutes ) . Despite this , tornadoes form more often in the East of England than elsewhere in the country ; Sleaford experienced tornadoes in 2006 and 2012 , both of which caused damage to property .
= = Governance = =
= = = Politics = = =
Before 1832 , Sleaford was in the Lincolnshire parliamentary constituency , which encompassed all of the county except for four boroughs . In the 1818 election , 49 of the 2 @,@ 000 people living in New and Old Sleaford and Quarrington qualified to vote . In 1832 , the Reform Act widened the franchise and divided Lincolnshire . Sleaford was in the South Lincolnshire constituency that elected two members to parliament . Following the 1867 reforms , the South Lincolnshire constituency 's borders were redrawn , but Sleaford remained within it . The franchise was widened by the reforms so that roughly 15 % ( 202 ) of males in Sleaford and Quarrington could vote in 1868 . The constituency was abolished in 1885 and the Sleaford constituency was formed . It merged with the Grantham seat in 1918 . In 1997 , Sleaford was reorganised into Sleaford and North Hykeham .
The member returned in 2010 for Sleaford and North Hykeham was the Conservative candidate Stephen Phillips , who replaced Douglas Hogg . Lincolnshire elected a Member of the European Parliament from 1974 until 1994 , and then became part of the Lincolnshire and Humberside South constituency until 1999 ; since then , it has elected members as part of the East Midlands constituency ; from 1999 , there were six members for the East Midlands , but the number was reduced to five in 2009 .
= = = Local government = = =
From the early medieval period , New Sleaford was in the Flaxwell Wapentake and Old Sleaford in the Ashwardhurn Wapentake . Sleaford Poor Law Union , overseen by a Board of Guardians , was established in 1836 . A Local Board of Health was formed in 1851 . Public health was reorganised by the Public Health Act 1872 , which established Urban and Rural Sanitary Districts ( USD or RSD ) ; Sleaford USD covered New and Old Sleaford , Holdingham and Quarrington , while the Sleaford RSD included all other parishes in the Poor Law Union . The Local Government Act 1894 converted the Board of Health and USD into the Sleaford Urban District Council and , in 1899 , the town became the administrative base of Kesteven County Council . A rural district formed in 1894 was abolished in 1931 . In 1973 , Sleaford Urban District merged with the North and East Kesteven districts to form North Kesteven , a district of Lincolnshire ; by statutory instrument , Sleaford civil parish became the urban district 's successor , thus merging Quarrington , New Sleaford , Old Sleaford and Holdingham civil parishes .
Sleaford Town Council , the parish @-@ level local government body beneath the district council is composed of 18 councillors from six wards : Castle , Holdingham , Mareham , Navigation , Quarrington , and Westholme . The Chairman of the Town Council is also the Mayor of Sleaford ; Cllr Keith Dolby is Mayor for 2014 – 15 . The six wards are also represented on North Kesteven District Council , although Mareham and Quarrington are merged into a single ward . Sleaford sends one councillor to Lincolnshire County Council . Sleaford Town Council has offices on Carre Street and the District Council offices are in the Lafford Terrace building on Eastgate , which was purchased by the council in 1934 .
Sleaford Urban District Council was granted a coat of arms on 26 October 1950 and after it was abolished the arms were used by its successor , Sleaford Town Council . The arms are blazoned : Gules on a Chevron Or three Estoiles Sable on a Chief Argent as many Trefoils slipped Vert . The trefoils in the chief are from the arms of the Marquess or Bristol , while the lower portion of the shield is the arms of the Carre family . Its crest is blazoned : On a Wreath of the Colours an Eagle wings extended and head downwards and to the sinister proper holding in the beak an Ear of Wheat stalked and leaved Or , the eagle symbolises Sleaford 's links with the Royal Air Force and the ear of wheat represents agriculture .
= = Public services = =
Policing is provided by the Lincolnshire Police , and fire @-@ fighting by the Lincolnshire Fire and Rescue Service . The police station is on Boston Road , although older premises on Kesteven Street were erected in 1845 and reconstructed in 1912 . The fire station is on Church Lane although plans to move it to East Road by 2016 were approved in 2014 . East Midlands Ambulance Service ( EMAS ) operates from Kesteven Street . The United Lincolnshire Hospitals NHS Trust provides services at three hospitals , Pilgrim Hospital in Boston , Grantham and District Hospital , and Lincoln County Hospital , all of which have 24 @-@ hour accident and emergency departments as of January 2015 .
Mains water and sewerage services are provided by Anglian Water , a former nationalised industry and natural monopoly , privatised in 1989 and regulated by the Water Services Regulation Authority ( OFWAT ) . In 1879 , an Act of Parliament was passed to set up a water company for the town ; pumping machinery was installed and works constructed in 1880 to provide a clean water supply to the town . In 1948 , the council took over the company and in 1962 its operation was handed to the Kesteven Water Board , which was absorbed by the Anglian Water Authority in 1973 .
Lincolnshire County Council promoted a Bill to Parliament to build an electricity generating station which passed in 1900 . It was built at the cost of £ 6 @,@ 700 in 1901 on Castle Causeway and remained there until nationalisation in 1948 . Following nationalisation , electricity was provided by the East Midlands Electricity Board until it was privatised in 1990 ; in 1998 , East Midlands Electricity , the privately owned predecessor company , was purchased by PowerGen . A " virtually carbon neutral " straw @-@ burning power @-@ station at Sleaford opened in 2013 ; capable of supplying electricity to 65 @,@ 000 homes , it is powered by straw bales from farms within a 50 @-@ mile radius . Most electricity generated is fed into the National Grid and the facility provides free heat to public buildings in the town .
Natural Gas was supplied by British Gas , which was privatised in 1986 . Distribution of gas and electricity is the responsibility of the National Grid . The energy markets are regulated by the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets ( OFGEM ) . The Sleaford Gas Light Company was formed in 1838 and the following year , gas lighting was provided and a gasworks was constructed on Eastgate . In 1866 , the company was incorporated ; in 1895 – 96 , the works were rebuilt and lit the town until the company was nationalised in 1948 . Gas ceased to be made here in the 1960s and the original buildings were retained although later extensions were demolished from 1966 to 1968 .
Sleaford Library houses a local and family history section and microfiche machine . It was refurbished in 2010 , but , as of 2014 , was listed by the county council as " undersized " .
= = Economy = =
= = = Employment = = =
Sleaford served the surrounding agricultural communities and the town maintained a weekly market throughout the 19th century and a livestock market on Northgate from 1874 until 1984 . According to a 2010 council report , the public sector was the town 's main employer , along with agriculture and manufacturing . Unemployment was lower than the national average as were wages reflecting pay in the food processing and agricultural industries . At the 2011 Census , the largest group of working @-@ age persons by economic activity are those in full @-@ time employment , who make up 43 @.@ 8 % of this section of the population , while 15 % are part | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
It was also realized that the beta decay of 239Np must produce an isotope of element 94 ( now called plutonium ) , but the quantities involved in McMillan and Abelson 's original experiment were too small to isolate and identify plutonium along with neptunium . The discovery of plutonium had to wait until the end of 1940 , when Glenn T. Seaborg and his team identified the isotope plutonium @-@ 238 .
Neptunium 's unique radioactive characteristics allowed it to be traced as it moved through various compounds in chemical reactions , at first this was the only method available to prove that its chemistry was different from other elements . As the first isotope of neptunium to be discovered has such a short half @-@ life , McMillan and Abelson were unable to prepare a sample that was large enough to perform chemical analysis of the new element using the technology that was then available . However , after the discovery of the long @-@ lived 237Np isotope in 1942 by Glenn Seaborg and Arthur Wahl , forming weighable amounts of neptunium became a realistic endeavor . Early research into the element was somewhat limited because most of the nuclear physicists and chemists in the United States at the time were focused on the massive effort to research the properties of plutonium as part of the Manhattan Project . Research into the element did continue as a minor part of the project and the first bulk sample of neptunium was isolated in 1944 .
Much of the research into the properties of neptunium since then has been focused on understanding how to confine it as a portion of nuclear waste . Because it has isotopes with very long half @-@ lives , it is of particular concern in the context of designing confinement facilities that can last for thousands of years . It has found some limited uses as a radioactive tracer and a precursor for various nuclear reactions to produce useful plutonium isotopes . However , most of the neptunium that is produced as a reaction byproduct in nuclear power stations is considered to be a waste product .
= = Production = =
= = = Synthesis = = =
The vast majority of the neptunium that currently exists on Earth was produced in artificial nuclear reactions . Neptunium @-@ 237 is the most commonly synthesized isotope due to it being the only one that both can be created via neutron capture and also has a half @-@ lifelong enough to allow weighable quantities to be easily isolated . As such , it is by far the most common isotope to be utilized in chemical studies of the element .
When an 235U atom captures a neutron , it is converted to an excited state of 236U . About 81 % of the excited 236U nuclei undergo fission , but the remainder decay to the ground state of 236U by emitting gamma radiation . Further neutron capture creates 237U which has a half @-@ life of 7 days and thus quickly decays to 237Np through beta decay . During beta decay , the excited 237U emits an electron , while the atomic weak interaction converts a neutron to a proton , thus creating 237Np .
<formula>
237U is also produced via an ( n , 2n ) reaction with 238U . This only happens with very energetic neutrons .
237Np is the product of alpha decay of 241Am , which is produced through neutron irradiation of uranium @-@ 238 .
Heavier isotopes of neptunium decay quickly , and lighter isotopes of neptunium cannot be produced by neutron capture , so chemical separation of neptunium from cooled spent nuclear fuel gives nearly pure 237Np . The short @-@ lived heavier isotopes 238Np and 239Np , useful as radioactive tracers , are produced through neutron irradiation of 237Np and 238U respectively , while the longer @-@ lived lighter isotopes 235Np and 236Np are produced through irradiation of 235U with protons and deuterons in a cyclotron .
Artificial 237Np metal is usually isolated through a reaction of 237NpF3 with liquid barium or lithium at around 1200 ° C and is most often extracted from spent nuclear fuel rods in kilogram amounts as a by @-@ product in plutonium production .
2 NpF3 + 3 Ba → 2 Np + 3 BaF2
By weight , neptunium @-@ 237 discharges are about 5 % as great as plutonium discharges and about 0 @.@ 05 % of spent nuclear fuel discharges . However , even this fraction still amounts to more than fifty tons per year globally .
= = = Purification methods = = =
Recovering uranium and plutonium from spent nuclear fuel for reuse is one of the major processes of the nuclear fuel cycle . As it has a long half @-@ life of just over 2 million years , the alpha emitter 237Np is one of the major isotopes of the minor actinides separated from spent nuclear fuel . Many separation methods have been used to separate out the neptunium , operating on small and large scales . The small @-@ scale purification operations have the goals of preparing pure neptunium as a precursor of metallic neptunium and its compounds , and also to isolate and preconcentrate neptunium in samples for analysis .
Most methods that separate neptunium ions exploit the differing chemical behaviour of the differing oxidation states of neptunium ( from + 3 to + 6 or sometimes even + 7 ) in solution . Among the methods that are or have been used are : solvent extraction ( using various extractants , usually multidentate β @-@ diketone derivatives , organophosphorus compounds , and amine compounds ) , chromatography using various ion @-@ exchange or chelating resins , coprecipitation ( possible matrices include LaF3 , BiPO4 , BaSO4 , Fe ( OH ) 3 , and MnO2 ) , electrodeposition , and biotechnological methods . Currently , commercial reprocessing plants use the Purex process , involving the solvent extraction of uranium and plutonium with tributyl phosphate .
= = Chemistry and compounds = =
= = = Solution chemistry = = =
When it is in an aqueous solution , neptunium can exist in any of its five possible oxidation states ( + 3 to + 7 ) and each of these show a characteristic color . The stability of each oxidation state is strongly dependent on various factors , such as the presence of oxidizing or reducing agents , pH of the solution , presence of coordination complex @-@ forming ligands , and even the concentration of neptunium in the solution .
In acidic solutions , the neptunium ( III ) to neptunium ( VII ) ions exist as Np3 + , Np4 + , NpO +
2 , NpO2 +
2 , and NpO +
3 . In basic solutions , they exist as the oxides and hydroxides Np ( OH ) 3 , NpO2 , NpO2OH , NpO2 ( OH ) 2 , and NpO3 −
5 . Not as much work has been done to characterize neptunium in basic solutions . Np3 + and Np4 + can easily be reduced and oxidized to each other , as can NpO +
2 and NpO2 +
2 .
Neptunium ( III )
Np ( III ) or Np3 + exists as hydrated complexes in acidic solutions , Np ( H
2O ) 3 + n . It is a dark blue @-@ purple and is analogous to its lighter congener , the pink rare earth ion Pm3 + . In the presence of oxygen , it is quickly oxidized to Np ( IV ) unless strong reducing agents are also present . Nevertheless , it is the second @-@ least easily hydrolyzed neptunium ion in water , forming the NpOH2 + ion . Np3 + is the predominant neptunium ion in solutions of pH 4 – 5 .
Neptunium ( IV )
Np ( IV ) or Np4 + is pale yellow @-@ green in acidic solutions , where it exists as hydrated complexes ( Np ( H
2O ) 4 + n ) . It is quite unstable to hydrolysis in acidic aqueous solutions at pH 1 and above , forming NpOH3 + . In basic solutions , Np4 + tends to hydrolyze to form the neutral neptunium ( IV ) hydroxide ( Np ( OH ) 4 ) and neptunium ( IV ) oxide ( NpO2 ) .
Neptunium ( V )
Np ( V ) or NpO +
2 is green @-@ blue in aqueous solution , in which it behaves as a strong Lewis acid . It is a stable ion and is the most common form of neptunium in aqueous solutions . Unlike its neighboring homologues UO +
2 and PuO +
2 , NpO +
2 does not spontaneously disproportionate except at very low pH and high concentration :
2 NpO +
2 + 4 H + ⇌ Np4 + + NpO2 +
2 + 2 H2O
It hydrolyzes in basic solutions to form NpO2OH and NpO
2 ( OH ) −
2 .
Neptunium ( VI )
Np ( VI ) or NpO2 +
2 , the neptunyl ion , shows a light pink or reddish color in an acidic solution and yellow @-@ green otherwise . It is a strong Lewis acid and is the main neptunium ion encountered in solutions of pH 3 – 4 . Though stable in acidic solutions , it is quite easily reduced to the Np ( V ) ion , and it is not as stable as the homologous hexavalent ions of its neighbours uranium and plutonium ( the uranyl and plutonyl ions ) . It hydrolyzes in basic solutions to form the oxo and hydroxo ions NpO2OH + , ( NpO
2 )
2 ( OH ) 2 +
2 , and ( NpO
2 )
3 ( OH ) +
5 .
Neptunium ( VII )
Np ( VII ) is dark green in a strongly basic solution . Though its chemical formula in basic solution is frequently cited as NpO3 −
5 , this is a simplification and the real structure is probably closer to a hydroxo species like [ NpO
4 ( OH )
2 ] 3 − . Np ( VII ) was first prepared in basic solution in 1967 . In strongly acidic solution , Np ( VII ) is found as NpO +
3 ; water quickly reduces this to Np ( VI ) . Its hydrolysis products are uncharacterized .
= = = Hydroxides = = =
The oxides and hydroxides of neptunium are closely related to its ions . In general , Np hydroxides at various oxidation levels are less stable than the actinides before it on the periodic table such as thorium and uranium and more stable than those after it such as plutonium and americium . This phenomenon is because the stability of an ion increases as the ratio of atomic number to the radius of the ion increases . Thus actinides higher on the periodic table will more readily undergo hydrolysis .
Neptunium ( III ) hydroxide is quite stable in acidic solutions and in environments that lack oxygen , but it will rapidly oxidize to the IV state in the presence of air . It is not soluble in water . Np ( IV ) hydroxides exist mainly as the electrically neutral Np ( OH ) 4 and its mild solubility in water is not affected at all by the pH of the solution . This suggests that the other Np ( IV ) hydroxide , Np ( OH ) −
5 , does not have a significant presence .
Because the Np ( V ) ion NpO +
2 is very stable , it can only form a hydroxide in high acidity levels . When placed in a 0 @.@ 1 M sodium perchlorate solution , it does not react significantly for a period of months , although a higher molar concentration of 3 @.@ 0 M will result in it reacting to the solid hydroxide NpO2OH almost immediately . Np ( VI ) hydroxide is more reactive but it is still fairly stable in acidic solutions . It will form the compound NpO3 · H2O in the presence of ozone under various carbon dioxide pressures . Np ( VII ) has not been well @-@ studied and no neutral hydroxides have been reported . It probably exists mostly as [ NpO
4 ( OH )
2 ] 3 − .
= = = Oxides = = =
Three anhydrous neptunium oxides have been reported , NpO2 , Np2O5 , and Np5O8 , though some studies have stated that only the first two of these exist , suggesting that claims of Np5O8 are actually the result of mistaken analysis of Np2O5 . However , as the full extent of the reactions that occur between neptunium and oxygen has yet to be researched , it is not certain which of these claims is accurate . Although neptunium oxides have not been produced with neptunium in oxidations as high as those possible with the adjacent actinide uranium , neptunium oxides are more stable at lower oxidation levels . This behavior is illustrated by the fact that NpO2 can be produced by simply burning neptunium salts of oxyacids in air .
The greenish @-@ brown NpO2 is very stable over a large range of pressures and temperatures and does not undergo phase transitions at low temperatures . It does show a phase transition from face @-@ centered cubic to orthorhombic at around 33 @-@ 37GPa , although it returns to is original phase when pressure is released . It remains stable under oxygen pressures up to 2 @.@ 84 MPa and temperatures up to 400 ° C. Np2O5 is black @-@ brown in color and monoclinic with a lattice size of 418 × 658 × 409 picometres . It is relatively unstable and decomposes to NpO2 and O2 at 420 @-@ 695 ° C. Although Np2O5 was initially subject to several studies that claimed to produce it with mutually contradictory methods , it was eventually prepared successfully by heating neptunium peroxide to 300 @-@ 350 ° C for 2 – 3 hours or by heating it under a layer of water in an ampoule at 180 ° C.
Neptunium also forms a large number of oxide compounds with a wide variety of elements , although the neptunate oxides formed with alkali metals and alkaline earth metals have been by far the most studied . Ternary neptunium oxides are generally formed by reacting NpO2 with the oxide of another element or by precipitating from an alkaline solution . Li5NpO6 has been prepared by reacting Li2O and NpO2 at 400 ° C for 16 hours or by reacting Li2O2 with NpO3 · H2O at 400 ° C for 16 hours in a quartz tube and flowing oxygen . Alkali neptunate compounds K3NpO5 , Cs3NpO5 , and Rb3NpO5 are all created by a similar reaction :
NpO2 + 3 MO2 → M3NpO5 ( M = K , Cs , Rb )
The oxide compounds KNpO4 , CsNpO4 , and RbNpO4 are formed by reacting Np ( VII ) ( [ NpO
4 ( OH )
2 ] 3 − ) with a compound of the alkali metal nitrate and ozone . Additional compounds have been produced by reacting NpO3 and water with solid alkali and alkaline peroxides at temperatures of 400 - 600 ° C for 15 – 30 hours . Some of these include Ba3 ( NpO5 ) 2 , Ba2NaNpO6 , and Ba2LiNpO6 . Also , a considerable number of hexavelant neptunium oxides are formed by reacting solid @-@ state NpO2 with various alkali or alkaline earth oxides in an environment of flowing oxygen . Many of the resulting compounds also have an equivalent compound that substitutes uranium for neptunium . Some compounds that have been characterized include Na2Np2O7 , Na4NpO5 , Na6NpO6 , and Na2NpO4 . These can be obtained by heating different combinations of NpO2 and Na2O to various temperature thresholds and further heating will also cause these compounds to exhibit different neptunium allotropes . The lithium neptunate oxides Li6NpO6 and Li4NpO5 can be obtained with similar reactions of NpO2 and Li2O .
A large number of additional alkali and alkaline neptunium oxide compounds such as Cs4Np5O17 and Cs2Np3O10 have been characterized with various production methods . Neptunium has also been observed to bond with oxides of many additional elements in groups 3 through 7 , although these are much less well studied .
= = = Halides = = =
Although neptunium halide compounds have not been nearly as well studied as its oxides , a fairly large number have been successfully characterized . Of these , neptunium fluorides have been the most extensively researched , largely because of their potential use in separating the element from nuclear waste products . Four binary neptunium fluoride compounds , NpF3 , NpF4 , NpF5 , and NpF6 , have been reported . The first two are fairly stable and were first prepared in 1947 through the following reactions :
NpO2 + 1 ⁄ 2 H2 + 3 HF → NpF3 + 2 H2O ( 400 ° C )
NpF3 + 1 ⁄ 2 O2 + HF → NpF4 + 1 ⁄ 2 H2O ( 400 ° C )
Later , NpF4 was obtained directly by heating NpO2 to various temperatures in mixtures of either hydrogen fluoride or pure fluorine gas . NpF5 is much more difficult to create and most known preparation methods involve reacting NpF4 or NpF6 compounds with various other fluoride compounds . NpF5 will decompose into NpF4 and NpF6 when heated to around 320 ° C.
NpF6 or neptunium hexafluoride is extremely volatile , as are its adjacent actinide compounds uranium hexafluoride ( UF6 ) and plutonium hexafluoride ( PuF6 ) . This volatility has attracted a large amount of interest to the compound in an attempt to devise a simple method for extracting neptunium from spent nuclear power station fuel rods . NpF6 was first prepared in 1943 by reacting NpF3 and gaseous fluorine at very high temperatures and the first bulk quantities were obtained in 1958 by heating NpF4 and dripping pure fluorine on it in a specially prepared apparatus . Additional methods that have successfully produced neptunium hexafluoride include reacting BrF3 and BrF5 with NpF4 and by reacting several different neptunium oxide and fluoride compounds with anhydrous hydrogen fluorides .
Four neptunium oxyfluoride compounds , NpO2F , NpOF3 , NpO2F2 , and NpOF4 ; have been reported although none of them have been extensively studied . NpO2F2 is a pinkish solid and can be prepared by reacting NpO3 · H2O and Np2F5 with pure fluorine at around 330 ° C. NpOF3 and NpOF4 can be produced by reacting neptunium oxides with anhydrous hydrogen fluoride at various temperatures . Neptunium also forms a wide variety of fluoride compounds with various elements . Some of these that have been characterized include CsNpF6 , Rb2NpF7 , Na3NpF8 , and K3NpO2F5 .
Two neptunium chlorides , NpCl3 and NpCl4 , have been characterized and although several attempts to create NpCl5 have been made , they have not been successful . NpCl3 is created by reducing neptunium dioxide with hydrogen and carbon tetrachloride ( CCl4 ) and NpCl4 by reacting a neptunium oxide with CCl4 at around 500 ° C. Other neptunium chloride compounds have also been reported , including NpOCl2 , Cs2NpCl6 , Cs3NpO2Cl4 , and Cs2NaNpCl6 . Neptunium bromides NpBr3 and NpBr4 have also been created ; the latter by reacting aluminium bromide with NpO2 at 350 ° C and the former in an almost identical procedure but with zinc present . The neptunium iodide NpI3 has also been prepared by the same method as NpBr3 .
= = = Chalcogenides , pnictides , and carbides = = =
Neptunium chalcogen and pnictogen compounds have been well studied primarily as part of research into their electronic and magnetic properties and their interactions in the natural environment . Pnictide and carbide compounds have also attracted interest because of their presence in the fuel of several advanced nuclear reactor designs , although the latter group has not had nearly as much research as the former .
Chalcogenides
A wide variety of neptunium sulfide compounds have been characterized , including the pure sulfide compounds NpS , NpS3 , Np2S5 , Np3S5 , Np2S3 , and Np3S4 . Of these , Np2S3 , prepared by reacting NpO2 with hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide at around 1000 ° C , is the most well @-@ studied and three allotropic forms are known . The α form exists up to around 1230 ° C , the β up to 1530 ° C , and the γ form , which can also exist as Np3S4 , at higher temperatures . NpS can be created by reacting Np2S3 and neptunium metal at 1600 ° C and Np3S5 can be prepared by the decomposition of Np2S3 at 500 ° C or by reacting sulfur and neptunium hydride at 650 ° C. Np2S5 is made by heating a mixture of Np3S5 and pure sulfur to 500 ° C. All of the neptunium sulfides except for the β and γ forms of Np2S3 are isostructural with the equivalent uranium sulfide and several , including NpS , α − Np2S3 , and β − Np2S3 are also isostructural with the equivalent plutonium sulfide . The oxysulfides NpOS , Np4O4S , and Np2O2S have also been created , although the latter three have not been well studied . NpOS was first prepared in 1985 by vacuum sealing NpO2 , Np3S5 , and pure sulfur in a quartz tube and heating it to 900 ° C for one week .
Neptunium selenide compounds that have been reported include NpSe , NpSe3 , Np2Se3 , Np2Se5 , Np3Se4 , and Np3Se5 . All of these have only been obtained by heating neptunium hydride and selenium metal to various temperatures in a vacuum for an extended period of time and Np2Se3 is only known to exist in the γ allotrope at relatively high temperatures . Two neptunium oxyselenide compounds are known , NpOSe and Np2O2Se , are formed with similar methods by replacing the neptunium hydride with neptunium dioxide . The known neptunium telluride compounds NpTe , NpTe3 , Np3Te4 , Np2Te3 , and Np2O2Te are formed by similar procedures to the selenides and Np2O2Te is isostructural to the equivalent uranium and plutonium compounds . No neptunium − polonium compounds have been reported .
Pnictides and carbides
Neptunium nitride ( NpN ) was first prepared in 1953 by reacting neptunium hydride and ammonia gas at around 750 ° C in a quartz capillary tube . Later , it was produced by reacting different mixtures of nitrogen and hydrogen with neptunium metal at various temperatures . It has also been created by the reduction of neptunium dioxide with diatomic nitrogen gas at 1550 ° C. NpN is isomorphous with uranium mononitride ( UN ) and plutonium mononitride ( PuN ) and has a melting point of 2830 ° C under a nitrogen pressure of around 1 MPa . Two neptunium phosphide compounds have been reported , NpP and Np3P4 . The first has a face centered cubic structure and is prepared by converting neptunium metal to a powder and then reacting it with phosphine gas at 350 ° C. Np3P4 can be created by reacting neptunium metal with red phosphorus at 740 ° C in a vacuum and then allowing any extra phosphorus to sublimate away . The compound is non @-@ reactive with water but will react with nitric acid to produce Np ( IV ) solution .
Three neptunium arsenide compounds have been prepared , NpAs , NpAs2 , and Np3As4 . The first two were first created by heating arsenic and neptunium hydride in a vacuum @-@ sealed tube for about a week . Later , NpAs was also made by confining neptunium metal and arsenic in a vacuum tube , separating them with a quartz membrane , and heating them to just below neptunium 's melting point of 639 ° C , which is slightly higher than the arsenic 's sublimation point of 615 ° C. Np3As4 is prepared by a similar procedure using iodine as a transporting agent . NpAs2 crystals are brownish gold and Np3As4 is black . The neptunium antimonide compound NpSb was created in 1971 by placing equal quantities of both elements in a vacuum tube , heating them to the melting point of antimony , and then heating it further to 1000 ° C for sixteen days . This procedure also created trace amounts of an additional antimonide compound Np3Sb4 . One neptunium @-@ bismuth compound , NpBi , has also been reported .
The neptunium carbides NpC , Np2C3 , and NpC2 ( tentative ) have been reported , but have not characterized in detail despite the high importance and utility of actinide carbides as advanced nuclear reactor fuel . NpC is a non @-@ stoichiometric compound , and could be better labelled as NpCx ( 0 @.@ 82 ≤ x ≤ 0 @.@ 96 ) . It may be obtained from the reaction of neptunium hydride with graphite at 1400 ° C or by heating the constituent elements together in an electric arc furnace using a tungsten electrode . It reacts with excess carbon to form pure Np2C3 . NpC2 is formed from heating NpO2 in a graphite crucible at 2660 – 2800 ° C.
= = = Other inorganic = = =
Hydrides
Neptunium reacts with hydrogen in a similar manner to its neighbor plutonium , forming the hydrides NpH2 + x ( face @-@ centered cubic ) and NpH3 ( hexagonal ) . These are isostructural with the corresponding plutonium hydrides , although unlike PuH2 + x , the lattice parameters of NpH2 + x become greater as the hydrogen content ( x ) increases . The hydrides require extreme care in handling as they decompose in a vacuum at 300 ° C to form finely divided neptunium metal , which is pyrophoric .
Phosphates , sulfates , and carbonates
Being chemically stable , neptunium phosphates have been investigated for potential use in immobilizing nuclear waste . Neptunium pyrophosphate ( α @-@ NpP2O7 ) , a green solid , has been produced in the reaction between neptunium dioxide and boron phosphate at 1100 ° C , though neptunium ( IV ) phosphate has so far remained elusive . The series of compounds NpM2 ( PO4 ) 3 , where M is an alkali metal ( Li , Na , K , Rb , or Cs ) , are all known . Some neptunium sulfates have been characterized , both aqueous and solid and at various oxidation states of neptunium ( IV through VI have been observed ) . Additionally , neptunium carbonates have been investigated to achieve a better understanding of the behavior of neptunium in geological repositories and the environment , where it may come into contact with carbonate and bicarbonate aqueous solutions and form soluble complexes .
= = = Organometallic = = =
A few organoneptunium compounds are known and chemically characterized , although not as many as for uranium due to neptunium 's scarcity and radioactivity . The most well known organoneptunium compounds are the cyclopentadienyl and cyclooctatetraenyl compounds and their derivatives . The trivalent cyclopentadienyl compound Np ( C5H5 ) 3 · THF was obtained in 1972 from reacting Np ( C5H5 ) 3Cl with sodium , although the simpler Np ( C5H5 ) could not be obtained . Tetravalent neptunium cyclopentadienyl , a reddish @-@ brown complex , was synthesized in 1968 by reacting neptunium ( IV ) chloride with potassium cyclopentadienide :
NpCl4 + 4 KC5H5 → Np ( C5H5 ) 4 + 4 KCl
It is soluble in benzene and THF , and is less sensitive to oxygen and water than Pu ( C5H5 ) 3 and Am ( C5H5 ) 3 . Other Np ( IV ) cyclopentadienyl compounds are known for many ligands : they have the general formula ( C5H5 ) 3NpL , where L represents a ligand . Neptunocene , Np ( C8H8 ) 2 , was synthesized in 1970 by reacting neptunium ( IV ) chloride with K2 ( C8H8 ) . It is isomorphous to uranocene and plutonocene , and they behave chemically identically : all three compounds are insensitive to water or dilute bases but are sensitive to air , reacting quickly to form oxides , and are only slightly soluble in benzene and toluene . Other known neptunium cyclooctatetraenyl derivatives include Np ( RC8H7 ) 2 ( R = ethanol , butanol ) and KNp ( C8H8 ) · 2THF , which is isostructural to the corresponding plutonium compound . In addition , neptunium hydrocarbyls have been prepared , and solvated triiodide complexes of neptunium are a precursor to many organoneptunium and inorganic neptunium compounds .
= = = Coordination complexes = = =
There is much interest in the coordination chemistry of neptunium , because its five oxidation states all exhibit their own distinctive chemical behavior , and the coordination chemistry of the actinides is heavily influenced by the actinide contraction ( the greater @-@ than @-@ expected decrease in ionic radii across the actinide series , analogous to the lanthanide contraction ) .
= = = = Solid state = = = =
Few neptunium ( III ) coordination compounds are known , because Np ( III ) is readily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen while in aqueous solution . However , sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate can reduce Np ( IV ) to Np ( III ) , stabilizing the lower oxidation state and forming various sparingly soluble Np ( III ) coordination complexes , such as Np
2 ( C
2O
4 )
3 · 11H2O , Np
2 ( C
6H
5AsO
3 )
3 · H2O , and Np
2 [ C
6H
4 ( OH ) COO ]
3 .
Many neptunium ( IV ) coordination compounds have been reported , the first one being ( Et
4N ) Np ( NCS )
8 , which is isostructural with the analogous uranium ( IV ) coordination compound . Other Np ( IV ) coordination compounds are known , some involving other metals such as cobalt ( CoNp
2F
10 · 8H2O , formed at 400 K ) and copper ( CuNp
2F
10 · 6H2O , formed at 600 K ) . Complex nitrate compounds are also known : the experimenters who produced them in 1986 and 1987 produced single crystals by slow evaporation of the Np ( IV ) solution at ambient temperature in concentrated nitric acid and excess 2 @,@ 2 ′ -pyrimidine .
The coordination chemistry of neptunium ( V ) has been extensively researched due to the presence of cation – cation interactions in the solid state , which had been already known for actinyl ions . Some known such compounds include the neptunyl dimer Na
4 ( NpO
4 )
2C
12O
12 · 8H2O and neptunium glycolate , both of which form green crystals .
Neptunium ( VI ) compounds range from the simple oxalate NpO
2C
2O
4 ( which is unstable , usually becoming Np ( IV ) ) to such complicated compounds as the green ( NH
4 )
4NpO
2 ( CO
3 )
3 . Extensive study has been performed on compounds of the form M
4AnO
2 ( CO
3 )
3 , where M represents a monovalent cation and An is either uranium , neptunium , or plutonium .
Since 1967 , when neptunium ( VII ) was discovered , some coordination compounds with neptunium in the + 7 oxidation state have been prepared and studied . The first reported such compound was initially characterized as Co ( NH
3 )
6NpO
5 · nH2O in 1968 , but was suggested in 1973 to actually have the formula [ Co ( NH
3 )
6 ] [ NpO
4 ( OH )
2 ] · 2H2O based on the fact that Np ( VII ) occurs as [ NpO
4 ( OH )
2 ] 3 − in aqueous solution . This compound forms dark green prismatic crystals with maximum edge length 0 @.@ 15 – 0 @.@ 4 mm .
= = = = In aqueous solution = = = =
Most neptunium coordination complexes known in solution involve the element in the + 4 , + 5 , and + 6 oxidation states : only a few studies have been done on neptunium ( III ) and ( VII ) coordination complexes . For the former , NpX2 + and NpX +
2 ( X
= Cl , Br ) were obtained in 1966 in concentrated LiCl and LiBr solutions , respectively : for the latter , 1970 experiments discovered that the NpO3 +
2 ion could form sulfate complexes in acidic solutions , such as NpO
2SO +
4 and NpO
2 ( SO
4 ) −
2 ; these were found to have higher stability constants than the neptunyl ion ( NpO2 +
2 ) . A great many complexes for the other neptunium oxidation states are known : the inorganic ligands involved are the halides , iodate , azide , nitride , nitrate , thiocyanate , sulfate , carbonate , chromate , and phosphate . Many organic ligands are known to be able to be used in neptunium coordination complexes : they include acetate , propionate , glycolate , lactate , oxalate , malonate , phthalate , mellitate , and citrate .
Analogously to its neighbours , uranium and plutonium , the order of the neptunium ions in terms of complex formation ability is Np4 + > NpO2 +
2 ≥ Np3 + > NpO +
2 . ( The relative order of the middle two neptunium ions depends on the ligands and solvents used . ) The stability sequence for Np ( IV ) , Np ( V ) , and Np ( VI ) complexes with monovalent inorganic ligands is F − > H
2PO −
4 > SCN − > NO −
3 > Cl − > ClO −
4 ; the order for divalent inorganic ligands is CO2 −
3 > HPO2 −
4 > SO2 −
4 . These follow the strengths of the corresponding acids . The divalent ligands are more strongly complexing than the monovalent ones . NpO +
2 can also form the complex ions [ NpO +
2M3 + ] ( M =
Al , Ga , Sc , In , Fe , Cr , Rh ) in perchloric acid solution : the strength of interaction between the two cations follows the order Fe > In > Sc > Ga > Al . The neptunyl and uranyl ions can also form a complex together .
= = Applications = =
= = = Precursor in plutonium production = = =
An important of use of 237Np is as a precursor in plutonium production , where it is irradiated with neutrons to create 238Pu , an alpha emitter for radioisotope thermal generators for spacecraft and military applications . 237Np will capture a neutron to form 238Np and beta decay with a half @-@ life of just over two days to 238Pu .
<formula>
238Pu also exists in sizable quantities in spent nuclear fuel but would have to be separated from other isotopes of plutonium . Irradiating neptunium @-@ 237 with electron beams , provoking bremsstrahlung , also produces quite pure samples of the isotope plutonium @-@ 236 , useful as a tracer to determine plutonium concentration in the environment .
= = = Weapons = = =
Neptunium is fissionable , and could theoretically be used as fuel in a fast neutron reactor or a nuclear weapon , with a critical mass of around 60 kilograms . In 1992 , the U.S. Department of Energy declassified the statement that neptunium @-@ 237 " can be used for a nuclear explosive device " . It is not believed that an actual weapon has ever been constructed using neptunium . As of 2009 , the world production of neptunium @-@ 237 by commercial power reactors was over 1000 critical masses a year , but to extract the isotope from irradiated fuel elements would be a major industrial undertaking .
In September 2002 , researchers at the Los Alamos National Laboratory briefly created the first known nuclear critical mass using neptunium in combination with shells of enriched uranium ( uranium @-@ 235 ) , discovering that the critical mass of a bare sphere of neptunium @-@ 237 " ranges from kilogram weights in the high fifties to low sixties , " showing that it " is about as good a bomb material as [ uranium @-@ 235 ] . " The United States Federal government made plans in March 2004 to move America 's supply of separated neptunium to a nuclear @-@ waste disposal site in Nevada .
= = = Physics = = =
237Np is used in devices for detecting high @-@ energy ( MeV ) neutrons .
= = Role in nuclear waste = =
Neptunium accumulates in commercial household ionization @-@ chamber smoke detectors from decay of the ( typically ) 0 @.@ 2 microgram of americium @-@ 241 initially present as a source of ionizing radiation . With a half @-@ life of 432 years , the americium @-@ 241 in an ionization smoke detector includes about 3 % neptunium after 20 years , and about 15 % after 100 years .
Neptunium @-@ 237 is the most mobile actinide in the deep geological repository environment . This makes it and its predecessors such as americium @-@ 241 candidates of interest for destruction by nuclear transmutation . Due to its long half @-@ life , neptunium will become the major contributor of the total radiotoxicity in 10 @,@ 000 years . As it is unclear what happens to the containment in that long time span , an extraction of the neptunium would minimize the contamination of the environment if the nuclear waste could be mobilized after several thousand years .
= = Biological role and precautions = =
Neptunium does not have a biological role , as it has a short half @-@ life and occurs only in small traces naturally . Animal tests showed that it is not absorbed via the digestive tract . When injected it concentrates in the bones , from which it is slowly released .
Finely divided neptunium metal presents a fire hazard because neptunium is pyrophoric ; small grains will ignite spontaneously in air at room temperature .
= = Literature = =
Guide to the Elements – Revised Edition , Albert Stwertka , ( Oxford University Press ; 1998 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 508083 @-@ 1
Lester R. Morss , Norman M. Edelstein , Jean Fuger ( Hrsg . ) : The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements , Springer @-@ Verlag , Dordrecht 2006 , ISBN 1 @-@ 4020 @-@ 3555 @-@ 1 .
Ida Noddack ( 1934 ) . " Über das Element 93 " . Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie 47 ( 37 ) : 653 – 655 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1002 / ange.19340473707.
Eric Scerri , A Very Short Introduction to the Periodic Table , Oxford University Press , Oxford , 2011 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 958249 @-@ 5 .
= Michael ( Glee ) =
" Michael " is the eleventh episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the fifty @-@ fifth overall . Written by co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon , the episode aired on Fox in the United States on January 31 , 2012 . It is a special tribute episode to Michael Jackson , and features eight of his songs as a solo artist , and one he sang as part of The Jackson 5 .
Reviews were widely varied for the episode : some felt it was the best of the third season to date , and others were quite critical , though the overall mix was somewhat more positive than negative . A number of reviewers noted that tribute episodes have tended to be light on plot , though several felt that this episode had surmounted the usual storyline problems that had plagued past tributes .
The episode 's musical performances were viewed more favorably , with many of the nine performances given high praise , including " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , " Human Nature " , " Smooth Criminal " , and " Scream " , the last of these primarily for Kevin McHale 's dancing . Five of the songs — the first three above plus " Bad " and " Black or White " — charted on the Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100 , while the other four were also released as singles but did not chart .
Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 9 @.@ 07 million American viewers and received a 3 @.@ 7 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership was up over 20 % from the previous episode , " Yes / No " .
= = Plot = =
Glee club members Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) , Santana ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany ( Heather Morris ) are disappointed that they missed their chance to sing Michael Jackson 's music at Sectionals , so director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) says that New Directions might include Jackson for the upcoming Regionals competition . Blaine ( Darren Criss ) performs " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " to demonstrate his suggested number . However , he mentions this possibility to Sebastian Smythe ( Grant Gustin ) , the new captain of the Dalton Academy Warblers and a Regionals competitor , and Sebastian later announces that the Warblers , who will be performing first , will also be doing Jackson 's music . New Directions challenges the Warblers for the right to perform Jackson , and they meet in a parking garage at night and compete to " Bad " . At the end of the number , Sebastian throws a slushie at Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) but Blaine interposes himself : he is hit in the face and badly injured .
Finn ( Cory Monteith ) asks Rachel ( Lea Michele ) for her answer to his proposal since he has waited the three days she requested , but she is not ready , so he agrees to wait longer . Rachel asks Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) for advice , and Quinn advises her to refuse and leave her past behind . Quinn has done so , and she has been accepted at Yale ; she sings " Never Can Say Goodbye " to former boyfriends Puck ( Mark Salling ) , Finn and Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) , and to the glee club . Sam calls Mercedes to the auditorium and asks her to sing with him — they have never duetted in glee club . She refuses and starts to leave , but he begins " Human Nature " and she joins in . Afterward , they kiss .
Blaine 's cornea was deeply scratched in the incident and he needs surgery . The club wants revenge on Sebastian ; Kurt says he should be expelled from Dalton , but Will asks them to let the system handle it . Artie ( Kevin McHale ) refuses : he is fed up with being told it will get better and says it should be better now , and leaves . Despite wanting revenge , Kurt is unwilling to use violence , so Santana goes to Dalton and accuses Sebastian of lying about the composition of the damaging slushie . He challenges her to a duel : the song " Smooth Criminal " . He admits after they finish that he rigged the slushie with rock salt , and hits her with an unadulterated one . Santana secretly recorded the encounter , and plays her evidence to New Directions , who in turn invite the Warblers to their auditorium , show them that they " get " Jackson better by performing " Black or White " , and reveal to the Warblers the proof that Sebastian deliberately tried to injure one of them .
Kurt 's father Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) takes Kurt out of class to hand him his letter from NYADA . Kurt opens it and discovers to his elation he is a finalist for admission ; Burt is overcome with pride . Kurt tells Rachel , only to discover that she has not received any letter from the school ; Rachel dissolves in tears . Finn later sings " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " to Rachel , and she tells him she loves him and that she accepts his proposal . She ultimately does get a finalist letter from NYADA and tells Kurt , to his joy , but she has not yet told Finn .
= = Production = =
Executive producers Ryan Murphy and Brad Falchuk had been mentioning since before the second season ended that they were planning another big tribute episode that they had been wanting to do since the first season , but would not reveal the name of the artist . On December 6 , 2011 , the same day that they were airing the " Hold On to Sixteen " episode that featured three Jackson family songs , Murphy announced that they had finally obtained the rights to do a Michael Jackson tribute episode .
The episode was written by Murphy and directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon , who had most recently directed Asian F. Filming had begun by December 12 , 2011 , and was interrupted by a two @-@ week holiday vacation . Both of the last two shooting days before the vacation began , December 15 and 16 , ran a couple of hours past midnight , with the final night not ending until three in the morning . Filming had not yet completed when the twelfth episode , with guest star Ricky Martin , began filming on January 5 , 2012 , the third day after the holiday vacation ended . The two episodes continued in parallel until the final Michael Jackson number was shot on January 13 , 2012 , over a month after filming began and the same day that the thirteenth episode commenced filming .
It had been announced late in the summer that Darren Criss , who plays Blaine Anderson , would be starring on Broadway in How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying from January 3 through 22 , 2012 , with rehearsals beginning there a couple of weeks before his debut . At the time , the reports said he would be missing " an episode and a half of Glee " . The final scene filmed before the holiday break was the first song in the episode , for which Criss sang lead , and he filmed several scenes in the episode in those last four days . He is singing lead on the song " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . Criss spent five weeks in New York City , the last three starring in How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying from January 3 through 22 , 2012 .
The Dalton Academy Warblers return in this episode , and perform " Bad " with New Directions , which was shot on location in a " parking garage just outside the Paramount Studio gates " . On the previous day , several members of New Directions did their first location shoots in the building used for Dalton Academy . The Warblers shot their own number , " I Want You Back " by The Jackson 5 with Gustin on lead vocal , but the song was omitted from the final cut of the episode . This was the second time in the third season that ten musical performances were shot for an episode but only nine were ultimately included : Rivera 's rendition of " Santa Baby " was cut from the episode two before this one , " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " . " I Want You Back " , like " Santa Baby " before it , was nevertheless released as a single , and on August 3 , 2012 , Murphy released the originally filmed scene including it uploaded to his YouTube page . The Warblers number had already run into difficulties earlier in production : it was originally planned to be Jackson 's " Rock with You " , but there were problems clearing the rights , so " I Want You Back " was selected and filmed instead . Gustin and Rivera performed " Smooth Criminal " with on @-@ screen musical guests 2Cellos , Luka Šulić and Stjepan Hauser , who became famous when their instrument @-@ only two @-@ cello cover of the piece received over three million views on YouTube in its first two weeks . The arrangement used for the performance is based on the 2Cellos version .
The remaining six songs that are covered in the episode include " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " , performed by Michele and Monteith ; The Jackson 5 's " Never Can Say Goodbye " , sung by Agron ; " Ben " sung by Colfer , Michele and Monteith ; " Black or White " featuring Riley , Rivera , Michele , McHale and Colfer ; " Human Nature " sung by Riley and Overstreet ; and the Michael and Janet Jackson song " Scream " , performed by McHale and Harry Shum , Jr . " Human Nature " was originally reported as being part of a mash @-@ up with Nat King Cole 's " Nature Boy " , but the song as performed is the Jackson song alone . All ten songs recorded — the nine in the episode plus " I Want You Back " which was ultimately cut — have been released as singles , available for download .
Recurring guest stars in the episode include Kurt 's father Burt Hummel ( O 'Malley ) , glee club members Sam Evans ( Overstreet ) and Rory Flanagan ( Damian McGinty ) , and Dalton Academy Warbler Sebastian Smythe ( Gustin ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Michael " was first broadcast on January 31 , 2012 in the United States on Fox . It received a 3 @.@ 7 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and attracted 9 @.@ 07 million American viewers during its initial airing , an increase of over 20 % from the 3 @.@ 1 / 8 rating / share and 7 @.@ 50 million viewers of the previous episode , " Yes / No " , which was broadcast on January 17 , 2012 . In Canada , 1 @.@ 84 million viewers watched the episode on the same day as its American premiere . It was the tenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , up two slots and 14 % from the 1 @.@ 61 million viewers who watched " Yes / No " two weeks earlier .
In the United Kingdom , " Michael " first aired on March 8 , 2012 , and was watched on Sky 1 by 682 @,@ 000 viewers . Viewership was down over 15 % from " Yes / No " , which attracted 805 @,@ 000 viewers when it aired the week before . In Australia , " Michael " was broadcast on February 24 , 2012 . It was watched by 535 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the thirteenth most @-@ watched program of the night , down from eleventh the week before . The viewership was down nearly 4 % from the previous episode , " Yes / No " , which was seen by 556 @,@ 000 viewers .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode was given a widely varied reception by reviewers , ranging from Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone , who called it " season three 's best episode so far " , to BuddyTV 's John Kubicek , who described the episode as " just plain silly and ridiculous " , though the overall mix was somewhat more positive than negative . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal wrote that " the episode was well paced , well sung and well danced " , though he was unhappy with the concluding number , and Entertainment Weekly 's Joseph Brannigan Lynch said the episode " contained some of this season 's best dramatic and musical performances " . Crystal Bell of HuffPost TV stated that she was " a little underwhelmed " by the episode , which " never quite lived up to the greatness that is Michael Jackson " . IGN 's Robert Canning gave the episode a " great " 8 out of 10 , and characterized it as " more than just a theme episode " in which he was " connecting to characters " that had not " grabbed " him since the first season .
MTV 's Kevin P. Sullivan summarized the episode as follows : " When all was said and done , it was another tribute episode , something that can 't be uttered by a Glee fan without a sigh and an eye roll . " Bell noted that tribute episodes usually mean that " all sense of plot continuity " is forgone , but that this one ranked " at the top of all of the other Glee tribute episodes because even though it was absurd at times , at least there was a plot — and it kind of made sense " . Futterman was more complimentary and described it as the " most effortless tribute episode yet " , and Canning wrote that " with songs we know and love and storylines that actually connected and delivered some meaningful and moving moments " it was " more than just a theme episode " . Jen Chaney of The Washington Post , however , thought that it was very much like previous tributes in that it also " featured scattered plot lines engineered to include as many songs by said artists as possible " and also " glorified their respective pop stars ’ images to an absurd degree " . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff also noted the glorification of Jackson , and noted " every time the show turns into an episode about Michael Jackson , it stops dead in its tracks entirely " . He stated that what was " weird " about the episode was that " what didn ’ t work was the spectacle , while what did work were the smaller , character @-@ based stories " which " provided a spine some of the other spectacle @-@ oriented episodes have lacked " . Futterman was one of many reviewers who took note of a new feature of this tribute episode when she commented on the " initial whiff of product placement and forced timing " related to the " Immortal World Tour " dialogue . Rae Votta of Billboard thought the inclusion a " brilliant bit of marketing synergy " , but TVLine 's Michael Slezak called it " ridiculously unsubtle product @-@ placement " .
Although Rachel 's decision to accept Finn 's proposal of marriage was greeted with skepticism , Canning spoke for many when he stated that her " arc in the episode was her best in a while " with " some compelling moments " . He also cited the " fantastically true advice " from Quinn , and VanDerWerff thought the scene " was going along great until the last 10 seconds " of that advice . Bell praised as " believable " the scene where Rachel " breaks down in front of Kurt " , and Slezak said he " loved that scene of Kurt holding his sobbing friend in front of the lockers " . Kurt 's scene with his father was Bell 's " favorite scene " which she said was " an incredibly touching moment between father and son . It was perfect . " Flandez also called Burt " perfect " for " delivering the NYADA envelope to his son " , and The Hollywood Reporter 's Lesley Goldberg described his scene as " another great Burt gem " .
Kubicek characterized the fact that Sebastian was not arrested for injuring Blaine as " an absurd plot twist " . He criticized Kurt for withholding the evidence and wrote , " Santana 's plan isn 't vicious or mean , it 's getting justice . Sebastian committed a crime and he should pay for it . " Slezak thought the decision as to whether the police would be given Santana 's evidence should have been Blaine 's to make , and Lynch posited that " a talk with the police " might teach Sebastian " that violent actions have legal consequences " . Chaney was incredulous at Will 's statements to the glee club on the matter , especially , " Unless you have proof that he tampered with the slushie , the police aren ’ t getting involved . " Kubicek called Artie 's anger that led to " Scream " a story arc that " goes nowhere and was just a poorly written excuse to do that song " , but Votta was impressed that " we learn more about Artie 's frustration in this fantasy scene than we have in 3 seasons " . Canning wrote that " as extraneous as the extended " Scream " segment was , the build up to that moment was perfect " .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The episode 's musical performances were given a better reception than the episode as a whole , though there were some dissenting voices , and not every song was received with the same enthusiasm . Slezak described the episode as " jam @-@ packed with terrific song @-@ and @-@ dance numbers " , and Votta wrote that " the musical numbers themselves were strong , fantastical and poignant to the story " . Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times declared , " The music was good ; the dancing , better . " Chaney wrote that " too many " of the musical numbers were " weak imitations " , which was reflected in her grading : her median grade for the nine numbers was a " C + " , and her highest grade was a single " B + " .
The first song was " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , which Bell said " was a fun homage to Michael Jackson , and it set the tone for the rest of the episode " . Futterman said that Blaine 's " slick showmanship " made him a " natural for lead vocals " , and Slezak called it " the best use of Darren Criss ' voice on Glee in quite some time " and gave it an " A − " . Lynch also gave it an " A − " , and said Criss " captured the excitement and the spunky bravado of the original " . Sullivan was another fan of " the sheer awesomeness of Darren Criss " on the song , and characterized it as " a tribute that 's more respectful than any other in the episode " . Chaney dissented from the general approval ; she gave it a " C + " and wrote that " the number was appropriately big and splashy , but musically , it sounded like all the funk had been drained right out of it " . She described " Bad " similarly as she gave it a " C − " : " this tune also sounded noticeably defunkified " . Sullivan was also unimpressed ; he wrote that the performance let " the world know what ' Bad ' sounds like after it 's drained of every ounce of danger " . Lynch gave it a " B " and wrote that " as silly as a choreographed gang fight between teenagers in a parking lot sounds ( and was ) , the choreography was crisp and the attitude was a lot of fun " . Slezak also praised the fight choreography , and stated that he " got chills " when Santana sang the chorus , and gave the song a " B + " . Futterman noted the " interesting twist " in the song 's arrangement " thanks to the Warblers ' penchant for a cappella " , and said that " Artie and Santana " began their battle for " vocal MVP of the episode " with " Bad " . Votta described the number as " up there with the Dreamgirls performance from earlier this season as one of the strangest and best things Glee has done " .
Kevin McHale 's performance as Artie in " Scream " inspired several reviewers , including Kate Stanhope of TV Guide and Bell , to write of their regret that McHale could not dance more often on the show . Reiter called him " a sorely underused Glee resource " and called the number " the best dance moment " of the episode , and Bell declared , " I have one word for this number : Epic . " Flandez called it a " phenomenal job " , and Stanhope cited " killer performances " by McHale on this number and others as evidence that with Artie only a junior " there is life " in New Directions after McKinley 's current seniors graduate . Lynch called the number " awesome " and gave it an " A + " , and Goldberg described it as " a perfect example of what the show looks like when it 's firing on all cylinders " ; both reviewers praised the dancing of both performers . Chaney wrote that the performance " lacked the energy and genuine aggression of the original Michael / Janet Jackson collaboration , although at least Kevin McHale and Harry Shum Jr. got to show off their dance skills " , and gave it a " C " . She felt that " Never Can Say Goodbye " , to which she gave a " B − " , " worked much better than every track that preceded it " because it adapted the song to the show " instead of trying to out @-@ Jackson Jackson " . Lynch called it " a nice summation of her character 's journey , but not vocally impressive enough to justify listening to outside of the episode " and gave it a " B " . Bell described it as a " blah performance " , but Stanhope said it was " sweet and reflective " . Futterman wrote that it was " a tune well @-@ suited for Quinn 's sultry voice and the flipped meaning she gives the lyrics " , and Slezak had a similar take : he gave it an " A " and called it a " remarkably lovely fit " for her voice .
Votta and Futterman both said that Sam and Mercedes sounded " great together " on " Human Nature " , and Futterman also complimented their individual voices — " hers restrained and soulful , his rock @-@ tinged and raw " — and summarized , " It 's a crisp , well @-@ executed cover " . Most other reviewers also noted how good their voices sounded together , including Chaney , who gave the song a " B − " , and Bell , who called their harmonies " out @-@ of @-@ this @-@ world amazing " . Lynch and Slezak each praised the tenderness in Riley 's vocals ; Lynch gave the song an " A " , and Slezak an " A − " . " Ben " , however , received far more mixed commentary , and several reviewers felt it was odd to , as Chaney put it , sing a song about a rat " to a guy who isn 't named Ben and was wearing an eye patch " , which Futterman called " a little creepy " and VanDerWerff , more bluntly , " fucking weird " . Despite this , Chaney gave the song a " B " , one of her highest grades of the night , in part because it gave Colfer " an excuse to hit those ' You ’ ve got a friend in me ' high notes " , while Futterman noted that he " does well in the high range " , and praised the verses by Rachel and Finn . Bell , however , called the song " a snooze @-@ fest " , and Slezak was very unhappy with the " interminable rendition " which he graded a " D " . In December 2012 , TV Guide listed the rendition as one of Glee 's worst performances .
" Smooth Criminal " was the most highly praised number of the night . Both Slezak and Lynch gave it an " A + " : the former called it " an instant Glee classic " that " had me on the edge of my musical chair from start to finish " , and Lynch wrote , " Santana declared herself the winner , but the actual victors were 2Cellos , the real @-@ life Croatian cellists whose manic intensity stole the scene . " Slezak was similarly impressed by 2Cellos — " this was really a duet between Santana and those amazing black cellos " — and Futterman called them " furiously awesome " and said of the song , " It 's the perfect soundtrack for the show 's slickest villains : Santana wails , Sebastian channels his Chuck Bass and we are sold . " Bell described it as " easily one of the best performances of the night " and added " Santana was flawless " . Chaney dissented from the acclaim with a " D " grade .
Slezak described the duet of " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " as " really pretty " , and Chaney said that " Lea Michele ... sang this Jackson love song in the loveliest possible fashion with Cory Monteith " . Votta wrote that " Finn sounds the best he 's sounded " , and Futterman noted that Finn held " his own against Rachel , vocally " — she liked the fact that it was Finn singing to Rachel instead of the usual other way around and was " grateful to the Glee team for assigning plot @-@ relevant songs " . Lynch felt that the song " seemed to slow down the otherwise wonderfully paced episode " and would have preferred it if they had cut the song and " kept the Warblers ' version of ' I Want You Back ' instead " . He was more enthusiastic about " Black or White " , which he characterized as " musically awesome but dramatically confusing " and graded an " A − " . Futterman said that " Artie once again nails the MJ impression " , and Goldberg declared that the " chorus with Santana leading charge and Artie 's rap " were " spot on " . Bell agreed that the song showed that " Artie is still New Directions ' go @-@ to rapper " , but noted that she did not feel that New Directions had successfully demonstrated that they " knew the true meaning of Michael Jackson " . Chaney was unenthusiastic and gave the song a " C " , while Flandez had more negative opinion than hers : " Sebastian Smythe got our reaction right : a slow @-@ handed clap " .
= = = Chart history = = =
Of the nine cover versions of Michael Jackson 's music , all of which were released as singles , five debuted on US and Canadian top 100 charts , and ranked in the same order in both countries . " Smooth Criminal " debuted in the US at number twenty @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 , with sales of 108 @,@ 000 ; only nine songs sold more digital downloads that week . " Human Nature " debuted at number fifty @-@ six , " Black or White " at number sixty @-@ four , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " at number seventy @-@ eight and " Bad " at number eighty . " Smooth Criminal entered the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart at number twenty @-@ eight , and was followed by " Human Nature " at number sixty @-@ two , " Black or White " at number sixty @-@ nine , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " at number eighty @-@ eight and " Bad " at number ninety .
= George Mikan =
George Lawrence Mikan , Jr . ( June 18 , 1924 – June 1 , 2005 ) , nicknamed Mr. Basketball , was an American professional basketball player for the Chicago American Gears of the National Basketball League ( NBL ) and the Minneapolis Lakers of the NBL , the Basketball Association of America ( BAA ) and the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . Invariably playing with thick , round spectacles , the 6 ft 10 in ( 2 @.@ 08 m ) , 245 pounds ( 111 kg ) Mikan is seen as one of the pioneers of professional basketball , redefining it as a game of so @-@ called big men with his prolific rebounding , shot blocking , and his talent to shoot over smaller defenders with his ambidextrous hook shot , the result of his namesake Mikan Drill .
Mikan had a successful playing career , winning seven NBL , BAA , and NBA championships , an All @-@ Star MVP trophy , and three scoring titles . He was a member of the first four NBA All @-@ Star games , and the first six All @-@ BAA and All @-@ NBA Teams . Mikan was so dominant that he caused several rule changes in the NBA , among them , the introduction of the goaltending rule , the widening of the foul lane — known as the " Mikan Rule " — and the creation of the shot clock .
After his playing career , Mikan became one of the founders of the American Basketball Association ( ABA ) , serving as commissioner of the league . He was also vital for the forming of the Minnesota Timberwolves . In his later years , Mikan was involved in a long @-@ standing legal battle against the NBA , fighting to increase the meager pensions for players who had retired before the league became lucrative . In 2005 , Mikan died after a long battle with diabetes .
For his feats , Mikan was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1959 , made the 25th and 35th NBA Anniversary Teams of 1970 and 1980 , and was elected one of the NBA 's 50 Greatest Players ever in 1996 . Since April 2001 , a statue of Mikan shooting his trademark hook shot graces the entrance of the Timberwolves ' Target Center .
= = Early years = =
George Mikan was born in Joliet , Illinois , as an American of Croatian descent . As a boy , he shattered one of his knees so badly that he was kept in bed for a year and a half . In 1938 , Mikan attended the Chicago Archbishop Quigley Preparatory Seminary and originally wanted to be a priest , but then moved back home to finish at Joliet Catholic . Mikan did not seem destined to become an athlete . When Mikan entered Chicago 's DePaul University in 1942 , he stood 6 ' 10 " , weighed 245 pounds , moved awkwardly because of his frame , and wore thick glasses for his near @-@ sightedness .
= = DePaul University = =
However , Mikan met 28 @-@ year @-@ old rookie DePaul basketball coach Ray Meyer , who saw potential in the bright and intelligent , but also clumsy and shy , freshman . Put into perspective , Meyer 's thoughts were revolutionary , because at the time it was believed that tall players were too awkward to ever play basketball well . In the following months , Meyer transformed Mikan into a confident , aggressive player who took pride in his height rather than being ashamed of it . Meyer and Mikan worked out intensively , and Mikan learned how to make hook shots accurately with either hand . This routine would become later known as the Mikan Drill . In addition , Meyer made Mikan punch a speed bag , take dancing lessons , and jump rope to make him a complete athlete .
From his first National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) college games for DePaul on , Mikan dominated his peers . He intimidated opponents with his size and strength , was unstoppable on offense with his hook shot , and soon established a reputation as one of the hardest and grittiest players in the league , often playing through injuries and punishing opposing centers with hard fouls . In addition , Mikan also surprised the basketball world with his unique ability of goaltending , i.e. jumping so high that he swatted the ball away before it could pass the hoop . In today 's basketball , touching the ball after it reaches its apogee is a violation , but in Mikan 's time it was legal because people thought it was impossible anyone could reach that high . " We would set up a zone defense that had four men around the key and I guarded the basket " , Mikan later recalled his DePaul days . " When the other team took a shot , I 'd just go up and tap it out . " As a consequence , the NCAA and later the NBA , outlawed goaltending . One of the few opposing centers to have any success against Mikan was Bob Kurland , a seven @-@ footer from Oklahoma A & M.
Mikan was named the Helms NCAA College Player of the Year twice in 1944 and 1945 and an All @-@ American three times , leading DePaul to the NIT title in 1945 , which was as prestigious as the NCAA tournament at the time . Mikan led the nation in scoring with 23 @.@ 9 points per game in 1944 – 45 and 23 @.@ 1 in 1945 – 46 . When DePaul won the 1945 National Invitation Tournament , Mikan was named Most Valuable Player for scoring 120 points in three games , including 53 points in a 97 – 53 win over Rhode Island , equalling the score of the entire Rhode Island team .
= = Professional playing career = =
= = = Chicago American Gears ( 1946 – 47 ) = = =
After the end of the 1945 – 46 college season , Mikan signed with the Chicago American Gears of the National Basketball League , a predecessor of the modern NBA . He played with them for 25 games at the end of the 1946 – 47 NBL season , scoring 16 @.@ 5 points per game as a rookie . Mikan led the Gears to the championship of the World Basketball Tournament , where he was elected Most Valuable Player after scoring 100 points in five games , and also voted into the All @-@ NBL Team .
However , before the start of the 1947 – 48 NBL season , Maurice White , the president of the American Gear Company and the owner of the American Gears NBL team , pulled the team out of the league . White planned to create a 24 @-@ team league called the Professional Basketball League of America , in which he owned all the teams and arenas . However , the league folded after just a month , and the players of White 's teams were equally distributed among the 11 remaining NBL franchises . As a consequence , every team had a 9 @.@ 09 % chance of landing Mikan , who ended up on the Minneapolis Lakers , playing for coach John Kundla .
= = = Minneapolis Lakers ( 1947 – 56 ) = = =
In his first season with the Lakers , Mikan led the league in scoring with 1 @,@ 195 points , becoming the first and only NBL player to score more than 1 @,@ 000 points in an NBL season . He was named league MVP , and the Lakers won the NBL title .
The following year , the Lakers and three other NBL franchises jumped to the fledgling Basketball Association of America . Mikan led his new league in scoring , and again set a single @-@ season scoring record . The Lakers defeated the Washington Capitols in the 1949 BAA Finals .
In 1949 , the BAA and NBL merged to form the NBA . The new league started the inaugural 1949 – 50 NBA season , featuring 17 teams , with the Lakers in the Central Division . Mikan again was dominant , averaging 27 @.@ 4 points per game and 2 @.@ 9 assists per game and taking another scoring title ; Alex Groza of Indianapolis Olympians was the only other player to break the 20 @-@ point @-@ barrier that year . After comfortably leading his team to an impressive 51 – 17 record and storming through the playoffs , Mikan 's team played the 1950 NBA Finals against the Syracuse Nationals . In Game 1 , the Lakers beat Syracuse on their home court when Lakers reserve guard Bob Harrison hit a 40 @-@ foot buzzer beater to give Minneapolis a two @-@ point win . The team split the next four games , and in Game 6 , the Lakers won 110 – 95 and won the first @-@ ever NBA championship . Mikan scored 31 @.@ 3 points per game in the playoffs .
In the 1950 – 51 NBA season , Mikan was dominant again , scoring a career @-@ best 28 @.@ 4 points per game in the regular season , again taking the scoring crown , and had 3 @.@ 1 assists per game . In that year , the NBA introduced a new statistic : rebounds . In this category , Mikan also stood out ; his 14 @.@ 1 rebounds per game ( rpg ) was only second to the 16 @.@ 4 rpg of Dolph Schayes of Syracuse . In that year , Mikan participated in one of the most notorious NBA games ever played . When the Fort Wayne Pistons played against his Lakers , the Pistons took a 19 – 18 lead . Afraid that Mikan would mount a comeback if he got the ball , the Pistons passed the ball around without any attempt to score a basket . With no shot clock invented yet to force them into offense , the score stayed 19 – 18 to make it the lowest @-@ scoring NBA game of all time . This game was an important factor in the development of the shot clock , which was introduced four years later . Mikan had scored 15 of the Lakers ' 18 points , thus scoring 83 @.@ 3 % of his team 's points , setting an NBA all @-@ time record . In the post season , Mikan fractured his leg before the 1951 Western Division Finals against the Rochester Royals . With Mikan hardly able to move all series long , the Royals won 3 – 1 . Decades later , in 1990 , Mikan recalled that his leg was taped with a plate ; however , despite effectively hopping around the court on one foot , he said he still averaged 20 @-@ odd points per game .
In the 1951 – 52 NBA season , the NBA decided to widen the foul lane under the basket from 6 feet to 12 feet . As players could stay in the lane for only three seconds at a time , it forced big men like Mikan to post @-@ up from double the distance . A main proponent of this rule was New York Knicks coach Joe Lapchick , who regarded Mikan as his nemesis , and it was dubbed " The Mikan Rule " . While Mikan still scored an impressive 23 @.@ 8 points per game , it was a serious reduction from his 27 @.@ 4 points per game the previous season , and his field goal percentage sank from .428 to .385 . He still pulled down 13 @.@ 5 rebounds per game , asserting himself as a top rebounder , and logged 3 @.@ 0 assists per game . Mikan also had a truly dominating game that season , in which he scored a personal @-@ best 61 points in a double overtime victory against the Rochester Royals . At the time , it was the second @-@ best performance in league history behind Joe Fulks ' 63 @-@ point score in 1949 , and Mikan 's output more than doubled that of his teammates , whose output that game totaled 30 points . In the 1952 NBA All @-@ Star Game , Mikan had a strong performance with 26 points and 15 rebounds in a West loss . Later that season , the Lakers reached the 1952 NBA Finals and were pitted against the New York Knicks . This qualified as one of the strangest Finals series in NBA history , as neither team could play on their home court in the first six games . The Lakers ' Minneapolis Auditorium was already booked , and the Knicks ' Madison Square Garden was occupied by the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus . Instead , the Lakers played in St. Paul and the Knicks in the damp , dimly lit 69th Regiment Armory . Perpetually double @-@ teamed by Knicks ' Nat Clifton and Harry Gallatin , Mikan was unable to assert himself and it was more Vern Mikkelsen 's credit that the first six games were split . In the only true home game , Game 7 in the Auditorium , the Lakers won 82 – 65 and edged the Knicks 4 – 3 , winning the NBA title and earning themselves $ 7 @,@ 500 to split among the team .
During the 1952 – 53 NBA season , Mikan averaged 20 @.@ 6 points and a career @-@ high 14 @.@ 4 rebounds per game , the highest in the league , as well as 2 @.@ 9 assists per game . In the 1953 NBA All @-@ Star Game , Mikan was dominant again with 22 points and 16 rebounds , winning that game 's MVP Award . The Lakers made the 1953 NBA Finals , and again defeated the Knicks 4 – 1 .
In the 1953 – 54 NBA season , the now 29 @-@ year @-@ old Mikan slowly declined , averaging 18 @.@ 1 points , 14 @.@ 3 rebounds and 2 @.@ 4 assists per game . Under his leadership , the Lakers won another NBA title in the 1954 NBA Finals , making it their third @-@ straight championship and fifth in six years ; the only time they lost had been when Mikan fractured his leg . From an NBA perspective , the Minneapolis Lakers dynasty has only been convincingly surpassed by the eleven @-@ title Boston Celtics dynasty of 1957 – 69 . At the end of the season , Mikan announced his retirement . He later said : " I had a family growing , and I decided to be with them . I felt it was time to get started with the professional world outside of basketball . " Injuries also were a factor , as Mikan had sustained 10 broken bones and 16 stitches in his career , often having to play through these injuries .
Without Mikan , the Lakers made the playoffs , but were unable to reach the 1955 NBA Finals . In the middle of the 1955 – 56 NBA season , Mikan returned to the Lakers lineup . He played in 37 games , but his long absence had affected his play . He averaged only 10 @.@ 5 points , 8 @.@ 3 rebounds and 1 @.@ 3 assists , and the Lakers lost in the first round of the playoffs . At the end of the season , Mikan retired for good . His 10 @,@ 156 points were a record at the time ; he was the first NBA player to score 10 @,@ 000 points in a career . He was inducted into the inaugural Basketball Hall of Fame class of 1959 and was declared the greatest player of the first half of the century by The Associated Press .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
In 1956 , Mikan was the Republican candidate for the United States Congress in Minnesota 's 3rd congressional district . He challenged incumbent Representative Roy Wier in a closely fought race that featured a high voter turnout . Despite the reelection of incumbent Republican President Dwight Eisenhower , the inexperienced Mikan lost by a close margin of 52 % to 48 % . Wier received 127 @,@ 356 votes to Mikan 's 117 @,@ 716 . Returning to the legal profession , Mikan was frustrated , after hoping for an influx of work . For six months , Mikan did not get any assignments at all , leaving him in financial difficulties that forced him to cash in on his life insurance .
Problems also arose in Mikan 's professional sports career . In the 1957 – 58 NBA season , Lakers coach John Kundla became general manager and persuaded Mikan to become coach of the Lakers . However , this was a failure , as the Lakers endured a 9 – 30 record until Mikan stepped down and returned coaching duties to Kundla . The Lakers ended with a 19 – 53 record , to record one of the worst seasons in their history . After this failure , Mikan then concentrated on his law career , raising his family of six children , successfully specializing in corporate and real estate law , and buying and renovating buildings in Minneapolis .
In 1967 , Mikan returned to professional basketball , becoming the first commissioner of the American Basketball Association , a rival league to the NBA . In order to lure basketball fans to his league , Mikan invented the league 's characteristic red @-@ white @-@ and @-@ blue ABA ball , which he thought more patriotic , better suited for TV , and more crowd @-@ pleasing than the brown NBA ball , and instituted the three @-@ point line . Mikan resigned from the ABA in 1969 .
In the mid @-@ 1980s , Mikan headed a task force with a goal of returning professional basketball to Minneapolis , decades after the Lakers had moved to Los Angeles to become the Los Angeles Lakers , and after the ABA 's Minnesota Muskies and Minnesota Pipers had departed . This bid was successful , leading to the inception of a new franchise in the 1989 – 90 NBA season , the Minnesota Timberwolves .
In 1994 , Mikan became the part @-@ owner and chairman of the board of the Chicago Cheetahs , a professional roller hockey team based in Chicago , Illinois , that played in Roller Hockey International . The franchise folded after their second season .
In his later years , Mikan suffered from diabetes and failing kidneys , and eventually , his illness caused his right leg to be amputated below the knee . When his medical insurance was cut off , Mikan soon found himself in severe financial difficulties . He fought a long and protracted legal battle against the NBA and the NBA Players ' Union , protesting the $ 1 @,@ 700 / month pensions for players who had retired before 1965 , the start of the so @-@ called " big money era " . According to Mel Davis of the National Basketball Retired Players Union , this battle kept him going , because Mikan hoped to be alive when a new collective bargaining agreement would finally vindicate his generation . In 2005 , however , his condition worsened .
= = Legacy = =
Mikan is lauded as the pioneer of Modern Age basketball . He was the original center , who scored 11 @,@ 764 points , an average of 22 @.@ 6 per game , retired as the all @-@ time leading scorer and averaged 13 @.@ 4 rebounds and 2 @.@ 8 assists in 520 NBL , BAA and NBA games . As a testament to his fierce playing style , he also led the league three times in personal fouls . He won seven NBL , BAA , and NBA championships , an All @-@ Star MVP trophy , and three scoring titles , and was a member of the first four NBA All @-@ Star games and the first six All @-@ BAA and All @-@ NBA Teams . As well as being declared the greatest player of the first half of the century by The Associated Press , Mikan was on the Helms Athletic Foundation all @-@ time All @-@ American team , chosen in a 1952 poll , was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1959 , made the 25th and 35th NBA Anniversary Teams of 1970 and 1980 and was elected one of the NBA 50 Greatest Players in 1996 . Mikan 's impact on the game is also reflected in the Mikan Drill , today a staple exercise of " big men " in basketball .
When superstar center Shaquille O 'Neal became a member of the Los Angeles Lakers , Mikan appeared on a Sports Illustrated cover in November 1996 with O 'Neal and Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , calling Abdul @-@ Jabbar and Mikan the " Lakers legends " to whom O 'Neal was compared . Since April 2001 , a statue of Mikan shooting his trademark hook shot graces the entrance of the Minnesota Timberwolves ' Target Center . In addition , a banner in the Staples Center commemorates Mikan and his fellow Minneapolis Lakers . He is also honored by a statue and an appearance on a mural in his hometown of Joliet , Illinois .
= = = Rule changes = = =
Mikan became so dominant that the NBA had to change its rules of play in order to reduce his influence , such as widening the lane from six to twelve feet ( " The Mikan Rule " ) . He also played a role in the introduction of the shot clock ; and in the NCAA , his dominating play around the basket led to the outlawing of defensive goaltending . Mikan was a harbinger of the NBA 's future , which would be dominated by tall , powerful players .
As an official , Mikan is also directly responsible for the ABA three @-@ point line which was later adopted by the NBA ; the existence of the Minnesota Timberwolves ; and the multi @-@ colored ABA ball , which still lives on as the " money ball " in the NBA All @-@ Star Three @-@ Point Contest .
= = Personal life = =
In 1947 , he married his girlfriend Patricia , who remained his wife for the next 58 years until he died . Mikan fathered six children , sons Larry , Terry , Patrick and Michael , and daughters Trisha and Maureen . All his life , Mikan was universally seen as the prototypical " gentle giant " , tough and relentless on the court , but friendly and amicable in private life . He was also the older brother of Ed Mikan , another basketball player for both DePaul and the BAA .
= = = Death = = =
Mikan died in Scottsdale , Arizona , on June 1 , 2005 , of complications from diabetes and other ailments . His son Terry reported that his father had undergone dialysis three times a week , four hours a day , for the last five years . He was interred at Lakewood Cemetery in Minneapolis .
Mikan 's death was widely mourned by the basketball world , and also brought media attention to the financial struggles of several early @-@ era NBA players . Many felt that the current players of the big @-@ money generation should rally for larger pensions for the pre @-@ 1965 predecessors in upcoming labor negotiations . Shaquille O 'Neal paid for Mikan 's funeral . He said : " Without number 99 [ Mikan ] , there is no me . " Before Game 5 of the 2005 Eastern Conference Finals between the Heat and the Detroit Pistons , there was a moment of silence to honor Mikan . Bob Cousy remarked that Mikan figuratively carried the NBA in the early days and single @-@ handedly made the league credible and popular . The 2005 NBA Finals between the Pistons and the San Antonio Spurs was dedicated to Mikan .
= Harry Strom =
Harry Edwin Strom ( July 7 , 1914 – October 2 , 1984 ) was the ninth Premier of Alberta , Canada , from 1968 to 1971 . His two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years as Premier were the last of the thirty @-@ six @-@ year Social Credit dynasty , as his defeat by Peter Lougheed saw its replacement by a new era Progressive Conservative government . He is remembered as an honest , decent man who lacked the political skills of his predecessor , Ernest Manning , or of Lougheed .
Alberta 's first native @-@ born Premier , Strom was born in Burdett , Alberta . He worked most of his young adult life on the family farm , and was also actively involved in his church . After a stint in municipal politics , he ran for the Legislative Assembly of Alberta in the 1955 provincial election , and was elected . In 1962 , Manning appointed him to his cabinet as Minister of Agriculture , a position he held until 1967 when he was appointed Minister of Municipal Affairs . When Manning decided to resign in 1968 , Strom became a candidate to succeed him , and finished on top of a six candidate field .
As Premier , Strom undertook a number of initiatives , especially in education and youth @-@ related fields , but was politically ineffective . He lacked both charisma and an overriding sense of purpose , and his government gradually lost popularity . In the 1971 election , his government was handily defeated by Lougheed 's Progressive Conservatives . Strom served as opposition leader for two years , but soon relinquished the position and did not seek re @-@ election in 1975 . After leaving politics , Strom returned to farming . He died in 1984 .
= = Early life = =
Strom was born in Burdett , Alberta , on July 7 , 1914 . His parents , Nils Hjalmar Strom ( 1877 – 1928 ) and Elna Maria Olivia Ekensteen ( 1883 – 1969 ) , were second generation Swedish Canadians . He attended school in Burdett before moving to Calgary to attend high school at East Calgary High School and Calgary Technical High School , where he studied mechanics . In 1931 , he received a certificate from the Provincial Institute of Technology and Art . His father died the same year , and Strom returned home to help his mother with the operation of the family farm .
On October 27 , 1938 , Strom married Ruth Johnson , with whom he would have six children — Howard , Faith , Beverly , Brian , Ronald , and Arlene . The family attended the Evangelical Free Church of Canada in Bow Island until 1962 . There , Strom served as Sunday school teacher , deacon , and board chair , in addition to his twenty years of involvement with the church 's Overseas Missions Board . Besides his activities with the church , Strom was involved in the Forty Mile Rural Electrification Association , the Burdett Home and School Association , and the Agricultural Improvement Association of Burdett .
= = Entry into politics = =
In 1943 , Harry Strom was elected to the council of the County of Forty Mile No. 8 in southern Alberta . He served on local school boards at around the same time .
= = = MLA and cabinet minister = = =
In the 1955 provincial election , Strom ran as the Social Credit candidate in Cypress , where the incumbent , Social Crediter James Underdahl , was not seeking re @-@ election . He easily defeated his only opponent , Liberal Joe Flaig , and was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta . He would be re @-@ elected to this seat in each of the 1959 , 1963 , 1967 , and 1971 elections , always winning more than 60 % of the vote .
In October 1962 , Premier Ernest Manning appointed Strom Minister of Agriculture . In this capacity , he undertook a series of initiatives related to water use , including developing an agreement with Saskatchewan and Manitoba of the use of water emanating from the eastern slopes of Alberta 's Rocky Mountains . He also passed a series of legislation , including the Soil Conservation Act and Crop Insurance Act , and undertook a major departmental organization . The Alberta Agriculture Hall of Fame , which inducted Strom in 1985 , credited him with expanding the use of irrigation in the province and for being a key figure leading up to the signing of a 1973 cost @-@ sharing agreement on the subject with the federal government . He also served as Minister of Municipal Affairs for the last five months of the Manning government .
= = = Leadership election = = =
When Manning decided to retire in 1968 , he called a key group of senior ministers to his office to advise them of his decision . This group includes Strom , Treasurer Anders Aalborg , Industry Minister Russ Patrick , Education Minister Randy McKinnon . Aalborg was the natural choice to succeed Manning , but he had health problems and declined to run . Strom had no desire for the job and rejected any suggestion from the others that he be a candidate .
This rejection was not to last : a group of influential young Social Crediters , including the Premier 's son Preston , started a movement to draft Strom . They settled on him because he was personally popular among party members and because he had displayed an openness to new ideas in the past . Strom accepted their overtures , but as late as a week before he announced his candidacy he was still offering to step aside in favour of another candidate of the young Turks ' choice .
Strom 's campaign theme was " the social development of Alberta " , and this general theme encompassed such diverse policy planks as a citizens ' committee on constitutional reform , a head start program for disadvantaged youth , commissions on the future of urban planning and education , an expansion of the role of backbenchers in policy development , and the opening of a branch of the Premier 's office in Calgary . Though he entered as the favourite , a poll in spring 1969 showed him running second of five candidates behind Minister of Transportation Gordon Taylor . However , he had the strongest organization of any candidate , thanks in large part to his young backers , and overcame this deficit by the fall .
At the convention , Strom won a large plurality on the first ballot , finishing with nearly three times of the votes of the second place Taylor . Though the third place Raymond Reierson threw his support to the Transportation Minister before the second ballot , the results on this were decisive : Strom gained the support of more than a hundred new delegates and won a clear majority .
= = Premier = =
Harry Strom became Premier December 12 , 1968 and served until the 1971 election , when his government was defeated by Peter Lougheed 's Progressive Conservatives . This tenure makes him the fourth shortest @-@ serving former Premier in Alberta 's history , after Dave Hancock , Jim Prentice , and Richard G. Reid .
= = = Policy initiatives = = =
Many of Strom 's policy initiatives revolved around education and youth . He created the Alberta Service Corps , which allowed young Albertans to work summers on public services and environmental projects for remuneration , and which was one of several models for the federal government 's later Katimavik program . In response to increasing use of illicit drugs by Alberta youth , his government , led by Education Minister Bob Clark , inserted anti @-@ narcotics messages into the province 's school curriculum . Strom implemented trial kindergarten programs in Edmonton and Calgary — the Calgary program , provided jointly by an inner @-@ city community association and the Mount Royal College , has been called one of Canada 's first public @-@ private partnerships . His interest in educational matters was perhaps best exemplified by his government 's Commission on Educational Planning , which travelled the province to solicit Albertans ' views and whose final report , A Choice of Futures , was credited by Barr as setting " the tone and direction for education in Alberta for the next generation " . The Strom government also made substantial reforms to Alberta 's post @-@ secondary education system , expanding distance learning through the creation of Athabasca University and laying the foundation 's for ACCESS television , and effectively creating the province 's College ( as distinct from University ) system . This latter move led to the creation of Grant MacEwan College .
Strom also took a number of non @-@ educational policy initiative , such as naming Jim Henderson as the province 's first Environment Minister . Other priorities were the reform of the Premier 's Office and the establishment of an Intergovernmental Affairs Secretariat , converted by Peter Lougheed 's government into a full ministry under Don Getty . In 1970 , the government established the Alberta Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Commission .
= = = Leadership style = = =
Strom resisted leadership and saw himself as a conciliator , charged with maintaining unity among his cabinet and caucus . Soon after becoming Premier , Strom chief of staff Don Hamilton and strategist Owen Anderson scheduled strategy meetings with agendas drawn from Strom 's leadership platform . The meetings did not lead to action , and some began to grumble that " talking about decisions was a form of action " . According to Barr , Hamilton eventually started using the same agenda every week , with only the date changed , and Strom did not notice .
Strom was not an effective speaker and often would not look at the text of his speeches until he was delivering them . Realizing this , Hamilton once handed him a folder with nothing but a paper reading " Sock it to ' em , Harry " before the Premier was to give a speech at the University of Alberta . The Premier opened the folder and , as he became visibly alarmed , gratefully received the real speech when an aide brought it to him .
Strom also resisted calling an early election to give his government a fresh mandate , despite Hamilton 's impassioned advocacy for this course of action . He was no more positive towards Anderson 's proposals for a radical overhaul of the party , including the computerization of political data ( such as voting trends , demographic shifts , and polling results ) and the purchase of an office building to make the party a profit and free it from the need for fundraising . The ideas that Strom did not reject outright were referred to committees and study groups where they were watered down or shelved .
Despite these failings , Strom was recognized as possessing a number of virtues : he was kind , considerate , and honest . Most of all , he was humble : he had not sought the party leadership and notoriously asked after being repeatedly addressed as " Premier " at his first cabinet meeting why it could not " just be plain ' Harry ' anymore " . When travelling to Ottawa , he stayed at the un @-@ posh Skyline Hotel and ate meals in its basement cafeteria , where he ordered bread and pea soup for $ 0 @.@ 25 . On final analysis , Barr concludes that this temperament , commendable though it may be , was unsuited to running the government of an emerging economic powerhouse .
= = = Defeat = = =
Though the legislature 's mandate from the 1967 election was not due to expire until May 1972 , five years after it started , convention in Canadian politics is for legislatures to be dissolved every four years or less . Accordingly , Strom resolved to call an election in 1971 , sometime between May and September . After considering the spring , in the hopes that the planting season would have farmers feeling optimistic and therefore inclined to support the incumbent government , Strom finally settled on August 30 ( partly out of concerns that farmers would resent an election called in the middle of the planting or harvest seasons ) . A campaign committee was assembled , and recommended a budget of $ 580 @,@ 000 .
The party recruited star candidates , including Calgary alderman George Ho Lem and former Calgary Stampeder star Don Luzzi ( Edmonton alderman and future mayor Cec Purves was defeated in his bid to win the Social Credit nomination in Edmonton @-@ Strathcona from Strathcona Centre incumbent Joseph Donovan Ross ) , but was handicapped in these efforts by Strom 's unwillingness to offer cabinet posts or other incentives to potential new candidates . Strom 's lack of personal charisma was also a liability : tellingly , of the large budget recommended by the central committee , only $ 72 @,@ 000 was recommended for use on television advertising , where Strom did not shine . The party tried to revitalize the Premier 's image through publicity movies , though efforts were mixed . In one , which was pulled after a single showing , Strom appeared scowling in his living room , urging Albertans to lower their expectations of government . Another , produced by Tommy Banks and showing Strom in a variety of settings talking about the province 's changing face , was more successful .
The campaign did not give Social Credit partisans much reason for optimism . Strom did not draw the crowds that Progressive Conservative Peter Lougheed did , although an August 25 rally in Edmonton 's Jubilee Auditorium featuring speeches by Strom and Manning was full . After criticizing the Conservatives ' medicare platform , which promised free medicare to Albertans older than 65 , as spendthrift , Strom announced Social Credit 's barely cheaper alternative : medicare to Albertans older than 65 for one dollar per month . The Edmonton Journal , which had earlier published a poll showing that a plurality of Edmontonians intended to vote P.C. , endorsed Lougheed for Premier . Election night saw Social Credit defeated , taking 25 seats to the P.C.s ' 49 . Though Social Credit 's share of the vote had only slipped slightly , Lougheed benefited from a substantial reduction in the New Democrats ' vote and a near @-@ collapse of the Liberals ' . The party was also decimated in the province 's two largest cities , losing all of its seats in Edmonton and all but five in Calgary .
Strom conceded defeat in Edmonton and returned home to Medicine Hat .
= = Out of office and legacy = =
Strom continued as Social Credit leader , serving as leader of the opposition , until 1972 , when he resigned and was replaced by Werner Schmidt . He continued in the legislature until the 1975 election , in which he did not seek re @-@ election . After leaving politics , he returned to his farm and his involvement with his church . He died of cancer October 2 , 1984 , and was buried in Medicine Hat .
In honour of his political services , Strom received honorary Doctor of Laws degrees from the University of Calgary ( 1969 ) , the University of Lethbridge ( 1979 ) , and the University of Alberta ( 1980 ) . While several of his acts as premier had consequences extending well beyond his term , today he is largely forgotten , though he experienced a brief resurgence in name recognition in 2007 . That year , critics of Ed Stelmach compared Stelmach to Strom , with the insinuation being that Stelmach was destined to lose the next election and be the last of the Progressive Conservative dynasty in the same way that Strom was the last of the Social Credit dynasty . In the end , it would not be until the 2015 provincial election under the leadership of Jim Prentice that the Progressive Conservatives would be defeated , with some pundits also comparing Prentice to Strom .
Ruth Strom , his wife died in 2011 .
= = Electoral record = =
= = = As party leader = = =
= = = As MLA = = =
= = = Party leadership contests = = =
= Wind It Up ( Gwen Stefani song ) =
" Wind It Up " is a song by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani . Originally written for inclusion on Stefani 's Harajuku Lovers Tour 2005 , the song was later recorded for her second solo studio album , The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) , due to favorable reception . The track contains an interpolation of The Sound of Music song " The Lonely Goatherd " .
" Wind It Up " was negatively received by music critics , who criticized the song 's use of yodeling and found the track to be over the top . It was released as the album 's lead single on October 31 , 2006 and reached the top 20 in most music markets . The accompanying music video , which became popular on stations such as Total Request Live , was directed by Sophie Muller and takes influence from The Sound of Music .
= = Background and writing = =
In July 2005 , Stefani began writing and recording material with Pharrell Williams in Miami , Florida . During one of their sessions , they penned " Wind It Up " for a September 2005 fashion show revealing the 2006 collection of Stefani 's fashion line L.A.M.B.
Stefani asked DJ Jeremy Healy to create a mashup of the song and " The Lonely Goatherd " , a song from the 1959 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical and 1965 film The Sound of Music . Stefani considered The Sound of Music her favorite film , and she had wanted to incorporate a beat to one of its songs all her life . Stefani commented , " I literally cried , and I 'm not exaggerating , when I heard the mash @-@ up . " Williams , however , did not like the addition of yodeling and The Sound of Music to the track .
The lyrics are not narrative , and Stefani stated , " A song like ' Wind It Up ' isn 't about anything . " In the song , Stefani discusses how boys watch girls dance . The song includes a reference to Stefani 's fashion line , with Stefani going , " They like the way that L.A.M.B. is going ' cross my shirt " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Wind It Up " received negative reviews by contemporary pop music critics . Entertainment Weekly 's Michael Slezak found the bassline " rubbery " and criticized the song for lacking a melody as well as its reference to Stefani 's own clothing line . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated that The Neptunes had forced the sampling " into one of their typical minimalist tracks , over which Gwen spouts off clumsy material @-@ minded lyrics touting her fashion line and her shape " . Bill Lamb of About.com rated the song three and a half stars , giving it " high marks for entertainment value " , but commented that it sounded like a retread of " Rich Girl " from Stefani 's debut album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . Charles Merwin of Stylus Magazine was mixed on the track , writing that " it 's preventing something far less interesting from getting played . " John Murphy from musicOMH panned the track as " just horrible , and possibly the worst start to an album this year " . Spence D. from IGN characterized the song as " a bugged out Sound Of Music bhangra blitz that sounds like part M.I.A. and part Julie Andrews " .
Many criticized the inclusion of yodeling and " The Lonely Goatherd " sample . In a review for Rolling Stone , Rob Sheffield called the track " yodel @-@ trocious " and argued that " the problem isn 't the Swiss Miss motif so much as the fourth @-@ rate Neptunes track . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian was pleased with the track , describing the yodeling as " off @-@ her @-@ head " , and referred to the track as " a pinnacle of madness " . IndieLondon 's Jack Foley noted " Wind It Up " as a highlight of The Sweet Escape and called it " Stefani 's gift that she can take something that , on paper , sounds cheesy and make it utterly , utterly cool . " USA Today 's Ken Barnes , however , found the track " campy " and " a tacky attempt at sexiness " , adding that the combination of yodeling and the interpolation was " awkward " . Alex Miller of the NME also found the song campy , commenting that its " dumb sexual bravado has all the sophistication of a teenage boy 's wet dream " , and compared the yodeling , interpolation , and " erotic rap " to " a trench foot which screams for amputation from the tracklisting " .
In the face of criticism , Stefani has defended the track :
I knew some people wouldn 't get it but I think I am enough down the line to not care . The people that did get it are Sound Of Music fans and really got a lot of pleasure from it . I still think it 's brilliant and I stand by it . Why can 't you do something weird for a while ? These songs are all about having fun , silly records that are to be enjoyed and not taken too seriously .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Wind It Up " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 40 on the issue dated November 18 , 2006 , becoming Stefani 's highest debut on the chart , both solo and as a member of No Doubt . It peaked four weeks later at number six and remained on the chart for 18 weeks . It peaked at number seven on the Pop 100 chart , but was less successful on the Pop 100 Airplay chart , only reaching number 19 . The single performed well in clubs , reaching number five on the | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
of fruitless firing at long range , the arrival of Jean Bart and Constitution within gunshot convinced Hallowell that further resistance was hopeless and he struck his flag to signal his surrender .
Swiftsure had taken significant damage to its masts , rigging and sails during the exchange of fire , a deliberate ploy by the French captains to limit the ship 's movement and prevent its escape . This had minimised casualties on deck by distracting the gunfire , and as a result only two men were killed and eight wounded , two of whom subsequently also died . French losses were more severe , with four casualties on Indivisible and six killed and 23 wounded on Dix @-@ Août , although neither ship was significantly damaged in the action .
= = Aftermath = =
Ganteaume 's fleet remained off the Cape Derna for the next six days , performing repairs to the captured vessel to make it seaworthy . Detachments of sailors were taken from all of the ships in the squadron and transferred to the prize , and on 30 June Ganteaume 's force was ready to sail northwest once again , eventually reaching Toulon without further incident on 22 July . Ganteaume used the capture of Swiftsure to excuse the failure of his effort to reinforce Egypt , which was invaded and captured by a British expeditionary force in the spring and summer of 1801 . While in captivity , Hallowell wrote a letter that was published in Britain praising the treatment he and his men had received while prisoners of war under Ganteaume , and he and his officers were released on parole the following month . On 18 August they faced a court martial on board HMS Genereux at Port Mahon in Minorca to investigate the loss of their ship , and were all honourably cleared of any blame . He was also praised for detaching the convoy , which otherwise might have also been lost . Hallowell subsequently returned to naval service in 1803 at the start the Napoleonic Wars , operating in the Caribbean and Mediterranean and eventually becoming a rear @-@ admiral in 1811 . Swiftsure , one of only five British ships of the line to be captured by the French during the entire war , was subsequently commissioned into the French Navy and remained in service for the next four years until recaptured at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 .
= Burton v. United States =
Burton v. United States is the name of two appeals to the Supreme Court of the United States by Senator Joseph R. Burton ( R @-@ KS ) following his conviction for compensated representation of a party in a proceeding in which the United States was interested : Burton v. United States , 196 U.S. 283 ( 1905 ) and Burton v. United States , 202 U.S. 344 ( 1906 ) . Burton was convicted of acting as counsel to Rialto Grain and Securities Company in the United States Postmaster General 's investigation of Rialto for mail fraud .
On Burton 's first appeal , the Supreme Court reversed his convictions because venue and vicinage could not be proper in the Eastern District of Missouri on the sole ground that Burton 's bank sent the check to St. Louis after he cashed it . Further , the Court cited the prejudicial refusal of jury instructions . After Burton was retried and convicted , the Court affirmed , inter alia , on the ground that the agreement between Burton and Rialto had occurred in St. Louis .
Burton was the first defendant convicted under § 1782 of the Revised Statutes , 40 years after its 1864 enactment . Burton and his supporters argued that he was selectively prosecuted , on the orders of President Theodore Roosevelt , for political reasons . Burton also became the first member of the United States Senate to be convicted of public corruption , in fact the first member of the Senate to be convicted of any crime . The next year , Senator John H. Mitchell ( R @-@ OR ) was convicted under the same statute for his role in the Oregon land fraud scandal .
= = Background = =
= = = Rialto Co . ' s matter = = =
In 1872 , Congress created the crime of mail fraud . Rev. Stat . § 3929 authorized the United States Postmaster General , " upon evidence satisfactory to him " that mail fraud was being committed , to instruct the post master at the fraudster 's local post office to return registered mail addressed to the fraudster to the sender with the word " Fraudulent " written or stamped on the envelope . In 1895 , this authority was extended to all mail . Further , Rev. Stat . § 4041 authorized the Postmaster to also bar suspected fraudsters from cashing postal money orders .
The Rialto Grain and Securities Company , whose principal place of business was in St. Louis , Missouri , was under investigation by the Postmaster for mail fraud . The Postmaster had received two complaints and forwarded them for investigation on November 7 , 1902 . State courts were also investigating complaints from investors against Rialto . Hugh C. Dennis , the President of Rialto , and other officers had been criminally indicted , but ( at the time of Burton 's indictment ) none had been convicted . As of Burton 's indictment , Dennis had been once acquitted in federal court and four indictments were pending against him in state courts . For a time , Rialto 's offices had been closed due to a judicial attachment by its creditors .
= = = Burton 's representation = = =
That same month — while the two were in Illinois , en route from St. Louis to Chicago — former state judge Thomas B. Harlan , the general counsel of Rialto , arranged to hire Senator Joseph R. Burton ( R @-@ KS ) , a lawyer , to appear before the Postmaster as counsel for Rialto in connection with these investigations for a monthly salary of $ 500 . When the general counsel returned to St. Louis on November 18 , he communicated Burton 's offer to Rialto and Rialto accepted . Rialto notified Burton of its acceptance by telegram to him in Washington that same day .
Burton informed Rialto by mail that he had learned of the two complaints from the Postmaster , arranged for himself to be notified of any future complaints , and arranged to represent Rialto in a hearing before the Postmaster before any sanctions would issue . Burton continued to represent Rialto before the Postmaster , and draw his monthly salary , for five months . Burton 's intervention was successful , and the Postmaster 's investigation was ceased without the entry of a fraud order .
Rialto paid Burton by monthly checks for the first four months . Burton received the first check on November 22 . Burton indorsed and deposited the checks at Riggs National Bank in Washington , D.C. , which in turn sent the checks to Rialto 's bank , the Commonwealth Trust Company in St. Louis , Missouri , for payment . The last $ 500 was paid in cash to Burton in person , at Rialto 's office in St. Louis , on March 26 , 1903 , after which Burton 's representation of Rialto terminated .
= = = Indictment = = =
A federal grand jury in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri was already investigating the Brooks Brokerage Company , with which Dennis , the President of Rialto , was associated . Witnesses against Burton at the grand jury included Chief Post Office Inspector William E. Cochran , Dennis , and W.B. Mehaney , the Vice President of Rialto . About two weeks before Burton 's indictment , the grand jury came into possession of the checks from Rialto to Burton .
Burton was indicted on January 24 , 1904 , in the Eastern District of Missouri , on nine counts of violating Rev. Stat . § 1782 . Section 1782 ( enacted 1864 ) provided , in relevant part :
No Senator . . . after his election and during his continuance in office . . . shall receive or agree to receive any compensation whatever , directly or indirectly , for any services rendered , or to be rendered , to any person , either by himself or another , in relation to any proceeding . . . controversy . . . or other matter or thing in which the United States is a party , or directly or indirectly interested , before any Department . . . whatever . Every person offending against this section shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor , and shall be imprisoned not more than two years , and fined not more than ten thousand dollars , and shall , moreover , by conviction therefor , be rendered forever thereafter incapable of holding any office of honor , trust , or profit under the Government of the United States .
The first and second counts of the indictment pertained to the receipt of the final cash payment from Rialto with reference to two separate interests of the United States . The third count pertained to receipt of the final cash payment from Mahaney . The sixth , seventh , eighth , and ninth counts of the indictment pertained to the receipt of the four check for the first four months .
Burton arguably could not have been arrested at the time of his indictment because Congress was in session . Article One provides that Senators and Representatives " shall in all Cases , except Treason , Felony and Breach of the Peace , be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses , and in going to and returning from the same . " But , Burton voluntarily surrendered . On January 24 , Burton and his wife departed for St. Louis .
= = = Trial and conviction = = =
Judge Elmer Bragg Adams , sitting as the United States Circuit Court for the Eastern District of Missouri , presided over Burton 's trial . Former state judge Chester H. Krum appeared as Burton 's attorney . Assistant U.S. Attorney Horace Dyer acted as prosecutor .
In his opening statement , Krum argued that Burton had only agreed to act as general counsel and to allow his name to be placed in Rialto 's literature , and that the agreement explicitly provided that Burton would never represent Rialto before any federal agency .
On March 23 , the prosecution began its case in chief . Post Office Department employees identified the letters of complaint received against Rialto . Ernest H. Kastor , of a St. Louis advertising firm , testified that he introduced Burton to Dennis and Harlan in November 1902 . Witnesses said that the agreement was as Krum described and that the pay was agreed as $ 2 @,@ 500 in $ 500 installments . Dyer read into evidence the letter from Burton to Rialto .
The prosecution 's case continued on March 24 . Inspector Cochran testified that Burton had attempted to discuss the case with him the day his indictment was made public . Cochran refused to discuss it . Reporter J.H. Aubere testified that he had interviewed Burton that day , and that Burton had denied practicing before the Post Office . Hector McRea , the Controller of Rialto , testified to a meeting between Mahaney and Burton , where Burton 's representation was ended because the matter before the Post Office had concluded . Inspector Cochran was recalled to state that his conversation with Burton took place before Aubere 's interview . Further , Cochran testified that , on February 5 , 1902 , Burton had told him that he wished to represent Rialto before the Department for a fee , having been assured by other Senators that such conduct was common and legal . Burton also told Cochran that he needed to repay a disputed debt of $ 70 @,@ 000 . Finally , Mahaney testified that , on the day he personally paid Burton $ 500 , Burton advised Rialto to destroy its correspondence with him and that two such letters were destroyed . Thereafter , the prosecution rested .
The defense case commenced on March 25 . The third count of the indictment was quashed as duplicative with the first . Burton testified that he had accepted Rialto 's employment due to personal financial reversals . Burton testified that his duties would include acting as a criminal defense attorney for Dennis , but would not include any activity in Washington . Burton testified that he received notice of his appointment from Harlan on November 20 , 1902 , and that he had only contacted the Post Office to notify them of his intent to defend Dennis in a criminal case . He explained that he only asked to be notified of complaints against Rialto so that he could terminate his association with them should any arise .
After the jury returned deadlocked 11 @-@ 1 , Judge Adams delivered an Allen charge . Soon afterwards , the jury returned a verdict that failed to address the third count in the indictment , so the Judge Allen ordered the jury to return to deliberations without reading the verdict . On March 28 , 1904 , after forty @-@ one total hours of deliberation , the jury convicted Burton on five counts — counts one , two , six , eight , and nine — but acquitted on count three . Burton 's convictions would have authorized a maximum sentence of 10 years imprisonment and a $ 50 @,@ 000 fine .
Burton asked that the jury be polled , and each stated that the verdict was his own . Burton moved for a new trial . Judge Adams indicated that he would accept a supersedeas bond of $ 5 @,@ 000 , and Burton was not sentenced . Burton became the first defendant ever convicted under § 1782 , more than 40 years after its enactment .
Burton had a right to appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit , but instead opted for a direct appeal to the Supreme Court . On July 2 , Judge Adams certified Burton 's direct appeal on the grounds that Burton was convicted of an " infamous offense . " Burton posted a $ 10 @,@ 000 bond . On July 11 , Justice Brewer allowed the direct appeal .
= = Burton I ( 1905 ) = =
Before the Supreme Court , on November 30 and December 1 , 1904 , Burton was represented by ( former judge ) John Forrest Dillon and ( future Solicitor General ) Frederick William Lehmann at oral argument , with Harry Hubbard and W.H. Rossington also on the brief . Solicitor General Henry M. Hoyt represented the United States .
On January 16 , 1905 , the Court overturned Burton 's convictions .
= = = Sufficiency of the indictment and the evidence = = =
Without any discussion of the merits , 5 @-@ 4 , the Court held that the indictment stated offenses under § 1782 and that the evidence was sufficient for the jury to have convicted Burton . Justices Harlan , Brown , McKenna , Holmes , and Day were in the majority ; Chief Justice Fuller , and Justices Peckham , Brewer , and White , were in dissent .
= = = Venue and vicinage = = =
Article III provides that : " The Trial of all Crimes , except in Cases of Impeachment , shall be by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed . " The Vicinage Clause of the Sixth Amendment provides that : " In all criminal prosecutions , the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial , by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed , which district shall have been previously ascertained by law . . . . "
Burton argued that both constitutional provisions were violated because the crime had not occurred in the Eastern District of Missouri . Justice Peckham , writing for the entire Court except for Justice Harlan in dissent , reversed Burton 's convictions on these grounds . The Court held that Burton 's negotiation of the check in Washington , D.C. did not constitute conduct by Burton in St. Louis ( the site of the drawee bank ) . In other words , whatever the Washington , D.C. bank did with the check afterwards , it did for itself , not as Burton 's agent . " From the time of the delivery of the check by the defendant to the bank it became the owner of the check ; it could have torn it up or thrown it in the fire or made any other use or disposition of it which it chose , and no right of defendant would have been infringed . " Thus , the Court held that it was error for the trial judge to have submitted the question of the " understanding . . . between the defendant and the bank " to the jury . In support of this argument , the Court cited several of its own precedents concerning negotiable instrument law , as well as cases from the House of Lords and the courts of New York and Massachusetts .
In a single paragraph , the Court rejected the application of the continuing offense doctrine , which had been codified in Rev. Stat . § 731 . " This is not a case of the commencement of a crime in one district and its completion in another , so that under the statute the court in either district has jurisdiction . There was no beginning of the offense in Missouri . The payment of the money was in Washington , and there was no commencement of that offense when the officer of the Rialto Company sent the checks from St. Louis to defendant . The latter did not thereby begin an offense in Missouri . "
Justice Harlan dissented on this ground . " As between the accused and his client , " Harlan argued , " he was not , in any true sense , compensated for the services alleged to have been rendered in violation of the statute , until by payment of the checks by the St. Louis bank he was relieved of all liability to the Riggs National Bank arising from his indorsing the checks to it . " Harlan concluded that the majority had " sacrificed substance to mere form , " illustrating the Latin maxim " Qui haeret in litera haeret in cortice . "
= = = Refused jury instructions = = =
By the same 8 @-@ 1 majority , the Court found a separate and independent ground for the reversal of Burton 's convictions . Burton had requested certain jury instructions , which the trial judge had delivered . But , along with the requested instructions , the trial judge had stated that : " [ These instructions were ] asked by counsel for the defendant to give certain declarations here , and while I think they have , in the main , been covered by the charge , yet I will give them to you . . . . These are abstract propositions of law , which I give in connection with the charge , as perhaps more fully amplifying it . I am willing to give them , inasmuch as they are asked , and they contain general propositions of law . "
After the jury returned deadlocked 11 @-@ 1 , the trial judge delivered an Allen charge . At this point , the judge refused Burton 's request to instruct the jury that the earlier requested instructions stood on the same footing as the other instructions . The Court held that this was reversible error .
Harlan also dissented from this ground for reversal , arguing that Burton was not substantially prejudiced .
Further , the Court disapproved of the judge 's having asked the jury for the proportions of their deadlock ( even though he did not ask how many were for conviction and how many were for acquittal ) . In Brasfield v. United States ( 1926 ) , citing Burton , the Court held that such was reversible error , regardless of whether the defendant objected in the trial court .
= = Retrial = =
Burton was reindicted , still in the circuit court Eastern District of Missouri , on April 13 , 1905 , and arraigned on June 4 before Judge John Henry Rogers , of the Western District of Arkansas , sitting by designation . The new indictment had eight counts . The first , second , fourth , sixth , and eighth counts charged that Burton had agreed to receive compensation from Rialto . The third , fifth , and seventh counts charged that Burton had actually received compensation from Rialto . The counts different only in the interest of the United States which was alleged to have been involved in the matter . Counts four and five were dismissed before trial . Unlike the first indictment , the second alleged that Burton had received $ 500 in person in St. Louis . The first indictment alleged only compensated representation , the second indictment also alleged an agreement to do so .
While the indictment was pending , Burton was robbed in Chicago and his wallet was recovered in a mail box by postal employees . Before Burton 's second trial , the Department of Justice learned that Burton had also collected $ 14 @,@ 000 for representing the Chickasaw before the Interior Department : $ 5 @,@ 000 of which was paid directly to him , and $ 9 @,@ 000 of which was paid to his brother Z.R. Burton .
The trial date was originally set for October 3 , and subpoenas to witnesses — many of whom resided in Washington , D.C. — issued on September 12 . Judge Willis Van Devanter ( a future Supreme Court justice ) , of the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit presided over Burton 's second trial . On November 20 , Assistant U.S. Attorney Dyer gave the opening statement for the prosecution and Lehmann for the defense . As in the first trial , Lehmann argued that Burton 's intent was to represent Dennis ( now deceased ) in a criminal case .
On November 21 , the prosecution introduced the letters , telegrams , and checks into evidence . On November 22 , Harland testified that Burton had stated : " I am not going to do anything inconsistent with my duty as a Senator . " Mahaney testified to the in @-@ person payment and the destruction of the letters at Burton 's request on March 22 , 1902 . Inspector Cochran testified that Burton represented Rialto before him .
On November 26 , 1905 , after two hours of deliberation , the jury convicted Burton on the six remaining counts : counts one , two , three , six , seven , and eight . Burton was sentenced on the sixth and seventh counts only ( because some of the counts involved the same transactions ) . Burton was sentenced to six months imprisonment in a county jail and a $ 2 @,@ 000 fine on the sixth count and six months imprisonment and a $ 500 fine on the seventh count . In addition , he was " rendered forever hereafter incapable of holding any office of honor , trust or profit under the Government of the United States . "
= = Burton II ( 1906 ) = =
The second time before the Court , on April 3 – 4 , 1906 , Burton was again represented by Dillon and Lehmann , plus Bailey P. Waggener , again with Hubbard and Rossington on the brief , plus W. Knox Haynes and W.P. Hackney . All together , Burton was represented by a team of ten lawyers , led by Dillon . Waggener delivered the argument in chief , assisted by Lehmann . Assistant Attorney General ( and future judge ) Charles Henry Robb represented the United States .
On May 21 , 1906 , the Supreme Court upheld Burton 's convictions . That same day , another of Burton 's lawyers , former Senator John Mellen Thurston , filed a petition for rehearing , which operated as a 60 day continuance , and in effect stayed the matter much longer because the Court was set to adjourn until October .
= = = Separation of powers = = =
Article One provides : " Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections , Returns and Qualifications of its own Members . . . . Each House may . . . punish its Members for disorderly Behavior , and , with the Concurrence of two @-@ thirds , expel a Member . "
Burton argued that § 1782 was an unconstitutional violation of the separation of powers because the Senate 's power to punish its members was exclusive . Burton 's brief compared the ban on legislators practicing before executive agencies to a ban on the President lobbying legislators for legislation . The New York Times called this " one of the most interesting efforts to get a new meaning out of the Constitution that has appeared for some time . " A later article noted that , " [ t ] he decision is especially interesting because of the large array of legal talent in the case and the ingenious argument made by Bailey Wagner [ sic ] of Topeka that the Senate is the judge of the qualifications of its own members . . . . "
The Court unanimously rejected this argument . The Court cited earlier laws prohibiting members of Congress from practicing before the United States Court of Claims and from entering into contracts with the United States . Further , the Court noted that " [ t ] he proper discharge of those duties does not require a Senator to appear before an executive Department in order to enforce his particular views , or the views of others , in respect of matters committed to that Department for determination . "
Burton also argued that that the provision rendering those convicted under § 1782 " incapable of holding any office of honor , trust or profit under the Government of the United States " unconstitutionally infringed on the Qualifications Clause . The Court dodged this question by holding that the provision would not bar a convicted defendant from serving in the Senate because Senators ( at the time ) were elected by the state legislatures .
= = = Interests of the United States = = =
Burton next argued that the indictment was insufficient because the Postmaster 's decision to return mail addressed to suspected fraudsters back to senders and to bar suspected fraudsters from cashing money orders was not a " proceeding . . . controversy . . . or other matter or thing in which the United States is . . . directly or indirectly interested . " The Court rejected this argument , 6 @-@ 3 . Although the Court admitted that the United States had no pecuniary interest in the proceeding , it argued :
The United States was the real party in interest on one side , while the Rialto Company was the real party in interest on the other side . If the Postmaster General did not represent the United States , whom did he represent ? . . . [ I ] t is , we think , a mistake to say that the United States was not interested , directly or indirectly , in protecting its property , that is , its mails and postal facilities , against improper and illegal use . . . . "
Justice Brewer , joined by Justices White and Peckham dissented on this point . They argued that the statute applied only to the pecuniary interests of the United States . These justices were among the four ( in addition to Chief Justice Fuller ) who would have held the indictment insufficient in Burton I , presumably for this reason . The dissenters argued that the majority 's interpretation would find the United States interested in any administrative proceeding , thus rendering the statutory words " before any Department , court martial , bureau , officer , or any civil , military , or naval commission whatever " to be mere surplussage . Further , the dissent cited the Reconstruction Era legislative history pointing towards a narrower interpretation .
= = = Sufficiency of the evidence = = =
Burton next argued that the evidence was insufficient to support his conviction . Reviewing the evidence , the Court rejected this argument .
= = = Separate offenses of agreeing and receiving = = =
Section 1782 provided that " No Senator . . . shall receive or agree to receive any compensation . . . . " Burton argued that he could not simultaneously be charged with separate offenses for agreeing to receive compensation and actually receiving compensation for the same transaction . The Court rejected this argument . The Court stated that Burton 's interpretation " does violence to [ the statute 's ] words , " emphasizing the word " or . "
Justice McKenna disagreed with this holding . Thus , he concurred only in the affirmance of the charges alleging receipt , not the charges alleging agreement .
= = = Double jeopardy = = =
Burton next argued that his prosecution violated the Double Jeopardy Clause . Specifically , Burton argued that his acquittal on the third count in the first trial barred his conviction on the third and seventh counts in the second trial . The Court rejected this argument . The Court held that the earlier and later counts did not describe the same offense because they named the payor as Mahaney and Rialto , respectively .
= = = Venue and vicinage = = =
Finally , Burton argued that the Eastern District of Missouri was an unconstitutional venue and vicinage ( an argument that the Court had accepted in Burton I ) . This time , the Court rejected the argument . The Court held that the agreement had occurred in St. Louis ( as the jury had been instructed that it was required to find ) based on Rialto 's acceptance in St. Louis , the telegram , and the letter . The Court bolstered this view by citation to its own and other precedents concerning offer and acceptance in contract law . The Court further cited its earlier precedents holding that the venue provision of Article III does not require the physical presence of the defendant in the forum state .
= = Aftermath = =
Burton remained a Senator while each of his appeals were pending . Allegedly , his colleagues made it known that they would move to expel him if he appeared in the Senate . However , Burton did appear in the Senate after his conviction . On April 6 , 1904 , Burton appeared to push for appropriations for the acquisition of land in the Adirondacks and Catskills . On January 22 , 1906 , Burton appeared in the Senate chamber again , for 30 seconds , in order to be eligible for $ 1 @,@ 000 in travel reimbursements from the federal government .
Burton 's term was due to expire on March 4 , 1907 . After his conviction was finally affirmed , a resolution to expel Burton from the Senate was referred to the United States Senate Committee on Privileges and Elections on May 22 , 1906 . Burton resigned from office on June 4 , 1906 , before the Senate could act .
Burton served five months of his six @-@ month sentence in the Iron County Jail in Ironton , Missouri . In March 1907 , he returned to Abilene .
= = Role of President Roosevelt = =
Contemporary rumor held that Burton 's indictment had been ordered by President Theodore Roosevelt . Although Joseph W. Folk , the Circuit Attorney for the City of St. Louis ( and future Governor of Missouri ) , had recently visited with the President and Attorney General , the New York Times reported that " there was not a word in either of those interviews about the Burton case . "
Burton himself alleged that Roosevelt had orchestrated his prosecution in March 23 , 1907 speech in Abilene , Kansas after his release from prison . Burton pointed out that his was the first prosecution under § 1782 and that numerous other public officials before him had potentially violated it , under the interpretation that prevailed in the Supreme Court .
Burton and Roosevelt had a complicated history . Burton , as a leader at the 1900 Republican National Convention , was perhaps instrumental in Roosevelt 's securing his party 's nomination . Roosevelt 's last appointment to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit ( whose jurisdiction , at the time , included appeals from Kansas ) had been William Cather Hook , a choice favored by Burton 's political opponents : Senator Chester I. Long ( R @-@ KS ) and Governor Willis J. Bailey ( R @-@ KS ) . When the next vacancy opened on the Eighth Circuit , Burton and his allies favored the appointment of Charles Blood Smith . D.W. Mulvane was unsuccessful in pressing Smith 's candidacy in a June 1903 meeting with Roosevelt .
Earlier that year , while accompanying Roosevelt on a visit to Kansas , Burton told Roosevelt about his project to create a reproduction of Jerusalem at the time of Christ 's birth for the St. Louis World 's Fair . Roosevelt gave Burton a letter praising the exhibit , which Burton in turn published by facsimile in a magazine advertisement for the sale of stock in the exhibit . The White House received a letter from the magazine inquiring into the authenticity of the letter on the same day that Mulvane returned for a second meeting to press Smith 's appointment . Roosevelt was enraged , demanded the return of the letter , and declared that " from now on Burton would be considered politically a Democratic Senator , as far as patronage is concerned . " " The President 's indignation knew no bounds . He had never been so grossly and humiliatingly deceived during his incumbency in office . "
Burton was also in a " long standing feud " with Fourth Assistant Postmaster ( and future Senator ) Joseph L. Bristow , whom Burton had lobbied Roosevelt ( and his predecessor , William McKinley ) to replace . Roosevelt refused to remove Bristow except for cause , and in any case refused to appoint one of Burton 's friends to replace him .
Another issue with which Burton clashed with Roosevelt was reciprocity with Cuba . Burton cited this issue in his Abilene speech . In order to force concessions from Roosevelt , Burton had joined with Senators from beet sugar states . Although Burton publicly spoke against a treaty with Cuba , he repeatedly privately informed Roosevelt that he would support the ratification of the treaty . According to the New York Times , " [ t ] he history of Burton 's manoeuvres at this time will never be fully told . "
= ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun =
" ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " is a song by American recording artist Britney Spears , taken from her first greatest hits album Greatest Hits : My Prerogative ( 2004 ) . The song was produced by Bloodshy & Avant and originally recorded for In the Zone . It was released as a digital download on August 17 , 2004 , prior to the album 's release . The track has drawn comparisons to No Doubt 's single " Hella Good " as well as 1970s American funk bands . Lyrically , the songs refers to having a good time at a party . " ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " received mixed reviews from critics , some naming it one of the best songs in the compilation , while others dismissed its lyrical content . The song was featured on the soundtrack of the 2011 film Bridesmaids .
= = Background = =
" ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " was originally recorded for Spears 's fourth studio album , In the Zone ( 2003 ) . The song was written by Spears , Michelle Bell , Christian Karlsson , Pontus Winnberg , Henrik Jonback , and was produced by Bloodshy & Avant . The song was first included as a bonus track in the European version of the In the Zone DVD . In the United States , the track was a free download in the Wal @-@ Mart edition of In the Zone , due to an exclusive deal with Wal @-@ Mart and Sony Connect . When the deal ended in mid @-@ 2004 , Jive Records released the song on the iTunes Store and Rhapsody on August 17 , 2004 . " ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " peaked at number seven on the iTunes chart while it was speculated to be in the tracklist of Greatest Hits : My Prerogative . The song was featured on the soundtrack of the 2011 film Bridesmaids .
= = Composition = =
" ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " is composed in the key of G minor with 108 beats per minute . It has a dance @-@ oriented beat that has been compared by Jennifer Vineyard of MTV and Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic to No Doubt 's 2002 single " Hella Good " . Spears 's vocal range spans from the high @-@ tone of G3 to the low @-@ tone of Eb5 . The track features mainly guitar and bass , along with string arrangements and 1970s synthesizers reminiscent of Zapp and The Gap Band . Its lyrics refer to a make @-@ believe situation in which Spears describes an encounter with a man at a party . During the song , she declares to prefer having a good time rather than settling down .
= = Reception and chart performance = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said " the In the Zone outtake [ ... ] betters most of the songs that were featured on the album " . Annabel Leathes of BBC Online commented that along with " Do Somethin ' " , they are " [ two ] robust , unreleased tracks [ that ] suggest , however , that she may still be churning out a few more No.1s before taking time out to sing lullabies to her brood " . Ann Powers of Blender magazine called the song " instantly forgettable and biographically inaccurate , " while Mike McGuirk of Rhapsody said the song " is on a level with her best work , namely " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . " Louis Pattison of the New Musical Express stated that the lyrics " chime rather oddly with Britney ’ s much @-@ vaunted desire to start a family " . On the week of September 4 , 2004 , " ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " debuted at number 23 on Billboard Hot Digital Tracks , and fell to number 41 in the following .
= = Track listings = =
Digital download
" ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " – 3 : 23
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " are taken from Greatest Hits : My Prerogative 's liner notes .
Songwriting – Britney Spears , Michelle Bell , Christian Karlsson , Pontus Winnberg , Henrik Jonback
Production – Bloodshy & Avant , Steven Lunt
Vocals – Britney Spears
= = Charts = =
= River Don Navigation =
The River Don Navigation was the result of early efforts to make the River Don in South Yorkshire , England , navigable between Fishlake and Sheffield . The Dutch engineer Cornelius Vermuyden had re @-@ routed the mouth of the river in 1626 , to improve drainage , and the new works included provision for navigation , but the scheme did not solve the problem of flooding , and the Dutch River was cut in 1635 to link the new channel to Goole . The first Act of Parliament to improve navigation on the river was obtained in 1726 , by a group of Cutlers based in Sheffield ; the Corporation of Doncaster obtained an Act in the following year for improvements to the lower river . Locks and lock cuts were built , and , by 1751 , the river was navigable to Tinsley .
The network was expanded by the opening of the Stainforth and Keadby Canal in 1802 , linking to the River Trent , the Dearne and Dove Canal in 1804 , linking to Barnsley , and the Sheffield Canal in 1819 , which provided better access to Sheffield . All three were bought out by the Don Navigation in the 1840s , after which the canals were owned by a series of railway companies . The Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation Company was created in 1889 and eventually succeeded in buying back the canals and the Don Navigation in 1895 , but plans for expansion were hampered by a lack of capital . One success was the opening of the New Junction Canal in 1905 , jointly funded with the Aire and Calder Navigation .
During the 20th century , there were several plans to upgrade the Don , to handle larger craft . It was eventually upgraded to take 700 @-@ tonne barges in 1983 , but the scheme was a little too late , as an anticipated rise in commercial traffic did not occur . Most use of the navigation is now by leisure boaters , whose boats are dwarfed by the huge locks . The navigation and river are crossed by a wide variety of bridges , from a medieval bridge complete with a chapel on it , one of only three to have survived in Britain , to a motorway viaduct that pioneered the use of rubber bearings and a new waterproofing system . In between are a number of railway bridges , including two that were built to carry the internal railway system at the Blackburn Meadows sewage treatment plant . The former railway viaduct at Conisbrough now carries cyclists 113 feet ( 34 m ) above the Don , as part of the National Cycle Network .
The final section to Bramwith is known as the River Dun Navigation .
= = Early history = =
Before 1626 the River Don had two outlets , an eastern branch that meandered across Hatfield Chase to enter the River Trent , and a northern branch , which was a Roman navigation channel , and joined the River Aire at Turnbridge , near East Cowick . Cornelius Vermuyden 's drainage scheme for Hatfield Chase , begun in 1626 and largely completed by 1628 , included the construction of Ashfield Bank , which ran for 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) along the southern bank of the Don from Fishlake to Thorne , cutting off the eastern branch . Navigation to Sandtoft was made possible by the provision of a navigable sluice in the bank , which had lifting gates and a 50 @-@ by @-@ 15 @-@ foot ( 15 @.@ 2 by 4 @.@ 6 m ) lock chamber . A further bank some distance to the east of the northern channel ran for 5 miles ( 8 km ) from Thorne to Turnbridge to provide washlands , which would flood when high levels in the Aire prevented the Don discharging into it .
In the winter of 1628 , there was flooding at Fishlake and Sykehouse , which was followed by rioting . A navigable sluice was built at Turnbridge in 1629 , with a lock 60 by 18 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 by 5 @.@ 5 m ) , and an outfall sluice called the " Great Sluice " was completed in 1630 , probably by Hugo Spiering , who had assisted Vermuyden with the main project . Continued problems with flooding led to the construction of a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 km ) channel from Newbridge near Thorne eastwards to Goole , where water levels in the Ouse were between 5 and 10 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 and 3 @.@ 0 m ) lower than at Turnbridge . The channel , called the Dutch River , ended in another outfall sluice , and was completed in 1635 at a cost of £ 33 @,@ 000 . Boats continued to use the lock at Turnbridge . In about 1688 the Goole sluice was washed away by a flood , and was never replaced . The tidal scour widened the channel , and barges of up to 30 tonnes could normally reach Fishlake , and often Wilsick House , in Barnby Dun . Smaller boats could reach Doncaster for most of the year , and large barges could do so when there was a flood tide .
Initial attempts to seek powers to make the River Don navigable were hampered by opposition from local landowners and disunity between the authorities in Sheffield , Rotherham and Doncaster . The first Act of Parliament was presented in 1698 by the MP for Thirsk , Sir Godfrey Copley of Sprotborough , representing the interests of Rotherham . Although there was support from the " gentlemen , traders and inhabitants " of Doncaster , the Corporation opposed the Bill in view of the likely impact on their mills . There was no support from Sheffield either , and the Bill failed at its first reading . In 1704 Doncaster Corporation , with the support of its traders , presented a Bill that received a first reading , but disappeared without a second reading ever happening . By 1722 there was some agreement between Sheffield and Doncaster , with a tacit agreement that Doncaster would be responsible for the river below their town , and Sheffield for the section above Doncaster . There was organised resistance to the scheme from local landowners , and it appears that their influence resulted in the proposed Bill being defeated in committee , so it could not be presented to parliament .
However , in 1726 Sheffield 's Company of Cutlers sought parliamentary approval to make the river navigable from Holmstile in Doncaster to Tinsley , on the edge of Sheffield . Terminating at Tinsley placated the Duke of Norfolk , who represented the opposition from Sheffield , and a great deal of work had been done to reduce the opposition from landowners . The Act of Parliament was passed on 6 May 1726 giving the Cutlers powers to make cuts and to make the river deeper and wider so that boats of 20 tonnes could reach Tinsley . There were a number of restrictions , intended to protect existing water @-@ powered installations . Lord Frederick Howard 's mills at Rotherham , Kilnhurst forge , Thrybergh dam and Sprotborough mills and water engine were specifically mentioned .
The Corporation of Doncaster sought powers in 1727 to improve the river below Holmstile , as far as Wilsick House in Barnby Dun . The Bill passed through parliament uneventfully , and again included detailed restrictions on what could and could not be done , designed to protect the landowners . The details were very specific in that they included the permissible heights of dams , the maximum length of cuts , and many other details of the work to be carried out .
Both Acts were unusual in that they gave the bodies powers to borrow money , but did not create the companies to do the work . Nor were the financial arrangements clearly laid down , and both groups resorted to issuing shares to fund the improvements , although they were not actually empowered to do so . In October 1730 , the two groups decided to amalgamate , but a 1731 Act to formalise the agreement and legalise the issuing of shares was defeated because it also included powers to make further changes to the river , including the section below Barnby Dun . Finally an Act of 1733 created The Company of the Proprietors of the Navigation of the River Don , with powers to create a new cut from Bromley Sands above Rotherham to Ickles Dam . The problems presented by the river below Wilsick House , including shallows and fords at Bramwith and Stainforth , and bridges on the Dutch River that were difficult to navigate , resulted in the proprietors trying again to obtain powers to improve the lower river in 1737 , but again the petition was defeated in a parliamentary committee . Work continued , and it appears that Aldwarke was the head of navigation for some years , but Rotherham was reached in 1740 .
A further Bill in 1740 sought powers to improve the river from Barnby Dun to Fishlake Ferry . Despite serious opposition , which included the merchants and traders of Doncaster as well as Doncaster Corporation , the Bill was passed , giving the company new powers to make the river deeper and create a cut to avoid the shallows at Stainforth and Bramwith . Work on this northern section started almost immediately . The southern section to Tinsley was navigable by 1751 , although the wharf and warehouse had not been completed by that date , and the towpath from Rotherham was not completed until 1822 .
In 1737 , the navigation was leased to three of the company shareholders for 14 years , and a new 7 @-@ year lease was made in 1751 . After 1758 , the company managed the navigation itself . Tolls for the next 10 years raised an average of £ 7006 per annum , indicating healthy traffic levels .
= = Expansion = =
The early 19th century saw the completion of a number of canals which linked to the Don . The first was the Stainforth and Keadby Canal , which had been proposed by the Don Navigation shareholders in 1792 . Construction was started in 1793 and completed in 1802 , with John Thompson , the engineer to the Don Navigation Company , overseeing the work until his death in 1795 . It provided a link from Bramwith Lock to the River Trent , broadly following the old course of the River Don prior to Vermuyden 's improvements . Two years later , the Dearne and Dove Canal opened , connecting with the Barnsley Canal near Barnsley . The canal had also been proposed by Don Navigation shareholders in 1792 , and again John Thompson had overseen the initial construction . The third opening was in 1819 , when the Sheffield Canal connected the Tinsley terminus to the centre of Sheffield . There were several plans to create a link to the Chesterfield Canal , including one in 1793 by Benjamin Outram , and a proposal by Richard Gresley in 1810 for a North East Junction Canal , which would have linked to the Don at Rotherham , broadly following the modern ideas for the Rother Link . Neither of these , nor a revival of the idea in 1832 gained sufficient support to proceed .
The Company bought out the Dearne and Dove Canal in 1846 , the Sheffield Canal in 1848 , and the Stainforth and Keadby Canal in 1849 . They then amalgamated with the South Yorkshire , Doncaster and Goole Railway in 1850 , to become the South Yorkshire Railway and River Dun Company . This in turn was leased to the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway in 1864 . In order to allow an extension of the railway from Mexborough to Sheffield to pass under the railway line to Rotherham Westgate railway station , the Holmes cut below Ickles lock was diverted into the river , and the Eastwood cut below Rotherham lock was diverted to the east in 1864 . The original bed was then filled in and the railway built along its course . Despite attempts to divert coal traffic to the railway , the canals maintained their traffic levels , carrying 982 @,@ 000 tonnes in 1878 and 927 @,@ 254 in 1888 . However , there was dissatisfaction among users of the canals that the rates for traffic were higher than on the railways , and the canals were failing to modernise , as steam boats were banned , despite them having been in use for 50 years on the neighbouring Aire and Calder Navigation .
A plan to upgrade the waterways to allow the use of 300 to 500 @-@ tonne boats led to the formation of the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Canal Company Limited in November 1888 . The cost of the scheme was estimated to be around £ 1 million , in addition to the cost of acquiring the canals from the railway company . The new company obtained an Act of Parliament on 26 August 1889 , creating the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation Company , which was authorised to raise £ 1 @.@ 5 million and to purchase the four canals either by negotiation , or by compulsory purchase if negotiations failed . The railway company was unwilling to sell , and it was not until 1895 , after protracted negotiation and legal battles that the transfer was agreed . The Navigation Company had only succeeded in raising £ 625 @,@ 000 , which was less than the purchase price of the canals , and therefore the railway company nominated half of the ten directors , while the Aire and Calder Company declined to buy any shares because of railway influence . Many of the ambitious plans for the modernisation of the system were hindered by a lack of capital , although some further developments took place .
One improvement that was completed was the construction of the New Junction Canal . This had been authorised by an Act of Parliament obtained on 28 July 1891 by the Aire and Calder Navigation , which specified that the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation Company would share the cost of construction and the ownership of the new waterway . No work could start until the company actually owned their canals , and they were required to raise £ 150 @,@ 000 at a time when they had just failed to raise the finance for the takeover of the original canals . However , three @-@ quarters of the cost had been raised by 1903 . The new canal leaves the original navigation at Bramwith Junction , runs over the River Don on an aqueduct , and continues in a straight line for 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) , to join the Aire and Calder Navigation upstream from Goole . It provided a much more direct route from Sheffield to Goole , and was opened on 2 January 1905 . The company had hoped to run compartment boats for the transport of coal along the canal , as the Aire and Calder did , but although straightening of the navigation was completed at Doncaster in April 1905 and at Sprotborough in late 1907 , and Doncaster Town Lock was lengthened in 1909 and 1910 , most of the locks could only hold three compartments at a time , and so there was little advantage to using this type of boat .
= = Later developments = =
Towards the end of the First World War , Sheffield City Council proposed a major upgrade of the navigation . They expected the government to nationalise the waterway , and pay for the improvements , to which they would contribute , providing that the railway influence was removed . The scheme involved deepening the channel from 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) , and constructing 18 new locks which would be 270 by 22 feet ( 82 @.@ 3 by 6 @.@ 7 m ) , to replace the existing 62 @-@ by @-@ 16 @-@ foot ( 18 @.@ 9 by 4 @.@ 9 m ) locks . The locks would have multiple gates , and be capable of holding four 110 @-@ tonne barges or one 300 @-@ tonne barge . The estimated cost was £ 1 @,@ 483 @,@ 426 , but the government was unwilling to support the scheme , and Sheffield City Council was not prepared to proceed without government backing .
During the inter @-@ war years the navigation struggled to hold its own against competition from the railways and later the roads , and was affected by miners ' strikes in the coal industry . Traffic was spasmodic , rising from 381 @,@ 727 tonnes in 1926 , the year of the general strike , to 815 @,@ 329 tonnes in 1937 , but much of the latter was short @-@ haul traffic , rather than long @-@ haul , and the revenues did not increase correspondingly . In an agreement with Hatfield Main Colliery and the Aire and Calder , Bramwith Lock on the Stainforth and Keadby Canal was lengthened in 1932 , to allow compartment boats to be used for the coal traffic , while straightening of a stretch near Doncaster and the construction of a new warehouse and wharf were largely funded by Doncaster Corporation in 1934 .
The major traffic on the navigation had always been coal , but after the Second World War there was a steady increase in oil traffic . By 1946 , all of the mortgages that the company had used to fund expansion were repaid , and the financial position of the canal gradually improved . Control of the navigation , as with most British canals , passed to the British Transport Commission on 1 January 1948 , under the terms of the Transport Act ( 1947 ) . Some improvements continued to be made , with two coal wharfs being built at Mexborough in 1954 , to serve the new Doncaster power station , and Long Sandall Lock being extended to 215 by 22 feet ( 65 @.@ 5 by 6 @.@ 7 m ) . The new lock was opened on 10 July 1959 , and allowed trains of 17 compartment boats to work through to Doncaster and Hexthorpe , as Doncaster Town Lock above it and Sykehouse Lock below it on the New Junction Canal were already of a similar size .
In 1961 , the British Transport Commission , together with the British Iron and Steel Federation and Sheffield Chamber of Commerce considered plans to upgrade the navigation to handle 250 @-@ tonne barges , and work started on new wharfs and warehouses at Rotherham . Control of the navigation passed on again in 1963 , this time to the British Waterways Board , who submitted a proposal to the government for a £ 2 @.@ 5 million upgrade , covering the stretch from Bramwith to Rotherham . This would have involved the construction of ten new locks , each 225 by 25 feet ( 68 @.@ 6 by 7 @.@ 6 m ) , to replace the existing 12 locks . The new main line would then have been the same size as the Aire and Calder Navigation , although some of the bridges would have had less clearance . In 1972 , a further proposal for a £ 2 million scheme to upgrade the waterway to handle 700 @-@ tonne barges up to Mexborough , and 400 @-@ tonne barges from there to Rotherham was submitted to the Department of the Environment .
Finally , the navigation was the subject of one of the last major attempts in the UK to attract commercial freight to the waterways . In 1983 , it was upgraded to the 700 @-@ tonne Eurobarge standard by deepening the channels and enlarging the locks as far as Rotherham . Conisbrough lock was removed altogether , and the two Eastwood locks were combined into one . The new lock was initially named the Sir Frank Price Lock , after the chairman of the British Waterways Board who formally opened it on 1 June 1983 . The expected rise in freight traffic did not occur , however . At Kilnhurst and Long Sandall , the new larger locks were built alongside the original locks , and so a comparison of the relative sizes can be made .
The new locks are 198 by 20 feet ( 60 @.@ 4 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) , and the navigation accommodates boats with a draught of 8 @.@ 2 feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) and needing headroom of 10 @.@ 5 feet ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) . Beyond Rotherham , the locks are 70 by 15 @.@ 1 feet ( 21 @.@ 3 by 4 @.@ 6 m ) , and so can accommodate a 70 feet ( 21 m ) broad boat , but Rotherham lock is smaller , being only 61 @.@ 5 feet ( 18 @.@ 7 m ) long , and so the upper reaches are effectively restricted to 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) boats .
= = Route = =
The River Don Navigation ended at Tinsley Wharf , but it forms a convenient place to start a description of the route . The wharf was on the river , just upstream from the present junction with the canal to Sheffield . It was close to the site of the Meadowhall Shopping Centre and the Tinsley Viaduct , which carries the M1 motorway over the valley of the River Don . From here there is a towpath along the canal to Victoria Quays ( formerly Sheffield Basin ) in Sheffield City Centre , or the Five Weirs Walk follows the course of the River Don to the same destination . The towpath extends to Rotherham in the opposite direction , passing the large Jordans Weir and the three locks on the Holmes Cut . Beside Jordans Weir is the outfall from Blackburn Meadows sewage treatment plant . In dry weather , this discharges 30 million gallons ( 136 @,@ 000 m3 ) of treated water each day , more than doubling the flow in the river .
The towpath continues to Rotherham Lock , where the Rotherham cut starts , but from here to Conisbrough , the only way to see the navigation is from a boat or from one of the bridges which cross it . To the north of the cut are the remains of the Greasbrough Canal , now culverted under the embankment of the A633 road . Eastwood lock marks the end of the Rotherham Cut , to be followed by Aldwarke Lock , in the shadow of the A6123 road bridge , and Kilnhurst flood lock , which marks the start of the Kilnhurst Cut . In Swinton , the stub of the Dearne and Dove Canal turns off to the left , and there are three more locks before the cut ends . Immediately following this , the River Dearne flows into the Don , and the towpath resumes , where the Dearne Way footpath ends .
The route continues through a wooded valley , past the site of the Sprotborough Flash Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) , with the towpath forming part of the Trans Pennine Trail . Sprotborough lock and weir are situated just before Sprotborough . Just below the lock on the north bank are the remains of an engine house , built in the 1690s for Sir Godfrey Copley of Sprotborough Hall . A water wheel pumped river water some 100 feet ( 30 m ) upwards to supply a fountain in the grounds of the hall , a swimming pool , and also provided a water supply for the village . The pump was powered by a water wheel which was removed in the 1970s . Soon the edge of Doncaster is reached , where amongst the railway marshalling yards , the River Don leaves the navigation for the final time , as does the towpath . The two weir streams flow either side of Doncaster prison , effectively forming an island on which the building sits . Doncaster Town Lock is situated close to Doncaster railway station , and between here and Long Sandall Lock , some of the changes which have occurred over the years can be visualised , with the river on the left and ox @-@ bow lakes on the right , severed by the course of the Wheatley Cut . The final section to Bramwith is usually called the River Dun Navigation . At Bramwith , the waterway splits , with the New Junction Canal heading north @-@ east for the Aire and Calder Navigation and Goole , and the Stainforth and Keadby Canal heading east to the River Trent at Keadby . The River Don heads northwards too , turning to the east where the Dutch River starts at Newbridge . The original course to the River Aire can be traced across the fields , now little more than a drainage ditch crossed by an oversized Grade II listed bridge on the A1041 at East Cowick , and Vermuyden 's embankments are closely followed by the A614 road after it has crossed the M18 motorway .
= = Structures = =
This section provides details of some of the many bridges crossing the Don Navigation , in west @-@ to @-@ east order , starting from Tinsley .
= = = Tinsley and Rotherham area = = =
= = = = MS & L railway bridge = = = =
This bridge , which is located a little below the junction of the Sheffield Canal and the river , carries the Sheffield to Rotherham freight @-@ only railway line . The railway , which opened in 1868 , was originally part of the Manchester , Sheffield & Lincolnshire Railway , which later became part of the Great Central Railway . Between this railway bridge and Jordan Bridge , there are two bridges carrying pipes .
= = = = Jordan Bridge = = = =
Called " Jordan Bridge 21 " by British Waterways , this bridge carried a railway that linked Blackburn Meadows Sewage Works to additional filters and contact beds to the east of the navigation . It was constructed by Logan and Hemmingway , who won a contract valued at £ 41 @,@ 046 in April 1907 , which included six settling tanks , 24 contact beds , and the bridge . The eastern approach consists of three brick arches , which allowed a siding to pass through it . Continued expansion of the works required a second bridge to be constructed in 1922 , to carry the railway over the river channel . The steelwork for Holmes bridge was supplied by Charles Ross Ltd , who were based in Sheffield , while piling work was carried out by Yorkshire Hennebique Concreting Co Ltd .
= = = = Holmes Lock Bridge = = = =
This carries Steel Street – a minor road linking the Blackburn Meadows Nature Reserve Car Park with Holmes . The bridge still has railway tracks embedded in part of the cobbled road surface . The tracks were part of a network of sidings which served the Holmes Rolling Mills on the north bank of the navigation , and the bridge provided access to a crushing plant situated on the island formed by the course of the river to the south and the Holmes Cut to the north .
= = = = Midland Railway bridges = = = =
The western of the two railway bridges was built in 1869 , but the line it carried was truncated by the building of the Holmes Chord in the 1980s , and it is now unused . The eastern of the two bridges was built in 1840 as part of the North Midland Railway . This carried the " main line " from Derby to York until the diversion via Bradway and Sheffield was opened in 1870 . The line is now freight @-@ only .
= = = = Lockhouse Bridge = = = =
Just east of Ickles Lock , this is actually two bridges . The western bridge carries the continuation of Millmoor Lane and the eastern the ex @-@ MS & L freight @-@ only line between Tinsley and Rotherham Central .
= = = = Centenary Way bridge ( south ) = = = =
This carries the Centenary Way dual carriageway over the navigation , which has now been re @-@ joined by the River Don . The road ( A630 ) is an upgrading of the old Canklow Road and is the main access into Rotherham from the M1 . It also forms part of the Rotherham Ring Road which was begun about 1968 , actually only goes half way around town , was built in sections and completed in 1995 . The towpath of the navigation ( part of the Trans @-@ Pennine Trail ) is carried on a walkway that is cantilevered over the Don from the retaining wall of the factory site to the north .
= = = = Corporation Bridge = = = =
This single @-@ span metal bridge carries Main Street over the navigation . Slightly upstream of this bridge was a wooden railway bridge with seven arches , built in 1838 , that took the Sheffield and Rotherham Railway into Westgate Station . It was demolished in 1952 . Prior to the re @-@ routing of the canal in 1864 , the Westgate line crossed the Holmes cut a little further to the west by a three @-@ arched bridge , the centre arch of which was 36 feet ( 11 m ) long and was made of iron .
= = = = Rotherham Lock footbridge = = = =
This footbridge provides pedestrian access to the Court House from Forge Island , which was once the site of an iron works but is now occupied by Tesco 's . The River Don separates from the navigation above Forge Island , and there is a road and pedestrian bridge across the river into Forge Island .
= = = = Bridge Street Bridge ( Chantry Bridge ) and Rotherham Bridge = = = =
Bridge Street Bridge ( Chantry Bridge ) is a single @-@ span metal bridge that carries Bridge Street over the navigation . The street continues eastwards and originally crossed the river at Rotherham Bridge . As originally constructed in 1483 the bridge had four arches and was 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide , but it was widened and a fifth arch added in 1768 . In 1930 a new bridge was built nearby , a little further upstream , and as part of the work , the fifth arch was removed and the bridge was returned to its Medieval width . Because of improvements to the river made in the 18th and 19th centuries , it is wider than it used to be , and the bridge no longer reaches the west bank . The chapel on the bridge is one of only three complete bridge chapels that still exist in Britain , the other two being at Wakefield , West Yorkshire , and St Ives , Huntingdonshire . Dating from about 1483 , it remained in use as a chapel until the reign of King Edward VI ( 1547 – 1553 ) . It was put to use as almshouses during the 17th and 18th centuries , and in 1779 it was used as a prison . Later , it became a private dwelling and finally a tobacconist 's shop , before being returned to its original use as a chapel ; it was formally reconsecrated in 1924 by the Bishop of Sheffield .
= = = = Centenary Way bridge ( north ) = = = =
This carries the Centenary Way dual carriageway over the navigation .
= = = = Greasbrough Road Bridge = = = =
The Greasbrough Road is no longer a main road and only serves local businesses . Downstream of this bridge are 3 pipe bridges .
= = = = Rawmarsh Road Bridge = = = =
Called “ Rotherham Rawmarsh Road Bridge 39 ” by British Waterways , this bridge carries the A633 Rotherham Road ( from Rotherham to Parkgate ) . The A633 crossing of the River Don is called Grafton Bridge .
= = = = Eastwood Footbridge = = = =
This carries the public footpath from the Eastwood area of Rotherham to the Parkgate Retail Park . When the Rotherham Cut section of the Don Navigation was constructed in 1740 , the crossing was by means of a swing bridge . This was replaced by the current footbridge in the late 1900s . To the south of Eastwood Footbridge is a bailey bridge crossing of the River Don .
= = = = Wash Lane Bridge = = = =
This bridge is situated immediately downstream of Aldwarke Weir and upstream of Aldwarke Lock . It was rebuilt in 1834 . In more recent times , it has been superseded by the A6123 ( Aldwarke Lane ) road bridge spanning both river and navigation . The bridge is now gated at both ends to prevent access to pedestrians and traffic .
= = = = Steelworks access ( road ) bridge = = = =
This provides access to the two steelworks from the A630 road at Dalton .
= = = = Don ( rail ) Bridge = = = =
This forms part of the internal rail network of the two steelworks . It was constructed in 1901 as part of what was called locally John Brown 's Private Railway . This railway connected the Silverwood and Roundwood Collieries of John Brown & Company with wharves on the Don Navigation . The girder bridge crossing the Don Navigation was the main engineering work on this railway line . It was built by Newton , Chambers & Company .
= = = = Thrybergh ( rail ) Bridge = = = =
This carried the former Great Central and Midland Railways ' joint line across the River Don . This line was double track . It was essentially a colliery line and never carried a regular passenger service .
= = = Kilnhurst and Mexborough area = = =
= = = = Kilnhurst Station Road Bridge = = = =
This is bridge number 46 and conveys the road to Hooton Roberts . The bridge over the Navigation adjoins the bridge over the railway . The bridge over railway is original , but that over the Navigation is a modern replacement . The " Station " in the name Station Road refers to the Kilnhurst Central ( Great Central ) Station rather than the Kilnhurst West ( Midland Railway ) Station .
= = = = Kilnhurst Burton Ings Bridge = = = =
This is bridge number 47 and conveys a service road over the Navigation and railway . At this point on the west side of the Navigation , there was a large tar distillation works and it is probable that this road connected that works with a tip or further chemical plant on the east side . The tar distillation works was built by Ellison & Mitchell in 1886 and became part of the Yorkshire Tar Distillers group in 1927 .
= = = = Swinton Talbot Road Bridge = = = =
This is bridge number 48 and connects the main road in Swinton ( A6022 Bridge Street and Rowms Lane ) with an industrial estate whose principal unit is the Morphy Richards distribution centre .
= = = = Mexborough Double Bridges = = = =
This is named " Double Bridges and Footbridge 49A " by the Canal & River Trust . The bridge carries a footway and double @-@ track railway over the Navigation . This section of the Navigation must have represented quite a challenge for full @-@ size barges to negotiate since the bridges are immediately adjacent to a right @-@ angle bend in the canal .
= = = = Mexborough Station Road Bridge = = = =
This is bridge number 52 and carries the access road to Mexborough railway station from the A6023 Greens Way ( and the town centre ) .
= = = = Mexborough BBCS Flour Mill = = = =
This imposing building ( and associated wharf ) stands on the north side of the Navigation close to the Church of St John the Baptist . It started off as the " Don Roller Mills " . It was owned by James White who sold it to the Barnsley British Cooperative Society in 1912 .
= = = Conisbrough and Warmsworth area = = =
= = = = Conisbrough Earth Centre Bridge = = = =
This is named " Cadeby Colliery Bridge 57 " by the Canal & River Trust because it once provided a road access to Cadeby Colliery from the south . From 1999 to 2004 , the bridge provided the main access to the ill @-@ fated Earth Centre visitor attraction . The bridge now forms part of public access from Conisbrough Station to the main ( west @-@ east ) section of the Trans Pennine Trail . There are two pipe bridges just upstream of the road bridge .
= = = = Conisbrough Viaduct = = = =
Conisbrough Viaduct was built in the first decade of the 20th century as part of the Dearne Valley Railway . This was a line which essentially served a coalfield , although there was a rudimentary passenger service between 1912 and 1951 . The remaining coal traffic on the line ceased in 1966 . The viaduct has 21 arches and was built from 12 million Conisbrough blue bricks . The central metal span is 150 feet ( 46 m ) long and crosses the Don at a height of 113 feet ( 34 m ) . The viaduct remained out of use until 2001 , when ownership was transferred to Railway Paths Ltd , who manage potentially useful railway structures until they can be incorporated into the National Cycle Network . Installation of a new deck surface and safety railings were funded by the Railway Heritage Trust in early 2008 , and the viaduct re @-@ opened as part of the Sustrans network in April 2008 .
= = = = Rainbow Bridge = = = =
Built in 1849 as part of the South Yorkshire Railway , which later became part of the Great Central Railway , the Rainbow bridge is still in use and carries the Swinton to Doncaster railway line .
= = = = Sprotbrough Bridge = = = =
Sprotbrough Bridge is actually two bridges that carry Mill Lane , the southern one crossing the weir stream and the northern one crossing the lock cut . Replacing a ferry crossing of the river , the first bridge and associated toll house were built in 1849 for Sir Joseph William Copley of Sprotbrough Hall . The designers of the southern bridge were Benjamin Brundell and William Arnold , and the present structure has three segmental arches on each side , which originally formed the approaches to a central arch . The arch was replaced by an above @-@ deck truss in 1897 . The ironwork was manufactured by Newton Chambers & Co . Ltd . , who were based at Thorncliffe Ironworks in Sheffield , as recorded by plates attached to the bridge . The northern bridge was a single @-@ arched masonry structure , which has been replaced by a plate girder bridge resting on the original piers . The toll house , consisting of a single storey with a half basement , made of dressed sandstone with an asphalt roof , still survives on the northern bank of the lock cut . Tolls collected here for passage over Sprotbrough Bridge were said to have been given by the Copley family to the Doncaster Dispensary .
= = = = A1 Don Viaduct = = = =
This bridge carries the A1 ( M ) motorway over the river ; it was opened by Ernest Marples , the Minister of Transport , on 31 July 1961 . It consists of two separate structures , one for each carriageway , each having seven spans . The longest span , formed from two 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) cantilevers and a suspended central span of 100 feet ( 30 m ) , carries the motorway over the river at a height of 70 feet ( 21 m ) . The total length of the structure is 760 feet ( 230 m ) , and it has a slight horizontal and vertical curve at its southern end . Five riveted steel girders and a 9 @-@ inch ( 23 cm ) composite concrete deck support each carriageway . The bridge was one of the first to use rubber bearings , and the first to use bitumen membranes lined with copper to make the decks waterproof . The design includes jacking points to compensate for mining subsidence .
= = = = Warmsworth railway viaducts = = = =
There are two railway viaducts at Warmsworth . The western one was completed in 1914 and formed part of the Hull & Barnsley and Great Central Joint Railway . This was essentially a railway to serve the coalfield and was closed in 1958 . For some years after closure , the viaduct was used to carry a conveyor belt over the Don . It became part of the Doncaster spur on the Trans @-@ Pennine Trail , which was officially opened in 2001 . The steel pillars supporting the viaduct are filled with limestone . Its construction , which uses an above @-@ deck truss , contrasts with the below @-@ deck truss of the eastern viaduct , which was completed in 1910 and formed part of the Great Central Railway . It still carries a freight @-@ only line that avoids a crossing on the level of the East Coast Main Line at Doncaster Station .
= = = Doncaster Town area = = =
= = = = Newtons Farm Footbridge = = = =
Two bridges situated side @-@ by side , one made of concrete and the other a wooden bridge , cross one of the two weir channels where the river leaves the navigation before Doncaster Town Lock .
= = = = Cheswold Hauling Bridge = = = =
Cheswold Hauling Bridge , also known as Cheswold High Bridge , is a footbridge on the navigation towpath , which crosses the second of the two weir streams where the river leaves the navigation upstream of Doncaster Town Lock . The small section of river between the footbridge and where it rejoins that part of the River Don that left the navigation at Newtons Farm footbridge is called the River Cheswold , reputedly the shortest river in Great Britain .
= = = = North Bridge and St Marys Bridge = = = =
North Bridge Road is carried over the railway and then the navigation at Doncaster Town Lock by North Bridge , and over the Don by St Mary 's Bridge . North Bridge Road was previously part of the Great North Road . Until 1910 , this crossed the railway on the level before crossing the Don Navigation . After 1910 , a lengthy iron bridge took the road over the railway , navigation and river . This bridge was replaced by the current North Bridge in 2003 . Its use has been restricted to buses , taxis , cyclists and pedestrians since the new St George 's Bridge opened . The new bridge was constructed over the top of the old one while it was still in situ . Once the old bridge had been stripped of its surface trimmings the deck was cut up into 25 @-@ tonne sections , which were suspended from the new structure . A pulley system was used to transport these sections along the underside of the new bridge , so that they could be lowered onto the towpath , where they were cut up further before removal from the site .
= = = = Railway bridges = = = =
Below the North Bridge , the six railway tracks north of Doncaster Station cross the Don Navigation on three separate bridges . This section of tracks is known as Marshgate Junction and is where the lines to Leeds , York and Thorne diverge .
= = = = Friars Gate Bridge = = = =
This bridge provides access across the navigation from the centre of Doncaster to the small businesses and car parks on the " island " between the river and navigation .
= = = = St George 's Bridge = = = =
St George 's Bridge is one of the newest bridges over the Don . It carries the dual carriageway New Bridge Road , part of the A19 , which is now the main road north out of Doncaster . It was opened on 22 November 2001 , and was named St George 's Bridge as a result of a public competition . It consists of a 690 @-@ yard ( 630 m ) long steel @-@ composite bridge with spans of 49 yards ( 45 m ) over the River Don , the East Coast Main Line , and the Don Navigation . The ladder beam layout , using two main plate girders , cross @-@ girders at 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) centres and precast planks , was chosen both to optimise the deck and to minimise the size and number of the piers .
= = = = Chappell Drive Bridge = = = =
This bridge provides access across the navigation from the centre of Doncaster to the small businesses situated on the " island " between the river and navigation . It is situated immediately north of the Hub campus of Doncaster College . Going downstream , there is a gap of some 5 miles ( 8 km ) before the next public road crossing of the navigation at Barnby Dun .
= = = Barnby Dun area = = =
= = = = Kirk Sandall Railway Bridge = = = =
This bridge conveys the ( ex @-@ Great Central Railway ) Doncaster @-@ to @-@ Hull railway over the Navigation . The bridge consists of two single @-@ span decks , both with above deck trusses . The older south deck ( pictured here ) is no longer used . The north deck accommodates both tracks of what is now a double @-@ track railway . The quadruple track from Thorne Junction on this line now finishes at Kirk Sandall Junction , a few hundred metres to the east . A further bridge to the west conveys the railway over the River Don .
= = = = Kirk Sandall Pipe Bridge = = = =
At this point , the Navigation runs parallel to , and a few metres to the south @-@ east of , the River Don . A pipe bridge high above both the Navigation and the River once carry waste from the glass works which adjoined the towpath ( to the south @-@ east ) across to a series of settling ponds ( to the north @-@ west ) . The glass works was a major employer in the Kirk Sandall area . The St Helens @-@ based Pilkington Bros established a plate glass works here in the early 1920s . The site was chosen for its proximity to the canal and railway , and for the sandy terrain which was needed for the production of glass . Pilkingtons also funded the building of 400 new houses in the Brecks Lane area , together with associated school and recreational facilities . The glass works closed in the 1990s and its site is now occupied by various units on an industrial estate .
= = = = Barnby Dun Lift Bridge = = = =
This was built in 1983 to replace the original ( 1900 ) swing bridge . It is built of steel and powered by electricity . The replacement work cost £ 0.5M and was part of a wider upgrade of the Navigation to conform to the 700 @-@ tonne Eurobarge standard ( see Later Development section of this article ) . An elevated control house was built for the sole use of operational staff , but in recent years a freestanding low level standard control console has been built for the use of boaters when the bridge is not staffed . Sykehouse Lift Bridge ( downstream of Barnby Dun ) was built to the same technical specification . Although the bridge carries an unclassified road linking Barnby Dun and Bentley , the bridge also provided the only access for heavy loads to the nearby Thorpe Marsh power station , so the bridge was designed to carry abnormal loads of up to 180 tons gross weight . Although Thorpe Marsh Power Station has now been demolished , the bridge is still busy with road traffic . This is because it is one of the few crossings of the Navigation in this area .
= = Points of interest = =
= The Alliance ( The Office ) =
" The Alliance " is the fourth episode of the first season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's fourth episode overall . The episode aired on NBC in the United States on April 12 , 2005 . It was written by Michael Schur and directed by Bryan Gordon , marking their first credits for the show .
In this episode , paranoia takes over the members of the office as downsizing rumors swirl . Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) forms a Survivor @-@ esque alliance with Jim ( John Krasinski ) against the other employees — later adding Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) also . Meanwhile , Michael ( Steve Carell ) arranges a morale @-@ boosting birthday party for Meredith ( Kate Flannery ) — although her birthday is more than a month away . Michael agonizes over writing the perfect greeting in her birthday card , and in the end , his joke falls flat , ruining the party .
The episode was inspired by popular reality television shows , most notably Survivor . Originally , the first cut of the episode ran 37 minutes long and the producers considered making the episode a two @-@ parter , one focusing on the Alliance and another focusing on Meredith 's birthday party , but later decided against the idea . In addition , several of the lines and scenes from the episode were improved or ad @-@ libbed by the cast . " The Alliance " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 4 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 4 / 6 % rating share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode received positive reviews from critics .
= = Synopsis = =
Although time has dragged on , the downsizing rumors at Dunder Mifflin have not ceased . Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) feels particularly threatened by the impending crisis , and , in an act of desperation , forms an alliance with his office nemesis Jim ( John Krasinski ) . Jim sees the alliance as an opportunity with great potential and agrees as a lark . He immediately enlists Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) ' s help in the situation . The two continue to perform a series of office pranks at the expense of Dwight .
Meanwhile , Michael ( Steve Carell ) tries to boost morale in the office by having an office birthday party for Meredith ( Kate Flannery ) , even though her birthday is a month away . Michael agonizes over writing the perfect greeting in her birthday card . In the end , his joke ( and subsequent rejected ones ) falls flat and ruins the party . At the same time Oscar also gets him to donate money to his nephew 's cerebral palsy walk @-@ a @-@ thon , which Michael accidentally overcontributes to in an effort to look like a good boss .
At the end of the day , after a breakthrough in his pranks on Dwight , Jim giddily grabs Pam 's hand in an attempt to explain what has just happened . However , Pam 's fiancé Roy ( David Denman ) catches this and sees it as an attempt by Jim to make a move on Pam . Jim tries to convince Roy that it was just " office pranks " and asks Dwight to back him up , but he simply denies any involvement leaving Jim awkwardly embarrassed . Dwight reveals that he had no problems betraying Jim , despite the fact that he recently fell into one of Jim 's tricks .
= = Production = =
The episode was inspired by popular reality television shows , most notably Survivor . The " Can I trust Jim ... " line was a direct reference to the show and was a " last @-@ second addition " according to Daniels . In addition , Randall Einhorn , the camera man for the episode , was a camera man for Survivor . When the episode was being written , many of the cast and crew feared that it would bear too many stylistic resemblances to Curb Your Enthusiasm . Daniels later defended the show , saying that the show was different because of " the fact that they are on TV and they know they are being filmed . [ They know they 're ] on camera . " During the writing of the episode , Daniels made the writers spend actual time on the set , most notably in Michael 's office . Mindy Kaling later noted that she " hated it . "
The first cut of the episode ran 37 minutes long and the producers were tasked with cutting the footage down to 22 minutes . Executive producer Greg Daniels considered making the episode a two @-@ parter , one focusing on the Alliance and another focusing on Meredith 's birthday party , but the appearance of party hats in the Alliance @-@ only scenes caused him to nix this idea . Because the episode had to be cut down due to time , several scenes were drastically cut . The filming crew actually shot about 15 – 20 minutes of Steve Carell coming up with terrible card ideas , which was drastically cut for the episode . During the party , Ryan talks to a different woman in the background of each scene . Although not much footage made it into the final episode , the producers thought this was a nice character touch for the new employee . The penultimate scenes of Michael telling several terrible jokes to Meredith was cut down from the original 15 . The final scene where Roy confronts Jim was shot ten different times , each in a different style , ranging from Roy slamming Jim into the wall to Roy asking Jim , " Hey , what are you doing ? " Although the crew felt that the wall @-@ slamming version was more dramatic , they realized that it caused the episode to go from a comedy to an " angry drama . "
Several of the lines and scenes from the episode were improved or ad @-@ libbed by the cast . Jenna Fischer named the party planning scene her favorite scene and called it " longest most horrible meeting of all time " . On the commentary track for the episode , Fischer revealed that the scene was almost entirely ad @-@ libbed . At one point , Phyllis Smith , who portrays Phyllis Margaret Vance ( née Lapin ) , made a joke that made every one on set laugh , forcing production to halt for almost 45 minutes . Dwight 's " gun show " joke was written by Rainn Wilson . Larry Wilmore later called the " gun show " scene his favorite . Wilmore later said of ab @-@ libs , " part of the fun in writing a show like this is trying to write lines that sound like ad @-@ libs . " Daniels also praised the episode 's lines , saying , " when you know the acting is really good , it all sounds like it 's been improvised . "
The scenes where Dwight climbs into a box almost did not make the episode . Mike Schur , who wrote the episode , feared that Dwight climbing into the box would not only make the episode " crazy broad , " but also make the rest of the episode look boring by comparison . After shooting the scene , however , he described it as " the most natural thing in the world . " Phil Shaw , the stunt man for The Office , did most of the work in the box . Schur described Dwight 's emergence from the box as his " action hero " moment . Daniels likened the scene to the movie Alien .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on 12 April 2005 , " The Alliance " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 4 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 4 / 6 % rating share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 4 % of all 18 – 49 year @-@ olds , and 6 % of all 18 – 49 year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode , airing after Scrubs , retained 100 % of its lead @-@ in 18 – 49 audience for the second week in a row .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received positive reviews from critics , with many praising the developing relationship between Pam and Jim . Travis Fickett from IGN praised the episode and compared Jim and Pam 's relationship in the first season to that of the fourth , saying , " Jim and Pam simply work better before they were a couple . The fact that Roy can come between them here is fun – and reminds us that it was more interesting when something could still come between them ! " In summary , he concluded that , " [ ' The Alliance ' ] is one of the better early episodes of the show , and going out with Dwight talking to the camera – his hair dyed blonde – is genius and gives us ( up to this point ) the most perfect ' Dwight ' moment of the show so far . " Television critic Robin Pierson noted that in the episode , " The Jim and Pam relationship begins to take real shape here . " He later called the moment when Roy nearly attacks Jim as " a much more ' real ' moment that the rest of the episode . " Furthermore , Pierson criticized the characterization of Dwight , noting that his actions were " stupidly naïve " . Miss Alli from Television Without Pity gave the episode an A.
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B – " . He felt that the episode was " akin to a newborn deer working the wobbles out of its legs " and that " it ’ s a milestone for The Office , in that it represents the first time an episode generated so much material it could ’ ve occupied a full hour of airtime " . He felt that Michael 's plot was funny , but had issues . He argued that the retooling of Michael 's character made him a more likable character even when he was doing something inappropriate ; in this episode , however , his behavior is too cringe @-@ inducing . Adams praised the scene wherein Dwight emerged from the box , calling it one of " The Office 's first great sigh gags " . Furthermore , he felt that the scene was symbolic , as it produced " a stronger , deadlier , better character " .
= The Boat Race 1975 =
The 121st Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 29 March 1975 . Cambridge won their seventh race in eight years by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 19 minutes and 27 seconds . The race was umpired by former Oxford rower Christopher Davidge .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by nine @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths . Cambridge won the 30th Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1974 race by five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 67 victories to Oxford 's 52 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The umpire for the race was Christopher Davidge , who had rowed for Oxford in the 1949 , 1951 and 1952 races , and was a non @-@ rowing Oxford University Boat Club president for the 1950 race .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
In the month leading up to the race , Cambridge 's crew saw some significant changes , including the removal of David Sturge ( who had rowed in the 1973 race ) due to glandular fever . However , the Cambridge boat club president Steve Tourek was circumspect : " Cambridge might be slower than planned but still fast enough to beat Oxford . " On 24 March 1975 , Cambridge beat Oxford 's record time ( set five days earlier ) between Hammersmith Bridge and the Mile Post by two seconds . The following day , Oxford 's coach Dan Topolski revealed that the Oxford reserve crew , Isis , had equalled the record time , downplaying Cambridge 's efforts : " Shows how fast conditions really were yesterday . " Cambridge coach Lou Barry remarked of his charges : " this is a fast crew " .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 9 @.@ 75 lb ( 86 @.@ 8 kg ) , 7 pounds ( 3 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained two former Blues in boat club president Nick Tee and stroke Graham Innes , while Cambridge saw Nick Bradley , Henry Clay and Tourek return from the 1974 boat . Although the British international rower David Sturge was replaced through illness prior to the race , the Light Blues also saw international @-@ standard rowers Alistair Christie and James Macleod in the crew , both of whom had withdrawn from selection for the 1974 race to represent Great Britain . Only two competitors in the race were registered as " overseas " Blues , Oxford 's number five John Hutchings and his counterpart and Tourek , both from the United States .
= = Race = =
Cambridge started as pre @-@ race favourite ; according to the author and former rower Dickie Burnell , although Oxford had some " useful new recruits " no @-@ one " outside their immediate camp thought they could win . " Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Oxford took an early lead , but by the Mile Post , Cambridge had recovered to lead by two seconds . Extending their lead , the Light Blues gained a clear water advantage by Harrods Furniture Depository and moved in front of the Dark Blue boat . Shooting Hammersmith Bridge five seconds ahead , Cambridge held a length @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lead which they defended against a number of Oxford pushes . Midway round the Surrey bend , Oxford 's bow man Andrew Baird 's oar came out of its gate , allowing Cambridge to increase their lead by another length . A seven @-@ second lead at Chiswick Steps was extended to nine seconds by Barnes Bridge , and along the final bend , Cambridge pushed their lead further out to nearly four lengths , passing the finishing post in 19 minutes 27 seconds , thirteen seconds ahead of their rivals . It was Cambridge 's seventh victory in the previous eight years , having lost to Oxford in 1974 .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by nine @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , their first win since the 1966 race . In the 30th running of the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge triumphed , winning their 13th consecutive race .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford 's Baird claimed " I might have caught a crab , but I do not really know what happened . " Cambridge number six MacLeod said of the Dark Blues : " They kept coming at us time and time again . I was only sure of victory in the last mile of the race . " Christopher Dodd , writing in The Guardian was impressed : " The contest had a rare element ... it was a race nearly all the way , and was not all over in the first 20 stokes as has so often been the case in recent years . " Burnell suggested it was a race for the aficionados : " This was surely one of those so common Boat Races , which are hard fought all the way , yet never exciting from the point of view of the average spectator . "
= Reginald de Warenne =
Reginald de Warenne ( sometimes Rainald de Warenne ; between 1121 and 1126 – 1179 ) was an Anglo @-@ Norman nobleman and royal official . The third son of an earl , Reginald began his career as an administrator of his brother 's estates and married the heiress to the feudal barony of Wormegay in Norfolk . By the reign of King Henry II , Reginald was a royal justice and played a minor role in the Becket controversy in 1170 . He died in 1179 and left a son and heir together with several daughters .
= = Origins = =
Reginald de Warenne was the third son of William de Warenne , the second Earl of Surrey , who died in 1138 . Reginald 's mother was Isabel de Vermandois . Reginald was likely born between 1121 and 1126 . Reginald 's brothers were William de Warenne , the third Earl of Surrey , and Ralph de Warenne . Reginald 's two sisters were Gundrada de Warenne who married first Roger , Earl of Warwick and then William of Lancaster , and Ada de Warenne who married Henry , Earl of Huntingdon . Ada 's husband was the only son of King David I of Scotland , and she was the mother of two kings of Scotland – Malcolm IV and William I. From their mother 's first marriage to Robert de Beaumont , Reginald and his siblings were half @-@ siblings of the twins Robert de Beaumont the Earl of Leicester and Waleran de Beaumont , the Count of Meulan and Earl of Worcester . There was another Reginald de Warenne alive during Reginald 's lifetime – this may have been an illegitimate half @-@ brother .
= = Early career = =
Reginald first appears in the historical record around 1138 when he was a witness on some of his father 's charters . Reginald was one of the main administrators of his elder brother 's estates up until 1147 . Reginald also had his own lands that he was granted from his brother 's honour in Norfolk and Sussex . While his brother was on crusade , Reginald granted the right to form a merchant guild to the inhabitants of the town of Lewes , as long as his brother agreed after his return from crusade . William , the third earl , died in early 1148 while on crusade and the earldom and estates passed to William 's daughter Isabel , whom King Stephen of England married to the king 's second son , William . Reginald continued to serve the new earl and also began to serve the king , witnessing a number of royal charters . Reginald eventually became the main advisor to the new earl .
Reginald was granted the castles of Bellencombre and Mortemer in the charter of Westminster in 1153 which settled the rights that William , the surviving son of King Stephen , received for not contesting the crown of England going to Henry of Anjou after Stephen 's death , and was also a witness to the charter . Reginald continued to serve as a royal official , witnessing a number of the new king 's charters .
= = Royal service = =
In 1157 Reginald was one of the justices present when King Henry II decided a case between Hilary of Chichester , the Bishop of Chichester and Walter de Luci , the Abbot of Battle Abbey . In 1164 he was present at the Council of Clarendon , which was part of the long struggle between King Henry II and the new Archbishop of Canterbury , Thomas Becket , over the control of the English church . Reginald also accompanied the king 's daughter Matilda to Germany for her marriage to Henry the Lion , Duke of Saxony .
Reginald was one of the four main justices involved with the general eyre in 1168 through 1170 , along with Richard of Ilchester , Guy the Dean of Waltham Holy Cross , and William Basset . In 1168 , Henry II summoned Reginald as a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ law , one of the first identifiable members of that order in the historical record . Besides these administrative and judicial roles , Reginald was a baron of the exchequer in 1169 and held the office of Sheriff of Sussex from 1170 to 1176 .
In 1170 , Reginald was involved with attempts to keep Thomas Becket , who had been in exile , from returning to England . Working with Reginald were Roger de Pont L 'Évêque – the Archbishop of York , Gilbert Foliot – the Bishop of London , Josceline de Bohon – the Bishop of Salisbury , Gervase de Cornhill – the Sheriff of Kent , and Ranulf de Broc . At that time , Reginald was a royal justiciar . Reginald was part of the party that met Becket at Sandwich on 1 December 1070 when the archbishop returned to England . Reginald 's group , led by Gervase of Cornhill , complained that the archbishop was sowing dissension in the land by his excommunication of the three ecclesiastics , but Becket managed to calm the officials by stating he would consider the matter and reply to them the next day . The next day the group was accompanied by some clergy sent by the ecclesiastics who had been excommunicated by Becket . Nothing further was accomplished by this meeting except further offers from Becket to consider other options . Reginald was involved in a further attempt at resolving the differences between the king and Becket later in December 1170 , which again came to nothing .
In 1173 Reginald worked for the king , along with Richard fitz Nigel and Nicholas de Sigillo , when all three men assessed a land tax on parts of the royal demesne . These three men assessed the tax in the counties of Buckinghamshire , Bedfordshire , Oxfordshire , Kent and Sussex . During the Revolt of 1173 – 74 Reginald served the king as castellan of Hastings Castle .
= = Death and legacy = =
Reginald married Alice , the daughter and heiress of William de Wormegay , Baron of Wormegay in Norfolk . William de Wormegay died in 1166 and Reginald was fined a bit over 466 pounds by the king for the right to inherit his father @-@ in @-@ law 's lands . With his father @-@ in @-@ law 's death he became Lord of Wormegay , or Baron Wormegay . This lordship was assessed at 14 and a quarter knight 's fees and was located mostly in Norfolk and Suffolk . The centre of the honour was at Lynn , Norfolk .
Sometime between Michaelmas 1178 and the start of 1179 , Reginald retired from public life and became a monk at Lewes Priory , which had been founded by his family . When he retired , the Exchequer began to pressure him to repay his debts owed to the king , which for the previous decade or more they had ignored . Reginald died in 1179 , and his heir was his son William de Warenne . Besides his son , Reginald also had several daughters . One was Gundrada who married three times – first to Peter de Valognes , son of Roger de Valognes , second to William de Courcy , son of William de Courcy and Avice de Rumilly the daughter of William Meschin , and third to Geoffrey Hose , the son of Henry Hose . Another daughter was Alice who married Peter , constable of Mealton . A possible third daughter was Muriel , who was a nun at Carrow Abbey . Another possible daughter was Ela , who married Duncan the Earl of Fife . At his death , Reginald still owed a large portion of the fine he 'd been assessed for the inheritance of his father @-@ in @-@ law 's estates .
The historian Edmund King has called Reginald " the fixer in that formidable family " . Reginald gave lands and gifts to a number of monasteries . Among these were the Warenne family foundations of Lewes and Castle Acre Priory , with further gifts to Carrow , Clerkenwell Priory , and Binham Priory .
= 1988 Winter Olympics =
The 1988 Winter Olympics , officially known as the XV Olympic Winter Games ( French : Les XVes Jeux olympiques d 'hiver ) , was a Winter Olympics multi @-@ sport event celebrated in and around Calgary , Alberta , Canada between February 13 and 28 , 1988 . The host city was selected in 1981 over Falun , Sweden and Cortina d 'Ampezzo , Italy . Most events took place in Calgary while several skiing events were held in the mountain resorts of Nakiska and Canmore , west of the city .
A then @-@ record 57 nations competed and 1 @,@ 423 athletes participated . The Soviet Union won the most medals with 29 , followed by East Germany with 25 . As it had in Montreal in 1976 , Canada again failed to win a gold medal in an official medal event as the host nation . Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen and Dutch speed skater Yvonne van Gennip were individual medal leaders , capturing three gold medals apiece . The games are also remembered for the " heroic failure " of British ski jumper Eddie " The Eagle " Edwards and the Winter Olympic début of the Jamaica national bobsled team , both of which would be subjects of major feature films about their participation in the games .
The Calgary games were at the time one of the most expensive Olympics ever held , but the organizing committee turned record television and sponsorship revenue into a net surplus that was used to maintain the facilities built for the Olympics and develop the Calgary region into the heart of Canada 's elite winter sports program . The five purpose @-@ built venues continue to be used in their original functions , and have helped the country develop into one of the top nations in Winter Olympic competition ; Canada more than quintupled the five medals it won in Calgary at the 2010 games , the next Winter Olympics hosted on Canadian soil .
= = Host city selection = =
The bid for the 1988 Winter Olympics was Canada 's seventh attempt at hosting a winter games and Calgary 's fourth . Previous bids representing Montreal ( 1956 ) and Vancouver ( 1976 and 1980 ) bookended failed attempts by the Calgary Olympic Development Association ( CODA ) to host the 1964 , 1968 and 1972 games . The CODA became dormant in 1966 after losing its bid for the 1972 Olympics , but was revived in 1979 under the leadership of Frank King to bid for the 1988 games . Calgary earned the right to bid on behalf of Canada by the Canadian Olympic Association ( COA ) , defeating a rival challenge from a group representing Vancouver . The defeated organizing group lamented that they lost to Calgary 's " big @-@ ticket games " ; the Calgary bid proposed to spend nearly three times what the Vancouver group expected to pay to host the Olympics .
The CODA then spent two years building local support for the project , selling memberships to 80 @,@ 000 of the city 's 600 @,@ 000 residents . It secured C $ 270 million in funding from the federal and provincial governments while civic leaders , including Mayor Ralph Klein , crisscrossed the world attempting to woo International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) delegates . Driven by the arrival of the National Hockey League 's Calgary Flames , the city had already begun constructing an Olympic coliseum ( later named the Olympic Saddledome ) prior to the IOC vote , an action that demonstrated Calgary 's determination to host the games and positively influenced delegates . The city was one of three finalists , opposed by the Swedish community of Falun and Cortina d 'Ampezzo , the Italian town that hosted the 1956 Winter Olympics .
The vote was held September 30 , 1981 , at Baden @-@ Baden , West Germany , during the 84th IOC Session and 11th Olympic Congress . After Cortina d 'Ampezzo was eliminated in the first round of balloting , Calgary won the right to host the games over Falun by a 48 – 31 vote . The announcement of the CODA 's victory sent delegates in Baden @-@ Baden and residents of Calgary into celebration . It was the first Winter Olympics awarded to Canada , and the second games overall , following the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal .
= = Venues = =
McMahon Stadium , Calgary 's primary outdoor facility , was the site of both the opening and closing ceremonies , the first time in 28 years that the same venue hosted both events . Three other existing venues served as secondary facilities : The Max Bell Centre hosted the demonstration events of curling and short track speed skating . The Father David Bauer Olympic Arena hosted some ice hockey matches , as did the Stampede Corral , which also played host to some figure skating events . Though the Corral did not support the size of the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) ' s standard ice surface , the Calgary Organizing Committee ( Olympiques Calgary Olympics ' 88 or OCO ' 88 ) was able to convince the IIHF to sanction the arena in exchange for a $ 1 @.@ 2 million payment .
The Games ' five primary venues were all purpose @-@ built however , at significant cost . The Olympic Saddledome was the primary venue for ice hockey and figure skating . Located at Stampede Park , the facility was expected to cost $ 83 million but cost overruns pushed the facility to nearly $ 100 million . The Olympic Oval was built on the campus of the University of Calgary . It was the first fully enclosed 400 @-@ metre speed skating venue in the world as it was necessary to protect against the possibility of either bitter cold temperatures or ice @-@ melting chinook winds . Seven world and three Olympic records were broken during the Games , resulting in the facility earning praise as " the fastest ice on Earth " . Canada Olympic Park was built on the western outskirts of Calgary and hosted bobsled , luge , ski jumping and freestyle skiing . It was the most expensive facility built for the games , costing $ 200 million .
Two facilities were built west of Calgary , in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains . The Canmore Nordic Centre was 90 @-@ percent funded by the Province of Alberta at a cost of $ 17 @.@ 3 million . Located near the community of Canmore it was built with the intention that it would become a year @-@ round recreation destination for Albertans . The facility hosted cross @-@ country skiing , biathlon and Nordic combined events . Nakiska ( Cree for " to meet " ) was the most controversial facility built . The province paid the $ 25 million construction cost for the alpine skiing facility on Mount Allan , about an hour west of Calgary . It was initially criticized for the location 's relative lack of snow , requiring artificial snow making machines to be installed , and for an initial lack of technical difficulty . International Ski Federation officials proposed modifications to the courses that ultimately met with praise from competitors .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Television = = =
The Calgary Olympics were the first to earn a significant television revenue base ; where the 1980 Lake Placid Games generated only US $ 20 @.@ 7 million worldwide , OCO ' 88 generated $ 324 @.@ 9 million in broadcast rights . The overwhelming majority of television revenues came from the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) , which agreed in 1984 to pay $ 309 million for American television rights , over three times the $ 91 @.@ 5 million it paid for the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo . The deal , at the time the highest amount ever paid for a sporting event , allowed organizers to announce the Games would be debt @-@ free . The CTV Television Network paid C $ 4 @.@ 5 million for Canadian rights and to act as the host broadcaster , while western European nations paid US $ 5 @.@ 7 million combined .
OCO ' 88 made several alterations to the Olympic program as part of efforts to ensure value for its broadcast partners . Premier events , including ice hockey and figure skating , were scheduled for prime time and the Games were lengthened to 16 days from the previous 12 to ensure three weekends of coverage . However , a significant downturn in advertising revenue for sporting events resulted in ABC forecasting significant financial losses on the Games . Calgary organizers appreciated their fortunate timing in signing the deal . King described the timing of the contract with ABC as " the passing of the sun and the moon at the right time for Calgary . " ABC lost an estimated $ 60 million , and broadcast rights to the 1992 Winter Olympics were later sold to the CBS network for $ 243 million , a 20 % reduction compared to Calgary .
= = = Ticketing controversies = = =
A series of ticket @-@ related scandals plagued the organizing committee as the Games approached , resulting in widespread public anger . Demand for tickets was high , particularly for the premier events which had sold out a year in advance . Residents had been promised that only 10 percent of tickets would go to " Olympic insiders " , IOC officials and sponsors , but OCO ' 88 was later forced to admit that up to 50 percent of seats to top events had gone to insiders . The organizing committee , which was subsequently chastised by mayor Klein for running a " closed shop " , admitted that it had failed to properly communicate the obligations it had to supply IOC officials and sponsors with priority tickets . These events were preceded by OCO ' 88 's ticketing manager being charged with theft and fraud after he sent modified ticket request forms to Americans that asked them to pay in United States funds rather than Canadian and to return them to his company 's post office box rather than that of the organizing committee .
Organizers attempted to respond to public concern by asking sponsors to consider reducing their orders and by paying $ 1 @.@ 5 million to add 2 @,@ 600 seats to the Saddledome . King also noted that the Calgary Games offered a then @-@ record 1 @.@ 7 million tickets for sale , three times the amount available at Sarajevo or Lake Placid , and that 82 percent of them were going to Calgarians . By their start , a Winter Games ' record of over 1 @.@ 4 million tickets had been sold , a figure that eclipsed the previous three Winter Games combined .
= = = Community = = =
The city , which already had a strong volunteering tradition with the annual Calgary Stampede , also relied heavily on volunteers to run the Olympics . Over 22 @,@ 000 people signed up to fill 9 @,@ 400 positions , no matter how inglorious : doctors , lawyers and executives offered to clean manure dropped by horses at the opening ceremonies . Many residents participated in a " Homestay " program , opening their homes to visitors from around the world and renting rooms to those who could not stay in a hotel .
Klein was among those who felt it necessary that the event be community driven , a decision which allowed the city 's welcoming spirit to manifest . The Games ' mascots , Hidy and Howdy , were designed to evoke images of " western hospitality " . The smiling , cowboy @-@ themed polar bears were popular across Canada . Played by a team of students from Bishop Carroll High School , the sister @-@ brother pair made up to 300 appearances per month in the lead up to the Games . From their introduction at the closing ceremonies of the Sarajevo Games in 1984 until their retirement at the conclusion of the Calgary Games , the pair made about 50 @,@ 000 appearances . The iconic mascots graced signs welcoming travelers to Calgary for nearly two decades until they were replaced in 2007 .
= = = Finances = = =
Held at a price of C $ 829 million , the Calgary Olympics cost more to stage than any previous Games , summer or winter . The high cost was anticipated , as organizers were aware at the outset of their bid that most facilities would have to be constructed . The venues , constructed primarily with public money , were designed to have lasting use beyond the Games and were planned to become the home of several of Canada 's national winter sports teams . Despite the high costs , OCO ' 88 anticipated a C $ 36 million surplus , though the organizing committee counted only its own expenditures and excluded government spending .
The Games were a major economic boon for the city which had fallen into its worst recession in 40 years following the collapse of both oil and grain prices in the mid @-@ 1980s . A report prepared for the city in January 1985 estimated the games would create 11 @,@ 100 man @-@ years of employment and generate C $ 450 @-@ million in salaries and wages . In its post @-@ Games report , OCO ' 88 estimated the Olympics created C $ 1 @.@ 4 billion in economic benefits across Canada during the 1980s , 70 percent within Alberta , as a result of capital spending , increased tourism and new sporting opportunities created by the facilities .
= = Torch relay = =
The 1988 Olympic torch relay began on November 15 , 1987 , when the torch was lit at Olympia and Greek runner Stellos Bisbas began what was called " the longest torch run in history " . The flame arrived in St. John 's , Newfoundland on the Atlantic Ocean two days later and over 88 days traveled west across Canada . It passed through most major cities , north to the Arctic Ocean at Inuvik , Northwest Territories , then west to the Pacific Ocean at Victoria , British Columbia before returning east to Alberta , and finally Calgary . The torch covered a distance of 18 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 11 @,@ 000 mi ) , the greatest distance for a torch relay in Olympic history until the 2000 Sydney Games , and a sharp contrast to the 1976 Montreal Games when the relay covered only 775 kilometres ( 482 mi ) .
Relay sponsor Petro Canada issued entry forms allowing citizens the chance to become one of 6 @,@ 214 people to carry the torch for 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) . Organizers , who initially expected to receive 250 @,@ 000 entries , were inundated with over 6 @.@ 6 million forms and called the response a sign that the Olympics had " fired the imagination of Canada " . The | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
per hour per appearance afterward . Left embarrassed by the spectacle he created , the International Ski Federation altered the rules following Calgary to eliminate each nation 's right to send at least one athlete and set minimum competition standards for future events . Regardless , the President of the Organizing Committee , Frank King , playfully saluted Edwards ' unorthodox sporting legacy , which would also be commemorated with a 2016 feature film , Eddie the Eagle .
The Jamaican bobsleigh team , making their nation 's Winter Olympic debut , was also popular in Calgary . The team was the brainchild of a pair of Americans who recruited individuals with strong sprinting ability from the Jamaican military to form the team . Dudley Stokes and Michael White finished the two @-@ man event in 30th place out of 41 competitors and launched the Jamaican team into worldwide fame . The pair , along with Devon Harris and Chris Stokes crashed in the four man event , but were met with cheers from the crowd as they pushed their sled across the finish line . Their odyssey was made into the 1993 movie Cool Runnings , a largely fictionalized comedy by Walt Disney Pictures .
= = Games = =
= = = Participating National Olympic Committees = = =
A record 57 National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) entered athletes at the 1988 Calgary Olympics , 8 more than appeared at any previous Winter Games . 1 @,@ 423 athletes participated in 46 events : 1 @,@ 122 men and 301 women . Fiji , Guam , Guatemala , Jamaica , the Netherlands Antilles and the Virgin Islands had their Winter Olympics debut .
= = = Calendar = = =
In the following calendar for the 1988 Winter Olympic Games , each blue box indicates that an event competition , such as a qualification round , was held on that day . The yellow boxes represent days during which medal @-@ awarding finals for a sport were held with the number in these boxes representing the number of finals that were contested on that day .
= = = Medal table = = =
= = Legacy = =
Prior to Calgary , the Winter Olympics were viewed as a second @-@ rate event compared to their summer counterpart , so much so that the IOC had at one point considered eliminating them entirely . Few cities bid on the Winter Games due to challenges faced in generating revenue . In its bid for the Games , CODA convinced the IOC that it could not only generate enough revenue to turn a profit , but enough of one to ensure a lasting legacy of winter sport development . Organizers followed the lead of their counterparts in Los Angeles for the 1984 Summer Olympics , attracting a large television contract in the United States and was the first host city to benefit from a change in the IOC 's strategy on corporate sponsorship . The Calgary Games attracted support from over two dozen major Canadian and multinational corporations , generating millions of dollars in revenues .
Many program changes were made in Calgary to grow the appeal of the Winter Games for sponsors : the extension to 16 days from 12 added an extra weekend of coverage , while the additional programming time was filled by television friendly demonstration events popular in Canada . The exposure curling , freestyle skiing and short @-@ track speed skating gained in Calgary influenced the growth in their popularity and led to all three becoming full medal sports by 1998 .
= = = Impact on Calgary = = =
Hosting the Games helped fuel a significant increase in Calgary 's reputation on the world stage . Crosbie Cotton , a reporter for the Calgary Herald who covered the city 's Olympic odyssey from its bid to the closing ceremonies , noted a change in the attitude of the city 's population over time . He believed that the populace began to outgrow its " giant inferiority complex " that is " typically Canadian " , replacing it with a new level of confidence as the Games approached . They helped the city grow from a regional oil and gas centre best known for the Calgary Stampede to a destination for international political , economic and sporting events . A study prepared for the organizing committee of the 2010 Vancouver Olympics claimed that Calgary hosted over 200 national and international sporting competitions between 1987 and 2007 due to the facilities it had constructed for the Olympics .
The Games ' enduring popularity within Calgary has been attributed to efforts to make them " everybody 's Games " . Aside from the sense of community fostered by the level of volunteer support , organizers included the public in other ways . People were given opportunity to purchase a brick with their names engraved on it and used to build Olympic Plaza , where medal ceremonies were held in 1988 . It remains a popular public park and event site in the city 's downtown . Members of the community have attempted to bring a second Winter Games to the city . Calgary offered to take over the 2002 Winter Olympics after a bribery scandal resulted in speculation that Salt Lake City would be unable to remain the host . The city also made an effort to bid for the 2010 Games on Canada 's behalf , losing to Vancouver . A 2013 Calgary Sun online poll found that 81 % of respondents would support the city hosting a second Olympics .
= = = Canada 's development as a winter sport nation = = =
Mindful of the financial disaster the Montreal Olympics became , OCO ' 88 parlayed its ability to generate television and sponsorship revenues and government support into what was ultimately a C $ 170 million surplus . ( The claim of a surplus has frequently been challenged as OCO ' 88 counted only its own revenues and expenses and did not include government funded facilities in its accounting . ) The surplus was turned into endowment funds split between Canada Olympic Park ( $ 110 million ) and CODA , which was reformed following the Games to manage the Olympic facilities with a trust fund that had subsequently grown to be worth over $ 200 million by 2013 . Consequently , all five of the primary facilities built for the 1988 Olympics remained operational in their original intended purpose 25 years after the Games concluded .
Calgary and Canmore became the heart of winter sport in Canada as CODA ( now known as Winsport Canada ) established itself as the nation 's leader in developing elite athletes ; in 2006 , one @-@ quarter of Canada 's Olympic athletes were from the Calgary region and three @-@ quarters of its medalists were from or trained in Alberta . Canada was not a winter sport power in 1988 ; the nation 's five medals in Calgary was its second best total at a Winter Olympics behind the seven it won at the 1932 Lake Placid Games . After 1988 , Canada won an increasing number of medals at each successive Olympics , culminating in a 26 @-@ medal performance in 2010 that included a Winter Olympic record of 14 gold medals , one more than the previous record holders Soviet Union ( 1976 ) and Norway ( 2002 ) .
= Harry Kim ( Star Trek ) =
Ensign Harry S. L. Kim is a fictional character who appeared in each of the seven seasons of the American television series Star Trek : Voyager . Portrayed by Garrett Wang , he is the Operations Officer aboard the Starfleet starship USS Voyager . There was some difficulty in casting the part prior to the start of the series in 1995 , with a reported lack of young Asian actors to choose from .
The character first appeared in the pilot episode of the series , " Caretaker " . The character continued to appear throughout the series in a main cast role , with his final appearance in the finale , " Endgame " . In that episode , an alternative future version of the character is seen as a Starfleet Captain . He is typically shown as being naive , especially in romantic situations , but gifted . The character finds the ship 's first possible route home , and in one alternative future , he manages to develop a transwarp drive which allows him and Chakotay to travel home in a matter of hours but kills the rest of the crew . The producers had considered whether or not to kill off Kim during the third season . Wang subsequently reprised the role of Harry Kim for the fan @-@ made Star Trek : Renegades .
Reviewers said that Kim represented one of the elements of multiculturalism in the crew of Voyager , which also represented a proxy family for Kim . The storylines featuring Kim frequently had the character captured by aliens , something which was described as a typical Voyager storyline by critics . " Timeless " has been ranked as the best episode to feature Kim , and also the third best of the series , but holodeck episodes featuring Kim have also been listed by Io9 as some of the worst of their type in the franchise .
= = Concept and development = =
The character went through more than one name prior to casting , with it being called Jay Osaka at one point . The series bible for Star Trek : Voyager described Kim as being a sheltered individual who had sought to repay the love of his parents through fulfilling their expectations for him at Starfleet Academy . Winrich Kolbe , the director of the Voyager pilot " Caretaker " , was involved in the casting process and found Kim difficult as there wasn 't a great number of young Asian actors to choose from . He said that the role was an " inexperienced , naive character " , and that the actor cast as Kim would need to fight to stay in the forefront of episodes .
At the time of the casting , Garrett Wang had only been acting for about a year and a half , and after he was cast in the role he was described by Kolbe as a " young , up @-@ and @-@ coming actor , but he needs to learn , and that 's going to take some time . He 's one of the actors who has to really work hard on his craft in order to keep up with the others . " The naivety of the character was emphasized in the media reports , with TV Guide describing the character prior to the launch of the series as " green @-@ around @-@ the @-@ gills " .
Wang was enthusiastic about his new role , describing Kim 's background by saying that " I had a stellar Starfleet Academy career and am basically the rookie on the bridge . I 'm an Asian @-@ American . There 's the professional competence , but also the inner fear , ' Oh my God , are these britches too big for me ? ' His heritage is one of focus , of Zen and martial arts " . Of the casting , he said that " My goal now is to do the best job possible playing Harry Kim and to begin repaying my parents for the unaccountable financial support they have given me throughout the years . " The pilot of Voyager was broadcast on January 16 , 1995 .
Wang had initially gone along with the writing on the show until towards the end of the second season when he asked the production writers if he could have some actions scenes and perhaps a romance . He had realised at the time that he was the only member of the main cast without a stunt double as he had never had an action scene that required one . This resulted in the Brannon Braga penned " Non Sequitur " , to which Wang said to Rick Berman that there wasn 't a need to give him all his requests in a single episode . Following that , he became more involved in suggestions for character direction , but the writers avoided giving Kim more of a comedic element similar to The Doctor ( Robert Picardo ) and Neelix ( Ethan Phillips ) . Wang described himself as someone who tells jokes and makes impersonations on sets and was disappointed at not being able to utilise this nature . The producers at one point had planned to permanently kill off Harry Kim during season three , but after Wang was included in the People list of sexiest people alive 1997 , the plan was abandoned .
By season five of Voyager , certain characters were seen by the production staff as being under @-@ utilised , Kim amongst them . This led to episodes placing Kim , Chakotay and Tuvok in central positions , including the episode " Timeless " for the character of Kim . Wang was pleased with the episode , and felt that being able to act as the two different versions of Kim showed " a great dichotomy " . Following the end of the show in 2001 , Wang had felt that the character should have been promoted during the course of the series , but was told by producers that " someone 's got to be the ensign " .
= = Appearances = =
Kim was born in 2349 . After graduating from Starfleet Academy in 2370 , his first assignment was as the Operations Officer aboard USS Voyager as seen in " Caretaker " . Kim immediately became friends with Tom Paris ( Robert Duncan McNeill ) after he was assigned to the vessel for the mission which saw Voyager sent to track down a Maquis vessel in the Badlands . During this mission , the ship is sent some 70 @,@ 000 light years into the Delta Quadrant , where Kim and B 'Elanna Torres ( Roxann Dawson ) are abducted to an Ocampan medical facility . Both infected by an unknown ailment , they are rescued by and cured on Voyager on their escape from the underground city ; they are cured on board . At the time of the stranding of the ship , Kim was engaged to be married , but Kim was encouraged to date other crew members by Paris .
In " Eye of the Needle " , Kim found the ship 's first contact back with the Alpha Quadrant when he discovered a micro @-@ wormhole . It was discovered that it linked through to Romulan space some twenty years in the past . Kim twice travels through long @-@ range transportation systems . In " Emanations " , he is accidentally transported to the Vhnori homeworld by the effects of an alien burial system . He escapes the Vhnori and manages to go through the funeral system , killing him but returning him to Voyager where he is revived . When the crew meet the Sikaris in " Prime Factors " , Kim is the first crewman to be transported through their spatial trajector over a distance of some 40 @,@ 000 light years . Ultimately the technology proves incompatible with Voyager 's systems . On stardate 48693 @.@ 2 ( the episode " Heroes and Demons " ) , Kim is the first crewmember to be converted into energy by an alien creature appearing in a Beowulf holodeck programme . After the Doctor resolves the situation , Kim and two other crewmembers are restored .
Following a transporter accident , Kim awakes in San Francisco next to his fiancée , Libby ( Jennifer Gatti ) in the episode " Non Sequitur " . He finds that he never travelled on board Voyager , and nor did Paris . After being contacted by an alien , he discovers that the transporter interacted with an alien " time @-@ stream " and sent him into an alternative reality . After he receives assistance from Paris and the alien , he manages to restore the timeline and return to Voyager . During the episode " Persistence of Vision " , Kim hallucinates Libby after Voyager attempts to enter Bothan space . On stardate 49548 @.@ 7 , Voyager enters a plasma cloud to avoid Vidiian vessels in " Deadlock " . It is damaged , and Kim is sucked out through a hull breach into space and killed , while Naomi Wildman dies shortly after being born . The crew then find a duplicate Voyager in better condition occupying the same space but slightly out of phase . When the Vidiians attack the other Voyager , the alternative Kim is sent to the damaged version of the ship carrying the living Naomi Wildman shortly before the alternative Voyager self @-@ destructs . This destroys the two Vidiian vessels , and the damaged version of Voyager continues on its way , carrying a different version of Kim and Wildman .
Whilst on shore leave on Akritiri , Kim and Paris are falsely accused of a terrorist bombing . They are imprisoned on the planet , while the Voyager crew track down the real offenders , who help them rescue their crewmen ( episode " The Chute " . ) Whilst the crew are studying a nebula ( " Alter Ego " ) , Kim and Tuvok both become romantically attached to a holodeck character ; she turns out to be controlled by an alien on a nearby space station . Kim becomes infected with Taresian DNA leading him to suspect that he may be a member of their species in " Favorite Son " . But after discovering that it is all a ploy to extract his genetic material , he is saved by Voyager . In an alternative future seen in " Before and After " , Tom Paris and Kes ( Jennifer Lien ) marry , and give birth to a daughter Linnis ( Jessica Collins ) . Linnis and Kim marry , beget a child , Andrew Kim .
Kim becomes infected after being attacked by a member of Species 8472 whilst as a member of an away team aboard a Borg Cube in " Scorpion " . He is cured by the Doctor after the hologram develops a process utilising Borg nano @-@ probes . He is initially apprehensive working with the former Borg Seven of Nine ( Jeri Ryan ) but soon forms a new friendship . Following the events of " Demon " , Kim is one of the first crewmembers to be duplicated by an alien entity on a class @-@ Y planet . The duplicate crew are later killed after they leave the planet , and forget that they are duplicates . The duplicate version of Kim is the last Captain of the ship , before deciding to drop out of warp by ejecting the warp core , destroying it . Kim develops a transwarp drive in " Timeless " , which should allow Voyager to return to the Alpha Quadrant in hours . During the trip home , the ship is destroyed but Kim and Chakotay make it through on a shuttle . Years later , an older Kim and Chakotay find the destroyed Voyager and Kim manages to send a message back in time to Seven of Nine , averting the disaster and resetting the timeline .
Kim becomes infected with a bio @-@ chemical bond after having sex with a Varro named Tal ( Musetta Vander ) in " The Disease " , but the effects are removed by the Doctor . Alongside Tom Paris , Kim creates an Irish village holodeck program in " Fair Haven " . This later causes problems when the holodeck characters begin to recognise changes made to the program and that the Starfleet crew are not from their " world " . Kim is once again imprisoned by an alien race in " Body and Soul when he is part of the crew on the Delta Flyer which is captured by the Lokirrim for transporting a hologram through their space . Whilst on another mission in the Delta Flyer in " Nightingale " , Kim takes command of an Kraylor vessel , wanting to show that he can command after spending the past seven years as an Ensign on board Voyager . He manages to return the ship to its homeworld , evading an Annari fleet en route . In " Prophecy " , Kim is sexually pursued by the Klingon Ch 'Rega ( Peggy Jo Jacobs ) ; she later chooses Neelix instead . In the alternative future seen at the start of the series finale , " Endgame " , Kim has been promoted to the rank of Captain aboard the USS Rhode Island . He attempts to convince Admiral Kathryn Janeway ( Kate Mulgrew ) out of her plan to travel back in time to help Voyager return home , but instead helps her when a Klingon vessel attacks her shuttle .
= = = Voyager relaunch novels = = =
A series of non @-@ canon novels were launched in 2003 by Pocket Books set after the return of Voyager to the Alpha Quadrant . In these novels , Harry Kim is promoted to Lieutenant and assigned as Security Chief onboard Voyager under Captain Chakotay . In the Star Trek : Online spin @-@ off novel The Needs of the Many , published in 2010 , Harry Kim is the commanding officer of Starbase 11 in the year 2400 .
= = Reception = =
The mothering nature of Janeway on Kim has been described by reviewers , with the crew forming a type of family network which has Kim as a surrogate son . His separation from his nuclear family at a young age is described as cruel , and Janeway , Chakotay and Tuvok are highlighted as his de facto parents in the series . This motherly position was described by Michelle Erica Green in her review of the episode " The Disease " for TrekNation , who described certain scenes as Kim needing to request permission from " Mommy " in order to have a relationship with an alien . She felt that the disease itself caused the character to grow a " backbone " as he had rarely asserted himself previously to the Captain .
Kim has been used to show the multiculturalism of Star Trek : Voyager . One scene was described in " Faces " by Elisabeth Anne Leonard which featured a sweeping shot around the command table of Janeway , Chakotay , Tuvok and Kim , showing a Caucasian race woman , a Native American , a man of Asian descent and a black Vulcan in a single shot . Kim 's persistent optimism has been highlighted , with him being one of the few characters in the series who by the seventh series still believed that they would return home in their lifetime . Kim seemed to be frequently captured by alien species during the course of the series to the extent that it was described as one of the typical storylines seen in Voyager during an overview by The A.V. Club .
The authors of the book Deep Space and Sacred Time : Star Trek in the American Mythos state that the episode " Deadlock , " which featured the death of Kim , was one of several examples in the Star Trek franchise where the death of a major character is reversed by a parallel existence . Other examples included in The Next Generation with the return of Tasha Yar in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " and the death of Miles O 'Brien in the Deep Space Nine episode " Visionary " . They felt that Kim also shared another similarity with " Yesterday 's Enterprise " in that in the episode " Non Sequitur " , he feels that reality has been changed – which was similar to the experience that Guinan felt in The Next Generation episode .
Amongst Kim 's relationships included the relationship with a character on the ship 's holodeck in the episode " Alter Ego " , but after building a rivalry for the character 's affections with Tuvok , he becomes disinterested after finding out that the character was being played by a real person . This relationship was highlighted as an example of how Star Trek describes the ideal woman as an " objectified embodiment of male desire with no inner self to complicate the so @-@ called relationship that a man may have with her " .
Juliette Harrisson for the website Den of Geek described " Timeless " as the best Harry Kim episode , and was the third best episode of Voyager overall . She said that " Wang ’ s bitter , emotionally scarred performance holds together an hour which also features some lovely imagery " . Episodes centering on Kim were included in io9 's list of the worst holodeck related episodes in Star Trek . These included " The Thaw " , with the worst moment described as " the Harry Kim baby thing " . Other episodes highlighted as bad included " Fair Haven " while it stated that it skipped the first season " Heroes and Demons " . Wang later returned to Star Trek in fan @-@ made productions and to the role of Harry Kim in Star Trek : Renegades , alongside Manu Intiraymi and Tim Russ from Voyager .
= Boyce McDaniel =
Boyce Dawkins McDaniel ( June 11 , 1917 - May 8 , 2002 ) was an American nuclear physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project and later directed the Cornell University Laboratory of Nuclear Studies ( LNS ) . McDaniel was skilled in constructing " atom smashing " devices to study the fundamental structure of matter and helped to build the most powerful particle accelerators of his time . Together with his graduate student , he invented the pair spectrometer .
During World War II , McDaniel used his electronics expertise to help develop cyclotrons used to separate Uranium isotopes . McDaniel is also noted as having performed the final check on the first atomic bomb prior to its detonation in the Trinity test .
= = Biography = =
Born in Brevard , North Carolina , McDaniel attended Chesterville High School in Ohio . After graduating in 1933 , he attended Ohio Wesleyan University , from which he graduated in 1938 with a Bachelor of Science . His initial postgraduate studies took place at the Case School of Applied Science , graduating with a Master 's degree in 1940 . McDaniel continued postgraduate studies when he moved to Cornell University , and in 1943 he completed his doctoral thesis , examining the absorption rates of neutrons in indium . The research was not classified , but McDaniel and Robert Bacher , his adviser at Cornell , marked it as " secret " on their own initiative . From Cornell , McDaniel moved to MIT where he held a postdoctoral position , studying " the rapidly evolving field of fast electronics " , which he applied to research in particle physics .
After the outbreak of World War II , McDaniel joined Bacher in Los Alamos , New Mexico to work for the Manhattan Project , where he became a part of Robert R. Wilson 's cyclotron research team . McDaniel was to have " a crucial role in helping to identify the amount of uranium @-@ 235 needed to ... detonate the world 's first nuclear bomb " . McDaniel is also noted as having performed the final check on the first atomic bomb prior to its detonation in the Trinity test .
McDaniel was one of many Manhanttan Project researchers to join the Cornell faculty after the war . He became an assistant professor in 1946 and became a full professor in 1955 . With his Ph.D. student Robert Walker , he invented the pair spectrometer , a device that measures gamma ray energies . He was a co @-@ founder of Cornell 's Laboratory for Nuclear Studies ( LNS ) and had a helped create the 300 megavolt ( MeV ) electron synchrotron , one of the first such accelerators in the world . He and Wilson , who was McDaniel 's predecessor as director of LNS , built three more electron synchrotrons of 1 GeV , 2 GeV , and 10 GeV , each of which enabled physicists to study phenomena in a new energy range . McDaniel quickly earned a reputation as a hands @-@ on designer as indicated by this episode in the construction of the 300 MeV synchrotron :
The magnet coil was wound incorrectly , a fatal flaw . To get it repaired by the manufacturer could take months . Mac made a toy model of the coil , studied it carefully for an evening , and discovered an ingenious but simple way to repair it , which he did in about a day , and defused the crisis .
He was a Fulbright research fellow in 1953 at the Australian National University and a Guggenheim fellow in 1959 at the University of Rome .
In 1967 , McDaniel became director of LNS and served until he retired from the Cornell faculty in 1985 . He research included important measurements with each of the series of LNS accelerators , including studies lambda @-@ meson photo production , K @-@ meson production , and measurements of the neutron electromagnetic form factors .
Wilson and McDaniel continued to collaborate at Cornell until Wilson left to head Fermilab in Batavia , Illinois in 1967 . In 1972 , Wilson invited McDaniel to serve as acting head of the accelerator section at Fermilab , and McDanield took a one year leave of absence from Cornell . Though the Fermilab accelerator had been placed into operation , it suffered from frequent component failures . When McDaniel left eight months later , he led the effort which increased the power of Fermilab 's accelerator from 20 GeV to 300 GeV and its beam density by a factor of 1000 . Of McDaniel 's contribution to Fermilab , Wilson said , " This bravura performance demonstrated Mac ’ s skill for leadership as well as his celebrated sixth sense for finding sources of trouble and fixing them . ” Upon returning to Cornell in 1974 , McDaniel proposed upgrading the then existing 10 GeV synchrotron with an 8 GeV electron @-@ positron storage ring , which would greatly increase the energy of particle collisions when the particles in the storage ring hit the particles traveling in the opposite direction in the synchrotron . When constructed in 1979 , the Cornell Electron Storage Ring became the world 's primary source of information about one of the fundamental building blocks of matter , the b @-@ quark . After the end of particle physics experiments 20 years later , CESR is now used as a test facility of damping rings for a future international linear collider . In 1981 , McDaniel developed a proposal for a new mile @-@ diameter electron @-@ positron collider called CSER II , but could not obtain the necessary $ 200 million in funding for it . In 1988 , McDaniel was Visiting Distinguished Professor at Arizona State University .
When interviewed in 1973 about his feelings on his work resulting in the dropping of atomic bombs on Japanese cities , McDaniel said :
It 's so difficult to assess these things today . I would have preferred to see a demonstration and am rather sad that it didn 't work out that way ... but I don 't know if it would have worked out as a useful venture . I have no idea what the Japanese would have done .
= = Honors = =
McDaniel was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1981 . He was a governing board member of Fermilab , a trustee of the Associated Universities , a member of the Department of Energy High Energy Advisory Panel , a trustee of the Universities Research Association and a board member of Brookhaven National Laboratory .
In 1993 , the McDaniels donated a farm to the Cornell Plantations , which named the 60 @.@ 6 acre property the Jane McDaniel Preserve .
McDaniel died of a heart attack in Ithaca , New York at the age 84 .
= What Is ... Cliff Clavin ? =
" What Is ... Cliff Clavin ? " is an eighth season episode of the American television series Cheers . It was directed by Andy Ackerman rather than James Burrows — who directed 243 out of 273 episodes of the show — and originally aired on January 18 , 1990 . In this episode , Cliff Clavin ( John Ratzenberger ) appears on the game show Jeopardy ! and game show host Alex Trebek guest stars as himself . Cliff racks up US $ 22 @,@ 000 during the game but loses it all in the final round . The episode received praise from critics for its concept and its guest star .
= = Plot = =
Cliff Clavin ( John Ratzenberger ) competes on the television game show Jeopardy ! , which has temporarily moved taping to Boston for a special occasion , and amasses $ 22 @,@ 000 by the end of the Double Jeopardy ! round , more than twice the score of the second place contestant , theoretically ensuring a win . For the Final Jeopardy ! clue of " Archibald Leach , Bernard Schwartz and Lucille LeSueur " in the category of " Movies " , Cliff responds incorrectly with " Who are 3 people who 've never been in my kitchen ? " Having wagered his entire score , Cliff loses all of his winnings . Cliff objects and argues , demanding that his answer be accepted . The show 's host , Alex Trebek , later arrives at Cheers , tells Cliff that his response should have been accepted earlier , and announces his resignation as the host of Jeopardy ! . However , Cliff convinces Trebek to remain as host by telling him how much the show and Trebek mean to him . After Cliff shares the news with others , Norm Peterson ( George Wendt ) praises Trebek for doing this just to make Cliff feel better . However , Trebek says that he did not realize that Cliff was at the bar and that meeting him had been a coincidence . Trebek says that Cliff scares him and that the story about quitting the show was a fabrication to placate him .
Meanwhile , Sam Malone ( Ted Danson ) receives telephone calls from women whom he previously dated ; they are angry with him for making dates and not arriving . He eventually discovers that his " little black book " has been stolen and enrolls the help of bar patrons to find it . Through their detective work , Sam discovers that the thief has called Sam 's women alphabetically and that Rebecca Howe ( Kirstie Alley ) is the next recipient on the list . The thief turns out to be a teenage boy named Timmy ( Greg E. Davis ) , who wants to become a " babe hound " like Sam . To let Timmy go , Sam tells him to start as a " babe pup " and to call girls who are around his age , and gives him $ 25 for a haircut and a tip for a shampoo girl .
= = Reception = =
General Norman Schwarzkopf said this was the funniest episode of Cheers . Don Leighton from Superior Telegram called this episode the greatest and said the Final Jeopardy ! moment was hilarious . Jeffrey Robinson from DVD Talk said the category topics – specifically " Civil Servants " , " Stamps from Around the World " , " Mothers and Sons " , " Beer " , " Bar Trivia " , and " Celibacy " from the first round of Jeopardy ! – and the concept of the episode were a riot . Hot Springs Village Voice called Cliff 's Final Jeopardy ! moment a classic example of his mishaps caused by his own " know @-@ it @-@ all nature " . Andrew Razeghi , in his book Hope , called this episode " one of the most memorable episodes " of Cheers , found Cliff 's response to the Final Jeopardy ! clue neither right nor wrong and an example of divergent thinking , and called Cliff a poster child of Joy Paul Guilford . Former Jeopardy ! contestant Ken Jennings , in his book Brainiac , considered this episode of all Jeopardy ! -related episodes essential as other episodes that focus on characters who either are trapped in an elevator or have two dates on the same night .
= = Legacy = =
An early Jeopardy ! reference to the Cheers episode happened during the airing of the final round of the Jeopardy ! College Championship on May 18 , 1990 . Soon @-@ to @-@ be champion Michael Thayer of Rutgers College bet $ 0 and wrote " Who was someone I never met ? " as his response in the Final Jeopardy ! round . When the contestants ' wagers and responses were revealed , Trebek commented , " Michael , looks like you were watching that episode of Cheers . " In 1999 , another Jeopardy ! contestant responded to the Final Jeopardy ! clue with this question , inspired by Cliff Clavin 's incorrect response in the Final Jeopardy ! round : " What is a book that has never been in my kitchen ? " According to Michael Gordeuk from Westfield , New Jersey , Alex Trebek later recalled Cliff 's losing moment and then " broke into a huge laugh " .
Peter Wayner from InfoWorld defined " pulling a Clavin " as a reference to Cliff Clavin 's wagering all his leading score and then losing all to a zero in the Final Jeopardy ! round and as a tactic to avoid in Jeopardy ! In the Jeopardy ! fan community , the episode gave rise to what is known as " Clavin 's Rule " ( or " pulling a Cliff Clavin " ) , a rule of thumb that states that a player should not wager enough to endanger a " lock " or " runaway " game ( one where the first @-@ place player has more than twice the score of the second @-@ place player ) , no matter how tempting the category .
In the Double Jeopardy ! round of the Jeopardy ! episode from May 10 , 2005 , the categories were the same as those shown in Cliff Clavin 's game : CIVIL SERVANTS , STAMPS FROM AROUND THE WORLD , MOTHERS & SONS , BEER , " BAR " TRIVIA , and CELIBACY .
On the first episode of Jeopardy ! season 31 , which aired on September 15 , 2014 , Jeopardy ! champion Elizabeth Williams echoed Cliff Clavin 's answer in her response to the Final Jeopardy clue . Williams ' $ 600 wager combined with her opponents ' incorrect responses allowed Williams to triumph that day , nonetheless .
= Chrono Break =
Chrono Break was a trademark for a video game registered by Square ( now Square Enix ) in the United States on December 5 , 2001 . A similar trademark was registered by the company in the European Union on December 14 , 2001 , while the trademark Chrono Brake was registered in Japan . Although no official announcement was made , the trademark 's name coupled with Final Fantasy series video game developer Hironobu Sakaguchi 's comment in regards to Chrono Cross 's development teams interest in creating a sequel , led journalists to suggest that Square was working on a new game in the Chrono series . Since the trademark was registered , however , much of the staff who worked on prior games in the series either left the company , or moved on to other long @-@ term projects . No announcements have been made by Square Enix either supporting or rejecting the idea of making another sequel , and the trademarks all expired as of 2012 .
= = History = =
= = = Registration = = =
The registration followed a press report of talks about a new Chrono series game . Within this report , Hironobu Sakaguchi stated that the development team of Chrono Cross , especially Masato Kato , was interested in creating a new game in the series , and that script and story ideas were currently being considered , but that the project had not yet been greenlighted . Kato had previously mentioned in the Ultimania guide for Chrono Cross that he wanted to create a direct sequel to Chrono Trigger to wrap up certain story elements and plot threads , but the pitfalls of a direct sequel prompted them to do Chrono Cross instead . The registration , and Sakaguchi 's comments , led video game journalists to believe that a sequel to Chrono Trigger and Chrono Cross was in full development . IGN Editor Douglass Perry went as far as to say " ... we 're almost positive that you can expect to see this awaited monster in 2004 . " On November 13 , 2003 , the trademark was dropped in the U.S. It expired on December 14 , 2011 in the European Union , and on July 26 , 2012 in Japan . A similar trademark was registered in 2001 by Square Enix in Japan as Chrono Brake ( Japanese : クロノ ・ ブレイク ) .
= = = Official response = = =
Inquiry over a new title was subsequently large enough to warrant an entry in Square Enix 's FAQ page , in which the company noted that no new game was in development , though this did not mean the series was dead . In 2006 , the entry was revised to include sequel inquiries for any series . After the release of Chrono Cross , a number of key staff from the title left Square to form a new development studio , Monolith Soft , which was initially owned by Namco and is currently a first @-@ party developer working under Nintendo . Other staff who had worked on the title remained at Square and proceeded to work on Final Fantasy XI , an MMORPG conceived by Hironobu Sakaguchi - one of Chrono Trigger ′ s creators . During an interview at E ³ 2003 , this development team stated that they would love to develop a new Chrono game , but their commitment to Final Fantasy XI would keep them busy for a long time . Richard Honeywood , localization director for Square Enix , explained ,
Final Fantasy XI is pretty much it for a while . We still have a lot of possible expansion packs we could do , and plenty of support to give . As far as Chrono is concerned , that 's huge ; but we can 't do two or three things at the same time , and it 's tough to do FFXI and another Chrono game at the same time or too close together . We 'd love to do one though , but yeah , not yet .
Takashi Tokita , who directed Chrono Trigger , mentioned a " Chrono Trigger 2 " in a 2003 interview which has not been translated to English . Trigger developer Yuji Horii expressed no interest in returning to the Chrono franchise in 2005 . In February 2007 , Square Enix producer Hiromichi Tanaka took part in several interviews while promoting games in Europe . Tanaka reiterated that no new game was in development , but that a return was certainly not out of the question .
... it 's very difficult to be able to reunite the original team , to be able to make a sequel to the Chrono series ... because if we don 't try to reunite these people but take other people instead , we will find ourselves at that point with a game which will feel different , since there would be different persons in charge , and we would possibly lose the Chrono spirit .
In January 2008 , composer Yasunori Mitsuda remarked that " there are a lot of politics involved " in creating a new game , and stressed that Masato Kato should participate in development should a new entry in the series materialize . He did say that he was open to working with the company on the series again " if they had a good concept for the game " , and he speculated that Kato " probably would " as well .
In August 2014 , at a PAX Prime panel , Sakaguchi stated that he had intended on continuing the Chrono series into another game , but that problems with Square Enix management prevented it from coming to fruition .
I think the statute of limitations has passed and expired so I think I 'm okay saying this — but we just didn 't see eye @-@ to @-@ eye with management , and so I went and fought for it , and I officially lost the battle ... Nothing 's confirmed . But again , it would be nice to be able to work on a continuation of my old creations .
= = Aftermath = =
The February 2008 issue of Game Informer ranked the Chrono series eighth among the " Top Ten Sequels in Demand " , naming the games " steadfast legacies in the Square Enix catalogue " and asking " what 's the damn holdup ? ! " . In Electronic Gaming Monthly ′ s June 2008 " Retro Issue " , writer Jeremy Parish cited Chrono as the franchise video game fans would be most thrilled to see a sequel to . In the first May Famitsu of 2009 , Chrono Trigger placed 14th out of 50 in a vote of most @-@ wanted sequels by the magazine 's readers . At E3 2009 , SE Senior Vice President Shinji Hashimoto remarked " If people want a sequel , they should buy more ! " In 2012 , a trademark for Chrono Bind by Square Enix lead Siliconera to speculate that the game had switched titles from Chrono Break to Chrono Bind ; however , it was later revealed to merely be the name of a DLC card game in Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 . In the same year , Kotaku expressed disappointment that Square Enix had not acted on the Chrono Break name , citing strong sales of the DS port of Chrono Trigger as a reason as to why the company should release a third game in the series .
= Whitefriars , Bristol =
Whitefriars was a Carmelite friary on the lower slopes of St Michael 's Hill , Bristol , England . It was established in 1267 ; in subsequent centuries a friary church was built and extensive gardens developed . The establishment was dissolved in 1538 .
Much of the site was then redeveloped by Sir John Young , who built a " Great House " there . This later became a boys ' school founded by Edward Colston in the 18th century . The Red Lodge , which survives today as a museum , had its origins as a prospect house for the Prior . The Colston Hall , a venue for concerts , was built on part of the friary site in the 19th century . A 20th @-@ century office block named Whitefriars , built a short distance way , preserves the name .
= = History = =
Whitefriars was founded in 1267 by the Prince of Wales , the future king Edward I. The friars , also known as Friars of the Blessed Virgin , wore white habits , hence the name Whitefriars . In the fifteenth century William of Worcester , described the church as having dimensions of 45 by 25 yards ( 41 m × 23 m ) , with a tower 200 feet ( 61 m ) high . The friary was described by the antiquary Leyland , writing in the early sixteenth century , as standing on the right bank of the Frome by the quay . He added that it was " the fairest friary in England " . The friary had a large expanse of adjoining land extending up St Michael 's Hill . This was used for horticulture and the Carmelites sold produce to augment their income .
Writing to Thomas Cromwell in 1538 , Richard Yngworth , one of the commissioners or visitors charged with inspecting monastic houses , reported that the contents of the friary only just met the debts owed by the friars . He described a chapel with lead roofing , gardens and a " goodly howse in byldenge , mete for a great man " , also a conduit bringing fresh water from Brandon Hill , later taken over by St John 's Church . Four remaining friars surrendered their possessions to the commissioner in the presence of the Mayor .
= = Post @-@ dissolution = =
Some monastic cells , thought to belong to the friary , survive under the Red Lodge , which had its origins as a prospect house for the prior of Whitefriars . This building became the lodge house of an Elizabethan mansion , the Great House , built in the late 16th century by John Young , who had bought the friary from Bristol Corporation after the Dissolution of the Monasteries . The Great House was where Elizabeth I stayed , as a guest of John Young , in 1574 . In the 18th century , the house was acquired by Edward Colston , who established the original Colston 's School there . After the school moved to Stapleton in 1857 , the Colston Hall Society purchased the premises , and demolished the house to build the Colston Hall , which now occupies the site . Excavations during the building of the adjacent Colston House in the early 20th century found medieval walls , burials and floor tiles .
As part of the post @-@ war redevelopment of Bristol city centre , the name Whitefriars was given to a large multi @-@ storey office development located in Lewin 's Mead , a few hundred yards from the site of the original Whitefriars and adjoining the site of the Greyfriars office complex . The building has thirteen floors and stands 49 metres ( 161 ft ) high . It was completed in 1976 .
= National Hurricane Center =
The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) , located at Florida International University in University Park , unincorporated Miami @-@ Dade County , Florida , is the division of the United States ' National Weather Service responsible for tracking and predicting weather systems within the tropics between the Prime Meridian and the 140th meridian west poleward to the 30th parallel north in the northeast Pacific ocean and the 31st parallel north in the northern Atlantic ocean . Its Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch ( TAFB ) routinely issues marine forecasts , in the form of graphics and high seas forecasts , for this area year round , with the Ocean Prediction Center having backup responsibility for this unit . The Technology and Science Branch ( TSB ) provides technical support for the center , which includes new infusions of technology from abroad . The Chief , Aerial Reconnaissance Coordination , All Hurricanes ( CARCAH ) unit tasks planes , for research and operational purposes , to tropical cyclones during the Atlantic hurricane season and significant weather events , including snow storms , during winter and spring . Research conducted to improve operational forecasts is done through the Hurricane Forecast Improvement Project ( HFIP ) and Joint Hurricane Test Bed ( JHT ) initiatives .
During the Atlantic and northeast Pacific hurricane seasons , the Hurricane Specialists Unit ( HSU ) issues routine tropical weather outlooks for the northeast Pacific and northern Atlantic oceans . When tropical storm or hurricane conditions are expected within 48 hours , the center issues the appropriate watches and warnings via the news media and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Weather Radio . Although the NHC is an agency of the United States , the World Meteorological Organization has designated it as Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the North Atlantic and eastern Pacific , making it the central clearinghouse for all tropical cyclone forecasts and observations occurring in these areas . If the center loses power or becomes incapacitated in some manner , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center backs tropical cyclone advisories and tropical weather outlooks for the northeast Pacific ocean while the Weather Prediction Center backs up tropical cyclone advisories and tropical weather outlooks for the north Atlantic ocean .
= = History = =
The first hurricane warning service was set up in the 1870s from Cuba with the work of Father Benito Viñes . After his passing , hurricane warning services were assumed by the United States Signal Corp and United States Weather Bureau over the next decade , first based in Jamaica in 1898 and Cuba in 1899 before shifting to Washington , D.C. in 1902 . The central office in Washington , which evolved into the National Meteorological Center and Weather Prediction Center ( formally known as the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center ) , assumed hurricane warning / advisory responsibility at that time . This responsibility passed to regional hurricane offices in 1935 , and the concept of the Atlantic hurricane season was established in order to keep a vigilant lookout for tropical cyclones during certain times of the year . Hurricane advisories issued every six hours by the regional hurricane offices began at this time . The Jacksonville hurricane warning office moved to Miami , Florida in 1943 . Tropical cyclone naming began for Atlantic tropical cyclones using the Joint Army / Navy Phonetic Alphabet by 1947 . Starting in 1950 , the Miami Hurricane Warning Office began to prepare the annual hurricane season summary articles . In the 1953 Atlantic season , the United States Weather Bureau began naming storms which reach tropical storm intensity with human names .
The National Hurricane Research Project , begun in the 1950s , used aircraft to study tropical cyclones and carry out experiments on mature hurricanes through its Project Stormfury . On July 1 , 1956 , a National Hurricane Information Center was established in Miami , Florida which became a warehouse for all hurricane @-@ related information from one United States Weather Bureau office . The Miami Hurricane Warning Office ( HWO ) was moved from Lindsey Hopkins Hotel to the Aviation Building 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the northwest on July 1 , 1958 . Forecasts within the hurricane advisories were issued one day into the future in 1954 before being extended to two days into the future in 1961 , three days into the future in 1964 , and five days into the future in 2001 . The Miami HWO moved to the campus of the University of Miami in 1964 , and was referred to as the NHC in 1965 . The Miami HWO tropical cyclone reports were done regularly and took on their modern format in 1964 .
Beginning in 1973 , the National Meteorological Center duties ( renamed the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center ; renamed for a second time in 2013 ) gained advisory responsibility for tracking and publicizing inland tropical depressions . The World Meteorological Organization assumed control of the Atlantic hurricane naming list in 1977 . In 1978 , the NHC 's offices moved off the campus of the University of Miami across U.S. Highway 1 to the IRE Financial Building . Male names were added into the hurricane list beginning in the 1979 season . The hurricane warning offices remained active past 1983 . In 1984 , the NHC was separated from the Miami Weather Service Forecast Office , which meant the meteorologist in charge at Miami was no longer in a position above the hurricane center director . By 1988 , the NHC gained responsibility for eastern Pacific tropical cyclones as the former Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center in San Francisco was decommissioned . In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew blew the WSR @-@ 57 weather radar and the anemometer off the roof of NHC 's / the Miami State Weather Forecast offices . The radar was replaced with a WSR @-@ 88D NEXRAD system in April 1993 installed near Metro Zoo , near where Hurricane Andrew made landfall .
In 1995 , the NHC moved into a new hurricane @-@ resistant facility on the campus of Florida International University , capable of withstanding 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) winds . Its name was changed to the Tropical Prediction Center in 1995 . After the name change to TPC , the Hurricane Specialists were grouped as a separate NHC unit under the Tropical Prediction Center , separating themselves from the Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch . On October 1 , 2010 , the Tropical Prediction Center was renamed the NHC , and the group formerly known as the NHC became known as the Hurricane Specialists Unit ( HSU ) .
Tropical cyclone forecasting is done nowadays using statistical methods based on tropical cyclone climatology , as well as methods of numerical weather prediction where computers use mathematical equations of motion to determine their movement . The World Meteorological Organization continues to create and maintain the annual hurricane naming lists . Naming lists continue to use a six @-@ year rotation , with the deadliest or most notable storms having their names retired from the rotation . The current director of the National Hurricane Center is Richard Knabb .
= = = List of directors = = =
= = Organization = =
For the fiscal year of 2008 , the budget for the NHC was $ 6 @.@ 8 million . A total of 66 people work for the NHC , with 12 of the staff composing their management . The NHC has been one of the nine national centers which compose the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) .
= = = Hurricane Specialists Unit = = =
Known as the NHC from 1995 through 2010 , the hurricane specialists within the hurricane specialists unit ( HSU ) are the chief meteorologists that predict the actions of tropical storms . The specialists work rotating eight @-@ hour shifts from May through November , monitoring weather patterns in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific oceans . Whenever a tropical or subtropical cyclone forms , they begin to issue advisories every six hours until the storm runs its course . Public advisories are issued more often when the storm expected to be of tropical storm or hurricane intensity threatens land . The specialists coordinate with officials in each country likely to be affected . They forecast and recommend watches and warnings .
During the hurricane season , the HSU routinely issues their Tropical Weather Outlook product , which identifies areas of concern within the tropics which could develop into tropical cyclones . If systems occur outside the defined hurricane season , special Tropical Weather Outlooks will be issued . Backup responsibility for their northeast Pacific area resides at the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) , and vice versa if CPHC were to have communication issues . North Atlantic responsibilities are backed up by the Weather Prediction Center ( WPC ) . Routine coordination occurs at 1700 UTC each day between the Weather Prediction Center and National Hurricane Center to identify systems for the pressure maps three to seven days into the future within the tropics , and points for existing tropical cyclones six to seven days into the future . Outside of the hurricane season , the specialists concentrate on public education efforts .
= = = Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch = = =
The Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch ( TAFB , formerly the Tropical Satellite Analysis and Forecast unit and the Tropical Analysis Center ) is a part of the National Hurricane Center and was created in 1967 . The TAFB is responsible for high seas analyses and forecasts for tropical portions of the Atlantic and Pacific between the Prime Meridian and the 140th meridian west poleward to the 30th parallel north in the northeast Pacific ocean and the 31st parallel north in the northern Atlantic ocean . Unlike the Hurricane Specialists Unit ( HSU ) , TAFB is staffed full @-@ time around the year . Other responsibilities of the TAFB include satellite @-@ derived tropical cyclone position and intensity estimates , WSR @-@ 88D radar fixes for tropical cyclones , tropical cyclone forecast support , media support , and general operational support . The Ocean Prediction Center backs up TAFB in the event of a communications outage , and vice versa .
= = = Technology and Science Branch = = =
The Technology & Science Branch ( TSB ) develops and transitions new tools and techniques into operations for tropical weather prediction in conjunction with other government and academic entities . TSB created and continues development of the Automated Tropical Cyclone Forecasting ( ATCF ) system , used to incorporate various data and model outputs , create and update HURDAT , and to generate tropical cyclone forecasts . The TSB provides support for NHC computer and communications systems including its website . TSB maintains a number of statistical and dynamical models used in predicting both tropical cyclone behavior and associated weather conditions . The Storm Surge Unit , which develops and maintains software to forecast the storm surge of tropical cyclones , is part of this branch . The Techniques Development and Applications Unit ( TDAU ) is part of TSB .
= = = CARCAH = = =
The Chief , Aerial Reconnaissance Coordination , All Hurricanes ( CARCAH ) is a subunit of the 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron ( Hurricane Hunters ) . CARCAH 's mission is to provide a point @-@ of @-@ contact and to coordinate all tropical cyclone operational reconnaissance requirements at NHC and the Central Pacific Hurricane Center for the North Atlantic , Caribbean , Gulf of Mexico , and the North Pacific basin east of the International Date Line in accordance with the National Hurricane Operations Plan ( NHOP ) . During the winter , CARCAH coordinates the Atlantic and Pacific winter storm requirements in support of the National Winter Storms Operations Plan ( NWSOP ) . Missions are flown in advance of the high @-@ impact weather events forecast to affect the U.S. , such as heavy snowfall , and at times when there is significant uncertainty within / between numerical weather prediction output .
= = = HLT = = =
The Hurricane Liaison Team ( HLT ) supports hurricane response through information exchange between the NHC , the National Weather Service ( NOAA / NWS ) , and the emergency management community . The HLT is composed of federal , state , and local emergency managers , as well as NWS meteorologists and hydrologists , who maintain open lines of communication about the progress and threat level of the storm with appropriate Federal , state , and local officials . The team establishes and facilitates video and / or teleconferences with the NHC , FEMA and other Federal agencies , state Emergency Operations Centers ( EOCs ) , Weather Prediction Center ( HPC ) , Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) , and River Forecast Centers ( RFCs ) . During significant landfalling hurricanes , the President of the United States as well as affected city mayors and state governors join the daily briefing call , which occurs at noon Eastern Daylight Time .
= = Research = =
As part of their annual tropical cyclone activity , the agency issues a report on every tropical cyclone in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Ocean basins , which are available since 1958 and 1988 , respectively . The report summarizes the synoptic history , meteorological statistics , casualties and damages , and the post @-@ analysis best track of a storm . The reports were formally known as Preliminary Reports up until 1999 . The agency maintains archives and climatological statistics on Atlantic and Pacific hurricane history , including annual reports on every tropical cyclone , a complete set of tropical cyclone advisories , digitized copies of related materials on older storms , season summaries published as the Monthly Weather Review , and HURDAT , which is the official tropical cyclone database .
Programs are dedicated to improving the accuracy of tropical cyclone forecasts from the center . The Joint Hurricane Testbed ( JHT ) is a joint operation between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and United States Weather Research Program to speed up the transfer of tropical cyclone @-@ related research into forecast operations . Since 2001 , with its annual budget of between $ 1 @.@ 0 and $ 1 @.@ 5 million , the JHT has funded 62 initiatives , with most of them being implemented operationally . The projects have had varied success , ranging from minor to significant advances in the way the NHC operates . The Hurricane Forecast Improvement Program 's ( HFIP ) five @-@ year goal is to lead to a 20 percent improvement within the numerical weather prediction models provided by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction to NHC by 2015 and a 50 percent improvement within tropical cyclone track forecasting and intensity guidance by 2020 .
= = In popular culture = =
Summer Fury ( 2014 ) , novel by former South Florida TV weatherman Gary Travers
= Ranavalona III =
Ranavalona III ( November 22 , 1861 – May 23 , 1917 ) was the last sovereign of the Kingdom of Madagascar . She ruled from July 30 , 1883 to February 28 , 1897 in a reign marked by ongoing and ultimately futile efforts to resist the colonial designs of the government of France . As a young woman , she was selected from among several Andriana qualified to succeed Queen Ranavalona II upon her death . Like both preceding queens , Ranavalona entered a political marriage with a member of the Hova elite named Rainilaiarivony , who in his role as Prime Minister of Madagascar , largely oversaw the day @-@ to @-@ day governance of the kingdom and managed its foreign affairs . Ranavalona tried to stave off colonization by strengthening trade and diplomatic relations with the United States and Great Britain throughout her reign . French attacks on coastal port towns and an assault on the capital city of Antananarivo ultimately led to the capture of the royal palace in 1895 , ending the sovereignty and political autonomy of the century @-@ old kingdom .
The newly installed French colonial government promptly exiled Rainilaiarivony to Algiers . Ranavalona and her court were initially permitted to remain as symbolic figureheads , but the outbreak of a popular resistance movement – the menalamba rebellion – and discovery of anti @-@ French political intrigues at court led the French to exile the queen to the island of Réunion in 1897 . Rainilaiarivony died that same year and shortly thereafter Ranavalona was relocated to a villa in Algiers , along with several members of her family . The queen , her family and the servants accompanying her were provided an allowance and enjoyed a comfortable standard of living including occasional trips to Paris for shopping and sightseeing . Despite Ranavalona 's repeated requests , she was never permitted to return home to Madagascar . She died of an embolism at her villa in Algiers in 1917 at the age of 55 . Her remains were buried in Algiers but were disinterred 21 years later and shipped to Madagascar , where they were placed within the tomb of Queen Rasoherina on the grounds of the Rova of Antananarivo .
= = Early years = =
Ranavalona III , daughter of Andriantsimianatra and his wife Princess Raketaka , was born Princess Razafindrahety on November 22 , 1861 , at Amparibe , a rural village in the district of Manjakazafy outside Antananarivo . Razafindrahety 's lineage , as niece to Queen Ranavalona II and great @-@ granddaughter of King Andrianampoinimerina , qualified her to potentially inherit the throne of the Kingdom of Madagascar . Her parents assigned the care of the infant Razafindrahety to a slave who served the family .
When she was old enough to attend school , Razafindrahety was taken into the custody of her aunt , Queen Ranavalona II , who ensured she began receiving a private education from a London Missionary Society ( LMS ) teacher . She was described as an industrious and inquisitive child with a strong love of studying the Bible , learning and reading , and she developed affectionate relationships with her teachers . She continued her education throughout her adolescence at the Congregational School of Ambatonakanga , the Friends High School for Girls , and the LMS Girls ' Central School . She was baptized as a Protestant at Ambohimanga on April 5 , 1874 . Her teachers consistently described her as ranking among their strongest students .
As a young woman , Razafindrahety married an Andriana ( nobleman ) named Ratrimo ( Ratrimoarivony ) . Her husband died several years later on May 8 , 1883 , aged 22 , leaving Razafindrahety a premature widow . According to rumor , Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony may have arranged to have Ratrimo poisoned for political reasons . The Aristocratic Revolution of 1863 , which had been orchestrated by Rainilaiarivony 's older brother , Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony , had replaced the absolute rule of the Andriana with a constitutional monarchy in which power was shared between an Andriana monarch and a Hova ( freeman ) prime minister . This arrangement was to be cemented by a political marriage between the prime minister and a ruling queen effectively selected by him . As Queen Ranavalona II neared death and the search for her successor began , Rainilaiarivony may have had Ratrimo deliberately poisoned so that Razafindrahety , the most eligible successor , would be free to marry the prime minister and succeed to the throne .
= = Reign = =
Ranavalona III was proclaimed queen upon the death of her predecessor , Queen Ranavalona II , on July 13 , 1883 , and moved into Tsarahafatra , a wooden house on the grounds of the royal Rova complex in Antananarivo . Her coronation took place in the Mahamasina neighborhood of Antananarivo on November 22 , 1883 , her 22nd birthday , where she was given the title " Her Majesty Ranavalona III by the grace of God and the will of the people , Queen of Madagascar , and Protectoress of the laws of the Nation " . She chose to break with tradition by supplementing the customary retinue of soldiers at her ceremony with a group of 500 male and 400 female pupils from the capital 's best schools . The girls were dressed in white while the boys wore soldiers ' uniforms and performed traditional military drills with spears . Ranavalona was crowned wearing a white silk gown with a red train featuring embroidery and gold embellishments . The queen was described in the American press in the following terms : " She is a little above the ordinary height and has delicate features , her complexion is a little darker than that of most of her subjects . She appears quite timid and she presides well at the solemn functions of her court . "
Like her two predecessors , Ranavalona concluded a political marriage with Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony . The young queen 's role was largely ceremonial as nearly all important political decisions continued to be made by the much older and more experienced prime minister . Ranavalona was frequently called upon to deliver formal speeches ( kabary ) to the public on behalf of Rainilaiarivony and would make appearances to inaugurate new public buildings , such as a hospital at Isoavinandriana and a girls ' school at Ambodin 'Andohalo . Throughout her reign , Ranavalona 's aunt , Ramisindrazana , acted as an adviser and exercised considerable influence at court . Ranavalona 's older sister , Rasendranoro , whose son Rakatomena and daughter Razafinandriamanitra lived with their mother at the Rova , was also a close companion . An American journalist who visited her palace reported that Ranavalona spent much of her leisure time flying kites or playing lotto , a parlor game , with her relatives and other ladies at court . She also enjoyed knitting , needlework and crocheting and would frequently bring her latest craft project to work on at cabinet meetings . She had a great love of fine garments and was the only Malagasy sovereign to import the majority of her clothing from Paris rather than London .
= = = Franco @-@ Hova War = = =
As sovereign of Madagascar , Ranavalona III became a pawn in the endgame of the maneuvering that had been taking place between the British and French since the beginning of the century . The tension between France and Madagascar had grown especially acute in the three years prior to Ranavalona 's succession , with an intensification of attacks in the months prior to her coronation . In February 1883 the northwestern coast was bombarded , followed by the occupation of Mahajanga by the French in May , and bombardment and capture of Toamasina in June . Attacks along the northern coast were ongoing at the time Ranavalona III was crowned in the summer of 1883 . Shortly after the French initiated this latest round of hostilities , Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony decided to engage Lieutenant Colonel Willoughby , a Briton who had gained combat experience in the Anglo @-@ Zulu War ( but without having been a member of the British armed forces ) , to oversee the nation 's military affairs and train the queen 's army to defend the island against the seemingly inevitable French invasion .
Throughout this period Madagascar continued to engage the French in negotiations , but these were to prove unsuccessful with both sides unwilling to capitulate on key points of contention . After two years of stalemate , a column brought an ultimatum to Antananarivo in December 1885 , asking for recognition of French rights in northeastern Madagascar , a French protectorate over the Sakalava , recognition of French property principles and an indemnity of 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 francs . This peace treaty was ratified by Ranavalona and Rainilaiarivony in January 1886 and French government representatives two months later .
Prior to ratification , the queen and her prime minister sought clarification about several articles in the main treaty that stated " foreign relations " would be controlled by a French resident and referenced " establishments " at Diego @-@ Suarez Bay . Two key French negotiators , Minister Patrimonio and Admiral Miot , provided an explanation affixed to the treaty as an annex , which led the rulers of Madagascar to deem the treaty an adequate enough safeguard of their nation 's sovereignty to warrant their approval and signature . However , the official treaty was published in Paris without the annex or any reference to it . When the annex was later published in London , the French denied it had any legal validity . France declared a protectorate over the island despite the opposition of the Malagasy government and the omission of this term from the treaty .
The international reaction to this latest turn of events was varied and greatly colored by national interests . The British were unwilling to defend Madagascar 's sovereignty for fear that the French might retaliate and fail to recognize the British claim to certain protectorates of its own . All official British engagement with Madagascar was henceforth transacted through the French resident , but these communiques were not officially recognized by Ranavalona and her court . The United States and Germany , on the other hand , continued to deal directly with the queen 's government as the rightful authority in Madagascar . This discrepancy forced a reinterpretation of one aspect of the treaty , resulting in the queen 's authority over internal affairs being maintained .
In 1886 the queen attempted to solicit the support of the United States in preserving Madagascar 's sovereignty by sending gifts to then @-@ President Grover Cleveland , including silk akotofahana cloths , an ivory pin and a woven basket . However , the United States was neither able nor inclined to assert itself militarily or diplomatically in favor of preserving Madagascar 's independence . Ranavalona signed a treaty granting further concessions to the French on December 12 , 1887 .
France 's claim to Madagascar as its protectorate was officially recognized by Britain in the Anglo @-@ French agreement of 1890 . Between 1890 and 1894 , the French sought to aggressively claim what they believed to be the territorial rights established by the treaty . However , these French land claims and settlements were perceived by Ranavalona and Rainilaiarivony as an unjustifiable encroachment upon Malagasy sovereignty . Ultimately Charles Le Myre de Vilers was sent to persuade the queen and her prime minister to submit to the French interpretation of the treaty with the intent to launch a war and take the island by force if an agreement was not reached . The French offer was flatly refused and diplomatic relations between France and Madagascar were broken off in November 1894 .
Upon terminating diplomatic relations , the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast in December 1894 , then captured Mahajanga on the west coast the following month and immediately began their gradual advance , constructing roads through the malarial swamps that hindered passage to the island 's interior . The main expeditionary troops arrived in May . Over 6 @,@ 000 of the original 15 @,@ 000 French soldiers lost their lives to disease as they gradually moved inland , necessitating several thousand reinforcements drawn from French colonies in Algeria and Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . The column reached the capital in September 1895 . For three days the Malagasy army managed to hold the French troops at the periphery of the city , but upon French bombardment of the Rova palace compound with heavy artillery , Ranavalona agreed to surrender control of her kingdom to the French .
= = = French colonization = = =
France officially annexed Madagascar on January 1 , 1896 . That August , the French officially declared Madagascar to be their colony and exiled Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to Algiers ( in French Algeria ) where he died the following year . The queen and much of her administration remained but were afforded no real political power . Shortly after Rainilaiarivony 's exile , Ranavalona was approached by a French official who informed her that a new prime minister would need to be selected . The queen hastily concluded that General Jacques Duchesne , the French general who had successfully led the military campaign against the Merina monarchy , would be a probable choice . Assuming that Malagasy political tradition would be preserved , Ranavalona believed she would be forced to marry whichever man was chosen for the job and worriedly asked if Duchesne was to be her next husband . Surprised , the French official reassured her that France had no intention of imposing a husband on the queen and would never again require her to marry a prime minister . The queen 's minister of foreign affairs , Rainitsimbazafy , was nominated to the post of prime minister by mutual consent .
In December 1895 , two months after the French capture of Antananarivo , popular resistance to French rule emerged in the form of the menalamba ( " red shawl " ) rebellion . This guerrilla war against foreigners , Christianity and political corruption quickly spread throughout the island and was principally conducted by peasants who wore shawls smeared with the red laterite soil of the highlands . The resistance movement gained ground until it was effectively put down by the French military at the end of 1897 . Members of Ranavalona 's court were accused of encouraging the rebels and many leading figures were executed , including the queen 's uncle Ratsimamanga ( brother of her favored adviser , Ramisindrazana ) and her minister of war , Rainandriamampandry . Ramisindrazana , the queen 's aunt , was exiled to Réunion , as the French were reluctant to execute a woman .
The resistance led the government of France to replace the island 's civil governor , Hippolyte Laroche , with a military governor , Joseph Gallieni . The day before Gallieni arrived in Antananarivo , he had a message sent to the queen requiring her to present herself and her entourage at the military headquarters , preceded by a standard bearer carrying a French flag . The queen was obliged to sign documents handing over all royal property to France before being placed under arrest and imprisoned in her own palace . She was only allowed to receive visitors who had obtained prior authorization from Gallieni himself . While imprisoned , Ranavalona offered to convert to Roman Catholicism in an attempt to curry French favor but was informed that such a gesture was no longer necessary .
= = Exile = =
Gallieni exiled Ranavalona from Madagascar on February 27 , 1897 , and officially abolished the monarchy the next day . French officials ordered the queen to leave her palace at 1 : 30 in the morning . She was carried from Antananarivo by palanquin as the city slept , accompanied by 700 – 800 escorts and porters . Throughout the days spent traveling to the eastern port of Toamasina where she would board a ship to Réunion , Ranavalona reportedly drank heavily , swigging rum directly from the bottle in an uncustomarily coarse fashion . At Toamasina on March 6 , Ranavalona was notified that her sister Rasendranoro and aunt Ramasindrazana would be arriving shortly , as would the queen 's fourteen @-@ year @-@ old niece , Razafinandriamanitra , who was nine months pregnant with the illegitimate child of a French soldier .
= = = Réunion Island = = =
Together , the family sailed on La Peyrouse to the port of Pointe des Galets , a site twenty kilometers ( 12 @.@ 5 miles ) from the capital of St. Denis , to secure a discreet arrival . Despite this effort , a crowd of French onlookers jeered and shouted as the boat docked , angry at the queen for the loss of French lives incurred during France 's campaign to occupy Madagascar . After waiting for the crowd to disperse , the captain escorted the queen and her party into a horse @-@ drawn buggy , the first Ranavalona had ever seen , and drove to the Hotel de l 'Europe in St. Denis . Young Razafinandriamanitra , suffering from the emotional and physical strains of the journey into exile , went into labor shortly after reaching the hotel . She gave birth to a little girl on her second day in Réunion , but could not recover her strength and died five days later . The infant was named Marie @-@ Louise and was baptised a Catholic to avoid antagonizing the French . Marie @-@ Louise , who could have become heir @-@ apparent according to the traditional rules of succession , was adopted by Ranavalona as her own daughter .
Within a month the party had been moved to a house owned by a Madame de Villentroy , located at the corner of rue de l 'Arsenal and rue du Rempart near the French government offices in St. Denis . Ranavalona was reportedly pleased with the two @-@ story house , which had a large walled garden and featured a peaked roof and wrap @-@ around veranda reminiscent of the traditional highland homes of Madagascar . In addition to the queen and her aunt , sister , and grand @-@ niece , the royal household included two secretaries , a cook , a maid , three servants for Ranavalona , and several more servants for her aunt and sister . The queen 's private pastor was authorized to make visits freely to the royal household .
The queen 's party occupied the house in Réunion for just under two years . As tensions between England and France began to mount once again , this time over the conflict in Sudan , the French authorities became concerned that elements of the population in Madagascar might seize the opportunity to launch a new rebellion against French rule . The queen 's proximity to Madagascar was seen as a possible source of encouragement for would @-@ be Malagasy rebels . French authorities made an abrupt decision to remove Ranavalona and her party to Algeria , a more distant location . On February 1 , 1899 , with very little forewarning , Ranavalona and her family were ordered aboard the Yang @-@ Tse accompanied by a secretary @-@ interpreter and several maids . During the 28 @-@ day journey to the French port of Marseilles , the passengers stopped over at such ports as Mayotte , Zanzibar , Aden and Djibouti . Throughout the trip , the various captains responsible for the journey were under orders to prevent Ranavalona from speaking with anyone who was not French . The party was held for several months at Marseilles before being transferred to a villa in the Mustapha Superieur area in Algiers . Ranavalona had hoped to continue on to Paris and was greatly disappointed to learn she was instead being sent to Algeria , reportedly bursting into tears and remarking , " Who is certain of tomorrow ? Only yesterday I was a queen ; today I am simply an unhappy , broken @-@ hearted woman . "
= = = Algeria = = =
At the queen 's villa in Algiers , Ranavalona was provided with servants and a French female attendant who kept her under observation and remained present whenever the queen entertained guests in her home . In addition , the government of France initially provided Ranavalona with an annual allowance of 25 @,@ 000 francs paid from the budget for the colony of Madagascar and authorized by the colony 's Governor General . Nearly all the queen 's property had been seized by the colonial authority , although she had been permitted to keep certain personal belongings , including some of her jewelry . Her initial pension allowed such a humble lifestyle that the colonial government of Algeria lobbied unsuccessfully several times on her behalf to obtain an increase for her . Ranavalona also tasked a servant with selling some of her jewelry for cash , but the plan was discovered by the French colonial authorities and the servant was discharged and sent back to Madagascar .
During the first years of her exile in Algeria , Ranavalona soon discovered the excitement of the socialite lifestyle among the elite of Algiers . She was regularly invited to parties , outings and cultural events and often hosted events of her own . However , homesickness was ever @-@ present and the impossibility of visiting Madagascar contributed to melancholy and boredom . She would frequently take long walks alone in the countryside , along the beach , or through the town to clear her mind and lift her spirits . The queen was eager to see mainland France and especially Paris and repeatedly submitted formal requests for permission to travel . These were routinely denied until May 1901 when Ranavalona received the first of many authorizations to visit France . That very month , the queen moved into a small apartment in the 16th arrondissement of Paris near the Avenue Champs @-@ Élysées and what is now the Place Charles de Gaulle , from which she visited the major sights of the city and was invited to numerous receptions , balls , shows and other events . She was widely received by high society with courtesy and admiration and was offered many gifts including a costly gown . During this first trip , Ranavalona visited the Palace of Versailles , was formally received at the Paris City Hall , and spent three weeks on vacation in Bordeaux . Finally , Ranavalona visited the beaches of Arcachon before exhausting her budget and boarding an Algeria @-@ bound ship at Marseilles in early August . The details of her visit attracted much attention from the Parisian press , which expressed sympathy for the queen 's fate and recrimination toward the French government for failing to provide a larger pension or accord her the consideration she deserved as a recipient of the Legion of Honor .
Ranavalona would return to France six more times over the course of the next twelve years . Her frequent visits and excellent reputation made her the cause célèbre of many French citizens who pitied the queen 's fate and admired her gracious acceptance of her new life . Ranavalona 's visits were generally accompanied by much media fanfare and the queen 's popularity among the French public grew to the extent that she was featured on the box of Petit Beurre cookies in 1916 . The queen 's second visit to France occurred in September 1903 , when she visited Vic @-@ sur @-@ Cère and Aurillac . Pressure by citizens during this visit succeeded in raising her pension to 37 @,@ 000 francs . Two years later she would visit Marseilles and Saint @-@ Germain and inhabit a large five @-@ bedroom Parisian apartment in the sixteenth arrondissement from which she would attend the Paris Opera , observe a session of the French House of Representatives and be formally received at the Ministry of the Colonies . Again due to pressure from sympathetic French citizens , Ranavalona 's pension was further raised to 50 @,@ 000 francs per annum . On her next visit in 1907 , the queen would use Dives @-@ sur @-@ Mer as a home base to visit the Calvados region , where she was photographed for the French press . From August to September 1910 , Ranavalona would visit Paris , Nantes , La Baule and Saint @-@ Nazaire and was repeatedly the target of undesired attention from press photographers . Her 1912 trip to the tiny , remote village of Quiberville would coincide with the increase of her annual pension to 75 @,@ 000 francs . The queen 's final voyage in 1913 would take her to Marseilles , Aix @-@ les @-@ Bains and Allevard .
The advent of World War I in 1914 put an end to Ranavalona 's visits to France . Throughout her time in Algeria , she and her family regularly attended the weekly Protestant service at the Reformed Church building in central Algiers . After the war began she sought to contribute by vigorously participating in the activities of the Algerian Red Cross .
= = Death and aftermath = =
Ranavalona died without ever having returned to Madagascar , after two formal requests in 1910 and 1912 were refused on the pretext of insufficient funds in the colonial coffers . The exiled queen died suddenly at her villa in Algeria on May 23 , 1917 , the victim of a severe embolism . Ranavalona was buried at the Saint @-@ Eugene cemetery in Algiers at 10 : 00 a.m. on May 25 . Her funeral was attended by dozens of personal friends , admirers , Red Cross colleagues , members of her church congregation and prominent figures of the political and cultural elite of Algiers . By nine in the morning , a long line of cars had already formed at the entrance to the memorial site .
This effusive display of respect and remembrance on the part of Ranavalona 's friends was not mirrored by subsequent actions of the French colonial administration in Madagascar . In June 1925 , eight years after the queen 's death , the Governor @-@ General of Algeria informed the Governor @-@ General of Madagascar by letter that payments for the maintenance of Ranavalona 's tomb were in default . He urged the colonial government in Madagascar to provide funds for the upkeep of the dilapidated tomb , emphasizing that such neglect was unworthy of the queen 's memory and the government of France alike . The request was twice refused and the tomb was never refurbished . In November 1938 , Ranavalona 's remains were exhumed and re @-@ interred in the tomb of Queen Rasoherina at the Rova of Antananarivo in Madagascar . A fire on the night of 6 November 1995 severely damaged the royal tombs and destroyed most of the other buildings at the site . The lamba @-@ wrapped remains of Ranavalona III were the only ones that could be saved from the flames . These have since been re @-@ interred in the royal tombs at Ambohimanga .
Following Ranavalona 's death , her aunt Ramasindrazana left Algeria and moved to Alpes @-@ Maritimes where she lived out the few remaining years of her life . The heir @-@ apparent , Marie @-@ Louise , had left Ranavalona 's villa several years earlier to study at a French high school and would go on to marry a French agricultural engineer named Andre Bosshard on June 24 , 1921 . Although she continued to receive a small pension from the French government throughout her lifetime , Marie @-@ Louise chose to pursue a career as a nurse and was awarded the Legion of Honor for her medical services during World War II . After Bosshard and the childless Marie @-@ Louise divorced , the young woman reportedly made the most of her new @-@ found freedom as a flamboyant and vivacious socialite . Marie @-@ Louise died in Bazoches @-@ sur @-@ le @-@ Betz on January 18 , 1948 , without leaving any descendants , and was buried in Montreuil , France .
= = Honors = =
= = = National honors = = =
Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of the Royal Hawk ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .
Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of Radama II ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .
Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of Merit ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .
Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of Military Merit ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .
Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of the Kingdom ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .
Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of Ranavalona ( 1896 ) .
= = = Foreign honors = = =
Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honor ( 18 / 01 / 1887 ) .
= = Ancestry = =
= Flight Unlimited =
Flight Unlimited is a 1995 aerobatic flight simulator video game developed and published by Looking Glass Technologies . It allows players to pilot reproductions of real @-@ world aircraft and to perform aerobatic maneuvers . They may fly freely , race through floating rings against a timer or take lessons from a virtual flight instructor . The instructor teaches basic and advanced techniques , ranging from rudder turns to maneuvers such as the tailslide , Lomcevak and Immelmann turn .
Flight Unlimited was the first self @-@ published game released by Looking Glass Technologies . It was intended to establish the company as a video game publisher and to compete with flight simulator franchises such as Microsoft Flight Simulator . Project leader Seamus Blackley , a particle physicist and amateur pilot , conceived the game in 1992 . He felt that other flight simulators failed to convey the experience of real flight , and he reacted by coding a simulated atmosphere for Flight Unlimited based on real @-@ time computational fluid dynamics . Aerobatic pilot Michael Goulian endorsed the game and assisted the team in making it more true to life .
Flight Unlimited received positive reviews from critics and was a commercial success ; its sales exceeded 780 @,@ 000 copies by 2002 . Reviewers lauded its realism , flight instruction , graphics and sense of flight , but some criticized its high system requirements . The game was followed by two sequels : Flight Unlimited II ( 1997 ) and Flight Unlimited III ( 1999 ) . A combat @-@ oriented successor , Flight Combat , was released in 2002 as Jane 's Attack Squadron after a series of setbacks . Soon after Flight Unlimited 's completion , Blackley was fired from Looking Glass . He went on to design Jurassic Park : Trespasser at Dreamworks Interactive and later spearhead the Xbox project at Microsoft .
= = Gameplay = =
Flight Unlimited is a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) flight simulator video game : its gameplay is a simulation of piloting real @-@ world airplanes . Players may control the Bellanca Decathlon , Extra 300S , Pitts Special S @-@ 2B , Sukhoi Su @-@ 31 and Grob G103a Twin II sailplane . The game begins at the fixed @-@ base operator ( FBO ) interface — a traversable 3D room whose contents represent menu options . For example , the player interacts with a row of scale airplane models to select an aircraft , and with a world globe to change airfield locations . Six settings are available , including Sedona , Arizona and Springfield , Vermont .
The player may choose to begin flight on a runway or taxiway , or in the air . Aircraft are controlled via keyboard , joystick , head @-@ mounted display or specialized input devices such as pedals . During flight , several third- and first @-@ person camera angles may be selected . For example , the third @-@ person Flyby View places the camera in front of the plane as it flies past , while the first @-@ person Three @-@ Way View displays more information about the plane 's position and speed than other angles . Certain camera angles , including the Three @-@ Way View and 3 @-@ D Cockpit view , provide the player with simulated flight instruments such as an altimeter , airspeed indicator , accelerometer , variometer and tachometer . The game is designed to allow players to perform aerobatic maneuvers such as the Immelmann turn , tailslide , Lomcevak and Cuban Eight . Performances may be recorded and played back , with controls that allow the player to pause , rewind and fast forward . At any time , the player may stop a recording and resume flight from that point .
The game contains lessons that cover basic and advanced flight techniques , ranging from rudder turns to challenging aerobatic maneuvers . A simulated flight instructor offers real @-@ time advice based on the player 's performance . Certificates are earned by performing well during lessons . In Hoops courses , the player undertakes a time trial through rings that float in the sky , with the option to enable a " ghost plane " of the highest score . Four types of Hoops courses are available : Basic , Challenge , Distance and Trick . The last is intended as a highly demanding test of the player 's aerobatic ability . The game 's sole non @-@ powered aircraft , the Grob G103a Twin II sailplane , features its own game mode focused on energy management . The player attempts to use the direction of the wind , thermals — which realistically occur above areas that absorb more heat , such as plains and parking lots — and the orographic lift caused by slopes to stay airborne for as long as possible .
= = Development = =
= = = Origin = = =
The concept of Flight Unlimited originated from Looking Glass Technologies ' discontent with contemporary flight simulators . Company co @-@ founders Paul Neurath and Ned Lerner wanted to develop an exceptional game in the genre , and Neurath considered the idea during the production of Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss and Ultima Underworld II : Labyrinth of Worlds . In 1992 , Seamus Blackley , who had been undertaking graduate studies in particle physics at the Fermilab research facility , was hired through a want advertisement that Lerner had placed on a bulletin board . At the company , Blackley programmed the physics modeling system for a racing game and designed a large number of standalone physics demonstrations . He became fascinated by physics programming . An amateur pilot and flight devotee , Blackley asked Lerner extensive questions about his earlier game Chuck Yeager 's Advanced Flight Trainer , which Blackley held in high regard . In reaction to Blackley 's enthusiasm , Neurath suggested that the company develop a " traditional Cessna sim " .
However , Blackley instead proposed an aerobatics training simulation , which he had conceived while reading an aerobatics magazine on a Lexington , Massachusetts bus . Collaborating with Ultima Underworld II programmer Greg Travis , he created a thirty page concept document that outlined the game . His core idea was to recreate the " yummy , visceral , fluid feeling that you get when flying a real airplane " . He wanted the project to bear more resemblance to a playground than to a video game , and he sought to give it simple controls and realistic terrain to decrease the learning curve for beginners . Blackley assumed the role of project leader and then engaged the team in " flaming sessions " to generate ideas . According to programmer Doug Church , Blackley 's concept of the game was not fully developed , but he clearly expressed his thoughts and motivated the team . The first months of the project produced disparate prototypes that demonstrated prospective features . The company committed to full development of the game in early 1993 , and production commenced in March .
= = = Production = = =
Blackley 's first objective was to code the game 's simulated physics . He began by deciding on a programming method — in particular , he sought one that would allow aircraft to perform the " knife @-@ edge spin " maneuver that he had witnessed at air shows . In 1995 , he said that he had never played a flight simulator with an accurate sense of flight . He later described his belief that the genre had stagnated , and that flight games were evaluated " by [ their ] implementation of the standard feature set " , rather than by their enjoyability . Blackley researched physics programming in contemporary flight simulators , and he discovered that many used large databases of wind tunnel and plane sensory equipment information to dictate how aircraft would operate in prerecorded scenarios . Higher @-@ end simulators used a " Newtonian " system , in which algebra @-@ based measurements of force vectors determine a plane 's position in real @-@ time . However , Blackley believed that neither system correctly simulated the experience of flight .
In reaction , he used his knowledge of particle physics to create a real @-@ time computational fluid dynamics ( CFDs ) model for Flight Unlimited . The result is a simulated atmosphere : air acts as a fluid that automatically reacts to the shape of any object placed within it . Blackley gave the example that a lawn chair , if placed within the game 's real @-@ time CFDs model , would fall merely because of its shape . The game 's planes fly because the interaction of their architecture with the atmosphere creates lift , as with real @-@ world aircraft . Changes in the plane 's direction are caused by the interaction of their flight control surfaces ( ailerons , elevators and rudders ) with the simulated atmosphere . Because it simulates the dynamics of flight in real @-@ time , the system allows for aerobatic maneuvers that were impossible in previous flight simulators . In 1994 , Blackley said that it was possibly the first flight code designed for aerobatics . In constructing the CFDs model , Blackley and the team built from the Navier – Stokes equations of fluid motion , which Blackley described as " horrible , complicated partial differential equations " . According to Computer Gaming World , Blackley did not seek to represent the equations with perfect accuracy , and he was satisfied when the results were consistent and the sensation that they generated was correct .
After programming a basic version of the CFDs model , Blackley used several programs to examine the simulated currents of air that flowed across a model of a flat plate . He adjusted the code until the plate fell realistically , and then constructed test models for a plane wing and fuselage . He eventually built a complete but dysfunctional plane by using data from " pinhead books " . By reading aircraft design manuals , he discovered that the problems were caused by his plane 's incorrect tail and center of gravity . Following this , he created an exact three @-@ dimensional model of the Extra 300S over roughly three days . As he had not yet simulated the physical attributes of its propeller , Blackley programmed the plane to be propelled from the rear . However , the accurate model performed properly in the simulated atmosphere .
Artists Mike Marsicano and Kurt Bickenbach played critical roles in the creation of the game 's aircraft models , which were built in 3D Studio . As reference material , the team photographed real planes at several airfields , and they received blueprints and datasheets from aircraft manufacturers . The game 's Grob G103a Twin II sailplane was based directly on the one that Blackley owned at the time . The sophistication of the real @-@ time CFDs complicated the 3D modeling process , as the planes required accurate geometry to fly properly . While attempting to meet this goal , however , Bickenbach said that the models he created were overly detailed , which caused the team to struggle with performance issues related to the high number of polygons . Reducing the number altered the plane 's shape , which in turn reduced its flight realism ; this necessitated a balance between performance and accuracy . To obtain audio for the planes , Greg LoPiccolo and Tom Streit — former bassist and road manager , respectively , of the band Tribe — visited a Florida importer of Russian aerobatic aircraft . The two placed microphones inside the cockpits and next to the engines , and they flew each plane at multiple speeds while recording with a digital audio tape machine . Combining this material with digital recordings of wind sounds , the team fashioned a physics @-@ based sound system : sounds of the wind and engine are altered in real @-@ time based on wind speed in the game .
The flight instructor was created by programmer Andrew Grant and voiced by Tom Streit . It monitors the player 's controller input during " each frame of animation " . If a maneuver is attempted , the instructor " interpolates the initial control movements " and predicts which maneuver is being performed . The instructor then gives advice on how to complete the maneuver and offers guidance if a mistake is made . Grant believed that the code is sometimes " too picky " , and he stated that it expects players to perform maneuvers more precisely than is humanly possible . The team initially planned to include an online multiplayer component , which would have allowed 64 planes to fly in the same area — thereby giving players the ability to compete with one another . However , the feature was not implemented into the final game . The staff members also sought to include aerobatic competitions in which the player could participate , but the idea was dropped because of difficulties with realism . Problems with artificially intelligent judges were also a factor in the feature 's removal .
Flight Unlimited 's terrain graphics were created with stereophotogrammetry . The team gathered aerial photographs from locations in France and the United States . They combined two to three images of each area to create digital reproductions roughly 11 square miles ( 28 km2 ) in size . Each location in the game was based on two stereoscopic sets of photographs , which were processed for more than 72 hours by a " dedicated Pentium tucked away in a dark corner " . From the contrasting images , the computer generated a terrain " data blanket " with 3D height variations . While the team had considered using satellite or surveillance aircraft images to create the game 's terrain graphics , they found that the resolution was inadequate . Material from geographic information systems was also studied , but associate producer Paul Schaffer said that it would have been " astronomically expensive " to obtain data with the necessary resolution .
After assembling a playable demo of Flight Unlimited , the team requested assistance from then @-@ US Aerobatic Team member Michael Goulian , who worked as a flight instructor at the nearby Hanscom Field . Because of the game 's flight code , Goulian was able to execute aerobatic maneuvers within less than three minutes of playing the game ; and he later performed his " entire basic aerobatic routine " . Blackley told PC Gamer US that , while Goulian disliked flight simulators , " When he flew Flight Unlimited , he just said ' pretty cool . ' I was so psyched " . Goulian assisted the team during the next year of development : he co @-@ designed the game 's flight lessons and advised the team on adjustments to the plane models . Aerobatic pilot Patty Wagstaff was also consulted . At one point , the team encountered problems while testing a maneuver in the game 's Sukhoi Su @-@ 31 , and Blackley was concerned that he would need to rework the game 's physics code . However , Goulian phoned a colleague — a Russian pilot — who told them to compensate for the plane 's abnormally large ailerons . Using his advice on flying the real @-@ world plane , the team found that the maneuver worked correctly . Goulian endorsed Flight Unlimited and wrote the foreword to its official strategy guide .
The graphics and physics code increased the game 's system requirements , and the team worked to optimize performance during development . They struggled to improve the game 's memory usage : the process consumed nearly as much time as the creation of the physics model , according to Church . Programmer Eric Twietmeyer ran weekly tests of the game 's performance by disabling certain parts of the code — such as the physics calculations — to isolate which parts used the most memory . By 1994 , Blackley 's physics code took up only 1 % of CPU time , with the rest allocated to the terrain renderer . Blackley optimized his code by converting the mathematical calculations of air from the 3D game world into a " math @-@ friendly space " , during which time the Navier @-@ Stokes equations are applied . Afterwards , the data is returned to 3D space . According to Computer Gaming World , this method increased speed by " a factor of 100 , with almost no loss in precision . " The team had trouble with complex memory @-@ related glitches during development . Church called them " crazy " , and programmer Greg Travis noted that debugging the terrain cache system was a " nightmare " .
While leading the team , Blackley adopted a loose style of supervision . According to Opening the Xbox author Dean Takahashi , " Blackley [ was not ] ultra @-@ organized . His idea of good management was to invite someone over for a gourmet dinner and have a casual conversation about work " . However , Takahashi wrote that " Blackley worked hard to inspire his team " , and he described artist James Dollar 's belief that , " in contrast to other Looking Glass managers , he didn 't take over tasks and make others feel stupid " . During the first two years of production , the team was divided into small groups that worked on the game 's elements separately . For example , Blackley programmed the game 's physics , while Eric Twietmeyer and Tim Day created the terrain renderer . However , Doug Church later said that , while " the team [ did ] | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
-@ old American Civil War veteran and dealing with a strike by the doctors and nurses . Another episode saw Noland create a mythical patient and then claim that the patient died , the cause of death being the result of a lack of cardiac crash carts on each floor of the hospital . Johnson and Vincent 's favorite episode was one where the X @-@ rays of a professional footballer are misread , resulting in him being placed by mistake in " Crutchfield 's Traction " , in which holes are drilled in his head and tongs inserted in them .
= = = Second season reviews = = =
In reviewing The New Temperatures Rising Show , Associated Press television writer Jay Sharbutt noted :
First the hopeful note : There are faint signs the tinkering with Temperatures format could make the series funny later on , but only if the writing improves . The show now leaves most of the mugging to Lynde and no longer insists that each regular is wacky . It 's all feeble stuff but the cast is vastly improved and the new approach portends to better things ahead .
Likewise , Los Angeles Times critic Cecil Smith , who considered the original format " maybe the three worse shows on television rolled into one " now remarked : " Paul Lynde for the first time that I can recall has a part worthy of his mettle . The people surrounding him are first rate . "
= = = Sinking ratings = = =
Despite some heavy promotion the black comedy approach was not what audiences wanted to see , especially with Paul Lynde . As a result , the ratings for the series fell well below the levels of the previous season . The last of The New Temperatures Rising Show 's thirteen episodes aired on January 8 , 1974 . The following Tuesday , January 15 , ABC premiered Happy Days in its place . According to co @-@ producer Mitchell , " ... the audience didn 't buy that at all . They just didn 't get it . It was funny if you like black comedy , but if you don 't it would disturb you . So the show failed miserably and we lost the job and the show . "
= = Summer replacement = =
= = = Third concept = = =
When John Mitchell and Barry Diller noticed that The New Temperatures Rising Show was failing they contacted William Asher and asked him to salvage the series . According to Asher :
They asked if I 'd go back to the old Temperatures , only this time with Paul [ Lynde ] . At this point we were still hoping to make it for the midseason . After a couple of weeks we agreed that the show should go off the air in January , but continue production so that we would have 11 shows ready for airing any time they wanted them . Some of the nonsense and hijinks of the first season are gone and we have managed to keep a touch of reality of the second version .
As to why the series was not cancelled , Asher remarked , " I can answer that in two words : Paul Lynde . "
= = = Final cast = = =
For the third format , the show reverted to its original title Temperatures Rising and the proposed number of episodes was reduced from eleven to seven . The series ' production resumed on November 17 , 1973 , after a three week shutdown . Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner were dropped from the cast and a new line @-@ up was assembled . Paul Lynde continued as Dr. Paul Mercy while Alice Ghostley played Edwina Moffitt , the admissions nurse and Dr. Mercy 's sister . She had appeared as a guest star in an episode in the first season of Temperatures Rising . Nancy Fox returned as student nurse Ellen Turner , and Barbara Rucker was introduced as Nurse Amanda Kelly . Cleavon Little returned for a third time as Dr. Jerry Nolan , whose character was now being presented as somewhere between the jive @-@ talking surgeon of the first season and the serious one of the second .
= = = Last format and cancellation = = =
Temperatures Rising returned to the ABC network on July 18 , 1974 after a six @-@ month hiatus . Its new time slot , Thursday nights at 8 : 00 PM , had previously been occupied by Chopper One , an adventure series . The situations presented this time around included Dr. Mercy saving the life of a popular country music singer ( Dick Gautier ) , and setting up a surveillance system so that staff would be kept on their toes .
The final episode of Temperatures Rising aired on August 29 , 1974 . The attempt to resurrect the series was unsuccessful and ABC finally cancelled it permanently . Andy Siegel , a comedy development executive for ABC at the time , felt the series failed because audiences did not want to watch a show displaying inadequate medical care , even though it was done in a humorous fashion . In reminiscing about the series he stated : " When people see doctors on television they really want to feel that they 're in good hands . That no matter what happens it is a reassuring experience . " William Asher , in a 2000 interview , summed up the demise of the series by saying : " It didn 't get on . It 's too late . You can 't do that to an audience . They won 't accept it . "
= = Episodes = =
= New York State Route 382 =
New York State Route 382 ( NY 382 ) was a state highway in the town of Red House in Cattaraugus County , New York , in the United States . The highway was 0 @.@ 8 miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) long and served as a connector between NY 17 and the Red House entrance of Allegany State Park , where it connected to Allegany State Park Route 2 ( ASP Route 2 ) . NY 382 was assigned in the early 1930s and removed in the early 1970s after the highway 's connection to the park was dismantled , and the hamlet it served evacuated , as part of the Southern Tier Expressway 's construction . The NY 382 designation is currently reserved by the New York State Department of Transportation as a replacement for NY 88 in Ontario and Wayne counties .
= = Route description = =
The western terminus of NY 382 was at an intersection with Bay State Road and NY 17 in the now abandoned hamlet of Red House , located 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) southwest of the city of Salamanca in the town of Red House . At the time , NY 17 was routed along an at @-@ grade highway that paralleled the future routing of the Southern Tier Expressway to the north and west . NY 382 headed southeast from the junction , passing through the center of what was then the hamlet of Red House before turning eastward ahead of Red House Brook , a small stream that branched off the nearby Allegheny River . NY 382 paralleled Red House Brook east to the Allegany State Park boundary , where the NY 382 designation ended and the highway continued east as Allegany State Park Route 2 .
= = History = =
NY 382 was assigned c . 1932 to a short roadway linking NY 17 to an entrance to Allegany State Park in Red House .
The route remained intact until the construction of the Southern Tier Expressway ( STE ) through Red House in the late 1960s and early 1970s . Unwanted tourism in Jimerson Town , a newly built settlement northeast of Red House , prompted Seneca leaders to seek ways to reduce through traffic in the settlement ; to do so , the state built a trumpet interchange off the expressway where NY 382 used to be , which , coupled with the flooding of the roadway of old Route 17 to the west , effectively cut Jimerson Town off from the highway system . The construction of the highway also allowed the state to claim eminent domain over most of the hamlet of Red House , leading to the hamlet 's destruction ; the few remaining private residences in the town as of 2015 are located southwest of what was Route 382 . When the interchange at exit 19 of the STE was constructed c . 1970 , NY 382 was disconnected from Allegany State Park Route 2 , which was realigned to meet the new exit . The NY 382 designation was removed around this time as a result . The roadway still runs from the former NY 17 ( now NY 951T , which terminates near the former NY 382 's end at a dilapidated bridge ) to the Exit 19 on / off ramp , but due to safety concerns , the road was blocked off at its eastern terminus .
The former NY 382 was reopened in August 2014 after a washout on old NY 17 left several households unable to reach Salamanca .
The NY 382 designation is reserved by the New York State Department of Transportation for future use along what is now NY 88 in the Finger Lakes region of New York . Currently , NY 88 has the same numerical designation as Interstate 88 , an Interstate Highway in eastern New York .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Red House , Cattaraugus County .
= Zahir al @-@ Umar =
Zahir al @-@ Umar al @-@ Zaydani ( alternatively spelled Dhaher al @-@ Omar or Dahir al @-@ Umar ) ( Arabic : ظاهر آل عمر الزيداني ; Ẓāhir āl @-@ ʿUmar az @-@ Zaydānī , 1689 – 90 – 21 August 1775 ) was the virtually autonomous Arab ruler of northern Palestine in the mid @-@ 18th century , while the area was nominally part of the Ottoman Empire . For much of his reign , starting in the 1730s , his domain mainly consisted of Galilee , with successive headquarters in Tiberias , Arraba , Nazareth , Deir Hanna and finally Acre , in 1746 . He fortified Acre , and the city became a center of the cotton trade between Palestine and Europe . In the mid @-@ 1760s , he reestablished the port town of Haifa nearby .
Zahir successfully withstood assaults and sieges by the Ottoman governors of the Sidon and Damascus provinces , who attempted to limit or eliminate his influence . He was often supported in these confrontations by the rural Shia Muslim clans of Jabal Amil . In 1771 , in alliance with Ali Bey al @-@ Kabir of Egypt Eyalet and with backing from the Russian Empire , Zahir captured Sidon , while Ali Bey 's forces conquered Damascus , both acts in open defiance of the Ottoman sultan . At the peak of his power in 1774 , Zahir 's autonomous sheikhdom extended from Beirut to Gaza and included the Jabal Amil and Jabal Ajlun regions . By then , however , Ali Bey had been killed , the Ottomans entered into a truce with the Russians , and the Sublime Porte felt secure enough to check Zahir 's power . The Ottoman Navy attacked his Acre stronghold in the summer of 1775 and he was killed outside of its walls shortly after .
The wealth Zahir accumulated through monopolizing Palestine 's cotton and olive oil trade to Europe financed his sheikhdom . For much of his rule , he oversaw a relatively efficient administration and maintained domestic security , although he faced and suppressed several rebellions by his sons . The aforementioned factors , along with Zahir 's flexible taxation policies and his battlefield reputation made him popular among the local peasantry . Zahir 's tolerance of religious minorities encouraged Christian and Jewish immigration to his domain . The influx of immigrants from other parts of the empire stimulated the local economy and led to the significant growth of the Christian communities in Acre and Nazareth and the Jewish community in Tiberias . He and his family , the Zaydani clan , also patronized the construction of commercial buildings , houses of worship and fortifications throughout Galilee . Zahir 's founding of a virtually autonomous state in Palestine has made him a national hero among Palestinians today .
= = Early life = =
Zahir was born in the village of Arraba ( also called ' Arrabat al @-@ Battuf ) in central Galilee . The date of his birth is not clear , with the dates 1686 , 1689 – 90 and 1694 listed as his birth year by Zahir 's contemporary biographers Volney , Mikha 'il Sabbagh and Khalil al @-@ Muradi , respectively . According to contemporary biographer Ahmad Hasan Joudah , 1689 – 1690 is the most likely year of his birth because he considers Sabbagh to be the most reliable source for Zahir 's personal life . The proper transliteration of his given name is Ẓāhir , but in the local dialect of Arabic used in Galilee , his name was pronounced Ḍāhir . Zahir 's family , the Zaydani clan , were Sunni Muslim notables from the Qaisi tribal confederation based in the Tiberias area who had strong connections to the Arab @-@ Bedouin tribesmen of Galilee , which at the time was part of the Ottoman Empire . Zahir was the youngest of four sons born to Sheikh Umar al @-@ Zaydani . Zahirs brothers were Sa 'd , Salih " Abu Dani " and Yusuf , and his sister was Shammah . Zahir grew up in the village of Saffuriya .
Zahir 's father and grandfather had both served as the multazim ( chief tax collector ) of Tiberias , having been appointed by the Druze emirs ( princes ) of the Ma 'an dynasty which governed the region from their headquarters in Mount Lebanon . In 1698 , Umar az @-@ Zaydani was appointed multazim of the Safad region by Bashir Shihab I , the Sunni Qaisi emir who succeeded the Ma 'ans as governor of the Mount Lebanon Emirate . The Zaydani family maintained commercial trade relations extending from Galilee to Aleppo , and members of the family controlled tax farms in Galilee ; Zahir 's uncle Ali , for instance , held the tax farm of al @-@ Damun . Zahir 's elder brother Sa 'd became the head of the family when their father died in 1706 , but the family 's tax farms were transferred to Zahir , who was still a teenager . This was done as a precautionary measure , so that in the event of a default in tax payments , the Ottoman government would not be able to hold the practical owners of the tax farms accountable . Nonetheless , legal ownership of the Zaydani tax farms gave Zahir considerable power within his clan .
In 1707 , Zahir was involved in a brawl in Tiberias in which he killed a man . As a result , Sa 'd opted to move the family to Arraba after being offered safe haven there by the Bani Saqr tribe . It was in Arraba that Zahir gained a degree of formal education under the tutelage of a Muslim scholar named Abd al @-@ Qadir al @-@ Hifnawi . During his youth , Zahir also learned how to hunt and fight . When the village of Bi 'ina was attacked by forces dispatched by the governor of Sidon Eyalet sometime between 1713 and 1718 , Zahir played an important role in defending the village and managed to evade the governor 's troops . According to chroniclers of the time , this event , along with Zahir 's moderation , turned Zahir into a folk hero in the area . He continued to gain the respect of the local peasantry throughout the 1720s for his martial skills . Along with Sa 'd , he also gained prestige among the people of Damascus with whom he continued the commercial relationships his father had previously established .
The contacts Zahir made in Damascus included the Muslim scholar Abd al @-@ Ghaffar al @-@ Shuwaki , who introduced Zahir to Sayyid Muhammad of the al @-@ Husayni family , which provided the sharifs of Damascus at the time . Zahir married Sayyid Muhammad 's daughter and thereafter moved to Nazareth because she considered Arraba too small . When Sayyid Muhammad died , Zahir inherited his fortune .
= = Rule = =
= = = Consolidation of power in Galilee = = =
In the late 1720s , Zahir and his brother Yusuf took control of the town of Tiberias with the backing of the Bani Saqr by capturing its multazim . Concurrently , Zahir issued a letter to Köprülü Abdullah Pasha , governor of Sidon Eyalet , accusing the multazim of oppression and of imposing illegal taxes on the population . Zahir further wrote that if Abdullah Pasha appointed him multazim of Tiberias and Arraba , he would guarantee the timely payment of taxes and rule justly . Abdullah Pasha consented to Zahir 's rule and sent him an honorary robe . This marked a significant change from the past appointments of his relatives as multazims of various Galilee subdistricts , because it came directly from the governor of Sidon rather than the semi @-@ autonomous rural chiefs of Mount Lebanon . Zahir made Tiberias his principle base and was joined by his Zaydani kinsmen . He appointed his cousin Muhammad ibn Ali , the multazim of al @-@ Damun , as commander of the family 's militia .
Zahir extended his rule southward toward Nazareth and the Marj Ibn Amer plain ( Jezreel Valley ) between Galilee and Jabal Nablus . Capturing these areas was likely a drawn @-@ out process , and Zahir 's efforts to wrest control of Nazareth ( a town in Safad Sanjak , but controlled by the Jarrar clan based in Nablus Sanjak ) caused the ruling clans of the Nablus hinterland ( Jabal Nablus ) , along with Zahir 's erstwhile allies in the Bani Saqr tribe , to challenge him . Zahir , meanwhile , relied on his Zaydani kinsmen , Maghrebi mercenaries who he commissioned in the mid @-@ 1730s under commander Ahmad Agha al @-@ Dinkizli , and Nazareth 's residents . In 1735 , Zahir 's forces , composed of 2 @,@ 000 men , routed the Jarrars and the Bani Saqr at a place called al @-@ Rawha in Marj Ibn Amer , killed their leader Sheikh Ibrahim al @-@ Jarrar , and captured Nazareth . According to historian Hanna Samarah , Zahir 's forces inflicted 8 @,@ 000 fatalities among the Jarrar @-@ Saqr coalition during the battle .
Following his victory at Marj Ibn Amer , 4 @,@ 000 locals , including many residents of Nazareth , joined Zahir 's forces to completely subdue Jabal Nablus . Among Zahir 's supporters were Christian women from Nazareth who supplied his troops with food and water . Zahir 's forces pursued the Jarrars to their throne village of Sanur , but ultimately withdrew after failing to subdue the fortress . This defeat marked the limit of Zahir 's influence south of Marj Ibn Amer and established the Jarrars as the dominant force of Jabal Nablus over their rivals , the Tuqans . While the Jarrars and Zahir eventually concluded a truce , the former continued to mobilize the clans of Jabal Nablus to prevent Zahir 's southward expansion .
In 1738 , Zahir 's forces captured the fortress at Jiddin and the villages in its political orbit , Abu Snan and Tarshiha . Jiddin had been ruled by Ahmad al @-@ Husayn , whose family historically controlled it . The peasants under his rule complained that he governed oppressively and appealed to Zahir , who was known for treating the peasantry fairly , to relieve them of al @-@ Husayn . Zahir , eager to expand his control toward the Mediterranean , accepted their requests and obtained permission from the governor of Sidon , Ibrahim Pasha al @-@ Azm , to seize the fortress . Likewise , al @-@ Husayn had also approached the governor , who , hoping to see two powerful local leaders weakened , gave al @-@ Husayn his blessing as well . Zahir assembled a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ strong force and defeated al @-@ Husayn 's forces near the fortress . He was then appointed multazim of Jiddin 's subdistrict .
Bi 'ina , which was also fortified , withstood a siege by Zahir in 1739 , but Zahir later married the daughter of Bi 'ina 's mukhtar ( headman ) , and thus brought Bi 'ina into his domain . He also acquired the fortress of Suhmata through diplomatic means . This further solidified his rule over northern and eastern Galilee . In 1740 , Zahir made an agreement with the neighboring Bedouin tribes to end their looting raids in the area . By then , Sa 'd had taken control of Deir Hanna and Muhammad ibn Ali captured Shefa- ' Amr , entrenching the presence of the Zaydani clan in western Galilee . After negotiations , Muhammad al @-@ Naf 'i , the multazim of Safad , surrendered the city to Zahir . Safad was the administrative seat of the sanjak and situated on a strategic hill overlooking the Galilee countryside . He later acquired the fortified village of Deir al @-@ Qassi after marrying the daughter of its sheikh , Abd al @-@ Khaliq Salih .
Zahir 's conquest of the Safad region and western Galilee removed the barriers between him and the Metawali ( Shia Muslim ) clans of Jabal Amil . Zahir informed the Metawalis ' sheikh , Nasif al @-@ Nassar , of his intent to acquire the fortified villages of al @-@ Bassa and Yaroun on the borders between the Zaydani and Metawali sheikhdoms . In response , Sheikh Nasif launched an assault against Zahir and the two sides confronted each other in indecisive skirmishes in the border village of Tarbikha . Zahir then received reinforcements from his Maghrebi cavalry and defeated the Metawalis , pursuing Sheikh Nasif to his headquarters in Tibnin . Zahir 's brother Sa 'd mediated an end to the fighting and thereafter a mutual defense pact was arranged between Zahir and Sheikh Nasif , whereby the former would receive control of al @-@ Bassa and Yaroun and the Metawalis ' support in his confrontations with the governors of Damascus . In return , Sheikh Nasif 's sons , who were captured by Zahir 's troops , were released , the Metawalis ' tax payments to Sidon were reduced by some 25 percent , and Zahir guaranteed his backing of a Sheikh Nasif in any confrontation with the governors of Sidon .
Zahir , similar to other local strongmen in the Ottoman Empire who did not owe their power to the central Ottoman authorities , was disliked by the Ottoman administration . The Ottoman Sultan sent an order to the governor of Damascus Eyalet , Sulayman Pasha al @-@ Azm , to put an end to Zahir 's rule in Galilee . In September 1742 , a military force led by the governor of Damascus came to Galilee and laid siege to Tiberias . After 83 days , the siege was lifted due to the departure of the Hajj pilgrim caravan . Using this respite , Zahir reinforced the defenses of Tiberias and Shefa- ' Amr . In July 1743 , backed by the Bani Saqr , the wali of Tripoli and the district governors of Jerusalem , Gaza and Irbid , Sulayman Pasha renewed his expedition , this time seeking to reduce Deir Hanna and sever Tiberias 's links to the outside . Sulayman died suddenly in Lubya and Zahir used the opportunity to assault Sulayman 's troops , capturing their camp . In 1745 , Zahir had a fortress erected on a hill overlooking Saffuriya .
= = = Ruler of Acre = = =
Zahir consolidated his authority over Acre in a drawn @-@ out process starting in the 1730s . His Acre @-@ based partner , the Melkite merchant Yusuf al @-@ Qassis , served as an early link between Zahir and the French merchants of Acre . His first direct contact with the French merchants was in 1731 when he negotiated a settlement of his brother Sa 'd's debts to the merchants . In 1743 , as part of his bid to gain control of the town , Zahir had his cousin , Muhammad al @-@ Ali of al @-@ Damun , arrested and executed due to the latter 's ambitions in Acre . In 1743 , Zahir requested the tax farm of Acre from the governor of Sidon , Ibrahim Pasha al @-@ Azm , who , wary of Zahir 's growing power in the province , rejected the request . Instead , Zahir took Acre by force in July 1746 .
In the first few years following his takeover of Acre , Zahir resided in the fortress of Deir Hanna in the heart of Galilee . He began fortifying Acre by building walls around the city in 1750 . He built other fortifications and buildings in Acre as well . In 1757 he took control of the Mediterranean port cities of Haifa and Tantura , and nearby Mount Carmel , all of which had been part of Damascus Eyalet , unlike most of Zahir 's domain at the time , which was in Sidon Eyalet . He also captured the port village of al @-@ Tira , between Tantura and Haifa , at that time . Zahir 's stated justification to the Ottoman authorities for conquering Palestine 's northern coastal plain was to protect the area from Maltese pirates .
In late 1757 , the Bani Saqr and Sardiyah tribes , who Zahir maintained ties with , launched an assault on the Hajj caravan as it coming back to Syria from Mecca . Thousands of Muslim pilgrims were killed in the raid , including Sultan Osman III 's sister . The attack shocked the Sublime Porte ( Ottoman imperial government ) , and discredited the governor of Damascus and amir al @-@ hajj , Husayn Pasha ibn Makki , for failing to ward off the Bedouin . Husayn Pasha had been serving his first term as governor , having replaced As 'ad Pasha al @-@ Azm , who Zahir had peaceful relations with , and among Husayn Pasha 's priorities were subduing Zahir and annexing his territories , which were part of Sidon Eyalet . Husayn Pasha lodged a complaint to the Sublime Porte alleging Zahir 's involvement in the raid . Zahir denied the allegation and pressed for an investigation into the assault . He also sought to earn the Sublime Porte 's favor by purchasing the looted goods of the caravan from the tribes , including the decorated banners representing Muhammad and the sovereignty of the sultan , and restoring them to Sultan Mustafa III ( Osman III had died on 30 October ) . Moreover , Zahir 's enemy Husayn Pasha was dismissed from office that year .
Husayn Pasha 's replacement , Uthman Pasha al @-@ Kurji , who took office in 1760 , sought to retrieve control of Haifa from Zahir . Uthman Pasha requested that the governor of Sidon , Nu 'man Pasha , recapture the port city on his behalf , to which Nu 'man Pasha complied , dispatching 30 Maghrebi soldiers on a vessel captained by a Frenchman on 20 May 1761 . The effort was a meager attempt and upon arrival , Zahir had the ship confiscated and its soldiers arrested , while the French captain paid a fine . The issue over Haifa 's annexation was smoothed over with the assistance of an Istanbul @-@ based Ottoman official and friend of Zahir , Yaqub Agha . Yaqub had a high @-@ ranking official named Sulayman Agha intervene in the matter and revoke Uthman Pasha 's orders .
= = = Intra @-@ family conflict = = =
In 1761 , Zahir ordered his son Uthman al @-@ Zahir to assassinate Zahir 's brother Sa 'd because the latter had been collaborating with Uthman Pasha and the Bani Saqr tribe to kill Zahir and replace him . Sa 'd's assassination indirectly led to the first conflict between Zahir and his sons , in this case Uthman . The latter had been promised control over Shefa- ' Amr in return for killing Sa 'd , but Zahir reneged due to pleas by Shefa- ' Amr 's residents not to appoint Uthman as their governor . Backed by his full @-@ brothers Ahmad and Sa 'd al @-@ Din , who were angered by Zahir 's refusal to cede them more territory , Uthman besieged Shefa- ' Amr in 1765 . However , under Zahir 's instructions , the locals in the vicinity defended the town and succeeded in preventing its capture . The three brothers then appealed to Zahir 's eldest and most loyal son , Salibi , to intervene on their behalf with Zahir , but Salibi was unable to persuade Zahir to make concessions . The four brothers then attempted to rekindle their alliance with the Bani Saqr , who Zahir had since routed at the Marj Ibn Amer plain in 1762 .
The brothers ' efforts to recruit the Bani Saqr failed when Zahir bribed the tribe not to back his sons and subsequently had Uthman imprisoned in Haifa for six months before exiling him to a village near Safad . Meanwhile , in 1765 , Zahir had Haifa demolished and then rebuilt and fortified at a site three kilometers to the southeast in 1769 . While the old village was situated on a plain , the new town , which remained a port along the Haifa Bay , was built on a narrow strip of land at the northern foot of Mount Carmel to make it easier to defend by land . In May 1766 , Uthman renewed his rebellion against Zahir with backing from the Druze clans of Galilee , but this coalition was defeated by Zahir near Safad . This conflict expanded to include competing Druze and Shia factions from Mount Lebanon and Jabal Amil , with Emir Mansur Shihab ( the Sunni leader of a Druze faction ) and the Metawali , Sheikh Qublan , siding with Zahir , while Emir Yusuf Shihab ( the leader of another Druze faction ) and Sheikh Nasif sided with Uthman . Mediation by Emir Isma 'il Shihab of Hasbaya culminated in a successful peace summit near Tyre between the two factions and a reconciliation between Zahir and Uthman , whereby the latter was granted control of Nazareth .
In September 1767 , conflict between Zahir and his son Ali al @-@ Zahir of Safad commenced over the former 's refusal to cede to the latter control of the strategic fortress of Deir Hanna or the village of Deir al @-@ Qassi . Prior to the dispute , Ali had been loyal to Zahir and proven himself effective in helping his father suppress dissent among his brothers and in battles against external enemies . Zahir 's forces intimidated Ali into surrendering later that month , and Zahir pardoned and ultimately ceded to him Deir al @-@ Qassi . However , conflict was renewed weeks later with Ali and his brother Sa 'id , backed by Sheikh Nasif , Emir Yusuf and Uthman Pasha poised against Zahir , Uthman , Sheikh Qublan and Muhammad Pasha al @-@ Azm , governor of Sidon . With mediation from Ibrahim Sabbagh , Zahir 's financial adviser , Zahir settled his dispute with Sa 'id , granting the latter control over Tur 'an and Hittin .
Ali refused to negotiate , gained the backing of Salibi , and the two defeated their father , who had since demobilized his troops and was relying on local civilian volunteers from Acre . When Zahir re @-@ mobilized his Maghrebi mercenaries in Acre he launched an offensive and defeated Ali , who subsequently fled Deir Hanna in October . Out of sympathy for Ali 's children , who remained in the fortress village , he pardoned Ali on the condition he pay 12 @,@ 500 piasters and 25 Arabian horses for the fortress . By December 1767 , Zahir 's intra @-@ family disputes were put to rest for several years ( until 1774 – 75 ) , and through the intercession of Uthman , a close and enduring alliance was established between Zahir and Sheikh Nasif .
In 1768 the central Ottoman authorities partially recognized or legitimized Zahir 's de facto political position by granting him the title of " Sheikh of Acre , Emir of Nazareth , Tiberias , Safed , and Sheikh of all Galilee " . However , this official recognition was tempered when Yaqub Agha was executed shortly after and Sulayman Agha died in 1770 , depriving Zahir of close allies in Istanbul . In November 1770 , Uthman Pasha had the governor of Sidon replaced by his son Darwish Pasha and had his other son , Muhammad Pasha , appointed governor of Tripoli Eyalet . Uthman Pasha was committed to ending Zahir 's rule , and Zahir 's position was left particularly vulnerable with the loss of support in Istanbul . In response to threats from Damascus , Zahir further strengthened Acre 's fortifications and armed every adult male in the city with a rifle , two pistols and a sabre . He also moved to mend ties with his sons , who held various tax farms in Galilee , and consolidate his relationship with the Shia clans of Jabal Amil , thereby strengthening his local alliances .
= = = Alliance with Ali Bey and war with Damascus = = =
Although Zahir was bereft of friends in Istanbul and Damascus , he was forging a new alliance with the increasingly autonomous Mamluk ruler of Egypt and the Hejaz , Ali Bey al @-@ Kabir . Ali Bey shared a common interest with Zahir to subdue Damascus as he sought to extend his influence to Syria for strategic purposes vis @-@ a @-@ vis his conflict with the Sublime Porte . He had dispatched 15 @,@ 000 @-@ 20 @,@ 000 Egyptian troops to the port cities of Gaza and Jaffa under commander Ismail Bey . Together , Zahir and Ismail crossed the Jordan Valley with their armies and moved north toward Damascus . They made it as far as Muzayrib , but Ismail abruptly halted his army 's advance after confronting Uthman Pasha as he was leading the Hajj caravan in order to avoid harming the Muslim pilgrims . Ismail considered attacking the governor at that point to be a grave religious offense . He subsequently withdrew to Jaffa .
Zahir was surprised and angered by Ismail 's reticence to attack . In a unilateral move to impose his authority in Uthman Pasha 's jurisdiction , Zahir had his son Ahmad and other subordinate commanders collect taxes from villages in Damascus Eyalet , including Quneitra , while he dispatched his other son Ali on a campaign against the Bani Nu 'aym tribe in Hauran , also part of Damascus . In response to Zahir 's indignation , Ali Bey sent him 35 @,@ 000 troops under Abu al @-@ Dhahab in May . Together with Ismail 's troops in Jaffa , the Egyptian army captured Damascus from Uthman Pasha in June , while Zahir and his Metawali allies captured the city of Sidon from Darwish Pasha . However , Abu al @-@ Dhahab was persuaded by Ismail that confronting the Ottoman sultan , who carried a high religious authority as the caliph of Islam , was " truly ... a scheme of the Devil " and a crime against their religion . A short time after capturing Damascus , Abu al @-@ Dhahab and Ismail subsequently withdrew from the city , whose inhabitants were " completely astonished at this amazing event " , according to a chronicler of the time period . The sudden turn of events compelled Zahir 's forces to withdraw from Sidon on 20 June .
Abu al @-@ Dhahab 's withdrawal frustrated Zahir who proceeded to make independent moves , first by capturing Jaffa in August 1771 , after driving out its governor Ahmad Bey Tuqan , and shortly thereafter , capturing the cotton @-@ producing Bani Sa 'b region ( centered around modern @-@ day Tulkarm ) , which was held by Mustafa Bey Tuqan . Zahir had Jaffa fortified and stationed 2 @,@ 000 troops there . By the end of August , Zahir remained in control of Jaffa , while Uthman Pasha had restored his control over Ramla and Gaza .
= = = Peak of power = = =
In an attempt to expand his zone of influence to Nablus , the commercial center of Palestine and its agriculturally @-@ rich hinterland , Zahir besieged Nablus in late 1771 . By then , Zahir had secured an alliance with the powerful Jarrar clan , who were incensed at Uthman Pasha 's assignment of Mustafa Bey Tuqan as the collector of the miri ( hajj pilgrimage tax ) . Nablus was under the de facto control of the Tuqan and Nimr clans , local rivals of the Jarrars . The loss of Jaffa and Bani Sa 'b stripped Nablus of its sea access . Nablus was defended by 12 @,@ 000 mostly peasant riflemen under Nimr and Tuqan commanders . After nine days of clashes , Zahir decided to withdraw and avoid a costly stalemate . As he departed Nablus , his forces raided many of the city 's satellite villages , from which its peasant defenders originated .
Uthman Pasha had resumed his governorship of Damascus at the end of June 1771 and was determined to eliminate Zahir . To that end , he assembled a coalition that included his sons Darwish Pasha al @-@ Kurji and Muhammad Pasha al @-@ Kurji , who were the governors of Sidon and Tripoli , respectively , and Emir Yusuf Shihab of Mount Lebanon . In late August Uthman Pasha reached Lake Hula at the head of 10 @,@ 000 Ottoman troops . Before Uthman Pasha could be joined by his allies , Zahir and Sheikh Nasif of the Metawalis confronted the governor 's troops on 2 September . Ali al @-@ Zahir , Zahir 's son and a commander of one of his four battlefield regiments , raided Uthman Pasha 's camp , while Zahir 's other troops blocked them from the west . Uthman Pasha 's troops hastily retreated towards the Jordan River , the only place where they were not surrounded . The overwhelming majority drowned in the river , with only 300 – 500 survivors , including Uthman Pasha who almost drowned but was rescued by one of his men . The Battle of Lake Hula marked a decisive victory for Zahir , who entered Acre triumphantly with the spoils of Uthman Pasha 's camp . He was celebrated by the residents of the city and on the way there , he was given honorary gun salutes by each of his fortified villages on the route between Tiberias and Acre . He also received congratulations from the French merchant ships at the port of Acre . Zahir 's victory encouraged Ali Bey to relaunch his Syrian campaign .
Following his victory against Uthman Pasha , Zahir demanded Darwish Pasha vacate Sidon , which he did on 13 October . He returned two days later after receiving the backing of Emir Yusuf . Zahir decided to move against Emir Yusuf , and together with his ally Sheikh Nasif , he confronted him at Nabatieh on 20 October . Emir Yusuf 's men numbered some 37 @,@ 000 . Zahir 's Metawali cavalry engaged in a maneuver where they fled the battlefield in apparent defeat , only to have the pursuant troops of Emir Yusuf surrounded by Zahir 's men , who dealt Emir Yusuf 's army a decisive blow . Emir Yusuf thereafter retreated to his mountain village of Deir al @-@ Qamar , while Sidon was left under the protection of Ali Jumblatt and 3 @,@ 000 Druze defenders . However , with news of Zahir 's victory , Ali Jumblatt and Darwish Pasha withdrew from Sidon , which was subsequently occupied by Zahir and Sheikh Nasif . Uthman Pasha and all of his sons were consequently dismissed from their posts by the Sublime Porte . Although , he could not capture Nablus and its hinterland , Zahir 's domain by the end of 1771 extended from Sidon to Jaffa and included an influential presence in the Hauran plain .
Muhammad Tuqan captured Jaffa from Zahir in May 1772 , the same month that Ali Bey arrived in Acre to seek Zahir 's protection after being forced out of Egypt by rival mamluks . In June , the Ottoman loyalist Jazzar Pasha sought to establish himself in Lebanon and took over Beirut from the local Druze chieftains . The Druze had previously been in conflict with Zahir , but due to Jazzar 's offensive , the circumstances fostered an alliance between them , Zahir and the Metawali clans of Jabal Amil . Zahir and Ali Bey sought to take back Jaffa and , with help from the Russian Fleet , succeeded after a nine @-@ month siege , in which they exhausted many of their resources . Prior to that , in late October 1772 , Zahir and his Lebanese allies captured Beirut from Jazzar , also with Russian naval support .
In March 1773 , Ali Bey left Palestine to reestablish himself in Egypt , but Abu al @-@ Dhahab had him killed when he arrived there . With this came an end to the alliance between Zahir and Ali Bey , which had brought together Egypt and Palestine politically and economically in a way that had not occurred since the early 16th century . While their attempts to unite their territories economically and politically were unsuccessful , their rule posed the most serious domestic challenge to Ottoman rule in the 18th century . As a consequence of Ali Bey 's death , Zahir moved to further strengthen his hold over Jaffa and capture Jerusalem , but he failed in the latter attempt . All of Ottoman Syria came under the official command of Uthman Pasha al @-@ Misri in 1774 in order to bring stability to the provinces of the region . Al @-@ Misri did not seek conflict with Zahir and sought to establish friendly terms with him . As such , he convinced the Sublime Porte to officially appoint Zahir as the governor of Sidon as long as Zahir paid all of the taxes the province had owed to the Porte . Al @-@ Misri further promoted Zahir in February by declaring him " Governor of Sidon , Nablus , Gaza , Ramla , Jaffa and Jabal Ajlun " , although this title was not officially sanctioned by the Porte . In effect , Zahir was the de facto ruler over Palestine ( with the exception of Nablus and Jerusalem ) , Jabal Amil , and the Syrian coast from Gaza to Beirut .
= = = Downfall = = =
Al @-@ Misri was recalled to Istanbul in the summer of 1774 and Muhammad Pasha al @-@ Azm was appointed governor of Damascus . Thus , Zahir 's governorship of Sidon was left vulnerable because it had largely depended on guarantees from al @-@ Misri . Al @-@ Azm sought peaceful relations with Zahir , but the Sublime Porte , having made peace with Russia and relieving itself from that conflict , aimed to undermine the rebellious rulers of its provinces , including Zahir . Al @-@ Azm managed to secure an official pardon of Zahir from the Porte in April 1775 , but not the governorship of Sidon . Meanwhile , conflict between Zahir and his sons had reignited , with Ali of Safad attempting to capture Zahir 's villages in Galilee in 1774 . Zahir defeated Ali with support from his other son , Ahmad of Tiberias . Afterward , Zahir 's rule was again challenged by one of his other sons , Sa 'id , later that year . In response to this challenge , Zahir armed and mobilized 300 of Acre 's civilian inhabitants to counter Sa 'id . Ali continued to undermine Zahir 's rule by encouraging defections by Zahir 's Maghrebi mercenaries through bribes .
On 20 May 1775 , Abu al @-@ Dhahab , having been encouraged by the Porte to eradicate Zahir 's influence , captured Jaffa and slaughtered its male inhabitants . News of the massacre spurred the people of Acre into a mass panic , with its residents fleeing and storing their goods in the city 's Khan al @-@ Ifranj ( the French Caravanserai ) for safekeeping . On 24 May , Zahir also departed the city , leaving for Sidon . Ali al @-@ Zahir , subsequently entered it and declared himself governor . However , Ali 's Maghrebi troops abandoned him and looted the city as Abu al @-@ Dhahab 's troops approached it a few days later . They proceeded to conquer Sidon by sea , prompting Zahir to seek shelter with Shia allies in Jabal Amil . Some of Zahir 's sons attempted to secure their own peace with Abu al @-@ Dhahab , but the latter became ill and died on 10 June , causing the collapse and chaotic withdrawal of his Egyptian troops from Acre . Zahir re @-@ entered the city two days later and reestablished order with the assistance of Ahmad Agha al @-@ Dinkizli . However , the setback of Abu al @-@ Dhahab 's death did not preclude the Sublime Porte from attempting to check Zahir 's power and Sidon remained in Ottoman hands .
On 23 April , the Porte dispatched the Ottoman Navy admiral , Hasan Pasha al @-@ Jazayiri , to blockade Acre . He reached Haifa on 7 August taking Jaffa from Zahir 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Karim al @-@ Ayyubi . Hasan Pasha ordered Zahir to pay the miri dues he owed to the Sublime Porte dating back to 1768 . Zahir initially agreed to pay 500 @,@ 000 piasters of the total amount upfront and a further 50 @,@ 000 piasters to Hasan Pasha himself to " spare the blood of the people " . Hasan Pasha apparently accepted Zahir 's proposals , but the arrangements fell apart .
The accounts differ as to exactly how the negotiations collapsed , but sources agree that their failure was the result of disputes within Zahir 's inner circle between his financial adviser Ibrahim Sabbagh and his chief military commander , al @-@ Dinkizli . Most accounts claim that Sabbagh urged Zahir not to pay Hasan 's requested sums and agitated for war . Sabbagh argued that Zahir 's treasury did not have the funds to pay the miri dues and that Zahir 's forces were capable of defeating Hasan . Al @-@ Dinkizli pressed Zahir to pay the amount , arguing that mass bloodshed could be averted . He advised Zahir to force Sabbagh to pay the amount if Zahir could not afford to himself . When the negotiations dragged on , Hasan pressed for a full repayment of the miri dues , warning Zahir that he would be executed if he failed to satisfy the demand . Zahir was insulted by Hasan 's threat and in turn threatened to destroy Hasan 's entire fleet unless he withdrew his ships .
Hasan proceeded to bombard Acre , and Zahir 's Maghrebi artillerymen responded with cannon fire , damaging two of Hasan 's ships . The following day , Hasan 's fleet fired roughly 7 @,@ 000 shells against Acre without returning fire from the city 's artillerymen ; al @-@ Dinkizli had called on his Maghrebi forces to refrain from returning fire because as Muslims they were forbidden from attacking the sultan 's military . Realizing his long @-@ time deputy commander 's betrayal , he attempted to flee Acre on 21 August or 22 August . As he departed its gates , he was fired on by Ottoman troops , with a bullet striking his neck and causing him to fall off his horse . A Maghrebi soldier then decapitated him . Zahir 's severed head was subsequently delivered to Istanbul .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Following his death , Sabbagh and Zahir 's sons Abbas and Salih were arrested by Hasan Pasha 's men . The Sublime Porte also seized property belonging to Zahir , his sons and Sabbagh , which valued at 41 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 piasters . They were imprisoned in Istanbul , the Ottoman capital along with their physician , who was known to be talented in his profession . The physician was summoned by the sultan to treat his wife 's ailment , which he did successfully , earning him his freedom from incarceration and a medal of honor from the sultan . The physician used his influence with the authorities to have Zahir 's children and grandchildren released and returned to their hometowns . Sabbagh was executed by Hasan Pasha . Al @-@ Dinkizli was rewarded with the governorship of Gaza , but died on the way to his new headquarters , likely having been poisoned by Hasan .
Zahir 's sons Uthman , Ahmad , Sa 'id and Ali continued to put up resistance , with the latter putting up the longest fight from his fortress in Deir Hanna . The fortress eventually capitulated to the combined forces of Hasan Pasha and Jazzar Pasha on 22 July 1776 . Ali fled , but was killed later that year in the area between Tiberias and Safad . By then , the rest of Zahir 's sons had been arrested or killed . Abbas was later appointed by Sultan Selim III as the Sheikh of Safad . However , in 1799 , when Napoleon invaded Palestine , but withdrew after being defeated in Acre , Abbas and Salih both left Safad with the departing French forces . This marked the end of Zaydani influence in Galilee .
Constantin @-@ François Volney , who wrote the first European biography of Zahir in 1787 , lists three main reasons for Zahir 's failure . First , the lack of " internal good order and justness of principle " . Secondly , the early concessions he made to his children . Third , and most of all , the avarice of his adviser and confidant , Ibrahim Sabbagh .
= = Politics = =
= = = Administration = = =
Zahir appointed many of his brothers and sons as local administrators , particularly after he consolidated his control over Acre , which became the capital of his territory . Except for Acre and Haifa , Zahir divided the remainder of his territory between his relatives . His eldest brother was appointed to Deir Hanna , and his younger brothers Yusuf and Salih Abu Dani were installed in I 'billin and Arraba , respectively . Zahir appointed his eldest son Salibi as the multazim of Tiberias . Salibi was killed in 1773 fighting alongside Ali Bey 's forces in Egypt . His death deeply distressed Zahir , who was around 80 years old at the time . He appointed Uthman in Kafr Kanna then Shefa- ' Amr , Abbas in Nazareth , Ali in Safad , and Ahmad in Saffuriya . Ahmad replaced Salibi in Tiberias as well , and also conquered Ajlun and Salt in Transjordan . In addition , Ahmad was given authority over Deir Hanna after Sa 'd's death . Zahir appointed his nephew Ayyub al @-@ Karimi in Jaffa and Gaza , while al @-@ Dinkizli was made multazim in Sidon in 1774 . The appointment of Zahir 's relatives and close associates was meant to ensure the efficient administration of his expanding realm and the loyalty of his circle . Among their chief functions was to ensure the supply of cotton to Acre . It is not clear if these posts were recognized by the Ottoman government .
Zahir had an aide who jointly served in the capacity of mudabbir ( manager ) and wazir ( vizier ) to assist him throughout much of his rule in matters of finance and correspondence . This official had always been a Melkite ( local Greek Catholic ) . His first wazir was Yusuf al @-@ Arqash , followed by Yusuf Qassis in 1749 . Qassis continued in this role until the early 1760s when he was arrested for attempting to smuggle wealth he had accumulated during his service to Malta . He was succeeded by Ibrahim Sabbagh , who had served as a personal physician for Zahir in 1757 when he replaced Zahir 's longtime physician Sulayman Suwwan . Suwwan was a local Greek Orthodox Christian and when he failed to properly treat Zahir during a serious illness in 1757 , Qassis used the opportunity to replace him with Sabbagh , a friend and fellow Melkite . Sabbagh became the most influential figure in Zahir 's administration , particularly as Zahir grew old . This caused consternation among Zahir 's sons as they viewed Sabbagh to be a barrier between them and their father and an impediment to their growing power in Zahir 's territory . Sabbagh was able to gain increased influence with Zahir largely because of the wealth he amassed through his integral role in managing Zahir 's cotton monopoly . Much of this wealth was acquired through Sabbagh 's own deals where he would purchase cotton and other cash crops from the local farmers and sell them to the European merchants in the Syria 's coastal cities and to his Melkite partners in Damietta , Egypt . Sabbagh served other important roles as well , including as Zahir 's political adviser , main administrator and chief representative with European merchants and Ottoman provincial and imperial officials .
There were other officials in Zahir 's civil administration in Acre , including chief religious officials , namely the mufti and the qadi . The mufti was the chief scholar among the ulama ( Muslim scholarly community ) and oversaw the interpretation of Islamic law in Zahir 's realm . He was appointed by the Sublime Porte , but Zahir managed to maintain the same mufti for many years at a time in contrast with the typical Syrian province which saw its mufti replaced annually . Zahir directly appointed the qadi from Palestine 's local ulama , but his judicial decisions had to be approved by the qadi of Sidon . Zahir had a chief imam , who in the last years of his rule was Ali ibn Khalid al @-@ Shaabi . An agha was also appointed to supervise the customs payments made by the European merchants in Acre and Haifa .
Zahir 's initial military forces consisted of his Zaydani kinsmen and the local inhabitants of the areas he ruled . They numbered about 200 men in the early 1720s , but grew to about 1 @,@ 500 in the early 1730s . During this early period of Zahir 's career , he also had the key military backing of the Bani Saqr and other Bedouin tribes . As he consolidated his hold over Galilee , his army rose to over 4 @,@ 000 men , many of the later recruits being peasants who supported Zahir for protecting them against Bedouin raids . This suppression of the Bedouin in turn caused the tribes to largely withdraw their military backing of Zahir . The core of his private army were the Maghrebi mercenaries . The Maghrebis ' commander , Ahmad Agha al @-@ Dinkizli , also served as Zahir 's top military commander from 1735 until al @-@ Dinkizli 's defection during the Ottoman siege of Acre in 1775 . From the time Zahir reconciled with Sheikh Nasif al @-@ Nassar of Jabal Amil in 1768 until most of the remainder of his rule , Zahir also had the support of Nasif 's roughly 10 @,@ 000 Metawali cavalrymen . However , the Metawalis did not aid Zahir during the Ottoman offensive of 1775 . Zahir 's fortified villages and towns were equipped with artillery installments and his army 's arsenal consisted of cannons , matchlock rifles , pistols and lances . Most of the firearms were imported from Venice or France , and by the early 1770s , from the Russian imperial navy .
= = = General security = = =
According to biographer Ahmad Hasan Joudah , the two principal conditions Zahir established to foster his sheikhdom 's prosperity and its survival were " security and justice " . Prior to Zahir 's consolidation of power , the villages of northern Palestine were prone to Bedouin raids and robberies and the roads were under constant threat from highway robbers and Bedouin attacks . Although following the looting raids , the inhabitants of these agrarian villages were left destitute , the Ottoman provincial government would nonetheless attempt to collect from them the miri ( hajj tax ) . To avoid punitive measures for not paying the miri , the inhabitants would abandon their villages for safety in the larger towns or the desert . This situation hurt the economy of the region as the raids sharply reduced the villages ' agricultural output , the government @-@ appointed mutasallims ( tax farmers ) could not collect their impositions , and trade could not be safely conducted due to insecurity on the roads .
By 1746 , however , Zahir had established order in the lands he ruled . He managed to co @-@ opt the dominant Bedouin tribe of the region , the Bani Saqr , which greatly contributed to the establishment of security in northern Palestine . Moreover , Zahir charged the sheikhs of the towns and villages of northern Palestine with ensuring the safety of the roads in their respective vicinity and required them to compensate anyone who was robbed of his / her property . General security reached a level whereby " an old woman with gold in her hand could travel from one place to another without fear or danger " , according to biographer Mikhail Sabbagh .
This period of calm that persisted between 1744 and 1765 greatly boosted the security and economy of Galilee . The security established in the region encouraged people from other parts of the Ottoman Empire to immigrate to Galilee . Conflict between the local clans and between Zahir and his sons remained limited to periodic clashes , while there were no attacks against Zahir 's domain from outside forces . While Zahir used force to strengthen his position in the region , the local inhabitants generally took comfort in his rule , which historian Thomas Philip described as " relatively just and reasonably fair " . According to Richard Pococke who visited the area in 1737 , the local people had great admiration for Zahir , especially for his war against bandits on the roads .
= = = Economic policies = = =
In addition to providing security , Zahir and his local deputies adopted a policy of aiding the peasants cultivate and harvest their farmlands to further guarantee the steady supply of agricultural products for export . These benefits included loans to peasants and the distribution of free seeds . Financial burdens on the peasants were also reduced as Zahir offered tax relief during drought seasons or when the harvest seasons were poor . This same tax relief was extended to newcomers who sought to begin cultivating new farmlands . Moreover , Zahir assumed responsibility for outstanding payments the peasants owed to merchants from credit @-@ based transactions if the merchants could provide proof of unsatisfactory payment . According to historian Thomas Philipp , Zahir " had the good business sense not to exploit peasants to the point of destruction , but kept his financial demands to a more moderate level . " He regularly paid the Ottoman authorities their financial dues , ensuring a degree of stability in his relationship with the sultanate .
When Zahir conquered Acre , he transformed it from a decaying village into a fortified market hub for Palestinian products , including silk , wheat , olive oil , tobacco and cotton , which he exported to Europe . With cotton in particular , Zahir was able to monopolize the market for it and its foreign export . He did business with European merchants based in Galilee 's ports , who competed with one another for the cotton and grain cultivated in the rural villages under Zahir 's dominion or influence in Galilee 's hinterland and Jabal Amil . Previously , European merchants made direct transactions with local cotton growers , but Zahir , with the help of Ibrahim Sabbagh , put an end to this system of commerce by making himself the middleman between the merchants and the growers living under his rule . This allowed him to both monopolize cotton production and the merchants ' price for the product . Zahir 's designation of prices for the local cash crops also prevented " exploitation " of the peasants and local merchants by European merchants and their " manipulation of the prices " , according to Joudah . This caused financial losses to the European merchants who lodged numerous complaints to the French and English ambassadors to the Sublime Porte . A formal agreement to regulate commerce between Zahir and the European merchants was reached in 1753 . Zahir further encouraged trade by offering local merchants interest @-@ free loans .
The high European demand for the product enabled Zahir to grow wealthy and finance his autonomous sheikhdom . This control of the cotton market also allowed him to gain unofficial control over all of the Sidon Eyalet , outside the city of Sidon itself . With mixed success , Zahir attempted to have French merchant ships redirected from the ports of Tyre and Sidon to Haifa instead , in order to benefit from the customs fees he could exact . The city of Acre underwent an economic boom as a result of its position in the cotton trade with France , and became the fortified headquarters of Zahir 's sheikhdom .
= = = Relationship with religious minorities = = =
Zahir maintained tolerant policies and encouraged the involvement of religious minorities in the local economy . As part of his larger efforts to enlarge the population of Galilee , Zahir invited Jews to resettle in Tiberias around 1742 , along with Muslims . Zahir did not consider Jews to be a threat to his rule and believed that their connections with the Jewish diaspora would encourage economic development in Tiberias , which the Jews considered particularly holy . His tolerance towards the Jews , the cuts in taxes levied on them , and assistance in the construction of Jewish homes , schools and synagogues , helped foster the growth of the Jewish community in the area . The initial Jewish immigrants came from Damascus and were later followed by Jews from Aleppo , Cyprus and Smyrna . Many Jews in Safad , which was governed by Zahir 's son Ali , moved to Tiberias in the 1740s to take advantage of better opportunities in that city , which at the time was under Zahir 's direct rule . The villages of Kafr Yasif and Shefa- ' Amr also saw new Jewish communities spring up under Zahir 's rule .
Zahir encouraged local Christian settlement in Acre , in order to contribute to the city 's commercial dynamism in trade and manufacturing . Christians grew to become the largest religious group in the city by the late 18th century . Zahir 's territory became a haven for Melkite and Greek Orthodox Christians from other parts of Ottoman Syria who migrated there for better trade and employment opportunities . In Nazareth , the Christian community prospered and grew under Zahir 's rule , and saw an influx from the Maronite and Greek Orthodox communities of Lebanon and Transjordan , respectively . The Melkite patriarch lived in Acre between 1765 and 1768 . Along with the Jews , the Christians contributed to the economy of Zahir 's sheikhdom in a number of ways , including the relative ease with which they were able to deal with European merchants , the networks of support many of them maintained in Damascus or Istanbul , and their role in service industries .
Zahir allowed the Franciscan community of Nazareth to build churches in 1730 , 1741 and 1754 on sites Christians associated with Jesus 's life . He allowed the Greek Orthodox community to build St. Gabriel 's Church over a ruined Crusader church in Nazareth , and in 1750 they enlarged St. George 's Church . The largest Christian community in Acre , the Melkites , built the largest church in the city , St. Andrew 's Church , in 1764 , while the Maronites built St. Mary 's Church for their congregation in 1750 . As a testament to the prosperity that the Christians enjoyed under Zahir 's rule , no further churches were built under the auspices of Zahir 's less tolerant successors .
A strong relationship existed between Zahir and the Shia Muslim peasants of Jabal Amil and their sheikhs . Zahir maintained law and order in Jabal Amil , while leaving its mostly Shia inhabitants to their own devices . The Shia also benefited economically from Zahir 's monopoly of the cotton industry and their sheikhs provided him men of great military skill to support his struggle against the Ottoman authorities . Zahir was a key backer of the Shia in their war with the Druze Jumblatt clan and the Shihab dynasty under Mulhim Shihab , and likewise , Shia forces were critical to the defense of Zahir 's sheikhdom against expeditions by the Ottoman governor of Damascus in 1771 and 1772 .
The relationship between Zahir and the rural sheikhs of the Druze of Mount Lebanon under the Shihab dynasty were mixed . While Sheikh Mansur Shihab of Chouf allied himself with Zahir , his nephew and rival , Yusuf Shihab of the Tripoli region remained supportive of the Ottomans . Owing largely to the conflict between Zahir and the Druze emirs of Mount Lebanon , he Druze of Galilee did not fare well under Zahir and his Zaydani clan . In the oral traditions of Galilee 's Druze inhabitants , Zahir 's reign was synonymous with oppression . During this period , many Druze villages were either destroyed or abandoned and there was a partial Druze exodus from Galilee , particularly from the villages around Safad , to the Hauran region east of the Jordan River .
= = Family = =
Zahir 's clan belonged to the Qaisi political faction in the centuries @-@ long struggle between the Qais and Yaman confederations . The Ma 'an and Shihab dynasties , who ruled Mount Lebanon ( and often Galilee ) semi @-@ autonomously , also belonged to the Qaisi faction . For the most part , Zahir respected the socio @-@ political system that prevailed in the region he ruled . The alliances between him and local notables were bolstered by a network of marriages between the influential families of the area , including Zahir 's Zaydani clan . Zahir 's own marriages were politically advantageous as they allowed him to consecrate his rule over certain areas or his relationships with certain Bedouin tribes , local clans or urban notables . Zahir had five wives during his lifetime . Among his wives was a woman from the Sardiyah , a Bedouin tribe active in Transjordan and Palestine . Zahir was also married to a daughter of Sayyid Muhammad , a wealthy religious notable from Damascus , a daughter of the mukhtar ( headman ) of Bi 'ina , and a daughter of the mukhtar of Deir al @-@ Qassi .
Zahir had eight sons from his wives , and according to Tobias Smollett , a daughter as well . His sons , from eldest to youngest , were Salibi , Ali , Uthman , Sa 'id , Ahmad , Salih , Sa 'd al @-@ Din and Abbas . His daughter 's husband 's name was Karim al @-@ Ayyubi , who was also Zahir 's cousin . By 1773 , Zahir had a total of 272 children , grandchildren and great @-@ grandchildren .
As Zahir consolidated his power and reduced external threats to his rule in the 1760s , his sons aspired for more influence and ultimately fought against their father and each other in order to secure their place as Zahir 's successor . Besides support from elements of the Zaydani clan , Zahir 's sons maintained their own power bases , largely derived from their mothers ' clans , and also made their own alliances with other powerful actors in the region . Zahir was victorious in the many conflicts he had with his sons , but their frequent dissent weakened his rule and played a contributory role to his downfall in 1775 . Prior to his sons ' individual rebellions , Zahir had eliminated other relatives who challenged his power .
= = Legacy = =
Zahir 's rule radically changed the landscape of Galilee . With the restoration and re @-@ fortification of Acre and the establishment of the secondary port city of Haifa , Galilee significantly strengthened its ties with the Mediterranean world . Following Zahir 's death , his successor Jazzar Pasha maintained the cotton monopoly Zahir had established and Galilee 's economy remained almost completely dependent on the cotton trade . The region prospered for decades , but with the rise of the cotton market in the southern United States during the early @-@ mid 19th century , European demand shifted away from Palestine 's cotton and because of its dependency on the crop , the region experienced a sharp economic downturn from which it could not recover . The cotton crop was largely abandoned , as were many villages , and the peasantry shifted its focus to subsistence agriculture .
In the late 19th century , the Palestine Exploration Fund 's Claude Reignier Conder wrote that the Ottomans had successfully destroyed the power of Palestine 's indigenous ruling families who " had practically been their own masters " but had been " ruined so that there is no longer any spirit left in them " . Among these families were the " proud race " of Zahir , which was still held in high esteem , but was powerless and poor . Zahir 's modern @-@ day descendants in Galilee use the surname " Dhawahri " or " al @-@ Zawahirah " in Zahir 's honor . The Dhawahri clan constitute one of the traditional elite Muslim clans of Nazareth , alongside the Fahum , Zu 'bi and ' Onallas families . Other villages in Galilee where descendants of Zahir 's clan live are Bi 'ina and Kafr Manda and , prior to its 1948 destruction , al @-@ Damun . Many of the inhabitants of modern @-@ day northern Israel , particularly the towns and villages where Zahir or his family left an architectural legacy , hold Zahir in high regard .
Although he was mostly overlooked by historians of the Middle East , some scholars view Zahir 's rule as a forerunner to Palestinian nationalism . Among these scholars is Karl Sabbagh , who asserts the latter view in his book Palestine : A Personal History , which was widely reviewed in the British press in 2010 . Zahir was gradually integrated into Palestinian historiography . In Murad Mustafa Dabbagh 's Biladuna Filastin ( 1965 ) , a multi @-@ volume work about Palestine 's history , Zahir is referred to as the " greatest Palestinian appearing in the eighteenth century " . The Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) radio station , Voice of Palestine , broadcast a series about Zahir in 1966 , praising him as a Palestinian national hero who fought against Ottoman imperialism . Zahir is considered by many Arab nationalists as a pioneer of Arab liberation from foreign occupation . According to Joudah
However historians may look at Shaykh Zahir al- ' Umar and his movement , he is highly respected by the Arabs of the East . In particular the Palestinians consider him a national hero who struggled against Ottoman authority for the welfare of his people . This praise is reflected in the recent academic , cultural and literary renaissance within Palestinian society that has elevated Zahir and his legacy to near @-@ iconic status . These re @-@ readings are not always bound to historical objectivity but are largely inspired by the ongoing consequences of the Nakba . Still it is precise to say that Shaykh Zahir had successfully established an autonomous state , or a " little Kingdom , " as Albert Hourani called it , in most of Palestine for over a quarter of a century .
= = = Building works = = =
Zahir and his family built fortresses , watchtowers , warehouses , and khans ( caravanserais ) . These buildings improved the domestic administration and general security of Galilee . Today , many of these structures are in a state of disrepair and remain outside the scope of Israel 's cultural preservation laws .
In Acre , Zahir rebuilt the Crusader @-@ era walls and built on top of various Crusader and Mamluk structures in the city . Among these were the caravanserais of Khan al @-@ Shawarda and its Burj al @-@ Sultan tower and Khan al @-@ Shunah . In 1758 , he commissioned the construction of the al @-@ Muallaq Mosque , He also built the Seraya government house in Nazareth , which served as that city 's municipal headquarters until 1991 . In Haifa , which Zahir founded , he built a wall with four towers and two gates around the new settlement . Within Haifa , he built the Burj al @-@ Salam fortress , a small mosque , a customs building , and a government residence ( saraya ) . In Tiberias , he commissioned the building of a citadel ( now ruined ) and the al @-@ Amari Mosque . The latter was built with alternating white and black stone , typical of the architectural style of Zahir 's building works , and a minaret .
Fortifications and other structures were built in the rural villages under Zahir 's control . In Deir Hanna , Zahir 's brother Sa 'd built a large fortress and an adjacent mosque , both of which were severely damaged during a siege by Jazzar Pasha in 1776 . In Khirbat Jiddin , he rebuilt the demolished Crusader fortress with the addition of a mosque and hamaam ( bathhouse ) . The mosque was destroyed by Israeli forces when the village was captured during the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War . In Shefa- ' Amr , Zahir 's son Uthman built a large fortress with four towers , of which one remains standing . Another of his sons , Ahmad , rebuilt the Crusader fortress in Saffuriya .
In Tibnin , in modern @-@ day Lebanon , and in Safad , Zahir or his son Ali had Crusader @-@ era fortresses rebuilt . Zahir fortified the village of Harbaj , although the village and its fort were in ruins by the late 19th century . At Tabgha on the Sea of Galilee , Zahir built five fountains , one of which remained standing by the 19th century . That remaining fountain was the largest of its kind in Galilee . In the village of I 'billin , Zahir 's brother Yusuf built fortifications and a mosque . The I 'billin fortress was later used as the headquarters of Aqil Agha , the 19th century semi @-@ autonomous Arab sheikh of Galilee .
= M @-@ 204 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 204 runs across the Leelanau Peninsula between Leland and Suttons Bay in the northwestern Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . The trunkline runs through a rural section of Leelanau County , connecting two villages with the county seat . Originally a gravel road in 1933 , it was later paved within the first three years of existence . Segments were realigned to straighten curves in the late 1930s and early 1970s near the villages of Lake Leelanau and Suttons Bay .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 204 starts at an intersection with M @-@ 22 ( Manitou Trail ) south of Leland next to Duck Lake . From there it follows Duck Lake Road along the south shore of Lake Leelanau 's northern lobe . The two @-@ lane roadway runs eastward and then southeasterly through a mixture of woods and fields to the village of Lake Leelanau . One there , M @-@ 204 follows Phillip Street across the Narrows and turns northeasterly . The bridge that the trunkline uses is eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places . Outside of town , the highway follows Duck Lake Road again past the county seat of Leelanau County . Near the intersection with Horn Road , M @-@ 204 turns southeasterly toward the village of Suttons Bay . As the trunkline descends a hill into the village , it passes through vineyards and woods . Inside town , M @-@ 204 follows Race Street and ends downtown at M @-@ 22 ( St. Joseph Avenue ) .
Like other state highways in Michigan , M @-@ 204 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 3 @,@ 397 vehicles used the highway daily in Suttons Bay and 2 @,@ 931 vehicles did so each day near the western terminus , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . No section of M @-@ 204 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 204 was first designated on July 12 , 1933 between Leland and Suttons Bay along what is today Duck Lake Road . The highway was paved by the middle of 1936 . The road was realigned on July 13 , 1939 , across the narrows of Lake Leelanau in the village of the same name . Another realignment near Suttons Bay was completed on March 26 , 1956 , to smooth out a curve in the road . A second completed on May 4 , 1956 , straightened a curve by Sylt Road east of Lake Leelanau . The western section was completely rebuilt between Duck Lake Corner and the Lake Leelanau Narrows Bridge to smooth out curves in the roadway . Sections not obliterated by the reconstruction were turned over to local control as Main Street or Old M @-@ 204 in Lake Leelanau when the project was finished on July 1 , 1970 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Leelanau County .
= What Goes Around ... Comes Around =
" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around ( Interlude ) " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Justin Timberlake for his second studio album , FutureSex / LoveSounds ( 2006 ) . It was written and produced by Timberlake , Timbaland , and Danja . The song was said by Timberlake to be about betrayal and forgiveness , and was described by some music critics as a " sequel " to his 2002 single " Cry Me a River " . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics .
" What Goes Around ... " is about the love life of a friend of Timberlake , Trace Ayala , and his relationship with Elisha Cuthbert . It also is rumored that the song talks about the relationship the two had in the TV series 24 .
The song was retitled " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " for its December 19 , 2006 , release as the third single from FutureSex / LoveSounds . It became Timberlake 's third consecutive number @-@ one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 . Internationally the song was also successful , reaching the top ten in countries such as the United Kingdom , Canada , New Zealand , Germany , and Australia . The song was later certified two @-@ times platinum in Australia , gold in the United States and gold in New Zealand . The song won Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 50th Grammy Awards , where it also received a nomination for Record of the Year .
The Samuel Bayer @-@ directed music video for " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " was released February 7 , 2007 . Actress Scarlett Johansson plays Timberlake 's love interest in the video . The video received the award for Best Direction at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards and was also nominated for Video of the Year .
= = Production = =
When Timberlake began working on FutureSex / LoveSounds at Timbaland 's studio in Virginia Beach , Virginia , they had no idea of what the album would be like with no plan for it or even a title . He told his collaborators to do a remake of his previous single , " Cry Me a River " . Danja , a protégé of Timbaland , stated : " We had no direction at all other than ' Cry Me a River , ' and not in the sense of mimicking the track , but in how big the song was . There was no direction for how he wanted the song to sound , because there was no direction for how he wanted [ his album FutureSex / LoveSounds ] to sound . "
The song was written and produced by Justin Timberlake , Timbaland , and Nate " Danja " Hills . While in the studio , the three men were just " fooling around " and " freestyling " . When Danja began playing a guitar riff , it caught Timberlake 's attention . Timberlake started humming to the melody , and then the lyrics came . Timbaland , who was at his keyboards beside Danja , added drums to the melody . Danja commented that " everything was coming together at the same time " . After coming up with the music , Timberlake never wrote down the lyrics and , in an hour , he was ready to record it . By the time Timberlake was in the vocal booth , the basic track was done , then Timbaland produced a prelude of the song . Timberlake sang the song in a couple of takes and went back line by line to fill up the gaps . During the recording sessions , Timbaland and Danja added everything else , including the basses and strings . Danja compared the process to scoring to a movie , thinking the song was like a horror flick .
" What Goes Around ... Comes Around " was pivotal to the creation of FutureSex / LoveSounds . After finishing the production of the song , Timbaland teased Timberlake . Timberlake responded : " Let 's do something we would never do . Let 's go far left and just see what happens . " His answer motivated the collective , and they ended up producing ten songs for the album .
= = Composition and interpretation = =
" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " is a pop @-@ R & B song performed in a slow manner . It is composed in the key of A Dorian ( A Minor ) in common time . With a gentle and midtempo beat , the tempo is pacing to 76 beats per minute . The song features a two @-@ minute interlude titled " Comes Around " , featuring the album 's producer Timbaland , spanning to a seven @-@ minute and 28 @-@ second track . Timberlake 's voice ranges from B3 to D6 . Musically , the song is similar to the type of music produced on Timberlake 's Justified album ; however , it is the only link from FutureSex / LoveSounds to Justified .
In the beginning of the song , there is a five @-@ second harmony line of two bağlamas ( one each panned far left and far right on respect octaves ) , a Turkish folk instrument . The beat is then changed to a more upbeat version of the same melody with more percussion . The basic ornamentation is loyal to characteristic Turkish string ornamentations . Timbaland also used the Turkish oud to mellow out the guitar riff . The chord series follows the Am @-@ C @-@ G @-@ D keys . Following the instrumental , Timberlake begins the verse at thirteenth bar . The original track had a bridge , including the pre @-@ verses , the verses and the choruses . After hearing the vocals of Timberlake , they decided to remove the bridge and follow a simple flow , because they felt its " too much " to have it and a break at the end of the song . Timbaland provides backing vocals on the song .
" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " is about betrayal and forgiveness . Timberlake revealed that the song was written for the experience his friend went through . However , the public came up with different interpretation of the lyrics , that being a sequel to " Cry Me A River " . Bill Lamb wrote that the song has a " cautionary tale in the lyrics " . According to him , many fans and critics alike , after hearing the song , insisted that it is similar in meaning to " Cry Me a River " , which allegedly accounts to Timberlake 's relationship with former girlfriend , pop singer Britney Spears . However , Timberlake 's account of the song 's meaning contradicts this . Spence D. of IGN commented that the song presents " some intriguing ambiance " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song received generally positive reviews from critics . Rolling Stone called the single " a soaring ballad featuring Timberlake 's falsetto , with verses and choruses that pile on top of one another with dizzying effect . " About.com reviewer Bill Lamb stated that the song " is one of the most gorgeous pop melodies of the year . " He complimented the string @-@ based arrangement of the song . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly called it " superior " , along with " LoveStoned " . Zach Baron of Pitchfork Media referred to it " some real can 't @-@ let @-@ go shit that 'll save you the repeat stabs on the bad night . " Spence D. of IGN called it " annoying " but he complimented the use of echo vocals and swirling synths .
" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " placed at number twenty @-@ four on Rolling Stone 's list of the 100 Best Songs of 2007 . The song was nominated twice at the 50th Annual Grammy Awards , winning Best Male Pop Vocal Performance but lost to Amy Winehouse 's " Rehab " for Record of the Year .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " was commercially successful in the United States . The single debuted at number 64 on December 23 , 2006 on the Billboard Hot 100 , prior to its physical release . From number eight on February 24 , 2007 , it propelled to number one the following week . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " became Timberlake 's third consecutive number one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 from his FutureSex / LoveSounds album , becoming the first male artist since Usher in 2004 to have three or more consecutive number @-@ one hits from one album . The single charted on Hot 100 for 25 weeks . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on June 7 , 2007 . By September 3 , 2010 , the song had passed the two million sales plateau , and has sold 2 @,@ 375 @,@ 000 copies as of April 2013 .
In the United Kingdom , " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " debuted at number 59 on the UK Singles Chart on January 28 , 2007 . The digital download sales helped propel the single to number 11 on February 25 , 2007 . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " peaked at number four on March 11 , to become his sixth top five single in the United Kingdom . It stayed on the chart for 22 weeks . The single entered the top five in Austria , Belgium , Denmark , Finland , France , Germany , Ireland , Norway , Romania , Sweden , Switzerland . In Australia , the single debuted and peaked at number three on the Australian ARIA singles chart on March 26 , 2007 , gaining the Highest Debut certification . It spent a total of 22 weeks on the chart . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for selling over 30 @,@ 000 units . The single peaked at number three in the New Zealand on April 9 , 2007 , and spent 16 weeks on the chart . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
The music video for the " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " was produced as a short movie . The video was directed by Samuel Bayer , who had first directorial works with Nirvana 's 1991 single " Smells Like Teen Spirit " . The video features dialogues written by Alpha Dog writer and director Nick Cassavetes , who had previously worked with Timberlake in the film . Timberlake and Bayer enlisted American actress Scarlett Johansson after deciding on using " real " actors . The shooting went for three days between Christmas and New Year 's Eve in Los Angeles . The dawn scene was shot on January 8 , after the original sessions were done .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video starts off with Timberlake flirting with Johansson on the burlesque @-@ style club . She rejects with a tease at first but eventually leaves with him to go back to his place . In between cuts , they are shown in bed caressing each other . Johansson jumps into a pool outside the house , and floats below the surface as if she is drowning . Timberlake runs out and pulls her up ; she laughs at Timberlake and kisses him .
In another scene , Timberlake introduces her to a drunk Shawn Hatosy at the club calling her " The One " . Hatosy seems to be interested in Johansson and Timberlake asks him to " keep an eye on her for me " perhaps suspecting she has another man on the side . Timberlake returns and finds them kissing in the stairway . After punching Hatosy he chases after Johansson , who speeds off in her 1967 Chevrolet Corvette C2 Sting Ray ; Timberlake follows in his Porsche Carrera GT . Johansson runs into a fiery car crash pile up and is ejected from the car as it tumbles through the air and lands several feet away 2 times . Timberlake notices a motionless body lying supine on the ground . He gets out and kneels over her while the camera view moves toward the sky .
Some scenes shows Timberlake performing on the stairway with a microphone while a group of unknown girls with red paint on their eyes are seen dancing next to him while one ( Johansson ) is seen waving her batons with fire on them near the end of the video .
= = = Release and reception = = =
The music video of " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " was exclusively premiered on February 9 , 2007 on the iTunes Store . The music video debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live at number nine on February 13 , 2007 . " What Goes Around ... " retired on May 7 at number seven . In Canada , the music video debuted on Muchmusic 's Top 30 countdown at number 22 on January 26 , 2007 . It peaked at number one on April 27 and stayed on the chart for seven non @-@ consecutive weeks . The video was commercially successful , becoming the fastest selling pop promo on iTunes . It has sold 50 @,@ 000 in downloads for four days . Timberlake was the first major artist to release a video on the download platform .
In September 2007 , " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " won an MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction . It was also nominated for Video of the Year but lost to singer Rihanna 's 2007 video " Umbrella " .
= = Live performances = =
Timberlake performed the song on Saturday Night Live . Timberlake performed twice at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards , once at the piano for " What Goes Around Comes Around " and later " My Love " and Bill Withers ' " Ain 't No Sunshine . " The song is featured in the set list of FutureSex / LoveShow ( 2007 ) , Legends of the Summer ( 2013 ) and the The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 / 14 ) .
= = Cover versions = =
On May 23 , 2007 , Marilyn Manson and Tim Skold appeared on UK radio station BBC Radio 1 's program Live Lounge to promote Marilyn Manson 's 2007 album Eat Me , Drink Me . They performed an acoustic version of " Heart @-@ Shaped Glasses ( When the Heart Guides the Hand ) " , followed with an acoustic cover of " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " . The Manson cover does not include the interlude . French singer Myriam Abel , the winner of Nouvelle Star 3 , also recorded a non @-@ commercial cover of " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " with a Raï influence , accessible through her official MySpace page . An a cappella rendition was recorded by Overboard for their 2007 album , Stranded . American post hardcore band Alesana recorded a cover for the Punk Goes ... compilation series , Punk Goes Pop 2 , released March 10 , 2009 . Benny Davis , of the Australian musical comedy act The Axis of Awesome , also heavily sampled the song on his track " Another Four Chords " on The Human Jukebox EP , released in 2013 .
Taylor Swift performed a mashup of " You 're Not Sorry " and " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " during her Fearless Tour ( 2009 − 10 ) .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from FutureSex / LoveSounds booklet :
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Woodstock Library =
The Woodstock Library is a branch of the Multnomah County Library in southeast Portland , Oregon , United States . The library 's origins date back to 1908 , when the people of the Woodstock neighborhood established a reading room at the Woodstock Fire Station , which soon became one of fifteen " deposit stations " ( packing crates that turned into two @-@ shelf bookcases and could hold up to 50 books each ) . The Woodstock collection began as an assemblage of children 's books and was housed within a public school . In 1911 , the station was replaced by a " sub @-@ branch " library offering more books for adults and children , but without the reference works and services available at regular branches . The collection moved into a larger facility in 1914 , which became a full branch in 1917 , offering additional resources and services .
The library occupied a series of temporary locations during the 1920s – ' 40s . Construction began on Woodstock 's permanent library building in 1959 . It was dedicated on June 1 the following year , the fourth community library built by Multnomah County . Until the mid @-@ 1990s the library was maintained as @-@ is with only regular maintenance , though capacity strained as public use grew and new technologies demanded additional shelf space . In 1995 , the City of Portland 's Bureau of Planning released the " Adopted Woodstock Neighborhood Plan " , which included a policy to improve the branch and its services . In 1996 , the county adopted a $ 28 million bond measure to renovate some branches and upgrade technology throughout the system . Given multiple issues with the existing building , including structural problems and non @-@ compliance with building codes , Multnomah County Library determined reconstruction was necessary . The library was demolished in January 1999 .
The current 7 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 700 m2 ) Woodstock Library building was completed in 2000 . It has a " lantern @-@ like " quality and has received multiple awards for its design . In addition to offering the Multnomah County Library catalog , which contains two million books , periodicals and other materials , the library houses collections in Chinese and Spanish and employs Chinese @-@ speaking staff .
= = Early history = =
In 1906 , the Multnomah County Library began distributing books to neighborhoods outside downtown Portland . A reading room was established in the Woodstock neighborhood 's fire station building in 1908 ; later that year it was recognized as a branch of Multnomah County Library . Deposit stations , containing packing crates that turned into two @-@ shelf bookcases holding up to 50 books each , were often set up within fire stations or private homes . Woodstock received its deposit station , a collection of children 's books housed within a public school , in 1909 , becoming one of fifteen outlying service areas . On May 16 , 1911 , the Woodstock deposit station was replaced by a sub @-@ branch library , supplying more reading material for adults and children but without the reference works and other library services offered at regular branches . The collection was moved to a larger storefront facility , west of SE 44th on SE Woodstock Boulevard , on September 12 , 1914 . The library achieved full branch status in 1917 , offering a collection and services comparable to other branches . In 1918 , the Woodstock branch and several others were threatened with closure after employees received a $ 10 per month salary increase , but funding sources helped to defray the additional expense . Along with other county libraries , the branch closed between November 1 and November 16 in response to the 1918 flu pandemic .
During the 1920s – ' 40s the library occupied a series of temporary locations within rented storefronts . Library resources and services were used heavily by unemployed residents during the Great Depression as well as during and after World War II , as people requested information ranging from foreign locales to victory gardens to jobs . In the 1950s , responding to population changes and the rise in automobile use , Multnomah County Library divided the county into six regions , each of which had a single " Class A " branch offering extended operating hours and full services . Deposit stations and smaller branch libraries were to be eliminated or merged to house larger collections .
= = Original building = =
Multnomah County Library decided to consolidate the Woodstock and Sellwood @-@ Moreland branches , both of which had struggled to operate in rented spaces for years . Construction of Woodstock 's first permanent library building , located at 6008 SE 49th Avenue , began in 1959 . The new library , measuring 5 @,@ 640 square feet ( 524 m2 ) , was dedicated on June 1 the following year , the fourth community library built by Multnomah County . The president of the Library Association of Portland wrote in the organization 's annual report : " Community response to this fine example of an adequate extension agency has been gratifying . This accelerated use fortifies the principle that excellent , strong book collections , strategically placed , provide economical and satisfactory extension [ branch ] service . "
The library received regular maintenance and refurbishment from the 1970s through the mid @-@ 1990s , including repairs following a small fire . Capacity became strained as video and audiobook collections demanded additional shelf space and public use continued to grow . In 1995 , the City of Portland 's Bureau of Planning released the " Adopted Woodstock Neighborhood Plan " , which included a policy to enhance the branch . Objectives included promoting its use , upgrading the facility and its services , improving cyclist and pedestrian access , and strengthening its cultural and educational role within the community . In May 1996 , Multnomah County voters passed a $ 28 million bond measure to renovate some branches and upgrade technology throughout the system . Multnomah County Library determined building reconstruction was necessary given multiple issues including electrical , lighting , mechanical , plumbing and structural problems , mold growth within the walls and underneath flooring , and non @-@ compliance with earthquake engineering and Americans with Disabilities Act codes . Cost analysis revealed reconstruction was more effective than repairing the existing structure ; additional factors included data and communications upgrades and the need for meeting space . Woodstock Library closed on January 17 , 1999 and was demolished soon after . Many of its building materials were recycled or salvaged for reuse .
= = Current building = =
The current Woodstock Library building is at the intersection of one commercial street ( SE Woodstock Boulevard ) and one tree @-@ lined residential street ( SE 49th ) , which links to the Woodstock School and Woodstock Park . Measuring 7 @,@ 500 square feet ( 700 m2 ) , it opened on March 14 , 2000 , the first branch within the Multnomah County Library system to undergo complete reconstruction . Architects were Folger Johnson and Donald Mayer as well as Thomas Hacker and Associates P.C. ( also referred to as Thomas Hacker Architects Inc. or THA Architecture ) . Becca Cavell served as project architect , project manager and construction administrator . Some of the building 's architectural features were designed by the engineering firm Degenkolb Engineers . Contractor services were provided by McCarthy Building Companies , Inc .
Designers had in mind a " lantern @-@ like " quality for the library , " open , light and inviting " . THA said the goal was to create a " feeling of openness and availability " , with a focus on " books and people " . Most of the library 's collection is housed within a single large room level with the sidewalk outside . The building has an exposed gridded steel roof 19 feet ( 580 cm ) high , supported by six pairs of slender steel columns and lined with windows . From several column options , Degenkolb chose cantilevered columns designed in a cruciform shape , built from four steel angles measuring 6 by 6 inches ( 15 cm × 15 cm ) . The columns taper from the top and provide even distribution of loads , protecting the structure against wind and earthquakes without lateral bracing ( or the need for supporting walls ) . The library features a 32 @-@ person capacity meeting room for hosting community events at no charge on a first come , first served basis . The building houses original artwork , including a work by Margot Voorhies @-@ Thompson and , at the entrance , a 15 @-@ line poem by Kim Stafford titled " Open This Door of All Doors " . The exterior includes 36 stainless steel panels etched with words depicting the history of books .
Kari Hauge became the first librarian of the new facility . In addition to offering the Multnomah County Library catalog of two million books , periodicals and other materials , the Woodstock Library houses collections in Chinese and Spanish and employs Chinese @-@ speaking staff . Self @-@ checkout stations and radio frequency identification gates were installed in July 2010 .
The current building has received several design awards . In 2000 , the American Institute of Steel Construction awarded Degenkolb with the I.D.E.A.S. Merit Award for quality structural engineering . Thomas Hacker Architects was presented with the 2002 AIA Regional Honor Award by the Northwest and Pacific Region of the American Institute of Architects through its Design Awards Program ; jurors noted the library 's " rigorous but poetic " structure and its " outstanding tectonic harmony , from the smallest scale of details to the basic design concept " . The building also received the 2000 AIA Portland Chapter Honor Award , the 2000 Portland General Electric EarthSmart Award , the 2001 AIA American Library Association Award of Excellence ( for its " simple and elegant design " ) and the 2002 Chicago Athenaeum American Architecture Award . The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America presented an award for the library 's quality lighting design . Ginnie Cooper , director of libraries for Multnomah County , said of the recognition : " Library users love this building and we 're pleased with how much the architectural community has applauded it as well . "
The Woodstock Library became a model project for library branch reconstruction in the region . Other libraries designed and built by Thomas Hacker include the Beaverton City Library , the Belmont Library , the Bend Library and the Penrose Library ( Whitman College ) .
= = Community role = =
Over the years both Woodstock Library buildings have hosted numerous activities , clubs , events and programs . According to the " Adopted Woodstock Neighborhood Plan " , the Woodstock Library and Woodstock Community Center enhance the Village Center 's role within the community as a " gathering place " . Recent examples include appearances by actors and authors , a clown show , " conversation circles " for non @-@ native English speakers , crafting , cultural celebrations , knitting groups , a mobile zoo , and neighborhood organization meetings and storytelling . The library has also hosted town hall meetings and served as a ballot drop @-@ off site during elections .
= Ragnarök =
In Norse mythology , Ragnarök is a series of future events , including a great battle , foretold to ultimately result in the death of a number of major figures ( including the gods Odin , Thor , Týr , Freyr , Heimdallr , and Loki ) , the occurrence of various natural disasters , and the subsequent submersion of the world in water . Afterward , the world will resurface anew and fertile , the surviving and returning gods will meet , and the world will be repopulated by two human survivors . Ragnarök is an important event in the Norse canon , and has been the subject of scholarly discourse and theory .
The event is attested primarily in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In the Prose Edda , and in a single poem in the Poetic Edda , the event is referred to as Ragnarök or Ragnarøkkr ( Old Norse " Fate of the Gods " and " Twilight of the Gods " respectively ) , a usage popularised by 19th @-@ century composer Richard Wagner with the title of the last of his Der Ring des Nibelungen operas , Götterdämmerung ( 1876 ) .
= = Etymology = =
The Old Norse compound ragnarok has a long history of interpretation . Its first element , ragna , is unproblematic , being the genitive plural of regin ( n. pl . ) " the ruling powers , gods " . The second element is more difficult , as it occurs in two variants , -rök and -røkkr . Zoega 's Old Icelandic Dictionary treats the two forms as two separate compounds , glossing ragnarök as " the doom or destruction of the gods " and ragnarøkkr as " the twilight of the gods " ( 1910 ) .
The plural noun rök , has several meanings , such as " development , origin , cause , relation , fate . " The word ragnarök as a whole is then usually interpreted as the " final destiny of the gods . "
The singular form ragnarøk ( k ) r is found in stanza 39 of the Poetic Edda poem Lokasenna , and in the Prose Edda . The noun røk ( k ) r means " twilight " ( from a verb røkkva " to grow dark " ) , suggesting a translation " twilight of the gods " . This reading was widely considered a result of folk etymology , or a learned reinterpretation , of the original term due to the merger of / ǫ / and / ø / in Old Icelandic after ca . 1200 ( nevertheless giving rise to the concept of Götterdämmerung " Twilight of the Gods " in the German reception of Norse mythology ) . Nevertheless , Haraldur Bernharðsson in a 2007 paper suggested that the singular form -røkr " twilight " ( from a Proto @-@ Germanic * rekwa ) might have been the original reading . Haraldur Bernharðsson argues instead that the words ragnarök and ragnarøkkr are closely related , etymologically and semantically , and suggests a meaning of " renewal of the divine powers . "
Other terms used to refer to the events surrounding Ragnarök in the Poetic Edda include aldar rök ( aldar means age , " end of an age " ) from stanza 39 of Vafþrúðnismál , tíva rök from stanzas 38 and 42 of Vafþrúðnismál , þá er regin deyja ( " when the gods die " ) from Vafþrúðnismál stanza 47 , unz um rjúfask regin ( " when the gods will be destroyed " ) from Vafþrúðnismál stanza 52 , Lokasenna stanza 41 , and Sigrdrífumál stanza 19 , aldar rof ( " destruction of the age " ) from Helgakviða Hundingsbana II stanza 41 , regin þrjóta ( " end of the gods " ) from Hyndluljóð stanza 42 , and , in the Prose Edda , þá er Muspellz @-@ synir herja ( " when the sons of Muspell move into battle " ) can be found in chapters 18 and 36 of Gylfaginning .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
The Poetic Edda contains various references to Ragnarök :
= = = = Völuspá = = = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá , references to Ragnarök begin from stanza 40 until 58 , with the rest of the poem describing the aftermath . In the poem , a völva recites information to Odin . In stanza 41 , the völva says :
The völva then describes three roosters crowing : In stanza 42 , the jötunn herdsman Eggthér sits on a mound and cheerfully plays his harp while the crimson rooster Fjalar ( Old Norse " hider , deceiver " ) crows in the forest Gálgviðr . The golden rooster Gullinkambi crows to the Æsir in Valhalla , and the third , unnamed soot @-@ red rooster crows in the halls of the underworld location of Hel in stanza 43 .
After these stanzas , the völva further relates that the hound Garmr produces deep howls in front of the cave of Gnipahellir . Garmr 's bindings break and he runs free . The völva describes the state of humanity :
The " sons of Mím " are described as being " at play " , though this reference is not further explained in surviving sources . Heimdall raises the Gjallarhorn into the air and blows deeply into it , and Odin converses with Mím 's head . The world tree Yggdrasil shudders and groans . The jötunn Hrym comes from the east , his shield before him . The Midgard serpent Jörmungandr furiously writhes , causing waves to crash . " The eagle shrieks , pale @-@ beaked he tears the corpse , " and the ship Naglfar breaks free thanks to the waves made by Jormungandr and sets sail from the east . The fire jötnar inhabitants of Muspelheim come forth .
The völva continues that Jötunheimr , the land of the jötnar , is aroar , and that the Æsir are in council . The dwarfs groan by their stone doors . Surtr advances from the south , his sword brighter than the sun . Rocky cliffs open and the jötnar women sink .
The gods then do battle with the invaders : Odin is swallowed whole and alive fighting the wolf Fenrir , causing his wife Frigg her second great sorrow ( the first being the death of her son , the god Baldr ) . Odin 's son Víðarr avenges his father by rending Fenrir 's jaws apart and stabbing it in the heart with his spear , thus killing the wolf . The serpent Jörmungandr opens its gaping maw , yawning widely in the air , and is met in combat by Thor . Thor , also a son of Odin and described here as protector of the earth , furiously fights the serpent , defeating it , but Thor is only able to take nine steps afterward before collapsing . The god Freyr fights Surtr and loses . After this , people flee their homes , and the sun becomes black while the earth sinks into the sea , the stars vanish , steam rises , and flames touch the heavens .
The völva sees the earth reappearing from the water , and an eagle over a waterfall hunting fish on a mountain . The surviving Æsir meet together at the field of Iðavöllr . They discuss Jörmungandr , great events of the past , and the runic alphabet . In stanza 61 , in the grass , they find the golden game pieces that the gods are described as having once happily enjoyed playing games with long ago ( attested earlier in the same poem ) . The reemerged fields grow without needing to be sown . The gods Höðr and Baldr return from Hel and live happily together .
The völva says that the god Hœnir chooses wooden slips for divination , and that the sons of two brothers will widely inhabit the windy world . She sees a hall thatched with gold in Gimlé , where nobility will live and spend their lives pleasurably . Stanzas 65 , found in the Hauksbók version of the poem , refers to a " powerful , mighty one " that " rules over everything " and who will arrive from above at the court of the gods ( Old Norse regindómr ) , which has been interpreted as a Christian addition to the poem . In stanza 66 , the völva ends her account with a description of the dragon Níðhöggr , corpses in his jaws , flying through the air . The völva then " sinks down . " It is unclear if stanza 66 indicates that the völva is referring to the present time or if this is an element of the post @-@ Ragnarök world .
= = = = Vafþrúðnismál = = = =
The Vanir god Njörðr is mentioned in relation to Ragnarök in stanza 39 of the poem Vafþrúðnismál . In the poem , Odin , disguised as Gagnráðr faces off with the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir in a battle of wits . Vafþrúðnismál references Njörðr 's status as a hostage during the earlier Æsir – Vanir War , and that he will " come back home among the wise Vanir " at " the doom of men . "
In stanza 44 , Odin poses the question to Vafþrúðnir as to who of mankind will survive the " famous " Fimbulwinter ( " Mighty Winter " ) . Vafþrúðnir responds in stanza 45 that those survivors will be Líf and Lífþrasir , and that they will hide in the forest of Hoddmímis holt , that they will consume the morning dew , and will produce generations of offspring . In stanza 46 , Odin asks what sun will come into the sky after Fenrir has consumed the sun that exists . Vafþrúðnir responds that Sól will bear a daughter before Fenrir assails her , and that after Ragnarök this daughter will continue her mother 's path .
In stanza 51 , Vafþrúðnir states that , after Surtr 's flames have been sated , Odin 's sons Víðarr and Váli will live in the temples of the gods , and that Thor 's sons Móði and Magni will possess the hammer Mjolnir . In stanza 52 , the disguised Odin asks the jötunn about Odin 's own fate . Vafþrúðnir responds that " the wolf " will consume Odin , and that Víðarr will avenge him by sundering its cold jaws in battle . Odin ends the duel with one final question : what did Odin say to his son before preparing his funeral pyre ? With this , Vafþrúðnir realizes that he is dealing with none other than Odin , whom he refers to as " the wisest of beings , " adding that Odin alone could know this . Odin 's message has been interpreted as a promise of resurrection to Baldr after Ragnarök .
= = = = Helgakviða Hundingsbana II = = = =
Ragnarök is briefly referenced in stanza 40 of the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana II . Here , the valkyrie Sigrún 's unnamed maid is passing the deceased hero Helgi Hundingsbane 's burial mound . Helgi is there with a retinue of men , surprising the maid . The maid asks if she is witnessing a delusion since she sees dead men riding , or if Ragnarök has occurred . In stanza 41 , Helgi responds that it is neither .
= = = Prose Edda = = =
Snorri Sturluson 's Prose Edda quotes heavily from Völuspá and elaborates extensively in prose on the information there , though some of this information conflicts with that provided in Völuspá .
= = = = Gylfaginning chapters 26 and 34 = = = =
In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , various references are made to Ragnarök . Ragnarök is first mentioned in chapter 26 , where the throned figure of High , king of the hall , tells Gangleri ( King Gylfi in disguise ) some basic information about the goddess Iðunn , including that her apples will keep the gods young until Ragnarök .
In chapter 34 , High describes the binding of the wolf Fenrir by the gods , causing the god Týr to lose his right hand , and that Fenrir remains there until Ragnarök . Gangleri asks High why , since the gods could only expect destruction from Fenrir , they did not simply kill Fenrir once he was bound . High responds that " the gods hold their sacred places and sanctuaries in such respect that they chose not to defile them with the wolf 's blood , even though the prophecies foretold that he would be the death of Odin . "
As a consequence of his role in the death of the god Baldr , Loki ( described as father of Fenrir ) is bound on top of three stones with the internal organs of his son Narfi ( which are turned into iron ) in three places . There , venom drops onto his face periodically from a snake placed by the jötunn Skaði , and when his wife Sigyn empties the bucket she is using to collect the dripping venom , the pain he experiences causes convulsions , resulting in earthquakes . Loki is further described as being bound this way until the onset of Ragnarök .
= = = = Gylfaginning chapter 51 = = = =
Chapter 51 provides a detailed account of Ragnarök interspersed with various quotes from Völuspá , while chapters 52 and 53 describe the aftermath of these events . In Chapter 51 , High states the first sign of Ragnarök will be Fimbulwinter , during which time three winters will arrive without a summer , and the sun will be useless . High details that , prior to these winters , three earlier winters will have occurred , marked with great battles throughout the world . During this time , greed will cause brothers to kill brothers , and fathers and sons will suffer from the collapse of kinship bonds . High then quotes stanza 45 of Völuspá . Next , High describes that the wolf will first swallow the sun , and then his brother the moon , and mankind will consider the occurrence as a great disaster resulting in much ruin . The stars will disappear . The earth and mountains will shake so violently that the trees will come loose from the soil , the mountains will topple , and all restraints will break , causing Fenrir to break free from his bonds .
High relates that the great serpent Jörmungandr , also described as a child of Loki in the same source , will breach land as the sea violently swells onto it . The ship Naglfar , described in the Prose Edda as being made from the human nails of the dead , is released from its mooring , and sets sail on the surging sea , steered by a jötunn named Hrym . At the same time , Fenrir , eyes and nostrils spraying flames , charges forward with his mouth wide open , his upper jaw reaching to the heavens , his lower jaw touching the earth . At Fenrir 's side , Jörmungandr sprays venom throughout the air and the sea .
During all of this , the sky splits into two . From the split , the " sons of Muspell " ride forth . Surtr rides first , surrounded by flames , his sword brighter than the sun . High says that " Muspell 's sons " will ride across Bifröst , described in Gylfaginning as a rainbow bridge , and that the bridge will then break . The sons of Muspell ( and their shining battle troop ) advance to the field of Vígríðr , described as an expanse that reaches " a hundred leagues in each direction , " where Fenrir , Jörmungandr , Loki ( followed by " Hel 's own " ) , and Hrym ( accompanied by all frost jötnar ) join them . While this occurs , Heimdallr stands and blows the Gjallarhorn with all his might . The gods awaken at the sound , and they meet . Odin rides to Mímisbrunnr in search of counsel from Mímir . Yggdrasil shakes , and everything , everywhere fears .
High relates that the Æsir and the Einherjar dress for war and head to the field . Odin , wearing a gold helmet and an intricate coat of mail , carries his spear Gungnir and rides before them . Odin advances against Fenrir , while Thor moves at his side , though Thor is unable to assist Odin because he has engaged Jörmungandr in combat . According to High , Freyr fiercely fights with Surtr , but Freyr falls because he lacks the sword he once gave to his messenger , Skírnir . The hound Garmr ( described here as the " worst of monsters " ) breaks free from his bonds in front of Gnipahellir , and fights the god Týr , resulting in both of their deaths .
Thor kills Jörmungandr , yet is poisoned by the serpent , and manages to walk nine steps before falling to the earth dead . Fenrir swallows Odin , though immediately afterward his son Víðarr kicks his foot into Fenrir 's lower jaw , grips Fenrir 's upper jaw , and rips apart Fenrir 's mouth , killing Fenrir . Loki fights Heimdallr , and the two kill one another . Surtr covers the earth in fire , causing the entire world to burn . High quotes stanzas 46 to 47 of Völuspá , and additionally | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
in its mouth , while a large bird sits at his shoulder . Rundata dates it to 940 , while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century . This depiction has been interpreted as Odin , with a raven or eagle at his shoulder , being consumed by Fenrir at Ragnarök . On the other side of the stone is a depiction of a large cross and another image parallel to the Odin figure that has been described as Christ triumphing over Satan . These combined elements have led to the cross as being described as " syncretic art " ; a mixture of pagan and Christian beliefs .
= = = Gosforth Cross = = =
The Gosforth Cross ( 920 – 950 ) , in Cumbria , England , is a standing cross of a typical Anglo @-@ Saxon form , carved on all sides of the long shaft , which is nearly square in section . Apart from panels of ornament , the scenes include a Christian crucifixion , and possibly another scene in Hell , but the other scenes are generally interpreted as narrative incidents from the Ragnarök story , even by a scholar as cautious of such interpretations as David M. Wilson . The Ragnarök battle itself may be depicted on the north side . The cross features various figures depicted in Borre style , including a man with a spear facing a monstrous head , one of whose feet is thrust into the beast 's forked tongue and on its lower jaw , while the other is placed against its upper jaw , a scene interpreted as Víðarr fighting Fenrir .
= = = Ledberg stone = = =
The 11th century Ledberg stone in Sweden , similarly to Thorwald 's Cross , features a figure with his foot at the mouth of a four @-@ legged beast , and this may also be a depiction of Odin being devoured by Fenrir at Ragnarök . Below the beast and the man is a depiction of a legless , helmeted man , with his arms in a prostrate position . The Younger Futhark inscription on the stone bears a commonly seen memorial dedication , but is followed by an encoded runic sequence that has been described as " mysterious , " and " an interesting magic formula which is known from all over the ancient Norse world . "
= = = Skarpåker stone = = =
On the early 11th century Skarpåker Stone , from Södermanland , Sweden , a father grieving his dead son used the same verse form , fornyrðislag , as in the Poetic Edda in the following engraving :
Jansson ( 1987 ) notes that at the time of the inscription , everyone who read the lines would have thought of Ragnarök and the allusion that the father found fitting as an expression of his grief .
= = Theories and interpretations = =
= = = Cyclic time and Hoddmímis holt = = =
Rudolf Simek theorizes that the survival of Líf and Lífþrasir at the end Ragnarök is " a case of reduplication of the anthropogeny , understandable from the cyclic nature of the Eddic eschatology " . Simek says that Hoddmímis holt " should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden , but rather as an alternative name for the world @-@ tree Yggdrasill . Thus , the creation of mankind from tree trunks ( Askr , Embla ) is repeated after the Ragnarǫk as well " . Simek says that in Germanic regions , the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient , and additionally points out legendary parallels in a Bavarian legend of a shepherd who lives inside a tree , whose descendants repopulate the land after life there has been wiped out by plague ( citing a retelling by F. R. Schröder ) . In addition , Simek points to an Old Norse parallel in the figure of Örvar @-@ Oddr , " who is rejuvenated after living as a tree @-@ man ( Ǫrvar @-@ Odds saga 24 – 27 ) " .
= = = Muspille , Heliand , and Christianity = = =
Theories have been proposed about the relation between Ragnarök and the 9th century Old High German epic poem Muspilli about the Christian Last Judgment , where the word Muspille appears , and the 9th century Old Saxon epic poem Heliand about the life of Christ , where various other forms of the word appear . In both sources , the word is used to signify the end of the world through fire . Old Norse forms of the term also appear throughout accounts of Ragnarök , where the world is also consumed in flames , and , though various theories exist about the meaning and origins of the term , its etymology has not been solved .
= = = Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European basis = = =
Parallels have been pointed out between the Ragnarök of Norse religion and the beliefs of other related Indo @-@ European peoples . Subsequently , theories have been put forth that Ragnarök represents a later evolution of a Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European belief along with other cultures descending from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ Europeans . These parallels include comparisons of a cosmic winter motif between the Norse Fimbulwinter , the Iranian Bundahishn and Yima . Víðarr 's stride has been compared to the Vedic god Vishnu in that both have a " cosmic stride " with a special shoe used to tear apart a beastly wolf . Larger patterns have also been drawn between " final battle " events in Indo @-@ European cultures , including the occurrence of a blind or semi @-@ blind figure in " final battle " themes , and figures appearing suddenly with surprising skills .
= = = Volcanic eruptions = = =
Hilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that the events in Völuspá occurring after the death of the gods ( the sun turning black , steam rising , flames touching the heavens , etc . ) may be inspired by the volcanic eruptions on Iceland . Records of eruptions on Iceland bear strong similarities to the sequence of events described in Völuspá , especially the eruption at Laki that occurred in 1783 . Bertha Phillpotts theorizes that the figure of Surtr was inspired by Icelandic eruptions , and that he was a volcano demon . Surtr 's name occurs in some Icelandic place names , among them the lava tube caves Surtshellir , a number of dark caverns in the volcanic central region of Iceland .
= = = Bergbúa þáttr = = =
Parallels have been pointed out between a poem spoken by a jötunn found in the 13th century þáttr Bergbúa þáttr ( " the tale of the mountain dweller " ) . In the tale , Thórd and his servant get lost while traveling to church in winter , and so take shelter for the night within a cave . Inside the cave they hear noises , witness a pair of immense burning eyes , and then the being with burning eyes recites a poem of 12 stanzas . The poem the being recites contains references to Norse mythology ( including a mention of Thor ) and also prophecies ( including that " mountains will tumble , the earth will move , men will be scoured by hot water and burned by fire " ) . Surtr 's fire receives a mention in stanza 10 . John Lindow says that the poem may describe " a mix of the destruction of the race of giants and of humans , as in Ragnarök " but that " many of the predictions of disruption on earth could also fit the volcanic activity that is so common in Iceland . "
= = Modern influence = =
In late 2013 and early 2014 , it was widely reported in English @-@ language media outlets that Ragnarök would occur on February 22 , 2014 . Apparently patterned after the 2012 phenomenon , the claim was at times attributed to a " Viking Calendar " . No such calendar is known to have existed , and the source was a " prediction " made to media outlets by the Jorvik Viking Centre in York , England , and intended to draw attention to an event that the institution was to hold on that date . The Jorvik Viking Centre was criticized for intentionally or unintentionally misleading the public ; however , in an article on the incident , Joseph S. Hopkins perceives the media response as an example of a broad revival of interest in the Viking Age and ancient Germanic topics .
= Chiswick Bridge =
Chiswick Bridge is a reinforced concrete deck arch bridge over the River Thames in west London . One of three bridges opened in 1933 as part of an ambitious scheme to relieve traffic congestion west of London , it carries the A316 road between Chiswick on the north bank of the Thames and Mortlake on the south bank .
Built on the site of a former ferry , the bridge is 606 feet ( 185 m ) long and faced with 3 @,@ 400 tons of Portland stone . At the time of its opening its 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) central span was the longest concrete span over the Thames . The bridge is possibly best known today for its proximity to the end of The Championship Course , the stretch of the Thames used for the Boat Race and other rowing races .
= = Background = =
The villages of Chiswick and Mortlake , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) west of central London on the north and south banks of the River Thames , had been linked by a ferry since at least the 17th century . Both areas were sparsely populated , so there was little demand for a fixed river crossing at that point .
With the arrival of railways and the London Underground in the 19th century commuting to London became practical and affordable , and the populations of Chiswick and Mortlake grew rapidly . In 1909 the Great Chertsey Road scheme was proposed , which envisaged building a major new road from Hammersmith , then on the outskirts of London , to Chertsey , 18 miles ( 29 km ) west of central London , bypassing the towns of Kingston and Richmond . However , the scheme was abandoned due to costs and arguments between various interested parties over the exact route the road should take .
After the First World War , the population of the west London suburbs continued to grow , thanks to improved rail transport links and the growth in ownership of automobiles . In 1925 , the Ministry of Transport convened a conference between Surrey and Middlesex county councils with the aim of reaching a solution to the congestion problem , and the Great Chertsey Road scheme was revived . In 1927 , the Royal Commission on Cross @-@ River Traffic approved the scheme to relieve the by then chronic traffic congestion on the existing , mostly narrow , streets in the area , and on the narrow bridges at Richmond Bridge , Kew and Hammersmith . The Ministry of Transport agreed to pay heavy subsidies towards the cost .
A new arterial road , now the A316 road , was given Royal Assent on 3 August 1928 , and construction began in 1930 . The construction of the road required two new bridges to be built , at Twickenham and Chiswick . The proposal was authorised in 1928 and construction began in the same year . The bridge , along with the newly built Twickenham Bridge and the rebuilt Hampton Court Bridge , was opened by Edward , Prince of Wales on 3 July 1933 , and the ferry service was permanently closed .
= = Design = =
The new bridge was designed in reinforced concrete by architect Sir Herbert Baker and engineer Alfred Dryland , with additional input from Considère Constructions , at the time Britain 's leading specialist in reinforced concrete construction .
The bridge has concrete foundations supporting a five @-@ arch cellular reinforced concrete superstructure . The deck is supported by a concealed lattice of columns and beams rising from the arched superstructure . The structure is faced with 3 @,@ 400 tons of Portland stone , except for underneath the arches . The bridge is 606 feet ( 185 m ) long , and carries two 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide walkways , and a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) wide road . At the time it was built , the 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) central span was the longest concrete span over the Thames .
Unusually for a Thames bridge , only three of Chiswick Bridge 's five spans cross the river ; the shorter spans at each end of the bridge cross the former towpaths . To allow sufficient clearance for shipping without steep inclines , the approach roads to the bridge are elevated from some distance back from the river .
The bridge was built by the Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company at a cost of £ 208 @,@ 284 ( about £ 13 @,@ 335 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . Additional costs such as building the approach roads and purchasing land brought the total cost of the bridge to £ 227 @,@ 600 ( about £ 14 @,@ 572 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . The Ministry of Transport paid 75 % of the cost , with Surrey and Middlesex county councils paying the remainder .
The bridge was generally well received . Country Life praised the design as " reflecting in its general design the eighteenth century Palladian tradition of Lord Burlington 's famous villa at Chiswick " .
= = Present @-@ day = =
Chiswick Bridge is a major transport route , and the eighth busiest of London 's 20 Thames road bridges . It is possibly best known for its proximity to the finishing line of The Championship Course , the stretch of the Thames used for the Boat Race and other rowing events . A University Boat Race Stone on the south bank , and a brightly painted blue and black marker post near the north bank of the river , 370 feet ( 110 m ) downstream of the bridge , mark the end of the course .
The towpath under the bridge on the southern bank now forms part of the Thames Path . As at 2009 the northernmost arch was used by the Tideway Scullers sculling club as storage space .
= Kubah =
Kubah ( literally Cupola or Dome ) is an Indonesian novel written by Ahmad Tohari . It follows a poor man named Karman who becomes a member of the Indonesian Communist Party , only to find himself a victim of the ongoing political struggles in 1950s Indonesia . After the Party 's destruction he spends twelve years as a prisoner at Buru before returning to his hometown and becoming a devout Muslim .
Tohari 's second novel , Kubah was written in two months and based on the events surrounding the Communist Party and the 30 September Movement coup in 1965 . Published in 1980 by Pustaka Jaya , Kubah came at a time when literary works with similar themes – the victimisation of Communist Party members – were scarce . The novel has also been characterised as dawah ( Islamic preaching ) . Reception of Kubah was mostly mixed ; critics praised the novel for its subject matter and criticised it for its predictability . It received a literary award in 1981 , and in 1986 it was translated into Japanese .
= = Plot = =
After twelve years imprisoned at Buru Island , the former Communist Party of Indonesia ( Partai Komunis Indonesia , or PKI ) member Karman returns to Central Java . During his time at Buru , his wife Marni has remarried and the area has modernised considerably , rendering him uncertain where to go . He decides to stay at his cousin 's home for a while . Meanwhile , Marni has heard of Karman 's release and realises that she still loves him , and would thus feel uncomfortable if he returned to their hometown of Pegaten . However , their grown daughter Tini wishes to meet her father .
In a series of flashbacks , Karman 's life is told . He lost his pro @-@ Dutch father during the Indonesian National Revolution and was raised in poverty before going to work for the rich merchant Haji Bakir as a child , babysitting his daughter Rifah . In the two years Karman lived with them , the family raised him to be a devout Muslim ; Karman , for his part , was a diligent worker and cared deeply for Rifah . When his uncle returned from the front , Karman was brought back home and educated until junior high school , dropping out for a lack of funds . When he was in his twenties Karman found a job at the local village chief 's office with the help of a civil employee named Triman and a teacher named Margo .
Unknown to Karman , both men were PKI members and intent on making him join the party . They gave him communist pamphlets and indoctrinated him in Party philosophy . When Karman was late in telling Rifah his feelings , losing her to another man , the PKI manipulated his emotions to make him leave Islam and hate Haji Bakir . Ultimately this was successful : Karman abandoned his mandatory prayers and began to espouse the Party 's politics . After Karman was refused marriage to Rifah a second time , following her husband 's death , he had Haji Bakir imprisoned . In this time Karman married Marni , intending to convert her family to communism .
By 1965 Karman had become a respected member of the PKI , although the public knew him as a member of Partindo . However , following the failure of the 30 September Movement ( Gerakan 30 September , or G30S ) coup in the national capital at Jakarta – orchestrated by the PKI – Karman realised that his position was unsound . He and his fellow PKI members began praying regularly , but many were ultimately killed – including Triman and Margo . Karman escaped from Pegaten hours before soldiers came to arrest him and managed to avoid capture for nearly two months , generally hiding in cemeteries . After his capture Karman was exiled to Buru .
In the present day , Karman has returned to Pegaten to a warm reception . Marni , although she admits that she still loves Karman , insists that she will stay with her new husband ; Haji Bakir , Karman 's uncle , and Karman 's mother have likewise forgiven him . Tini and Haji Bakir 's grandson Jabir are betrothed as planned , and , when the villagers renovate the dilapidated mosque , Karman makes the cupola . He receives much praise for his work and finds a sense of belonging in the mosque .
= = Background and writing = =
Kubah was inspired by Indonesian history , beginning in the 1940s and continuing until the 1980s . Following the national revolution from 1945 to 1949 , the country was set in a state of political turmoil and abject poverty which became increasingly severe towards the end of the 1950s . By the early 1960s the PKI and other leftist parties had the support of President Sukarno , giving them greater power ; PKI membership grew quickly in this period , aided by a hyperinflation and widespread poverty .
On 1 October 1965 , a group of Indonesian National Armed Forces members calling themselves the 30 September Movement killed six Army generals and announced that the president was under their power ; the coup was quashed the following day . Contemporary reports indicated that the PKI had been behind the G30S , a position endorsed by the Indonesian government . As a result , hundreds of thousands of registered and suspected PKI members were killed or exiled over the following decade , effectively destroying the Party . By 1974 Buru held some 10 @,@ 000 prisoners , while others were held elsewhere or forced to stay abroad . Political prisoners began to be released by the 1970s , but saw systematic discrimination at all levels of society : they found themselves under surveillance and with little hope of employment .
Kubah was the second novel written by Ahmad Tohari , who had been in senior high school when the G30S announced its coup . A devout Muslim who had trained as a doctor and ran a pesantren ( Islamic boarding school ) in Central Java , Tohari began to focus on writing when his first novel , Di Kaki Bukit Cibalak ( On the Foothill of Cibalak ; 1978 ) , won a prize from the Jakarta Arts Council . He finished Kubah in two months , first making a thematic overview for each chapter and then developing it further while writing . He deliberately left the novel 's ending open to interpretation , intending for readers to think for themselves .
= = Themes = =
Kubah is an early example of literature dealing with the G30S and PKI , although earlier examples exist . Former Indonesian president Abdurrahman Wahid described it as the first to deal with reconciliation between PKI members and general Indonesian society after G30S , an issue which was " hyper @-@ sensitive " at the time . The historian Anna @-@ Greta Nilsson Hoadley writes that Kubah explored why a person would be motivated to join the party , emphasizing poverty , cultural pressure , and active propaganda by the PKI . In the end , Karman is ultimately an " innocent victim " , who only joined the Party to improve his own standing . Even after his release Karman remains in a state of fear , " marked by a prisoner 's vulnerability . " The literary critics Maman S. Mahayana , Oyon Sofyan , and Achmad Dian wrote that , in this sense , Karman becomes representative of all PKI members who were arrested following G30S .
Mahayana , writing elsewhere , sees Karman as undergoing an existential quest to establish his identity , seemingly finding an answer in the PKI but ultimately becoming trapped by them . Mahayana indicates that a religious message is evident beginning with the novel 's opening , in which Tohari provides a four @-@ line quote from an old Javanese text regarding faith and becoming more explicit later on . He finds Karman 's dealing with the raftsman Kastagethek while escaping from the government the most explicit expression of Tohari 's intent ; unlike Karman , Kastagethek is a devout yet simple man who is happy in his poverty , leading Karman to question his own views before ultimately finding his identity in Islam . Mahayana thus argued that Kubah was meant as dawah , or Islamic preaching , with its message that humans should recognise their status as creatures of God conveyed through characters ' dialogue and actions .
= = Release and reception = =
Kubah was originally published by the Jakarta @-@ based Pustaka Jaya in 1980 ; unlike Di Kaki Bukit Cibalak and most of Tohari 's later novels , it had not been serialised first . Since 1995 it has been published by Gramedia , seeing four printings as of 2012 . The work was translated into Japanese by Shinobu Yamane in 1986 , under the title Shinsei .
The novel 's reception was mixed . It was awarded the Buku Utama Prize in 1981 for " increasing knowledge , spreading manners , and maturing Indonesian culture , " an award which included a trophy and Rp . 1 million in prize money . Mahayana found it worthy of this prize , praising Kubah 's use of flashback and the complicated issues it raised . Wahid , at the time an active Islamic intellectual with the Nahdlatul Ulama , wrote in 1980 that Kubah had poorly realised its potential ; he characterised it as a beginner 's work : lacking suspense , overly moralistic , and predictable .
Tohari 's trilogy Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk ( The Dancer of Paruk Village ; 1981 – 1985 ) , which has proven to be his most famous , also dealt with the G30S and the PKI . However , unlike Kubah , parts of Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk remained censored until 2003 . Numerous novels dealing with G30S and the PKI , written by other authors , have also been published since Kubah .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Broaching ( metalworking ) =
Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool , called a broach , to remove material . There are two main types of broaching : linear and rotary . In linear broaching , which is the more common process , the broach is run linearly against a surface of the workpiece to effect the cut . Linear broaches are used in a broaching machine , which is also sometimes shortened to broach . In rotary broaching , the broach is rotated and pressed into the workpiece to cut an axis symmetric shape . A rotary broach is used in a lathe or screw machine . In both processes the cut is performed in one pass of the broach , which makes it very efficient .
Broaching is used when precision machining is required , especially for odd shapes . Commonly machined surfaces include circular and non @-@ circular holes , splines , keyways , and flat surfaces . Typical workpieces include small to medium @-@ sized castings , forgings , screw machine parts , and stampings . Even though broaches can be expensive , broaching is usually favored over other processes when used for high @-@ quantity production runs .
Broaches are shaped similar to a saw , except the height of the teeth increases over the length of the tool . Moreover , the broach contains three distinct sections : one for roughing , another for semi @-@ finishing , and the final one for finishing . Broaching is an unusual machining process because it has the feed built into the tool . The profile of the machined surface is always the inverse of the profile of the broach . The rise per tooth ( RPT ) , also known as the step or feed per tooth , determines the amount of material removed and the size of the chip . The broach can be moved relative to the workpiece or vice versa . Because all of the features are built into the broach no complex motion or skilled labor is required to use it . A broach is effectively a collection of single @-@ point cutting tools arrayed in sequence , cutting one after the other ; its cut is analogous to multiple passes of a shaper .
= = Process = =
The process depends on the type of broaching being performed . Surface broaching is very simple as either the workpiece is moved against a stationary surface broach , or the workpiece is held stationary while the broach is moved against it .
Internal broaching is more involved . The process begins by clamping the workpiece into a special holding fixture , called a workholder , which mounts in the broaching machine . The broaching machine elevator , which is the part of the machine that moves the broach above the workholder , then lowers the broach through the workpiece . Once through , the broaching machine 's puller , essentially a hook , grabs the pilot of the broach . The elevator then releases the top of the pilot and the puller pulls the broach through the workpiece completely . The workpiece is then removed from the machine and the broach is raised back up to reengage with the elevator . The broach usually only moves linearly , but sometimes it is also rotated to create a spiral spline or gun @-@ barrel rifling .
Cutting fluids are used for three reasons ;
to cool the workpiece and broach
to lubricate cutting surfaces
to flush the chips from the teeth .
Fortified petroleum cutting fluids are the most common . However , heavy @-@ duty water @-@ soluble cutting fluids are being used because of their superior cooling , cleanliness , and non @-@ flammability .
= = Usage = =
Broaching was originally developed for machining internal keyways . However , it was soon discovered that broaching is very useful for machining other surfaces and shapes for high volume workpieces . Because each broach is specialized to cut just one shape either the broach must be specially designed for the geometry of the workpiece or the workpiece must be designed around a standard broach geometry . A customized broach is usually only viable with high volume workpieces , because the broach can cost US $ 15 @,@ 000 to US $ 30 @,@ 000 to produce .
Broaching speeds vary from 20 to 120 surface feet per minute ( SFPM ) . This results in a complete cycle time of 5 to 30 seconds . Most of the time is consumed by the return stroke , broach handling , and workpiece loading and unloading .
The only limitations on broaching are that there are no obstructions over the length of the surface to be machined , the geometry to be cut does not have curves in multiple planes , and that the workpiece is strong enough to withstand the forces involved . Specifically for internal broaching a hole must first exist in the workpiece so the broach can enter . Also , there are limits on the size of internal cuts . Common internal holes can range from 0 @.@ 125 to 6 in ( 3 @.@ 2 to 152 @.@ 4 mm ) in diameter but it is possible to achieve a range of 0 @.@ 05 to 13 in ( 1 @.@ 3 to 330 @.@ 2 mm ) . Surface broaches ' range is usually 0 @.@ 075 to 10 in ( 1 @.@ 9 to 254 @.@ 0 mm ) , although the feasible range is 0 @.@ 02 to 20 in ( 0 @.@ 51 to 508 @.@ 00 mm ) .
Tolerances are usually ± 0 @.@ 002 in ( ± 0 @.@ 05 mm ) , but in precise applications a tolerance of ± 0 @.@ 0005 in ( ± 0 @.@ 01 mm ) can be held . Surface finishes are usually between 16 and 63 microinches ( μin ) , but can range from 8 to 125 μin . There may be minimal burrs on the exit side of the cut .
Broaching works best on softer materials , such as brass , bronze , copper alloys , aluminium , graphite , hard rubbers , wood , composites , and plastic . However , it still has a good machinability rating on mild steels and free machining steels . When broaching , the machinability rating is closely related to the hardness of the material . For steels the ideal hardness range is between 16 and 24 Rockwell C ( HRC ) ; a hardness greater than HRC 35 will dull the broach quickly . Broaching is more difficult on harder materials , stainless steel and titanium , but is still possible .
= = Types = =
Broaches can be categorized by many means :
Use : internal , or surface
Purpose : single , or combination
Motion : push , pull , or stationary
Construction : solid , built @-@ up , hollow or shell
Function : roughing , sizing , or burnishing
If the broach is large enough the costs can be reduced by using a built @-@ up or modular construction . This involves producing the broach in pieces and assembling it . If any portion wears out only that section has to be replaced , instead of the entire broach .
Most broaches are made from high speed steel ( HSS ) or an alloy steel ; TiN coatings are common on HSS to prolong life . Except when broaching cast iron , tungsten carbide is rarely used as a tooth material because the cutting edge will crack on the first pass .
= = = Surface broaches = = =
The slab broach is the simplest surface broach . It is a general purpose tool for cutting flat surfaces .
Slot broaches ( G & H ) are for cutting slots of various dimensions at high production rates . Slot broaching is much quicker than milling when more than one slot needs to be machined , because multiple broaches can be run through the part at the same time on the same broaching machine .
Contour broaches are designed to cut concave , convex , cam , contoured , and irregular shaped surfaces .
Pot broaches are cut the inverse of an internal broach ; they cut the outside diameter of a cylindrical workpiece . They are named after the pot looking fixture in which the broaches are mounted ; the fixture is often referred to as a " pot " . The pot is designed to hold multiple broaching tools concentrically over its entire length . The broach is held stationary while the workpiece is pushed or pulled through it . This has replaced hobbing for some involute gears and cutting external splines and slots .
Straddle broaches use two slab broaches to cut parallel surfaces on opposite sides of a workpiece in one pass . This type of broaching holds closer tolerances than if the two cuts were done independently . It is named after the fact that the broaches " straddle " the workpiece on multiple sides .
= = = Internal broaches = = =
Solid broaches are the most common type ; they are made from one solid piece of material . For broaches that wear out quickly shell broaches are used ; these broaches are similar to a solid broach , except there is a hole through the center where it mounts on an arbor . Shell broaches cost more initially , but save the cost overall if the broach must be replaced often because the pilots are on the mandrel and do not have to be reproduced with each replacement .
Modular broaches are commonly used for large internal broaching applications . They are similar to shell broaches in that they are a multi @-@ piece construction . This design is used because it is cheaper to build and resharpen and is more flexible than a solid design .
A common type of internal broach is the keyway broach ( C & D ) . It uses a special fixture called a horn to support the broach and properly locate the part with relation to the broach .
A concentricity broach is a special type of spline cutting broach which cuts both the minor diameter and the spline form to ensure precise concentricity .
The cut @-@ and @-@ recut broach is used to cut thin @-@ walled workpieces . Thin @-@ walled workpieces have a tendency to expand during cutting and then shrink afterward . This broach overcomes that problem by first broaching with the standard roughing teeth , followed by a " breathing " section , which serves as a pilot as the workpiece shrinks . The teeth after the " breathing " section then include roughing , semi @-@ finishing , and finishing teeth .
= = = Design = = =
For defining the geometry of a broach an internal type is shown below . Note that the geometries of other broaches are similar .
where :
The most important characteristic of a broach is the rise per tooth ( RPT ) , which is how much material is removed by each tooth . The RPT varies for each section of the broach , which are the roughing section ( tr ) , semi @-@ finishing section ( ts ) , and finishing section ( tf ) . The roughing teeth remove most of the material so the number of roughing teeth required dictates how long the broach is . The semi @-@ finishing teeth provide surface finish and the finishing teeth provide the final finishing . The finishing section 's RPT ( tf ) is usually zero so that as the first finishing teeth wear the later ones continue the sizing function . For free @-@ machining steels the RPT ranges from 0 @.@ 006 to 0 @.@ 001 in ( 0 @.@ 152 to 0 @.@ 025 mm ) . For surface broaching the RPT is usually between 0 @.@ 003 to 0 @.@ 006 in ( 0 @.@ 076 to 0 @.@ 152 mm ) and for diameter broaching is usually between 0 @.@ 0012 to 0 @.@ 0025 in ( 0 @.@ 030 to 0 @.@ 064 mm ) . The exact value depends on many factors . If the cut is too big it will impart too much stress into the teeth and the workpiece ; if the cut is too small the teeth rub instead of cutting . One way to increase the RPT while keeping the stresses down is with chip breakers . They are notches in the teeth designed to break the chip and decrease the overall amount of material being removed by any given tooth ( see the drawing above ) . For broaching to be effective , the workpiece should have 0 @.@ 020 to 0 @.@ 025 in ( 0 @.@ 51 to 0 @.@ 64 mm ) more material than the final dimension of the cut .
The hook ( α ) angle is a parameter of the material being cut . For steel , it is between 15 and 20 ° and for cast iron it is between 6 and 8 ° . The back @-@ off ( γ ) provides clearance for the teeth so that they don 't rub on the workpiece ; it is usually between 1 and 3 ° .
When radially broaching workpieces that require a deep cut per tooth , such as forgings or castings , a rotor @-@ cut or jump @-@ cut design can be used ; these broaches are also known as free egress or nibbling broaches . In this design the RPT is designated to two or three rows of teeth . For the broach to work the first tooth of that cluster has a wide notch , or undercut , and then the next tooth has a smaller notch ( in a three tooth design ) and the final tooth has no notch . This allows for a deep cut while keeping stresses , forces , and power requirements low .
There are two different options for achieving the same goal when broaching a flat surface . The first is similar to the rotor @-@ cut design , which is known as a double @-@ cut design . Here four teeth in a row have the same RPT , but each progressive tooth takes only a portion of the cut due to notches in the teeth ( see the image gallery below ) . The other option is known as a progressive broach , which completely machines the center of the workpiece and then the rest of the broach machines outward from there . All of these designs require a broach that is longer than if a standard design were used .
For some circular broaches , burnishing teeth are provided instead of finishing teeth . They are not really teeth , as they are just rounded discs that are 0 @.@ 001 to 0 @.@ 003 in ( 0 @.@ 025 to 0 @.@ 076 mm ) oversized . This results in burnishing the hole to the proper size . This is primarily used on non @-@ ferrous and cast iron workpieces .
The pitch defines the tooth construction , strength , and number of teeth in contact with the workpiece . The pitch is usually calculated from workpiece length , so that the broach can be designed to have at least two teeth in contact with the workpiece at any time ; the pitch remains constant for all teeth of the broach . One way to calculate the pitch is :
<formula>
= = Broaching machines = =
Broaching machines are relatively simple as they only have to move the broach in a linear motion at a predetermined speed and provide a means for handling the broach automatically . Most machines are hydraulic , but a few specialty machines are mechanically driven . The machines are distinguished by whether their motion is horizontal or vertical . The choice of machine is primarily dictated by the stroke required . Vertical broaching machines rarely have a stroke longer than 60 in ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) .
Vertical broaching machines can be designed for push broaching , pull @-@ down broaching , pull @-@ up broaching , or surface broaching . Push broaching machines are similar to an arbor press with a guided ram ; typical capacities are 5 to 50 tons . The two ram pull @-@ down machine is the most common type of broaching machine . This style machine has the rams under the table . Pull @-@ up machines have the ram above the table ; they usually have more than one ram . Most surface broaching is done on a vertical machine .
Horizontal broaching machines are designed for pull broaching , surface broaching , continuous broaching , and rotary broaching . Pull style machines are basically vertical machines laid on the side with a longer stroke . Surface style machines hold the broach stationary while the workpieces are clamped into fixtures that are mounted on a conveyor system . Continuous style machines are similar to the surface style machines except adapted for internal broaching .
Horizontal machines used to be much more common than vertical machines ; however , today they represent just 10 % of all broaching machines purchased . Vertical machines are more popular because they take up less space .
Broaching is often impossible without the specific broaching or keyway machines unless you have a system that can be used in conjunction with a modern machining centre or driven tooling lathe ; these extra bits of equipment open up the possibility of producing keyways , splines and torx through one @-@ hit machining .
= = Rotary broaching = =
A somewhat different design of cutting tool that can achieve the irregular hole or outer profile of a broach is called a rotary broach or wobble broach . One of the biggest advantages to this type of broaching is that it does not require a broaching machine , but instead is used on lathes , milling machines , screw machines or Swiss lathes .
Rotary broaching requires two tooling components : a tool holder and a broach . The leading ( cutting ) edge of the broach has a contour matching the desired final shape . The broach is mounted in a special tool holder that that allows it to freely rotate . The tool holder is special because it holds the tool so that its axis of rotation is inclined slightly to the axis of rotation of the work . A typical value for this misalignment is 1 ° . This angle is what produces a rotating edge for the broach to cut the workpiece . Either the workpiece or the tool holder is rotated . If the tool holder is rotated , the misalignment causes the broach to appear as though it is " wobbling " , which is the origin of the term wobble broach .
For internal broaching the sides of the broach are drafted inward so it becomes thinner ; for external broaching the sides are drafted outward , to make the pocket bigger . This draft keeps the broach from jamming ; the draft must be larger than the angle of misalignment . If the work piece rotates , the broach is pressed against it , is driven by it , and rotates synchronously with it . If the tool holder rotates , the broach is pressed against the workpiece , but is driven by the tool holder .
Ideally the tool advances at the same rate that it cuts . The ideal rate of cut is defined as :
Rate of cut [ inches per rotation ( IPR ) ] = ( diameter of tool [ inches ] ) × sin ( Angle of misalignment [ degrees ] )
If it advances much faster , then the tool becomes choked ; conversely , if it advances much slower , then an interrupted or zig @-@ zag cut occurs . In practice the rate of cut is slightly less than the ideal rate so that the load is released on the non @-@ cutting edge of the tool .
There is some spiraling of the tool as it cuts , so the form at the bottom of the workpiece may be rotated with respect to the form at the top of the hole or profile . Spiraling may be undesirable because it binds the body of the tool and prevents it from cutting sharply . One solution to this is to reverse the rotation in mid cut , causing the tool to spiral in the opposite direction . If reversing the machine is not practical , then interrupting the cut is another possible solution .
In general , a rotary broach will not cut as accurately as a push or pull broach . However , the ability to use this type of cutting tool on common machine tools is highly advantageous .
= = History = =
The concept of broaching can be traced back to the early 1850s , with the first applications used for cutting keyways in pulleys and gears . After World War I , broaching was used to rifle gun barrels . In the 1920s and 30s the tolerances were tightened and the cost reduced thanks to advances in form grinding and broaching machines .
= Uncanny Tales ( Canadian pulp magazine ) =
Uncanny Tales was a Canadian science fiction pulp magazine edited by Melvin R. Colby that ran from November 1940 to September 1943 . It was created in response to the wartime reduction of imports on British and American science @-@ fiction pulp magazines . Initially it contained stories only from Canadian authors , with much of its contents supplied by Thomas P. Kelley , but within a few issues Colby began to obtain reprint rights to American stories from Donald A. Wollheim and Sam Moskowitz . Paper shortages eventually forced the magazine to shut down , and it is now extremely rare .
= = Publication history and contents = =
By the end of the 1930s the science fiction magazine field was booming , with multiple new magazines launched in a short period . Most of the publishers also printed versions of their magazines for the Canadian market , but with the outbreak of World War II , paper shortages and import restrictions reduced the availability of these magazines in Canada . Uncanny Tales was begun in response to these conditions ; the editor was Melvin R. Colby , and the first issue was dated November 1940 .
The first issue was digest @-@ sized , and was printed in green ink . Colby initially focused on weird fiction , with Thomas P. Kelley , a Canadian writer whose work had appeared in Weird Tales , a prolific contributor . For the first four issues the format remained unchanged , and almost all the stories were by Kelley or other Canadian writers . Colby subsequently began to obtain reprint rights to U.S. stories from both Donald A. Wollheim and Sam Moskowitz , though Wollheim 's and Moskowitz 's accounts of the events differ . In Wollheim 's account , he happened to meet Colby early in 1941 in New York ; Wollheim had been editing Cosmic Stories and Stirring Science Stories but both magazines had ceased publication at the time of the meeting . Colby , who worked for a Toronto newspaper , told Wollheim that he was editing Uncanny Tales to make extra money , and asked if Wollheim knew where he might be able to obtain stories at a low word rate . Since Stirring and Cosmic had never been distributed in Canada , Wollheim was able to offer him Canadian rights to the stories in those magazines , and Colby agreed to pay a quarter of a cent per word . According to Moskowitz , Wollheim heard rumors of the new magazine , perhaps via Nils Frome , a Canadian fan whom he knew . Wollheim obtained more details from Chester Cuthbert , a Canadian author he was in correspondence with , and contacted Colby to arrange reprints of stories from Stirring and Cosmic . Moskowitz had also heard of Uncanny Tales and wrote to him separately , arranging reprints at a tenth of a cent per word . He sent Colby several stories , which were duly printed , but subsequent correspondence with Colby failed to elicit payment , and eventually Colby stopped responding to his letters . The manuscripts were never returned . A few months later , Moskowitz spoke to John B. Michel — an author associated with Wollheim 's group of writers — and found out that a long @-@ standing feud between Wollheim and Moskowitz was at least partly responsible for his problems . Wollheim and many of the group of writers he represented held very left @-@ wing political positions ; Moskowitz was strongly opposed , and Michel told Moskowitz that Colby was politically left @-@ wing and had been put off by indications from Moskowitz that he was anti @-@ communist . However , the main reason that Colby stopped responding , according to Michel , was that once Wollheim found out that Moskowitz was also supplying stories , he offered Colby further material for free on condition that Colby stopped accepting Moskowitz 's submissions .
The sixth issue saw a story by Wollheim appear , and in the seventh issue there were three by Wollheim and one by Robert W. Lowndes . In total , 37 stories from Uncanny Tales have been identified as reprints from either Stirring or Cosmic . There were also a handful of new stories from the same group of authors , including three by Wollheim and two by Lowndes , one of which , " Lure of the Lily " , had been rejected by Wollheim for the American magazines for being too risqué . The stories supplied by Sam Moskowitz included Moskowitz 's own " The Way Back " ( reprinted from Comet ) , which appeared in the February 1942 issue ; Stanton Coblentz 's novel After 12 @,@ 000 Years , and James Taurasi 's story " Magician of Space " , which was not a reprint . Canadian writers continued to appear in the magazine , including C.V. Tench , who had sold a story to the very first issue of Astounding Stories in January 1930 . The stories of Canadian origin were generally unmemorable , and in some cases the stories may have been plagiarized or rewritten versions of other works .
Paper shortages caused by the war forced the magazine to a bimonthly schedule in 1942 , and only four more issues appeared . The last issue was dated September − October 1943 . Over the lifetime of the magazine its focus shifted from weird fiction to include both science fiction and fantasy . The magazine is now hard to find and complete runs are very rare .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Uncanny Tales was published by Adam Publishing Co. of Toronto for the first 17 issues , and by Norman Book Co. of Toronto for the last four issues . The publisher may have been owned by Valentine , of the Toronto publishers Valentine , Koniac and Chamberlain . The editor , who was not credited in the magazine , was Melvin R. Colby . The first four issues were digest @-@ sized and 64 pages long ; the format then switched to a large pulp size with 96 pages for all the remaining issues except the last , which had 128 pages . The price was 15 cents throughout except for the last issue , which was 25 cents . There was no volume numbering . A complete index by Dennis Lien of the contents of all issues can be found in issue 9 of Megavore , a science fiction and fantasy bibliography magazine .
In the early 1950s an anthology titled Brief Fantastic Tales appeared from Studio Publications in Toronto ; it consisted mostly of reprints from Uncanny Tales .
= Playmate to Jesus =
" Playmate to Jesus " is a song by Danish @-@ Norwegian pop band Aqua from their third studio album , Megalomania . The song , which was released in 2011 , is about universal love and " what goes around comes around " . The song was published the same day as their other single , " Like a Robot " , which was originally planned to be released in July 2011 . Despite the song 's positive critical reaction , it only charted in Denmark , becoming the group 's second lowest @-@ charting single . The music video , directed by Michael Sauer Christensen and filmed in Lyngby , Denmark , premiered on 22 September 2011 .
= = Production and composition = =
" Playmate to Jesus " was written by Aqua members Søren Rasted , Claus Norreen , René Dif and Lene Nystrøm , and produced by Norreen and Rasted . The song was recorded at Electron Studio in Copenhagen , and later mixed and mastered by Anders Schumann at C4 Studio . It is a midtempo pop song played in an E major key and following the chord progression E − B − C ♯ m − A. The song is about universal love and " what goes around comes around " . The sounds in the first seconds of the song are recorded on the spacecraft Discovery . A piano and violins start the song , before the beat kicks in . A Vocoder synth come 's through Nystrom 's vocal in certain parts of the song , and a synth bass and distorted snare drum are also played . Dif 's bridge only appears on the album version .
= = Release and reception = =
A preview of " Playmate to Jesus " was uploaded to Universal Music 's Danish YouTube account on 6 September 2011 . It was released as the album 's second single and as a radio single on 12 September , the same day as their club single " Like a Robot " , which was originally planned to be released in July . " Playmate to Jesus " is the first track of their third album Megalomania . The track was Aqua 's second @-@ lowest charting single . It debuted at number twenty @-@ six on the Danish Singles Chart , issue dated 7 October 2011 . The following week the song peaked at number thirteen . In its third and final week on the chart it fell to number thirty @-@ three . It is the group 's third single not to chart within the top 10 in Denmark , the others being " We Belong to the Sea " and " Spin Me a Christmas " . The song has been certified gold in Denmark by the IFPI for sales of 300 @,@ 000 units .
Despite the song 's commercial performance , critical reactions to the song were mixed to positive . Jon O 'Brien of Allmusic , in a review of Megalomania , viewed " Playmate to Jesus " as one of the highlight songs of the album saying , " The sweeping strings , inspired sound effects , and driving country @-@ pop melodies of the lushly produced opener ' Playmate to Jesus ' , [ ... ] shows the reunion hasn 't been completely without merit . " Time said the song " has the dubious distinction of sounding vaguely like a Lady Gaga track that didn ’ t pass quality control , " but was " relatively catchy , boasting the kind of musical infectiousness that causes you to hum it under your breath on the subway . " Gaffa 's Signe Bønsvig Wehding considered the song to be " among the best tracks on the album " , along with " Dirty Little Popsong " , " Sucker for a Superstar " and " Like A Robot " . Idolator considered the song to be a knock @-@ off of Far East Movement 's " Like a G6 " , and more old school than " How R U Doin ? . "
= = Music video = =
Pictures of shooting the music video in Lyngby , Denmark were released on Aqua 's Facebook page on 14 September 2011 . A take of the video was also uploaded on their YouTube channel . The video was officially uploaded on YouTube on 22 September . Directed by Michael Sauer Christensen , it is set in an eerie , empty house that is reminiscent of a horror film , where a black cloud wanders through the halls of the house . The members wear black and gray clothing in the video , with Nystrom 's costume gradually changing throughout . The video ends by the members exiting the house through the roof and transforming into a beam of light shooting into the sky . The video uses a shortened radio edit of the original song , omitting the bridge .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Playmate to Jesus " – 4 : 46
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from liner notes of Megalomania :
Writers : Søren Rasted , Claus Norreen , René Dif , Lene Nystrøm
Producers : Claus Norreen , Søren Rasted
Mixing and mastering : Anders Schumann
= = Sales and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= A Perfect Circle =
A Perfect Circle is an American rock supergroup formed in 1999 by guitarist Billy Howerdel and Tool vocalist Maynard James Keenan . The original incarnation of the band also included Paz Lenchantin on bass , Troy Van Leeuwen on guitar , and Tim Alexander on drums , with Josh Freese as the primary drummer after the band 's initial round of touring prior to their first album . The latest lineup features Puscifer and Ashes Divide bassist Matt McJunkins ; former The Smashing Pumpkins guitarist James Iha ; and Puscifer and Ashes Divide touring drummer , Jeff Friedl . Despite having a varied cast since inception , the stylistic content of the songs has remained consistent with Howerdel as composer , and Keenan penning the lyrics and melodies .
A Perfect Circle has released three albums : their debut Mer de Noms in 2000 , a follow up , Thirteenth Step in 2003 , and an album of cover songs titled Emotive in 2004 . Shortly after Emotive 's release , the band went into hiatus while members focused on other projects , the most notably being Keenan 's work with Tool and Puscifer , and Howerdel 's putting out a solo album , Keep Telling Myself It 's Alright , under the moniker Ashes Divide .
In late 2008 , Keenan and Howerdel announced the band would reform , though the band 's activity would ultimately be sporadic in the coming years . The band toured in 2011 and 2013 , and then released a live album , A Perfect Circle Live : Featuring Stone and Echo , and a greatest hits album , Three Sixty in late 2013 . Work on new material has been alluded to by members since 2008 , though progress has been slow due to Keenan 's other commitments and uncertainty in the direction of the releases . The only new studio material released since the band 's hiatus was the single " By and Down " in 2013 .
= = History = =
= = = Mer de Noms ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
A Perfect Circle was conceived by Billy Howerdel , a former guitar technician for Nine Inch Nails , The Smashing Pumpkins , Fishbone and Tool . Howerdel met singer Maynard James Keenan in 1992 , when Tool was opening for Fishbone , and the two became friends . Three years later , Keenan offered Howerdel , who was looking for lodging , a room in his North Hollywood home . This provided Howerdel the opportunity to play demos of his music for Keenan . Pleased with what he heard , Keenan remarked , " I can hear myself singing [ those songs ] . " Although he originally desired a female vocalist , Howerdel agreed that Keenan would be a good fit , and A Perfect Circle was formed a short time later . They were then joined by bassist and violinist Paz Lenchantin , former Failure guitarist Troy Van Leeuwen , and previous Primus drummer Tim Alexander . The band played their first show at LA 's Viper Club Reception on August 15 , 1999 . After playing shows in L.A. , the band entered the studio to begin work on their first album . Alexander was soon replaced with session drummer and member of The Vandals , Josh Freese , who previously worked with Howerdel on the Guns N ' Roses album , Chinese Democracy . Alexander 's performance can still be heard on the album version of the song , " The Hollow " .
The band 's debut album , Mer de Noms ( French for " Sea of Names " ) , was released on May 23 , 2000 . The album is distinctive in that it is the highest ever debut for a rock band , selling over 188 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , and appearing at number four on the Billboard 200 . Howerdel had been working on some of the music , including tracks " The Hollow " and " Breña " , as far back as 1988 . The band began touring soon after recording for the album was finished . Initially , they served as the opening act for Nine Inch Nails on the 2000 Fragility v2.0 tour , but subsequently embarked on a number of headlining tours all over the world , including the Canadian festival , Summersault . As Keenan was well known through his other band , he would often wear long wigs on his otherwise bald head when performing , to distinguish himself from his Tool persona . Mer de Noms went certified platinum by the RIAA on October 31 , 2000 , while the band was on tour .
The album produced three singles : " Judith " , " 3 Libras " , and " The Hollow " . " Judith " is named after , and is about , Keenan 's mother , who suffered a stroke and was left paralyzed when he was 11 . The song " Renholdër " is a reference to guitarist and sound engineer Danny Lohner and reads Re : D.Lohner backwards . Lohner did not know the song was about him despite his first name being sung — albeit in a distorted fashion — in the song .
In the album review by Rolling Stone , Pat Blashill wrote that Keenan " added an almost operatic angst to Howerdel 's songs " and concluded that " A Perfect Circle sound like a desperate dream of what rock used to be . Maybe that 's the point . " AllMusic 's review expressed that " there 's little question that the addicting combination of Keenan 's aching voice and Howerdel 's accomplished songs and production skills made for one of 2000 's best splashes in whatever was left of ' modern rock ' . "
= = = Thirteenth Step and Emotive ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = =
During the recording , release and tour for Tool 's album Lateralus , from 2000 to 2002 the band experienced a considerable amount of downtime . This made the band extremely dynamic in terms of its members . During the recording of Thirteenth Step , A Perfect Circle lost two of its members , Paz Lenchantin and Troy Van Leeuwen . Lenchantin left to join Billy Corgan 's new band Zwan in April 2002 , while Van Leeuwen left to handle touring duties as the new guitarist for Queens of the Stone Age . Ex @-@ Marilyn Manson bassist Jeordie White , formerly known as Twiggy Ramirez , replaced Lenchantin on bass in January 2003 , with Danny Lohner taking the reins on guitar . However , Lohner did not quite fit as a second guitarist , and former The Smashing Pumpkins guitarist James Iha eventually replaced him .
The band released their second album , Thirteenth Step , on September 16 , 2003 . With the new album came a new sound . While Mer de Noms had a heavier , deeper sound , Thirteenth Step was more melodic and straightforward . After the release of the album , John Lappen from The Hollywood Reporter wrote , " They were never a band who beat the listener over the head with metal brutality , but now they 're even more song @-@ oriented than before — a move that illustrates that the band has a knack for writing instrumental hooks that show off a melodic talent that was not as apparent on the first album . " This different sound can be heard in the three singles that came off the album : " Weak and Powerless " , " The Outsider " and " Blue " . Following the release of the album , the band toured throughout the U.S. until the year 's end . Then , in January 2004 , the group left the country to play shows in Europe , Australia , New Zealand and Japan . They headed home in mid @-@ March and finished touring in mid @-@ June .
The album received mostly positive reviews . AllMusic 's review stated the album " is the sound of a musical and lyrical maturity that normally doesn 't occur until a band 's third or fourth albums " . The review by Yahoo ! Music expressed that the album " has its share of anthemic moments , but the real passion spills over in the moody overtures where menacing danger feels seconds away " . Rolling Stone wrote in an attempt to summarize the album that it " sounds more like the dusky thrum of Disintegration @-@ era Cure than it does any of the members ' previous bands " , and continued " Thirteenth Step doesn 't bludgeon listeners into submission — it lulls them with droning guitars , dub @-@ deep bass and simmering vocals . "
A third album , Emotive , was released on November 2 , 2004 ( election day in the United States ) , and contains covers of anti @-@ war songs by artists such as John Lennon ( " Imagine " ) and Joni Mitchell ( " Fiddle and the Drum " ) . Emotive was recorded with current and former members of the band , but is mostly the work of Keenan and Howerdel . The single " Passive " was adapted from the defunct band Tapeworm , a project composed mainly of Keenan , Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails , and Danny Lohner . " Passive " first appeared under the title " Vacant " at a show played by A Perfect Circle in Portland , Oregon on January 31 , 2001 , notably , without the blessing of Reznor to play the song . The song remained unreleased by any artist until it appeared on Emotive as the song " Passive " . The single " Passive " can also be heard in the 2005 movie Constantine when John Constantine ( Keanu Reeves ) enters Papa Midnite 's office in his club in the second half of the movie . The song " Counting Bodies Like Sheep to the Rhythm of the War Drums " is used in the teaser trailer for The Fantastic Four as well as the trailer for The Taking of Pelham 123 .
The album received mixed reviews . An AllMusic review stated the album " falls flat and fails to raise the bar set so high by the quality of their previous two releases " . Rolling Stone praised half the album while criticizing the other , as did The Guardian which stated " cover versions are often hobbled by the artist 's inability to step outside the original and find a fresh perspective , but some of these treatments verge on the visionary . " Ken Micallef of Yahoo ! Music wrote " the band builds on the power of the previous Thirteenth Step , applying hypnotic arrangements , brooding melodies , and droning rhythms to a collection that sounds absurd on its surface , but is woven together by A Perfect Circle 's heavy and dark @-@ lidded instrumental approach . "
On November 16 , 2004 , the CD @-@ DVD set entitled Amotion was released . The DVD contains music videos for six singles ; previously unreleased videos for other songs , including three contest runner @-@ up videos and the winning video for " Blue " ; and three trailers for Bikini Bandits . The CD is composed entirely of remixes of the singles from Mer de Noms and Thirteenth Step . The songs were retooled by Danny Lohner , Joshua Eustis , Massive Attack , and James Iha among others .
= = = Hiatus and other projects ( 2005 – 2009 ) = = =
The future of A Perfect Circle remained uncertain and wobbled between " done for now " and " alive and well . " The band became inactive after they played their last show in Denver , Colorado on June 13 , 2004 . Keenan left to work on Tool 's album 10 @,@ 000 Days while Howerdel began work on a side @-@ project with Josh Freese that flourished into Ashes Divide . In addition to Keenan 's work with Tool , his side @-@ project Puscifer released its first album , V is for Vagina on October 30 , 2007 . The rest of the band also went their separate ways . Freese once again took up the reins as drummer for Nine Inch Nails . White moved on to rejoin Marilyn Manson at guitar under his pseudonym Twiggy Ramirez , and while there was talk of Iha joining Billy Corgan for The Smashing Pumpkins reunion tour in 2007 , this idea was rebuffed and he instead began work on a solo record .
Both Howerdel and Keenan discussed the future of the band in various mediums from 2006 through 2008 . During a February 2006 interview with Rock Hard , Keenan remarked , " I think [ APC ] is over . ... We pushed this project as far as it could go , and I see ourselves playing again together only in a few years to make one or two songs , nothing more . " Howerdel 's thoughts on the reunion of the band were similar to those of Keenan in a May 2006 interview with MTV . In a November 2007 issue of Spin featuring Keenan , when asked " Will there ever be another APC album , " he reiterated his comments from 2006 replying , " Um , no . Maybe , someday , a song on a soundtrack . But an album ? No . " Despite these comments , in an interview with Revolver the following month , Keenan discussed the other members of A Perfect Circle 's recent activities and also hinted at the possibility of a reunion . During the interview , Keenan stated :
The real problem with running Tool and A Perfect Circle at the same time was they both operate the same way . They 're both live touring bands with a label , still working under the old contract mentality . So I thought it was time to let A Perfect Circle go for now and let Billy explore himself . It 's tough for a guy who went from being a guitar tech [ for Tool ] to being in a band with a pretentious , famous singer and having to live in that shadow . It was important for Billy to go and do his own thing and really explore his own sound and let people hear what he has to say and how he would do it on his own , and then we 'll get back and do some A Perfect Circle stuff .
Although the band 's official website had offered no insight as to whether or not the group would reunite , news continued to arrive through Keenan about the existence of the band . In Puscifer 's May 2008 newsletter , Keenan remarked on the status of A Perfect Circle : " As many of you may have heard , Billy and I are engaged in our own little projects for the moment . His is called Ashes Divide and mine is called Puscifer ... Please be advised that A Perfect Circle and Tool are still alive and well . This is simply more . "
= = = Return and touring ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = =
As early as December 2008 , Keenan had announced that he and Howerdel had been writing new music for A Perfect Circle , although it wasn 't until over year and a half later , mid @-@ 2010 , when various band members began teasing a return on respective Twitter accounts , that the band actually became active . This led up to a September announcement of tour dates in which they would be playing the entirety of each of their three albums at each concert , with one album being played per night . The new touring lineup was announced Maynard James Keenan , Billy Howerdel , Josh Freese , Matt McJunkins , and James Iha .
There have been conflicting reports as to what degree the band will be releasing new material . Keenan 's initial thoughts in 2008 referred to focusing on " one or two songs at a time " , which would most likely be released digitally via the internet , rather than a full album release on compact disc . Keenan jokingly mentioned that CDs have become " plastic discs that no one cares about anymore . " In June 2010 , Keenan stated that he was working on a fourth LP for A Perfect Circle . However , when asked about an album again in August , his response focused on single songs again , stating that he 's " ... not really into albums anymore . Might be more going back to the singles . The days of the singles market makes a lot more sense at this point . " and that " We have no label , so neither Billy nor I are really into kicking down hundreds of thousands of dollars to record a record and put it out . " Howerdel , in a September 2010 interview , said that he had been working on demos for the last three to four years , and he presents them to Keenan , who decides which he would like to develop into A Perfect Circle songs , or leave for Howerdel to develop into Ashes Divide songs . No new songs were played at the initial reunion concerts , as no songs were finished yet , and the band was still trying to " remind everybody " who they are at these concerts . The possibility of a live concert DVD was discussed , but ultimately not released .
In addition the initial 2010 concerts , the band also played a few songs on live television programs Jimmy Kimmel Live ! and Last Call with Carson Daly in October and November 2010 respectively .
The band continued touring into 2011 , stopping in 24 cities and performing at events such as Rock on the Range Festival in Columbus , Ohio on May 21 and 22 , 2011 , Boonstock Music Festival in Edmonton , Alberta on July 2 , 2011 , Edgefest in Toronto , Canada on July 9 , 2011 , Bluesfest in Ottawa , Canada on July 10 , 2011 . Kanrocksas Music Festival in Kansas City , KS on August 6 , 2011 @.@ and Lollapalooza in Chicago , IL , on August 5 – 7 , 2011 . Freese was unavailable for the 2011 touring due to a scheduling conflict with Weezer . Jeff Friedl , drummer for Ashes Divide , filled in for him .
The band continued to allude to working on new music throughout 2011 , referring to the process as " Slow but steady . " Howerdel also referred to " road testing " new songs during touring , that could ultimately be placed on a future album . On June 29 , 2011 , The sole new song , " By and Down " , was debuted in Portland , Oregon . After this , Howerdel reiterated the band 's stance on a new album , stating " Right now the intention is not to put out a ( full album ) but just to release some songs along the way , and then they might be re @-@ imagined and put together in some collection ... If you need to have an album then there will be something more like a photo album where you collect these things and you put them in . "
After the 2011 tour , Keenan said that new material still was not ready , and that for the time , he and Howerdel were turning back to their respective side projects , Puscifer and Ashes Divide . During this time , in October 2012 , Freese left the band without any intentions of returning .
The band returned to touring in 2013 , playing Soundwave Music Festival and Lollapalooza Chile in early 2013 . In February 2013 , Keenan again stated that a new album was still " currently off the table " , due to his continued work with Puscifer , and Howerdel 's commitment to working on a second yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ released Ashes Divide album . He shortly after appended that they are still working on new material , but it is still mostly just " jamming " and working on bits and pieces , not entire songs .
= = = Compilations and future releases ( 2013 – present ) = = =
In September 2013 , it was announced that the band would release two separate compilations in November 2013 . The first , a greatest hits album entitled Three Sixty , containing one new song , " By and Down " , the second , a box set entitled A Perfect Circle Live : Featuring Stone and Echo . The box set contains their three concerts in 2011 where they played one album in its entirety each night , and a performance of the band at Red Rocks .
In regards to future material from the band , Keenan stated " Of course , there 's always writing going on constantly . It 's just stuff that 's not quite sitting right yet , so you don 't know about it " . In November 2013 , Howerdel stated that " there are fully developed songs without lyrics and melody ... as far as the music end goes , I ’ ve got 75 % of the foundation of [ the next ] A Perfect Circle record ready to go . " He did concede that this could change depending on Keenan 's stance on music , and that Keenan prefers smaller releases , while Howerdel prefers the form of a full album . While the band was quiet over the course of 2014 and 2015 , in March 2016 , Keenan stated that he still hopes to make and release new music with the band .
= = Musical style = =
A Perfect Circle 's music has been described mainly as alternative rock , alternative metal , hard rock and nu metal . The band is also associated with various music styles , including art rock , art metal , progressive rock and progressive metal . Troy J. Augusto of Variety wrote that the band 's music combines equal parts of " ’ 80s Goth , contemporary alt metal and progressive art rock . "
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Mer de Noms ( 2000 )
Thirteenth Step ( 2003 )
Emotive ( 2004 )
= Nguyễn Chánh Thi =
Nguyễn Chánh Thi ( 23 February 1923 – 23 June 2007 ) was an officer in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) . He is best known for being involved in frequent coups in the 1960s and wielding substantial influence as a key member of various juntas that ruled South Vietnam from 1964 until 1966 , when he was overpowered by Vietnam Air Force chief and Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ in a power struggle and exiled to the United States . Known for his flamboyant style and hostility to U.S. advice , Thi 's ouster was supported by the American leadership , who backed Kỳ 's pro @-@ U.S. regime . Thi joined the French Army at the age of 17 and was captured by Japan after they invaded French Indochina during World War II . After several months he escaped . He later transferred to the Vietnamese National Army of the French @-@ backed State of Vietnam , which , in October 1955 , became the ARVN and Republic of Vietnam ( South Vietnam ) , respectively . A paratrooper , he fought for then @-@ Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm against the Bình Xuyên organized crime syndicate in the 1955 Battle for Saigon . Impressed by Thi 's performance , Diệm referred to him as " my son " and put him in command of the Airborne Brigade .
In November 1960 , Thi led the paratroopers in a coup against Diệm , citing political interference in the military . The rebels gained the upper hand but Thi was reluctant to push for a complete victory , and the coup was defeated after Diệm falsely promised to make reforms in order to buy time for loyalists to rescue him . Thi fled into exile in Cambodia , but returned after Diệm was deposed and executed in November 1963 . He became the deputy commander of I Corps under Nguyễn Khánh , and helped his superior to overthrow Diệm 's subjugators three months later . Thi became the commander of the 1st Division , before taking control of I Corps later in the year .
During the year after Khánh 's rise to power , Thi helped Khánh stage or put down several coup attempts , making him a key player in South Vietnamese military politics . In September 1964 , he and Kỳ helped rescue Khánh from a coup attempt by two disgruntled Catholic Diệmist generals , Lâm Văn Phát and Dương Văn Đức . This gave Kỳ and Thi increased leverage in the junta . Two months later , he was prominent in shutting down a junta @-@ appointed civilian advisory body after they disapproved of a plan by younger officers to compulsorily retire old generals . In January 1965 , he helped Khánh depose the junta @-@ appointed civilian Prime Minister Trần Văn Hương , but by this time he had turned against Khánh . In February 1965 , he helped defeat a coup attempt by Phát and Phạm Ngọc Thảo , and helped to force Khánh 's resignation at the same time . Over the next year , Kỳ and Thi were the foremost officers in the junta , and in June 1965 , Thi declined an opportunity to serve as prime minister after being nominated by his fellow officers following the resignation of civilian Phan Huy Quát . Thi wanted to let a rival take the job and then step in after they had failed , but he never received a second opportunity .
Thi oversaw I Corps with a great deal of autonomy , and the other officers felt threatened , which was accentuated by Thi 's alignment with Buddhist activist movements in his region , traditionally a Buddhist stronghold . The Buddhists were opposed to expansion of the Vietnam War and the American leadership viewed Thi negatively . In early 1966 , feeling more confident about his hold on power , Kỳ orchestrated Thi 's removal , and announced that Thi would be going to the US for medical treatment , but in reality into exile . Thi refused to go along with Kỳ 's false story and wanted to stay in Vietnam , and this led to civil unrest in I Corps , where Thi was popular . The disquiet escalated into open rebellion by pro @-@ Thi military units , allied to Buddhist anti @-@ junta activists who were calling for civilian government and an end to the US @-@ driven war expansion policy . After three months of virtual secession , Kỳ 's forces quelled the dissidents , and Thi emigrated to the U.S. , where he lived for the rest of his life .
= = Early life = =
Thi was born on 23 February 1923 in Huế , then the capital of Vietnam and the seat of the Nguyễn dynasty . At the time , Vietnam was part of the colony of French Indochina and his father was a low @-@ level mandarin in the French @-@ controlled monarchy and had served in the French Army during World War I. Thi joined the French Army at 17 ; a few months later , Imperial Japan invaded Indochina during World War II , wresting control from France . Thi was a Japanese prisoner of war for several months until he escaped amidst the confusion of an Allied bombing raid on the Japanese military jail . According to family documents , Thi was captured and imprisoned by the communist Viet Minh of Ho Chi Minh for three months at the end of the war in 1945 as they declared independence during the August Revolution . At the time , a power vacuum emerged as the defeated Japanese withdrew from Vietnam . France attempted to reassert its colonial grip over Indochina , while various Vietnamese groups jockeyed for power at the head of an independent country . In 1946 , full @-@ scale conflict erupted between the Vietminh , who had declared the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ( DRV ) independent , and France . As part of their political effort , the French created the State of Vietnam ( SoV ) , an associated state in the French Union , and installed former Emperor Bảo Đại as the head of state . Thi served in the SoV 's Vietnamese National Army ( VNA ) , and rose steadily up the ranks .
= = Diệm era = =
In 1954 , the Vietminh defeated the French Union forces at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and France decided to withdraw from Vietnam . Under the provisions of the Geneva Accords , the Vietminh 's DRV would take control of the northern half of the country , and the SoV the south , pending national reunification elections in 1956 . In the meantime , the State of Vietnam remained unstable . The Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects had their own private armies and de facto states in the Mekong Delta , while the Bình Xuyên organized crime syndicate controlled the national police , had their own military , and dominated the rampant drug trade , prostitution and illegal gambling in the southern capital Saigon . In April and May 1955 , Thi fought in VNA airborne units for Prime Minister Diệm against the Binh Xuyen in the Battle for Saigon after Diệm gave them an ultimatum to surrender . When they did not , the VNA attacked and decisively dispersed the Binh Xuyen after a few days of heavy street fighting . This performance so impressed the lifelong bachelor Diệm that he thereafter referred to Thi as " my son " . Diệm promoted Thi to the rank of colonel and put him in charge of the Airborne Brigade , which was expanded into a division a few years later . The Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) was not as impressed . One of their reports described Thi as " an opportunist and a man lacking strong convictions " . An American military advisor assessed Thi as " tough , unscrupulous , and fearless , but dumb " . In October 1955 , Diệm deposed Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum overseen by his brother Ngô Đình Nhu and declared himself President of the newly proclaimed Republic of Vietnam . The VNA thus became the Army of the Republic of Vietnam , and after Diệm canceled the reunification elections , the Vietnam War ensued .
= = Failed coup against Diệm = =
In 1960 , Thi led a revolt against Diệm after lobbying by his Airborne Division deputy commander , Lieutenant Colonel Vương Văn Đông . Đông had become discontented with Diệm 's arbitrary rule and constant meddling in military affairs . Diệm , who promoted officers on religion and loyalty , rather than skill , gave orders directly to individual commanders , and played senior officers against one another in order to weaken the military leadership and prevent them from becoming effective , lest they try to challenge his rule . Đông later claimed his sole objective was to force Diệm to improve the governance of the country . Đông was clandestinely supported by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Lieutenant Colonel Nguyễn Triệu Hồng , and Hong 's uncle , Hoang Co Thuy , members of the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng ( VNQDĐ , the Vietnamese Nationalist Party ) , which was an anti @-@ communist political organization whose members had been marginalized by Diệm . The coup was organized with the help of some VNQDĐ and Đại Việt Quốc Dân Đảng ( Nationalist Party of Greater Vietnam , known as Đại Việt ) members , civilians and officers alike.Đông enlisted the cooperation of an armored regiment , a marine unit and three paratrooper battalions . The operation was launched on November 11 at 05 : 00.The coup was executed ineffectually ; although the rebels captured the headquarters of the Joint General Staff at Tan Son Nhut Air Base , they failed to block the roads leading into Saigon and cut off loyalist reinforcements . Thi 's men also failed to disconnect phone lines into the palace , which allowed Diệm to appeal for aid from loyal units . After taking the key military points , the paratroopers headed towards Independence Palace . At first , they did not attack , believing that Diệm would capitulate . Most of Thi 's soldiers had been tricked into thinking that they were attacking in order to save Diệm from a Presidential Guard mutiny . When the attack finally started , Diệm was nearly killed in the opening salvoes when gunfire hit his bed , but he had arisen just a few minutes earlier . Despite their numerical advantage , the paratroopers ' first assault was repelled by the loyalists . Thi and Dong held fire ; they brought in reinforcements and attacked again , but the loyalists held firm . In the meantime , Thi 's rebels had captured the national police offices , the studios of Radio Saigon and the Presidential Guard barracks . They had also put most of the Saigon @-@ based generals under house arrest .
Apparently poised for a military victory , the rebels hesitated . Đông wanted to storm the palace and capture the president and his family . Thi was worried Diệm could be killed in an attack and thus felt that despite Diệm 's shortcomings , he was South Vietnam 's best available leader . Thi thought that enforced reform was the best outcome . The rebels wanted Nhu , Diệm 's younger brother and chief advisor , and his wife , Madame Nhu , who were widely regarded as the powers behind Diệm 's rule , out of the government , although they disagreed over whether to assassinate or deport the couple . Thi demanded that Diệm appoint an officer as Prime Minister and remove Madame Nhu from the palace . Saigon Radio broadcast a speech authorized by Thi 's Revolutionary Council , claiming that Diệm was being removed for corruption and suppression of liberty . Worried by the uprising , Diệm sent representatives to negotiate . After lengthy talks , the parties agreed to a ceasefire . In the meantime , loyalist forces headed towards the capital . Diệm promised to end press censorship , liberalize the economy , and hold free and fair elections . Diệm refused to sack Nhu , but agreed to dissolve the cabinet and form a new government which would accommodate members of the Revolutionary Council . In the early hours of 12 November , Diệm taped a speech detailing the concessions , and Thi broadcast the message on Saigon Radio .
When the loyalist reinforcements rolled into the capital aboard tanks and armored vehicles and began to wrest the initiative , the rebels began to break . After a brief , violent battle that killed around 400 people , the coup attempt was crushed . The casualties included a large number of anti @-@ Diệm civilians ; Thi exhorted them to bring down the Ngô family by charging the palace ; 13 were gunned down by the loyalist soldiers as they invaded the grounds . After the failed coup , Đông , Thi and other prominent officers fled to Tan Son Nhut and climbed aboard a C @-@ 47 . They fled to Cambodia , where they were given asylum by Prince Norodom Sihanouk , a long @-@ time Diệm opponent . Diệm promptly reneged on his promises , and intensified his authoritarian rule and crackdowns on dissidents . Almost three years after the incident , Diệm opened the trial for those involved in the coup on 8 July 1963 . Thi and his fellow exiled officers were found guilty and sentenced to death in absentia . In the meantime , Thi lived self @-@ sufficiently in Cambodia for three years .
= = 1964 coups with Khánh = =
Diệm was killed in a November 1963 coup , allowing Thi to return to South Vietnam and resume his military service . Soon after arriving home , Thi found himself involved in another coup plot , acting as the link between Khánh and Đỗ Mậu , two generals disgruntled with their position under the military junta of Minh , who oversaw the overthrow of Diệm . Mau was one of the principal tacticians in the 1963 coup ; although he did not command troops , he had a thorough knowledge of the backgrounds of the ARVN officers and their strengths , weaknesses and characteristics through his role as Diệm 's director of military security , and this understanding had allowed him to engineer the previous coup . Minh 's junta feared Mau 's shrewdness and tried to sideline him by making him the Minister of Information , a relatively unimportant position .
Disgruntled , Mau began recruiting for a coup , targeting Khánh , who had been moved to the I Corps in the far north of South Vietnam to keep him far away from Saigon . Khanh made no attempt to hide his annoyance at not being given a more important job , and had long been regarded as an ambitious and unscrupulous officer by his colleagues . Mau persuaded the junta to install Thi as Khanh 's deputy in I Corps . He tricked the junta by telling them that as Khánh had played a large part in putting down the 1960 coup attempt , Thi would still be harboring resentment . According to Mau , Thi would thus be an ideal mechanism for keeping the disliked Khánh in check . Privately , Mau predicted that Thi would act as a bridge between him in Saigon , and Khánh in Huế . He was correct in thinking the 1960 conflict would be irrelevant as allegiances shifted over time and that the pair would work together for their current aims .
The trio were joined by General Trần Thiện Khiêm , the disaffected commander of the III Corps that surrounded Saigon , and an assortment of Marine , Air Force and Special Forces officers and their units . Other notable recruits were Diem loyalist and former chief of the Civil Guard , Duong Ngoc Lam , who was under investigation for corruption , and General Đức , who had recently returned from exile in Paris . The cabal scheduled the coup for 04 : 00 , 30 January . On 29 January , Thi followed Khanh to the capital . The plotters and their agents met in obscure locations spots around town . On the night of 29 January , the rebel troops assumed their positions around Saigon . A number of American officers and embassy officials were alerted to be in their offices at 2 : 00 . At 03 : 00 , Khánh took over the Joint General Staff Headquarters at Tan Son Nhut , and by dawn , the coup had succeeded without a shot being fired as Minh 's junta was caught unaware . The popular Minh was allowed to stay on as a ceremonial but powerless head of state , but his colleagues were taken into custody . Nevertheless , Minh remained disgruntled and persistently tried to regain his influence through political means . On 2 February 1964 , Thi was appointed to be commander of the 1st Division based in Huế , as part of I Corps . He stayed in the post until 21 October and on 14 November , he took control of the entire corps . This corps oversaw the five northernmost provinces of central Vietnam and the 1st and 2nd Divisions .
= = = Defeating the September 1964 coup = = =
In August , Khánh gave himself more powers , provoking widespread riots and demonstrations across the nation , with Buddhist activists prominent in expressing opposition against Khánh . The anarchy forced Khánh to back down and make concessions , and he ended up in a weaker position than before . Among the concessions he made was to remove or demote some Catholic officials who had been close to Diệm 's religiously discriminatory rule , angering the minority Catholic community . Among those demoted were Generals Phát and Đức , both Catholic . They launched a coup attempt backed mainly by Catholic elements against Khánh before dawn on 13 September . They took over the city without firing a shot , and used the national radio station to proclaim the deposing of Khanh 's junta . There was little initial reaction from most of the military commanders , including Thi .
However , Phát and Đức could not apprehend Khánh , and the Americans decided to support the incumbent after concluding that the rebels did not have a satisfactory plan to rule . Thi and Air Force chief Kỳ were then prominent in helping to crush the coup . Kỳ and Thi 's role in putting down the coup attempt gave them more leverage in Saigon 's military politics . Indebted to Kỳ , Thi and their so @-@ called Young Turks for maintaining his hold on power , Khánh was now in a weaker position . This group of young officers were headlined by Thi , Kỳ , IV Corps commander General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , and Admiral Chung Tấn Cang , the head of the Republic of Vietnam Navy . They publicly called on Khanh to remove " corrupt , dishonest and counterrevolutionary " officers , civil servants and exploitationists , and threatened to remove him if he did not enact their proposed reforms .
Some observers accused Kỳ and Thi of either allowing or deliberately orchestrating the plot to embarrass Khánh , portray themselves as heroes , and therefore gain prominence on the political stage . In later years , Cao Huy Thuan , a professor and Buddhist activist based in the city of Đà Nẵng in I Corps , claimed Kỳ and Thi met with him a few days before the coup , and had discussed their plans for joining a coup against Khánh . At the subsequent military trial of Phát and Đức 's faction , the plotters were acquitted . According to the historian George McTurnan Kahin , Khánh rigged the trial so that Đức and Phát were acquitted so they would be used as a Catholic counterweight to the Young Turks faction of Kỳ and Thi , who in Khánh 's eyes had become increasingly strong and ominous . Khánh decided to build an alliance with the generals from Minh 's junta by releasing them from house arrest and recalling them to active roles . However , Thi and Kỳ were aware of the motives for these moves and adjusted accordingly .
= = = Dissolution of the High National Council = = =
The Young Turks and Khánh wanted to forcibly retire officers with more than 25 years of service , ostensibly because they thought them to be lethargic , out of touch , and ineffective . However , the unspoken and most important reason was because they viewed the older generals as rivals for power . Specific targets of this proposed policy were Minh and other senior officers in his short @-@ lived junta , Trần Văn Đôn , Lê Văn Kim and Mai Hữu Xuân .
The signature of the military @-@ appointed civilian Chief of State Phan Khắc Sửu was required to pass the ruling , but Sửu referred the matter to the High National Council ( HNC ) , a junta @-@ appointed civilian advisory body , to get their opinion . The HNC turned down the request . This was speculated to be because many HNC members were old , and did not appreciate the generals ' negativity towards seniors . On 19 December , the generals dissolved the HNC . The operation was commanded by Thi — who had traveled into Saigon from I Corps — and Kỳ . The national police , which was under the control and command of the military , moved through the streets before dawn , arresting five HNC members and other politicians and student leaders they deemed to be an obstacle to military rule . Minh and the other aging generals were arrested and flown to Pleiku , a Central Highlands town in a Montagnard area and forcibly retired , while other officers were simply imprisoned in the capital . The junta 's forces also arrested around 100 members of the National Salvation Council ( NSC ) of the anti @-@ war Lê Khắc Quyến party . The NSC was a new political party active in the I Corps region that opposed the expansion of the war and was aligned with Thi and the Buddhist activist monk Thích Trí Quang . As Thi was active in the purge , it was believed that the Quyen had fallen out with Thi .
The deposal prompted US Ambassador Maxwell D. Taylor to angrily berate Thiệu , Thi , Kỳ and Cang in a private meeting and threaten to cut off aid if they did not reverse their decision . Although nettled by the outburst , Thi took a perverse pleasure in riling Taylor . He was seen by a CIA officer soon after , grinning . When asked why he was happy , Thi said " Because this is one of the happiest days of my life ... Today I told the American ambassador that he could not dictate to us . " The dispute escalated for a few days as the junta threatened to expel Taylor , and Khanh went on a media offensive . A CIA informant reported that the arguments with Taylor had incensed the volatile Thi so much he privately vowed to " blow up everything " and " kill Phan Khac Suu , Trần Văn Hương and Nguyen Khanh and put an end to all this . Then we will see what happens . " However , the dispute galvanized the officers ' nationalist sentiments and they rallied around the embattled Khánh for a time . They ignored Taylor 's threats without suffering repercussions because the Americans were too intent on defeating the communists to cut funding in an attempt to force policy change in Saigon . Thi became notorious for his involvement in infighting . A CIA dossier compiled in the 1960s said that Thi " is like a card player , placing his bets now on this leader , then on another ; he plays his subordinates in the same manner . His only real objective is to continue the game . " Time described him as " vain , ambitious , an inveterate intriguer " . The New York Times described him as " a coup specialist " .
In late January 1965 , Buddhist protests against junta @-@ appointed civilian Prime Minister Trần Văn Hương broke out across South Vietnam . The unrest came after Huong had unveiled plans to expand conscription and the war against the communists , and demonstrations were at their largest in I Corps , a Buddhist and anti @-@ war escalation stronghold . In Huế , matters degenerated into a riot as 5 @,@ 000 demonstrators attacked the United States Information Service Library and burned 8 @,@ 000 books . Khánh and Thi were thought to have turned a blind eye to the rioting in order to allow the disorder to ruin the Huong government and allow them to inherit power . Khánh decided to have the armed forces replace Huong , and on the morning of 27 January , Khánh staged a bloodless putsch with the support of Thi and Kỳ . However , many of the officers had agreed to Khánh 's plan in hopes he would fail and discredit himself .
= = 1965 coup against Nguyen Khanh = =
By this time , Taylor 's relationship with Khánh had already broken down irreparably over the issue of the HNC , and the US became increasingly intent on a regime change as Khánh was becoming increasingly reliant on Buddhist support , which they saw as an obstacle to their war expansion plans . In the first week of February , Taylor told the leading South Vietnamese officers that the US was " in no way propping up General Khánh or backing him in any fashion " . Despite their mutual alignment with Buddhist activists , Thi was known to have become personally hostile to Khánh by this time . During this time , many officers were organizing separate plots against Khánh .
Shortly before noon on 19 February , the undetected communist agent , Colonels Thảo and Phát used tanks and some infantry battalions to seize control of the national military headquarters , post office and the radio station of Saigon . The rebels failed to capture Kỳ , who fled to Tan Son Nhut , where he ran into Khánh , and the pair flew off together , while some junta figures were arrested there . Thao made a radio announcement stating his desire to get rid of Khánh , whom he described as a " dictator " , while some of his fellow rebels made comments eulogizing Diem and indicating that they would start a hardline Catholic regime . This alarmed Thi , as the tone of the comments indicated that the rebels might punish people who had fought against Diệm in the past , such as those involved in the 1960 and 1963 coups .
The Americans decided that while they wanted Khánh out , they did not approve of Thảo and Phát , and their polarizing policies , so they began to lobby Kỳ and Thi , the two most powerful officers apart from Khánh , to defeat both sides . While Kỳ used air power to stop the two sides from confrontation by threatening to bomb them if they opened fire , the Americans consulted with Thi and General Cao Văn Viên , the commander of III Corps surrounding Saigon . They wanted Thi and Vien to assemble units hostile to both Khánh and the rebels into a Capital Liberation Force . The Americans provided Thi with a plane so that he could fly in from his I Corps headquarters in Đà Nẵng to lead ground forces against both Khanh and the rebels .
Late in the night , Thảo and Phát met with Kỳ in a meeting organized by the Americans , and insisted that Khanh be removed from power . The coup collapsed when , between midnight and dawn , anti @-@ coup forces swept into the city ; it was generally thought that the rebels did not put up a fight after being assured that Khánh would be ousted . Early in the morning , Thi , who gained the support of Kỳ , proposed a motion within the junta to remove Khánh and force him into exile , and the final vote was unanimous — Khanh was absent from the meeting . Kỳ , Thi and Thiệu then became the key figures in a junta that continued with Sửu and Prime Minister Phan Huy Quát as a civilian front , although General Minh became the nominal commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces .
Thi was a senior member in the ten @-@ man ruling junta , which wanted to expand the military effort against the communists , something that was opposed by the Buddhist protestors . Thi performed a balancing act and accommodated the Buddhists , wanting them to see him as a friend . He allowed the students to publish a magazine that was highly critical of military rule . Thi also manoeuvred to have his trusted subordinate Colonel Pham Van Lieu installed as the head of the national police — a body controlled by the army and effectively a military unit — increasing his political power . Following his ascension , Lieu replaced most of the Saigon district police chiefs with Thi supporters , raising the ire of some other prominent officers . The Buddhist activist leader Thích Trí Quang said that " Thi is nominally a Buddhist , but does not really care about religion " . In June 1965 , Quat and Sửu resigned because of persistent disputes with the military and one another ; Thi had an opportunity to take power . Quat resigned and tried to directly hand over power to Thi , but this was not allowed by the generals . Nevertheless , Thi was offered the prime ministerial position by his colleagues . He was seen as having a similar level of political influence to Kỳ , and was voted in as prime minister by the ten @-@ man junta . However , he declined the job offer on the private advice of Lieu , who told him that the political conditions were not ideal and that he should let a rival take control and fail before stepping in himself . According to Kahin , " to his [ Thi 's ] own bitter disappointment , he was never given a second chance " . Thi 's blunder was a great relief to the Americans , who were aware of the fact that Thi — despite being anti @-@ communist — had a hostility towards American advice . Kỳ and Thiệu , both pro @-@ American and supportive of a drastic escalation in anti @-@ communist military activity , became prime minister and head of state respectively , the latter post being largely ceremonial . Regardless of who held the top jobs , no officer had firm control over his peers , and the respective corps commanders were effectively allowed to independently rule their own regions in return for ongoing support of the junta .
In the same year , U.S. ground forces were introduced into combat roles in large numbers , and the first US Marines came ashore at Da Nang in Thi 's I Corps . The flamboyant Thi organized for the American troops to be greeted by military bands , welcoming banners and teenage girls who garlanded them with flowers . This caused embarrassment to US military officials who felt the introduction of combat troops and resultant American casualties would not be received well by the public when contrasted with Thi 's celebratory fanfare . Soon after the Americans were in position , Thi tipped off Marine Lieutenant General Lewis W. Walt about a major movement of Việt Cộng insurgents near Chu Lai in Quảng Trị Province near the border with North Vietnam . This resulted in Operation Starlite , generally regarded as the first offensive action undertaken by the Americans in the Vietnam War . Occurring between 18 – 24 August , it resulted in the 1st Việt Cộng Regiment being pushed to the coast .
= = Buddhist Uprising of 1966 = =
Air Marshal Kỳ , the prime minister and the most powerful member of the junta feared Thi as a rival . Many political observers in Saigon thought Thi actively wanted to depose Kỳ , and regarded him as the biggest threat to the other officers ' factions and the junta 's stability . According to Kỳ 's memoirs , Thi was a " born intriguer " who had " left @-@ wing inclinations " . Time magazine published a piece in February 1966 claiming Thi was more dynamic than Kỳ and could seize power at any time . Historian Robert Topmiller thought Kỳ may have seen the article as destabilizing and therefore decided to move against Thi , who was known to have the " deep @-@ rooted " loyalty of his soldiers . A large part of the South Vietnamese military was the Regional and Popular Forces , militia that served in their native areas , and they appreciated a commander with whom they had a regionalistic rapport . The support from the Buddhists , his troops and the regionalistic tendencies gave Thi a strong power base and made it hard for the other generals and the Americans to move against him . The outspoken Thi was also known as the general most likely to question and speak out against US policy .
The historian Stanley Karnow said of Kỳ and Thi : " Both flamboyant characters who wore gaudy uniforms and sported sinister moustaches , the two young officers had been friends , and their rivalry seemed to typify the personal struggles for power that chronically afflicted South Vietnam . But their dispute mirrored more than individual ambition . " Both were also known for their colorful red berets . There were reports Thi was showing insubordination towards Kỳ . The US military commander in Vietnam , General William Westmoreland , said that Thi once refused to report to Kỳ in Saigon when requested . On one occasion , when Kỳ came to I Corps to remonstrate with him , Thi turned to address his staff and mockingly asked " Should we pay attention to this funny little man from Saigon or should we ignore him ? " Thi made this comment rather loudly , within earshot of Ky , and the Vietnamese politician Bùi Diễm thought that Kỳ viewed Thi 's comment as a direct and calculated challenge to his authority . Time said Thi " ran it [ I Corps ] like a warlord of yore , obeying those edicts of the central government that suited him and blithely disregarding the rest " . Of the four corps commanders , Thi was seen as the one with the most power and independence from Saigon . Kahin thought Kỳ may have feared that Thi would secede from Saigon and turn central Vietnam into an independent state . The CIA analyst Douglas Pike , who worked in Vietnam , speculated that this would have been a large part of Ky 's thinking , as Vietnamese people have often had strong regional tendencies .
Knowing that Westmoreland and the US Embassy were hostile to Thi and supportive of his leadership , Kỳ mustered the support of eight generals on the 10 @-@ man junta , meaning that along with his vote , there were nine officers in favor of Thi 's removal . With Thi the only non @-@ supporter , Kỳ and his colleagues removed Thi from the junta and his corps command on 10 March 1966 . Thi claimed that during this meeting , knowing the other generals ' antipathy to him , he nettled them by chastising their commitment to the country . He said the populace would never support the generals ' war effort as long as they lived so comfortably , and he mocked them for ostentatiously flying their wives and mistresses to Hong Kong for shopping expeditions . The junta put Thi under house arrest pending his deportation from the country , and appointed General Nguyễn Văn Chuân , the erstwhile commander of 1st Division and a Thi subordinate , as the new I Corps commander .
The Americans supported Thi 's removal as they regarded him as being soft on communism , and a " virtual warlord " . US Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge , Jr . , Westmoreland and the Defense Secretary Robert McNamara were supportive of the Kỳ @-@ Thiệu regime , their prosecution of the war against the communists and support of a US escalation , and they opposed Thi , regarding him as lacking firmness against communism . At a White House meeting after news of the dismissal came through , Taylor said that Thi was " a bad character and good riddance " . Lodge wrote in a report that Thi " cherished some resentment against the Americans in respect of what he considers political and military interference and infringement of sovereignty " , claiming he had contemplated " the possibility of establishing a government in the south which would be of such a character that the bulk of the population including the Vietcong would support it — and presumably neutralization of the country and possibly federation with the North would soon be possible " . The Americans wanted to ease Thi out of the corridors of power by offering him an economic future in the US and free education for his children , and Lodge and Westmoreland personally spoke to him in an attempt to convince him to accept , but they were unsuccessful . On the other hand , Thi had the support of Walt , who commanded American forces in I Corps and was the senior advisor to Thi 's forces . Unlike his countrymen , Walt thought highly of Thi , and his ability as an officer .
Kỳ claimed Thi was leaving the country to receive medical treatment for his nasal passages , as well as a general health examination . An official announcement said that the junta " had considered and accepted General Thi 's application for a vacation " . Thi retorted that " The only sinus condition I have is from the stink of corruption . " With the health story exposed as a sham , Kỳ gave a series of reasons for dismissing Thi , accusing him of being too left @-@ wing , ruling I Corps like a warlord , having a mistress who was suspected of being a communist , and being too conspiratorial . Kỳ knew that Thi supported negotiations with the communists as a means of ending the war , and had a history of consistently removing officials and military figures who promoted such a policy , but did not publicly mention this as a reason . Thi 's dismissal provoked the Buddhist Uprising , led by the " Struggle Movement " . Thi was immensely popular in the Buddhist stronghold of Huế , a city of approximately 120 @,@ 000 , and civil unrest erupted throughout the region . When he returned to the former imperial capital five days after being relieved of his command , around 20 @,@ 000 supporters mobbed him , shouting and trying to touch him . This was part of a gamble by Kỳ to allow Thi back to his home city in an attempt to placate the dismayed locals , but it did not work . A general strike incapacited 90 % of Da Nang , the second biggest city in South Vietnam and the main port in central Vietnam .
During a rally , a Buddhist student leader cried " Do you want the general to stay with us ? " to which the students and other protestors answered , " Yes ! Yes ! " Thi told the large crowd to " Think about our country , not about me " . During the tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek speech , he made sarcastic references about his need to go to the US for health treatment . He told a journalist that he would accept " any position which is useful for the country " , leading some to think that he wanted Kỳ or Thiệu 's job . According to Time magazine , Thi 's speeches showed he " was obviously torn between a desire to rally support for a comeback and his soldier 's distaste for adding to dissension " . Kahin said that " despite the circumspection of his public addresses , [ they ] undoubtedly helped encourage the Struggle Movement . "
The various dissidents formed a pro @-@ Thi , anti @-@ Kỳ organization called the Military @-@ Civilian Struggle Committee , better known as the Struggle Movement . Their message and influence quickly spread as they called for the end of military rule and took over radio stations and government buildings in I Corps . They intensified their calls for Kỳ to fulfil his promise to hold democratic elections . Some I Corps units supportive of Thi then decided to join the Struggle Movement and ceased military operations against the Vietcong , instead starting a stand @-@ off against Kỳ . Throughout April and May there were tense incidents as units loyal to the junta were flown in from Saigon , and the factions came close to warfare .
Thi publicly disassociated himself from the Struggle Movement . However , he remained in I Corps and was still regarded as a significant political influence and motivating factor for the Struggle Movement . Regardless of what he may have thought , the discontent against Kỳ was by then too much for him to control even if he had wanted to . By June , ARVN loyalists , with the help of the American forces , prevailed . Their superior numbers convinced many in the Struggle Movement to back down and realign with the government , and those who refused were militarily defeated , often in bitter street @-@ to @-@ street fighting . While the Struggle Movement was finally ebbing away , Thi agreed to meet with Kỳ at an American air base in Chu Lai to reach a settlement , seeing as the junta was going to prevail in any case . Thi agreed to the original offers of subsidies and the cover story of a medical trip .
= = Exile = =
After the uprising was crushed , Thi was deported to the USA , and lived in a small apartment on Connecticut Avenue on Dupont Circle , Washington , D.C. Although the apartment was small , Kahin , who interviewed Thi after his exile , described it as " handsome " . However , The New York Times called it " shabby " . Thi left his uniforms in his closet in Vietnam and disposed of all his medals . The only thing he kept from his military career was an army blanket . As part of his removal from South Vietnam , the American government gave him a substantial living allowance and paid for all his children 's education fees . Around 1973 , the payments were suddenly discontinued . In Washington , Thi spent much of his time at the Library of Congress , reading books about Asian history . Outspoken and still supported by many Buddhists , Thi tried to return to South Vietnam in February 1972 , but troops loyal to the Diệmist President Thiệu surrounded his plane on the tarmac and prevented him from disembarking ; the aircraft eventually took off and returned to the U.S.
Thi lived in the American capital until 1975 , when he moved to Arkansas . He lived in the southern state for a short period before settling in Lancaster , Pennsylvania . He worked in a variety of jobs and occasionally made speeches at universities and to Vietnamese American organizations and meetings . According to his relatives , Thi remained popular among the Vietnamese American community , most of whom had come to the US after the fall of Saigon and were stridently anti @-@ communist . His family said their refugee compatriots often recognized him , and usually refused to let him pay for meals at their restaurants . Thi 's second marriage , to Oanh Nguyen , ended in divorce . They had five children , four sons and a daughter . He later remarried , to Catherine Nguyen , who bore him a daughter . In all , Thi had six children and 12 grandchildren . He died at the Hospice of Lancaster County from heart ailments on 23 June 2007 .
= James Newland =
James Ernest Newland , VC ( 22 August 1881 – 19 March 1949 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " that can be awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces . Newland was awarded the Victoria Cross following three separate actions in April 1917 , during attacks against German forces retreating to the Hindenburg Line . While in command of a company , Newland successfully led his men in several assaults on German positions and repulsed subsequent counter @-@ attacks .
Born in the Victorian town of Highton , Newland joined the Australian military in 1899 and saw active service during the Second Boer War . He continued to serve in the Australian Army 's permanent forces on his return to Australia , and completed several years service in the artillery . Transferring to the militia in 1907 , Newland became a police officer in Tasmania before re @-@ joining the permanent forces in 1910 . Following the outbreak of the First World War , he was appointed to the Australian Imperial Force and was among the first wave of men to land at Gallipoli . In the days following the landing , Newland was wounded and evacuated to Egypt where he was commissioned as a second lieutenant .
Transferring to the Western Front in 1916 , Newland was Mentioned in Despatches for his leadership while commanding a company during an attack at Mouquet Farm . He was wounded twice more during the war and medically discharged in March 1918 ; he returned to service with the permanent army . Newland held various appointments between the two world wars , and retired with the rank of lieutenant colonel in 1941 . He died of heart failure in 1949 .
= = Early life = =
Newland was born in the Geelong suburb of Highton , Victoria , on 22 August 1881 to William Newland , a labourer , and his wife Louisa Jane ( née Wall ) . In 1899 , he enlisted in the Commonwealth Military Forces and was assigned to the 4th Battalion , Australian Commonwealth Horse , as a private . The unit later embarked for South Africa , where Newland saw active service in Cape Town during the Second Boer War .
Returning to Australia in 1902 , Newland re @-@ settled in Victoria and joined the Royal Australian Artillery in July the following year . He served in the artillery for over four years , before transferring to the militia in September 1907 . In 1909 , he became a police officer in the Tasmanian Police Force , where he remained until August 1910 , when he re @-@ enlisted in the permanent army . He was posted to the Australian Instructional Corps ; he served with this unit until the outbreak of the First World War . In a ceremony at Sheffield , Tasmania on 27 December 1913 , Newland married Florence May Mitchell .
= = First World War = =
On 17 August 1914 , Newland transferred to the newly raised Australian Imperial Force following the British Empire 's declaration of war on Germany and her allies . Assigned to the 12th Battalion , he was made its Regimental Quartermaster Sergeant and embarked from Hobart aboard HMAT Geelong on 20 October , bound for Egypt . Following a brief stop in Western Australia , the troopship arrived at its destination seven weeks later . The 12th Battalion spent the following four months training in the Egyptian desert .
At the commencement of the Gallipoli Campaign , the 3rd Australian Brigade — of which the 12th Battalion was part — was designated as the covering force for the ANZAC landing , and as such was the first unit ashore on 25 April 1915 , at approximately 04 : 30 . Newland was wounded in the days following the landing , suffering a gunshot wound to his arm , and was evacuated to the 1st General Hospital . While at the hospital , he was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 22 May , before returning to the 12th Battalion four days later .
Newland was engaged in operations on the Gallipoli Peninsula until 9 June , when he was withdrawn from the area and placed in command of the 12th Battalion 's transport elements stationed in Egypt . Promoted to lieutenant on 15 October , he was hospitalised for ten days in November due to dengue fever . Following the Allied evacuation of Gallipoli in December , the 12th Battalion returned to Egypt where Newland continued as transport officer . Promoted to captain on 1 March 1916 , he was made adjutant of the 12th Battalion fifteen days later . It embarked for France and the Western Front later that month .
Disembarking at Marseilles , the 12th Battalion was initially posted to the Fleurbaix sector of France . After involvement in minor operations , it transferred to the Somme in July , where it participated in the Battle of Pozières , its first major French action . Newland was posted to command A Company from 8 August , and was subsequently moved to Sausage Valley along with the rest of the 12th Battalion in preparation for an attack on Mouquet Farm .
Mouquet Farm was a ruined complex connected to several German strongpoints , and formed part of the Thiepval defences . On 21 August , Newland led his company in an assault on a series of trenches slightly north east of the farm . By 18 : 30 , the company had captured its objectives and several of Newland 's men rushed off in pursuit of the retreating Germans . Newland immediately stopped them and organised the company into a defensive position ; the trench was consolidated by 05 : 00 the next morning . Praised for his " ... great coolness and courage under heavy fire " during the attack , he was recommended for the Military Cross . The award , however , was downgraded to a Mention in Despatches , the announcement of which was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 4 January 1917 .
Following its involvement at Pozières and Mouquet Farm , the 12th Battalion was briefly transferred to the Ypres sector in Belgium in September , before returning to Bernafay Wood on the Somme late the following month . Newland was admitted to the 38th Casualty Clearing Station with pyrexia on 4 December . He was moved to the 2nd General Hospital at Le Havre , and returned to the 12th Battalion two weeks later following recuperation . On the same day , he was attached to the headquarters of the 2nd Australian Brigade for duty as a staff officer . He was granted leave on 21 January 1917 on completion of this stint .
Re @-@ joining the 12th Battalion , Newland once again assumed command of A Company . On 26 February 1917 , he was tasked with leading it during the 12th Battalion 's attack on the village of La Barque during the German retreat to the Hindenburg Line . At Bark Trench , a position on the north side of the centre of La Barque , the company encountered a German strongpoint and Newland received a gunshot wound to the face . He was admitted to the 1st Australian Field Ambulance , and returned to the 12th Battalion on 25 March after a period of hospitalisation at the 7th Stationary Hospital in Boulogne .
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
By early April 1917 , there remained three German @-@ held outpost villages — Boursies , Demicourt and Hermies — between the area to the south of the I Anzac Corps position and the Hindenburg Line . An attack by the 1st Australian Division to capture them was planned for 9 April , the same day the British offensive opened at Arras . For his actions on three separate occasions during the assault , Newland was awarded the Victoria Cross .
On the night of 7 / 8 April , the 12th Battalion was tasked with the capture of Boursies , on the Bapaume – Cambrai road . The attack was a feint to mislead the German forces on the direction from which Hermies was to be assaulted . Leading A Company as well as an attached platoon from B Company , Newland began his advance on the village at 03 : 00 . The company was soon subject to heavy rifle and machine gun fire from a derelict mill approximately 400 metres ( 440 yd ) short of the village , and began to suffer heavy casualties . Rallying his men , Newland charged the position and bombed the Germans with grenades . The attack dislodged the Germans , and the company secured the area and continued its advance .
Throughout 8 April , the Australians were subjected to heavy shellfire from German forces . At approximately 22 : 00 , the Germans launched a fierce counter @-@ attack under the cover of a barrage of bombs and trench mortars against A Company 's position at the mill . They had some initial success and entered the forward posts of the mill , which were occupied by a platoon of Newland 's men under the command of Sergeant John Whittle . Newland , bringing up a platoon from the battalion 's reserve company , charged the attackers and re @-@ established the lost ground with Whittle 's assistance . The 12th Battalion was relieved by the 11th Battalion on 10 April , having succeeded in capturing Boursies at the cost of 240 casualties , of which 70 were killed or missing .
After a four @-@ day reprieve from the frontline , the 12th Battalion relieved the 9th Battalion at Lagnicourt on 14 April . Around dawn the next day , the Germans launched a severe counter @-@ attack against the 1st Australian Division 's line . Breaking through , they forced back the 12th Battalion 's D Company , which was to the right of Newland 's A Company . Soon surrounded and under attack on three sides , Newland withdrew the company to a sunken road which had been held by Captain Percy Cherry during the capture of the village three weeks earlier , and lined the depleted company out in a defensive position on each bank .
The German forces attacked Newland 's company several times during the battle , but were repulsed each time . During one of the assaults , Newland observed that the German attack was weakening and gathered a party of twenty men . Leading the group , he charged the Germans and seized forty as prisoners . As reinforcements from the 9th Battalion began to arrive , a combined counter @-@ attack was launched and the line recaptured by approximately 11 : 00 . During the engagement , the 12th Battalion suffered 125 casualties , including 66 killed or missing . Newland and Whittle were both awarded the Victoria Cross for their actions at Boursies and Lagnicourt ; they were the only two permanent members of the Australian military to receive the decoration during the war . At 35 years and 7 months old , Newland was also the oldest Australian Victoria Cross recipient of the First World War .
The full citation for Newland 's Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette on 8 June 1917 :
War Office , 8th June , 1917 .
His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officers , Non @-@ commissioned Officers and Men : —
Capt. James Ernest Newlands , [ sic ] Inf . Bn . , Aus . Imp . Force .
For most conspicuous bravery and devotion to duty , in the face of heavy odds , on three separate occasions .
On the first occasion he organised the attack by his company on a most important objective , and led personally , under heavy fire , a bombing attack . He then rallied his company , which had suffered heavy casualties , and he was one of the first to reach the objective .
On the following night his company , holding the captured position , was heavily counter @-@ attacked . By personal exertion , utter disregard of fire , and judicious use of reserves , he succeeded in dispersing the enemy and regaining the position .
On a subsequent occasion , when the company on his left was overpowered and his own company attacked from the rear , he drove off a combined attack which had developed from these directions .
These attacks were renewed three or four times , and it was Capt. Newland 's tenacity and disregard for his own safety that encouraged the men to hold out .
The stand made by this officer was of the greatest importance , and produced far @-@ reaching results .
= = = Later war service = = =
In early May 1917 , the 12th Battalion was involved in the British and Australian attempt to capture the village of Bullecourt . While engaged in this operation on 6 May , Newland was wounded for the third and final time of the war by a gunshot to his left armpit . Initially admitted to the 5th Field Ambulance , he was transferred to No 1 Red Cross Hospital , Le Touquet , the next day . The injury necessitated treatment in England , and Newland was shipped to a British hospital eight days later .
On recovering from his wounds , Newland attended an investiture ceremony at Buckingham Palace on 21 July , where he was decorated with his Victoria Cross by King George V. Later the same day , Newland boarded a ship to Australia . It arrived in Melbourne on 18 September , and Newland travelled to Tasmania . He was discharged from the Australian Imperial Force as medically unfit on 2 March 1918 .
= = Later life = =
Following his discharge , Newland retained the rank of captain and returned to service with the permanent military forces . Between the two world wars , he held various appointments in the army , including adjutant and quartermaster of the 8th , 49th , 52nd , 38th and 12th Battalions , as well as area officer and recruiting officer . In 1924 , Newland 's wife Florence died of tuberculosis . On 30 April 1925 , he married Heather Vivienne Broughton in a ceremony at St Paul 's Anglican Church , Bendigo ; the couple would later have a daughter . Promoted to major on 1 May 1930 , Newland was awarded the Meritorious Service Medal in 1935 .
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Newland was seconded for duties as quartermaster instructor at the 4th Division headquarters . On 10 May 1940 , he assumed his final army appointment as quartermaster , A Branch , at Army Headquarters in Melbourne . He served in this position until August 1941 , when he was placed on the retired list with the honorary rank of lieutenant colonel .
In retirement , Newland served as Assistant Commissioner of the Australian Red Cross Society in the Northern Territory during the later months of 1941 . He joined the inspection staff at Ammunition Factory , Footscray on 2 January 1942 . At his home in Caulfield , Victoria on 19 March 1949 , he died suddenly of heart failure at the age of 67 . He was accorded a funeral with full military honours , and was buried at Brighton Cemetery . In 1984 , Newland 's daughter , Dawn , donated her father 's medals to the Australian War Memorial in Canberra , where they currently reside .
= Japanese battleship Yamashiro =
Yamashiro ( 山城 , " Mountain castle " , named for Yamashiro Province ) was the second of two Fusō @-@ class dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy . Launched in 1915 and commissioned in 1917 , she initially patrolled off the coast of China , playing no part in World War I. In 1923 , she assisted survivors of the Great Kantō earthquake .
Yamashiro was modernized between 1930 and 1935 , with improvements to her armor and machinery and a rebuilt superstructure in the pagoda mast style . Nevertheless , with only 14 @-@ inch guns , she was outclassed by other Japanese battleships at the beginning of World War II , and played auxiliary roles for most of the war .
By 1944 , though , she was forced into front @-@ line duty , serving as the flagship of Vice @-@ Admiral Shōji Nishimura 's Southern Force at the Battle of Surigao Strait , the southernmost action of the Battle of Leyte Gulf . During fierce night fighting in the early hours of 25 October against a superior American force , Yamashiro was sunk by torpedoes and naval gunfire . Nishimura went down with his ship , and only 10 crewmembers survived .
= = Description = =
The ship had a length of 192 @.@ 024 meters ( 630 @.@ 00 ft ) between perpendiculars and 202 @.@ 7 meters ( 665 ft ) overall . She had a beam of 28 @.@ 7 meters ( 94 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 7 meters ( 29 ft ) . Yamashiro displaced 29 @,@ 326 long tons ( 29 @,@ 797 t ) at standard load and 35 @,@ 900 long tons ( 36 @,@ 500 t ) at full load . Her crew consisted of 1 @,@ 198 officers and enlisted men in 1915 and about 1 @,@ 400 in 1935 .
During the ship 's modernization during 1930 – 35 , her forward superstructure was enlarged with multiple platforms added to her tripod foremast . Her rear superstructure was rebuilt to accommodate mounts for 127 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns and additional fire @-@ control directors . Yamashiro was also given torpedo bulges to improve her underwater protection and to compensate for the weight of the additional armor . In addition , her stern was lengthened by 7 @.@ 62 meters ( 25 @.@ 0 ft ) . These changes increased her overall length to 212 @.@ 75 m ( 698 @.@ 0 ft ) , her beam to 33 @.@ 1 m ( 108 ft 7 in ) and her draft to 9 @.@ 69 meters ( 31 ft 9 in ) . Her displacement increased nearly 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 100 t ) to 39 @,@ 154 long tons ( 39 @,@ 782 t ) at deep load .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship had two sets of Brown @-@ Curtis direct @-@ drive steam turbines , each of which drove two propeller shafts . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam provided by 24 Miyahara @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers , each of which consumed a mixture of coal and oil . Yamashiro had a stowage capacity of 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 100 t ) of coal and 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel oil , giving her a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . The ship exceeded her designed speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) during her sea trials , reaching 23 @.@ 3 knots ( 43 @.@ 2 km / h ; 26 @.@ 8 mph ) at 47 @,@ 730 shp ( 35 @,@ 590 kW ) .
During her modernization , the Miyahara boilers were replaced by six new Kanpon oil @-@ fired boilers fitted in the former aft boiler room , and the forward funnel was removed . The Brown @-@ Curtis turbines were replaced by four geared Kanpon turbines with a designed output of 75 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) . On her trials , Yamashiro 's sister ship Fusō reached a top speed of 24 @.@ 7 knots ( 45 @.@ 7 km / h ; 28 @.@ 4 mph ) from 76 @,@ 889 shp ( 57 @,@ 336 kW ) . The fuel storage of the ship was increased to a total of 5 @,@ 100 long tons ( 5 @,@ 200 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 11 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 21 @,@ 900 km ; 13 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The twelve 45 @-@ calibre 14 @-@ inch guns of Yamashiro were mounted in six twin @-@ gun turrets , numbered one through six from front to rear , each with an elevation range of − 5 to + 30 degrees . The turrets were arranged in an unorthodox 2 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 @-@ 2 style with superfiring pairs of turrets fore and aft ; the middle turrets were not superfiring , and had a funnel between them . The main guns and their turrets were modernized during the ship 's 1930 reconstruction ; the maximum elevation of the main guns was increased to + 43 degrees , increasing their maximum range from 25 @,@ 420 to 32 @,@ 420 metres ( 27 @,@ 800 to 35 @,@ 450 yd ) . Initially , the guns could fire at a rate of 1 @.@ 5 rounds per minute , and this was also improved during her first modernization .
Originally , Yamashiro was fitted with a secondary armament of sixteen 50 @-@ caliber 6 @-@ inch guns mounted in casemates on the upper sides of the hull . Each gun could fire a high @-@ explosive projectile to a maximum range of 22 @,@ 970 yards ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) at up to six shots per minute . She was later fitted with six high @-@ angle 40 @-@ caliber three @-@ inch AA guns , in single mounts on both sides of the forward superstructure and both sides of the second funnel , as well as on both sides of the aft superstructure . These guns had a maximum elevation of + 75 degrees , and could fire a 5 @.@ 99 @-@ kilogram ( 13 @.@ 2 lb ) shell at a rate of 13 to 20 rounds per minute to a maximum height of 7 @,@ 200 meters ( 23 @,@ 600 ft ) . The ship was also fitted with six submerged 533 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , three on each broadside .
During Yamashiro 's modernization in the early 1930s , all six three @-@ inch guns were removed and replaced with eight 40 @-@ caliber 127 @-@ millimeter dual @-@ purpose guns , fitted on both sides of the fore and aft superstructures in four twin @-@ gun mounts . When firing at surface targets , the guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 meters ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) ; they had a maximum ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 meters ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at their maximum elevation of + 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute .
The improvements made during the reconstruction increased Yamashiro 's draft by 1 meter ( 3 ft 3 in ) ; the two foremost six @-@ inch guns were removed , as the same guns on her sister ship Fusō had gotten soaked in high seas after that ship 's reconstruction . The ship 's light @-@ AA armament was augmented by eight 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns in twin @-@ gun mounts . Four of these mounts were fitted on the forward superstructure , one on each side of the funnel and two on the rear superstructure . This was the standard Japanese light @-@ AA gun during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon . According to historian Mark Stille , the twin and triple mounts " lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation ; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets ; the gun exhibited excessive vibration ; the magazine was too small , and , finally , the gun produced excessive muzzle blast " . The configuration of the AA guns varied significantly over time ; in 1943 , 17 single and two twin @-@ mounts were added for a total of 37 . In July 1944 , the ship was fitted with another 24 single , nine twin and eight triple @-@ mounts , for a total of 92 anti @-@ aircraft guns in her final configuration . The 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) gun had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) , and an effective ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at an elevation of 85 degrees . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the fifteen @-@ round magazines .
Also in July 1944 , the ship was provided with three twin @-@ gun and 10 single mounts for the license @-@ built 13 @.@ 2 mm Hotchkiss machine gun . The maximum range of these guns was 6 @,@ 500 meters ( 7 @,@ 100 yd ) , but the effective range against aircraft was only 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 100 yd | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
) . The cyclic rate was adjustable between 425 and 475 rounds per minute , but the need to change 30 @-@ round magazines reduced the effective rate to 250 rounds per minute .
= = = Armor = = =
The ship 's waterline armor belt was 229 to 305 millimeters ( 9 to 12 in ) thick ; below it was a strake of 102 mm ( 4 in ) armor . The deck armor ranged in thickness from 32 to 51 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) . The turrets were protected with an armor thickness of 279 @.@ 4 mm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) on the face , 228 @.@ 6 mm ( 9 @.@ 0 in ) on the sides , and 114 @.@ 5 mm ( 4 @.@ 51 in ) on the roof . The barbettes of the turrets were protected by armor 305 mm thick , while the casemates of the 152 mm guns were protected by 152 mm armor plates . The sides of the conning tower were 351 millimeters ( 13 @.@ 8 in ) thick . Additionally , the vessel contained 737 watertight compartments ( 574 underneath the armor deck , 163 above ) to preserve buoyancy in the event of battle damage .
During her first reconstruction Yamashiro 's armor was substantially upgraded . The deck armor was increased to a maximum thickness of 114 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) . A longitudinal bulkhead of 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) of high @-@ tensile steel was added to improve the underwater protection .
= = = Aircraft = = =
Yamashiro was briefly fitted with an aircraft flying @-@ off platform on Turret No. 2 in 1922 . She successfully launched Gloster Sparrowhawk and Sopwith Camel fighters from it , the first Japanese ship to do so . During her modernization in the 1930s , a catapult and a collapsible crane were fitted on the stern , and the ship was equipped to operate three floatplanes , although no hangar was provided . The initial Nakajima E4N2 biplanes were replaced by Nakajima E8N2 biplanes in 1938 and then by Mitsubishi F1M biplanes , from 1942 on .
= = = Fire control and sensors = = =
The ship was originally fitted with two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft 6 in ) and two 1 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 11 in ) rangefinders in her forward superstructure , a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 14 ft 9 in ) rangefinder on the roof of Turret No. 2 , and 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter rangefinders in Turrets 3 , 4 , and 5 .
While in drydock in July 1943 , a Type 21 air search radar was installed on the roof of the 10 @-@ meter rangefinder at the top of the pagoda mast . In August 1944 , two Type 22 surface search radar units were installed on the pagoda mast and two Type 13 early warning radar units were fitted on her mainmast .
= = Construction and service = =
Yamashiro , named for Yamashiro Province , the former province of Kyoto , was laid down at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 20 November 1913 and launched on 3 November 1915 . She was completed on 31 March 1917 with Captain Suketomo Nakajima in command , and was assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet in 1917 – 18 . She did not take part in any combat during World War I , as there were no longer any forces of the Central Powers in East Asia by the time she was completed , but she did patrol off the coast of China briefly during the war . On 29 March 1922 , a Gloster Sparrowhawk fighter successfully took off from the ship . She aided survivors of the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake , in September 1923 . Little detailed information is available about Yamashiro 's activities during the 1920s , although she did make a port visit to Ryojun Guard District , in Manchuria , on 5 April 1925 and also conducted training off the coast of China .
The ship 's reconstruction began on 18 December 1930 at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal where her machinery was replaced , her armor was reinforced , and torpedo bulges were fitted . Yamashiro 's armament was also upgraded and her torpedo tubes were removed . Captain Chuichi Nagumo assumed command of the ship on 15 November 1934 , her modernization was completed on 30 March 1935 , and she became flagship of the Combined Fleet . Captain Masakichi Okuma relieved Nagumo on 15 November and he , in turn , was replaced by Captain Masami Kobayashi on 1 December 1936 . Yamashiro began a lengthy refit on 27 June 1937 and Captain Kasuke Abe assumed command on 20 October . Her refit was completed on 31 March 1938 and Captain Kakuji Kakuta relieved Abe on 15 November . In early 1941 , the ship experimentally launched radio @-@ controlled Kawanishi E7K2 floatplanes . Captain Chozaemon Obata assumed command on 24 May 1941 and Yamashiro was assigned to the 1st Fleet 's 2nd Division , consisting of the two Fusō @-@ class and the two Ise @-@ class battleships .
= = = World War II = = =
Yamashiro and her sister ship Fusō spent most of the war around Japan , mostly at the anchorage at Hashirajima in Hiroshima Bay . When the war started for Japan on 8 December , the division , reinforced by the battleships Nagato and Mutsu and the light carrier Hōshō , sortied from Hashirajima to the Bonin Islands as distant support for the 1st Air Fleet attacking Pearl Harbor , and returned six days later . On 18 April 1942 , Yamashiro chased the Doolittle Raider force that had just launched an air raid on Tokyo , but returned four days later without having made contact . On 28 May , she set sail , commanded by Captain Gunji Kogure , with the rest of the 2nd Battleship Division and the Aleutian Support Group at the same time that most of the Imperial Fleet began an attack on Midway Island ( Operation MI ) . Commanded by Vice @-@ Admiral Shirō Takasu , the division was composed of Japan 's four oldest battleships , including Yamashiro , accompanied by two light cruisers , 12 destroyers , and two oilers . Official records do not show the squadron as part of the larger Midway operation , known as Operation AL ; they were to accompany the fleet under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , but were only to provide support to the Aleutian task force if needed . They were not needed , and Yamashiro returned to home waters where she was employed mostly for training duties , in the Inland Sea till 1 February 1943 and at Yokosuka until September , when she became a training ship for midshipmen .
In an effort to replace the aircraft carriers lost at the Battle of Midway , the Navy made plans to convert the two Fusō @-@ class ships to hybrid battleship / carriers , but the two Ise @-@ class battleships were chosen instead . In July 1943 , Yamashiro was at the Yokosuka drydock for fitting of a radar and additional 25 mm AA guns . The ship was briefly assigned as a training ship on 15 September before loading troops on 13 October bound for Truk Naval Base , arriving with the battleship Ise on the 20th . The two battleships sailed for Japan , accompanied by the carriers Jun 'yō and Unyō , on 31 October . On 8 November , the submarine USS Halibut fired torpedoes at Jun 'yo that missed , but hit Yamashiro with a torpedo that failed to detonate . Yamashiro resumed her training duties in Japan , and Captain Yoshioki Tawara assumed command . He was promoted to Rear Admiral on 1 May , but died of natural causes four days later , and Captain Katsukiyo Shinoda was appointed to replace him .
During the US invasion of Saipan in June 1944 , Japanese troop ships attempting to reinforce the defenses were sunk by submarines . Shigenori Kami , chief of operations of the Navy Staff , volunteered to command Yamashiro to carry troops and equipment to Saipan . If the ship actually reached the island , he intended to deliberately beach the ship before it could be sunk and to use its artillery to defend the island . After Ryūnosuke Kusaka , Chief of Staff of the Combined Fleet , also volunteered to go , Prime Minister Hideki Tōjō approved the plan , known as Operation Y @-@ GO , but the operation was cancelled after the decisive defeat in the Battle of the Philippine Sea on 19 and 20 June .
The ship was refitted in July at Yokosuka , where additional radar systems and light AA guns were fitted . Yamashiro and her sister ship were transferred to Battleship Division 2 of the 2nd Fleet on 10 September . The ship briefly became the division 's flagship under Vice Admiral Shōji Nishimura until 23 September when he transferred his flag to Fusō . They departed Kure on 23 September for Lingga Island , carrying the Army 's 25th Independent Mixed Regiment , and escaped an attack by the submarine Plaice the next day . They arrived on 4 October , where Nishimura transferred his flag back to Yamashiro . The ships then transferred to Brunei to offload their toops and refuel in preparation for Operation Shō @-@ Gō , the attempt to destroy the American fleet conducting the invasion of Luzon .
= = = = Battle of Surigao Strait = = = =
As flagship of Nishimura 's Southern Force , Yamashiro left Brunei at 15 : 30 on 22 October 1944 , heading east into the Sulu Sea and then to the northeast into the Mindanao Sea . Intending to join Vice @-@ Admiral Takeo Kurita 's force in Leyte Gulf , they passed west of Mindanao Island into Surigao Strait , where they met a large force of battleships and cruisers lying in wait . The Battle of Surigao Strait would become the southernmost action in the Battle of Leyte Gulf .
At 09 : 08 on 24 October , Yamashiro , Fusō and the heavy cruiser Mogami spotted a group of 27 planes , including Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers and Curtiss SB2C Helldiver dive bombers escorted by Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters , coming from the carrier Enterprise . Around 20 sailors on Yamashiro were killed by strafing and rocket attacks , and the ship listed by almost 15 degrees after a bomb 's near miss damaged the hull and flooded the starboard bilge , until counter @-@ flooding in the port bilge righted the ship .
Nishimura issued a telegram to Admiral Soemu Toyoda at 20 : 13 : " It is my plan to charge into Leyte Gulf to [ reach ] a point off Dulag at 04 : 00 hours on the 25th . " At 22 : 52 , his force opened fire , damaging PT 130 and PT 152 and forcing them to retreat before they could launch their torpedoes . Three American destroyers launched torpedoes at 03 : 00 that morning , hitting Fusō at 03 : 08 and forcing her to fall out of formation . Yamashiro opened fire with her secondary battery seven minutes later . Around 03 : 11 , the destroyers Monssen and Killen fired their torpedoes , one or two of which hit Yamashiro amidships . The resulting damage temporarily slowed the ship down , gave her a list to port and forced the flooding of the magazines for the two aft turrets . Yamashiro may have been hit a third time near the bow at 03 : 40 .
At 03 : 52 , the battleship was attacked by a large formation to the north commanded by Rear Admiral Jesse Oldendorf . First came 6- and 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) shells from three heavy cruisers , Louisville , Portland , and Minneapolis , and four light cruisers , Denver , Columbia , Phoenix and Boise . Six battleships formed a battle line ; the Pearl Harbor veteran West Virginia was the first to open fire a minute later , scoring at least one hit with 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) shells in the first 20 @,@ 800 @-@ meter ( 22 @,@ 700 yd ) salvo , followed by Tennessee and California . Hampered by older radar equipment , Maryland joined the fight late , Pennsylvania never fired , and Mississippi managed to fire exactly one salvo — the last of the engagement . The Australian heavy cruiser HMAS Shropshire also had radar problems and did not begin firing until 03 : 56 .
The main bombardment lasted 18 minutes , and Yamashiro was the only target for seven of them . The first rounds hit the forecastle and pagoda mast , and soon the entire battleship appeared to be ablaze . Yamashiro 's two forward turrets targeted her assailants , and the secondary armament targeted the American destroyers plaguing Mogami and the destroyer Asagumo . The ship continued firing in all directions , but was not able to target the battleships with the other four operable 14 @-@ inch guns of her amidships turrets until almost 04 : 00 , after turning west . There was a big explosion at 04 : 04 , possibly from one of the middle turrets . Yamashiro increased her firing rate between 04 : 03 and 04 : 09 , despite the widespread fires and damage , and was hit during this time near the starboard engine room by a torpedo . By 04 : 09 , her speed was back up to 12 knots , and Nishimura wired to Kurita : " We proceed till totally annihilated . I have definitely accomplished my mission as pre @-@ arranged . Please rest assured . " At the same time , Oldendorf issued a brief cease @-@ fire order to the entire formation after hearing that the destroyer Albert W. Grant was taking friendly fire , and the Japanese ships also ceased fire .
Yamashiro increased speed to 15 knots in an attempt to escape the trap , but she had already been hit by two to four torpedoes , and after two more torpedo hits near the starboard engine room , she was listing 45 degrees to port . Shinoda gave the command to abandon ship , but neither he nor Nishimura made any attempt to leave the conning tower as the ship capsized within five minutes and quickly sank , stern first , vanishing from radar between 04 : 19 and 04 : 21 . Only 10 crewmembers of the estimated 1 @,@ 636 officers and crew on board survived .
John Bennett claimed to have discovered Yamashiro 's wreck in April 2001 , but confirmation of the wreck 's identity has not been made as of 2013 .
= Stuyvesant High School =
Stuyvesant High School / ˈstaɪvəsənt / , commonly referred to as Stuy / ˈstaɪ / or Stuyvesant , is one of nine specialized high schools in New York City , United States . Operated by the New York City Department of Education , these schools offer tuition @-@ free accelerated academics to city residents . Stuyvesant is a college preparatory science , technology , engineering , and mathematics ( STEM ) focused liberal arts high school .
Admission to Stuyvesant involves passing the Specialized High Schools Admissions Test . Each November , about 27 @,@ 000 eighth and ninth graders take the 2 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ hour exam , and roughly 950 students , or 3 @.@ 5 % of applicants , are accepted to Stuyvesant each year .
= = History = =
= = = Original building = = =
Stuyvesant High School is named after Peter Stuyvesant , the last Dutch governor of New Netherland before the colony was transferred to England in 1664 . The school was established in 1904 as a manual training school for boys , hosting 155 students and 12 teachers . In 1907 , it moved from its original location at 225 East 23rd Street to a building designed by C. B. J. Snyder at 345 East 15th Street . The building , built in 1905 for $ 1 @.@ 5 million , housed the Stuyvesant campus for the next 85 years . The school became renowned for excellence in math and science , and enrollment continued to grow so that by 1919 , admission began to be restricted based on scholastic achievement . Stuyvesant went on a double session plan in 1919 to accommodate the rising number of students , with some students attending in the morning and others in the afternoon and early evening . All students studied a full set of courses . These double sessions ran until 1956 .
The school implemented a system of entrance examinations starting in 1934 . The examination program was later expanded to include the newly founded Bronx High School of Science , and was developed with the assistance of Columbia University . During the 1950s , the building underwent a $ 2 million renovation to update its classrooms , shops , libraries and cafeterias . In 1956 , a team of six students designed and began construction of a cyclotron , and a low @-@ power test of the device succeeded six years later . A later attempt at full @-@ power operation , however , knocked out the power to the school and surrounding buildings .
Prior to 1969 , Stuyvesant did not accept female students . That year , 14 girls were admitted to Stuyvesant and 12 enrolled at the start of September , marking the school 's first co @-@ educational year . By 2002 , female enrollment had grown to 42 % .
New York State Legislature passed the Hecht @-@ Calandra act in 1972 , designating Brooklyn Tech , Bronx Science , Stuyvesant , and The High School of Music & Art ( now Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts ) as specialized high schools of New York City . The act called for a uniform exam to be administered for admission to Brooklyn Tech , Bronx Science and Stuyvesant High School . The exam , named the Specialized High Schools Admissions Test ( SHSAT ) , tested students in math and verbal abilities for students entering all of New York City 's specialized high schools , except for students applying for entry to LaGuardia High School , who are accepted by audition rather than examination .
The school building , meanwhile , deteriorated over the years . Although Stuyvesant was a top @-@ notch school even through the 1970s and 1980s , when New York City public schools in general were marked by violence and low grades among their students , Stuyvesant 's school building was in a broken @-@ down state . A New York Times report stated that the building had " held out into old age with minimal maintenance and benign neglect until its peeling paint , creaking floorboards and antiquated laboratories became an embarrassment . " The five @-@ story building could not cater adequately to the several thousand students , leading the New York City Board of Education to secure an agreement with the Battery Park City Authority for a new building to be built in Battery Park City , near lower Manhattan 's Financial District .
The 15th Street building remains in use as of 2012 , as " Old Stuyvesant Campus " , and houses three schools : the Institute for Collaborative Education , the High School for Health Professions and Human Services , and P.S. 226 . During the 2003 – 4 school year , Stuyvesant celebrated the 100th anniversary of its founding with a full year of activities . Events included a procession from the 15th Street building to the Chambers Street one ; a meeting of the National Consortium for Specialized Secondary Schools of Mathematics , Science and Technology ; an all @-@ class reunion ; and visits and speeches from notable alumni . In recent years , keynote graduation speakers have included Attorney General Eric Holder ( 2001 ) , former President Bill Clinton ( 2002 ) , United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan ( 2004 ) , Late Night comedian Conan O 'Brien ( 2006 ) , and the founder of Humans of New York , Brandon Stanton ( 2015 ) .
= = = New building = = =
Construction on the new ten @-@ floor , $ 150 million building located in Lower Manhattan began in 1989 . The new building was designed by Cooper , Robertson & Partners . When it opened in 1992 , the building was New York City 's first new high school building in ten years and , at the time , was the costliest high school building ever built in the city .
= = = = Aftermath of September 11 , 2001 = = = =
The new building is 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from the site of the World Trade Center , which was destroyed on September 11 , 2001 . The school was evacuated during the attack . Although the smoke cloud coming from the World Trade Center engulfed the building at one point , there was no structural damage to the building , and there were no reports of physical injuries . Less than an hour after the collapse of the second WTC tower , concern over a bomb threat at the school prompted an evacuation of the surrounding area , as reported live by NBC news reporter Pat Dawson on the Today show . When classes resumed on September 21 , 2001 , students were moved to Brooklyn Technical High School while the Stuyvesant building served as a base of operations for rescue and recovery workers . This caused serious congestion at Brooklyn Tech , and required the students to attend in two shifts , with the Stuyvesant students attending the evening shift . Normal classes resumed three weeks later on October 9 .
Because Stuyvesant was so close to the World Trade Center site , there were concerns of asbestos exposure . The US EPA indicated at that time that Stuyvesant was safe from asbestos , and conducted a thorough cleaning of the Stuyvesant building , but the Stuyvesant High School Parents ' Association has contested the accuracy of the assessment . Some problems , including former teacher Mark Bodenheimer 's respiratory problems , have been reported — he accepted a transfer to The Bronx High School of Science after having difficulty continuing his work at Stuyvesant . Other isolated cases include Stuyvesant 's 2002 Class President Amit Friedlander , who received local press coverage in September 2006 after he was diagnosed with cancer . While there have been other cases linked to the same dust cloud that emanated from Ground Zero , a spot precariously close to Stuyvesant , there is no definitive evidence that such cases have directly affected the Stuyvesant community . Stuyvesant students did spend a full year in the building before the theater and air systems were cleaned , however , and a group of Stuyvesant alumni is currently lobbying for health insurance as a result .
Nine alumni were killed in the World Trade Center attack . Another alumnus , Richard Ben @-@ Veniste ' 60 , was on the 9 / 11 Commission . On October 2 , 2001 , the school paper , The Spectator , under Editor in Chief Jeff Orlowski and Faculty Advisor Holly Ojalvo , created a special 24 @-@ page full @-@ color 9 / 11 insert containing student photos , reflections and stories . On November 20 , 2001 , the magazine was distributed for free in 830 @,@ 000 copies of The New York Times to the entire New York Greater Metropolitan Area . In the months after the attacks , Annie Thoms ( 1993 ) , an English teacher at Stuyvesant and the theater adviser at the time , suggested that the students take accounts of staff and students ' reactions during and after September 11 , 2001 and turn them into a series of monologues . Thoms then published these monologues as With Their Eyes : September 11 — The View from a High School at Ground Zero .
= = = Enrollment = = =
Stuyvesant has a total enrollment of over 3 @,@ 000 students , and is open to residents of New York City entering either ninth or tenth grade . Enrollment is based solely on performance on the Specialized High Schools Admissions Test ( SHSAT ) . The list of schools using the SHSAT has since grown to include all of New York 's specialized high schools except LaGuardia High School , where entry is by audition rather than examination . The test score necessary for admission to Stuyvesant has consistently been higher than that needed for admission to the other schools using the test . Admission is currently based on an individual 's score on the examination and his or her pre @-@ submitted ranking of Stuyvesant among the other specialized schools . Each year , about 26 @,@ 000 of New York City 's eighth @-@ graders sit for the test . Ninth and rising tenth graders are also eligible to take the test for enrollment , though far fewer students are admitted this way . The test covers math ( word problems and computation ) and verbal ( reading comprehension , logical reasoning , unscrambling paragraphs ) skills .
According to Article 12 of New York education law , " Admissions to the Bronx High School of Science , Stuyvesant High School , and Brooklyn Technical High School shall be solely and exclusively by taking a competitive , objective , and scholastic achievement examination , which shall be open to each and every child in the city of New York . " The current admission policy is available from the NYC Department of Education . According to the Department of Education , Stuyvesant accepts students solely based on their performance on the SHSAT , although former Mayor John Lindsay and community activist group ACORN have argued that the exam may be biased against African and Hispanic Americans . A major cheating scandal on another standardized test , which eventually implicated seventy students , emerged in late June 2012 . According to the Department of Education , a student used a smartphone to send text messages to other students during a state Regents examination . Some students involved were suspended as a result . The ring leader , Nayeem Ahsan , was said to be the source of the cheating . This scandal would lead to the retirement of the Principal Stanley Teitel .
= = = = Accusations of bias in admission tests = = = =
The paucity of Black and Hispanic students at Stuyvesant has often been an issue for some city administrators . As of the 2014 @-@ 15 school year , Asian students made up 73 % of the school 's population ; White students , 20 % ; Latinos , 3 % ; Blacks , 1 % ; and unknown / other , 7 % .
In 1971 , Mayor John Lindsay argued that the test was culturally biased against black and Hispanic students and sought to implement an affirmative action progr " am . However , protests by parents forced the plan to be scrapped and led to the passage of the Hecht @-@ Calandra Act , which preserved admissions by examination only . A small number of students judged to be economically disadvantaged and who come within a few points of the cut @-@ off score were given an extra chance to pass the test .
Community activist group Association of Community Organizations for Reform Now ( ACORN ) published two reports in 1996 , titled Secret Apartheid and Secret Apartheid II . In these reports , ACORN called the SHSAT " permanently suspect " and a " product of an institutional racism " , and claimed that black and Hispanic students did not have access to proper test preparation materials . Along with Schools Chancellor Rudy Crew , they began an initiative for more diversity in the city 's gifted and specialized schools , in particular demanding that since only a few districts send the majority of Stuyvesant 's and Bronx Science 's students , that the SHSAT be suspended altogether " until the Board of Education can show that the students of each middle school in the system have had access to curricula and instruction that would prepare them for this test regardless of their color or economic status . " Jesse Shapiro , Stuyvesant valedictorian , and Alan Van Dyke and Micah C. Lasher , then sophomores , published several editorials in response , and change was averted .
A number of students take preparatory courses offered by private companies such as The Princeton Review and Kaplan , in order to perform better on the SHSAT , often leaving those unable to afford such classes at a disadvantage . To bridge this gap and boost minority admissions , the Board of Education started the Math Science Institute in 1995 , a free program to prepare students for the admissions test . Students attend preparatory classes through the program , now known as the Specialized High School Institute , at several schools around the city from the summer after 6th grade until the 8th grade exam . Despite these free programs , the black and Hispanic enrollment continue to decline .
= = School building = =
The new 10 @-@ story building opened in 1992 . It housed 2 @,@ 700 students and 103 faculty members initially . With five gymnasiums , an enormous swimming pool , modern computers , 12 science labs , multiple escalators , spacious studios , and Hudson River views , the school building was considered a paragon at the time of its opening .
In 1997 , the eastern end of the mathematics floor was dedicated to Dr. Richard Rothenberg , the math @-@ department chairman who had died from a sudden heart attack earlier that year . Sculptor Madeleine Segall @-@ Marx was commissioned to create the Rothenberg Memorial in his honor . She created a mathematics wall entitled " Celebration " , consisting of 50 wooden boxes — one for each year of his life — behind a glass wall , featuring mathematical concepts and reflections on Rothenberg .
In 2006 , Robert Ira Lewy ' 60 made a gift worth $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to found the Dr. Robert Ira Lewy M.D. Multimedia Center. and donated his personal library in 2007 . The school 's library has a capacity of 40 @,@ 000 volumes and overlooks Battery Park City . In late 2010 , the school library merged with the New York Public Library ( NYPL ) network in a four @-@ year pilot program , in which all students of the school received a student library card that can check books out of the school library or any other public library in the NYPL system .
In early 2011 , Stuyvesant conducted a pilot program in conjunction with Amazon.com , IBM , the City University of New York , and the New York City Department of Education . One hundred freshmen from the class of 2014 , as well as three teachers , were given electronic textbooks on Kindle DXs instead of traditional paper textbooks . The students received textbooks for Geometry , Biology , and World History and shared the same teachers for each of those subjects . While many universities have experimented with ebooks , Stuyvesant was the first high school to do so . Stanley Teitel , the principal at the time , told the Spectator he hoped to expand the program school @-@ wide if the pilot program proved successful , but the program was discontinued at the end of the 2011 spring term after a focus group was conducted five months after the start of the program . The group revealed that many students found the Kindles difficult to study from because of the small screen and the lag while flipping pages ; the teachers also complained saying the textbooks provided were below Stuyvesant 's level of study .
The New York City Department of Education reports that public per student spending at Stuyvesant is slightly lower than the city average . Stuyvesant also receives private contributions . Shortly after the new building was completed , the $ 10 million Tribeca Bridge was built to allow students to enter the building without having to cross the busy West Street . The new school building was designed to be fully compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act , and is listed as such by the New York City Department of Education . As a result , the building is one of the 5 additional sites of P721M , a school for older ( aged 15 – 21 ) students with multiple disabilities .
= = = Mnemonics = = =
During construction , the Battery Park City Authority ( in conjunction with the Percent for Art Program of the City of New York , the Department of Cultural Affairs and the New York City Board of Education ) commissioned Mnemonics , an artwork by public artists Kristin Jones and Andrew Ginzel . Four hundred hollow glass blocks were dispersed randomly from the basement to the tenth floor of the new Stuyvesant High School building . Each block contains relics providing evidence of geographical , natural , cultural and social worlds , from antiquity to the present time .
The blocks are set into the hallway walls and scattered throughout the building . Each block is inscribed with a brief description of its contents or context . The items displayed include a section of the Great Wall of China , fragments of the Mayan pyramids , leaves from the sacred Bo tree , water from the Nile and Ganges Rivers , a Revolutionary War button , pieces of the 15th Street Stuyvesant building , a report card of a student who studied in the old building , and fragments of monuments from around the world , various chemical compounds , and memorabilia from each of the 88 years ' history of the 15th Street building . As an ongoing work , empty blocks were installed , to be filled with items chosen by the 88 graduating classes following its installation , up through 2080 . The installation received the Award for Excellence in Design from the Art Commission of the City of New York .
= = Academics = =
Stuyvesant students undertake a college preparatory curriculum that includes four years of English , history , and laboratory @-@ based sciences , of which biology , chemistry , and physics are required . In addition , students take four years of mathematics , changed from three beginning with the class of 2015 . Students also take three years of a single foreign language ; a semester each of introductory art , music , health , and technical drawing ; two semesters of computer science ( changed from one for the class of 2015 ) ; and two lab @-@ based technology courses . Several exemptions from technology education exist for seniors . Stuyvesant offers students a broad selection of elective courses . Some of the more unusual offerings include robotics , astronomy , New York City history , Women 's Voices , and the mathematics of financial markets . Most students complete the New York City Regents courses by junior year and take calculus during their senior year . However , the school offers math courses through differential equations for the more advanced students . A year of technical drawing used to be required ; students learned how to draft by hand in its first semester and how to draft using a computer ( CAD ) in the second . Now , students take a one @-@ semester technical drawing class ( a compacted version of the former drafting course ) , and a semester of introductory computer science , which introduces NetLogo and Racket . For the class of 2015 , the one @-@ semester computer science course was replaced with a two @-@ semester course .
Students can choose from 55 Advanced Placement courses to earn college credits ; a few are thus able to start college as sophomores . Such courses include an AP English course focusing on literature and media in the realm of physics and mechanics . Computer science enthusiasts can take three additional computer programming courses after the completion of Advanced Placement computer science : systems level programming , computer graphics , and software development . There is also a one @-@ year computer networking class which can earn students Cisco Certified Network Associate ( CCNA ) certification .
Stuyvesant 's foreign language offerings include Mandarin Chinese , French , German , Hebrew , Italian , Latin , Japanese , and Spanish . The school 's Muslim Student Association raised funds to support courses in Arabic , which began in 2005 . Stuyvesant 's Biology and Geo @-@ science department offers courses in molecular biology ( a course sequence composed of a molecular science class in the Fall and a molecular genetics class in the Spring ) , human physiology , medical ethics , medical and veterinary diagnosis , human disease , anthropology and sociobiology , vertebrate zoology , laboratory techniques , medical human genetics , botany , the molecular basis of cancer , nutrition science , and psychology . The Chemistry and Physics department offers organic chemistry , physical chemistry , astronomy , engineering mechanics , and electronics .
Although Stuyvesant is primarily known for its math and science focus , the school also has a comprehensive humanities program , offering students courses in British and classical literature , Shakespearean literature , science fiction , philosophy , existentialism , debate , acting , journalism , creative writing , and poetry . The history core requires two years of global history ( or one year of global followed by one year of European history ) , one year of American history , as well as a semester each of economics and government . Humanities electives include American foreign policy , civil and criminal law , prejudice and persecution , race , ethnicity and gender issues , small business management , and Wall Street .
Stuyvesant entered into an agreement with City College of New York in 2004 , in which the college funds advanced after @-@ school courses that are taken for college credit but taught by Stuyvesant teachers . Some of these courses include physical chemistry , linear algebra , advanced Euclidean geometry , and women 's history . Before the 2005 revision of the SAT , Stuyvesant graduates had an average score of 1408 out of 1600 ( 685 verbal , 723 math ) . In 2010 , the average score on the SAT for Stuyvesant students was 2087 out of 2400 , or 674 , 735 , and 678 on the Reading , Math and Writing sections , respectively . The class of 2013 had an average SAT score of 2096 . Stuyvesant also was the high school with the highest number of Advanced Placement exams taken , and also the highest number of students reaching the mastery level .
= = Public recognition = =
Stuyvesant is noted for its academic programs , having produced many notable alumni including four Nobel laureates . U.S. News & World Report ranked it as one of the best high schools nationwide in their 2012 list of America 's best " Gold @-@ Medal " public high schools and fifth best in its 2012 list of STEM schools .
According to a September 2002 high school ranking by Worth magazine , 3 @.@ 67 % of Stuyvesant students went on to attend Harvard , Princeton , and Yale Universities , ranking it as the 9th top public high school in the United States and 120th among all schools , public or private . In December 2007 , The Wall Street Journal studied the freshman classes at eight selective colleges ( Harvard , Princeton , MIT , Williams College , Pomona College , Swarthmore College , U. Chicago , and Johns Hopkins ) , and reported that Stuyvesant sent 67 , or 9 @.@ 9 % of its 674 seniors , to them .
Stuyvesant , along with other similar schools , has regularly been excluded from Newsweek 's annual list of the Top 100 Public High Schools . The May 8 , 2008 issue states the reason as being , " because so many of their students score well above average on the SAT and ACT . " U.S. News & World Report , however , included Stuyvesant on its list of " Best High Schools " published in December 2009 , ranking 31st . In its 2010 progress report , the New York City Department of Education assigned it the highest possible grade of " A " .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
= = = Sports = = =
Stuyvesant fields 32 varsity teams , including a swimming team , as well as golf , bowling , volleyball , soccer , basketball , gymnastics , wrestling , fencing , baseball / softball , handball , tennis , track / cross country , cricket , football , and starting in Spring 2008 , lacrosse teams . In addition , Stuyvesant club teams include boys ' varsity and junior varsity , and girls ' varsity Ultimate teams . The boys ' Ultimate team , the Stuyvesant Sticky Fingers , won the UPA New York State Championships in 2002 , 2009 , 2010 , 2014 , and 2015 . The girls ' Ultimate team , Sticky Fingers , won the UPA Junior National tournament in 1998 . In 2016 , both the boys and girls Ping Pong teams won the city championship .
In September 2007 the Stuyvesant football team was given a home field at Pier 40 , located north of the school at Houston Street and West Street . In 2008 , the baseball team was granted use of the pier after construction and delivery of an artificial turf pitching mound that met PSAL specifications . Stuyvesant does not , however , have its own track or tennis court , although the new building does have a pool . Unlike most American high schools , most sports teams at Stuyvesant are individually known by different names . Only the football , cheerleading , badminton , girls ping pong , baseball , girls handball , girls bowling , and boys ' lacrosse teams retain the traditional Pegleg moniker ; other teams have their own unique names , such as the Runnin ' Rebels ( boys ' basketball ) , Vixens ( girls ' volleyball ) , Lemurs ( boys ' gymnastics ) , Phoenix ( girls ' basketball ) , Renegades ( girls ' softball ) , Felines ( girls ' gymnastics ) , Birdies ( girls ' golf ) , Eagles ( boys ' golf ) , Hookers ( boys ' bowling ) , Huskies ( girls ' lacrosse ) , Penguins ( girls ' swimming ) , Pirates ( boys ' swimming ) , Centaurs ( boys ' soccer ) , Mimbas ( girls ' soccer ) , Dragons ( boys ' handball ) , Smokin ' Aces ( boys ' tennis ) , Sticky Fingers ( boys ' and girls ' Ultimate ) , Lobsters ( girls ' tennis ) , Vipers ( girls ' fencing ) , Flying Dutchmen ( hockey ) , Greyducks ( track ) , Tigers ( cricket ) and Spartans ( wrestling and roller hockey ) .
= = = ARISTA = = =
The Stuyvesant chapter of ARISTA , the National Honor Society , was founded in 1910 . It is an organization dedicated to upholding the four pillars of Character , Scholarship , Leadership , and Service . ARISTA is highly selective . Once selected , ARISTA 's members are asked to complete a service requirement of 10 credits per month and to uphold all the pillars for which this organization stands . The ARISTA Executive Council consists of the President , Vice President , Vice President of Events and Services , Vice President of Tutoring , and Vice President of Communications . The ARISTA office is located in the Student Government Room , behind the Senior Bar . ARISTA provides a number of important and useful programs to the community , the school , and the student body .
ARISTA 's Tutoring Service includes many programs both inside and outside of school and online . First of these programs is the Peer Tutoring Service , sponsored by the Tutoring Committee and directed by the Vice President of Tutoring . Peer tutoring allows any student who is having trouble in any subject to get help . Also , The Tutoring Committee sponsors numerous Peer Study Workshops throughout the year . New this year is tutoring online .
ARISTA 's Events and Service Committee , headed by the Vice President of Events and Services , offer many volunteer opportunities both in school and out of school . Their activities include but are not limited to : monitoring for department offices , ushering for school theater productions , volunteering at parent teacher conferences , working at Soup Kitchens , tutoring at local elementary schools , participating in various walks ( such as the MS Walk and the AIDS Walk ) , and volunteering at Stuyvesant 's Open House Events .
= = = Student government = = =
The student body of Stuyvesant is represented by the Stuyvesant Student Union , a group of elected and appointed students who serve the student body in two important areas : improving student life by promoting and managing extracurricular activities ( clubs and publications ) , and by organizing out @-@ of @-@ school activity such as city excursions or fund @-@ raisers ; and providing a voice to the student body in all discussion of school policy with the administration .
= = = Clubs and publications = = =
Stuyvesant offers clubs , publications , teams and other opportunities under a system similar to that of many colleges . It hosts over 200 clubs ranging from The Thinkers ( philosophy ) club , to the Photography Club . The sheer number of clubs at the school is due to Stuyvesant 's relatively free policy of " student rule " . Most clubs are entirely student run , requiring only a Faculty Advisor to maintain their existence . One example of this policy is the Stuyvesant Model UN club , which is one of the largest clubs in the school . The club attends as many as 6 Model UN Conferences each year , held at various colleges across the Northeast . The club also hosts StuyMUNC , an annual conference organized and run almost entirely by the students . Stuyvesant also has a Junior State of America program ( a political debate club ) . The Stuyvesant Theater Community puts on three student @-@ run productions a year ( a fall musical , a winter drama , and a spring comedy ) as well as a one @-@ act festival and several smaller studio productions . Key Club International 's branch at Stuyvesant was founded in 1990 . With over 350 members , it is one of the largest clubs in the school .
= = = = The Spectator = = = =
The Spectator is Stuyvesant 's official in @-@ school newspaper , which is published biweekly and is independent from the school . It contains twelve sections : news , features , op @-@ ed , arts & entertainment , sports , photography , art , layout , copy , business , humor , and web . There are over 250 total staff members who help with publication . At the beginning of the fall and spring terms , there are recruitments , but interested students may join at any time .
The Spectator , founded in 1915 , is one of Stuyvesant 's oldest publications . It has a long @-@ standing connection with its older namesake , Columbia University 's Columbia Daily Spectator , and has been recognized by the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism 's Columbia Scholastic Press Association .
= = = = The Voice = = = =
The Voice was founded in the 1973 – 4 academic year as an independent publication only loosely sanctioned by school officials . It had the appearance of a magazine and gained a large readership . The Voice attracted a considerable amount of controversy and a First Amendment lawsuit , after which the administration forced it to go off @-@ campus and to turn commercial in 1975 – 6 .
In the beginning of the 1975 – 6 academic year , The Voice decided to publish the results of a confidential random survey measuring the " sexual attitudes , preferences , knowledge and experience " of the students . The administration refused to permit The Voice to distribute the questionnaire , and the Board of Education refused to intervene , believing that " irreparable psychological damage " would be occasioned on some of the students receiving it .
The editor @-@ in @-@ chief of The Voice , Jeff Trachtman , brought a First Amendment challenge to this decision in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in front of Judge Constance Baker Motley . Judge Motley , relying on the relatively recent Supreme Court precedent Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District ( holding that " undifferentiated fear or apprehension of disturbance is not enough to overcome the right to freedom of expression " ) , ordered the Board of Education to come up with an arrangement permitting the distribution of the survey to the juniors and seniors .
However , Judge Motley 's ruling was overturned on appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit . Judge J. Edward Lumbard , joined by Judge Murray Gurfein and over an impassioned dissent by Judge Walter R. Mansfield , held that the distribution of the questionnaires was properly disallowed by the administration as there was " a substantial basis for defendants ' belief that distribution of the questionnaire would result in significant emotional harm to a number of students throughout the Stuyvesant population . " The Supreme Court denied certiorari review .
= = = Academic teams = = =
Stuyvesant 's academic teams include its nationally recognized Speech and Debate team , Science Olympiad , Quiz Bowl , chess , and math , which regularly compete successfully at major regional ( New York State Mathematics League ) , national ( American Regions Mathematics League ) , and international ( International Mathematical Olympiad ) tournaments , and whose members fill up a considerable percentage of the New York City Math Team . A FIRST Robotics team , StuyPulse , first competed in 2001 , and has since grown and won many regional competitions , most recently the New York Regional in 2016 , as well as winning the Curie Division at the 2016 FIRST Robotics Championship in St. Louis . Stuyvesant also has a Model United Nations team , a Junior State of America chapter , and a Model Congress team which competes at regional colleges . The Model United Nations team hosts StuyMUNC , an annual conference which takes place at Stuyvesant .
= = = SING ! = = =
The annual theater competition known as SING ! pits seniors , juniors , and " soph @-@ frosh " ( freshmen and sophomores working together ) against each other in a contest to put on the best performance . Started in 1947 at Midwood High School in Brooklyn , SING ! is a tradition at many New York City high schools . At Stuyvesant , SING ! started as a small event in 1973 and has grown to a huge school @-@ wide event — in 2005 , nearly 1 @,@ 000 students participated . The entire production is written , directed , produced , and funded by students . Their involvement ranges from being members of the production 's casts , choruses , or costume and tech crews to Irish dance , Step , Bollywood , Hip @-@ Hop , Swing , Ballet , Jazz or Latin dance groups . SING ! begins in late January to February and culminates in final performances on three nights in March / April . Scoring is done on each night 's performances and the winner is determined by the overall total .
= = Student body = =
Stuyvesant has contributed to the education of several Nobel laureates , winners of the Fields Medal and the Wolf Prize , and other accomplished alumni . In recent years , it has had the second highest number of National Merit Scholarship semi @-@ finalists , behind Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology in Alexandria , Virginia . Over the past nine years ( 2002 – 2010 ) , Stuyvesant has produced 103 semi @-@ finalists and 13 finalists on the Intel Science Talent Search , the second most of any secondary school in the United States .
For most of the 20th century , the student body at Stuyvesant was heavily Jewish . A significant influx of Asian students began in the 1970s . For the 2013 academic year , the student body was 72 @.@ 31 % Asian and 21 @.@ 44 % Caucasian , 1 @.@ 03 % African American , 2 @.@ 34 % Hispanic and 3 % unknown / other .
= = Notable people = =
Notable scientists among Stuyvesant alumni include mathematician Paul Cohen ( 1950 ) , string theorist Brian Greene ( 1980 ) , physicist Lisa Randall ( 1980 ) , and genomic researcher Eric Lander ( 1974 ) . Other prominent alumni include civil rights leader Robert Parris Moses , entertainers such as Thelonious Monk ( 1935 ) , and actors Lucy Liu ( 1986 ) , Tim Robbins ( 1976 ) , and James Cagney ( 1918 ) , comedian Paul Reiser ( 1973 ) and NBA basketball player and game fixer and bookmaker Jack Molinas ( 1949 ) . In business , government and politics , former United States Attorney General Eric Holder ( 1969 ) is a Stuyvesant alumnus , as are Senior Advisor to President Obama David Axelrod ( 1972 ) , former adviser to President Clinton Dick Morris ( 1964 ) , and founder of 5W Public Relations Ronn Torossian ( 1992 ) . Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning author Frank McCourt taught English at Stuyvesant before the publication of his memoirs Angela 's Ashes , ' Tis , and Teacher Man . Teacher Man 's third section , titled Coming Alive in Room 205 , concerns McCourt 's time at Stuyvesant , and mentions a number of students and faculty . New York City Council member Eva Moskowitz ( 1982 ) graduated from the school , as did the creator of the BitTorrent protocol , Bram Cohen ( 1993 ) .
Four Nobel laureates are also alumni of Stuyvesant :
Joshua Lederberg ( 1941 ) – Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , 1958
Robert Fogel ( 1944 ) – Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences , 1993
Roald Hoffmann ( 1954 ) – Nobel Prize in Chemistry , 1981
Richard Axel ( 1963 ) – Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , 2004
= George S. Armstrong =
George Seale Armstrong ( May 16 , 1867 – June 9 , 1947 ) was a Canadian businessman and politician . He served on the Edmonton City Council from 1907 to 1910 and as Mayor of Edmonton from 1910 to 1912 .
Armstrong was born in what would soon become the province of Ontario in 1867 . After briefly teaching school , he entered the business industry , as a druggist . After initially gaining experience in politics on the council of Eastnor Township , he relocated west to the city of Edmonton , Alberta . In Edmonton , he established his pharmaceutical business once again and worked briefly with his brother on real estate and construction projects . In 1907 , he ran for election to the Edmonton City Council and was elected to a two @-@ year term . In 1910 , he decided to run for the mayoralty in the municipal election ; uncontested as the only nominated candidate on election day , Armstrong was acclaimed to the mayor 's chair for the upcoming year . During his term , several issues were brought up to attention , including the city 's need of a new civic building and the possibility of two new gas plants for the city .
His first term as mayor also saw the issue of possible amalgamation of the " twin cities " of Edmonton and Strathcona , an issue that had been spoken of as a possibility in the previous few years . Approved by councils of both cities , a successful plebiscite was held , and bylaws permitting the merge were passed and Edmonton 's annex of Strathcona came into effect in February 1912 . Armstrong put his name up once again in the mayoral election mandated by the agreement and defeated his rival candidate , and thus became the first post @-@ amalgamation mayor of the city of Edmonton . During his term , he introduced a new hospital , improvements to the street rail system , and commissioning a report on the expansion of the city . Another election was held later that December , and he did not stand for re @-@ election .
Armstrong later gained employment with the Edmonton post office after leaving the office of mayor , in which he would later rise to the position of postmaster , which he served in for 14 years . Armstrong also operated his drug store once again . He remained at the post office until his retirement in 1937 , and died ten years later in Edmonton at the age of 80 .
= = Early life and career = =
Armstrong was born in 1867 at Hopeville , Canada West , to William and Sarah ( née Seale ) Armstrong . After attending schools in Mount Forest , Ontario , Armstrong briefly became a schoolteacher before moving to Lion 's Head , Ontario where entered the pharmacy business . Armstrong would also spend some time at Eastnor Township , Ontario , where he served on the town council and as treasurer , from 1903 to 1905 . He then moved west and settle at the city of Edmonton , Alberta , in 1906 . That same year he opened up the Armstrong Drug Store , on Namayo Avenue and Boyle Street ( presently 97 Street and 103 Avenue ) . In his early years in Edmonton he also involved himself in several real estate ventures and construction projects along with his brother , Gordon .
= = Early political career = =
In 1906 , at a citizen 's meeting at a local store , Armstrong 's name was speculated as a possible candidate for alderman for the upcoming 1906 election . Armstrong , despite being a newcomer to the city , was open to the fact of running in the election , but ultimately did not run . Armstrong would however decide to run for council as an alderman in the 1907 election , on a platform based on assuring the availabilities of utilities to the people of Edmonton , as well as ensuring a sense of openness as a council to the people . During the time leading up to the election , he also voiced his opposition to the city 's arbitrary divisions into sections . He was elected to council for a two @-@ year term , receiving 774 votes , finishing second in a field of 12 candidates . Despite being a preferred candidate for the mayoralty in 1909 , he opted to run for council instead and was re @-@ elected for another two @-@ year term in the 1909 election . In 1910 , his name was once again speculated to run for the mayoralty of the city in the upcoming election , with many citizens approaching him to run . He later decided in favour of running , publishing an acceptance letter in the Edmonton Bulletin stating :
To the Electors of the City of Edmonton ,
Ladies and Gentleman — At the request of a large number of ratepayers I have consented to be a candidate for Mayor at the coming municipal election . My platform and address to the elctorate will appear in the press in a few days .
Respectfully yours , .
His platform would consist of the main points of leading the city out of debt , assuring the completion of city projects that were in progress before introducing news ones , and again , ensuring that utilities were available to everyone and were of high quality . He had also expressed desire to amalgamate the existing city of Edmonton with the city of Strathcona , which was divided from Edmonton by the North Saskatchewan River , situated on the south . Though former councillor William Harold Clark was urged to run by a group of citizens , Armstrong would be the only nominated mayoral candidate when nomination deadline day came , and thus he was acclaimed mayor ; the first occurrence since Kenneth W. MacKenzie was acclaimed in 1900 . Amongst his supporters for his candidacy were outgoing mayor Robert Lee and former mayor Charles May .
= = First mayoral term , 1911 = =
During his first term as mayor , Armstrong oversaw many issues that concerned the city . In March 1911 , he expressed his support for a new city hall building to be built , expressing his dissatisfaction with the existing building that housed the council and civic employees , mentioning the ever @-@ expanding number of staff . Later in that year , a committee would be formed concerning the issue , and a new structure would be planned with a planned cost of one million dollars . In July of that same year , he would sign a bylaw that would allow an American entrepreneur to establish a gas plant in the city , an issue that had been presented to council for debate several months prior . Later that year , the prospect of a municipal gas plant would also be supplied to city council . In July 1911 , when , along with the city council , he dismissed a pair of city commissioners after months of debate . The firing triggered a by @-@ election when alderman James H. McKinley would resign in protest to the action . In 1911 , he also served as a vice president of the Union of Alberta Municipalities . Involved in national and provincial affairs , he voiced his support for a canal to be constructed in the Georgian Bay of Lake Huron , stating that the presence of such canal would improve the trading relations of Canada with the United States by allowing an easier route between the two countries . He also was in favour of a hydroelectric project in the Athabasca River . Additionally , during this first term as mayor , Armstrong also oversaw the city 's festivities on George V 's coronation and moved to form a municipal purchasing department .
= = = Amalgamation of Edmonton = = =
Another issue presented to council during his first term in office was that of potential amalgamation with the city south of the North Saskatchewan River , Strathcona . Regarding the issue , Armstrong would gauge public interest as in favour of it , stating he was " satisfied that [ it ] would carry " . The particular issue had been in works as early as 1909 , when draft versions of a bylaw permitting the two cities to join where presented to each respective city council , but serious talks had not begun until this particular year . Plans for the action were set out by negotiations of a committee of both cities , reaching an agreement with conditions including an election to be held after the amalgamation law takes place , a new bridge to be constructed over the river separating the two cities , and the expansion of the street rail system to cover the land of the unified cities . It was also hoped at the time that being a larger city would lower taxes . A plebiscite was held in both Edmonton and Strathcona on September 26 , 1911 , with results at both municipalities overwhelmingly in favour of the joining of the two " twin cities " . With the law passed by council on December 19 , 1911 and approved by the Legislative Assembly of Alberta , the amalgamation was set for February 1 , 1912 , with the first combined election to take place on February 16 . The population of the new combined city would rise to over 40 @,@ 000 people .
= = Second term in office , 1912 = =
Armstrong would later declare his candidacy for that particular election ( the Edmonton municipal election , February 1912 ) , for the position of what was referred to as the first mayor of " Greater Edmonton " Stating that in his belief , 1911 was one of the most successful years in the history of the city , he ran on the premise that he had unfinished work from his first term , stating , " I ask for a continuance of your confidence , support and influence to allow me an opportunity to complete those undertakings which are in the best interests of Greater Edmonton " . His opponent , Bryce J. Saunders charged that the city had long lacked efficiency in its utilities , particular the water supply , which he believed in the public ownership of . Armstrong would later go on to defeat Saunders in the general election , 1791 votes to Saunders ' 1072 , a margin of just over 700 , with a voter turnout of around 30 percent .
During his brief second term as mayor in 1912 , Armstrong and council approved a plan to construct 110 miles of electric railway lines in the city , considered legislation permitting band concerts on Sundays , oversaw the opening of the Royal Alexandra Hospital , advocated for the availability of housing accommodations for all Edmontonians in the face of an influx of new settlers , and welcomed a visit from Governor General of Canada Prince Arthur , Duke of Connaught and Strathearn to the city , planning a grand celebration . It was also in 1912 that the Hudson 's Bay Company put its Edmonton land holdings on the market , the first bridge across the North Saskatchewan River in the city 's east end opened , and that Armstrong commissioned a master plan for the newly amalgamated city , from an American firm based out of Minneapolis named Morell and Nichols . Among the suggestions in the report was the recommendation for a civic square to be built , which was opened 53 years later as Sir Winston Churchill Square . In his final week as mayor , the retiring Armstrong delivered the city 's annual report at an annual meeting , thanked the people of Edmonton for entrusting him as mayor , and advised his successor to be fiscally responsible ; stating , " If a reckless administration gets in next year , Edmonton will become a city like I was in recently , where they could not borrow enough money to clean their streets . " In the election held later that week , he would be succeeded by former mayor from 1901 – 04 , William Short , whom he supported and campaigned for . Armstrong was later honoured with an informal gathering in the city council chamber where he was presented with a gift of silverware ; with the city fire chief proclaiming that " Mayor Armstrong is bound to become a historical character " .
= = Post mayoral career = =
The year after he left office as mayor , Armstrong began work with the Edmonton post office . After being recommended for the position by city notables , he was named postmaster of the city on November 12 , 1913 . In the same year he oversaw the construction of a new building on Namayo Avenue , the Fairbairn Block , mainly for use by his business but with additional space for offices and housing in the upper levels . In 1920 , Armstrong was involved in a legal case involving his office as postmaster when he was accused in the 1919 disappearance of a sum of $ 50 @,@ 000 from the post office . Although exonerated in 1920 , he would again be arrested in 1923 and charged with theft . During the trial , it was testified that a witness had seen Armstrong on the day of the robbery , with only a paper in his hand as if he were heading out . Armstrong , who had proclaimed his innocence , and provided evidence for the trial was eventually acquitted and found not guilty of the charges in a decision made on May 29 , which was followed by an eruption of applause . Later in 1923 , Armstrong was appointed postmaster of the Strathcona ( south side ) Post Office . He remained with the post office until he retired in January 1937 . At the time of his retirement he was serving as postmaster of the south post office . In his years with the post office , he served a total of 14 years as postmaster . The Armstrong Drug Store would later go through multiple owners until its closing on December 10 , 1993 .
= = Personal life = =
Armstrong married Margaret Irene McFarlane in 1893 at Greenock ( Bruce County ) , Ontario . They had one daughter , Helen Laverne Armstrong . After Margaret died , George remarried to Jessie Mathieson at Elora , Ontario in 1897 . With her he had a son and daughter , William Sloan Seale Armstrong and Jessie Eileen Armstrong Watson . He was a member of a hospital board , the Edmonton Exhibition Board and the Masonic Order . He was affiliated with the Presbyterian Church and later the United Church of Canada , attending Robertson United Church in Edmonton , where he served as an elder . Politically , he aligned himself with the Conservative Party of Canada . In his free time he enjoyed the sports of baseball and football . He died at a hospital in Edmonton on June 9 , 1947 at the age of 80 , after an illness of two weeks . He was survived by his wife and children as well as a brother . He was later interred at the Edmonton Cemetery after his funeral held at Robertson United Church . His wife Jessie died in 1952 and was interred next to him . The Edmonton Historical Board states that Armstrong was remembered as " hardworking , fair and honest person who served our city well during a time of rapid change and growth " .
Armstrong Industrial , an Edmonton industrial park located in the northwestern part of the city near the Yellowhead Trail , is named in his honour . His former residence , located at 10050 117 Street in Edmonton was designated as a Heritage Building by the Edmonton Historical Board .
= Arizona State Route 85 =
State Route 85 ( SR 85 ) is a 128 @.@ 86 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 207 @.@ 38 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Arizona . The highway runs from the United States @-@ Mexico border near Lukeville to the north ending at Interstate 10 ( I @-@ 10 ) in Buckeye . The highway also intersects I @-@ 8 in Gila Bend and serves as a connector between I @-@ 8 and I @-@ 10 and for travelers between Phoenix and Yuma as well as San Diego . SR 85 between I @-@ 10 and I @-@ 8 , as well as I @-@ 8 between SR 85 and I @-@ 10 in Casa Grande , is touted as a bypass of the Phoenix area for long @-@ distance travelers on I @-@ 10 .
SR 85 was established in 1936 as a route between Gila Bend and Ajo . It was extended southward to the US @-@ Mexico border in 1955 , and extended northward to Phoenix when it replaced U.S. Route 80 ( US 80 ) in 1977 . The northern end of the highway was realigned in 1994 onto the connecting highway between I @-@ 10 and Buckeye . The remaining portion of the highway between Buckeye and Phoenix was gradually turned over to the cities and county along the route during the 1990s with the final portion turned over in 2001 .
= = Route description = =
The southern terminus of SR 85 is located at the United States @-@ Mexico border near Lukeville in Pima County . The road continues across the border into Mexico to the town of Sonoita as Mexican Federal Highway 8 . SR 85 heads north from the border as a two @-@ lane road , passing through the Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument . The highway leaves the monument boundary and heads to a junction with SR 86 in Why . SR 86 heads east from this junction towards Tucson and southeastern Arizona . SR 85 heads northwest from this junction to the town of Ajo . From Ajo , the highway heads north and enters the Barry M. Goldwater Air Force Range . While within the range , the highway enters Maricopa County . After the highway passes through the range , it continues towards the north to a junction with I @-@ 8 in Gila Bend . After passing I @-@ 8 , the highway intersects the business loop of I @-@ 8 and turns towards the east to run concurrently with business loop along Pima Street in Gila Bend . The two highways split , with the business loop heading towards the southeast and SR 85 heading northeast providing access to Gila Bend Municipal Airport
SR 85 continues north from Gila Bend towards the Phoenix Metropolitan Area . This stretch of highway north of Gila Bend is a part of the National Highway System . The highway passes near the western edge of the Sonoran Desert National Monument and also provides access to the Buckeye Hills Recreational Area . SR 85 continues northward to a crossing of the Gila River as it nears Buckeye . The highway intersects Buckeye Road which is where the original routing of US 80 and later SR 85 followed into Phoenix before being rerouted onto its current alignment . The highway continues towards the north , crossing over the Buckeye Canal before reaching its northern terminus at exit 112 on I @-@ 10 .
= = History = =
The first numbered highway along the SR 85 corridor was established in 1927 between Gila Bend and Phoenix as US 80 . At the time , it was only paved from Phoenix to Hassayampa . Although not paved between Hassayampa and Gila Bend , it was an improved road . This original routing of US 80 still exists as Old US 80 west of the SR 85 alignment . A dirt road between Gila Bend and Ajo did exist at this time , but it was not a part of the state highway system . By 1935 , the entire route of US 80 between Gila Bend and Phoenix had been paved . The road south of Gila Bend had also been improved to a gravel road .
In 1936 , SR 85 was established , but it only extended as far north as Gila Bend and as far south as Ajo . By 1938 , SR 85 had been paved as well as the portion between Ajo and Why that would eventually become part of SR 85 . The portion between Why and the border with Mexico began showing up on maps at this time as a gravel road . In 1943 , the portion of the highway between Ajo and Why was added to the state highway system , but as SR 86 , when it was extended west from Tucson to Ajo . In 1955 , the highway was extended to Lukeville at the United States @-@ Mexico border with an overlap with SR 86 between Ajo and Why when a county road was added to SR 85 .
In 1973 , the connector between I @-@ 10 and Baseline Road was established , and was redesignated in 1978 as a spur route of SR 85 . As the old , indirect US 80 was removed from Arizona , SR 85 was extended north in 1977 over the old alignment of US 80 to Buckeye and extended east to Phoenix . Portions of the route in Buckeye and Phoenix were turned over to their respective cities for maintenance in 1990 . The following year , a portion of the highway between Avondale and Phoenix was turned over to Maricopa County for maintenance . Also in 1991 , the overlap between SR 85 and SR 86 was eliminated and the western terminus of SR 86 was changed to its junction with Route 85 in Why . In 1994 , the northern end of SR 85 was moved onto the SR 85 Spur that connected to I @-@ 10 and the remaining portions along the old alignment to the east were redesignated as a temporary route of SR 85 . In 1999 , the portion of the old route in Avondale was turned over to the city for maintenance . The portion of the old route around the state capitol complex , the last remaining section of the old route between Phoenix and Buckeye , was turned over to the city of Phoenix in 2001 .
= = Future = =
The segment of SR 85 between Buckeye and Gila Bend is a connector between I @-@ 8 and I @-@ 10 , and serves both as a connector from I @-@ 8 from San Diego , California to Phoenix . This segment is being upgraded to a divided highway , and is planned to become a freeway . Most of the four @-@ lane road upgrades have already been completed .
In 2010 an environmental study into building a freeway to freeway interchange in Gila Bend from SR 85 to I @-@ 8 was completed by ADOT and the Federal Highway Administration . The study found no significant impact on the local environment and outlined a finalized full freeway standard design , bypassing the I @-@ 8 Business / Maricopa Road intersection SR 85 currently traverses through . A diamond interchange Exit 121 is planned at Maricopa Road / I @-@ 8 Business along with a second diamond interchange slightly northeast of the proposed Exit 121 .
= = Major intersections = =
The mileposts north of Gila Bend reflect the mileage of old US 80 in proximity to the California state line .
= Rugby union at the Summer Olympics =
Rugby union has been a men 's medal sport at the modern Summer Olympic Games , being played at four of the first seven competitions . The sport debuted at the 1900 Paris games where the gold medal was won by the host nation . It was subsequently featured at the London games in 1908 , the Antwerp games in 1920 and the Paris games in 1924 . The United States is the most successful nation in Olympic rugby tournaments , having won the gold medal in both 1920 and 1924 ; France has the most medals , one gold ( in 1900 ) and two silvers ( in 1920 and 1924 ) .
Shortly after the 1924 games , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) dropped rugby union as an Olympic sport . Since then there have been numerous attempts to bring the sport back to the Olympic programme . In October 2009 the IOC voted at its session in Copenhagen to include the sevens version of the sport in the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro . The event made its debut in an Olympic programme at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics .
= = Inclusion = =
The sport was introduced by Pierre de Coubertin , who is famous for reviving the modern Olympics . He also helped to establish rugby in France , refereeing the first domestic French club championship in 1892 and France 's first international , on New Year ’ s Day , 1906 , at Parc des Princes . Coubertin formed the IOC in 1894 , but rugby union was not featured until the II Olympiad .
= = = 1900 = = =
Three National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) , France , Germany and Great Britain , entered teams at the 1900 games . The German and British teams were not national teams in the current sense of the word : Moseley Wanderers RFC represented Great Britain and the Frankfurt Club represented Germany . Rules were also different from today 's ; 3 points , not 5 , were awarded for tries and 4 , not 3 , were given for a drop goal . Also , 4 points were awarded for a goal from mark , which would be reduced to 3 points in 1905 and eliminated completely in 1977 . Points for penalties and conversions , 3 and 2 respectively , were the same as in the modern game .
France won the gold , beating Great Britain 27 points to 8 and defeating Germany 27 points to 17 . Other sources list the German team as second , because of the points difference , but no such determination was made in 1900 . 6 @,@ 000 people watched the game between France and Great Britain , which was the largest crowd at the games . Constantin Henriquez , a player on the French team , is the first known coloured athlete to compete in the Olympic Games .
= = = 1908 = = =
Rugby union was not played at the 1904 games in St. Louis , nor at the 1906 Intercalated Games , but was included in 1908 , when the Olympics were held in the sport 's native country . The Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) was involved in the organization of the sport at this edition of the Olympics . Like the 1900 games , three teams entered : Australasia ( representing Australia and New Zealand ) , France , and hosts Great Britain ( which included the whole of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ) . France pulled out prior to the commencement of the tournament , being unable to field a representative team . Australasia was represented by the Wallabies , who were already on tour in Britain . As the best English and Welsh players were on tour in New Zealand at the time , Great Britain was represented by the Cornwall county team , who were chosen by the RFU as an appropriate side after they defeated Durham in the 1907 English county championship . The choice of Cornwall was controversial , as only three of their players had ever represented England and the Wallabies had defeated them 18 points to five .
As expected , Australasia defeated Great Britain , claiming the gold medal , the score being 32 points to three . The match at the White City Stadium was played under poor conditions , in fog and on a slippery field . Two of the Australian team members would later win another Olympic gold medal . Danny Carroll would win another rugby gold with the United States in 1920 , while Sydney Middleton would win a gold medal in rowing at the 1912 Games , where rugby was not on the programme . The sport also failed to appear on the provisional schedule of the 1916 Summer Olympics , which were cancelled due to World War I.
= = = 1920 = = =
A campaign to send an American side to the 1920 games in Antwerp started in California after a Berkeley rugby union touring party returned from British Columbia undefeated in 1920 . The United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) granted permission for entry . A pool of players from Stanford , Berkeley , and Santa Clara made up the squad . 1908 champion Danny Carroll , a player @-@ coach at Stanford at the time , was the team 's most prominent member . When the U.S. arrived in Antwerp , the Czechoslovakian and Romanian teams had withdrawn , leaving only France and the United States . The English RFU had decided not to enter a team , so as not to interfere with the start of the English domestic season .
The only match was played in rain in front of around 20 @,@ 000 spectators . The U.S. , featuring many players new to the sport of rugby , caused a shock by winning the only match eight points to zero , all points being scored in the second half . One of the U.S. team members , Morris Kirksey , took home two more medals from Antwerp , finishing second to Charles Paddock in the 100 meters dash , and anchoring the winning 4 × 100 meters relay team .
= = = 1924 = = =
The sport was again included in the subsequent 1924 games in Paris . The USOC decided to send a team in order to defend their gold medal . Along with the U.S. and the host nation , Romania entered . The American team was again made up of mainly Californian players , seven of whom were members of the 1920 team . The U.S. squad departed on a seven @-@ day voyage to England on an ocean liner from New York City .
The U.S. defeated Romania 37 to 0 in front of a crowd of 6 @,@ 000 . France then defeated Romania 61 to 3 and entered the final game as favorites . The gold medal game was played on 18 May in front of 21 @,@ 000 spectators at the Colombes venue , which had a large wire fence built around the field for the game . The U.S. defeated France 17 to 3 , becoming the only team to win gold twice in the sport . At the final whistle the pitch was invaded and the French team , aided by the police , did their best to protect their opponents . The medal ceremony took place with police protection – gold for the U.S. , silver for France , and bronze for Romania .
Rare vintage footage of the 1924 Gold Medal match was included in the rugby documentary , A Giant Awakens : the Rise of American Rugby . 6 + +
= = Exclusion = =
The pitch invasion at the 1924 Paris Olympics had given rugby a poor image and this , together with the problems of attracting sufficient teams to make it a viable sport and the desire to include more individual and women 's events , spelled the death knell for rugby at the Olympics .
Baron Pierre De Coubertin stepped down as head of the Olympic Movement after 1925 and with his departure the sport lost one of its major advocates . In 1928 the IOC turned down a request to stage rugby at the Amsterdam games . An exhibition tournament was held at the 1936 Berlin Games , with France , Germany , Italy and Romania competing . In what was , to date , the last rugby match played at the Olympics , France beat Germany in the final 19 to 14 .
In 1976 , 22 African countries and Guyana boycotted the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , after their demand to have New Zealand excluded was not met . A New Zealand rugby team had toured South Africa , which had been banned from the Olympics since 1964 because of its apartheid politics . Rugby union not being an Olympic sport , the IOC declined to exclude New Zealand .
= = Efforts for re @-@ inclusion = =
Italy in 1960 , the Soviet Union in 1980 , and South Korea in 1988 made requests to have rugby union brought back . The 1980 request did not pass , and the 1988 games came close but failed to see the sport 's admission , which was backed by the International Rugby Football Board ( now , World Rugby ( WR ) ) .
Apart from supporting the individual host cities ' requests , the IRB did not focus its own efforts on returning the sport to the Olympics until the early 1990s , when efforts began to reunite the two movements with a series of informal meetings between the then IRB Secretary , Keith Rowlands , and the British Olympic Association Secretary , Dick Palmer . In 1994 , when Vernon Pugh QC of Wales was elected Chairman of the IRB , the march towards Olympic recognition began in earnest . Pugh convinced the IRB Council that Olympic membership – initially as a non @-@ participation sport – would be beneficial to rugby and offer the IRB member unions membership of their National Olympic Committees . Many European Federations , such as France , Italy and Romania , had been members of their National Olympic Committees for decades . The demand to get rugby back in the Olympics mounted as more rugby nations from Africa , Asia , Oceania and the Americas joined the IRB , because it was a sport seen as providing a realistic medal opportunity for a number of smaller nations .
A significant step in the process of acceptance back into the Olympic Movement was achieved at a ceremony held in Cardiff in November 1994 , when the IRB was officially confirmed as a Recognised International Federation of the IOC . At that ceremony , International Olympic Committee President , Juan Antonio Samaranch , pointed out that rugby 's history and values were very much in tune with the Olympic philosophy and traditions . This historic meeting in Cardiff led to IRB representation at annual IOC meetings and consideration for inclusion in the programme of future Olympic Games . In 2002 , a plan was presented to induct rugby sevens , golf and the Chinese martial art of wushu .
Sevens was one of five sports that submitted a proposal to the IOC at a meeting in Singapore for inclusion in the 2012 games . The IOC stated that no sport would be added unless others were dropped . The IRB was confident that the sport would finally be included in the official Olympic programme . However , the selection of two sports out of the five nominees as potential 2012 sports went to squash and karate , as determined by a voting procedure .
Most recently , rugby sevens competed with golf for two available spaces in the 2016 Olympics . The final decision was made at the IOC Session in Copenhagen in October 2009 . The IRB used a number of high @-@ profile people and events to influence the IOC to include sevens at the 2016 games . In March 2009 , two senior delegates from the IOC attended the Rugby World Cup Sevens in Dubai at the invitation of the IRB . The event attracted 78 @,@ 000 fans over the three days and saw Wales crowned Men ’ s World Champions and Australia won the first ever Women 's World Cup .
Along with the World Cup , the IRB enlisted some of rugby ’ s biggest names to assist in the bid . In March 2009 , Jonah Lomu and Lawrence Dallaglio were announced as ambassadors for the bid and in April 2009 Waisale Serevi was unveiled as an ambassador to coincide with the Oceania National Olympic Committees ' general assembly . May 2009 saw the IRB announce that they would drop the Rugby World Cup Sevens in order to improve the chances of the sport being included . The benefit of this move would be to make the Olympics the premier event in international rugby sevens .
As well as rugby sevens , baseball and softball , which were dropped from the Olympic programme in 2005 , karate , squash , golf and roller sports ( inline speed skating ) were all seeking to be included in the 2016 games and leaders of the seven sports made formal presentations to the IOC executive board in June 2009 . A new system was in place at this session in which a sport now needs only a simple majority rather than the two @-@ thirds majority that was required before .
On 13 August 2009 it was announced that the IOC executive board was recommending rugby sevens for inclusion in the 2016 Olympic Games and on 9 October 2009 the full IOC , at its 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen , voted to include Rugby Sevens in the 2016 games .
Separate competitions for men and women will be held , using a similar format to the existing IRB Sevens World Series . The IRB had originally proposed including 12 teams of each sex , the same number as other team ball sports events . During the IRB 's presentation at the IOC Session , two IOC members asked why only 12 teams were included . IRB Chief Executive Mike Miller responded , " We followed the guidance of the Executive Members of the IOC , but if the IOC feels we should have more teams , we will add more . "
= = Results = =
= = = Games = = =
= = = Cumulative = = =
= = Nations = =
Only players who participated in at least one match are counted .
= = Notable rugby players involved in the Olympics = =
A number in other fields have also been notable rugby players , these include :
Pierre de Coubertin , founder of the modern Olympics , was a rugby fan and referee of the first ever French championship rugby union final on 20 March 1892 between Racing Club de France and Stade Français .
Jean Bouin , France and track events .
Stan Harris
Eric Liddell , Scotland and track events .
Chris MacKintosh
Heather Moyse , Canada and gold in Olympic bobsleigh .
James Cecil Parke , Ireland and track events ( also represented Ireland in cricket and golf , and as well as competing at Wimbledon and in the Davis Cup )
Noel Purcell , Ireland and gold in Olympic water polo – the first Olympic internationalist to represent two countries , Great Britain and the Irish Free State .
David Robertson ( golfer )
Jacques Rogge , Belgium international and former IOC president .
Constantin Henriquez , Haitian rugby player who won gold for France .
Attie van Heerden
Danny Crates , who has carried the torch twice at the Olympics , and is a notable Paralympian , also plays competitive rugby .
Kevin O 'Flanagan , Ireland international . Represented Ireland on the International Olympic Committee
Victor Costello , who competed for Ireland in the shot put at the 1992 Games in Barcelona before winning 39 caps for the Ireland rugby union team .
= United States Senate election in New York , 2000 =
The United States Senate election in New York in 2000 was held on November 7 , 2000 . First Lady of the United States Hillary Rodham Clinton , the first First Lady to run for political office , defeated Congressman Rick Lazio . The general election coincided with the presidential election .
The race began in November 1998 when four @-@ term incumbent New York Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan announced his retirement . Both the Democratic Party and Republican Party sought high @-@ profile candidates to compete for the open seat . By early 1999 Clinton and Mayor of New York City Rudolph Giuliani were the likely respective nominees . Clinton and her husband , President Bill Clinton , purchased a house in Chappaqua , New York , in September 1999 ; she thereby became eligible for the election , although she faced characterizations of carpetbagging since she had never resided in the state before . The lead in statewide polls swung from Clinton to Giuliani and back to Clinton as the campaigns featured both successful strategies and mistakes as well as dealing with current events . In late April and May 2000 , Giuliani 's medical , romantic , marital , and political lives all collided in a tumultuous four @-@ week period , culminating in his withdrawing from the race on May 19 .
The Republicans chose lesser @-@ known Congressman Rick Lazio to replace him . The election included a record $ 90 million in campaign expenditures between Clinton , Lazio , and Giuliani and national visibility . Clinton showed strength in normally Republican upstate areas and a debate blunder by Lazio solidified Clinton 's previously shaky support among women . Clinton won the election in November 2000 with 55 percent of the vote to Lazio 's 43 percent .
= = An open seat draws high @-@ profile candidates = =
When four @-@ term New York Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan announced his retirement in November 1998 , his previously safe Senate seat became open in the 2000 U.S. Senate election . Both parties tried to find high @-@ profile candidates to run for it .
New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani , who was prevented by term limits from running for mayoral reelection in 2001 , immediately indicated interest . Due to his high profile and visibility , Giuliani was supported by the state Republican Party , even though he had irritated many by endorsing incumbent Democratic Governor Mario Cuomo over Republican George Pataki in 1994 . Giuliani became the presumptive Republican nominee , and by April 1999 had formed a formal exploratory committee for a Senate run . There were still possible Republican primary opponents . Rick Lazio , a Congressman representing Suffolk County on Long Island , was raising money and had a candidacy announcement scheduled for August 16 ; he had openly discussed a primary against Giuliani , believing his more conservative record would be appealing to Republican primary voters . In early August , under pressure from state and national Republican figures , Pataki endorsed Giuliani . Pataki prevailed upon Lazio to forgo his candidacy , which Lazio agreed to despite frustration that Giuliani had still not officially announced that he was running ; Lazio said , " If the mayor wants to be a candidate , I think he needs to get into this race . It 's time to put the soap opera aside and step up to the plate . " Nassau County Congressman Pete King also considered running and had raised some funds .
New York Congresswoman Nita Lowey was the candidate first expected to be the Democratic nominee , while other mentioned possible candidates included Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Andrew Cuomo , New York State Comptroller Carl McCall , and New York Congresswoman Carolyn Maloney . State Democratic figures were concerned that neither Lowey nor the others had the star power to rival Giuliani , and that the seat would be lost . Late in 1998 , prominent Democratic politicians and advisors , including New York Representative Charles Rangel , urged First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton to run for the New York Senate seat . An unprecedented action if she did it , Clinton spent considerable time mulling over the idea while Lowey waited in the wings . Her political advisors told her the race would be difficult and some of them told her she would lose . She waited for the impeachment proceedings of Bill Clinton to conclude , which it did with his acquittal on February 12 , 1999 .
= = Clinton 's early campaign = =
On February 16 , 1999 , the First Lady 's office announced that she was considering running for the Senate position . Once it was clear Clinton was going to run , Lowey stepped aside , although she would be disappointed at the lost opportunity . On July 7 , 1999 , Clinton formally announced an exploratory committee for the Senate run ; the setting was Moynihan 's farm in Pindars Corners , in rural Delaware County . Bill Clinton was less than enthusiastic about her candidacy . The staging of the event was brokered by the Clintons ' political consultant Mandy Grunwald . Hillary Clinton embarked upon a " listening tour " of all parts of New York after her entrance into the race . She planned to visit all 62 counties in New York , talking to New Yorkers in small @-@ group settings according to the principles of retail politics . During the race , she spent considerable time campaigning in traditionally Republican upstate regions . Clinton faced charges of carpetbagging , since she had never resided in the State of New York nor directly participated in state politics prior to her Senate race .
Meanwhile , in September 1999 , the Clintons purchased a $ 1 @.@ 7 million , 11 @-@ room , Dutch Colonial style home in Chappaqua , New York , north of New York City . Even the commonplace activity of house hunting leading up to this was the subject of considerable media attention ; coverage of personal lives would be the norm in this contest of two " electrifying and polarizing figures " ( as one reporter put it ) . In November 1999 , Hillary Clinton announced that she would set aside most of her official duties as First Lady in order to take up residency in New York and pursue her campaign . Her move @-@ in took place in January 2000 , with the house furnished with many of the couple 's possessions from their Arkansas days . It became the first time since Woodrow Wilson 's first wife died in 1914 that a president lived in the White House without a spouse .
The early stages of her campaign were not without mistakes , and as she later wrote , " Mistakes in New York politics aren 't easily brushed aside . " In a much @-@ publicized move , Clinton donned a New York Yankees baseball cap at a June 1999 event when she had been a lifelong fan of the Chicago Cubs . This brought her much criticism , and Thomas Kuiper would later write an anti @-@ Clinton book titled : I 've Always Been a Yankees Fan : Hillary Clinton in Her Own Words . Clinton said she had to develop an American League rooting interest , since fans of the Cubs were not expected to root for the American League Chicago White Sox . In her 2003 autobiography , she said that putting on the hat had been a " bad move " , but reiterated what had been reported in the press prior to the incident , that she had been " a die @-@ hard Mickey Mantle fan ; " the book included a photograph of her with a Yankees cap on from 1992 .
More seriously , on November 11 , 1999 , at the dedication of a U.S.-funded health program in the West Bank , she exchanged kisses with Suha Arafat , wife of Palestinian President Yasser Arafat , after Suha Arafat had delivered a speech claiming that Israel had deliberately poisoned Palestinians through environmental degradation and the use of " poisonous gas " . Some Israeli supporters said that Clinton never should have kissed the wife of the Palestinian leader , especially after such inflammatory remarks . The following day , Clinton denounced Suha Arafat 's allegations , and said that Palestinian negotiator Saeb Erekat had told her Suha Arafat had been referring to ' tear gas ' and not ' poison gas ' . The kiss became a campaign issue , especially with Jewish voters . Clinton said it as a formality akin to a handshake , saying that to not have done so would have caused a diplomatic incident . Clinton later wrote that the live Arabic @-@ to @-@ English translation had failed to convey the accurate nature of her remarks : " Had I been aware of her hateful words , I would have denounced them on the spot . "
Somewhat surprisingly , Clinton faced an erosion of support from women voters during her campaign , with her numbers declining throughout 1999 . This was partly a typical pattern seen with women candidates where they have an early surge of female support , which then wears off , and it was partly due to her early campaign stumbles . But it also reflected the particular set of mixed feelings that women had towards Clinton 's marriage and the ambition and the power she derived from it . The problem was especially acute among some female demographics ; one of her longtime advisers later said , " Women in the educated professional class ? They fucking couldn 't stand her . We could never figure out why . We had psychologists come in . "
Clinton 's campaign to all counties , carried by a Ford conversion van , helped to defuse the carpetbagger issue , with many New York residents saying that Clinton " seems like one of us . " She discussed local issues such as price supports for the dairy industry , fares for air travel , college tuition levels , and the brain drain in parts of the state . Her political positions were well matched to the different constituencies in the state that she targeted . In a January 2000 appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman , she established a rapport with the host that would continue throughout her Senate years and into her 2008 presidential campaign . Clinton formally announced her official candidacy in Purchase , New York in February 2000 , adopting the simple name " Hillary " for her campaign literature .
Distrustful of the press since her husband 's 1992 presidential campaign and her early days as First Lady , she imposed limits on her availability to the press van following her . Associated Press reporter Beth Harpaz later recounted a typical day from this time : " But we 'd been told there 'd be no ' avail ' today , and we 'd accepted it . That didn 't prevent me from feeling slightly humiliated . I was so worn down and so exasperated by the lack of access and the lack of news in this campaign that I 'd given up fighting . "
= = Early campaign of Giuliani = =
An early January 1999 Marist Institute of Public Opinion poll showed Giuliani trailing Clinton by 10 points . By January 2000 , the Marist poll showed Giuliani up by 9 points . Giuliani 's tactics involved intentionally baiting the Clinton campaign with deliberate overstatements , keeping them off balance and behind in the response cycle . Giuliani emphasized his depiction of Clinton as a carpetbagger . He made a one @-@ day visit to Little Rock , Arkansas , where he announced he would fly the Arkansas state flag over New York 's City Hall . When Hillary Clinton visited New York from Washington , he said , “ I hope she knows the way . I hope she doesn ’ t get lost on one of the side streets . ” Giuliani 's campaign prepared a 315 @-@ page opposition research dossier that went back to her time at Wellesley College ; it included eleven pages of what they termed " Stupid Actions and Remarks " . The Giuliani campaign had no problems raising money , getting over 40 percent of its funds from out @-@ of @-@ state and outraising Clinton overall two @-@ to @-@ one .
The Giuliani campaign showed some structural weaknesses . So closely identified with New York City , he had somewhat limited appeal to naturally Republican voters in Upstate New York . The Farmersville Garbage Scandal was indicative of his lower levels of support upstate . By late December 1999 , Clinton adapted to Giuliani 's psychological warfare , saying in response to one such gambit , " I can ’ t be responding every time the mayor gets angry . Because that ’ s all I would do . " A February 2000 attempt by Giuliani to capitalize on a Clinton campaign event 's accidental playing of Billy Joel 's suburban drug tale " Captain Jack " led to more ridicule for him than for her .
On March 11 , 2000 , Giuliani and Clinton met face @-@ to @-@ face for the first time since the campaigning began , at the New York Inner Circle press dinner , an annual event in which New York politicians and the press corps stage skits , roast each other and make fun of themselves , with proceeds going to charity . Giuliani was on stage in male disco garb spoofing John Travolta in Saturday Night Fever , but also appeared in drag in taped video clips that reworked the " Rudy / Rudia " theme of a past Inner Circle dinner , as well as in an exchange with Joan Rivers that sought to make fun of Clinton . Other performers ' skits made fun of Clinton 's Yankees claim and the infidelity of her husband .
The New York Police Department 's fatal shooting of Patrick Dorismond on March 15 , 2000 inflamed Giuliani 's already strained relations with the city 's minority communities , and Clinton seized on it as a major campaign issue . By April , reports showed Clinton gaining upstate and generally outworking Giuliani , who stated that his duties as mayor prevented him from campaigning more . He gave priority to city duties over campaign activities . Some Giuliani aides and national Republican figures concluded that his interest in the campaign was flagging , as although he was desirous of winning in political combat against a Clinton , he was by nature an executive personality and the prospect of serving as one of a hundred legislators was unappealing to him .
By this time , Clinton was 8 to 10 points ahead of Giuliani in the polls . In retrospect , The New York Times would write that the battle so far between the two had comprised " a blistering year of mental gamesmanship , piercing attacks , contrasts in personalities and positions , and blunders , played out by two outsize political figures in a super @-@ heated atmosphere . "
= = A tumultuous four weeks = =
Giuliani 's marriage to his wife , broadcast journalist and actress Donna Hanover , had been distant since 1996 , and the two were rarely seen in public together . There had been no formal announcement of any change in their relationship , although Hanover had indicated that she and their children would not move to Washington if Giuliani won the race . Beginning in October 1999 , a new woman was being spotted at mayoral functions . By March 2000 , Giuliani had stopped wearing his wedding ring and was being seen more in the company of this other woman , including at the Inner Circle press dinner , the St. Patrick 's Day parade , and town hall meetings , but it was not yet fully clear whether the relationship was personal or professional . While this woman had become a frequent subject of insider talk among the New York political circle , she had not been mentioned in the press .
On April 20 Hanover announced that she would soon be taking over the lead role in Eve Ensler 's controversial play The Vagina Monologues . Political observers speculated that Hanover was partly engaging in a political act against her husband , as Ensler was a friend and supporter of Hillary Clinton and the role would not go over well with social conservatives within the Republican Party . Giuliani declined to say whether he would attend one of her performances . On April 22 , the New York Post obtained photographs of Giuliani openly strolling on a Manhattan street with the other woman after they left a restaurant , but did not have more than a first name for her ; the Post sat on the story , but it was clear the relationship was a personal one .
On April 26 , television channel NY1 reported that Giuliani had undergone a second round of tests for prostate cancer at Mount Sinai Medical Center ; the same disease had led to the death of his father . On April 28 , Giuliani held a news conference to announce that he did in fact have prostate cancer , but it was in an early stage . He was unsure of which of several types of treatment he might undergo , and that decision would impact whether he could stay in the senate race or not . Hanover was not present at the conference , but issued a note saying she would support him in his decision process .
As Giuliani mulled over his medical options , on May 1 Hanover announced that she was postponing her appearance in The Vagina Monologues due to " personal family circumstances . " On May 2 the New York Daily News published a brief item about Giuliani 's other woman , without name or description . On May 3 the New York Post finally published its photographs of Giuliani and the woman , now identified as Judith Nathan , leaving a restaurant together , under the front page headline " Rudy 's Mystery Brunch Pal is Upper East Side Divorcée " . ( Some observers felt that Giuliani , known for his ability to manipulate the New York media , had been eager for news of the relationship to come out . ) Later that day , Giuliani responded to a barrage of questions on the subject at a news conference by acknowledging Judith Nathan publicly for the first time , calling her " a very good friend " and expressing his annoyance that her privacy was being invaded . The next days were filled with New York media coverage on Nathan 's background and on the relationship . On May 6 Hanover held an unusually @-@ located news conference at the back of St. Patrick 's Cathedral before the funeral of Cardinal John O 'Connor ; visibly trembling , she said , " I will be supportive of Rudy in his fight against his illness , as this marriage and this man have been very precious to me . " The following day half the press tried to stake out Nathan 's known locations while the rest pestered Nathan 's hometown relatives in Hazleton , Pennsylvania ; Giuliani looked weak in a public appearance .
On May 10 , Giuliani held what The New York Times described as an " extraordinary , emotional news conference " in Bryant Park to announce that he was seeking a separation from Hanover , saying , " This is very , very painful . For quite some time it 's probably been apparent that Donna and I lead in many ways independent and separate lives . " Regarding Nathan , Giuliani said " I 'm going to need her now more than maybe I did before , " making reference to his battle with cancer and her background in nursing . Regarding the senate race , he again did not commit to a decision , saying , " I don 't really care about politics right now . I 'm thinking about my family , the people that I love and what can be done that 's honest and truthful and that protects them the best . I 'm not thinking about politics . Politics comes at least second , maybe third , maybe fourth , somewhere else . It 'll all work itself out some way politically . " Giuliani had , however , neglected to inform Hanover in advance of his announcement ; her reaction was described as distraught . Three hours later , she held her own news conference at Gracie Mansion , where she said , " Today 's turn of events brings me great sadness . I had hoped to keep this marriage together . For several years , it was difficult to participate in Rudy 's public life because of his relationship with one staff member . " In this , she was making reference to Cristyne Lategano , the former communications director for Giuliani ; Vanity Fair had reported in 1997 that Lategano and Giuliani were having an affair , which both of them had denied . Hanover continued , " Beginning last May , I made a major effort to bring us back together . Rudy and I re @-@ established some of our personal intimacy through the fall . At that point , he chose another path . "
State Republican leaders , who until now had avoided talk of replacements for Giuliani should he not run , now gave more attention to the matter , with the state party convention coming up on May 30 . Former possible contenders Rick Lazio and Pete King immediately indicated they were available ; other names mentioned included Wall Street financier Theodore J. Forstmann and Governor Pataki , although the latter indicated no interest . Giuliani continued to ponder his senate race decision ; when he had dinner with Nathan on May 12 , they were trailed by a flock of photographers . Giuliani canceled campaigning and fundraising trips to upstate New York and California on May 13 , suggesting he would not run , but then resumed fundraising and suggested he was inclined towards running on May 15 . Two Republican county chairmen became upset at the indecision , saying , " Like Waiting for Godot , we have Waiting for Rudy , " and , " We need a decision . Like tomorrow would be nice . Because this is getting ridiculous . " A top state Republican said , " He seem [ s ] to like the attention . He seems to be going through some sort of catharsis in public . And we 're like psychiatrists watching it . I can 't quite figure it out . I don 't think anybody can . " Clinton , meanwhile , said as little as possible about the situation , preferring to let Giuliani 's drama play out on its own ; on May 17 , as he huddled with his doctors over whether to choose surgery or radiation as his treatment while facing conflicting political advice from his aides , she won the unanimous approval of delegates to the Democratic Party state convention at the Pepsi Arena in Albany , New York , giving a constrained acceptance speech because she did not know her general election opponent .
Finally , on May 19 , Giuliani held what The New York Times again described as " an emotional , riveting news conference " that " reached a new level of introspection " to announce that he was dropping out of the senate race : " This is not the right time for me to run for office . If it were six months ago or it were a year from now or the timing were a little different , maybe it would be different . But it isn 't different and that 's the way life is . " He added that , " I used to think the core of me was in politics , probably . It isn 't . When you feel your mortality and your humanity you realize that , that the core of you is first of all being able to take care of your health . " He said that he would instead devote the remainder of his mayoralty trying to overcome the hostile relations he had with many of the city 's minority groups .
= = A change of Republicans : Lazio = =
While previous Republican nominee candidates and fellow Long Island Congressmen Rick Lazio and Pete King had both indicated an interest in replacing Giuliani , upon Giuliani 's withdrawal the state party quickly rallied around Lazio , who had more campaign funds and who was viewed as a potentially strong candidate . In particular , Governor Pataki — who never cared much for Giuliani to begin with — was strongly in favor of Lazio , and praised him as " fresh , unencumbered challenger " to Clinton . This also caused a shuffle in New York 's unique third @-@ party ballot @-@ line alignments : the Liberal Party of New York , which was previously set to run Giuliani ( whom they had supported in all three of his mayoral races ) , now switched to Clinton , while the Conservative Party of New York , which had previously been loath to endorse the socially liberal Giuliani ( and was set to nominate former Westchester Congressman Joe DioGuardi ) lined up behind Lazio . Lazio accepted the unanimous approval of delegates to the Republican Party state convention at a hotel ballroom in Buffalo on May 30 .
Clinton now faced a lesser @-@ known candidate in Lazio . While a relative moderate among House Republicans , Lazio had frequently supported former House Speaker Newt Gingrich , a largely despised figure among many New Yorkers . Lazio did bring to the table an ethnic suburban background familiar to many New Yorkers , and had a reputation as an energetic campaigner .
One formality left were New York 's late @-@ in @-@ the @-@ season primary elections on September 12 , which in this case merely served to ratify the state party conventions ' choices . Lazio won unopposed , while Clinton won 82 percent of the vote in easily defeating unknown Manhattan doctor Mark McMahon , who ran on the grounds that " the Clintons have tried to hijack the Democratic Party . " For her part , Clinton said that she was " surprised , in a way [ to see her name in the voting booth ] . I stood there for a minute , staring at my name . " In any case , the general election was already well underway .
= = Democratic primary results = =
= = Republican primary = =
= = = Polling = = =
= = General election = =
= = = Polling = = =
= = General election campaign = =
The contest drew considerable national attention and both candidates were well @-@ funded . By the end of the race , Democrat Clinton and Republicans Lazio and Giuliani had spent a combined $ 90 million , the most of any U.S. Senate race in history . Lazio outspent Clinton $ 40 million to $ 29 million , with Clinton also getting several million dollars in soft money from Democratic organizations . Among Clinton antagonists circles , direct mail @-@ based fundraising groups such as the Emergency Committee to Stop Hillary Rodham Clinton sprung up , sending out solicitations regarding the " carpetbagging " issue : just as one Clinton leaves office , another one runs .
Clinton secured a broad base of support , including endorsements from conservation groups and organized labor , but notably not the New York City police union which endorsed Lazio while firefighters supported Hillary . While Clinton had a solid base of support in New York City , candidates and observers expected the race to be decided in upstate New York where 45 percent of the state 's voters live . During the campaign , Clinton vowed to improve the economic picture in upstate New York , promising that her plan would deliver 200 @,@ 000 New York jobs over six years . Her plan included specific tax credits with the purpose of rewarding job creation and encouraging business investment , especially in the high @-@ tech sector . She called for targeted personal tax cuts for college tuition and long @-@ term care . Lazio faced a unique tactical problem campaigning upstate . The major issue there was the persistently weak local economy , which Lazio hoped to link to his opponent 's husband 's tenure in office . Attacks on the state of the upstate economy were frequently interpreted as criticism of incumbent Republican governor George Pataki , however , limiting the effect of this line of attack .
Opponents continued to make the carpetbagging issue a focal point throughout the race and during debates . Talk radio hammered on this , with New York @-@ based Sean Hannity issuing a daily mantra , " Name me three things Hillary Clinton has ever done for the people of New York ! " Clinton 's supporters pointed out that the state was receptive to national leaders , such as Robert F. Kennedy who was elected to the Senate in 1964 despite similar accusations . In the end , according to exit polls conducted in the race , a majority of the voters dismissed the carpetbagging issue as unimportant .
During the campaign , Independent Counsel Robert Ray filed his final reports regarding the long @-@ running Whitewater , " Travelgate " , and " Filegate " investigations of the White House , each of which included specific investigations of Hillary Clinton actions . The reports exonerated her on the files matter , said there was insufficient evidence regarding her role in Whitewater , and said that she had made factually false statements regarding the Travel Office firings but there was insufficient evidence to prosecute her . Although The New York Times editorialized that the release of the reports seemed possibly timed to coincide with the Senate election , in practice the findings were not seen as likely to sway many voters ' opinions .
A September 13 , 2000 debate between Lazio and Clinton proved important . Lazio was on the warpath against soft money and the amounts of it coming from the Democratic National Committee into Clinton 's campaign , and challenged Clinton to agree to ban soft money from both campaigns . He left his podium and waved his proposed paper agreement in Clinton 's face ; many debate viewers thought he had invaded her personal space and as a result Clinton 's support among women voters solidified .
Late in the campaign Lazio criticised Clinton for accepting campaign donations from various Arab groups in the wake of the USS Cole attack . This issue caused former New York Mayor Ed Koch to take out ads telling Lazio to " stop with the sleaze already , " and did not change the dynamic of the race .
= = Results = =
Per New York State law , Clinton and Lazio totals include their minor party line votes : Liberal Party of New York and Working Families Party for Clinton , Conservative Party for Lazio .
= = = Analysis = = =
Clinton won the election on November 7 with 55 % of the vote to Lazio 's 43 % , a difference larger than most observers had expected . Clinton won the traditionally Democratic base of New York City by large margins , and carried suburban Westchester County , but lost heavily populated Long Island , part of which Lazio represented in Congress . She won surprising victories in Upstate counties , such as Cayuga , Rensselaer , and Niagara , to which her win has been attributed .
In comparison with other results , this 12 % margin was smaller than Gore 's 25 % margin over Bush in the state Presidential contest , was slightly larger than the 10 % margin by which fellow New York senator Charles Schumer defeated incumbent Republican Al D 'Amato in the hotly contested 1998 race , but was considerably smaller than the 47 % margin by which Senator Schumer won reelection in 2004 against little @-@ known Republican challenger Howard Mills . The victory of a Democrat in the Senate election was not assured , because in recent decades the Republicans had won about half the elections for governor and senator .
Lazio 's bid was handicapped by the weak performance of George W. Bush in New York in the 2000 election , but it is also clear Hillary Clinton had made substantial inroads in upstate New York prior to Lazio 's entry into the race . Exit polls also showed a large gender gap with Clinton running stronger than expected among moderate women and unaffiliated women .
= = Post @-@ election charges = =
= = = Hasidic pardons = = =
In January 2001 , two months after Hillary Clinton 's election to the Senate , President Clinton pardoned four residents of the New Square Hasidic enclave in Rockland County , New York , who had been convicted of defrauding the federal government of $ 30 million by establishing a fictitious religious school . New Square had voted almost unanimously for Hillary Clinton in the New York Senate race . A lawyer following the matter stated that even if Hillary Clinton had promised to lobby her husband for clemency in exchange for the town 's votes — a claim for which there was no proof — it would be difficult to establish a crime had taken place : " Politicians make promises all the time . That 's nothing new — or illegal . " Hillary Clinton acknowledged sitting in on a post @-@ election meeting discussing possible clemency for the four , but said she had played no part in her husband 's decision .
A federal investigation launched to investigate various Clinton pardons , closed its investigation of the New Square matter in June 2002 by taking no action against Bill Clinton , Hillary Clinton , or any residents of New Square .
= = = Hollywood fundraiser = = =
Hillary Clinton 's former finance director , David Rosen , was indicted on January 7 , 2005 on campaign finance charges related to a fund @-@ raising event produced by Peter F. Paul . Paul , a convicted drug dealer who would soon after be convicted on stock fraud charges after being extradited from Brazil , stated that he spent $ 1 @.@ 2 million to produce the August 12 , 2000 Hollywood Gala Salute to President William Jefferson Clinton event , which was both a tribute to honor President Clinton and a fundraiser for the First Lady 's 2000 Senate campaign . The Justice Department indictment charged Rosen with filing false reports with the Federal Election Commission by reporting only $ 400 @,@ 000 in contributions . On May 27 , 2005 , the jury acquitted Rosen on all counts . On January 5 , 2006 it was reported that Clinton 's campaign group agreed to pay a $ 35 @,@ 000 fine related to the underreporting of the fundraiser 's expenses .
Peter Paul has also filed a civil suit in this matter , Paul v. Clinton . On April 10 , 2006 , the judge in charge of the case removed Hillary Clinton as a defendant , citing a lack of evidence . However , she may still be called to testify as a witness in the case . The removal was upheld by the California Second District Court of Appeal on October 16 , 2007 .
Meanwhile , by the time of Hillary Clinton 's 2008 presidential campaign , a 13 @-@ minute video produced by Paul and describing his various allegations against Hillary Clinton had become quite popular on the Internet , gaining 1 @.@ 4 million hits on Google Video and about 350 @,@ 000 on YouTube in a single week in October 2007 .
= = Legacy = =
Clinton 's victory would establish her as an effective campaigner and an electoral force on her own , able to capture Republican and independent votes and overcome her polarizing image . She would easily win re @-@ election in 2006 , and in 2007 began her presidential campaign for 2008 .
Lazio gave up his House seat to run for Senate . Following his defeat , which set a record for the most money spent in a losing Senate effort , he took positions in the corporate world and avoided electoral politics until becoming a candidate in New York 's 2010 gubernatorial election . However , he was defeated by a wide margin in the Republican primary .
Giuliani would undergo treatment for his cancer and eventually recover ; he would also divorce Donna Hanover and eventually marry Judith Nathan . After his campaign withdrawal , his political future looked uncertain at best . But less than a year after the senate general election , the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks took place , with Giuliani still mayor . Giuliani 's performance in the aftermath of September 11 earned him many accolades and resurrected his political prospects . After a successful stint in the private sector , in 2007 he also began his presidential campaign for 2008 .
Throughout much of 2007 , Clinton and Giuliani led in national polls for their parties ' respective nominations , and media reports often looked back to the 2000 " race that wasn 't " as a preview of what might lie in wait for the entire nation in 2008 . Such extrapolating ended with the Giuliani campaign 's precipitous decline and January 2008 withdrawal . Clinton as well failed to gain the 2008 nomination and , in June 2008 , she finished in a close second place to Illinois Senator Barack Obama .
In December 2008 , Lowey would have another chance at the Senate seat , when Clinton was nominated for U.S. Secretary of State by President @-@ elect Obama and Lowey was considered a front @-@ runner to be named as her appointed replacement . But Lowey withdrew from consideration , as in the intervening years she had gained enough seniority to become one of the powerful " cardinals " on the House Appropriations Committee and did not want to relinquish that position . When Caroline Kennedy announced her interest in the vacancy , comparisons were drawn to Clinton in 2000 , with both being famous people seeking to hold elective office for the first time . Others pointed out that Clinton had won election to the office while Kennedy would first be appointed . In any case , Kennedy 's effort soon faltered , in part due to not having the same desire or willingness to work for the seat as Clinton had had , and she soon withdrew as abruptly as she had entered .
Kirsten Gillibrand received the appointment , and attention then turned to who would run against her in the 2010 Senate special election . By November 2009 , Giuliani was seriously considering a run for his old would @-@ have @-@ been Senate seat , but the following month he announced he was not running for it or anything else in 2010 , possibly signalling an end to his political career .
= The Boat Race 1981 =
The 127th Boat Race took place on 4 April 1981 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Umpired by former Oxford rower Ronnie Howard , it was won by Oxford who passed the finishing post eight lengths ahead of Cambridge , their largest margin of victory since 1898 . The race saw Oxford coxed by Sue Brown , the first female cox in the history of the event .
In the reserve race , Isis beat Goldie by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , and in the Women 's Boat Race , Oxford were victorious .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by a canvas in the previous year 's race . However Cambridge held the overall lead , with 68 victories to Oxford 's 57 . The race was sponsored for fifth time by Ladbrokes .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
Christopher Dodd writing in The Guardian noted Oxford 's aggressiveness during the preparations for the race , suggesting that they were " set to humiliate their opponents if they possibly can . " Dodd went on to predict that Oxford would win by their greatest margin since the 1898 race . Meanwhile , Cambridge had reorganised their seating order the week before the race . Oxford 's boat was named after Russell Crockford who had rowed in Oxford 's successful 1978 and 1979 races . He was killed in a car accident the previous year on his way to a regatta in Australia .
Umpire Ronnie Howard modified the starting arrangements , making the boats commence the race closer together to dissuade the coxes steering into one another from the start . He warned both coxes that should they foul , he would disqualify them .
= = Crews = =
Sue Brown was selected to cox the Oxford boat , and became the first female competitor in the history of the Boat Race . Although she had learned to cox at Wadham , she had already been selected to represent Great Britain in the Women 's coxed fours at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow . She had impressed Oxford coach Dan Topolski who chose her for the Dark Blues . Her selection caused a furore ; according to Dodd , " Sue Brown must have passed before more shutters than anyone except for Lady Diana Spencer " . She was advised by Colin Moynihan who had coxed Oxford to their largest victory of the century in the 1977 race . Boris Rankov was making his fourth appearance , but this time as a junior fellow of St Hugh 's , rather than as an undergraduate at Corpus Christi . In doing so , he became the first representative of a women 's college in the men 's Boat Race .
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 13 st 8 lb ( 86 @.@ 0 kg ) , 1 @.@ 5 pounds ( 0 @.@ 68 kg ) more per rower than their opponents . The race saw the return of no fewer than twelve former Blues , six in each crew . Only Richard Yonge , Richard Emerton and Brown for Oxford and R. Stephens , M. Clark and Mike Cowie for Cambridge were new to the race . Graeme Hall was the Cambridge finishing coach , while Oxford 's Dan Topolski took over that role from Steve Royle two weeks prior to the race .
= = Race = =
Oxford were strong pre @-@ race favourites ; Ladbrokes themselves quoted Oxford at odds of five @-@ to @-@ one on to win . Cambridge won the toss for the first time in seven years and elected to start on the Surrey station . The race started at 1 pm under umpire Howard 's guidance . Both crews rating equally off the start , Oxford took an early lead and lead by nine seconds by the Mile Post , allowing her to move the Dark Blue boat in front of Cambridge . Pushing her crew to outrate Cambridge , Oxford extended their lead to 10 seconds by Hammersmith Bridge , 14 seconds by Chiswick Steps , 18 seconds by Barnes Bridge and 23 seconds by the finishing post . Oxford won their sixth consecutive victory by eight lengths in a time of 18 minutes 11 seconds , the largest margin of victory since the Cambridge won the 1973 race by thirteen lengths , and the largest margin of victory in the 20th century for the Dark Blues .
In the reserve race , Isis beat Goldie by five lengths , their second consecutive victory . In the 36th running of the Women 's Boat Race , Oxford triumphed , their second consecutive victory .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford cox Brown avoided the traditional soaking in the Thames . She later commented : " I steered extremely badly , but we still won . " Her coach Topolski said " She did a brilliant job . " Dodd , writing in The Guardian , described Oxford 's victory as " crushing " following their " undramatic and calculated performance " . Jim Railton of The Times was impressed : " Without a doubt it is one of the finest crews Oxford have ever produced , arguably the best . "
= Launch Party =
" Launch Party " is the fifth and sixth episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's fifty @-@ eighth and fifty @-@ ninth episode overall . The episode was written by Jennifer Celotta and directed by Ken Whittingham . It first aired in the United States on October 11 , 2007 on NBC .
In this episode , Dunder Mifflin prepares for the launch of their new website . Dwight tries to outsell the website , Andy makes a move for Angela , and Michael kidnaps a pizza delivery boy ( Kevin McHale ) .
= = Plot = =
In the opening scene , Michael has arranged a meeting to discuss making the Quarterly Report more exciting , unaware that the office workers are all more interested in the DVD screensaver , and believes their disappointment whenever the bouncing box on the screensaver doesn 't make it into a corner are reactions to his statements . Eventually , the box does make it into a corner , and the cheering employees all leave , to his confusion .
Dunder Mifflin is preparing a party for the launch of their new website " Dunder Mifflin Infinity " . Since Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) doesn 't want to go to the launch party , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) invites Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , who makes Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) take her place . Only after they reach New Jersey does Jim realize that Michael received an " invitation " to a chat room , not the actual party . Jim also reveals that he turned down the Corporate job that Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) accepted . Michael returns to Scranton dejected and attempts to plan a better party . This irritates party planner Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) , who has already been in an exceptionally irritable mood . She viciously and patronizingly takes out her frustrations on fellow Party Planning Committee member Phyllis , who quits the committee in frustration .
Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) decides to compete against the website to see who can make more sales . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) keeps a running tally of reams sold , blowing an airhorn each time Dwight makes a sale . Irritated by the distraction , Jim and Pam plot a prank . They send Dwight instant messages pretending to be the company 's computer system , taunting Dwight to believe it has achieved self @-@ awareness . Dwight wins the challenge , but when he gloats to Angela about his victory , she rejects him outright and makes it clear that they are broken up for good . She also asks Pam to set her up with a single friend of hers . Pam , feeling sorry for Dwight , sends another message as the computer acknowledging him as a superior being . Andy later sets up a conference call with some of his old Cornell friends to serenade Angela with Take a Chance on Me ; she doesn 't agree to date him , but appears to be somewhat charmed by the spectacle .
Michael finally realizes that Ryan doesn 't respect him , and once he gets online for the party 's chat room he snaps that Dwight single @-@ handedly outsold DMI and curses at Ryan . But his emotional reactions haven 't stopped for the night : he is angered after everyone complains that he confused the office 's favorite pizza place ( Alfredo 's Pizza Cafe , which is a real restaurant in Scranton ) with a terrible pizza place ( Pizza by Alfredo , which is fictional ) . When his coupon is then refused , he takes a stand for justice and holds the teenaged delivery driver ( Kevin McHale ) hostage , with both he and Dwight acting out their frustrations about Ryan and Angela , respectively . After some time , Michael realizes he is breaking the law and lets the kid go , and then heads up to crash the party in NYC and get some sushi , with Dwight joining him . They get to enjoy a little leftover food , but Michael 's most cheered when one of the younger Corporate workers says they liked his rant against Ryan and " It was funny to see Ryan embarrassed by all that " , and heads home in good spirits .
= = Production = =
" Launch Party " was the sixth episode of the series directed by Ken Whittingham . Whittingham had previously directed " Health Care " , " Michael 's Birthday " , " The Convention " , " The Merger " , and " Phyllis ' Wedding " . " Launch Party " was written by Jennifer Celotta , making it the sixth episode written by her .
According to Jennifer Celotta , the idea for the first scene of the episode where the office workers are watching a logo bounce around a television screen , came when the writers were in a room watching the DVD logo bounce around the television screen , and were arguing about whether it would ever hit the corner .
= = Reception = =
" Launch Party " received a 5 @.@ 2 Nielsen Rating and an 8 % Share . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 91 million viewers and achieved a 4 @.@ 7 / 11 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic .
" Launch Party " received mixed reviews from critics . TV Squad 's Jay Black wondered why the writers " feel the need to veer off into increasingly more ridiculous places " , especially because The Office is " hailed by critics and adored by fans for its ability to find humor in the smallest pieces of real @-@ life human interaction " . Black did say that except for the kidnapping , he " thought tonight 's episode was the best of the season . " Travis Fickett of IGN wrote that " Launch Party " was " a very entertaining episode with some terrific moments . " Fickett did say that with all the hour @-@ long episodes " things start to feel stretched and some scenes take on a sense of redundancy and certain storylines seem to peter out before they even get going . "
= French battleship Courbet ( 1911 ) =
Courbet was the lead ship of her class , the first dreadnoughts built for the French Navy . She was completed before World War I and named in honour of Admiral Amédée Courbet . She spent the war in the Mediterranean , helping to sink the Austro @-@ Hungarian protected cruiser Zenta in August 1914 . She spent the rest of the war providing cover for the Otranto Barrage that blockaded the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the Adriatic Sea . Although upgraded several times before World War II , she was not deemed to be a first @-@ class battleship and spent most of the interwar period as a gunnery training ship .
Upon the German invasion of France , beginning on 10 May 1940 , Courbet was hastily rearmed . She supported Allied troops in the defence of Cherbourg during June , later that month taking refuge in England . As part of Operation Catapult , she was seized in Portsmouth by British forces on 3 July and was turned over to the Free French a week later . She was used as a patrol vessel depot ship and an anti @-@ aircraft ship there until 31 March 1941 when she was disarmed and hulked . Her engines and boilers were removed in 1944 to prepare her for use as a breakwater during the Normandy landings in June 1944 . She was scrapped where she lay after the war .
= = Description = =
Courbet was 166 metres ( 544 ft 7 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 27 metres ( 88 ft 7 in ) and at full load a draft of 9 @.@ 04 metres ( 29 ft 8 in ) at the bow . She displaced 23 @,@ 475 tonnes ( 23 @,@ 100 long tons ) at standard load and 25 @,@ 579 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 180 long tons ) at full load . She proved to be rather wet in service as she was bow @-@ heavy because of the superimposed turrets forward .
Courbet had four propeller shafts powered by four Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines , rated at 28 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 20 @,@ 880 kW ) . Twenty @-@ four Niclausse boilers provided steam for her turbines . These boilers were coal @-@ burning with auxiliary oil sprayers . She had a designed speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , although she reached 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) during trials . She carried up to 2 @,@ 700 long tons ( 2 @,@ 700 t ) of coal and 906 long tons ( 921 t ) of oil and could steam for 4 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) .
Courbet 's main armament consisted of twelve 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) Mle 1910 45 @-@ calibre guns mounted in six twin gun turrets , with two turrets superimposed fore and aft , and one on each flank of the ship . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defence she carried twenty @-@ two 138 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) Mle 1910 guns , which were mounted in casemates . Four 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Modèle 1902 Hotchkiss guns were fitted , two on each beam . She was also armed with four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 18 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
0 ft ) .
A widely distributed species , Glutinoglossum glutinosum has been recorded from northern Africa ( Macaronesia and Morocco ) , Asia ( Bhutan , China , India , Japan , and the Philippines ) and Europe . It is listed as vulnerable in Switzerland . In Bulgaria , where it is considered critically endangered , threats to G. glutinosum include " habitat changes as result of agriculture activities ( crops , livestock ) , atmospheric and land pollution , drought , global warming . " In a preliminary Regional Red List of Dutch macrofungi , G. glutinosum was considered threatened , and it was noted that before 1970 , the fungus was " rather common " , compared to " rather rare " after that year . The North American distribution includes Canada , the United States , and Mexico .
Although G. glutinosum was previously thought to have occurred in Australia and New Zealand , later examination and genetic analysis of collections from these locations showed the material to belong to what have since been described as the new species G. australasicum or G. exiguum .
= Phil Nevin =
Phillip Joseph Nevin ( born January 19 , 1971 ) is an American professional baseball manager for the Reno Aces , the Arizona Diamondbacks ' Triple @-@ A affiliate in the Pacific Coast League . He spent twelve seasons as a player in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) from 1995 through 2006 , playing for the Houston Astros , Detroit Tigers , Anaheim Angels , San Diego Padres , Texas Rangers , Chicago Cubs , and Minnesota Twins .
Nevin attended California State University , Fullerton where he played college baseball for the Cal State Fullerton Titans team . He led the Titans to the championship game in the 1992 College World Series ( CWS ) , after which he was named the CWS Most Outstanding Player and won the Golden Spikes Award . Chosen with the first @-@ overall pick in the 1992 Major League Baseball draft , Nevin went on to play in MLB for seven teams across 12 seasons . He was selected to appear in the 2001 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game .
After retiring , Nevin stayed involved in baseball . He briefly went into broadcasting , then managed the unaffiliated Orange County Flyers for a season . He managed the Class AA Erie SeaWolves and the Class AAA Toledo Mud Hens in the Tigers organization before joining the Diamondbacks organization in 2014 , managing the Aces .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur career = = =
Nevin attended El Dorado High School in Placentia , California . After graduating , he was selected by the Los Angeles Dodgers in the third round of the 1989 Major League Baseball draft with the 82nd overall selection . He decided to attend California State University , Fullerton after turning down an offer that included a signing bonus of $ 100 @,@ 000 .
A two @-@ sport star , Nevin played American football and baseball for the Cal State Fullerton Titans , competing in the Big West Conference of NCAA Division I. He was a punter and placekicker on the Cal State Fullerton Titans football team . He was named an All @-@ American placekicker his freshman year for the Titans as he connected successfully on his first nine field goal attempts and finished the year with a 15 @-@ for @-@ 21 field goal percentage . His longest field goal of the season was 54 yards ( 49 m ) . In his junior year , he averaged 40 @.@ 9 yards ( 37 @.@ 4 m ) per punt .
For the Cal State Fullerton Titans baseball team , Nevin batted .358 with 56 runs batted in ( RBI ) as a freshman . The Titans won the conference championship and reached the 1990 College World Series ( CWS ) that year . The Titans lost two games in the 1990 CWS , however , and were eliminated . Nevin batted .335 in his sophomore season . As a junior , he batted .391 with 20 home runs and 71 RBI , winning the Big West Conference Triple Crown . Collegiate Baseball and Baseball America named Nevin the College Player of the Year . He credited his past CWS experience with allowing him to remain calm .
In three seasons at Cal State Fullerton , Nevin had a .364 average with 39 home runs and 184 RBI . He led the Titans to the finals of the 1992 CWS , where the Titans lost to the Pepperdine Waves baseball team , which represented the West Coast Conference . Despite the loss , Nevin was voted the CWS Most Outstanding Player after he batted 10 @-@ for @-@ 19 with two home runs and 11 RBI . He also won the Golden Spikes Award , given to the best amateur player in the nation .
= = = Draft = = =
The Houston Astros chose Nevin with the first overall pick in the 1992 Major League Baseball draft . Hal Newhouser , a scout for the Astros , had evaluated Derek Jeter extensively prior to the draft . Convinced that Jeter would anchor a winning team , Newhouser lobbied team management to select Jeter , and quit in protest over the Astros ' decision to take Nevin instead . The Astros believed that Jeter would insist on a salary bonus of at least $ 1 million to forgo his college scholarship for a professional contract . Signing bonuses given to the best player in the draft were increasing rapidly . Todd Van Poppel , regarded by many at the time the first pick of the 1990 MLB draft , signed for $ 1 @.@ 2 million , while the 1991 MLB draft 's first pick , Brien Taylor , signed for $ 1 @.@ 55 million after insisting he would otherwise enroll in college . Meanwhile , the Astros were unable to sign their first @-@ round draft pick in 1991 , John Burke , who insisted on a bonus of $ 500 @,@ 000 as the sixth overall selection . Consequently , the Astros passed on Jeter in the draft .
Bill Wood , the Astros ' general manager , said the team believed Nevin was close to a major @-@ league level and would require little development in minor league baseball . As evidence for this , the Astros pointed to Nevin 's training with the wooden bats used in professional baseball in an effort to prepare himself for the transition from metal bats . The Astros believed he would be a solid power hitter and have a strong work ethic . Nevin also did not intend to seek a signing bonus approaching those received by Van Poppel and Taylor . The Astros decided to employ Nevin as a third baseman . Not wanting to draw out his contract negotiations , Nevin signed with Houston in June , receiving a $ 700 @,@ 000 bonus .
= = = International career = = =
Nevin tried out for the United States national baseball team in the summer of 1990 to play in that year 's Goodwill Games and World University Baseball Championship ( WUBC ) . To prepare for those tournaments , the team played a series against Japan and a game in Cuba . Nevin played second and third base for Team USA in 13 of its 22 games , batting .229 . The team released him before the Goodwill Games and WUBC as it cut players to meet the roster maximum . Nevin was also considered for the 1991 Pan American Games .
Nevin tried out for Team USA again before the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona . The team embarked on a 30 @-@ game tour and 38 @-@ city exhibition @-@ game schedule in the United States before leaving for Spain . He made the team and served as its starting third baseman throughout the tournament . Olympic coach Ron Fraser called Nevin an excellent player and student of the game . The United States finished fourth out of eight teams in the Olympics .
= = = Professional career = = =
= = = = Prospect years ( 1992 – 1997 ) = = = =
Nevin traveled with the Astros at the end of their 1992 season but was not on the team 's roster . The Astros sent Nevin to the instructional Arizona Fall League during the off @-@ season . Before the 1993 season , Baseball America ranked Nevin as the 30th @-@ best prospect in baseball .
The Astros considered sending Nevin to the Jackson Generals of the Class AA Texas League to start his professional career . The team also considered promoting him directly to the major leagues , skipping the minor leagues entirely . At the Astros ' spring training in 1993 , Nevin batted .350 and showed good power hitting . The Astros weighed bringing Nevin to Houston for Opening Day as they sought to add a right @-@ handed batter to complement the left @-@ handed power of Luis Gonzalez , Steve Finley and Eric Anthony and make the team less vulnerable to left @-@ handed pitching . But with Ken Caminiti in the first year of a three @-@ year contract to play as the starting third baseman , Nevin had nowhere to play defensively . The Astros assigned him to the Class AAA Tucson Toros of the Pacific Coast League , one level below the major leagues , where he made his professional debut .
While Nevin was with the Toros , the Astros asked Toros manager Rick Sweet to play Nevin as a left fielder , which would allow the Astros to promote Nevin sooner , as he and Caminiti could play different positions . Veteran first baseman Jim Lindeman served as Nevin 's mentor , helping him keep his composure under significant attention and pressure to perform . Nevin started the 1993 season with a .247 batting average , but batted .309 with baserunners in scoring position and had 49 RBI . By July , he had made ten starts in left field , without committing an error . The Astros , however , were concerned that Nevin did not apply the level of intensity he had in " clutch " situations to cases where there were no baserunners and the score was not close .
Nevin 's intensity almost got the best of him during a June 1993 game with Tucson . He was taunted by a man seated in the front row , and nearly attempted to jump into the stands to confront the fan before he was restrained by teammates . The fan was arrested .
Nevin played third base and left field in 1993 . He batted .286 that season , with 10 home runs and 91 RBI . He had a .359 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) and .413 slugging percentage ( SLG ) . Baseball America rated him the 24th best prospect before the 1994 season . He returned to Tucson that year , posting a .263 batting average with 12 home runs and 71 RBI . He had a .343 OBP , and .393 SLG . Nevin also played first base . His major @-@ league debut , however , was delayed both by his defense ( 61 errors in his first two seasons ) and the MLB 1994 – 95 work stoppage .
The Astros traded Caminiti to the San Diego Padres before the 1995 season . With Caminiti no longer blocking his path to the major leagues , Nevin hoped he would be named the Astros ' starting third baseman . But the Astros did not invite him to spring training . Nevin attributed the snub to his refusal to work out with replacement players during the work stoppage . Not wanting to be seen as " scabs " by the Major League Baseball Players Association , minor league players who felt they would play in MLB after the resolution of the strike felt pressure to avoid playing with replacement players , while career minor @-@ leaguers were happy to get a taste of the major leagues . When prospects including Nevin and Billy Wagner refused to play with the replacement players , Astros ' general manager Bob Watson issued an ultimatum , saying anyone who refused to play in the team 's first exhibition game would be sent out of camp until further notice and be held in breach of contract . The Astros sent Nevin back to Tucson to start the 1995 season , while Dave Magadan started at third base on Opening Day . The Astros also planned to use Shipley and Chris Donnels at third base .
With the Toros in 1995 , Nevin 's batting average improved to .291 . He also posted a .367 OBP , and .463 SLG , while contributing seven home runs and 41 RBI . The Astros promoted him on June 10 , 1995 , and he made his major @-@ league debut a day later . Nevin played 18 games for the Astros during the 1995 season . He struggled with the Astros , however , batting .117 with no home runs , one RBI , a .221 OBP , and .133 SLG in 60 at @-@ bats . When he learned of his demotion to Tucson on July 5 in Colorado , Nevin cursed at Watson and Astros manager Terry Collins . After Watson called for an apology , Nevin said he would use the incident as a learning experience in controlling his temper .
The Astros acquired pitcher Mike Henneman from the Detroit Tigers for a player to be named later on August 10 ; Nevin was identified as the player five days later . In 1996 , Nevin played in Class AA for the Tigers with the Jacksonville Suns of the Southern League , where he was converted into a catcher .
= = = = Recovering from earlier struggles ( 1998 – 2001 ) = = = =
After the 1997 season , the Tigers traded Nevin and catcher Matt Walbeck to the Anaheim Angels , where Collins was manager , for minor league player Nick Skuse . After an injury to starting catcher Todd Greene , Collins gave Nevin the opportunity to compete for the starting job with Walbeck . Nevin , by then well known for his volatile temper , tore off his jersey while arguing balls and strike calls with the home plate umpire in a 1998 game .
Before the 1999 season , the Angels traded Nevin and minor league player Keith Volkman to the San Diego Padres . Nevin made a late @-@ career break with the Padres , appearing in 100 games for the first time during the 1999 season . He then had the best offensive years of his career : he hit 31 home runs with a .916 on @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ) during the 2000 season . He was named to the National League All @-@ Star team in 2001 , when he hit 41 home runs with 126 RBI and had a .976 OPS . He also led major @-@ league third basemen in errors , however , with 27 , and had the lowest fielding percentage of all major league third basemen ( .930 ) .
= = = = Injuries and final seasons ( 2002 – 2006 ) = = = =
Nevin in 2002 played first base , which was considered his strongest defensive position . But injuries shortened his 2002 and 2003 seasons . In 2002 , he missed time with a strained left elbow . Three games after returning from the elbow injury , he broke his arm diving for a ground ball , causing him to miss another six weeks . After being heckled by a fan during a September 2002 game , Nevin gave the fan the finger , for which he apologized .
Nevin suffered a dislocated shoulder in spring training in 2003 while making a diving catch . He had surgery on his left shoulder and returned to the Padres in June . The Padres acquired Rondell White to replace Nevin , and White went on to have an All @-@ Star season in left field . Ryan Klesko filled in at first base and rookie Sean Burroughs played well at third base , Nevin 's favorite position . Nevin offered to be used in a utility role , alternating with White , Klesko , and Burroughs , as well as Xavier Nady in right field . In 2004 , Nevin had more than 100 RBI for the third time in his career , but underwent arthroscopic surgery to repair torn cartilage in his right knee in July .
Nevin was often frustrated with the dimensions of Petco Park . He hit a double during a 2004 game that he believed would have been a home run in other stadiums ; when he reached second base , he pointed toward Padres ' general manager Kevin Towers ' suite and threw down his helmet , resulting in a postgame argument . Towers said the two had a " love @-@ hate " relationship .
Two nights after San Diego Padres management informed Nevin that Xavier Nady would replace him as the starting first baseman , Nevin rejected a trade to the Baltimore Orioles for Sidney Ponson on July 25 , 2005 . Nevin exercised a clause in his contract that gave him the right to block transactions that would send him to any of eight franchises , one of which was the Orioles . He was instead traded on July 30 , a day before the non @-@ waiver trade deadline , to the Texas Rangers for Chan Ho Park , whose salary the Rangers wanted to dump . In his first thirteen games with the Rangers , the team posted a 1 – 12 record as Nevin batted 5 @-@ for @-@ 44 . That put his season batting average under .200 , known as the " Mendoza Line " . The Rangers benched Nevin in September , giving his starts to prospect first baseman Adrian Gonzalez after the team was eliminated from playoff contention . In his first game back in the lineup on September 24 , his average dropped to .182 . He refuted opinions that he was losing bat speed .
Nevin had one year remaining on a contract worth $ 9 million . Manager Buck Showalter said that despite Nevin 's benching at the end of the 2005 season , he was his starting designated hitter for the 2006 season . Despite hopes that help from renowned hitting coach Rudy Jaramillo and the hitter @-@ friendly Ameriquest Field would increase Nevin 's offensive production in 2006 , he continued to struggle . He batted .216 with nine home runs and 31 RBI in 46 games . The Rangers promoted rookie Jason Botts on May 23 , and Botts began to receive Nevin 's playing time .
Nevin had only two hits in his last 32 at @-@ bats with the Rangers , though both of them were home runs . The Chicago Cubs sought a slugging first baseman to replace the injured Derrek Lee , and the Rangers traded Nevin to Chicago on May 31 , 2006 . The Rangers received second baseman and outfielder Jerry Hairston , Jr. in return . The Rangers also agreed to pay the difference in the two players ' salaries . On August 31 , the deadline for trades of players who had cleared waivers , the Cubs traded Nevin to the Twins for cash and a player to be named later . To make room for Nevin , Twins ' outfielder Shannon Stewart was placed on the 60 @-@ day disabled list .
With the Twins , Nevin stopped worrying about his statistics and enjoyed playing in a pennant race . Nevin appeared in the MLB postseason for the first time in his career with the Twins in 2006 . The Twins were swept by the Oakland Athletics in three games ; Nevin appeared in one of the three games , batting 0 @-@ for @-@ 3 .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
Unsigned at the beginning of the following season , Nevin announced his retirement on May 12 , 2007 . During his twelve @-@ season career , Nevin had a .270 batting average with 208 home runs and 743 RBI in 1 @,@ 217 games . After retiring , Nevin joined the Padres ' pre @-@ game radio show . He also joined ESPN as an analyst for the college baseball regionals during the College World Series .
Two seasons removed from his playing career , Nevin decided to return to baseball as a manager in 2008 . That December , he was named the manager of the Orange County Flyers in the independent Golden Baseball League ( GBL ) . The Flyers finished with a 37 – 39 record in 2009 , fourth in the five @-@ team GBL . Nevin planned to return to the Flyers in 2010 , but a chance meeting at baseball 's winter meetings led to Nevin 's hiring as manager of the Erie SeaWolves , the Class @-@ AA minor @-@ league affiliate of the Detroit Tigers . He replaced the previous manager , Tom Brookens after Brookens was promoted to the Tigers ' major @-@ league first @-@ base coach .
Nevin managed the SeaWolves for one season . On November 11 , 2010 , Nevin was named manager of the Toledo Mud Hens , the Tigers ' Class AAA minor league affiliate . He is considered a potential future MLB manager . Catcher Omir Santos described his managing the Mud Hens as " like having a big league manager in [ Class AAA ] . " On August 31 , 2013 , Nevin was fired after the team 's final home game of the season . Nevin 's record as manager was 192 – 238 ; the team never finished higher than third in the International League 's West division .
The Arizona Diamondbacks named Nevin as manager of the Reno Aces , their Class AAA affiliate , for the 2014 season . In his first season with Reno , he guided the Aces to a Pacific Coast League @-@ best 81 @-@ 63 record and an eventual Pacific Coast League Championship Series berth . After the season , the Astros interviewed Nevin for their open managerial position . However Nevin remained the manager of the Reno Aces for the 2015 season and returned as manager in 2016 .
= = Personal life = =
Nevin 's first daughter , Koral , was born during his freshman year at Cal State Fullerton ; he is no longer in a relationship with Koral 's mother . He met his wife , Kristin , at Cal State Fullerton . The couple have two children together ; though they were separated during the late 1990s , the couple reconciled . His son , Tyler Nevin , was drafted by the Colorado Rockies as the 38th pick in the 2015 MLB draft .
Nevin lives in the Heritage Estates neighborhood of Poway , California , along with San Diego sporting figures including Bruce Bochy and LaDainian Tomlinson . The neighborhood suffered significant damage in the October 2007 California wildfires .
Nevin hosted a baseball camp for children aged six through 16 in 2010 .
= Body Language ( Kylie Minogue album ) =
Body Language is the ninth studio album by Australian singer Kylie Minogue , released on 10 November 2003 by Parlophone . Following the massive commercial success of her eighth studio album Fever ( 2001 ) , Minogue enlisted a diverse group of writers and producers to aid in creating a new album , including Cathy Dennis , Dan Carey , Emiliana Torrini , Johnny Douglas and Mantronix among others . Influenced by the musical works of the 1980s and artists like Prince and Scritti Politti , Body Language musically differs from Minogue 's previous albums , which mainly featured disco @-@ oriented dance @-@ pop tracks , and instead explores genres like synthpop , electroclash , R & B , and hip hop . Many tracks in Body Language contain references to songs from the 1980s and lyrically , the album touches upon themes of enjoyment , flirting , and sex .
Three singles were released from Body Language . " Slow " was released as the lead single in November 2003 and was a commercial success , peaking at number one on the singles charts of Australia , Denmark , Spain and the United Kingdom . " Red Blooded Woman " was released as the second single in March 2004 and reached the top five in Australia and the United Kingdom . " Chocolate " was released as the final single in June 2004 and peaked inside the top 10 in the United Kingdom . Minogue performed at a one @-@ off concert show held at entertainment venue Hammersmith Apollo , London , on 15 November 2003 to mark the release of the album . No tickets were publicly made available for sale and only fans with invitations were allowed to attend the show , which was entitled " Money Can 't Buy " .
Upon its release , Body Language received generally favourable to mixed reviews from music critics , many of whom complimented Minogue for experimenting with new genres and the overall production of the album . Some critics , however , opined that many songs lacked catchy material and were not suitable for dancing . Commercially , Body Language performed well , although it was not as successful as Fever . It peaked at number two on the albums chart of Australia and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . In the United Kingdom , Body Language peaked at number six and was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . Elsewhere , the album performed well in Austria and Switzerland . Body Language became notable for displaying another change in Minogue 's persona and is cited as an example of her numerous " reinventions " .
= = Background and development = =
In October 2001 , Minogue released her eighth studio album Fever . The disco and Europop @-@ influenced dance @-@ pop album became an international commercial success , debuting at number one on the record charts of Minogue 's native Australia and the United Kingdom . It was Minogue 's first album to be released in the United States since her second studio album Enjoy Yourself ( 1989 ) , and became her biggest commercial success in the region after peaking at number three on the Billboard 200 chart . Fever was certified seven @-@ times platinum in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , five @-@ times platinum in the United Kingdom by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , and platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . With worldwide sales over six million copies , Fever became Minogue 's highest selling album to date . The success of the album , particularly in the US , was credited to the commercial impact of its lead single " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " , which reached number one in 40 countries , including every European country except Finland , and Australia and New Zealand . " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " sold over five million copies worldwide , becoming Minogue 's highest selling single to date and also one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time .
Soon , Minogue began work on her ninth studio album Body Language . Aiming to create a dance @-@ pop album inspired by electronic music from the 1980s , Minogue enlisted collaborators such as Cathy Dennis , Dan Carey , Emiliana Torrini , Johnny Douglas and Mantronix . In an interview with VH1 , Minogue explained how 1980s music , had influenced her , saying :
" I first got into pop music in ' 81 , I 'd say . It was all about Prince , Adam [ and ] the Ants , that whole New Romantic period . Prior to that , it was the Jackson 5 , Donna Summer , and my dad 's records – the [ Rolling ] Stones and Beatles . The influence we used on Body Language was more mid- ' 80s , specifically Scritti Politti "
Talking further about Scritti Politti , a British post @-@ punk band , Minogue reminisced about her collaboration with the band 's frontman Green Gartside , who provides vocals on the track " Someday " , saying , " To this day I haven 't met him ! I left a message on his answering machine , saying , " Hi , it 's Kylie ! I just wanted to say thanks so much ! You sound brilliant ! " " After Dark " was co @-@ written by Dennis , who had previously co @-@ written " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " for Minogue . Torrini , who co @-@ wrote " Slow " , revealed how she was approached for writing the song , saying " It was like I had just accidentally walked into the line of fire with , " Hey ! You There ! It was all quite surreal . I still think Kylie 's people were trying to call Jamelia , and they just got the wrong number . It 'd be much more funny if that is how it actually happened " . The recording of Body Language took place during the summer of 2003 , in locations such as London , Ireland , and Spain .
= = Musical styles and lyrical content = =
Inspired by music from the 1980s , Body Language deviates from Minogue 's usual disco @-@ influenced dance @-@ pop style , evident on albums like Light Years ( 2000 ) and Fever , and instead explores genres like synthpop , electroclash , club and R & B. In comparison to her previous work , Body Language is a " slower @-@ burning record " and begins with the song " Slow " , a " minimal " and simple track which serves as a primary example of the synthpop @-@ styled production of the album . Adrien Begrand from PopMatters compared it to " More More More " , the opening track of Fever , saying " In contrast to the pulsating , hi @-@ hat driven dance beat of Fever 's " More More More " , Body Language gets off to a more understated start " . Other synthpop songs on the album include " Still Standing " and " Promises " , which make use of " buzzing , low synth lines driving the beats , and chord flourishes that sound straight out of 1984 " . The former track also displays influences of nu @-@ disco and club music . Many songs on Body Language are influenced by R & B and hip hop music , two genres Minogue newly experimented with on the album . " Red Blooded Woman " " blends the 1980s sound with an almost garage @-@ like beat " and contains a " Boy ! Boy ! " hook and " la la la " bridge . Critics felt its production was similar to that by American hip hop and R & B producer Timbaland . Elements of funk are also present and are notably clear on tracks like " Sweet Music " and " I Feel For You " . " Secret ( Take You Home ) " received considerable coverage as it features a " coquettish " rap section delivered by Minogue . Body Language also contains ballads such as the quiet storm @-@ influenced " Chocolate " and " Obsession " . Minogue 's vocal delivery on the album is mostly seductive and breathy in tone , such as in songs like " Slow " and " Chocolate " , although the track " Obsession " features raspy vocals .
Critics noted references and similarities to 1980s pop music throughout the album . Adrien Begrand from PopMatters found the hook of " Sweet Music " similar to those in songs by Prince and INXS . " Still Standing " was described by Helen Pidd from The Guardian as " a magnificent blend of Prince 's " Kiss " and Peter Gabriel 's " Sledgehammer " " . " Red Blooded Woman " contains a reference to British band Dead or Alive 's 1985 song " You Spin Me Round ( Like a Record ) " , in the line " You got me spinning round , round , round , round like a record " . The title of " I Feel For You " is the same as the 1979 / 1984 song by Prince and Chaka Khan , although it is not a cover of the song . " Secret ( Take You Home ) " directly refers to urban contemporary band Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam 's 1984 song " I Wonder If I Take You Home " , both in its title and refrain . The line of the song in which Minogue sings " don 't confuse emotions with the pleasure principle " also refers to American recording artist Janet Jackson 's 1987 song " The Pleasure Principle " .
Lyrically , Body Language touches upon themes like enjoyment , flirting , sex , and " partying like it 's 1987 all over again " . In an interview with VH1 , Minogue was asked why the lyrics on the album " sound more personal than they might have been a few years ago " , and she responded by saying " Some of that could be just chance ! I wrote lyrics that were intensely personal to me on an album a few years ago . Maybe people know me better now , and therefore , if a songwriter pitches me a song , they might tailor it [ to fit me ] . I get the lyrics of a tune and interpret them my way " . Although the lyrics of " Slow " seem like an invitation to the dance floor , Minogue revealed that " it 's about how time and space have a different meaning when you meet someone [ you really like ] " . In " Sweet Music " , Minogue sings about the " magic of the modern singer / producer partnership " in lines like " I think we 're on to something / Your taste it mirrors mine / So hot and in the moment " and " Let 's make this demo right " . The song also makes use of double entendre in some lines . Similarly , " Chocolate " is " packed with saccharine innuendo " . " Secret ( Take You Home ) " contains various metaphors that compare flirting and sex to car racing . Ballads like " Obsession " deal with issues of loss and the ending of a relationship .
= = Release = =
Body Language was released on 14 November 2003 in Australia , while in the United Kingdom it was released three days later . In the United States , Body Language was released on 10 February 2004 . The cover art of the album , as well as other promotion shoots , show Minogue striking a pose in a black and white striped crop top , which reveals her midriff , and low @-@ cut pants . Her appearance is similar to that of French actress and singer Brigitte Bardot , who was regarded as the " first foreign @-@ language star ever to attain a level of international success comparable to America 's most popular homegrown talents " and one of the best known sex symbols of the 1950s and 1960s , frequently cited as the " archetypal sex kitten " and " sex goddess " . Minogue described the promotion shoots as " the perfect mix of coquette , kitten and rock ' n ' roll " , and revealed that " We shot it on location in the South of France , so it was [ easy to ] channel the spirit of [ Brigitte ] Bardot . She 's a great iconic reference , particularly that period where she was working with Serge Gainsbourg " . The title of the album was taken from a line from the song " Slow " in which Minogue sings " Read my body language " .
= = = Singles = = =
" Slow " was released on 3 November 2003 as the lead single from Body Language . The song garnered critical acclaim , with Minogue 's breathy and seductive vocal delivery receiving particular praise . Commercially , the single was a success . It debuted at number one on both the Australian Singles Chart and UK Singles Chart . In the latter region , it became Minogue 's seventh number one single and made her a record @-@ holding female artist for spending the longest duration as a UK chart topper . Elsewhere , it reached number one in Denmark , Spain , and on the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . In Australia , " Slow " was certified platinum by the ARIA for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 units . The accompanying music video for " Slow " was directed by Baillie Walsh and was shot in Barcelona , Spain . It features Minogue and a number of beach models performing synchronised choreography to the song while sunbathing next to the Piscina Municipal de Montjuïc swimming pool .
" Red Blooded Woman " was released as the second single on 10 March 2004 . Critics praised its radio @-@ friendly sound and lyrical content . The song performed well on charts , peaking at numbers four and five in Australia and the United Kingdom , respectively . An accompanying music video for the song was directed in Los Angeles by Jake Nava , and features Minogue performing dance routines in various locations .
" Chocolate " was released as the third and final single on 28 June 2004 . It received mixed reviews from critics , some of whom praised its sensual nature but criticised Minogue 's vocals for being over @-@ processed . The song was a moderate commercial success , peaking at number six in the United Kingdom but narrowly missing the top 10 in Australia . It became Minogue 's 27th single to peak inside the top 10 in the UK . Dawn Shadforth , who had previously directed the video for " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " , collaborated on the music video for " Chocolate " which sees Minogue and a number of backup dancers performing a ballet @-@ like dance routines as a tribute to Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer musicals .
= = = Promotion = = =
A one @-@ off concert show was held at entertainment venue Hammersmith Apollo , London , on 15 November 2003 to mark the release of Body Language . The show was entitled " Money Can 't Buy " as no tickets were publicly made available for sale and only fans with invitations were allowed to attend the concert . The 75 @-@ minute long concert cost one million pounds to set up and display manufacturer Barco was hired to provide LED displays as backdrops to Minogue 's performances . The singer wore five different costumes during the show which were designed by fashion houses like Chanel , Balenciaga , and Helmut Lang . 4000 seats were made available for viewing the show and while most were reserved for invited guests , some tickets were auctioned at a charity ball for the " Full Stop " campaign by the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children ( NSPCC ) . The show was directed by Minogue 's stylist and friend William Baker , with musical arrangement and choreography being handled by Steve Anderson and Michael Rooney , respectively . The setlist of the concert show was composed primarily of songs from Body Language ; other songs were taken from Impossible Princess ( 1997 ) , Light Years , and Fever . The show was split in four acts : " Paris By Night , " " Bardello " , " Electro " and " On Yer Bike " . " Still Standing " and " Red Blooded Woman " were performed in the first act , " After Dark " and " Chocolate " in the second , " Slow " and " Obsession " in the third , and " Secret ( Take You Home ) " in the last . The performances were recorded for inclusion in the DVD recording of the event , which was released as Body Language Live on 12 July 2004 . The DVD was certified platinum and gold in Australia and the United Kingdom , respectively .
= = Critical reception = =
Body Language received generally positive to mixed reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Body Language received an average score of 62 based on 17 reviews which indicates that the album received " generally favourable reviews " . Chris True from AllMusic complimented Minogue for expanding her " horizons " and felt that the album was consistent and worked as a " piece " , calling it " stylish without being smarmy , retro without being ironic " . He favoured the overall production of the album and praised Minogue for displaying a " sense of class " , which he felt was lacking in the work of female artists like Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera , and Madonna ; he concluded by labelling Body Language a " near perfect pop record " and " what may well be the best album of her [ Minogue 's ] career " . Keith Caulfield from Billboard was also positive in his review and complimented Minogue for selecting a talented creative team , saying " The sexy , solid set is glued together by danceable beats and Minogue 's knack for picking great songs and producers . " The The Irish Times review of the song called the album a " worthy successor to 2001 's smash hit Fever , a supremely danceable collection of electro @-@ pop songs that 's clearly in thrall to the 80s " and complimented Minogue 's versatile vocal delivery . Ethan Brown from New York was greatly impressed by opening track " Slow " , and commented that most of the songs on the album " mimic its sound , none of the other songs on Body Language comes close to the achievement of " Slow " " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine felt Body Language was a better album than Fever , calling it " less immediate and more experimental , a midway point between the alternative / electronica of 1997 's Impossible Princess and Minogue 's more mainstream post @-@ millennium work " , and praised it for being cohesive . He also complimented Minogue 's " willingness to try something new – even if it 's within the confines of dance @-@ pop – is what 's made her an international sensation 15 years running " . Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone favoured the sensual nature of the album , calling it " fantastic " and that " At thirty @-@ five , she 's ten times hotter than she was ten years ago – on Body Language , Kylie Minogue definitely sounds like she has a few more tricks stored on her hard drive than Britney [ Spears ] or Christina [ Aguilera ] " .
Chris Willman from Entertainment Weekly called it Minogue 's " Madonna @-@ meets @-@ Mirwais move " and felt that her exploration of new genres is " ludicrously enjoyable " , although he opined that the album was " synthetic " and " all Body [ sic ] no soul " . Helen Pidd from The Guardian favoured the blend of 1980s musical styles on the album , but felt that it lacked danceable songs , saying " Problem is , as with the majority of other tracks – including , most disappointingly , the Dennis @-@ penned " After Dark " – you would be hard pushed to dance to it , which could well be Body Language 's downfall " . John Robinson from NME gave Body Language an overall positive review and called it " an extremely tastefully done , soulful modern r 'n'b record " , but felt that it " fails to live up to its predecessor [ Fever ] " . Likewise , Adrien Begnard from PopMatters felt that Body Language lacked the " undeniably catchy " material which was present in Fever , but praised the overall production and the first half of the album ; he concluded that " Even though Body Language is a bit of a misstep for Minogue , there 's a sense of class to it " and that " Britney [ Spears ] could learn a thing or two " . The Spin review of the album commented that Minogue " wears the ' 80s well " and praised the dance @-@ oriented songs on the tracklist , although they criticised the ballads and pointed out that " [ at times ] Minogue 's vocals are so over @-@ processed that they barely seem to exist at all " . On the other hand , Andy Battaglia from The A.V. Club opined that the ballads " work " and concluded that " Body Language shows Minogue as a surprisingly impressive presence in spurts , but she sounds better with her pleasure engine revving at full purr " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Although Body Language was not as much of a commercial success as Fever , it performed well nonetheless . In Minogue 's native Australia , Body Language entered and peaked at number two on the albums chart and spent a total of 18 weeks on the chart . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) certified the album double @-@ platinum for shipping 140 @,@ 000 units in the country . In the United Kingdom , the album entered and peaked at number six on the UK Albums Chart . It remained inside the top 10 for one week , and for two weeks in the top 20 . In total , it stayed on the chart for a total of 30 weeks . Body Language was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 300 @,@ 000 units .
Elsewhere , Body Language peaked at number 23 on the Austrian Albums Chart and was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for selling 7 @,@ 500 units . In the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders region of Belgium , it peaked at number 10 on the Ultratop chart and spent a total of 17 weeks on the chart . It became Minogue 's first album to reach the top 10 in the region . Body Language entered and peaked at number eight on the Swiss Albums Chart , and spent a total of 17 weeks on the chart . In this region , the IFPI certified it gold for selling 20 @,@ 000 units . In the United States , Body Language debuted at number 42 on the Billboard 200 chart with " meagre " first @-@ week sales of 43 @,@ 000 units . According to Nielson SoundScan , Body Language had sold 177 @,@ 000 units in the US as of March 2011 .
= = Legacy = =
Following its release , Body Language was considered to be an example of Minogue 's constant " reinventions " . During this period , Minogue was often referred to as " Bardot Kylie " due to the Brigitte Bardot @-@ inspired look she sported on the cover , and Body Language was seen as a step forward from the " slick , minimalist and postmodern " image she had adopted during the release of Fever . Chris True from AllMusic regarded the album as " another successful attempt [ by Minogue ] at broadening her sound ( with electro and hip @-@ hop for instance ) and winning more fans " . Later in his review of Minogue 's tenth studio album X ( 2007 ) , he remarked that " By the time of 2004 's Body Language , Kylie Minogue was seemingly unassailable , with three hit albums , a number of hit singles , and a recharged career that only a few years before had seemed precarious at best " . In 2006 , Larissa Dubecki from The Age commented that " Kylie has beaten her early detractors by inhabiting almost a dozen identities , from the " singing budgie " who emerged from Neighbours to score her first hit single with a cover of the Little Eva classic " Locomotion " in 1987 , to the 1960s ingenue of her most recent album , 2003 's Body Language " . She used the title " Eurotrash princess " to describe Minogue during this period .
In 2004 , Minogue was nominated for " Best Female Artist " at the 18th Annual Australian Recording Industry Association Music Awards and Body Language was nominated for " Best Pop Release " . At the 2004 Brit Awards , the singer received her third @-@ consecutive nomination for " Best International Female Solo Artist " . At the 47th Grammy Awards ceremony held in the year 2005 , lead single " Slow " was nominated for " Best Dance Recording " , and in 2012 , Minogue picked the song as her all @-@ time favourite song from her 25 years in music .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies a vocal and additional producer
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Body Language .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Heather Mills =
Heather Anne Mills ( born 12 January 1968 ) is an English media personality .
Mills came to public attention in 1993 , when a collision with a police motorcycle in London resulted in the amputation of her left leg below the knee . She continued to model using a prosthetic limb and sold her story to a tabloid newspaper .
Her relationship with Sir Paul McCartney brought further public attention in the year 2000 . They married in June 2002 and Mills gave birth to Beatrice Milly McCartney on 28 October 2003 . The couple separated in 2006 and finalised their divorce in 2008 .
After her marriage to McCartney , Mills became involved in animal rights advocacy and as of 2012 is a patron of Viva ! ( Vegetarians ' International Voice for Animals ) and the Vegetarian and Vegan Foundation . She is also vice @-@ president of the Limbless Association and skied in the British disabled ski team 's development squad in 2013
= = Early life = =
Heather Mills was born in Aldershot , Hampshire , to John " Mark " Francis Mills , a former British paratrooper , and his wife , Beatrice Mary Mills , née Finlay , who was the daughter of a colonel in the British Army . Her father was adopted at age seven and grew up in Brighton , where his foster parents had a grocery shop , although his foster @-@ father also worked as a mechanic for a Grand Prix racing team . Her mother was born in India , during World War II , but was educated at English boarding schools . They met at Newcastle University , and were married against the wishes of Finlay 's father , who did not attend the wedding and only saw his daughter once more before he died .
Beatrice spoke several languages and played the piano , and Mark played banjo and guitar , liked photography ( winning an Evening Standard award ) , and took part in numerous sports . He was very fond of animals ( working for the RSPCA for a time ) , and Mills remembered her family always having a dog and a cat , as well as once having a pet goose and a white nanny goat that was allowed to roam the house owned by Mark 's parents in Libanus , near Brecon .
The Mills family spent their holidays in Libanus and also lived there for a time . When Mills was six years old , the family moved north to Alnwick , in Northumberland , but moved shortly after to a block of flats in Washington , Tyne and Wear , and then on to Cockshott Farm , in Rothbury , Northumberland . She attended Usworth Grange Primary school , and then Usworth Comprehensive school in Washington . She visited Usworth Comprehensive in 2003 , as guest of honour at a prize @-@ giving event and to support the school against plans for its closure .
Mills later wrote that she was kidnapped and sexually assaulted by a swimming pool attendant when she was eight years old , but her next @-@ door neighbour , Margaret Ambler , who was sexually abused by the swimming pool attendant , alleged that Mills ' story was " nothing what she made it out to be " , that Mills was never a victim , and the pool attendant did not commit suicide , as Mills had written . Although having received a letter from Mills offering £ 10 @,@ 000 to stop a court case , Ambler complained that the story had caused her deep discomfort by bringing the incident to national attention , so she sued for breach of privacy , accepting an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement of £ 5 @,@ 000 in compensation , and £ 54 @,@ 000 legal costs .
Beatrice left home when Mills was nine years old , which left her , her older brother Shane , and her younger sister , Fiona , in the care of their father . Mills said that her father once threw her brother against a window for making a mess on the carpet with crayons . The window broke and her brother had to be taken to hospital , where their father explained that the boy had fallen on some glass in the garden . Fiona said : " Our family were always short of money and our father demanded that we find food and clothes so we turned to shoplifting , learnt to hide from the bailiffs and became experts at domestic duties . I ’ m not ashamed to say that we were forced to steal because when you are a young child , you ’ d rather do that than face a beating from your father " . ( Their father disputed his daughters ' allegations that he was violent towards them , later releasing home movies of family holidays in Wales , showing Mills playing happily ) .
= = London and modelling = =
When her father was jailed for 18 months after being convicted of fraud , she left home with her sister to live with her mother and partner ( Crossroads actor Charles Stapley ) , in Clapham , London , although her brother went to Brighton to live with his paternal grandparents . She later wrote that at the age of 15 she ran away to join a funfair , and then lived in a cardboard box under Waterloo Station for four months , although Stapley denied this by saying that she occasionally left home at weekends to travel with a young man who worked for a funfair in London . During her stated period of homelessness , her school records indicate that she and her sister were both enrolled at Usworth comprehensive in Tyne and Wear until April 1983 , and then at Hydeburn Comprehensive , in Balham , on 6 June 1983 , where they both stayed until 2 July 1984 . She remembered that a teacher at the Hydeburn once said , " there 's no hope for her at all " , and that she left school with no academic qualifications . In the same year , her father had another daughter , Claire Mills , with a new partner . Mills worked for a croissant shop , but was sacked , and vowed " never to work for anyone else again " . She later wrote that the owner of a jewellery shop in Clapham gave her a job on Saturdays , but Jim Guy , the owner of Penrose Jewellers , later stated : " Everything she wrote about me was lies , I never gave her a job ; she just hung around and made tea . She told me her father was dead . The only thing that was true was she nicked stuff from the shop " , which Guy said was worth £ 20 @,@ 000 . She admitted that she had stolen some gold chains and sold them to buy a moped , and when Guy reported the theft , she was put on probation .
Alfie Karmal ( the son of a Palestinian father and Greek mother ) was ten years older than Mills when they met in 1986 . Karmal bought her new clothes and Cartier jewellery , and paid for cosmetic surgery when she complained that her breasts were sagging . She later said that she had had a breast reduction operation , reducing her bra size from a 34E to a 34C. so Karmal , who had moved into the computer industry , set up a model agency for her , ExSell Management , although it was not successful . In 1987 , Mills went to live in Paris , telling Karmal that a cosmetics company had given her a modelling contract , but became the mistress of millionaire Lebanese businessman George Kazan for two years and took part in a photo session for a stills @-@ only German sex education manual called Die Freuden der Liebe ( The Joys of Love ) . She also modelled for full @-@ frontal nude photographs .
After returning to London , Mills asked Karmal to marry her . Karmal said yes , but on one condition : " I told her I couldn 't marry her until she did something about her compulsive lying , and she agreed to see a psychiatrist for eight weeks . She admitted she had a problem and said it was because she 'd been forced to lie as a child by her father " . Although Mills proposed to Karmal , she later said that every man she has been out with " has asked me to marry him within a week " . While married to Karmal , she suffered two ectopic pregnancies , so Karmal paid for her to go on holiday to Croatia with his children and ex @-@ wife ( with whom Mills had become friends ) in 1990 , but Mills ended up living with her ski instructor , Miloš Pogačar , shortly before the Croatian War began . Mills then set up a refugee crisis centre in London , helping over 20 people to escape the war . She drove by herself to deliver donations to Croatia , taking modelling assignments in Austria on the way to pay for the trip , later saying that she " worked on the front line in a war zone in the former Yugoslavia for two years where there were mines everywhere that weren 't marked " . Karmal and Mills were divorced and Mills was later engaged to Raffaele Mincione ( a bond dealer for the Industrial Bank of Japan ) in 1993 .
= = Accident and amputees = =
On 8 August 1993 , Mills and Mincione walked to the corner of De Vere Gardens and Kensington Road , London , but while crossing Kensington Road , Mills was knocked down by a police motorcycle ( the last in a convoy of three ) , which was responding to an emergency call . Mills suffered crushed ribs , a punctured lung , and the loss of her left leg 6 inches below the knee ; a metal plate was later attached to her pelvis . In October 1993 , she had another operation which further shortened her leg . Mills was awarded £ 200 @,@ 000 by the police authority as recompense for her injuries , even though the police motorcyclist , PC Osbourne , was later cleared by magistrates of driving without due care and attention . After the accident , Mills sold her story to the News of the World , and gave other interviews , saying she earned £ 180 @,@ 000 . She used the money to set up the Heather Mills Health Trust ( existed 2000 – 2004 ) which delivered prosthetic limbs to people , particularly children , who had lost limbs after stepping on landmines . Mills often shows people her prosthetic leg , once taking it off during an interview on the American talk show Larry King Live , in 2002 .
Mills booked herself into the Hippocrates Health Institute in Florida , which put her on a raw food vegan diet , using wheat grass and garlic poultices to heal her wound . After an operation , Mills discovered that she had been previously identified as having an O rhesus negative blood type , when in fact she was A rhesus negative , which had interfered with her attempts to follow the so @-@ called blood type diet . As her prosthetic leg had to be replaced on a regular basis ( because the size of the amputated stump kept changing as it healed ) , she had the idea to collect thousands of discarded prosthetic limbs for amputees in Croatia . Mills persuaded the Brixton prison governor to get inmates to dismantle and pack the prosthetic limbs before being transported , which resulted in 22 @,@ 000 amputees obtaining limbs in addition to the Croatian citizens who were already supplied with prosthetic limbs by the Croatian Institute for Health Insurance , which paid for the fitting of limbs and rehabilitation of patients . The first convoy of limbs arrived in Zagreb in October 1994 and Mills travelled with the convoy to film interviews with some of the recipients for the Good Morning with Anne and Nick daytime TV show . She received an award in 2001 from Croatia 's prime minister for the money she raised to help clear that country of landmines .
With the help of ghostwriter Pamela Cockerill , Mills wrote a book about her experience titled Out on a Limb ( 1995 ) , which was republished in the United States as A Single Step ( 2002 ) . Extracts from Out on a Limb were serialised in The Daily Mail in March 2000 . Mills handed all the proceeds from the book to Adopt @-@ A @-@ Minefield , and stated that it was one of " the few charities that 100 % of their donations goes to clear minefields and survivor assistance " . In 1995 , Mills got engaged to British media executive Marcus Stapleton , after being together for only 16 days , and was then engaged to respected documentary filmmaker Chris Terrill in 1999 , after only 12 days in Cambodia , where they were making a film about landmines . Mills ended their relationship five days before their planned wedding day , later telling friends in the media that she had called the wedding off because Terrill was gay , an MI6 agent , and that his mission was to sabotage her anti @-@ landmine work . Terrill had once told Mills that he had been interviewed by the intelligence services when he was thinking of a career with the Foreign Office , but later said , " I soon realised that Heather [ Mills ] had a somewhat elastic relationship with the truth , which she was able to stretch impressively sometimes " . Terrill also claims that although Mills said she was a vegetarian at the time , she often cooked her speciality dish , Lancashire hotpot , which contains lamb , for him ; and her ex sister @-@ in @-@ law , Dianna Karmal , claims that Mills only became a vegetarian after meeting McCartney .
In 2003 , the Open University awarded her an honorary doctorate for her philanthropic work on behalf of amputees . She continues to campaign , in addition to promoting the distribution of prostheses around the world and has been involved with the development of the Heather Mills McCartney Cosmesis , which gives amputees in America the chance to wear a Dorset Orthopaedic cosmesis , without having to travel to the UK . Mills is also vice @-@ president of the Limbless Association . In 2004 , she received a " Children in Need " award from the annual International Charity Gala in Düsseldorf and in the same year , the University of California , Irvine , gave her their 2004 Human Security Award and created the Heather Mills McCartney Fellowship in Human Security to support graduate students conducting research on pressing human security issues . She is a former Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations Association Adopt @-@ A @-@ Minefield programme .
= = Relationship with Paul McCartney = =
Mills met McCartney at the Dorchester Hotel , during the Pride of Britain Awards event in April 1999 , which McCartney had attended to present an award to an animal rights activist . Mills presented the Outstanding Bravery Award to Helen Smith ; also making an appeal on behalf of the Heather Mills Health Trust . McCartney also presented an award dedicated to his late wife , Linda McCartney . McCartney talked to Mills about donating to her charity – later giving her £ 150 @,@ 000 . In the autumn of 1999 , Mills and her sister recorded " VO ! CE " ; a song they wrote to raise funds for Mills ' charity , with McCartney agreeing to sing backing vocals . After recording the song in Greece ( where Mills ' sister lived , running the independent label Coda Records ) , the sisters stayed overnight at McCartney 's estate in Peasmarsh , Sussex , in early November , where McCartney added vocals to the song . Having sparked the interest of the tabloids about his appearances with Mills at events , McCartney appeared publicly beside her at a party in January 2000 to celebrate her 32nd birthday .
While on holiday in the Lake District , McCartney proposed to Mills on 23 July 2001 , giving her a £ 15 @,@ 000 diamond and sapphire ring he had purchased in Jaipur , India , while they were both there on holiday .
= = = Marriage = = =
Mills and McCartney were married on 11 June 2002 , four years after McCartney 's first wife had died of breast cancer . The McCartney – Mills wedding was an elaborate ceremony at Castle Leslie ( once the home of Shane Leslie ) , in the village of Glaslough in County Monaghan , Ireland . A song specially composed by McCartney , called " Heather " , was played , which had been included on the 2001 album , Driving Rain .
Mills said that she liked to cook traditional ( but meat @-@ free ) Christmas dinners for McCartney and as many of his family as possible , and that McCartney had encouraged her to give up her self @-@ confessed addiction to chocolate and Snickers bars . When asked by chat @-@ show host Larry King ( in 2003 ) , how life was with McCartney , Mills replied " Great , really great , " but also said that she was surprised at how tidy McCartney was : " He always cleans up before the cleaner comes . So I said for a while that 's crazy , but what 's good is if I cook the dinner , he 'll clean everything up . "
In 2003 , McCartney played a concert in Red Square , Russia . Vladimir Putin gave the couple a tour of the Kremlin . McCartney later said that Mills ' contribution was giving him an acrylic fingernail to protect a finger on his left hand that often bled after playing guitar . McCartney admitted that Mills inspired him , as " Being in love with her makes me want to write songs " , such as " Too Much Rain " on Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , and " See Your Sunshine " ( " She makes me feel glad / I want her so bad " ) from Memory Almost Full . Another composition inspired by Mills was used as the bridal march at their wedding .
During a Parkinson chat show on 22 February 2003 , host Michael Parkinson asked if it was because of McCartney that Mills did not give any interviews , and she replied that she wanted to protect McCartney , his children , and their privacy . On the same show she said that her previous ectopic pregnancies had damaged her fertility , and that her chances of getting pregnant were small , although the couple announced that they were expecting their first child in May 2003 . Mills gave birth to Beatrice Milly McCartney on 28 October 2003 , who was named after Mills ' mother , and McCartney 's aunt . It was later revealed that Mills had suffered a miscarriage in the first year of marriage to McCartney . Mills was invited by Larry King to interview Paul Newman , which was broadcast by CNN on 17 April 2004 . McCartney had arranged for Newman to be interviewed by Mills , but critical reactions to the show were mixed . Mills appeared on other TV programmes , such as BBC1 's Question Time and GMTV , and persuaded McCartney to join her on ITV 's Who Wants To Be A Millionaire ?
= = = = Split = = = =
After some time apart , Mills and McCartney separated on 17 May 2006 . In November 2007 , Mills gave a number of interviews , saying that the breakdown of the marriage was caused by her husband 's daughter , Stella , whom she described as " jealous " and " evil " . Mills had previously talked with New York magazine , saying Stella had once issued a press release confirming how much she liked her new stepmother , although Stella 's publicist denied that such a statement had ever been issued .
After dismissing Anthony Julius , a Mishcon de Reya lawyer , Mills stated she would represent herself in the upcoming divorce hearing , with help from her sister Fiona , David Rosen ( a solicitor @-@ advocate ) , and Michael Shilub , an American attorney . In leaked documents , Mills complained that McCartney was often drunk , smoked cannabis , stabbed her with a broken wine glass , pushed her over a table , and pushed her into a bathtub when she was pregnant . Referring to her part in the marriage , Mills said that she had been a full @-@ time wife , mother , lover , confidante , business partner and psychologist to McCartney . McCartney 's lawyers studied Mills ' book : Life Balance : The Essential Keys to a Lifetime of Wellbeing ( published on 25 May 2006 ) , as it contradicted many of her claims , such as when she praised McCartney for " Bringing me breakfast in bed every morning , no matter how he feels , and I do the dinner , so we ’ ve got that agreement . It ’ s thoughtfulness " . Mills ' father reconciled with his daughter after meeting her and McCartney , when they introduced him to his granddaughter , Beatrice . After their separation , he said that it " took guts to represent yourself at the High Court " , and that he was proud of his daughter , even though he thought she would be " torn to shreds " by McCartney 's lawyers .
= = = Divorce = = =
The case was heard in court 34 at the Royal Courts of Justice in London . At the start of the proceedings Mills asked for £ 125 million , but McCartney offered £ 15 @.@ 8 million . Before the court case , Mills had employed the accountancy firm Lee and Allen to examine McCartney 's publishing company , business assets and properties , saying that she had a tape recording of McCartney admitting his true worth , but the presiding judge , Mr Justice Bennett , turned down numerous requests for information by Lee and Allen .
The hearing took six days , finishing on 18 February 2008 , with the judgment being made public on 17 March 2008 . Mills was eventually awarded a lump sum of £ 16.5m , together with assets of £ 7.8m , which included the properties she owned at the time . The total was £ 24 @.@ 3 million , plus payments of £ 35 @,@ 000 per annum , for a nanny and school costs for their daughter . In his judgment , Justice Bennett stated : " The husband 's evidence was , in my judgment , balanced . He expressed himself moderately though at times with justifiable irritation , if not anger . He was consistent , accurate and honest . But I regret to have to say I cannot say the same about the wife 's evidence . Having watched and listened to her give evidence , having studied the documents , and having given in her favour every allowance for the enormous strain she must have been under ( and in conducting her own case ) I am driven to the conclusion that much of her evidence , both written and oral , was not just inconsistent and inaccurate but also less than candid . Overall she was a less than impressive witness . " The divorce was granted on 12 May 2008 , and the preliminary divorce decree was finalised six weeks later . She later considered trying to have the injunction lifted that stopped her talking publicly about the case , as the sections released were against her wishes , saying that it would " perhaps be better for the public to see everything " .
Long before the decision , Mills talked about McCartney : " I will never get over it . I will always love Paul . He is the father of my child , but I just have to move on and deal with it and there is nothing I can do ... I have never spoken badly about my husband . I never will , he is the father of my child " . After the judgement was issued , however , she said to the press , " I can 't say if Paul is cruel . For the sake of my daughter , I can 't say that but my sister thinks he is . " This statement to the press was accompanied by her sister , Fiona Mills , saying " I just think he didn 't need to put her through this . I just think it is really sad . Why can 't he look after the mother of his child ? " She continued , " He wants to make himself look good , " she said . " To him the most important person is him . It has been a nightmare and I am not exaggerating . "
During their marriage she was known as Heather Mills McCartney , but after her divorce she reverted to Heather Mills , although she should still be correctly referred to as Lady McCartney ; as the former wife of a knight , she technically retains that title . She was addressed as such by Lord Justice Leveson , during the Leveson Inquiry .
= = Media image and criticism = =
Mills ' relationship with McCartney triggered considerable media interest , but after her divorce , the attitude of the British media was hostile . Mills frequently accuses the press of misquoting her , and of using material out of context to give a negative impression of her , telling the Evening Standard that the claims that she had married McCartney for his money were more hurtful than losing her leg .
Mills has been accused by several newspapers of having embellished her life story . A journalist with the same name , Heather Mills , then at The Observer , accused Mills of impersonating her for over a year in the late 1990s , showing people cuttings of articles the journalist had written , which helped Mills secure a job presenting The General , a BBC TV programme about Southampton General Hospital . There were also doubts about Mills ' claim that she had been nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize ( because the Heather Mills Health Trust had given away thousands of prosthetic limbs to landmine victims ) , but the nomination cannot yet be proven because the identities of all nominees remain secret for 50 years .
Stapely ( Mills ' stepfather ) disputed Mills ' statement that her mother had nearly lost a leg in a car crash , after Mills said , " her leg was only hanging on by a tiny flap of skin and flesh ... miraculously the surgeons managed to insert a metal plate and reattach it " . Stapely said that Mills ' mother had suffered a leg injury after a car crash , but recovered and was " a keen tennis player " and that Mills , " is simply a very confused woman for whom reality and fantasy have become blurred " .
Mills said that she had once been asked to stand for parliament by the three main political parties , and had been offered a peerage in 2001 ( to become Baroness Mills ) by the then British Prime Minister , Tony Blair , and a certain " Lord Macdonald " . An ITV documentary ( McCartney vs McCartney : The Ex Files ) interviewed three Lord Macdonalds , but not one of them could remember ever meeting Mills . British journalist Jasper Gerard , to whom Mills made the claims , also says she told him that she had cancelled a meeting with Bill Clinton in case her endorsement affected a US election outcome . Mills stated that she was once awarded the Outstanding Young Person of the Year award by the British Chambers of Commerce , but did not challenge newspapers after they discovered there was no such award .
In October 2006 , Mills announced her intention to sue The Daily Mail , The Sun and the Evening Standard . All the newspapers said that their stories " were obtained by proper methods and in accordance with good journalistic practice " . The Sun , which regularly refers to Mills as " Mucca " – a play on McCartney 's nickname " Macca " – responded by asking her to " tick the boxes " on a series of allegations the newspaper had made , stating , " It is not clear what exactly she plans to sue us about " . Underneath the questions , The Sun listed six allegations about her , with a blank box beside each one . The words beside the boxes read : " Hooker , Liar , Porn Star , Fantasist , Trouble Maker , Shoplifter " .
In December 2006 , Mills told the BBC that she had received death threats , and on 17 December 2006 , police stated that a " non @-@ specific threat " had been made to her safety . This led to more criticism that she was calling out the emergency services too often . In March 2007 , Kevin Moore , Chief Superintendent of Sussex Police , said that Mills was running " the risk of being treated as the little boy who cried wolf " , and added , " We do have to respond to a disproportionate high volume of calls from Heather Mills McCartney because of the situations she finds herself in , and this is regrettable as it takes officers away from other policing matters " . Mills responded that the police had told her to contact them whenever she was being harassed .
During a 5 @-@ day trial in July 2007 , it was revealed that Mills had been physically assaulted by Jay Kaycappa in Brighton . Kaycappa was a notorious paparazzo trying to photograph Mills while on shifts for a national newspaper and a regional press agency . Kaycappa , who had 132 previous criminal convictions , including perverting the course of justice , obtaining property by deception , driving offences and using ten aliases , was found guilty and sentenced to a 140 @-@ hour community order and ordered to pay Mills £ 100 , plus £ 1 @,@ 000 court costs .
During several interviews in October 2007 , Mills accused the media of giving her " worse press than a paedophile or a murderer " . She also criticised the media over the treatment of Diana , Princess of Wales – who , according to Mills , was " chased and killed " by paparazzi – and of Kate McCann . Immediately before giving these interviews , her PR adviser , Phil Hall ( the ex @-@ Editor of the News of the World ) , quit . In 2008 , a survey commissioned by Marketing magazine showed Mills as one of the top five most hated celebrity women , along with Amy Winehouse , Victoria Beckham and Kerry Katona .
In December 2008 , the Channel 4 television comedy series Star Stories broadcast a satirical mockumentary of Mills ' life story from her point of view . In 2009 , after petitioning the Press Complaints Commission in the UK about being lied about in the press , five British tabloids ( The Sun , The Daily Express , News of the World , Sunday Mirror and Daily Mirror ) publicly apologised to Mills about printing false , hurtful or defamatory stories about her . Another tabloid ( the Daily Mail ) , sent a private letter of apology . Mills has complained that over 4 @,@ 400 abusive articles about her have been published .
= = = Criticism of press coverage = = =
In 2002 , Mills accepted damages of £ 50 @,@ 000 plus costs from the Sunday Mirror , after a false report that the Charity Commission had investigated her about the money she raised for the Indian earthquake victims appeal in 2001 . The extent and nature of the British press coverage of Mills has been criticised , as in May 2003 , when Guardian columnist Matt Seaton wrote a piece declaring " There is little that is edifying in the symbolic lynching of Heather . The poisonous judgmentalism that drives it is in the worst tradition of small town gossip . It is prurient , spiteful , hypocritical , and we should cry ' shame ' on it " . Publicist Mark Borkowski wrote in the Independent on Sunday , on 23 March 2008 : " Not since the cult of Myra Hindley have we encountered so much vitriol aimed at one woman " . Feminist writer Natasha Walter has compared the coverage to that of Britney Spears . Terence Blacker wrote that public figures who are young , female , pretty and fair @-@ haired , are often subjected to public bullying which is explained as " intense media interest " , such as Diana , Princess of Wales , Paula Yates , Ulrika Jonsson and Mills .
Kira Cochrane , in The Guardian , said that " every misogynist epithet available " has been used against Mills . " She has somehow become the vessel through which it is acceptable for both pundits and the public to express their very worst feelings about women " . Joan Smith , writing in The Independent , said that newspaper " Bullies love a weakling " ; quoting the Daily Mirror 's front page headline : " Lady Liar " and The Sun newspaper writing " Pornocchio " over Mills ' face ( in reference to Pinocchio 's nose getting longer when he lied and her past photographs ) . Smith went on to say that Mills had " dreamt of becoming the wife of a famous man but did not realise that he had fantasies of his own , marrying an attractive younger woman when he hadn 't got over the loss of his first wife . Mills behaved foolishly when the marriage failed but she does not deserve the treatment she has had in the mass @-@ market press . It is merciless bullying of an unstable , vulnerable woman " . In 2009 , Mills reported a bogus charity had been set up to extract information about her marriage . News Corp , owned by Rupert Murdoch , is alleged to have set up the sting . The British tabloid newspaper the Daily Mirror ran the headline " Macca marriage to Heather was mistake of the decade " following an interview McCartney gave to Q magazine . McCartney immediately moved to deny this statement and then went on to publicly print the original transcript on his official website to prove the Daily Mirror article was false .
Celia Larkin , writing on 12 February 2012 in the Irish Sunday Independent , said " There was something very satisfying about Heather Mills finally having her voice heard above the roar of the Red Tops . If you actually take the time to listen to Mills , I mean listen , not just read what 's written about her , you 'll see she is a strong , sincere , independent woman . She didn 't lie down under the weight of McCartney 's fame and wealth , she continued to plough her own furrow , campaigning for her charities , maintaining a strong individuality . And that , it seems , is the greatest sin of all . Is it any wonder she was reduced to tears in the October 2007 GMTV interview ? Did we feel sympathy for her then ? No . ' Heather Mills has Melt Down ' screamed the headlines , so now she had lost her marbles to boot . And if that wasn 't enough , Carole Malone of the Sunday Mirror , one of the papers that was relentless in its attacks on Mills , accused her of staging an act on live TV in order to further her cause in the upcoming divorce hearing . How cruel can you get ? "
= = = Phone hacking and Leveson Inquiry = = =
On 5 May 2011 , The Guardian reported that Mills had met with officers from the London Metropolitan Police who showed her evidence , seized from private investigator Glenn Mulcaire , which could form the basis of a claim against the News of the World for breach of privacy over alleged phone hacking . Mills ' name and private mobile phone number were listed in Mulcaire 's notes along with those of her friends and associates . Mills later alleged that a journalist working for the Mirror Group had admitted to her in 2001 that he had hacked her phone .
Appearing as a witness at the Leveson Inquiry on 9 February 2012 , Mills was asked under oath if she had ever made a recording of Paul McCartney 's phone calls or answer phone messages and had ever played it to Piers Morgan or " anybody else " , she replied , " Never , ever . " Giving evidence in December 2011 , Morgan , who bragged in a newspaper column for the Daily Mail in 2006 about hearing the message , refused to say who had played him the recorded message of the call , saying he was protecting a source . Mills told the inquiry that Morgan was " a man that has written nothing but awful things about me for years and would have relished telling the inquiry if I had played a personal voicemail message to him . " In the official findings of his Inquiry , Lord Justice Leveson said Morgan 's testimony under oath on phone hacking was " utterly unpersuasive . This was not , in any sense at all , a convincing answer " and " What it does , however , clearly prove is that he was aware that it was taking place in the press as a whole and that he was sufficiently unembarrassed by what was criminal behaviour that he was prepared to joke about it . " ( see the testimony : [ 1 ] )
= = Activism = =
In 2005 , Mills became a patron of the British animal rights organisation Viva ! , and the Vegetarian and Vegan Foundation , which are both run by Juliet Gellatley . In 2006 , Mills and Gellatley attended a debate on fur at the Oxford Union , where she presented a video depicting the skinning of a dog . She posed with her own dog in an anti @-@ fur advertisement for People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) , which read : " If you wouldn 't wear your dog , please don 't wear fur " .
In March 2006 , Mills and McCartney travelled to Canada to bring attention to the country 's annual seal hunt . Sponsored by the Humane Society of the United States , they complained that the hunt was inhumane , and called on the Canadian government to put an end to it . Their arrival on the floes sparked much attention in Newfoundland and Labrador , where 90 per cent of the sealers live . Mills and McCartney protested against seals being clubbed to death , pierced with boat hooks and sometimes skinned alive . Newfoundland and Labrador 's Premier , Danny Williams , debated the issue with them on Larry King Live , the issue being that seals are no longer hunted that way , and have not been for a while . Mills joined a Viva ! film team at a pig farm in Somerset , in February 2007 , to publicise the use of restrictive farrowing crates , which are used for sows who are suckling piglets . A video of the investigation was made available on the Internet .
Mills 's relationship with PETA ended in 2007 , when McCartney 's daughter , Mary , said she would not continue to take photographs for the organisation if Mills was involved with them . A PETA representative told the New York Post : " Heather 's exposé of the Chinese fur industry remains one of the most popular videos on our site , but we don 't have any imminent campaigns planned with her " .
Mills spoke in Hyde Park , London , on 19 November 2007 . Mills said : " Eighty per cent of global warming comes from livestock and deforestation . I 'm not telling people to go vegan overnight . But if they stop drinking their cows ' milk lattes , maybe this sort of thing won 't have to happen " .
In 2008 , an old video surfaced of Mills wearing a mink coat she had owned in 1989 , but explained to reporters that she had bought it years before becoming involved in animal rights organisations or vegetarianism . Although she had separated from McCartney , Mills said : " It 's only since I met Paul [ McCartney ] that I really got to understand how vegetarianism not only benefits your health massively but also makes a huge difference to the planet , to animals , and to feeding the world . " In August 2008 , she was honoured by the organisation Farm Animal Rights Movement ( FARM ) , with the Celebrity Animal Activist Award , presented at the Animal Rights National Conference . On 28 August 2009 , at the Celebrity Catwalk event in Hollywood , Mills showed off her new " recycled clothes from charity shops " range , called Be @ one . After her divorce , Mills pledged to give a " large portion " of her £ 24 @.@ 3 million divorce settlement to Adopt @-@ A @-@ Minefield , but the charity has not received any to date . In June 2008 , Mills was asked to talk at a New York party about the cruelty of puppy farms and to promote her book about animals , but was angry about the guests speaking over her speech , saying : " Listen up at the back . I haven ’ t been up for 24 hours and flew here from London to be ignored " . Mills 's publicist of four years , Michele Elyzabeth , stopped representing her on 25 July 2008 .
= = Commercial interests = =
On 4 July 2009 , Mills opened a vegan restaurant called VBites at Hove Lagoon , Hove , Sussex . Mills is quoted as saying that she intends it to be the first in a worldwide chain of vegan restaurants . Whilst promoting the restaurant , Mills gave an interview to the BBC , stating that she 'd been very proactive in the building stages and now that it was open , would give as much time to it as she could – working it around her charity work . In May 2013 she sold the restaurant premises to local record producer Fatboy Slim and opened a new , enlarged VBites in East Street in Brighton .
In 2009 , Mills bought the vegan food company VBites Foods ( then known as Redwood Foods ) . The company in Corby , Northamptonshire , sells 50 meat @-@ free products under the brand names Cheatin ' , VegiDeli and Cheezly . In 2014 products sold under the brand " Wot no Dairy " were recalled , because it was revealed that they contained traces of dairy and were dangerous for those with dairy intolerance .
Mills was one of the celebrity performers competing on the US television series Dancing with the Stars in 2007 , with dancing partner Jonathan Roberts . On 21 December 2009 , she was revealed as one of the contestants on the fifth series of Dancing on Ice , being paired with Matt Evers .
= = Artistic recognition = =
Mills was part of a series of body cast sculptures by the contemporary British sculptor , Louise Giblin in 2012 .
= = British Paralympic ski team = =
In May 2011 , Hello ! magazine ran an article about her ambitions for the 2014 Paralympic Games as well as her efforts to stay fit and healthy with her vegan lifestyle following the accident .
On 17 December 2013 , it was announced that Mills would miss the 2014 Olympics in Sochi , Russia . She was asked to leave due to a fall out and complaints about her behaviour towards officials .
= = Present life = =
On 4 June 2010 , a claim for compensation alleging sexual and maternity discrimination and unfair dismissal was brought by Sara Trumble , who had been employed as a nanny for Mills ' daughter since April 2004 . The case was dismissed at Ashford Employment Tribunal Centre , Kent , with the tribunal concluding that all of Trumble 's claims were unfounded . Employment judge Steven Vowles said that " Mills ' kindness towards Miss Trumble showed that she genuinely cared about her as both an employee and a friend " .
= Harry Bassett =
Harry Bassett ( 1868 – 1878 ) was an American Thoroughbred racehorse , winner of the 1871 Belmont Stakes and an outstanding racehorse of the 19th century . He also won a number of other stakes races , and was named the Champion male of his age group in 1870 , 1871 and 1872 . He was retired to stud duties in New Jersey when his five @-@ year racing career ended , having recorded 23 wins from 36 starts . Harry Bassett died in New Jersey in 1878 and was inducted into the United States Racing Hall of Fame in 2010 .
= = Breeding and early life = =
Harry Bassett was a chestnut stallion , foaled on 27 April 1868 , that was sired by Lexington and out of the mare Canary Bird . Canary Bird was by the imported stallion Albion and out of the mare Panola , who was sired by the imported stallion Ainderby . Canary Bird 's second dam , or maternal grandmother , was the imported mare Sweetbriar by Recovery . Harry Basset was bred either by R. A. Alexander or by A. J. Alexander , both of the Woodburn Stud of Woodburn , Kentucky , and was the second of Canary Bird 's foals . He was sold at the 1869 S. D. Bruce yearling sale to trainer David McDaniel for $ 315 .
= = Racing career = =
Harry Bassett was trained by his owner David McDaniel ; his jockey was W. Miller . As a two @-@ year @-@ old he won the 1870 Nursery Stakes at Pimlico Race Course , the Central Stakes , the Kentucky Stakes , and the Saratoga Stakes . He made a total of four starts as a two @-@ year @-@ old of which he won three , placing third in the other .
Harry Bassett won the fifth running of the Belmont Stakes in 1871 at Jerome Park Racetrack in a time of 2 minutes 56 seconds . He carried 110 pounds ( 50 kilograms ) pounds in the race , and won $ 5 @,@ 400 ( approximately $ 107 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) for his owner . The race was run on June 10 over a distance of 1 5 ⁄ 8 miles ( 13 furlongs / 2 @,@ 600 meters ) on a fast track . Harry Bassett won by three lengths from the second placed finisher Stockwood ; the third place went to August Belmont 's By The Sea . This was the first of three consecutive wins of the Belmont Stakes by David McDaniel as both owner and trainer , as he went on to win the 1872 race with Joe Daniels and the 1873 race with Springbok .
As a three @-@ year @-@ old , Harry Bassett also won the Jerome Handicap , the Travers Stakes , the Reunion Stakes , the Kenner Stakes , the Champion Stakes and the Jersey Derby . He was undefeated in nine starts at age three .
During his three @-@ year @-@ old year Harry Bassett started 11 times and won eight , finishing second in the remaining three . At four he increased his win record to 14 , with wins in the Westchester Cup and a victory in a 2 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) heat , before he was beaten in the Monmouth Cup by Longfellow . He then won the 2 1 ⁄ 4 mile Saratoga Cup , in which he defeated Longfellow . His jockey in that race was James Rowe , Sr. , who went on to become a leading trainer for James R. Keene . At age five , Harry Bassett started eight times , winning two , placing second in two , and third once . At six , he started four times , winning once and placing third once .
Harry Bassett 's racing career spanned five years and ended with 23 wins from 36 starts ; he finished second five times and third three times . His total earnings on the racetrack were $ 55 @,@ 920 ( approximately $ 1 @,@ 046 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . He was awarded the title of Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Male in 1870 , the title of Champion Three @-@ Year @-@ Old Male in 1871 , and the Champion Older Horse title in 1872 .
= = Stud record = =
When his racing career ended Harry Bassett was retired to McDaniel ’ s stud farm in Trenton , New Jersey , where he sired stakes winners such as Bowstring and Lettina out of the imported mare Letty by imported Australian . Lettina won the Young America Stakes , the Jackson Stakes and the Ladies Stakes in 1881 , when she was two years old .
Harry Bassett died on October 27 , 1878 at McDaniel 's farm in New Jersey . He was inducted into the United States ' National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in 2010 .
= SM UB @-@ 13 =
SM UB @-@ 13 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. The submarine was probably sunk by a British mine net in April 1916 .
UB @-@ 13 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in November . UB @-@ 13 was a little under 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 141 tonnes ( 125 and 139 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . UB @-@ 13 was broken into sections and shipped by rail to Antwerp for reassembly . She was launched in March 1915 and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 13 in April .
UB @-@ 13 spent her entire career in the Flanders Flotilla and sank 11 merchant ships , about half of them British fishing vessels . In March 1916 , UB @-@ 13 was responsible for sinking the Dutch ocean liner Tubantia , raising the ire of the Dutch public . Tubantia was the largest neutral vessel sunk during the war and among the 30 largest ships sunk by U @-@ boats . On 24 April 1916 , UB @-@ 13 was sunk with all hands .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes .
UB @-@ 13 was part of the initial allotment of seven submarines — numbered UB @-@ 9 to UB @-@ 15 — ordered on 15 October from AG Weser of Bremen , just shy of two months after planning for the class began . UB @-@ 13 was laid down by Weser in Bremen on 7 November . As built , UB @-@ 13 was 27 @.@ 88 metres ( 91 ft 6 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Körting 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 7 @.@ 45 knots ( 13 @.@ 80 km / h ; 8 @.@ 57 mph ) , surfaced , and 6 @.@ 24 knots ( 11 @.@ 56 km / h ; 7 @.@ 18 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 13 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 13 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 13 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .
After work on UB @-@ 13 was complete at the Weser yard , she was readied for rail shipment . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . In February 1915 , the sections of UB @-@ 13 were shipped to Antwerp for assembly in what was typically a two- to three @-@ week process . After UB @-@ 13 was assembled and launched on 8 March , she was loaded on a barge and taken through canals to Bruges where she underwent trials .
= = Early career = =
The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 13 on 6 April 1915 under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Walter Gustav Becker , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander . On 26 April , UB @-@ 13 joined the Flanders Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote des Marinekorps U @-@ Flotille Flandern ) , which had been organized on 29 March . When UB @-@ 13 joined the flotilla , Germany was in the midst of its first submarine offensive , begun in February . During this campaign , enemy vessels in the German @-@ defined war zone ( German : Kriegsgebiet ) , which encompassed all waters around the United Kingdom , were to be sunk . Vessels of neutral countries were not to be attacked unless they definitively could be identified as enemy vessels operating under a false flag .
Submarines of the Flanders Flotilla sank over 14 @,@ 000 tons of merchant vessels in June 1915 , and UB @-@ 13 's first ship sunk , Dulcie , contributed almost one @-@ seventh of that total . The British steamer Dulcie , listed at 2 @,@ 033 gross register tons ( GRT ) , was headed from Dunston for Le Havre with a load of coal when Becker torpedoed her 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ; 6 @.@ 9 mi ) east of Aldeburgh . One man on Dulcie lost his life in the attack . Dulcie was the only ship sunk by UB @-@ 13 in June .
On 27 and 28 July , Becker and UB @-@ 13 sank three British fishing vessels while patrolling between 15 and 30 nautical miles ( 28 and 56 km ; 17 and 35 mi ) off Lowestoft . All three of the sunken ships were smacks — sailing vessels traditionally rigged with red ochre sails — which were stopped , boarded by crewmen from UB @-@ 16 , and sunk with explosives .
In response to American demands after German submarines had sunk the Cunard Line steamer Lusitania in May 1915 and other high profile sinkings in August and September , the chief of the Admiralstab , Admiral Henning von Holtzendorff , issued orders suspending the first offensive on 18 September . His directive ordered all U @-@ boats out of the English Channel and the South @-@ Western Approaches and required that all submarine activity in the North Sea be conducted strictly along prize regulations . On 20 February 1916 , under the command of Kapitänleutnant Karl Neumann , who replaced Becker in December 1915 , UB @-@ 13 captured a Belgian ship named Z10 David Marie and retained her as a prize . There are no further details about where Z10 David Marie was taken or her final disposition , but other ships captured as prizes by Flanders boats were sailed into Zeebrugge by prize crews .
= = Second submarine offensive = =
By early 1916 , the British blockade of Germany was beginning to have an effect on Germany and her imports . The Royal Navy had stopped and seized more cargo destined for Germany than the quantity of cargo sunk by German U @-@ boats in the first submarine offensive . As a result , the German Imperial Navy began a second offensive against merchant shipping on 29 February . The final ground rules agreed upon by the German Admiralstab were that all enemy vessels in Germany 's self @-@ proclaimed war zone would be destroyed without warning , that enemy vessels outside the war zone would be destroyed only if armed , and — to avoid antagonizing the United States — that enemy passenger steamers were not to be attacked , regardless of whether in the war zone or not . The day after the beginning of the second offensive , Neumann and UB @-@ 13 sank four more fishing smacks northeast of Lowestoft . All four ships were boarded and sunk in the same manner as the three sunk the previous July . Shortly after , Neumann was transferred to command UB @-@ 2 in early March , and was replaced by Oberleutnant zur See Arthur Metz , who had been in command of UB @-@ 17 for the preceding month .
= = = SS Tubantia = = =
Shortly after 02 : 30 on 16 March , a torpedo from UB @-@ 13 struck the starboard side of the neutral Dutch ocean liner Tubantia , which was at anchor near the North Hinder Lightship , about 50 nautical miles ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) off the Dutch coast . The Royal Holland Lloyd ( Dutch : Koninklijke Hollandsche Lloyd ) ship had been fully illuminated , with her name spelled out in electric lights between the twin funnels . Distress calls from Tubantia were heeded and all 80 passengers and 294 crew were rescued by three nearby ships before the ship foundered . Tubantia was the largest neutral ship sunk during the war , and among the 30 largest ships sunk by U @-@ boats .
Germany initially tried to implicate British mines or torpedoes , but relented when confronted with evidence that it was one of their own torpedoes — which had been assigned to UB @-@ 13 — that had sunk Tubantia . The Germans , however , presented a forged log from UB @-@ 13 that showed her nowhere near Tubantia at the time of the attack . Further , they reported , UB @-@ 13 had fired that specific torpedo at a British warship on 6 March — ten days before Tubantia was sunk — which would have been under her previous commander , Kapitänleutnant Neumann . The U.S. Minister to the Netherlands , Henry van Dyke , writing in Fighting for Peace in 1917 , called this explanation " amazing " and derided it :
This certain U @-@ boat had fired this particular torpedo at a British war @-@ vessel somewhere in the North Sea ten days before the Tubantia was sunk . The shot missed its mark . But the naughty undisciplined little torpedo went cruising around in the sea on its own hook for ten days waiting for a chance to kill somebody . Then the Tubantia came along and the wandering @-@ Willy torpedo promptly , obstinately , ran into the ship and sank her . This was the explanation . Germany was not to blame .
The Dutch public was furious at what they believed a hostile German act , which caused German diplomats to spread rumors of an impending British invasion of the Netherlands to divert the unwanted attention .
Amidst all of the denials and diplomatic wrangling over Tubantia 's sinking , UB @-@ 13 continued to sink ships . On 31 March , off Lowestoft , Metz and UB @-@ 13 sank the Norwegian steamer Memento . The 1 @,@ 076 GRT ship was carrying a load of coke destined for Porsgrunn when she went down with one crewman . Twelve days later , in the Kentish Knock area , UB @-@ 13 sank the Danish ship Proeven . The 276 @-@ ton sailing vessel was the last ship sunk by UB @-@ 13 .
= = Sinking = =
On the evening of 23 April 1916 , UB @-@ 13 departed Zeebrugge for a patrol off the mouth of the Thames and was never heard from again . Author Dwight Messimer , in his book Verschollen : World War I U @-@ boat Losses , reports that the British had deployed a new explosive anti @-@ submarine net at position 51 ° 33 ′ N 2 ° 45 ′ E in the early morning hours of 24 April . He suggests that it was possible UB @-@ 13 had set off some of the contact mines on the net , or possible that the submarine had struck a mine in one of the many British minefields off the Flemish coast . However , according to authors R. H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast , in their book The German Submarine War , 1914 – 1918 , UB @-@ 13 fouled the anchor cable of the British naval drifter Gleaner of the Sea on 24 April , and was depth charged by E.E.S .. Then for good measure , the British destroyer Afridi deployed explosive sweeps against the submarine . Whatever the specific cause of her demise , all seventeen crewmen on board the submarine were killed .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
= I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas =
I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas is a live CD / DVD by American R & B recording artist , Beyoncé . It was filmed at the Encore Theater , Las Vegas by Ed Burke , on August 2 , 2009 , during a stint of Beyoncé 's worldwide I Am ... Tour ( 2009 – 2010 ) . It features performances of over 30 songs , including her solo material , her recordings with the girl group Destiny 's Child as well as behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage . The album was made available in DVD and 2 CD / DVD deluxe format on November 23 , 2009 , and in Blu @-@ ray format on December 15 , 2009 . It was directed by Nick Wickham and produced by Emer Patten .
Footage from the DVD titled Beyoncé – I Am ... Yours , aired on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) on November 26 , 2009 . The special featured behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of Beyoncé 's I Am ... Tour and it was watched by over 5 @.@ 2 million viewers . The album was also promoted by being broadcast on Channel 4 in the UK and re @-@ released in the form of a live instrumentals album . Upon its release , I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas received positive reviews from music critics , who generally praised the acoustic live performances of the songs . Beyoncé 's vocals , the intimate performances , and the narrating story of the album were also complimented . The live version of " Halo " ( 2009 ) , which is featured on the album , was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 53rd Grammy Awards .
The album stayed at the top of the US Billboard Top Music Video chart for eight weeks , and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipment of 200 @,@ 000 copies . It became Beyoncé 's second number one DVD in the US and it has spent fifty two weeks on the Top Music Video chart . The album was also successful on the DVD and albums charts across the world and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for selling over 15 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Background and synopsis = =
On August 2 , 2009 , Beyoncé had a revue titled I Am ... Yours at the Encore Theater , in Wynn Las Vegas during a stint on her worldwide I Am ... Tour ( 2009 – 2010 ) . Her performance was backed by her all @-@ female band , Suga Mama , and an orchestra . The show was choreographed by Beyoncé and Frank Gatson Jr . Regarding her I Am ... Yours revue , Beyoncé said , " I 've always wanted to perform in Las Vegas , I 've always wanted to do my own show there , because a lot of the icons that I look up to had amazing shows in Las Vegas . I thought if I 'm going to have my own Las Vegas show , it has to be right and it has to have heart and soul and it has to be something memorable ... My whole objective here is for people to see what they don 't get to see . Just give me my band , give me a stage , some cool smoke and lights and you see the sweat , you see the pain , you see the love , you see the soul and it 's about music . "
The show begins with a narrator introducing Beyoncé to the audience . She appears from the back of the theater performing " Hello " . She greets the audience and makes her way towards the stage as she continues to perform . At the stage , Beyoncé sings " Halo " . Next , she performs " Irreplaceable " and interacts with the audience . She later moves into an acoustic medley , performing a down @-@ tempo version of " Sweet Dreams " , " Dangerously in Love 2 " and " Sweet Love " ( originally recorded by Anita Baker ) . The medley leads into " If I Were a Boy " ( which contains excerpts from " You Oughta Know " ) and " Scared of Lonely " . The show continues with a performance of " That 's Why You 're Beautiful " , intertwined with excerpts from " The Beautiful Ones " ( originally recorded by Prince ) , " Satellites " , and " Resentment " . The first act concludes with Beyoncé performing a jazz @-@ fused " Déjà Vu " . Before the next act begins , three dancers appear and perform a tap sequence called " Bebop " .
Beyoncé begins the second act by telling the story of her career , starting from when she was nine years old to her then @-@ latest album I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . Beyoncé highlights one of the very first songs she remembers learning was Michael Jackson 's " I Wanna Be Where You Are " . She continues with a medley of Destiny 's Child 's hits songs , including " No No No " , " Bug a Boo " , " Bills , Bills , Bills " , and " Say My Name " whilst in between the songs , she talks about the story behind them . The medley leads into " Work It Out " and " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde , as she begins to talk about the start her solo career . As the set continues , Beyoncé explains how her record company felt her debut album did not have " one " hit song . She sarcastically remarks , " I guess they were kinda right ... I had five . " Beyoncé goes on to perform " Crazy in Love " ( reminiscent of " Proud Mary " by Tina Turner ) , " Naughty Girl " and " Get Me Bodied " . As the show draws to a close , Beyoncé performs " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " ; she then exits the stage after thanking the audience for their presence .
= = Development = =
After Beyoncé finished her I Am ... Yours revue , several publications reported that a live album containing the performance of the revue would be released . In early November 2009 , it was announced that she would be releasing a concert performance DVD and live CD titled I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas . The DVD features performances from the I Am ... Yours revue containing performances of over 30 songs , including Beyoncé 's solo material as well as her recordings with the girl group Destiny 's Child . Exclusive behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage was also placed on the album ; part of which was later added on Beyoncé 's 2011 video album Live at Roseland : Elements of 4 . According to Music World Entertainment president and CEO , Mathew Knowles , the decision to release I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas was prompted by the way the music was presented in the digital world and because " the live experience is becoming more important " . He added that the live performances show the ability of the artists to entertain live , something that , according to him , " Beyoncé has proven [ ... ] time after time " . The album was directed by Nick Wickham and produced by Emer Patten . It was filmed by Ed Burke and executively produced by Beyoncé , Mathew Knowles and Sheira Rees @-@ Davies .
= = Release and promotion = =
The album was available in DVD and a 2 CD / DVD deluxe edition on November 23 , 2009 , and in Blu @-@ ray format on December 15 , 2009 . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray editions feature the entire concert ( split into three parts ) , as well as over 23 minutes of behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , while the two CDs include only the audio from the main performances . On November 26 , 2009 , ABC Network aired a one @-@ hour television special called Beyoncé – I Am ... Yours at 9 : 00 PM / EST . A one @-@ minute trailer of the special was posted online on November 12 , 2009 ; it showed Beyoncé during her I Am ... Tour , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage including rehearsals , as well as personal videos . According to USA Today , the special was watched by 5 @.@ 2 million viewers . Entertainment Weekly 's Brad Wete commented that she " danced her tail off " during the special . John Griffiths of Us Weekly reviewed the special positively , calling it " shimmery ... mostly culled from her lavish concert " . He added that she further " dishes about her career , shows off her childhood home videos , belts out her hits and more . " The show was broadcast on Channel 4 in the UK on December 25 , 2009 . A live instrumentals album of the songs performed on the revue was released at Amazon.com and the iTunes Store on September 28 , 2010 . Several videos of the live performances of " Halo " , " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " and " Scared of Lonely " were released in MTV Latin America . These videos were used to promote the album in Latin America as well as the television special titled " MTV World Stage : Beyoncé Live from Las Vegas " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Tanya Remekie of Rap @-@ Up felt that the album contains a " show @-@ stopping event as Sasha Fierce and Bey [ oncé ] come out to play " . She finished her review by writing that the " Broadway @-@ fashioned narration of her life story , told through song and dance .. shares her magical story . " During a review of the album , the writers of People magazine rated it with three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars and wrote that it " offers nicely subdued versions of her hits " , further describing the show as a " magic " . Another writer of the same publication praised the album , writing that " You 'll get to know Beyoncé like never before " . Similarly , a writer of Eye Weekly called the album " extraordinary " , before adding that it is " the chance to experience her ( Beyoncé ) up close and personal " . A writer of Us Weekly said that to see Beyoncé 's " fiereceness " , people should listen to her album I Am ... Sasha Fierce or buy the DVD I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas to see the live experience . Allmusic 's Andy Kellman awarded I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas a rating of four out of five stars , describing it as a " theatrical production worthy of Vegas , with Beyoncé and her large backing band energetically rolling [ through Beyoncé 's songs ] " . He noted that " what makes I Am ... Yours stand apart from a typical live @-@ album cash @-@ in is the mostly unexpected covers that are weaved into the set . " Kellman finished his review by writing , " As live albums go , this is not quite destined to be one of those all @-@ time classics ; a couple missing songs and a little too much talk aside , however , the fans couldn ’ t ask for more . "
Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic praised the intimacy of the concert and the acoustic versions of the songs . A writer of The Boston Globe also gave I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas a positive review , comparing it with Sin City . He commended the jazz interlude , the acoustic rearrangements of the songs , and the " charming B [ eyoncé ] telling her life story in [ the ] song [ s ] " . Darryl Sterdan of the website Jam ! also compared the album with Sin City and commented : " Only Beyoncé would think an ' intimate ' theatre gig should include her massive all @-@ girl band , an orchestra , lasers , dancers , costume changes and a wind machine to keep her hair blowing majestically . And only Beyoncé could pull it all together as superbly as she does in this 98 @-@ minute ... show " . Grading I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas with an A- and calling it the " best live concert film of the year " , David Burger of The Salt Lake Tribune concluded , " Instead of a traditional retread of her hits , she narrates and emotionally sings her way through a souful musical journey that | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
has represented Canada at two International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) – sanctioned events , winning gold and leading tournament scoring at both – the 2008 IIHF World U18 Championships and 2009 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . In 2007 , he won a gold medal with Ontario at the Canada Games . He also represented Canada at the 2007 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament , finishing fourth .
= = Early life = =
Hodgson was born in Toronto , Ontario , to Marie and Chris Hodgson . His father is the president of the Ontario Mining Association and a former Ontario provincial Progressive Conservative cabinet minister in Premier Mike Harris 's government , while his mother is the executive director of a day care . He has an older brother , Clayton , and two younger sisters . His sister Charlotte attends the University of Western Ontario and Caroline attends Belmont University in Nashville , Tennessee . Both girls played organized hockey in Markham , Ontario . Hodgson grew up in Haliburton , Ontario , with his family until they moved to Markham , Ontario , in 1998 . The family would return in the summers to their cottage on Haliburton Lake .
Hodgson began playing organized hockey at age four in Haliburton . Playing for the Ontario Minor Hockey Association ( OMHA ) ' s Haliburton Huskies , he was teammates with Matt Duchene . The two were childhood friends and played together throughout their minor and junior careers , including with the Brampton Battalion and on Canada 's national under @-@ 18 and under @-@ 20 teams . His family was also friends with Jeff Skinner 's family growing up in Markham . Hodgson played bantam hockey with the Toronto Jr . Canadiens of the Greater Toronto Hockey League ( GTHL ) , captaining a team that included four other eventual 2008 NHL draftees – Alex Pietrangelo , Tyler Cuma , Josh Brittain and Stefan Della Rovere . His tenure with the team included a provincial championship . Hodgson then joined the OMHA 's Markham Waxers , competing with their bantam team in 2004 – 05 , then at the midget level in 2005 – 06 . He recorded a 511 @-@ point campaign over 31 games in his midget season , while also recording one assist over two games with the club 's Junior A side . During his tenure with the Waxers program , he played alongside future NHL players Steven Stamkos and Michael Del Zotto . Hodgson had also played alongside Stamkos on annual summer teams , starting at the age of 11 .
Hodgson attended Buttonville Public School and Unionville High School in Markham , the latter of which he helped win numerous hockey tournaments . Following his draft by the Vancouver Canucks , Hodgson was accepted into the business program at York University for the 2008 fall semester . However , due to missing classes from his commitments to the Canucks ' training camp and a subsequent university staff strike , he placed his academics on hiatus .
In December 2009 , Hodgson was chosen to be the city of Markham 's official torchbearer for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver . The torch passed through Markham on its way to Vancouver on December 17 , 2009 , on day 49 of the cross @-@ country relay .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Brampton Battalion = = =
Hodgson was drafted 17th overall by the Brampton Battalion in the 2006 OHL Priority Selection . The following season , he joined the Battalion wearing number 19 in honour of his favourite hockey player growing up , Steve Yzerman of the Detroit Red Wings . He led the team in rookie scoring with 23 goals and 46 points . He added four points in four playoff games as the Battalion were eliminated by the Barrie Colts in the first round .
In his second season with Brampton , Hodgson improved to 85 points in 68 games , second in team @-@ scoring , behind centre John Hughes . He was chosen to the Eastern Conference squad in the 2008 OHL All @-@ Star Classic and scored one goal . Hodgson added five goals in five playoff games , as Brampton was eliminated in the opening round for the second @-@ straight season by Barrie .
Heading into the 2008 NHL Entry Draft , Hodgson was ranked ninth among North American skaters by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau . He went on to be chosen tenth overall by the Vancouver Canucks . Scouting reports and former coaches emphasized Hodgson 's hockey sense and character , while Canucks General Manager Mike Gillis cited his leadership as a strong factor in drafting him . After the 2007 – 08 season , OHL coaches had voted him the smartest player in the Eastern Conference . As his skating was considered a weakness , he spent the subsequent off @-@ season training to improve it .
Hodgson was expected to compete for a roster spot on the Canucks immediately after being drafted . He was then signed to a three @-@ year , entry @-@ level contract worth the rookie maximum of $ 2 @.@ 625 million on October 5 , 2008 . However , the next day , he was sent back to Brampton for the 2008 – 09 season .
Upon his return , Hodgson was named the ninth captain in Battalion team history . He succeeded forward Thomas Stajan , who served as captain for the start of the season while Hodgson competed in the NHL pre @-@ season . Stajan himself had just replaced defenceman John de Gray , who had turned professional .
Chosen to represent the OHL in the 2008 ADT Canada @-@ Russia Challenge in November , Hodgson recorded a hat @-@ trick and added an assist in the first of two games against Russia ; he was chosen as game MVP . He went on to complete the month of November with 27 points in 13 games to be named OHL Player of the Month . Hodgson had also been chosen as the OHL Player of the Week for the week ending on November 9 after scoring nine points in three games . After a second Player of the Week recognition , scoring seven points in three games for the week ending February 1 , 2009 , Hodgson participated in the 2009 OHL All @-@ Star Classic . Joined by teammates Matt Duchene , Evgeny Grachev and Thomas McCollum for the Eastern Conference , Hodgson received player of the game honours after a five @-@ point effort in an 11 – 6 win . He recorded a hat @-@ trick , along with Western Conference representative Justin DiBenedetto , to tie Scott Barney , who first scored three goals in 1999 , for the OHL All @-@ Star Game record . Hodgson 's five points also tied the All @-@ Star Game record for most points ( shared by five others ) . He recorded another record later in the month with a 23 @-@ game point @-@ scoring streak , registering 17 goals , 23 assists and 40 points in that span . The streak was both a Battalion club record and OHL season @-@ high .
Hodgson finished the season with 43 goals and 92 points in 53 games , fourth in League scoring . The annual OHL coaches poll distinguished Hodgson as the smartest player ( for the second consecutive season ) , the hardest worker , the best on faceoffs and the best penalty killer . In addition to OHL First All @-@ Star Team honours , he was awarded both the William Hanley Trophy as the League 's most sportsmanlike player and the Red Tilson Trophy as OHL player of the year . The media voted Hodgson ahead of forward John Tavares and goaltender Mike Murphy for the Tilson award . Hodgson was then distinguished over fellow major junior league MVP 's Brett Sonne of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) and Nicola Riopel of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) as the CHL Player of the Year .
Early in the subsequent playoff season , Hodgson received his second OHL Player of the Month recognition for March ( 26 points in 11 games ) . He helped the Battalion advance to the OHL Finals , where they lost the J. Ross Robertson Cup to the Windsor Spitfires . He led his team with 31 points in the post @-@ season .
Following the Battalion 's playoff elimination , Hodgson was assigned to the Canucks ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Manitoba Moose , for their 2009 playoff run . Making his professional debut with the Moose in Game 1 of the semi @-@ finals against the Houston Aeros , he notched an assist on the game 's first goal for his first professional point . He followed up with his first professional goal the next night , a wrist shot against Aeros goaltender Nolan Schaefer , in a 5 – 2 victory . While Hodgson started on the fourth line for the Moose , he quickly moved his way up to the second line with fellow Canucks first @-@ round pick Michael Grabner . Advancing past the Aeros , Moose Head Coach Scott Arniel chose not to play Hodgson in Game 4 of the Calder Cup Finals against the Hershey Bears . Arniel explained the decision was attributed to fatigue on Hodgson 's part from a lengthy season in the juniors ( including the 2009 World Juniors and a lengthy OHL playoff run ) . He returned the next game to help the Moose stave off elimination with a goal in a 3 – 2 Game 5 victory . Manitoba went on to lose the Calder Cup in Game 6 by a 4 – 1 score . Hodgson 's assisted on the Moose 's lone tally by Mário Bližňák .
Preparing for the Canucks ' training camp for the 2009 – 10 season , Hodgson injured his back while working out in the summer . The injury , which was misdiagnosed as a bulging disc in his lower back , caused him to miss two months of summer training . After being cleared to play by Canucks team doctors on September 11 , 2009 , and a back specialist in Toronto , Hodgson was again expected to secure a roster spot during training camp . After struggling in six pre @-@ season games , he was returned to the Brampton Battalion on September 29 in the final round of team cuts .
Hodgson subsequently sought a third opinion regarding his back at the Cleveland Clinic in Ohio . In response , then @-@ Canucks Head Coach Alain Vigneault publicly speculated whether Hodgson was simply having a hard time being cut and was trying to " roll the [ blame ] in another direction . " Despite having been cleared earlier to play in the pre @-@ season by two sets of doctors , the Cleveland Clinic judged him unfit to play for a month . Previously undetected nerve damage in one leg was also revealed . Due to Hodgson 's misdiagnosis , which was not corrected until a year later , subsequent treatment and rehabilitation was designed for a bulging disc , which further aggravated his real injury – a muscle strain .
After missing the first 50 games of the 2009 – 10 OHL season , Hodgson returned to the Battalion line @-@ up on February 4 , 2010 , recording two assists in a 4 – 2 win against the Erie Otters . Following his return , he declared he would no longer be training in the off @-@ season with Canucks Director of Player Development Dave Gagner , under whose supervision he suffered his back injury . Combined with the Canucks doctors ' initial misdiagnosis and Vigneault 's disparaging comments regarding Hodgson following the NHL pre @-@ season , there was speculation in the media of a possible conflict between Hodgson and the Canucks organization . General Manager Mike Gillis , however , dismissed such speculation .
Eight days after his OHL return , Hodgson suffered another injury , breaking a toe on his right foot while blocking a shot against the Sudbury Wolves . Initial X @-@ rays came up negative and he continued playing for nine more games before a second X @-@ ray revealed a hairline fracture in one his right metatarsal bones . Missing the Battalion 's final five regular season games , he finished the campaign with eight goals and 20 points over 13 contests . Despite missing the majority of the season , he was voted as the smartest player in the Eastern Conference for the third consecutive year in the OHL coaches poll .
Hodgson returned to the Brampton line @-@ up for the opening game of the 2010 playoffs , scoring the game @-@ winning goal against the Kingston Frontenacs . In Game 5 of the series , he scored his 20th career playoff goal in the OHL , surpassing Wojtek Wolski for the all @-@ time lead among Battalion players . The Battalion eliminated the Frontenacs in seven games before themselves being ousted in four games by Barrie in the second round . Hodgson completed the post @-@ season with ten points in 11 games , second in team @-@ scoring to Sean Jones . He admitted publicly after the playoffs that his health " was never 100 percent " during the 2009 – 10 season .
The Battalion 's playoff elimination marked the end of Hodgson 's four @-@ year OHL career . He left Brampton ranked second on the club 's all @-@ time scoring list behind Wojtek Wolski in regular season goals ( 114 ) , assists ( 129 ) , points ( 243 ) , powerplay goals ( 46 ) and shorthanded goals ( 7 ) , while ranking first in game @-@ winning goals ( 23 ) . In playoff games , he left as the all @-@ time leader in goals ( 20 ) , assists ( 30 ) and points ( 50 ) .
Following his 2009 – 10 OHL season , it was expected Hodgson would join the Manitoba Moose for a second consecutive AHL playoff season . However , after being assessed by Canucks team doctors , his broken toe was judged to have not yet fully healed and he was not cleared for AHL assignment . Hodgson additionally believed that he had re @-@ injured his back while colliding head @-@ first into the boards during Game 7 of the opening playoff round . He underwent an MRI in the off @-@ season , which uncovered the misdiagnosed bulging disc to be a muscle strain instead . With the Canucks ' consent , he trained in the off @-@ season with former NHL player Gary Roberts , who had himself overcome a back injury during his career .
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
After challenging for a Canucks roster spot once again during the team 's 2010 training camp , Hodgson was assigned to the Manitoba Moose . He scored his first regular season AHL goal against goaltender Peter Delmas of the Hamilton Bulldogs on October 22 , 2010 . With the score tied 3 – 3 after overtime , Hodgson added a shootout goal to help the Moose win the game . Later , in December 2010 , Hodgson suffered a broken orbital bone after he was high @-@ sticked by teammate Lee Sweatt during a Moose practice . Eight days after returning to Manitoba 's line @-@ up , Hodgson earned his first NHL call @-@ up to Vancouver .
Hodgson made his NHL debut on February 1 , 2011 , in a 4 – 1 win against the Dallas Stars . Centring the fourth line and playing on the second powerplay unit , he registered two shots in over nine minutes of ice time . The following day , he scored his first career NHL goal against Ilya Bryzgalov in a 6 – 0 win against the Phoenix Coyotes . In his third game , he recorded his first career NHL assist on a goal by Christian Ehrhoff against the Chicago Blackhawks ; Vancouver won 4 – 3 . After appearing in his first five NHL games , Hodgson was returned to the Moose on February 11 . Team management explained to the media his call @-@ up was a means to introduce him to NHL play and that they were more comfortable having him continue developing in the AHL with first @-@ line minutes and a bigger role with the Moose . However , with the team 's fourth @-@ line centre role unfilled ( Alain Vigneault had been using natural winger Tanner Glass in that position ) , he was called back to Vancouver within ten days . Hodgson played three more games for the Canucks before the team acquired fourth @-@ line centre Maxim Lapierre from the Anaheim Ducks at the trade deadline on February 28 . Hodgson was subsequently sent back down to Manitoba . He completed his professional rookie season with 30 points in 52 AHL games – ranking fifth in Moose scoring – and two points in eight NHL games .
At the end of the regular season , Hodgson was called up to the Canucks for the 2011 playoffs . He registered his first NHL playoff point in Game 2 of the opening round against the Chicago Blackhawks , assisting on a goal by defenceman Alexander Edler in a 4 – 3 win . Hodgson drew in and out of the line @-@ up throughout the post @-@ season , appearing in 12 of the Canucks ' 25 @-@ game playoff run , which ended in a Game 7 loss to the Boston Bruins in the Stanley Cup Finals .
During the off @-@ season , Canucks centre Ryan Kesler underwent hip surgery , sidelining him for the start of the 2011 – 12 campaign . With the centre position on the second line vacant , Hodgson competed with the newly @-@ acquired Andrew Ebbett to temporarily replace Kesler . After being cut in his previous three training camps with the team , Hodgson emerged with the second @-@ line position to start the season . After wearing 39 on his jersey the previous season as a rookie , Hodgson switched to 9 , a number historically associated in the NHL with high @-@ profile players . He had previously spoken to team trainers regarding the number , but decided having the number is " something you have to earn [ by ] mak [ ing ] the team first . " When Kesler returned to the team 's line @-@ up six games into the season , Hodgson was moved to the right wing to remain on the second line , before settling in as the team 's third @-@ line centre . On December 10 , 2011 , Hodgson left a game against the Ottawa Senators after a hit from opposing forward Nick Foligno left him unsteadily skating back to the bench . Hodgson was reportedly uninjured , as Vigneault told media he was kept out of the contest for precautionary measures .
Ranking fifth among NHL rookies in scoring by January 2012 , he was selected as one of 12 first @-@ year players to participate in the NHL All @-@ Star Game SuperSkills Competition in Ottawa , Ontario . He was designated to Team Chara during the All @-@ Star Draft and went on to participate in one SuperSkills event , the shooting accuracy segment . Hitting all four targets in 20 @.@ 929 seconds , he lost the rookie heat to Matt Read of the Philadelphia Flyers , who had a time of 14 @.@ 011 seconds . Hodgson 's time ranked fifth among the eight players who participated in the event . Canucks teammates Henrik Sedin , Daniel Sedin and Alexander Edler joined Hodgson in Ottawa as NHL All @-@ Stars , though they competed against him in the SuperSkills Competition as part of Team Alfredsson . Following the NHL All @-@ Star weekend , Hodgson was named the League 's Rookie of the Month for January after having recorded ten points ( six goals and four assists ) over 11 games , first among Canucks and NHL first @-@ year players .
Playing behind Henrik Sedin and Ryan Kesler on the Canucks ' depth chart at centre , Hodgson earned limited ice @-@ time with the Canucks . By mid @-@ season , his success as a rookie led many in the media to question the 10 – 12 minutes of ice time Alain Vigneault routinely allotted him per game .
= = = Buffalo Sabres = = =
Minutes before the NHL trade deadline on February 27 , 2012 , Hodgson was dealt , along with defenceman Alexander Sulzer , to the Buffalo Sabres in exchange for fellow rookie forward Zack Kassian and defenceman Marc @-@ André Gragnani . Canucks General Manager Mike Gillis acknowledged the trade as an effort to balance his team out by trading Hodgson 's skill and finesse in return for Kassian 's size and toughness . Analysts from TSN and The Vancouver Sun also echoed the sentiment , commenting that while the Canucks gained elements in Kassian that were required to succeed in the playoffs , Hodgson 's skill set reflected the style of play that Vancouver 's success was based upon .
In a telephone interview with TSN shortly after the trade , Hodgson told reporters he was " in shock , " adding that " It 's tough to leave Vancouver . " There were , however , reports in the media that Hodgson had asked for a trade from the Canucks , an allegation that Mike Gillis neither confirmed nor denied . The reaction in the Vancouver media was largely of surprise that Gillis would trade away a well @-@ performing rookie . Vancouver Sun columnist Iain MacIntyre declared it " a stunner " and " one of the most unpopular trades in Vancouver in years . " Another Sun article likened the deal to a lopsided 1996 trade between the Canucks and Pittsburgh Penguins in which two first @-@ round prospects of opposite playing styles – the skilled Markus Näslund and the larger , more aggressive Alek Stojanov – were exchanged . Näslund went on to become the Canucks ' all @-@ time leading goal- and point @-@ scorer , while the latter had a short career in the minor leagues .
Hodgson made his Sabres debut two days after the trade , registering four shots on goal and 16 minutes of ice time in a 2 – 0 win against the Anaheim Ducks . After going pointless in his first ten games with Buffalo , Hodgson recorded two assists in a 7 – 3 win against the Tampa Bay Lightning on March 19 . Two nights later , he scored his first two goals as a Sabre in a game against the Montreal Canadiens . Leaving Vancouver gave Hodgson a larger on @-@ ice role , earning nearly five minutes more ice time per game as a Sabre . Completing his first NHL season with the Sabres , he finished with 41 points ( 19 goals and 22 assists ) over 83 games . He ranked fifth in League rookie scoring and first in power play goals ( 7 ) , despite earning less ice time than his first @-@ year peers ( his 13 minutes and 49 seconds per game averaged the least among the top 14 rookie scorers ) . As a team , the Sabres then failed to qualify for the 2012 playoffs , finishing ninth in the Eastern Conference . Hodgson was assigned to the AHL 's Rochester Americans immediately before the 2012 – 13 NHL lock @-@ out took effect .
Hodgson signed a six @-@ year , $ 25 @.@ 5 million extension with the Sabres on September 11 , 2013 .
In the second year of his contract extension with the Sabres in the 2014 – 15 season , Hodgson suffered the worst season in his professional career , contributing with just 6 goals and 13 points in 78 outings for the cellar @-@ dwelling Sabres . With the option to buy @-@ out his contract at a lower rate due to his age , on June 29 , 2015 , the Sabres , in the midst of a rebuild , placed Hodgson on unconditional waivers in order for a release to free agency .
= = = Nashville Predators = = =
On the opening day of free agency , Hodgson signed a one @-@ year contract with the Nashville Predators . Hodgson made the opening night roster of the Predators to begin the 2015 – 16 season . He was used primarily in a depth role , centering the fourth @-@ line . After posting 8 points in 39 games , Hodgson was placed on waivers by the Predators on January 13 , 2016 . Hodgson passed through waivers unclaimed and was subsequently assigned to AHL affiliate , the Milwaukee Admirals the following day . Hodgson was not offered a new contract by the club , and became an unrestricted free agent on July 1 .
= = International play = =
Hodgson first competed internationally for Canada at the 2007 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament in Hodonín , Czech Republic , and Piešťany , Slovakia . Although favoured to win the tournament , Canada finished in fourth place . He scored two goals in the 5 – 4 bronze medal game loss to Russia . In total , Hodgson contributed a team @-@ high five points in four games , tied with Steven Stamkos . Hodgson also represented Ontario later that year at the 2007 Canada Winter Games , winning gold over Manitoba 6 – 4 in the gold medal game .
Hodgson next represented Canada at the 2008 IIHF World U18 Championships in Kazan , Russia . Playing in the quarter @-@ finals against Finland , Hodgson was named player of the game after scoring the game @-@ winning goal in a 2 – 1 victory . Hodgson finished with a tournament @-@ high 12 points in seven games , leading Canada as team captain to its second IIHF World U18 gold medal with an 8 – 0 victory over tournament host Russia . He was chosen as one of Canada 's three top players by tournament coaches , along with forward Jordan Eberle and goaltender Jake Allen .
In his third year of junior , Hodgson was selected to compete in the 2009 World Junior Championships with Team Canada in Ottawa . He was chosen as an alternate captain to defenceman Thomas Hickey . In the second round @-@ robin game against Kazakhstan , Hodgson accumulated six points ( two goals and four assists ) , coming within one point of the single @-@ game Canadian record held by Michael Cammalleri and Dave Andreychuk . In the following round @-@ robin game against the United States , he scored the game @-@ winning goal in a 7 – 4 win to lead Team Canada to first place in their pool and a bye to the semi @-@ finals . Facing Sweden in the final game , Hodgson scored two goals – one on the powerplay and an empty @-@ netter – and one assist to overtake John Tavares as the tournament leading scorer with five goals and 11 assists for 16 points in six games . Team Canada defeated Sweden 5 – 1 to capture the gold medal while Hodgson was named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team . Returning from the tournament , Hodgson was asked to drop the ceremonial faceoff for a Toronto Maple Leafs game against the Florida Panthers on January 6 , 2009 .
Leading up to the 2010 World Junior Championships in Saskatchewan , Hodgson was named to Team Canada 's selection camp roster on December 2 , 2009 , despite not yet playing in an OHL game during the 2009 – 10 season due to a back injury . However , he notified Hockey Canada five days later that his back was not yet ready and that he would not participate in the selection camp .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= = Records = =
OHL All @-@ Star Classic record ; most goals , single @-@ game ( 3 ) in 2009 ( tied with Justin DiBenedetto , 2009 ; and Scott Barney , 1999 )
OHL All @-@ Star Classic record ; most points , single @-@ game ( 5 ) in 2009 ( tied with five others )
Brampton Battalion franchise record ; point @-@ scoring streak ( 23 games ) in 2008 – 09 ( 17 goals , 23 assists , 40 points )
Brampton Battalion franchise record ; most game @-@ winning goals , all @-@ time ( 23 )
Brampton Battalion franchise record ; most playoff goals , all @-@ time ( 20 )
Brampton Battalion franchise record ; most playoff assists , all @-@ time ( 30 )
Brampton Battalion franchise record ; most playoff points , all @-@ time ( 50 )
= Simba =
Simba ( from the Swahili word for lion ) is a fictional character who appears in The Lion King franchise . Introduced in Walt Disney Animation 's 32nd animated feature film The Lion King ( 1994 ) , the character subsequently appears in its sequels The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride ( 1998 ) and The Lion King 1 ½ ( 2004 ) .
Simba was created by screenwriters Irene Mecchi , Jonathan Roberts and Linda Woolverton . While Mark Henn served as Simba 's supervising animator as a cub , Ruben A. Aquino animated the character as he appears as an adult .
Although considered an original character , Simba was inspired by the character Bambi from Disney 's Bambi ( 1942 ) , as well as the stories of Moses and Joseph from the Bible . Additionally , several similarities have been drawn between Simba and Prince Hamlet from William Shakespeare 's tragedy of the same name . In 1997 , The Lion King was adapted into Broadway musical , with actors Scott Irby @-@ Ranniar and Jason Raize originating the roles of the cub and adult Simbas , respectively .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception = = =
The idea for The Lion King originated from Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg in 1989 and was originally conceived under the title King of the Jungle . The story , which has been compared to Bambi ( 1942 ) , was jokingly referred to as " Bambi in Africa " because of the similarities between the two films and their respective main characters . Co @-@ director Rob Minkoff said that both films are " more true @-@ life adventure than mythical epic . " Though considered an original coming @-@ of @-@ age story that follows the life of Simba as he grows up and " tak [ es ] on the responsibility of adulthood , " co @-@ directors Roger Allers and Minkoff drew inspiration from other sources . In particular , the biblical figures Moses and Joseph served as creative inspiration for the character . Producer Don Hahn said that , like them , Simba is " born into royalty , is then exiled , and has to return to claim [ his ] kingdom . "
Several film and entertainment critics have noted similarities and parallels between the stories of The Lion King and William Shakespeare 's tragedy Hamlet , and their protagonists . Allers said that these similarities were not initially intentional and came as a surprise to the filmmakers themselves ; they noticed the similarities only after the story was established and they eventually decided to pursue it . According to Hahn , " When we first pitched the revised outline of the movie ... someone in the room announced that its themes and relationships were similar to Hamlet . Everyone responded favorably to the idea that we were doing something Shakespearean , so we continued to look for ways to model our film on that all @-@ time classic . "
Screenwriter Jonathan Roberts said that , in a musical , songs are used to convey a character 's emotions and " I wants . " Composer Elton John and lyricist Tim Rice wrote the song " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King " in order to give Simba a medium through which he can express his desire to become King of the Pride Lands . Roberts said , " It 's a way for storytellers to move the story and deliver the direction of the character . "
= = = Voice = = =
Matthew Broderick provided the speaking voice of Adult Simba . The first actor to be assigned to The Lion King , Broderick learned of the role while he was on vacation in Ireland , where he received a telephone call from his agent informing him that the directors were interested in casting him as Simba . At the time , Broderick was well known for portraying the title character in Ferris Bueller 's Day Off ( 1986 ) . The directors decided to cast him as Simba because they felt that he was " perfect " for the role ; according to producer Don Hahn , Broderick 's voice resembled " the kind of character who could be irresponsible and likeable , but you also felt that he could come back in a very heroic way . " Jonathan Taylor Thomas , who was starring as Randy Taylor on the television sitcom Home Improvement at the time , was cast as the speaking voice of Young Simba . His appearance and personality would later serve as creative inspiration for supervising animator Mark Henn .
Though Broderick is a trained Broadway singer , he was not up to the task , and neither was non @-@ singer Thomas , so Toto lead singer Joseph Williams and actor Jason Weaver were hired to dub their respective singing voices . Williams ' voice is heard on the song " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " . Impressed by Weaver 's performance as a young Michael Jackson in the miniseries The Jacksons : An American Dream , songwriters Elton John and Tim Rice recruited him to record " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King " and " Hakuna Matata " while the film was still in its early stages of production . As directors , Roger Allers and Rob Minkoff worked closely with the actors in order to ensure credible performances . As is frequently done in animated films , the filmmakers videotaped the actors while they recorded their dialogue , allowing the animators to incorporate their specific mannerisms into the designs of their characters .
= = = Characterization and animation = = =
When The Lion King was green @-@ lit , its concept and story were not well received by studio employees . To guarantee the release of at least one successful film , Disney CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg divided the studio into two separate projects : The Lion King and Pocahontas ( 1995 ) , with Pocahontas expected to be the more successful of the two . Because of this assumption , the majority of the studio 's more seasoned animators gravitated towards Pocahontas because The Lion King was deemed a " risk " , while less experienced animators were assigned to work on The Lion King . Co @-@ director Rob Minkoff received this positively , saying that this decision " gave a lot of newer animators a chance to step up to leadership roles . "
The role of animating Simba was divided between Mark Henn and Ruben A. Aquino . While Henn served as the supervising animator of Simba as a cub , credited as Young Simba , Aquino was placed in charge of animating the character as he appears as an adult . The Lion King was Disney 's first animated feature film to feature a cast of quadrupeds since Oliver & Company ( 1988 ) . According to Aquino , animating four @-@ legged creatures is difficult because the artists are faced with the task of drawing " twice as many legs ... as you do with human characters " and must also attribute to them both human and animal @-@ like qualities . For assistance , Aquino drew influence from previous animated films that feature four @-@ legged creatures as their main characters , citing Bambi , Lady and the Tramp ( 1955 ) and The Jungle Book ( 1967 ) as his main sources of inspiration .
Before The Lion King , Henn 's experience as a supervising animator was limited to predominantly female characters ; he had just recently completed work on Ariel from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , Belle from Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) and Jasmine from Aladdin ( 1992 ) . When he became involved with The Lion King , Henn initially expressed interest in animating the film 's villain , Scar , because he wanted to do " something different . " However , producer Don Hahn felt that he was better suited for animating Simba . Henn approaches animating new characters by " put [ ting himself ] into the character ’ s situation . " Simba proved to be a challenge because Henn was faced with the task of creating an animated character who would both appear and behave like a real lion cub . To achieve this , Henn visited zoos , sketched and studied live lion cubs that were brought into the studio for research , and frequently consulted with wildlife experts .
When it came time to animate Simba during the " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King " musical sequence , Henn felt it essential that the character remain on all fours at all times , despite the fact that he is meant to be dancing . In terms of personality , Henn aimed to depict Simba as a " cocky , confident character " at the beginning of the film , who must eventually mature and learn to take responsibility . The animators would often observe and document the voice actors while they recorded their dialogue , using their movements and mannerisms as a visual aid . Actor Jonathan Taylor Thomas , who provided the voice of Young Simba , served as inspiration for the design and personality of Simba . Henn said , " I loved watching Jonathan Taylor Thomas when he was a boy on Home Improvement , and getting to meet him and observe him . " Although Aquino was responsible for animating the majority of Simba 's adult sequences , Henn animated the character 's first appearance as an adult that occurs near the end of the " Hakuna Matata " musical number .
= = Appearances = =
= = = The Lion King = = =
Released in theaters in 1994 , The Lion King marks Simba 's first appearance . All the animals in the Pride Lands gather at the foot of Pride Rock to commemorate the birth of Simba , who will eventually succeed to the throne and take his father Mufasa 's place as king . Furious by the fact that he is no longer next in line , Simba 's jealous uncle Scar refuses to attend the ceremony . While Simba grows into a rambunctious lion cub who frequently boasts about the fact that he will someday rule over the Pride Lands , Scar secretly plots against him .
Scar plots regicide and familicide against Simba and Mufasa by luring Simba into a vast gorge , where he triggers a wildebeest stampede . Notified by Scar that Simba is in danger , Mufasa rushes to his aid and manages to place him safely on a ledge . Weakened and unable to pull himself up the steep slope to safety , Mufasa asks his brother for assistance . However , Scar 's true nature is revealed and he betrays Mufasa , throwing him into the gorge where he is killed by the fall .
Convinced by Scar that he is responsible for his father 's death , Simba runs away to a distant jungle where he is befriended by Timon and Pumbaa , who teach him to ignore his past and avoid his responsibilities . There , he grows into a handsome young lion , while Scar wreaks havoc on the Pride Lands . When Simba is discovered by his childhood friend Nala several years later , she confronts him , warning him of Scar 's tyranny and begging him to return home . Afraid of facing his past , Simba refuses until a wise mandrill named Rafiki leads him to Mufasa 's ghost , who convinces him to return home and reclaim his kingdom from Scar .
Simba returns to the Pride Lands and finds them barren because their natural resources have been squandered and abused by Scar . After witnessing Scar strike his mother Sarabi , Simba orders Scar to resign . At first thrown by the fact that he is alive , Scar soon regains composure and forces Simba to reveal that he is responsible for Mufasa 's death , while cornering him at the edge of Pride Rock , hoping to subject him to a similar fate as his father . Having grown overconfident , Scar finally reveals to Simba that he killed Mufasa . Furious , Simba tackles Scar and forces him into announcing this to the pride , initiating a battle between Simba 's pride of lionesses , Timon , & Pumbaa and Scar 's army of hyenas . Simba eventually defeats Scar and throws him into a pit , where he is cornered and killed by the hyenas , who have had enough of Scar treating them like slaves . Simba then takes his rightful place as king . When the kingdom returns to its former glory , the animals welcome the birth of King Simba and Queen Nala 's first born .
= = = The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride = = =
A direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel released in 1998 , Simba 's Pride takes place shortly after the events of the first film , depicting Simba and Nala as king and queen of the Pride Lands . In a ceremony at Pride Rock , the Pride Lands commemorate the birth of Simba and Nala 's daughter Kiara , whom Simba is overprotective of . He discovers that Kiara has disobeyed him by visiting the forbidden Outlands , home to an enemy pride of Scar 's followers known as the Outsiders , and befriending a young member of the pride named Kovu . After a close confrontation with Kovu 's mother Zira , the leader of the Outsiders and Scar 's most loyal follower , Simba separates the two and reminds Kiara of her responsibilities as the future queen . Meanwhile , Zira plots to manipulate Kovu to exact revenge on Simba for Scar 's death .
Several years later , Simba grants a young adult Kiara 's request to embark on her first hunt , but has Timon and Pumbaa follow her in secret . Realizing this , Kiara rebels and pursue her hunt outside of the Pride Lands , where she nearly falls victim to a wildfire . Kiara is rescued by Kovu , who returns her to the Pride Lands , which is actually part of Zira 's plan to overthrow Simba . Saying that he has left the Outsiders , Kovu asks Simba to let him join his pride . Simba reluctantly accepts , but distrusts Kovu because of his similarities to Scar , and continues to treat him ruthlessly . That night , Simba has a nightmare about attempting to save his father Mufasa from falling into the stampede but is stopped by Scar who turns into Kovu and throws Simba off the cliff into the stampede .
While Kiara and Kovu 's friendship continues to grow , Simba , encouraged by Nala , attempts to show Kovu kindness by spending a day with him . Realizing that Kovu is beginning to side with Simba because of his love for Kiara , Zira ambushes and attacks Simba . Convinced by Zira that Kovu is responsible for the ambush , Simba exiles him and forbids Kiara to see him , but she makes her father realize that he is acting irrationally and finds Kovu . When a battle ensues between the Pride Landers and the Outsiders , Kiara and Kovu arrive and stops them . When a furious Zira attacks Simba , she is intercepted by Kiara , causing the two to fall over the edge of a cliff . Having landed safely on a ledge , Kira offers to help Zira , who is struggling to hang on . However , Zira , consumed by her resentment towards Simba , declines her assistance and falls into the raging water below . Simba finally approves of Kiara 's love for Kovu and reconciles with his daughter , and accepts the two lions as future king and queen .
= = = The Lion King 1 ½ = = =
In The Lion King 1 ½ , a direct @-@ to @-@ video followup released in 2004 , Simba appears as a less prominent character because the film 's primary focus is on Timon and Pumbaa 's behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role and involvement in The Lion King , in which they appear as supporting characters . Although the two films technically share the same story and timeline , the plot of The Lion King 1 ½ focuses more on Timon and Pumbaa . The meerkat and warthog unknowingly coexist alongside Simba , and the story fills in the two characters ' backstories and events that lead up to their long @-@ lasting friendship , coinciding with and often initiating the events that affect Simba 's life during the first film . These events include the commemorative bow that occurs during the opening " Circle of Life " musical number and the collapsing of the animal tower that takes place during " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King . " The film also explores , in further detail , the relationship among the three characters as Timon and Pumbaa struggle to raise Simba as adoptive " parents " and disapprove of his relationship with Nala , portraying Simba as he grows from an energetic young lion cub , into an incorrigible teenager and , finally , an independent young lion .
= = = Timon & Pumbaa and television = = =
The success of The Lion King and popularity of its characters led to the production of Timon & Pumbaa , an animated television series starring Timon and Pumbaa . Simba makes several appearances , including one episode in which Timon drags him out to try to revive Pumbaa 's lost memory .
In the episode " Congo On Like This , " Timon and Pumbaa ( especially Timon ) suspect that Simba has reverted to his carnivorous nature . The episode " Shake Your Djibouti " again features Simba , when Timon and Pumbaa are forced to train him to protect them from a laboratory monster . Another episode , entitled " Rome Alone , " shows Simba being captured by Romans and forced into gladiatorial battle with another lion named Claudius . Simba makes brief appearances in " Once Upon a Timon " , " Zazu 's Off @-@ By @-@ One Day " , and " Beethoven 's Whiff " . He also appears in a music video of " The Lion Sleeps Tonight " .
Simba was featured as a guest in the animated series House of Mouse , in which he alternates between cub and adult .
= = = The Lion Guard = = =
In November 2015 , a new series called The Lion Guard was released . Set in the middle of the timeline of The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride , it features Kion who is the son and youngest child of Simba and Nala .
= = = Broadway musical = = =
The success of The Lion King led to the production of a Broadway musical based on the film . Directed by Julie Taymor , with a book by Irene Mecchi and Roger Allers , The Lion King premiered at the New Amsterdam Theatre on November 13 , 1997 , where it ran for nine years until being moved to the Minskoff Theatre on June 13 , 2006 . The role of Simba was originated by Scott Irby @-@ Ranniar and Jason Raize , with Irby @-@ Ranniar portraying Young Simba and Raize portraying Adult Simba .
Raize auditioned for the role of Adult Simba after hearing that Taymor was looking to cast an actor who was of " unidentifiable ethnicity . " Raize revealed in an interview that there was a lot of competition for the role because the musical required " triple @-@ threat work -- singing , dancing and acting -- that you don 't get to such an extent in other shows . It was more the sense of who can take the challenge and not be daunted by the task . " Raize , who instantly felt that he " had a connection with Simba , " eventually won the role with the approval of Taymor and choreographer Garth Fagan , with Fagan admiring the fact that Raize was " willing to try , to fail , and then to try again . " Once cast , Raize found it difficult to maintain Taymor 's " sense of duality " because Simba is " both man and beast . " He said , " The tendency is to sacrifice one for the other , but you can 't . " Although hundreds of children auditioned for the role of Young Simba , the casting process was far less grueling for Irby @-@ Ranniar who , according to Taymor , simply " walked in and he had the part . "
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
= = = = Books = = = =
In 1994 , a six @-@ volume book set titled The Lion King : Six New Adventures were released . Set after the events of the first film , they featured a cub named Kopa , who was the son of Simba and Nala .
= = = = Merchandising and video games = = = =
As part of the franchise 's merchandising , Simba has appeared in various The Lion King @-@ related products . The character 's likeness has been used in and adapted into a variety of items , including plush toys and figurines , clothing , bedding , household decor and appliances . The success of the Broadway musical has also lead to its own line of merchandising , including the Simba beanbag doll , based on the character 's appearance and costume in the Broadway show .
Since the film 's 1994 debut , Simba has appeared as a playable character in a variety of video game releases , both directly and indirectly associated with the franchise . The character 's first appearance as a video game character was in The Lion King , which was released by Virgin Interactive on November 1 , 1994 , for the video game platforms Super Nintendo Entertainment System , Sega Game Gear , Nintendo Entertainment System and PC . The game follows the plot of the original film and features Simba as both a cub and an adult .
On December 28 , 2000 , Activision released The Lion King : Simba 's Mighty Adventure for Game Boy Color and PlayStation . The game encompasses 10 levels and incorporates the plot of both The Lion King and The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride as " Simba ... matures from a precocious cub to an adult lion . " Simba also appears as a playable character in Disney Interactive Studios ' Disney 's Extreme Skate Adventure , released on September 3 , 2003 , for Game Boy Advance , PlayStation 2 , GameCube and Xbox , and Disney Friends , released for Nintendo DS on February 26 , 2008 . Additionally , Simba appears in the Square Enix Kingdom Hearts video game franchise as a friend and ally of the series ' main character , Sora .
= = = = Walt Disney Parks and Resorts = = = =
Live versions of Simba appear in the Lion King musical and in the parades and shows at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts .
Simba was also the main character in " Legend of the Lion King , " a former Fantasyland attraction in Walt Disney World 's Magic Kingdom , which retold the story of the film using fully articulated puppets . Other Disney attractions that have featured Simba include the Mickey 's PhilharMagic 3D show and the Hong Kong Disneyland version of It 's a Small World .
He appears as one of the main characters at Epcot 's Land Pavilion 12 @-@ minute edutainment film Circle of Life : An Environmental Fable .
= = Reception and legacy = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Although The Lion King itself has garnered Universal acclaim from film critics , reception towards Simba has been generally mixed . The Christian Science Monitor 's David Sterritt hailed Simba as " a superbly realized character , " specifically praising the scene in which the character " faces discipline by his dad after his adventure with the hyenas . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Simba " has been given a marvelously expressive face " to the point of which " He seems more human than the Ken and Barbie types featured in Aladdin and The Little Mermaid . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone described " the father @-@ son relationship " shared by Simba and Mufasa as " movingly rendered , " while About.com 's David Nusair wrote , " it ’ s the touching father / son stuff that lies at the heart of the movie that cements The Lion King 's place as an utterly timeless piece of work . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews enjoyed the fact that the film focuses more on the story of Simba himself as opposed to the romantic relationship developing between the character and Nala . However , Berardinelli criticized Matthew Broderick 's vocal performance , describing it as " nondescript . " Rob Humanick of Slant Magazine hailed the fact that " it 's never laid on [ Simba ] that his time as king will directly correspond with the eventual passing of his father " as one of the film 's " most important facets . " However , he criticized The Lion King 's characters , describing them as well @-@ designed but " lazy and troublesome . " The Austin Chronicle 's Robert Faires felt that Simba and the other Lion King characters , though " true " , were simply unoriginal retreads of preceding animated characters who were " swiped from other Disney cartoons . "
Hal Hinson of The Washington Post gave the character a negative review . Labeling Timon and Pumbaa the only interesting characters in The Lion King , Hinson questioned Simba 's role as the film 's hero . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times agreed , " A movie 's heroes may have their names above the title , but often as not it 's the sidekicks who get the real work done . " Turan went on to pan Simba , describing him as " irritatingly callow . " Chris Hick of the Deseret News complained about the fact that Simba and the other " characters in The Lion King are not as warm and fuzzy as other Disney animated features , " crediting this with making " the film a bit tougher to warm [ up ] to . " ComingSoon.net strongly panned Simba as a lead character , writing , " typically for Disney animated fare , it 's the hero who is the weak link being both blandly designed and blandly performed . " Acknowledging the character 's Shakespearean origins , The Baltimore Sun 's Stephen Hunter gave Simba a negative review , writing , " Alas ... Simba stands in for Hamlet , but he 's a lot less complicated ; in fact , he 's less complicated than Morris the Cat or Sylvester . " Hunter continued , " Simba the Exile is even less interesting than Simba the Prince . " Christopher Null of Contactmusic.com was critical of Weaver 's performance as the singing voice of Young Simba , writing , " If there 's anything annoying about the film , it 's the singing . Young Simba sounds like a young Michael Jackson ... You almost don 't want him to succeed . " However , Null reacted more positively towards Broderick 's performance .
Despite the character 's mixed reception , several critics have awarded specific praise to Broderick for his portrayal of Simba , including the San Francisco Chronicle 's Peter Stack and The Washington Post 's Desson Howe . Annette Basile of Filmink described Broderick 's performance as " excellent , " while Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian called it " sumptuous . " Digital Spy 's Mayer Nissim described Broderick 's portrayal of Simba as " wonderful . "
= = = Impact and popularity = = =
During the film 's opening number , " Circle of Life " , Rafiki introduces a newborn Simba to the crowd of animals gathered at the foot of Pride Rock by holding him high above their heads while parents Mufasa and Sarabi look on . Since the film 's 1994 release , this scene has grown to iconic status . In November 2002 , singer Michael Jackson sparked controversy by holding his son over the protective railing of a hotel balcony in Berlin . The event was witnessed by a large crowd of spectators who were watching from below . Some sources have claimed that Jackson was harmlessly attempting to emulate the scene from The Lion King .
When Kate Middleton , Duchess of Cambridge went into labor with hers and Prince William 's baby in July 2013 , the idea that the couple should reenact the famous scene from The Lion King became quite popular among Twitter users . Radio journalist Darren Simpson reportedly tweeted , " when your baby arrives please re @-@ enact the scene from the Lion King " . Shortly after Middleton gave birth to a boy , England native Tommy Peto initiated a petition asking the couple to welcome their baby by having the Archbishop of Canterbury emulate the scene by holding him over the balcony of Buckingham Palace . Ultimately , the idea was deemed " outside the responsibility of the government " and was declined .
The scene has found itself the subject of both reference and parody in various forms of media , such as in the film George of the Jungle ( 1997 ) . In what is almost an exact replica of the scene , George , portrayed by actor Brendan Fraser , takes the place of both Rafiki and Mufasa by standing at the tip of Pride Rock and presenting his young son to a crowd of onlooking animals , accompanied by wife Ursula , portrayed by Leslie Mann .
During the season 3 finale of Once upon a Time the main character Emma Swan asked her parents Snow White and Prince charming ) that they aren 't going to hold up her yet unnamed baby brother like in the Lion King Since the release of The Lion King in 1994 , the name " Simba " has increased in use and popularity among dog and cat owners . According to Comcast in 2010 , the use of Simba as a dog name reemerged in popularity in 2009 after experiencing a noticeable decline in 2001 , ranking the name ninth out of 10 on its list of " Top 10 Trendiest Dog Names of the Year . " In May 2013 , Yahoo ! Lifestyle included the name on its list of " Trendiest Dog Names . " According to YouPet , Simba is the 17th most popular cat name out of 100 candidates . Care2 included Simba in its article " All @-@ around Cool Cat Names , " while DutchNews.nl reported that Simba ranks among the country 's most popular cat names as of July 2013 . In its list of " Top Popular Pet Names , " BabyNames.com placed Simba at number 64 on its list of most popular dog names out of the 100 that were considered .
= Altrincham =
Altrincham ( / ˈɒltrɪŋəm / OL @-@ tring @-@ əm ) is a market town in Trafford , Greater Manchester , England , south of the River Mersey about 8 miles ( 13 km ) southwest of Manchester city centre , 3 miles ( 5 km ) south @-@ southwest of Sale and 10 miles ( 16 km ) east of Warrington . At the 2001 UK census , it had a population of 41 @,@ 000 increasing to 52 @,@ 419 at the 2011 census .
Historically part of Cheshire , Altrincham was established as a market town in 1290 , a time when the economy of most communities was based on agriculture rather than trade , and there is still a market in the town today . Further socioeconomic development came with the extension of the Bridgewater Canal to Altrincham in 1765 and the arrival of the railway in 1849 , stimulating industrial activity in the town . Outlying villages were absorbed by Altrincham 's subsequent growth , along with the grounds of Dunham Massey Hall , formerly the home of the Earl of Stamford , and now a tourist attraction with three Grade I Listed Buildings and a deer park .
Altrincham today is an affluent commuter town , partly because of its transport links . The town has a strong middle class presence ; there has been a steady increase in Altrincham 's middle classes since the 19th century . It is also home to Altrincham F.C. and three ice hockey clubs , Manchester Storm , Altrincham Aces and Trafford Tornados . Altrincham 's population increased to 45 @,@ 809 in 2011 .
= = History = =
Local evidence of prehistoric human activity exists in the form of two Neolithic arrowheads found in Altrincham , and further afield , a concentration of artefacts around Dunham . The remains of a Roman road , part of one of the major Roman roads in North West England connecting the legionary fortresses of Chester ( Deva Victrix ) and York ( Eboracum ) , run through the Broadheath area . As it shows signs of having been repaired , the road was in use for a considerable period of time . The name Altrincham first appears as " Aldringeham " , probably meaning " homestead of Aldhere 's people " . As recently as the 19th century it was spelt both Altrincham and Altringham .
Until the Normans invaded England , the manors surrounding Altrincham were owned by the Saxon thegn Alweard ; after the invasion they became the property of Hamon de Massey , though Altrincham is not mentioned in the Domesday Book . The earliest documented reference to the town is from 1290 , when it was granted its charter as a Free Borough by Baron Hamon de Massey V. The charter allowed a weekly market to be held , and it is possible that de Massey established the town to generate income through taxes on trade and tolls . This suggests that Altrincham may have been a planned market town , unusual during the Middle Ages , when most communities were agricultural . Altrincham was probably chosen as the site of the planned town rather than Dunham – which would have been protected by Dunham Castle – because its good access to roads was important for trade .
Altrincham Fair became St James 's Fair or Samjam in 1319 and continued until 1895 . Fair days had their own court of Pye Powder ( a corruption of the French for " dusty feet " ) , presided over by the mayor and held to settle disputes arising from the day 's dealings . By 1348 the town had 120 burgage plots – ownership of land used as a measure of status and importance in an area – putting it on a par with the Cheshire town of Macclesfield and above Stockport and Knutsford . The earliest known residence in Altrincham was The Knoll , on Stamford Street near the centre of the medieval town . An 1983 excavation on the demolished building , made by South Trafford Archaeological Group , discovered evidence that the house dated from the 13th or 14th century , and that it may have contained a drying kiln or malting floor . During the English Civil War , men from Altrincham fought for the Parliamentarian Sir George Booth . During the war , armies camped on nearby Bowdon Downs on several occasions .
In 1754 , a stretch of road south of Altrincham , along the Manchester to Chester route , was turnpiked . Turnpikes were toll roads which taxed passengers for the maintenance of the road . Further sections were turnpiked in 1765 from Timperley to Sale , and 1821 from Altrincham to Stockport . The maintenance of roads passed to local authorities in 1888 , although by then most turnpike trusts had already declined . The connection of the Bridgewater Canal to Altrincham in 1765 stimulated the development of market gardening , and for many years Altrincham was noted for its vegetables . By 1767 , warehouses had been built alongside the canal at Broadheath , the first step in the development of Broadheath as an industrial area and the beginning of Altrincham 's industrialisation . The canal was connected in 1776 to the River Mersey , providing the town not only with a water route to Manchester , but also to the Irish Sea .
Moves to connect the town to the UK 's railway network gained pace in 1845 , when the Act of Parliament for the construction of the Manchester South Junction and Altrincham Railway ( MSJAR ) was passed . The first train left Altrincham early on 20 July 1849 , carrying 65 passengers . The MSJAR had two stations in the town : Altrincham , on Stockport Road , and Bowdon – though not actually in Bowdon – on Lloyd Street / Railway Street . Both were replaced in 1881 by Altrincham & Bowdon station on Stamford New Road . The London and North Western Railway 's station at Broadheath , on the town 's northern edge , was opened in 1854 , while a further connection was created on 12 May 1862 by the Cheshire Midland Railway ( later the Cheshire Lines Committee ) , who opened their line from Altrincham to Knutsford .
With its new railway links , Altrincham and the surrounding areas became desirable places for the middle classes and commuters to live . Professionals and industrialists moved to the town , commuting into Manchester . While some travelled daily by coach , the less well – to – do commuted by express or " flyer " barges from Broadheath . Between 1851 and 1881 the population increased from 4 @,@ 488 to 11 @,@ 250 . Broadheath 's industrial area , covering about 250 acres ( 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) , was founded in 1885 by Harry Grey , 8th Earl of Stamford , to attract businesses . By 1900 Broadheath had its own docks , warehouses and electricity generating station . The site 's proximity to rail , canal and road links proved attractive to companies making machine tools , cameras and grinding machines . The presence of companies like Tilghmans Sand Blast , and the Linotype and Machinery Company , established Broadheath as an industrial area of national standing . By 1914 , 14 companies operated in Broadheath , employing thousands of workers . One of those was the Budenberg Gauge Company . Linotype also created 172 workers ' homes near its factory , helping cater for the population boom created by Broadheath 's industrialisation . Between 1891 and 1901 the population of Altrincham increased by 35 per cent , from 12 @,@ 440 to 16 @,@ 831 .
From the turn of the 20th century to the start of the Second World War , there were few changes in Altrincham . Although the town was witness to some of the Luftwaffe 's raids on the Manchester area , it emerged from the war relatively unscathed , and as with the rest of Britain , experienced an economic boom . This manifested itself in the construction of new housing and the 1960s rebuilding of the town centre . However , during the 1970s employment at Broadheath declined by nearly 40 per cent .
= = Governance = =
Altrincham became a Free Borough , a self @-@ governing township , when it was granted a charter in June 1290 by the Lord of the Manor , Hamon de Massey V. The charter allowed for the creation of a merchants ' guild , run by the town 's burgesses to tax people passing through the borough . Burgesses were free men who lived in the town . The borough was ruled by a Court Leet and elected a mayor since at least 1452 . Amongst the court 's responsibilities were keeping the public peace and regulating the markets and fairs .
The borough was not one of those reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 , and continued to exist under the control of the Lord of the Manor and the Court Leet until its final abolition in 1886 . The Public Health Act of 1848 led to the creation of Altrincham 's Local Board of Health in 1851 to address the unsanitary conditions created by the town 's growing population – the first such board in Trafford .
The local board was reconstituted as an urban district council in the administrative county of Cheshire under the Local Government Act 1894 . Altrincham Urban District was expanded in 1920 when parts of Carrington and Dunham Massey Civil Parishes were added . A further expansion took place in 1936 ; Timperley Civil Parish was abolished and most of its area incorporated into Altrincham UD . At the same time , there was a minor exchange of areas with Hale Urban District ; a minor addition from Bowdon Urban District ; and a further substantial portion of Dunham Massey Civil Parish was added . In 1937 the urban district was granted a charter of incorporation and became a municipal borough . The new borough was granted armorial bearings which featured heraldic references to the Masseys and Earls of Stamford . With the passage of the Local Government Act 1972 , the administrative counties and municipal boroughs were abolished and Altrincham became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford in Greater Manchester on 1 April 1974 .
Trafford Council is responsible for the administration of local services , such as education , social services , town planning , waste collection and council housing . The area is divided into seven electoral wards : Altrincham , Bowdon , Broadheath , Hale Barns , Hale Central , Timperley , and Village . These wards have 21 out of the 63 seats on the Trafford Council ; as of the 2014 local elections fifteen of these seats were held by the Conservative Party , three by the Labour Party , and three by the Liberal Democrats . Altrincham was in the eponymous parliamentary constituency which was created in 1885 . This lasted until 1945 when it was replaced by Altrincham and Sale . In 1997 , this in turn became part of the newly created constituency of Altrincham and Sale West . Since its formation , Altrincham and Sale West has been represented in the House of Commons by the Conservative MP , Graham Brady . This is one of only two Conservative seats in Greater Manchester .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 23 ′ 2 ″ N 2 ° 21 ′ 17 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 3838 , − 2 @.@ 3547 ) , Altrincham is on the southwestern edge of the Greater Manchester Urban Area , immediately south of the town of Sale , and 8 miles ( 13 km ) southwest of Manchester city centre . It lies in the northwest corner of the Cheshire Plain , just south of the River Mersey . The Bridgewater Canal passes through the Broadheath area of the town . Altrincham 's drinking water is supplied by United Utilities . The local bedrock consists mainly of Keuper Waterstone , a type of sandstone , and water retrieved from those rocks is very hard and often saline , making it undrinkable . The town 's climate is generally temperate , with few extremes of temperature or weather . The mean temperature is slightly above average for the United Kingdom ; whereas both annual rainfall and average hours of sunshine are slightly below the average for the UK .
Along with Sale , Stretford and Urmston , Altrincham is one of the four major urban areas in Trafford . The Altrincham area , as defined by Trafford Council , comprises the south of Trafford . In addition to the town of Altrincham , it includes the villages of Timperley , Bowdon , Hale and Hale Barns . The Broadheath area of the town was a light industrial centre until the 1970s and is now a retail park . The most densely populated part of the town is around the town centre , with the less populated areas and more green space further from the centre of town in villages such as Bowdon and Hale . The Oldfield Brow area lies on the outskirts of the town beside the Bridgewater Canal and close to Dunham Massey .
= = Demography = =
As of the 2001 UK census , the town of Altrincham had a total population of 40 @,@ 695 . Of its 27 @,@ 900 households , 38 @.@ 7 per cent were married couples living together . 30 @.@ 4 per cent contained one person , 8 @.@ 2 per cent co @-@ habiting couples and 9 @.@ 0 per cent lone parents .
The town 's population density is 10 @,@ 272 inhabitants per square mile ( 3 @,@ 966 / km2 ) , with 94 @.@ 8 males for every 100 females . Of those aged 16 to 74 , 21 @.@ 7 per cent had no academic qualifications , similar to the 21 @.@ 3 per cent in all of Trafford , but lower than the 28 @.@ 9 per cent in England . At 4 @.@ 6 per cent , Altrincham has a low proportion of non @-@ white people . Asians are the area 's largest ethnic minority , at 1 @.@ 3 per cent of the population .
In 1931 , 14 @.@ 6 per cent of Altrincham 's population was middle class , slightly higher than the figure for England and Wales , which was 14 per cent . By 1971 this gap had increased to 28 @.@ 8 per cent compared to 24 per cent nationally , while the town 's working class population had declined , from 30 @.@ 3 per cent in 1931 ( 36 per cent in England and Wales ) to 18 @.@ 6 per cent ( 26 per cent nationwide ) . The remainder comprised clerical and skilled manual workers . This change in social structure was similar to that seen across the nation – although biased towards the middle classes – making Altrincham the middle @-@ class town it is today .
= = = Population change = = =
According to the hearth tax returns from 1664 , the township of Altrincham had a population of about 636 , making it the largest of the local settlements ; this had increased to 1 @,@ 692 in 1801 . In the first half of the 19th century , the town 's population increase by 165 per cent , higher than 89 per cent across England and 98 per cent in the Trafford area . The growth of the settlement was a result of the Industrial Revolution , and although Altrincham was one of the fastest growing townships in the Trafford area , but paled in comparison to new industrial areas such as Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Hyde , and Manchester . In the second half of the 19th century , Altrincham 's population grew by 275 per cent , higher than the 235 per cent for Trafford and 69 per cent nationally in the same period . This was due to the late industrialisation of the area and the introduction of the Manchester South Junction and Altrincham Railway in 1849 . The table below details the population change since 1801 , including the percentage change since the last census .
= = Economy = =
Historically , Altrincham was a market town and the two main areas of employment were agriculture and market trade . Although the town went into decline in the 15th century , it recovered and the annual fairs lasted until the mid @-@ 19th century and the market still continues . During the Industrial Revolution , Altrincham grew as an industrial town , particularly the Broadheath area , which was developed into an industrial estate . In 1801 there were four cotton mills in Altrincham , part of its textile industry , although they had closed by the 1851 census . The decline of the textile industry in Altrincham mirrored the decline of the industry in the Trafford area as a result of a lack of investment and the development of more established industrial areas such as Manchester , Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , and Oldham . During the late 19th and early 20th centuries , heavier industries moved into Broadheath , providing local employment . The area steadily declined during the second half of the 20th century , with employment at Broadheath falling from 8 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 between 1960 and 1970 . Despite the presence of retailers such as Tesco , Sainsbury 's and Marks & Spencer in the town , a new Asda superstore in Broadheath , and redevelopment schemes costing over £ 100 million , Altrincham 's 15 @.@ 5 per cent level of employment in retail is below the national average of 16 @.@ 9 per cent . Altrincham , with its neighbours Bowdon and Hale , is said to constitute a " stockbroker belt " , with well @-@ appointed dwellings in an area of sylvan opulence .
The historic market town developed as a residential area in the 19th century although it retains its retail heritage in the Old Market Place ( a conservation area ) and a new pedestrianised shopping centre . The retail districts of the town have more recently fallen victim to decline due to competition from the nearby Trafford Centre and a regenerated Manchester city centre . In 2006 Trafford Metropolitan Borough Council unveiled plans for a £ 1 @.@ 5 million redevelopment for the town centre . The renovation will create 146 @,@ 000 square feet ( 13 @,@ 600 m2 ) of new retail space and 203 @,@ 000 square feet ( 18 @,@ 900 m2 ) of refurbished space , providing 349 @,@ 000 square feet ( 32 @,@ 400 m2 ) in total .
Construction on Altair , a £ 100 million development on Oakfield Road , is expected to begin in 2013 . The scheme includes a hotel , offices , shops and eating places , and is expected to create 2 @,@ 000 permanent jobs . A further £ 20 million is earmarked for a refurbishment of the nearby Altrincham Interchange . A 2010 survey found that despite being in one of the country 's most affluent areas , nearly a third of the shops in Altrincham were vacant ; Trafford council attributed the high number ( 78 ) to the effects of the recession and plans to refurbish Stamford House , which left most of its shops unused .
According to the 2001 UK census , the industry of employment of residents in Altrincham was 18 @.@ 4 per cent property and business services , 16 @.@ 0 per cent retail and wholesale , 12 @.@ 1 per cent manufacturing , 10 @.@ 7 per cent health and social work , 8 @.@ 3 per cent education , 8 @.@ 3 per cent transport and communications , 5 @.@ 8 per cent finance , 5 @.@ 7 per cent construction , 4 @.@ 2 per cent hotels and restaurants , 4 @.@ 2 per cent public administration and defence , 0 @.@ 8 per cent agriculture , 0 @.@ 8 per cent energy and water supply , 0 @.@ 2 per cent mining , and 4 @.@ 6 per cent other . This was roughly in line with national figures , except for the town 's relatively high percentage of workers in property and business services . The census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 , 5 @.@ 3 per cent looking after home or family , 4 @.@ 3 per cent permanently sick or disabled , 3 @.@ 2 per cent students without jobs , 2 @.@ 2 per cent students were with jobs , and 2 @.@ 4 per cent economically inactive for other reasons . The 2 @.@ 2 per cent unemployment rate of Altrincham was low compared with the national rate of 3 @.@ 3 per cent .
= = Culture = =
= = = Landmarks and attractions = = =
The Old Market Place is thought to stand on the site of the original town settlement . Now a registered conservation area it consists of a series of part timber @-@ framed buildings echoing the wattle and daub constructions of the original houses and burgage plots . The cobblestone paving was replaced in 1896 . The Buttermarket which stood in the area near the Old Market Place from the 17th century until the late 19th century was also the site for dispensing early local justice . A courtroom , stocks and whipping post saw public floggings take place there until the early 19th century . The whipping post and stocks were restored as a tourist attraction by local traders in the 1990s . However the Buttermarket area was also a site of religious importance , since prospective brides and grooms are thought to have declared their intentions here . In 1814 Thomas de Quincey described the Old Market Place in his Confessions of an English Opium Eater while travelling from Manchester to Chester . He noted how little the place had changed since his visit 14 years earlier at the age of three , and that " fruits , such as can be had in July , and flowers were scattered about in profusion : even the stalls of the butchers , from their brilliant cleanliness , appeared attractive : and bonny young women of Altrincham were all tripping about in caps and aprons coquettishly disposed " . Another of Altrincham 's attractions is the historic market , set up over 700 years ago when the town was first established .
Of the 21 conservation areas in Trafford , ten are in Altrincham : The Downs , The Devisdale , Bowdon , Ashley Heath , Goose Green , Old Market Place , Sandiway , George Street , the Linotype Housing Estate and Stamford New Road . On the town 's outskirts is the 18th @-@ century Dunham Massey Hall , surrounded by its 250 @-@ acre ( 1 km2 ) deer park , both now owned by the National Trust . The hall is early Georgian in style , and along with its stables and carriage house , is a Grade I listed building .
Royd House was built between 1914 and 1916 , by local architect Edgar Wood , as his own residence . It has a flat concrete roof , a concave façade , and is faced in Portland red stone and Lancashire brick . It is regarded as one of the most advanced examples of early 20th @-@ century domestic architecture , and is referenced in architectural digests . It has been a Grade I listed building since 1975 , one of six such buildings in Trafford . The Grade II listed clock outside the main transport interchange was built in 1880 .
The 16 @-@ acre ( 6 @.@ 5 ha ) Stamford Park was designed by landscape gardener John Shaw . It opened to the public in 1880 , as a sports park with areas for cricket and football . The land was donated by George Grey , the 7th Earl of Stamford , and is now owned and run by Trafford Council . The park is listed as Grade II on the Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England , and has won a bronze award from the Greenspace award scheme .
= = = Events and venues = = =
Altrincham has two theatres , the Altrincham Garrick Playhouse and the Club Theatre . The Altrincham Garrick group was formed in 1913 . The Garrick held the world stage premier of Psycho in 1982 . In 1998 , it received a grant of £ 675 @,@ 000 from the National Lottery as part of a £ 900 @,@ 000 redevelopment of the theatre , which was completed in 1999 . The Club Theatre group began in 1896 , as the St Margaret 's Church Institute Amateur Dramatics Society . It provides a venue for the Trafford Youth Theatre production each year , and it runs the Hale One Act Festival , an annual week @-@ long event started in 1972 . The club has received awards from both the Greater Manchester Drama Federation and the Cheshire Theatre Guild . Altrincham also had Greater Manchester 's only Michelin starred restaurant , the Juniper .
= = = Sports = = =
Altrincham F.C. , nicknamed " The Robins " , were founded in 1903 and play home matches at Moss Lane . The club plays in the Vanarama Conference , the fifth tier of English football . In the 1970s and 1980s Altrincham F.C. built a reputation for " giant @-@ killing " acts against Football League teams in FA Cup matches . The club has knocked out Football League opposition on a record 16 occasions , including a 1986 victory against top @-@ flight Birmingham City . Altrincham won the forerunner of the Football Conference in its first two seasons , but was denied election to the Football League on both occasions , falling a single vote short in 1980 . Altrincham have since had mixed fortunes . Relegated to the Northern Premier League in 1997 , the club earned promotion two years later , but suffered a second relegation after a single season in the Conference . In the 2010 – 11 season Altrincham were relegated to Conference North .
Altrincham is one of the few towns in North West England with an ice rink , and has had an ice hockey team since 1961 , when Altrincham Ice Rink was built in Broadheath . The Altrincham Aces ( later renamed the Trafford Metros ) played from 1961 until 2003 , when Altrincham Ice Rink closed . The town then had a three @-@ year period without a rink or ice hockey team , until construction of the 2 @,@ 500 capacity Altrincham Ice Dome was completed . Manchester Phoenix , a club having a professional presence in the English Premier Ice Hockey League and an extensive junior development aspect , relocated to the Ice Dome during the 2006 – 07 season , having withdrawn from competition two years earlier due to the high cost of playing matches at Manchester 's MEN Arena . In 2009 the Manchester Phoenix English National Ice Hockey League team was renamed Trafford Metros , bringing the old Altrincham team 's name back into use . When not being used by Phoenix the Altrincham Ice Dome is open to the public for ice skating .
Founded in 1897 , Altrincham Kersal RUFC plays rugby union in North One , the competition below the National Leagues , and is amongst the top 80 clubs in England . Altrincham has been promoted five times in the past ten seasons . The club has produced England and Sale Sharks players Mark Cueto and Chris Jones and continues to produce players for the Sale Jets . Altrincham and District Athletics Club was founded in 1961 , and provides training facilities for track and field , road running , cross @-@ country running and fell running . Seamons Cycling Club was formed in 1948 in the area of Altrincham known locally as Seamons Moss .
= = Education = =
As Altrincham was part of the Bowdon parish , children from the township may have gone to the 16th @-@ century school established at Bowdon ; before that point , the town had no formal education system . A salt merchant from Dunham Woodhouses founded a school at Oldfield House intended for 40 boys aged 8 – 11 from the surrounding area . Sunday schools were set up in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . Altrincham 's increasing population prompted the founding of more schools during the early 19th century and by 1856 the town had 9 schools , 1 college , and 23 teachers . The introduction of compulsory education during the second half of the 19th century increased the demand for schools , and by 1886 Altrincham had 12 church schools and 8 private schools .
Responsibility for local education fell to Cheshire County Council in 1903 . Loreto Convent , the County High School for Girls , and Altrincham County High School for Boys , were founded in 1909 , 1910 , and 1912 respectively . Although still open these schools have since changed their names to Altrincham Grammar School for Girls , Altrincham Grammar School for Boys , and Loreto Grammar School . Altrincham received evacuees during the Second World War , and it was in this period that St. Ambrose College was founded .
Altrincham now has eighteen primary schools , one special school and eight secondary schools , including five grammar schools ; the Trafford district maintains a selective education system assessed by the Eleven Plus exam . Several of Altrincham 's secondary schools have specialist status : Altrincham College of Arts ( arts ) ; Altrincham Grammar School for Boys ( language ) ; Altrincham Grammar School for Girls ( language ) ; Blessed Thomas Holford Catholic College ( maths and computing ) ; Loreto Grammar School ( science and maths ) ; and St. Ambrose College ( maths and computing ) . Altrincham College of Arts , Altrincham Grammar School for Boys , Altrincham Grammar School for Girls , Blessed Thomas Holford Catholic College , Loreto Grammar School , and St. Ambrose College were all rated as outstanding in their most recent Ofsted reports . Brentwood Special School is a mixed school for 11- to 19 @-@ year @-@ olds who have special needs or learning difficulties .
= = Religion = =
During the medieval and post @-@ medieval periods the township of Altrincham was part of Bowdon parish . Low population density meant that the town did not have a church until the Anglican church established a chapel of ease in 1799 . Nonconformists were also present in Altrincham ; Methodists set up a chapel in 1790 , and Baptists built one in the 1870s . Irish immigrants in the 1830s and 1840s also returned Roman Catholicism to the area , the first Roman Catholic church built in Altrincham being St Vincent 's , in 1860 .
Several churches in Altrincham are deemed architecturally important enough to be designated Grade II listed buildings . These are Christ Church , the Church of St Alban , the Church of St George , the Church of St John the Evangelist and Trinity United Reformed Church . Of the nine Grade II * listed buildings in Trafford , three are in Altrincham : the Church of St Margaret , the Church of St John the Divine and Hale Chapel in Hale Barns . As of the 2001 UK census , 78 @.@ 8 per cent of Altrincham 's residents reported themselves as being Christian , 1 @.@ 1 per cent Jewish , 1 @.@ 1 per cent Muslim , 0 @.@ 4 per cent Hindu , 0 @.@ 2 per cent Buddhist and 0 @.@ 1 per cent Sikh . The census recorded 12 @.@ 1 per cent as having no religion , 0 @.@ 2 per cent with an alternative religion , while 6 @.@ 1 per cent did not state a religion . Altrincham is in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury , and the Church of England Diocese of Chester . The nearest synagogue , belonging to Hale and District Hebrew Congregation , is on Shay Lane in Hale Barns .
= = Transport = =
Construction of the Manchester South Junction and Altrincham Railway began in 1845 . The line was opened in October 1849 , with services from Manchester London Road via Sale to Altrincham . In 1931 it became one of Great Britain 's first electrified railway lines , with a 1,500V DC overhead line . At the same time a new Altrincham station was opened on the same line , at Navigation Road , serving housing developments in the area . By 1937 , 130 train services ran daily between Manchester and Altrincham . The line was renovated in the early 1990s to form part of the Manchester Metrolink light rail system . Broadheath railway station served the northern part of Altrincham between 1853 and 1962 , on the line from Manchester , via Lymm to Warrington .
Altrincham Interchange is one of the Metrolink 's termini . The interchange has been refurbished , and now includes a brand new footbridge , with 3 lifts to cope with increased passenger demands , including a larger scale ticket office , and modern bus interchange . The redeveloped interchange is now going through finishing touches , with just the lifts to be completed . The new Interchange is a modern design building that looks fantastic and is helping to regenerate Altrincham city centre as the new building has helped to transform the surrounding area . The Interchange connects the town to several locations in Greater Manchester , such as Sale and Bury . The service also includes Navigation Road station . Metrolink services leave around every six minutes , between 07 : 15 and 19 : 30 on weekdays , and less frequently at other times . National Rail services link the Altrincham and Navigation Road stations with Chester via Northwich , and with Manchester via Stockport . Altrincham Interchange , next to the railway station , is a hub for local bus routes . Manchester Airport , the largest in the UK outside London , is 5 miles ( 8 km ) to the southeast of the town , and is connected via the Manchester Picadilly – Crewe line . There are plans in the future to create a new link between Manchester Airport and the Mid Cheshire Line , which Altrincham Interchange is a station on . Recently the Metrolink completed connections to this airport and opened the line 12 months early , but this is not a direct connection from the Metrolink line at Altrincham Interchange
= = Notable people = =
The artist Helen Allingham , born in 1848 , lived in Altrincham and then Bowdon during her childhood years . Alison Uttley wrote the Little Grey Rabbit books while living in Bowdon . Dramatist Ronald Gow lived there in his youth and later taught at the local grammar school . The town was also the birthplace of the film and television actress Angela Cartwright . Ian Brown and John Squire of The Stone Roses both attended Altrincham Grammar School for Boys , and Paul Young of Sad Café and Mike and the Mechanics lived in Altrincham until his death in 2000 .
Hewlett Johnson , later known as the " Red Dean " of Canterbury , was curate , and later vicar of St Margaret 's in the town from 1904 to 1924 .
The Lancashire and England Test cricketer Paul Allott was born in Altrincham .
Edward Kinder Bradbury was born ( 16 August 1881 ) in the town , he was awarded the Victoria Cross for gallantry and ability in organising the defence of ' L ' Battery against heavy odds at Nery on 1 September 1914 . Altrincham born Bill Speakman received the Victoria Cross for valour in 1951 in the Korean War . Sir Michael Pollock , an officer in the Royal Navy who rose to the position of First Sea Lord , was born in Altrincham .
= Towson United Methodist Church =
Towson United Methodist Church is a large United Methodist Church in the historic Baltimore County , Maryland suburb of Towson . Its past , rooted in 19th century America , and subsequent growth in the two centuries since then , have closely paralleled the nation 's political and sociological trends . It was a congregation split asunder in 1861 on the eve of the American Civil War in a border state of divided loyalties , which eventually reunited and built a church in the post @-@ World War II era of the 1950s , a time of reconciliation and rapid growth by mainline Protestant denominations , especially in the more affluent suburbs .
The 1 @,@ 000 @-@ member church , currently pastored by Rev. Roderick Miller , has a number of community outreach programs , including an accredited child care center and a Boy Scout troop , and actively supports a home for unwed mothers , overseas missions , and Habitat for Humanity projects . The congregation worships in a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ seat sanctuary built in 1958 . The large building 's prominent 235 @-@ foot ( 72 m ) spire and cupola , a landmark visible for miles from the nearby Baltimore Beltway ( Interstate 695 ) , has been called " the beacon of Towson " .
Towson United Methodist Church is located on Hampton Lane at interchange # 27B of the Baltimore Beltway and Dulaney Valley Road ( Md . Route 146 ) , one @-@ half mile ( one km ) west of Hampton National Historic Site . The church 's land was originally part of the vast 18th century Hampton estate .
= = History = =
= = = The beginning ; 1750s – 1850s = = =
First settled by brothers William and Thomas Towson in 1752 , the hamlet now bearing their name remained mostly farmland until the 1830s , with no churches and little more than a roadside inn / tavern for travelers on York Road ( now Md . Route 45 ) . In the 1790s , Rebecca Dorsey Ridgely , the wife of Charles Ridgely III and described as an ardent Methodist , began holding prayer meetings at the Ridgelys ' grandiose Hampton Mansion , located one @-@ half mi ( one km ) east of the present church site . By 1825 , the first Sunday School was started in a private home near a blacksmith 's shop on York Road . In 1839 , the citizenry of sparsely populated Towsontown , as the village was called by then , built the tiny community 's first church in a wooded location north of Joppa Road and east of Dulaney Valley Road . The site was previously used for a powder magazine built by Gen. Nathan Towson prior to the British attack on Baltimore in September 1814 , during the War of 1812 . Called Epsom Chapel , the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 93 m2 ) structure was built of stones salvaged from the arsenal . Led by Methodist Episcopal minister Daniel Helpler , Epsom Chapel was dedicated and opened for Towsontown 's first public church service on Sunday , November 10 , 1839 . In line with Methodist practice of the time in rural areas , circuit rider ministers would travel on horseback to preach to the villagers at Epsom Chapel . With the designation of Towson as the county seat in 1854 , the town began to grow more rapidly . The small chapel was shared with other denominations until the 1870s , when Towson 's increasing population spurred the construction of larger churches .
= = = Division and separate churches ; 1860s – 1950s = = =
The Methodist movement was growing rapidly in pre @-@ Civil War America , but was beset by disputes about slave @-@ holding and the rule over the church by bishops , resulting in a formal split into two groups in 1844 . The faction in favor of giving church authority to a hierarchy of bishops called themselves the Methodist Episcopal Church and took an anti @-@ slavery stance in the north . Those in opposition formed the Methodist Protestant Church in the United States . As the impending Civil War loomed over the nation in the 1850s , local Towson Methodists continued to worship together at Epsom Chapel .
This ended in 1861 , when a reed organ was purchased for Epsom Chapel , sparking a disagreement over the use of musical instruments in worship . A minority opposed to the idea joined the southern @-@ leaning Methodist Protestant Church , withdrawing from Epsom Chapel to worship at Towson 's Odd Fellows Hall during the Civil War . In 1867 , the Methodist Protestants returned to Epsom Chapel , but met separately on Sunday afternoons .
= = = = Towson Methodist Episcopal Church ( First Methodist Church ) = = = =
The northern @-@ leaning Methodist Episcopal congregation , which continued worshiping at Epsom Chapel during the Civil War , began building their own church nearby , with the laying of a cornerstone on August 14 , 1869 . The Towson Methodist Episcopal ( M.E. ) Church , a neo @-@ Gothic brick structure , was located on York Road next to the present Prospect Hill Cemetery , one block north of the intersection with Joppa and Dulaney Valley Roads . Designed by Edmund George Lind and built at a cost of $ 29 @,@ 000 , the 350 @-@ seat church was completed and dedicated on October 26 , 1871 .
The M.E. Church 's eighty @-@ seven members soon found themselves in financial difficulties , however , having gone heavily in debt to build their new sanctuary . The chairman of the church 's building committee had advanced his personal funds to complete the construction , thereafter becoming embroiled in years of litigation with the church . By 1874 , the church was drawing larger crowds under then @-@ pastor Joseph Stitt , who was described as an " excellent leader of singing " . An afternoon Sunday school session was particularly popular , " principally devoted to learning new hymns , which attracted many of the young people of the town , especially the young men " , noted one account . When the ME church held its twenty @-@ fifth anniversary celebration in 1896 , it opened with prayer and a piano concert , " favored with a beautiful selection sung by Mrs. Randolph Murphy " , said a contemporary report .
Although the two Methodist congregations had remained estranged since the split in 1861 , both groups did come together in 1895 for a " Great Revival " in Towson . The joint services were attended by throngs and the " preaching was with | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
parts of the design were modelled by varying the depth of the surface to produce different intensities of colour when the translucent enamel was added ; the gold under folds of drapery often rises near the surface to create a paler highlight . In many of the recessed areas decoration was added by either engraving or punching which would show through the translucent enamel , or to facet the background so the reflections change as the viewing angle changes slightly . In these last @-@ mentioned areas cutting tools were used . Most of the background outside the enamelled areas was decorated in the same way . After the enamel was added and fired the surfaces were cleaned up , made good and polished , including removing by scraping any bumps showing through on the reverse of the metal .
The enamel lies flush with the gold surfaces ; it was a preparation of finely ground glass paste applied with great care to the prepared recessed areas , and then fired . Different colours of enamel meet each other with a neat boundary , which was achieved by firing one colour with a retaining border of gum tragacanth before adding the next . The difficulty was increased by the application of tints of a different colour to a base shade of enamel before firing , so that the added colour blends gradually into the background colour around the edges of the tinted area . This is especially used on " flux " , or colourless enamel , as in the ground areas , rocks and trees . Flux was also used for flesh areas as on a gold background it darkens slightly when fired to a suitable colour for skin . The rouge clair or " ruby glass " red , used so effectively here , was made by adding tiny particles of copper , silver and gold to the glass ; here scientific tests have shown that copper was used . After firing the enamel was polished flush with the surrounding metal . The technique had been known to the Ancient Romans ( see the Lycurgus Cup , also in the British Museum ) , but was lost at the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century . The added cylinders use opaque enamel , except for the red on the Tudor roses , which is translucent rouge clair , of a similar composition to the original reds . Translucent enamel is more fragile than opaque , and medieval survivals in good condition are very rare .
= Giant freshwater stingray =
The giant freshwater stingray ( Himantura polylepis , also widely known by the junior synonym H. chaophraya ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . It is found in large rivers and estuaries in Indochina and Borneo , though historically it may have been more widely distributed in South and Southeast Asia . One of the largest freshwater fish in the world , this species grows upwards of 1 @.@ 9 m ( 6 @.@ 2 ft ) across and may reach 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 300 lb ) in weight . It has a relatively thin , oval pectoral fin disc that is widest anteriorly , and a sharply pointed snout with a protruding tip . Its tail is thin and whip @-@ like , and lacks fin folds . This species is uniformly grayish brown above and white below ; the underside of the pectoral and pelvic fins bear distinctive wide , dark bands on their posterior margins .
Bottom @-@ dwelling in nature , the giant freshwater stingray inhabits sandy or muddy areas and preys on small fishes and invertebrates . Females give live birth to litters of one to four pups , which are sustained to term by maternally produced histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . This species faces heavy fishing pressure for meat , recreation , and aquarium display , as well as extensive habitat degradation and fragmentation . These forces have resulted in substantial population declines in at least central Thailand and Cambodia . As a result , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the giant freshwater stingray as Endangered .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The first scientific description of the giant freshwater stingray was authored by Dutch ichthyologist Pieter Bleeker in an 1852 volume of the journal Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen . His account was based on a juvenile specimen 30 cm ( 12 in ) across , collected from Jakarta , Indonesia . Bleeker named the new species polylepis , from the Greek poly ( " many " ) and lepis ( " scales " ) , and assigned it to the genus Trygon ( now a synonym of Dasyatis ) . However , in subsequent years Bleeker 's description was largely overlooked , and in 1990 the giant freshwater stingray was described again by Supap Monkolprasit and Tyson Roberts in an issue of the Japanese Journal of Ichthyology . They gave it the name Himantura chaophraya , which came into widespread usage . In 2008 , Peter Last and B. Mabel Manjaji @-@ Matsumoto confirmed that T. polylepis and H. chaophraya refer to the same species , and since Bleeker 's name was published earlier , the scientific name of the giant freshwater stingray became Himantura polylepis . This species may also be called the giant freshwater whipray , giant stingray , or freshwater whipray .
There is a complex of similar freshwater and estuarine Himantura in South Asia , Southeast Asia , and Australasia that are or were tentatively identified with H. polylepis . The Australian freshwater Himantura were described as a separate species , H. dalyensis , in 2008 . The freshwater Himantura in New Guinea are probably H. dalyensis rather than H. polylepis , though confirmation awaits further study . Trygon fluviatilis from India , as described by Nelson Annandale in 1909 , closely resembles and may be conspecific with H. polylepis . On the other hand , comparison of freshwater whipray DNA and amino acid sequences between India and Thailand has revealed significant differences . Finally , additional research is needed to assess the degree of divergence amongst populations of H. polylepis inhabiting various drainage basins across its distribution , so as to determine whether further taxonomic differentiation is warranted .
In terms of the broader evolutionary relationships between the giant freshwater whipray and the rest of the family Dasyatidae , a 2012 phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial DNA reported that it was most closely related to the porcupine ray ( Urogymnus asperrimus ) , and that they in turn formed a clade with the mangrove whipray ( H. granulata ) and the tubemouth whipray ( H. lobistoma ) . This finding adds to a growing consensus that the genus Himantura is paraphyletic .
= = Description = =
The giant freshwater stingray has a thin , oval pectoral fin disc slightly longer than wide and broadest towards the front . The elongated snout has a wide base and a sharply pointed tip that projects beyond the disc . The eyes are minute and widely spaced ; behind them are large spiracles . Between the nostrils is a short curtain of skin with a finely fringed posterior margin . The small mouth forms a gentle arch and contains four to seven papillae ( two to four large at the center and one to four small to the sides ) on the floor . The small and rounded teeth are arranged into pavement @-@ like bands . There are five pairs of gill slits on the ventral side of the disc . The pelvic fins are small and thin ; mature males have relatively large claspers .
The thin , cylindrical tail measures 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 5 times as long as the disc and lacks fin folds . A single serrated stinging spine is positioned on the upper surface of the tail near the base . At up to 38 cm ( 15 in ) long , the spine is the largest of any stingray species . There is band of heart @-@ shaped tubercles on the upper surface of the disc extending from before the eyes to the base of the sting ; there is also a midline row of four to six enlarged tubercles at the center of the disc . The remainder of the disc upper surface is covered by tiny granular denticles , and the tail is covered with sharp prickles past the sting . This species is plain grayish brown above , often with a yellowish or pinkish tint towards the fin margins ; in life the skin is coated with a layer of dark brown mucus . The underside is white with broad dark bands , edged with small spots , on the trailing margins of the pectoral and pelvic fins . The tail is black behind the spine . The giant freshwater stingray reaches at least 1 @.@ 9 m ( 6 @.@ 2 ft ) in width and 5 @.@ 0 m ( 16 @.@ 4 ft ) in length , and can likely grow larger . With reports from the Mekong and Chao Phraya Rivers of individuals weighing 500 – 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 – 1 @,@ 300 lb ) , it ranks among the largest freshwater fishes in the world .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The giant freshwater stingray is known to inhabit several large rivers and associated estuaries in Indochina and Borneo . In Indochina , it occurs in the Mekong River to potentially as far upstream as Chiang Khong in Thailand , as well as in the Chao Phraya , Nan , Mae Klong , Bang Pakong , Prachin Buri and Tapi Rivers . In Borneo , this species is found in the Mahakam River in Kalimantan and the Kinabatangan and Buket Rivers in Sabah ; it is reportedly common in the Kinabatangan River but infrequently caught . Though it has been reported from Sarawak as well , surveys within the past 25 years have not found it there . Elsewhere in the region , recent river surveys in Java have not recorded its presence , despite the island being the locality of the species holotype . Historical records from Myanmar , the Ganges River in India , and the Bay of Bengal ( the latter two as Trygon fluviatilis ) have similarly not been corroborated by any recent accounts .
Disjunct populations of the giant freshwater stingray in separate river drainages are probably isolated from one another ; though the species occurs in brackish environments , there is no evidence that it crosses marine waters . This is a bottom @-@ dwelling species that favors a sandy or muddy habitat . Unexpectedly , it can sometimes be found near heavily populated urban areas .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The diet of the giant freshwater stingray consists of small fishes and invertebrates such as crustaceans and molluscs , which it can detect using its electroreceptive ampullae of Lorenzini . Individuals can often be seen at the edge of the river , possibly feeding on earthworms . Parasites documented from this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium asnihae , A. etini , A. masnihae , A. saliki , A. zainali , Rhinebothrium abaiensis , R. kinabatanganensis , and R. megacanthophallus . The giant freshwater stingray is viviparous , with the developing embryos nourished initially by yolk and later by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) provided by the mother . This species does not appear to be diadromous ( migrating between fresh and salt water to complete its life cycle ) . Observed litter sizes range from one to four pups ; newborns measure around 30 cm ( 12 in ) across . Pregnant females are frequently found in estuaries , which may serve as nursery areas . Males mature sexually at approximately 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) across ; female maturation size and other life history details are unknown .
= = Human interactions = =
The giant freshwater stingray is not aggressive , but it merits caution as its sting is sheathed in toxic mucus and is capable of piercing bone . Across its range , this species is caught incidentally by artisanal fishers using longlines , and to a lesser extent gillnets and fish traps . It is reputedly difficult and time @-@ consuming to catch ; a hooked ray may bury itself under large quantities of mud , becoming almost impossible to lift , or drag boats over substantial distances or underwater . The meat and perhaps the cartilage are used ; large specimens are cut into kilogram pieces for sale . Adults that are not used for food are often killed or maimed by fishers regardless . In the Mae Klong and Bang Pakong Rivers , the giant freshwater stingray is also increasingly targeted by sport fishers and for display in public aquariums . These trends pose conservation concerns ; the former because catch and release is not universally practiced and the post @-@ release survival rate is unknown , the latter because this species does not survive well in captivity .
The major threats to the giant freshwater stingray are overfishing and habitat degradation resulting from deforestation , land development , and damming . The construction of dams also fragments the population , reducing genetic diversity and increasing the susceptibility of the resulting subpopulations to extinction . Due to its low reproductive rate , the giant freshwater stingray is not resilient to anthropogenic pressures . In central Thailand and Cambodia , the population is estimated to have been reduced by 30 – 50 % over the past 20 – 30 years , with declines as severe as 95 % in some locations . The size of rays caught has decreased significantly as well ; for example , in Cambodia the average weight of a landed ray has dropped from 23 @.@ 2 kg ( 51 lb ) in 1980 to 6 @.@ 9 kg ( 15 lb ) in 2006 . The status of populations in other areas , such as Borneo , is largely unknown . As a result of documented declines , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Endangered overall , and as Critically Endangered in Thailand . In the 1990s , the Thai government initiated a captive breeding program at Chai Nat to bolster the population of this and other freshwater stingray species until the issue of habitat degradation can be remedied . However , by 1996 the program had been put on hold .
= Live action role @-@ playing game =
A live action role @-@ playing game ( LARP ) is a form of role @-@ playing game where the participants physically act out their characters ' actions . The players pursue goals within a fictional setting represented by the real world while interacting with each other in character . The outcome of player actions may be mediated by game rules or determined by consensus among players . Event arrangers called gamemasters decide the setting and rules to be used and facilitate play .
The first LARPs were run in the late 1970s , inspired by tabletop role @-@ playing games and genre fiction . The activity spread internationally during the 1980s and has diversified into a wide variety of styles . Play may be very game @-@ like or may be more concerned with dramatic or artistic expression . Events can also be designed to achieve educational or political goals . The fictional genres used vary greatly , from realistic modern or historical settings to fantastic or futuristic eras . Production values are sometimes minimal , but can involve elaborate venues and costumes . LARPs range in size from small private events lasting a few hours to large public events with thousands of players lasting for days .
= = Terminology = =
LARP has also been referred to as live role @-@ playing ( LRP ) , interactive literature , and free form role @-@ playing . Some of these terms are still in common use ; however , LARP has become the most commonly accepted term . It is sometimes written in lowercase , as larp . The live action in LARP is analogous to the term live action used in film and video to differentiate works with human actors from animation . Playing a LARP is often called larping , and one who does it is a larper .
= = Play overview = =
The participants in a LARP physically portray characters in a fictional setting , improvising their characters ' speech and movements somewhat like actors in improvisational theatre . This is distinct from tabletop role @-@ playing games , where character actions are described verbally . LARPs may be played in a public or private area and may last for hours or days . There is usually no audience . Players may dress as their character and carry appropriate equipment , and the environment is sometimes decorated to resemble the setting . LARPs can be one @-@ off events or a series of events in the same setting , and events can vary in size from a handful of players to several thousand .
Events are put on for the benefit of the players , who take on roles called player characters ( PCs ) that the players may create themselves or be given by the gamemasters . Players sometimes play the same character repeatedly at separate events , progressively developing the character and its relations with other characters and the setting .
Arrangers called gamemasters ( GMs ) determine the rules and setting of a LARP , and may also influence an event and act as referees while it is taking place . The GMs may also do the logistical work , or there may be other arrangers who handle details such as advertising the event , booking a venue , and financial management . Unlike the GM in a tabletop role @-@ playing game , a LARP GM seldom has an overview of everything that is happening during play because numerous participants may be interacting at once . For this reason , a LARP GM 's role is often less concerned with tightly maintaining a narrative or directly entertaining the players , and more with arranging the structure of the LARP before play begins and facilitating the players and crew to maintain the fictional environment during play .
Participants sometimes known as the crew may help the GMs to set up and maintain the environment of the LARP during play by acting as stagehands or playing non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) who fill out the setting . Crew typically receive more information about the setting and more direction from the GMs than players do . In a tabletop role @-@ playing game , a GM usually plays all the NPCs , whereas in a LARP , each NPC is typically played by a separate crew member . Sometimes players are asked to play NPCs for periods of an event .
Much of play consists of interactions between characters . Some LARP scenarios primarily feature interaction between PCs . Other scenarios focus on interaction between PCs and aspects of the setting , including NPCs , that are under the direction of the GMs .
= = History = =
LARP does not have a single point of origin , but was invented independently by groups in North America , Europe , and Australia . These groups shared an experience with genre fiction or tabletop role @-@ playing games , and a desire to physically experience such settings . In addition to tabletop role @-@ playing , LARP is rooted in childhood games of make believe , play fighting , costume parties , roleplay simulations , Commedia dell 'arte , improvisational theatre , psychodrama , military simulations , and historical reenactment groups such as the Society for Creative Anachronism .
The earliest recorded LARP group is Dagorhir , which was founded in 1977 in the United States and focuses on fantasy battles . Soon after the release of the movie Logan 's Run in 1976 , rudimentary live role @-@ playing games based on the movie were run at US science fiction conventions . In 1981 , the International Fantasy Gaming Society ( IFGS ) started , with rules influenced by Dungeons & Dragons . IFGS was named after a fictional group in the 1981 novel Dream Park , which described futuristic LARPs . In 1982 , the Society for Interactive Literature , a predecessor of the Live Action Roleplayers Association ( LARPA ) , formed as the first recorded theatre @-@ style LARP group in the US .
Treasure Trap , formed in 1982 at Peckforton Castle , was the first recorded LARP game in the UK and influenced the fantasy LARPs that followed there . The first recorded LARP in Australia was run in 1983 , using the science fiction Traveller setting . In 1993 , White Wolf Publishing released Mind 's Eye Theatre , which is still played internationally and is probably the most commercially successful published LARP . The first German events were in about 1994 ( other sources claim 1992 or 1991 ) , with fantasy LARP in particular growing quickly there , so that since 2001 , two major German events have been run annually that have between 3000 and 7000 players each and attract players from around Europe .
Today , LARP is a widespread activity internationally . Games with thousands of participants are run by for @-@ profit companies , and a small industry exists to sell costume , armour and foam weapons intended primarily for LARP .
= = Purpose = =
Most LARPs are intended as games for entertainment . Enjoyable aspects can include the collaborative creation of a story , the attempt to overcome challenges in pursuit of a character 's objectives , and a sense of immersion in a fictional setting . LARPs may also include other game @-@ like aspects such as intellectual puzzles , and sport @-@ like aspects such as fighting with simulated weapons .
Some LARPs stress artistic considerations such as dramatic interaction or challenging subject matter . Avant @-@ garde or arthaus events have especially experimental approaches and high culture aspirations and are occasionally held in fine art contexts such as festivals or art museums . The themes of avant @-@ garde events often include politics , culture , religion , sexuality and the human condition . Such LARPs are common in the Nordic countries but also present elsewhere .
In addition to entertainment and artistic merit , LARP events may be designed for educational or political purposes . For example , the Danish secondary school Østerskov Efterskole uses LARP to teach most of its classes . Language classes can be taught by immersing students in a role @-@ playing scenario in which they are forced to improvise speech or writing in the language they are learning . Politically themed LARP events may attempt to awaken or shape political thinking within a culture .
Because LARP involves a controlled artificial environment within which people interact , it has sometimes been used as a research tool to test theories in social fields such as economics or law . For example , LARP has been used to study the application of game theory to the development of criminal law .
= = Fiction and reality = =
During a LARP , player actions in the real world represent character actions in an imaginary setting . Game rules , physical symbols and theatrical improvisation are used to bridge differences between the real world and the setting . For example , a rope could signify an imaginary wall . Realistic @-@ looking weapon props and risky physical activity are sometimes discouraged or forbidden for safety reasons . While the fictional timeline in a tabletop RPG often progresses in game @-@ time , which may be much faster or slower than the time passing for players , LARPs are different in that they usually run in real @-@ time , with game @-@ time only being used in special circumstances .
There is a distinction between when a player is in character , meaning they are actively representing their character , and when the player is out @-@ of @-@ character , meaning they are being themselves . Some LARPs encourage players to stay consistently in character except in emergencies , while others accept players being out @-@ of @-@ character at times . In a LARP , it is usually assumed that players are speaking and acting in character unless otherwise noted , which is the opposite of normal practice in tabletop role @-@ playing games . Character knowledge is usually considered to be separate from player knowledge , and acting upon information a character would not know may be viewed as cheating .
While most LARPs maintain a clear distinction between the real world and the fictional setting , pervasive LARPs mingle fiction with modern reality in a fashion similar to alternate reality games . Bystanders who are unaware that a game is taking place may be treated as part of the fictional setting , and in @-@ character materials may be incorporated into the real world .
= = Rules = =
Many LARPs have game rules that determine how characters can affect each other and the setting . The rules may be defined in a publication or created by the gamemasters . These rules may define characters ' capabilities , what can be done with various objects that exist in the setting , and what characters can do during the downtime between LARP events . Because referees are often not available to mediate all character actions , players are relied upon to be honest in their application of the rules .
Some LARP rules call for the use of simulated weapons such as foam weapons or airsoft guns to determine whether characters succeed in hitting one another in combat situations . In Russian LARP events , weapons made of hard plastic , metal or wood are used . The alternative to using simulated weapons is to pause role @-@ play and determine the outcome of an action symbolically , for example by rolling dice , playing rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors or comparing character attributes .
There are also LARPs that do without rules , instead relying on players to use their common sense or feel for dramatic appropriateness to cooperatively decide what the outcome of their actions will be .
= = Genres = =
LARPs can have any genre , although many use themes and settings derived from genre fiction . Some LARPs borrow a setting from an established work in another medium ( e.g. , The Lord of the Rings or the World of Darkness ) , while others use settings based on the real world or designed specifically for the LARP . Proprietary campaign settings , together with rulesets , are often the principal creative asset of LARP groups and LARP publishers .
LARPs set in the modern day may explore everyday concerns , or special interests such as espionage or military activity . Such LARPs sometimes resemble an Alternate Reality Game , an Assassin game , or a military simulation using live combat with airsoft , laser tag , or paintball markers . LARPs can also be set in historical eras or have semi @-@ historical settings with mythological or fantastical aspects incorporated .
Fantasy is one of the most common LARP genres internationally and is the genre that the largest events use . Fantasy LARPs are set in pseudo @-@ historical worlds inspired by fantasy literature and fantasy role @-@ playing games such as Dungeons & Dragons . These settings typically have magic , fantasy races , and limited technology . Many fantasy LARPs focus on adventure or on competition between character factions . In contrast , science fiction LARPs take place in futuristic settings with high technology and sometimes with extraterrestrial life . This describes a broad array of LARPs , including politically themed LARPs depicting dystopian or utopian societies and settings inspired by cyberpunk , space opera and post @-@ apocalyptic fiction .
Horror LARPs are inspired by horror fiction . Popular subgenres include zombie apocalypse and Cthulhu Mythos , sometimes using the published Cthulhu Live rules . The World of Darkness , published by White Wolf Publishing , is a widely used goth – punk horror setting in which players usually portray secretive supernatural creatures such as vampires and werewolves . This setting can be played using Mind 's Eye Theatre , which is a set of LARP rules also published by White Wolf . World of Darkness LARPs are usually played in a chronicle , a series of short events held at regular intervals , and are also popular at conventions . An international chronicle is run by White Wolf 's official fan club , the Camarilla .
= = Styles = =
LARP events have a wide variety of styles that often overlap . Simple distinctions can be made regarding the genre used , the presence of simulated weapons or abstract rules , and whether players create their own characters or have them assigned by gamemasters . There is also a distinction between scenarios that are only run once and those that are designed to be repeatable . A number of other common classifications follow .
Theatre @-@ style , or freeform , LARP is characterised by a focus on interaction between characters that are written by the gamemasters , not using simulated weapons for combat , and an eclectic approach to genre and setting . Events in this style typically only last a few hours and require relatively little preparation by players and are sometimes played at gaming conventions . Some murder mystery games where players are assigned characters and encouraged to roleplay freely also resemble theatre @-@ style LARP .
Some very large events known as fests ( short for festival ) have hundreds or thousands of participants who are usually split into competing character factions camped separately around a large venue . There are relatively few fests in the world , all based in Europe and Canada ; however , their size means that they have a significant influence on local LARP culture and design . At the other end of the size scale , some small events known as linear or line @-@ course LARPs feature a small group of PCs facing a series of challenges from NPCs and are often more tightly planned and controlled by GMs than other styles of LARP .
While some LARPs are open to participants of all ages , others have a minimum age requirement . There are also youth LARPs , specifically intended for children and young people . Some are run through institutions such as schools , churches , or the Scouts . Denmark has an especially high number of youth LARPs .
= = Cultural significance = =
Roleplaying may be seen as part of a movement in Western culture towards participatory arts , as opposed to traditional spectator arts . Participants in a LARP cast off the role of passive observer and take on new roles that are often outside of their daily life and contrary to their culture . The arrangers of a LARP and the other participants act as co @-@ creators of the game . This collaborative process of creating shared fictional worlds may be associated with a broader burgeoning " geek " culture in developed societies that is in turn associated with prolonged education , high uptake of information technology and increased leisure time . In comparison to the mainstream video @-@ game industry , which is highly commercialized and often marketed towards a male audience , LARP is less commoditized , and women actively contribute as authors and participants .
LARP is not well known in most countries and is sometimes confused with other role @-@ playing , reenactment , costuming , or dramatic activities . While fan and gamer culture in general has become increasingly mainstream in developed countries , LARP has often not achieved the same degree of cultural acceptability . This may be due to intolerance of the resemblance to childhood games of pretend , a perceived risk of over @-@ identification with the characters , and the absence of mass marketing . In US films such as the 2006 documentary Darkon , the 2007 documentary Monster Camp , and the 2008 comedy Role Models , fantasy LARP is depicted as somewhat ridiculous and escapist , but also treated affectionately as a " constructive social outlet " . In the Nordic countries , LARP has achieved a high level of public recognition and popularity . It is often shown in a positive light in mainstream media , with an emphasis on the dramatic and creative aspects . However , even in Norway , where LARP has greater recognition than in most other countries , it has still not achieved full recognition as a cultural activity by government bodies .
Communities have formed around the creation , play and discussion of LARP . These communities have developed a subculture that crosses over with role @-@ playing , fan , reenactment , and drama subcultures . Early LARP subculture focused on Tolkien @-@ like fantasy , but it later broadened to include appreciation of other genres , especially the horror genre with the rapid uptake of the World of Darkness setting in the 1990s . Like many subcultures , LARP groups often have a common context of shared experience , language , humour , and clothing that can be regarded by some as a lifestyle .
LARP has been a subject of academic research and theory . Much of this research originates from role @-@ players , especially from the publications of the Nordic Knutepunkt role @-@ playing conventions . The broader academic community has recently begun to study LARP as well , both to compare it to other media and other varieties of interactive gaming , and also to evaluate it in its own right .
It has been speculated that LARP may one day evolve into a major industry in the form of location @-@ based games using ubiquitous computing .
= = In popular culture = =
Films
Dream Park ( 1981 )
Mazes and Monsters ( 1982 )
Role Models ( 2008 )
The Wild Hunt ( 2009 )
Lloyd the Conqueror ( 2011 )
Knights of Badassdom ( 2014 )
Documentaries
Darkon ( 2006 )
Monster Camp ( 2007 )
Television
LARPing was featured in an episode of the animated American TV series American Dad ! titled " The Nova Centauris @-@ burgh Board of Tourism Presents : American Dad " , which was originally broadcast by TBS on May 2 , 2016 . In it Steve and his friends pretend they are a colony of " moisture farmers " , and his mother , Francine , joins in their game .
LARPing is parodied as FCLORPing ( short for Foam and Cardboard Legitimate Outdoor Role @-@ Playing ) in the Gravity Falls episode " Dungeons , Dungeons and More Dungeons " .
= Friday ( Rebecca Black song ) =
" Friday " is a song by American singer Rebecca Black , written and produced by Los Angeles record producers Clarence Jey and Patrice Wilson . It was released on March 14 , 2011 , by ARK Music Factory as Black 's debut single . The song features a rap verse from Wilson , which was uncredited on the single . Its music video caught a sudden surge of hits after Mystery Science Theater 3000 and Rifftrax comedian Michael J. Nelson called it " the worst video ever made " on Twitter and the song was featured on the Tosh.0 blog . The song 's reception was highly negative , mainly because of its songwriting and Black 's singing performance .
The original video was removed from YouTube on June 16 , 2011 due to legal disputes between ARK Music and Black herself . By then , it had already amassed more than 166 million views , with over 3 @.@ 2 million " dislikes " ( 88 % of total ratings ) from YouTube users . The video was uploaded to YouTube again on September 16 , 2011 . ( The video currently has 2 @.@ 08 million " dislikes " — 79 % of total ratings — on YouTube . ) Since the growth in popularity of the song and video , there have been numerous parody videos and remixes . Forbes stated that the notoriety of the song is another sign of the power of social media — specifically Twitter , Facebook , and Tumblr , in this instance — in the ability to create " overnight sensations . "
= = Background and production = =
" Friday " co @-@ writer Patrice Wilson , a worker at Ark Music Factory , explained that he wrote the lyrics " on a Thursday night going into a Friday . I was writing different songs all night and was like , ' Wow , I 've been up a long time and it 's Friday . ' And I was like , wow , it is Friday ! "
An Ark Music Factory client told Black 's mother about the company 's production services in late 2010 ; Black was 13 at the time , and living in Anaheim Hills , California . Black 's mother , Georgina Kelly , paid Ark Music $ 4 @,@ 000 for a song and accompanying video that included a choice of two pre @-@ written songs . According to Kelly , the payment covered one half or less of the production costs of the music video , and Black 's family could have paid nothing in exchange for giving up all rights to the song . Black chose " Friday " , as " the other song was about adult love – I haven 't experienced that yet . I felt like it was my personality in that song . " Ark Music extensively used the pitch @-@ correcting software Auto @-@ Tune . Although Kelly had some doubts over the quality of the lyrics , Black assured her that " I sang it as they wrote it , Mom . "
= = Composition = =
" Friday " uses the 50s progression , an I @-@ vi @-@ IV @-@ V chord progression that many popular songs have used such as " Heart and Soul " and " Unchained Melody " . It is performed in the key of B major at a tempo of 112 beats per minute . According to Randy Lewis of Los Angeles Times , the familiar structure contributes to the song 's catchiness , making it what others have called an earworm . The song also sees Black on a harmony track . In a review for Rolling Stone , writer Matthew Perpetua described the vocals as having " a peculiar tonality that inadvertently highlights the absurdity of boilerplate pop lyrics , " adding that the tone in the refrain " sounds unlike anything else in pop music . " He noted the sound as being not entirely agreeable to listen to , but stated that Black ultimately ends up " sounding like a distinct singer with an alluring sort of anti @-@ charisma . " The lyrics of the song speak about " hanging out with friends and having fun . " Paul Asay of Plugged In noted that lyrics reflect the happenings of a day , in the life of a teenager like Black , like eating breakfast and going to school . " She 's excited ' cause it 's Friday . Which means a weekend full of possibility awaits , " he concluded .
= = Critical reception = =
The song has received almost universally negative reviews from music critics , mainly because of its poorly @-@ written lyrics , instrumentation , and Black 's singing voice . It was rumored to be hated because of the gimmick Black pulled on YouTube during the YouTube Rewind 2011 , where her song was " Number One " . Lyndsey Parker of Yahoo ! Music asked if it could be " the worst song ever . " On March 29 , 2011 , it surpassed Justin Bieber 's " Baby " as the most disliked YouTube video , with 1 @.@ 16 million negative votes , and once had over 3 million " dislikes " , accounting for 88 % of the total ratings of the video . The video was later removed , though it has since been officially re @-@ uploaded . The co @-@ writer and producer of " Friday " , Clarence Jey said about the song that " the concept we feel seems to have crossed a lot of boundaries , for the better or worse . " Observers have called it " bizarre , " " inept , " and " hilariously dreadful . " The song and Black herself were " savaged " on social networks across the Internet , while being seen as a " YouTube laughing stock . " On YouTube , the video was met with negative comments and video responses , including comments interpreted as " violent " . Kevin Rutherford , a columnist for Billboard magazine , wrote , " Black 's video for ' Friday ' is one of those rare occurrences where even the most seasoned critics of Internet culture don 't know where to begin . From the singing straight out of Auto @-@ Tuned hell to lyrics such as ' Tomorrow is Saturday / And Sunday comes afterwards / I don 't want this weekend to end ' and a hilariously bad rap about passing school buses , ' Friday ' is something that simply must be seen and heard to be fully appreciated . " Many other reviewers also singled out the lyrics in particular for criticism , which were described as " overly simple and repetitive " by TNT Magazine . Jim Edwards of BNET and Doug Gross of CNN both noted that the rap break from the considerably older rapper was " creepy . " Time ranked it number two on a list of " Top 10 Songs with Silly Lyrics . "
Despite the overwhelmingly negative reviews , a few reviewers had positive things to say about the song and video . Entertainment Weekly writer Joseph Lynch noted that there was " something sickeningly catchy about this tune that keeps you coming back for more . " Rolling Stone 's Perpetua stated , " When you see this video , you immediately notice everything that it does ' wrong ' , but it actually gets a lot of things about pop music right , if just by accident . " OK ! Magazine also noted that " some are calling the 13 @-@ year @-@ old signed singer the next Justin Bieber . " After watching the video , singer Chris Brown said : " Honest opinion ? It was great . I 'll be jammin ' to it on Friday , Friday . " Fellow teenage singer Miley Cyrus denied that she had criticized Black , saying " I am a fan " and that she sang " Friday " while driving . Simon Cowell praised Black , saying " I love her [ and ] the fact that she 's gotten so much publicity . People are so upset about the song , but I think it 's hysterical . [ ... ] Anyone who can create this much controversy within a week , I want to meet . I love people like that . " He observed that " any song to do with the weekend annoys you . It reminds me of ' Saturday Night ' ... It 's what we call a ' hair @-@ dryer song , ' a song girls sing into their hair dryers as they 're getting ready to go out . But the fact that it 's making people so angry is brilliant . " Cowell advised Black not to " listen to anyone over the age of 18 . I 'm being deadly serious . Whatever she 's done has worked . Whether you like her or not , she 's the most talked @-@ about artist in America right now . Nobody over the age of 18 should understand her or like her . So she should just do it her way . "
On May 6 , 2012 , Patrice Wilson released his sequel to the song " Friday " , titled " Happy " , focusing on Saturdays . In December 2013 , Rebecca Black released her own sequel , entitled " Saturday " .
= = Chart performance = =
By March 21 , 2011 , the " Friday " music video had been viewed more than 30 million times on YouTube . Forbes estimated that as of that date , Black and ARK Music had earned $ 20 @,@ 000 from YouTube 's revenue @-@ sharing program , and Billboard estimated iTunes sales of approximately 43 @,@ 000 copies , roughly equivalent to $ 26 @,@ 700 in royalties . Within a week after being released on iTunes , it had jumped to 19 on their sales chart , on March 19 , 2011 . " Friday " debuted on the US Hot Digital Songs chart at number 57 and went on to peak at number 38 . " Friday " debuted on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 33 on March 21 , 2011 . The song entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 72 and rose to 58 the next week . It sold 87 @,@ 000 copies in the United States over its first two weeks and has gone on to sell 442 @,@ 000 copies , as of December 2013 . The song also received airplay in Sweden . In the United States , it was played 12 times from March 16 to 22 , considered low for a Hot 100 song . Despite the song 's strong performance elsewhere , Georgina Kelly claimed in late March 2011 that her daughter had not received any money from the song 's sales to that point in time , saying " We haven 't received a dime from anywhere . "
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and summary = = =
The concept for the music video is based on the lyrics and presented as a typical Friday for Black . She wakes up and goes to school , meeting her friends on the way . In the evening , after debating whether to sit in the front or back of a convertible , Black and her friends ride the car to a party at 7 : 45 pm . Patrice Wilson appears near the end of the song to deliver a short rap . The video was shot on January 6 , 2011 at Black 's father 's house with friends and family as extras , and requiring multiple takes over 12 hours . Some of those extras became stars in their own right ; her friends Benni Cinkle , Amanda Cooper and Hayley Grodt . Ark Music , according to Black 's parents , cautioned them and her that they should not expect her to become famous . Black hoped that her friends and family would enjoy watching the video on YouTube and that it would perhaps help her to later begin a singing career .
= = = Reception = = =
The video was posted on February 10 , 2011 and received 4 @,@ 000 views , enough to please Black , before comedian Michael J. Nelson 's Twitter account and a Tosh.0 blog post , " Songwriting Isn ’ t for Everyone " , drew attention to it on March 11 , 2011 , turning the video into a viral hit . Criticism of the song 's lyrics , the use of Auto @-@ Tune on Black 's vocals , as well as the content of the video also caused it to become viral . On May 9 , 2011 , comments became subject to prior approval for posting . Two days later , commenting was disabled altogether and archives removed . By June 15 , 2011 , the video had more than 166 million views , and 3 @.@ 2 million " dislikes " from YouTube users against just 454 @,@ 000 " likes " . It also peaked in the top 20 most watched YouTube videos of all time . After Ark Music attempted to begin charging $ 2 @.@ 99 to watch the video a limited number of times on YouTube in June , Black asked YouTube to take the video down .
After reading the harsh reviews of " Friday " , Black said that " those hurtful comments really shocked me . " Ark Music offered to take the video down from YouTube , but Black refused the offer , saying that she did not wish " to give the haters the satisfaction that they got me so bad I gave up . " Black 's father has accompanied her in public to guard against potential accosters . In response to criticism over the song 's significant use of Auto @-@ Tune , Black performed an acoustic version during an interview with ABC News , which earned over 180 @,@ 000 dislikes on YouTube ( 84 % of total ratings ) by November 2011 . Later in the interview Black 's mother , Kelly , stated that she was " angry and upset " after Black was brought to tears by comments , such as " I hope you go cut yourself and die " and " ' I hope you cut yourself and get an eating disorder so you 'll look pretty . " Black said , however , that soon she was able to ignore such comments , and asked Justin Bieber , her idol , to perform a duet with her . Although Bieber has not released an official announcement regarding the offer , he posted on Twitter " sunday comes after saturday ? weird . " Bieber later sang part of the chorus at one of his concerts . Rolling Stone 's Perpetua again praised Black after the interview and said , " She is actually a pretty decent singer . [ ... ] She is a total sweetheart . [ ... ] Black comes off as a well @-@ adjusted , happy and grateful kid . " He also pointed out Black 's intention to donate part of the profits from the song to school arts programs and relief efforts in Japan following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . Benni Cinkle , who became known as " that girl in pink " and appears during the second verse of the video , released her own song entitled " Can You See Me Now " and created an anti @-@ bullying organization ( That Girl In Pink Foundation ) due to the negative response she got from " Friday " .
The video for " Friday " was later placed at number one in the NME list of " 50 Worst Music Videos " .
= = = Controversy = = =
Not long after the " Friday " video went viral on YouTube , Black and her mother , Georgina Kelly , got into legal issues with Ark Music over rights to the song . In a March 29 , 2011 letter from Kelly 's lawyer to Ark Music , it was alleged that Ark Music failed to fulfill the terms of their November 2010 agreement by not giving her the song and video 's master recordings , by claiming Black as exclusively signed to the label , and by exploiting the song without permission – for example , selling a " Friday " ringtone . While Wilson stated that Kelly " will get the masters and the song ... [ t ] hey can have it all " , and agreed that Black was not exclusive to Ark , his attorney claimed that Ark owns the copyright for the song and the November agreement is invalid . In June 2011 , Ark Music Factory started charging $ 2 @.@ 99 to watch the music video on YouTube . Black 's initial response was through a message through her Twitter account saying : " Thanks for all the messages regarding the $ 2 @.@ 99 fee added to Friday video , I have nothing to do with this ! ! "
On June 16 , 2011 , YouTube took down the official video for " Friday " . Instead a message in place of the video read : " This video is no longer available due to a copyright claim by Rebecca Black . Sorry about that . " A spokesman for Rebecca Black said her legal team had asked YouTube to take the video down because of an ongoing legal dispute with the song 's producers Ark Music Factory . Ark Music Factory responded by saying it was disappointed that Black decided to have the video pulled from YouTube despite the two parties being in " good faith negotiations " . It added : " There 's been an ongoing , open dialogue with our company . So we were blindsided to get a ' Take Down Notice ' alleging copyright infringement instead of a call or e @-@ mail from Rebecca 's representatives . Our use of the video has fully been authorized ( as evidenced by four uninterrupted months and 160 million @-@ plus viewings without objection ) by both Ms. Black and the copyright holder . Regardless , we are going to continue to take the high road and work out the complaint as soon as possible , so that the million @-@ plus people who watch Friday for free each day can continue to enjoy the video . " On September 16 , 2011 , the video was restored to YouTube , on Black 's official channel .
= = Cover versions and popular culture = =
= = = Glee Cast cover = = =
A cover version was released by the cast of season two of the television series Glee . The cast performed it on the show as well . The official release features cast members Puck ( Mark Salling ) , Artie ( Kevin McHale ) and Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) on vocals , as part of the prom festivities on the " Prom Queen " episode that aired on May 10 , 2011 . Series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy explained to The Hollywood Reporter the use of the viral hit as a tribute to popular culture . He said : " There ’ s a rule for it that 's explained in the show . The Glee Club is hired to perform songs for the prom and they were told by the principal to please do popular songs that the kids know . " Murphy noted that Glee 's " Friday " cover offers a different take since it 's sung by males for other 17 @-@ year olds . The show pays tribute to pop culture and , love it or hate it , that song is pop culture . "
Charts
= = = Other versions and performances = = =
On April 1 , 2011 , " Friday " was performed by Stephen Colbert , Jimmy Fallon , Taylor Hicks and The Roots on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon . The New York Knicks City Dancers joined in . Jimmy Fallon released " Friday " as part of his 2012 Warner Records album , Blow Your Pants Off , which featured high profile acts such as Paul McCartney and Bruce Springsteen . The album won Best Comedy Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards .
The song has also been covered in a recording by Richard Cheese , and live in concerts by Todd Rundgren , Nick Jonas , Katy Perry , and Justin Bieber . Singer Katy Perry performed the song on selected dates during her California Dreams Tour , including at the Rod Laver Arena , Newcastle Entertainment Centre , TD Garden , Air Canada Centre and the 1stBank Center . During the August 5 concert at the Nokia Theatre L.A. Live , Rebecca Black joined Perry onstage , performing the song as a duet .
Numerous parodies of " Friday " have been uploaded to YouTube and become viral in their own right . Conan O 'Brien and Andy Richter also made a joint parody entitled " Thursday " on the Conan show on TBS . The YouTube phenomenon Bad Lip Reading was launched when an anonymous music and video producer replaced the audio to the " Friday " video with new music and lyrics about gang fighting . " Gang Fight " , released in March 2011 , earned Bad Lip Reading a million hits and thousands of subscribers , with many spoofs soon following .
Black appears as herself in the music video of Katy Perry 's single " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " . She appears as the host of a party in the house next door to that of " Kathy Beth Terry " . At the end of the video , " Terry " attempts to blame the excesses of the party ( which had subsequently moved to her own house ) on Black , only for her parents ( Corey Feldman and Debbie Gibson ) to disbelieve her .
ARK Music Factory launched its " Ark 's TGI Friday Covers " project , showcasing cover versions of " Friday " by well @-@ known artists alongside other user @-@ submitted tributes , re @-@ works , and parodies of the song / video and inviting users to submit their versions for relaying through Ark Music Factory 's site . In November 2012 , multiple outlets suggested that Nicole Westbrook was " the new Rebecca Black " , on release of Patrice Wilson 's " It 's Thanksgiving " . Kohl 's Department Stores used a modified version of the song as its 2011 Black Friday advertising jingle . The hook " It 's Friday , Friday , gotta get down on Friday " was changed to " It 's Black Friday , Black Friday , Gotta go to Kohl 's on Black Friday " .
Black made her national television debut by performing a mash @-@ up of the song along with her second single , " My Moment " , during America 's Got Talent 's result night for the YouTube Special round on August 10 , 2011 . The round featured various acts who have auditioned via YouTube . Rebecca Black sang an acoustic version of the song on Good Morning America . Rebecca performed Friday along with " My Moment " , live in Suncorp Place , Sydney as a part of Telstra 's 4G LTE network launch . She also sang " Friday " live on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno .
= = Charts = =
= Homeless ( Leona Lewis song ) =
" Homeless " is a song by British singer @-@ songwriter Leona Lewis from her debut studio album , Spirit ( 2007 ) . The song was written by Swedish songwriter Jörgen Elofsson and produced by Steve Mac . Musically , it is an R & B Power ballad , with instrumentation consisting of a piano and a guitar . The song 's lyrics revolve around Lewis singing about waiting for her boyfriend to come home to where she is waiting for him , but feels homeless without him . The song garnered mixed reviews from music critics , some of whom praised Lewis 's vocal performance but criticized its composition . Upon the release of Spirit , the song debuted at number 173 on the UK Singles Chart on the strength of digital download sales . Lewis performed " Homeless " at the annual WXKS @-@ FM Boston KISS Concert in 2008 , along with " Bleeding Love " and " Better in Time " . It was also included on the set list of The Labyrinth tour in 2010 .
= = Composition = =
" Homeless " was written by Swedish songwriter Jörgen Elofsson , and produced by Steve Mac . It is an R & B power ballad , which lasts for a duration of three minutes and 50 seconds . The song was composed on common time in the key of B minor at 68 beats per minute . Instrumentation is provided by a piano and a guitar . Lewis 's vocal range spans nearly two octaves from low note of A3 to the high note of B5 . The song 's lyrics revolve around Lewis singing about waiting for her boyfriend to come home to where she is waiting for him , but feels homeless without his presence . The opening lyrics are " Wait here for you to call me / For you to tell me that ev 'rything 's a big mistake . " Nick Levine for Digital Spy described Lewis 's vocals in the lyric " In this cold I 'm walking aimless , feeling helpless " as " a tour de force of despair and misery " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Matt O 'Leary for Virgin Media complimented " Homeless " as well as " I Will Be " , and wrote that when the emphasis is laid purely on the singer 's vocals without too much " glossy production trappings " , her " uniqueness is allowed to shine . " Levine was critical of " Homeless " in general , but praised some of its compositional elements . Although he thought that the song was " almost unbearably bleak " , Levine praised the long note which Lewis sustains during the bridge , and wrote that " the 12 @-@ second ' eeeeeeyeeaayaaaaay ' that jump @-@ starts the crescendo of ' Homeless ' is one of the most dazzling pop moments of the year . " Kitty Empire for The Guardian wrote , " Lewis ' voice is impressively elastic throughout but lacks any grit or style . It is too perfect , jumping up ladders of notes on ' Homeless ' , never catching , never breaking . " A reviewer for The Sun described " Homeless " a " string @-@ drenched , tear @-@ jerker . "
= = Live performances = =
Lewis performed " Homeless " for the first time at the annual WXKS @-@ FM Boston KISS Concert in 2008 , along with " Bleeding Love " and " Better in Time " . It was also included on the set list of her The Labyrinth tour in 2010 , and performed as the fifteenth song . The song was later included on the The Labyrinth Tour Live from The O2 DVD . The set was decorated in the style of a forest ; acrobats performed as they were hanging from the ceiling on large pieces of fabric while Lewis wore a light pink sequined dress and barefoot .
= = Track listing = =
Standard version ( 2007 )
" Homeless " – 3 : 50
Deluxe edition ( 2008 )
" Homeless ( 2008 version ) " – 3 : 50
The Labyrinth Tour : Live from the O2
" Homeless " ( Live from the 02 ) – 4 : 09
= = Credits = =
Songwriting – Jörgen Elofsson
Production – Steve Mac
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Spirit , Sony BMG , J Records , Syco .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Spirit , " Homeless " debuted at number 173 on the strength of digital download sales in the chart issue released on 24 November 2007 .
= Until the Quiet Comes =
Until the Quiet Comes is the fourth studio album by American electronic producer Flying Lotus , released on September 26 , 2012 , by Warp Records . After releasing his 2010 album Cosmogramma , Flying Lotus continued his creative partnership with bassist Thundercat and worked with him on music that led to the album . For Until the Quiet Comes , he drew on African percussion and psychedelic musical influences , human @-@ subconscious and dream world concepts , and different mixing techniques and dynamics . He recorded for two years at his home in Los Angeles primarily using an Ableton Live sequencer along with other instruments and software , and recorded with guest vocalists including Erykah Badu , Thom Yorke , Laura Darlington , and Niki Randa .
An electronic jazz album , Until the Quiet Comes features free jazz elements , varying musical tones , contracting scale , and shifts in feel . Its songs are sequenced together and characterized by ghostly vocal production , irregular drum beats , pulsating percussive textures , trembling basslines , trilled synthesizers , and fluctuating samples . The album has a journey @-@ like concept and dreamy musical narrative , which Flying Lotus conceived through astral projection and felt could be interpreted uniquely by listeners . Music writers interpret it as a musical accompaniment to dreams , as well as emotional introspection by Flying Lotus .
Until the Quiet Comes was promoted with two singles and a short film featuring music from the album . Flying Lotus also embarked on a supporting international tour during October to November 2012 , performing at venues in North America and abroad . The album debuted at number 34 on the US Billboard 200 and sold 13 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Until the Quiet Comes received rave reviews from music critics , who praised its complex music and Flying Lotus ' sound engineering .
= = Background = =
In 2010 , Flying Lotus released his third album Cosmogramma to critical acclaim and mainstream exposure . He recorded the album while grieving his mother 's death , and titled it as a reference to his late great @-@ aunt Alice Coltrane . The album showcased his dense , loose mix of electronic and live instrumentation with avant @-@ garde jazz , dance , and hip hop influences . During its recording , he developed a creative relationship with contributing bassist Thundercat , a member of his Brainfeeder record label . They continued working together on Flying Lotus ' 2010 EP Pattern + Grid World , which continued the dense electronic style of Cosmogramma . They developed more musical ideas together , from which Flying Lotus culled and produced for Thundercat 's debut album The Golden Age of Apocalypse in 2011 .
For Until the Quiet Comes , Flying Lotus was inspired by African percussion music and psychedelic bands such as Silver Apples , Can , Stereolab , Portishead , and Gentle Giant . He also returned to listening to the music of his relatives Alice and John Coltrane after listening excessively to austere electronica while recording Cosmogramma . Musically , he wanted to avoid repeating himself and chose a more minimal direction for the album , seeking to eschew the " strange sense of urgency " of Cosmogramma 's music for " tension and release " . He elaborated on his direction for the album in an interview for The National , saying that " I think I 'd have been in a bad position if I tried to recreate the same energy as I did on Cosmogramma – like , go in further . How about we pull back , try to do something that gets to the core of the emotional sentiment . Not so grand , more intimate . But still have the core of what it is . "
Conceptually , Flying Lotus pursued human @-@ subconscious and dream world themes . He sought to tone down Cosmogramma 's grandiose , universal concept and create a timeless , journey @-@ like work with Until the Quiet Comes , from which he felt listeners could interpret their own stories . He imagined himself astral projecting when conceiving the album and tried to translate ideas from fiction he had read into music , including holographic universes , metaphysics , New Age philosophy , and astrodynamics . In conceiving a narrative for the album , he drew on Joseph Campbell 's hero 's journey literary theory to introduce a world , characters , and situations musically . He characterized the album as both " a collage of mystical states , dreams , sleep and lullabies " , and " a children 's record , a record for kids to dream to " . He clarified the idea in an interview for Spin as " that whole experience of being innocent in this new world that you don 't really understand . I imagined Little Nemo on a flying bed floating over the city , and this is the soundtrack to it . " Flying Lotus felt more confident in his ideas and as a recording artist after striving to distinguish himself from his contemporaries on previous albums .
= = Recording and production = =
Flying Lotus started working on Until the Quiet Comes at his home in Mount Washington , Los Angeles , which featured more acoustic space than his previous house in Echo Park . He recorded the album for two years , using a spacious room there as a recording studio . He revisited scrapped ideas from the sessions for Thundercat 's debut album and revised their direction for Until the Quiet Comes . The song " Hunger " developed from a demo he had recorded for the soundtrack to one of the Twilight films , and " Sultan 's Request " was performed live by Flying Lotus for three years before the album . For " Electric Candyman " , he used a beat he had prepared for sessions that ultimately fell through with Burial , and he used a five @-@ year @-@ old recording with Samiyam for the second half of " The Nightcaller " .
Flying Lotus recorded Until the Quiet Comes in a three @-@ part process — first composing rought drafts for songs , then refining them for several months with additional instrumentation to make them substantial , and finally mixing the songs for a cohesive album . Unlike with his previous work , he concentrated on his music 's dynamics rather than just its production when working on the album . Interested in music theory and arrangements , he started taking piano lessons at the beginning of the album 's recording to learn more chords and progressions . Rather than emphasize conventional song structure elements such as hooks and choruses , Flying Lotus composed instrumentals that he found to be more intellectual and less danceable than Cosmogramma and treated them as the basis of tracks when recording the album . He also recorded melodic refrains to evoke feelings of childlike innocence on songs .
Flying Lotus worked primarily with an Ableton Live music sequencer through his MacBook Pro laptop . At his home studio , he had upgraded monitors acquired from after his move there , and various digital and analog instruments , including a drum kit , a Fender Rhodes piano , Wurlitzer electric pianos , Access Virus and Minimoog Voyager synthesizers , a drum machine , three Mac Powerbooks , and a DSP unit . He played drums without quantizing them and referred to the personal library of samples he had amassed over his career while producing the album . He recorded the song " Dream to Me " the day after purchasing a microKORG synthesizer . He ultimately recorded over 60 songs for the album before editing them down .
To attain certain dynamics on songs , Flying Lotus studied different mixing techniques and switched software midway through the album 's recording . He later cited the switch as the reason for the album 's completion being overdue , although he felt that it was productive to challenge himself as a student of music . Flying Lotus employed a trial and error approach to mixing and applied his new knowledge of compression to attain a more satisfactory result before the album 's master . He also sought to limit distracting frequencies and segues in favor of more important sounds throughout the album . To make certain sounds more affecting , he used the side @-@ chain compression technique to trigger compression of different organ , strings , and bass sounds upon a drum kick on a song . He said of his production and the music 's dynamic range in an interview for Electronic Musician , " I 've been learning to bring things down before I even start . I 'll start composing a track at like – 8dB , then I have all this headroom to play with afterward . I 've learned how to tuck and limit things , learned to EQ before you limit . "
As with his previous releases , Until the Quiet Comes was mastered by engineer Daddy Kev at his Echo Chamber Studio in Eagle Rock . He used a Pro Tools 9 workstation and various EQ plug @-@ ins on his Mac Pro , while working at a 24 @-@ bit , 96 kHz audio quality to comply with iTunes ' " Mastered for iTunes " regulations . To preserve the tracks ' original dynamics , Daddy Kev used a signal chain that processed both digital and analog signals . He found the mastering process to be " very intimate " and likened it to " giving birth " for Flying Lotus , saying in an interview , " We may go through multiple mixes so a certain 808 can sit right in the pocket for him , and while he 's finishing his edits its my job to boost just the right things by a decibel or two , and keep things sonically correct . " He used both professional and club @-@ oriented amplifiers and monitors to minimize harmonic distortion and maintain Flying Lotus ' minimalist aesthetic , which , along with his need to find a quiet mental space , inspired the album 's title : " I wanted to set people up to this idea , before they even heard it , that the quiet was a key word in the whole thing ... [ A ] part of pulling it back is some kind of growing up . "
= = = Collaborations = = =
Flying Lotus collaborated with other musicians for additional elements on songs . He worked with instrumentalist and musical director Miguel Atwood Ferguson to incorporate strings arrangements to songs . Thundercat played live bass on nine of the album 's songs . To develop basslines for songs , Flying Lotus had Thundercat 's bass plugged into a DI unit of a FireWire interface as he improvised riffs to Flying Lotus ' suggestions . Flying Lotus captured flat @-@ levelled bass ideas into the interface , which allowed him to manipulate their tone and integrate them with digital instruments and samples on songs . He attributes the continuity of the album 's music to Thundercat 's bass playing . For certain tracks on the album , Flying Lotus wanted to use vocalists that would " see their sound as texture as opposed to the song " , and said of this preference in an interview for Vibe , " Sometimes singers overdo it so that you only focus on the voice , which is cool sometimes , but it 's my record – I 'm producing it – so the songs should be about the track as a whole . The people that are my favorites are ones who have such a respect for what 's already there . They don 't try to approach it thinking they 're going to turn it into a song , but rather going to add to it . "
Flying Lotus enlisted other vocalists , including Thom Yorke on " Electric Candyman " , Laura Darlington on " Phantasm " , Erykah Badu on " See Thru to U " , and Thundercat on " DMT Song " . Yorke wanted to be involved with the album after collaborating on " ... And the World Laughs with You " for Cosmogramma , and exchanged his vocals via email . Flying Lotus admired him for knowing " when things work and [ when ] they don 't . He doesn 't bullshit in that way . He spends his time wisely . I wish I could say that about a lot more people . " He met Badu through Thundercat , who had played in her backing band and collaborated with her on The Golden Age of Apocalypse , and started working on her own upcoming album while recording Until the Quiet Comes . Flying Lotus also planned to work with Jonny Greenwood , but the collaboration fell through . Instead , he appropriated music from one of Greenwood 's film soundtracks for the song " Hunger " , for which Greenwood is credited as composer .
= = Composition = =
Until the Quiet Comes is characterized by varying musical tones , contracting scale , both consonant and dissonant sounds , counterpoint , and shifts in feel . Its complex , diverse soundscapes deviate from popular music song forms and employ contrast and improvisational adjustments in mood , structure , and time signature . Darryl Kirchner of The Huffington Post notes an emphasis on timbre throughout the album . Mark Richardson of Pitchfork observes Flying Lotus " putting a smaller frame around each individual part " throughout the album 's shifts and finds the " energy " to be " just as strong " as on his previous albums , but " concentrated into a smaller space . " Although he finds it less " imposing " than its predecessor , Thomas May of musicOMH comments that " Until the Quiet Comes is like a chamber concerto to Cosmogramma 's symphony " , noting " an increased sense of space and separation " on the former .
Songs on the album incorporate ghostly vocal production , winding basslines , uptempo drum @-@ and @-@ bass fills , broad orchestral elements , pulsating percussive textures , bright keyboards , trilled synthesizers , and fluctuating samples . They are sequenced together and exhibit a diminishing pace from the end of one track to the start of another . Joe Tacopino of Rolling Stone views that the album 's guest vocalists " float into [ Flying Lotus 's ] realm like visitors , just as fragile and malleable as the other elements he employs . This reiterates the album 's feel as one complete story , instead of disparate songs . " Vincent Pollard of Exclaim ! comments that most of the vocals are " used as subtle textures " and observes Flying Lotus " employing more organic tropes in his digital mix " . He incorporates horn arrangements and live drum patterns , while his programmed beats evoke the " in the pocket " drumming of percussionists such as Rashied Ali . The songs also exhibits Flying Lotus ' characteristic mix of skittering , muffled percussion atop slightly irregular drum beats , accompanied by Thundercat 's trembling basslines .
Stylistically , the album eschews Flying Lotus ' hip hop roots for jazz influences , including free form jazz tonality and undertones , and jazz @-@ based time signatures and patterns . Gabrielle Ahern of CMJ calls it " a moody , electronic version of experimental jazz . " Jonny Ensall of Time Out views the album as " a digital jazz record which pushes hip hop beats and R & B melodies into bold , new syncopated and atonal territory . " Tony Ware of Electronic Musician attributes " certain chord choices and the interest in astral mystical states that permeates Until the Quiet Comes " to Flying Lotus ' " family lineage " of jazz musicians . Uncut finds it " often reminiscent of his auntie 's work " , while Consequence of Sound 's Derek Staples perceives a " free jazz aesthetic " similar to " his great @-@ uncle John Coltrane 's Ascension " , viewing both albums as " exercise [ s ] in dense rhythmic layers and melodic dissonance . " The album also repurposes elements of pop , soul , fusion , and psychedelia in a modern classical fashion . Q describes the album as " a lush , almost psychedelic mood piece . " Lucy Jones of NME attributes the album 's " meander [ ing ] and experiment [ ing ] " to a progressive rock influence .
= = = Concept and interpretations = = =
Until the Quiet Comes has been described as having a dreamy musical narrative by Uncut , and Mojo , who called it " quite literally , a dream album " . Andy Beta from Spin likened it to the " dreams within dreams within dreams " concept from the 2010 film Inception . Karen Lawler of State said " if the limbo between awake and sleeping , dreams and nightmares could be expressed through music , this album might well be it . " Jeff Weiss , writing in LA Weekly , felt the record had a loose concept that " surrounds the nocturnal visions of a child lost in spacedust dreams " and likens it to a narcotic film in the vein of Little Nemo and Michel Gondry , writing that " swirling voices seem like clouds communing . Snare crashes mimic obscene villains . Hard beats propel chase scenes . Basslines gurgle like goofy dancing sidekicks . Erykah Badu plays the all @-@ powerful good witch . Thom Yorke guests as the gnomish sorcerer with the seraphic yawp . "
In the opinion of Will Ryan from Beats Per Minute , Until the Quiet Comes was another " journey " concept work by Flying Lotus , but distinguished it as an introspective , " subconscious " journey following the " temporal " journey idea of his 2006 debut 1983 , the " geographical " 2008 album Los Angeles , and the " cosmic " , " out @-@ and @-@ out musical " Cosmogramma . Rory Gibb from The Quietus wrote that the narrative on this album veered into " the corridors " of Flying Lotus ' " own mind " , interpreting his guest vocalists as " disembodied phantoms , reanimated figments of his imagination stripped of agency and directed to their roles by [ his ] subconscious . " Gibb argued that Until the Quiet Comes was " an important and significant album " partly for engaging with " grand narratives " such as " the shifting identities of both humans and electronic music forms in a digital age " , and " the internet 's erosion of memory processes " .
Reef Younis of Clash perceived an emotional context to the album , writing that , " where [ Flying Lotus ] grieved on Cosmogramma , he believes on Until The Quiet Comes and there 's a burgeoning sense of hope and coherence and optimism " . Arnold Pan of PopMatters calls Until the Quiet Comes " a subliminal soundtrack to the postmodern experience of everyday life " and views that Flying Lotus ' subtle , " sentient and sensual " details throughout the album 's music represent " an undertone of yearning emotion and even soulfulness that separates [ his ] aesthetic on Quiet from that of other producer @-@ types who may be just as proficient , technically speaking . "
= = = Songs = = =
The opening track " All In " incorporates bells , kick and snare drums , shakers , harps , guitar , and electric bass . It features a reverberating , high @-@ pitched note , whose discordant sound is subsequently offset by keyboard flourishes and cursory snare drums . Lilting background vocals during the song 's melodic section lead to a bass kick and aggressive drum patterns . The wistful " Getting There " expands on the | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
final tip from each of the Fab Five , usually relating to one of the topics covered in the episode , plays just before the credits .
Special episodes of Queer Eye that deviated from this formula included episodes in which the Fab Five journeyed outside the greater New York area , including shows filmed in England , Texas , and Las Vegas . In two episodes , the Fab Five made over homosexual men ( both of which aired during June , Gay Pride Month , during 2004 and 2006 ) and in one episode made over a female @-@ to @-@ male transgender person . The show also featured makeovers of members of the Boston Red Sox after their 2004 World Series victory , several holiday specials and in the final season , a " Mister Straight Guy " pageant featuring subjects from the series ' history .
= = Popular and critical response = =
Queer Eye for the Straight Guy debuted on July 15 , 2003 and the series quickly attained high ratings , maximizing during September of that year with 3 @.@ 34 million viewers per episode . The popularity of the series established the Fab Five as media celebrities , with high @-@ profile appearances at the Emmys and a " make @-@ better " of Jay Leno and his The Tonight Show set in August of that year . Fab Five members parlayed their celebrity into endorsement deals , notably Thom Filicia 's becoming the spokesperson for Pier 1 Imports .
The American press almost universally complimented the series and the Fab Five . Out magazine listed the Fab Five in its " OUT 100 " , the " greatest gay success stories " of 2003 . Instinct magazine declared Kressley one of the " Leading Men " of 2004 .
The series attracted criticism for making generalizations about sexual identity , namely that homosexual men are inherently more fashionable and stylish than heterosexuals . Among those making this critique were Tom Shales in the Washington Post ( " stereotypes on parade " ) , Richard Goldstein in Village Voice ( " Haven 't fags always been consigned to the role of body servant ? " ) and United States Congressman Barney Frank speaking to the New York Post ( " The notion that gay men have a superior fashion sense is not true and it 's damaging . It 's perfectly possible to enjoy that show and say , look at those clever homosexuals . What they do with hair ! And not support gays at all . " ) . Anthropologist Lionel Tiger described the program as typical of a widespread acceptance of insulting heterosexual men : " Heteromales are the last group it is acceptable to bash as a class . The homosexual fellows on Queer Eye seem to provide riveting hilarity to especially female viewers . What if there were 5 Swedes telling Kenyans how to live elegantly and fashionably ? What if 5 Catholics told Jews how to dress , decorate , and court ? The program is degraded and degrading , Cheap Shots for A Humiliated Guy . "
With the success of the first season , original " culture guy " Blair Boone sued the show for breach of contract , claiming he should be paid not just for two episodes but for the season that he had been contracted to film .
The popularity of the series inspired a number of parodies . Comedy Central hosted a satirical television series named Straight Plan for the Gay Man , which featured four heterosexual men teaching homosexual men how to be more ( stereotypically ) straight , redecorating their homes with neon beer signs and teaching them about sports . South Park spoofed the show and its hosts in the episode " South Park Is Gay ! " , in which the protagonists learn that the Fab Five are actually evil Crab People trying to control the world by converting heterosexual men into metrosexuals .
Queer Eye won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality Program during 2004 and was nominated for another Emmy in the same category during 2005 . The series also received GLAAD Media Awards for Outstanding Reality Program during 2004 and 2005 , and was nominated for a third during 2006 .
In the second season , ratings decreased , averaging about 1 @.@ 8 million viewers per episode with an average 804 @,@ 000 viewers in the important 18 @-@ 40 demographic . New episodes continued to be broadcast for two more seasons . Bravo confirmed during early 2007 that Queer Eye had been cancelled . The remaining fifth season episodes were billed as Queer Eye : The Final Season and aired twice weekly beginning October 2 , 2007 .
= = Spin @-@ off series = =
During January 2005 , Scout Productions premiered a spin @-@ off series titled Queer Eye for the Straight Girl , set in Los Angeles . It featured a cast of four lifestyle experts ( three men and a woman known as the " Gal Pals " ) who performed makeovers for women . The show was cancelled after one season .
= = International adaptations = =
Queer Eye 's American success caused television networks in several countries to syndicate the American episodes , with a number of countries creating their own local versions of Queer Eye for broadcast in their countries . However , few of these homegrown versions have proven as successful as the original and most did not last long before cancellation . Licensing of the format is managed by NBCUniversal .
NBCU licensed television producer David Hedges and his UK production house vialondon.tv to produce local versions for Europe , with Flextech 's Living channel doing the same to produce the United Kingdom 's version after a first attempt at a UK production by Making Time was abandoned .
The first episode of the Finnish version , Sillä silmällä created controversy , not for the homosexual content but for the blatant product placement considered to be a transgression of a Finnish law against " hidden advertising " .
= = Merchandising = =
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack for Queer Eye for the Straight Guy was released February 10 , 2004 , in the USA . It reached number one on the electronic music chart , number two on the soundtrack charts and the top 40 in the Billboard 200 album chart . In Australia , the soundtrack was released for the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras and the popularity of the series in Australia resulted in the soundtrack scoring the top 10 of the Australian album chart on March 8 , 2004 . It was certified gold in Australia during March 2004 . The song " Superstar " by Jamelia from the soundtrack also went to number one on the Australian singles charts in the same week , and the theme song of the show , " All Things ( Just Keep Getting Better ) " by Widelife , went to the top 20 that same month . " All Things " would score a 2005 Juno Award for " Dance Recording of the Year " for Widelife ( Rachid Wehbi & Ian Nieman ) . Rob Eric was the executive producer for the album .
= = = = Track listing = = = =
" All Things ( Just Keep Getting Better ) " – Widelife with Simone Denny
" Good Luck " – Basement Jaxx featuring Lisa Kekaula
" Slow " ( Chemical Brothers Mix ) – Kylie Minogue
" Move Your Feet " – Junior Senior
" You Promised Me ( Tu Es Foutu ) " – In @-@ Grid
" Superstar " – Jamelia
" Everybody Wants You to Emerge " – Fischerspooner / Billy Squier
" Sunrise " ( Jason Nevins Remix ) – Duran Duran
" Never Coming Home " ( Gonna Live My Life Remix ) – Sting
" An Area Big Enough to Do It In " – Prophet Omega
" You 're So Damn Hot " – OK Go
" Extraordinary " – Liz Phair
" Are You Ready for Love " – Elton John
" Five Gay Men in One House " – Jai Rodriguez and Ted Allen
" All Things ( Just Keep Getting Better ) " ( music video )
= = = Books = = =
A tie @-@ in book titled Queer Eye for the Straight Guy : The Fab 5 's Guide to Looking Better , Cooking Better , Dressing Better , Behaving Better and Living Better was published during 2004 by Clarkson Potter / Publishers , an imprint of Random House .
= = = DVD releases = = =
Several DVDs were released in conjunction with the series . Kressley , Filicia and Allen each had individual releases emphasizing their topics of expertise . Douglas and Rodriguez were featured together in a single DVD focused on grooming . Additional DVD releases include Queer Eye for the Red Sox ( featuring the team makeover episode ) and a multi @-@ disc box set .
= Nothhelm =
Nothhelm ( sometimes Nothelm ; died 739 ) was a medieval Anglo @-@ Saxon Archbishop of Canterbury . A correspondent of both Bede and Boniface , it was Nothhelm who gathered materials from Canterbury for Bede 's historical works . After his appointment to the archbishopric in 735 , he attended to ecclesiastical matters , including holding church councils . Although later antiquaries felt that Nothhelm was the author of a number of works , later research has shown them to be authored by others . After his death he was considered a saint .
= = Early life = =
Nothhelm was a contemporary of Boniface and Bede , whom he supplied with correspondence from the papal library following a trip to Rome . He also researched the history of Kent and the surrounding area for Bede , supplying the information through the abbot of St Augustine 's Abbey in Canterbury . Before his appointment to the archbishopric , he was the archpriest of the Saxon @-@ built St Paul 's Cathedral , London .
= = Archbishop = =
Named to the see of Canterbury in 735 , Nothhelm was consecrated the same year . Pope Gregory III sent him a pallium in 736 . He may have been appointed by Æthelbald , King of Mercia , whose councilor he was . Whether or not he owed his appointment to Æthelbald , Nothhelm was one of a number of Mercians who became Archbishop of Canterbury during the 730s and 740s , during a time of expanding Mercian influence . He held a synod in 736 or 737 , which drew nine bishops ; the meeting adjudicated a dispute over the ownership of a monastery located at Withington . A significant feature of this synod was the fact that no king attended , but yet the synod still rendered judgement in the ownership even without secular oversight , which was more usual .
Nothhelm oversaw the reorganisation of the Mercian dioceses which took place in 737 . The archbishop consecrated Witta as Bishop of Lichfield and Totta as Bishop of Leicester . The diocese of Leicester was firmly established by this action , although earlier attempts had been made to establish a bishopric there . In 738 , Nothhelm was a witness on the charter of Eadberht I , the King of Kent .
Bede addressed his work In regum librum XXX quaestiones to Nothhelm , who had asked the thirty questions on the biblical book of Kings that Bede answered . Bede 's work De VIII Quastionibus may have been written for Nothhelm . While he was archbishop , Boniface wrote to him , requesting a copy of the Libellus responsionum of Pope Gregory I for use in Boniface 's missionary efforts . Boniface also asked for information on when the Gregorian mission to England arrived in England . This text of the Libellus responsionum has been the subject of some controversy , with the historian Suso Brechter arguing that the text was a forgery created by Nothhelm and a Roman archdeacon . The historian Paul Meyvaert has refuted this view , and most historians incline towards the belief that the text is genuine , although it is not considered conclusively proven .
= = Death and legacy = =
Nothhelm died on 17 October 739 @.@ and was buried in Canterbury Cathedral . He is considered a saint , and his feast day is 17 October . The antiquaries and writers John Leland , John Bale , and Thomas Tanner all felt that Nothhelm was the author of various works , but later research has shown them to be authored by other writers . A verse eulogy for Nothhelm , of uncertain date , survives in a 16th @-@ century manuscript now at the Lambeth Palace library .
= Duff Cooley =
Duff Gordon " Sir Richard " Cooley ( March 29 , 1873 – August 9 , 1937 ) was a professional baseball player whose career spanned 17 seasons , 13 of which were spent in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Cooley , an outfielder and first baseman , had a career batting average of .294 in 1 @,@ 317 games played . He compiled 849 runs , 1 @,@ 579 hits , 180 doubles , 102 triples , 26 home runs , and 557 runs batted in ( RBI ) . In Major League history , he is tied in 148th place for most all @-@ time triples and , his 224 career stolen bases , place him equal 279th on the all @-@ time list . Cooley made his Major League debut at the age of 20 , and spent the majority of his career there , but he also appeared in minor league baseball . After breaking his leg with the Tigers in 1905 , he was replaced with future Hall of Fame outfielder Ty Cobb . Cooley , nicknamed " Sir Richard " due to his aristocratic manner , was listed as standing 5 feet 11 inches ( 180 cm ) and weighing 158 pounds ( 72 kg ) .
= = Career = =
Cooley was born on March 29 , 1873 , in Leavenworth , Kansas . He began his Major League career in 1893 , playing for Topeka , Kansas , before playing for the St. Louis Browns of the National League ( NL ) . Although the seventh youngest player in the league during his first season , he batted .346 , which remained a career @-@ high . Defensively , Cooley was a utility player , starting at multiple positions for the Cardinals . On September 30 of 1873 , Cooley recorded six hits against the Boston Beaneaters . He played for St. Louis in 1894 , nearly doubling his at bats ( 206 ) and games played ( 54 ) .
Cooley played more regularly in 1895 and averaged 4 @.@ 2 at bats per game throughout the season . One of the most successful batters on the team , he had the highest batting average at .342 and led the Cardinals in hits , triples , runs scored and total bases . His slugging ( .466 ) and on @-@ base plus slugging ( .851 ) percentages remained the highest of his career . His 20 triples and 264 total bases were both the fifth @-@ highest total in a season for the Cardinals franchise from between the years of 1892 when they entered the NL to 1920 , which marked the end of the Dead @-@ ball era . At the end of the year , he had played 133 games , two behind Major League leader and teammate , Joe Quinn . Offensively , Cooley tied for seventh in most hits and finished fourth in triples .
At the beginning of the 1896 season , Cooley continued to play for the Browns . However , after 40 games in which he had a .307 batting average , he was moved to the Philadelphia Phillies in exchange for Joe Sullivan , Tuck Turner , and an unknown sum of money . The Phillies , under manager Billy Nash , finished 62 – 68 , eighth in the NL . Cooley remained with the Phillies in 1897 , when he tied with Fred Tenney , George Van Haltren , and Gene DeMontreville for the MLB lead in at @-@ bats . Cooley led his team in runs scored and stolen bases , and finished third , behind Ed Delahanty and Nap Lajoie , in hits . The following two seasons , playing for Philadelphia , he hit .312 in 1898 and .276 in 1899 , before he was purchased by the Pittsburgh Pirates for US $ 1 @,@ 000 in April 1900 . In his only season with the Pirates , Cooley recorded a batting average of .201 , the worst of his career . He also compiled 30 runs , 50 hits , and 22 RBI .
After being purchased by the Boston Beaneaters in 1901 , Cooley made his minor @-@ league debut for the Syracuse Stars of Syracuse , New York . After recording a team @-@ high in batting average and slugging percentage , Cooley was promoted to the Major League Beaneaters . Next season , under manager Al Buckenberger , Cooley played in 135 games , more than double the previous year for the Beaneaters . He finished the year eighth in the NL in both hits and total bases , and third in doubles .
Cooley remained with the Beaneaters for the following two seasons , hitting .289 in 1903 . On June 20 , 1904 , Cooley hit for the cycle ( a single , double , triple , and home run in the same game ) , becoming the second Beaneater to do so . Cooley finished the 1904 season with six total errors , five in the outfield and one at first base . Cooley 's 70 RBIs were eighth most in the NL . After the season , in October 1904 , he was selected off the Beaneater 's waivers by the Detroit Tigers .
In his final Major League season , Cooley played in 97 games before breaking his leg , which led to Ty Cobb , a future inductee to the National Baseball Hall of Fame taking his place as center fielder for the rest of the season . He was sold to the Beaneaters following the 1905 season , but decided to retire instead .
= = After MLB = =
Following his retirement from baseball , Cooley moved to Dallas and began to work as a salesman . In his final years , he battled alcoholism , which partially contributed to his death from heat stroke in Dallas on August 9 , 1937 . By then , he and his wife Louise were divorced and he left no children . Cooley was buried in Grove Hill Memorial Park in Dallas .
= England expects that every man will do his duty =
" England expects that every man will do his duty " was a signal sent by Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson , 1st Viscount Nelson , from his flagship HMS Victory as the Battle of Trafalgar was about to commence on 21 October 1805 . Trafalgar was a decisive naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars . It gave the United Kingdom control of the seas , removing all possibility of a French invasion and conquest of Britain . Although there was much confusion surrounding the wording of the signal in the aftermath of the battle , the significance of the victory and Nelson 's death during the battle led to the phrase becoming embedded in the English psyche , and it has been regularly quoted , paraphrased and referenced up to the modern day .
= = Signals during the battle = =
As the British fleet closed with the opposing combined fleets of France and Spain , Lord Nelson signalled all the necessary battle instructions to his ships . Aware of the momentousness of events to come , Lord Nelson felt that something extra was required . He instructed his signal officer , Lieutenant John Pasco , to signal to the fleet , as quickly as possible , the message " England confides [ i.e. is confident ] that every man will do his duty . " Pasco suggested to Nelson that expects be substituted for confides , since the former word was in the signal book , whereas confides would have to be spelt out letter @-@ by @-@ letter . Nelson agreed to the change ( even though it produced a less trusting impression ) :
His Lordship came to me on the poop , and after ordering certain signals to be made , about a quarter to noon , he said , ' Mr. Pasco , I wish to say to the fleet , ENGLAND CONFIDES THAT EVERY MAN WILL DO HIS DUTY ' and he added ' You must be quick , for I have one more to make which is for close action . ' I replied , ' If your Lordship will permit me to substitute the confides for expects the signal will soon be completed , because the word expects is in the vocabulary , and confides must be spelt , ' His Lordship replied , in haste , and with seeming satisfaction , ' That will do , Pasco , make it directly.'
Thus , at around 11 : 45 a.m. on 21 October 1805 , the most famous naval signal in British history was sent . The exact time the signal was sent is not known ( one account puts it as early as 10 : 30 ) , as the message was repeated throughout the fleet , but Pasco puts it at " about a quarter to noon " and logs from other ships of the line also put it close to this time .
The signal was relayed using the numeric flag code known as the " Telegraphic Signals of Marine Vocabulary " , devised in 1800 by Rear Admiral Sir Home Popham , and based on the signal books created earlier by Admiral Lord Howe . This code assigned the digits 0 to 9 to ten signal flags , which were used in combination . Code numbers 1 – 25 represented letters of the alphabet ( omitting J and with V = 20 before U = 21 ) ; higher numbers were assigned meanings by a code book . The code numbers are believed to have been hoisted on the mizzenmast , one after another , with the " telegraphic flag " also being flown to show that the signals employed Popham 's code . As well as digit flags , the code used " repeat " flags so that only one set of digits was needed ; thus the word " do " , coded as " 220 " , used a " 2 " flag , a " first repeat " flag here serving as a second 2 , and a " 0 " flag . The word " duty " was not in the codebook ( and was not replaced as " confides " had been ) , so had to be spelt out , and the whole message required twelve " lifts " . It is believed that it would have taken about four minutes . A team of four to six men , led by Lt. Pasco , would have prepared and hoisted the flags onboard Lord Nelson 's flagship HMS Victory . The message shows one of the shortcomings of Popham 's code — even the two @-@ letter " do " required three flags hoisted for the signal . It is reported that a great cheer went up as the signal was hoisted and repeated throughout the fleet .
The message " engage the enemy more closely " was Nelson 's final signal to the fleet , sent at 12 : 15 p.m. , before a single British cannon had been fired at the enemy . This message was signalled using the telegraphic flag and flags 1 and 6 . Nelson ordered this signal hauled up and kept aloft . It remained up until shot away during the battle .
= = After the battle = =
Almost immediately , the signal began to be misquoted . A number of ships in the fleet recorded the signal as " England expects every man to do his duty " ( omitting that and replacing will with to ) . This version became so prevalent that it is recorded on Nelson 's tomb in St. Paul 's Cathedral . The word that is also omitted on the version around the base of Nelson 's Column , as seen in the photo above . However , the Victory 's log and the accounts of signal officer John Pasco and Henry Blackwood ( captain of the frigate Euryalus ) , both present at the preparation of the signal , agree on the form given here . On 26 December 1805 , The Times newspaper in London reported the signal as ; " England expects every officer and man to do his duty this day " . In 1811 , the tenor John Braham composed a song , " The Death of Nelson " , including the words of the signal . The song became popular almost immediately and was performed throughout the British Empire during the 19th century . To make the words fit the metre , they were altered to " England expects that every man this day will do his duty " . This version of the wording is also persistent .
Between 1885 and 1908 it was believed that the signal had been sent using the 1799 code book , as in 1885 it was pointed out that this had not been replaced until 1808 . In 1908 it was discovered , the Admiralty had , in fact , changed the signal code in November 1803 , after the 1799 version had been captured by the French , and new code books had been issued to Nelson 's fleet at Cadiz in September , 1805 . As a result , books published between these two dates show the signal using the wrong flags .
The signal is still hoisted on the Victory at her dry dock in Portsmouth on Trafalgar Day ( 21 October ) every year , although the signal flags are displayed all at once , running from fore to aft , rather than hoisted sequentially from the mizzenmast .
= = = Similar signals = = =
Nelson 's famous signal has been imitated in other navies of the world . Napoleon ordered the French equivalent , " La France compte que chacun fera son devoir " , to be displayed on French vessels . At the opening of the Battle of Plattsburgh in September 1814 , Commodore Thomas MacDonough of the U.S. Navy flew the signal " Impressed seamen call on every man to do his duty " , referring to the fact that impressment of U.S. mariners had been a popular cause of the War of 1812 . Before the Battle of Tsushima , Japanese Admiral Togo ( who had studied naval science in England from 1871 to 1878 ) signalled to his fleet : " The fate of the Empire depends upon today 's battle : let every man do his utmost " .
= = Later uses = =
Charles Dickens quotes it in Chapter 43 of Martin Chuzzlewit :
" ... as the poet informs us , England expects Every man to do his duty , England is the most sanguine country on the face of the earth , and will find itself continually disappointed . "
In Lewis Carroll 's The Hunting of the Snark , the Bellman says :
" For England Expects — I forbear to proceed . Tis a maxim tremendous , but trite . "
In Ogden Nash 's collection of poems I 'm a Stranger Here Myself ( 1938 ) there is a short poem " England Expects " .
During the Second World War , an Admiralty propaganda poster intended to increase industrial production on the home front , carried the slogan ; " Britain expects that you too , this day , will do your duty " . Nelson 's flag signal was hoisted by the Royal Navy monitor , HMS Erebus at the start of the bombardment for the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944 .
It was also referenced by Margaret Thatcher during her crucial speech to the cabinet which finally persuaded them to rally behind her over the divisive issue of the poll tax . Further afield , it has been adapted by James Joyce in his novel , Ulysses , such as " Ireland expects that every man this day will do his duty " .
In the United States , former Secretary of the Navy of the United States of America Gordon R. England wore a tie with the flags representing the famous quote when he visited naval vessels .
Today " England expects ... " is often adapted for use in the media , especially in relation to the expectations for the victory of English sporting teams . Such is the sentence 's connotation with sport that a recent book on the history of the England national football team by James Corbett was entitled England Expects . A BBC Scotland television drama also bears its name .
= Waddesdon Road railway station =
Waddesdon Road railway station , called Waddesdon railway station before 1922 , was a small halt in open countryside in Buckinghamshire , England . It was opened in 1871 as part of a short horse @-@ drawn tramway to assist with the transport of goods from and around the Duke of Buckingham 's extensive estates in Buckinghamshire and to connect the Duke 's estates to the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway at Quainton Road . In 1872 the line was expanded and converted for passenger use , becoming known as the Brill Tramway . In 1899 the operation of the line was taken over by the London @-@ based Metropolitan Railway .
In 1933 the Metropolitan Railway was taken into public ownership to become the Metropolitan line of the London Underground , and despite its rural setting Waddesdon Road station became a part of the London Transport system . The new management could not see a future for the line as a financially viable passenger route , and Waddesdon Road , along with the rest of the former Brill Tramway , was closed in late 1935 .
The station was heavily used for the transport of construction materials during the building of Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild 's estate at Waddesdon Manor in the 1870s and 1880s , but aside from that it saw little use . The station was inconveniently sited and served by few passenger trains , and other more frequently served stations were in easy walking distance . In 1932 , the last full year of operations prior to the Metropolitan Railway being taken into public ownership , the station was used for only 281 passenger journeys and generated just £ 4 of passenger revenue .
= = Brill Tramway = =
On 23 September 1868 the small Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway ( A & BR ) was opened . It ran south from the London and North Western Railway 's Oxford to Bletchley line at Verney Junction , via Quainton Road railway station , to connect with the Great Western Railway at Aylesbury .
The 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos served as Chairman of the London and North Western Railway from 1852 to 1861 and had a long interest in railways . In the early 1870s he decided to build a light railway to carry goods between his estates in Buckinghamshire and the A & BR 's line at Quainton Road . The first stage of the line , known as the Wotton Tramway , was a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) line from Quainton Road via Wotton to a coal siding at Kingswood , and opened on 1 April 1871 . Intended for use by horse trams , the line was built with longitudinal sleepers to avoid horses tripping on the sleepers .
Lobbying from residents and businesses in the nearby town of Brill led to an extension being built in 1872 from Wotton to Brill railway station , at the foot of Brill Hill three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) from the hilltop town of Brill itself . Two mixed trains each day were introduced in each direction , and the line was renamed the Brill Tramway . The Duke bought two Aveling and Porter traction engines modified to work as locomotives for the line , each with a top speed of 8 miles per hour ( 13 km / h ) , although a speed limit of 5 miles per hour ( 8 km / h ) was enforced .
The Duke died in 1889 , and in 1894 the trustees of his estate set up the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad Company ( O & ATC ) with the intention of extending the line from Brill to Oxford . On 1 September 1894 London 's Metropolitan Railway ( MR ) reached Aylesbury , and shortly afterwards connected to the A & BR line , with local MR services running via Quainton Road to Verney Junction from 1 April 1894 . Through trains from the MR 's London terminus at Baker Street commenced on 1 January 1897 . From 1 December 1899 the MR leased the Brill Tramway from the O & ATC and took over the operation of services on the line , although the Tramway continued to be owned by the O & ATC .
= = Services = =
Waddesdon Road was the first station out from the Quainton Road junction station , in open countryside immediately north of Akeman Street ( the A41 road after 1919 ) , about 1 @.@ 1 miles ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) southeast of Quainton Road , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) northwest of the town of Waddesdon , and 1 @,@ 300 yards ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) from Waddesdon Manor . The station was initially built with a single low wooden platform , primarily intended for loading and unloading freight . After the 1899 transfer of services to the Metropolitan Railway , the MR introduced a single Brown Marshall passenger carriage on the line ; at this time , a short section of platform was raised to conventional height to allow access to the higher doors on the new carriage .
Initially known as " Waddesdon Road Siding " , the station was renamed " Waddesdon " shortly after opening . On 1 October 1922 the nearby Waddesdon Manor railway station , on the Metropolitan Railway southeast of Quainton Road , was renamed " Waddesdon " and the former Waddesdon station was renamed " Waddesdon Road " in an effort to reduce confusion .
The station was heavily used during the construction of Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild 's estate at Waddesdon Manor in the 1870s and 1880s . The brickworks at Brill sent 25 @,@ 000 bricks per week along the Brill Tramway , and 7 @,@ 000 tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) of Bath Stone were shipped from Corsham . Aside from goods traffic associated with the building of Waddesdon Manor , the station was little used other than for shipping milk from nearby farms to Aylesbury and London . Inconveniently sited away from any nearby towns and villages , and with the far more frequently served Quainton Road and Waddesdon Manor stations within easy walking distance , the station saw very little passenger use . In 1932 , the last year of private operation , Waddesdon Road station saw only 281 passengers and made only £ 4 ( about £ 300 in 2016 ) in passenger receipts over the entire year .
Limited by poor quality locomotives and bumpy , cheaply laid track which followed the contours of the hills , trains ran very slowly in the area : in 1882 trains took 13 minutes to travel the short distance from Waddesdon Road to Quainton Road , and 57 minutes from Waddesdon Road to Brill . From 1872 to 1894 the station was served by two passenger trains per day in each direction , and between 1895 and 1899 the number was increased to three per day . Following the 1899 transfer of services to the Metropolitan Railway , the station was served by four trains per day in each direction until closure in 1935 . Improvements to the line carried out at the time of the transfer to the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad , and the improved locomotives of the Metropolitan Railway , reduced journey times from Waddesdon Road to Quainton Road and Brill to 6 minutes and 22 minutes respectively .
= = Closure = =
On 1 July 1933 the Metropolitan Railway , and all of London 's other underground railways except the small Waterloo & City Railway , were taken into public ownership as part of the newly formed London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) . As a consequence , despite its distance from London , Waddesdon Road station became part of the London Underground network .
By this time the Brill Tramway was losing significant sums of money . Goods traffic had dwindled , and unlike other areas served by the former Metropolitan Railway there had not been a growth in population and thus passenger numbers remained low . Frank Pick , Managing Director of the Underground Group from 1928 and the Chief Executive of the LPTB , planned to move the new London Underground away from goods services to concentrate solely on serving passengers . He saw the lines beyond Aylesbury to Brill and Verney Junction as having little future as financially viable passenger routes , concluding that over £ 2 @,@ 000 ( about £ 130 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) would be saved by closing the Brill Tramway . As a result , the LPTB decided to abandon all passenger services beyond Aylesbury .
The Brill Tramway was closed on 1 December 1935 , with the last trains running on 30 November . Upon the withdrawal of London Transport services the railway and stations reverted to the control of the by now almost dormant Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad Company . With no funds and no rolling stock of its own the O & ATC was unable to operate the line , and on 2 April 1936 the entire infrastructure of the line was sold at auction ; the most expensive lot sold was the 37 @-@ yard ( 34 m ) platform of Waddesdon Road station , which fetched £ 7 10s ( about £ 1 @,@ 070 in 2016 ) . Excluding the station houses at Westcott and Brill , which were sold separately , the auction raised £ 112 10s ( about £ 6 @,@ 890 in 2016 ) in total . No trace of the buildings at Waddesdon Road remains , but the former trackbed is now a public footpath known as the Tramway Walk .
Metropolitan line passenger trains ceased to run north of Aylesbury from 6 July 1936 . London and North Eastern Railway services ( British Rail from 1948 ) continued to run from London 's Marylebone station over the line to Verney Junction via Quainton Road until March 1963 , and the LPTB continued to maintain and to operate freight services over the Verney Junction line until 6 September 1947 . After the withdrawal of services from London , Verney Junction station remained open to serve trains on the Oxford – Bletchley line . It was closed following the withdrawal of services between Oxford and Cambridge from 1 January 1968 .
= Son of Three =
" Son of Three " is a song by the American group the Breeders that was written and sung by band member Kim Deal . The original version of the composition was recorded at Grandmaster Recording Ltd. in Hollywood , and was released in May 2002 on the album Title TK . The Breeders — who then consisted of Kim Deal , Kelley Deal , Jose Medeles , Richard Presley , and Mando Lopez — later re @-@ recorded " Son of Three " at a different Hollywood studio as Title TK 's third European single . This subsequent recording is shorter and faster than the album track , and matches how they were playing the song in concert in 2002 .
The " Son of Three " single was released in September 2002 on 4AD , and reached No. 72 in the United Kingdom . The single includes a live performance of the group 's 1992 song " Safari " and a cover of Nerf Herder 's theme from the Buffy the Vampire Slayer television series . Deal , a Buffy fan , also negotiated to have the Breeders appear in an episode of the show . Critics have praised both the album and single versions of " Son of Three " .
= = Recording = =
The original version of " Son of Three " appeared on the Breeders ' 2002 album Title TK . While most of the album 's tracks were recorded by Steve Albini at his Electrical Audio studio in Chicago , " Son of Three " is one of two songs from a session recorded by Mark Arnold and Andrew Alekel at Grandmaster Recording Ltd. in Hollywood . The composition was written by Kim Deal , who also sang on the track . The other musicians who played on the recording were Kim 's sister Kelley Deal on guitar and vocals ; Richard Presley on guitar ; Mando Lopez on bass and guitar ; and Jose Medeles on percussion .
Following the release of Title TK 's first two singles , " Off You " and " Huffer " , a third single was requested for the European market . For this purpose , the Breeders decided to record a new version of " Son of Three " . The session , which took place in July 2002 at Track Record Studios in North Hollywood , was fit in during a short break between a European and a US concert tour . This recording is faster than the album version , and reflects the sound of the group 's live performances of the song in 2002 . The engineers for this session were Ai Fujisaki and Justin Hamilton , with additional engineering credited to Marc Arnold .
The sound of " Son of Three " has been described as " dark punk " , and elsewhere as a " garage symphony of bubblegum grunge , woo @-@ woo gurly harmonies and body @-@ snatching sci @-@ fi eeriness " . One interviewer in 2002 described the lyrics of " Son of Three " as " motorific " , noting the numerous references to driving in the song and throughout the Title TK album . The song 's lyrics include lines such as " No more time on the meter " , " Cross another county line " , and " Are we there ? "
The second track on the three @-@ song single , " Buffy Theme " , was also recorded at the July 2002 session . This composition was originally performed by the group Nerf Herder , whose version was included on Buffy the Vampire Slayer : The Album . It was written by Nerf Herder members Dennis , Grip , and Sherlock . Kim and Kelley Deal were both fans of the Buffy the Vampire Slayer television show and had been playing " Buffy Theme " in concert in the first half of 2002 . At some point after the July recording session , Kim Deal telephoned Buffy musical supervisor John King to ask whether the Breeders could be on the show . On November 5 , the group appeared on the episode " Him " , in which they performed " Son of Three " and " Little Fury " . The Breeders ' " Buffy Theme " was also later included on the album Buffy the Vampire Slayer : Radio Sunnydale .
The final track on the " Son of Three " single , " Safari " , written by Deal , was recorded in concert at the Melkweg music venue in Amsterdam in June 2002 as part of the Leiksekade Live radio show . The original studio version of the song had been released on the Breeders ' Safari EP in April 1992 .
= = Release and reception = =
Title TK came out on May 20 – 21 , 2002 , and the " Son of Three " single on September 2 of that year . The single reached No. 72 on the UK Singles Chart . The album and single versions of " Son of Three " have mostly been well received by critics . AllMusic 's Heather Phares calls the Title TK track " sweet [ and ] playfully spiky " , while Will Bryant of Pitchfork cites it as a " standout " of the album , that " get [ s ] the job done " . PopMatters ' Matt Cibula reports " rockin ' ... hard " to the song and comments on the originality of the lyrics , such as the line “ If I find the door / I am the son of Go ” . A reviewer at Contactmusic.com describes the single version of " Son of Three " as " special " , and for NME 's Stephen Dalton , it is a " jewel " . Richard Garnett of Leeds Music Scene similarly praises the track , commenting that " the beefy descending bass line is enough to send shivers " .
Critical appraisal of the single 's B @-@ sides has been mixed . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic characterizes the Breeders ' " Buffy Theme " as " wonderful " . Garnett calls the track " cheap " , noting its short running time ( 1 minute 14 seconds ) . For Dalton , the recording amounts to " a comedy cover " , and the live version of " Safari " is " inessential " . By contrast , the Contactmusic.com reviewer rates this performance of " Safari " as " fantastic " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two . =
Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two ( stylized as ef - a fairy tale of the two . ) is a two @-@ part Japanese adult visual novel series by Minori for Windows PCs . The first game in the series , Ef : The First Tale , was released on December 22 , 2006 , and the second game , Ef : The Latter Tale , was released on May 30 , 2008 . The opening video for the game was animated by Makoto Shinkai , and a majority of the music was produced by Tenmon , who has worked in the past with Shinkai and Minori . Female character design was by Naru Nanao of Da Capo fame , while male character design was by 2C Galore .
Before the release of Ef : The First Tale , a manga based on the overall story was serialized between 2005 and 2015 starting in Dengeki Comic Gao , but later transferred to Dengeki Daioh . In addition , a light novel was serialized in Kadokawa Shoten 's Comptiq from July 2006 to July 2008 . A 12 @-@ episode anime adaptation titled Ef : A Tale of Memories was produced by Shaft and aired between October and December 2007 . A second season of the anime titled Ef : A Tale of Melodies aired 12 episodes between October and December 2008 .
On September 26 , 2010 , it was announced that MangaGamer had acquired the rights of the visual novel for a worldwide English release , in partnership with the translation group No Name Losers . The English version of the two games were released in 2012 and 2013 . The license holding company Sentai Filmworks licensed both Ef anime series .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay requires little interaction from the player as most of the duration of the game is spent simply reading the text that appears on the screen which represents either dialogue between the various characters or the inner thoughts of the protagonist . The player has a chance to assume the role of four protagonists , two in each Ef : The First Tale and Ef : The Latter Tale . Each protagonist is paired with a heroine , and each scenario in the original PC versions of the visual novels includes scenes with sexual content . These scenes are removed or modified in the PlayStation 2 port .
Every so often , the player will come to a point where he or she is given the chance to choose from multiple options . The time between these points is variable and can occur anywhere from a minute to much longer . Gameplay pauses at these points and depending on which choice the player makes , the plot will progress in a specific direction . There are four main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience , one for each of the heroines in the story . The plot lines carry on from each other in a linear fashion . The game can end prematurely if the player makes the wrong decisions . When this occurs , the player must go back to a previously saved spot and choose different decisions .
For Ef , Minori attempted to create a movie @-@ like experience , using a lot of animated two @-@ dimensional computer graphics presented from various angles . Instead of presenting the visuals straight @-@ on with a character 's image in the middle of the screen and the character being the main focus , the character images in the Ef series are off @-@ center and appear closer to " event " computer graphics ( CGs ) in typical visual novels . These types of CGs occur at certain pivotal times in a visual novel 's story and are meant to be artistic and much more detailed than normal visuals .
= = Plot and characters = =
Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two consists of two parts . The first part is titled Ef : The First Tale and primarily consists of the story of Hiro Hirono , Miyako Miyamura , Kyosuke Tsutsumi , Kei Shindo , and Yuko Amamiya . It consists of a prologue and two main chapters with Miyako as the focus for the first chapter , and Kei for the second . This is followed by the second part of the story , Ef : The Latter Tale , which primarily deals with the story of Renji Aso , Chihiro Shindo , Shuichi Kuze , Mizuki Hayama , and Yu Himura . The second part consists of two more main chapters and an ending chapter , with Chihiro as the focus for the third chapter , and Mizuki for the fourth . Bringing the two parts together forms the all @-@ encompassing Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two . The story is set in the town Otowa ( 音羽 ) .
= = = Ef : The First Tale = = =
Prologue
Yuko Amamiya ( 雨宮 優子 , Amamiya Yūko , voiced by : Yumiko Nakajima ( Japanese ) , Carli Mosier ( English ) ) , a mysterious girl dressed like a nun , and Yu Himura ( 火村 夕 , Himura Yū , voiced by : Kōichi Tōchika ( Japanese ) , David Matranga ( English ) ) , a mysterious gentleman who is somehow attached to the church where Yuko first appears , are having a reunion in a church during Christmas time . Despite her attire , Yuko is not affiliated with the church . She always appears generally out of nowhere , and disappears just as quickly in various places throughout the story to talk with Hiro or other characters and give them advice . Yuko and Yu reminisce about the past and remember events of the previous year around the same time at the beginning of the first chapter of the story . Yuko hints of events that are revealed throughout Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two . After the conclusion of the first chapter , the story cycles back to the prologue and the talk between Yuko and Yu . Yuko ends with her talk about the events in the first chapter . At the end of the second chapter , the story shifts again to the scene with Yuko and Yu . Yuko finishes her talk on the events from the second chapter and says that she misses talking to Hiro , Kyosuke , and their friends . Their talk ends with allusions to the continuation of the story , Ef : The Latter Tale .
First chapter
The first chapter 's protagonist is Hiro Hirono ( 広野 紘 , Hirono Hiro , voiced by : Hiro Shimono ( Japanese ) , Greg Ayres ( English ) ) , an already established manga author despite still attending high school . Due to the pressures of his work , he often skips school and puts most of his time into his job as a manga artist of shōjo manga under the pseudonym " Nagi Shindo " ( 新堂 凪 , Shindō Nagi ) . Writing manga causes him to lose interest in school and focuses mainly on his work in order to earn an income , as usually he does not have much money as it is . While out one Christmas night , a purse snatcher rushes past Hiro on a bike and soon Miyako Miyamura ( 宮村 みやこ , Miyamura Miyako , voiced by : Hiroko Taguchi ( Japanese ) , Luci Christian ( English ) ) appears , chasing after the purse thief , taking Hiro 's bike without asking to pursue the culprit . She ends up destroying his bike , and later hangs out with him for the rest of the night .
Hiro later meets Miyako again at school , and learns that she is a student of the same year there , but in a different class ; she too does not attend classes much because she finds them boring . Miyako has an energetic personality and enjoys doing unorthodox things . She eventually starts to become attracted to Hiro after they start spending more time together , but during this time Hiro 's childhood friend Kei Shindo ( 新藤 景 , Shindō Kei , voiced by : Junko Okada ( Japanese ) , Brittney Karbowski ( English ) ) begins to feel left out and a love triangle develops between the three students . She is attracted to Hiro , and becomes jealous when she finds out how much time he is spending with Miyako Miyamura . Hiro and Miyako eventually become a couple , despite Kei 's feelings for him .
Second chapter
The second chapter begins several months after the end of the first . It is now summer , and the story focuses on a new protagonist named Kyosuke Tsutsumi ( 堤 京介 , Kyōsuke Tsutsumi , voiced by : Yūki Tai ( Japanese ) , Chris Patton ( English ) ) . Kyosuke is an acquaintance of Hiro 's and happens to be in the same grade and school . He has a passion for filming , and constantly carries a digital video recorder around with him . On Christmas night , he saw Kei Shindo , who is the main heroine of the second chapter , running down the street and tried to get a shot of her , but a truck passed by , so he could not get a clean shot of the mystery girl . After thinking about the mystery girl , he ends up quitting the film club and agrees with his girlfriend to break up .
One day , while filming near the gymnasium , Kyosuke catches sight of Kei practicing basketball for her school 's girl 's basketball team and becomes infatuated by her image . He desires to cast Kei in an amateur film he is making for an upcoming film festival . Occupied with thoughts of Kei , he sets out determined to get closer to Kei by becoming better friends with Hiro , Kei 's childhood friend . Kei is one year younger than Hiro and she attends the same school as him too . After being asked to be cast in one of his films , Kei initially refuses Kyosuke 's offer , but agrees to watch some of his previous films . While initially put off by the films , she eventually comes to like aspects of his work . After hanging out together more , the two eventually fall in love and go out together .
= = = Ef : The Latter Tale = = =
Prologue
Ef : The Latter Tale begins once again with Yuko Amamiya and Yu Himura in the middle of a reunion in a church during Christmas time . Yuko tells Yu how she has influenced people in two separate stories ( from Ef : The First Tale ) . After she is done with this , she asks him to tell her about the people he has influenced . Yu starts to tell his first story , that of Chihiro Shindo ; the third chapter begins . Like Yuko , Yu also abruptly appears out of nowhere and disappears just as mysteriously . He often gives advice and warnings to Renji and others . Yu is close to Chihiro and takes care of her . After the conclusion of the third chapter , the story goes back to Yuko and Yu with Yu ending his recount of the third chapter , and goes on to talk about how he and Yuko were separated in the past . Yu starts his recount of the events from the fourth chapter . At the end of the fourth chapter , the story shifts one final time back to Yuko and Yu . Up to this point the two have been recounting individual tales to each other . The meaning of the overall title Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two is revealed to be in connection with Yuko and Yu .
Third chapter
Like the first chapter , the third chapter is also set in winter , but now focuses on another protagonist named Renji Aso ( 麻生 蓮治 , Asō Renji , voiced by : Motoki Takagi ( Japanese ) , Clint Bickham ( English ) ) who is half German , half Japanese . One day , he goes to an abandoned train station in town he would often frequent to read at since it is so quiet there and meets a girl wearing an eyepatch over her left eye and sitting alone named Chihiro Shindo ( 新藤 千尋 , Shindō Chihiro , voiced by : Natsumi Yanase ( Japanese ) , Monica Rial ( English ) ) . Chihiro is the younger twin sister of Kei Shindo from Ef : The First Tale and the main heroine of the third chapter in the story . Despite them being mutually shy , Renji comes back to see her at the station every day after school and quickly becomes friends with her . Renji later learns that she has a severe case of anterograde amnesia , where she can only remember 13 hours ' of memory at a time , aside from the events before the accident that led to her current state , which she can recall perfectly . Now , she carries a diary with her which she writes in every day the events of that day so that the next day , after she had forgotten everything , she will be able to remind herself of what happened the previous day . Ironically , she has a fantastic memory of anything that happened that is less than thirteen hours old .
Renji also finds out that it is her dream to write a fantasy novel , but due to her condition has never been able to get far . Renji loves to read novels , and after discussing it with Chihiro , he collaborates with her to see if he can finally make her dream come true . Through the process of writing the novel , the two eventually become very close and they fall in love with each other . As the story progresses and more of the novel is written , Renji soon discovers that the novel is an allegory for Chihiro 's life and how she sees the world around her due to the state of her limited memory .
Fourth chapter
Shuichi Kuze ( 久瀬 修一 , Kuze Shūichi , voiced by : Kenji Hamada ( Japanese ) , Illich Guardiola ( English ) ) is the main protagonist of the fourth chapter in the story . He is an older man who is a professional violinist . He had been studying abroad in Germany for a time , and comes back to where Ef 's story takes place . Shuichi is a neighbor of Renji 's and is good friends with him despite the age difference . Shuichi knows Yu Himura and Chihiro as well , but she forgets Shuichi due to her condition . He meets the main heroine from the fourth chapter of the story named Mizuki Hayama ( 羽山 ミズキ , Hayama Mizuki , voiced by : Mai Goto ( Japanese ) , Hilary Haag ( English ) ) after being introduced by Renji 's mother . She goes to an affiliated school and admires Kei greatly as someone who is older than she is ; in fact , Mizuki is also on her school 's girl 's basketball team . She greatly enjoys reading shōjo manga . She has a straightforward attitude and likes to be frank towards others , especially to Kei . She initially comes to Otowa to visit her older cousin Renji , and this is when she meets Shuichi . Shuichi keeps to himself that he is dying of a special case of neurosis , of which Mizuki is aware of , but even though she tries to get closer to him , he forcibly pushes her away and rejects her affections . Mizuki becomes depressed and obtains Chihiro 's diary . Casually reading it , she finds Yu 's name which she recognizes from her past . Mizuki goes to the church to find Yu , but the chapter ends shortly after .
= = Development and release history = =
Planning for Ef started in 2004 headed by Nobukazu Sakai ( also known as nbkz ) , who is the main producer for Minori . The director for Ef was Mikage , who was also one of the main scenario writers along with Yū Kagami . Character design for Ef was headed by two artists , Naru Nanao who drew the female characters , and 2C Galore who drew the males . The opening movie animation was done via a collaboration between the animation studio Ajia @-@ do Animation Works and Makoto Shinkai . Music in the Ef series was provided by Tenmon , who was the sole composer for Ef : The First Tale , and was accompanied by Eiichirō Yanagi for additional music used in Ef : The Latter Tale . It cost Minori over 100 million yen to produce the Ef series .
A fan disc entitled Ef : First Fan Disc was initially released during Comiket 72 between August 11 and August 13 , 2007 ; the disc , playable on a PC was later sold in retail stores starting on August 25 , 2007 . The disc , unlike the normal visual novels in the series , did not contain adult content , and offered a glimpse into the world of Ef , though only touched on points from Ef : The First Tale , the first game in the series . Ef : The First Tale was released as an adult game for the PC on December 22 , 2006 . The second game in the series , Ef : The Latter Tale was released on May 30 , 2008 . MangaGamer released both games in English : Ef : The First Tale was released on July 27 , 2012 and Ef : The Latter Tale was released on December 20 , 2013 .
A game demo of Ef : The First Tale is available via a free download at Getchu.com 's special website for Ef : The First Tale . A second fan disc entitled Ef : Second Fan Mix , released as a preview of Ef : The Latter Tale , was initially released at during Comiket 73 on December 29 , 2007 ; the disc , playable on a PC , was later sold in retail stores starting on February 8 , 2008 . A PlayStation 2 port combining The First Tale and The Latter Tale was released on April 29 , 2010 published by Comfort . A fan disc titled Tenshi no Nichiyōbi " Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two " Pleasurable Box . ( 天使の日曜日 " ef - a fairy tale of the two " Pleasurable Box . ) was released on September 17 , 2010 .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Print media = = =
A manga adaptation titled Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two began serialization in the April 2005 issue of the shōnen manga magazine Dengeki Comic Gao ! sold on February 27 , 2005 , published by MediaWorks . The manga ended serialization in the April 2008 issue Dengeki Comic Gao ! at 35 chapters , but continued serialization in the June 2008 issue of ASCII Media Works ' manga magazine Dengeki Daioh sold on April 21 , 2008 . After a lengthy hiatus , the manga ended serialization in the March 2015 issue . The story was written by Mikage and Yū Kagami , two scenario writers of Minori , and illustrated by Juri Miyabi . Ten tankōbon volumes were published under ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Comics imprint between February 27 , 2006 and January 27 , 2015 .
A series of 24 short side @-@ stories in a light novel form were serialized under the title Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two Another Tale in Kadokawa Shoten 's seinen magazine Comptiq between the July 2006 and July 2008 issues sold on June 10 , 2006 and June 10 , 2008 , respectively . The stories are written by the same scenario staff as with the original games and manga , and illustration is handled by Naru Nanao , 2C Galore , and Mitsuishi Shōna . The chapters of Another Tale were released in a single volume on February 27 , 2009 entitled Another Tales .. Another two separate light novels , under the general title Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two , were published by Fujimi Shobo on October 25 , 2007 . They were written by Yū Kagami , and illustrated by Kinusa Shimotsuki . The first novel was a novelization of Miyako 's route , and the second was centered around Kei 's route .
The Ef series , encompassing the visual novels and anime adaptation , was the only Minori title to receive coverage in an entire issue of Dengeki G 's Festival ! Deluxe , a special edition version of Dengeki G 's Magazine which is published by ASCII Media Works ; the issue in question was the first , and was published on November 30 , 2007 . Along with information pertaining to Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two and Ef : A Tale of Memories , the magazine came bundled with an ergonomic mousepad , a small cell phone cleaner which can also attach to a cell phone , and an ID card / pass case .
= = = Radio shows and drama CDs = = =
There are two Internet radio shows for Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two The first , entitled Omoshiro Minori Hōsōkyoku ( おもしろミノリ放送局 ) , was broadcast between October 13 , 2006 to June 1 , 2007 every Friday and was produced by Onsen , Cospa , and Minori . The show contained thirty @-@ three episodes and was mainly used to promote the visual novels . In this way , the promotion mainly entailed news about the series and any updates related to the visual novels while also discussing points about the games themselves . The second radio broadcast began on June 8 , 2007 called Yumiko & Yūna no Ef Memo Radio ( ゆみこ & ゆうなのえふメモらじお ) . This broadcast is mainly used to promote the anime series which entails reporting on updates related to the anime and goods for the anime including musical CDs or DVDs .
A set of four drama CDs were released by Frontier Works based on the series between October 2006 and April 2007 . A special edition drama CD was released on November 21 , 2007 , and another special drama CD was released on January 1 , 2008 . The first print release of the special edition CD will contain comments from the cast . The drama CDs used the same female cast as with the games and anime versions ( albeit under assumed names ) , but the two males that appeared in the dramas , Hiro and Kyosuke , had different voice actors in respect to the anime version . Hiro was voiced by Takashi Shōman , and Kyosuke was by Shō Shiroki .
= = = Anime = = =
On August 24 , 2007 , a short prologue for an Ef anime series was released as a DVD . The prologue was a teaser which introduced the characters and some conflict that would appear in the series . The anime series , under the title Ef : A Tale of Memories , aired 12 episodes on Chiba TV between October 7 and December 22 , 2007 . The anime was produced by Shaft and directed by Shin Ōnuma who volunteered for the job when it was offered . Even though the script for Ef : The Latter Tale was finished at the time of the anime 's production , in order to direct the anime from the viewer 's standpoint , Shin Ōnuma himself never read it . However , Katsuhiko Takayama who wrote the screenplay for the anime , had read the script . Each episode ends with a still image drawn by Japanese illustrators of anime , manga , and visual novels . The first letter in each episode 's title , plus the " coda " title of the last episode , can be brought together to form " Euphoric Field " . The series was released in six limited and regular edition DVD compilations , each containing two episodes . The first DVD volume was released on December 7 , 2007 , and the sixth DVD was released on May 9 , 2008 . A second season entitled Ef : A Tale of Melodies aired 12 episodes between October 7 and December 22 , 2008 in Japan . The license holding company Sentai Filmworks licensed both Ef anime series . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc box sets of Ef : A Tale of Memories were released on January 31 , 2012 in North America with an English dub , and the Ef : A Tale of Melodies box sets were released on March 20 , 2012 .
= = Music = =
The opening theme song for Ef : The First Tale is " Yūkyū no Tsubasa " ( 悠久の翼 , Eternal Feather ) by Hitomi Harada which was released as a maxi single called " Eternal Feather " on October 27 , 2006 . For Ef : The Latter Tale , the opening theme is " Emotional Flutter " , and the ending theme is " Ever Forever " ; the single containing the two themes was released on April 11 , 2008 . Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two 's original soundtrack , Alato , was released on February 27 , 2009 containing three CDs . The PlayStation 2 version released by Comfort will include an image song CD in the game disc , which will contain a song called " Echt Forgather " by Hitomi Harada .
The opening theme for Ef : A Tale of Memories , starting with episode three , is the English version of " Euphoric Field " by Tenmon featuring Elisa . The first episode used a background music track for the opening theme , and the second and tenth episodes had no opening theme ; the English version of " Euphoric Field " was also used for the ending theme in episode two . The Japanese version of " Euphoric Field " was used as the opening theme for the twelfth episode . The opening theme single was released on October 24 , 2007 by Geneon . The first ending theme for the anime is " I 'm here " by Hiroko Taguchi which was used for episodes one , three , seven , and ten ; the single for the song ( entitled " Adagio by Miyako Miyamura " ) was also released on October 24 , 2007 by Geneon . The second ending theme , " Kizamu Kisetsu " ( 刻む季節 , Carving Season ) by Junko Okada , was used for episodes four , five , and nine , and the single ( entitled " Vivace by Kei Shindo " ) was released on November 21 , 2007 . The third ending theme , " Sora no Yume " ( 空の夢 , Sky 's Dream ) by Natsumi Yanase , was used for episode six , eight , and eleven , though the second verse of the song was used in that episode ; the single ( entitled " Andante by Chihiro Shindo " ) was released on December 21 , 2007 . A remix of the visual novel 's theme song called " Yūkyū no Tsubasa 07.mix " ( 悠久の翼 07.mix , Eternal Feather 07.mix ) sung by Yumiko Nakajima was used as the ending theme in episode twelve . The single for this ( entitled " Yūkyū no Tsubasa 07.mix / Euphoric Field live.mix " ) was released on September 26 , 2008 . The first original soundtrack for the anime series ( Espressivo ) was released on February 8 , 2008 , and the second ( Fortissimo ) was released on April 2 , 2008 .
The opening theme of Ef : A Tale of Melodies is the English version of " Ebullient Future " , also by Tenmon featuring Elisa , with the sixth episode featuring the instrumental version and episode eleven with the second verse . The opening sequence is shown to change many times ; episode ten contains no opening , but a piano remix of the song was used as the ending for that same episode . Episode twelve uses the Japanese version of the song , with a different opening sequence . The first ending theme is called " Egao no Chikara " ( 笑顔のチカラ , Strength of Smiles ) by Mai Goto and was used in episode two through five , seven , and the second verse was used in episode eleven . The second ending theme is called " Negai no Kakera " ( 願いのカケラ , Pieces of Wish ) by Yumiko Nakajima which was used in episode six , nine , and the second verse was used in episode eight . The song " A moon filled sky . " by Mai Goto was featured at the end of episode eleven and a new Japanese version of the opening sequence of the first season was inserted in the same episode . Episode twelve uses the song " Ever Forever OG.mix " sung by the voice actresses of all the major female characters . The singles for " Ebullient Future " and " Egao no Chikara " ( the latter entitled " Fermata by Mizuki Hayama " ) were released on November 5 , 2008 and the single for " Negai no Kakera " ( entitled " Fine by Yuko Amamiya " ) was released on November 26 , 2008 . The first original soundtrack for the series ( Elegia ) was released on December 26 , 2008 while the second original soundtrack ( Felice ) was released on February 27 , 2009 .
= = Reception = =
In the October 2007 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine , poll results for the fifty best bishōjo games were released . Out of 249 titles , Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two ranked 23rd with 11 votes , tying with Muv @-@ Luv Alternative and Snow . The first game in the Ef series , Ef : The First Tale , was the highest selling game for the month of December 2006 on Getchu.com , and dropped to 19th in the ranking the following month . Also , Ef : The First Tale was the fourth most widely sold game of 2006 on Getchu.com despite it being released with a little over a week left in 2006 . In the January 25 , 2007 issue of the Japanese gaming magazine PC News , it was reported that Ef : The First Tale was the fifth @-@ highest selling game of 2006 with 40 @,@ 843 units sold . Across the national ranking of bishōjo games in amount sold in Japan , Ef : The First Tale premiered at number two , and ranked twice more at number five and 32 . From mid @-@ April to mid @-@ May 2008 , Ef : The Latter Tale ranked fourth in national PC game pre @-@ orders in Japan . Ef : The Latter Tale ranked first in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in May 2008 , and ranked at 30th on the same ranking the following month .
Theron Martin of Anime News Network reviewed the Blu @-@ ray edition of Ef : A Tale of Memories , where he praised the anime series for not resorting to " even a whiff of the supernatural " , and called the way in which characters behave as " largely believable " . The anime received a mostly positive review from Bradley Meek THEM Anime Reviews . Bradley appreciated the animation , saying that " It does wonders for the mood in the series , adding a tangible layer of mysticism and fantasy . " However , he criticized the series being " cheesy and melodramatic more often than not . " He concluded the review saying , " Despite some laughable melodrama , the raw emotions and Shaft 's hypnotic animation makes ef ~ a tale of memories ~ a memorable romance . The plotting is slow , though , so it 's not for people with short attention spans . "
= Social identity theory =
A social identity is the portion of an individual 's self @-@ concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group . As originally formulated by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s and the 1980s , social identity theory introduced the concept of a social identity as a way in which to explain intergroup behaviour .
Social identity theory is best described as a theory that predicts certain intergroup behaviours on the basis of perceived group status differences , the perceived legitimacy and stability of those status differences , and the perceived ability to move from one group to another . This contrasts with occasions where the term " social identity theory " is used to refer to general theorizing about human social selves . Moreover , and although some researchers have treated it as such , social identity theory was never intended to be a general theory of social categorization . It was awareness of the limited scope of social identity theory that led John Turner and colleagues to develop a cousin theory in the form of self @-@ categorization theory , which built on the insights of social identity theory to produce a more general account of self and group processes . The term social identity approach , or social identity perspective , is suggested for describing the joint contributions of both social identity theory and self @-@ categorization theory .
= = Aspects = =
= = = The interpersonal @-@ intergroup continuum = = =
Social identity theory states that social behavior will vary along a continuum between interpersonal behavior and intergroup behaviour . Completely interpersonal behaviour would be behaviour determined solely by the individual characteristics and interpersonal relationships that exists between two or more people . Completely intergroup behaviour would be behaviour determined solely by the social category memberships that apply to two or more people .
The authors of social identity theory state that purely interpersonal or purely intergroup behaviour is unlikely to be found in realistic social situations . Rather , behaviour is expected to be driven by a compromise between the two extremes . The cognitive nature of personal vs. social identities , and the relationship between them , is more fully developed in self @-@ categorization theory . Social identity theory instead focuses on the social structural factors that will predict which end of the spectrum will most influence an individual 's behaviour , along with the forms that that behavior may take .
= = = Positive distinctiveness = = =
A key assumption in social identity theory is that individuals are intrinsically motivated to achieve positive distinctiveness . That is , individuals " strive for a positive self @-@ concept " . As individuals to varying degrees may be defined and informed by their respective social identities ( as per the interpersonal @-@ intergroup continuum ) it is further derived in social identity theory that " individuals strive to achieve or to maintain positive social identity " . It should be noted that the precise nature of this strive for positive self @-@ concept is a matter of debate ( see the self @-@ esteem hypothesis ) .
Both the interpersonal @-@ intergroup continuum and the assumption of positive distinctiveness motivation arose as outcomes of the findings of minimal group studies . In particular , it was found that under certain conditions individuals would endorse resource distributions that would maximize the positive distinctiveness of an ingroup in contrast to an outgroup at the expense of personal self @-@ interest .
= = = Positive distinctiveness strategies = = =
Building on the above components , social identity theory details a variety of strategies that may be invoked in order to achieve positive distinctiveness . The individual 's choice of behaviour is posited to be dictated largely by the perceived intergroup relationship . In particular the choice of strategy is an outcome of the perceived permeability of group boundaries ( e.g. , whether a group member may pass from a low status group into a high status group ) , as well as the perceived stability and legitimacy of the intergroup status hierarchy . The self @-@ enhancing strategies detailed in social identity theory are detailed below . Importantly , although these are viewed from the perspective of a low status group member , comparable behaviours may also be adopted by high status group members .
= = = = Individual mobility = = = =
It is predicted that under conditions where the group boundaries are considered permeable individuals are more likely to engage in individual mobility strategies . That is , individuals " disassociate from the group and pursue individual goals designed to improve their personal lot rather than that of their ingroup " .
= = = = Social creativity = = = =
Where group boundaries are considered impermeable , and where status relations are considered reasonably stable , individuals are predicted to engage in social creativity behaviours . Here , low @-@ status ingroup members are still able to increase their positive distinctiveness without necessarily changing the objective resources of the ingroup or the outgroup . This may be achieved by comparing the ingroup to the outgroup on some new dimension , changing the values assigned to the attributes of the group , and choosing an alternative outgroup by which to compare the ingroup .
= = = = Social competition = = = =
Here an ingroup seeks positive distinctiveness via direct competition with the outgroup in the form of ingroup favoritism . It is considered competitive in that in this case favoritism for the ingroup occurs on a value dimension that is shared by all relevant social groups ( in contrast to social creativity scenarios ) . Social competition is predicted to occur when group boundaries are considered impermeable , and when status relations are considered to be reasonably unstable . Although not privileged in the theory , it is this positive distinctiveness strategy that has received the greatest amount of attention .
= = Development = =
= = = Historical background = = =
By the late 1920s the collectivist perspective had all but disappeared from mainstream social psychology . Around the time of the first formal statement of social identity theory , Tajfel wrote this on the state of social psychology :
" Thus , social categorization is still conceived as a haphazardly floating ' independent variable ' which strikes at random as the spirit moves it . No links are made or attempted , between the conditions determining its presence and mode of operation , and its outcomes in widely diffused commonalities of social behaviour . Why , when and how is social categorisation salient or not salient ? What kind of shared constructions of social reality , mediated through social categorization , lead to a social climate in which large masses of people feel they are in long @-@ term conflict with other masses ? What , for example , are the psychological transitions from a stable to an unstable social system ? " ( Original emphasis , p . 188 )
Thus , social identity theory in part reflects a desire to reestablish a more collectivist approach to social psychology of the self and social groups .
= = Implications = =
= = = Ingroup favoritism = = =
In @-@ group favoritism ( also known as " ingroup bias " , despite Turner 's objections to the term ) is an effect where people give preferential treatment to others when they are perceived to be in the same ingroup . Social identity attributes the cause of ingroup favoritism to a psychological need for positive distinctiveness and describes the situations where ingroup favoritism is likely to occur ( as a function of perceived group status , legitimacy , stability , and permeability ) . It has been shown via the minimal group studies that ingroup favoritism may occur for both arbitrary ingroups ( e.g. a coin toss may split participants into a ' heads ' group and a ' tails ' group ) as well as non @-@ arbitrary ingroups ( e.g. ingroups based on cultures , genders , sexual orientation , and first languages ) .
Continued study into the relationship between social categorization and ingroup favoritism has explored the relative prevalences of the ingroup favoritism vs. outgroup discrimination , explored different manifestations of ingroup favoritism , and has explored the relationship between ingroup favoritism and other psychological constraints ( e.g. , existential threat ) .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Self @-@ esteem hypothesis = = =
Social identity theory proposes that people are motivated to achieve and maintain positive concepts of themselves . Some researchers , including Michael Hogg and Dominic Abrams , thus propose a fairly direct relationship between positive social identity and self @-@ esteem . In what has become known as the " self @-@ esteem hypothesis " , self @-@ esteem is predicted to relate to in @-@ group bias in two ways . Firstly , successful intergroup discrimination elevates self @-@ esteem . Secondly , depressed or threatened self @-@ esteem promotes intergroup discrimination . Empirical support for these predictions has been mixed .
Some social identity theorists , including John Turner , consider the self @-@ esteem hypothesis as not canonical to social identity theory . In fact , the self @-@ esteem hypothesis is argued to be conflictual with the tenets of the theory . It is argued that the self @-@ esteem hypothesis misunderstands the distinction between a social identity and a personal identity . Along those lines , John Turner and Penny Oakes argue against an interpretation of positive distinctiveness as a straight forward need for self @-@ esteem or " quasi @-@ biological drive toward prejudice " . They instead favour a somewhat more complex conception of positive self @-@ concept as a reflection of the ideologies and social values of the perceiver . Additionally , it is argued that the self @-@ esteem hypothesis neglects the alternative strategies to maintaining a positive self @-@ concept that are articulated in social identity theory ( i.e. , individual mobility and social creativity ) .
= = = Positive @-@ negative asymmetry = = =
In what has been dubbed the Positive @-@ Negative Asymmetry Phenomenon , researchers have shown that punishing the out @-@ group benefits self @-@ esteem less than rewarding the in @-@ group . From this finding it has been extrapolated that social identity theory is therefore unable to deal with bias on negative dimensions . Social identity theorists , however , point out that for ingroup favouritism to occur a social identity " must be psychologically salient " , and that negative dimensions may be experienced as a " less fitting basis for self @-@ definition " . This important qualification is subtly present in social identity theory , but is further developed in self @-@ categorization theory . Empirical support for this perspective exist . It has been shown that when experiment participants can self @-@ select negative dimensions that define the ingroup no positive – negative asymmetry is found .
= = = Intergroup similarity = = =
It has been posited that social identity theory suggests that similar groups should have an increased motivation to differentiate themselves from each other . Subsequently , empirical findings where similar groups are shown to possess increased levels of intergroup attraction and decreased levels of in @-@ group bias have been interpreted as problematic for the theory . Elsewhere it has been suggested that this apparent inconsistency may be resolved by attending to social identity theory 's emphasis on the importance of the perceived stability and legitimacy of the intergroup status hierarchy .
= = = Predictive power = = =
Social identity theory has been criticised for having far greater explanatory power than predictive power . That is , while the relationship between independent variables and the resulting intergroup behaviour may be consistent with the theory in retrospect , that particular outcome is often not that which was predicted at the outset . A rebuttal to this charge is that the theory was never advertised as the definitive answer to understanding intergroup relationships . Instead it is stated that social identity theory must go hand in hand with sufficient understanding of the specific social context under consideration . The latter argument is consistent with the explicit importance that the authors of social identity theory placed on the role of " objective " factors , stating that in any particular situation " the effects of [ social identity theory ] variables are powerfully determined by the previous social , economic , and political processes " .
= = = SIT @-@ lite = = =
Some researchers interpret social identity theory as drawing a direct link between identification with a social group and ingroup favoritism . For example , Charles Stangor and John Jost state that " a main premise of social identity theory is that ingroup members will favour their own group over other groups " . This interpretation is rejected by other researchers . For example , Alex Haslam states that " although vulgarized versions of social identity theory argue that ' social identification leads automatically to discrimination and bias ' , in fact … discrimination and conflict are anticipated only in a limited set of circumstances " . The likening of social identity theory with social competition and ingroup favouritism is partly attributable to the fact that early statements of the theory included empirical examples of ingroup favouritism , while alternative positive distinctiveness strategies ( e.g. , social creativity ) were at that stage theoretical assertions . Regardless , in some circles the prediction of a straightforward identification @-@ bias correlation has earned the pejorative title " social identity theory @-@ lite " .
= SMS Jagd =
SMS Jagd was an aviso of the Imperial German Navy , the second and final member of the Wacht class . She had one sister ship , Wacht . Jagd was laid down in 1887 at the AG Weser shipyard , launched in July 1888 , and commissioned in June 1889 . She served in the German fleet for the next fifteen years , until she was withdrawn from active duty in 1904 . Thereafter , she was used as a harbor ship . In 1910 , she was stricken from the naval register and hulked . She was later used as a torpedo training platform until 1920 , when she was sold for scrapping .
= = Design = =
Jagd was 85 @.@ 5 meters ( 281 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 9 @.@ 66 m ( 31 @.@ 7 ft ) and a maximum draft of 3 @.@ 74 m ( 12 @.@ 3 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 499 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 475 long tons ; 1 @,@ 652 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two angled 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 19 kn ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) and a range of approximately 2 @,@ 860 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 300 km ; 3 @,@ 290 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Jagd had a crew of 7 officers and 134 enlisted men .
As built , the ship was armed with three 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) K L / 35 gun placed in single pivot mounts . The guns were supplied with a total of 180 rounds of ammunition . Jagd also carried three 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , one mounted submerged in the bow and the other two in deck @-@ mounted launchers on the broadside . In 1891 , four 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns in single mounts were added . The ship was the first German aviso to carry armor : a 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) thick deck , along with 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) of armor plating for the conning tower .
= = Service history = =
Jagd was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1887 . She was launched on 7 July 1888 , after which fitting @-@ out work was completed . The finished ship was commissioned into the German fleet on 25 June 1889 . She served in the fleet starting in 1889 . Jagd served in the Training Squadron in 1891 as a torpedo boat flotilla leader , along with the avisos Blitz and Pfeil . During the annual summer exercises , the Training Squadron served as the hostile fleet , and conducted a mock attack on the harbor at Kiel . In 1893 , Jagd was assigned as the dispatch vessel for the II Division of the Maneuver Squadron . During the 1896 annual maneuvers , Jagd was assigned to the I Division .
She was transferred to the I Division in 1897 , where she participated in the annual fleet exercises in August and September . After the conclusion of the maneuvers , the Maneuver Squadron returned to its home port in Wilhelmshaven . She served in the defending squadron during the August – September 1900 maneuvers . In 1904 , Jagd was withdrawn from active service and used as a harbor ship . Jagd was stricken from the naval register on 14 May 1910 and subsequently hulked . She was based in Friedrichsort outside Kiel and used as a firing platform for torpedo training until she was broken up for scrap in 1920 at Rüstringen .
= William Shirley =
William Shirley ( 2 December 1694 – 24 March 1771 ) was a British colonial administrator who was the longest @-@ serving governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay ( 1741 – 1749 and 1753 – 1756 ) and then Governor of the Bahamas ( 1760 – 1768 ) . He is best known for his role in organizing the 1745 Siege of Louisbourg during King George 's War , and for his role in military affairs during the French and Indian War . He spent most of his years in the colonial administration of North America working to defeat New France , but his lack of formal military training led to political difficulties and his eventual downfall .
Politically well connected , Shirley began his career in Massachusetts as advocate general in the admiralty court , and quickly became an opponent of Governor Jonathan Belcher . He joined with Belcher 's other political enemies to bring about Belcher 's recall , and was appointed Governor of Massachusetts Bay in Belcher 's place . He successfully quieted political divisions within the province , and was able to bring about united action against New France when King George 's War began in 1744 . The successful Siege of Louisbourg , which Shirley had a major role in organizing , was one of the high points of his administration .
After King George 's War Shirley became mired in disputes over funding and accounting for the war effort , and returned to England in 1749 to deal with political and legal matters arising from those disputes . He was then assigned to a commission established by Great Britain and France to determine the colonial borders in North America . His hard @-@ line approach to these negotiations contributed to their failure , and he returned to Massachusetts in 1753 .
Military matters again dominated Shirley 's remaining years in Massachusetts , with the French and Indian War beginning in 1754 . Shirley led a military expedition to reinforce Fort Oswego in 1755 , and became Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , North America upon the death of General Edward Braddock . His difficulties in organizing expeditions in 1755 and 1756 were compounded by political disputes with New York politicians , and over military matters with Indian agent Sir William Johnson . These disagreements led to his recall in 1757 as both Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief and as governor . In his later years he served as governor of the Bahamas , before returning to Massachusetts , where he died .
= = Early life = =
William Shirley , the son of William and Elizabeth Godman Shirley , was born on 2 December 1694 at Preston Manor in East Sussex , England . He was educated at Pembroke College , Cambridge , and then read law at the Inner Temple in London . In 1717 his grandfather died , leaving him Ote Hall in Wivelsfield and some funds , which he used to purchase a clerkship in London . About the same time he married Frances Barker , with whom he had a large number of children . He was called to the bar in 1720 . Although his inheritance had been substantial ( about £ 10 @,@ 000 ) , he cultivated an expensive lifestyle , and suffered significant financial reverses in the depression of 1721 . The financial demands of his large family ( he and Frances had eight children by 1731 ) prompted him to seek an appointment in the North American colonies . His family was connected by marriage to the Duke of Newcastle , who became an important patron and sponsor of Shirley 's advancement , and to that of Arthur Onslow , the Speaker of the House of Commons . Armed with letters of introduction from Newcastle and others ( but no appointment ) , Shirley arrived in Boston , Massachusetts in 1731 .
= = Advocate general = =
Shirley was initially received with indifference by Massachusetts Governor Jonathan Belcher , who refused him patronage positions that became available . In 1733 Shirley sought to secure from David Dunbar the commission as the crown surveyor general , but Dunbar eventually decided to retain the office . Influence from Newcastle eventually yielded Shirley a position as advocate general in the admiralty court . Belcher resisted further entreaties from Newcastle to promote Shirley , and Shirley began using his position to actively prosecute Belcher supporters whose illegal logging activities came under his jurisdiction .
Shirley also made common cause with Samuel Waldo , a wealthy merchant and major landowner in the province eastern district ( present @-@ day Maine ) where Belcher 's lax enforcement of timber @-@ cutting laws was harming his business with the Royal Navy . In 1736 Shirley sent his wife to London to lobby on his behalf against Belcher . Waldo also eventually went to London ; the combination of Shirley 's connection to Newcastle and Waldo 's money soon made inroads in the colonial administration . When these were joined by discontented New Hampshire interests ( Belcher was also governor of New Hampshire ) , a full @-@ scale offensive was launched in the late 1730s to unseat Belcher . This included at least one forged letter on the part of Belcher opponents in an attempt to discredit the governor , which Shirley denounced . By 1738 Newcastle was in a dominant position in not just the colonial administration , but also in the British government as an opponent of Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole , and he actively encouraged Belcher 's opponents .
In 1739 the Privy Council reprimanded Belcher , voted to separate the Massachusetts and New Hampshire governorships , and began debating the idea of replacing the governor . The exact reasons for Belcher 's dismissal have been a recurring subject of scholarly interest , due to the many colonial , imperial , and political factors at play . Two principal themes within these analyses are Belcher 's acquisition of many local enemies , and the idea that good imperial governance in London eventually required his replacement . Before the issues of 1739 most of the efforts to unseat Belcher had failed : Belcher himself noted in that year that " the warr I am ingag 'd in is carrying on in much the same manner as for 9 years past . " Historian Stephen Foster further notes that someone as powerful as Newcastle was at the time generally had much weightier issues to deal with than arbitrating colonial politics . In this instance , however , imperial and colonial considerations coincided over the need for Massachusetts to provide a significant number of troops for Newcastle 's proposed West Indies expedition in the War of Jenkins ' Ear . In April 1740 Newcastle in effect offered Shirley the opportunity to prove , in the light of Belcher 's political difficulties , that he could more effectively raise troops than the governor could . Shirley consequently engaged in recruiting , principally outside Massachusetts ( where Belcher refused his offers of assistance , understanding what was going on ) , and deluged Newcastle with documentation of his successes while Belcher was preoccupied with a banking crisis . Newcastle handed the issue off to Martin Bladen , secretary to the Board of Trade and a known Belcher opponent . The Board of Trade then apparently decided , based on the weight of the extant evidence , that Belcher needed to be replaced . In April 1741 the Privy Council approved William Shirley 's commission as governor of Massachusetts , and Benning Wentworth 's commission as governor of New Hampshire was issued the following June .
= = Governor of Massachusetts = =
When Shirley assumed the governorship of Massachusetts in August 1741 , he was immediately confronted with a currency crisis . The province had been suffering for many years with inflation caused by issuance of increasing quantities of paper currency . Late in Belcher 's tenure , competing banking proposals had been made in a bid to address the issue , and a popular proposal for a bank secured by real estate had been enacted . This bank ( the controversy over it having contributed to Belcher 's recall ) had been dissolved by an Act of Parliament , and Shirley had to negotiate the dissolution of the bank 's assets and reclamation of the notes it had issued . In this process , which occupied the rest of 1741 , Shirley deftly navigated legislation through the provincial assembly that provided a schedule for redeeming the bank 's currency without causing the bank 's principal owners to collapse under a deluge of redemptions .
With rising tensions Shirley acted to strengthen the military defenses of the colony . He created a series of volunteer militia companies along the frontier . These included Burke 's Rangers and Gorham 's Rangers which became the model for Shirley 's more famous creation Roger 's Rangers .
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Britain captured Acadia from France in Queen Anne 's War ( 1702 – 1713 ) , but the Treaty of Utrecht left Cape Breton Island in French hands , and did not clearly demarcate a boundary between New France and the British colonies on the Atlantic coast . To protect the crucial passageway of the Saint Lawrence River into the heart of New France , France built a strong fortress at Louisbourg on the Atlantic coast of Cape Breton Island .
When Shirley took office , relations between France and Britain were strained , and there was a possibility that Britain would be drawn into the War of the Austrian Succession , which had started on the European mainland in 1740 . Shirley was able to finesse his restrictions on the production of paper currency to achieve an updating of the province 's defences , and in 1742 requested permission from the Board of Trade for the printing of additional currency should war break out . This permission was granted in 1743 , along with a warning that war with France was likely . France declared war against Britain in March 1744 , and forces from Louisbourg raided the British fishing port of Canso on the northern end of mainland Nova Scotia before its residents were aware they were at war . French privateers also began preying on British and colonial vessels . British colonial governors along the coast , including Shirley , sent colonial guard ships and authorized their own privateers in response , neutralizing the French activity .
Canso was used by New England fishermen , and as such its fall was of interest to Massachusetts . Shirley had , prior to its capture , received a request for assistance from the lieutenant governor of Nova Scotia , Paul Mascarene , for support in the defence of Annapolis Royal . In response to the fall of Canso and a second , urgent request from Mascarene , Shirley promptly despatched two companies of volunteers to Annapolis Royal . The timely arrival of these troops in early July broke up a siege .
John Bradstreet , who had been captured at Canso and held prisoner at Louisbourg , returned to New England in a prisoner exchange , and gave a detailed report to Shirley that emphasised the weaknesses of the French fort . William Vaughn , who owned several businesses in Maine that were vulnerable to raids from New France , toured New England advocating an expedition to capture Louisbourg . Shirley and other leaders in New England and New York sent letters to colonial authorities in London seeking support for such an expedition , citing the vulnerable conditions at Louisbourg . Vaughn and Bradstreet wanted to attack Louisbourg that winter with an all @-@ colonial force . Shirley doubted the practicality of that plan , but in January 1745 submitted it to the provincial assembly ( General Court ) , which declined to support the plan , but did request that Britain undertake an attack on Louisbourg .
Vaughn continued to advocate for a quick all @-@ American expedition , enlisting the support of fishing captains , merchants and 200 " principal gentlemen " of Boston . Shirley called the General Court into session to discuss the matter once more , and the proposal was submitted to a committee chaired by William Pepperrell . The committee reported favourably on the plan , and it was approved by a single vote when several opponents were absent from the chamber .
Shirley appointed a reluctant William Pepperrell to command the expedition , William Vaughn was appointed colonel , but without a command position , and John Bradstreet was appointed as a military advisor to Pepperrell . Shirley requested support for the expedition from Peter Warren , commodore of the Royal Navy squadron in the West Indies , but Warren declined due to the strenuous objections of his captains . This news arrived in Boston just as the expedition was preparing to leave .
Despite the absence of support from the Royal Navy , the New England expedition set out in March 1745 for Louisbourg . More than 4 @,@ 000 men on more than 90 transports ( mainly fishing boats and coastal traders ) , escorted by six colonial guard ships , descended on Canso , where the expedition waited for the ice to clear from Gabarus Bay , the site just south of Louisbourg that had been chosen for the troop landing . Starting on 22 April the expedition was joined by four Royal Navy warships under the command of Commodore Warren , who received orders ( issued in January , but not received until after his previous refusal ) to assist the expedition .
= = = Siege of Louisbourg = = =
The provincial forces began landing at Gabarus Bay on 30 April , and laid siege to the fortress while the British ships blockaded the harbour . The Americans began suffering battle losses , while the British naval officers , who had a low opinion of American soldiers , grew increasingly critical of the American efforts . Warren tried to exert control over the provincial troops , but Pepperrell resisted him . Louisbourg surrendered on 17 June . The Americans lost 180 men in combat , to disease or at sea during the siege , while the Royal Navy ships did not fire on the fortress , and lost just one sailor . As the victors settled into occupation of Louisbourg , friction grew between the Americans and the British . The terms of surrender guaranteed the French in all of their possessions ; there was no plunder for the American troops . On the other hand , the Royal Navy had captured several rich French prizes , and British sailors on shore leave bragged to the Americans about how rich they were going to be from their shares .
The American troops had signed up to capture Louisbourg , and expected to go home after siege ended . The British government , who had believed that the provincial troops were incapable of capturing Louisbourg on their own , had made no plans to send British troops to take over occupation of the fortress . When it become evident that British troops would not be relieving the provincials until after winter had passed , Governor Shirley travelled to Louisbourg to raise the morale of the troops . His first speech to the troops had little effect , and some troops were close to mutiny . In a second speech Shirley promised to send home more troops immediately , and provide higher pay and better supplies for those who stayed until spring . Honors from the British government were sparse ; Pepperrell was made a baronet , he and Shirley were made colonels in the British Army with the right to raise their own regiments , and Warren was promoted to rear admiral .
= = = Aborted campaign = = =
Shirley had engaged in the Louisbourg campaign primarily as a way to ensure British interests in the Atlantic fisheries . The victory , however , made him expand his vision to encompass the possibility of capturing all of New France . After capturing the French fort he wrote to Newcastle , proposing a series of expeditions to gain control of all of North America as far west as the Mississippi River , starting with one that would go up the Saint Lawrence from Louisbourg . Upon his return to Boston , Shirley began making preparations for such an expedition . In May 1746 he received plans for London outlining an attempt on Quebec using Royal Navy and provincial forces , while a second expedition was to attack Fort Saint @-@ Frédéric on Lake Champlain . Shirley stepped up recruiting in Massachusetts and asked neighboring governors to contribute men and resources to the effort . Expected support from Britain never arrived , however , and the 1746 expeditions were called off .
While waiting for definite word from London of plans for 1747 Shirley beefed up the province 's western defenses , and in the spring of 1747 he began sending supplies to the Hudson River valley in anticipation of a move toward Fort Saint @-@ Frédéric . Word then arrived from Newcastle that the British establishment would not support any expeditions against New France . The drop in military spending that resulted had negative consequences on the Massachusetts economy , harming Shirley 's popularity .
Shirley personally profited from the supply activities surrounding the Louisbourg expedition . In 1746 he used the funds to purchase an estate in Roxbury , on which he built an elaborate mansion , now known as the Shirley @-@ Eustis House . Before the building was complete his wife died of a fever in August 1746 ; she was interred in King 's Chapel .
= = = Impressment crisis = = =
While Governor Shirley was at Louisbourg trouble had been brewing between the Royal Navy and the people of Boston . The Navy had long sought to press Americans into service on its ships . Impressment was a long @-@ standing practice in Britain , but its application in America was resisted by the colonists . In 1702 Fort William on Castle Island had fired on HMS Swift as it tried to leave Boston Harbour with six recently impressed men aboard . As a result of American complaints ( reinforced by British merchants ) , Parliament in 1708 banned impressment in the American colonies . Navy leaders argued that the American exemption from impressment had been in force only during Queen Anne 's War , which ended in 1713 . In practice , Royal Navy captains had to apply to colonial governors for a license to press men . In late November 1745 a fight between a press gang and some sailors staying in a boarding house in Boston left two of the sailors with fatal injuries . Two members of the press gang were charged with murder and convicted , but were released when the indictment was found invalid .
Two years later Commodore Charles Knowles , who served as Governor of Louisbourg after its capture , had a large number of seamen from Boston harbour impressed for service in his squadron . A mob of more than 300 men seized three naval officers and a deputy sheriff and beat the sheriff . The mob then went to Governor Shirley 's house , demanding the release of the men impressed by Knowles . Shirley tried to call out the militia , but they did not respond . Shirley did succeed in getting the naval officers into his house , and the mob eventually left . Later in the day Shirley went to the Town House to meet the people . The mob , now consisting of several thousand people , attacked the Town House , breaking many windows in the building . Shirley spoke to the mob and promised to present their demands to Commodore Knowles . The mob left , intending to find a Royal Navy ship to burn .
After Shirley had returned home that afternoon , the mob , which had seized another naval officer and several petty officers , returned to his house . Shirley ordered a number of armed men who were protecting his house to fire at the mob , but William Pepperrell was able to stop Shirley 's men from firing and to persuade the mob to leave . In the meantime , Commodore Knowles threatened to bombard Boston with his squadron . It was only after the Massachusetts Council adopted resolutions in support of the demands of the mob that the situation became quieter in Boston . The mob eventually released its hostages and Knowles released the impressed seamen .
= = = Compensation and currency = = =
Another issue of contention was compensation to the American colonies by Britain for the costs of the expedition against Louisbourg and the long occupation by American troops until the British Army finally took over . This presented Shirley with a problem , because the expedition 's leaders , including his former ally Samuel Waldo , grossly inflated their claimed costs . Waldo used Shirley 's unwillingness to openly act against him to begin his own efforts to topple the governor . Shirley was only able to forestall this effort by promising the colonial administration that he would achieve financial stability in the province by retiring its paper currency .
The British government was also slow in responding to requests for compensation . While waiting for a response , the question of how to use any compensation was debated in provincial newspapers and pamphlets . Some , such as Samuel Adams ( father of the famous American Revolution leader ) , advocated placing the money in London banks to serve as backing for the paper currency issued by the colonies . Others , including William Douglass and Thomas Hutchinson , speaker of the General Court , favoured using the compensation to redeem the paper currency and give Massachusetts a hard currency . In 1748 the Treaty of Aix @-@ la @-@ Chapelle returned Louibourg to France , with Massachusetts still awaiting compensation for its seizure .
In the meantime , Governor Shirley had been trying to finance a campaign to capture Fort St. Frédéric ( at present @-@ day Crown Point , New York ) , for which he issued more paper money . The campaign was abandoned when the colonies failed to support it , but the resulting inflation helped turn supporters of Shirley against him . The loss of Louisbourg increase public dissatisfaction with Shirley , who seen as complicit in British scheming against the American colonies . Even William Pepperrell joined the large number of citizens calling for Shirley 's removal . Samuel Adams edited and Gamaliel Rogers and Daniel Fowle published The Independent Advertiser , which regularly criticised the British government and Shirley 's administration . The paper published several of Shirley 's letters to officials in Britain that were critical of Americans , and regularly called for the governor 's removal . William Douglass , a prominent physician in Boston , wrote a series of pamphlets ( published by Rogers and Fowle ) attacking Shirley , Commodore Knowles , and the whole conduct of the campaign for Louisbourg and its occupation . Both Shirley and Knowles sued Douglass for libel , but lost their cases in court .
Shirley 's conflict with Samuel Waldo over expenses eventually reached a high pitch : Shirley had successfully attached some of Waldo 's assets in legal action , which Waldo had countered with further legal action . Shirley appealed these actions to London , and was granted permission ( received in August 1749 ) to travel to London to deal with the matter . He sailed for Britain in September 1749 , just before the long promised compensation reached Boston . Under legislation shepherded by Thomas Hutchinson , the specie delivered was used to retire the paper currency . While Shirley was abroad , Hutchinson , Andrew Oliver , and others served as his surrogates , and he carefully instructed Lieutenant Governor Spencer Phips to not give his enemies opportunities to manoeuvre in his absence .
= = European interlude = =
In London Shirley met with Newcastle and the colonial secretary , the Duke of Bedford to discuss colonial matters and his situation . Newcastle ordered the military books of Waldo and Pepperrell to be scrutinized ; the analysis was found to confirm Shirley 's position . Shirley 's accounts were also examined , and were found to be " made up with great exaction " , " more conformable to his Majesty 's orders ... than any other of the colonies . "
Shirley also communicated political concerns over which he and New York Governor George Clinton had commiserated . While he was in London , word arrived that Clinton wanted to leave his post . Shirley applied to Newcastle for the job , but was turned down . Newcastle may have been upset with Shirley , who had accepted an unexpected offer from Bedford to participate in a commission established to delineate the boundaries between the British and French territories in North America . The commission was set to meet in Paris , and Shirley saw it as an opportunity to advance his expansionist views . Newcastle and Bedford were at the time involved in a political struggle , and Newcastle was unhappy that Shirley had accepted Bedford 's offer . Shirley was able to convince Newcastle that his experience and position would be of use in the negotiations .
The commission met in Paris , and Shirley was accompanied by William Mildmay , a somewhat mild @-@ mannered merchant , as cocommissioner . Shirley adopted a hard line in the negotiations , arguing in a technical and lawyerly fashion for an expansive reading of British territory ; he claimed all territory east of a line from the Kennebec River north to the Saint Lawrence River , while the French claimed all of that area except peninsular Nova Scotia . Shirley 's approach served to harden negotiating positions and bogged the commission 's work down in minutiae . When Mildmay complained of this to London , Bedford rebuked Shirley for spending too much effort on trivialities . While the negotiations dragged on , both French and British operatives were actively expanding their interests in the Ohio River valley , raising tensions .
In 1751 Shirley incited a minor scandal when he married Julie , the young daughter of his Paris landlord . He was recalled to London after Mildmay complained that Shirley was taking actions without consulting him . Shirley returned to London convinced that the French needed to be driven from North America . Mildmay attempted to continue the negotiations , believing that he could overcome Shirley 's previous obstructionism , but the negotiations ended in failure .
Shirley renewed his application for the New York governorship , but was snubbed by Newcastle , who was upset over Shirley 's marriage . He was instead ordered to return to Massachusetts . This he did , leaving his wife in London . It is unclear if they ever saw each other again : biographer John Schutz believes they did not , but family lore is that they were reunited after Shirley left the Massachusetts governorship .
= = Return to Massachusetts = =
The opposition in Massachusetts to Shirley had died down while he was in England and Paris . Shirley soon had to deal with the increasing conflict on the frontier with French Canada . Tensions had been increasing , particularly in the Ohio Country , where British and French traders were coming into conflict . When ( false ) rumors reached Boston in 1754 of French military activity on the province 's northern frontier ( Maine ) , Shirley was quick to organize an expedition to the Kennebec River to bolster the area 's defenses . This expedition erected Fort Halifax in what is now Winslow , Maine . News of hostilities in the Ohio Country brought further urgency to that matter , as well as attendance at a planned conference of colonies at Albany , New York . Because of the urgency , and the support of politically powerful Maine landowners , Shirley 's relationship with the provincial assembly was relatively good . Shirley instructed the provincial representatives to the Albany Conference to seek a colonial union , but the provincial assembly ( along with those of other provinces ) rejected the conference 's proposals .
= = = Seven Years War : 1755 campaigns = = =
Shirley was approached by Nova Scotia Governor Charles Lawrence for assistance in dealing with the French threat on that province 's frontiers , suggesting that the collaborate on military actions there . Shirley and Lawrence believed their proposed expedition would also require assistance from Britain , and sent letters requesting the same . At the same time they ramped up preparations in anticipation of the request being approved . Shirley was also ordered to activate and recruit for his regiment , which was to serve in Braddock 's force . Because he could not leave the province he sent one of his sons to New York to recruit troops there ; Massachusetts men were being drafted for the Nova Scotia expedition . He furthermore revived the idea of an expedition against Fort St. Frédéric , although he limited the first year 's action to the establishment of a fort at the southern end of Lake George , and sought to draw the leaders of neighboring colonies to assist in the operation . He mollified New York 's Acting Governor James DeLancey , who was generally hostile to Massachusetts interests , by proposing that the expedition be led by New York 's Indian Commissioner , Colonel William Johnson . Johnson was at first reluctant , but Shirley was able to convince him to take the command .
Since the French and Indian War had become a matter of imperial concern , two British Army regiments under General Edward Braddock were sent to America . In written exchanges , Braddock announced his intention to use this force against Fort Duquesne in the Ohio Country , while Shirley unsuccessfully lobbied him to instead target Fort Niagara . At a conference of governors and military leaders in April 1755 Shirley favorably impressed Braddock . Braddock declared that Duquesne would be his target , but he authorized Shirley to take his regiment and that of Sir William Pepperrell to Fort Niagara , and confirmed Johnson 's command of the Lake George campaign . Braddock 's instructions only gave Shirley the vaguest command over Johnson , which was to later become a source of trouble . The two northern expeditions were to be made without logistical assistance from the regular army .
From the conference Shirley traveled to New York City , where he negotiated with merchants for supplying his expedition . The frosty relationship he had with Governor DeLancey continued ; the DeLanceys objected to what they saw as Massachusetts interference in their provincial affairs . When Shirley moved to prevent New York agent Oliver DeLancey from recruiting in Connecticut , it caused a stink and threatened to derail planning for the New York expeditions . Shirley then created a breach with Johnson by attempting to siphon troops from Johnson 's command to increase his own force for the Fort Niagara expedition . The antagonism was furthered by the fact that the two expeditions were competing for supplies from the same sources , and was also exacerbated by ongoing border disputes between the provinces .
When Shirley and Johnson met in July 1755 before their respective expeditions set off , tension between the two men continued , and Johnson delayed decisions on assigning Indian auxiliaries to Shirley 's campaign , observing that much of the expedition was traveling through friendly Iroquois territory , where they would not yet be needed . Shirley took offense at this as an act of insubordination . Believing he outranked Johnson , Shirley next sought to bypass the Indian agent and negotiate directly with the tribes for recruits , but Johnson and his subordinates actively opposed the move . The Iroquois also objected to the presence of Shirley 's recruiting agent , Colonel John Lydius , with whom they had outstanding issues over past land transactions . The situation was not made easier by the fact that neither Johnson nor Shirley had ever commanded expeditions of the size and scope proposed .
Shirley 's expedition reached Fort Oswego in mid @-@ August . The trek up the Mohawk River had been slowed by low water , and it was being incompetently supplied , resulting in a shortage of provisions . Shirley learned en route that General Braddock had died in the aftermath of the 13 July Battle of the Monongahela , which also claimed the life of Shirley 's son William . As a result , he became temporary commander @-@ in @-@ chief of North American forces . His expedition then became bogged down at Fort Oswego by the need to improve its defenses , and the ongoing provisioning crisis . In a council on 18 September it was decided to proceed with plans to reach Fort Niagara , but one week later the decision was reversed . Shirley returned to Albany , preoccupied with the need to manage the entire British war effort on the continent .
William Johnson 's expedition fared little better than Shirley 's . He reached the southern end of Lake George , where his forces had an inconclusive encounter with French forces on 8 September , and began work on Fort William Henry . Rumors of French movements brought a flurry of activity in November , but when the opposition failed to materialize , much of Johnson 's force abandoned the camp to return home . Shirley had to pressure New England 's governors to assign militia to the new posting for the winter .
In Nova Scotia , Governor Lawrence had easily captured Fort Beauséjour , and had then embarked on what has since become known as the Great Expulsion , the forcible removal of more than 12 @,@ 000 Acadians from Nova Scotia . When some of the ships carrying the Acadians entered Boston Harbor in early December 1755 , Shirley ordered that they not disembark . For three winter months , until March 1756 , the Acadians remained on the ships , where half died from the cold weather and malnutrition .
= = = Seven Years War : 1756 campaigns = = =
During the winter of 1755 – 56 Shirley 's feud with Johnson continued . Johnson , who was being advised by Thomas Pownall , continued to assert his exclusive authority over interactions with Indians , and renewed complaints about Shirley 's interference in recruiting for the 1755 campaign . In one letter Johnson wrote that Shirley had " become my inveterate enemy " who would do everything he could " to blast if he can my character . " Johnson made common cause with the DeLanceys ( to whom he was related by marriage ) in their dislike of Shirley . They all fed unflattering reports | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
to the new New York governor , Sir Charles Hardy , who forwarded them on to London . Shirley was unaware of this looming threat to his authority .
As commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Shirley made a grandiose proposal for the 1756 campaign season in November 1755 , continuing the routes of attack begun in 1755 and adding an expedition to Quebec via the Kennebec River . However , the complaints against him had reached the Duke of Newcastle , who felt he needed someone less embroiled in controversies with other leaders in charge of military matters in North America . British leaders had also received intercepted letters destined for France that some believed might have been written by Shirley , in part because he married a Frenchwoman . Thomas Pownall traveled to London in early 1756 and further denounced Shirley to the colonial administration . Shirley did not learn of these matters until April 1756 , by which time the British leadership had already decided to replace him as commander @-@ in @-@ chief .
While waiting for his replacement ( Lord Loudoun ) Shirley made every effort to advance supplies and reinforcements to the Fort Oswego garrison , which had been on short rations for the winter , and whose supply line had been interrupted by the Battle of Fort Bull in March 1756 . He continued to mobilize resources and personnel for at least the Oswego and Lake George efforts , but his authority was waning due to widespread knowledge of his replacement . Military affairs continued to deteriorate on the New York frontier before Loudoun finally arrived in July 1756 ; Fort Oswego fell to the French on 10 August .
Although Shirley had been removed as commander @-@ in @-@ chief , he retained the Massachusetts governorship . He expected to lose even that post not long after his return to Boston in August . However , no replacement had yet been named , and Loudoun saw either Shirley 's interference or ineffectiveness in all that was wrong on the New York frontier . He also raised detailed questions about Shirley 's war @-@ related expenditures , which he ( and later historians ) concluded was poorly @-@ disguised patronage spending . Loudoun and Shirley argued over many issues , including Shirley 's continuance of military preparations after January 1756 , when Loudoun 's commission was issued . Shirley pointed out that British leadership could hardly expect preparations to cease in the interval between Loudoun 's commission and his arrival to take command . While he waited for a replacement to be announced , Shirley took depositions , gathered evidence to support his version of affairs , and worked to close his financial affairs down . ( Loudoun was of the opinion that Shirley delayed his departure intentionally as a political maneuver . ) He sailed for England in October 1756 . Shirley would be formally replaced by Thomas Pownall in 1757 .
= = Later life = =
Upon his arrival in London , Shirley was received by Newcastle and other sympathetic figures , but Newcastle had been forced from office by the poor showing in the war , and Shirley 's ongoing disagreements with Loudoun meant he was unlikely to receive another North American posting . Newcastle then withdrew his support from Shirley over a hearing into matters disputed between Loudoun and Shirley . Shirley was not granted formal hearings on other aspects of his conduct , and managed to convince Newcastle to overlook the matter of his " muddled " accounts . His prospects brightened when Loudoun and Pownall were both damaged by the continued poor military performance in North America ( notably the debacle of the Siege of Fort William Henry in August 1757 , which resulted in Loudoun 's recall ) . These failures served to rehabilitate Shirley and bring him back into Newcastle 's good graces .
In late 1758 Shirley was commissioned as Governor of the Bahamas . This was followed in early 1759 with a promotion to lieutenant general . After a lengthy passage , Shirley arrived in the Bahamas on 31 December , when his ship was wrecked on a reef in the islands . He eventually arrived without incident or injury at Nassau and assumed the reins of power . His rule was quiet ; dealing with smugglers in the islands was the major issue demanding the governor 's attention . In part to combat illicit trade he lobbied the London government that Nassau be established as a free port . Although he was influential in this regard , Nassau did not receive this status until after he left office . He also oversaw renovations to the governor 's mansion , and promoted the construction of churches with funding from the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel . In 1765 , after his wife 's death , he took his children to England so that they could be properly cared for . He returned to the islands , where he had to deal with protests of the recently enacted Stamp Act . When he proposed the use of the stamps on official documents to the local assembly , the reaction in opposition was so visceral that Shirley dissolved the body . By the time the next assembly met , the Stamp Act had been repealed .
His health failing , Shirley was eventually replaced as governor by his son Thomas , who was appointed in November 1767 and arrived to assume office the following year . Shirley sailed for Boston , where he took up residence in his old house in Roxbury with his daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law . There he died on 24 March 1771 . After a state funeral , he was interred in King 's Chapel .
= = Family and legacy = =
His son Thomas became a major general in the British army , was created a baronet in 1786 , and served , after his posting to the Bahamas , as Governor of Dominica and Governor of the Leeward Islands . He died in 1800 . Another son , William Jr . , was killed in 1755 at the Battle of the Monongahela whilst serving with Edward Braddock . Shirley 's daughter Anne married John Erving , a member of the Massachusetts Governor 's Council .
Shirley built a family home in Roxbury between 1747 and 1751 . He sold it to his daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law , Eliakim Hutchinson , in 1763 . It later came into the hands of William Eustis , Governor of Massachusetts in the 19th century . Now known as the Shirley @-@ Eustis House , it still stands at 33 Shirley Street . It has largely been restored and is a museum open to the public .
The town of Shirley , Massachusetts was founded during his term as Massachusetts governor . The Winthrop , Massachusetts geographical feature Shirley Point and the former feature Shirley Gut are named for him . Shirley helped to establish a cod fishery in Winthrop in 1753 . Shirley is also the namesake of Shirley Street in Halifax , Nova Scotia ( which is parallel to Pepperell Street , named after William Pepperell ) .
= = Works = =
Shirley , William ( 1746 ) . Letter to the Duke of Newcastle , with a Journal of the Siege of Louisburg . London : E. Owen . OCLC 753169340 .
Shirley , William ; Alexander , William ( 1758 ) . The Conduct of Major Gen. William Shirley briefly stated . London : R. and J. Dodsley . OCLC 10899657 .
Shirley , William ( 1912 ) . Lincoln , Charles Henry , ed . Correspondence of William Shirley , Volume 1 . New York : Macmillan . OCLC 1222698 .
Shirley , William ( 1912 ) . Lincoln , Charles Henry , ed . Correspondence of William Shirley , Volume 2 . New York : Macmillan . OCLC 1222698 .
= 1925 Florida tropical storm =
The 1925 Florida tropical storm was the deadliest tropical cyclone to impact the United States that did not become a hurricane . The fourth and final storm of the season , it formed as a tropical depression on November 27 near the Yucatán Peninsula , the system initially tracked southeastward before turning north as it gradually intensified . After skirting western Cuba on November 30 , the storm reached peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) before striking central Florida on December 1 . Within hours , the system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean . The system moved onshore once more on December 2 in North Carolina before turning east , away from the United States . On December 5 , the system is presumed to have dissipated offshore .
Throughout the system 's existence , it was responsible for 73 fatalities , most of which resulted from offshore incidents . The worst loss of life took place off East Coast , where the 30 crewmen of the American SS Catopazi drowned . Property damage amounted to $ 3 million , $ 1 million of which was in Jacksonville .
= = Meteorological history = =
The 1925 Florida tropical storm was first identified on November 27 , 1925 as a tropical depression situated to the southeast of the Yucatán Peninsula , nearly a month after the official end of the hurricane season . Situated over 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) waters , the system slowly intensified , attaining tropical storm status roughly 12 hours after forming , as it drifted towards the southeast before abruptly turning north @-@ northwestward . Throughout November 30 , the storm quickly strengthened as it brushed the western tip of Cuba with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Once in the Gulf of Mexico , the storm turned northeastward and intensified to peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . The lowest known barometric pressure attained by the storm was 995 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 38 inHg ) as it moved inland . Within hours of reaching this strength , the storm made landfall just south of Fort Myers , Florida early on December 1 as it began to transition into an extratropical cyclone . The storm was originally thought to have moved ashore as a minimal hurricane , thus becoming the latest @-@ landfalling hurricane in United States history . However , a reanalysis in 2011 lowered the peak winds . While crossing the Florida peninsula , the storm briefly weakened as it completed its transition ; however , once back over water , it re @-@ intensified .
Off the coast of The Carolinas , the former tropical storm became a large and powerful extratropical cyclone , attaining peak winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) along with a pressure of 979 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 91 inHg ) , measured by the USS Patoka . Gale force winds extended to at least New Jersey , where winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) were recorded . Throughout December 2 , the storm gradually slowed as it tracked roughly parallel to the East Coast . Later that day , the system moved onshore again , this time between Wilmington and Cape Hatteras , with winds equivalent to a minimal hurricane . A strong area of high pressure located over the Canadian Maritimes caused the system to turn towards the east @-@ southeast . Over the following few days , the storm gradually weakened as it moved away from North Carolina . By December 5 , the storm was no longer identifiable and is presumed to have dissipated offshore . However , a monthly weather review published in 1925 that documented the system indicated that the cyclone continued towards the east , eventually impacting Bermuda and the Azores . Later analysis in 2009 concluded that a separate extratropical low , which formed near the remnants of the storm , was responsible for inclement weather in both areas .
= = Impact = =
From November 28 to November 30 , the storm brought light rains to most of eastern Cuba . Although the cyclone had tropical storm @-@ force winds at the time , the highest recorded wind in Cuba was 12 mph ( 18 km / h ) in Havana and only 0 @.@ 22 in ( 5 @.@ 58 mm ) of rain fell in the city . The Swan Islands , off the northern coast of Honduras , recorded 2 @.@ 36 in ( 59 @.@ 94 mm ) of precipitation during a three @-@ day span .
= = = United States = = =
During its passage through Florida , the storm produced torrential rain over coastal cities , peaking in Miami at 14 @.@ 08 in ( 358 mm ) . The storm caused significant property and crop damage along the Gulf Coast of Florida . Trees , power lines , and telegraph wires were knocked down by high winds along the Suwannee River . Communication throughout southern Florida was severed as miles of telegraph wires were downed during the evening of November 30 . Structures previously considered safe from storms due to their location over 100 ft ( 30 @.@ 4 m ) inland sustained significant damage , probably from storm surge . Beaches along the Atlantic coast also sustained considerable damages from the storm . Four people were killed near Tampa in two separate incidents . The first occurred when a house collapsed on three men , pinning them to the ground . The second incident occurred after a woman ran outside her home and was struck by a tree limb . At least 12 workmen were killed and 38 others injured after the bunkhouse they were sleeping in collapsed due to high winds . The facility in which they were working in also sustained $ 200 @,@ 000 in damage from a fire ignited by the cyclone . Throughout Florida , property loses were estimated at $ 3 million , with $ 1 million in Jacksonville alone . Damages to the citrus industry were also significant , with total losses exceeding $ 600 @,@ 000 . Losses in Miami amounted to $ 250 @,@ 000 as up to 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) inundated the city for more than two days .
Shipping incidents resulting from the storm caused several deaths . A schooner carrying seven people sunk , killing all its occupants . A tug boat sank off the coast of Mobile , Alabama while towing a lumber barge ; the fate of the crew is unknown . A ship named the American SS Catopazi sank between Charleston , South Carolina and the northern coast of Cuba , with all 30 crew members lost . Near Daytona Beach , a vessel carrying 2 @,@ 000 cases of liquor sank along with all six crewmen . The last incident , involving a yacht , occurred off the coast of Georgia . The ship sank near Savannah , Georgia with the 12 crew members drowning . The total loss of life at sea was at least 55 . Shipping throughout the East Coast was crippled by the storm as vessels were forced to seek shelter at port .
Due to the large size of the storm as an extratropical cyclone , gale and storm warnings in force from Beaufort , North Carolina to Eastport , Maine . In North Carolina , heavy rains and strong winds were reported along the coast . Near record high water rises were recorded around Wilmington . Cape Hatteras was temporarily isolated from the surrounding areas as the high winds from the storm knocked down power lines throughout the area . Several buildings along the coast and numerous boats sustained considerable damage . As far north as New Jersey , gale @-@ force winds produced by the powerful extratropical storm caused significant damage and killed at least two people . Large swells and high winds throughout New Jersey , southern New York and Connecticut resulted in significant damage . Along the coast of Long Island , large waves resulted in severe beach erosion which threatened to undermine homes . Parts of Coney Island were inundated by the increased surf , damaging homes and businesses . Several barges in nearby marinas were torn from their moorings and swept out to sea . In Sandy Hook , several workmen were nearly killed after a building collapsed amidst high winds . Minor precipitation was recorded throughout Rhode Island , peaking at 0 @.@ 62 in ( 16 mm ) .
= Joan Curran =
Joan Elizabeth Curran ( 26 February 1916 – 10 February 1999 ) was a Welsh scientist who played important roles in the development of radar and the atomic bomb during the Second World War . She invented chaff , a radar countermeasure technique credited with reducing losses among Allied bomber crews . She also worked on the development of the proximity fuse and the electromagnetic isotope separation process for the atomic bomb .
= = Early life = =
Joan Elizabeth Strothers was born on 26 February 1916 in Swansea , Wales , the daughter of an optician , Charles William Strothers , and his wife , Margaret Beatrice , née Millington . She was educated at Swansea Girls ' High School , and in 1934 won an open scholarship to Newnham College , Cambridge . In 1935 , she rowed for the ladies ' university eight , in the first real Women 's boat race against Oxford . She gained an honours degree in physics , which was not awarded because it was before women were allowed Cambridge degrees . In her seventies , in 1987 , she was honoured with the degree of Doctor of Laws honoris causa by the University of Strathclyde .
Strothers , who " had the scientific equivalent of gardening green fingers " , was awarded a government grant to study for a higher degree , and elected to go to the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge , where she joined Sam Curran in a team under the direction of Philip Dee . She soon established a reputation for " extreme dexterity and being outstandingly neat and skilful in the deployment of equipment . " In 1939 , Dee proposed that the team spend a month at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough Airfield . They arrived on 1 September 1939 . Two days later , Britain declared war on Germany , and Britain entered the Second World War .
= = Second World War = =
Instead of returning to the Cavendish , the team moved to Exeter , where Dee and three others worked on developing rockets as anti @-@ aircraft weapons , while Strothers and Curran joined a group under John Coles working on the development of the proximity fuse . Strothers was based at Leeson House and Durnford School . She and Curran developed a workable fuse , which was codenamed VT , an acronym of " Variable Time fuze " . The system was a small , short @-@ range , Doppler radar that used a clever circuit . However , Britain lacked the capacity to mass @-@ produce the fuze , so the design was shown to the United States by the Tizard Mission in late 1940 . The Americans perfected and mass @-@ produced the fuse . In due course , these proximity fuses arrived in the United Kingdom , where they played an important part in the defence of the kingdom against the V @-@ 1 flying bomb .
Strothers married Curran on 7 November 1940 . Soon afterwards they were transferred to the Telecommunications Research Establishment near Swanage , where Sam worked on centimetric radar , while Joan joined the Counter Measures Group in an adjoining lab . It was with this group , at Swanage , and later at Malvern , that Joan devised the technique that was codenamed Window , which is also known as chaff . She tried various types of radar reflectors , including wires and sheets , before settling on strips of tin foil 1 to 2 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 39 to 0 @.@ 79 in ) wide and 25 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) long that could be scattered from bombers , thus disrupting the enemy 's radar . Window was first employed in Operation Gomorrah , a series of raids on Hamburg , and resulted in a much lower loss rate than usual . As part of Operation Taxable on 5 – 6 June 1944 , Window was dropped by Avro Lancasters of 617 Squadron to synthesise a phantom invasion force of ships in the Straits of Dover and keep the Germans unsure as to whether the brunt of the Allied assault would fall on Normandy or in the Pas de Calais area . R. V. Jones later declared : " In my opinion , Joan Curran made an even greater contribution to victory , in 1945 , than Sam . "
In early 1944 the Currans were part of a group of British scientists invited to go to the US to take part in the Manhattan Project – the Allied project to develop an atomic bomb . They joined the British Mission at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory in California , headed by Mark Oliphant , a distinguished Australian scientist that Joan knew from the Cavendish Laboratory . Oliphant also acted as de facto deputy to Ernest Lawrence , the director of the Radiation Laboratory . The mission of the laboratory was to develop the electromagnetic isotope separation process to create enriched uranium for use in atomic bombs .
While at Berkeley , Joan gave birth to her first child , a daughter , Sheena , who was born severely mentally handicapped . They later had three sons , all of whom went on to complete a PhD .
= = Later life = =
After the war ended , Sam took up an offer from Dee to become Professor of Natural Philosophy at Glasgow University . In Glasgow , the Currans , together with a few friends , set up the Scottish Society for the Parents of Mentally Handicapped Children ( Enable ) , which eventually grew to 100 branches and more than 5000 members . Later , when Joan was a member of the Greater Glasgow Health Board and the Scottish Special Housing Association , the needs of the disabled were always at the forefront of her mind , and she did much to promote their welfare . She took a close interest in the work of the Council for Access for the Disabled and helped improve the range of facilities , especially for disabled university students .
Sam worked at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston on the development of the British hydrogen bomb from 1955 to 1959 . He returned to Glasgow in 1959 as principal the Royal College of Science and Technology . When it became the University of Strathclyde in 1964 , the first new university in Scotland in 384 years , he became its first Principal and Vice Chancellor . While her husband was Principal , Joan founded the Strathclyde Women 's Group and became its president .
During the war the Polish 1st Armoured Division had been based in Scotland , establishing ties between the community and Poland . Joan promoted a special relationship with the Technical University of Lodz , and also devoted care and attention to the children 's hospital of that city . Later she established the Lady Curran Endowment fund for overseas , particularly Polish , students .
Sam died on 25 February 1998 . While gravely ill with cancer in 1998 , Joan unveiled a memorial plaque in Barony Hall , Glasgow , to commemorate her husband , and it was announced that the walled garden at Ross Priory , on Loch Lomondside , was to be named in her honour , and the Joan Curran Summer House would be built there . Joan died on 10 February 1999 , and was cremated at the Daldowie Crematorium . Her daughter , Sheena , three sons and three grandsons survived her .
= The Last Temptation of Krust =
" The Last Temptation of Krust " is the fifteenth episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 22 , 1998 . It was written by Donick Cary and directed by Mike B. Anderson . Comedian Jay Leno makes a guest appearance . In the episode , Bart convinces Krusty the Clown to appear at a comedy festival organized by Jay Leno , but Krusty 's old material does not go over well with the audience and he receives bad reviews . He briefly retires from comedy but returns with a new , more well received gimmick . He soon returns to his old ways , selling out to a motor @-@ vehicle company .
The production team 's decision to write an episode about stand @-@ up comedy was influenced by comedy festivals . The writing staff initially had trouble getting Krusty 's offensive bad jokes through network censors , but convinced them this was simply a way to emphasize his old and dated comedic material . The " Canyonero " sequence was modeled after Ford commercials and was given its own segment at the end of the episode because the production staff liked it so much . The episode was highlighted by USA Today in a review of The Simpsons ' ninth season and received positive reviews in The Washington Times , the Evening Herald , and in books on The Simpsons .
= = Plot = =
Krusty is persuaded by Bart to appear at a comedy festival organized by Jay Leno . His old @-@ fashioned and outdated material fails to impress the audience when compared with the more trendy comedians also appearing . After reading a critical review of his act in the press , Krusty decides to go on a " bender to end all benders " and a montage sequence shows him getting drunk . After Bart finds him passed out on Ned Flanders ' lawn , he enlists the help of Leno to clean him up . Krusty holds a press conference to announce his retirement and in short order launches into a bitter tirade against modern @-@ day comedians . The audience finds Krusty 's rant hysterically funny and he subsequently announces his return to comedy .
Krusty is inspired to return to doing low @-@ key events , where he structures a new image for himself as a stand @-@ up comedian who tells the truth , criticizes commercialism , and refuses to sell out to corporate America . He also changes his appearance , sporting a dark sweater and tying his hair in a ponytail . Observing his newfound popularity , two marketing executives try to persuade Krusty to endorse a new sport utility vehicle called the Canyonero . Although he tries to resist , he eventually succumbs to the lure of money . After promoting the Canyonero at a comedy performance in Moe 's Tavern , he is booed off stage by the patrons . He finally admits to himself that comedy is not in his blood and selling out is . The episode ends with an extended advertisement for the Canyonero , as Krusty and Bart leave Moe 's tavern in Krusty 's new SUV .
= = Production = =
In the DVD commentary for The Simpsons ' ninth season , writer Donick Cary stated that the inspiration for the idea of an episode about stand @-@ up comedy came out of comedy festivals at the time . Executive producer Mike Scully said that the writers had difficulty getting Krusty 's offensive bad jokes through the network censors . The stereotypical jokes were allowed because the writers convinced the network censors that viewers would understand it was simply emphasizing Krusty 's dated comedic material .
Mike B. Anderson stated that at least three different acts of material were written and animated for Krusty 's comeback stand @-@ up appearance at Moe 's Tavern . It was not until the editing process that the material used was decided upon . The episode was still being animated three weeks before it was due to air and the production process moved frantically shortly before completion . The Canyonero sequence was originally planned to be displayed during the closing credits . The production team liked the scene so much that they did not want it to be obscured by the credits and gave it its own segment at the end of the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
In addition to Jay Leno , other real @-@ life comedians that portrayed themselves in the episode include Steven Wright , Janeane Garofalo , Bobcat Goldthwait , and Bruce Baum , whose appearance helped increase his popularity . Krusty 's " Krustylu Studios " is a spoof on the company Desilu studios , set up by Lucille Ball and her husband Desi Arnaz , where the series Star Trek was once filmed . During Krusty 's " bender to end all benders " montage , he is seen drinking out of and vomiting into the Stanley Cup . The National Hockey League sent a letter regarding this scene . Mike Scully described it as a " kind of a cease and desist " , but the production staff decided not to cut the scene from the episode . Krusty attends the coffee shop Java the Hut , a reference to the Star Wars character Jabba the Hutt .
= = = Canyonero = = =
The " Canyonero " song and visual sequence was modeled after Ford commercials . The sequence is a parody of a commercial for a sport utility vehicle and Hank Williams Jr. sings a song about the Canyonero accompanied by country guitar music and whip cracks . The song " Canyonero " closely resembles the theme to the 1960s television series Rawhide . This episode was the first appearance of the Canyonero , which again appeared in the season 10 episode " Marge Simpson in : " Screaming Yellow Honkers " " . The " Canyonero " song is included on the 1999 soundtrack album Go Simpsonic with The Simpsons .
Chris Turner wrote positively of the Canyonero spoof piece in Planet Simpson : How a Cartoon Masterpiece Defined a Generation , calling it " a brilliant parody of an SUV ad " . In an article in the journal Environmental Politics Steve Vanderheiden commented that the Canyonero reflected an " anti @-@ SUV " stance by The Simpsons . Vanderheiden wrote : " Even the popular animated television series ‘ The Simpsons ’ joined the anti @-@ SUV fray in 1998 , featuring a mammoth vehicle called the ‘ Canyonero ’ ( marketed with the jingle : ‘ Twelve yards long , two lanes wide / Sixty @-@ five tons of American pride ! ’ ) , which promised to help the family transcend its mundane station @-@ wagon existence but instead brought only misery . " The term " Canyonero " has since been used in the news media to refer critically to large trucks and SUVs . In an article in the San Francisco Chronicle about SUV owners , Vicki Haddock wrote " SUV owners have become something of a punch line , succinctly captured in a " Simpsons " parody touting the apocryphal Canyonero " . In a 2006 article , Seth Jayson of The Motley Fool compared the wording in a Ford advertisement myFord Owner Magazine to this episode , writing : " the unholiest of unholies is the writing , which is so thick with absurd adspeak , you 'd think it was written by the crew at The Onion or The Simpsons – especially that episode where Krusty starts shilling for the Canyonero . " In a 2004 article in the Chicago Tribune , Jim Mateja noted that people have pointed out a similarity between the GMC Canyon and the Canyonero . When contacted , GMC responded that the GMC is a pickup truck , while the Canyonero is a parody of an SUV . Joshua Dowling of The Sun Herald described the philosophy of the Ford F @-@ 250 as " The Canyonero comes to life " .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Last Temptation of Krust " finished 21st in ratings for the week of February 16 – 23 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 7 , equivalent to approximately 9 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , The World 's Scariest Police Chases , and King of the Hill .
In 2006 , USA Today highlighted the episode in a review of The Simpsons ninth season . In his review of the season nine DVD , Joseph Szadkowski of The Washington Times noted : " Among the 22 @-@ minute gems found in the set , I most enjoyed ... [ Krusty 's ] work with Jay Leno . " Mark Evans of the Evening Herald wrote : " ' The Last Temptation of Krust ' is a winner for its title alone as Krusty the clown becomes a satiric ' alternative ' comedian but then sells out by advertising the Canyonero SUV road hazard . " Alan Sepinwall wrote positively of the episode in The Star @-@ Ledger , citing the Canyonero sequence as " the real reason to watch " the episode and that " It 's an oversize vehicle that will create oversized laughs . " Some sources mistakenly refer to this episode as " The Last Temptation of Krusty " .
In the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood characterized the episode as " a good twist on the never @-@ ending Krusty story " and suggested that while " Jay Leno turns in a nice cameo [ ... ] the show is stolen by the advert for the Canyonero " . The authors also praised Krusty 's " ponytail and black sweater " look . In the DVD audio commentary for " The Last Temptation of Krust " , Leno said that he believed the essence of comedy clubs was depicted very well in the episode and referred to Krusty 's remodeled appearance as " [ George ] Carlin post @-@ Vegas act " . He also appreciated Krusty 's poke at Leno 's use of news headlines on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and said that he could not figure out whether parts of the episode were making fun of him or complimenting him . William Irwin 's The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer references a scene from the episode as an example of Marge 's passive resistance , her moral influence on Lisa , and her value as a role model for her children .
= Reg Saunders =
Reginald Walter " Reg " Saunders , MBE ( 7 August 1920 – 2 March 1990 ) was the first Aboriginal Australian to be commissioned as an officer in the Australian Army . He came from a military family , his forebears having served in the Boer War and the First World War . Enlisting as a soldier in 1940 , he saw action during the Second World War in North Africa , Greece and Crete , before being commissioned as a lieutenant and serving as a platoon commander in New Guinea during 1944 – 45 . His younger brother Harry also joined the Army , and was killed in 1942 .
After the war , Saunders was demobilised and returned to civilian life . He later served as a company commander with the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) during the Korean War , where he fought at the Battle of Kapyong . Saunders left the Army in 1954 and worked in the logging and metal industries , before joining the Office of Aboriginal Affairs ( later the Department of Aboriginal Affairs ) as a liaison officer in 1969 . In 1971 , he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) for his community service . He died in 1990 , aged 69 .
= = Early life = =
Saunders was born near Purnim on the Framlingham Aboriginal Reserve in western Victoria on 7 August 1920 . He was a member of the Gunditjmara people . His father , Chris , was a veteran of the First World War , having served as a machine gunner in the Australian Imperial Force . One of his uncles , William Reginald Rawlings , who was killed in action and after whom Saunders was named , had been awarded the Military Medal for service with the 29th Battalion in France . Another ancestor , John Brook , fought with the Victorian Rifles and the Australian Commonwealth Horse in the Boer War . Saunders ' mother died in 1924 from complications caused by pneumonia while giving birth to her third child , a girl who also died . After this , his father moved to Lake Condah in Victoria , with Reg and his younger brother , Harry , born in 1922 . As their father undertook various labouring jobs , the two boys were raised largely by their grandmother .
Saunders attended the local mission school at Lake Condah , where he did well in maths , geometry and languages . His father , meanwhile , taught Reg and Harry about the bush , and encouraged them to read Shakespeare and Australian literature . After completing eight years of schooling , Saunders earned his merit certificate . His formal education thus ended , he went to work at the age of 14 as a millhand in a sawmill . Employers regularly withheld payments for Aboriginal labourers at this time , but Saunders refused to work unless he was paid his full entitlement , and his employer relented . He worked and furthered his education until 1937 , when he went into business with his father and brother , operating a sawmill in Portland , Victoria ; the sawmill was destroyed in a bushfire in 1939 .
= = Second World War = =
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Saunders was determined to serve in the armed forces . Patriotism and his family 's history of soldiering both played a major part in his decision . His father suggested that he wait six months ; according to Reg , " They were talking about this war being all over in six months with the Maginot Line and all the other garbage that we were told ... But we waited six months and the duck season was over so there was no more shooting to do except go to war " . Saunders enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force on 24 April 1940 , joining up with friends he had made while playing Australian rules football . The armed forces later adopted a policy to accept only persons " substantially of European origin or descent " , but at the time Saunders encountered no barriers to his enlistment . He recalled that his fellow soldiers " were not colour @-@ conscious " , and that during training in northern Queensland his white mates would sit alongside him in the " Aboriginal " section of movie theatres . His natural leadership qualities gained him temporary promotions in quick succession : within six weeks of enlistment he was a lance corporal , and after three months he made sergeant .
After completing his training , Saunders was allocated to an infantry unit , the 2 / 7th Battalion , which was serving overseas in North Africa at the time . Upon reaching the 2 / 7th , Saunders reverted to the rank of private . His first experience of war came fighting the Italians around Benghazi . In early April 1941 , the 6th Division , to which the 2 / 7th belonged , was sent to Greece to help defend against a German invasion . Following a series of withdrawals , the battalion was evacuated on 26 April , embarking upon the Costa Rica at Kalamata . It was originally bound for Alexandria , but after the ship was attacked in Suda Bay by German aircraft and began to sink , the men of the 2 / 7th , including Saunders , were picked up by several British destroyers and disembarked on the island of Crete . The 2 / 7th was subsequently allocated to the island 's defending garrison .
Following the invasion of Crete in May 1941 , the 2 / 7th Battalion was initially employed in a coastal defence role , before taking part in the fighting around Canea . After this , it took part in a devastating bayonet charge at 42nd Street , along with the New Zealand Maori Battalion , which killed almost 300 Germans and briefly checked their advance . It was during this battle that Saunders killed his first opponent : " ... I saw a German soldier stand up in clear view about thirty yards [ 30 m ] away . He was my first sure kill ... I can remember for a moment that it was just like shooting a kangaroo ... just as remote . " As the Allies began to evacuate the island , the 2 / 7th was called upon to carry out a series of rearguard actions in order to allow other units to be taken off the island . After the final Allied ships departed the island on 1 June 1941 , the battalion was left behind . As a result , many of its men were taken prisoner , though some were able to evade capture by hiding out in the hills and caves around the island . Adopting Cretan dress , learning the dialect , and enlisting the help of local inhabitants , Saunders managed to remain hidden for eleven months .
Saunders was among a party of men evacuated from Crete by a British submarine in May 1942 , and returned to Australia in October . He rejoined his old unit , the 2 / 7th Battalion , which had re @-@ formed in Palestine and been brought back to Australia along with the rest of the 6th Division to help defend against the threat posed by Japan 's entry into the war . In November 1942 , Saunders ' younger brother Harry , who had enlisted shortly after him in 1940 , was killed in action while serving in New Guinea with the 2 / 14th Battalion . When Harry had joined up , Reg recalled , " I was angry because I was the only one that was supposed to go . ... with two of us there , one of us was going to get killed ... " The elder Saunders subsequently served in New Guinea as well , fighting in the Salamaua – Lae campaign in mid @-@ 1943 where , having again been promoted temporary sergeant , he took over command of a platoon when its commander was wounded in action . For his leadership , he was recommended for a commission by his commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Henry Guinn . When Guinn told him of his plan , Saunders laughed and said , " I don 't want to be an officer ... I 'd rather be Regimental Sergeant Major " . Guinn responded , " Christ , they don 't make boys RSMs " .
Saunders went before an officer selection board that had been set up on the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland , where the units of the 6th Division had been based following their return from New Guinea . The interview panel on the board consisted of three senior officers – all experienced infantry battalion commanders – who were tasked with determining a candidate 's suitability for commissioning as an infantry officer . Saunders was found to be an acceptable candidate and posted to an officer training unit in Seymour , Victoria . Upon completion of the 16 @-@ week course , he was promoted to lieutenant in November 1944 , becoming the first Aboriginal commissioned officer in the Australian Army . The precedent of his commissioning had caused the Army some concern due to its " special significance " , and as a result the paperwork for its confirmation was eventually sent to the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , General Sir Thomas Blamey , for approval . Nevertheless , Blamey is reported to have " insisted upon following the usual procedure " , believing that there should be no difference in the way Saunders ' commission should be treated to any other soldier who had completed the necessary training . The story garnered much press coverage in Australia , most of it favourable , if in parts paternalistic .
After his promotion was confirmed , Saunders returned to New Guinea and , although it was contrary to policy , rejoined his old battalion . He subsequently took part in the Aitape – Wewak campaign , commanding a platoon until the end of the war . Due to the discriminatory laws in force at the time , Saunders had fewer rights as a citizen than the white Australians he led . He was wounded in the knee by Japanese gunfire during fighting around Maprik , and was hospitalised for three weeks as a result .
= = Interbellum and Korean War = =
Saunders was discharged from the Army on 5 October 1945 , following the end of the Second World War . Returning to Australia , he volunteered for service in Japan with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force , but the government would not accept Aborigines for the operation . Saunders spoke publicly against this policy , calling it " narrow @-@ minded and ignorant " ; the wartime restriction on non @-@ European enlistments in the armed forces was not lifted until 1949 . Saunders moved to Melbourne with his family , which by this time consisted of his wife Dorothy , whom he had married in 1944 , and their three young children . Dorothy had served in the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force during the war . Saunders recalled that he " had a hard time after the war ... and poor old Dotty , she , you know , didn 't know what the hell to make of it " . Facing discrimination that he had rarely encountered as a soldier , he worked in the ensuing years as a tram conductor , a foundry worker , and a shipping clerk .
In August 1950 , the government called for Second World War veterans to serve in the Korea War as part of the specially raised ' K ' Force . Saunders volunteered and returned to the Army as a lieutenant . After training at Puckapunyal , Victoria , and in Japan , he arrived in Korea in November 1950 . He served with the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) , initially as a platoon commander in A Company . In February 1951 , he took charge of A Company when its commander was wounded ; he was subsequently given command of C Company . Promoted to captain , Saunders led C Company during the Battle of Kapyong in April , when 3 RAR and a Canadian battalion held off a Chinese division north @-@ east of the South Korean capital Seoul . Frustrated by the conduct of the war prior to Kapyong , he afterwards recorded that , " At last I felt like an Anzac and I imagine there were 600 others like me " . The 3rd Battalion was awarded a US Presidential Unit Citation for its part in the action . Saunders himself was recommended for a decoration but turned it down . Leading a Vickers machine gun platoon at the Battle of Maryang San in October , he reportedly shared the following exchange with a fellow 3 RAR officer : as they surveyed the forbidding mountain before them , Saunders ' companion remarked , " No country for white men " , to which Saunders replied , " It 's no country for black men , either " . He returned to Australia in November 1951 .
= = Later life = =
In 1953 the Returned and Services League ( RSL ) , a veterans organisation , recommended Saunders for inclusion in the official Australian contingent to the coronation of Elizabeth II ; the Federal government rejected the suggestion on the grounds that including Saunders would have meant excluding an officer who had been previously selected . Following his service in the Korean War , Saunders remained in the Army overseeing training for national servicemen at Puckapunyal . Away from active service , however , he soon became dissatisfied and in 1954 was discharged at his own request . The same year , he married an Irish nurse , Pat Montgomery ; his first marriage had broken down soon after he returned from Korea .
Saunders went to work in the logging industry in Gippsland , after which he moved to Sydney , where he was employed by the Austral Bronze Company . Seen by many as a role model and spokesman for Aboriginal Australians , in 1969 Saunders took up a position in the Office of Aboriginal Affairs as one of its first liaison officers . Among his tasks was promulgating information on recently legislated Federal funding for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander businesses and schooling , following up on recommendations made to government departments , and liaising with Aboriginal welfare groups . He later stated , " I felt a sense of leadership of Aboriginal people and a desire to do something about the Aboriginal situation " . His community work was recognised in the Queen 's Birthday Honours of June 1971 when he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in the Civil Division . He continued to serve with the Department of Aboriginal Affairs in Canberra until retiring in 1980 . In July 1985 he was appointed to the Council of the Australian War Memorial , and held this position until his retirement . He was also involved in the RSL , though he fell out with leaders Alf Garland and Bruce Ruxton over Garland 's suggestion that Aborigines be blood @-@ tested to determine their entitlement to government benefits . " They can take all the blood they want from me , " Saunders declared in a 1986 interview , " and they 'll never find out what I am – least of all an Aborigine – bloody stupid ! "
During his two marriages , both of which ended in divorce , Saunders fathered ten children , two of whom predeceased him . Having suffered recent heart trouble , he died on 2 March 1990 . His ashes were scattered on Lake Condah , traditional territory of the Gunditjmara people . Of Saunders ' children , one of his sons followed him into the Army , while four of his daughters married soldiers . His son Christopher portrayed him in a 1978 episode of the television series The Sullivans .
= = Memorials = =
On 14 December 2001 , Saunders was honoured with the dedication of Reg Saunders Way , which passes through the Canberra suburbs of Campbell and Russell , in a ceremony attended by the Secretary of Defence , Dr Allan Hawke , and the Chief of the Defence Force , Admiral Chris Barrie . Saunders was also commemorated with a room in the Canberra Services Club , and by the RSL 's Captain Reg Saunders Scholarship . The Australian War Memorial holds Saunders ' medals and several personal effects in its national collection , along with an official portrait and several photographs .
= Hurricane Cosme ( 1989 ) =
Hurricane Cosme was an unusually large tropical cyclone that made landfall in south @-@ western Mexico in June 1989 . The third tropical storm and second hurricane of the 1989 Pacific hurricane season , Cosme formed on June 19 from a tropical wave , the storm initially moved westward before being upgraded into Tropical Storm Cosme . It ultimately intensifying into a Category 1 hurricane . Cosme turned northward and made landfall near Acapulco during the night of June 21 . It rapidly weakened over land . The storm caused excessive rainfall on land , leading to deadly and destructive flooding . It is estimated that 30 people died in the hurricane .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early June 1989 , a tropical wave emerged from the west coast of Africa and traversed the Atlantic Ocean , eventually crossing into the eastern North Pacific . Initially , several centers of circulation were associated with the system . Continuing organize , the storm is estimated to have attained tropical depression status at 0000 UTC on June 18 . The depression was broad and lacked substantial thunderstorm activity . However , it did have respectable outflow and banding . It moved towards the west and intensified into a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on June 20 , 48 hours after being classified .
Upon being named , Cosme meandered and remained nearly stationary as it continued to intensify . It became a hurricane midday UTC on June 21 ; this upgrade was delayed in real time . At this time , the hurricane accelerated towards the north . As the cyclone approached the coast of Mexico , it reached maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 979 millibars .
During the night of June 21 , Cosme made landfall just east of Acapulco . It moved inland and quickly deteriorated , weakening into a tropical storm shortly after coming ashore . It trekked northward through eastern Mexico and further diminished into a tropical depression before becoming indistinguishable south of Brownsville , Texas on June 23 . Tropical Storm Allison 's development in the Gulf of Mexico was partially related to residual conditions from Cosme 's remnants .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Prior to the hurricane 's landfall , Mexican officials evacuated nearly 260 people from low @-@ lying areas near Acapulco . Ports in the region were also closed several days before the storm and remained closed for two days after as a precaution . In addition , flash flood watches and warnings were issued . Cosme brought heavy rains , which killed at least 30 people due to drowning . Many adobe homes were destroyed , but the specific cost of damage is unknown . The highest rainfall recorded in relation to Cosme was 16 @.@ 1 in ( 410 mm ) in San Bartolo Yautepec , Mexico . Many mountainous areas received rainfall in excess of 7 in ( 180 mm ) and most other areas received 1 in ( 25 mm ) . High winds produced by the storm damaged numerous trees and power lines throughout the affected areas . Authorities in Acapulco stated that there were no major damage or injuries from the storm , with only one hotel sustaining minor damage .
= Hurricane Greta – Olivia =
Hurricane Greta – Olivia was one of six Atlantic hurricanes to cross over Central America into the eastern Pacific while remaining a tropical cyclone . The seventh named storm of the 1978 Atlantic hurricane season , Greta formed from a tropical wave just northwest of Trinidad on September 13 , and despite being in a climatologically unfavorable area , gradually intensified while moving west @-@ northwestward . On September 16 , it became a hurricane south of Jamaica . Two days later , the well @-@ defined eye approached northeastern Honduras but veered to the northwest . After reaching peak winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) that day , Greta weakened while paralleling the northern Honduras coast just offshore . On September 19 , it made landfall on Belize near Dangriga and quickly weakened into a tropical depression while crossing Guatemala and southeastern Mexico . After entering the eastern Pacific , the system re @-@ intensified into a hurricane and was renamed Olivia , which weakened before dissipating over Chiapas on September 23 .
Taking a similar path to Hurricane Fifi four years prior , Greta threatened to reproduce the devastating effects of the catastrophic storm ; however , damage and loss of life was significantly less than feared . In Honduras , about 1 @,@ 200 homes were damaged , about half of which in towns along the coastline . The storm damaged about 75 % of the houses on Roatán along the offshore Bay Islands , and there was one death in the country . In the Belize Barrier Reef , Greta downed trees and produced high waves , while on the mainland , there was minimal flooding despite a high storm surge . In Dangriga where it made landfall , the hurricane damaged or destroyed 125 houses and the primary hospital . In Belize City , a tornado flipped over a truck and damaged four houses . Damage in Belize was estimated at $ 25 million ( 1978 USD ) , and there were four deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa near Dakar , Senegal on September 7 . Moving westward across the Atlantic Ocean , the wave spawned an area of convection three days later , which gradually organized . On September 13 , the wave moved through the Windward Islands , producing wind gusts of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on Barbados . Later that day , it is estimated the system developed into a tropical depression about 75 mi ( 120 km ) west @-@ northwest of Trinidad , based on ship and land reports . Though located in a climatologically unfavorable area , the depression intensified and continued to develop . A Hurricane Hunters flight on September 14 indicated that the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Greta to the north of the Netherlands Antilles .
After becoming a tropical storm , Greta intensified slowly due to a strong trough to the northwest , and with the South American coastline located to the south , the southerly inflow was disrupted . With a ridge to the north along the 30th parallel , the storm moved quickly west @-@ northwestward across the Caribbean . On September 16 , Greta intensified into a hurricane about 275 mi ( 443 km ) south of Jamaica . Shortly thereafter , the trough to the northwest weakened , which had been preventing the storm 's intensification . An increasingly well @-@ defined eye developed while approaching the coast of Honduras as the barometric pressure quickly dropped . Early on September 18 , the eyewall passed just offshore Cabo Gracias a Dios , the sparsely populated border between Honduras and Nicaragua The NHC described the eye as having " literally ricocheted off of the protruding northeast coast of Honduras " , thus sparing much of the country from the strongest winds . At 0710 UTC on September 18 , the Hurricane hunters observed a minimum pressure of 947 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) just off the northern Honduras coast , which was the basis for the estimated peak intensity of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . This made it a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale .
Despite the proximity to land , Greta initially maintained a well @-@ defined structure . The hurricane continued generally west @-@ northwestward due to the ridge to the north , and initially was expected to enter the Bay of Campeche . After passing through the Bay Islands off northern Honduras , Greta weakened slightly while approaching Belize , and made landfall near Dangriga at 0000 UTC on September 19 , with winds of about 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . The calm of the eye was reported for three to five minutes there . Rapidly weakening over land , the hurricane deteriorated to tropical depression status over Guatemala within 12 hours of landfall . A large high pressure area from the Carolinas to the central Gulf of Mexico turned Greta southwestward toward the eastern Pacific Ocean . At 0000 UTC on September 20 , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) took over responsibility for issuing advisories while Greta was 30 mi ( 50 km ) from the coast . Soon after , the depression emerged over the warm waters of the eastern Pacific and re @-@ intensified . At 0600 UTC , the depression re @-@ attained tropical storm status and was named Olivia by the EPHC , due to the storm entering the Pacific basin . After initially moving to the north , Olivia began executing a slow counterclockwise loop . Based on observations from nearby ships and radar , it is estimated Olivia attained hurricane status early on September 22 . While tracking towards the Mexican coastline , the system weakened below hurricane threshold ; between 1900 and 2000 UTC , Olivia made landfall about 60 mi ( 95 km ) east of Salina Cruz . Early on September 23 , Olivia dissipated over the Mexican state of Chiapas .
Hurricane Greta – Olivia was a rare crossover storm from the Atlantic to the Pacific , one of six to maintain tropical cyclone status during the crossing .
= = Impact = =
Early in its duration , Greta produced heavy rainfall in the Netherlands Antilles , but the strongest winds remained north of the island .
Late on September 17 when Greta 's eye was just offshore Honduras , the country 's government issued a hurricane warning for the eastern coastline . Around the same time , the Mexican government issued a hurricane warning for the eastern Yucatán peninsula , and on September 18 a hurricane warning was issued for the Belize and Guatemala coastlines . These advanced warnings helped reduce fatalities . In Puerto Castilla , Honduras , about 2 @,@ 000 people were evacuated in advance of the storm . The Honduran government put its military , police , and Red Cross on standby in advance of the storm , due to fears of a repeat of Hurricane Fifi in 1974 . However , unlike Fifi , which caused deadly floods in the region four years prior and took a similar track , Greta did not cause as significant river flooding in Honduras .
Across much of Greta 's track in Central America , the hurricane dropped locally heavy rainfall . When Greta passed just offshore northeastern Honduras , it produced sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) in Puerto Lempira , with gusts to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Winds along the northern Honduras coast were diminished due to the eyewall passing to the north . In Honduras , meteorologists estimated that upwards of 15 in ( 380 mm ) of rain fell in mountainous regions . Many villages were isolated and communication with them was severely hampered . In Puerto Lempira , roughly 1 @,@ 500 of the town 's 7 @,@ 000 residents sought refuge in five large structures during the storm . In twelve communities along the coastline , military officials reported that 656 homes were destroyed , of which 278 were in Punta Potuca . In the offshore Bay Islands , the hurricane destroyed 26 houses on Guanaja , where many roofs were lost and several boats were destroyed . On nearby Roatán , about 75 % of the houses lost their roofs after experiencing wind gusts of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . There was one death in Honduras , and nationwide , the hurricane damaged about 1 @,@ 200 homes , washed out roads and bridges , and wrecked coconut and rice crops .
At Greta 's final landfall in Belize , the highest sustained winds were 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) in Belize City , with gusts to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) at Dangriga near the landfall location . On the offshore Ambergris Caye , winds reached 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , and there was heavy rainfall . On Half Moon Caye , the hurricane damaged the base of a lighthouse and knocked over several coconut trees . Along the Belize Barrier Reef , the hurricane downed palm trees and produced high waves , with significant wave heights of about 33 ft ( 10 m ) along Carrie Bow Caye . On the mainland , storm tides in Dangriga were 6 to 7 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 1 m ) above normal , which did not cause much flooding . The strong winds destroyed 50 houses there and unroofed a further 75 , including damage to the hospital . There were also disruptions to power and water service . About 90 % of the grapefruit crop was destroyed , and 50 % of the orange crop was lost . Tides were 2 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal in Belize City , which caused flooding in conjunction with swollen rivers . The United States embassy was flooded with about one foot of mud . There was little damage in the city , although a tornado in Belize City that damaged four houses and flipped over a truck . During the storm , the Belize International Airport was closed . Farther inland , strong winds caused heavy damage at Guanacaste National Park . Damage throughout Belize was estimated at $ 25 million ( 1978 USD ) , and there were four deaths . Three of the deaths were on offshore islands in areas without radios , and the other was due to electrocution .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm damage in Honduras , the country requested help from the United States . The Tactical Air Command had sent two squadrons to Central America in the middle of 1978 , and in response to the request from Honduras , two aircraft delivered over 100 @,@ 000 lb ( 45 @,@ 000 kg ) of cots , water , and generators ; the units also deployed a 13 – person crew who specialized in disaster relief . The aid was distributed by the Military of Honduras .
In late October 1978 , the United Methodist Church sent books and other supplies via aircraft to Belize , after a youth group rode out the storm there and desired to help residents . Despite the hurricane damage , the economy of Belize continued to grow after Greta struck , including an increase in banana production .
Although the National Hurricane Center does not consider it retired , the World Meteorological Organization lists Greta in its retired hurricane name list .
= Radiohead =
Radiohead are an English rock band from Abingdon , Oxfordshire , formed in 1985 . The band consists of Thom Yorke ( lead vocals , guitar , piano , keyboards ) , Jonny Greenwood ( lead guitar , keyboards , other instruments ) , Ed O 'Brien ( guitar , backing vocals ) , Colin Greenwood ( bass ) , and Phil Selway ( drums , percussion , backing vocals ) . They have worked with producer Nigel Godrich and cover artist Stanley Donwood since 1994 .
Radiohead released their debut single " Creep " in 1992 . It became a worldwide hit after the release of the band 's debut album , Pablo Honey ( 1993 ) . Their popularity and critical standing rose in the United Kingdom with the release of their second album , The Bends ( 1995 ) . Radiohead 's third album , OK Computer ( 1997 ) , propelled them to international fame ; with an expansive sound and themes of modern alienation , it is often acclaimed as a landmark record of the 1990s and one of the best albums of all time . The group 's next album Kid A ( 2000 ) marked a dramatic evolution in their style , as they incorporated influences from experimental electronic music , 20th @-@ century classical music , krautrock , and jazz . Despite initially dividing fans and critics , Kid A was later named the best album of the decade by Rolling Stone , Pitchfork and the Times . Amnesiac , recorded during the same sessions as Kid A , was released the following year .
Radiohead 's sixth album , Hail to the Thief ( 2003 ) , mixed rock and electronic music with lyrics inspired by the War on Terror , and was the band 's final album for their record label , EMI . Their subsequent releases have pioneered alternative release platforms such as pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want and BitTorrent . Radiohead released their seventh album , In Rainbows ( 2007 ) , as a download for which customers could set their own price , to critical and chart success . Their eighth album , The King of Limbs ( 2011 ) , an exploration of rhythm , was developed using extensive looping and sampling . Their ninth album , A Moon Shaped Pool ( 2016 ) , prominently featured Jonny Greenwood 's orchestral arrangements .
Radiohead have sold more than 30 million albums worldwide . Their work places highly in both listener polls and critics ' lists of the best music of the 1990s and 2000s . In 2005 , they were ranked 73rd in Rolling Stone 's list of " The Greatest Artists of All Time " ; Jonny Greenwood ( 48th ) and O 'Brien were both included in Rolling Stone 's list of greatest guitarists , and Yorke ( 66th ) in their list of greatest singers . In 2009 , Rolling Stone readers voted the group the second best artist of the 2000s .
= = History = =
= = = 1985 – 92 : Formation and first years = = =
The members of Radiohead met while attending Abingdon School , an independent school for boys in Abingdon , Oxfordshire . Guitarist and singer Thom Yorke and bassist Colin Greenwood were in the same year , guitarist Ed O 'Brien and drummer Phil Selway in the year above , and multi @-@ instrumentalist Jonny Greenwood two years below . In 1985 , they formed On a Friday , the name referring to the band 's usual rehearsal day in the school 's music room . Jonny was the last to join , first on harmonica and then keyboards , but soon became the lead guitarist ; he had previously been in another band , Illiterate Hands , with musician Nigel Powell and Yorke 's brother Andy Yorke . According to Colin , the band members picked their respective instruments " because we wanted to play music together , rather than just because we wanted to play that particular instrument . So it was more of a collective angle , and if you could contribute by having someone else play your instrument , then that was really cool . "
The band disliked the school 's strict atmosphere and found solace in the school 's music department . They credited their music teacher for introducing them to jazz , film scores , postwar avant @-@ garde music , and 20th @-@ century classical music . Colin said : " When we started , it was very important that we got support from him , because we weren 't getting any from the headmaster . You know , the man once sent us a bill , charging us for the use of school property , because we practiced in one of the music rooms on a Sunday . " Oxfordshire and the Thames Valley had an active independent music scene in the late 1980s , but it centred on shoegazing bands such as Ride and Slowdive . At one point , On a Friday featured a saxophone section .
Although all but Jonny had left Abingdon by 1987 to attend university , On a Friday continued to rehearse on weekends and holidays . At the University of Exeter , Yorke played with the band Headless Chickens , performing songs including future Radiohead material , and met artist Stanley Donwood , who would later create artwork for the band . In 1991 , On a Friday regrouped , sharing a house on the corner of Magdalen Road and Ridgefield Road , Oxford . They recorded demos such as Manic Hedgehog , and performed in Oxford , including more performances at the Jericho Tavern .
As On a Friday continued to perform live , record labels and producers became interested . Chris Hufford , Slowdive 's producer and the co @-@ owner of Oxford 's Courtyard Studios , attended an early On a Friday concert at the Jericho Tavern . Impressed , he and his partner Bryce Edge produced a demo tape and became On a Friday 's managers ; they remain Radiohead 's managers today . In late 1991 , after a chance meeting between Colin Greenwood and EMI A & R representative Keith Wozencroft at Our Price , the record shop where Colin Greenwood worked , the band signed a six @-@ album recording contract with EMI . At the request of EMI , the band changed their name ; " Radiohead " was taken from the song " Radio Head " on the Talking Heads album True Stories ( 1986 ) .
= = = 1992 – 94 : " Creep " , Pablo Honey and early success = = =
Radiohead recorded their debut release , the Drill EP , with Chris Hufford and Bryce Edge at Courtyard Studios . Released in May 1992 , its chart performance was poor . The band enlisted Paul Kolderie and Sean Slade , who had worked with US indie bands Pixies and Dinosaur Jr . , to produce their debut album , recorded quickly in an Oxford studio in 1992 . With the release of the " Creep " single later that year , Radiohead began to receive attention in the British music press , not all of it favourable ; NME described them as " a lily @-@ livered excuse for a rock band " , and " Creep " was blacklisted by BBC Radio 1 because it was deemed " too depressing " .
Radiohead released their debut album , Pablo Honey , in February 1993 . It stalled at number 22 in the UK charts , as " Creep " and its follow @-@ up singles " Anyone Can Play Guitar " and " Stop Whispering " failed to become hits . " Pop Is Dead " , a non @-@ album single , also sold poorly . Some critics compared the band 's early style to the wave of grunge music popular in the early 1990s , dubbing them " Nirvana @-@ lite " , and Pablo Honey failed to make a critical or a commercial splash upon its initial release . Despite shared influences with popular guitar acts , and some notice for Yorke 's falsetto , Radiohead toured only British universities and clubs .
In early 1993 , Radiohead began to attract listeners elsewhere . " Creep " had been played frequently on Israeli radio by influential DJ Yoav Kutner , and in March , after the song became a hit in that country , Radiohead were invited to Tel Aviv for their first live gig overseas . Around the same time , the San Francisco alternative radio station KITS added " Creep " to its playlist . Soon other radio stations along the west coast of the United States followed suit . By the time Radiohead began their first North American tour in June 1993 , the music video for " Creep " was in heavy rotation on MTV . The song rose to number two on the US modern rock chart , entered the lower reaches of the top 40 pop chart , and hit number seven in the UK Singles Chart when EMI rereleased it in the UK in September .
Unexpected attention for the single in America prompted EMI to improvise new promotional plans , and the band shuttled back and forth between continents , playing over 150 concerts in 1993 . Radiohead nearly broke up due to the pressure of sudden success as the Pablo Honey supporting tour extended into its second year . The band members described the tour as difficult to adjust to , saying that towards its end they were " still playing the same songs that [ they had ] recorded two years previously ... like being held in a time warp , " when they were eager to work on new songs .
= = = 1994 – 95 : The Bends , critical recognition and growing fanbase = = =
Radiohead began work on their second album in 1994 , hiring veteran Abbey Road Studios producer John Leckie . Tensions were high , with mounting expectations to deliver a follow @-@ up to match the success of " Creep " . Recording felt unnatural in the studio , with the band having over @-@ rehearsed the material . Seeking a change of scenery , they toured the Far East , Australasia and Mexico and found greater confidence performing their new music live . However , troubled by the fame he had achieved , Yorke became disillusioned with being " at the sharp end of the sexy , sassy , MTV eye @-@ candy lifestyle " he felt he was helping to sell to the world .
My Iron Lung , an EP and single released late in 1994 , was Radiohead 's reaction , marking a transition towards the greater depth they aimed for on their second album . It was their first time working with their future producer Nigel Godrich , then working under Leckie as an audio engineer . It was also Radiohead 's first collaboration with artist Stanley Donwood , who has produced all of their artwork since . Promoted through alternative radio stations , My Iron Lung 's sales were better than expected , and suggested for the first time that the band had found a loyal fanbase and were not one @-@ hit wonders .
Having introduced more new songs on tour , Radiohead finished recording their second album by year 's end , and released The Bends in March 1995 . The album was driven by dense riffs and ethereal atmospheres from the band 's three guitarists , with greater use of keyboards than their debut . It received stronger reviews for its songwriting and performances . While Radiohead were seen as outsiders to the Britpop scene that dominated media attention at the time , they were finally successful in their home country with The Bends , as singles " Fake Plastic Trees " , " High and Dry " , " Just " , and " Street Spirit ( Fade Out ) " made their way to UK chart success ; the latter song placed Radiohead in the top five for the first time . In 1995 , Radiohead again toured North America and Europe , this time in support of R.E.M. , one of their formative influences and at the time one of the biggest rock bands in the world . The buzz generated by such famous fans as R.E.M singer Michael Stipe , along with distinctive music videos for " Just " and " Street Spirit " , helped to sustain Radiohead 's popularity outside the UK .
" High and Dry " became a modest hit , but Radiohead 's growing fanbase was insufficient to repeat the worldwide success of " Creep " . The Bends peaked at 88 on the US album charts , which remains Radiohead 's lowest showing there . Nonetheless , Radiohead were satisfied with the album 's reception . Jonny Greenwood said : " I think the turning point for us came about nine or twelve months after The Bends was released and it started appearing in people 's [ best of ] polls for the end of the year . That 's when it started to feel like we made the right choice about being a band . " In later years , The Bends appeared in many publications ' lists of the best albums of all time , including Rolling Stone 's 2012 edition of the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " at # 111 .
= = = 1995 – 98 : OK Computer and critical acclaim = = =
By late 1995 , Radiohead had already recorded one song that would appear on their next record . " Lucky " , released as a single to promote the War Child charity 's The Help Album , had come out of a brief session with Nigel Godrich , the young audio engineer who assisted on The Bends and produced a 1996 B @-@ side , " Talk Show Host " . The band decided to self @-@ produce their next album with Godrich 's assistance , and began work in early 1996 . By July they had recorded four songs at their rehearsal studio , Canned Applause , a converted apple shed in the countryside near Didcot , Oxfordshire .
In August 1996 , Radiohead toured as the opening act for Alanis Morissette . " It was silly money and it gave us a chance to work out everything live , " explained Colin Greenwood . " That , and the strangely perverse kick out of being these five men in black , scaring prepubescent American girls with our own brand of dark music . ' Paranoid Android ' used to have this appalling , ten @-@ minute , Brian Auger Hammond solo at the end of it , which went on and on , with Jonny just jamming . We 'd beg him not to do it . That was quite full @-@ on . There 'd be little children crying at the end , begging their parents to take them home . ( But ) I don 't think you could say that OK Computer is a reaction against the crass commercialism of the most successful solo artist in the world at the moment and her music . It 's a desperate bid on our behalf to emulate that crass commercialisation , which I think we 've singularly failed to do . "
They then resumed recording , not at a traditional music studio , but instead at St. Catherine 's Court , a 15th @-@ century mansion near Bath . The sessions were relaxed , with the band playing at all hours of the day , recording songs in different rooms , and listening to the Beatles , DJ Shadow , Ennio Morricone and Miles Davis for inspiration . Radiohead contributed " Talk Show Host " and the newly recorded " Exit Music ( For a Film ) " to Baz Luhrmann 's adaptation of Romeo + Juliet ( 1996 ) late in the year . Most of the rest of the album was complete by the end of 1996 , and by March 1997 , the record was mixed and mastered .
Radiohead released their third album , OK Computer , in June 1997 . Largely composed of melodic rock , the new record also found the band experimenting with song structures and incorporating ambient , avant garde and electronic influences , prompting Rolling Stone to call the album a " stunning art @-@ rock tour de force " . Radiohead denied being part of the progressive rock genre , but critics in the mid- ' 90s began to compare their work to Pink Floyd , a band whose early 1970s work influenced Greenwood 's guitar parts at the time . Some compared OK Computer thematically to Floyd 's best @-@ seller The Dark Side of the Moon ( 1973 ) , although Thom Yorke said the album 's lyrics had been inspired by observing the " speed " of the world in the 1990s . Yorke 's lyrics , embodying different characters , had expressed what one magazine called " end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ millennium blues " in contrast to the more personal songs of The Bends . According to journalist Alex Ross , the band had become " the poster boys for a certain kind of knowing alienation — as the Talking Heads and R.E.M. had been before . " OK Computer met with great critical acclaim , and Yorke admitted that he was " amazed it got the reaction it did . None of us fucking knew any more whether it was good or bad . What really blew my head off was the fact that people got all the things , all the textures and the sounds and the atmospheres we were trying to create . "
OK Computer was the band 's first number one UK chart debut , propelling them to commercial success around the world . Despite peaking at number 21 in the US charts , the album eventually met with mainstream recognition there , receiving the first Grammy Awards recognition of the band 's career , a win for Best Alternative Album and a nomination for Album of the Year . " Paranoid Android " , " Karma Police " and " No Surprises " were released as singles from the album , of which " Karma Police " was most successful internationally . In the same year , Radiohead became one of the first bands in the world to have a website , and developed a devoted online following ; within a few years , there were dozens of fan sites devoted to the band .
The release of OK Computer was followed by the " Against Demons " world tour . Grant Gee , the director of the " No Surprises " video , accompanied and filmed the band , releasing the footage in the 1999 documentary Meeting People Is Easy . The film portrays the band 's disaffection with the music industry and press , showing their burnout as they progressed from their first tour dates in mid @-@ 1997 to mid @-@ 1998 , nearly a year later . The film is also notable for documenting earlier versions of songs that were never released or were not released until years later , such as " How to Disappear Completely " , " Life in a Glasshouse " , " I Will " and " Nude " . The film was screened at festivals such as the 1999 Maryland Film Festival and had a limited theatrical release in select cities . During this time the band also released a music video compilation , 7 Television Commercials , as well as two EPs , Airbag / How Am I Driving ? and No Surprises / Running from Demons , that compiled their B @-@ sides from OK Computer singles .
= = = 1998 – 2002 : Kid A , Amnesiac and change in sound = = =
Radiohead were largely inactive following their 1997 – 1998 tour ; after its end , their only public performance in 1998 was at an Amnesty International concert in Paris . Yorke later said that during that period the band came close to splitting up , and that he had developed severe depression . In early 1999 , Radiohead began work on a follow @-@ up to OK Computer . Although the album 's success meant there was no longer any pressure or a deadline from their record label , tension during this period was high . Band members all had different visions for Radiohead 's future , and Yorke experienced writer 's block , influencing him toward a more abstract , fragmented form of songwriting . Radiohead secluded themselves with producer Nigel Godrich in studios in Paris , Copenhagen , and Gloucester , and in their newly completed studio in Oxford . Eventually , all the members agreed on a new musical direction , redefining their instrumental roles . After nearly 18 months , Radiohead 's recording sessions were completed in April 2000 .
In October 2000 Radiohead released their fourth album , Kid A , the first of two albums from these recording sessions . A departure from OK Computer , Kid A featured a minimalist and textured style with more diverse instrumentation , including the ondes Martenot , programmed electronic beats , strings , and jazz horns . It debuted at number one in many countries , including the US , where its debut atop the Billboard chart marked a first for the band , and the first US number one album by any UK act since the Spice Girls in 1996 . This success was attributed variously to marketing , to the album 's leak on the file @-@ sharing network Napster a few months before its release , and to advance anticipation based , in part , on the success of OK Computer . Although Radiohead did not release any singles from Kid A , promos of " Optimistic " and " Idioteque " received radio play , and a series of " blips " , or short videos set to portions of tracks , were played on music channels and released freely on the internet . The band had read Naomi Klein 's anti @-@ globalisation book No Logo during the recording , and they decided to continue a summer 2000 tour of Europe later in the year in a custom @-@ built tent free of advertising ; they also promoted Kid A with three sold @-@ out North American theatre concerts .
Kid A received a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Album and a nomination for Album of the Year in early 2001 . It won both praise and criticism in independent music circles for appropriating underground styles of music ; some mainstream British critics saw Kid A as a " commercial suicide note " , labelling it " intentionally difficult " and longing for a return to the band 's earlier style . Radiohead 's fans were similarly divided ; along with those who were appalled or mystified , there were many who saw the album as the band 's best work . Yorke , however , denied that Radiohead had set out to eschew commercial expectations , saying : " I was really , really amazed at how badly [ Kid A ] was being viewed ... because the music 's not that hard to grasp . We 're not trying to be difficult ... We 're actually trying to communicate but somewhere along the line , we just seemed to piss off a lot of people ... What we 're doing isn 't that radical . " The album has since been ranked one of the best of all time by publications including Rolling Stone , Time , Pitchfork , the Times and the Guardian .
Radiohead 's fifth album , Amnesiac , was released in June 2001 . It comprised additional tracks from the Kid A recording sessions , plus one track recorded after Kid A 's release , " Life in a Glasshouse " , featuring the Humphrey Lyttelton Band . Radiohead stressed that they saw Amnesiac not as a collection of B @-@ sides or " leftovers " from Kid A but an album in its own right . It topped the UK Albums Chart and reached number two in the US , being nominated for a Grammy Award and the Mercury Music Prize . Radiohead embarked on a world tour , visiting North America , Europe and Japan . " Pyramid Song " and " Knives Out " , Radiohead 's first singles since 1998 , were modestly successful . A live album , I Might Be Wrong : Live Recordings , released in November 2001 , features performances of seven songs from Kid A and Amnesiac , and the previously unreleased acoustic track " True Love Waits " .
= = = 2002 – 04 : Hail to the Thief and departure from EMI = = =
In July and August 2002 , Radiohead toured Portugal and Spain , playing a number of new songs . They recorded the new material in two weeks in a Los Angeles studio with Godrich , adding several tracks later in Oxford , where they continued their work into the next year . The band described the recording process as relaxed , in contrast to the tense sessions for Kid A and Amnesiac .
Radiohead 's sixth album , Hail to the Thief , was released in June 2003 , combining guitar rock with electronic music . Its lyrics were influenced by what Yorke called " the general sense of ignorance and intolerance and panic and stupidity " following the 2000 election of US President George W. Bush . The album debuted at number one in the UK and number three on the Billboard chart , and was eventually certified platinum in the UK and gold in the US . The singles " There There " , " Go to Sleep " and " 2 + 2 = 5 " achieved heavy circulation on modern rock radio . At the 2003 Grammy Awards , Radiohead were again nominated for Best Alternative Album , and producer Godrich and engineer Darrell Thorp received the Grammy Award for Best Engineered Album . In May 2003 , Radiohead embarked in on a world tour and headlined Glastonbury Festival . The tour finished in May 2004 with a performance at the Coachella Festival . A compilation of Hail to the Thief B @-@ sides , remixes and live performances , COM LAG ( 2plus2isfive ) , was released in April 2004 .
Radiohead 's six @-@ album record contract with EMI ended with the release of Hail to the Thief . In 2005 , Yorke told Time : " I like the people at our record company , but the time is at hand when you have to ask why anyone needs one . And , yes , it probably would give us some perverse pleasure to say ' Fuck you ' to this decaying business model . " In 2006 , the New York Times described Radiohead as " by far the world 's most popular unsigned band " .
= = = 2004 – 09 : Solo work , In Rainbows and " pay what you want " = = =
Following the Hail to the Thief tour , Radiohead went on hiatus to spend time with their families . Jonny Greenwood composed soundtracks for the films Bodysong ( 2004 ) and There Will Be Blood ( 2007 ) . In July 2006 , Yorke released his debut solo album , The Eraser . He told Pitchfork : " I 've been in the band since we left school and never dared do anything on my own ... It was like , ' Man , I 've got to find out what it feels like , ' you know ? "
Radiohead began work on their seventh album in February 2005 with no record label . In an effort to " get out of the comfort zone " , they decided against involving producer Godrich , with whom they had recorded five albums , and hired producer Spike Stent . The collaboration with Stent was unsuccessful and ended in April 2006 . In September 2005 , Radiohead recorded " I Want None of This " for the War Child charity album Help : A Day in the Life . The album was sold online , with " I Want None of This " the most downloaded track , though it was not released as a single . In late 2006 , after touring Europe and North America with new material , the band resumed work with Godrich in London , Oxford and rural Somerset , England . Work was finished in June 2007 and the recordings were mastered the following month .
Radiohead 's seventh album , In Rainbows , was released through the band 's website in October 2007 as a download for any amount users wanted , including £ 0 — a landmark use of the pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want model for music sales . The pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want release , the first for a major act , made headlines worldwide and sparked debate about the implications for the music industry . According to Mojo , the release was " hailed as a revolution in the way major bands sell their music " , and the media 's reaction was " almost overwhelmingly positive " ; Time called it " easily the most important release in the recent history of the music business " . 1 @.@ 2 million downloads were reportedly sold by the day of release , but the band 's management did not release official sales figures , claiming that the internet @-@ only distribution was intended to boost later retail sales . Colin Greenwood explained the internet release as a way of avoiding the " regulated playlists " and " straitened formats " of radio and TV , ensuring fans around the world could all experience the music at the same time , and preventing leaks in advance of a physical release . O 'Brien said the self @-@ release strategy sold fewer records , but made more money for the band as there was no middleman . A special " discbox " edition of In Rainbows , including a second disc from the recording sessions , vinyl and CD editions of the album , and a hardcover book of artwork , was also sold and shipped in late 2007 .
In Rainbows was released physically in the UK in late December 2007 on XL Recordings and in North America in January 2008 on TBD Records , charting at number one both in the UK and in the US . The record 's retail success in the US – after having been legally available for months as a free download – was Radiohead 's highest chart success in that country since Kid A , while it was their fifth UK number one album . In Rainbows sold more than three million copies within one year . The album received critical acclaim for its more accessible sound and personal lyrics . It was nominated for the short list of the Mercury Music Prize and went on to win the 2009 Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album . Their production team won the Grammy for Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package , while Radiohead received their third nomination for Album of the Year . Along with three other nominations for the band , Godrich 's production and the " House of Cards " music video also received nominations .
Radiohead released a number of singles from In Rainbows : " Jigsaw Falling into Place " in January 2008 , followed by " Nude " , which debuted at number 37 in the Billboard Hot 100 , Radiohead 's first song to make that chart since 1995 's " High and Dry " and their first top 40 hit in the US since " Creep " . In July they released a digitally @-@ shot video for " House of Cards " . " House of Cards " , along with " Bodysnatchers " , also received a single release on radio . In September the band announced a fourth single , " Reckoner " , and a remix competition similar to one organised for " Nude " . In April 2008 , Radiohead launched W.A.S.T.E. Central , a social networking service for Radiohead fans .
EMI released a greatest hits album , Radiohead : The Best Of , in June 2008 . The compilation was made without Radiohead 's input and only contains songs released under their recording contract with EMI . Yorke was critical of the release , saying : " There 's nothing we can do about it . The work is really public property now anyway , in my head at least . It 's a wasted opportunity in that if we 'd been behind it , and we wanted to do it , then it might have been good . " In August 2008 , EMI reissued " special editions " of OK Computer , Kid A , Amnesiac and Hail to the Thief as part of the " From the Capitol Vaults " series . From mid @-@ 2008 to early 2009 , Radiohead toured North America , Europe , Japan and South America to promote In Rainbows , and headlined the Reading and Leeds Festivals in August 2009 .
As social media began to expand , Radiohead gradually withdrew their public presence , with no promotional interviews or tours to promote new releases . Pitchfork wrote that around this time " their popularity became increasingly untethered from the typical formalities of record promotion , placing them on the same level as Beyoncé and Kanye West . "
= = = 2009 – 12 : The King of Limbs , two drummers and Toronto stage collapse = = =
In May 2009 , Radiohead began new recording sessions with Godrich . In August , they released " Harry Patch ( In Memory Of ) " , a tribute song to Harry Patch , the last surviving British soldier to have fought in World War I , with proceeds donated to the British Legion . Later that month , another new song , " These Are My Twisted Words " , was leaked via torrent , possibly by Radiohead themselves . It was released as a free download on the Radiohead website the following week . Yorke formed a new band to perform The Eraser live , Atoms for Peace , with musicians including Godrich and Red Hot Chili Peppers bassist Flea ; the band played eight North American shows in 2010 .
In January 2010 , Radiohead played their only full concert of the year in the Los Angeles Henry Fonda Theater as a benefit for Oxfam . Tickets were auctioned , raising over half a million US dollars for the NGO 's 2010 Haiti earthquake relief . In June , Yorke and Jonny Greenwood performed a surprise set at Glastonbury Festival , performing Eraser and Radiohead songs . On 30 August , Selway released his debut solo album , Familial . In December , a fan @-@ made video of Radiohead 's Oxfam benefit performance was released via YouTube and torrent with Radiohead 's support and a " pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want " link to donate to Oxfam . In September 2010 , Radiohead released the soundboard recording of their 2009 Prague performance for use in another fan @-@ made concert video . The Radiohead for Haiti and Live in Praha videos were described as examples of the band 's openness to fans and positivity toward non @-@ commercial internet distribution .
Radiohead finished recording their eighth album , The King of Limbs , in January 2011 . Following the protracted recording and more conventional rock instrumentation of In Rainbows ( 2007 ) , Radiohead developed The King of Limbs by sampling and looping their recordings with turntables while incorporating ambient sounds . According to O 'Brien : " Rhythm is the king of limbs ! The rhythm dictates the record . It 's very important . " The album was announced on Valentine 's Day and self @-@ released on 18 February 2011 through the Radiohead website . It was followed by a retail release on CD and vinyl formats in March , and a special " newspaper album " edition in May .
The King of Limbs sold an estimated 300 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 copies through Radiohead 's website ; the retail edition debuted at number six on the United States Billboard 200 and number seven on the UK Albums Chart . It was nominated for five categories in the 54th Grammy Awards : Best Alternative Music Album , Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package , Best Short Form Music Video ( for " Lotus Flower " ) , Best Rock Performance ( " Lotus Flower " ) and Best Rock Song ( " Lotus Flower " ) . Two tracks not included on The King of Limbs but worked on during the same sessions , " Supercollider " and " The Butcher " , were released as a single for Record Store Day on 16 April 2011 . A series of King of Limbs remixes by various artists were compiled on TKOL RMX 1234567 , released in September 2011 .
To perform the rhythmically complex King of Limbs material live , Radiohead enlisted a second drummer , Clive Deamer , who has worked with Portishead and Get the Blessing . Selway said of the collaboration : " That was fascinating . One played in the traditional way , the other almost mimicked a drum machine . It was push @-@ and @-@ pull , like kids at play , really interesting . " With Deamer , Radiohead recorded a second From the Basement session , released as The King of Limbs : Live from the Basement in December 2011 . The performance included two new songs , " The Daily Mail " and " Staircase " , released as a double A @-@ side download single on 19 December 2011 . Deamer has joined Radiohead on subsequent tours .
On 24 June , Radiohead played a surprise performance on the Park stage at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival , performing songs from The King of Limbs before an audience for the first time . In September , they played two dates at New York City 's Roseland Ballroom and made American TV appearances including a one @-@ hour special episode of The Colbert Report and the season première of Saturday Night Live . In February 2012 , they began their first extended North American tour in four years , including dates in the United States , Canada and Mexico . While on tour , Radiohead spent a day working on new material at Jack White 's Third Man Records studio .
On 16 June 2012 , an hour before gates were due to open at Toronto 's Downsview Park for the final concert of Radiohead 's North American tour , the roof of the venue 's temporary stage collapsed , killing drum technician Scott Johnson and | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
injuring three other members of Radiohead 's touring technical crew . The collapse also destroyed the band 's light show and much of their musical equipment . No band members were on stage . The concert was cancelled and Radiohead 's tour dates in Europe were postponed . After rescheduling the tour , Radiohead paid tribute to Johnson and their stage crew at their next concert , in Nîmes , France , in July . Yorke later wrote that finishing the tour after the collapse was his " biggest achievement so far " . In June 2013 , the Ontario Ministry of Labour charged Live Nation Canada Inc , Live Nation Ontario Concerts GP Inc , Optex Staging & Services Inc and an engineer with 13 charges under the Occupational Health and Safety Act . The hearing began in November 2015 .
= = = 2012 – present : Hiatus , further solo work , and A Moon Shaped Pool = = =
After the King of Limbs tour , during which the band performed several new songs , Radiohead entered hiatus again . In February 2013 , Yorke and Godrich 's band Atoms for Peace released a studio album , Amok . The pair made headlines that year for their criticism of the free music streaming service Spotify , which they believe cannot support new artists ; Yorke accused Spotify of only benefiting major labels with large back catalogues , and encouraged artists to build their own " direct connections " with audiences instead .
On 11 February 2014 , Radiohead released the Polyfauna app for Android and iOS phones , an " experimental collaboration " between the band and the British digital arts studio Universal Everything which uses musical elements and imagery from The King of Limbs . On 26 September 2014 , Yorke released his second solo album , Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes , and on 7 October , Selway released his second solo album , Weatherhouse . Jonny Greenwood composed the soundtrack for the Paul Thomas Anderson film Inherent Vice , released in October 2014 , featuring a new version of an unreleased Radiohead song , " Spooks " , performed by Greenwood and two members of Supergrass . In 2015 , Yorke contributed a soundtrack , Subterranea , to The Panic Office , an installation of Radiohead artwork in Sydney , Australia .
Radiohead began work on their ninth studio album with Godrich in September 2014 in France . In February 2015 , Greenwood told Pitchfork that Radiohead had changed their methods again , " working in limits " and using " very old and very new technology " together . In October , Radiohead sued their previous record label , Parlophone , for deductions made from downloads of their back catalogue . The following month , Junun , a collaboration between Greenwood , Israeli composer Shye Ben Tzur and Indian musicians , produced by Godrich , was released . It was accompanied by a documentary of the same name directed by Paul Thomas Anderson , for whom Greenwood has composed several film scores . On Christmas Day 2015 , Radiohead released a new song , " Spectre " , on the audio streaming site SoundCloud . It was written for the James Bond film of the same name , but was rejected , in Greenwood 's words , for being " too dark " .
In April 2016 , XL Recordings purchased Radiohead 's back catalogue from Warner Music Group ( WMG ) . The catalogue was recorded under Parlophone before Radiohead 's recording contract ended with the release of Hail to the Thief in 2003 , and sold approximately 115 @,@ 000 units in 2015 . As part of WMG 's purchase of Parlophone in 2013 , WMG made an agreement with the independent music label trade group Impala to reach distribution agreements with independent labels for the 11 @,@ 000 acquired acts , which required artist approval . XL Recordings has released the physical editions of every Radiohead release since In Rainbows , along with records by Atoms for Peace and some of Yorke 's solo work . As a result of the purchase , the " special editions " of the albums , issued by WMG in the mid @-@ 2000s without Radiohead 's approval , were removed from streaming services .
On 30 April , fans who had previously made orders from Radiohead received embossed cards with lyrics from a new song , " Burn the Witch " . On 1 May 2016 , Radiohead deleted all content from their website and social media profiles , replacing them with blank images , a move Pitchfork interpreted as symbolic of Radiohead 's re @-@ emergence . " Burn the Witch " was released as a download on 3 May , accompanied by a stop @-@ motion animated music video . On 6 May , Radiohead released another new download single , " Daydreaming " , accompanied by a music video directed by Paul Thomas Anderson ; the video was screened in 35 mm film in select cinemas .
Radiohead 's ninth studio album , A Moon Shaped Pool , was released digitally on 8 May 2016 , followed by physical versions on 17 June via XL Recordings . It includes several songs written some years earlier , including " True Love Waits " ( which dates to at least 1995 ) along with strings and choral vocals performed by the London Contemporary Orchestra and additional percussion from Deamer . The album was simultaneously released on paid streaming services including Tidal and Apple Music , but was not released on Spotify , a free service , until 17 June , six weeks later . Spotify had been in " advanced discussions " with Radiohead ’ s management and label to make A Moon Shaped Pool the first album available exclusively to Spotify 's paid subscribers , but the deal fell through , according to Spotify , due to technical hurdles . In Rainbows , the only other Radiohead album not previously available on Spotify , was added on 10 June .
Radiohead began a tour in support of A Moon Shaped Pool in May 2016 , joined again by Deamer , with performances in Europe , North America , and Japan . The physical release of the album was promoted with " Live From a Moon Shaped Pool " , which took place in participating record shops around the world . The event featured a " day @-@ long " audio stream , including playlists curated by Radiohead and a recording of their recent performance at the London Roundhouse , along with competitions , artwork , and other activities . Attendees in a record shop in Istanbul , Turkey , were attacked by a group of men who were angry that customers were drinking beer and playing music during Ramadan , the Muslim holy month of fast . Radiohead released a statement condemning the attacks and offering " love and support " to Istanbul fans .
= = Style and songwriting = =
Among Radiohead members ' earliest influences were Queen , Pink Floyd and Elvis Costello , post @-@ punk acts such as Joy Division , Siouxsie and the Banshees and Magazine , and significantly 1980s alternative rock bands such as R.E.M. , Pixies , the Smiths and Sonic Youth . By the mid @-@ 1990s , Radiohead began to adopt some recording methods from hip hop , inspired by the sampling work of DJ Shadow , and became interested in using computers to generate sounds . Other influences on the group include the jazz music of Miles Davis , Charlie Mingus and Alice Coltrane , the soundtracks of Ennio Morricone , 1960s rock groups such as the Beatles and the Beach Boys , and Phil Spector 's " wall of sound " production technique .
The electronic music of Kid A and Amnesiac was inspired by Yorke 's admiration for glitch , ambient techno and IDM as exemplified by Warp Records artists such as Autechre and Aphex Twin ; in 2013 , Yorke named Aphex Twin as biggest influence . The album also samples early computer music . The jazz of Charles Mingus , Alice Coltrane and Miles Davis , and 1970s krautrock bands such as Can and Neu ! , were other major influences during this period . Jonny Greenwood 's interest in 20th century classical music also had a role , as the influence of composers Krzysztof Penderecki and Olivier Messiaen was apparent ; for several songs on Kid A and later albums , Greenwood has played the ondes Martenot , an early electronic instrument popularised by Messiaen .
Recording In Rainbows , Radiohead members mentioned a variety of rock , electronic , hip hop and experimental musicians as influences , including Björk , M.I.A , Liars , Modeselektor and Spank Rock . In 2011 , Yorke denied that Radiohead had ever set out deliberately to change musical styles or to make " experimental music " , saying the band was " constantly absorbing music " and that a variety of musicians are always influencing their work . Drummer Clive Deamer , who has recorded and performed with Radiohead since 2012 , said that Radiohead did not see themselves as a rock band and felt their methodology had closer parallels with jazz : “ they deliberately try to avoid cliché and standard forms for the sake of the song ... Rock bands don ’ t do that . It ’ s far more like a jazz mentality . "
Since their formation , Radiohead have been lyrically and musically spearheaded by Yorke . Although Yorke is responsible for writing nearly all the lyrics , songwriting is a collaborative effort , with all the band members having roles in the process ; all the band 's songs are officially credited to " Radiohead " . Radiohead songs usually begin with a sketch by Yorke , which is harmonically developed by Jonny Greenwood before the other members develop their own parts . The Kid A and Amnesiac sessions brought about a change in Radiohead 's musical style and working method . Since their shift from conventional rock music instrumentation toward an emphasis on electronic sound , the members have gained flexibility and now regularly switch instruments depending on the particular song requirements . On Kid A and Amnesiac , Yorke played keyboard and bass , while Jonny Greenwood often played ondes Martenot rather than guitar , bassist Colin Greenwood worked on sampling , and O 'Brien and Selway branched out to drum machines and digital manipulations , also finding ways to incorporate their primary instruments , guitar and percussion , respectively , into the new sound . The relaxed 2003 recording sessions for Hail to the Thief led to a different dynamic in Radiohead , with Yorke admitting in interviews that his power in the band had been " absolutely unbalanced " and that he would " subvert everybody else 's power at all costs . But ... it 's actually a lot more healthy now , democracy @-@ wise , than it used to be . "
= = Collaborators = =
Radiohead have maintained a close relationship with a number of frequent collaborators . Producer Nigel Godrich made his name with Radiohead , working with the band as an audio engineer on The Bends and as their producer on every studio album afterwards . He has been dubbed the " sixth member " of the band , in an allusion to George Martin being called the " Fifth Beatle " . In 2016 , Godrich said of the collaboration : " I can only ever have one band like Radiohead who I 've worked with for this many years . That 's a very deep and profound relationship . The Beatles could only have ever had one George Martin ; they couldn 't have switched producers halfway through their career . All that work , trust , and knowledge of each other would have been thrown out of the window and they 'd have to start again . "
Graphic artist Stanley Donwood met Yorke when both were art students , and with Yorke has produced all of Radiohead 's album covers and visual artwork since 1994 . Donwood works in the studio with the band as they record , allowing the music to influence the artwork . He and Yorke won a Grammy in 2002 for the special edition of Amnesiac packaged as a library book .
Dilly Gent has been responsible for commissioning all Radiohead music videos since OK Computer , working with the band to find a director suitable for each project . Since Radiohead 's inception , Andi Watson has been their lighting and stage director , designing the visuals of live concerts , such as the carbon @-@ neutral " LED forest " of the In Rainbows tour . Radiohead 's chief live technician , Peter " Plank " Clements , has worked with the band since before The Bends , overseeing the setup of their instruments for studio recordings and live performances . Drummer Clive Deamer has performed and recorded with Radiohead since 2011 .
= = Band members = =
Colin Greenwood – bass guitar
Jonny Greenwood – guitar , keyboards , ondes Martenot , analogue synthesisers
Ed O 'Brien – guitar , backing vocals , percussion
Philip Selway – drums , percussion , backing vocals
Thom Yorke – lead vocals , guitar , keyboards , piano
Additional live members
Clive Deamer – drums , percussion , backing vocals ( 2011 – present )
= = Discography = =
Pablo Honey ( 1993 )
The Bends ( 1995 )
OK Computer ( 1997 )
Kid A ( 2000 )
Amnesiac ( 2001 )
Hail to the Thief ( 2003 )
In Rainbows ( 2007 )
The King of Limbs ( 2011 )
A Moon Shaped Pool ( 2016 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
= White @-@ eared titi =
The white @-@ eared titi ( Callicebus donacophilus ) , also known as the Bolivian titi or Bolivian gray titi , is a species of titi , a type of New World monkey , from eastern Bolivia and an area of western Brazil . The species has a range that extends east from the Manique River in Beni Department , Bolivia to southern Rondônia in Brazil . The southern end of its range includes forests around the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra .
It is a medium @-@ sized monkey with a grey back , orange underside and distinctive white ear tufts . It has an omnivorous diet , eating fruits , other plant materials and invertebrates . It is predated upon primarily by raptors , though felids and other monkey species have been known to attack the species . It is a monogamous species and lives in small groups of two to seven members consisting of the pair and their offspring . The family group has a home range of 0 @.@ 005 to 0 @.@ 14 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 0019 to 0 @.@ 0541 sq mi ) and the adults have a complex vocal repertoire to maintain their territory . It is also known for its characteristic twining of tails when groups are sitting together . White @-@ eared titis can live for more than 25 years in captivity .
The white @-@ eared titi population has a declining trend . The decline is believed to be mainly caused by human @-@ induced habitat loss and degradation . Despite this , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) classified the species as being of least concern in 2008 as it has shown adaptability to habitat disturbance and is found over a wide range .
= = Taxonomy = =
The white @-@ eared titi belongs to the New World monkey family Pitheciidae , which contains the titis ( Callicebus ) , saki monkeys ( Pithecia ) , bearded sakis ( Chiropotes ) , and uakaris ( Cacajao ) . It is a member of the subfamily Callicebinae , of which the only extant genus is Callicebus , containing all of the titi monkeys .
Although the exact position of species within the Callicebus genus is debated , the white @-@ eared titi has been placed within the subgenus Callicebus in the C. donacophilus group with the Rio Beni titi ( C. modestus ) , Rio Mayo titi ( C. oenanthe ) , Ollala brothers ' titi ( C. olallae ) , and white @-@ coated titi ( C. pallescens ) . The white @-@ coated titi has sometimes been considered a subspecies of the white @-@ eared titi , but they are treated as separate species in the latest edition of Mammal Species of the World .
= = Physical description = =
The white @-@ eared titi is a medium @-@ sized primate with grey to orange pelage . The species does not exhibit sexual dimorphism ; the male 's head and body length averages 311 millimetres ( 12 @.@ 2 in ) while females average 340 millimetres ( 13 in ) . The white @-@ eared titi 's fluffy tail is longer than the length of its head and body together . It typically has thick fur , with a dorsal side and limbs that vary in colour from grey agouti to orange agouti , with an orange underside and white ear tufts .
Body weight ranges from around 800 to 1 @,@ 200 grams ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 6 lb ) , with the female generally a little lighter . It has the dental formula 2 : 1 : 3 : 32 : 1 : 3 : 3 × 2 = 36 , meaning that on each side of the jaw it has two incisors , one canine tooth , three premolars , and three molar teeth . The canine teeth are relatively short when compared with other New World monkeys . In captivity , the white @-@ eared titi has been known to live for over 25 years .
= = Behaviour = =
The white @-@ eared titi is cryptic , diurnal and known to live in small family groups . It is a monogamous species that is thought to mate for life and lives in groups that usually consist of two to seven members ; an adult pair and up to five young . Multi @-@ male groups have also been recorded . Offspring are carried by the male , and are always with them , except when feeding . Between the ages of two to four years , offspring will disperse from the natal group , with females leaving earlier than the males .
There is a strong bond between the adult mating pair , they stay close and carry out activities together . Either member of the pair may follow the other and leadership changes through the day . Evidence of the strength of the pair bond is shown by grooming , huddling together with their tails twined , nuzzling , and gentle grasping . Titi monkeys are highly territorial and when confronted with another family group , both will respond with threatening behaviour , males showing increased agitation towards intruding males . When not close together , the pair show a significant amount of distress and agitation .
Titi monkeys are well known for their vocal communication , and have a complex repertoire of calls . The calls can be divided into two categories : high @-@ pitched quiet calls and low @-@ pitched loud calls . Vocalisations are often combined and repeated to form sequences that are used to indicate distress , conflict , play , bonding , disturbance , and to strengthen territory . The high @-@ pitched quiet calls are mostly used when the monkeys are disturbed , but may also be used before or after group calling , while foraging , or to find other members of the group . The loud low @-@ pitched calls are mostly used in long distance group calling . Their function is to ensure adequate spacing between the home ranges of different family groups . These vocalisations are known as duets , and generally involve the male and female . If a neighbouring group is within earshot of these calls they will respond with their own duetting .
The white @-@ eared titi is arboreal , spending most of its time in the lower strata of the forest . It may enter the main canopy when travelling longer distances and may also cross small areas of open ground , though the latter is rare . During normal movement through its environment it is quadrupedal and mostly walks , clambers and leaps , but it can also bound and climb . It leaps small distances , no more than a few body lengths , between trees where vegetation is not thick enough to support its primary forms of locomotion . When travelling on the ground it is said to use a " bounding movement " whereby it leaps more than 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) off the ground . The titi monkey prefers branches which are less than 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter and its tail never touches the support it is on .
= = Ecology = =
There is relatively little known about the ecology of the white @-@ eared titi or even titi monkeys in general , and few studies have focused on the white @-@ eared titi . It is diurnal , commencing activity around sunrise and continuing until sunset . Food availability may influence activity times ; if there is an abundance of food in the warmer months when plants are fruiting titi monkeys may start earlier , or if there is a lack of food , titi monkeys may remain at the feeding tree into the evening . The titi monkey usually rests during the middle of the day and has two main feeding periods , in the morning and in the afternoon . It has an increased period of feeding towards the end of the day . In total , the titi monkey is active for an average of 11 @.@ 5 hours , 2 @.@ 7 hours of which is spent feeding . Titi monkeys sleep on branches at least 15 metres ( 49 ft ) above the ground . In the same manner as resting during the day , titi monkeys huddle together and twine tails to sleep .
Though there is little published research on the diet of the white @-@ eared titi , titi monkeys in general are omnivores that eat fruit , leaves , insects , and seeds . They mostly eat leaves , especially protein @-@ rich young leaves and leaf buds , so a significant period of the day is spent resting to digest the cellulose . They consume more than 100 different species of plants and fruit . Titi monkeys will also eat small insects ( ants , moths , butterflies , and their cocoons ) , spiders , and can catch flying prey if it comes close to them . During the dry season there is an increased feeding time on leaves , and during lactation it is thought insect consumption increases to augment the protein content of the diet .
The titi monkey may travel between 425 and 1 @,@ 152 m ( 1 @,@ 394 and 3 @,@ 780 ft ) during the day , and can maintain a home range of 0 @.@ 005 to 0 @.@ 14 km2 ( 0 @.@ 0019 to 0 @.@ 0541 sq mi ) . During the dry season there is less fruit available and therefore less need to travel large distances , so the day range may only be a third of the usual distance . Its home range is often shared with other primate species including marmosets , squirrel monkeys , capuchins , owl monkeys , howler monkeys , and spider monkeys . It is sometimes chased from feeding sites by larger species , and will generally try to avoid other primates .
= = = Habitat and distribution = = =
The white @-@ eared titi is found in tropical humid forests , preferring drier regions to more humid ones . It is found in riparian zones and gallery forests and is clearly associated with open habitats like grasslands and swampy grasslands . It is found in areas with dense vegetation , often choosing to inhabit the thickest parts of the forest . The species seems to be quite tolerant of habitat disturbance . In Bolivia , the white @-@ eared titi is found in the upper parts of the Mamoré , Grande , and San Miguel river basins , east of the Manique River in Beni and in the forests surrounding the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra . Its range extends north to southern Rondônia in Brazil .
= = Conservation status = =
The white @-@ eared titi is considered to be of least concern on the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) Red List . The species is not considered threatened due to its adaptability and abundance over a relatively wide range , and despite having a decreasing population trend the decline is not rapid enough to be placed in a threatened category . The species is also listed on CITES Appendix II .
The white @-@ eared titi 's main threat is deforestation and habitat loss due to agriculture . The area of greatest habitat loss is around the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra , but it still survives within the city limits and on the edges of many rural establishments . It has few natural predators and is proven to be adaptable to habitat disturbance . Farmland may surround and isolate areas of titi habitat which occasionally has positive benefits to the monkey . Farmers may prevent hunters on the land , thereby inadvertently protecting the species . It also appears that the titi monkey can cross open ground between forest fragments , and some groups can thrive in disturbed habitats near human activities . However , the fragmented habitats may prevent the establishment of new territories and decrease reproductive opportunities . Forest corridors to connect fragmented forests have been proposed as an effective means to help ensure the survival of the titi monkey . The white @-@ eared titi is found in the Beni Biological Station Biosphere Reserve and the Amboro National Park in Bolivia and benefits from the protection these reserves provide .
= Lamellerie 's expedition =
Lamellerie 's expedition was a French naval operation launched in February 1806 . Four French Navy frigates and a brig , all survivors of the Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805 , attempted to break past the British blockade of Cadiz on 23 February 1806 , taking advantage of the withdrawal of the principal blockade squadron several months earlier at the start of the Atlantic campaign of 1806 . Although the squadron was intercepted by elements of the British blockade force , Captain Louis @-@ Charles @-@ Auguste Delamarre de Lamellerie escaped with the four frigates by abandoning the slower brig , which was captured . During the next six months , Lamellerie 's squadron cruised the Atlantic , visiting Senegal , Cayenne and the West Indies but failing to cause any significant disruption to British trade .
On 27 July , as the squadron neared Rochefort , it was spotted by HMS Mars , a Royal Navy ship of the line stationed off the port to intercept French ships entering or leaving . Signalling to the rest of the British squadron , Captain Robert Dudley Oliver took Mars in pursuit , chasing the French squadron all through the night and into the next morning , by which time the frigate Rhin had fallen far behind the others . Recognising that Rhin was in danger of being captured , Lamellerie turned back to her defence with his main squadron but then changed his mind , turning once more and retreating to Rochefort as Oliver took possession of the heavily outgunned Rhin .
= = Background = =
On 21 October 1805 , the French and Spanish allied fleet was almost destroyed at the Battle of Trafalgar by a Royal Navy fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Nelson . Among the scattered survivors of the Allied fleet were five French frigates , untouched during the action . With the rest of the surviving ships , the frigates anchored in Cadiz during the week that followed the battle and remained there for the rest of the year , contained in the harbour by a large British blockade squadron led by Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth . In December 1805 however , Duckworth abandoned the station in search of a French squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Zacharie Allemand that was raiding British convoys off the Savage Islands . Although Allemand escaped Duckworth , the British admiral became embroiled in the Atlantic campaign of 1806 and did not return to Cadiz , eventually sailing to the Caribbean where he won the Battle of San Domingo on 6 February 1806 . In his absence , Duckworth 's squadron was replaced at Cadiz by ships grudgingly despatched from the Mediterranean Fleet , under the command of Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Collingwood .
The French Navy was concerned about its ships trapped in Cadiz and sought to bring them back to French harbours , particularly to make up for the heavy losses suffered in the Trafalgar Campaign . Therefore four frigates and a brig were prepared for sea under the most senior frigate captain , Captain Louis @-@ Charles @-@ Auguste Delamarre de Lamellerie of Hortense . These ships were to break out of Cadiz , conduct a six @-@ month raiding mission in the Atlantic to distract attention from the ongoing Atlantic campaign , and raid British merchant shipping . At the conclusion of the six months , Lamellerie was to return to Rochefort to join the French Atlantic Fleet .
= = Breakout = =
Word of Lamellerie 's preparations reached Collingwood , and he planned a ruse to lure the French frigate squadron out into open water . Withdrawing all the large vessels of the blockade squadron , Collingwood kept only the 36 @-@ gun frigate HMS Hydra and the 18 @-@ gun sloop HMS Moselle in position to create the impression that the principal blockading force had been driven off . This it was hoped would draw Lamellerie into an attack on the lone ships that would allow the rest of Collingwood 's squadron , hidden just beyond the horizon , to counterattack and annihilate the French squadron . However on 23 February a strong westerly wind blew up and the main squadron , Hydra and Moselle were all blown too far to the east . This was spotted by lookouts on shore and Lamellerie took the opportunity to leave port on 26 February , while the British ships were still out of position .
Lamellerie 's squadron was spotted late on 26 February by lookouts on Hydra and Captain George Mundy , supported by Captain John Surman Carden on Moselle , steered a parallel course in the hope of cutting off their advance . At 23 : 00 , Carden was detached to look for Collingwood and inform him of the location and direction of the French while Mundy continued to follow the enemy squadron . Although Hydra was now isolated and hopelessly outnumbered , Lamellerie made no effort to attack the British ship : he even failed to respond when the brig Furet , falling behind the larger and faster frigates , came within range of Hydra . Mundy opened fire at 04 : 30 , Lieutenant Dumay on Furet acknowledging that he was hopelessly outgunned and completely unsupported by immediately striking his colours . As Collingwood 's squadron was nowhere within sight and the French were rapidly pulling ahead , Mundy abandoned the chase , secured his prize and turned back eastwards as the French continued into the Atlantic . It is not known why Lamellerie fled from such an inferior force and allowed one of his ships to be captured without opposition : modern historian Richard Woodman describes his conduct as " astonishing , given the weakness of the opposition and [ the strength of his ] own combined force " , but in a separate work suggests that Lamellerie 's orders precluded any engagement until his force was safely off the coast .
= = Operations in the Atlantic = =
Following the escape from Cadiz , the remaining four ships of Lamellerie 's squadron sailed southwards , reaching the French African trading post of Senegal in March and then crossing the Atlantic to Cayenne , arriving on 27 March . Taking on fresh supplies , the squadron sailed from Cayenne on 7 April and operated with limited success against British merchant shipping in the Caribbean Sea , including 15 days cruising off Barbados . Retiring to the Spanish colony of Puerto Rico , Lamellerie resupplied his ships again in preparation for the journey back to France . The frigate squadron sailed on 18 May , leaving the Caribbean just as a large French squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez arrived .
= = = Capture of Rhin = = =
The journey back to France was largely uneventful , Lamellerie crossing the Atlantic during May , June and July without meeting any Royal Navy vessels . At 18 : 00 on 27 July however , at 47 ° 00 ′ N 07 ° 00 ′ W in the Bay of Biscay , the frigates were spotted by lookouts on the British ship of the line HMS Mars . Mars was a large and powerful ship , a veteran of Trafalgar that was operating as a scout for the squadron under Commodore Richard Goodwin Keats , detailed to blockade the French Atlantic port of Rochefort . Immediately giving chase , Captain Robert Dudley Oliver signaled from Mars to the nearest British ship HMS Africa , warning of the position and direction of the French . Africa passed this information on to Keats while Mars set all sail in pursuit of Lamellerie .
Running before the more powerful ship under all possible sail , the four French frigates gradually became separated from one another in the dark . Mars too was alone , Dudley easily outrunning the rest of his squadron but unable to catch the leading French ships . When dawn rose on 28 July , it was clear that Hortense and the other leading vessels were stretching the distance between themselves and Mars but that the rearmost French ship , the frigate Rhin was struggling to keep up . Realising that he was gaining on Rhin , Oliver continued pushing his ship forward and Lamellerie , recognising the danger to his rearmost frigate , turned his squadron about and bore down on the isolated ship of the line . Although Mars was far larger than any of the individual frigates , together they carried more guns and could have made an effective defence if handled efficiently . Determined to engage the French , Oliver continued to sail towards Lamellerie and at 15 : 00 the French captain suddenly reversed his direction and fled eastwards with his three faster ships , abandoning Rhin to Oliver .
By the time Lamellerie had turned away , the chase had traveled over 150 nautical miles ( 280 km ) from its original position and Rhin could no longer hold off the British ship . A fierce rain squall caused the frigate to roll and Oliver maintained the pursuit so that at 18 : 00 he was close enough to fire a single shot at Rhin , a warning of that a full broadside was to follow . Aware that his ship could not hope to withstand an attack from the ship of the line , Captain Michel Chesneau hauled down his flag and surrendered without a fight . Although the rest of Lamellerie 's ships were still within sight , the approaching night , increasingly stormy weather and the large number of prisoners of war to be transferred from the prize persuaded Oliver to give up any further pursuit . Lamellerie steered his remaining squadron along the coast , where it split up during the night . The following day Hortense and Hermione entered Bordeaux while Thémis was the only one of the squadron to reach its intended destination of Rochefort . Oliver secured his prize , but was so far from his station that he did not manage to rejoin Keats ' squadron until 31 July .
= = Aftermath = =
Rhin and the prisoners were taken to Britain , where the frigate was immediately fitted out as a Royal Navy ship under her old name as HMS Rhin . Oliver was commended for his perseverance and he and his men shared in the prize money from the frigate . In France , there appears to have been no condemnation of Lamellerie 's repeated failure to engage Royal Navy forces that in terms of weight of shot at least were the inferior of his squadron . In his official report he inaccurately claimed that his frigates had all been too badly damaged during the Atlantic cruise to consider fighting a ship of the line . He was later made a peer after the return of the French monarchy and remained in the French Navy for many years . In British histories his actions have been roundly condemned – William James accuses him of lying in his official despatches and wrote in 1827 : " What , then , but a misrepresentation of the facts could have saved this French commodore from being cashiered ? " , while Richard Woodman wrote in 1998 that " such apparent pusillanimity fed stories of British superiority against all odds and tended to breed a dangerous conceit " .
= = Order of battle = =
= The Witch 's Tales =
The Witch 's Tales was a pulp magazine edited by Tom Chadburn which published two issues in November and December 1936 . It was a companion to a radio program , called The Witch 's Tale , which had begun broadcasting in May 1931 . With the exception of the lead story in each issue , all the stories were reprints from the American edition of Pearson 's Magazine . Alonzo Deen Cole , who wrote the radio series , contributed one lead story , and provided the plot for the other . The authors of the reprint stories included George Daulton , Wardon Allan Curtis , William Hamilton Osborne , and John C. Haywood .
= = Publication history and contents = =
The Witch 's Tale was a radio program that began on American radio in May 1931 . A weekly anthology show , it was the first radio horror program , and soon became quite popular . In 1936 , the magazine The Witch 's Tales appeared as a companion to it , perhaps inspired by The Shadow , a successful pulp magazine which had also been launched as the companion of a radio program of the same name . The Witch 's Tales was published by The Carwood Publishing Co . , a small and relatively inexperienced firm . The named editor of the magazine was Alonzo Deen Cole , who wrote the radio episodes , but the editorial work was actually done by Tom Chadburn . Having both a pulp magazine and radio show act as vehicles for Cole 's work is an early example of the 21st century 's media industry 's approach , with content tied together across more than one media platform , but although Street & Smith demonstrated that this could be done successfully for The Shadow , Carwood did little to promote the radio show in the magazine , probably because of their inexperience . Only one more issue appeared , the following month ; it is unlikely that the publisher could have received sales data on the first issue by that time , so there may have been reasons other than poor sales for the magazine 's short run , perhaps including weak financing and distribution .
The first issue , dated November 1936 , led with " The Madman " , a story by Cole about a mad scientist . Cole 's work also appeared in the second issue with " Mrs. Hawker 's Will " . Originally an episode Cole had written for the radio show , it was adapted from the script for the magazine by Laurence D. Smith . All the other stories , from both issues , were reprinted from the American edition of Pearson 's Magazine . These included " The Monster of Lake LaMetrie " , by Wardon Allan Curtis , from 1899 ; " The Fountain of Youth " , by William Hamilton Osborne , and " Phantom of the Links " , by John C. Haywood , both from 1906 ; and " The Death @-@ Trap " , by George Daulton , which had originally appeared in 1908 . The reprints were good stories , in the opinion of Mike Ashley , and they often had science fiction themes : Curtis 's story involved the transplant of a man 's brain into the body of a prehistoric monster . Despite the relatively high quality of the material , the stories were not action @-@ oriented enough to have pleased a typical pulp magazine reader of the era .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The magazine 's two issues were dated November and December 1936 , and numbered as a single volume of two issues . The publisher was The Carwood Publishing Co . , of New York , and the editor was Tom Chadburn . The magazine was in bedsheet format , with 48 pages , and was priced at 15 cents .
= Djibouti women 's national football team =
Djibouti women 's national football team represents the country in international competitions . Football is organised by Fédération Djiboutienne de Football , with women 's football formally organised in the country in 2002 , and a national team was later created . The country has no women 's youth national teams . Djibouti has only played in one FIFA recognised match , which they lost to Kenya by a score of 7 – 0 . The team is unranked . The development of women 's football in the country faces both national and regional issues that impede the team 's potential success .
= = Background and history = =
The country became independent in 1977 . Fédération Djiboutienne de Football was founded in 1977 and joined FIFA in 1994 . Football is one of the most popular sports in the country . Women 's football development in Africa has to deal with several challenges that impact the ability to develop a high level of play , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women in the wider society , and fundamental inequality present in the society that occasionally allows for female specific human rights abuses . When high level women 's players are developed , many leave the country seeking greater opportunity in Northern Europe or the United States . Another issue facing women 's football in Africa is that most of the money for the game does not come from national football federations but instead from FIFA .
In 1985 , almost no country in the world had a women 's national football team . Djibouti was no exception : women 's football was not officially organised in the country until 2002 and then , only for players sixteen years and older . As of 2009 , there were only eight women 's clubs for these players in the country . There is a regional and national women 's competition , which was established in 2007 . The league provided the first opportunity for women outside the capital and major cities to play football . The country has a women 's national team but has no youth teams , meaning no U17 or U20 teams . 12 % of the money from the FIFA Financial Assistance Programme ( FAP ) is targeted at the technical development of the game , which includes women 's football , sport medicine and futsal . This compares to 11 % specifically set aside for men 's competitions and 10 % set aside for youth football . Between 1991 and 2010 , there was no FIFA FUTURO III regional course for women 's coaching . A FUTURO III regional course men 's coaching workshop was hosted in 2008 . In 2007 , there was a women 's football seminar held in the country . In 2007 , there was a FIFA MA course held for women / youth football .
= = Performance = =
Between 1977 and April 2012 , Djibouti women 's national football team played in only one FIFA sanctioned match . It was played in Nairobi on 26 March 2006 , with Kenya women 's national football team winning 7 – 0 , holding a lead of 4 – 0 over Djibouti at the half . The women 's national team has not competed at the Women 's World Cup . They played two non @-@ sanctioned games , one in 2004 and one in 2005 . In March 2012 , the team was not ranked in the world by FIFA and did not formally exist .
= L 'Arianna =
L 'Arianna ( English : Ariadne ) ( SV 291 ) , composed in 1607 – 1608 , was the second opera by the Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi . One of the earliest operas , it was first performed on 28 May 1608 , as part of the musical festivities for a royal wedding at the court of Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga in Mantua . All the music is lost apart from the extended recitative known as " Lamento d 'Arianna " ( " Ariadne 's Lament " ) . The libretto , which survives complete , was written in eight scenes by Ottavio Rinuccini , who used Ovid 's Heroides and other classical sources to relate the story of Ariadne 's abandonment by Theseus on the island of Naxos and her subsequent elevation as bride to the god Bacchus .
The opera was composed under severe pressure of time ; the composer later said that the effort of creating it almost killed him . The initial performance , produced with lavish and innovative special effects , was highly praised , and the work was equally well received in Venice when it was revived under the composer 's direction in 1640 as the inaugural work for the Teatro San Moisè .
Rinuccini 's libretto is available in a number of editions . The music of the " Lamento " survives because it was published by Monteverdi , in several different versions , independently from the opera . This fragment became a highly influential musical work and was widely imitated ; the " expressive lament " became an integral feature of Italian opera for much of the 17th century . In recent years the " Lamento " has become popular as a concert and recital piece and has been frequently recorded .
= = Historical context = =
In about 1590 Claudio Monteverdi , born in Cremona in 1567 , secured a position as a viol player at the Mantuan court of Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga . Over the following ten years he advanced to become the duke 's maestro della musica . During that time , significant developments were taking place in the world of musical theatre ; in 1598 the work generally recognised as the first in the new genre of " opera " — Jacopo Peri 's Dafne — was performed in Florence . The duke was quick to recognise the potential of this new musical form , and its potential for bringing prestige to those willing to sponsor it .
As part of his duties to the Gonzaga court , Monteverdi was often required to compose or arrange music for staged performances . These works included a fully @-@ fledged opera , L 'Orfeo , written to a libretto by Alessandro Striggio the Younger and presented before the court on 24 February 1607 . This performance pleased the duke , who ordered a repeat showing for 1 March . A contemporary account records that the piece " could not have been done better ... The music , observing due propriety , serves the poetry so well that nothing more beautiful is to be heard anywhere " . Monteverdi was then required to write several pieces for performance at the wedding of the duke 's son and heir Francesco , planned for early May 1608 . These included a musical prologue for Battista Guarini 's play L 'idropica and a setting of the dramatic ballet Il ballo delle ingrate ( " Dance of the Ungrateful Ladies " ) , with a text by Ottavio Rinuccini . There was also to be an opera , though it was not initially certain that Monteverdi would provide this . Other works under consideration were Peri 's Le nozze di Peleo e Titede ( " The marriage of Peleus and Thetis " ) with a libretto by Francesco Cini , and a new setting of Dafne by Marco da Gagliano . In the event , the former was rejected and the latter designated for performance at the 1607 – 08 Carnival . The duke decreed that the wedding opera should be based on the myth of Arianna ( Ariadne ) , and that Rinuccini should write the text . Monteverdi was instructed to provide the music .
= = Creation = =
= = = Libretto = = =
At the time of his commission for L 'Arianna , Rinuccini was probably the most experienced and distinguished of all librettists . His writing career stretched back to 1579 , when he had written verses for the Florentine court entertainment Maschere d 'Amazzoni . He had become widely known through his verse contributions to the celebrated intermedi for Girolamo Bargagli 's play La Pellegrina ( The Pilgrim Woman ) , performed in May 1589 at the wedding of Ferdinando I de ' Medici and Christina of Lorraine . According to Gagliano , Rinuccini was a primary influence in the emergence of opera as a genre ; he adapted the conventions of his contemporary lyric poets to produce the librettos for two of the earliest operas , Dafne and Euridice — the latter set to music by both Peri and Giulio Caccini .
For his Arianna libretto Rinuccini drew on a variety of classical sources , notably the tenth book of Ovid 's Heroides , parts of the Carmina of Catullus , and the section in Virgil 's epic Aeneid dealing with Dido 's abandonment by Aeneas . He also used aspects of more recent literary works — Ludovico Ariosto 's Orlando Furioso , Torquato Tasso 's Gerusalemme liberata , and Giovanni Andrea dell ' Anguillara 's 1561 translation of Ovid 's Metamorphoses . The libretto was extended during the rehearsals when Carlo de ' Rossi , a member of the duke 's court , reported the Duchess Eleonora 's complaint that the piece was " very dry " and needed to be enriched with further action . The libretto published in Venice in 1622 takes the form of a prologue and eight scenes , although other arrangements of the text have been suggested . For example , the musicologist Bojan Bujić has posited an alternative of a prologue and five scenes .
= = = Composition = = =
Monteverdi probably began composing in late October or early November 1607 , since Rinuccini 's arrival in Mantua can be dated to 23 October . With rehearsals due to begin in the new year , Monteverdi composed the work in a hurry and under considerable pressure ; nearly 20 years later he was still complaining , in a letter to Striggio , of the hardships he had been made to suffer : " It was the shortness of time that brought me almost to death 's door in writing L 'Arianna " .
Monteverdi had apparently completed the score by early January , and rehearsals began . However , his work was not over as he was required to write further music when the work was extended after Rossi 's intervention . Among the material added or lengthened were the early scene between Venus and Cupid , and Jupiter 's blessing from heaven at the end of the opera . In March 1608 , well into the rehearsal period , the opera 's scheduled performance was jeopardised by the death , from smallpox , of the leading soprano Caterina Martinelli . Fortunately a replacement was to hand , a renowned actress and singer , Virginia Ramponi @-@ Andreini , known professionally as " La Florinda " , who was performing in Mantua . A courtier , Antonio Costantini , later reported that she learned the part of Arianna in six days . The musicologist Tim Carter suggests that Arianna 's lament may have been added to the opera at this late stage , to exploit La Florinda 's well @-@ known vocal capabilities .
= = Roles = =
The casting for the opera 's premiere is uncertain . While the participation of singers such as La Florinda and Francesco Rasi can be established , sources have speculated on the involvement of other singers . There are several versions of the published libretto ; the list of roles is taken from the publication by Gherardo & Iseppo Imberti , Venice 1622 .
= = Synopsis = =
The action is preceded by a brief prologue , delivered by Apollo . Venus and Cupid are then discovered , in conversation , on a desolate seashore . Venus informs Cupid that Duke Theseus of Athens , together with Ariadne , will soon be arriving on the island of Naxos on their way to Athens . They are fleeing from Crete , where the pair have been complicit in the slaying of Ariadne 's monster half @-@ brother , the Minotaur , in the labyrinth below the palace of her father , King Minos . Venus is aware that Theseus intends to abandon Ariadne on Naxos , and to proceed to Athens alone . Cupid offers to rekindle Theseus 's passion for Ariadne , but Venus has decided to unite her with the god Bacchus , and asks Cupid to arrange this .
Cupid conceals himself , as Theseus and Ariadne arrive on the island a short distance away . Ariadne muses over her disloyalty to her father , but declares her love for Theseus . She departs to find shelter for the night , after which a fishermen 's chorus compares her eyes with the stars of heaven . Theseus , alone with his counsellor , discusses his abandonment of Ariadne , and is advised that this decision is justified , as she will not be acceptable to the people of Athens as their ruler 's consort .
A chorus greets the dawn as Ariadne , after a troubled night 's sleep , returns to the shore with her companion , Dorilla , to find that Theseus has departed . Dorilla offers her comfort . In despair at the thought that Theseus will not return , Ariadne nevertheless decides to go to the landing area to wait for him . In a pastoral interlude a chorus sings of the joys of rural life , and expresses the hope that Theseus will not forget Ariadne . Primed by an envoy with the news that Ariadne is alone and sorrowing , the chorus again sings in sympathy with her . On the beach , Ariadne sings her lament for her lost love and prepares to kill herself . At this point fanfares are heard heralding an arrival , causing Ariadne to hope that it is Theseus returning . In another interlude the chorus empathises , but a second envoy announces that it is Bacchus who has arrived , having taken pity on Ariadne . A sung ballo celebrates the anticipated betrothal of Bacchus and Ariadne . In the final scene Cupid reappears , and Venus rises from the sea before Jupiter speaks his blessing from the heavens . The union is sealed as Bacchus promises Ariadne immortality in heaven , and a crown of stars .
= = Performance history = =
= = = Premiere : Mantua , 1608 = = =
The date of the Gonzaga wedding was repeatedly postponed , because of diplomatic problems which delayed the bride 's arrival in Mantua until 24 May . The wedding festivities began four days later ; L 'Arianna was performed on 28 May 1608 , the first of the several spectacular entertainments . A large temporary theatre had been built for the occasion ; according to the court 's chronicler Federico Follino this held 6 @,@ 000 people — a figure which Carter deems unlikely . Whatever its size , the arena could not hold everyone who wished to be present . Follino 's account records that although the duke had strictly limited the numbers from his household entitled to be there , many distinguished foreign visitors could not be seated and were obliged to crowd around the doors .
Although contained within a single stage set , the production was lavish , with 300 men employed to manipulate the stage machinery . Follino 's report described the set as " a wild rocky place in the midst of the waves , which in the furthest part of the prospect could be seen always in motion " . As the action began , Apollo was revealed " sitting on a very beautiful cloud ... which , moving down little by little ... reached in a short space of time the stage and ... disappeared in a moment " . Thereafter , all the performers proved excellent in the art of singing ; " every part succeeded more than wondrously " . Follino 's enthusiasm was echoed in other reports made by dignitaries to their own courts . The ambassador for the House of Este , who referred to the work as " a comedy in music " , mentioned in particular Andreini 's performance which , in her lament , " made many weep " , and that of Francesco Rasi , who as Bacchus " sang divinely " . Monteverdi 's fellow composer Marco da Gagliano wrote that Monteverdi 's music had " moved the entire audience to tears " . In all , the opera lasted for two and a half hours .
= = = Revival : Venice , 1639 – 40 = = =
Despite the positive reception accorded to L 'Arianna at its premiere , the duke did not request a second showing , as he had with L 'Orfeo the previous year " . The next hint of a performance of L 'Arianna is in 1614 , when the Medici court in Florence requested a copy of the score , presumably with the intention of staging it . There is , however , no record of any such performance there . Early in 1620 Striggio asked Monteverdi to send him the music for a projected performance in Mantua as part of the celebration for the Duchess Caterina 's birthday . Monteverdi went to the trouble and expense of preparing a new manuscript with revisions ; had he had more time , he informed Striggio , he would have revised the work more thoroughly . Hearing nothing further from the Mantuan court , Monteverdi wrote to Striggio on 18 April 1620 , offering to help with the staging . A month or so later , however , he learned that the duchess 's celebrations had been scaled back , and that there had been no performance of L 'Arianna .
There is some evidence to suggest a possible performance in Dubrovnik , in or some time after 1620 ; a Croatian translation of the libretto was published in Ancona in 1633 . However , the only known revival of the work came in Venice , in 1640 . Public theatre opera had come to the city in March 1637 , when the new Teatro San Cassiano opened with a performance of L 'Andromeda by Francesco Manelli . The popularity of this and other works led to more theatres converting their facilities for opera ; L 'Arianna was chosen to inaugurate the Teatro San Moisè as an opera house during the 1639 – 40 Carnival ( the precise date of this performance is not recorded ) . A revised version of the libretto had been published in 1639 , with substantial cuts and revisions from the 1608 version to remove passages too specifically linked to the Mantuan wedding . The composer , who was by then 73 years old , had acquired considerable prestige in Venice , having been director of music at St Mark 's Basilica since 1613 . The dedication in the revised and republished libretto describes him as " [ the ] most celebrated Apollo of the century and the highest intelligence of the heavens of humanity " . The opera was received with great enthusiasm by a Venetian audience already familiar with the lament , which had been published in the city in 1623 . Within a few weeks the theatre replaced L 'Arianna with Monteverdi 's new opera Il ritorno d 'Ulisse in patria , which proved an even greater success .
= = Loss = =
After the Venice revival of 1639 – 40 there are no further records of performances of L 'Arianna . Rinuccini 's libretto , which was published on several occasions during Monteverdi 's lifetime , has survived intact , but the opera 's music disappeared some time after 1640 , with the exception of Ariadne 's Scene 6 lament , known as Lamento d 'Arianna . In the loss of its music the opera shares the fate of most of Monteverdi 's theatrical works , including six of his other nine operas . Carter 's explanation for the high rate of attrition is that " memories were short and large @-@ scale musical works often had limited currency beyond their immediate circumstances " ; such music was rarely published and quickly discarded .
= = " Lamento d 'Arianna " = =
The lament was saved from oblivion by Monteverdi 's decision to publish it independently from the opera : first in 1614 as a five @-@ voice madrigal , then in 1623 as a monody , and finally in 1641 as a sacred hymn , Lamento della Madonna . The five @-@ voice adaptation was included in the composer 's Sixth Book of Madrigals ; there is evidence that this arrangement was made at the suggestion of an unnamed Venetian gentleman who thought that the melody would benefit from counterpoint . In 1868 the lament was published in Paris , and in 1910 the Italian composer Ottorino Respighi issued an edited , orchestral transcription .
In her analysis of the lament , the musicologist Suzanne Cusick asserts that " [ T ] o a large extent Monteverdi 's fame and historical status rested for centuries on the universal appreciation of his achievement in the celebrated lament [ which ] was among the most emulated , and therefore influential , works of the early 17th century " . In Cusick 's view Monteverdi " creat [ ed ] the lament as a recognizable genre of vocal chamber music and as a standard scene in opera ... that would become crucial , almost genre @-@ defining , to the full @-@ scale public operas of 17th @-@ century Venice " and she concludes by noting that the women of Mantua would have recognised the transformations enacted in the lament as representative of their own life stories . Monteverdi , she believes , sought to represent in music the eventual triumph of female piety over promiscuity : " Arianna 's gradual loss of her passionate self in the lament constitutes a public musical chastening of this incautious woman who dared to choose her own mate " . In her study The Recitative Soliloquy , Margaret Murata records that laments of this kind became a staple feature of operas until about 1650 , " thereafter more rarely until the total triumph of the aria around 1670 " . Mark Ringer , in his analysis of Monteverdi 's musical drama , suggests that the lament defines Monteverdi 's innovative creativity in a manner similar to that in which , two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half centuries later , the " Prelude " and the " Liebestod " in Tristan und Isolde announced Wagner 's discovery of new expressive frontiers .
In its operatic context the lament takes the form of an extended recitative of more than 70 vocal lines , delivered in five sections divided by choral comments . Some of the wording is prefigured in the immediately preceding scene in which the First Envoy describes Arianna 's plight to a sympathetic chorus of fishermen . The lament depicts Arianna 's various emotional reactions to her abandonment : sorrow , anger , fear , self @-@ pity , desolation and a sense of futility . Cusick draws attention to the manner in which Monteverdi is able to match in music the " rhetorical and syntactical gestures " in Rinuccini 's text . The opening repeated words " Lasciatemi morire " ( Let me die ) are accompanied by a dominant seventh chord which Ringer describes as " an unforgettable chromatic stab of pain " ; Monteverdi was one of the first users of this musical device . What follows , says Ringer , has a range and depth " comparable to Shakespeare 's most searching soliloquies " . The words " Lasciatemi morire " are followed by " O Teseo , O Teseo mio " ( O Theseus , my Theseus " ) ; the two phrases represent Arianna 's contrasting emotions of despair and longing . Throughout the lament indignation and anger are punctuated by tenderness , until the final iteration of " O Teseo " , after which a descending line brings the lament to a quiet conclusion .
Among other composers who adopted the format and style of Arianna 's lament were Francesco Cavalli , whose opera Le nozze di Teti e di Peleo contains three such pieces ; Francesco Costa , who included a setting of Rinuccini 's text in his madrigal collection Pianta d 'Arianna ; and Sigismondo d 'India , who wrote several laments in the 1620s after the monodic version of Arianna 's lament was published in 1623 . Monteverdi himself used the expressive lament format in each of his two late operas , Il ritorno d 'Ulisse in patria and L 'incoronazione di Poppea , for the respective characters of Penelope and Ottavia . In 1641 Monteverdi adapted Arianna 's lament into a sacred song with a Latin text , " Pianto dell Madonna " , which he included in Selva morale e spirituale , the last of his works published during his lifetime .
= = Recordings , " Lamento d 'Arianna " = =
Many recordings are available of both the five @-@ voice madrigal and the solo voice version of the " Lamento " . The solo recordings include several versions which use a tenor or baritone voice . Among leading singers who have issued recordings are the sopranos Emma Kirkby and Véronique Gens , and the mezzo @-@ sopranos Janet Baker and Anne Sofie von Otter .
= = Editions = =
At least eight versions of the libretto were published between 1608 and 1640 . The following is a list of the known editions :
Aurelio et Ludovico Osanna , Mantua , 1608 . Publication of the text included in Federico Follini 's report of the 1608 performance ;
Heredi di Francesco Osanna , Mantua , 1608 . Possibly the text circulated to the audience at the 1608 performance ;
I. Giunti , Florence , 1608 ;
Bernardo Giunti , Giovan Battista Ciotti & Co . , Venice , 1608 ;
Ghirardo et Iseppo Imberti , Venice , 1622 ;
G. F. Gundulić , Ancona , 1633 . Croatian translation , prepared for possible performance in Dubrovnik c . 1620 . ( 5 scenes version ) ;
Angelo Salvadori , Venice , 1639 . Revised version prepared for the 1640 revival ;
Antonio Bariletti , Venice , 1640 .
= Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election , October 2015 =
An election for the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives took place on October 29 , 2015 , during the 114th U.S. Congress . The election was necessitated by the announcement of Speaker John Boehner 's resignation , set for October 30 . The Speaker of the House follows the Vice President in the line of succession to the presidency of the United States in accordance with the Presidential Succession Act .
Due to friction within the Republican Party caucus , Boehner decided to step down as speaker and resign his seat in Congress . He scheduled a Republican caucus non @-@ binding vote for speaker on October 8 , and a full floor vote on October 29 . Kevin McCarthy , the House Majority Leader and second @-@ in @-@ command to the Speaker , was initially viewed as the favorite to win the Speakership . However , due to the opposition of the Freedom Caucus , McCarthy dropped out of the race on October 8 , and the caucus vote was postponed .
Jason Chaffetz initially declared his candidacy to challenge McCarthy , and Bill Flores declared his candidacy after McCarthy withdrew , but both dropped out later to express their support for Paul Ryan , who entered the race after being widely viewed as a potential frontrunner . Daniel Webster of the Republican Party and former Speaker Nancy Pelosi of the Democratic Party were also declared candidates . Ryan won the rescheduled caucus vote on October 28 , and was elected Speaker of the House , receiving 54 @.@ 6 % of the House vote , on October 29 .
= = Background = =
= = = Process and conventions = = =
The Speaker of the United States House of Representatives is the presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives , and is second in the United States presidential line of succession , after the Vice President and ahead of the President pro tempore of the United States Senate . Though the Constitution does not require that the Speaker be an elected member of the House of Representatives , every Speaker to date has been elected from House membership .
The 435 members of the House of Representatives elect a Speaker by majority rule at the beginning of each session of the United States Congress , who serves until the end of the Congress . Typically , the election is a formality , as the majority party 's members vote as a bloc for their party 's previously @-@ chosen Speaker @-@ designate ( such as the speaker , majority leader , or minority leader from the previous term ) . Open elections are uncommon but have occurred . The last Speaker election to require multiple ballots occurred in 1923 .
= = = Speakership and resignation of John Boehner = = =
John Boehner , a member of the Republican Party from Ohio , served as the Majority Leader of the United States House of Representatives from February 2006 until January 2007 . As the Democratic Party assumed control of the House following the 2006 elections , Boehner served as Minority Leader from January 2007 until January 2011 . When Republicans reassumed control of the House of Representatives in January 2011 , Boehner was elected as Speaker , with the votes of all 241 of his fellow Republicans . In 2014 , some House Republicans reached out to Ben Carson about his interest in becoming Speaker should they be able to oust Boehner ; Carson declined , citing his impending candidacy for president . Boehner 's Republican opponents formed a congressional caucus , called the Freedom Caucus , in January 2015 to focus their opposition . Though Boehner was reelected as Speaker at the beginning of the 114th United States Congress that month , 25 conservative members of the Republican caucus did not vote for him . Daniel Webster , a Republican from Florida , received 12 votes .
Throughout 2015 , Boehner and the Freedom Caucus remained at odds . Boehner stripped his opponents of leadership posts and other perks , while the American Action Network , a group allied with Boehner , aired television ads against Freedom Caucus members in their home districts . Meanwhile , the Freedom Caucus opposing Boehner 's plans , forcing him to rely on Democratic votes to pass bills . Needing to pass a federal budget for the 2016 fiscal year beginning October 1 , the Freedom Caucus , now consisting of approximately 40 conservative Republicans affiliated with the Tea Party movement , threatened to block a resolution from passing unless it would defund Planned Parenthood and to initiate a vote to vacate the speakership if Boehner did not support their demands . The caucus sought the following promises : ( 1 ) the decentralization of the House Steering Committee , so that the Speaker and House Majority Leader are not solely in charge of committee assignments , ( 2 ) not supporting an increase in the U.S. debt ceiling without entitlement reform , ( 3 ) willingness to impeach John Koskinen , the Commissioner of Internal Revenue , and ( 4 ) passing spending bills approved by the caucus rather than a continuing resolution favored by Democrats in the United States Senate .
On July 28 , 2015 , Mark Meadows , a member of the Freedom Caucus from North Carolina , filed a motion to vacate the speakership , only the second time the motion had been filed . The next day , Boehner referred to the motion as " no big deal . " However , following continued pressure from the Freedom Caucus , and to avoid the vacation of his speakership , Boehner announced on September 25 that he would resign the Speakership and retire from Congress effective October 30 . Sources from his office indicated he chose to resign due to the increasing discord within the Republican caucus so that he could manage passage of a continuing resolution to fund the government and avoid a government shutdown .
= = Candidates = =
On September 28 , Kevin McCarthy of California , the House Majority Leader , and Webster announced that they would run for Speaker of the House . McCarthy was considered the presumptive favorite in the race . Jason Chaffetz , a Republican from Utah and the Chairman of the House Oversight and Government Reform Committee , announced his candidacy on October 4 , claiming that McCarthy did not have the votes to win the election . Several Republicans urged Paul Ryan of Wisconsin , the running mate of Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election , to run for Speaker , but he declined , saying he is a " policy guy " with a preference to focus on his role as Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee .
Democrat Nancy Pelosi , who served as the Speaker from January 2007 through January 2011 , asked her Democratic colleagues for their vote in the election . Steny Hoyer , the House Minority Whip , said that he expects that the " overwhelming majority " of Democrats will vote for Pelosi . He said that if a Republican cannot get the votes needed , Democrats may consider their options .
On October 7 , the day before the Republican caucus scheduled a non @-@ binding vote for speaker , Ryan and former Vice President Dick Cheney endorsed McCarthy , as did 11 of the 13 House Republicans from Pennsylvania . The Freedom Caucus decided to endorse Webster in the race . Other Republicans said they would vote against McCarthy , including Thomas Massie of Kentucky , who called McCarthy " absolutely not an option " because of his previous role as Boehner 's " right @-@ hand man " . Also , Walter B. Jones , Jr. of North Carolina sent a letter to the Republican Conference Chairwoman Cathy McMorris Rodgers stating that any candidates for a leadership position with " misdeeds " should withdraw from the race . Jones has stated that his comment did not specifically refer to McCarthy , but it was widely seen as referring to rumors that McCarthy had been committing an extramarital affair with a fellow Representative , a rumor that both have denied ; the basis for such an allegation and interpretation is unclear .
Citing opposition from within the Republican Party , as well as fallout from controversial comments he made about the United States House Select Committee on Benghazi , McCarthy dropped out of the race on October 8 . Following McCarthy 's departure from the race , Republicans renewed their efforts to recruit Ryan as a candidate . Boehner personally called Ryan twice to ask him to run , and Chaffetz said that he would not run against Ryan if he chose to enter the race . Ryan also received calls from Mitt Romney and Trey Gowdy , among others , encouraging him to run for Speaker . Additional Ryan endorsements came from Wisconsin Senator Ron Johnson , 2016 Republican presidential frontrunner Donald Trump , and House Majority Whip Steve Scalise from Louisiana . On October 9 , close aides of Ryan confirmed that Ryan was reconsidering the possibility of a run .
A possible Ryan candidacy received support from the same Freedom Caucus that opposed Boehner and McCarthy , as Meadows said on October 11 that Ryan running would " definitely change the equation , " and Chairman Jim Jordan described Ryan as " a good man " and stated that the Freedom Caucus would view a Ryan run " favorably . "
Others who expressed their interest in running included Texas representatives Bill Flores and Michael McCaul , Georgia representative Lynn Westmoreland , Montana representative Ryan Zinke , and California representative and former Oversight Committee Chairman Darrell Issa . However , several candidates have made clear that they would only run if Ryan chooses not to , including Issa , McCaul , and Minnesota representative John Kline . On October 12 , Flores confirmed that he would run for Speaker . He stated that he would run only if Ryan stayed out of the contest .
Ryan held a closed @-@ door meeting with the Republican Caucus on October 20 , where he explained that he would run for Speaker if he could be guaranteed an overwhelming majority of the Republican caucus would support him . Specifically , Ryan requested an increased threshold for the political maneuver of vacating the Speakership , stated that he would not lessen the amount of time he spends with his family , and requested an official endorsement from the Freedom Caucus , Republican Study Committee , and The Tuesday Group by October 23 , before he could make his decision . Immediately after Ryan 's announcement , Chaffetz announced that he would be dropping out of the race to support Ryan . The next day , the Freedom Caucus held a vote to determine which of its members would support Ryan ; although the exact tally was not revealed , roughly two @-@ thirds of the caucus voted to endorse Ryan . Although this was shy of the 80 % vote needed for an official endorsement over Webster , both the caucus leaders and Ryan were satisfied with the result , and Ryan made efforts to move forward with a potential Speaker bid .
On October 22 , Ryan announced his bid for Speaker . Flores , who chairs the Republican Study Committee , dropped out of the race and endorsed Ryan . Mo Brooks of Alabama , a member of the Freedom Caucus , announced on the floor of the House on October 27 that Ryan had agreed not to advance immigration reform legislation while Barack Obama is President of the United States , or unless it meets the " Hastert Rule " , as it has the support of the majority of Republicans .
= = = Declared = = =
The following officially declared their candidacy :
Nancy Pelosi , ( Democratic Party ) , Minority Leader of the United States House of Representatives ( since 2011 ; 2003 – 2007 ) , United States representative for California 's 12th congressional district ( since 2013 ) , and Speaker of the United States House of Representatives ( 2007 – 2011 ) .
Paul Ryan , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Wisconsin 's 1st congressional district ( since 1999 ) , Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee ( since 2015 ) , Republican Party nominee for Vice President of the United States in the 2012 election .
Daniel Webster , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Florida 's 10th congressional district ( since 2013 ) .
= = = Publicly expressed interest = = =
The following publicly expressed interest in becoming candidates :
Darrell Issa , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for California 's 49th congressional district ( since 2003 ) , Chairman of the House Oversight Committee ( 2011 – 2015 ) .
Newt Gingrich , ( Republican Party ) , Speaker of the United States House of Representatives ( 1995 – 1999 ) , House Minority Whip ( 1989 – 1995 ) , United States representative for Georgia 's 6th congressional district ( 1979 – 1999 ) .
Michael McCaul , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Texas 's 10th congressional district ( since 2005 ) , Chairman of the House Homeland Security Committee ( since 2013 ) .
Mike Pompeo , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Kansas 's 4th congressional district ( since 2011 ) .
Lynn Westmoreland , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Georgia 's 3rd congressional district ( since 2007 ) .
Ryan Zinke , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Montana 's at @-@ large congressional district ( since 2015 ) .
= = = Received speculation = = =
The following received speculation about a possible candidacy in at least two reliable sources :
Diane Black , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Tennessee 's 6th congressional district ( since 2011 ) .
Mike Conaway , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Texas 's 11th congressional district ( since 2005 ) .
Mike Kelly , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Pennsylvania 's 3rd congressional district ( since 2011 ) .
John Kline , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Minnesota 's 2nd congressional district ( since 2003 ) , Chairman of the House Education Committee ( since 2011 ) .
= = = Withdrawn = = =
The following were candidates , but subsequently withdrew :
Jason Chaffetz , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Utah 's 3rd congressional district ( since 2008 ) , Chairman of the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform ( since 2015 ) ( Withdrew on October 20 , 2015 ; endorsed Paul Ryan ) .
Bill Flores , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Texas 's 17th congressional district since 2011 . ( Withdrew on October 22 , 2015 ; endorsed Paul Ryan ) .
Kevin McCarthy ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for California 's 23rd congressional district ( since 2013 ) , Majority Leader of the United States House of Representatives ( since 2014 ) . ( Withdrew on October 8 , 2015 ) .
= = = Declined to run = = =
The following received some speculation about a possible candidacy , but subsequently ruled themselves out :
Marsha Blackburn , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Tennessee 's 7th congressional district ( since 2003 ) .
Trey Gowdy ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for South Carolina 's 4th congressional district ( since 2011 ) , Chairman of the House Benghazi Committee ( since 2014 ) .
Jeb Hensarling ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Texas 's 5th congressional district ( since 2003 ) , Chairman of the House Committee on Financial Services ( since 2013 ) .
Cathy McMorris Rodgers ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Washington 's 5th congressional district ( since 2005 ) , Chairman of the House Republican Conference ( since 2013 ) .
Peter Roskam , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Illinois 's 6th congressional district ( since 2007 ) .
Steve Scalise ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Louisiana 's 1st congressional district ( since 2008 ) , Majority Whip of the United States House of Representatives ( since 2014 ) .
= = Election = =
House Republicans planned to hold a non @-@ binding caucus vote on October 8 , followed by the official floor vote on October 29 . The winning candidate requires a 218 @-@ vote majority to win . Multiple ballots may be cast if the majority of the House cannot agree on a candidate . While McCarthy and Chaffetz both said they would vote for the winner of the caucus vote in the floor vote , Webster did not make the same promise .
Following McCarthy dropping out of the race on October 8 , the caucus vote was indefinitely postponed . Massie and Peter T. King referred to the House as a " banana republic . " Massie also criticized Boehner for postponing the election , saying they " called off the election because they didn ’ t like the result , " which was echoed by Tom Rice , Louie Gohmert , and Justin Amash . McMorris Rodgers and Conference Vice Chairwoman Lynn Jenkins defended Boehner , saying the matter was handled properly , as conference rules give him sole discretion . Rich Lowry of National Review asked McCarthy in a phone interview if the House was governable , to which McCarthy replied " I don ’ t know . Sometimes you have to hit rock bottom . " Charlie Dent , a Republican from Pennsylvania who had supported McCarthy , suggested that if Republicans are unable to agree on a candidate , the best option might be for a bipartisan coalition to select a Speaker .
Once it appeared certain that Ryan would run , and win an overwhelming majority of the caucus 's votes , Boehner rescheduled the Republican caucus vote for October 28 . Ryan won the nomination , defeating Webster 200 to 43 in the secret ballot voting . Blackburn and McCarthy each received one vote . The next day , Webster reportedly urged Republicans to vote for Ryan instead of him .
= = = Final result = = =
On October 29 , Ryan was elected Speaker with 236 of the 432 votes cast . Others receiving votes were Pelosi ( 184 ) , Webster ( 9 ) , Jim Cooper , John Lewis , and Colin Powell ( 1 each ) . Votes were cast by 432 of the 435 House members .
Following the election , Raúl Labrador , a Freedom Caucus member from Idaho , said that Paul will need to " realize the honeymoon is over and start bringing us some conservative policy , " and that " the final exam for Paul Ryan will be in January 2017 , when there is a Speaker election , and we will look at his body of work and determine whether he gets a passing grade or not . "
= Montana Vigilantes =
The history of vigilante justice and the Montana Vigilantes began in 1863 in what was at the time a remote part of eastern Idaho Territory . Vigilante activities continued , although somewhat sporadically , through the Montana Territorial period until the territory became the state of Montana in 1889 . Vigilantism arose because territorial law enforcement and the courts had very little power in the remote mining camps during the territorial period .
In 1863 – 1864 , Montana Vigilantes followed the model of the San Francisco Committee of Vigilance that existed in 1850s California to bring order to lawless communities in and around the gold fields of Alder Gulch and Grasshopper Creek . There are estimates that over 100 persons were killed in " road agent " robberies in the fall of 1863 . The Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch organized in December 1863 , and in the first six weeks of 1864 at least 20 road agents of the infamous Plummer gang , known as the " Innocents " , were captured and hanged by the organization . Formal territorial law reached Alder Gulch in late 1864 with the arrival of Territorial Judge Hezekiah L. Hosmer and vigilante activity ceased in the region .
As the gold fields of Alder Gulch and Grasshopper Creek declined in 1865 , prospectors and fortune seekers migrated to newly discovered areas in and around Last Chance Gulch ( now Helena , Montana ) . As lawlessness increased , vigilante justice continued there with the formation of the Committee of Safety in 1865 . During the period 1865 – 1870 , at least 14 alleged criminals were executed by Helena 's vigilantes . In 1884 , ranchers in Central and Eastern Montana resorted to vigilante justice to deal with cattle rustlers and horse thieves . The best @-@ known vigilante group in that area were " Stuart 's Stranglers " , organized by Granville Stuart in the Musselshell region . As formal law enforcement became more prevalent in the region , vigilantism fell into decline .
Vigilantism in pre @-@ territorial and territorial Montana has been written about , romanticized and chronicled in personal memoirs , biographies , documentary and scholarly works , film and fiction for well over a century . The first book published in Montana was Thomas J. Dimsdale 's 1866 first edition of The Vigilantes of Montana , which was compiled from a series of newspaper articles he wrote for the Montana Post in 1865 . Historical analysis of the period ranges from disrepute to heroism , with debates over whether the lack of any functioning justice system and the understanding of due process at the time meant the vigilantes acted in a way they thought was best for their communities or if modern standards of due process should govern analysis of their actions .
= = Bannack and Virginia City = =
On July 28 , 1862 , gold was discovered along Grasshopper Creek , a tributary of the Beaverhead River , in a remote part of eastern Idaho Territory , leading to the establishment of the town of Bannack . Bannack was a gold rush boomtown that was the first territorial capital of Montana Territory for a brief period after the territory was established in 1864 . Less than a year after the Grasshopper Creek find , on May 26 , 1863 , gold was discovered along Alder Gulch , a tributary creek northeast of the Ruby River that lies between the Tobacco Root Mountains and the Gravelly Range and 70 miles ( 110 km ) east of Bannack . The Alder Gulch find became one of the largest placer mining gold fields in the western U.S. The mining settlements of Virginia City and Nevada City , Montana , which sprang up in Alder Gulch , boasted thousands of prospectors and fortune seekers by the end of 1863 . These new settlements generally lacked justice systems found in populated portions of the territory , such as in the territorial capital in Lewiston , Idaho . In 1863 , gold was the preferred form of currency in western frontier communities and had a value , fixed and guaranteed by the U.S. Government , of $ 20 @.@ 67 per ounce . Almost all economic transactions in western mining communities were accomplished with gold nuggets , flakes or dust as currency and not surprisingly , the more gold one had , the more wealth one possessed . During the early years of the territory , there was no secure way to transport wealth out of the region . The only means of transporting wealth out of the Alder Gulch gold fields was via horseback or slow moving wagons and stagecoaches on a limited number of trails and primitive roads leading south and west to Salt Lake City and San Francisco or east to Minnesota . Roads and trails leading to Alder Gulch included the Bozeman and Bridger Trails connecting to the Oregon Trail from the east , the Mullan Road from points west and from Fort Benton , Montana the head of navigation on the Missouri River and the Corinne Road from Corinne , Utah and points south . Additionally , there was a single track , 70 @-@ mile ( 110 km ) stage road that connected Alder Gulch with Bannack . Several commercial freight and two passenger stage companies — Peabody and Caldwell 's and A.J. Oliver 's — operated on this route . Stagecoaches had to stop at several different ranches during the trip to water and change horses , feed passengers and provide overnight lodging . One of these ranches , the Rattlesnake Ranch , was owned by Bill Bunton and Frank Parish , who were later hanged by the vigilantes as road agents and members of the Plummer gang .
= = = Road agents and the Plummer gang = = =
In a region where valuable gold was plentiful , transportation was insecure and effective law and order was lacking , travelers became easy prey for robbers . By late 1863 , thefts and murders along the routes in and around Alder Gulch had become common . In their writings about the vigilantes , Thomas Dimsdale and Nathaniel P. Langford estimated that at least 102 travelers were killed by robbers in the fall of 1863 . Many more travelers left the region and were never heard from again . As this became a more frequent occurrence locals began suspecting that these crimes were being carried out by a single group of outlaws , known as " road agents " , under the control of Bannack sheriff Henry Plummer . The gang became known as the Innocents because of their passwords , I am innocent .
= = = = Notorious robberies , attempted robberies and murders in 1863 = = = =
On October 13 , 1863 , Lloyd Magruder was killed by road agent Chris Lowrie . Magruder was an Idaho merchant leaving Virginia City with $ 12 @,@ 000 in gold dust from goods he had sold there . Several of the men he hired to accompany him back to Lewiston , Idaho were in fact criminals . Four other men in the party were also murdered in camp — Charlie Allen , Robert Chalmers , Horace Chalmers and William Phillips — by Lowrie , Doc Howard , Jem Romaine and William Page .
On October 26 , 1863 , the Peabody and Caldwell 's stage was robbed between the Rattlesnake Ranch and Bannack by two road agents believed to be Frank Parish and George Ives . Bill Bunton , the owner of the Rattlesnake Ranch who joined the stage at the ranch was also complicit in the robbery . The road agents netted $ 2 @,@ 800 in gold from the passengers and threatened them all with death if they talked about the robbery .
On November 13 , 1863 , a teenage Henry Tilden was in the employ of Wilbur Sanders and Sidney Edgerton to locate and corral some horses owned by Sanders and Edgerton . Near Horse Prairie , Tilden was confronted by three armed road agents . He was carrying very little money and was allowed to depart unmolested , but with the warning that if he talked , he would be killed . He did not heed the warning and told Sanders ' wife , Hattie and Sidney Edgerton that he had recognized one of the road agents as sheriff Henry Plummer . Although Tilden 's report was discounted because Plummer was respected , this incident led to increased suspicion in the region that Plummer was the leader of a gang of road agents .
On November 22 , 1863 , the A.J. Oliver stage was robbed on its way to Bannack from Virginia City by road agents George Ives , " Whiskey Bill " Graves and Bob Zachary . The robbery netted less than $ 1000 in gold and treasury notes . One of the victims , Leroy Southmayd made the mistake of reporting the robbery and identifying the road agents to Bannack Sheriff , Henry Plummer . Members of Plummer 's gang confronted Southmayd on his return trip to Virginia City , but Southmayd was cunning enough to avoid injury or death .
In November 1863 , Conrad Kohrs traveled to Bannack from Deer Lodge , Montana with $ 5000 in gold dust to buy cattle . A conversation with Sheriff Plummer in Bannack led Kohrs to believe he might be robbed while on the trail back to Deer Lodge . While in an overnight camp his associates located road agents George Ives and " Dutch John " Wagner surveying the camp , armed with shotguns . A day or two later , Kohrs was on horseback returning to Deer Lodge when Ives and Wagner gave chase . Kohrs ' horse proved the faster and he evaded confrontation before reaching the safety of Deer Lodge .
In early December 1863 , a three wagon freight outfit organized by Milton S. Moody was going to Salt Lake City from Virginia City . Among the seven passengers was John Bozeman . The freight wagons were carrying $ 80 @,@ 000 in gold dust and $ 1500 in treasury notes . While camped on Blacktail Deer Creek , road agents " Dutch John " Wagner and Steve Marshland entered the camp , armed and ready to rob the train . Members of the camp had armed themselves well and Wagner and Marshland were able to escape , claiming they were just looking for lost horses . Two days later , Wagner and Marshland were both wounded in an unsuccessful attempt to rob the wagon train as it crossed the Continental Divide at Rock Creek .
On December 8 , 1863 , Anton Holter ( who later became a Montana Power Company executive and had Holter Dam named for him ) , who was taking oxen to sell in Virginia City , survived an attempted robbery and murder . When road agents George Ives and Aleck Carter , whom Holter recognized , discovered Holter was not carrying any significant wealth , they tried to shoot him . He was able to avoid being shot and escaped into the brush .
= = = The failure of miners ' courts = = =
Prior to the creation of the Montana Territory on May 26 , 1864 , and the arrival of the territorial courts , the only court system available for the residents of Bannack and Virginia City were the informal miners ' courts . The miners ' courts were a vehicle of the organized mining districts to resolve mining claims and disputes between miners in the district . When confronted with a major crime such as murder , they usually proved ineffective at resolving the crime to the satisfaction of the community .
While there are not many accounts of early courts in Alder Gulch , probably due to their informality and short existence , John X. Beidler recalled a murder trial in the Virginia City miners ' court in his memoirs . The trial recalled by Beidler occurred in the fall of 1863 . It concerned the matter of the murder of J.W. Dillingham . The trial was held outside , due to the fact that every resident took part . In the end all three defendants were set free . The first , Charley Forbes , was freed after he gave an eloquent and sentimental speech about his mother . The other two , Buck Stinson and Haze Lyons , were convicted and set to be the first men executed in what would become the state of Montana . However , at what would be a very public hanging friends and sympathizers of Stinson and Lyons convinced the crowd to vote again on the execution . Two attempts at counting the vote were made according to Beidler . The first people voting ' hang ' were to walk up @-@ hill while those voting ' no hang ' were to walk down @-@ hill . This vote was rejected and the next attempt had four men form two gates and people would cast their vote by walking through the ' hang ' gate or the ' no hang ' gate . Beidler claims that friends of the condemned men simply walked through the ' no hang ' gate multiple times casting multiple fraudulent votes that possibly allowed two murderers to walk free .
On December 19 – 21 , 1863 , a public trial was held for George Ives , the suspected murderer of a young Dutch immigrant Nicholas Tiebolt . Hundreds of miners from around the area attended the 3 @-@ day , outdoor trial . George Ives was prosecuted by Wilbur F. Sanders and Ives was convicted and hanged on December 21 , 1863 . Sanders played a prominent role in Montana history and eventually became the first U.S. Senator from Montana when the territory gained statehood in 1889 . While the Ives trial resulted in an execution many residents were frustrated by a cumbersome process that could easily be manipulated . This sentiment is illustrated by a quote from Thomas Dimsdale who wrote the first published account of the Montana Vigilantes , originally written in 1865 as a series of articles for the Montana Post and later compiled into a book .
Another powerful incentive to wrong @-@ doing is the absolute nulity of the civil law in such cases . No matter what may be the proof , if the criminal is well liked in the community ' Not Guilty ' is almost certain to be the verdict , despite the efforts of the judge and prosecutor .
= = = Formation of the Vigilance Committee = = =
On December 23 , 1863 , two days after the Ives trial , a group of five Virginia City residents , led by Wilbur F. Sanders , and including Major Alvin W. Brockie , John Nye , Captain Nick D. Wall and Paris Pfouts organized the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch . The committee was organized similar to the earlier San Francisco Committee of Vigilance ( 1851 – 56 ) in California of which some of the Alder Gulch organizers were familiar with . The original committee oath signed by its earliest members was :
We the undersigned uniting ourselves in a party for the laudable purpos [ sic ] of arresting thievs [ sic ] & murderers & recovering stollen [ sic ] property do pledge ourselves upon our sacred honor each to all others & solemnly swear that we will reveal no secrets , violate no laws of right & never desert each other or our standard of justice so help us God as witness our hand and seal this 23 of December ad 1863
Paris Pfouts was elected as the president of the committee which drafted and adopted a comprehensive set of by @-@ laws establishing a formal structure and process . The by @-@ laws established the position of president , an executive officer , an executive committee , a secretary , treasurer and positions of captains and lieutenants of companies . The most relevant process contained in the by @-@ laws was :
It shall be the duty of members to attach themselves to some company and whenever any criminal act shall come to their knowledge to inform his Captain or Lieutenant of the same , when the officers so informed shall call together the members of his Company , ( unless the Company has chosen a committee for such purpose ) when they shall proceed to investigate the case , and elicit the facts and should the said company conclude that the person charged with any offense should be punished by the committee , the Captain or Lieutenant will first take steps to arrest the Criminal and then report same with proof to the Chief who will thereupon call a meeting of the Executive Committee and the judgement of such Executive Committee shall be final . The only punishment that shall be inflicted by this Committee is death .
= = = Prominent members = = =
Although the vigilance committee started as a small secret institution in Virginia City , knowledge of it soon spread in the territory and membership grew . As a secret organization , exact accounts of membership vary , but many members became prominent in the history of the territory and state . Among those who were members include Wilbur Sanders ( 1st U.S. Senator from Montana ( 1890 ) ) , Sidney Edgerton ( first Governor of Montana Territory ( 1864 ) ) , Nelson Story ( famous for his 1866 cattle drive from Texas to Bozeman and prominent Bozeman merchant ) , John Bozeman ( founder of Bozeman , Montana ( 1864 ) and the Bozeman Trail ) , Nathaniel P. Langford ( first Yellowstone National Park superintendent ( 1872 – 1877 ) ) , James Stuart ( brother of Granville Stuart , who would form the Stuarts ' Stranglers in 1884 ) , Tom Cover ( one of the Alder Gulch prospectors who discovered the first gold there and alleged murderer of John Bozeman ( 1867 ) ) and Thomas Dimsdale ( editor of Montana 's first newspaper , the Montana Post and author of The Vigilantes of Montana ( 1866 ) ) .
Due to the secret nature of the organization it is difficult to be sure when an execution was carried out by the vigilance committee or another group of motivated citizens . In the months following the Ives trial many suspected road agents were hanged . Notably , Henry Plummer , the sheriff of Bannack , who was suspected by many of being the ringleader of the road agents . The Montana Vigilantes hanged men using the testimony of other men who faced their imminent executions as the sole evidence . Of the few accounts of the early actions of the Alder Gulch Vigilantes , Beidler and Dimsdale are the most complete , although they give little information about the secret trials conducted by the vigilantes . Estimates vary , but noted vigilante historian Frederick Allen believes that between the years 1863 and 1865 somewhere from 15 to 35 people were killed due to the actions of the Alder Gulch vigilantes .
= = = Vigilante justice = = =
Over of course of approximately six weeks between December 1863 and February 1864 , vigilante companies located , arrested and executed suspected members of the Plummer road agent gang in Bannack , Virginia City and Hellgate , Montana .
= = = = Bannack = = = =
Shortly after its formation , the Vigilance Committee dispatched a posse of men to search for Aleck Carter , " Whiskey Bill " Graves and Bill Bunton , known associates of George Ives . The posse was led by vigilante Captain James Williams , the man who had investigated the Nicolas Tiebolt murder by George Ives . Near the Rattlesnake Ranch on the Ruby River , the posse located " Erastus Red " Yeager and George Brown , both suspected road agents . While traveling back to Virginia City , Yeager made a complete confession , naming the majority of the road agents in Plummer 's gang , including Henry Plummer . After obtaining the confession , Yeager and Brown were found guilty by the posse and summarily hanged from a cottonwood tree on the Lorrain 's Ranch on the Ruby River . On January 6 , 1864 , " Dutch John " Wagner , a road agent wounded in the Moody robbery was captured by vigilante Captain Nick Wall and Ben Peabody on the Salt Lake City trail . The vigilantes transported Wagner to Bannack where he was hanged on January 11 , 1864 . By this time , Yeager 's confession had mobilized vigilantes against Plummer and his key associates , deputies Buck Stinson and Ned Ray . Plummer , Stinson and Ray were arrested on the morning of January 10 , 1864 and summarily hanged . On January 11 , 1864 , " Greaser Joe " Pizanthia , a road agent on Yeager 's list , was located in his cabin just outside Bannack . A gunfight ensued that took the life of one vigilante , George Copley . Pizanthia 's cabin was bombarded with three shells from a mountain howitzer belonging to Sidney Edgerton . The bombardment severely wounded Pizanthia and he was shot and killed as he was removed from the wreckage of the cabin .
= = = = Virginia City = = = =
After Wagner 's execution on January 11 , 1864 , the vigilantes who were mostly men from Virginia City , returned there to deal with the remaining road agents in the Plummer gang . On the evening of January 13 , 1864 , the Vigilance Committee voted to arrest and hang six road agents believed to be living in Virginia City — Frank Parish , Boone Helm , Hayes Lyons , Jack Gallagher , George " Clubfoot " Lane and Bill Hunter . On the morning of January 14 , 1864 , five of the six road agents were located in town and arrested . They were all summarily hanged from a beam in a building under construction on Wallace Street . Bill Hunter escaped capture in Virginia City , but was later arrested at a cabin on the Gallatin River and was hanged from a Cottonwood tree on February 3 , 1864 .
After the January 14 , 1864 hangings , the vigilante companies left Virginia City in search of the remaining road agents on Yeager 's list . The first to be located was Steve Marshland holed up in a cabin on the Big Hole River and was hanged on January 16 , 1864 . A posse led by Captain Williams found Bill Bunton at his Cottonwood Ranch on the Ruby River and hanged him on January 18 , 1864 .
= = = = Hell Gate = = = =
After the Bunton execution , the vigilante companies regrouped and made a 90 @-@ mile ( 140 km ) ride to Hell Gate , Montana where they believed more road agents were hiding . In Hell Gate , Captain William 's vigilante company located and arrested Cyrus Skinner , Aleck Carter , and John Cooper . A vigilante trial of Skinner and Carter was held in the Worden and Higgins dry goods store on January 24 , 1864 . Both men were found guilty and hanged outside the store . Later that same day , Cooper was tried , convicted and hanged . On January 25 , 1864 , the vigilantes located Bob Zachary in a cabin outside of Hell Gate and George Shears in another cabin in the Bitterroot Valley . Zachary was brought to Hell Gate and hanged . Shears was hanged outside the cabin he was captured in . As the vigilante companies were leaving Hell Gate to return to Virginia City , they received word that " Whiskey Bill " Graves was at Fort Owen , Montana . Three vigilantes located and arrested him on January 26 , 1864 . He was hanged the same day .
= = = Known road agents executed by the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch = = =
Henry Plummer , sheriff of Bannack , executed in Bannack on January 10 , 1864
Erastus " Red " Yeager , road agent and messenger , executed along the Ruby River , January 4 , 1864
George Brown , road agent and gang secretary , executed along the Ruby River , January 4 , 1864
" Dutch John " Wagner , road agent , executed in Bannack , January 11 , 1864
Ned Ray , executed in Bannack , January 10 , 1864
Buck Stinson , executed in Bannack , January 10 , 1864
" Greaser Joe " Pizanthia , road agent , shot and killed in Bannack , January 11 , 1864
Frank Parish , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864
Boone Helm , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864
Jack Gallagher , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864
George " Clubfoot " Lane , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864
Hayes Lyon , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864
Steve Marshland , road agent , executed near the Big Hole River , January 16 , 1864
Bill Bunton , road agent , executed at Cottonwood Ranch on the Clark Fork River , January 18 , 1864
Cyrus Skinner , road agent , executed in Hell Gate , January 24 , 1864
Aleck Carter , road agent , executed in Hell Gate , January 24 , 1864
Johnny Cooper , road agent , executed in Hell Gate , January 24 , 1864
Bob Zachary , road agent , executed in Hell Gate , January 25 , 1864
George Shears , road agent , executed in the Bitterroot Valley , January 25 , 1864
" Whiskey Bill " Graves , road agent , executed near Fort Owen , January 26 , 1864
Bill Hunter , road agent , executed in Gallatin Valley , February 3 , 1864
= = = Other executions = = =
An unknown 19 @-@ year @-@ old boy was hanged on February 17 , 1864 , in Virginia City for shooting an unarmed man in a tavern .
Chris Lowrie , Doc Howard , and Jem Romaine were convicted of the Magruder murders by a Idaho Territorial court in Lewiston and hanged on March 4 , 1864 , based on the testimony of William Page . Page was not executed .
On March 10 , 1864 , vigilantes hanged J.A. Slade in Virginia City for serious drunken behavior , breaches of the peace and reckless gun play that endangered the communities ' citizens .
James Brady was hanged by vigilantes in Nevada City on June 15 , 1864 , for shooting another man .
Jem Kelly was apprehended near present day Jackson , Idaho Territory on the Snake River by Montana vigilantes for a series of petty thefts in Alder Gulch . He was hanged on September 5 , 1864 , along the Snake River in Idaho Territory .
On September 17 , 1864 , vigilantes hanged John " The Hat " Dolan in Virginia City for stealing $ 700 from a roommate .
On October 31 , 1864 , vigilantes captured and hanged J.C. Rawley in Bannack for his alleged spying on behalf of the road agent gang in 1863 . This was the last execution performed by the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch .
= = = Banishments and escapes = = =
Another tactic employed by the vigilantes was banishment from the territory . It is unknown how many men were given the warning to leave the territory or suffer execution for their misdeeds . Alexander Toponce , a merchant in Bannack at the time believed the number of banishments was high but wrote this in his autobiography : Reminiscences of Alexander Toponce ( 1923 ) :
I don 't think they [ the vigilantes ] made any mistake in hanging anybody . The only mistake they made was about fifty percent of those whom they merely banished should have been hung instead , as quite a number of these men were finally hung .
Some of the road agents in Plummer 's gang or on Yeager 's list were able to escape vigilante justice by fleeing the territory . Notable among these men were Augustus " Gad " Moore , Billy Terwilliger , William Mitchell , Harvey Meade , " Rattlesnake Dick " , " Cherokee Bob " , Tex Caldwell , Jeff Perkins , Samuel Bunton , " Irwin of the Big Hole " , William Moore and Charles Reeves .
= = = Establishment of Territorial Law = = =
During the summer of 1864 , Hezekiah L. Hosmer , a lawyer from Ohio , was working for the U.S. House of Representative Committee on Territories . After working on the formation of Montana Territory for the committee , he was formally appointed as the first Chief Justice of Montana Territory . He arrived in Montana in October 1864 . Prior to the first session of the Territorial Legislature which convened on December 12 , 1864 , in Bannack , Hosmer announced that he was adopting Common Law as the primary criminal and civil law and Idaho 's Territorial Law as a basis for criminal and civil procedure . On December 5 , 1864 , Hosmer boldly convened a public Grand Jury session in Virginia City and announced that the vigilantes had served their purpose and from this day forward , unilateral actions by the vigilantes would be considered criminal acts .
= = Helena vigilantism , 1865 – 1870 = =
On July 14 , 1864 , four prospectors — John S. Cowan , John Crab , Bob Staley and Daniel Jackson — found gold in a small creek they named " Last Chance Gulch " . As word of the strike spread throughout the area , prospectors and fortune seekers , including many from Alder Gulch and Bannack , migrated to Last Chance Gulch and the town of Helena , Montana was founded . By the middle of 1865 , many prominent vigilantes of Alder Gulch , including Wilbur Sanders , John X. Biedler , and Anton Holter , had moved to Helena . When the territory was formed , three judicial districts were established . The First District belonged to Judge Hosmer and included the towns of Bannack , Virginia City , Nevada City and Deer Lodge . The Third District encompassed the towns around Helena . From July 1864 , until August 1865 , the only justice system was the miners ' court ; the Third District did not get its first chief judge until August 1865 , when Judge Lyman Munson arrived from the east .
On June 8 , 1865 , John Keene and Harry Slater , two men who had an unresolved quarrel from their days in Salt Lake City , spotted each other in Sam Greer 's saloon on Helena 's Bridge Street . Keene shot Slater in the head , killing him instantly . Keene surrendered himself to Helena sheriff George Wood and freely admitted his guilt in the shooting . A two @-@ day trial ensued where some members of the jury were known vigilantes from Alder Gulch . Since there was no official trial judge , Stephan Reynolds , a respected member of the Helena community , presided . At the end of the trial , the jury returned a unanimous guilty verdict and Keene was hanged from the lone pine tree just outside town . The large tree , one of few that remained in proximity to Helena because most had been cut down for lumber , became known as the " Old Hangman 's Tree " . Although Keene 's trial and execution was not considered vigilantism , the Helena community , similar to the Alder Gulch community in 1863 , felt the need to establish a more reliable means of law and order .
= = = Committee of Safety = = =
Vigilante justice in Helena followed a pattern similar to that of Alder Gulch . Immediately after Keene 's hanging , leading members of the Helena community established the Helena Committee of Safety , akin to the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch . Although no records of the committee 's membership or bylaws exist , Nathaniel Langford , who had been asked to lead the organization but declined ( he did serve on its Executive Committee ) , reflected in his book Vigilante Days and Ways , that crimes of horse stealing , murder , and highway robbery would be punishable by death .
In July 1865 , the Helena vigilantes captured Jack Silvie in Diamond City , Montana and charged him with various crimes of robbery . Prior to his execution by hanging from Helena 's " Hangman 's Tree " , Silvie confessed to being a member of the Virginia City road agents and to at least a dozen murders in the territory .
Shortly after Judge Lyman Munson 's arrival in Helena , he convened a Grand Jury on August 12 , 1865 . However , unlike Judge Hosmer in Alder Gulch , Munson made no remarks about vigilantism nor did he threaten vigilantes with prosecution if they continued their activities . The vigilantes showed little respect for Munson 's court and proceeded to carry out at least 14 executions in the next eight months . No member of Helena 's vigilantes was ever indicted by Munson 's grand jury for executions carried out by the Helena Committee of Safety . The last execution by the Helena vigilantes occurred on April 27 , 1870 when Joseph Wilson and Arthur Compton were hanged from the " Old Hangman 's Tree " for the robbery and attempted murder of George Leonard . The double hanging is significant because it was photographed at the time and the image , widely circulated , had the effect of seriously dampening public sentiment for vigilantism .
= = Pax Vigilanticus = =
By the 1870s Montana as a whole was experiencing what Montana historian Frederic Allen described as a " sort of pax vigilanticus " Allen claims this was due to the reputation for summary executions but also linked to the discovery of gold in the Black Hills of the Dakota Territory . This drew many of the prospectors and camp followers out of Montana , reducing the sector of the population more closely associated with crime .
= = Stockmen 's associations = =
By the 1870s , cattle ranching and related livestock raising was a large and prosperous business in Montana . Cattle and horses were valuable commodities and always subject to rustling by thieves . After 1879 , with the threat from the Indian wars diminished on the plains of Montana , stock ranches and open range cattle ranching moved east into Central and Eastern Montana . The DHS ranch , owned by Samuel Hauser , Andrew Davis and Granville Stuart was established in 1879 in the Musselshell region of Central Montana and became one of the largest open range ranches in Montana .
The first stockmen 's association in Montana was formed in Virginia City in 1873 . The association was established to discuss branding standards , how to deal with rustling and how to influence the territorial legislature to pass laws favorable to the cattle industry . This association did not survive , but led to the creation of other organizations in subsequent years . In 1878 , the Montana Stock Association of Lewis and Clark County was organized . One of its prominent members , Ross Deegan , editorialized about the need for extralegal action if the territorial legislature did not enact laws to protect the cattle industry :
Will [ our legislators ] give us ... protection , or shall we be compelled against our wishes to become judges and executors of what we deem a proper penalty for the commission of such infringement upon the rights of property ?
In July , 1879 , a Territorial Stock Association was formed that ultimately spawned a number of small county or district based associations throughout Montana . By 1883 , the value of cattle in Montana was estimated at greater than $ 25 million and annual losses from rustling exceeded three percent . By the summer of 1884 , cattle men resorted to vigilatism to deal with rustlers and the first recorded hanging occurred at Fort Maginnis on July 3 , 1884 , when Reese Anderson , a DHS ranch foreman , and several other ranch hands hanged Sam McKenzie for horse thievery .
= = = Stuart 's Stranglers = = =
The hanging of Sam McKenzie and other citizen justice in early July 1884 prompted many thieves and rustlers to leave the territory . However , a large band of horse thieves still operated in the Musselshell region . With the tacit approval of the stockgrower 's associations , Granville Stuart organized a small intelligence network and mobilized forces to go after the thieves . The group included many of Stuart 's ranch hands and stock detectives employed by various stock associations . Known as " Stuart 's Stranglers " , the vigilantes were responsible for the recovery of dozens of stolen horses and the deaths of at least 18 thieves in July 1884 , by hanging , shootings or fire . The last hanging occurred on August 1 , 1884 . In July 1884 , Theodore Roosevelt who later became the 26th President of the United States , was operating a cattle ranch in Medora , North Dakota along the Little Missouri River in cooperation with cattle merchant Marquis de Mores . His ranch was suffering from rustling as well . Both Mores and Roosevelt offered their services to the Stranglers , but Stuart declined the offer to avoid the undue notoriety they would bring . From that point forward , stock detectives , employed by the various stock associations , took responsibility for enforcing stock laws and deterring rustling . Although there was minor public outrage about the killings , none of Stuart 's Stranglers were ever brought to trial for their actions and editorials in regional newspapers praised their efforts . General acclamation of Granville Stuart 's actions was reflected by his election as the first president of the Montana Stockgrower 's Association in late July 1884 .
= = 3 @-@ 7 @-@ 77 = =
The numerical symbol 3 @-@ 7 @-@ 77 has long been associated with Montana vigilantes . Its meaning is unclear though many theories have been put forward trying to explain what it symbolized , none conclusive , including references to the dimensions of a grave , the amount of time a miscreant had to leave town , assorted Masonic symbolism , details of membership structure , and a simple copying of the symbol from organizations in Colorado and California . Although it has been associated with vigilantes in Alder Gulch , this is not supported by historical evidence . The first documented evidence of use of the symbol in a vigilante scenario occurred in November 1879 in Helena when it was mentioned in a newspaper article . A 1914 dissertation noted that it was simply used as part of a meeting notice . It was incorporated into the uniform patch of the Montana Highway Patrol ( MHP ) in 1956 . MHP administrator Alex Stephenson designed the insignia and explained , " we chose the symbol to keep alive the memory of this first people 's police force . "
= = Historiography = =
The first written account of the vigilantes was Thomas Dimsdale 's Vigilantes of Montana which first appeared as a series of articles in 1865 editions of the Montana Post , Virginia City 's and Montana 's first newspaper . Dimsdale was a member of the Alder Gulch Vigilance Committee and editor of the Montana Post . His early accounts of the Alder Gulch vigilante events are widely cited and the book version of his articles , the first book published in Montana Territory in 1866 , has been extensively reprinted since its first edition .
The value of Dimsdale 's work lies in the fact that the volume at first a series of articles for his own paper , The Montana Post is exactly what it purports to be . Truth than fiction is ever stranger , and no glorified romance of the old west has ever succeeded in echoing like authenticity . What we have in The Vigilantes is the statement of fact before it becomes fiction , the unadorned moment in history before hearsay , the folk imagination , and the teller of tales weaves it into saga .
X. Biedler , one of the Alder Gulch and Helena vigilante enforcers wrote about his vigilante activities in his personal journals . They weren 't available until well after his death when Helen F. Sanders , the daughter @-@ in @-@ law of Wilbur Sanders finally got them published in 1957 . Nathaniel Langford , also a member of the vigilantes , explorer of the upper Yellowstone ( 1870 ) , first superintendent of Yellowstone National Park ( 1872 – 1877 ) , territorial tax collector ( 1864 – 1869 ) and author published Vigilante Days and Ways @-@ Pioneers of the Rockies in 1893 after he returned to his home in Minnesota . In a 1912 speech to the Montana Historical Society , western historian , Olin Wheeler provided positive commentary on the Alder Gulch vigilantes in a tribute to the life of Nathaniel Langford .
... Under the domination of the Vigilantes the desperadoes were hung or banished , crime was actually and swiftly punished , life and property were rendered safe , and society was rescued from a state of anarchy . Some of the best citizens in the territory were Vigilantes . ... Mr. Langford himself , happily , in the Introduction to his Vigilante Days and Ways and a most valuable chronicle of the time of which it treats , has presented a statement of facts and of arguments justifying the Vigilante methods , that is impartial , honest , cogent , forceful , and convincing to an open and discriminating mind . Honor and praise , instead of adverse criticism , are due those men , and no apologies are necessary for what they did and dared .
Another account , not published until 1982 , is that of former Montana Supreme Court Justice ( 1922 – 1935 ) Lew L. Callaway . Edited by his son Lew Callaway Jr . , Montana 's Righteous Hangmen : The Vigilantes in Action stems from Callaway 's association with vigilante Captain James William in the late 1800s . Lew Callaway wrote extensively about the vigilantes and his stories which add more intimate details about how the vigilantes operated are captured in this volume . Although some vigilante activities during this period were criticized by citizens and civic leaders , there was a general affirmation of their purpose and contribution to law | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
story , he drew symbolic links between the scientific centre and the Inca Temple of the Sun , but noted that here Calculus was the " high priest " rather than the sacrificial victim as he had been in the previous story . Moving on to discuss the moon rocket in these stories , Apostolidès described it as a phallic object which penetrated the " virgin territory " of the moon . At the same time , he described the rocket as a " maternal belly " in which the space explorers slept .
Literary critic Tom McCarthy stated that in the Destination Moon @-@ Explorers of the Moon story arc , Calculus " embodies Hergé 's ... own wartime position , spun out into a post @-@ war environment " , representing a genius driven by his work whose activities are coincidental to national and political causes . He suggested that the scene in which Captain Haddock rides a pantomime hobby horse can be contrasted with the many scenes in which Haddock is thrown off of a horse 's back during the Adventures . McCarthy also interpreted the scene in which Calculus cries and tears at his hair in response to the rocket 's capture by the enemy as reflecting Hergé 's own anxieties at having his work published and reinterpreted by his readers . He was also of the opinion that several scenes in Destination Moon reflected recurring themes throughout the series ; he suggested that Haddock 's attempts at smuggling whisky into Syldavia echoed the smuggling of treasure in The Secret of the Unicorn , while the " correction " in which Thompson and Thomson were recognised as not being spies reflected a theme of corrections in the series . He also believed that there was an example of Hergé 's secret vulgarity within Destination Moon , with a diagram above Calculus ' head in one scene resembling buttocks .
= = Adaptation = =
In 1957 , the animation company Belvision Studios produced a string of colour adaptations based on Hergé 's original comics , adapting eight of the Adventures into a series of daily five @-@ minute episodes . Destination Moon was the first to be adapted in the second animated series ; it was directed by Ray Goossens and written by Greg , a well @-@ known cartoonist who was to become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Tintin magazine .
In 1991 , a second animated series based upon The Adventures of Tintin was produced , this time as a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana . Destination Moon was the fourteenth story to be adapted and was divided into two twenty @-@ minute episodes . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " to the original comics , to the extent that the animation was directly adopted from Hergé 's original panels .
= Greg Skrepenak =
Gregory Andrew Skrepenak ( born January 31 , 1970 ) is a former Luzerne County , Pennsylvania commissioner , and retired professional American football offensive lineman in the National Football League ( NFL ) for the Los Angeles / Oakland Raiders and the Carolina Panthers . Skrepenak 's professional football career spanned the final three years the Raiders played in Los Angeles , California from 1992 @-@ 1994 and the first year they returned to Oakland , California in 1995 . Then , it continued with consecutive seasons ( 1996 and 1997 ) with the Carolina Panthers in which he did not miss a start .
Prior to his NFL experience Skrepenak had starred in the Big Ten football conference for the University of Michigan Wolverines as a two @-@ time All @-@ American , team captain , and four @-@ year starter from 1988 @-@ 1991 . Skrepenak played for four consecutive Big Ten Conference Champions , appeared in three Rose Bowls and won a Gator Bowl MVP . Previously he had been a scholar athlete at G. A. R. Memorial Junior Senior High School where he earned 12 varsity letters in football , basketball and baseball .
Skrepenak , who was born and raised in Wilkes @-@ Barre in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , United States , was elected in 2003 to serve as the Luzerne County Commissioner , a position he held from January 2004 @.@ until December , 2009 . On December 17 , 2009 , Skrepenak signed a plea agreement to a charge of corruption . He would resign later that day . On August 6 , 2010 , Greg Skrepenak was sentenced to 24 months in federal prison .
= = Early life = =
Skrepenak was born and raised in Wilkes @-@ Barre , Pennsylvania , where he attended G. A. R. Memorial Junior Senior High School . In high school , he was an honor student who excelled in three sports : American football , basketball and baseball . In football , he earned All @-@ scholastic , All @-@ state , and All @-@ American recognition . In basketball , where he scored 1600 points , he was a four @-@ time All @-@ scholastic athlete and two @-@ time conference Most Valuable Player as well as a McDonald 's All @-@ American team nominee . In baseball , he was a three @-@ time All @-@ scholastic awardee and an MVP . As a result of his accomplishments he was inducted into the Luzerne County Sports Hall of Fame and the Pennsylvania State Sports Hall of Fame .
= = College = =
At the University of Michigan , Skrepenak was a two @-@ time All @-@ American , a two @-@ time " All Big Ten " selection and a two @-@ time " Big Ten Lineman of the Year " . Skrepenak , who wore # 75 for the Michigan Wolverines football program from 1987 to 1991 , was also recognized as a " Samaritan All @-@ American " for his community service . Number 75 for the Wolverines is described as the biggest player to have ever played for Michigan at 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) , 322 pounds ( 146 kg ) . As a four @-@ year starter , he set the school offensive line record with 48 starts . In addition , he helped his running backs set new standards in yards / carry for Michigan football . During his time at Michigan , Skrepenak played for four consecutive Big Ten Conference Champions , appeared in three Rose Bowls and won a Gator Bowl MVP . His teams under Bo Schembechler and Gary Moeller compiled a 29 – 2 – 1 Big Ten record and each of his teams ended the season ranked in the top 10 .
In the January 1991 Gator Bowl , Skrepenak and the entire offensive line , which included Dean Dingman , were named Most Valuable Player . Skrepenak helped the Michigan offense gain a record 715 yards of total offense in a 35 @-@ 3 victory over Mississippi in the Gator Bowl . This marked the culmination of a productive season in which the offensive line helped Jon Vaughn set the Michigan football record for career yards per carry ( minimum 200 attempts ) . Behind true senior Dingman and redshirt junior Skrepenak , redshirt sophomore Vaughn concluded his Michigan career that season with 1 @,@ 473 yards on 226 rushes for a career 6 @.@ 3 yards per attempt average , including 1 @,@ 416 yards on 216 rushes during the 1990 season .
In 1991 , he was a consensus All @-@ American . As the senior offensive captain , he was a finalist for both the Outland Trophy and the Lombardi Award . He was the January 1 , 1991 Gator Bowl co @-@ MVP and a Senior Bowl participant . The following season , he was a member of the offensive line that protected Elvis Grbac while he was connecting with Heisman Trophy winner Desmond Howard . Also during that season , Tyrone Wheatley set the Michigan freshman yards per carry ( minimum 50 attempts ) with 555 yards on 86 carries for a 6 @.@ 4 yards per attempt average behind Skrepenak after Dingman graduated . In 2000 , he was voted onto the Wolverine ’ s " All @-@ Century Team " .
= = Professional football = =
Skrepenak was drafted in the 1992 NFL Draft with the 32nd overall pick in the second round by the Los Angeles Raiders . He stayed with the franchise for four seasons , which included a relocation from Los Angeles to Oakland . During training camp of the 1993 NFL season he was moving into the starting lineup due to an injury to Gerald Perry . However , he was injured during his second preseason start when Charles Haley bull rushed him , which caused him to get tangled up between Jeff Hostetler and the turf and which resulted in a dislocated ankle joint that kept him out for the season . Skrepenak did not become a starter for the Raiders until midway through the 1994 NFL season when he replaced Bruce Wilkerson . He started the final 10 games of 1994 and the first 14 games of the 1995 NFL season before being benched toward the end of the season in favor of Robert Jenkins . Skrepenak was deactivated from the roster for the final two games of the season right before his contract expired . Officially , the deactivation was due to a combination of a rib injury and the flu , but some say it may have also been partially due to vocal play selection criticism . However , head coach Mike White and assistant coach Joe Bugel said the benching was merely a function of the full strength depth chart upon the return of Gerald Perry . Skrepenak was a vocal detractor on the organization after leaving the Raiders . Among the opinions Skrepenak expressed during his time with the Raiders was that the Raiders overemphasized slogans related to team history while setting penalty records as a team .
The Panthers signed him in the offseason after the 1995 NFL season as an unrestricted free agent . While he was a Panther , he and Blake Brockermeyer were considered the key components of the offensive line . He was the only Panther to start every game of both the 1996 and 1997 National Football League seasons . He was named to the Panther ’ s All @-@ Time Team . He was released from the team due to salary cap considerations . Skrepenak was rumored to be sought after by the Miami Dolphins in 1998 . However , he spent the year out of football . Skrepenak was in the Oakland Raiders ' 1999 summer camp , but during his comeback attempt he had to leave the Raiders camp in on August 10 , 1999 to attend to personal business back in Wilkes @-@ Barre for several days . Skrepenak was a supporter of the new Jon Gruden coaching administration upon his return to the Raiders despite the fact that he was not as highly paid or expected to start . Skrepenak was a popular offensive lineman with the Raiders and his spot was held in his absence with a special tribute by Steve Wisniewski and Mo Collins who both wore his jersey number in his absence . Skrepenak returned to camp for a few weeks . On August 31 , he was released .
During Skrepenak 's career , he played for only one playoff team . Coach , Dom Capers ' 1996 Carolina Panthers went 12 – 4 during the 1996 NFL season but lost to the Green Bay Packers in the National Football Conference Championship game of the 1996 @-@ 97 NFL playoffs . That season Skrepenak helped protect the team 's only Pro Bowler , quarterback Kerry Collins . Although Skrepenak missed the 1993 NFL season due to injury , Art Shell 's 1993 Los Angeles Raiders went 10 – 6 and advanced one round in the 1993 @-@ 94 NFL playoffs before losing to the Buffalo Bills . Skrepenak played offensive tackle during his years with the Raiders and offensive guard during his years with the Panthers . He has regularly played on the right side of the line .
= = Political career = =
He returned to Luzerne County , where his ancestry traces back several generations , upon retirement from football to raise his three children . He has since become involved in numerous community and political organizations and activities . He was elected to the Luzerne County Board of Commissioners in 2003 and has served as its chairman since January 6 , 2004 . His agenda is fighting drug abuse and crime . However , he has also earmarked $ 2 @.@ 5 million in Community Development funding for the Wilkes @-@ Barre Movies 14 Complex . He is also involved in bringing a new airport to Hazleton , Pennsylvania . Skrepenak co @-@ ordinates his efforts on emotional wellness with Wyoming County .
Skrepenak ran for re @-@ election in the November 6 , 2007 election . Skrepenak ran jointly with County Controller Maryanne Petrilla and the pair easily outdistanced the competition in the primary to gain the two nominations . Among the controversies during campaign were the use of debit cards for the commissioners based on a new policy effective September 2005 . Skrepenak 's expenses totalled $ 22 @,@ 139 @.@ 93 , including $ 3 @,@ 743 for gang @-@ related training in Los Angeles , California , $ 524 @.@ 08 for an accounting standards manual and $ 798 @.@ 63 for communications equipment .
Skrepenak had considered running for Don Sherwood 's United States House of Representatives seat that was contested and won by Chris Carney in the 2006 elections . He had admitted aspirations for higher office . However , after meetings with the National Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee he decided not to run for the United States Congress in the heavily Republican district . Congressman Sherwood 's defeat allowed the district to go Democratic for the first time since 1961 . Skrepenak was re @-@ elected by finishing among the top three in a contest for county commissioner . The unofficial results were Maryanne Petrilla ( D ) 33 @,@ 827 votes ( 29 % ) , Greg Skrepenak ( D / Inc . ) 32 @,@ 281 ( 27 % ) , Stephen Urban ( R / Inc . ) 27 @,@ 835 ( 24 % ) and Bill Jones ( R ) 24 @,@ 071 ( 20 % ) .
It was announced December 17 , 2009 , that Skrepenak was resigning his position with the Luzerne County Commissioners effective immediately . The resignation comes one day after a source said Skrepenak signed a plea agreement with the U.S. Attorney ’ s office as part of the ongoing pay to play corruption investigation being conducted in Luzerne County . Skrepenak stated that he resigned due to a clash between longtime cultural practices in county politics and the higher standards of public office and the law . Specifically , he was formally charged with accepting a $ 5 @,@ 000 bribe from a developer for voting to accept the developer 's project into a government funded tax incentive program .
On August 6 , 2010 , Greg Skrepenak was sentenced to 24 months in federal prison . United States Federal Sentencing Guidelines called for a 33- to 41 @-@ month sentence . However , his sentence was reduced for cooperation with an ongoing federal corruption probe . He was not granted leniency for charitable works , medical complications or devotion to family .
On June 12 , 2012 , Greg Skrepenak was released from a halfway house . He had been transferred from federal prison in Beckley , West Virginia to the halfway house in early April . Since then , he moved back and forth from the halfway house to his parent 's home in Dallas , Pennsylvania , with his parents and his children . He has been released from the custody of the U.S. Bureau of Prisons and is serving three years probation . Since his release , he has worked as a legal researcher for a Kingston law firm .
= Weinreb ketone synthesis =
The Weinreb – Nahm ketone synthesis is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry to make carbon – carbon bonds . It was discovered in 1981 by Steven M. Weinreb and Steven Nahm as a method to synthesize ketones . The original reaction involved two subsequent nucleophilic acyl substitutions : the conversion of an acid chloride into an N , O @-@ dimethylhydroxyamide , known as a Weinreb – Nahm amide , and subsequent treatment of this species with an organometallic reagent such as a Grignard reagent or organolithium reagent . Nahm and Weinreb also reported the synthesis of aldehydes by reduction of the amide with an excess of lithium aluminum hydride ( see amide reduction ) .
The major advantage of this method over addition of organometallic reagents to more typical acyl compounds is that it avoids the common problem of over @-@ addition . For these latter reactions , two equivalents of the incoming group add to form an alcohol rather than a ketone or aldehyde . This occurs even if the equivalents of nucleophile are closely controlled .
The Weinreb – Nahm amide has since been adopted into regular use by organic chemists as a dependable method for the synthesis of ketones . These functional groups are present in a large number of natural products and can be reliably reacted to form new carbon – carbon bonds or converted into other functional groups . This method has been used in a number of syntheses , including Macrosphelides A and B , Amphidinolide J , and Spirofungins A and B. ( See Scope below )
= = Mechanism = =
Weinreb and Nahm originally proposed the following reaction mechanism to explain the selectivity shown in reactions of the Weinreb – Nahm amide . Their suggestion was that the tetrahedral intermediate ( A below ) formed as a result of nucleophilic acyl substitution by the organometallic reagent is stabilized by chelation from the methoxy group as shown . This intermediate is stable only at low temperatures , requiring a low @-@ temperature quench .
This chelation is in contrast to the mechanism for formation of the over @-@ addition product wherein collapse of the tetrahedral intermediate allows a second addition . The mechanistic conjecture on the part of Weinreb was immediately accepted by the academic community , but it was not until 2006 that it was confirmed by spectroscopic and kinetic analyses .
= = Preparation = =
In addition to the original procedure shown above ( which may have compatibility issues for sensitive substrates ) , Weinreb amides can be synthesized from a variety of acyl compounds . The vast majority of these procedures utilize the commercially available salt N , O @-@ dimethylhydroxylamine hydrochloride [ MeO ( Me ) NH • HCl ] , which is typically easier to handle than the free amine .
Treatment of an ester or lactone with AlMe3 or AlMe2Cl affords the corresponding Weinreb amide in good yields . Alternatively , non @-@ nucleophilic Grignard reagents such as isopropyl magnesium chloride can be used to activate the amine before addition of the ester .
A variety of peptide coupling reagents can also be used to prepare Weinreb – Nahm amides from carboxylic acids . Various carbodiimide- , hydroxybenzotriazole- , and triphenylphosphine @-@ based couplings have been reported specifically for this purpose .
Finally , an aminocarbonylation reaction reported by Stephen Buchwald allows conversion of aryl halides directly into aryl Weinreb – Nahm amides .
= = Scope = =
The standard conditions for the Weinreb – Nahm ketone synthesis are known to tolerate a wide variety of functional groups elsewhere in the molecule , including alpha @-@ halogen substitution , N @-@ protected amino acids , α @-@ β unsaturation , silyl ethers , various lactams and lactones , sulfonates , sulfinates , and phosphonate esters . A wide variety of nucleophiles can be used in conjunction with the amide . Lithiates and Grignard reagents are most commonly employed ; examples involving aliphatic , vinyl , aryl , and alkynyl carbon nucleophiles have been reported . However , with highly basic or sterically hindered nucleophiles , elimination of the methoxide moiety to release formaldehyde can occur as a significant side reaction .
Nonetheless , the Weinreb – Nahm amide figures prominently into many syntheses , serving as an important coupling partner for various fragments . Shown below are key steps involving Weinreb amides in the synthesis of several natural products , including members of the immunosuppressant family of Macrosphelides , and the antibiotic family of Spirofungins .
= = Variations = =
Reaction of Weinreb – Nahm amides with Wittig reagents has been performed to avoid the sometimes harsh conditions required for addition of hydride reagents or organometallic compounds . This yields an N @-@ methyl @-@ N @-@ methoxy @-@ enamine that converts to the corresponding ketone or aldehyde upon hydrolytic workup .
Additionally , a one @-@ pot magnesium – halogen exchange with subsequent arylation has been developed , showcasing the stability of the Weinreb – Nahm amide and providing an operationally simple method for the synthesis of aryl ketones .
More unusual reagents with multiple Weinreb – Nahm amide functional groups have been synthesized , serving as CO2 and α @-@ diketone synthons .
Finally , Stephen G. Davies of Oxford has designed a chiral auxiliary that combines the functionality of the Weinreb amide with that of the Myers ’ pseudoephedrine auxiliary , allowing diastereoselective enolate alkylation followed by facile cleavage to the corresponding enantioenriched aldehyde or ketone .
= Through a Glass Darkly ( Koen novel ) =
Through a Glass Darkly is a 1986 historical fiction novel by American author Karleen Koen . A former magazine editor , Koen had never before written a novel and spent four years developing it while living as a housewife with her family . She sold the hardcover rights to Random House for $ 350 @,@ 000 , which was then a record for a new novelist . The circumstances behind the work 's publication led to Koen becoming the subject of much media attention in the late 1980s .
Koen 's story is set in the midst of the turbulent politics of the English and French aristocracy as well as the South Sea Bubble . The novel begins in 1715 England , when teenage protagonist Barbara Alderley becomes married to the handsome , older Earl Devane . Though in love with him , Barbara soon discovers a secret from his past that threatens to tear their relationship apart . Barbara must learn to navigate courtly intrigues and financial crises while experiencing personal tragedies .
Released on July 12 , 1986 by Random House , Through a Glass Darkly landed on The New York Times Best Seller list . Critical reception was largely mixed , with reviewers focusing on the novel 's prose and attention to historical detail . It has been translated into more than ten languages .
= = Background = =
Through a Glass Darkly was the first novel written by American author Karleen Koen . She had previously been a reporter for the Houston Business Journal and also served as the editor of Houston Home & Garden before leaving to spend more time with her husband and two children . Desiring to once again have her name in print , Koen was persuaded by her husband to write a novel to help keep busy in between housework . At first sceptical at writing fiction , Koen began mentioning the idea at parties to avoid appearing as a mere housewife . " When you 're at home raising children your status is – well , there is no status , " Koen later recalled . Commencing the novel in 1980 , she wrote three long drafts during a four @-@ year period ; the final manuscript ultimately contained 1 @,@ 300 double @-@ spaced pages .
Koen found inspiration from her interest in the eighteenth century . Rather than use the " virginity @-@ sexual tango " trope of most historical romance novels , Koen sought to circumvent the " rules " of the genre and concentrate on characterization . Koen engaged in an intensive research period on the eighteenth century using approximately 300 books , which she often obtained from a local university 's library . She also traveled briefly to England and France . Koen found writing the novel to be " a very intense thing " and became very attached to her characters , even the villains . She sought to " hook the readers emotionally and make them care . I guess it 's soap opera ( but ) there 's a kind of sigh you heave when you finish a certain type of book . I wanted that sigh . " She added :
" The heroine is Barbara , and she is 15 when the novel opens and 21 years old at the end . It 's the story of her coming of age , her family , marriage and relationships . I left the exact place where all this happens rather nebulous , but the locale is southern England . It 's all created . The period was fascinating to research – I went through about 300 books . It was the age of Defoe , Pope , Swift and Addison and I lost myself in their time . "
To gain a publisher for her novel , she sent the manuscript to several literary agents she had discovered in Writer 's Digest . Though two turned her down , one agent , Jean Naggar , encouraged Koen to continue finishing the book , believing it to be " the launching of a major author . " Naggar mailed the manuscript to five major publishing companies , with Random House purchasing it for a " whopping " $ 350 @,@ 000 in August 1985 , which was at the time a record for a new novelist . Random House 's publisher , Howard Kaminsky , wanted to publish " Oprah Winfrey @-@ type books " in the " how @-@ to @-@ be @-@ the @-@ best @-@ you @-@ can @-@ be " genre . He reasoned , " I 'm sure that 's up there with the highest prices ever paid for the hardcover rights alone to a first novel . But then it is not that big a price when you consider that it 's such a deserving novel – and it will undoubtedly go for a very large amount in paperback later . "
= = Plot summary = =
In 1715 England , fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Barbara Alderley lives with her widowed grandmother , the Duchess of Tamworth , and her younger siblings on their family 's country Tamworth estate . Barbara 's indebted and calculating mother , Lady Diana Alderley , arrives to inform them of Barbara 's possible marriage to Roger Montgeoffry , Earl Devane , a former aide to the deceased Duke . Barbara is pleased with the news , believing herself to be in love with the handsome , wealthy , and popular earl despite his age ( nearly thirty years her senior ) .
Roger in turn desires Barbara 's dowry of land in London , which he hopes to develop into an opulent estate and townhouses ; she and her mother travel to London to make arrangements for the betrothal . Due to Diana 's greed , negotiations almost fall apart until the intervention of the Duchess results in Barbara and Roger finally marrying . The couple travel to Paris . While learning to navigate through Parisian society , Barbara remains in love with her husband but Roger has no thoughts at all for his young bride other than mere fondness .
Roger however has a secret : he once had a long @-@ term affair with the French aristocrat the Prince of Soissons , with whom he begins anew soon after arriving in Paris . Through the actions of courtiers jealous of Barbara 's devotion to Roger , pamphlets eventually spread about the affair . The young and naive Barbara is among the last to hear of it and breaks down in tears and shock .
The plot jumps forward to 1720 England , where the country is unknowingly approaching the South Sea Bubble economic collapse ; Barbara has separated from her husband and conducted affairs with several men in Paris and London . Still in love with Roger despite his affair , she is unhappy and becomes horrified when she discovers that one of her jealous lovers , Lord Charles Russel , killed Jemmy , a young nobleman who she accidentally slept with for one night .
Later , the bursting of the Bubble causes chaos and violence through London . Barbara 's only surviving sibling , Harry , is in severe debt and commits suicide ; many citizens blame Lord Devane , who helped run the South Sea Company , for the country 's finances . At the Tamworth estate , Barbara and Roger attempt a reconciliation but he collapses from an apoplexy soon after while evaluating his own precarious financial situation in London .
With the help of several of Roger 's friends , Barbara attempts to oversee his finances and takes him out of the still @-@ chaotic city . At Tamworth , Roger gradually becomes worse and dies . Stricken and in mourning , Barbara holds a public memorial in London for her deceased husband , despite being warned that it would draw attention to his estate during the Parliamentary inquest into the financial crisis . To give her peace , the Duchess develops a scheme of spiriting her granddaughter out of the country by having her visit their plantation in Virginia . The novel ends with Barbara and several servants leaving on a ship intended for the colonies .
= = = Main characters = = =
Barbara Alderley , Lady Devane – young , naive , devoted , and beautiful , she is the protagonist of the novel and Roger 's wife
Roger Montgeoffry , Earl Devane – wealthy , charismatic , handsome , and popular , he is Barbara 's husband and Philippe 's lover
Alice Saylor , Duchess of Tamsworth – the venerable dowager of the Saylor family , she is Diana 's mother and Barbara 's grandmother
Tony Saylor , Duke of Tamworth – young , shy , and kind , he is in love with his cousin Barbara
Lady Diana Alderley – calculating , cold , promiscuous , and greedy , she is mother to Barbara and Harry
Philippe , Prince of Soissons – a sophisticated and dangerous French aristocrat , he is Roger 's lover
Harry Alderley – impetuous and handsome , he is Barbara 's brother
Jane Ashford , later Cromwell – kind and serious , she is a childhood friend of Barbara 's and Harry 's early love
= = Themes = =
Through a Glass Darkly is a long , complex narrative that features more than 60 characters and at least 15 subplots . The title of the novel comes from the Bible verse 1 Corinthians 13 . Before she began writing it , Koen envisioned creating a story about the relationship between a young woman and an older man , a plot element riddled with emotional tension that required much planning and foresight . Koen also sought to create a story that featured issues relevant to contemporary women , such as the non @-@ existence of " legal rights . If a husband wanted to beat his wife to death he could do it , and if her parents didn 't care ... No birth control . If you had any normal sexual urges you were pregnant all the time , and half the women died in childbirth . Life was very violent and short and I just wanted to show how it was without getting up on a soapbox , so someone reading it would say , ' I 'm glad I live now . ' " According to Koen , another consistent theme throughout Through a Glass Darkly is how vital family is to our well @-@ being , family in this case being a loose term that does not necessarily equate to being biologically @-@ related . She was also interested in writing how people are connected to each other .
= = Release and reception = =
Through a Glass Darkly was first released in hardcover on July 12 , 1986 . Koen became known as the " unknown author who hit the jackpot " of a book that " everyone 's been talking about . " Media stories angled the book 's backstory as a " phenomenon , " particularly because it was purchased by a prestigious publisher at such a high price for a first time novelist . After its release , Koen began a seven @-@ city promotional tour that ended in late September 1986 . Avon Books paid more than twice Random House 's price to gain paperback rights , and released the novel on paperback on September 1 , 1987 . Even before it was officially published , Through a Glass Darkly landed on The New York Times Best Seller list , where it stayed for more than a year . It was translated into ten languages the year it was published . In February 1987 , People reported that " plans to turn the book into a big @-@ budget miniseries are also underway . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
After reviewing the hype surrounding the book , author Barbara Schaaf concluded that its prose " was first @-@ rate – literate and with flashes of timeless insight . Anyone who can take a 15 @-@ year @-@ old heroine ... and dash off over 700 pages just to get her to age 21 without losing the reader , has real talent . " Schaaf added that Koen has a " fine eye for art , architecture , fashion , manners and relays the everything , " though she critiqued the author for sometimes inserting too many historical details . She believed that the book especially shone in depicting the South Sea Bubble ; " most historical writers , " Schaaf opined , " neglect the economic background of their periods , regardless of its importance , and [ Koen 's ] grasp of a complicated situation makes it as fascinating as her descriptions of the sexual behavior of the upper and lower classes . "
People 's Harriet Shapiro declared that Through a Glass Darkly " is no run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill bodice buster , trade slang for bosom @-@ heaving historical romances . Koen paints a lavish , carefully researched portrait of a young woman 's turbulent coming of age in 18th @-@ century England and France . " Texas Monthly asserted that characterization was Koen 's greatest asset , though the story 's " sense of pacing falters " after two hundred pages . Another criticism was directed at the numerous monologues , which felt like having " commercials stacked toward the end of a late @-@ night TV movie . " Texas Monthly ended their review on a positive note , giving praise to the historical detail as well as the story 's ending , which the reviewer believed would encourage readers to buy the forthcoming sequel .
In a guest column for The New York Times , author Erica Jong called Koen 's work a " well @-@ researched , workmanlike historical novel [ ... ] of the sort that Kathleen Winsor or Thomas B. Costain used to write : packed with details of costume , architecture and cuisine , populated by rudimentary paper @-@ doll characters , full of undigested Continued on next page gobbets of research . " Jong shone a negative light on some of the characters , which she believed " seem [ ed ] derived from movies , mini @-@ series and other books " and overshadowed by the attention to historical detail . She concluded that " Koen 's publishers [ did ] her a disservice in presenting this rather routine and turgid book as though it were Gone With the Wind , " when it was actually a " well @-@ researched bodice @-@ ripper . "
Phoebe @-@ Lou Adams of The Atlantic gave a negative review and criticized the " enormous , gigantic , monstrous historical novel " for containing a protagonist who " suffers and suffers and suffers while innumerable soap @-@ opera types minuet about in fancy dress . The period is early eighteenth century , and the research underlying the gallimaufry is thorough beyond the call of duty . " In response to some bad attention her novel received , which she said " hurt like hell , " Koen noted the persistence of " in @-@ fighting " within the publishing industry . " Who reviews your book has a lot to do with the kind of review you get , " she said .
= United Airlines Flight 736 =
United Airlines Flight 736 was a daily U.S. transcontinental passenger flight operated by United Airlines that crashed on April 21 , 1958 , following a mid @-@ air collision . The aircraft assigned to Flight 736 , a Douglas DC @-@ 7 airliner carrying 47 persons , was flying at cruise altitude above Clark County , Nevada , en route to a stopover at Denver , Colorado , when it was struck by a United States Air Force fighter jet crewed by two pilots . The collision occurred at 8 : 30 a.m. in clear weather within a major commercial airway ; both aircraft fell out of control from 21 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) and crashed into unpopulated desert terrain southwest of Las Vegas , Nevada .
There were no survivors from either aircraft , and with 49 fatalities it remains the deadliest crash in the history of the Las Vegas Valley . Among the victims were a group of military personnel and civilian contractors involved with sensitive Department of Defense weapons systems . The loss of the group triggered new rules prohibiting similar groups engaged in critical projects from flying aboard the same aircraft .
The official investigation stated that cockpit visibility limitations played a role in the accident , but also faulted military and civilian aviation authorities for not taking measures to reduce well @-@ known collision risks that had existed for over a year within the confines of airways , despite numerous complaints from airline crews . The loss of United Airlines Flight 736 — part of a series of 1950s mid @-@ air collisions in American skies , including the well @-@ publicized 1956 Grand Canyon mid @-@ air collision — helped usher in widespread improvements in air traffic control within the United States .
= = Events leading to the accident = =
Flight 736 , a four @-@ engined DC @-@ 7 propliner with registration N6328C , departed Los Angeles International Airport at 7 : 37 a.m. on a flight to New York City with stops in Denver , Kansas City and Washington , D.C. On board were 42 passengers and five crew members ; Captain Duane M. Ward , 44 , First Officer Arlin Edward Sommers , 36 , Flight Engineer Charles E. Woods , 43 , and Stewardesses Pauline Mary Murray , 22 , and Yvonne Marie Peterson , 27 . Of the passengers on the flight , seven were military personnel and 35 were civilians .
Soon after takeoff the airliner was directed into airway " Victor 8 , " on a route that took it east over Ontario , California , and then northeast toward Las Vegas . The crew flew the DC @-@ 7 under instrument flight rules , controlled by Civil Aeronautics Authority ( CAA ) ground stations , at an authorized altitude of 21 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) toward the first stopover at Denver .
Approximately 8 minutes after the DC @-@ 7 had departed Los Angeles , a U.S. Air Force F @-@ 100F @-@ 5 @-@ NA Super Sabre jet fighter , serial number 56 @-@ 3755 , took off from Nellis Air Force Base near Las Vegas at 7 : 45 a.m. on a training flight with two pilots on board . In the front seat of the tandem cockpit was flight instructor and safety pilot Capt. Thomas N. Coryell , 29 , and behind him sat his student , 1st Lt. Gerald D. Moran , 24 , who as part of his training would spend the flight under a hood that blocked his view outside the aircraft , but allowed him to see his instrument panel .
The instructor had two @-@ way microphone communication with the student , and his duties were to instruct the student in the rear seat , monitor his performance and maintain a lookout for other aircraft . The F @-@ 100F had dual pilot control and the instructor could take over flying the jet at any time . The training flight involved a descent and approach to Nellis Air Force Base under simulated instrument meteorological conditions from an altitude of 28 @,@ 000 feet ( 8 @,@ 500 m ) . The descent was to be a " teardrop pattern , " with the Las Vegas commercial radio station KRAM as the navigational fix , a process that was referred to as the " KRAM procedure . " The prescribed descent angle for the KRAM procedure was about five degrees .
At 8 : 14 a.m. the United Airlines crew radioed a routine position report over the Mojave Desert to notify controllers that they expected to arrive over McCarran Field near Las Vegas at 8 : 31 a.m. Air Force pilot Moran radioed the control tower at Nellis Air Force Base at 8 : 28 a.m. to report that he would now begin a procedural " jet penetration " descent to 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) . As the fighter descended , the airliner was approaching Las Vegas air space at about 312 knots ( 578 km / h ) on a heading of 23 degrees , flying straight @-@ and @-@ level within the confines of its designated airway . The CAA stations controlling the airliner were unaware of the fighter jet ; the Air Force controllers at Nellis Air Force Base directing the jet were unaware of the airliner .
= = Collision = =
At 8 : 30 a.m. , despite clear skies with excellent visibility of about 35 miles ( 56 km ) , the flight paths of the two aircraft intersected about 9 miles ( 14 km ) southwest of Las Vegas . The converging aircraft collided nearly head @-@ on at an altitude of 21 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) at an estimated closure speed of 665 knots ( 1 @,@ 232 km / h ) .
The descending Air Force jet , flying at 444 knots ( 822 km / h ) , had clipped the airliner 's right wing with its own right wing , immediately sending both aircraft out of control . At the moment of collision the F @-@ 100F was in a 90 degree bank to the left at a down angle of about 17 degrees . One eyewitness to the collision stated that about two seconds before the collision the wings of the F @-@ 100F " dipped " ; another eyewitness said the fighter " swooped down " just before the impact . The witness descriptions and the extreme 90 degree bank of the fighter jet — far more than the 30 degrees outlined in the KRAM procedure — suggest an unsuccessful " last second " evasive action on the part of the Air Force crew .
Moments after the two planes collided , the only mayday distress call radioed by the United Airlines crew was heard at 8 : 30 a.m. plus 20 seconds . The crippled airliner — now missing about eight feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) of its right wing — trailed black smoke and flames as it spiraled earthward , and crashed into a then @-@ empty patch of desert outside the town of Arden . The nearly vertical impact and subsequent explosion instantly killed everyone on board .
The fighter jet — its right wing and right tailplane torn away by the collision — left a trail of fragments as it arced downward , and crashed west of the small community of Sloan into a hilly area of uninhabited desert , several miles south of the DC @-@ 7 crash site . At least one of the Air Force pilots was still in the jet when it hit the ground , but contemporary news reports differ on whether the other pilot managed an unsuccessful ejection at too low an altitude to survive , or stayed with the jet all the way to the ground . Witnesses reported seeing a parachute drifting away from the falling F @-@ 100F , leading to the hope that a pilot had ejected , but when the parachute was located it was determined to be a drag parachute that is meant to be deployed on landing to help slow the fighter down .
= = Investigations = =
At the request of the local sheriff and United Airlines , the Federal Bureau of Investigation sent fingerprint experts to help identify the human remains . The Los Angeles Times reported that among the dead were 13 civilian and military managers , engineers and technicians assigned to the American ballistic missile program . Articles in the Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal commemorating the 40th and 50th anniversaries of the crash reported that the FBI search went beyond fingerprint matching for identification ; the agents were also looking for any surviving sensitive papers relating to national security that the group of military contractors had carried on board in handcuffed briefcases . The same reports also said the crash prompted the military and defense industry to adopt rules to keep groups of technical people involved in the same critical project from traveling together on the same plane .
The Civil Aeronautics Board ( CAB ) conducted an investigation and published a report on the accident . The CAB ruled out the weather conditions and the airworthiness of the two planes as factors in the collision . The report stated the probable cause was the high rate of near head @-@ on closure , and that at high altitude , there were human and cockpit limitations involved . Analysis of the approach angles concluded that a metal frame support on the F @-@ 100 's windscreen " interfered seriously " with detection of the DC @-@ 7 , and a supporting pillar on the DC @-@ 7 's windshield may have hindered sighting the fighter . The CAB accident report also cited a failure of Nellis Air Force Base and the CAA to take measures to reduce a known collision exposure ; training exercises were allowed to be conducted for more than a year prior to the collision within the confines of several airways , even after numerous near @-@ misses with military jets had been reported by airline crews .
= = Legacy = =
The mid @-@ air collision involving United Airlines Flight 736 , and a second one a month later over Maryland , between a Capital Airlines airliner and another military jet , accelerated efforts in the United States to change the way air space was allocated to commercial and military flights .
On April 22 , 1958 , the day after United Airlines Flight 736 crashed , the CAB proposed an experiment in which it would set aside part of the air space from which would be barred all aircraft lacking specific clearance to enter it . All aircraft operating in the designated space would have to be equipped for instrument flight operations . According to the CAB there had been 159 mid @-@ air collisions in the years 1947 @-@ 1957 , and that in 1957 alone there were 971 near @-@ misses . The increased speed of aircraft and higher air traffic density made it harder to give pilots enough time to spot each other during flights . Therefore , the CAB said , " it is essential that positive control be extended to altitudes at 35 @,@ 000 feet and on additional routes as rapidly as practical . " At the time such control only existed between 17 @,@ 000 and 22 @,@ 000 feet on certain transcontinental airways .
In the wake of the two airliners lost in the April and May 1958 collisions , investigators from a House of Representatives committee — concerned about the lack of coordination between civil and military air traffic controllers — imposed a 60 @-@ day deadline on the CAB and the Air Force to establish new control procedures . The committee also said that eventually a single civil agency should be given the power to regulate all air space for all types of aircraft . Furthermore , the committee stated that military flying should be controlled in the vicinity of airways not only in instrument weather , but also in visual conditions .
Four months after 49 lives were lost in the worst aviation accident in the history of the Las Vegas region , the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 was signed into law . The act dissolved the CAA and created the Federal Aviation Agency ( FAA , later renamed Federal Aviation Administration ) . The FAA was given unprecedented and total authority over the control of American air space , including military activity , and as procedures and ATC facilities were modernized , airborne collisions gradually decreased in frequency . The Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal in a 50th anniversary article stated that the act " specifically referenced the crash of United 736 in ordering the creation of the FAA . "
The supersonic F @-@ 100 left a legacy of many crashes over its years of service ; nearly 25 percent were lost to accidents . In particular , 1958 was the most costly , with 47 F @-@ 100 pilots killed and 116 of the fighters destroyed , a loss rate averaging almost one every three days .
= = Legal aftermath = =
Following the collision at least 31 lawsuits seeking damages were brought against United Airlines , the U.S. Government , or both . On September 24 , 1958 , United Airlines filed for damages — based on the Federal Tort Claims Act — against the United States in the U.S. District Court for the District of Delaware . The airline alleged that the United States through its agents in the United States Air Force negligently operated the F @-@ 100F , and sought damages of US $ 3 @,@ 576 @,@ 698 . The court found neither crew was negligent for a failure to see and avoid each other , but held the United States was liable because of other negligence . The case was settled on December 17 , 1962 , with the United States agreeing to pay the airline $ 1 @.@ 45 million .
In another case , on January 8 , 1964 surviving relatives of two of the United Airlines crew were awarded a total of $ 343 @,@ 200 from the government , with U.S. District Court Judge Hatfield Chilson finding the Air Force pilots did not use " ordinary care " in operation of the fighter jet , and should have yielded the right of way to the DC @-@ 7 airliner . Chilson also criticized the Air Force for not coordinating instrument training flights with civilian instrument flight rules traffic , and for failing to schedule flights to minimize traffic congestion . The government appealed , and the relatives cross @-@ appealed to have their damage awards increased , but the earlier 1964 judgment was affirmed on September 30 , 1965 .
= = Nearby crash sites = =
The region where the United Airlines and Air Force aircraft went down has experienced other major airliner crashes . In 1942 movie star Carole Lombard and 21 others died in the mountainside crash of TWA Flight 3 , about 16 miles ( 26 km ) WSW of where United Airlines Flight 736 crashed . In 1964 , 29 people lost their lives when Bonanza Air Lines Flight 114 flew into a hilltop 5 miles ( 8 km ) SW of the United Airlines impact site ; the F @-@ 100F crashed in the same area of desert hills as the Bonanza Air Lines flight .
At both of those rugged , mountainous sites , salvage efforts removed the more accessible and valuable wreckage , but scattered and sometimes substantial portions of the TWA DC @-@ 3 and Bonanza Air Lines Fairchild F @-@ 27 were left behind , including the DC @-@ 3 's radial engines . The United Airlines DC @-@ 7 crash site , however , has been cleared of all but the smallest artifacts , and is threatened by development . In 1958 the site was at least a mile from the nearest paved road ; today the spot where the DC @-@ 7 hit is adjacent to a developed neighborhood near the intersection of Decatur Boulevard and Cactus Avenue . Five decades after the events of April 21 , 1958 , a small makeshift marker placed in the sandy soil was the only sign of the loss of United Airlines Flight 736 , but preliminary efforts were in motion to encourage public officials to build a permanent memorial to those who died .
= A Rugrats Passover =
" A Rugrats Passover " is the 26th and final episode of the third season of the American animated television series Rugrats , and its 65th episode overall . It was broadcast originally on April 13 , 1995 , on the cable network Nickelodeon . The plot follows series regulars Grandpa Boris and the babies as they become trapped in the attic on Passover ; to pass the time , Boris tells the Jewish story of the Exodus . During the episode the babies themselves reenact the story , with young Tommy portraying Moses , while his cousin Angelica represents the Pharaoh of Egypt .
" A Rugrats Passover " was directed by Jim Duffy , Steve Socki , and Jeff McGrath from the script by Peter Gaffney , Paul Germain , Rachel Lipman , and Jonathon Greenberg . The episode was conceived in 1992 when Germain responded to a Nickelodeon request for a Rugrats Hanukkah special by creating a Passover episode instead . The episode scored a 3 @.@ 1 Nielsen Rating , making it " the highest @-@ rated show in Nickelodeon 's history " , and received overwhelmingly positive reviews , including from Jewish community publications . It was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award , an Annie Award , and a CableACE Award . The episode also , however , attracted controversy , when the Anti @-@ Defamation League compared the artistic design of the older characters to anti @-@ Semitic drawings from a 1930s Nazi newspaper .
The episode made Rugrats one of the first animated series to focus on a Jewish holiday ; its success precipitated the creation of another special , " A Rugrats Chanukah " , which also attracted critical acclaim . A novelization of the episode was in 2007 exhibited at the Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art in Tulsa , Oklahoma .
= = Plot = =
As the episode opens , Tommy and Angelica Pickles and their parents are all gathering to celebrate the Passover Seder at the home of Didi 's parents , Boris and Minka Kropotkin . Stu and Angelica , who are Christians , both find Passover boring , and Angelica argues why she and her parents should be at the Seder at all , especially considering Boris and Minka aren 't actually related to them . Following an argument with Minka about what type of wine glasses they should use ( either the glasses that belonged to Minka 's mother or the ones that belonged Boris 's father ) , Boris storms out of the room ; the two families arrive and Didi tries comforting her mom , who believes Boris has run away .
Boris hasn 't reappeared by the time Tommy 's best friend , Chuckie Finster , and his dad , Chas , arrive to join the celebration ; when the Seder begins the children set off to search for Boris , eventually finding him in the attic . Boris explains that he felt bad about yelling at Minka , and had gone to look for her mother 's wine glasses , but had become locked inside when the door closed behind him ( it can 't open from the inside ) . Angelica tests the door , and inadvertently locks them all in again .
Angelica tells Boris that he 's not really missing anything and admits that she thinks that Passover 's a dumb holiday . Boris tries convincing her otherwise by telling her and the boys the story of the Exodus , hoping to improve their understanding of Passover . As he talks , Angelica imagines herself as the Pharaoh of Egypt , who commands the Hebrew slaves ( imagined as the other Rugrats and numerous other babies ) to throw their newborn sons into the Nile River . One Hebrew slave defies the order by putting her infant son , Moses ( imagined as Tommy ) , into a basket and setting the basket afloat in the river . The basket and baby are discovered by Pharaoh Angelica , who shows Moses around her palace and kingdom , and decides to make him her partner .
As Boris explains that the Pharaoh was unaware that Moses himself was actually a Hebrew , Chas enters the attic , looking for the children , and becomes locked in with the rest of them . He sits down and listens as Boris continues : years later , Boris says , Moses stood up for an abused Hebrew slave ( imagined as Chuckie ) , and was outed as a Hebrew . The episode then pictures Tommy as Moses fleeing to the desert , where he becomes a shepherd and forgets about Egypt and the Pharaoh , until the voice of God calls to him from a burning bush , telling him that he must free the Hebrews from slavery .
Moses confronts the Pharaoh and demands that she free the Hebrews . She refuses and calls her guards ( one of which was a kid named Justin , voiced by Dana Hill ) to drag Moses away ; he curses her kingdom with terrible plagues until she relents and allows Moses to leave with the enslaved Hebrews . As Boris is explaining how the Pharaoh deceives the Hebrews and prevents them from leaving , Angelica 's parents , Drew and Charlotte , arrive and become locked in with the others .
Boris resumes the story : the Pharaoh 's treachery causes Moses to curse her once more , this time with a plague on the first @-@ born children of Egypt . The Pharaoh , after realizing that she herself is a first @-@ born child , bargains with Moses : he can leave if he calls off this final plague . Moses hesitates at first , but complies and leads the Hebrews out of Egypt . The Pharaoh reneges on her promise ( after realizing that she set all of the Hebrews free ) and leads out her remaining army to pursue them .
Minka , Didi , and Stu arrive in the attic to find the group enthralled by the end of Boris 's story : Moses , cornered , calls down the power of God to part the Red Sea , which the Hebrews are approaching . They pass through the parted waters , which then crash back together behind them , engulfing the Pharaoh and her army . With the story over , the family gets up to finish the Seder only to see the wind blow the door shut , locking them all in . Boris decides to tell them another story , which Chas at first thinks is about how the Hebrews wandered the desert for forty years before finally reaching the Promised Land . Boris explains that it 's actually a story about how an aunt and uncle of his met at Passover Seder back in Russia .
= = Production = =
The episode 's inception in 1992 followed a call by Nickelodeon to the Rugrats production staff , pitching the concept of a special episode concerning Hanukkah . The crew agreed instead that a Passover special would offer both " historical interest " and a " funny idea " , so Paul Germain — founder of the series along with Arlene Klasky and Gábor Csupó — pitched the Passover idea instead .
Germain wrote the episode 's teleplay along with regular Rugrats writers Peter Gaffney , Rachel Lipman , and Jonathon Greenberg ; animators Jim Duffy , Steve Socki , and Jeff McGrath directed . While scripting the episode , now entitled " A Rugrats Passover " , the writers were forced to audit many elements of the portrayal of plagues , particularly the third one , so it could still be accessible to children and not too frightening . Though regular episodes of the series comprised two separate 15 @-@ minute segments , " A Rugrats Passover " had a special 22 @-@ minute format , occupying the show 's full network Rugrats slot . The show 's voice actors each spent from fifteen minutes to four hours in recording sessions for the episode .
The episode was released in several formats , including DVD and VHS . It appears on the video release A Rugrats Passover alongside features " Toys in the Attic " , and Rugrats Passover : Let My Babies Go . It is also featured on the Grandpa 's Favorite Stories video release , with the episode " The Return of Reptar " . Publisher Simon Spotlight in 1998 released a novelization of the episode , entitled Let My Babies Go ! A Passover Story , written by Sarah Wilson and featuring illustrations by Barry Goldberg .
= = Themes = =
" A Rugrats Passover " was unusual among contemporary animations in its attention to Jewish ritual and tradition . Its portrayal of a Seder dinner received press attention as a rare occurrence in children 's programming . The episode was also unusual among animated series for discussing the characters ' religious affiliations . It revealed Boris , Minka , and Didi 's adherence to Judaism , and compared it with the relative non @-@ participation of Stu and his side of the family . Chuckie and his father Chas , meanwhile , were portrayed as nonreligious yet inclusive and enthused to learn about the customs of the holiday .
As with other Rugrats episodes , " A Rugrats Passover " depicts " the innocence of a baby 's perception of the world , " emphasizing the young characters ' intense , childlike reactions to their environment . Creator Klasky identified the episode 's depiction of the Pickles family as " very loving , [ and ] basically functional " as strikingly different from the prevailing trends in contemporary television programming . Another episode element common to the series ' broader themes is its treatment of Angelica 's mother Charlotte , who throughout the episode is glued to her cell phone and engrossed in her business life , despite her professed desire to provide Angelica with an educational environment .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings and accolades = = =
" A Rugrats Passover " was broadcast originally on April 13 , 1995 , on the Nickelodeon television network . Repeats of the episode began that Saturday at 7 : 30 p.m. The episode received a Nielsen Rating of 3 @.@ 1 , with a 4 @.@ 8 % share of American audiences , making it the sixth most @-@ watched American telecast of the week . According to Catherine Mullally , Vice President and Executive Producer of Nickelodeon Video and Audio Works in 1995 , the episode was the highest Nielsen @-@ rated telecast in the network 's history . The episode was supplanted as Nickelodeon 's most @-@ viewed in 1998 , by another Rugrats special , when the Thanksgiving episode " The Turkey Who Came to Dinner " attracted 3 @.@ 7 million viewers ( 9 @.@ 4 / 28 ) .
The episode was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in the category " Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) , " but lost to The Simpsons episode " Lisa 's Wedding . " At the 23rd Annual Annie Awards it was nominated in the category " Best Individual Achievement for Writing in the Field of Animation , " but was beaten by the episode " The Tick vs. Arthur ’ s Bank Account " from Fox Kids ' animated series The Tick . In 1995 , it was Rugrats ' submission for a CableACE award ; it received a nomination but did not win .
= = = Critical response = = =
" A Rugrats Passover " received overwhelmingly positive reviews and became one of the series ' all @-@ time most popular episodes . John J. O 'Connor of The New York Times wrote of the episode " If not a first , it certainly is a rarity . " Ted Cox of the Daily Herald called the episode " among the best holiday TV specials ever produced . " Other reviews applauded the episode for its treatment of Judaism . Authors Michael Atkinson and Laurel Shifrin , in their book Flickipedia : Perfect Films for Every Occasion , Holiday , Mood , Ordeal , and Whim praised the episode for celebrating " secular Jewishness in the wisest and most entertaining fashion [ ... ] Grandpa Boris regales the kids with an epic , albeit abridged , Exodus story . " Halley Blair of Forward Magazine called the episode " a comical primer for getting children ready for upcoming seders , " and Danny Goldberg , in How The Left Lost Teen Spirit , noted that the episode 's Jewish themes were " clearly expressed in the context of a mass appeal entertainment . " Among many positive reviews of the episode in Jewish community publications , Gila Wertheimer of the Chicago Jewish Star said that the episode " will entertain children of all ages – and their parents . "
Joel Keller of AOL 's TV Squad , on the other hand , noted in 2006 that he " always hated " the episode , and resented that it was one of only two Passover @-@ themed television episodes he could find via a Google search .
= = = Anti @-@ Defamation League controversy = = =
" A Rugrats Passover , " along with other Rugrats episodes featuring Boris and Minka , attracted controversy when the Anti @-@ Defamation League ( ADL ) claimed that the two characters resembled anti @-@ Semitic drawings that had appeared in a 1930s Nazi newspaper . Nickelodeon 's then @-@ president Albie Hecht , himself Jewish , professed himself dumbfounded by the criticism , calling it absurd . The controversy resurfaced in 1998 when the ADL criticized another appearance of Boris , this time reciting the Mourner 's Kaddish in a Rugrats comic strip published in newspapers during the Jewish New Year . Unlike Hecht , Nickelodeon 's new president Herb Scannell agreed with the criticism and apologized , promising never to run the character or the strip again .
= = = Legacy = = =
" A Rugrats Passover " has been Nickelodeon 's first programming about Passover ; the network went on to broadcast other episodes concerning Jewish traditions , including " Harold 's Bar Mitzvah " , a 1997 episode of Hey Arnold ! in which the character Harold Berman prepares for his Bar Mitzvah . Rugrats in turn produced a second Jewish holiday episode , this time to meet the network executives ' original Hanukkah special pitch . David N. Weiss , who had recently converted to Judaism , and J. David Stem collaborated to write the script , and Raymie Muzquiz directed . The episode , entitled " A Rugrats Chanukah , " was originally broadcast on December 4 , 1996 , on Nickelodeon and received a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 9 in the Kids 2 – 11 demographic . Like " A Rugrats Passover , " it was critically acclaimed and became among the most popular episodes in the series .
In 2007 the Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art in Tulsa , Oklahoma opened an exhibition of Biblical images in art and pop culture , including a poster for Let My Babies Go ! A Passover Story , the picture book based on " A Rugrats Passover " . Other items highlighted in the gallery included a promotional poster for The Simpsons episode " Simpsons Bible Stories " and a vintage Superman comic book entitled " The Red @-@ Headed Beatle of 1000 B.C. , " featuring the character Jimmy Olsen 's time @-@ traveling adventures in the Biblical age .
= A1 ( Croatia ) =
The A1 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A1 ) is the longest motorway in Croatia , spanning 478 @.@ 9 kilometers ( 297 @.@ 6 mi ) . As it connects Zagreb , the nation 's capital , to Split , the second largest city in the country and the largest city in Dalmatia , the motorway represents a major north – south transportation corridor in Croatia and a significant part of the Adriatic – Ionian motorway . Apart from Zagreb and Split , the A1 motorway runs near a number of major Croatian cities , provides access to several national parks or nature parks , world heritage sites , and numerous resorts , especially along the Adriatic Coast . National significance of the motorway is reflected through its positive economic impact on the cities and towns it connects as well as its importance to tourism in Croatia .
The motorway consists of two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction separated by a central reservation . All intersections of the A1 motorway are grade separated . As the route traverses rugged mountainous and coastal terrain the route , completed as of 2014 , required 376 bridges , viaducts , tunnels and other similar structures , including the two longest tunnels in Croatia and two bridges comprising spans of 200 meters ( 660 ft ) or more . There are 33 exits and 26 rest areas operating along the route . As the motorway is tolled using a ticket system and vehicle classification in Croatia , each exit includes a toll plaza .
A motorway connecting Zagreb and Split was designed in the early 1970s , and a public loan was started in order to collect sufficient funds for its construction . However , due to political upheavals in Croatia and Yugoslavia , construction of the motorway was labeled a " nationalist project " and cancelled in 1971 . After Croatian independence and conclusion of the Croatian War of Independence , efforts to build the motorway were renewed and construction started in 2000 . The Zagreb – Split section of the route was completed by 2005 , while the first sections between Split and Dubrovnik opened in 2007 and 2008 . Construction costs incurred so far amount to 3 billion euro . The figure includes funds approved for construction work scheduled to be completed by 2013 . On the other hand , the amount does not include construction cost related to Lučko – Bosiljevo 2 section since that section was funded as a part of Rijeka – Zagreb motorway construction project through Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb , current operator of that sector . The remainder of the A1 motorway , i.e. , the sections south of the Bosiljevo 2 interchange are operated by Hrvatske autoceste .
= = Route description = =
The A1 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A1 ) is a major north – south motorway in Croatia connecting the capital of the country , Zagreb , to the Dalmatia region , where the motorway follows a route parallel to the Adriatic coast . As a part of the road network of Croatia , it is a part of two major European routes : E65 Prague – Bratislava – Zagreb – Rijeka – Split – Dubrovnik and E71 Budapest – Zagreb – Karlovac – Bihać – Knin – Split . The motorway is of major importance to Croatia in terms of development of the economy ; especially tourism and as a transit transport route . This has been reflected by an accelerated development of regions connected by the A1 motorway . A part of the motorway is considered to be a segment of the Adriatic – Ionian motorway . Once the latter motorway 's connecting sections are completed , those currently spanned just by the Adriatic Highway as well as two @-@ lane roads in Slovenia and Albania , the A1 will achieve genuine importance as a transit route .
The motorway spans 478 @.@ 9 kilometers ( 297 @.@ 6 mi ) between Zagreb ( Lučko interchange ) and Ploče via Split . The route serves Karlovac via D1 , Gospić via D534 , Zadar via D8 and D424 and Šibenik via D533 . The A1 motorway consists of two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction along its entire length . The sole exception is Drežnik Viaduct where there are no emergency lanes . Almost all of the existing interchanges are trumpet interchanges , except for Lučko which is a stack . There are numerous rest areas along the motorway , providing various types of services ranging from simple parking spaces and restrooms to petrol stations , restaurants and hotels . As of June 2011 , the motorway has 33 interchanges , providing access to numerous towns and cities and the Croatian state road network . The ultimate southern terminus of the motorway has been established to be near Dubrovnik .
Between the Lučko and Bosiljevo 2 interchanges , the motorway follows Pan @-@ European corridor Vb , and is concurrent with the Zagreb – Rijeka motorway . The Bosiljevo 2 interchange distributes southbound A1 traffic flowing to Rijeka ( via the A6 motorway ) and to Split . That 67 @-@ kilometer ( 42 mi ) segment of the motorway is operated by Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb , while the remainder of the motorway is operated by Hrvatske autoceste .
An automatic traffic monitoring and guidance system is in place along the motorway . It consists of measuring , control and signaling devices , located in zones where driving conditions may vary — at interchanges , near viaducts , bridges , tunnels , and in zones where fog and strong wind are known to occur . The system comprises variable traffic signs used to communicate changing driving conditions , possible restrictions and other information to motorway users .
The motorway route offers a scenic ride through rolling hills in the north , mountains in its central section , and along the Dalmatian coast in the south . It serves , either directly or via connecting roads , a large number of tourist destinations such as Bjelolasica in Gorski Kotar , a large number of Adriatic Sea resorts and several national parks and nature parks . In Lika region those are Plitvice Lakes National Park , Sjeverni Velebit National Park and Velebit Nature Park , while in Dalmatia the motorway serves Paklenica National Park , Telašćica Nature Park , Kornati National Park , Lake Vrana Nature Park , Krka National Park and Biokovo Nature Park . The route also provides links to a number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as Plitvice Lakes , Cathedral of St. James in Šibenik , Palace of Diocletian in Split and the Historic City of Trogir .
= = Toll = =
The A1 is a tolled motorway based on the vehicle classification in Croatia using a closed toll system integrated with the A6 motorway as the two connect in the Bosiljevo 2 interchange forming a unified toll system . Since the two motorways are operated by Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb and Hrvatske autoceste , the toll collection system is operated jointly by the two operators . The toll is payable in Croatian kuna , euro , major credit and debit cards and using a number of prepaid toll collection systems including various types of smart cards issued by the motorway operators and ENC – an electronic toll collection ( ETC ) which is shared at all motorways in Croatia ( except the A2 motorway ) and provides drivers use of dedicated lanes at toll plazas and a discounted toll rates .
The A1 north of the Bosiljevo 2 interchange is operated by Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb and the rest is operated by Hrvatske autoceste , both of which do not report company toll income separately for individual sections of various motorways . Total toll income reported by Hrvatske autoceste in the first half of 2011 was 508 @.@ 1 million kuna ( 68 @.@ 3 million euro ) . This figure pertains to the A1 south of the Bosiljevo 2 interchange as well as all other motorways operated by Hrvatske autoceste , however the A1 represents the longest and the busiest tolled motorway operated by Hrvatske autoceste . Toll income reported by Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb for the first half of 2011 is 191 @.@ 2 million kuna ( 25 @.@ 7 million euro ) . This sum includes company toll income generated elsewhere , however the A1 section represents the busiest section of the motorway network operated by Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb . Hrvatske autoceste and Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb reported increase of the toll income compared to the same period of 2010 of 2 @.@ 2 % and 5 % respectively .
Summertime and holiday queues at Lučko mainline toll plaza can be considerable , a problem exacerbated during the usual weekend @-@ to @-@ weekend tourist stays at Croatia 's coastal resorts . In 2009 , in an effort to address the problem , the Lučko mainline toll plaza was expanded to 15 lanes , and a single additional 10 @-@ lane toll plaza was built for fast cashless toll collection in Demerje . The Demerje toll plaza is available via a motorway fork accessible to the A1 northbound traffic only . Vehicles using the Demerje toll plaza default to the original motorway route immediately past the Lučko mainline toll plaza , between the plaza and the Lučko interchange . The faster cashless system has raised the nominal capacity of the road from 2 @,@ 325 to 11 @,@ 150 vehicles per hour . As of September 2010 northbound traffic leaving the A1 must exit the tolled motorway network , since the existing Zagreb bypass is not tolled , and then re @-@ enter another tolled motorway . There are plans for the outer Zagreb bypass to be integrated into the tolled motorway network , as the ultimate solution for congestion at the Lučko toll plaza . That will require construction of a Horvati interchange south of the Lučko toll plaza .
= = Notable structures = =
A total of 361 structures — bridges , viaducts , flyovers , underpasses , passages , wildlife crossings , and tunnels — have been completed on the motorway between Zagreb and Vrgorac , and calculations indicate that 18 @.@ 6 percent of the route between Zagreb and Split is located on those structures , which is a quite considerable percentage for a motorway of this length . By June 2011 , Ravča @-@ Vrgorac section was completed , including 5 viaducts , 4 flyovers and a tunnel . An additional 15 structures were built on the section between Vrgorac and Ploče , plus on the connection towards the city of Ploče .
As of September 2010 , there are seven tunnels longer than 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) on the A1 motorway . The most notable among them are : the 5 @,@ 821 @-@ meter ( 19 @,@ 098 ft ) long Mala Kapela Tunnel between Ogulin and Brinje interchanges and the 5 @,@ 768 @-@ meter ( 18 @,@ 924 ft ) long Sveti Rok Tunnel between Sveti Rok and Maslenica interchanges . The Mala Kapela and Sveti Rok tunnels are not only the largest individual structures on the motorway but they are also the longest tunnels in Croatia . The tunnels separate three distinct climate zones . The Mala Kapela Tunnel spans between the continental climate of the central Croatia and the mountain climate of Lika , while the Sveti Rok Tunnel provides a link between Lika and its mountain climate and the Mediterranean climate of Dalmatia . Both of the Mala Kapela and Sveti Rok tunnels were originally operated as single tubes when they were opened for traffic in June 2005 until 30 May 2009 , when the second tubes of the tunnels were also opened for traffic . The other major tunnels on the A1 motorway are the 2 @,@ 300 @-@ meter ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) long Plasina Tunnel situated between Otočac and Perušić interchanges and the Grič , Brinje and Konjsko tunnels . Lengths of the latter three range between 1 @,@ 122 meters ( 3 @,@ 681 ft ) and 1 @,@ 542 meters ( 5 @,@ 059 ft ) .
The longest bridge on the A1 motorway is the 546 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 791 ft ) long Dobra Bridge spanning Dobra River near Karlovac . Other major bridges on the route are the Gacka , Miljanica and Dabar bridges — all of them longer than 350 meters ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) . Also , the A1 motorway comprises the 391 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 283 ft ) long Krka Bridge spanning Krka River and the 378 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 240 ft ) long Maslenica Bridge spanning Novsko Ždrilo strait . The Maslenica and Krka bridges are particularly significant as their respective main spans are 200 m ( 660 ft ) long .
The A1 motorway also comprises the longest viaduct in Croatia — the 2 @,@ 485 @-@ meter ( 8 @,@ 153 ft ) long Drežnik Viaduct situated between the Karlovac and Bosiljevo 1 interchanges . As of 2011 , there are six other major viaducts completed on the route – — the Kotezi Viaduct , Modruš 1 , Mokro Polje , Jezerane , Srijane and Rašćane viaducts . All of them are longer than 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) . The latest significant viaduct completed as a part of the Ravča – Vrgorac section is the Kotezi Viaduct at 1 @,@ 214 meters ( 3 @,@ 983 ft ) , surpassing all other viaducts on the route except for Drežnik Viaduct . A dispute concerning naming of the Viaduct arose one month prior to opening of the motorway section containing the viaduct , and the structure was even signposted as the Bunina Viaduct for several days in June 2011 , only to revert the name to the Kotezi Viaduct days prior to the opening ceremony itself . The section also comprises the 402 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 319 ft ) long Šare Viaduct .
= = History = =
The A1 motorway was originally designed in the early 1970s , albeit along a different route than the present Zagreb – Split motorway route . After suppression of the Croatian Spring and removal of the Croatian leadership that proposed and adopted the construction plan in 1971 , all the work related to the Zagreb – Split motorway was cancelled . The plans were revived in the 1990s and new designs were developed to include a motorway section built between Zagreb and Karlovac into the design so that the section could be shared between Zagreb – Split and Zagreb – Rijeka motorways . Construction work started in 2000 and the motorway reached Split by 2005 and was extended towards Dubrovnik later on . Both in the 1970s and in the 2000s , construction of the Zagreb – Split motorway was perceived to symbolize rebuilding of national unity .
= = = King Tomislav Motorway = = =
The Zagreb – Split motorway , now the A1 motorway , was one of three routes defined by the Parliament of the Socialist Republic of Croatia on 5 March 1971 , as priority transport routes of Croatia that were to be developed as motorways . Originally the motorway was designed to follow a route from Zagreb to Bihać ( Bosnia and Herzegovina ) and then to Split via Knin . The government of Bosnia and Herzegovina issued its approval for the route in Bihać region in the same year . Construction of the motorway was initiated by a fundraising effort — a public loan . The funds gathered initially through the public loan were sufficient for construction of 20 kilometers ( 12 mi ) of the motorway .
The 39 @.@ 3 @-@ kilometer ( 24 @.@ 4 mi ) long Zagreb – Karlovac section of the Zagreb – Rijeka motorway , now part of the A1 motorway , was completed in 1972 . Further construction of motorways from Zagreb to Rijeka and Split was suspended for the next 28 years following a political decision of the Croatian leadership , newly installed during Yugoslav suppression of the Croatian Spring , to " stop megalomaniac projects " . It is considered that the true reason for the cancellation of the works was that the motorway was considered to be a " nationalist " project . The conclusion is supported by the fact the road was spontaneously nicknamed King Tomislav Motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta kralja Tomislava ) by citizens investing their money through the public loan after the first king of medieval Croatia , who united Croatia as a single kingdom in 925 . The funds raised through the public loan were left unused for several months , then spent for construction of a road between Vrlika and Strmica via Knin , now a part of the D1 and D30 state roads . However , the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe recognized the route as the southernmost part of the Pyhrn route , giving it the designation E59 in 1975 . Subsequent reorganizations of the E @-@ road network , including the latest one in 2008 , transferred the route south of Zagreb to the E71 .
= = = Dalmatina = = =
In the beginning of the 1990s , construction of the motorway was further postponed because of onset of the Croatian War of Independence . The decade saw renewed discussion regarding construction of the motorway , including renewed considerations of its route . Soon , the originally devised route running through Bihać was set aside and two new routes were considered : One of them was a modified version of the original route , bypassing Bihać and running through the Plitvice Lakes region while the other was a completely new route further to the west via Gospić and Zadar , which was eventually accepted for construction . Both of the alternative routes proposed that the Zagreb – Karlovac motorway already completed in 1972 were to be used as the northernmost section of the Zagreb – Split and Zagreb – Rijeka motorways .
The A1 was a showpiece project of the Croatian government and a symbol of uniting the country . The first attempt to revive the project in earnest occurred in the 1993 , when the excavation of Sveti Rok Tunnel began . More comprehensive construction work started in 2000 and Karlovac – Vukova Gorica section opened in 2001 . In 2003 , the first sections not shared with the Zagreb – Rijeka Motorway were completed : Vukova Gorica – Mala Kapela Tunnel and Gornja Ploča – Zadar 2 . Mala Kapela Tunnel – Gornja Ploča , Zadar 2 – Pirovac and Vrpolje – Dugopolje sections opened in 2004 and Mala Kapela Tunnel itself and Pirovac – Vrpolje section opened in 2005 marking completion of the Zagreb – Split Motorway , culminating with the grand opening of Karlovac — Split section on 26 June 2005 .
Construction of the motorway along its Split – Dubrovnik sector started once the motorway sectors north of Split were complete , and the section between Split ( Dugopolje interchange ) and Šestanovac interchange opened on 27 June 2007 . The last sections to be completed to date are Šestanovac – Ravča , opened on 22 December 2008 , Ravča @-@ Vrgorac section opened on 30 June 2011 , and the Vrgorac @-@ Ploče section opened on 20 December 2013 . In the 2000s , as the motorway construction works were gradually progressing further south , the motorway earned its unofficial , yet widely used name — Dalmatina in Croatian press because it connected Zagreb to Dalmatia . In 2010 , Donja Zdenčina interchange was opened between Lučko and Jastrebarsko interchanges , and in June 2012 , Novigrad interchange opened bringing number of motorway exits to 33 .
= = = Construction cost = = =
The construction cost for the Bosiljevo 2 – Split ( Dugopolje interchange ) sector of the motorway was originally estimated by the government in 2001 and presented as " 3 x 3 x 3 " – that is , the 300 kilometers ( 190 mi ) of the motorway was to be completed in 3 years at a cost of 3 billion marks ( approximately 12 @.@ 65 billion kuna at the time , or approximately 1 @.@ 533 billion euros ) . In 2010 , Hrvatske autoceste reported that the average cost of one kilometer of Bosiljevo – Split motorway was 7 @.@ 1 million euro , which would mean that the total construction cost was 2 @.@ 21 billion euro for that 311 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 193 @.@ 5 mi ) long segment .
Construction cost incurred on the Dugopolje – Ploče sector of the motorway between 2005 and 2008 was reported at 4 @.@ 1 billion kuna and additional 1 @.@ 8 billion kuna of construction expenses are planned until the end of 2012 ( representing approximately 560 and 245 million euro , respectively ) . The latter figure includes construction of the D425 state road but it does not include full completion of the Vrgorac – Ploče section .
= = Further construction = =
The ultimate southern terminus of the motorway has been established by applicable legislation to be near Dubrovnik .
Hrvatske autoceste , operator of the southern portion of the A1 motorway , ordered the execution of design documents , feasibility and environmental impact studies for the Doli – Osojnik section of the motorway that is to be constructed near Dubrovnik . Commencement of construction on this section was originally scheduled for 2009 . Despite an official ceremony to mark commencement of construction works on the section , no works beyond design and study development has been carried out there .
The A1 motorway route between Ploče and Doli has not been fixed yet , as several options exist , all of which require the route to cross either an embayment of the Adriatic Sea or a part of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina , the former being associated with construction of the 2 @,@ 404 @-@ metre ( 7 @,@ 887 ft ) Pelješac Bridge spanning the coast south of Ploče and the Pelješac peninsula . Construction of the bridge began in May 2008 , after a contract to build it was signed in 2007 . The bridge was originally scheduled to be completed by May 2012 . Pelješac Bridge construction contract worth 1 @.@ 94 billion Kuna ( c . 259 million Euro ) was cancelled due to lack of funds on 17 May 2012 . Construction of the bridge was significantly delayed and effectively suspended since 2010 for the same reason .
In April 2012 , government of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina proposed a route in Neum area to connect Ploče and Dubrovnik while serving Neum . That entails branching of the A1 motorway 7 to 8 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 to 5 @.@ 0 miles ) west of Neum , one branch serving Neum and the other Dubrovnik . As of July 2012 no decision was reached on the section of the A1 route .
A planned modification of the existing route encompasses construction of a directional T interchange to replace the existing trumpet interchange built at Žuta Lokva . The new interchange is only planned to be built once the A7 motorway is completed between the Rijeka bypass and Žuta Lokva . It shall not feature any weaving , similar to the Bosiljevo 2 interchange of the A1 and A6 motorways .
= = Traffic volume = =
Traffic is regularly counted by means of traffic census at toll stations and reported by Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb and Hrvatske autoceste — the operators of the northern and the southern portions of the motorway respectively . The reported traffic volume gradually decreases as the motorway chainage increases and as it passes by various major destinations and the interchanges that serve them . Thus the greatest volume of traffic is registered between Jastrebarsko and Lučko interchanges – with 31 @,@ 432 vehicle annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , and 53 @,@ 216 vehicle average summer daily traffic ( ASDT ) figures as that is the section closest to Zagreb . South of the Bosiljevo 2 interchange the first major drop of traffic volume is recorded on the A1 motorway , due to traffic transferring to the A6 motorway towards Rijeka . Other similar changes of the traffic volume are registered near Zadar ( served by Zadar 1 and Zadar 2 interchanges ) and Split served by Dugopolje interchange . Substantial variations observed between AADT and ASDT are normally attributed to the fact that the motorway carries significant tourist traffic . The seasonal increase traffic volume variations ranges 69 % on the busiest , Lučko – Jastrebarsko section to 160 % as measured on Sveti Rok – Maslenica section . The summer season traffic volume increase on the motorway is 120 % .
= = Rest areas = =
As of September 2010 , there are 26 rest areas operating along the A1 motorway , and additional rest areas are planned along the existing sections of the route and those sections under construction . Legislation provides for four types of rest areas designated as types A through D — A @-@ type rest areas comprise a full range of amenities including a filling station , a restaurant and a hotel or a motel ; B @-@ type rest areas have no lodging ; C @-@ type rest areas are very common and include a filling station and a café , but no restaurants or accommodation ; D @-@ type rest areas offer parking spaces only , possibly some picnicking tables and benches and restrooms . Even though the rest areas found along the A1 motorway generally follow this ranking system , there are considerable variations as some of them offer extra services . The most notable example is Krka rest area — even though it has no filling station , there is , for instance , a restaurant available . The filling stations regularly have small convenience stores and some of them offer LPG fuel . EuroTest , an international association of 18 European automobile clubs spearheaded by German automobile club ADAC , surveyed three of the A1 motorway rest areas in 2009 : Krka , Lički Osik and Modruš ( in case of the latter , both eastbound and westbound ) . All of the rest areas were rated as very good , especially in terms of facilities offered .
The primary motorway operators Hrvatske autoceste ( HAC ) and Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb lease the A , B and C type rest areas to various operators through public tenders . As of September 2010 , there are five such rest area operators on the A1 motorway : INA , OMV , Tifon , Petrol and Crobenz . The rest area operators are not permitted to sub @-@ lease the fuel operations ; Tifon and Petrol operated rest areas have restaurants or hotels operated by Marché , a Mövenpick Hotels & Resorts subsidiary . All of the A1 motorway rest areas , except Stupnik and Jezerane , are accessible to both directions of the motorway traffic . The rest areas normally operate 24 hours a day , 7 days a week .
= = Exit list = =
= Typhoon Sarah ( 1959 ) =
Typhoon Sarah was among the deadliest typhoons on record in the western Pacific Ocean , killing around 2 @,@ 000 people . It formed during the peak of the busy 1959 Pacific typhoon season near Guam , and moved generally to the west @-@ northwest . Continued observations from the Hurricane Hunters allowed the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to track Sarah from its origins to its peak as a powerful typhoon , with maximum sustained winds estimated at 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) on September 15 . Shortly thereafter , the typhoon struck the small Japanese island of Miyako @-@ jima , where the barometric pressure fell to 908 @.@ 1 mbar ( 26 @.@ 82 inHg ) , the second @-@ lowest on record for the country . Sarah turned to the north and northeast , weakening from its peak intensity . On September 17 , the typhoon made landfall just west of Busan , South Korea with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , the nation 's strongest landfall at the time and only to be surpassed by Typhoon Maemi in 2003 . Sarah later became extratropical over the Japanese island of Hokkaido on September 18 , although the remnants persisted for several days , crossing into the Russian Far East and later dissipating on September 23 .
On Miyako @-@ jima , Sarah damaged all of the crops and destroyed about 6 @,@ 000 houses . Damage was estimated at $ 2 million , and there were seven deaths . The damage prompted the Japan Meteorological Agency to give Sarah the special name of the " Miyakojima Typhoon " . However , the effects were worst in South Korea , and Sarah was described as the worst typhoon there in 50 years . Wind gusts there peaked at 169 km / h ( 105 mph ) , the highest at the time in the country . High winds and waves heavily damaged the port of Busan . Nationwide , the storm destroyed over 14 @,@ 000 homes and left 782 @,@ 126 people homeless , causing over $ 100 million in damage . At least 669 people were killed in South Korea , and an additional 1 @,@ 200 fishermen were lost offshore the country . In Japan , widespread flooding killed 47 people and destroyed 16 @,@ 632 homes .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 10 , a tropical disturbance persisted within the intertropical convergence zone near Pohnpei . When the Hurricane Hunters approached the system at 02 : 00 UTC on September 11 , they observed a center with several small circulations about 130 km ( 80 mi ) east of Guam . On that basis , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center classified the system as Tropical Depression Sarah . The depression passed near or just north of Guam , as tracked by radar . By late on September 11 , the Hurricane Hunters were reporting flight @-@ level winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Early on September 12 , the JTWC upgraded Sarah to a tropical storm after the circulation became better defined . The storm exhibited a parabolic trajectory that was slightly to the west of the typical September storm . It moved westward initially but gradually curved to the northwest . A Hurricane Hunters flight at 14 : 15 UTC on September 12 observed a 65 km ( 40 mi ) eye diameter , prompting the JTWC to upgrade Sarah further to typhoon status , with maximum sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) .
After becoming a typhoon , Sarah quickly intensified ; at 08 : 00 UTC on September 13 , the Hurricane Hunters reported flight @-@ level winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Subsequent analysis estimated that the typhoon attained these winds at 00 : 00 UTC that day . At 12 : 00 UTC on September 14 , the JTWC estimated that Sarah intensified to the equivalent of a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , based on aircraft estimates . The typhoon intensified further , and late on September 14 the Hurricane Hunters reported flight @-@ level winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , estimating surface winds of 315 km / h ( 195 mph ) . The intensity was adjusted slightly downward in a post @-@ analysis , with peak winds of 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) at 06 : 00 UTC on September 15 about 415 km ( 260 mi ) east of Taiwan . In addition , the typhoon attained a minimum barometric pressure of 905 mbar ( 26 @.@ 7 inHg ) .
About three hours after Sarah reached peak winds , the typhoon moved directly over Miyako @-@ jima , an island of Japan east of Taiwan . Sarah weakened while curving to the north , and it passed west of Okinawa late on September 15 . The winds dropped quickly ; by 24 hours after peak intensity , Sarah 's winds had decreased from 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) to 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The typhoon turned and accelerated to the northeast toward the Korean peninsula , re @-@ intensifying slightly . By late on September 16 , the winds increased to 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) while Sarah passed just east of Jeju island . The typhoon weakened again to winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) by 00 : 00 UTC on September 17 . That day , Sarah made landfall a few miles west of Busan , South Korea at that intensity ; this made Sarah the strongest typhoon to strike the country since records began in 1904 , and it remained as such until Typhoon Maemi surpassed it in 2003 . The typhoon very quickly emerged into the Sea of Japan , its circulation becoming poorly defined . On September 18 , Sarah became extratropical after moving over the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido . The remnants continued to the northeast initially before turning sharply westward , passing over Sakhalin . The circulation progressed into Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East before turning back east . Former Typhoon Sarah struck Sakhalin a second time on September 20 while moving east @-@ southeastward . After passing through the Kuril Islands , the remnants of Sarah dissipated on September 23 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Early in its duration , Sarah brought gusty winds and passing showers to Guam .
Shortly after reaching peak intensity , Sarah passed near the island of Miyako @-@ jima . The pressure there fell to 908 @.@ 1 mbar ( 26 @.@ 82 inHg ) , which was the lowest recorded for the station and the second @-@ lowest on record for Japan , both as of 2003 . The typhoon produced sustained winds of 196 km / h ( 122 mph ) and gusts up to 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) before the anemometer broke . The winds destroyed over 6 @,@ 000 homes and wrecked all of the crops . Sarah also left the island without power for an extended period of time after damaging power lines . The combination of high winds and rough seas destroyed a fishing pier and 670 m ( 2 @,@ 200 ft ) of seawall , as well as several tidal weirs . Sarah also sank four fishing boats and damaged seven others . On Miyako @-@ jima , Sarah killed seven people , injured 88 others , and left $ 2 million in damage . The heavy damage on the island prompted the Japan Meteorological Agency to give Sarah the special name of the " Miyakojima Typhoon " . Sarah was part of a series of typhoons striking the island in 1959 , causing food shortages that forced the population to change their diet . The storm brushed Okinawa with gusts of 135 km / h ( 84 mph ) .
Sarah was the worst typhoon to strike the Korean peninsula in 50 years . The peak wind gust in South Korea was 169 km / h ( 105 mph ) , which was the highest for a typhoon at the time , with records dating back to 1904 ; as of 2010 , the value has fallen to the ninth place . Damage was heaviest at Busan where the storm struck . The port there sustained over $ 100 @,@ 000 in damage , and nearby American military bases had over $ 900 @,@ 000 in damage . Coastal floods washed away or damaged 15 @,@ 379 homes in the Busan area , leaving 25 @,@ 834 people homeless . The waves also damaged or sank 5 @,@ 400 boats . Nationwide , floods damaged 127 @,@ 000 hectares ( 313 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields . Throughout South Korea , Sarah destroyed over 14 @,@ 000 homes and left 782 @,@ 126 people homeless , thousands of whom were injured . The Ministry of Social Affairs estimated property damage at over $ 100 million , and the typhoon killed at least 669 people . After the storm , the CARE relief agency launched an appeal in the United States , collecting $ 18 @,@ 500 worth of shoes and underwear for storm victims . The Australian Red Cross also provided assistance to the country , including money , sheets , and blankets . Due to the ongoing Korean War and Sarah , South Korea lost much of its fishing fleet , resulting in diminished catches over the subsequent decades . The typhoon also caused a rise in the wholesale price index , in conjunction with political uncertainty .
A fleet of 46 boats left Oenarodo near Busan on August 28 to fish near Komundo Island . The fleet failed to return after the passage of Typhoon Sarah , and local newspapers reported all 1 @,@ 200 fishermen were lost .
Late in its duration , Sarah struck Hokkaido , producing a 6 m ( 20 ft ) storm surge at Taisei along the southwest coast that left behind a sediment layer 60 m ( 200 ft ) inland . Before the storm arrived , the United States evacuated plans from Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni to Misawa Air Base , although Sarah approached closer to the latter base . The storm affected much of the nation , flooding many communities , including 14 @,@ 360 houses . Across the country , the typhoon damaged 778 boats . The storm also damaged 3 @,@ 566 ha ( 8 @,@ 810 acres ) of crop fields . Nationwide , Sarah destroyed 16 @,@ 632 homes , injured 509 people , and killed 47 .
Overall , Typhoon Sarah caused around 2 @,@ 000 deaths , making it among the deadliest typhoons on record .
= Dunster Working Watermill =
Dunster Working Watermill ( also known as Castle Mill ) is a restored 18th century watermill , situated on the River Avill , close to Gallox Bridge , in the grounds of Dunster Castle in Dunster , Somerset , England . It is a Grade II * listed building .
The mill stands on a site where a mill was first recorded in the Domesday Book , but the present building was constructed around 1780 . It closed in 1962 but was restored in 1979 and is still used to grind flour . The equipment is powered by two overshot wheels . It is owned by the National Trust but operated as a tourist attraction by a private company .
= = History = =
At the time of the Domesday Book in 1086 there were two mills in Dunster . One which was called the Lower Mill was on the site of the present mill . In the 17th century there were both malt and oats mills but by 1721 one of these had been converted to a fulling mill . The present mill , which was built around 1780 and replaced the two former mills . In 1940 a bakery was added . The mill ground corn until World War II and then animal feed until it closed in 1962 .
It was restored to working order in 1979 , winning a conservation award in 1982 . The mill is still used to grind wheat flour . A cafe was opened in the buildings which used to be the wagon house and stables . Further restoration work , completed in 2007 , was funded by the Exmoor Sustainable Development Fund .
Although it is owned by the National Trust it is leased to a private company to run as a tourist attraction and an entrance charge applies to all visitors . The site is visited by around 10 @,@ 000 tourists a year and produces 6 – 8 tonnes of flour each year . The second waterwheel was restored and the collapsed wheel replaced in 2015 .
= = Architecture and machinery = =
The two storey building has a slate roof . To the south east a stone wall contains wrought iron gates in an arched gateway .
The grinding equipment is powered by a pair of overshot wheels , which transfer power to the crown wheel via a series of belts . This then drives the grinding stones and sack lift . There is a doorway on the first floor to allow material to be hoisted up the building .
An adapted winnowing machine is used to sift the flour produced by the millstones .
= German submarine U @-@ 64 ( 1939 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 64 was a Type IXB U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II . She was ordered by them in July 1937 . Her keel was laid down by AG Weser in Bremen in December 1938 . Following about nine months of construction , she was launched in September 1939 and formally commissioned into the Kriegsmarine in December .
U @-@ 64 had a very short career and sank no enemy vessels . Having left her home port of Wilhelmshaven for her first war patrol on 6 April 1940 , she was intercepted by Allied aircraft seven days later off the coast of Norway during the invasion of that country and was sunk by a bomb from a Fairey Swordfish aircraft of HMS Warspite ( 03 ) . Of her crew of 46 , eight men died and 38 escaped from the sinking submarine .
= = Construction and design = =
= = = Construction = = =
U @-@ 64 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 16 July 1937 as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles . Her keel was laid down on 15 December 1938 by AG Weser in Bremen as yard number 952 . She was launched on 20 September 1939 and commissioned on 16 December under the command of Kapitänleutnant Georg @-@ Wilhelm Schulz .
= = = Design = = =
German Type IXB submarines were slightly larger than the original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA . U @-@ 64 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 051 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 034 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 178 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 159 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 76 m ( 22 ft 2 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 60 m ( 31 ft 6 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 3 knots ( 13 @.@ 5 km / h ; 8 @.@ 4 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 64 nautical miles ( 119 km ; 74 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 64 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .
= = Service history = =
U @-@ 64 went to sea on 6 April 1940 . For eight days , she roamed the North Sea in search of Allied convoys heading to Norway in support of the campaign centred around that country . During that time she encountered no enemy vessels . On 13 April , the eighth day of her first patrol , she was heaved @-@ to in the waters off Bjerkvik in Norway , and was struck by a 350 @-@ pound bomb from a British Fairey Swordfish aircraft of HMS Warspite ( 03 ) . Her deck was also riddled with machine @-@ gun fire . The U @-@ boat then sank to the bottom of the harbor , eight of her crew went down with her . The remaining 38 were able to escape the sinking vessel and were picked up by German mountain troops stationed ashore . They later formed the crew of U @-@ 124 .
= HMS Exeter ( 68 ) =
HMS Exeter was the second and last York @-@ class heavy cruiser built for the Royal Navy during the late 1920s . Aside from a temporary deployment with the Mediterranean Fleet during the Abyssinia Crisis of 1935 – 36 , she spent the bulk of the 1930s assigned to the Atlantic Fleet or the North America and West Indies Station . When World War II began in September 1939 , the ship was assigned to patrol South American waters against German commerce raiders . Exeter was one of three British cruisers that fought the German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee later that year in the Battle of the River Plate . She was extensively damaged during the battle and was under repair for over a year .
After her repairs were completed , the ship spent most of 1941 on convoy escort duties before she was transferred to the Far East after the start of the Pacific War in December . Exeter was generally tasked with escorting convoys to and from Singapore during the Malayan Campaign and continued on those duties in early February 1942 as the Japanese prepared to invade the Dutch East Indies . Later that month , she was assigned to the Striking Force of the joint American @-@ British @-@ Dutch @-@ Australian Command and took on a more active role in the defence of the Dutch islands . The culmination of this was her participation in the Battle of the Java Sea later in the month as the Allies attempted to intercept Japanese invasion convoys . Exeter was crippled early in the battle and did not play much of a role as she was forced to withdraw . Two days later , she attempted to escape inbound Japanese forces , but was intercepted and sunk by Japanese ships at the beginning of March in the Second Battle of the Java Sea .
Most of her crew survived the sinking and were rescued by the Japanese . About a quarter of them died during captivity . Her wreck was discovered in early 2007 .
= = Design and description = =
Exeter was ordered two years after her sister ship York and her design incorporated improvements in the light of experience with the latter . Her beam was increased by one foot ( 30 cm ) to cater for increases in topweight , and the boiler uptakes were trunked backwards from the boiler rooms , allowing for straight funnels further removed from the bridge rather than the raked funnels necessary in York to ensure adequate dispersal of the flue gasses . As the eight @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) gun turrets had proved not strong enough to accommodate the aircraft catapult originally intended , Exeter was given a pair of fixed catapults angled out from amidships in a ' V ' shape , with the associated crane placed to starboard . Consequently , the bridge was lowered ( that of York being tall to give a view over the intended aircraft ) , and was of a streamlined , enclosed design that was incorporated into later cruisers .
Exeter was slightly lighter than expected and displaced 8 @,@ 390 long tons ( 8 @,@ 520 t ) at standard load and 10 @,@ 620 long tons ( 10 @,@ 790 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 575 feet 1 inch ( 175 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 58 feet ( 17 @.@ 7 m ) and a draught of 20 feet 3 inches ( 6 @.@ 2 m ) . She was powered by four Parsons geared steam turbine sets , each driving one shaft , which developed a total of 80 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 60 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by eight Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . The ship carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 900 long tons ( 1 @,@ 900 t ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 628 officers and ratings .
The ships mounted six BL eight @-@ inch MK VIII guns in three twin turrets . The turrets were designated ' A ' , ' B ' and ' Y ' from front to rear . Their secondary armament consisted of four QF four @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Mk V anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in single mounts . They also mounted two single two @-@ pounder ( 40 mm ) light AA guns ( " pom @-@ poms " ) . The Yorks carried two triple torpedo tube above @-@ water mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes .
The York @-@ class cruisers lacked a full @-@ length waterline armour belt . The sides of Exeter 's boiler and engine rooms and the sides of the magazines were protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armour . The transverse bulkheads at the end of her machinery rooms were 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) thick . The top of the magazines were protected by 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) of armour and their ends were 4 @.@ 375 inches ( 111 @.@ 1 mm ) thick . The lower deck over the machinery spaces and steering gear had a thickness of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) .
= = = Modifications = = =
In 1932 , Exeter had her side plating extended to enclose her open main deck as far back as the fore funnel . During that same refit , her pair of fixed catapults were finally installed for her embarked Fairey IIIF floatplanes . In 1934 – 35 , two quadruple mounts for Vickers 0 @.@ 5 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) AA machineguns replaced the pair of two @-@ pounder " pom @-@ poms " originally installed . About four years later , the catapults were replaced by a single revolving catapult and the ship now carried Supermarine Walrus amphibians .
While under repair in 1940 – 41 after her battle with the Admiral Graf Spee , the navy decided to upgrade her armament and fire @-@ control systems . The bridge was rebuilt and enlarged to accommodate a second High @-@ Angle Control System aft of the Director @-@ Control Tower ( DCT ) on top of the bridge , her single four @-@ inch AA guns were replaced with twin @-@ gun mounts for Mark XVI guns of the same calibre and a pair of octuple mounts for 40 mm " pom @-@ poms " were added abreast the aft superstructure . Enclosures ( " tubs " ) for single 20 mm Oerlikon guns were added to the roof of both ' B ' and ' Y ' turrets . The pole masts were replaced by stronger tripod masts because the Type 279 early @-@ warning radar had separate transmitting and receiving aerials , one at each masthead . In addition , a Type 284 fire @-@ control radar was fitted to the DCT .
= = Construction and career = =
Exeter , the fourth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy , was laid down on 1 August 1928 , launched on 18 July 1929 and completed on 27 July 1931 . The ship was then assigned to the 2nd Cruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet , where she served between 1931 and 1933 . In 1934 she was assigned to the America and West Indies Station and remained there , aside from a temporary deployment to the Mediterranean during the Abyssinian crisis of 1935 – 36 , until 1939 .
= = = Second World War = = =
At the outbreak of the Second World War , she formed part of the South American Division with the heavy cruiser Cumberland , under Commodore Henry Harwood . The ship , commanded by Captain Frederick Bell , was assigned to Force G to hunt for German commerce raiders off the eastern coast of South America on 6 October 1939 . Three months later , Harwood ordered Exeter and the light cruiser Achilles to rendezvous with his own Ajax off the mouth of the River Plate , while Cumberland covered the Falkland Islands . The two other ships arrived on 12 December and Admiral Graf Spee spotted Exeter the following morning .
Captain Hans Langsdorff decided to engage the British and closed at full speed . Following British doctrine on how to engage ships like Admiral Graf Spee , Exeter operated as a division on her own , Achilles and Ajax as the other , to split the fire of the German ship . They were only partially successful as the ship concentrated her main armament of six 283 @-@ millimetre ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) guns on Exeter and her secondary armament of eight 150 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns on the light cruisers . Langsdorff opened fire at Exeter at 06 : 18 with high @-@ explosive shells and she returned fire two minutes later at a range of 18 @,@ 700 yards ( 17 @,@ 100 m ) . The German ship straddled the British cruiser with her third salvo ; splinters from the near misses killed the crew of the starboard torpedo tubes and damaged both seaplanes . After eight salvos from Exeter , Admiral Graf Spee scored a direct hit on ' B ' turret that knocked it out of action and splinters from the hit killed all of the bridge personnel except three . Bell , wounded in the face , transferred to the aft conning position to continue the battle . His ship was hit twice more shortly afterwards , but her powerplant was not damaged and she remained seaworthy , although her aircraft had to be jettisoned .
At 06 : 30 , Langsdorff switched his fire to the light cruisers , but only inflicted splinter damage on them before some of Exeter 's torpedoes forced him to turn away at 06 : 37 to evade them . Her second torpedo attack at 06 : 43 was also unsuccessful . In the meantime , Langsdorff had switched his main guns back to the heavy cruiser and scored several more hits . They knocked out ' A ' turret , started a fire amidships that damaged the ship 's fire @-@ control and navigation circuits , and caused a 7 ° list with flooding . She remained in action until flooding disabled the machinery for ' Y ' turret at 07 : 30 . At 11 : 07 , Bell informed Harwood that Exeter had one eight @-@ inch and a four @-@ inch gun available in local control and that she could make 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . He ordered Bell to head to the Falklands for repair .
Exeter was hit by a total of seven 283 mm shells that killed 61 of her crew were and wounded another 23 . After all Exeter 's guns had been put out of action but she was still seaworthy , Bell planned to collide with the enemy , saying " I 'm going to ram the -------- . It will be the end of us but it will sink him too " . In return the ship had hit Admiral Graf Spee three times ; one shell penetrated her main armour belt and narrowly missed detonating in one of her engine rooms , but the most important one disabled her oil @-@ purification equipment . Without it , the ship was unlikely to be able to reach Germany . Several days later , unable to be repaired and apparently confronted by powerful Royal Navy reinforcements , Admiral Graf Spee was scuttled in Montevideo harbour .
Exeter made for Port Stanley for emergency repairs which took until January 1940 . She was repaired and modernised at Devonport Dockyard between February 1940 and March 1941 ; Captain W.N.T. Beckett relieved Bell on 12 December 1940 . On 10 March 1941 , the day Exeter was due to be re @-@ commissioned , Beckett died at Saltash Hospital from complications resulting from surgery related to injuries received earlier in his career . His replacement was Captain Oliver Gordon . On returning to the fleet , she was engaged on escort duty for Atlantic convoys , including the escort of Convoy WS @-@ 8B to the Middle East during the chase for the German battleship Bismarck . After the start of the Pacific War in December 1941 , the ship was transferred to the Far East .
Upon her arrival at Singapore on 13 January 1942 , Exeter was assigned to the ABDACOM naval force that was intended to defend the Dutch East Indies ( Indonesia ) from Japanese invasion . She spent the first several weeks of February escorting convoys in the East Indies . On 13 February , Allied reconnaissance aircraft spotted Japanese invasion convoys north of Bangka Island and the new commander of ABDA naval forces , Vice Admiral Conrad Helfrich of the Royal Netherlands Navy , was ordered to assemble the Allied Striking Force of Exeter and three Dutch and one Australian light cruisers at Oosthaven on the morning of 14 February . Escorted by six American and three Dutch destroyers , the force departed that afternoon . The Dutch Rear Admiral Karel Doorman , commanding the force , took his ships through the Gaspar Strait and then northwest towards Bangka Island . While passing through the strait , the Dutch destroyer Van Ghent struck a rock in poor visibility and another Dutch destroyer was tasked to take off her crew . The Japanese spotted the Allied ships around 08 : 00 and repeatedly attacked them . The first was a group of seven Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bombers from the light carrier Ryūjō that attacked Exeter with bombs around 10 : 30 . The blast from a near miss badly damaged her Walrus , but the ship was only damaged by splinters . They were followed shortly afterwards by a group of 23 Mitsubishi G3M " Nell " bombers from the Genzan Air Group that inflicted no damage as they dropped their bombs from high altitude . Another group of six B5Ns attacked without effect at 11 : 30 .
The repeated aerial attacks persuaded Doorman that further progress was unwise in the face of Japanese aerial supremacy and he ordered his ships to reverse course and head for Tanjung Priok at 12 : 42 . The attacks continued as 27 G3Ms of the Mihoro Air Group then bombed from high altitude . Seven more B5Ns attacked fruitlessly at 14 : 30 ; a half @-@ dozen more followed an hour later . The final attack was made by 17 Mitsubishi G4M " Betty " bombers of the Kanoya Air Group shortly before dark . The Japanese attacks were almost entirely ineffectual , with no ship reporting anything more than splinter damage . In return Allied anti @-@ aircraft fire was moderately effective with most of the attacking bombers damaged by shell splinters . In addition one G4M crashed while attempting to land and another was badly damaged upon landing .
= = = = First Battle of the Java Sea = = = =
On 25 February , Helfrich ordered all available warships to join Doorman 's Eastern Striking Force at Surabaya . Exeter and the Australian cruiser Perth , escorted by three British destroyers , Jupiter , Encounter , and Electra , set sail at once , leaving behind one Australian cruiser and two destroyers that were short of fuel . After they had arrived the following day , Doorman 's entire force of five cruisers and nine destroyers departed Surabaya at 18 : 30 to patrol off Eastern Java in hopes of intercepting the oncoming invasion convoy which had been spotted earlier that morning . The Japanese were further north than he anticipated and his ships found nothing . His own ships were located at 09 : 35 on the following morning , 27 February , and were continuously tracked by the Japanese . Doorman ordered a return to Surabaya at 10 : 30 and his ships were attacked by eight bombers from the Kanoya Air Group at 14 : 37 . They claimed to have made two hits on Jupiter , but actually missed the British destroyer . Just as his leading ships were entering harbour , he received reports of enemy ships 90 miles ( 140 km ) to the north and Doorman ordered his ships to turn about to intercept them .
Aware of Doorman 's movements , the Japanese commander , Rear Admiral Takeo Takagi , detached the convoy 's two escorting destroyer flotillas , each consisting of a light cruiser and seven destroyers , to intercept the Allied ships in conjunction with his own pair of heavy cruisers , ( Nachi and Haguro ) , which were escorted by a pair of destroyers . His heavy cruisers opened fire at long range at 15 : 47 with little effect . The light cruisers and destroyers closed to ranges between 13 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 and 14 @,@ 000 m ) and began firing Type 93 " Long Lance " torpedoes beginning at 16 : 03 . All of these torpedoes failed to damage their targets , although one torpedo hit Exeter and failed to detonate at 16 : 35 . Three minutes later , Haguro changed the course of the battle when one of her shells penetrated the British ship 's starboard aft twin four @-@ inch gun mount before detonating in the forward boiler room , knocking six of her boilers off @-@ line and killing 14 of her crew . The ship sheered out of line to avoid another torpedo and slowed , followed by all of the trailing cruisers . Perth laid a smoke screen to protect Exeter and the Allied ships sorted themselves into separate groups as they attempted to disengage . Exeter was escorted by one Dutch and all three British destroyers in one group and the other cruisers and the American destroyers formed the other group . The Japanese did not initially press their pursuit as they maneuvered to use their torpedoes against the crippled Exeter , which could only make 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) , and her escorts .
The Japanese began launching torpedoes beginning at 17 : 20 at ranges of 10 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 500 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 to 16 @,@ 900 m ) , but they all missed . For some reason , two Japanese destroyers continued to close before firing their torpedoes at 6 @,@ 500 yards ( 5 @,@ 900 m ) and Encounter and Electra pulled out of line to counter @-@ attack . They engaged Asagumo and Minegumo at close range as they closed . Asagumo was damaged by Electra , but the Japanese ship sank the British destroyer at 17 : 46 . In the meantime , Exeter continued south to Surabaya , escorted by Encounter and the Dutch destroyer Witte de With . Doorman 's repeated , unsuccessful , and ultimately fatal , attempts to reach the transports concentrated the Japanese on the task of protecting the transports and allowed the damaged British cruiser to reach harbour .
= = = = Second Battle of the Java Sea = = = =
The following day , after making temporary repairs and refuelling , Exeter , escorted by Encounter and the American destroyer Pope , was ordered to sail to Colombo , Ceylon , via the Sunda Strait . They departed on the evening of 28 February , but were intercepted by the Japanese heavy cruisers Nachi , Haguro , Myōkō and Ashigara and the destroyers Akebono , Inazuma , Yamakaze and Kawakaze on the morning of 1 March . About 08 : 00 , the British ships spotted two of the Japanese cruisers , one of which launched its spotting floatplanes . Two others were seen closing in , and both launched their aircraft before opening fire at about 09 : 30 . The Allied ships laid smoke and turned away to the east with the Japanese to their north and south . Exeter was able to reach a speed of 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) before the first hit on her again detonated in a boiler room and knocked out all power around 11 : 20 . The Japanese destroyers closed in and fired a total of 18 torpedoes , which made a number of hits . Two of those from from the destroyer Inazuma were claimed as hits and Exeter quickly capsized and sank . Encounter and Pope were also lost ; Pope temporarily escaped the initial melee , only to be sunk by B5Ns a few hours later .
The Japanese rescued 652 of Exeter 's crew , including her captain , who became prisoners of war . Of these men , 152 died in captivity . The wreck was located and positively identified in February 2007 . Exeter lies in Indonesian waters , at a depth of about 200 feet ( 61 m ) , 90 miles ( 140 km ) north of Bawean Island – some 60 miles ( 97 km ) from the sinking position given by Gordon after the war .
= Pennsylvania Route 666 =
Pennsylvania Route 666 ( PA 666 ) is an east – west state route located in northwest Pennsylvania . The western terminus of the route is | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
at U.S. Route 62 ( US 62 ) in the Hickory Township municipality of East Hickory , and its eastern terminus is at US 6 in the hamlet of Sheffield in the township of the same name . It cuts through most of Allegheny National Forest , and is therefore sparsely populated , with the largest settlement along the road being Endeavor . Its official name is the David Zeisberger Memorial Highway .
The route was assigned in the 1928 numbering of State Routes in Pennsylvania . The highway originally ended in Nebraska until being extended southward along other streets . The route was realigned in 1946 onto its present routing . The highway has remained the same since .
= = Route description = =
= = = East Hickory to Old PA 666 = = =
Pennsylvania Route 666 begins at an intersection with US 62 along the banks of the Allegheny River in East Hickory . The route progresses eastward , intersecting with East Hickory Road , a dead end street that is part of old US 62 . With trees and some homes surrounding the highway , PA 666 continues out of East Hickory and into Hickory Township . The highway heads into Queen , intersecting with two dead @-@ end streets before turning to the southeast . The route quickly leaves Queen , entering a heavily forested area . The trees around the highway are very dense and surround the highway for several miles . The southeastern motion that PA 666 was following becomes a steady east , with the highway making several changes in its direction . There is an intersection with a local road , Yellow Hammer Road , which has access to a small amount of civilization . The road however , is a loop , and merges in soon after . The route continues farther through the dense forestry , intersecting with a woods road . PA 666 continues farther to the southeast , entering a break in the dense forestry .
The break in forestry is short , and PA 666 continues , now fully to the south . There is another break as the highway approaches the intersection of Balltown Road and Dutch Hill Road . Hazelton Hill Road parallels to the south along the eastern @-@ direction highway and both turn southward soon afterward . When PA 666 turns back into the heavily forested area , Hazleton Hill Road turns in the other direction and the parallel ends . There is a small break in the forestry , for some homes , and the highway then begins to make its loop to the north . Paralleling the Tionesta Creek PA 666 intersects with some local roads , Pierson Hill and Salmon Creek Roads . After the bend in Kettlettville , Route 666 follows a short segment of an old alignment , deemed on maps as Old PA @-@ 666 . PA 666 now makes a steady path to the northeast along the creekbanks , and the dense forests return . The northeastern progression begins to change , and the highway begins a more northward direction . Continuing through the forestry , Route 666 begins to change to a more eastern direction , and in the process , leaving the creekbanks .
= = = Old PA 666 to Sheffield = = =
The eastern progression begins to convert to another northeastern one , eventually moving into Balltown . In Balltown , there is a break in the forestry for a small area of civilization . The route heads northward , running along the riverbanks once again , and enters the small municipality of Porkey , Pennsylvania . PA 666 leaves Porkey and makes a U @-@ shaped turn through the forestry . In the U is the municipality of Minister . Afterwards , the route 's progression is mainly eastward . The route , running along the riverbanks , turns to the southward , until turning eastward once again . The route continues into Howe Township and quickly leaves , turning to the northeast and into the dense forestry . Several miles later , the route actually makes a northwestern progression , but it is for a short time , and the highway goes back to a normal northeastern progression .
There are more and more gaps in the forestry and the highway enters Barnes . In Barnes , PA 666 intersects with PA 948 's northern terminus . After Barnes , the route becomes more civilized , and the highway passes more homes . Nearing its end , PA 666 re @-@ enters the forested area , leaving quickly . The highway terminates in Sheffield Township , at an intersection with US 6 .
= = History = =
PA 666 was assigned in the mass numbering of state routes in 1928 . This routing of PA 666 from Barnes to Nebraska , small municipalities in Forest and Warren Counties . After remaining intact for thirteen years , the highway was extended to Newmansville to terminate at PA 36 and PA 208 . This southern extension is now Newmansville Road , three quadrant routes , and two township roads . In 1946 , PA 666 was extended westward to East Hickory , with the extension to Newmansville being decommissioned .
Several highways numbered " 666 " have experienced high rates of sign theft . According to a 2008 report , this appears to not be the case with PA 666 with a PennDOT spokesperson saying few signs have been stolen .
= = Major intersections = =
= Effects of Hurricane Charley in South Carolina =
The effects of Hurricane Charley in South Carolina included $ 20 million ( 2004 USD ) in damage and 135 @,@ 000 power outages . Hurricane Charley lasted from August 9 to August 15 , and at its peak attained 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) winds , making it a strong Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The storm made landfall in southwestern Florida at maximum strength , making it the strongest hurricane to hit the United States since Hurricane Andrew struck Florida twelve years before , in 1992 .
Before the storm , Governor Mark Sanford declared a state of emergency as Charley approached its final landfall and issued a mandatory evacuation for residents on barrier islands and in coastal locations . About 180 @,@ 000 people evacuated the Grand Strand . Peak winds in the state were clocked at 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) at the Isle of Palms . The storm spawned winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) at Folly Beach and 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) in downtown Charleston . Numerous trees , tree limbs and electrical poles were knocked down in those regions . Flash flooding was also reported with rainfall peaking at over 7 in ( 180 mm ) . There were no fatalities .
= = Preparations = =
Prior to the storm , a tropical storm watch was issued for locations from the Altamaha sound , Georgia to the South Santee River on August 12 . The next day , the watch was upgraded to a hurricane watch from the Altamaha sound to the South Carolina – Georgia border . As Charley approached the region , a hurricane warning was issued for the entire area . A tornado watch was issued eastward from a line extending from Aiken to Lancaster County .
Governor Mark Sanford declared a state of emergency as Charley approached landfall and issued a mandatory evacuation for residents on barrier islands and in coastal locations in Georgetown and Horry Counties . In Georgetown County , this order was focused on residents and tourists east of U.S. Route 17 , likewise for Horry County . 180 @,@ 000 people evacuated the Grand Strand . Drawbridges in Beaufort and Charleston Counties were shut down , and bridges in Georgetown and Horry Counties were locked down . Hampton County requested 2 @,@ 000 sandbags , that were provided by the Department of Corrections . The Wateree Correctional Institution also filled 30 @,@ 000 sandbags for potential floods . State troopers directed traffic inland from Myrtle Beach . U.S. Route 501 used a lane reversal to allow for evacuations .
= = Impact = =
The first storm to make landfall in the state at hurricane intensity since Hurricane Hugo in 1989 , Hurricane Charley struck near Cape Romain , South Carolina as an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) hurricane , moved offshore briefly , and made its final landfall near North Myrtle Beach as a minimal hurricane with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . With the landfalling system , five tornadoes were reported in the state . However , only two were confirmed ; one moved through the Francis Marion National Forest , downing trees along its path . Storm surge ranged from 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) – 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , although only minor beach erosion occurred . A buoy situated 41 nmi ( 47 mi ) southeast of Charleston recorded 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) seas and 74 miles per hour ( 119 km / h ) winds .
Peak winds in the state were clocked at 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) at the Isle of Palms . The storm spawned winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) at Folly Beach and 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) in downtown Charleston . Trees , limbs and electrical poles were knocked down in those regions . Trees were blown onto U.S. Route 17 in Mount Pleasant , and awnings were torn off of a few structures . A total of 2 @,@ 231 houses were damaged ; 2317 of these were severely damaged and 40 were destroyed . Two @-@ hundred and twenty @-@ one of those damaged were beach front structures on Sunset Beach . Businesses had broken windows , six hotels had roof and outer wall damage . This led to $ 30 million ( 2004 USD ) in hotel profit loss in Myrtle Beach , primarily along U.S. Route 17 .
As dry air from northern sections of the state wrapped into the circulation of the storm , a band of convection developed along a frontal boundary stretching from Newberry northward . Widespread rainfall peaking at over 7 in ( 180 mm ) fell to the west of the storm 's track . In downtown Charleston , 2 @.@ 09 in ( 53 mm ) of rainfall was reported , while in Hampton 1 @.@ 53 in ( 39 mm ) of rain fell . However , the bulk of the rainfall remained offshore . With the soil still saturated from Tropical Storm Bonnie , some flooding in low @-@ lying areas of Charleston County occurred . Up to 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water accumulated on South Carolina Route 17 and on local streets . Flash floods were also observed in Mount Pleasant . High winds spread vegetative debris , clogging storm drains and caused further flooding . A bridge in Union County washed out following rainfall from Charley and Tropical Storm Bonnie . 135 @,@ 000 customers were without power , and storm damage totaled $ 20 million ( 2004 USD ) .
Following the storm , Progress Energy Carolinas assembled 1 @,@ 200 tree and power line personnel to assist in damage recovery . Federal disaster funds were approved for the counties of Georgetown and Horry . The declaration covered damage to public property on August 14 – 15 . The funding covered state and local government costs for debris removal and emergency services related to the hurricane .
= Nandanar =
Nandanar ( also spelt as Nantanar ) , also known as Tirunalaippovar ( Thirunaalaippovar ) and Tiru Nalai Povar Nayanar , was a Nayanar saint , who is venerated in the Hindu sect of Shaivism . He is the only Dalit ( " untouchable " ) saint in the Nayanars . He is generally counted as the eighteenth in the list of 63 Nayanars . Like the other Nayanars , he was a devout devotee of the god Shiva .
The tale of Nandanar is retold numerous times in folk tales , folk music , plays , films and literature in Tamil society . While Nandanar is included in Nayanar list since the 8th century CE , the 12th century CE Periya Puranam gives a full hagiographical account of his life . The tale focuses on two miracles attributed to him . In Sivalokanathar Temple , Tirupunkur ; his prayers are said to have moved a giant stone bull , which still appears in the moved position in the temple . Nandanar is said to have ritually purified himself by fire at Thillai Nataraja Temple , Chidambaram . Nandar 's tale features in temple lore and religious literature related to both these temples . Gopalakrishna Bharati 's 19th century retelling of the saint 's life remains the basis of many later retellings . It expands the original narrative adding elements of oppression of the Dalit saint by higher castes . While higher caste retellings of the tale focus on the saint 's observance of caste norms , Dalits emphasize his exploitation and superior religiosity .
Apart from collective worship Nandanar enjoys being part of the Nayanars in Shiva temples of Tamil Nadu , shrines depicted to Nandanar exist in both the sites of his miracles . The saint also became an icon of protest in Dalit rights movements .
= = Accounts of life = =
One of the most prominent Nayanars , Sundarar ( 8th century ) is the first to name Nandanar ( called Tirunalaipovar ) in literature , however Tirunalaipovar ( ' he who will go tomorrow ' ) relates to the tale of Nandanar longing to visit Chidambaram ; no details of his life are revealed . In the eleventh century , Nambiyandar Nambi devotes a stanza to Nandanar in his Tiruttondar Tiruvandhadhi while recalling the lives of the Nayanars . Tirunalaipovar is described as a Pulayar ( Pulaiya , Pulai ) who lived in Adanur . He is said to have visited Thillai Nataraja Temple , Chidambaram of his patron god Shiva " by God 's grace " and " three thousand Brahmins ( priests ) of Chidambaram saluted him . "
The earliest full ( and primary religious ) account of Nandanar 's life is found in the Tamil Periya Puranam by Sekkizhar ( 12th century ) , which is a hagiography of the 63 Nayanars , but it was the Nandanar Charitram by the Tamil poet Gopalakrishna Bharati ( 1810 – 1896 ) brought Nandanar 's tale to public attention . The Nandanar Charitam ( printed in 1861 ) , the magnum opus of Bharati , added new elements to Sekkizhar 's tale . Though it is unknown when he lived exactly , generally he is dated to 7th or 8th century CE .
= = = The Periya Puranam = = =
The Periya Puranam narrates that Nandanar belonged to Adanur ( Adanoor ) in the Chola kingdom . Presently , Adanur is located in Thanjavur district , in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu . He was born in the Pulaiya caste , who were regarded " untouchables " ( see Dalits ) . They were agricultural labourers and singers . Another description considers Nandanar from the Dalit caste of Paraiyar , who served as labourers and were drummers as per the caste code .
Nandanar was born in poverty , in Pulaippadi , the Pulai slums of Adanur . He was a staunch devotee of the god Shiva , the patron god of Shaivism . He was a leather maker , who crafted drums and other musical instruments . He also served as a village servant , a watchman , a labourer as well as the " town crier " , who used to beat the drums . In Nandanar 's times , Dalits were not allowed to enter Hindu temples . So , Nandanar would stand outside a Shiva temple and sing the praises of Shiva and dance . However , he harboured a strong urge to pay his respects to the icon of Shiva at Sivalokanathar Temple , Tirupunkur . He stood outside the temple , but a huge stone Nandi ( the bull mount of Shiva , whose sculpture is generally seen in Shiva temples , facing Shiva in the garbhagriha - sanctum sanatorium ) blocked his path of vision . The compassionate Shiva ordered Nandi to move a little to side and the bull complied , allowing the Nayanar to see the central icon of Shiva , unobstructed . Nandanar cleaned up the surroundings of the temple and dug a pond ( which serves as the temple tank ) in honour of Shiva . He circumambulated the shrine and returned to Adanur .
Nandanar visited many temples of Shiva and served the god . Once , he longed to visit the Thillai Nataraja Temple of Chidambaram , which enshrines Shiva as Nataraja , the Lord of Dance . He used to say everyday that he will go the next day to Chidambaram , but never actually dared to step in the holy town , where he was prohibited entry . Thus , he came to be known as " Tiru @-@ Nalai @-@ povar " , ' he who will go tomorrow ' . Finally , Nandanar reached the boundary of Chidambaram , but feared to set foot in the town . He saw the smoke of fire sacrifices and heard the chants of the Vedic scriptures . Thinking about how he can see Nataraja 's dancing icon , the Nayanar circumambulated the town numerous times and finally succumbed to fatigue and slept . Shiva appeared in his dream and told Nandanar to enter the temple through a holy fire . The god also informed the Brahmin priests of Chidambaram to prepare a pyre . Next day , the Brahmins approached Nandanar as per the divine order .
Nandanar entered the holy fire chanting the name of Shiva and reappeared in a new purified form . He looked like a Brahmin sage , wearing matted hair ( characteristic of a Shaiva ) and the sacred thread worn by Brahmins across his chest . His body was smeared with sacred ash . The gods showered flowers on the Nayanar from heaven and the Brahmins cheered . With the Brahmins , Nandanar went in the garbhagriha and saw Nataraja . The Nayanar disappeared in the image of Nataraja and became one with Shiva .
The Periya Puranam version is interpreted as a Brahmanical narrative , where a particular Dalit is granted salvation by transforming into a Brahmin ; the superiority of the Brahmins is reinforced and the legitimacy of the ban of Dalits is not challenged .
P.Sampath , president of the Tamil Nadu Untouchability Eradication Front ( TNUEF ) and an office @-@ bearer politician from the Tamil Nadu unit of Communist Party of India ( Marxist ) ( known as CPI ( M ) ) , calls the Chidambaram fire @-@ trail as Brahmin propaganda to conceal the truth that Nandanar was burnt at the stake .
= = = The Nandanar Charitam = = =
Bharati was an ardent devotee of Shiva and wrote three operas in honour of various Nayanar saints . Though Bharati was himself an upper caste Brahmin , he was a crusader for the rights of the Dalits . While Sekkizhar exalts Nandanar 's devotion to Shiva , Bharati presents the grim reality of ostracization that the Nayanar suffered . Bharati 's Nandanar is " not a rebel , but only a protester " . The Nandanar Charitam focuses on the atrocities that Nandanar and Dalits as a whole had to suffer at the hands of upper castes . The opera Nandanar Charitam was embedded with the social message that Shiva grants emancipation irrespective of caste .
The play starts with the term " May I come " , a warning to higher @-@ caste people that Dalits had to cry out before entering any street , so as to not pollute the higher caste members . The Nayanar first clashes with his own Dalit brethren . They oppose his devotion for the Lord of Chidambaram , whom they call a Brahmin god . The Dalit elders — headed by Pariyakilavan — define his duties as a pariah and advise him to not confront caste rules . They tell him to worship the folk deities of the pariah , instead of Shiva , the god of Brahmanical Hinduism . The Dalits also feel that Nandanar needs to abide by the social norms and give up his taboo idea of entering a temple .
A villainous Brahmin landlord Vetiyar ( Vediyar ) appears in Bharati 's tale . He torments his bonded labourer Nandanar and chastises him repeatedly for trying to go beyond caste norms . Vetiyar sees Nandanar 's bhakti and desire to enter a temple " not only as undesirable and irreligious , but also as a serious threat to his social status . " Vetiyar refuses to grant him permission to Chidambaram and even resorts to violence . After much persuasion , the Brahmin relents on the condition that the saint do an impossible task of cultivating and harvesting the field in one night . Aided by Shiva 's attendant ganas , the saint completes the task . The Brahmin realizes the piety of the Nayanar , apologizes to him and lets him go .
Bharati retained the final confrontation with the Brahmins of Chidambaram and his ritual purification by fire . Bharati concludes in a poem saying that " it is said in the epics that the Lord worshipped by Gopalakrishna granted salvation even to Untouchables ! "
= = = Variants = = =
In stories of higher caste Hindus ( especially Brahmins ) , Nandanar is a Brahmin or God himself somehow trapped in the body of an untouchable and whose true form is revealed by the fire trial . Other tales focus on his strict adherence to caste norms , his obedience of his Brahmin master and his refusal to enter the holy temple as an untouchable .
The Dalits strongly believe in his piety and portray Brahmins as the root cause of all the misery of the Nayanar . Nandanar fits in the Dalit narrative that proves that their religiosity is on par or superior to the higher castes . They say that Nandanar was ' swallowed by God ' . The sashes round Nataraja 's waist are interpreted as the legs of the saint , who merged into the god .
The temple lore of Tirupunkur narrates that Shiva instructed his son Ganesha to aid Nandanar in digging the temple tank named Nandanar tirtha , after the saint . Another variant tells that Ganesha dug up the tank in the night so that Nandanar can bathe in its sacred waters before seeing Shiva in the temple .
In the early half of the 20th century , the novel Nandan , by A. Gopalasami Iyengar and G. Aravamudha Iyengar , includes reformist Brahmin characters that argue Nandan 's case against their peers . Nandan also echoes the reformist ideas of Hindu spiritual leaders like Ramanuja and Vivekananda , and progressive upper @-@ caste leaders .
The short story Puthiya Nandan by Pudhumaipithan ( 1906 @-@ 1948 ) places the classical tale of the Nayanar in a contemporary setting . While retelling Nandan 's ancient tale , it also alludes to the Dalit rights movements of Mahatma Gandhi and Periyar E. V. Ramasamy ( see Self @-@ Respect Movement ) .
Indira Parthasarathy 's Nandan Kathai ( 1978 ) builds the tale of Nandanar ( referred in the work as Nandan ) further , introducing two non @-@ Brahmin upper caste landholders , who are as ruthless as Bharati 's Vediyar . Nandanar is portrayed as a lover of art , rather than God . He wants to see the cosmic dance of Nataraja . A Devadasi called Abhirami also appears ; no significant female characters are found in earlier narratives . Indira is blunt in reprimanding the Dalits for not understanding Nandanar . Nandan Kathai is a quest for liberation of Dalits and women alike . Unlike earlier narratives , Indira 's tale is devoid of miracles and is a story of how Nandanar falls prey to a conspiracy . The Vediyar @-@ priest , the Vediyar @-@ landlord and the two non @-@ Brahmin upper caste landholders , hatch a plot to end Nandan . They make Nandanar believe that God harvested crop from the field , an allusion to the miracle of Vediyar 's impossible task in Bharati 's work . Then , they persuade him to organize a dance contest between Bharatnatyam , the high @-@ caste elites ' dance and the folk dance of the Dalits . Finally , in the climax , Nandanar agrees to undergo a fire @-@ trial , reassured by the earlier miracle , but he and Abhirami burn in the flames . The upper castes succeed in sending a warning to Dalits how trespassers of the caste code , longing for salvation , would be punished .
= = Celebration in Hindu religion = =
Nandanar is specially worshipped in the Tamil month of Purattasi , when the moon enters the Rohini nakshatra ( lunar mansion ) . He is depicted with a shaved head , folded hands ( see Anjali mudra ) with a kamandalu and a danda ( staff ) , like a seer . He receives collective worship as part of the 63 Nayanars . Their icons and brief accounts of his deeds are found in many Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu . Their images are taken out in procession in festivals .
A water tank in Chidambaram is considered sacred as it is believed to be the site of Nandanar 's fire @-@ purification . A " recently built " ( as mentioned in the 1992 book ) small shrine dedicated to the Nayanar , exists in south @-@ west part of the town , whose name means ' Nandanar has become the temple ' . A sculpture of Nandanar as a singer is found in the Chidambaram temple , besides another in Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram ( 12th century ) depicting him in the trail by fire .
Sundarar venerates Nandanar in the Tiruthonda Thogai , a hymn to Nayanar saints , calling him " Nalaippovan " , the " holy pilgrim " who will go tomorrow . An earlier hymn to Shiva praises the god who is served by Nalaippovan . The devotional poet Tyagaraja ( 1767 – 1847 ) also narrates the tale of Nandanar in his poems .
Devotional works dedicated to Nataraja of the Chidambaram temple narrate Nandanar 's tale . Umapathi Sivacharya 's Kunchitangristava ( early fourteenth century ) mentions Nandan 's legend . While another Sanskrit work Hemasabhanatha Mahatmya devotes its ninth chapter to the Nayanar . The Sthala Purana of the Nataraja temple called Chidambara Mahatmya praises the god as served by Nandan .
The Nandi in Sivalokanathar Temple , Tirupunkur is seen placed off centre as a testimony of Nandanar 's devotion and the miracle . A stone image of the saint is worshipped in the temple . The Dvarapalas ( gate @-@ keeper sculptures ) are depicted with his heads leaning downwards , said to be in honour of Nandanar . In 1959 , a shrine was created outside the Shiva temple , from where the stone image of Nandanar looks eternally at Shiva . Nandanar is depicted with his hands joined above his head , praying to Shiva . Scenes of Bharati 's opera and the local legend of Nandanar and Ganesha digging the temple tank are seen on the shrine .
= = Remembrance in society = =
Nandanar 's influence was and remains limited primarily to the Tamil @-@ speaking areas . The Christian missionary Rev. A. C. Clayton — who was " sympathetic " to the Dalit cause — used Nandanar 's narrative ( retold as The Legend of Nandan ) to suggest that bhakti ( devotion ) — which saw no distinction of class or caste — was the superior means to salvation than the jnana @-@ marga ( salvation by knowledge ) propagated by the Brahmins and also challenged the authority of the Brahmin orthodoxy .
Nandanar became " the hero of tales of caste protest " . The " Adi Dravida " ( Dalit ) leaders of the Self @-@ Respect Movement used Nandanar as an exemplar to prove that social superiority originates not from birth , but the qualities and deeds of people . In 2010 , Cadres of the Tamil Nadu Untouchability Eradication Front ( TNUEF ) and the Communist Party of India ( Marxist ) under the leadership of P. Samath , protested to bring down the wall on the South Gate of the Chimdabaram temple , which was — as per a tale — built as Nandanar entered from the gate . The walled gate was the symbol of the oppression of the Dalit caste and caste discrimination , as per the protesters who demanded its demolition . The state government — which governs the temple currently — contented that the veracity of Nandanar 's tale and its connection to the walled Gate , can not be ascertained and thus , refused the protesters ' demands . Nandanar " continues to inspire them ( Dalits ) as a symbol of resistance and a hope of a better future " . However , young Dalits identify with recent Dalit leaders like B. R. Ambedkar and are unaware or uninterested in the " obedient Nandanar " . Ambedkar , himself had dedicated his book The Untouchables , to three Dalit saints , including Nandanar .
In speech in Chidambaram , Mahatma Gandhi called Nandanar , a true practitioner of Satyagraha , a means of Nonviolent resistance . Gandhi said : " Nanda broke every barrier and won his way to freedom , not by brag , not by bluster , but by the purest form of self @-@ suffering ... he shamed them [ his persecutors ] into doing justice by his lofty prayer , by the purity of his character , ... he compelled God Himself to descend and made Him open the eyes of his persecutors " .
Nandanar 's tale is retold numerous times through folk tales , plays , literature and art forms like Villu Paatu and " musical discourses " . A number of Tamil films , all titled Nandanar , recall Nandanar 's tale following Bharati 's version . Besides a silent film in 1923 , another silent film Nandanar , subtitled The Elevation of the Downtrodden , directed by P. K. Raja Sandow , in 1930 . The first talkie film on Nandanar was made in 1931 . The 1935 film featured K. B. Sundarambal , who also performed on stage as the Nayanar numerous times . The 1942 film , starring Dandapani Desikar in the lead , courted controversy for its overly Brahmin overtones and was banned in Kolar Gold Fields after protests by Dalits , however the ban was lifted after Desikar met and personally apologized to the Dalits for being part of the climax , which featured the fire @-@ purification . Another film on Nandanar was released in 1943 . Sundaram Balachander acted in the 1948 film . N. S. Krishnan presented the story as a " narrative art form " , while A. Padmanabhan released a small booklet on the saint 's life for children . C. T. Indra says that Nandanar was made immoral in legend and remembered over the years " as a strategy of public management of anxiety . ... In the Essentialist way , Nandan 's devotion was cited down the ages to play down the social inequities and play up his spiritual qualifications . "
= M249 light machine gun =
The M249 light machine gun ( LMG ) , formerly designated the M249 Squad Automatic Weapon ( SAW ) , and formally written as Light Machine Gun , 5 @.@ 56 mm , M249 , is the American adaptation of the Belgian FN Minimi , a light machine gun manufactured by the Belgian company FN Herstal ( FN ) . The M249 is manufactured in the United States by the local subsidiary FN Manufacturing LLC in South Carolina and is widely used in the U.S. Armed Forces . The weapon was introduced in 1984 after being judged the most effective of a number of candidate weapons to address the lack of automatic firepower in small units . The M249 provides infantry squads with the heavy volume of fire of a machine gun combined with accuracy and portability approaching that of a rifle .
The M249 is gas operated and air @-@ cooled . It has a quick @-@ change barrel , allowing the gunner to rapidly replace an overheated or jammed barrel . A folding bipod is attached near the front of the gun , though an M192 LGM tripod is available . It can be fed from both linked ammunition and STANAG magazines , like those used in the M16 and M4 . This allows the SAW gunner to use a rifleman 's magazines as an emergency source of ammunition in the event that he runs out of linked rounds .
M249s have seen action in every major conflict involving the United States since the U.S. invasion of Panama in 1989 . Soldiers are generally satisfied with the weapon 's performance , though there have been reports of clogging with dirt and sand . Due to the weight and age of the weapon , the United States Marine Corps is fielding the M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle with plans to partially replace the M249 in Marine Corps service .
The M249 is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a " Squad Assault Weapon " .
= = Development = =
In 1965 , the U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps ' primary machine guns were the M2 Browning and M60 . The M2 was a large @-@ caliber heavy machine gun , usually mounted on vehicles or in fixed emplacements . The M60 was a more mobile medium machine gun intended to be carried with the troops to provide heavy automatic fire . Both were very heavy weapons and usually required a crew of at least two to operate efficiently . The Browning automatic rifle , the army 's main individual machine gun since its introduction in World War I , was phased out in 1957 with the introduction of the M14 rifle , which had a fully automatic mode . " Designated riflemen " in every squad were ordered to use their weapons on the fully automatic setting , while other troops were required to use their rifle 's semi @-@ automatic mode on most occasions to increase accuracy and conserve ammunition . Because the M14 and M16 rifles had not been designed with sustained automatic fire in mind , they often overheated or jammed . The 20 @-@ round and 30 @-@ round magazines of these weapons limited their sustained automatic effectiveness when compared to belt @-@ fed weapons .
The Army decided that an individual machine gun , lighter than the M60 , but with more firepower than the M16 , would be advantageous ; troops would no longer have to rely on rifles for automatic fire . Through the 1960s , the introduction of a machine gun into the infantry squad was examined in various studies . While there was a brief flirtation with the concept of a flechette- or dart @-@ firing Universal Machine Gun during one study , most light machine gun experiments concentrated on the Stoner 63 light machine gun , a modular weapon that could be easily modified for different purposes . The Stoner 63 LMG saw combat for a brief period in Vietnam with the USMC , and later on a wider scale with the U.S. Navy SEALs .
In 1968 , the Army Small Arms Program developed plans for a new 5 @.@ 56 mm caliber LMG , though no funds were allocated ( 5 @.@ 56 mm ammunition was viewed as underpowered by many in the armed forces ) . Studies of improved 5 @.@ 56 mm ammunition , with better performance characteristics , began . The earliest reference to studies of other caliber cartridges for the LMG did not appear until 1969 . In July 1970 , the U.S. Army finally approved development of an LMG , with no specified caliber . At this time , the nomenclature " Squad Automatic Weapon " ( SAW ) was introduced . Actual design of alternative cartridges for the LMG did not begin until July 1971 . A month later , Frankford Arsenal decided on two cartridge designs for the new LMG : a 6 mm cartridge and a new 5 @.@ 56 mm cartridge with a much larger case . Neither design was finalized by March 1972 , when the Army published the specifications document for the planned SAW . The 6 mm cartridge design was eventually approved in May that year . Prior to July 1972 , SAW development contracts were awarded to Maremont , Philco Ford , and the Rodman Laboratory at Rock Island Arsenal . These companies produced designs with Army designations XM233 , XM234 and XM235 respectively — X denoting " experimental " . Designs were required to have a weight of less than 9 @.@ 07 kg ( 20 lb ) including 200 rounds of ammunition , and a range of at least 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) .
When the time came for developmental and operational testing of the SAW candidates , three 5 @.@ 56 mm candidate weapons were included with the 6 mm candidates : the M16 HBAR , a heavy @-@ barrel variant of the M16 designed for prolonged firing ; the Fabrique Nationale de Herstal ( FN ) Minimi ; and the HK 23A1 . The initial round of tests ended in December 1974 . In February 1976 , the Minimi and Rodman XM235 SAW were selected for further development . At this time , opinions of the 6 mm cartridge were beginning to sour due to the logistical implications of providing yet another ammunition type to the infantry . In June , it was requested that the SAW specifications document be revised to emphasize standard 5 @.@ 56 mm ammunition . In October , the requested revisions were approved , and bids were solicited for the conversion of the Rodman XM235 to 5 @.@ 56 mm . Production of the converted XM235 was awarded to Ford Aerospace , and its designation was changed to XM248 . A new M16 HBAR variant , the XM106 , was developed in 1978 , and soon after , Heckler & Koch lobbied to include a 5 @.@ 56 mm conversion of its HK 21A1 ( instead of the standard 7.62mm NATO ammunition it was built for ) in future SAW testing . The latter model was designated the XM262 . At this time , the Minimi received the designation XM249 . Testing of the four candidates resumed in April 1979 .
In May 1980 , the FN XM249 was selected as the best choice for future development on the grounds of performance and cost , while the HK XM262 reportedly came a close second . In September , FN was awarded a " maturity phase " contract for further development of the XM249 , and testing of the new weapon began in June 1981 . The official adoption took place on February 1 , 1982 .
The new gun entered U.S. Army service as the M249 squad automatic weapon in 1984 , and was adopted by the U.S. Marine Corps a year later . The U.S. production model has a different butt from that of the regular Minimi . It is manufactured in the FN factory in Columbia , South Carolina .
Although found to be reliable and accurate , the M249 was considered to present unacceptable hazards in the form of an exposed hot barrel and sharp edges . There were complaints that the front sight required special adjustment tools . On August 23 , 1985 , then @-@ U.S. Under Secretary of the Army James R. Ambrose suspended M249 production pending the development of the product improvement program ( PIP ) intended to fix these problems . Congress deleted funds for the M249 from the Fiscal Year 1986 defense budget , then retroactively set aside the program 's prior year 's funds from the M249 program for other purposes , including retirement and pay raises . Over 1 @,@ 100 M249s already issued were to remain in use , but be retrofitted with the PIP kit when it became available . Over 7 @,@ 000 remaining M249s were to stay in storage at depots until corrective changes could be made . The PIP kit was eventually developed and implemented , and production of the M249 resumed . In 1994 the M249 squad automatic weapon was re @-@ designated the M249 light machine gun .
= = Design details = =
The M249 is a belt @-@ fed light machine gun . It fires the 5 @.@ 56 × 45mm NATO cartridge , usually a combination of one M856 tracer and four M855 ball cartridges fed from M27 linked belts . Belts are typically held in a hard plastic or soft canvas box attached to the underside of the weapon .
It fires from an open bolt and is gas operated . When the trigger is pulled , the bolt and bolt carrier move forward under the power of the recoil spring . A cartridge is stripped from the belt , chambered , and discharged , sending a bullet down the bore . Expanding propellant gases are diverted through a hole in the barrel into a chamber . This pressure moves a piston providing the energy to extract and eject the spent casing as well as advance the belt and compress the recoil spring , thus preparing for subsequent shots . At 1 @,@ 041 mm ( 41 in ) long and 7 @.@ 5 kg ( 17 lb ) in weight ( 10 kg ( 22 lb ) including a 200 @-@ round belt and plastic ammo box ) , the M249 is a cumbersome weapon .
The barrel has a rifling twist rate of one turn in 180 mm ( 7 in ) . Because firing heats up the bore , the air @-@ cooled barrel is equipped with a mechanism to remove and replace the barrel assembly with a spare . A folding bipod with adjustable legs is attached near the front of the weapon , though there are provisions for hard @-@ mounting to a M192 Lightweight Ground Mount tripod or vehicle mount . The M249 provides accuracy approaching that of a rifle , combined with the sustained volume of fire of a machine gun . Its original gas regulator offered two different gas port sizes , allowing cyclic rates of fire of 725 @-@ rounds per minute ( r / min ) or 1 @,@ 000 r / min . The latter setting was intended for adverse conditions , such as an excessively dirty firearm or cold weather . The two @-@ position gas regulator was discarded as part of a product improvement program . Sustained rate of fire , the rate of fire at which the gunner can fire continuously without overheating , is approximately 85 r / min .
= = Operational history = =
The M249 LMG entered service in 1984 as the M249 SAW . Initial reactions to the gun were mixed : it fulfilled the light machine gun role well when fired from the ground , but was not as effective when fired from the shoulder or hip . It was praised for its extreme durability and massive firepower , though a number of areas for improvement were highlighted : the blank firing attachment fitted poorly , the bipod was very weak and broke easily , the sling attachment was awkward , and there were many slots and gaps which accumulated dirt . Some claimed that the heavy @-@ barrelled version of the M16 rifle was a more effective light machine gun .
The M249 SAW was not used heavily before the 1991 Gulf War , though it has been used in every major U.S. conflict since . American personnel in Somalia in 1993 , Bosnia in 1994 , Kosovo in 1999 , Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq since 2003 have been issued M249s . Surplus weapons were donated to Bolivia , Colombia and Tunisia .
Tactically , SAWs are either carried with a maneuvering unit and fired while handheld , or positioned to remain stationary and provide covering fire for other units . The usual load of ammunition carried for the weapon is 1 @,@ 000 @-@ rounds in five 200 @-@ round belts , although up to 500 extra rounds generally get loaded into 100 @-@ round soft pouches .
= = = Persian Gulf War = = =
A supply of 929 M249 SAWs was issued to personnel from the U.S. Army and USMC during the Persian Gulf War . Although exposure to combat was scarce , M249 gunners who were involved in fighting mainly used their weapons to provide cover fire for friendly maneuvering troops from fixed positions , rather than maneuvering with them . There were many complaints about the weapons clogging up with sand after prolonged use in the desert environment .
= = = Afghanistan = = =
The standard squad automatic weapon in Afghanistan is the M249 with PIP kit , which serves alongside its heavier counterpart , the M240 machine gun . Most M249s were given a collapsible buttstock immediately prior to the invasion to reduce its length and make the weapons more practical for parachuting and close @-@ quarters combat . Special Operations troops typically favor the shorter Para version of the weapon , which weighs much less .
A report entitled Lessons Learned in Afghanistan was released by Lieutenant Colonel Charlie Dean and SFC Sam Newland of the U.S. Army Natick Soldier Center in 2002 . They found that 54 % of SAW gunners had problems maintaining their weapons , and 30 % reported that the gun rusted easily . Soldiers reported ammunition boxes rattling and falling off . 80 % percent of soldiers surveyed were pleased with the weapon 's accuracy and lethality , yet only 64 % claimed they were " confident in their weapon " . Weapons clogging up with sand in the desert seems to be the main complaint .
= = = Iraq War = = =
The PIP and Para versions of the M249 have been used in the Iraq war since the invasion . By 2004 , many M249s had been in service for almost 20 years and were becoming increasingly unreliable . Soldiers were requesting replacements and new features , and there are reports of soldiers holding their weapons together with duct tape . The lethality of the 5 @.@ 56 mm ammunition has been called into question by reports of enemy soldiers still firing after being hit multiple times . As in previous conflicts , the sandy environment causes the M249s and other weapons to clog up and jam if they are not cleaned very regularly .
Operation Iraqi Freedom PEO Soldier Lessons Learned , a report on the performance of weapons in the Iraq War , was published by Lieutenant Colonel Jim Smith of the U.S. Army on May 15 , 2003 . Smith spoke positively of the M249 , claiming that it " provided the requisite firepower at the squad level as intended " . He praised the SPW variant , noting that its " short barrel and forward pistol grip allowed for very effective use of the SAW in urban terrain " . At the National Defense Industrial Association in 2007 , LTC Al Kelly of the 1st Battalion , 17th Infantry gave a presentation describing the M249 as having " good range , excellent reliability " and an " excellent tracer " . He said that a cloth pouch was preferred over the plastic box for holding linked ammunition , and that " knock @-@ down power is poor but is compensated by rate of fire " .
In December 2006 , the Center for Naval Analyses released a report on U.S. small arms in combat . The CNA conducted surveys on 2 @,@ 608 troops returning from combat in Iraq and Afghanistan over the past 12 months . Only troops who fired their weapons at enemy targets were allowed to participate . 341 troops were armed with M249 SAWs , making up 13 percent of the survey . 71 percent of M249 users ( 242 troops ) reported that they were satisfied with the weapon . 40 percent of users preferred feeding the SAW with the soft 100 @-@ round pouch , while 21 percent chose the soft and hard 200 @-@ round pouches each . 60 percent ( 205 troops ) were satisfied with handling qualities , such as handguards , size , and weight - of those dissatisfied , just under half thought that it was too heavy . M249 users had the lowest levels of satisfaction with weapon maintainability at 70 percent ( 239 troops ) , most due to the difficulty in removing and receiving small components and poor corrosion resistance . The SAW had the highest levels of stoppages at 30 percent ( 102 troops ) , and 41 percent of those that experienced a stoppage said it had a large impact on their ability to clear the stoppage and re @-@ engage their target . 65 percent ( 222 troops ) did not need their machine guns repaired while in theater . 65 percent ( 222 troops ) were confident in the M249 's reliability , defined as level of soldier confidence their weapon will fire without malfunction , and 64 percent ( 218 troops ) were confident in its durability , defined as level of soldier confidence their weapon will not break or need repair . Both factors were attributed to high levels of soldiers performing their own maintenance . 60 percent of M249 users offered recommendations for improvements . 17 percent of requests were for making the weapon lighter , and another 17 percent were for more durable belt links and drums , as well as other modifications , such as a collapsible stock .
= = Variants = =
M249 PIP
The product improvement program kit replaced the original steel tubular stock with a plastic stock based upon the shape of the heavier M240 machine gun . The change in stocks allowed for the addition of a hydraulic buffer system to reduce recoil . In addition , the dual gas port settings were reduced to only one ; variants with the product improvement kit can no longer fire at a higher cyclic speed . A handguard was added above the barrel to prevent burns , and the formerly fixed barrel changing handle was swapped for a folding unit . Certain parts were beveled or chamfered to prevent cutting soldiers ' hands and arms . Other changes involved the bipod , pistol grip , flash suppressor , and sights . Over the years , additional modifications have been introduced as part of the Soldier Enhancement Program and Rapid Fielding Initiative . These include an improved bipod , 100 – and 200 – round fabric " soft pack " magazines ( to replace the original plastic ammunition boxes ) , and Picatinny rails for the feed tray cover and forearm so that optics and other accessories may be added .
M249 Paratrooper
The M249 Paratrooper , often called " Para " , is a compact version of the gun with a shorter barrel and sliding aluminum buttstock based on that of the Minimi Para , so @-@ called because of its intended use by airborne troops . It is much shorter and considerably lighter than the regular M249 at 893 mm ( 35 in ) long and 7 @.@ 1 kg ( 16 lb ) in weight . The Army 's Rapid Fielding Initiative is in the process of replacing the original collapsible buttstock with an adjustable model based loosely on the design of the M4 carbine buttstock .
M249 Special Purpose Weapon
This lightweight and shorter version of the M249 is designed to meet USSOCOM special operations forces requirements . The barrel changing handle , magazine insertion well , and vehicle mounting lug all have been removed to reduce weight . As a result , the SPW cannot be mounted in vehicles or use M16 magazines . Picatinny rails were added to the feed cover and forearm for the mounting of optics , lasers , vertical foregrips , and other M4 SOPMOD kit accessories . The SPW has a detachable bipod . The SPW 's lightweight barrel is longer than that of the Para model , giving it a total length of 908 mm ( 36 in ) and a weight of 5 @.@ 7 kg ( 13 lb ) .
Mk 46 Mod 0
This is a variant of the special purpose weapon adopted by USSOCOM . The program , which led to both the Mk 46 and Mk 48 , was headed by the US Naval Special Warfare Command ( NAVSPECWAR ) . Like the SPW , the barrel changing handle , magazine insertion well , and vehicle mounting lugs have been removed to save weight . However , the Mk 46 retains the standard M249 plastic buttstock instead of the collapsible buttstock used on the SPW . The Picatinny rail forearm differs slightly from the SPW . The Mk 46 has the option of using the lighter SPW barrel or a thicker , fluted barrel of the same length .
Mk 48
This is a 7 @.@ 62 × 51mm NATO version of the Mk 46 , used by USSOCOM , when a heavier cartridge is required . It is officially classified as an LWMG ( Light Weight Machine Gun ) and was developed as a replacement for the Mk 43 Mod 0 / 1 . The M60 based machine guns are a great deal more portable than the heavier M240 based designs used elsewhere in the US military in the infantry medium machine gun role . However , the M60 based designs have a long history of insufficient reliability . Trials conducted through the mid @-@ 1990s led the US Army to replace its M60 with the M240B GPMGs . The M240B , however , weighs in at ≈ 27 @.@ 5 lb and is about 49 " long with the standard barrel . NAVSPECWAR was reluctant to give up the increased portability of the M60 ( ≈ 22 @.@ 5 lb , 37 @.@ 7 " OAL with the shortest " Assault Barrel " ) designs in spite of the M240 's increased reliability . A request was put in for a new machine gun in 2001 , and FN responded with a scaled @-@ up version of the M249 weighing in at ≈ 18 @.@ 5 lb with an OAL of ≈ 39 @.@ 5 " . The new design achieved much better reliability than the M60 @-@ based weapons while bettering its light weight and maintaining the same manual of arms as the already in @-@ use M249 . USSOCOM was slated to begin receiving deliveries of the new gun in August 2003 .
M249S
This is a semiautomatic version manufactured for the civilian sport shooting market . Derived from the fully automatic military firearm , this version shares most of the major components of the military models with the exception of the firing mechanism and the addition of welded internal components to prevent conversion to a fully automatic mode . Notably , this version retains the ability to be belt fed , an uncommon feature in civilian firearms .
= = Future = =
An extensive maintenance program intended to extend the service lives of M249s has been carried out to refurbish rifles , especially units that suffered from wear due to heavy use . In particular the warping of the receiver rails on the early @-@ models was a defect that occurred in heavily used first @-@ generation M249s . This defect however has been completely eliminated on later models and is no longer present on the current @-@ issue M249 , which has reinforced rails and full @-@ length welding rather than spot welding .
The U.S. Marine Corps tested the M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle , a lighter , magazine @-@ fed rifle to supplement and partially replace the M249 . With plans to buy up to 4 @,@ 100 IARs to complement and partially replace its 10 @,@ 000 M249s ( of which 8 @,@ 000 will remain in service ) held at platoon level , it has acquired 450 of the Heckler & Koch HK416 – based weapons for testing . The U.S. Army does not plan to introduce the IAR . Colonel Robert Radcliffe of the U.S. Army Infantry Research and Development Center stated that an automatic rifle with a magazine would lower the effectiveness and firepower of a squad . While the Marine Corps has 13 @-@ man squads , the Army organizes its soldiers into squads of nine and needs considerably more firepower from the squad machine gunners to make up the difference . The U.S. Army does , however , want to replace aging M249s with newer weapons . They are currently working on replacing the M249 's buttstock with a redesigned adjustable stock .
= Ursa Minor =
Ursa Minor ( Latin : " Smaller She @-@ Bear " , contrasting with Ursa Major ) , also known as the Little Bear , is a constellation in the Northern Sky . Like the Great Bear , the tail of the Little Bear may also be seen as the handle of a ladle , hence the North American name , Little Dipper : seven stars with four in its bowl like its partner the Big Dipper . It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd @-@ century astronomer Ptolemy , and remains one of the 88 modern constellations . Ursa Minor has traditionally been important for navigation , particularly by mariners , because of Polaris being the North Star .
Polaris , the brightest star in the constellation , is a yellow @-@ white supergiant and the brightest Cepheid variable star in the night sky , ranging from an apparent magnitude of 1 @.@ 97 to 2 @.@ 00 . Beta Ursae Minoris , also known as Kochab , is an aging star that has swollen and cooled to become an orange giant with an apparent magnitude of 2 @.@ 08 , only slightly fainter than Polaris . Kochab and magnitude 3 Gamma Ursae Minoris have been called the " guardians of the pole star " . Planets have been detected orbiting four of the stars , including Kochab . The constellation also contains an isolated neutron star — Calvera — and H1504 + 65 , the hottest white dwarf yet discovered , with a surface temperature of 200 @,@ 000 K.
= = History and mythology = =
In the Babylonian star catalogues , Ursa Minor was known as MAR.GID.DA.AN.NA , the Wagon of Heaven , Damkianna . It appeared on a pair of tablets containing canonical star lists that were compiled around 1000 BC , the MUL.APIN , and was one of the " Stars of Enlil " — that is , the northern sky . The possible origin of its name was its appearing to rotate like a wheel around the north celestial pole .
The first mention of Ursa Minor in Greek texts was by philosopher Thales of Miletus in the 6th century BC . He pointed out that it was a more accurate guide to finding true north than Ursa Major . This knowledge had reportedly come from the Phoenicians in the eastern Mediterranean , and the constellation bore the term Phoinikē . Homer had previously only referred to one " bear " , raising the question of what he saw the stars of Ursa Minor as , or whether they were recognized as a constellation at all .
Ursa Minor and Ursa Major were related by the Greeks to the myth of Callisto and her son Arcas , both placed in the sky by Zeus . In a variant of the story in which Boötes represents Arcas , Ursa Minor represents a dog . This is the older tradition , which explains both the length of the tail and the obsolete alternate name of Cynosura ( the dog 's tail ) for Polaris , the North Star . Cynosura is also described as a nurse of Zeus , honoured by the god with a place in the sky . An alternate myth tells of two bears that saved Zeus from his murderous father Kronos by hiding him on Mount Ida . Later Zeus set them in the sky , but their tails grew long from being swung by the god . Because Ursa Minor consists of seven stars , the Latin word for " North " ( i.e. , where Polaris points ) is septentrio , from septem ( seven ) and triones ( oxen ) , from seven oxen driving a plough , which the seven stars also resemble . This name has also been attached to the main stars of Ursa Major .
Ursa Minor has traditionally been important for navigation , particularly by mariners , because of Polaris being the North Star . Polaris is currently less than one degree away from the north celestial pole ( hence the alternative name Pole Star ) so its position in the sky is largely unaffected by the rotation of the Earth . From any point in the Northern Hemisphere the direction to Polaris is always north and its angular altitude is roughly equal to the latitude .
In Inuit astronomy , the three brightest stars — Polaris , Kochab and Pherkad — were known as Nuutuittut " never moving " , though the term is more frequently used in the singular to refer to Polaris alone . The Pole Star is too high in the sky at far northern latitudes to be of use in navigation .
= = Characteristics = =
Ursa Minor is bordered by Camelopardalis to the west , Draco to the west , and Cepheus to the east . Covering 256 square degrees , it ranks 56th of the 88 constellations in size . Ursa Minor is colloquially known in the US as the Little Dipper because its seven brightest stars seem to form the shape of a dipper ( ladle or scoop ) . The star at the end of the dipper handle is Polaris . Polaris can also be found by following a line through the two stars — Alpha and Beta Ursae Majoris — that form the end of the ' bowl ' of the Big Dipper , for 30 degrees ( three upright fists at arms ' length ) across the night sky . The four stars constituting the bowl of the Little Dipper are of second , third , fourth , and fifth magnitudes , and provide an easy guide to determining what magnitude stars are visible , useful for city dwellers or testing one 's eyesight .
The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the IAU ( International Astronomical Union ) in 1922 , is " UMi " . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 22 segments ( illustrated in infobox ) . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 08h 41.4m and 22h 54.0m , while the declination coordinates range from the north celestial pole south to 65 @.@ 40 ° . Its position in the far northern celestial hemisphere means that the whole constellation is only visible to observers in the northern hemisphere .
= = Features = =
= = = Stars = = =
The German cartographer Johann Bayer used the Greek letters alpha to theta to label the most prominent stars in the constellation , while his countryman Johann Elert Bode subsequently added iota to phi . Only lambda and pi remain in use , likely because of their proximity to the north celestial pole . Within the constellation 's borders , there are 39 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6 @.@ 5 .
Marking the Little Bear 's tail , Polaris , or Alpha Ursae Minoris , is the brightest star in the constellation , varying between apparent magnitude 1 @.@ 97 and 2 @.@ 00 over a period of 3 @.@ 97 days . Located around 432 light @-@ years away from Earth , it is a yellow @-@ white supergiant that varies between spectral types F7Ib and F8Ib , and has around 6 times the Sun 's mass , 2 @,@ 500 times its luminosity and 45 times its radius . Polaris is the brightest Cepheid variable star visible from Earth . It is a triple star system , the supergiant primary star having two yellow @-@ white main @-@ sequence star companions that are 17 and 2 @,@ 400 astronomical units ( AU ) distant and take 29 @.@ 6 and 42 @,@ 000 years respectively to complete one orbit .
Traditionally called Kochab , Beta Ursae Minoris at apparent magnitude 2 @.@ 08 is only slightly less bright than Polaris . Located around 131 light @-@ years away from Earth , it is an orange giant — an evolved star that has used up the hydrogen in its core and moved off the main sequence — of spectral type K4III . Slightly variable over a period of 4 @.@ 6 days , Kochab has had its mass estimated at 1 @.@ 3 times that of the Sun via measurement of these oscillations . Kochab is 450 times more luminous than the Sun and has 42 times its diameter , with a surface temperature of approximately 4 @,@ 130 K. Estimated to be around 2 @.@ 95 billion years old , give or take 1 billion years , Kochab was announced to have a planetary companion around 6 @.@ 1 times as massive as Jupiter with an orbit of 522 days .
Traditionally known as Pherkad , Gamma Ursae Minoris has an apparent magnitude that varies between 3 @.@ 04 and 3 @.@ 09 roughly every 3 @.@ 4 hours . It and Kochab have been termed the " guardians of the pole star " . A white bright giant of spectral type A3II @-@ III , with around 4 @.@ 8 times the Sun 's mass , 1 @,@ 050 times its luminosity and 15 times its radius , it is 487 ± 8 light @-@ years distant from Earth . Pherkad belongs to a class of stars known as Delta Scuti variables — short period ( six hours at most ) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study asteroseismology . Also possibly a member of this class is Zeta Ursae Minoris , a white star of spectral type A3V , which has begun cooling , expanding and brightening . It is likely to have been a B3 main @-@ sequence star and is now slightly variable . At magnitude 4 @.@ 95 the dimmest of the seven stars of the Little Dipper is Eta Ursae Minoris . A yellow @-@ white main @-@ sequence star of spectral type F5V , it is 97 light @-@ years distant . It is double the Sun 's diameter , 1 @.@ 4 times as massive , and shines with 7 @.@ 4 times its luminosity . Nearby Zeta lies 5 @.@ 00 @-@ magnitude Theta Ursae Minoris . Located 860 ± 80 light @-@ years distant , it is an orange giant of spectral type K5III that has expanded and cooled off the main sequence , and has an estimated diameter around 4 @.@ 8 times that of the Sun .
Making up the handle of the Little Dipper are Delta and Epsilon Ursae Minoris . Just over 3 @.@ 5 degrees from the north celestial pole , Delta is a white main @-@ sequence star of spectral type A1V with an apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 35 , located 172 ± 1 light @-@ years from Earth . Bearing the proper name of Yildun , it has around 2 @.@ 8 times the diameter and 47 times the luminosity of the Sun . A triple star system , Epsilon Ursae Minoris shines with a combined average light of magnitude 4 @.@ 22 . A yellow giant of spectral type G5III , the primary is an RS Canum Venaticorum variable star . It is a spectroscopic binary , with a companion 0 @.@ 36 AU distant , and a third star — an orange main @-@ sequence star of spectral type K0 — 8100 AU distant .
Located close to Polaris is Lambda Ursae Minoris , a red giant of spectral type M1III . It is a semiregular variable varying from magnitudes 6 @.@ 35 to 6 @.@ 45 . The northerly nature of the constellation means that the variable stars can be observed all year : the red giant R Ursae Minoris is a semiregular variable varying from magnitude 8 @.@ 5 to 11 @.@ 5 over 328 days , while S Ursae Minoris is a long period variable that ranges between magnitudes 8 @.@ 0 and 11 over 331 days . Located south of Kochab and Pherkad towards Draco is RR Ursae Minoris , a red giant of spectral type M5III that is also a semiregular variable ranging from magnitude 4 @.@ 44 to 4 @.@ 85 over a period of 43 @.@ 3 days . T Ursae Minoris is another red giant variable star that has undergone a dramatic change in status — from being a long period ( Mira ) variable ranging from magnitude 7 @.@ 8 to 15 over 310 – 315 days to a semiregular variable . The star is thought to have undergone a shell helium flash — a point where the shell of helium around the star 's core reaches a critical mass and ignites — marked by its abrupt change in variability in 1979 . Z Ursae Minoris is a faint variable star that suddenly dropped 6 magnitudes in 1992 and was identified as one of a rare class of stars — R Coronae Borealis variables .
Eclipsing variables are star systems that vary in brightness because of one star passing in front of the other rather than from any intrinsic change in luminosity . W Ursae Minoris is one such system , its magnitude ranging from 8 @.@ 51 to 9 @.@ 59 over 1 @.@ 7 days . The combined spectrum of the system is A2V , but the masses of the two component stars are unknown . A slight change in the orbital period in 1973 suggests there is a third component of the multiple star system — most likely a red dwarf — with an orbital period of 62 @.@ 2 ± 3 @.@ 9 years . RU Ursae Minoris is another example , ranging from 10 to 10 @.@ 66 over 0 @.@ 52 days . It is a semidetached system , as the secondary star is filling its Roche lobe and transferring matter to the primary .
RW Ursae Minoris is a cataclysmic variable star system that flared up as a nova in 1956 , reaching magnitude 6 . In 2003 , it was still two magnitudes brighter than its baseline , and dimming at a rate of 0 @.@ 02 magnitude a year . Its distance has been calculated as 5 @,@ 000 ± 800 parsecs ( 16 @,@ 300 light @-@ years ) , which puts its location in the galactic halo .
Taken from the villain in The Magnificent Seven , Calvera is the nickname given to an X @-@ ray source known as 1RXS J141256.0 + 792204 in the ROSAT All @-@ Sky Survey Bright Source Catalog ( RASS / BSC ) . It has been identified as an isolated neutron star , one of the closest of its kind to Earth . Ursa Minor has two enigmatic white dwarfs . H1504 + 65 is a faint ( magnitude 15 @.@ 9 ) star that with the hottest surface temperature — 200 @,@ 000 K — yet discovered for a white dwarf . Its atmosphere , composed of roughly half carbon , half oxygen and 2 % neon , is devoid of hydrogen and helium — its composition unexplainable by current models of stellar evolution . WD 1337 + 705 is a cooler white dwarf that has magnesium and silicon in its spectrum , suggesting a companion or circumstellar disk , though no evidence for either has come to light . WISE 1506 + 7027 is a brown dwarf of spectral type T6 that is a mere 11 @.@ 1 + 2 @.@ 3
− 1 @.@ 3 light @-@ years away from Earth . A faint object of magnitude 14 , it was discovered by the Wide @-@ field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) in 2011 .
Kochab aside , three more stellar systems have been discovered to contain planets . 11 Ursae Minoris is an orange giant of spectral type K4III around 1 @.@ 8 times as massive as the Sun . Around 1 @.@ 5 billion years old , it has cooled and expanded since it was an A @-@ type main sequence star . Around 390 light @-@ years distant , it shines with an apparent magnitude of 5 @.@ 04 . A planet around 11 times the mass of Jupiter was discovered orbiting the star with a period of 516 days in 2009 . HD 120084 is another evolved star , this time a yellow giant of spectral type G7III , around 2 @.@ 4 times the mass of the Sun . It has a planet 4 @.@ 5 times the mass of Jupiter with one of the most eccentric planetary orbits ( with an eccentricity of 0 @.@ 66 ) , discovered by precisely measuring the radial velocity of the star in 2013 . HD 150706 is a sunlike star of spectral type G0V some 89 light @-@ years distant from the Solar System . It was thought to have a planet as massive as Jupiter at a distance of 0 @.@ 6 AU , but this was discounted in 2007 . A further study published in 2012 showed that it has a companion around 2 @.@ 7 times as massive as Jupiter that takes around 16 years to complete an orbit and is 6 @.@ 8 AU distant from its Sun .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
Ursa Minor is rather devoid of deep @-@ sky objects . The Ursa Minor Dwarf , a dwarf spheroidal galaxy , was discovered by Albert George Wilson of the Lowell Observatory in the Palomar Sky Survey in 1955 . Its centre is around 225000 light @-@ years distant from Earth . In 1999 , Kenneth Mighell and Christopher Burke used the Hubble Space Telescope to confirm that it had a single burst of star formation that lasted around 2 billion years that took place around 14 billion years ago , and that the galaxy was probably as old as the Milky Way itself .
NGC 6217 is a barred spiral galaxy located some 67 million light @-@ years away , which can be located with a 10 cm ( 4 in ) or larger telescope as an 11th magnitude object about 2 @.@ 5 ° east @-@ northeast of Zeta Ursae Minoris . It has been characterized as a starburst galaxy , which means it is undergoing a high rate of star formation compared to a typical galaxy .
NGC 6251 is an active supergiant elliptical radio galaxy more than 340 million light @-@ years away from Earth . It has a Seyfert 2 active galactic nucleus , and is one of the most extreme examples of a Seyfert galaxy . This galaxy may be associated with gamma @-@ ray source 3EG J1621 + 8203 , which has high @-@ energy gamma @-@ ray emission . It is also noted for its one @-@ sided radio jet — one of the brightest known — discovered in 1977 .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
The Ursids , a prominent meteor shower that occurs in Ursa Minor , peaks between December 18 and 25 . Its parent body is the comet 8P / Tuttle .
= = = Chinese constellation = = =
The map of Ursa Minor in the Chinese constellation :
= Japanese settlement in Palau =
There is a small Japanese community in Palau , which mainly consists of Japanese expatriates residing in Palau over a long @-@ term basis . A few Japanese expatriates started to reside in Palau after it gained independence in 1994 , and established long @-@ term businesses in the country . Japanese settlement in Palau dates back to the early 19th century , although large scale Japanese migration to Palau did not occur until the 1920s , when Palau came under Japanese rule and administered as part of the South Pacific Mandate . Japanese settlers took on leading administrative roles in the Japanese colonial government , and developed Palau 's economy . After the Japanese surrender in 1945 , virtually all of the Japanese population was repatriated back to Japan , although people of mixed Japanese @-@ Palauan descent were allowed to remain behind . People of Japanese @-@ Palauan descent constitute a large minority of Palau 's population as a result of substantial intermarrriage between the Japanese settlers and Palauans . They generally identify with , conforming to cultural norms and daily lives with the Palauans .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1820 – 1945 ) = = =
The first recorded account of Japanese contact in Palau occurred in 1820 , when a coastal sailing ship was blown off course and eight surviving men spent five years in Palau until 1825 . Japanese traders began to establish settlements from the mid @-@ 19th century onwards , and by 1890 two Japanese trading stations had been established . Many of these traders married the daughters of local chieftains and raised local families . When Japan annexed Palau from Germany in 1914 , Japanese settlers and their descendants acted as state liaison officials and interpreters for the Japanese military administration .
A civilian government was established in 1922 with its headquarters at Koror , replacing the military administration . The civilian government initiated a programme to identify and collectivise unused land between 1923 and 1932 for redevelopment . Much of these land were used to build new industrial estates and expand towns to accommodate immigrants from Japan and Okinawa . In Japan , the government actively encouraged the Japanese and Okinawans to resettle in Micronesia , including Palau , and began establishing farming settlements . The first farming settlement was established at Ngaremlengui in 1926 , but the settlers encountered problems with its humid tropical environment and abandoned it by 1930 , although later settlements were established more successfully .
As the Great Depression resulted in massive unemployment in the late 1920s and 1930s , more Japanese and Okinawans migrated to Palau . Immigrants brought along their families and sought employment in various professions . The Japanese immigrants held administrative posts , while the Okinawans and a few Koreans worked as labourers in the agricultural , fishery and mining industries . By 1935 , the Japanese constituted at least 60 % of Palau 's population and were concentrated in urban areas such as Angaur and Koror . Some Japanese settlers took Palauan wives or mistresses , and there was a sizeable minority of mixed Japanese @-@ Palauan children towards the later years of the Japanese administration .
The Japanese navy expanded their military facilities from 1937 onwards . More labourers from Japan and Korea were employed to construct the facilities to complete the facilities within a short period of time . The number of indentured labourers rose to more than 10 @,@ 000 throughout Micronesia , and placed a heavy strain on the islands ' scarce resources . Many Okinawan and Japanese labourers and permanent settlers were repartriated back to their homeland . Japanese men were conscripted into regular services , and Palauans who held administrative posts in the police force were reallocated jobs in the agricultural sector . The Japanese civilians played an important role in the islands ' propaganda activities . As food resources were cut off from Japan , many Japanese encountered greater difficulties in dealing with starvation than their Palauan counterparts , who were more knowledgeable with tropical survival skills .
= = = Recent years ( 1945 – present ) = = =
Following the Surrender of Japan to the Allied forces , Japanese military personnel and civilians were repatriated to Japan between 1945 and 1946 , although some 350 labourers and technicians were permitted to remain behind to carry out repair works to Palau 's infrastructure . However , offspring of Japanese @-@ Palauan intermarriages were allowed to remain , although a few migrated to Japan with their fathers . In the 1950s , Japanese @-@ Palauans formed an organisation , Sakura @-@ kai to assist Japanese @-@ Palauans and Japanese youths who were abandoned by their parents to search for their parents and kinsmen who were forcibly separated as a result of forced repatriation of Japanese settlers back to Japan . The organisation became a cultural organisation from the 1980s onwards , as most Japanese @-@ Palauans had reunited with their Japanese families or voluntarily chose to leave certain family separations as they were .
Palau 's interaction with Japan was kept to a minimal level during the post @-@ war years , although Okinawan fishermen occasionally visited Palau for catches from the 1960s onwards . A few Japanese nationals resettled in Palau in the 1970s , and married local Palauans . In the 1980s , Japanese businessmen set up businesses in Palau , and by 1995 there were 218 Japanese nationals residing in Palau . Of these , about half of them expressed a desire for permanent residency in Palau and a few married Palauan or Filipino women . However , the majority brought their families from Japan along , and maintained frequent contacts with Japan . Some settlers from the 1980s also consisted of former Japanese settlers who were repatriated back to Japan after World War II . Former settlers who returned to Palau usually consisted of individuals over 60 years of age , and often worked as tour guides or restaurateurs in Palau .
Many Japanese @-@ Palauans assumed key positions in the public service sector and politics . At least one ethnologist , Mark Peattie , suggested that the strong representation of Japanese @-@ Palauans in leading positions in society could be attributed to the mainstream Japanese education which they had received in their youth . Palau 's first president , Kuniwo Nakamura — who was half @-@ Japanese — fostered closer diplomatic ties between Japan and Palau during his Presidency . During a state visit to Japan in 1996 , Emperor Akihito personally received Nakamura , and the visit was commended by Palauans and Japanese alike . Nakamura 's visit prompted Japan to channel monetary aid to Palau to facilitate repair work on the Koror @-@ Babeldaob Bridge and securing special trade agreements with Japan .
= = Demographics = =
In the early years of civilian administration , the Japanese population consisted of about a few hundred individuals , and reached a little over 2 @,@ 000 by 1930 . The Japanese resident population increased at an exponential rate from the mid @-@ 1930s onwards , and there were about 15 @,@ 000 Japanese in Palau by 1938 , the vast majority of whom were concentrated in Koror . The influx of Japanese immigrants fuelled the development of Koror into a city by 1939 . The Palauans were quickly outnumbered by the Japanese , and constituted only about 16 percent of the city 's population in 1937 . The Japanese made up more than half of the islands ' population , as well as 27 % of Micronesia 's Japanese population in a 1938 census . A large minority of the Japanese populace consisted of Okinawan immigrants , as well as a few Koreans . Palau 's Japanese population was repatriated after the Japanese surrender , but people of Japanese @-@ Palauan descent remained behind and constitute a large minority of Palau 's population . A study done by the Sasakawa Pacific Island Nations Fund estimated that about 10 % of Palauans are born to a Japanese father and Palauan mother , the vast majority of whom were born before 1945 . Another study done by the Foundation for Advanced Studies in International Development from Japan in 2005 estimates that about 25 % of Palau 's populace have some Japanese ancestry .
The following table shows the increase in the Japanese population in Palau throughout the Japanese colonial era :
= = Language = =
During the Japanese colonial era , Japanese settlers mainly used Japanese in their daily discourse , and Japanese was the lingua franca used for communication between Japanese and Palauans . English was also recognised as a co @-@ official language along with Japanese , and many Japanese had at least some knowledge of the language as well . People of mixed Japanese @-@ Palauan heritage were more competent in Japanese than to Palauan , especially those who attended mainstream primary schools . The Japanese also introduced the use of the Katakana script in Palauan , which was also used in informal settings . After the Japanese surrender , the use of Japanese was discouraged in place of Palauan and English . Most Japanese @-@ Palauans use Palauan in their daily discourse in favour of Japanese or English , although Japanese was used more frequently among Japanese @-@ Palauans than to those that do not have Japanese ancestry . As the number of Japanese tourists increased during the 1990s , Japanese was introduced as an elective subject to Palauan schools and in elections .
= = Religion = =
State Shinto was heavily emphasised in the 1930s as a means to promote Japanese nationalism and acculturalisation of Palauans to Japanese norms . A few shrines were built around Palau during the 1930s . Of particular note was the completion of the Taisha Nanyo Jinja ( transliterally the Great Southern Shrine ) in November 1940 at Koror , which subsequently served as the central shrine in Micronesia . Civilian participation of Shinto rituals was heavily emphasised , which focused on Japanese cultural ideals and worship of the Japanese emperor . Shinto , Zen Buddhist and Tenrikyo missions were also encouraged to establish religious missions , and the first Buddhist temple in Palau was erected in 1926 , mainly to cater to the spiritual needs of the Japanese settlers . Early Japanese settlers reportedly built small Shinto shrines in agricultural colonies before the civilian government actively encouraged religious missionary activities in Palau .
Christian missions were initially given financial support by the Japanese civilian government and were encouraged to stamp out certain Animist rituals practiced by Palauans , but many were later imprisoned from the late 1930s onwards as the Japanese became suspicious of the missionaries ' involvement in espionage activities . After the war , many of these shrines were abandoned or demolished , and Japanese @-@ Palauans chose to adopt Christianity in favour of Buddhism or Shinto . In the 1980s and 1990s , miniature replicas of the Great Shinto Shrine , Peleliu and Angaur shrines were reconstructed . Unlike Shinto shrines during the Japanese colonial era , reconstructed shrines served as memorial sites for Japanese soldiers who in battles died during the Second World War , and are visited by Japanese tourists and family members of slain soldiers .
= = Society = =
= = = Racial segregation = = =
The Japanese civilian administration segregated the Japanese immigrants from the Palauans and adopted policies that were intended to protect the welfare of the Palauans . From the 1930s onwards , focus was later shifted towards providing more for the Japanese immigrants as the civilian administration faced difficulties in meeting the demands of an increasing immigrant population . Racial segregation was practiced in most sectors of society , but was more highly pronounced in the workforce and educational sectors . Palauans faced difficulties in getting employed in administrative positions in the workforce , which was dominated by Japanese settlers . In the educational sector , Japanese children attended mainstream primary schools ( shogakko ) whose lessons are based on the mainstream curriculum as with other schools on mainland Japan . Palauan children attended " public schools " ( logakko ) and attended lessons that focused on imparting skills for menial labour . Most students from " Public schools " dropped out after completing their elementary education and some children of Japanese fathers and Palauan mothers also faced difficulties in getting enrolled into primary schools , especially for those who were born out of wedlock .
= = = Mixed @-@ race descendants = = =
During the Japanese colonial @-@ era , a sizeable minority of mixed @-@ race Japanese @-@ Palauans emerged . Japanese @-@ Palauans were offsprings of intermarriages between Japanese men and Palauan women . Most of them lived in urban areas , and were brought up in accordance to Japanese norms and values and spoke Japanese in their daily lives . A few sought further education in Japan , and at the same time had limited knowledge of Palauan customs and language , although children that were born out of wedlock reportedly had a greater exposure to their matrilineal customs and spoke both Japanese and Palauan fluently . Although Japanese @-@ Palauan children were generally classified as Japanese in official figures and had access to Japanese social privileges , many reportedly faced discrimination when placed in Japanese and Palauan circles . In rural areas where Palauans formed higher concentrations , spouses and mistresses of Japanese men were shunned upon , and Palauan nationalists ( especially Modekngei ) actively discouraged mixed unions between Japanese men and Palauan women . The Japanese government encouraged such intermarriages , and provided social benefits to women who had married Japanese men . However , only unions with civilian men were recognised and military personnel were prohibited from marrying Palauan women , although they were allowed to keep mistresses . The civilian government suppressed unions between Palauan men and Japanese women , and there was only one known case of a union between a Palauan man and a Japanese woman during the Japanese colonial @-@ era .
After the Japanese surrender in 1945 , Japanese settlers were repatriated back to Japan , and male Japanese settlers who had raised Japanese @-@ Palauan families abandoned their families in favour of repatriation , reasoning that the offspring would be able to better adapt in Palau than in Japan . Many of these Palauan women raised their mixed @-@ race children singlehandedly , while others were abandoned and adopted by Palauan families . Some Japanese @-@ Palauan families migrated to Japan , but generally faced a cultural shock and petitioned to return to Palau after living in Japan for some years . Most petitions were allowed , although they were not allowed to bring their Japanese spouses along .
Second and third @-@ generation descendants of Japanese @-@ Palauans who were descended from earlier settlers generally chose to remain behind , although those who were raised in Japanese @-@ speaking families reportedly faced trouble conversing in Palauan . Most retained their Japanese surnames , but Japanese @-@ Paluans generally identified themselves as Palauans after the war . Second @-@ generation Japanese @-@ Palauans usually married Palauan women , and became assimilated with the local Palauan populace . In terms of self @-@ identification , Japanese @-@ Palauans usually emphasised their Japanese identities only on occasions when they associate with other Japanese , for instance when they participate in memorial services for Japanese soldiers who died during the Pacific War . Some Japanese @-@ Palauans also chose to be buried in Japanese cemeteries after their deaths , notably those in Koror .
= = Economy = =
The Japanese civilian administration encouraged Japanese businessmen and settlers to the expand phosphate mining and copra production , which came into commercial existence during the German colonial era . During this time , new infrastructure was built between towns — including road and harbour facilities , and electricity and sewerage lines were laid out . Immigration from Japan , Okinawa and Korea to Palau intensified as a result of new job opportunities . A state @-@ owned enterprise , Nanyo Kohatsu Kabushiki Kaisha ( South Seas Colonization Corporation ) was formed in 1936 to streamline the islands ' economic activities with the administration objective of developing the islands ' self @-@ sufficiency capabilities . In the late 1930s , Japanese pearl divers made regular visits to the Arafura Sea , and stopped by Palau from October to April . The influx of pearl divers from Japan led to the development of the island 's tourist industry , and some Japanese settlers from Saipan opened new cafés , geisha houses and liquor houses in Koror to cater to the pearl divers during their stopovers in between October to April .
When the Japanese surrendered in 1945 , Japanese business enterprises and organisations in Palau closed , effectively ending the Japanese influence on Palau 's economy . In the first two decades after the war , the American occupation government imposed strict trade restrictions with Japan . Contact with Japan was reestablished in the 1960s , starting with Okinawan fishermen who were granted fishing rights . Japanese tourists began to visit Palau in increasing numbers from the mid @-@ 1970s . The growing influx of tourists to Palau led to the restoration of heritage sites around Palau , particularly memorial sites and administrative buildings built in the Japanese era as well as Palauan longhouses to accommodate to the interests of Japanese tourists , which accounted for half of all visiting tourists . Many of Palau 's tourist sites were run and maintained by Palauan citizens of Japanese @-@ Palauan heritage , whose knowledge in Japanese and Palauan customs and languages helped to facilitate tour groups consisting of Japanese tourists .
= = Education = =
The Japanese Language School of Palau , a weekend supplementary programme , is in operation in Koror .
= = Notable people = =
Santy Asanuma , Senator
Elias Camsek Chin , former Vice President
Hersey Kyota , politician and diplomat
Kuniwo Nakamura , former President and foreign minister
Haruo Remeliik , former President
Peter Sugiyama , former politician
= Tropical Storm Zeta =
Tropical Storm Zeta was a late @-@ developing tropical storm over the central Atlantic that formed after the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season had officially ended ( on November 30 ) and continued into January 2006 . Becoming a tropical depression at approximately midnight on December 30 ( UTC ) , it became the record @-@ breaking thirtieth tropical cyclone of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season and after intensifying into Tropical Storm Zeta six hours later , it became the season 's twenty @-@ seventh named storm . Zeta was one of only two Atlantic tropical cyclones to span two calendar years ( the other being Hurricane Alice in 1954 – 55 ) .
Zeta originated from an area of low pressure on December 29 , which previously developed within an upper @-@ level trough . After becoming a tropical storm , the National Hurricane Center continually predicted it would weaken rapidly . Like the previous tropical cyclone , Hurricane Epsilon , Zeta defied these predictions . The storm reached its peak strength on January 2 , 2006 before finally dissipating on January 6 . As Zeta never approached land there was no impact from the storm other than minor shipping problems . Several ships encountered the storm , and several crews in the 2005 Atlantic Rowing Race were affected by rough seas and high winds .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Zeta originated from an upper @-@ level trough that interacted with a weakening frontal system in late @-@ December 2005 . By December 28 , the trough had developed into a low pressure area roughly 750 mi ( 1 @,@ 210 km ) west @-@ northwest of the Cape Verde Islands . The following day , a low @-@ level circulation developed and convective activity began to increase around the low . By December 30 , sufficient shower and thunderstorm activity had developed for the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to classify it as a tropical cyclone . Over the following several hours , convective banding developed around the storm 's center and by 0600 UTC , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Zeta , the record 28th tropical or subtropical cyclone to form during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . Operationally , however , the NHC did not begin issuing advisories on Zeta until 1700 UTC . Traveling slowly northwestward in response to a mid @-@ level low to the southwest , the storm gradually intensified in a region of favorable anticyclonic outflow .
By the afternoon of December 30 , dry air caused the system to become slightly disorganized and led forecasters to anticipate further weakening of the storm and dissipating within three days . The following day , a mid @-@ level ridge to the north caused Zeta turn westward before nearly stalling due to upper @-@ level westerlies . By this time , the storm attained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) but increasing wind shear caused convection to become disorganized , resulting in a brief weakening period . Despite the shear , the shallow structure of Zeta allowed convection to regenerate and the storm gradually re @-@ intensified . Around 1800 UTC on January 1 , 2006 , Zeta attained its peak intensity with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 994 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) roughly 1 @,@ 035 mi ( 1 @,@ 665 km ) northwest of the Cape Verde Islands . By January 2 , the storm began tracking towards the southwest in response to a mid @-@ level trough located east of the storm . Tropical Storm Zeta continued to defy forecasts of weakening .
The effects of wind shear finally took their toll late on January 4 , and Zeta 's convection began to die down . This led to Tropical Storm Zeta weakening to a minimal tropical storm . The NHC continued to overestimate how quickly Zeta would dissipate and early on January 5 they operationally downgraded Zeta to a depression , which was later confirmed to have been an error . Zeta continued to move west @-@ northwestward , barely holding on to tropical storm status before becoming disorganized again . Zeta weakened into a tropical depression on January 6 and dissipated into a remnant later that day . With this transition , the very active 2005 hurricane season finally came to a close . The remnant low retained its identity for a further day before it dissipated 660 miles ( 1060 km ) southeast of Bermuda .
= = Impact and records = =
Several of the crews that were taking part in the 2005 Atlantic Rowing Race were affected with heavy seas and strong adverse winds from Tropical Storm Zeta . Several teams encountered winds up to 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and large swells up to 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . Although battered by torrential rain and high winds , the direction of the winds assisted some of the ships in the race by speeding them closer to Antigua . One Welsh vessel was blown 25 mi ( 40 km ) off @-@ course , ending with an encounter with a 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) shark that battered their boat . The ship Liberty Star made several reports of strong winds from Tropical Storm Zeta , including one of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds early on December 31 , when the ship was about 45 miles ( 75 km ) north of the storm .
When Zeta formed at 0600 UTC on December 30 , it became the second latest @-@ forming tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Atlantic . Only Hurricane Alice of December 1954 formed later than Zeta , becoming a tropical storm around 1200 UTC . Additionally , Zeta became the second known Atlantic tropical cyclone , along with Alice , to exist in two calendar years . Tropical Storm Zeta also extended the record number of storms to form in the 2005 season to twenty @-@ eight , seven more than the previous record held by the 1933 season .
Although the storm affected several vessels during its existence , no land areas were threatened by Zeta . As a result , the NHC did not issue any tropical storm watches or warnings .
= Connor ( Angel ) =
Connor is a fictional character created by Joss Whedon and Tim Minear for the television series Angel . The character is portrayed as an infant by the triplets Connor , Jake , and Trenton Tupen and as a teenager by Vincent Kartheiser . Connor has a recurring role in season three , becomes a regular in season four , and has his last television appearance in the series finale as a guest star . He continues his story in the canonical comic book series Angel : After the Fall .
Within the series , Connor is the superhuman son of the title character Angel , who is a vampire . Introduced in the third season as a newborn , Connor is kidnapped and taken to a hell dimension in an act of revenge against his father . He returns as a battle @-@ hardened , disturbed teenager who has been raised to hate Angel . His consequent violent and estranged relationship with his father and increasing internal conflict making him shift alliances between protagonists and antagonists forms the storyline for his character . Towards the end of season four , events take their toll on Connor 's sanity , and his memories are rewritten to give him a normal life . The next time he appears in season five , Connor is a well @-@ adjusted person . At the return of his memories , Connor finally reconciles with Angel in the series finale . The comic book series follows Connor accepting his abilities and role of a hero in addition of maintaining a normal life as a college student .
Created to give Angel an " emotional " connection , the infant Connor was used to develop other characters . After he grows up , he initially becomes a tragic figure and foil for the protagonists before eventually evolving to a protagonist himself . Connor has received attention in academic texts related to family studies and masculinity in fiction . The character proved to be controversial among fans , while critics have given mixed views .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = = Season 3 = = = =
In a seemingly impossible event , vampires Angel and Darla had a child , the end result being Connor , a human with superhuman abilities . Connor is introduced in the episode " Lullaby , " when Darla sacrifices herself to give birth to him , by staking herself in the heart . Darla 's sacrifice for their son allows Angel to make peace with her . For the first few months of his life , Connor is jointly raised by Angel and his team , including Wesley and Cordelia , though he is constantly targeted by different factions . Connor is prophesied to destroy the time @-@ shifting demon lord Sahjhan . In attempt to negate the prophecy , he travels through time and rewrites the prophecy to read " The father will kill the son " in reference to Angel and Connor , and recruits Angelus 's nemesis Daniel Holtz whose family the vampire killed centuries ago with Darla . Wesley kidnaps the baby in a misguided effort to save his life from Angel , conveniently leading him into the hands of Holtz . Holtz steals the baby and is forced to escape to the hell dimension Quor 'Toth : Darkest of the dark world .
Holtz raises Connor as his son and instills him with a deep hatred of Angel , although revealed later that he also occasionally abuses Connor when training him out of his hatred towards Connor 's parents . As time runs more quickly in Quor 'Toth , Connor ages at an accelerated rate in relation to time on Earth . Surviving the hell , a teenage Connor returns with the goal of avenging the Holtz family by killing Angel . However , after failing in his first attempt on Angel 's life , Connor tentatively begins to reconcile with him . Fearful of the development , Holtz has himself killed by Justine Cooper in a manner that frames Angel for the action . In the finale " Tomorrow " , an enraged Connor seals Angel in a metal box and sinks him to the bottom of the ocean .
= = = = Season 4 = = = =
The opening episode " Deep Down " picks up three months after last season . Angel returns , and Holtz ' deception is revealed . Relations are shaky as Angel kicks Connor out of the house in punishment for sinking him , but secretly keeps a protective eye on him from afar . Stricken by the betrayal of his adoptive father and the apparent abandonment by his real one , Connor seeks solace in Cordelia 's arms . When an all @-@ powerful demon lord The Beast rises from the ground at the place he was born , Connor feels responsible . As The Beast causes fire to rain from the sky in an apparent apocalypse , Cordelia sleeps with Connor to give him some happiness before the end . While an apocalypse does not occur , Angel ( also in love with Cordelia ) doesn 't take kindly to the development , causing another rift between him and Connor . Unbeknownst to all , Cordelia is possessed to be with Connor by a cosmic entity , Jasmine , looking to give herself birth in this world through their union . As Cordelia becomes pregnant and manipulates Connor into helping her sacrifice an innocent girl for their child , his inhuman actions begin conflicting with his inner good , accelerating his already deteriorating mental health .
Jasmine arrives as a grown woman and immediately bewitches everyone to bask in immense joy and do her bidding . Connor is the only one left in misery because of sharing a blood link with her , which results in his further isolation . As Jasmine enacts her plans for world domination , Angel and his team break free from her spell . Caught between his father and daughter , Connor initially supports Jasmine against Angel , but this conflict , combined with the belief that neither truly cares about him , eventually makes him completely snap . Connor kills Jasmine after Angel manages to break her hold over the city but fails to kill her . An emotional wreck and attempting suicide , Connor wires himself , a comatose Cordelia , and shop full of innocent people to explosives . The season finale ( " Home " ) shows Angel desperate to save his son . Angel agrees to take over Wolfram & Hart in exchange for Connor 's life . As per the agreement , Connor is to have a whole new existence as an ordinary boy who is raised in a happy family . Other than Angel , everyone 's memories are rewritten to accommodate this new reality .
= = = = Season 5 = = = =
A few months after the events of season 4 , episode " Origin " shows Connor as the son of Laurence and Colleen Reilly . Connor crosses paths with Angel when the demon warlock Cyvus Vail draws him out to make him fulfill his destiny of killing Sahjhan . Angel informs Connor of his special abilities and helps prepare him for the fight , but he does not reveal that he is Connor 's real father . As the duel with Sahjhan begins , Connor is outmatched due to having forgotten his formidable fighting skills . Meanwhile , Wesley discovers Angel 's deception of altering reality . Distrusting Angel , Wesley shatters the Orlon Window , which restores Connor 's , Wesley 's , and Illyria 's memories . Remembering his old self and discovering that Sahjhan is directly responsible for all the pain he has endured , Connor slips to his original persona of ' demon @-@ killer ' and dispatches Sahjhan with ease .
In " Not Fade Away " the finale of the series , Angel visits Connor for coffee on the eve of his final battle with the Circle of the Black Thorn . Connor reveals that he remembers that Angel is his father . He tells Angel he is grateful for all he has done for him , but he prefers to leave it at that . When Angel fights Marcus Hamilton , Connor shows up to fight by his father 's side ( knowing that Angel wouldn 't do something so innocuous unless the world were about to end ) , saving Angel from being staked by Hamilton and helping him gain the upper hand . As the Senior Partners begin to exact their vengeance , Angel tells Connor to go home to his foster parents and assures him that as long as Connor is safe , the Partners can never destroy Angel .
= = = Literature = = =
The comic series Angel : After the Fall , picks up immediately after the events of the television series . Connor is shown sprinting home as ordered by Angel . He debates going back but gets drawn into the battle when the whole city is sent to hell by the Senior Partners . A veteran of hell , Connor takes it upon himself to provide sanctuary to humans and good demons . Along to help him are the benevolent werewolf Nina Ash , the mutant Gwen Raiden , and the vampire Spike . Connor also becomes much closer to Angel as he joins his newest battle to wrestle back control of the city from Demon Lords . Part of the story centers on Connor and Gwen 's romance , which ends when he discovers Gwen has betrayed the team .
Following the event , Gunn reverts Illyria to her demonic form , after which , Illyria decides to wholly collapse time and all existence . In an attempt to prevent Angel and his team from stopping Illyria , Gunn mortally wounds Connor . Connor pleads with Angel not to let the Senior Partners win and assures him that he is a good person despite being a vampire . Connor then dies in Angel 's arms . He is restored to life when Angel provokes Gunn into killing him , forcing the Senior Partners to turn back time to the moment of the original alleyway fight in the television finale . All those who died since the city was sent to hell come back to life and have their memories of the intervening time intact .
Spike : After the Fall , a companion piece to Angel : After the Fall , shows how Connor came about to form his alliance with Spike shortly after Los Angeles went to hell . Connor appears when Spike and Illyria are in a violent showdown with a group of demonic women . Catching the demonic leader off @-@ guard , he rescues the last human hostage and then has to be rescued by Spike . On their second encounter , the two strikes up a connection immediately leading to their joint crusade of saving the remaining humans . Connor is set to appear in the arcs of Angel and Faith .
Connor appears in the Family Reunion arc of Angel & Faith . ' Willow , on a quest to restore magic to herself and the world asks Angel and Faith to travel from London to LA with her so she can use the residual magic in Buffy 's scythe and Connor 's connection to Quor 'toth to reopen the tear in reality at the Hyperion Hotel to get to a dimension that has magic . Angel & Faith agree to this in order to gain the piece of Giles 's soul in the scythe , but will only help reopen the tear and go to Quor 'toth if Connor agrees to it . Connor is living a normal life as a college student studying social work with a girlfriend . Though initially disappointed Angel ignored his attempts to contact his father , Connor is glad to have Angel in his life and realizes that his normal life is precious , but he still wants Angel to be a part of it . Angel is genuinely proud of the man his son has become . Connor agrees that magic needs to be returned to the world as the most vulnerable in society are already starting to lose hope without it .
Once in Quor 'toth , Connor briefly falls back into more aggressive behavior before he is able to shake off the negative influences of the dimension . His fake magical memories of the childhood Wolfram & Hart created for him have faded since magic was taken from the world , but he has made enough real memories of a happy life to not fall back into his unstable behavior . Dog @-@ like demons of Quor 'toth came to fear and respect " The Destroyer " and overheard Holtz telling Connor about love . Generations of these demons expressed love and compassion in Connor 's name and were slaughtered for it . Connor , Angel , Faith and Willow are able to rescue the last few of these demons while fighting off the Old One that rules Quor 'toth and Willow sends the dog @-@ demons to a peaceful dimension .
Angel obtains the piece of Giles 's soul . Angel , Faith and Connor return to the Hotel just as the tear closes while Willow goes off on her own to find a new source of magic for Earth . Connor accepts Angel has important business to do in England , and wishes his father well . Angel agrees to spend a week in LA with his son before going back to London .
= = Character development = =
= = = Creation and casting = = =
The intent for Connor 's character was to put " Angel in an emotional space . " He was meant to give Angel more to live for than just the usual " day to day " living he was experiencing . " Plus , I just love the idea of this embarrassing effect of a one @-@ night stand , ” Joss Whedon explained in his decision to introduce Angel ’ s son . The character was given the Irish name Connor , meaning ‘ counselor ’ or ' helping warrior ' , to match Angel 's Irish ancestry . Three different babies , triplets Connor , Jake , and Trenton Tupen , were chosen to portray Connor so that none of them had to remain on the set for very long . Baby Connor was a main focus of season three , but the creators were well aware of the limitations of a baby character . With Connor ’ s initial role in plot decided , they came up with the concept of a ' teenage ' version for further appearances .
Vincent Kartheiser , then 23 , was looking for something more stable than the usual feature movies . He decided to audition after his agent sent him the role and tapes of all previous seasons . The producers wanted the character to be a surprise to audiences , so not even Kartheiser was informed that he was trying out for Angel 's son . Instead he auditioned for a character created for the purpose of audition , ‘ the Street Kid ’ , a normal teenager who had Angel as his guardian . " Right away everyone kind of had a good feeling about me joining the cast , " Vincent says . " It seemed that I just fit right in . " Kartheiser was excited after learning that his real role was ' Angel 's son , a demon killer from Quor 'toth . ’ He was confused about his portrayal , thinking that the character was to have a " living @-@ in @-@ the @-@ brush kind of ‘ failed being ’ attitude . " Instead , he was told to just " stand up straight , [ use a ] normal voice , " and let a regular boy come on . Vincent Kartheiser was initially contracted for three episodes with an option to pick him up further .
= = = Characterization = = =
Teenage Connor is an angry , brooding , intense , and volatile teenager who is vindictive towards Angel . Vincent Kartheiser described him as withdrawn and " not willing to open up to the group happiness everyone is so inclined to be part of " . He also highlighted his ' alienation ' of this world and resulting caution and unwillingness to trust others . Tim Minear further characterizes Connor by his strong need for family which " means everything to this kid because he 's never had one " and put emphasis on his " conflicted " personality triggered by his upbringing . David Fury and Minear also highlight Connor 's similarity to Angel . Fury worked on the resemblance of strength , fighting style , and personality . Minear compared their trait of accepting responsibility even in the worst times . Intending to show Connor as a formidable fighter , Kelly A. Manners described him as " quite the hunter , quite the killer . " Kartheiser notes him as " truly badass " , and jokingly compares his fighting style to that of ' Jackie Chan ' , He is attracted to women older than him , which becomes a running gag in the series .
Connor , despite being the son of two " vampires , " is meant to be " human " with otherwise super powers . Due to this , he wasn ’ t given the vampire makeup of the series . Kartheiser expresses his simultaneous joy and dismay at this , considering makeup an added benefit for the character and agreeing that the lack of it saved him much time . Connor was initially clad in clothes made of animal skin , and his attire was said to resemble ' Peter Pan ' and ' Robin Hood ' . He was also wearing , as a trophy , a necklace made of parts of demons he killed in hell . After he settles in this world , he drops the necklace and is given a more casual set of clothes : jeans , t @-@ shirts , and jackets . The concept behind Connor ’ s wardrobe was that , unconcerned with this world ’ s fashion sense , he " just took whatever was available . " Yet , one interviewer notices his clothing to be " conservative [ .. ] for somebody who 's never seen an advert " . Connor 's hairstyle at the start was short and choppy as if cut with a knife . Afterward he 's given a modern and cleaner look with longer , styled hair . Kartheiser was critical of the new hair style calling it ' David Cassidy hair @-@ do ' and feeling it was a ' little bit heavy ' .
Connor undergoes dramatic changes in season five . Very much an opposite to his earlier persona , the only features common with his previous self are his protectiveness of loved ones , attraction to older women , and later his fighting prowess . Otherwise he 's a prosperous , sweet young man , due to his fake memories of a happy childhood . Jeffrey Bell wanted to highlight Connor 's " well @-@ adjusted " mentality for this season . Vincent calls him a " happy " person and liked playing this version more because he has been playing the " brooding " version for a year and a half year . The comic book Connor develops in the same direction as he starts emerging a hero still keeping his pleasant personality . Joss Whedon characterizes the comic book Connor as " the closest thing to a superhero hell has ' because he has powers without any of the weaknesses of the vampire , and is well adjusted . Brain considers him " one of the coolest characters in any series or comics " .
= = = Story progression = = =
Characteristic to Joss Whedon 's characters , Connor goes through drastic changes with the series progression . Introduced as an ' impossible birth ' at the start of season three , as an infant the character still had little chance of his own development . So he became an agent for evolution of others ; Darla through him , redeems herself of her villainous acts spanning two television series , and Wesley transform from a goofy sidekick to a brooding anti @-@ hero . Once these developments came to fruition , the creators chose to upgrade Connor to a teen . Taking advantage of the fantasy genre , they were able to accelerate his growth within a few weeks of the show 's normal timeline , thus not affecting the ages of the rest of the characters and setting up stage for the next act . The middle of season three sees the infant kidnapped by Angel 's long @-@ term adversary Holtz , who takes Connor to a hell dimension where " time moves differently , " explains David Greenwalt . " We didn 't want to raise a baby for 18 years . "
Connor returns near the end of the season as a feral teenage warrior who is vindictive towards Angel . Connor 's age at his return is disputed : both the creators and episodes vary between putting him at 16 and 18 . Regarding Connor 's upbringing , Mere Smith elaborates that " Holtz has brought up Connor to hate his father , his father is the devil as far as Holtz is concerned and he tells Connor that " This development allowed the writers to explore a unique ' foil ' to protagonists because Connor was established to be " deep down " much like Angel himself . Minear goes on to explain with Smith that immediately following Connor 's return from hell , Angel had started " converting the boy to his side , " showing him that he 's no longer a bad guy . Just when Connor is bonding with Angel , Holtz kills himself upon sensing the danger of their reconciliation . This makes Connor back track and sets off a back and forth pattern that continues to repeat till the end of season four with Cordelia and then Jasmine taking Holtz ' position between father and son .
Much of Connor 's development in season three and four is his continuous shifting alliances between protagonists and antagonists ; he is unable to find his place or his purpose for being . Jeffrey Bell says that all the confusing and conflicting circumstances never allow Connor a break , which he thinks " makes him empathetic in midst of making all wrong choices " . Steven S. DeKnight says :
We really wanted to highlight [ .. ] that he is a tragic victim of circumstance . He never had a childhood , he 's been lied to and manipulated and in this episode we find out his whole reason for being was to bring this other thing into this world , so he 's been played his entire life . You really root for him to make the right decision in this one , but you know tragic figure he doesn 't .
Season four also sees the writers exploring teenage sexuality through him , in a small arc with Faith , with whom Steven S. DeKnight compares him in their characterization of misguided youth with superpowers ; and the overarching arc with his father 's love Cordelia . Jeffrey Bell states Arthurian Legend 's animosity between King Arthur , his son Mordred , and their love triangle with Guinevere as inspiration for the Connor @-@ Cordelia @-@ Angel plot line . Whedon notes that while he already has decided that Cordelia and Connor were going to have sex , the story had to be changed and move faster because Charisma Carpenter became pregnant . The Cordelia plot line additionally gave writers opportunity to explain Connor 's birth via Jasmine , a character brought in to replace Carpenter as final villain . Taking Jasmine as a base point the writers started connecting back the dots they 'd set up in previous seasons . In the words of DeKnight , " It 's always been the big mystery of how and why Darla and Angel have a child , ' cause vampires are sterile . We find out this miracle birth was created kind of like a secret ingredient all planned out to sleep with Cordelia and create this superbeing . "
Regarding the resolution of the character at season four and dropping of Kartheiser from regular cast , Minear says that they had an idea at the conception of teenage Connor that he would only last a season , and " it was time to end the character 's story " . But , they changed his original " violent , morbid " sendoff to a relatively happy one , citing their likability of actor and character as the reason . Also it was " nice to give someone a happy ending for once . " Kartheiser was satisfied with the sendoff , particularly because the issue between Angel and Connor was confronted :
That to me is the soul of the character . The name of the show is Angel so it all comes back to him . For Connor , everything stems from this place with Angel and Holtz , and when we got the opportunity for him to let that out , I think he came out of his tough shell and showed a little bit of his sensitivity . He showed that he was hurt by his father and that he was hurt by Holtz .
The last scene of Angel watching memory @-@ wiped Connor dine with his new family and slipping away quietly was Whedon 's idea , derived from 1937 's classic movie Stella Dallas :
" I 've given up my child . I see my child is happy , and does not know me , and I 'm happy . That is the thing that made Stella Darlas the greatest , the thing that made this episode work . "
Despite Whedon 's claim that the fourth season is a ‘ final statement ' for Connor , the character returns for a couple guests appearances in the fifth . This season sees a big development with a " well @-@ adjusted " Connor and the long @-@ due reconciliation of father and son ; Connor is able to accept and appreciate all Angel did for him after his memories return . Minear and Bell were open to and had mentioned the possibility of character 's return to Kartheiser at the end of season four . But following his return , Kartheiser isn 't sure if the re @-@ appearance was not only due to the necessity of tying up loose ends after the series was reckoned to be canceled . Originally Kartheiser was asked to appear for one episode " Origin " but the crew and Kartheiser enjoyed working with revamped Connor so much that " it became clear to [ them ] that he had to appear for the series finale " .
Connor again returns for Angel : After the Fall . Brian Lynch was initially confused about how to incorporate Connor into the story . It was Whedon who hit upon the arc that Connor would follow in the series . He said , " Connor 's a young kid , he 's got powers , he doesn 't have any of the bad things , he 's not a vampire , so maybe he would enjoy it , and maybe he would be the closest thing to a superhero hell has " . Well @-@ adjusted now , Connor is shown " fully embracing his qualities and role of a hero " for the comic series . Originally Lynch had planned for Nina Ash to be more involved in his storyline , but with time it became clear to him that Connor 's story is more about his relationship with Angel . So Nina fell to the wayside and Connor @-@ Angel went on to become a much closer father @-@ son unit . Connor also went from the character Lynch had the most trouble with to the character he enjoys writing most . Regarding Connor 's upcoming role in Angel & Faith , Whedon joked about time @-@ traveling him to the early 1960s and making him an ad executive , referencing Kartheiser ' s recent role in the critically acclaimed television series Mad Men . Author Christos Gage describes the necessity of Connor 's appearance with " otherwise Angel is just a deadbeat Dad ! "
In the Angel & Faith Comics , Connor returns in the " Family Reunion " arc , beginning with Issue # 11 . Willow telling Angel that she needs Connor to act as a compass to Quor 'toth , the world he grew up in , to help restore magic to the world . Connor is now a college student studying social work with a girlfriend named Natalie he 's been dating 3 months . He rapidly agrees to help Willow and a very reluctant Angel . Connor has seen the toll on society , especially the disenfranchised , that has occurred since magic seed was destroyed in Buffy Season 8 . With a blood ritual using Connor 's blood , Willow tears a fabric in reality to Quor 'toth and Willow , Faith , Angel , and Connor head into the " darkest of the dark worlds " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
Several pieces of merchandise , based on Angel television and comic series , featuring Connor have been released . These merchandise includes a few action figures , but more prominently novels and spin @-@ off comic books . Connor stars as a regular in After the Fall 's spin @-@ off Aftermath and one @-@ shot Angel Yearbook . He is the title character of Connor : Spotlight . Continuing his appearances in other media , Connor stars in novels Dark Mirror , Love and Death , and Monolith . These appearances , though a part of official merchandise , are not considered canon .
= = = Reviews = = =
The show 's cast and crew repeatedly praised Vincent Kartheiser for his professionalism and ability to bring much to his character . " You can bet the family fortune on this kid , he can really do it , " stated director Vern Gillum . Producer Tim Minear described Vincent as one of the main reasons of their avoidance of giving the character a ghastly send @-@ off as planned before , “ We ’ ve all grown so fond of the character and the actor that we didn ’ t want do that . ” Although fans and critics reception to Kartheiser ’ s portrayal of the disturbed teen was also very positive , the character and his storylines turned out to be controversial .
His sexual relationship with his surrogate mother , Cordelia , particularly evoked attention . Most responses to this couple were negative . Darkworlds.com 's columnist Amy Berner declared them a " finalist in the Most Disturbing Couple In Television History “ . In her academic essay " The Assassination of Cordelia Chase , " Jennifer Crusie complained that this plot line led to the destruction of Cordelia 's character . Charisma Carpenter herself , despite previously noted to have fun portraying the role , became critical of the storyline over time , declaring her character ’ s seduction of a teenage boy creepy . Yet , a few gave a positive response . Liz Gasto of Moviefreak.com included the Angel – Cordelia – Connor triangle in the plus points of fourth season . Underland.com praised the plot line as a " very King Arthur like tale of love and betrayal . " Another group was neutral towards the development . In his book Blood Relations : Chosen Families in Buffy and Angel , Jes Battis simply observed that the relationship completes the already present “ circuit of erotic incest within Buffy and Angel . ” Jean Lorrah , in her academic essay " A World Without Love : The Failure of Family in Angel , " agreed with previous statements , further noting that Connor is the product of a relationship with incestuous tones : ” Angel is seduced by Darla , formerly his sire ( mother ) , now his granddaughter [ .. ] Connor ’ s life , unbeknownst to either parent , has begun . ”
Connor ’ s characterization and main storyline with his father in season three and four received mixed to positive reviews . Ben from thescifichristian.com was not fond of the initial episodes with baby Connor because Angel wasted time “ baby @-@ talking , ” but he loved the development with teenage Connor , “ The [ third ] season ends with a great storyline as Connor returns [ .. ] and betrays Angel . ” Jes Battis praised the father / son dynamics and described as “ highly dramatic and ( engagingly perverse ) ” . Journalist Sarah D. Bunting called Connor " a frustrating character " and wrote that while she " gets where he is coming from " and his ” twitchy , PTSD @-@ ish interactions ring true " , they become old too quick due to lack of real development of character and the relationship with Angel for most of season four . Kartheiser himself expressed this development concern , but he said that " Towards the end of the season I was really happy about the chances I was getting . " This last statement is echoed in Jamie Pool 's review , who called the “ ending ” to Connor " emotionally satisfying " , despite noting him to not have been particularly endearing through most of the remaining season . S.Wiebe of eclipsemagazine.com , however , described Connor ’ s overall characterization " sharp " with " really intriguing sub @-@ textual material " and among the saving graces of the season . Strega of Television Without Pity , also praised the character 's psychology , " The thing I like most is that they 've not only created a teenager who doesn 't just feel like he 's the most alienated person in the world -- he actually is , " and " I love how unloved Connor [ thinks he ] is … ” Jean Lorrah described the Darla @-@ Angel @-@ Connor @-@ Jasmine arc as " surely one of the most ambitious story arcs any television show has ever attempted “ Stacey Abbott of PopMatters called the Darla @-@ Angel @-@ Connor storyline " provocative " and " pure family melodrama " . Cityofangels.com 's Tara DiLullo summed up :
" Vincent Kartheiser [ Connor ] had a challenging year playing Angel ’ s errant son , to say the least . While audiences may have hoped for a reconciliation between the two , it was never meant to be . Connor instead started and remained [ .. ] as petulant and unsympathetic as many teens are in real life . [ His pairing with ] Cordelia completely fouled just about everyone and made him the whipping boy for fan ire . But [ Vincent ] earns serious kudos for his amazing last inning transformation of Connor from brat to tragic figure worthy of pity and understanding in Peace Out and Home . That Vincent was able to redeem Connor in such a short time is a true feat in itself and it was singularly responsible for making the finale as heartbreaking and haunting as it ended up being . "
A revamped Connor received praise during the final season . Phoenix of cityofangel.com declared Connor 's return as “ triumphant ” , saying this “ shy , sweet , happy young man ” is the kid Angel always wanted , and “ for the audience , a version of the character finally worth liking and supporting . ” Roz Kaveney , in his essay " A Sense of the Ending : Schrödinger 's Angel , " praised the new Connor as a “ heroic youth ” . Writer Brian Lynch admitted that he did not love season four 's Connor , but that he " really liked him " in season five " when he came back and he was well adjusted . "
Connor 's name is often mentioned with Buffy the Vampire Slayer 's Dawn Summers younger sister to Buffy Summers similarly created to give a strong emotional connection to the titular character . Four years after the cancellation of Angel , IGN included Connor along with Dawn in their list of classic TV 's cliché of ‘ Adding a Kid ’ as a last @-@ ditch effort to save a dying show . However they refused to comment if his addition was a good or bad choice in order to avoid swamping themselves from irate fans of either side . David Hofstede in his book What Were They Thinking ? openly criticized Connor and Dawn ’ s addition , appointing them number No.98 in his list of " 100 Dumbest Events in Television History " .
Connor 's appearance as a regular in After the Fall , was initially met with dismay by some fans . IDW representative Chris Ryall responded to these | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
effort were re @-@ used in the laying out of the route of I @-@ 70 .
Unlike most Interstate Highways , much of I @-@ 70 in Utah was not constructed parallel to or on top of an existing U.S. Highway . Portions of I @-@ 70 were constructed in areas where previously there were no paved roads . Because it was built over an entirely new route , I @-@ 70 has many features that are unique in the Interstate Highway System . For example , the 110 miles ( 177 km ) between Green River and Salina makes up the longest distance anywhere in the Interstate Highway System with no motorist services . This same piece is noted as the longest highway in the United States built over a completely new route since the Alaska Highway , and the longest piece of Interstate Highway to open at a given time . The construction of the Utah portion of I @-@ 70 is listed as one of the engineering marvels of the Interstate Highway System .
The choice of the route had a significant impact on the character and culture of the Sevier Valley . It has also been a motivating factor for environmentalists to create a new National Park along the path of the highway to protect scenic areas around the route . I @-@ 70 from Green River to Grand Junction , Colorado is part of the Dinosaur Diamond Prehistoric Highway , making I @-@ 70 one of the few Interstate Highways to be named a National Scenic Byway . Attractions listed by the Federal Highway Administration for the Dinosaur Diamond Prehistoric Highway on or near I @-@ 70 include , Arches National Park , Canyonlands National Park , Cleveland @-@ Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry , Goblin Valley State Park and Westwater . The designation lists several side roads branching from I @-@ 70 that lead to dinosaur bones or footprints .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 70 begins at a trumpet interchange with Interstate 15 , near Cove Fort . It then proceeds east over the Pavant Range , cresting at an unnamed summit with an elevation of 7 @,@ 076 feet ( 2 @,@ 157 m ) . The eastern descent from the Pavant range features bridges high above Clear Creek and its side canyons . The longest of these bridges is the Fish Creek bridge at 1 @,@ 180 feet ( 360 m ) long . The descent into Clear Creek features a brake check area and runaway truck ramp to aid truckers down the steep slope . The freeway then skirts the edge of Fremont Indian State Park before entering Sevier Valley .
= = = Sevier Valley = = =
I @-@ 70 serves as the main thoroughfare of the valley , the only area traversed by the freeway in the state with more than a few hundred residents . Richfield is the largest city along I @-@ 70 in the state . The highway enters the valley just north of Big Rock Candy Mountain , a mountain named for a song attributed to Harry McClintock . The highway proceeds northeast along the western edge of the valley , passing to the west of the communities of the valley , including Joseph , Monroe , Elsinore , and Richfield . As I @-@ 70 approaches Salina it cuts across the valley passing to the south of that town . The highway avoids the downtown areas of all of these cities . The portion between Richfield and Salina is the busiest , with an annual average daily traffic of 11 @,@ 535 vehicles in 2006 . In the Sevier Valley , I @-@ 70 was built parallel to U.S. Route 89 .
= = = Wasatch Plateau = = =
At Salina , US @-@ 50 joins I @-@ 70 , and the two highways run concurrent for the rest of the way through Utah . After leaving Salina I @-@ 70 departs on a 110 @-@ mile ( 177 km ) course to Green River . This is the longest distance in the Interstate Highway System with no motorist services . The route to Green River crosses two major geographic obstacles , the Wasatch Plateau and the San Rafael Swell .
I @-@ 70 ascends the Wasatch Plateau via Salina Canyon . The top of the canyon is the highest point of any of Utah 's Interstate Highways , although the elevation differs from source to source . The Utah Department of Transportation ( UDOT ) has listed the elevation at 7 @,@ 923 feet ( 2 @,@ 415 m ) and 7 @,@ 886 feet ( 2 @,@ 404 m ) . Other maps have listed the figure 7 @,@ 980 feet ( 2 @,@ 432 m ) . At least one map has given this point a name , Emigrant Pass . This portion of I @-@ 70 is on protected lands as part of Fishlake National Forest . The freeway exits the Wasatch Plateau at Fremont Junction , the name of the junction of I @-@ 70 with State Route 10 .
= = = San Rafael Swell = = =
Between Fremont Junction and the junction of SR @-@ 24 near Green River , Interstate 70 crosses a geologic feature called the San Rafael Swell . The construction of the freeway through the swell is listed as one of the engineering marvels of the Interstate Highway System , with one engineer claiming this section as " one of the most significant highway construction feats of its time " . The construction of I @-@ 70 through the swell required boring through many solid rock canyons , cliffs , and mountains . The swell is noted for its sheer canyons and rock formations and is home to a large amount of exposed dinosaur remains . This includes the largest known collection of Jurassic period dinosaur remains at the Cleveland @-@ Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry at the north end of the swell .
The highway ascends the western edge of the swell on a steady slope loosely following the north rim of Devils Canyon . At the top of the grade is a view area with a view of Devils Canyon and an overlook of the country west of the swell . It then crosses Eagle Canyon via a pair of steel arch bridges . The eastbound bridge is 489 feet ( 149 m ) long and the westbound bridge is 523 feet ( 159 m ) long .
The highway then ascends Ghost Rock Summit , the highest point for I @-@ 70 inside the swell . At the summit is another view area overlooking the Little Grand Canyon of the San Rafael River . The summit is named for unusual rock formations nearby . The Ghost Rocks themselves are at 7 @,@ 405 feet ( 2 @,@ 257 m ) , although the freeway is slightly lower . I @-@ 70 meanders through a relatively flat portion of the swell until reaching Spotted Wolf Canyon , which provides the exit route to the swell . The eastern descent features one brake check area and two runaway truck ramps to aid trucks down . About halfway down is a view area of the canyon narrowing as it approaches the eastern escarpment of the swell , the San Rafael Reef . Just as the highway exits the swell it passes to the north of Goblin Valley State Park . The highway exits the swell near Green River .
= = = Book Cliffs = = =
West of Green River , US @-@ 6 and 191 join I @-@ 70 . Also at Green River , the freeway reaches the southern edge of the Book Cliffs , a mountain range which I @-@ 70 follows to Grand Junction , Colorado . This portion of I @-@ 70 is part of the Dinosaur Diamond Prehistoric Highway , recognized as a scenic byway by both the National Scenic Byways and Utah Scenic Byways programs . Listed attractions along the byway in the Green River area include Crystal Geyser , Capitol Reef National Park and Green River State Park .
From this point east the freeway is routed across a flat area between the Book Cliffs and the Colorado River , called Sagers Flat . Along the way it passes by the towns of Crescent Junction , Thompson Springs and Cisco . Natural features visible from this portion include Arches National Park and Castle Valley . Other listed attractions along the byway near this section include Canyonlands National Park and various areas with Morrison Formation , a layer of rock where dinosaur remains are common . I @-@ 70 , US @-@ 6 , and US @-@ 50 all enter Colorado concurrently . Where I @-@ 70 follows the Book Cliffs , it was built parallel to or on top of US @-@ 6 / 50 .
= = History = =
= = = Old Spanish Trail = = =
The first route through this portion of Utah was the Old Spanish Trail , a trade route between Santa Fe , New Mexico and Los Angeles , California . The trail was in common use before the Mexican @-@ American War in 1848 . Although the trail serves a different route than I @-@ 70 , they were both intended to connect southern California with points further east . I @-@ 70 generally parallels the route of the Old Spanish Trail west of Crescent Junction . I @-@ 15 south of the junction with I @-@ 70 also generally parallels the trail .
= = = Transcontinental railroads = = =
The first attempt to build a modern trade route through the area is credited to William Jackson Palmer , founder of the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad ( D & RG ) . Palmer started a project in 1880 to make what had been a local railroad from Colorado into a transcontinental railroad empire . This would mean a second transcontinental railroad would be built across Utah . This would also place the D & RG in competition with the First Transcontinental Railroad , then operated by Union Pacific Railroad and Central Pacific Railroad .
Disagreements in the company led to two proposals . Both proposals called for extending the railroad west from Colorado as far as what is now Green River . West of Green River a " northern route " would extend the railroad towards Ogden , Utah , there connecting with the established Overland Route . This proposal was eventually completed as the Utah Division , loosely following the route of modern U.S. Route 6 across eastern Utah . This line soon became the main line of the D & RG and remains one of the main transcontinental rail arteries of the U.S , now operated by the Union Pacific Railroad as the Central Corridor .
The second proposal was a " southern route " that would continue due west from Green River and head towards Los Angeles , similar to the route of modern I @-@ 70 . This proposal would require extending the railroad farther west , to connect with what would become the Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad .
Due to disagreements in management and poor communication , construction began on both routes . It was soon obvious that the southern route was unfeasible given the remote area , technology available at the time and the rough terrain of the San Rafael Swell . The D & RG spent $ 217 @,@ 470 ( 1883 , equivalent to $ 4 @.@ 6 million in 2007 ) on the project before declaring it a failure . One of the accounts in the book Utah Ghost Rails states the railroad fired the lead surveyor , even though the workers had graded a path past the San Rafael Reef . This route today is a jeep trail . According to a sign placed by the Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) , had the southern route succeeded it would have been the shortest transcontinental railroad in the U.S.
Construction resumed in 1901 on a portion of the southern route , to build a spur line to service coal mines on the Wasatch Plateau . The railroad branched from an existing line at Salina and traveled east up Salina Canyon . After the mines closed , the railroad bed was used to improve State Route 10 , between Salina and Fremont Junction . I @-@ 70 would later use the railroad bed for a path across the Wasatch Plateau .
= = = Plans for Interstate 70 = = =
By the time the Interstate Highway System was in the planning stages , no paved road had yet entered the San Rafael Swell . The established highway through the area was US @-@ 6 / US @-@ 50 which , like the railroad , entered Utah from Colorado and turned north around the swell .
As first proposed in 1956 , the western terminus of I @-@ 70 was Denver , Colorado . Officials from Colorado pressured the federal government to extend the plans for I @-@ 70 further west . After several discussions with Utah officials , Utah supported an extension that would follow US @-@ 6 / 50 ( now US @-@ 6 ) , to connect with I @-@ 15 at Spanish Fork . This proposal would connect the Salt Lake City area with Denver . While accepting the Colorado / Utah proposal , federal planners also decided to show a modified proposal , with the terminus of I @-@ 70 at Cove Fort , to planners at the Department of the Army . The planners opposed the extension to Salt Lake , but felt the modified proposal would benefit the U.S. Army , by providing a better connection to southern California . The new route would shorten the distance between Los Angeles and Denver by about 200 miles ( 320 km ) . The route to Cove Fort was approved on October 18 , 1957 . A general announcement was made , with no prior notice given to Utah officials of the modification . The commissioner of the Bureau of Public Roads later admitted that the lack of notice was intentional , fearing infighting if the bureau did not announce a final decision .
A state historian stated the news hit Utah " like a bombshell " . Except for the officials in Utah that represented the area , most opposed a freeway that would serve no populated areas in the state . The route was mocked as a public relations blunder and a " road to nowhere " . Utah officials attempted to revert plans to their preferred alternative , but later resigned to construct I @-@ 70 on the federally selected route . Governor George Dewey Clyde concluded , " Utah had no choice but to accept the Cove Fort routing , or have none at all . " Even attempts to route the freeway slightly north , to serve more cities in Emery County , were blocked . Federal planners insisted the freeway pass Green River on a southwest course and not turn north . Even today , there is no direct interstate link between Salt Lake and Denver . Motorists must choose between the two lane routes ( US @-@ 6 or US @-@ 40 ) or detour on I @-@ 80 through Wyoming .
= = = Construction = = =
With the plans for I @-@ 70 extended , a transcontinental route would again be attempted across the San Rafael Swell . The area west of Green River was so remote that survey crews followed wild horses with jeeps to survey parts of the route . According to a story told at the highway 's dedication , by an engineer who surveyed the highway , his group was approached by a sheep rancher and asked what they were doing . The rancher fell over laughing when he was told they were building a freeway .
The survey crew did not use the route of the railroad past the San Rafael Reef . However , they did use the route of the railroad across the Wasatch Plateau . The construction crews destroyed two of four tunnels when the bed was widened for the freeway . The two remaining tunnels are visible just south of the freeway and are used by a frontage road .
Some portions of I @-@ 70 over the Pavant Range and Wasatch Plateau were opened to traffic before the portion over the San Rafael Swell . These portions were temporarily signed as State Route 4 . The portion over the San Rafael Swell opened to traffic in 1970 , finally making the Utah portion of I @-@ 70 a drivable route .
Interstate 70 was dedicated on December 5 , 1970 , at the Ghost Rocks view area inside the swell , even though it would take another 20 years to fully complete the freeway . At the ceremony the mayors of cities recently made neighbors , including Grand Junction , Colorado , introduced themselves . Then Governor Calvin L. Rampton noted that I @-@ 70 was the longest road the U.S. had built over a completely new route since the Alaska Highway , during World War II . It was also noted this was the longest piece of the Interstate Highway System to open at a given time .
Initially only two lanes , now the eastbound lanes , through the swell were constructed . The official highway map for Utah noted the new freeway , but qualified its existence with the words " two lanes open " . The first portions of I @-@ 70 to be constructed to Interstate Highway standards were along the non @-@ disputed portion of the route east of Green River .
The Utah portion of I @-@ 70 was not completed to Interstate Highway standards until 1990 , when the second Eagle Canyon bridge was dedicated . A second dedication ceremony was held at the bridge declaring the Utah portion of I @-@ 70 complete . Archie Hamilton , one of three engineers who worked for Utah Department of Transportation ( UDOT ) long enough to see I @-@ 70 progress from conception to completion , said the most memorable moment was seeing the excavation at Spotted Wolf Canyon . He said before construction began , he could stand in one spot and touch both sides of the canyon . To carve the first 8 miles ( 13 km ) through the canyon required excavating 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 m3 ) of rock . It was estimated construction cost for the San Rafael Swell portion was $ 183 @.@ 5 million , $ 105 @.@ 5 million ( 1970 , $ 595 million in 2008 ) to build the first two lanes , and $ 78 million ( 1990 , $ 130 million in 2008 ) to construct the rest . At the 1970 dedication , it was noted the cost of land acquisition helped to offset the cost of the massive excavation . UDOT acquired the right of way to build the majority of I @-@ 70 from the BLM at the lowest cost per mile of any highway in Utah .
= = = Effect on rural Utah = = =
In 2002 , the Salt Lake Tribune interviewed the mayor of Richfield about the change I @-@ 70 brought to the Sevier Valley . Previously these were isolated farming communities , whose residents felt they were unaccustomed to the crime and other effects that a transcontinental highway can bring . Residents of Richfield soon started to call I @-@ 70 " Cocaine Lane " . The mayor stated that I @-@ 70 is a mixed blessing . He stated the highway is a boon to the hospitality industry and has made Richfield more accessible to other cities . However , the new road brought types of crime previously unknown to the city . The mayor lamented that after the completion of I @-@ 70 , many residents started locking their doors for the first time . The interview resulted from an event that served as a " wake @-@ up call " , that rural Utah is " not isolated from crime " . Panic ensued after the public witnessed Utah Highway Patrol troopers carrying away a suspect in handcuffs , while removing plastic bags and coolers full of body parts from the trunk of his car . The event caused a frenzy of people checking on their neighbors , fearing the murder victims were local residents . In 2007 , there were 11 violent crimes in Sevier County , a county of 19 @,@ 386 residents .
Green River is the largest , and only incorporated city directly served by I @-@ 70 in eastern Utah . Unlike the communities of the Sevier Valley , Green River was founded as a stopover for travelers along transcontinental arteries . The area was first used as a stopover for travelers navigating the Green River . Later the town was formed to serve travelers along the Old Spanish Trail and stagecoach mail routes . Green River was an established stopover by the time the railroad and later highways were built through the area .
= = = Effect on the San Rafael Swell = = =
Before the construction of I @-@ 70 the San Rafael Swell was relatively inaccessible and not well known or explored . There were , however , a few efforts to protect the swell as early as 1935 . Since the construction of the freeway the number of visitors to the swell has increased significantly , as the swell can now be accessed by automobile . As such , several groups are increasing efforts for protected status of the area , via National Park , National Monument or wilderness designation .
A major push occurred in 2002 when officials from Emery County , joined by Utah governor Mike Leavitt , petitioned President George W. Bush to use the authority of the Antiquities Act and create a San Rafael Swell National Monument . This effort lost momentum after the governor promised to honor the wishes of Emery County residents via a non @-@ binding referendum , which did not pass . Common reasons given by residents for opposing the designation included fear of the federal government restricting access and a repetition of events that occurred with the Grand Staircase @-@ Escalante National Monument . This monument was established in 1996 , by President Bill Clinton . In that case the monument was proposed at the federal level in secret . Boundaries were drawn without the consent or even knowledge of local residents . This incited anger and triggered a backlash in rural Utah .
Currently most of the swell is administered by the BLM and is not given special consideration . A small portion on the eastern edge is protected as Goblin Valley State Park , administered by the Utah Division of Parks and Recreation . Today the Southern Utah Wilderness Alliance continues to lobby for protection .
= = = Route number changes = = =
Before the formation of I @-@ 70 , there was a road over the Pavant Range numbered SR @-@ 13 that was similar to the route of I @-@ 70 . The highway , which largely still exists as a two @-@ lane road between SR @-@ 161 ( former US @-@ 91 ) at Cove Fort and US @-@ 89 at Sevier , had been taken over by the state on August 2 , 1912 , and assigned the label by the early 1920s as part of Utah 's initial highway numbering . In the Wasatch Plateau , the base for I @-@ 70 was derived from a portion of SR @-@ 10 . Both of these were transferred to State Route 4 , which was the state legislative designation for all of I @-@ 70 in Utah , in 1962 . U.S. Route 50 was changed to overlap with Interstate 70 through most of Utah in 1976 , with U.S. Route 6 remaining on its former route . In 1977 , Utah renumbered its state routes so that the legislative and signed numbers would match . With this change , the state designation for Interstate 70 is now State Route 70 .
= = Exit list = =
= Can 't Be Tamed ( song ) =
" Can 't Be Tamed " is a song by American recording artist Miley Cyrus for her third studio album of the same name ( 2010 ) . It was released on May 14 , 2010 by Hollywood Records as the lead single from the record . The song was written by Cyrus , Antonina Armato , Tim James , Paul Neumann , and Marek Pompetzki , while production was handled by Armato and James . A Rockangeles remix version featuring rapper Lil Jon was included as a bonus track on digital editions of the album . According to Cyrus , " Can 't Be Tamed " describes a desire to break out and experience freedom . The lyrics deal with the themes of freedom and self @-@ expression , approached by sultry lyrics .
" Can 't Be Tamed " received generally positive responses by music critics . It also garnered commercial success . The song peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , and reached its highest peak at number five on both the Irish Singles Chart and New Zealand Singles Chart . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Robert Hales and follows Cyrus performing with backup dancers throughout a museum . Cyrus is first trapped in a giant cage , being observed by spectators ; she then escapes and trashes the museum . She has promoted " Can 't Be Tamed " by performing it at several venues , including a performance on Britain 's Got Talent that resulted in negative reactions from the media . The song is also a part of Cyrus ' second and third world tours , Gypsy Heart Tour and Bangerz Tour .
= = Background = =
" Can 't Be Tamed " was co @-@ written by Miley , Antonina Armato , Tim James , Paul Neumann , and Marek Pompetzki and produced by Armato and James . According to Cyrus , the track 's moral is to free yourself from any biding or hindrance , in particular application to women . Cyrus said the song 's message applies to different situations . Personally to her , " it is about being a cage and people looking at you . " As for others , she believed it could describe high school , in a situation where " someone feeling they have to be one way to be with a clique and they want to be who they are . A relationship , or whatever , it is just breaking out and feeling free . " Hollywood Records described " Can 't Be Tamed " as " a self @-@ empowering song in which Miley asserts that she has to stay true to herself in relationships " .
At four meetings throughout Europe , Cyrus ' manager , Jason Morey , presented the album Can 't Be Tamed to representatives from Universal Music Group ; the representatives confirmed what Hollywood Records in the United States had already decided , that the track would be released as the lead single . " Can 't Be Tamed " premiered on April 30 , 2010 on Cyrus ' official MySpace page ; it was officially released for airplay on May 3 , 2010 and released as a digital download on May 18 , 2010 . In May 2010 , Cyrus recorded the Rockangeles remix version of " Can 't Be Tamed " with rapper Lil Jon at Rock Mafia Studios in Santa Monica , California . Lil Jon said the collaboration was " crazy " and thought audiences would enjoy the remix . Cyrus added , " He just came in and let it out . It 's pretty rockin . " They believed Lil Jon gave the remix more energy than the original version had .
= = Composition = =
" Can 't Be Tamed " is a length of two minutes and 48 seconds . The song has been described as " grown @-@ up club sound " . The song is set in compound time of 12 / 8 and has a fast tempo of 118 beats per minute . It is written in the key of B minor and Cyrus ' vocals span two octaves , from A3 to D5 . Cyrus belts her way through the choruses , while some lines in the verses feature processed vocals with the use of auto @-@ tune . It follows the chord progression B5 – D – A. Driven by a dark , pounding beat and the heavy use of synths , " Can 't Be Tamed " ' s instrumentation relies on drum machine .
Written solely in first person , " Can 't Be Tamed " explores the themes of freedom and self @-@ expression , approached by sultry lyrics . It puts emphasis to how she cannot be changed or molded into being something she is not . In the verses , Cyrus addresses confidence and the attempt to discover for what she is yearning for , respectively . Choruses have Cyrus shouting the title and variations of it in a repetitive manner , against the beat of the song . Monica Herrera of Billboard interpreted the lyrics " If there was a question about my intentions , I 'll tell ya / I 'm not here to sell ya " to be an official declaration of rebellion in order to dispose herself of tween role @-@ model responsibilities . Likewise , various other critics believed " Can 't Be Tamed " spoke of her completely drawing away from the image she had developed through Hannah Montana , which first aired in March 2006 .
= = Critical reception = =
Critics typically reviewed " Can 't Be Tamed " favorably . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly felt the song was " not bad business for stationary cardio , but not the stuff year @-@ end top tens are made of , either . " She said it didn 't offer " major sensations " and found it similar to Christina Aguilera ’ s " Not Myself Tonight " ( 2010 ) . Greenblatt was also disappointed with the song 's rhyming in the lines , " I 'm not here to sell ya ' / Or tell you to go to hell " . Sonya Sorich of Ledger @-@ Enquirer said that while she anticipated some negative reception , " Can 't Be Tamed " was also a prime candidate for a guilty pleasure dance track . " Heather Phares of Allmusic referred to " Can 't Be Tamed " as " stomping " and selected it as one of the album 's best . Fraser McAlpine of BBC said that though the song has strong sexual undercurrents , Cyrus maintained classy throughout the track . " If Miley 's gonna weather the Ensexification Moment it 'll be because she 's doing it during a period of extrema GaGa , when videos are less about acreage of flesh and more about feathers and Victorian scientists . Oh , and because she 's got the songs and the voice , that always helps " , McAlpine concluded .
Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone rated the song three out of five stars and compared it to the musical styles of Rihanna . He added , " It 's no ' Party in the U.S.A. ' or ' See You Again , ' but the chorus packs plenty of electro @-@ fizz pizzazz " . Bill Lamb of About.com rated " Can 't Be Tamed " two and half out of five stars . He criticized the song for lyrics that headed into a " selfish territory " , however , believing it would have airplay success . Monica Herrera of Billboard gave " Can 't Be Tamed " a favorable review , writing , " But Cyrus knows how to proffer her sass . When she sneers , ' I 'm not a fake , it 's in my DNA , ' in pre @-@ emptive retaliation against her critics , she does it with the professionalism of a Disney @-@ groomed star . " Jarett Wieselman of The New York Post said he liked the song and that though he did not buy Cyrus ' " Party in the U.S.A. " ( 2009 ) , he feared he would not " be able to resist " buying " Can 't Be Tamed " . He said the song had a " naughty old school Britney Spears " vibe , called it " totally catchy " and predicted it would be a summer hit . Ailbhe Malone of The Irish Times wrote , " Miley ’ s taken a sexy electro @-@ edge . Less " Party in the U.S.A. " , more Party With My Parents Away , we like this . A LOT . "
= = Commercial performance = =
On the week ending June 5 , 2010 , " Can 't Be Tamed " became the week 's " hot shot debut " by entering and peaking at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , selling 191 @,@ 000 digital downloads . The sales marked Cyrus ' second @-@ best debut sales week , following " Party in the U.S.A. " , which sold 226 @,@ 000 digital downloads in its first week in August 2009 . With the appearance on the chart , the song became her fourth top ten debut on the Billboard Hot 100 , including a song credited to her alias Hannah Montana . In the following week , the song descended ten positions to number 18 . It spent its last week on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending August 7 , 2010 , spending a total of ten weeks on the chart . " Can 't Be Tamed " also peaked at number 16 on Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) . The song peaked at number six on the Canadian Hot 100 and spent a total of 14 weeks upon the chart . It also sold over a million copies in the US and was certified platinum by the RIAA .
The song also achieved commercial success in Australia and New Zealand . " Can 't Be Tamed " debuted at number 18 on the Australian Singles Chart on the week ending June 6 , 2010 . After six weeks of ascending the Australian Singles Chart , the song found a new peak at number 17 . In the succeeding week , it reached its peak at number 14 and spent 11 weeks on the chart . The single was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipping over 35 @,@ 000 copies . On the week ending May 24 , 2010 , " Can 't Be Tamed " debuted and peaked at number five on the New Zealand Singles Chart . It spent nine weeks ascending and descending the New Zealand Singles Chart before completely dropping from the chart on the week ending July 19 , 2010 . In Japan , " Can 't Be Tamed " debuted at number 53 and peaked at number 12 . In the United Kingdom , " Can 't Be Tamed " debuted and peaked at number 13 on the week ending June 12 , 2010 . It spent eight weeks on the UK Singles Chart . The song peaked at number five on the Irish Singles Chart . In mainland Europe , " Can 't Be Tamed " maintained similar outcomes . It became Cyrus ' best @-@ charting single on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles , peaking at number 15 in July 2010 and surpassing " Party in the U.S.A. " , which peaked at number 17 in January 2010 . It peaked at number 15 on the French Singles Chart , number 15 on the Norwegian Singles Chart , and number 14 on the Spanish Singles Chart . It also charted within the top 30 in Austria and Germany and within the top 40 of Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The music video for " Can 't Be Tamed " ' was directed by Robert Hales . The dance routines were choreographed by Jamal Sims , who also choreographed Cyrus ' " Hoedown Throwdown " . Cyrus and Sims conceived the plot for the video together and proposed it to Hales , who " envisioned it the way [ they ] did " . In regards to the video 's theme , Cyrus explained , " I think the video explains my life but it doesn 't exclude other people 's lives . It 's not just about how fabulous and glamorous and all this . It 's about the core of ' I don 't wanna be in a cage . I want to be free and do what I love ' " . The video was meant to transition Cyrus away from the good @-@ girl image she had developed through Hannah Montana . However , she believed her fans would be able to identify with the video 's message through their own circumstances ; for example , she believed that her desire to " stand out [ rather ] than fit in " was shared by teenagers hoping to break out of high school cliques . In an interview with the singer , Ryan Seacrest noted the video 's strong sexual appeal . Cyrus agreed that the video was sexy , though it was not supposed to be the premise : " The video isn 't about being sexy or who can wear the less clothes [ ... ] It 's about explaining the song and living the lyrics . " The music video has been viewed over 100 million times on vevo .
= = = Development and synopsis = = =
The music video was shot on April 10 and April 11 , 2010 at Sony Studios in Culver City , California . Over twenty female and twenty male backup dancers were used . The video casts Cyrus as an exotic songbird breaking out of its cage , symbolizing Cyrus as a singer breaking out of her good @-@ girl image . Prior to the shoot , Cyrus meticulously recorded her ideas for the video on paper . For example , she chose her back @-@ up dancers make @-@ up pallets and contemplated their outfits ; while she did not want her dancer 's bodies " to look like normal bodies " , she also did not want for them to wear scales as , according to her , it would make them resemble to be fish and look scary . Hales wanted Cyrus to resemble a bird without " actually having a beak " or otherwise being overly explicit , so Cyrus ' stylists invented bird @-@ like accessories . Among these were arm bands with long leather straps , feathered shoulder pads , and a feathered vest worn over a black leotard and thigh @-@ high black leather boots . Cyrus said she had originally worn a " completely different " outfit , but wasn 't " feeling it " the morning of the shoot . " So we made this one right there in the morning , and we added pieces throughout the day ... more leather and more feathers . I think it 's really fun and kept changing the look , " she said . Cyrus ' make @-@ up artist , Denika Bedrossian , focused on the singer 's eyes ; he used " rich jewel @-@ toned shades " and eyelashes with feathered tips to give Cyrus a " deep peacock eye " . In cut @-@ scenes , Cyrus wears a corset made of 2 @,@ 400 silver metal pieces and numerous peacock feathers . It was designed by The Blonds , debuted during their fall 2010 fashion show , and cost $ 25 @,@ 000 .
The video commences with formally dressed spectators entering a museum as a curator introduces " a creature so rare it was believed to be extinct . In captivity for the first time , the rarest creature on Earth , Avis Cyrus . White curtains are pulled down to reveal Cyrus , dressed in a black leotard and expansive black CGI wings , asleep in a giant bird nest locked inside a giant cage . Cyrus rises and approaches the audience , but a camera flash startles her and causes her to shield her face with her wings . The music starts , and Cyrus unveils herself again and joins a large group of feathered dancers . As Cyrus sings , she and the dancers escape the cage and prowl the museum , shattering museum exhibits as they pass them . They perform provocative dances both inside the cage and in darkened museum halls . Cut @-@ scenes feature Cyrus lying down , dressed in a silver corset attached to a bed of peacock feathers , or writhing alone in her nest in the cage . The video ends with Cyrus back in her cage and the museum empty and trashed .
= = = Reception = = =
The video premiered on May 4 , 2010 on E ! News . The video received generally positive reviews from critics . It also received numerous comparisons to videos by Britney Spears and Lady Gaga , though Cyrus said she " wanted it to be something different for a female artist " . Cristina Gibson of E ! described the video as " edgy " , similar to Cyrus ' video for " Party in the U.S.A. " , but " on steroids " . Tina Warren of MTV News said the video was a good step toward ridding Cyrus of her good @-@ girl image and gave the video a positive review , calling it " intriguing " and stating , " The video [ ... ] is actually quite magnetic and you can ’ t look away " . Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly agreed . While he acknowledged the video " might be dark and a tad conceptually racy " , he claimed it was smart move . " She isn ’ t moving too fast , honestly [ ... ] it ’ s not like Miley is stripping or baring much skin " . Rather , Stransky said Cyrus had " some super @-@ fun dance moves " and " [ made ] a statement " , albeit a darker one . Chinese newspaper People 's Daily said the video featured " bold " costumes and " revealed Cyrus ' sexy side " . The website , Yahoo ! added the video to the list of " Worst Music Videos of 2010 " Daniel Rutledge of 3 News in New Zealand said Cyrus had made " it very clear she wishes to cast aside any resemblance to the Disney alter ego that made her famous and be regarded from now on as an adult singer . " Singaporean newspaper My Paper defended Cyrus against claims that the video was too provocative and reported , " If nothing else , this vid shows that Cyrus knows how to entertain , and marks the beginning of truly high @-@ quality videos . " Mary Elizabeth Williams of Salon.com offered a contrary opinion , stating that while Cyrus is a " talented singer [ who ] deserves to break out of her Disney mold " , the " Can 't Be Tamed " music video was poor . Williams said Cyrus has " talent galore " and " incredible pipes " , but her video was " predictable , derivative and dumb " due to its unoriginality . According to People magazine , online reaction to the music video has been greatly varied . " Fans and bloggers lit up the Web with comments ranging from ' stunning , gorgeous , fierce ' to ' wow way too much for someone her age ' " , the magazine reported . NME put the video at number 28 on their list of the " 50 Worst Music Videos Ever " .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus first performed " Can 't Be Tamed " live on May 18 , 2010 on Dancing With the Stars . Donning the black leotard and accessories used in the music video , Cyrus appeared in a human @-@ sized cage and then performed throughout the stage with many costumed backup dancers ; Cyrus ' dancing was minimal . Her first performance of the song outside the United States was at the Rock in Rio concert in Lisbon , Portugal on May 29 , 2010 . Cyrus appeared on June 1 , 2010 at the Paris , France nightclub 1515 Club and on June 3 , 2010 on Britain 's Got Talent 's semifinals to perform " Can 't Be Tamed " . On the latter , Cyrus wore hot pants , fishnets and boots as she performed . Midway through the performance , Cyrus grabbed a female backup dancer , dipping her low , and simulated a kiss . The performance was met with negative reactions from the media and caused her to release a statement in which Cyrus promised she did not kiss the backup dancer . Cyrus wrote , " It is ridiculous that two entertainers can ’ t even rock out with each other without the media making it some type of story . I really hope my fans are not disappointed in me because the truth is I did nothing wrong . I got up there and did my job which is to perform to the best of my ability . " Cyrus later performed the song at the Rock in Rio concert in Madrid , Spain and the London , England nightclubs Heaven and G @-@ A @-@ Y. She has performed the track on Good Morning America , Late Show with David Letterman , MuchMusic Video Awards , and concert at the House of Blues in Los Angeles , California , which was streamed across over thirty websites owned by MTV Networks .
Cyrus performed the song during the Gypsy Heart Tour . She also performed the song during her ongoing Bangerz Tour . She wore a black sequined bra and furry monochrome chaps with falconry gloves during the performance . She was also accompanied by an enormous replica of her dog , Floyd . The performance received positive reviews from critics .
= = Release history = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Tokyo Tower =
Tokyo Tower ( 東京タワー , Tōkyō tawā ) is a communications and observation tower located in the Shiba @-@ koen district of Minato , Tokyo , Japan . At 332 @.@ 9 metres ( 1 @,@ 092 ft ) , it is the second @-@ tallest structure in Japan . The structure is an Eiffel Tower @-@ inspired lattice tower that is painted white and international orange to comply with air safety regulations .
Built in 1958 , the tower 's main sources of revenue are tourism and antenna leasing . Over 150 million people have visited the tower since its opening . FootTown , a four @-@ story building located directly under the tower , houses museums , restaurants and shops . Departing from there , guests can visit two observation decks . The two @-@ story Main Observatory is located at 150 metres ( 490 ft ) , while the smaller Special Observatory reaches a height of 249 @.@ 6 metres ( 819 ft ) .
The tower acts as a support structure for an antenna . Originally intended for television broadcasting , radio antennas were installed in 1961 , but the tower is now used to broadcast signals for Japanese media outlets such as NHK , TBS and Fuji TV . Japan 's planned digital television transition by July 2011 was problematic , however ; Tokyo Tower 's height , 332 @.@ 9 m ( 1 @,@ 092 ft ) was not high enough to adequately support complete terrestrial digital broadcasting to the area . A taller digital broadcasting tower , known as Tokyo Skytree , was completed on February 29 , 2012 .
= = Construction = =
A large broadcasting tower was needed in the Kantō region after NHK , Japan 's public broadcasting station , began television broadcasting in 1953 . Private broadcasting companies began operating in the months following the construction of NHK 's own transmission tower . This communications boom led the Japanese government to believe that transmission towers would soon be built all over Tokyo , eventually overrunning the city . The proposed solution was the construction of one large tower capable of transmitting to the entire region . Furthermore , because of the country 's postwar boom in the 1950s , Japan was searching for a monument to symbolize its ascendancy as a global economic powerhouse .
Hisakichi Maeda , founder and president of Nippon Denpatō , the tower 's owner and operator , originally planned for the tower to be taller than the Empire State Building , which at 381 meters was the highest structure in the world . However , the plan fell through because of the lack of both funds and materials . The tower 's height was eventually determined by the distance the TV stations needed to transmit throughout the Kantō region , a distance of about 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) . Tachū Naitō , renowned designer of tall buildings in Japan , was chosen to design the newly proposed tower . Looking to the Western world for inspiration , Naitō based his design on the Eiffel Tower in Paris , France . With the help of engineering company Nikken Sekkei Ltd . , Naitō claimed his design could withstand earthquakes with twice the intensity of the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake or typhoons with wind speeds of up to 220 kilometres per hour ( 140 mph ) .
The new construction project attracted hundreds of tobi ( 鳶 ) , traditional Japanese construction workers who specialized in the construction of high @-@ rise structures . The Takenaka Corporation broke ground in June 1957 and each day at least 400 laborers worked on the tower . It was constructed of steel , a third of which was scrap metal taken from US tanks damaged in the Korean War . When the 90 @-@ metre antenna was bolted into place on October 14 , 1958 , Tokyo Tower was the tallest freestanding tower in the world , taking the title from the Eiffel Tower by 13 metres . Despite being taller than the Eiffel Tower , Tokyo Tower only weighs about 4 @,@ 000 tons , 3 @,@ 300 tons less than the Eiffel Tower . While other towers have since surpassed Tokyo Tower 's height , the structure was still the tallest artificial structure in Japan until April 2010 , when the new Tokyo Skytree became the tallest building of Japan . It was opened to the public on December 23 , 1958 at a final cost of ¥ 2 @.@ 8 billion ( $ 8 @.@ 4 million in 1958 ) . Tokyo Tower was mortgaged for ¥ 10 billion in 2000 .
Planned as an antenna for telecommunications and brightly colored in accordance with the time 's Aviation Law , the tower 's two panoramic observatories are mostly frequented by tourists today ; the tower constitutes a clear reference point in the center 's chaotic skyline , forming a strong landmark , both night and day .
= = Maintenance = =
Every 5 years the tower is repainted in a process that takes about 12 months .
= = Functions = =
Tokyo Tower 's two main revenue sources are antenna leasing and tourism . It functions as a radio and television broadcasting antenna support structure and is a tourist destination that houses several different attractions . Over 150 million people have visited the tower in total since its opening in late 1958 . Tower attendance had been steadily declining until it bottomed out at 2 @.@ 3 million in 2000 . Since then , attendance has been rising , and it has recently been attracting approximately 3 million visitors per year . The first area tourists must visit upon reaching the tower is FootTown , a four @-@ story building stationed directly under the tower . Here , visitors can eat , shop and visit several museums and galleries . Elevators that depart from the first floor of FootTown can be used to reach the first of two observation decks , the two @-@ story Main Observatory . For the price of another ticket , visitors can board another set of elevators from the second floor of the Main Observatory to reach the final observation deck — the Special Observatory .
= = = Broadcasting = = =
Tokyo Tower , a member of the World Federation of Great Towers , is utilized by many organizations for various broadcasting purposes . The structure was originally intended for broadcasting television , but radio antennas were installed in 1961 because it could accommodate them . The tower now broadcasts analog television , digital television , radio and digital radio . Stations that use the tower 's antenna include :
NHK General TV Tokyo ( JOAK @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 1 ( Analog )
NHK Educational TV Tokyo ( JOAB @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 2 ( Analog )
NHK Radio FM Tokyo ( JOAK @-@ FM ) : 82 @.@ 5 @-@ MHz
NHK Radio 1 AM Tokyo ( JOAK @-@ AM ) : 594 @-@ KHz
NHK Radio 2 AM Tokyo ( JOAB @-@ AM ) : 693 @-@ KHz
TV Asahi Tokyo ( JOEX @-@ TV ) : TV Asahi Analog Television / VHF Channel 10 ( Analog )
Fuji Television Tokyo ( JOCX @-@ TV ) : Fuji Television Analog / VHF Channel 8 ( Analog )
Tokyo Broadcasting System Television ( JORX @-@ TV ) : TBS Television / VHF Channel 6 ( Analog )
Nippon Television Tokyo ( JOAX @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 4 ( Analog )
TV Tokyo ( JOTX @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 12 ( Analog )
J @-@ WAVE ( JOAV @-@ FM ) : 81 @.@ 3 @-@ MHz
Tokyo FM ( JOAU @-@ FM ) : 80 @.@ 0 @-@ MHz
FM Interwave ( JODW @-@ FM ) : 76 @.@ 1 @-@ MHz
The University of the Air TV ( JOUD @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 16 ( Analog )
The University of the Air @-@ FM ( JOUD @-@ FM ) : 77 @.@ 1 @-@ MHz
Tokyo Metropolitan Television ( JOMX @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 14 ( Analog )
Nikkei Radio Broadcasting Relay Antenna ( JOZ @-@ SW ) : 3 @.@ 925 @-@ MHz
Japan currently employs both analog and digital broadcasting , but by July 2011 all television broadcasting is to be digital . Tokyo Tower is not a reliable broadcasting antenna for completely digital broadcasting because the tower is not tall enough to transmit the higher frequency waves needed to areas surrounded by forests or high @-@ rise buildings . As an alternative , a new 634 @-@ metre @-@ tall ( 2 @,@ 080 ft ) tower called the Tokyo Skytree was opened in 2012 . To make Tokyo Tower more appealing to NHK and five other commercial broadcasters who plan to move their transmitting stations to the new tower , Nihon Denpatō officials drafted a plan to extend its digital broadcasting antenna by 80 to 100 metres at a cost of approximately ¥ 4 billion ( US $ 50 million ) . Because these plans have not been realized , Tokyo Tower is expected to stop transmitting digital TV radio waves with the exception of Open University of Japan , who will continue to broadcast through the tower . FM radio stations will also continue to utilize the tower for broadcasting in the Tokyo area . Masahiro Kawada , the tower 's planning director , also pointed out the possibility of the tower becoming a backup for the Tokyo Skytree , depending on what the TV broadcasters want or need .
The tip of the antenna was damaged on March 11 , 2011 as a result of the Tōhoku earthquake . On July 19 , 2012 , the Tokyo Tower 's height shrank to 315 meters while the top antenna was repaired for damage sustained during the earthquake .
= = = Attractions = = =
= = = = FootTown = = = =
Located in the base of the tower is a 4 @-@ story building known as FootTown . The first floor includes the Aquarium Gallery , a reception hall , the 400 @-@ person @-@ capacity " Tower Restaurant " , a FamilyMart convenience store and a souvenir shop . This floor 's main attractions , however , are the three elevators that serve as a direct ride to the Main Observatory . The second floor is primarily a food and shopping area . In addition to the five standalone restaurants , the second floor 's food court consists of four restaurants , including a McDonald 's and a Pizza @-@ La .
FootTown 's third and fourth floors house several tourist attractions . The third floor is home to the Guinness World Records Museum Tokyo , a museum that houses life @-@ size figures , photo panels and memorabilia depicting interesting records that have been authenticated by the Guinness Book . The Tokyo Tower Wax Museum , opened in 1970 , displays wax figures imported from London where they were made . The figures on display range from pop culture icons such as The Beatles to religious figures such as Jesus Christ . A hologram gallery named the Gallery DeLux , a lounge and a few specialty stores are also located on this floor . Tokyo Tower 's Trick Art Gallery is located on the building 's fourth and final floor . This gallery displays optical illusions , including paintings and objects that visitors can interact with .
On the roof of the FootTown building is a small amusement park that contains several small rides and hosts live performances for children . On weekends and holidays , visitors can use the roof to access the tower 's outside stairwell . At approximately 660 steps , the stairwell is an alternative to the tower 's elevators and leads directly to the Main Observatory .
= = Appearance = =
Tokyo Tower requires a total of 28 @,@ 000 litres ( 7 @,@ 400 US gal ) of paint to completely paint the structure white and international orange , complying with air safety regulations . Before the tower 's 30th anniversary in 1987 , the only lighting on the tower were light bulbs located on the corner contours that extended from the base to the antenna . In the spring of 1987 , Nihon Denpatō invited lighting designer Motoko Ishii to visit the tower . Since its opening 30 years earlier , the tower 's annual ticket sales had dropped significantly , and in a bid to revitalize the tower and again establish it as an important tourist attraction and symbol of Tokyo , Ishii was hired to redesign Tokyo Tower 's lighting arrangement .
Unveiled in 1989 , the new lighting arrangement required the removal of the contour @-@ outlining light bulbs and the installation of 176 floodlights in and around the tower 's frame . From dusk to midnight , the floodlights illuminate the entire tower . Sodium vapor lamps are used from October 2 to July 6 to cover the tower in an orange color . From July 7 to October 1 , the lights are changed to metal halide lamps to illuminate the tower with a white color . The reasoning behind the change is a seasonal one . Ishii reasoned that orange is a warmer color and helps to offset the cold winter months . Conversely , white is thought a cool color that helps during the hot summer months .
Occasionally , Tokyo Tower 's lighting is changed to specific , unique arrangements for special events . The tower is specially lit for some annual events . Since 2000 , the entire tower has been illuminated in a pink light on October 1 to highlight the beginning of National Breast Cancer Awareness Month . The tower has also had a variety of special lighting arrangements for Christmas since 1994 . During New Year 's Eve , the tower lights up at midnight with a year number displayed on one side of the observatory to mark the arrival of the new year . Special Japanese events have also been cause to light the tower in several nontraditional ways . In 2002 , alternating sections of the tower were lit blue to help celebrate the opening of the FIFA World Cup in Japan . Alternating sections of the tower were lit green on Saint Patrick 's Day in 2007 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Japanese @-@ Irish relations . On a few occasions , Tokyo Tower has even been specially lit to correspond with corporate events . For example , the top half of the tower was lit green to correspond with the Japanese premiere of The Matrix Reloaded and different sections of the tower were lit red , white and black to commemorate the first day of sales of Coca @-@ Cola C2 . The tower was also uniquely lit for the new millennium in 2000 with Motoko Ishii again reprising her role as the designer . In December 2008 , Nihon Denpatō spent $ 6 @.@ 5 million to create a new nighttime illumination scheme — titled the " Diamond Veil " — to celebrate the tower 's 50th anniversary . The arrangement featured 276 lights in seven colors equally distributed across the towers four faces .
When employing specialty lighting on the tower , the Main Observatory often plays an important role . During the second international " White Band Day " on September 10 , 2005 , the tower was completely unlit except for the Main Observatory , which was lit with a bright white light . The resulting white ring represented the White Band referenced in the day 's name . The two floors of windows that make up the exterior of the Main Observatory are utilized to display words or numbers . When the tower employed unique lighting to commemorate terrestrial digital broadcasting first being available in the Kantō region on December 1 , 2005 , each side of the Main Observatory displayed the characters 地デジ ( chi deji , an abbreviation for 地上デジタル放送 chijō dejitaru hōsō terrestrial digital broadcasting ) . More recently , the observatory displayed both " TOKYO " and " 2016 " to stress Tokyo 's 2016 Olympic bid . Primitive images , such as hearts , have also been displayed using the observatory 's windows .
= = Mascots = =
The Tokyo Tower has two mascots named Noppon . They are two brothers : Older Brother , who wears blue dungarees , and Younger Brother , who wears red dungarees . They were " born " on December 23 , 1998 to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the Tokyo Tower .
= = In popular culture = =
Just as the Eiffel Tower is often used in popular culture to immediately locate a scene in Paris , France , the Tokyo Tower is often used in the same way for Tokyo . It is used in anime and manga such as Tokyo Magnitude 8 @.@ 0 , Magic Knight Rayearth , Please Save My Earth , Cardcaptor Sakura , Digimon , Detective Conan , Sailor Moon , and Death Note . The tower is also frequently used in the Japanese kaiju ( giant monster ) film genre . It has been the location of the climactic battles between Godzilla , Mothra and King Kong ( King Kong Escapes ) wherein it is frequently destroyed and rebuilt . Based on the popular manga series by Ryōhei Saigan , the 2005 film Always Sanchōme no Yūhi was a nostalgic view of life in the neighbourhoods under the construction of the Tokyo Tower .
The Japanese culture and lifestyle television show Begin Japanology aired on NHK World , featuring a full episode on Tokyo Tower in 2008 .
= Camping ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" Camping " is the eighth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 38th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 24 , 2011 . In the episode , the parks department goes on a camping trip to think of a way to follow up on the harvest festival , but Leslie struggles to come up with an idea . Meanwhile , Chris returns to Pawnee as the new city manager , as Ann continues trying to cope with their recent break @-@ up .
The episode was written by Aisha Muharrar and directed by Rob Schrab . It marked the reappearance of Rob Lowe , who was originally expected to depart the show after the episode " Indianapolis " after a recurring guest role , but instead joined the regular cast . " Camping " featured guest appearances by Phil Reeves as outgoing city manager Paul and Annie O 'Donnell as the owner of a bed and breakfast .
Prior to the episode 's broadcast , Rashida Jones said she liked the new storylines that had developed for Ann Perkins ' character , preferring that she remain single than simply get back together with Chris . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Camping " was seen by 5 @.@ 15 million household viewers , a 39 percent increase from the previous episode , " Harvest Festival " . The episode received generally positive reviews , with several commentators praising Jones ' performance and the new direction her character was taking .
= = Plot = =
During a press conference about the success of the recent Pawnee harvest festival , city manager Paul ( Phil Reeves ) suffers a massive heart attack . Chris ( Rob Lowe ) accepts an offer to work as acting city manager while Paul recovers from bypass surgery . Chris requests of Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) more large @-@ scale ideas to generate revenue , placing pressure on her to follow up the harvest festival , so she organizes a camping trip for the parks department to discuss ideas . Ann ( Rashida Jones ) feels awkward now that Chris is back ; the two previously dated , but Chris broke up with Ann in such a friendly manner that she did not initially realize it was a break @-@ up . Leslie invites Ann to the camping trip to help her feel better .
Nobody except Leslie really cares about the trip : Ron ( Nick Offerman ) just wants to fish , Ben ( Adam Scott ) failed to bring a tent , and Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) just wants to relax in his huge tent filled with luxury electronic items . Tom expresses confusion as to why Ben , a state auditor who had been helping with Pawnee 's financial problems , has not returned to his old job at Indianapolis ; Ben does not explain his reasons , but it is hinted he harbors romantic feelings for Leslie . Meanwhile , Andy ( Chris Pratt ) sets up a romantic tent for April ( Aubrey Plaza ) in the wrong campsite miles away , forcing him to trek through the wilderness to find everyone and leaving April miserable on the campsite without Andy . During brainstorming sessions , nobody produces any good ideas because they assume Leslie will think of one . However , she worriedly confides to Ann and Ben she cannot think of anything on the same level of the harvest festival .
Chris pays a visit during his nightly jog , and Ann leaves with him so they can clear the air . Over dinner , Chris once again acts so optimistic while discussing the break @-@ up that Ann thinks their relationship is back on and tries to kiss him , severely embarrassing her . Meanwhile , the camping trip proves unsuccessful and everybody decides to go home that night , but they are left without transportation because Tom and Ben have hooked all of their electronics to the van 's battery , draining it . Everybody hikes to a strange bed and breakfast filled with cats and dolls called The Quiet Corn , run by a strict old lady named Elsa Clack ( Annie O 'Donnell ) . Andy arrives and rebuilds the romantic tent in the yard for a flattered April . Leslie tells Ron about her mental block , worrying she will never again reproduce an idea better than harvest festival . Ron , recognizing how burnt out she is , solves Leslie 's problem by locking her in a bedroom and ordering her to get some sleep . With a rare full night 's sleep energizing her , Leslie wakes up with numerous big ideas that are well received by Chris .
= = Production = =
" Camping " was written by Aisha Muharrar and directed by Rob Schrab . It featured a guest appearance by Phil Reeves , who has played Pawnee township manager Paul Iaresco in several episodes dating back to the first season episode " Canvassing " . Paul 's departure from that position is used as a means to reintroduce Rob Lowe 's character , Chris Traeger . Lowe was originally expected to be a guest star departing from the show after the episode " Indianapolis " . However , after his original string of episodes were filmed , Lowe was signed as a permanent Parks and Recreation cast member , prompting the writers to find a way to reintroduce the character to the series . " Camping " also featured a guest appearance by New York @-@ based actress Annie O 'Donnell as Elsa Clack , owner of The Quiet Corn .
Prior to the episode 's broadcast , Rashida Jones said she liked the new storylines that had developed for Ann Perkins ' character , preferring that she remain single than simply get back together with Chris : " It was pretty embarrassing what Ann went through , so I think she kind of has to recover from that before anything else . And this is a good time for Ann to be single too , because she hasn 't been single ever on the show . I think she needs to do that a little bit . " Shortly after " Camping " first aired , a fake website for the bed and breakfast business The Quiet Corn was put up on the official NBC website , advertising the fictional establishment 's features , room amenities and meal services . During one scene in " Camping " , Tom refers to one of the gadgets in his tent as DJ Roomba , an iPod music player attached to an autonomous robotic vacuum cleaner . The gadget , built by Tom , was previously featured in the second season episode " Sweetums " .
= = Cultural references = =
Tom fills his tent with electronics and other extravagant items from Sky Mall , a chain of luxury item retail stores . He nicknames the tent " The Thunderdome " , named after the gladiator arena in the action film Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome ( 1985 ) . While watching TV inside his tent , Tom claims to be recording the Food Network show Cupcake Wars , the CBS police procedural drama NCIS : Los Angeles and the sixth season of the Bravo reality series Top Chef . Later , while pitching his idea for a Pawnee amphitheatre , Tom expresses hope it would entice performances from such rappers as Lil Wayne , Drake and Jay @-@ Z.
While searching for inspiration for an idea , Leslie reads from her dream journal and recalls a dream where she happily married ALF , the alien protagonist of a science fiction sitcom of the same name . Later , Leslie listens to the Len song " Steal My Sunshine " , which she calls a one @-@ hit wonder and compares to her own lack of ability to come up with a second idea . Ben cheers Leslie up and compliments her work ethic by calling her the " Energizer Bunny of city government . " During a later scene , Tom mockingly calls Ben the " white Urkel " , a reference to the archetype nerd character Steve Urkel from the comedy series Family Matters . Donna can be seen reading a book called Your Erogenous Zones .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Camping " was seen by an estimated 5 @.@ 15 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 5 share among all viewers and a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 7 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . It constituted a 39 percent increase from the previous episode , " Harvest Festival " , which was seen by 4 @.@ 08 million household viewers , a low for the season . Parks and Recreation was defeated in its 9 : 30 p.m. timeslot by the ABC medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , which was seen by an average 10 @.@ 1 million households ; the Fox crime drama Bones , which was seen by 8 @.@ 78 million households ; and CBS coverage of NCAA basketball , which was seen by 6 @.@ 82 million household . In network television , it beat only a repeat of the CW Network drama Nikita , which drew 1 @.@ 397 million households .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Camping " received generally positive reviews , with several commentators praising the performance of Rashida Jones and the new comedic direction her character was taking . Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com praised how the script featured the entire ensemble cast together , rather than in separate subplots like recent episodes . He also enjoyed the developments with Ann 's character , claiming it gave Jones more opportunities to shine than past episodes . Entertainment Weekly writer Hillary Busis said she particularly enjoyed the jokes involving Jerry 's character , and said she enjoyed that Ann once again misinterpreted Chris , although she said the joke was predictable . Zap2it writer Rick Porter said the episode was not as funny as the previous episode , " Harvest Festival " , but said " if this is what qualifies as a ( slightly ) down episode for the show , then that 's the sign of a comedy that 's hitting for a very high average " . He particularly praised the " fantastic dynamic " that has developed between Rashida Jones and Rob Lowe . TV Squad writer Joel Keller said the camping trip was a good way to avoid making the show feel stale following " Harvest Festival " , and that the outdoors setting created strong potential for character @-@ driven jokes by putting them out of their elements .
Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club praised the episode for highlighting each of its characters , all of whom he said were at their best except for April , who he said seemed out of place in the camping storyline . He also said he was glad Ann 's recent breakup with Chris " has allowed her true colors to shine through " . Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic called it a " tremendously enjoyable episode " and " mostly just a chance to sit back and spend time with these goofy , lovable individuals " . He praised the new storyline for Ann Perkins , claiming it created more comedic potential for Jones . Matt Fowler of IGN praised the performance of Rashida Jones and Chris Pratt , and called Leslie 's stress over failing to come up with a new idea a " great little story " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said " Camping " was not as funny as previous third season episodes but was still an enjoyable episode that he found more " slow and contemplative " , which he found indicative of the fact that the series was still on a strong track .
Steve Kandell of New York magazine compared it to the second season episode " Hunting Trip " , but said " Camping " was " somewhat more of a placeholder " . Kandell compared the characters ' pressure to meet the city 's expectations to those the show faces now that they have been renewed for a fourth season . ChicagoNow writer Andy Daglas called it " a fun episode , but also one that felt like sort of a pause , a chance to reset the pins " . He compared the pressure on Leslie to come up with an idea on the harvest festival to pressure on the show 's writing staff to follow up on the harvest festival story arc . The Atlantic writer Scott Meslow called it funny and charming , but also a low point in the season following seven excellent episodes . He said it depended too much on the show 's romantic relationships , which he feels are growing stale , although he praised Rashida Jones 's performance and the focus on the strong platonic relationship between Leslie and Ron .
= Tiffany Doggett =
Tiffany " Pennsatucky " Doggett is a fictional character in the Netflix series Orange Is the New Black , portrayed by Taryn Manning . Manning was offered the role without needing to audition . The character of Doggett is based on a real life prisoner ; a " young woman from western Pennsylvania who proudly called herself a redneck " . She is originally from Waynesboro , Virginia . Prior to her imprisonment , she is shown to be exchanging sexual favours for soda or money . Doggett is also known to have had five abortions . She is charged with shooting an abortion doctor and decides to hire a Christian lawyer ; this leads to Doggett becoming a born @-@ again Christian .
Doggett makes her first appearance in the fifth episode of the first season and is initially an antagonist . In her debut episode , she unsuccessfully attempts to hang up a cross in the prison chapel and expresses homophobic views . She has conflict with Alex Vause and Piper Chapman throughout the first season . In the second season , Doggett 's storyline revolves around her friendships with Sam Healy and Carrie " Big Boo " Black . This friendship with Big Boo continues into the third season . Big Boo comforts Doggett when she is feeling remorse for her abortions and when she is raped by a correctional officer . The character of Doggett has received mixed reviews from critics , though Manning 's performance has received positive feedback .
= = Creation and casting = =
Tiffany Doggett 's nickname " Pennsatucky " is derived from Pennsyltucky ; a pejorative term for the people from the rural western and central parts of Pennsylvania . The author , Piper Kerman , of the book , Orange Is the New Black : My Year in a Women 's Prison , which inspired Orange is the New Black describes the real life version of Pennsatucky as " a young woman from western Pennsylvania who proudly called herself a redneck " . Kerman further describes her as someone addicted to crack cocaine and dealing with the loss of custody of her child .
Taryn Manning , already an established actress , did not have to audition for the role of Doggett and was offered it . Manning , when speaking about this to Joshua Rotter of Download.com , said that she immediately accepted the offer " I loved it and didn 't need to look any further . I was sold . " To prepare for the role , Manning did some research on faith healing and evangelistic ceremonies . She also states that her inspiration for Doggett at least partly comes from the White family in the 2009 documentary film The Wild and Wonderful Whites of West Virginia . The only make @-@ up that Manning wears for her role as Doggett , in the first season , is on her teeth to create the effect of receding gums and missing teeth . From the second season onwards , however , Doggett has false teeth in place and so the teeth seen are Manning 's own .
= = Fictional background = =
Doggett is from Waynesboro , Virginia . After Doggett has her first period , her mother gives her advice about sex : " go on and let them [ referring to men ] do their business . " This leads to her , later in life , to have sex with men in exchange for soda or money . Her perspective of sex changes when she meets Nathan . Jonathon Dornbush , of Entertainment Weekly writes " [ Nathan ] wants them both to enjoy the experience [ of sex ] , and it opens Tiffany 's perception of relationships . " Nathan and his family move away , causing their relationship to end , and , almost immediately afterwards , Doggett is raped by an ex @-@ boyfriend .
Doggett has had five abortions . After having her fifth abortion , which takes place at an abortion clinic in Fishersville , Virginia , the nurse remarks " we should give you a punch card , get the sixth one free . " Doggett is so offended by this joke that she shoots the nurse with a shotgun . She agrees to have a Christian lawyer as it was likely to lead to a lighter sentence and her legal bills being paid for . Since she shot an abortion nurse , she became a ' hero ' of the pro @-@ life movement . Although her Christian faith was initially fake , at some point Doggett did become a Christian ; this was confirmed by Manning in an interview . Manning describes Doggett 's faith as " a hybrid of Christianity , Baptism , Presbyterian " .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
Doggett first appears in the fifth episode . She wishes to hang up a cross in Litchfield Penitentiary 's chapel but is refused permission . She ignores this and hangs her cross up on a light fixture ; this causes the entire fixture to fall down and hence damages the chapel 's ceiling . She also displays transphobia ; calling the transgender woman Sophia Burset ( played by Laverne Cox ) an ' abomination ' and ' it ' and blaming her for the damage to the chapel . Doggett has numerous clashes with Alex Vause ( played by Laura Prepon ) ; firstly Vause threatens to rape Doggett after growing tired of her complaining about Piper Chapman ( played by Taylor Schilling ) ; Doggett locks Vause in a dryer while she is helping Chapman to fix it and , lastly , Doggett snitches on Chapman and Vause for dancing provocatively with each other ; resulting in Chapman being placed in solitary confinement .
Chapman and Vause get revenge on Doggett and trick her into believing that she has faith healing powers , eventually culminating in her being sent to the psychiatric ward . Although Chapman aids in Doggett 's release from the psychiatric ward , Doggett still bears a grudge against her . Doggett 's lawyer encourages her to evangelize to Chapman instead and this leads to Chapman ' converting ' but then refusing to be baptized . Doggett sees this as disrespectful and expresses a wish to kill Chapman . The two have a confrontation at the end of the season 's final episode . Doggett attacks Chapman with a shiv made from a wooden cross ; Chapman throws Doggett to the ground and hits her repeatedly .
= = = Season 2 = = =
It is revealed in the third episode that Suzanne Warren ( played by Uzo Aduba ) is also involved in the fight at the end of season one . She punches Chapman in the face twice and knocks her unconscious ( Doggett is already unconscious at this stage ) . This gives the impression that Doggett and Chapman were evenly matched and therefore equally responsible . Following Doggett 's return to full health , she finds that her previous best friends , Leanne Taylor ( played by Emma Myles ) and Angie Rice ( played by Julie Lake ) , no longer want to be associated with her . This leaves Doggett seeking prison counsellor Sam Healy ( played by Michael J. Harney ) for comfort .
Following her friendships with Taylor and Rice continuing to deteriorate , Doggett forms friendships with Healy and Carrie " Big Boo " Black ( played by Lea DeLaria ) . He | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
on the website of The National Archives .
= USS Philadelphia ( 1776 ) =
Philadelphia is a gunboat ( referred to in contemporary documents as a gundalow or gondola ) of the Continental Navy . Manned by Continental Army soldiers , she was part of a fleet under the command of General Benedict Arnold that fought the 11 October 1776 Battle of Valcour Island against a larger Royal Navy fleet on Lake Champlain . Although many of the American boats in the battle were damaged in the battle , Philadelphia was one of the few actually sunk that day . On the days following the main battle , most of the other boats in the American fleet were sunk , burned , or captured . She is one of a few such vessels used during the American Revolutionary War to be raised .
In 1935 , amateur military marine archaeologist Lorenzo Hagglund located her remains standing upright at the bottom of Lake Champlain , and had her raised . Bequeathed to the Smithsonian Institution in 1961 , Philadelphia and associated artifacts are part of the permanent collection of the National Museum of American History , in Washington , D.C. , where curator Philip K. Lundeberg was responsible for arranging her initial display . The vessel is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a National Historic Landmark .
= = Background = =
The American Revolutionary War , which began in April 1775 with the Battles of Lexington and Concord , widened in September 1775 when the Continental Army embarked on an invasion of the British Province of Quebec . The province was viewed by the Second Continental Congress as a potential avenue for British forces to attack and divide the rebellious colonies , and was at the time lightly defended . The invasion reached a peak on December 31 , 1775 , when the Battle of Quebec ended in disaster for the Americans . In the spring of 1776 , 10 @,@ 000 British and German troops arrived in Quebec , and General Guy Carleton , the provincial governor , drove the Continental Army out of Quebec and back to Fort Ticonderoga .
Carleton then launched his own offensive intended to reach the Hudson River , whose navigable length begins south of Lake Champlain and extends down to New York City . Control of the upper Hudson would enable the British to link their forces in Quebec with those in New York , recently captured in the New York campaign by Major General William Howe . This strategy would separate the American colonies of New England from those farther south and potentially quash the rebellion .
The only ships on the lake following the American retreat from Quebec were those of a small fleet of lightly armed ships that Benedict Arnold had assembled following the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775 . This fleet , even if it had been in British hands , was too small to transport the large British army to Fort Ticonderoga .
= = Fleet development = =
During their retreat from Quebec , the Americans carefully took or destroyed all ships on Lake Champlain that might prove useful to the British . When Arnold and his troops , making up the rear guard of the army , abandoned Fort Saint @-@ Jean , they burned or sank all the boats they could not use , and set fire to the sawmill and the fort . These actions effectively denied the British any hope of immediately moving onto the lake .
The two sides set about building fleets : the British at Saint @-@ Jean and the Americans at the other end of the lake in Skenesborough ( present @-@ day Whitehall , New York ) . While planning Quebec 's defenses in 1775 , General Carleton had anticipated the problem of transportation on Lake Champlain , and had requested the provisioning of prefabricated ships from Europe . Because of this planning , the British were able to assemble a fleet that significantly overpowered that of the Americans . In total , the British fleet ( 25 armed vessels ) had more firepower than the Americans ' 15 vessels , with more than 80 guns outweighing the 74 smaller American guns .
The American shipbuilding effort at Skenesborough was overseen by Hermanus Schuyler ( possibly a relation of Major General Philip Schuyler ) , and the outfitting was managed by military engineer Jeduthan Baldwin . Schuyler began work in April to produce boats larger and more suitable for combat than the small shallow @-@ draft boats known as bateaux that were used for transport on the lake . The process eventually came to involve General Benedict Arnold , who was an experienced ship 's captain , and David Waterbury , a Connecticut militia leader with maritime experience . Major General Horatio Gates , in charge of the overall defense of the lake , eventually asked Arnold to take more responsibility in the shipbuilding effort , because " I am intirely uninform 'd as to Marine Affairs . "
= = Construction of Philadelphia = =
Philadelphia was one of eight gundalows ( also called gondolas in contemporary documents ) constructed at Skenesboro . She was laid down early in July 1776 and launched in mid @-@ August . Constructed primarily of oak , she was larger than a bateaux at 53 ft 2 in ( 16 @.@ 21 m ) long with a beam of 15 ft 2 in ( 4 @.@ 62 m ) . She featured a single 36 @-@ foot ( 10 @.@ 97 m ) mast with square @-@ rigged sail and topsail , and mounted three cannons , one 12 @-@ pounder ( 5 @.@ 4 kg ) facing forward and two 9 pounders ( 4 @.@ 1 kg ) facing port and starboard respectively . She also had mounting points for up to eight swivel guns , and was estimated by the Smithsonian to displace 29 long tons ( 32 @.@ 5 short tons ; 29 @.@ 5 t ) . Late in her construction General Arnold ordered that her aft deck be raised in order to accommodate a mortar . This modification was apparently undone after the mortar exploded during test firing at Fort Ticonderoga . In order to maintain equilibrium , ballast rocks were probably used in the aft portion of the boat once the mortar was removed . For the relative comfort of its crew , the boat had a canvas awning aft of the mast and fascines were probably lashed to its sides to diffuse musket fire aimed at the boat .
= = Service history = =
Philadelphia was placed in service under a Captain Rice shortly after she was completed . Late in August General Arnold assembled his fleet and cruised provocatively on the northern stretches of Lake Champlain . On September 23 , in anticipation of the larger British fleet 's arrival , he stationed his ships in Valcour Bay , the strait separating the western shore of the lake from Valcour Island . When the two forces clashed on October 11 , Philadelphia was under the command of Benjamin Rue , and was part of the formation Arnold established in the Valcour strait . Early in the six @-@ hour fight the 12 @-@ gun schooner USS Royal Savage ran aground and was burned . Toward dusk the British guns holed Philadelphia with a 24 @-@ pound ( 10 @.@ 9 kg ) shot and she soon sank . Darkness ended the action , and Arnold was able to slip away during the night . Many of his remaining ships were burned , sunk , or captured over the next two days as the British pursued him toward Ticonderoga .
In sea trials of the replica Philadelphia II , the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum determined that the boat was not particularly maneuverable : contemporary accounts of sailing the vessels include reports that the gondolas skipped across the waters of the lake , blown by the wind , and needed safe shelter when winds were high .
= = Raising the wreck = =
In the 1930s , Lorenzo Hagglund , a veteran of World War I and a history buff , began searching the strait for remains of the battle . In 1932 he found the remains of Royal Savage 's hull , which he successfully raised in 1934 . Hagglund followed up his discovery of Royal Savage with the discovery of Philadelphia 's remains in 1935 , sitting upright on the lake bottom . He raised her that year ; in addition to the guns and hull , hundreds of other items were recovered from the vessel . These relics included shot , cooking utensils , tools , buttons , buckles and human bones .
Philadelphia was exhibited at various locations on Lake Champlain and the Hudson River before becoming a long @-@ term display at Exeter , New York . Lorenzo Hagglund spent years searching for other ships in Arnold 's fleet , and raised another gunboat in 1952 . Funding for a structure to house that find and the Royal Savage fell through , and that boat 's remains were eventually ruined through neglect and looting .
In the wake of that failure Hagglund approached the Smithsonian Institution to preserve Philadelphia , and in 1961 , bequeathed her and associated artifacts to that organization . According to the Whitehall Times , the remains had suffered more damage during their time above water than below . The boat and artifacts are now part of the permanent collection of the National Museum of American History , in Washington , D.C. She is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is designated a National Historic Landmark . She remains in precarious condition : as of 2001 the wood and iron fittings continued to show signs of deterioration despite attempts to stabilize them .
In 1997 , another pristine underwater wreck was located during a survey by the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum . Two years later it was conclusively identified as the gundalow Spitfire .
= Mundo Perdido , Tikal =
The Mundo Perdido ( Spanish for " Lost World " ) is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at the ancient Maya city of Tikal , in the Petén Department of northern Guatemala . The complex was organised as a large E @-@ Group astronomical complex consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples . The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history . By AD 250 – 300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico , including the use of the talud @-@ tablero form . During the Early Classic period ( c . 250 – 600 ) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city , the other being the North Acropolis . From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis . The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archaeologists of the University of Pennsylvania .
The large plaza centred upon the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) and the ceremonial platform to the west ( 5C @-@ 53 ) is divided into two clearly demarcated areas referred to as the High Plaza and the Low Plaza . The High Plaza is the area around the Lost World Pyramid . It is closed on the south side by Structures 6C @-@ 24 and 6C @-@ 25 . A range of eight adjoining structures divide the High Plaza from the Plaza of the Seven Temples to the east . On the north side , the Plaza is principally delimited by Structures 5D @-@ 77 , 5D @-@ 45 , 5D @-@ 46 , together with some smaller structures . The Low Plaza lies to the west of the Lost World Pyramid , centred upon Structure 5C @-@ 53 , a low platform . The Low Plaza is closed on its north side by the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) , which is the second largest structure in the whole complex . The complex has a surface area of approximately 60 @,@ 000 square metres ( 650 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
Guatemalan archaeologists have made major discoveries in the Mundo Perdido since the 1970s . The National Tikal Project ( Proyecto Nacional Tikal ) investigated the Mundo Perdido from 1979 until 1985 , and partially restored the principal structures of the complex . The Mundo Perdido was the first architectural complex to be built at Tikal in the Preclassic period and the last to be abandoned during the Terminal Classic .
= = History = =
= = = Preclassic = = =
The Mundo Perdido underwent six phases of construction ; four of these date to the Preclassic and two to the Classic . Each construction phase produced a new version of the E @-@ Group ( the Lost World Pyramid and the East Platform ) . Evidence recovered from the Mundo Perdido dates back to the earliest years of occupation at Tikal in the Middle Preclassic prior to 700 BC , although these remains represent rubbish rather than structures . The complex began to take form around the end of the Middle Preclassic , around 600 BC , when structures started to be added to a series of artificially levelled surfaces or platforms . Gradually both the complexity and the height of the structures increased . The Lost World Pyramid and the East Platform together form an E @-@ Group that is the oldest architectural complex in Tikal . During the Late Preclassic a causeway was built to unite the Mundo Perdido with the North Acropolis ; this causeway channelled runoff rainwater into a canal that fed into the Temple Reservoir . About AD 100 , toward the end of the Late Preclassic , three temples were built upon the East Platform .
= = = Early Classic = = =
Around AD 250 , at the beginning of the Early Classic , the Mundo Perdido plaza was expanded westwards in order to make the Lost World Pyramid the centre of the complex rather than the western extreme . It was this construction phase that led to the Mundo Perdido achieving its final surface area of around 60 @,@ 000 square metres ( 650 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . After this the various structures in the Mundo Perdido were remodelled many times to match the architectural styles developing throughout the city .
A small platform was added to the East Platform in the Early Classic , the surface of the platform possesses a series of holes that may have supported banners . The platform covered a large pit that contained the bodies of seventeen sacrificial victims , including men , women and children , possibly sacrificed during a dedicatory ceremony for the platform itself . In the 4th century AD the first version of Structure 5D @-@ 82 was built , to the north of the East Platform . In the second half of the 4th century six tombs were built in the East Platform . Ceramic offerings in the tombs included effigy vessels representing monkeys and macaws . The high artistic and technical quality of the funerary offerings in these tombs identify the deceased as members of Tikal 's elite ; they may have been members of a line of the ruling dynasty that lost power among the political upheaval of the late 4th century and included the kings K 'inich Muwaan Jol and Chak Tok Ich 'aak I. With the entry of Siyaj K 'ak ' and the establishment of a new political order in the city , the focus of royal funerary rites was shifted from the Mundo Perdido to the North Acropolis .
From the 4th century through to the 6th century the use of talud @-@ tablero architecture became notable in the Mundo Perdido . In the 5th century the talud @-@ tablero form was applied to Structures 5C @-@ 51 and 5C @-@ 52 at the western limit of the complex , and 6C @-@ 24 on the south side . In the latter part of the 6th century or during the 7th century a fifth version of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple 5C @-@ 49 was built , with a new stairway and summit shrine .
= = = Late Classic = = =
During the 7th century there were significant changes to the East Platform , including a new version of Temple 5D @-@ 87 that faced away from the Mundo Perdido . Around AD 700 this version was sealed and another version built on top , making Temple 5D @-@ 87 one of the three highest structures in the Mundo Perdido . This new version created a new orienting axis in the complex , breaking the primary axis associated with the ancient E @-@ Group complex and its relationship with the old solar cult , thus marking a major change in the ceremonial use of the Mundo Perdido complex . It is about this same time that the twin pyramid complex came into use , demonstrating a major internal reorganisation of the city . During the Late Classic , access to the complex was gradually restricted by closing various access points with new structures , this included discontinuing the use of the causeway that had linked the complex with the North Acropolis since the Preclassic . A new palace complex was built in the northern section of the Mundo Perdido , developing during the 7th and 8th centuries AD ; This marked an important change in the use of the Mundo Perdido , which until then had been dedicated to purely ritual activities . The construction of the palace indicates the permanent inhabitation of the complex by an elite group , apparently involved in some way with the administration of the city .
The Mundo Perdido continued to serve as an important burial site during the 8th and 9th centuries . The final version of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple received three elite status burials , possibly members of the royal family to judge by the extremely high quality of the associated offerings . These burials have been dated to the second half of the 8th century , during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin II .
= = = Terminal Classic = = =
Tikal as a whole went into general decline during the Terminal Classic , with some parts of the city apparently being abandoned . The Mundo Perdido , however , continued to be a centre of vigorous ceremonial activity . Evidence of this continued activity in the complex includes burials and collections of ceramic and lithic artefacts , together with significant construction activity . The main Late Classic structures were fitted with new benches and a change to access routes to the complex took place . Activity was concentrated in the northern portion of the Mundo Perdido , perhaps because it was closest to the Temple Reservoir water supply . Some minor changes were made to the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple at this time . The greatest residential activity during the Terminal Classic took place in the vaulted palace immediately to the east of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( Structures 5C @-@ 45 through to 5C @-@ 47 ) . This activity included complex construction projects and indicates that the elite were still in residence immediately prior to the complete abandonment of the city . Further construction activity , in the form of structural strengthening , also took place in other structures in the northern sector , including Structures 5D @-@ 77 and 5D @-@ 82 . Ritual activity also continued , and the bottom half of Early Classic Stela 39 was placed in Temple 5D @-@ 86 on the East Platform and worshipped .
That a large population remained in residence in the north sector of Mundo Perdido during the Terminal Classic is evidenced by the quantity of burials of differing gender and age . Some were interred inside collapsed buildings or in casual graves . They were usually accompanied by very few funerary offerings , generally bone and lithic artefacts . The dense occupation of the north sector , which included elite activity , continued for at least a hundred years after the abandonment of the rest of Tikal and is perhaps linked to the nearby water supply and to continued ritual activity at Temple III . While the northern portion of the Mundo Perdido continued in use , the rest of the complex was partially abandoned . The occupation of the Mundo Perdido came to an end in the Terminal Classic and very few traces of Postclassic activity have been recovered , limited to a few ceramic finds in Structure 3D @-@ 43 to the north .
= = = Modern history = = =
The University of Pennsylvania carried out exploratory investigations of the Lost World Pyramid prior to the work undertaken by the Proyecto Nacional Tikal . These included test cores and trenches in the summit as well as the west and south sides . Exploratory tunnels excavated up to 27 metres ( 89 ft ) into the pyramid 's interior recovered surprisingly early ceramic fragments , which led to the complex becoming the focus of later investigations . A wide @-@ ranging programme of investigations of the Mundo Perdido was instigated by the newly formed Proyecto Nacional Tikal in September 1979 . The first operation carried out was the clearing of forest overgrowth from the Lost World Pyramid late that year . The main phase of investigations ran until 1982 , although test pitting and topographical surveys continued until 1984 . Both the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) and the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple were excavated and restored from 1980 through to 1982 . Soon after work started upon the Mundo Perdido in 1979 adverse weather conditions resulted in severe damage to various structures , including the collapse of the east face of the Lost World Pyramid , the northeast corner of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) and the north wall of Structure 5D @-@ 77 .
= = Structures = =
Archaeologist William R. Coe divided the Mundo Perdido complex into two clearly demarcated areas that he referred to as the High Plaza and the Low Plaza . The High Plaza is the area around the Lost World Pyramid . It is closed on the south side by Structures 6C @-@ 24 and 6C @-@ 25 . A range of eight adjoining structures divide the High Plaza from the Plaza of the Seven Temples to the east . On the north side , the Plaza is principally delimited by Structures 5D @-@ 77 , 5C @-@ 45 , 5C @-@ 46 , together with some smaller structures . The Low Plaza lies to the west of the Lost World Pyramid , centred upon Structure 5C @-@ 53 , a low platform . The Low Plaza is closed on its north side by the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) , which is the second largest structure in the whole complex .
More recently , the Proyecto Nacional Tikal has defined the complex as an area divided into four plazas . The North , East and West Plazas are defined by their relationship to the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) while the South Plaza is on the south side of Structures 6C @-@ 25 and 6C @-@ 25 , themselves to the south of the Lost World Pyramid .
= = = E @-@ Group = = =
The original core of the Mundo Perdido was an E @-@ Group astronomical complex . The east stairway of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) was the observation point and the three original temples on the East Platform ( 5D @-@ 84 , 5D @-@ 86 and 5D @-@ 88 ) were markers used to plot the sunrise on the equinoxes and the solstices . Over the course of Tikal 's history the E @-@ Group underwent seven distinct construction phases , with the earliest dating to the end of the Middle Preclassic period .
= = = = Lost World Pyramid = = = =
The Lost World Pyramid ( Structure 5C @-@ 54 , also known as the Great Pyramid ) dates to the Late Preclassic . This structure is the focus of the Mundo Perdido complex ; it currently stands approximately 31 metres ( 102 ft ) high and has a maximum width across the base of 67 @.@ 5 metres ( 221 ft ) . The Lost World Pyramid was one of the most massive construction projects ever undertaken at Tikal . The pyramid is accessed via a stairway on the west side ; this was flanked by giant masks . The final version of the structure had stairways on both the east and west sides that extended to the top , with additional stairways on the north and south sides climbing only as far as the eighth of ten levels . This structure was one of the most massive buildings in the whole of Late Preclassic Mesoamerica and its construction used masonry blocks that measured over 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) long . The pyramid was periodically rebuilt throughout its history , in common with the rest of the complex . The version now visible is the fifth version , dating to around AD 250 . When it was built it was the tallest structure in the entire city . The stepped levels of the pyramid have inset vertical panels that were forerunners of the talud @-@ tablero style ; these early tableros first made an appearance in the second half of the 3rd century AD when they were built into the fifth construction phase of the pyramid . The masks that once adorned the sides of the building are now so eroded that it is not possible to determine if they were anthropomorphic or zoomorphic . Traces of painted stucco on the final version of the pyramid reveal that at some point the exterior of the structure was painted blue and red .
The five versions of the Lost World Pyramid were each larger than the previous version . They were not built directly centred upon the preceding version due to the necessity of maintaining the E @-@ Group plaza area between the pyramid and the East Platform . This led to the destruction of the previous version 's east face each time a new version was superimposed over the older version .
= = = = = Phase 1 = = = = =
The earliest version of the pyramid was built at the end of the Middle Preclassic ; it was raised upon a 1 @.@ 42 @-@ metre ( 4 @.@ 7 ft ) deep infill that levelled the natural terrain . This earliest phase of construction has not survived in its entirety but is believed to have possessed three stepped levels with stairways on all four sides . It measured 23 @.@ 46 metres ( 77 @.@ 0 ft ) north @-@ south and stood 2 @.@ 94 metres ( 9 @.@ 6 ft ) high .
= = = = = Phase 2 = = = = =
The second version dates to the Late Preclassic , between 600 and 400 BC . At this time two adult males were interred without funerary offerings under the summit platform of the pyramid ( Burials PNT @-@ 002 and PNT @-@ 003 ) . Although they lacked associated offerings , the presence of cranial deformation and dental decoration suggests that the deceased may have been members of the elite . The investigating archaeologists of the Proyecto Nacional Tikal consider that the deceased themselves were a dedicatory offering upon construction of this newer version of the pyramid . The second version of the pyramid possessed four stepped levels and measured 37 @.@ 25 metres ( 122 @.@ 2 ft ) north @-@ south ; it stood 7 @.@ 8 metres ( 26 ft ) high .
= = = = = Phase 3 = = = = =
The third version was built between 400 and 200 BC as a part of the formal layout of the E @-@ Group . This version measured 37 @.@ 67 metres ( 123 @.@ 6 ft ) north @-@ south and stood 9 @.@ 46 metres ( 31 @.@ 0 ft ) high . The construction of the third version of the temple damaged the underlying second version and covered it completely . The third version was a radial pyramid with six stepped levels and a raised upper platform built from stone blocks that were not finished with stucco . This upper platform had rounded corners . The three lower levels of the pyramid had a talud ( sloping @-@ sided ) form , while the fourth had a tablero ( vertical @-@ sided ) form . The fifth level was of greater height and supported the weight of giant masks flanking the central stairways as they ascend the upper ( sixth ) level . The pyramid possessed auxiliary stairways that climbed the lower four levels , flanking the central stairways ; they ascended the fifth level in a modified form , such that they enclosed the giant masks between the auxiliary stairways and the central stairways on each side . Upon the upper platform was a 1 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) high bench accessed via three steps on its east and west sides only . The third version pyramid was of high quality construction with complex architectural detail and fine quality stucco covering . Burial PNT @-@ 001 was discovered interred within the infill of the upper level of the fourth version of the pyramid ; it was accompanied by a number of offerings .
= = = = = Phase 4 = = = = =
The fourth version of the pyramid was built upon a much larger scale ; it was built sometime between 200 BC and 200 AD . It stood 18 metres ( 59 ft ) high and measured 60 metres ( 200 ft ) across . This represented the greatest leap in volume between successive versions of the pyramid . Once again it was a radial pyramid with auxiliary stairways ; the temple had at least eight stepped levels although archaeologists could not determine the exact number due to the destruction wrought upon the summit by the construction of the next ( fifth and final ) version . It possessed giant masks on the fifth stepped level . Due to the method of construction employed , with weight dispersed across the shorter sides of its stone blocks , the fourth version of the pyramid was structurally weak and it required periodic reinforcement . The architects soon realised their error and the architectural techniques used in the construction of the fourth version were never used again ; the fourth version itself remained in use for a relatively short period of time before being replaced by the fifth version .
= = = = = Phase 5 = = = = =
The fifth and final version of the Lost World Pyramid was built around 200 @-@ 300 AD . When excavated it was found to be poorly preserved due to the poor quality structural infill used in its construction ; its sides had subsided in a number of places . The final version of the pyramid had ten levels and stood 30 @.@ 7 metres ( 101 ft ) high . The pyramid measured 72 by 67 @.@ 5 metres ( 236 by 221 ft ) ( NS by EW ) through its central axis . This narrowed to 61 @.@ 3 by 56 @.@ 25 metres ( 201 @.@ 1 by 184 @.@ 5 ft ) measuring from corner to corner . These measurements make it the most massive construction project at Tikal . The fifth version of the pyramid started with 8 levels between 200 to 300 AD ; a ninth level was added in the 4th century and the tenth level sometime between the late 4th century and the early 6th century . Each of the stairways was flanked by large tablero panels . The 0 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) bench upon the summit faced west , breaking the long tradition that incorporated the pyramid within the ancient E @-@ Group . A large slab of slate measuring 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high by 0 @.@ 35 metres ( 1 @.@ 1 ft ) wide and 0 @.@ 24 metres ( 0 @.@ 79 ft ) thick was found embedded in the bench ; it was highly eroded and may have been a stela that was erected upon the pyramid during the Late Classic . Large quantities of Early and Late Classic ceramic fragments were found upon the pyramid , demonstrating the continued importance of the structure within Tikal as a whole . A well @-@ preserved limestone model of an architectural complex was recovered from the upper east side of the pyramid ; it may originally have been deposited in a cache and represented a number of pyramids and a Mesoamerican ballcourt - the model does not match any known architectural group at Tikal itself .
= = = = East Platform = = = =
The East Platform divides the Mundo Perdido complex from the Plaza of the Seven Temples . The structures are numbered from 5D @-@ 82 at the north end through to 5D @-@ 89 where it joins with the south range . Although this is one of the earliest examples of architecture at Tikal , this platform began to take on its final form around AD 100 when the first versions of the three temples 5D @-@ 84 , 5D @-@ 86 and 5D @-@ 88 were built upon the basal platform . In the 5th century AD the platform was remodeled with a huge talud @-@ tablero .
Structure 5D @-@ 82 is the northernmost structure adjoining the East Platform . The first version of this building was built in the 4th century AD . This early version was a semicircular platform supporting a building that possessed a single chamber . This building was decorated with an elaborate stucco frieze decorated with anthropomorphic figures and glyphs . The central figure in the frieze is believed by archaeologists to represent the deity Itzamna .
Structure 5D @-@ 84 is towards the north end of the east range ; the structure has three rooms and is flanked by Structure 5D @-@ 83 to the north and Structure 5D @-@ 86 to the south . This is one of the earliest three structures to be built upon the east platform towards the end of the Late Preclassic .
Structure 5D @-@ 85 is a double platform that provides access to the Plaza of the Seven Temples .
Structure 5D @-@ 86 possesses the remains of giant masks on its facade . It has been dated to the Late Classic period . Stela 39 was found in this building . The first version of this building was raised upon the East Platform towards the end of the Late Preclassic period , at around AD 100 . The temple had three rooms arranged one behind the other ; the central chamber is the smallest and is particularly notable for the presence of two giant zoomorphic masks on either side of its doorway . This is the only example known from the Late Preclassic Maya world where such masks were placed inside a building , a practice that would become common in the Late Classic period . Iconographic analysis of these two masks suggest that they are an early form of Nu B 'alam Chac , a spirit protector of the city that was closely associated with warfare . The first royal tomb in the Mundo Perdido was installed in this structure during the transition between the Late Preclassic and Early Classic periods .
Structure 5D @-@ 87 is also known as the Temple of the Skulls ( Templo de las Calaveras in Spanish ) . It is the third largest temple in the Mundo Perdido complex . A new version of this temple was superimposed upon a preceding version during the 7th century AD . This new version faced away from the Mundo Perdido and possessed a single room with five doorways that faced onto the adjacent Plaza of the Seven Temples to the east . Around AD 700 , this version was sealed and a new version was built on top , at which time it became one of the highest structures in the Mundo Perdido . This version of the structure had a four @-@ level platform with an access stairway interrupted by a vaulted niche , as was the architectural style prevalent at Tikal during this time . The base of the niche was adorned with three sculpted skulls , one facing forwards and the two flanking skulls in profile .
Structure 5D @-@ 88 is a structure possessing three rooms . It was one of the first three temples to be built upon the East Platform towards the end of the Late Preclassic period .
Structure 5D @-@ 89 is another structure possessing three rooms .
= = = Northern sector = = =
= = = = Talud @-@ Tablero Temple = = = =
The Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( Structure 5C @-@ 49 ) is the second largest building in the Mundo Perdido . It is located on the north side of the west plaza , to the northwest of the Lost World Pyramid and directly north of the 5C @-@ 53 platform . The pyramid has a projecting stairway that rises to a summit shrine that possessed three corbel @-@ vaulted chambers and a roof comb ; the ceilings and roof comb had collapsed into the first two chambers prior to archaeological exploration . The ruined building currently stands over 22 metres ( 72 ft ) high ; with its summit shrine and roof comb intact it would have been taller . The Talud @-@ Tablero Temple was not investigated by the University of Pennsylvania and prior to its exploration by the Proyecto Nacional Tikal the summit shrine had served as the lair of a jaguar and was littered with the remains of its prey . The shrine has been badly damaged by multiple looters ' pits excavated in each of the interior chambers .
Three distinct construction phases are evident on the exterior of this pyramid . The first version of this pyramid was built in the latter half of the 3rd century AD ; it was built in a forerunner of the talud @-@ tablero style and had three levels . It stood 7 metres ( 23 ft ) tall with sides that measured 21 metres ( 69 ft ) at the base . It featured vertical unframed tableros that were painted black and a stairway flanked by balustrades . The stairway rose at an angle of 49 ° and projected 3 @.@ 3 metres ( 11 ft ) from the pyramid base . Three more construction phases took place in the Early Classic between AD 300 and 550 ; none of these three phases supported a masonry superstructure . Each of these phases was very similar , consisting mainly in an increase in the size of the building . Phase 2 had a basal surface area of 920 square metres ( 9 @,@ 900 sq ft ) ; the base of the third phase covered an area of 1 @,@ 065 square metres ( 11 @,@ 460 sq ft ) , this increased to 1 @,@ 240 square metres ( 13 @,@ 300 sq ft ) in the fourth construction phase . The second phase of construction took place in the 4th century in a local variation of the talud @-@ tablero style that only included framed tableros on the front of the pyramid , except for the upper level where the tableros extend around all four faces of the structure ; it had four stepped levels . The third phase of construction maintained the previous versions talud @-@ tablero variant and had five stepped levels . The fourth version of the pyramid once again had four stepped levels . The fifth phase of construction of this building took place between AD 550 and 700 and involved the construction of a new stairway on top of the previous version , although the older four @-@ level stepped pyramid with talud @-@ tablero sides was retained . The pyramid base now measured 37 metres ( 121 ft ) on each side . The stairway was widened by covering the balustrades and the pyramid was heightened by 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 15 ft ) by the addition of two more talud @-@ tablero @-@ style levels . This resulted in a base height of 16 @.@ 4 metres ( 54 ft ) ; a new summit shrine was built upon this , possessing three vaulted rooms and an elaborate roof comb . This construction phase took place around the same time that Temple V was built , the first of the major temples of Tikal , or slightly earlier . The shrine , in its final version , had three access doorways to the first chamber , which was 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wide .
After AD 700 the pyramid served an important funerary function . Three elite burials have been excavated from the pyramid , two males and a female , accompanied by extremely high quality funerary offerings . The offerings include polychrome ceramics and objects crafted from shell , conch and mother of pearl that are inscribed with anthropomorphic and zoomorphic imagery . These associated finds are of sufficient quality that it is possible that the deceased were members of the royal family . The burials have been dated to the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin II , who ruled from AD 769 to 794 . During the Terminal Classic some minor changes were made to the temple chambers and there may have been structural reinforcement of the front of the temple . Although it is poorly preserved , the inside of the temple rooms were inscribed with graffiti that is likely to date to this time .
= = = = Palace = = = =
A three @-@ range palace complex is laid out in the form of a U in the northern portion of the Mundo Perdido . The three ranges are 5C @-@ 45 on the east side , 5C @-@ 46 on the south side and 5C @-@ 47 on the west side . All three ranges connect at the corners to form a single extended palace around a central courtyard with an area of 600 square metres ( 6 @,@ 500 sq ft ) ; the courtyard was open on the north side . This palace has furnished important information with regard to the Terminal Classic occupation the Mundo Perdido . The palace was built upon a Late Classic platform and gradually developed with the construction of the palace buildings in the 7th and 8th centuries AD . The structures each housed multiple corbel @-@ vaulted chambers . On two of the three structures the decorated facades faced outwards , although the buildings all opened onto the interior courtyard . During the 1500 @-@ year history of the Mundo Perdido complex , the palace was the only group of buildings in the entire complex that did not serve a uniquely ceremonial purpose .
Structure 5C @-@ 45 is the east range of a palace complex that also incorporates 5C @-@ 46 ( the south range ) and 5C @-@ 47 ( the west range ) . This structure was remodelled in the Terminal Classic with the closing of some doorways , addition of some benches and the construction of new sections with multiple doorways . Although Tikal was completely abandoned soon afterwards , this continuation in complex construction activity indicated that the elite residents were still inhabiting the palace at this time .
= = = Other structures = = =
Structure 5C @-@ 51 is on the western border of the complex . It was modelled in the talud @-@ tablero style in the 5th century AD .
Structure 5C @-@ 52 delimits the western extreme of the Mundo Perdido . In the 5th century AD it was built using the talud @-@ tablero style .
Structure 5C @-@ 53 is a low platform situated 33 metres ( 108 ft ) to the west of the Lost World Pyramid . The platform has access stairways on all four sides and has no sign of ever having supported any superstructure . Details of the sides of the platform suggest that its construction was influenced by Teotihuacan . The platform dates to the beginning of the Late Classic , around AD 600 .
Structure 6C @-@ 24 is a part of the south range of the Mundo Perdido . This is another building that was styled with talud @-@ tableros in the 5th century AD .
= = Monuments = =
Stela 39 is the broken bottom half of a stela that was found inside Temple 5D @-@ 86 , on the east @-@ west axis running through the East Platform from the Lost World Pyramid . The monument is sculpted on the front and back faces and was deliberately broken in ancient times and was moved inside the temple in order to save it . The front of the stela shows the bottom half of a person , who is identified as a ruler by his costume ; the back features two columns of hieroglyphs . The king depicted on the stela is Chak Tok Ich 'aak I , who governed in the 4th century AD . This king is standing over a bound captive ; the bearded captive appears to be a noble since he retains his clothing . The stela celebrates an event in AD 376 and appears to have been moved to the Mundo Perdido in relation to a funerary ceremony . The stela was possibly moved to the temple by king Yax Nuun Ayiin II to celebrate the changing of the 20 @-@ year k 'atun Maya calendrical cycle in AD 771 and thereby link himself to Chak Tok Ich 'aak I. It was placed directly over the most important of the late 4th century elite tombs . The stela continued to be worshipped in the Terminal Classic , as evidenced by the presence of polychrome ceramic offerings and incense burners .
= = Burials = =
Burial 5 was an elite burial interred in a stucco @-@ coated chamber under the rear chamber of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . The tomb had already been looted when it was discovered by archaeologists , with a looters trench cutting through the bench and floor of the shrine chamber above . The burial chamber measured 1 @.@ 77 by 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 8 by 2 @.@ 6 ft ) ( NS by EW ) and was 0 @.@ 87 metres ( 2 @.@ 9 ft ) high . The chamber contained the bones of an adult male aged between 36 and 55 years old . Although the bones had been disturbed by the looters , it is likely that he had been laid out on his back with a north @-@ south orientation . A few broken ceramic remains among the looters ' debris dated the tomb to the late 8th century AD .
Burial 6 was a cist located under the first chamber of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . It had been heavily looted , to an extent that it was not possible to determine if the scattered human remains of at least four people belonged to one burial or several . The bones belonged to two children and two young adult females and fragments of ceramic offerings were also identified .
Burial 7 was interred in a cist under the central chamber of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . Although it had already been looted when it was discovered by archaeologists , the prior collapse of the ceiling of the summit shrine of the pyramid protected a section of the tomb from the looters . The remains were those of an adult male with an artificially deformed skull ; he was laid out on his back with a north @-@ south orientation with the head towards the north . The funerary offering included three polychrome ceramics ; a tripod plate , a plate painted with the figure of a dancer and a vessel bearing the images of human figures and a jaguar . Burial 7 was immediately above the cist of Burial 9 .
Burial 8 was interred towards the rear of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . The deceased was a young adult male aged between 21 and 35 years old with an artificially deformed skull . He was buried near the surface lying on his side in a flexed position ; The remains were oriented north @-@ south and date to the Terminal Classic and were not accompanied by any funerary offering .
Burial 9 was interred in a cist immediately beneath Burial 7 in the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . The chamber measured 2 @.@ 34 by 0 @.@ 64 metres ( 7 @.@ 7 by 2 @.@ 1 ft ) ( NS by EW ) . The remains were of an adolescent female lying on her back with her head towards the north . She was lying upon a layer of cinnabar mixed with blue and green pigments and was accompanied by a rich funerary offering . The offering included mother @-@ of @-@ pearl , jade and quartz beads , bone earspools inlaid with shell , shell figurines , glyphs crafted from shell , a jade pectoral crafted in the form of an anthropomorphic face , an alabaster bowl , a polychrome ceramic vessel decorated with human figures and a lengthy hieroglyphic text , a black bowl and a tripod plate decorated with an ajaw glyph .
Burial 21 was the first corbel @-@ vaulted tomb to be constructed in the Mundo Perdido ; it was placed within Structure 5D @-@ 86 . The deceased was interred upon the east @-@ west axis running through the centre of the E @-@ Group during the transition between the Late Preclassic and the Early Classic periods . The tomb was elite @-@ status and was perhaps the earliest royal burial in the Mundo Perdido . Any funerary offerings were removed during the 6th century AD during remodelling of the temple , at which time the offerings were redeposited under the third chamber of the shrine . The offerings included three polychrome plates with mammiform legs ; the painted designs on the plates perhaps have astronomical significance .
Burial PNT @-@ 001 dates to between 400 and 200 BC . It was inserted in a put among the infill of the upper level of the third version of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) , 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 2 @.@ 6 ft ) under the summit ( 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) including the summit bench ) . He was laid out upon a large rock lying face downwards . The deceased was a young adult male aged between 21 and 35 years who was aligned north @-@ south with the skull towards the south . Traces of cinnabar were found upon the bones . The body was accompanied by four ceramic vessels , five obsidian blades , a flint chisel , avian bones and some worked bone artefacts , among them an earspool . Although the burial could be a dedicatory offering due to its location upon the east @-@ west axis of the E @-@ Group , the high status offerings associated with it also open up the possibility that the deceased was a member of Tikal 's elite .
Burial PNT @-@ 002 was interred with Burial PNT @-@ 003 in the third stepped platform of the second version of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) prior to the fourth platform being completed . The deceased was an adult male aged between 36 and 55 years old ; he was found lying extended on his back with a southeast @-@ northwest orientation . Most of the bones were preserved to a certain degree ; although the skull was badly fragmented it was evident that artificial craneal deformation had taken place . One of the upper canine teeth was fitted with pyrite decoration ; the other canine had a crescent @-@ shaped hollow that had once held its decoration . The deceased had several items of shell jewellery .
Burial PNT @-@ 003 was interred at the same time as Burial PNT @-@ 002 . The deceased was an adult male aged between 36 and 55 years old ; he was lying face down with a northwest @-@ southeast orientation . The remains were very poorly preserved but the upper canines were both decorated with pyrite incrustations . The deceased was not accompanied by jewellery or funerary offerings .
Burial PNT @-@ 004 was interred under a low platform associated with the third version of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) . It was deposited near the bedrock 1 @.@ 3 metres ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) under the platform without any funerary offerings . The remains are those of a young adult male between 21 and 35 years old who was laid on his right hand side in a flexed position with an east @-@ west orientation , with the head lying to the west . The remains were associated with three pieces of worked stone that had traces of stucco and red paint . The burial has been dated to around 300 BC .
Burial PNT @-@ 032 may have been a dedicatory offering upon construction of the fourth version of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) . It was buried at a depth of 0 @.@ 75 metres ( 2 @.@ 5 ft ) without associated offerings . The remains were probably those of a female ; she was lying face down and oriented north @-@ south with the head pointing northwards . The remains were very poorly preserved but probably date to the early 1st century AD .
= A8 ( Croatia ) =
The A8 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A8 ) is a 64 @.@ 0 @-@ kilometre ( 39 @.@ 8 mi ) toll motorway in Croatia . It connects the A7 motorway near Rijeka with the road network in the Istrian peninsula via the Učka Tunnel . The road terminates at the Kanfanar interchange with the A9 motorway , which with the A8 motorway forms the Istrian Y road system . The motorway 's national significance is reflected in its positive economic impact on the cities and towns it connects , as well as its importance to tourism in Croatia . The importance of the motorway for tourism is particularly high during the summer tourist season , when its traffic volume increases by about 65 % .
The construction of the A8 motorway and the Istrian Y can be traced back to 1968 when the Croatian Parliament decided to build a modern road linking Istria with the rest of Croatia . Subsequently , a bond to fund the construction was issued . The construction work started in 1976 ; in 1981 the Učka Tunnel was finished and a 22 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) section of the route between Matulji and Lupoglav was completed as a single @-@ carriageway , two @-@ lane expressway . The Lupoglav @-@ Cerovlje portion was the next one to be completed , in 1988 . The route was extended to the Rogovići interchange between 1992 and 1998 , and the remaining section to Kanfanar was completed in 1999 as a two @-@ lane road . In 2011 , the expressway route started to be expanded gradually with the addition of a new carriageway and emergency lanes , eventually making most of it a controlled @-@ access highway ; the expansion of the route 's first section , between Kanfanar and Rogovići , was completed in October 2011 . The route 's full expansion to motorway standards – including six lanes and grade separation of all its interchanges – is scheduled by 2015 , when a second tube for the Učka Tunnel and a new route connecting the tunnel to the A7 motorway are planned . Construction slowed down in the 1990s due to a lack of funding ; therefore , a build @-@ operate @-@ transfer concession for the Istrian Y was granted to the BINA Istra corporation for a period of 32 years .
All intersections found along the route are grade separated , except for a single at @-@ grade intersection currently regulated by traffic lights ; a new route is planned to bypass this intersection . As of June 2012 , there were ten exits and two service areas along the route . The motorway is currently toll @-@ free except for the Učka Tunnel and the Kanfanar @-@ Rogovići section . However , most of the motorway is potentially a toll road using a ticket system , with each exit including a toll plaza except those of Veprinac , Opatija , and Matulji . The toll system of the A8 / A9 Istrian Y is integrated : no ticket needs to be turned in , gotten , or exchanged when going from the A8 to the A9 or vice versa .
= = Route description = =
The A8 motorway is an east – west motorway in Croatia , crossing the eastern and central parts of Istria . It connects the Matulji interchange near Rijeka , the largest city on the northern Adriatic coast of Croatia , to Istria via the Kanfanar interchange situated in the area of the city of Rovinj . The motorway represents a link between the A7 and the A9 motorway — spanning between border of Slovenia and the cities of Rijeka and Pula , respectively . This part of the road network of Croatia is also part of European route E751 , consisting of the Koper – Kanfanar – Pula and Kanfanar – Rijeka sections . The route is economically important to Croatia , especially for tourism and as a cargo transport route . The road carries significant cargo and tourist traffic as the largest @-@ capacity road link between the Istrian and Kvarner Gulf regions and the nation 's capital , Zagreb . Most of the road has a design speed of 100 kilometres per hour ( 62 mph ) ; the part meeting full motorway standards has a design speed of 120 kilometres per hour ( 75 mph ) . The final segment of the route – between the Učka tunnel and the Matulji interchange – has a design speed of 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) because of the mountainous terrain crossed and proximity of residential structures .
The route originates in the Kanfanar interchange with the A9 motorway and the D303 road in central Istria , east of Rovinj . From that point , the A8 proceeds east towards the Žminj exit ; there it turns north towards the Rogovići interchange with the D48 road . The latter represents the western approach to Pazin , the capital of Istria County . The A8 section between Kanfanar and Rogovići consists of four traffic lanes with a central reservation . Beyond the Rogovići interchange , the A8 changes direction once again , running generally to the northeast ; it acts as a bypass around Pazin . It goes through rough karst terrain that requires three major bridges with a total length of 949 metres ( 3 @,@ 114 ft ) ; the longest bridge is the Drazej viaduct , at 444 metres ( 1 @,@ 457 ft ) . The road then heads toward Cerovlje , running along and near the Pazinčica river valley and the Cerovlje valley ; this includes a 1 @,@ 330 @-@ metre ( 4 @,@ 360 ft ) bridge over the Pazinčica river . After Cerovlje the road runs for 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) , through hilly terrain requiring bridges for about 10 % of the route , to the Lupoglav exit and an interchange with the D44 road . Past Lupoglav , after going over the Lupoglav – Raša railway line the A8 heads southeast , until it reaches the D500 road at the Vranja exit and the western entrance to the 5 @.@ 062 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 145 mi ) Učka Tunnel ; this is the third @-@ longest road tunnel in Croatia . The tunnel carries the route east , through part of the Učka mountain range . It represents the end of the easternmost section of the Istrian Y system ( comprising the A8 and the A9 motorways ) where a toll is charged ; consequently , there are toll plazas adjacent to both tunnel entrances . East of the tunnel , the route runs northeast to the Matulji interchange with the A7 motorway and the eastern terminus of the A8 motorway . This section contains the Opatija and Veprinac exits , serving Opatija , Ičići , Lovran and other Opatija Riviera resorts . The elevation of the route 's 11 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) segment east of the tunnel drops from 520 metres ( 1 @,@ 710 feet ) above sea level at the eastern portal of the Učka Tunnel to approximately 180 metres ( 590 feet ) above sea level adjacent to the Matulji interchange . An additional climbing lane is present along parts of this segment . Unlike all the other exits found along the route , the Opatija exit is an at @-@ grade intersection regulated by a traffic light , while the Veprinac exit is executed as a partial cloverleaf interchange . Overall , the A8 is 64 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 39 @.@ 8 miles ) long with 10 exits along the route . A significant portion of the route has no emergency lanes as yet , but lay @-@ bys are available intermittently along the route . The traffic lanes ' width varies along the route , being 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 feet ) wide in all sections except between Cerovlje and Lupoglav , where the traffic lanes are 3 @.@ 25 metres ( 10 @.@ 7 feet ) wide .
The bulk of the route runs through forested areas , especially near the Učka range and near Pazin , with agricultural land in between those areas – most of it located between the Ivoli and Lupoglav interchanges . The final section of the route , near Opatija and the A7 motorway , runs through coastal areas affected by urbanization . The route crosses no major watercourses , although creeks adjacent to or spanned by the route drain into the Pazinčica and Boljunčica rivers , or directly into the Adriatic Sea in the case of watercourses flowing down Učka 's eastern slopes . The Učka Tunnel contains a spring discovered during its construction and used for the water supply of Opatija ever since .
The route runs through an area subject to significant air temperature variations . The temperature extremes measured in the area of the route range from − 18 to 40 ° C ( 0 to 104 ° F ) , imposing substantial maintenance requirements . The weather patterns prevailing along the route include : an average of three to four days of snow cover , especially in the central parts of Istria ; high winds and gales east of the Učka Tunnel , recorded during , respectively , 15 and 54 days per year on average ; and fog in the areas west of the Učka mountains and around Pazin , respectively occurring 80 and 50 days per year on average .
An automatic traffic monitoring and guidance system is installed along the motorway . It consists of measuring ( of both traffic and weather ) , control ( e.g. , variable speed limits ) , and signalling devices located in zones where driving conditions may vary , such as at the interchanges , viaducts , bridges , and zones where fog or strong wind are known to occur . The system uses variable @-@ message signs to communicate changing driving conditions , possible restrictions , and other information to motorway users . In the Učka Tunnel there are 83 security cameras , 538 fire detectors , 39 fire hydrants , 74 emergency stations , and five vehicle emergency lay @-@ bys ; the speed limit is 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) .
= = Tolls = =
The A8 is a toll road based on the Croatian vehicle classification using a ticket system — charging for use of the motorway based on distance travelled . The system was introduced as a unified toll charge system throughout the Istrian Y motorways in June 2011 . Consequently , vehicles using either the A8 or the A9 or switching between the two at the Kanfanar interchange are charged a toll only when they leave the Istrian Y system , no matter where their toll ticket was issued . Along the A8 motorway , a toll is charged only for using the Učka Tunnel and the Kanfanar – Rogovići section ; the remaining sections of the motorway are toll @-@ free as of June 2012 . Despite this , toll tickets are issued and collected at all exits with toll plazas . For instance , vehicles traveling between Rogovići and Vranja interchanges are issued toll tickets and are required to stop at toll plazas when entering and leaving the A8 , but they are not charged for using the route . The toll charge for travelling the entire length of the motorway ranges from 36 @.@ 00 kuna ( € 4 @.@ 80 ) for passenger cars to 205 @.@ 00 kuna ( € 27 @.@ 33 ) for semi @-@ trailer trucks . The toll can be paid in either Croatian kuna or euros using major credit cards , debit cards and several prepaid toll collection systems , including various types of smart cards issued by the motorway operator and ENC ; the last is an electronic toll collection system that is shared between all motorways in Croatia except the A2 , providing drivers with discounted toll rates and dedicated lanes at toll plazas .
In 2010 , BINA Istra ( the operator of the motorway ) collected € 38 million in revenues while its expenditure reached € 230 million . In the first half of 2011 , however , BINA Istra reported 65 @.@ 8 million kuna ( € 8 @.@ 9 million ) of income in the first half of 2011 , without VAT . This income represented a 30 @.@ 8 percent increase compared to the same period in the previous year . ( The figure includes income from the entire Istrian Y system , i.e. , both the A8 and A9 motorways . ) Most of this increase is attributed to the introduction of a closed toll system along the routes , replacing an open toll system in which a toll was charged only at the Mirna Bridge ( along the A9 motorway ) and the Učka Tunnel . In 1999 , the Croatian government negotiated amendments to the BINA Istra concession contract . These amendments allow the government to determine tolls along the A8 and A9 motorways , and the government decided to eliminate tolls on traffic flowing along the two @-@ lane sections of the routes ; to compensate for this loss of income , the government subsidizes BINA Istra – for instance , in 2012 it is expected to receive a 165 million kuna ( c . € 22 million ) subsidy . By the end of 2010 , the subsidy paid to BINA Istra reached a total of 1 @.@ 3 billion kuna ( c . € 173 million ) ; at the time , it was estimated that a further sum of 1 @.@ 9 billion kuna ( c . € 253 million ) may be paid in annual subsidies between 2011 and 2027 , when the concession contract expires . BINA Istra estimates the total investment value of the construction it has carried out or planned on the A8 and A9 routes at one billion euros .
= = History = =
The construction of the A8 motorway ( and the Istrian Y as a whole ) has its origin in 1968 , when the Croatian Parliament endorsed a petition by Istrian legislators for the construction of a modern road between the peninsula and the rest of Croatia . Subsequently , Istrian municipalities started a public bond to fund the construction of the Učka Tunnel . This construction happened between 1976 and 1981 , including the construction of a 22 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) route section between Matulji and Lupoglav .
The Y shape formed by the A8 and the A9 routes was originally defined by highway planning documents decided upon in Rijeka and Istria , subsequently incorporated in highway planning documents of the Republic of Croatia in 1988 . Lupoglav – Cerovlje was the next section to be completed , in 1988 . The A8 route was extended to the Rogovići interchange between 1992 and 1998 and the remaining section to Kanfanar was completed in 1999 .
As the construction was comparatively slow due to a lack of funding , a motorway concession for the A8 and A9 motorways was granted to BINA Istra for a period of 32 years . The build @-@ operate @-@ transfer concession agreement mandated construction , maintenance and management of the route and its upgrade to motorway standards ; this requirement included the building of dual carriageways when the annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) reached 10 @,@ 000 vehicles per day or when the average summer daily traffic ( ASDT ) reached 16 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . The latter was achieved in 2005 and the motorway upgrade started in 2008 , even though the AADT at the time was only 8 @,@ 500 vehicles . The A8 expansion was commenced by the operator , BINA Istra , immediately following a similar expansion of the A9 ; on the latter , the entire route was widened except for the two largest bridges , for which the expansion was postponed . The expansion of the A8 was initially limited to the Kanfanar – Rogovići section because the remainder of the route required additional permits and consequently an extended preparation period . On 29 October 2011 , the Kanfanar – Rogovići section was upgraded to motorway standards , including four traffic lanes , and the route 's designation changed from B8 to A8 ( as required by legislated standards ) . The construction performed along the section entailed deep and long cuts requiring temporary traffic stoppages due to explosive blasting .
= = Future = =
The government of Croatia and BINA Istra have agreed on a further expansion of the A8 route ; additional carriageway and emergency lanes will be constructed between the Rogovići and Matulji interchanges , including the second Učka Tunnel tube . As of 2010 , this construction was scheduled to finish by late 2014 or early 2015 . The 45 @-@ kilometre ( 28 mi ) section is expected to cost c . 300 million euros . As of October 2011 , it was in the design development stage , while appropriate permits were expected to be issued in the summer of 2012 . In 2003 , the government also proposed to build a new route between the Učka Tunnel and the Matulji interchange in order to bypass the Opatija exit with its at @-@ grade intersection , the only one of the route ; the changes would also limit the longitudinal grade of the route to 4 @.@ 9 % and increase the design speed to 100 kilometres per hour ( 62 miles per hour ) . The new route is planned to intersect with the A7 motorway west of the Matulji interchange ( where the A8 currently ends ) , in a proposed Matulji 2 interchange , with two additional interchanges ( Anđeli and Frančići ) planned between Veprinac and the new terminus . The existing Veprinac interchange is scheduled for reconstruction for an additional carriageway . The new section is expected to be 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 miles ) long ; it will be part of the Rijeka transport hub , aimed at improving the road , rail and sea transport facilities in and around Rijeka .
= = Traffic volume = =
Traffic levels are regularly determined and reported by BINA Istra , operator of the motorway , and published by Hrvatske ceste . In 2010 the traffic volume was only measured in two sections : in the Učka Tunnel and between Lupoglav and Cerovlje . In 2011 , traffic counting was started in each section of the A8 between Kanfanar interchange and the Učka Tunnel using the toll ticket counts . As of June 2012 , only the ASDT figures for 2011 have been published . The largest AADT volume was recorded in the Učka Tunnel ; it represents the only high @-@ performance link between Istria and the rest of the Croatian motorway network .
The differences between the AADT and ASDT traffic volumes in 2010 are attributed to the motorway 's carriage of substantial tourist traffic to the Adriatic Sea resorts along the Istrian peninsula . On average , the A8 motorway 's ASDT is at least 65 % more than the AADT . The largest increase of the ASDT relative to the AADT , 68 % , is observed in the Veprinac – Vranja section ( which includes the Učka Tunnel ) . During the summer of 2007 , an ASDT of 14 @,@ 000 was observed in the tunnel , prompting BINA Istra to consider preparing to construct the second tunnel tube . BINA Istra expects the motorways it manages to carry more than 20 @,@ 000 vehicles per day during the peak tourist season periods .
= = Exit list = =
= = Service areas = =
As of June 2012 , there were two service areas along the A8 route . Croatian legislation identifies four types of service areas designated " A " through " D " : Type A service areas have a full range of amenities , including a filling station , a restaurant and a hotel or motel ; Type B service areas lack lodgings but are otherwise identical to Type A ; Type C service areas , which are very common , include a filling station and a café ( with waiters serving beverages , sandwiches , and snacks , but not full meals ) , but no restaurants or accommodations ; and Type D service areas only offer parking spaces , restrooms , and possibly picnicking tables and benches ( with an additional Type D1 also having a seasonal eating establishment ) . The service area filling stations frequently have small convenience stores , and some of them offer LPG fuel .
BINA Istra , the primary operator of the route , leases the type A , B , and C service areas to various operators through public tenders . As of September 2011 , INA was the rest @-@ area operator on the A8 and the A9 motorways . The service area operators are not permitted to sublease the fuel operations , but can sublease other parts of the service areas . The A8 's service areas are accessible from both sides of the motorway and operate 24 hours a day , 7 days a week .
= Lil Freak =
" Lil Freak " is a song by American recording artist Usher , taken from his sixth studio album , Raymond v. Raymond . Featuring guest vocals by Trinidadian recording artist Nicki Minaj , the song was written by her , Usher , Ester Dean , Blac Elvis and Polow da Don , the latter two producing the track . Its hook is based on a manipulated sample of American soul musician Stevie Wonder 's 1973 hit , " Living for the City " . " Lil Freak " was released as the second single from the album in the United States and Canada on March 2 , 2010 .
Carrying a dark tone , composed of heavy bass beats derived from R & B and hip hop music , the lyrics are about the thrill of orchestrating a ménage à trois in a club . The song received positive reviews from critics who complimented its sensual nature . It peaked at number 40 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and eight on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , becoming Usher 's 16th top ten hit on the latter chart . The song 's accompanying music video has a secret society concept , dealing with an underground club , playing on the storyline of the song .
= = Background = =
In an interview with MTV News when asked if he was just entertaining , Usher said the song was based on real life , stating , " Yeah , I mean , I wrote about it . It happens in this day and time . Those are the best chicks to be friends with , honestly . " Usher reiterated his statements in another interview with Access Hollywood , and when asked if he thought the racy lyrics would raise eyebrows , he said it would , commenting that that was an objective of the song . Usher also said that the work was like the dichotomy of Raymond v. Raymond , distinguishing one world from another , as in " playing the nice guy " or " showing the other side . " Before official release , the song was leaked onto the Internet in December 2009 .
= = Composition = =
The song is midtempo , with supported by heavy bass beats produced by Polow da Don , which Prefix Magazine called " Jurrasic Park synths " . Chris Ryan of MTV News said " Usher pairs off with current queen MC Nicki Minaj , and the two glide over Polow Da Don 's minimal bass beat . " Sara D. Anderson of AOL Radio Blog said that the " heavy back @-@ beat tune confirms Usher 's old ways : " Yeah you the business / So What 's the business / Don 't be shy , I 'm just talkin ' to you girl . " Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media called the heavily manipulated " Living for the City " sample , " a monstrous swirl of orchestral exoticism " . Minaj makes several puns in her lines , one of them referring to Santa Claus 's reindeer in a runthrough which Prefix Magazine reviewed negatively . She also refers to P. Diddy and Cassie in her lines , that she 's " plotting on how I can take Cassie away from Diddy " .
= = Critical reception = =
Critics positively received the song , complimenting Minaj 's cameo and the track 's production and lyrics . Andrew Winistorfer of Prefix Magazine thought that Usher should have gone with " Lil Freak " as the album 's first big single , saying , " It ( OMG ) doesn 't come close to matching the filthy heights of " Little Freak [ sic ] ... " He also said the song was " by a wide margin , the best track to be leaked from Usher 's long @-@ delayed Raymond vs. Raymond album " . In his initial reaction , he pointed out flaws of the song , but said that the song " could become unavoidable if it gets traction on radio " . Chris Ryan of MTV News called the song , " slick , sexy hip @-@ hop @-@ infused R & B done to its finest " . He also called the song " nothing short of freak nasty , " and " is so full of sexy sexuality that it 's enough to make Tiger Woods blush " . Vibe magazine commented that " wedding ring is definitely off on this Usher cut " , and that Nicki Minaj stole the scene in the song . Pitchfork Media commented favourably on the songs explicit nature , stating the song " isn 't some R. Kelly @-@ esque devotional hymn to sexual addiction " , and that " The whole towering mess makes a drunken 3 a.m. threesome sound like the most epic endeavor anyone could hope for .. " The review also compared the song to Justin Timberlake 's " Cry Me a River " , stating , " it pushes into " Cry Me a River " territory for the same reason that " Cry Me a River " transcended : the gigantic , operatic backing track " .
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending March 20 , 2010 , " Lil Freak " debuted at number 43 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It then fell to 66 , but rebounded ten spots to 56 , and later peaked at 40 on the chart . The song 's appearance on the Hot Digital Songs and Hot 100 Airplay charts at number 31 and 37 , respectively , helped stabilize its stay on the Hot 100 . " lil Freak " charted at number 28 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs months before its release due to it being leaked on the Internet . It eventually peaked at eight , and was Usher 's third straight top ten hit on the chart , and 16th overall . According to Nielsen SoundScan , it has sold 508 @,@ 000 units in the US as of October 3 , 2010 . Internationally , " Lil Freak " reached 109 on the UK Singles Chart . Usher performed the song in the United Kingdom on The Graham Norton Show on June 7 , 2010 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
Usher and Minaj shot the music video on March 9 , 2010 in Los Angeles with director Taj Stansberry , represented by Leah Harmony and Ciarra Pardo . In an interview with Vibe , Stansberry commented on the video 's sex appeal and the pairing of Usher and Minaj , stating , " This probably has the potential to be [ his sexiest video ever ] . Usher ’ s one of the best entertainers in the world , then you have Nicki Minaj who ’ s fresh on the scene . Put them together and there ’ s just sparks , it was real good . " When asked about the music video 's concept would redefine the word " freak " , commenting :
" My general idea was to take the word and show its many faceted sides , twisting and turning it to where there ’ s really no distinguishing between one freak and another . Usher went there . When you ’ re engaging in sexual activity , there are many transitions and this is not about what they look like literally , but what they look like metaphorically . It ’ s about luring people into a situation . Because you have your thoughts on a ménage à trois , but then we ’ re doing it in a non @-@ obvious way . "
On Minaj and her pairing with Usher , Stansberry said , " [ Nicki ] had a few looks that I really liked . She played the part , but still was her . If you really listen to her words in the song , you can kinda visualize her outfit . " Stansberry also confirmed that R & B singer Ciara and singer @-@ actor Jamie Foxx would make appearances in the video . In an interview with MTV News on the set of her video for " Massive Attack " , Minaj said that " The video is freaky . And it 's a great concept , a great story line , " Minaj told MTV News . " It felt just like one of the sequels to Saw . It was dope . " Stating that the video had a " secret society " concept , Usher told Access Hollywood that the place symbolized locations where people use to get away from pressures , and also said the movie Eyes Wide Shut was some sort of inspiration of the video . On March 22 , 2010 a thirty second preview of the music video was surfaced onto the internet . Two days later on March 24 , 2010 , Usher premiered the full music video on BET 's 106 & Park .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The video begins with a woman walking in an underground tunnel , and she enters and elevator with Minaj , sporting a Cruella de Vil hairstyle , and other women . The elevator goes to what MTV News calls " Usher 's underground playground , " then soon finds Usher against a wall . A laptop is shown , and the video goes on to show people who are there , including Ciara playing a casino game . Then , girls are performing choreography on poles , as Usher sings his verses on the wall in the tunnel . Nicki Minaj then comes to sing her verse and starts talking to the unknown woman who was in the tunnel with Usher , and then Minaj guides the woman somewhere . Foxx makes appears near the end of the video , with a red light on him . Usher sings the rest of the song on the wall in the tunnel with choreography from the women , until the video fades out .
BET Sound Off complimented the video and that it stuck to the storyline of the song , stating " there 's only but so much you can do with a video like this " without the video being banned , being labelled offensive , or " resemble a video we ’ ve already seen . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting - Usher Raymond , Nicki Minaj , Polow da Don , Blac Elvis , Ester Dean , Stevie Wonder
Production - Blac Elvis , Polow da Don
Recording - Jay Stevenson
Mixing - Jaycen Joshua , assisted by Giancarlo Lino
Contains a sample from " Living For The City " , written and performed by Stevie Wonder , courtesy of Motown Records .
Source
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Parks and Recreation ( season 1 ) =
The first season of Parks and Recreation originally aired in the United States on the NBC television network between April 9 and May 14 , 2009 . Produced by Deedle @-@ Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios , the series was created by Greg Daniels and Michael Schur , who served as executive producers with Howard Klein .
The comedy series focuses on Leslie Knope ( Amy Poehler ) , the deputy director of the parks and recreation department of the fictional town of Pawnee , Indiana . The season consisted of six 22 @-@ minute episodes , all of which aired at 8 : 30 p.m. on Thursdays . Daniels and Schur conceived the show when NBC officials asked Daniels to produce a spin @-@ off of his comedy series The Office , on which Schur was a writer . During development , the creators decided the new show would be a stand @-@ alone series , though it would share the mockumentary style of The Office . Like that show , Parks and Recreation encouraged improvisation among its cast members .
Early test screenings were poor , and many critics and industry observers were skeptical about the show 's chances of success . The first season received generally mixed reviews , and several commentators found it too similar to The Office . The premiere episode was watched by 6 @.@ 77 million households , but the viewership declined almost every week in the Nielsen ratings . A season low of 4 @.@ 25 million households watched the final episode , " Rock Show " . Despite the low rating , " Rock Show " received the best reviews of the season and convinced some critics that the series had finally found the right tone .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main = = =
Amy Poehler as Leslie Knope , the deputy director of the Pawnee parks department , who has not let politics dampen her sense of optimism ; her ultimate goal is to become President of the United States . She has a strong love for her home town of Pawnee , and desires to use her position to improve it .
Rashida Jones as Ann Perkins , a nurse who begins a friendship with Leslie after she and her collaborate to turn an empty pit next to Ann 's house into a park . She slowly becomes more involved in the Pawnee government due to her friendship with Leslie .
Paul Schneider as Mark Brendanawicz , a city planner with the Pawnee municipal government . He has long been disillusioned with government after being unable to achieve his career ambitions . Leslie harbors a strong crush on Mark due to a romantic encounter they had several years ago , but Mark does not return her feelings . Mark assists Leslie with her plan to turn the pit next to Ann 's house into a park , despite believing that the plan has no chance of success .
Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford , Leslie 's self @-@ absorbed and underachieving subordinate . While he is an employee at the parks department , he cares little about his job , and is instead more focused on his entrepreneurial ambitions . He takes great pride in his personal appearance and regularly pursues women despite being married .
Nick Offerman as Ron Swanson , the cynical director of the parks department and Leslie 's boss . Due to his incredibly negative view of politics , he regularly works to make his department as inefficient as possible . This leads him to butt heads with Leslie on a number of occasions , as her philosophy regarding politics is the polar opposite . Despite that , both he and Leslie have a large amount of respect for one another .
Aubrey Plaza as April Ludgate , a young apathetic intern at the parks department . She cares little for her internship , and often shows annoyance at having to complete tasks . Due to her rebellious and emotionless attitude , she is often annoyed by her co @-@ workers , especially Leslie .
= = = Recurring = = =
Chris Pratt as Andy Dwyer , Ann 's boyfriend and lead singer of a band called " Mouse Rat " . Before the start of the series , Andy falls into the pit next to Ann 's house and breaks both his legs . This leads Ann to advocate for the pit to be filled in , beginning her friendship with Leslie . Andy is shown to be immature and lazy , making Ann pamper him non @-@ stop due to his broken legs .
Jim O 'Heir as Jerry Gergich , an incompetent and widely ridiculed employee at the parks department .
Retta as Donna Meagle , the no @-@ nonsense office manager at the parks department .
Pamela Reed as Marlene Griggs @-@ Knope , Leslie 's mother . Marlene is a successful politician and figure in Pawnee 's school system . Due to her success , Leslie constantly strives to impress her mother , despite the fact that Marlene has low expectations regarding her daughter 's success .
= = = Guest stars = = =
Alison Becker as Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep , a newspaper journalist for The Pawnee Journal .
Brian Huskey as Morgan , a sex offender .
Jim Meskimen as Martin Housely , an MC at many special events around Pawnee .
Lennon Parham as Kate Speevak , a mother who opposes the construction of Leslie 's park .
Phil Reeves as Paul Iaresco , the Pawnee city manager who supports Leslie 's plan for a new park .
Ian Roberts as Ian Winston , an angry citizen who complains about lewd behavior in one of Pawnee 's parks .
Cooper Thornton as Dr. Harris , Ann 's boss at Pawnee 's hospital .
Jama Williamson as Wendy Haverford , a surgeon and Tom 's attractive wife .
= = Episodes = =
† denotes an extended episode .
= = Production = =
= = = Crew = = =
Deedle @-@ Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios produced the first season of Parks and Recreation ; series creators Greg Daniels and Michael Schur were executive producers with Howard Klein . Dana Gould , Morgan Sackett and Amy Poehler produced , and Tucker Cawley and Norm Hiscock served as consulting producers . Daniel J. Goor was the executive story editor for the season , and Rachel Axler was a story editor . Dean Holland , an editor on The Office , also worked as an editor on Parks and Recreation 's first season . Mike Scully , a former executive producer and show runner for The Simpsons , joined Parks and Recreation as a consulting producer starting with the episode " Boys ' Club " . Cawley left the show at the end of the first season to create the short @-@ lived ABC sitcom Hank , starring Kelsey Grammer . Gould left to focus on his stand @-@ up career . The other producers all returned for the second season . Allison Jones , who worked as a casting director for The Office , served in the same capacity for Parks and Recreation , along with Nancy Perkins , for whom the character Ann Perkins was named .
The pilot episode was directed by Greg Daniels , and the season finale was directed by Michael Schur , his debut in the position . Other directors included Seth Gordon , director of the documentary The King of Kong : A Fistful of Quarters ; Jeffrey Blitz , who had directed numerous episodes of The Office ; Michael McCullers , co @-@ writer of the first two Austin Powers films , who directed Poehler in the comedy film Baby Mama ; and Beth McCarthy Miller , a longtime television director who worked with Poehler on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . Daniels and Schur wrote the pilot episode , and the rest of the season 's episodes were written by Axler , Goor , Hiscock , Cawley and Alan Yang .
= = = Cast = = =
A principal cast of six actors received star billing in the show 's first season . Poehler portrayed the lead character , Leslie Knope , the naive but well @-@ meaning , eager @-@ to @-@ please deputy director of the parks and recreation department of the fictional town of Pawnee , Indiana . Also among the cast were Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford , a sarcastic parks department employee , and Rashida Jones as Ann Perkins , a nurse who befriends Leslie and tries to help her turn a giant construction pit into a park . Daniels and Schur intended to cast Ansari and Jones ( who previously appeared in The Office as Karen Filippelli ) from the series ' earliest stages of development , but the ultimate Parks and Recreation concept did not coalesce until they learned Poehler would be available to star . After her recruitment , the general concept of the series was established and the script for the pilot episode was written .
Nick Offerman portrayed Ron Swanson , the director of the parks and recreation department , and Aubrey Plaza played April Ludgate , a sarcastic and uninterested college intern . The part was written specifically for Plaza . After meeting her , casting director Allison Jones told Schur , " I just met the weirdest girl I 've ever met in my life . You have to meet her and put her on your show . " Schur of meeting her , " Aubrey came over to my office and made me feel really uncomfortable for like an hour , and immediately I wanted to put her in the show , " although the writers were not immediately sure what direction her character would take . Rounding out the main cast was Paul Schneider , best known for his work in independent films such as Lars and the Real Girl and The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford . He was cast as Mark Brendanawicz , a city planner and Leslie 's unrequited love interest . She still harbors feelings for Mark from a one @-@ night sexual encounter years ago . Schneider said that early in the season he was insecure in the role because he was still trying to figure out the character 's motivations . Chris Pratt played Andy Dwyer , Ann 's well @-@ intentioned but lazy and simple @-@ minded boyfriend . Although Pratt appeared in every episode of season 1 , he was credited as guest star until the second season , when he was promoted to the main cast . Andy was originally supposed to appear only in the first season , but the producers liked Pratt so much that , almost immediately after casting him , they decided to make Andy a regular character if the show was renewed .
Jim O 'Heir and Retta made regular appearances as Jerry Gergich and Donna Meagle , two fellow employees at the Pawnee parks and recreation department . The personalities of the two characters did not become developed until the second season , but Schur said the Parks and Recreation staff liked the actors so decided to include them in the show and " figured we 'd work it out later " . Pamela Reed made several appearances as Marlene Griggs @-@ Knope , Leslie 's mother and an important figure in the Pawnee school system . Seth Gordon , who directed Reed in her first episode , " Canvassing " , said she improvised a great deal during her audition , creating many elements that helped define Marlene 's character . Jama Williamson appeared in " Rock Show " as Wendy , the attractive surgeon wife of Tom Haverford . Wendy would make numerous appearances in season 2 , during which it was revealed that the Haverfords have a green card marriage . Eric Edelstein guest starred in two season 1 episodes , " Canvassing " and " Boys ' Club " , as Lawrence , a disgruntled neighbor of Andy 's .
= = = Conception = = =
Immediately after Ben Silverman was named co @-@ chairman of NBC 's entertainment division in 2007 , he asked Greg Daniels to create a spin @-@ off of The Office , the half @-@ hour comedy Daniels adapted from the British comedy of the same name , created by Ricky Gervais . Daniels co @-@ created Parks and Recreation with Michael Schur , who had been a writer on The Office . Like Daniels , Schur had previously worked on the NBC sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . The two spent months considering ideas for the new series and debating whether to make it a stand @-@ alone show rather than a spin @-@ off . According to Daniels , they eventually abandoned the original spin @-@ off plan because they " couldn 't find the right fit " . They considered a series about a local government official trying to rebuild a political career following a humiliating public spectacle , but ultimately abandoned the idea . However , it was ultimately incorporated into the backstory for Ben Wyatt , the character played by Adam Scott who was added late in the second season .
After Poehler agreed to play the lead , they decided the show would revolve around an optimistic bureaucrat in small @-@ town government . The idea was partly inspired by the portrayal of local politics on the HBO drama series The Wire , as well as the renewed interest in and optimism about politics stemming from the 2008 United States presidential election . The staff was also drawn to the idea of building a show around a female relationship , namely Leslie Knope and Ann Perkins . Reports that Daniels and Schur were developing a show together led to press speculation that it would , in fact , be a spin @-@ off of The Office . The producers insisted their new series would be entirely independent . Nevertheless , their concept for it shared several elements with The Office , particularly the mockumentary approach , which allows the actors to look at and directly address the camera . The new show would also include documentary @-@ style interviews , in which the characters speak one @-@ on @-@ one with the camera crew about the day 's events . Again as with The Office , the new series would be scripted but improvisation would be encouraged among the actors .
The series was scheduled as a mid @-@ season replacement and rushed into production to meet the premiere date of April 9 , 2009 . As a result , when the series was featured at a panel during the January 2009 television critics press tour , NBC did not have a finished episode to screen , only a copy of the pilot script available for review . Some of the parts were still not cast and the series , which did not yet have a name , was referred to as The Untitled Amy Poehler Project or TUAPP . The name Public Service was considered , but ultimately rejected because network officials did not want to be accused of mocking the idea . In a commercial that aired during NBC 's Super Bowl coverage in February , it was announced that the series would be called Parks and Recreation .
= = = Writing = = =
The show 's writers spent time researching local California politics and attending Los Angeles City Council meetings . Schur said they observed that many community hearings were attended only by those opposed , often angrily , to the proposals under consideration . This confirmed his existing impression : " I 've been to some community meetings in my life , and it is often this feeling of utter sparseness . That nobody cares . " The depiction of public hearings in several Parks and Recreation episodes was inspired by this perspective , which was also the basis for the entire " Canvassing " episode . Schur asked urban planners in Claremont , California , whether efforts to turn a construction pit into a park could realistically take several months or longer . They told him that was entirely plausible , and that they had recently broken ground on a park that had been in various planning stages for 18 years . Schur said the pit project was conceived as a device to bring all the characters together , which was partially inspired by the way various characters in The Wire were brought together to work toward a common goal or project . The writers originally envisioned the pit becoming a park only in the series finale , although those plans were later changed and the pit was filled in during the second season .
The Pawnee residents vocally opposed to Leslie 's park proposal were based on real @-@ life California residents the show 's producers encountered who fought the construction of parks in their hometowns . One such group , the Committee for a Better Park , was actually opposed to parks in general , and the deceptiveness of their name and mission inspired the producers ' writing for those characters . The Parks and Recreation staff worked with a number of consultants familiar with local government work , including Scott Albright , a California city planner who provided feedback for the Mark Brendanawicz character . Inspiration for Ron Swanson came from an encounter Schur had in Burbank with an elected official , a Libertarian who favored minimal government and admitted , " I don 't really believe in the mission of my job . "
Daniels and Schur wrote the script for the pilot episode in mid @-@ 2008 . The original script portrayed Leslie and Mark as slightly less likable than they appeared in the final draft . For example , in the premiere episode , Mark asks Ron to greenlight the park because he is inspired by Leslie 's optimism and wants to help her . In the original script , Mark intervened because he was attracted to Ann and wanted an excuse to keep seeing her . The characters were made more likable in response to feedback the episode received from focus groups and press tour screenings . The first season episodes were written and developed relatively quickly after each other , and Schur said the staff was treating the entire six @-@ episode season as if it was one television pilot . When the season concluded , the writers had not decided what would happen with the developing romantic plotlines between Leslie and Mark , or Mark and Ann .
Parks and Recreation involves a mixture of written dialogue and comedic improvisation . In one example from the pilot episode , Aziz Ansari 's character attempts to flirt with Rashida Jones 's when she speaks at a parks and recreation public forum . Ansari continued to improvise long after completing his scripted dialogue . In the season 's final episode , " Rock Show " , Andy goes through a list of the previous names of his rock band . About half the band names used in the episode came directly from the script , but after actor Chris Pratt made up one on the spot , the directors encouraged him to keep improvising . Pratt said he went through about 200 fake band names during the take .
= = = Filming = = =
Parks and Recreation faced early production delays because Poehler was pregnant when she signed on ; filming had to be postponed until she gave birth . Principal photography began on February 18 , 2009 . The show was filmed in Southern California , and the construction pit featured throughout the season was dug by the episode 's producers at an undeveloped property in Van Nuys , a district of Los Angeles . The producers went door @-@ to @-@ door in the neighborhood , seeking residents ' permission for the dig . The pit was guarded 24 hours a day , and paparazzi regularly came to the set to take photos of the actors during filming . The exterior of the Pawnee government building , and several of the hallway scenes , were shot at Pasadena City Hall . The parks and recreation department interiors , as well as the Town Hall courtyard , were filmed on a sound stage . The set 's windows were outfitted with water systems to simulate falling rain , and the windowsills included fake pigeons . Scenes set in playgrounds and elsewhere outdoors were filmed on location in Los Angeles , and the public forum scenes in the premiere episode were filmed in one of the city 's middle schools .
Schur said the Parks and Recreation producers approach each episode as if they are filming a real documentary . They typically shoot enough for a 35- or 40 @-@ minute episode , then cut it down to 22 minutes , using the best material . Due to the improvisational acting and hand @-@ held camerawork , a great deal of extra footage is shot that must be discarded for the final cut . According to Poehler , " For every show , there could probably be a second show of stuff we 've edited out . " The original cut of the 22 @-@ minute pilot was 48 minutes long . The producers film about nine pages of the script each day , a large amount by U.S. television standards .
Although the series shares a mockumentary style with The Office , Daniels and Schur sought to establish a slightly different tone in the camerawork of the pilot episode . The one @-@ on @-@ one interviews , for example , sometimes feature two separate camera angles on the same person ; the footage is intercut to create the final version of the scene . This technique was inspired by The Five Obstructions , a 2003 experimental documentary directed by Lars Von Trier and Jørgen Leth , which Daniels watched at the suggestion of actor Paul Schneider . Parks and Recreation also makes frequent use of the jump cut technique . For instance , one scene in the pilot episode repeatedly jump cuts between brief clips in which Leslie seeks permission from Ron to pursue the pit project . Early in the season , editor Dean Holland developed a technique that would be used throughout the series . During a scene in " The Reporter " in which Leslie reacts to quotes read to her by the journalist , Poehler improvised a number of jokes , many of which were ultimately going to be cut from the episode . Holland thought they were all funny , so he created a brief montage intercutting several of the lines . The producers sought to lend authenticity to the fictional Pawnee setting by incorporating real @-@ life Indiana elements . They contacted the Bloomington – based Upland Brewing Company and asked for empty beer bottles and labels to be used as background props .
The six episodes of the first season aired Thursdays at 8 : 30 p.m. The premiere was shown between two season 5 episodes of The Office : " Dream Team " and " Michael Scott Paper Company " . " The Reporter " was originally supposed to be the season 's second episode , but the schedule was changed and " Canvassing " , originally planned as the third episode , was shown second instead .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
The first season of Parks and Recreation started to receive criticism before the premiere episode aired . According to a March 18 , 2009 , report that was leaked to television journalist Nikki Finke , focus groups responded poorly to a rough @-@ cut version of the pilot . Many focus group members felt the show was a " carbon copy " of The Office . Some found it predictable , slow paced and lacking in character development , and felt the beginning of the episode needed to better explain the setting and plot . Some viewers said the show lacked strong male characters , particularly a " datable " lead . On the other hand , viewers said the show 's portrayal of government bureaucracy was " very believable " and had the potential to generate amusing situations . While Poehler 's character drew mixed comments , the actress herself was " well liked " . The early feedback left many critics and industry observers skeptical about the show 's chances of success . In response to the leak , Ben Silverman , co @-@ chairman of NBC Entertainment , said the feedback on rough cuts is usually negative , even with ultimately successful shows . Schur said that the pilot had been completely re @-@ edited at least four times since the focus group described in the report were held .
The first season received generally mixed to negative reviews . Many critics said the series was too similar to The Office and its mock documentary style . In particular , several commentators said the naive and well @-@ meaning Leslie Knope character too closely resembled The Office protagonist Michael Scott , the well @-@ intentioned but dimwitted manager of a paper company sales office . Maureen Ryan , television reviewer for the Chicago Tribune , said Parks and Recreation surpassed the Friends spin @-@ off Joey as the " worst example of NBC 's tendency to extend its franchises well beyond what is desirable or logical . " Daniels said of the comparisons between Leslie Knope and Michael Scott , " My sense is that if we had built ' Parks and Recreation ' around a 90 @-@ year @-@ old Maasai warrior people would still have said , ' He reminds me of Michael Scott ' . There was just no way to escape it . " Poehler acknowledged that there was some validity to the comparisons , but felt that the series overcame them with the production of " Rock Show " : " I think it was something we had to work through in the beginning , and I ’ m kind of hoping we ’ re on the other side of that and people will start to judge the show on its own , for what it is and realize it ’ s just a completely different world in a similar style . "
Salon.com writer Jonah Weiner said of the first season , " Each episode wound up more or less the same way , with the humiliation of Poehler 's quixotic , adorably doofy bureaucrat " . Some critics said the show 's characters and overall tone were too mean @-@ spirited in the early episodes . While reviewers praised various cast members in individual episodes , some said the supporting characters in general needed to be more fully developed and provided with better material . Several wrote that some of the subplots were too predictable and risked becoming stale , such as Leslie 's long @-@ standing crush on Mark and the question of whether Andy and Ann would keep dating . Others said Leslie was too unintelligent and ditzy . Schur said that was not the intention of the writers , and the feedback prompted changes to the character in the second season . Years after the first season ended , Schur said he believed much of the early criticism stemmed from the fact that audiences were not yet familiar with the characters , and he believed viewers who revisited the episodes enjoyed them more because they had gotten to know the characters better as the series progressed .
Not all reviews were negative . Several commentators said the show had potential , and pointed out that early episodes of The Office had been flat before the series found its footing . The finale , " Rock Show " , received the best reviews of the season . Several commentators declared that Parks and Recreation had finally found the right tone both generally and for the Leslie Knope character in particular . Several reviewers , even those who did not enjoy the show , applauded Poehler 's comedic abilities and said her talent , timing and likability helped elevate the series above some of its flaws . Reviewers also said they particularly liked Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford , and Chris Pratt as Andy Dwyer . Some commentators approved of the Pawnee setting as offering a good opportunity to satirize small @-@ town government and politics .
= = = Ratings = = =
Parks and Recreation 's premiere was seen in 6 @.@ 77 million households . Media outlets described this as a solid result , comparable to the average Nielsen ratings for 30 Rock , another Thursday @-@ night show on NBC . However , viewership declined almost every week over the rest of the season , culminating in a season low of 4 @.@ 25 million households for the final episode . The average first season viewership was 5 @.@ 45 million households per episode . The Office experienced similarly poor ratings during its first season and later became a success . However , the low viewership presented a greater challenge for Parks and Recreation because NBC now trailed CBS , ABC and Fox in the ratings , and the move of comedian Jay Leno from The Tonight Show to a variety show in NBC 's 10 p.m. weeknight slot left less room on the network 's primetime schedule .
Retta said acting during the first season was stressful because it was unclear how long the show would stay on the air , due to the poor reviews and ratings . Likewise , Chris Pratt said there was a constant feeling among the Parks staff that the show could be canceled at any time : " At the end of season one Parks and Rec , you hug the people really , really fucking tight because you just don 't know . "
= = DVD release = =
The first season of Parks and Recreation was released on DVD in the United States on September 8 , 2009 . The DVD included all six episodes , as well as an " Extended Producer 's Cut " of the season finale , " Rock Show " . The disc also included cast and crew commentary tracks for each episode , as well as about 30 minutes of deleted scenes .
= Millennium ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the serial crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium commenced airing in the United States on October 25 , 1996 , concluding on May 16 , 1997 , and consisting of twenty @-@ two episodes . It tells the story of retired FBI Agent Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) . Black has moved to Seattle , Washington with his family and has begun working with a mysterious organization known only as the Millennium Group . He investigates cases with members of the Group and the Seattle Police Department , contributing his remarkable capability of relating to the monsters responsible for horrific crimes . He finds that his daughter has inherited the same " gift " that he has , while the cases become increasingly more personal .
Critics received season one well . Although the show got the highest number of viewers for a pilot episode for the Fox Network at the time , it steadily dropped in the ratings , which led to it losing the Sunday slot to its sister show , The X @-@ Files . The main cast of the show were Henriksen as Frank Black and Megan Gallagher as Catherine Black .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The original idea behind Millennium came from an episode of The X @-@ Files Chris Carter had written about a serial killer . The episode got Carter thinking about the " monsters " who lurked in the shadows . Later , he started to flesh out a character which would become Frank Black , but he was busy working with other projects at the time . In the mid @-@ 1990s , after the success of The X @-@ Files , the Fox Network asked Carter if he could create another show for them .
Originally , the show was planned to include a new " murder mystery " each week , at the same time having a comprehensive storyline . So Carter created the idea of the new millennium , which could give the show its own " feel " . He felt he " could capitalise " and at the same time have a new murder mystery every week with a " millennial " twist to it . He also wanted to explore " evil " , not the " scientific approach " which was the psychological explanation of " evil " . Carter wanted to explore evil through an " unscientific approach " , an exploration where " the Bible " played an important role . While clearly stating that the show was not supposed to be heavily grounded in religious text , he felt in many ways that the Bible explained " things on various levels " and " not just in the modern scientific way . "
= = = Casting and characters = = =
Chris Carter had envisioned Lance Henriksen portraying the character of Frank Black , long before he was ever contacted . Although Carter 's colleagues responded positively to the selection , the Fox Network wanted someone younger to take the lead part . Fox asked William Hurt to play the lead role , but after finding out that Hurt had no interest in acting on television , Henriksen got the part .
When Henriksen first got the script , he mistook it for a film because of its " powerful " story . He was not fond of the idea of participating in a television project . Henriksen contacted Carter about the character ; his first question was " How are you going to make this hero a hero ? I mean , it is so dark , how are you going to handle this ? " Carter replied saying that Frank was a hero because he was able to " stand @-@ up " against all of this . Henriksen was also worried about the dark " feel " of the show , saying that all shows needs some glimpse of light at the end of the tunnel . According to Carter " The yellow house " was the light , which Henriksen later agreed upon .
Studio executive Ken Horton was very pleased with Megan Gallagher 's acting experiences . | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
meant that these letters , like all of his communications , were written with no attempt at concealment whatsoever – no code or invisible ink – and were composed entirely en clair in ordinary written English or German .
On 7 September , Lody went to a cycle shop at Haymarket Terrace to hire a bicycle . He told the owner 's daughter that he was an American from New York who was sojourning in Edinburgh after the outbreak of war had spoiled a holiday in Europe . He was staying there for a few days while he waited for a berth to become available on a ship to America , as all the transatlantic vessels were fully booked with returnees . He said that he wanted to cycle to places around Edinburgh such as Rosyth and Queensferry and arranged to hire a bicycle . The owner 's daughter warned him that some roads were now guarded and he should stop immediately if challenged by a sentry , to which he replied , " Oh , I am only going to be cycling about for pleasure ! "
For the next week , Lody followed a routine of staying in his room until noon , going out for the afternoon and returning between 5 and 7 pm . He sometimes went out on his bicycle again in the evening . He spent his time looking for information and on 14 September sent a second envelope to Stockholm . This time it was merely a wrapper containing a second envelope , inside which was a letter addressed to the editor of a Berlin newspaper , Ullstein Verlag , in which Lody said :
Enclosed cutting from the Edinburgh The News of the World . Typical for the English way of causing ill @-@ feeling and at the same time characteristic of the perfect ignorance of journalists in this country regarding the difference between military weapons and military tools . But this does not make any difference , the population here believe everything . Yours truly Nazi .
This too was intercepted and photographed but , as it was a relatively harmless letter , it was forwarded on while the British authorities continued to monitor Lody 's communications in the hope of finding out more about the German espionage network . The day after sending it , on 15 September , Lody travelled to London to reconnoitre the city 's war preparations . Travelling light , he stayed for two nights at the Ivanhoe Hotel in Bloomsbury ( now the Bloomsbury Street Hotel ) and set to work finding information about the security measures at public buildings . He said later that he had not actually observed the buildings himself but had obtained cuttings from newspapers , which he intended to send to Berlin . He also wrote a report on 16 September , but claimed that he had never sent it – it was never found by the British – as he felt that it was poorly written .
Lody returned to Edinburgh on 17 September , taking the train from King 's Cross to Edinburgh . He met a young Scottish woman , Ida McClyment , gave her his card and talked with her a while before going into another carriage to smoke . There he overheard a conversation between two men , one apparently a submariner travelling to the naval base at Rosyth and the other a sailor who talked about Harwich . Lody later professed his surprise at how the two men were " talking in a rather free way , considering the present times " . One of the men talked about the difficulties of serving on a submarine , while the other asked Lody : " What country are you ? Are you from the other side ? " Lody replied , " Yes , I am an American . " They began discussing the war and talked about the recent sinking of the cruiser HMS Pathfinder , which had become the first ship ever to be sunk by a torpedo fired by a submarine . The sailor told Lody , " We are going to put out mines as the Germans have done so . We have a big surprise in store for the Germans . " Lody was not convinced and , after shaking hands with the sailor , left the smoking car .
Lody went back to his lodgings at Drumsheugh Gardens and continued to walk and cycle around the area . He made the acquaintance of two girls he met on Princes Street and went out with them on a couple of evenings . He gave up cycling after an accident on 25 September , in which he collided with a bicycle being ridden by one of his landlady 's friends while riding from Peebles to Edinburgh , causing her " some little injury " . He returned his damaged bicycle to the shop where he had rented it .
On 27 September , Lody wrote another letter in German to " Burchard " , enclosing press cuttings about the chivalry of British seamen and the sinking of the cruisers HMS Aboukir , Cressy and Hogue . The letter included a good deal of detailed information about naval movements and fortifications , such as the artillery defences of North Berwick , Kinghorn and North and South Queensferry . It was clear by now to Lody that his mission was not going successfully . The decisive naval battle that the German Admiralty had anticipated had not happened , and Lody was becoming increasingly fearful for his personal security . He said later :
I was in Edinburgh and I had nothing to do , and simply spent my time . I was terribly nervous . I was unaccustomed to it , and I was frightened walking about Edinburgh . I had this suit made . I was frightened to go about .
The environment in Lody 's boarding @-@ house was becoming increasingly hostile ; his hosts were growing suspicious of him . Their doubts grew as the ongoing espionage scare progressed . He had stayed there for more than three weeks and his evasive answers when questioned about when he expected to leave did not satisfy them . When they said that his accent appeared to be " more German than American " , he knew it was time to go . He wrote in his letter of 27 September that " the fear of espionage is very great and every day I see some Germans going to Redford Barracks under the escort of a soldier ... It is advisable for me to vanish for a few days , and to change my place of abode . I can only hope that my telegraphic and letter information have duly arrived . " He told his controllers that he would go to Ireland , disembarking at Dublin as it was the only Irish port not closed to foreigners . Despite his hopes , his letter was intercepted by the British ; this time it was retained as the information therein was of genuine military value .
= = Journey to Ireland and capture = =
Lody left his boarding @-@ house hastily on the morning of 27 September and stayed overnight at the Roxburgh Hotel in Edinburgh . He left some of his luggage there , telling the manageress that he would be away for about eight days , and travelled the next day to Liverpool , where he took a room at the London and North Western Hotel on Lime Street . He bought a ticket to Ireland and took the SS Munster to Dublin via Kingstown ( now Dún Laoghaire ) . It stopped at Holyhead in Anglesey , where an immigration official challenged Lody . His American travel documents proved sufficient to demonstrate his bona fides , and he proceeded on his way .
Lody 's controllers realised that his mission was not going according to plan and attempted to get in touch with him to provide assistance . A letter dated 8 September was sent to Charles A. Inglis c / o Thomas Cook , Edinburgh , but he never collected it , and may never have been aware of it . Another German agent , Paul Daelen , was ordered to go to Britain and provide Lody with a new cover address . Daelen reached England too late . Lody had already travelled to Ireland without giving his controllers a means of contacting him .
During his journey to Ireland , Lody met a Minneapolis doctor , John William Lee , who had been studying eye , ear , nose and throat diseases in Vienna before the outbreak of war had compelled him to leave . Lee was planning to travel back to New York aboard the RMS Baltic , leaving Queenstown ( now Cobh ) on 7 October , and intended to spend a few days exploring Ireland before his departure . Lody asked where Lee was planning to stay in Dublin ; Lee told him that it would probably be the Gresham Hotel on Sackville Street , to which Lody replied , " All right , let 's go there . " They travelled together to the hotel , booked into separate rooms , had dinner together and went to the Empire Theatre . Lody told Lee that he had been based in Germany working for an American adding @-@ machine company . When the conversation turned to the war , Lody opined that the German army was a very well @-@ trained body of strong @-@ bodied and enduring men , and that it would be hard to beat them . The following day they had breakfast together and went for a walk in Phoenix Park .
While Lee was exchanging some money at Thomas Cook on 30 September , Lody wrote a further letter in German to " Burchard " , clarifying his reasons for coming to Ireland and describing what he had seen on his journey . He explained :
I think it is absolutely necessary to disappear for some time because several people have approached me in a disagreeable manner . That does not happen to me only , but several Americans here have told me that they are sharply watched . Fear of espionage is very great and one smells a spy in every stranger .
Lody described anti @-@ Zeppelin precautions he had heard about in London and provided details of the conversions of the Cunard Line steamships RMS Aquitania and Lusitania for their wartime service , which he had seen while in Liverpool . Once again the letter was intercepted by the British and not allowed to go forward to Stockholm . Lody and Lee spent another evening in Dublin before going on a day @-@ trip by coach to Glendalough to see the lough and the surrounding countryside . On 2 October they parted with an agreement to meet again in Killarney the following day . Lee travelled to Drogheda , where he stayed overnight , while Lody went straight to Killarney and found a room at the Great Southern Hotel ( now the Malton Hotel ) .
Lody was unaware that his latest letters had galvanised the British authorities into action . They had hitherto been content with merely monitoring his communications but the militarily significant content of his most recent letters caused them to consider him now to be a serious threat . It did not take them long to catch up with him . His lack of even basic security precautions had left the authorities with a trail of clues that enabled them to track him down in less than a day .
While Lody was travelling to Killarney on the morning of 2 October , an Edinburgh City Police detective was ordered to enquire at hotels for a person named Inglis . The detective found that Lody had stayed at the Roxburgh Hotel and was shown his luggage , which still had a label attached bearing the name and address Charles A. Inglis , Bedford House , 12 Drumsheugh Gardens . An interview with the proprietor of the boarding @-@ house where Lody had stayed enabled the police to reconstruct his movements , while the manageress of the Roxburgh was able to tell them that he had gone to Ireland .
The police sent a report to Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Vernon Kell of MO5 ( g ) on the same day to summarise their findings , and put a constant watch on the Roxburgh in case Lody returned . In the meantime , MO5 ( g ) contacted the Irish Sea ports to find whether Lody had passed through them . Affirmative answers came back from Liverpool and Holyhead . Later that same afternoon MO5 ( g ) sent a telegram to the Assistant Inspector General of the Royal Irish Constabulary in Dublin , which read :
Suspected German Agent believed to be passing in name of CHARLES INGLIS as American Subject travelled from Edinburgh after 26 Sept via Liverpool & Holyhead where his passport noted and name taken . Stayed last night Gresham Hotel Dublin believed moving on to Belfast . Should be arrested and all documents seized minutest search necessary probably has code with him . Important to get specimens of his handwriting if possible . Kindly wire result .
The RIC made the investigation a top priority and replied to London at 7 @.@ 23 pm on 2 October :
Dr John Lea [ sic ] of United States arrived in Dublin on 29th with Charles Inglis and stayed at same hotel Inglis has gone to the Country today Lea will join him there tomorrow should he be arrested also description 35 years five feet eight sallow complexion darkened cropped moustache . Had a letter from Austria with him . Inspector General RIC .
At 9 @.@ 45 pm , District Inspector Cheeseman of the RIC arrived at the Great Southern Hotel in Killarney with a group of constables . He found Lody 's name in the visitors ' book and went to his room , but did not find him there . Returning to the foyer , Cheeseman saw Lody entering the hotel . He said : " Mr. Inglis , I presume ? " to which Lody replied , " Yes , what do you want ? " Cheeseman asked him to come to his hotel room and noted that Lody looked upset and frightened . He arrested Lody under the provisions of the Defence of the Realm Act 1914 ( DORA ) as a suspected German agent , prompting Lody to exclaim , " What is this ? Me , a German agent ? Take care now ; I am an American citizen . " When he was searched , his American identity documents were found along with £ 14 in German gold , 705 Norwegian krone and a small notebook . The latter listed British ships that had been sunk in the North Sea , names and addresses in Hamburg and Berlin and a possible cypher key . It also included copies of the four letters that he had sent to Stockholm . His bag contained a jacket that contained a tailor 's ticket reading " J. Steinberg , Berlin , C.H. Lody , 8 @.@ 5 @.@ 14 " .
Throughout all this , Lody 's demeanour was relatively calm after the initial shock . Cheeseman observed that Lody only appeared uneasy when his notebook was being examined ; the inspector later commented that Lody was not the usual class of man he was accustomed to dealing with , but admitted that he had never met a man under precisely similar circumstances . Cheeseman had been educated in Germany , knew the language and felt able to recognise a German accent ; he noticed that Lody 's American accent slipped from time to time , presumably due to stress , and became convinced that the man was German .
Lee was also arrested but was released without charge after two days when the investigation cleared him of any involvement in Lody 's espionage . He complained about his treatment and the British authorities ' refusal to let him see an American consul , and promised to take the matter up with the US State Department on his return . An MO5 ( g ) officer named R.H. Price smoothed things over with him on his release on 4 October , explaining what had prompted his arrest and paying his fare back to his hotel . Price reported , " I think he was quite soothed and he shook hands with me on parting . " Lee was unaware that the police had already recommended that both he and " Inglis " should be court @-@ martialled and shot if found guilty .
= = Legal complications = =
Lody was taken back to London where he was detained in Wellington Barracks under the watch of the 3rd Battalion , the Grenadier Guards . A meeting of the Cabinet on 8 October decided to try him for " war treason " , a decision that has been described as " legally , very curious " by the legal historian A. W. B. Simpson . He was not charged with espionage under either of the two relevant statutes , the Official Secrets Act 1911 or DORA . The principal reason lay in the wording of the Hague Convention of 1907 , which states : " A person can only be considered a spy when , acting clandestinely or on false pretences , he obtains or endeavours to obtain information in the zone of operations of a belligerent , with the intention of communicating it to the hostile party . " Lody was operating in the British Isles , outside the zone of operations , and was therefore not covered by this definition . Such circumstances had been anticipated by the most recent edition of the British Manual of Military Law , published in February 1914 , which recommended that individuals in such cases should be tried for war treason : " Indeed in every case where it is doubtful whether the act consists of espionage , once the fact is established that an individual has furnished or attempted to furnish information to the enemy , no time need be wasted in examining whether the case corresponds exactly to the definition of espionage . "
War treason as defined by the Manual covered a very wide range of offences , including " obtaining , supplying and carrying of information to the enemy " or attempting to do so . Its application in Lody 's case , rather than the government relying on DORA , was the result of a misunderstanding by the War Office . It had been misinformed in August 1914 that an unidentified German had been captured with a radio transmitter and interned in Bodmin Prison . In fact , no such person existed , but the story led Lord Kitchener , the Secretary of State for War , to ask the Lord Chancellor , Lord Haldane , for advice on how the supposed spy should be dealt with . Haldane stated that the individual should be put before a court martial and executed if found guilty . He wrote :
If an alien belligerent is caught in this country spying or otherwise waging war he can , in my opinion , be Court Martialled and executed . The mere fact that he is resident here and has what is popularly called a domicile is not enough ... When war breaks out an alien becomes prima facie an outlaw ... if he is a spy or takes up arms ... and he becomes a person without legal rights . By international law he must have a trial before punishment but the trial may be by Court Martial . He cannot invoke the jurisdiction of the civil courts .
This theory was relied upon by the Cabinet and the Army Council , which ordered on 9 August that Lody was to be tried by a court martial . There was some confusion about whether Haldane had really meant a court martial rather than a military tribunal , and the Adjutant General questioned whether DORA had limited the maximum punishment for espionage to penal servitude for life , rather than the death penalty . Further confusion was caused by the fact that Lody 's identity had not yet been fully established . If he really was an American citizen , he was not an " alien belligerent " and could not be court martialled .
On 21 October 1914 the Cabinet decided that Lody should be handed over to the civil police and tried by the High Court . After Lody then made a statement voluntarily admitting his real name and his status as a German subject , the Cabinet determined the following day that the original plan would be followed after all . The venue for the court martial was to be the Middlesex Guildhall in Parliament Square ; Major General Lord Cheylesmore would preside , sitting with eight other officers . In hindsight , according to Simpson , it is doubtful whether the charge and eventual sentence were lawful . A later revision of the Manual of Military Law rejected the view that a spy commits a war crime and alluded to the Lody case in suggesting that war treason was not an applicable charge in such cases . Simpson comments that " it is fairly plain that Lody 's execution was unlawful under domestic and international law . " This objection was not raised during Lody 's trial but it would not have done him any good in any case , as there was no appeal for a decision made by a court martial . In the event , Lody 's trial was unique . No other spies captured in Britain were tried for war treason under international law . DORA was amended in November 1914 to permit a death sentence to be imposed . All of the subsequent 26 courts martial of accused spies were heard under DORA , resulting in 10 executions .
Another question that arose was whether Lody 's trial should be held in public or in camera . Captain Reginald Drake , MO5 ( g ) ' s head of counter @-@ espionage , wanted Lody to be tried secretly so that he could implement " an ingenious method for conveying false information to the enemy which depended on their not knowing which of their agents had been caught . " He was overruled , as the British Government believed that it would be more advantageous to publicise the threat of German spies to remove any doubt in the public mind that German espionage posed a serious threat in the UK . It was hoped that this would also generate support for the intelligence and censorship apparatus that was rapidly taking shape and would deter possible imitators . In the event , Lody 's was the only spy trial in either World War held in public in the UK . In pursuing this policy the Government sacrificed the chance to " turn " captured spies and turn them into assets for the British intelligence services . It was an opportunity that was taken in the Second World War when the highly successful Double @-@ Cross System was implemented .
= = Trial = =
The court martial was held over three days between Friday 30 October and Monday 2 November . Lody was charged with two offences of war treason concerning the two letters he had sent from Edinburgh on 27 September and Dublin on 30 September . In both letters , the charge sheet stated that Lody had sought " to convey to a belligerent enemy of Great Britain , namely Germany " information relating to the UK 's defences and preparations for war . He pleaded not guilty to both charges . He made an immediate impression on observers when he first appeared in court . The Daily Express reporter described him as :
a South German in appearance – a short , well @-@ built man of thirty @-@ eight [ sic - actually 37 ] , with a broad , low forehead that slopes backward , black hair parted in the middle and brushed backward , a broad , short nose , large , deep @-@ set , dark eyes with a look of keen intelligence in their depths , and tight @-@ set lips .
Sir Archibald Bodkin , the Director of Public Prosecutions , set out the case for the prosecution . The evidence was overwhelming ; the prosecution case highlighted the contents of Lody 's notebook and the luggage that he had left at the Roxburgh Hotel , and called a series of witnesses , including the elderly Scottish woman who ran the boarding @-@ house in which he had stayed in Edinburgh and the fashionably dressed Ida McClyment , who caused a stir when she described her meeting with Lody aboard the London to Edinburgh train . Bodkin did not read the incriminating letters aloud , due to the sensitivity of their content , but described them in general terms . The witnesses testified about their interactions with Lody and identified him as the man who had posed as " Charles A. Inglis " , though the proprietress of the Edinburgh boarding @-@ house experienced some difficulty . When she " was asked if she could see ' Charles A. Inglis ' in court , [ she ] looked everywhere except at the dock . Lody , who was sitting , stood up and gently waved his hands to attract her attention , while he smiled broadly and almost broke into laughter at the absurdity of the situation . "
Late on 30 October , Lody wrote to a friend in Omaha to tell him about his feelings before he began his defence . He told his friend :
I am prepared to make a clean breast of all this trouble , but I must protect my friends in the Fatherland and avoid as much possible humiliation for those who have been near and dear to me .
I am in the Tower [ sic – actually Wellington Barracks ] . Hourly while I am confined here an unfriendly guard paces the corridor . My counsellor [ George Elliot QC ] is an attorney of standing , but I ofttimes feel that he is trying to do his duty to his country rather than defend his client . Next week I shall know my fate , although there can hardly be a doubt as to what it is to be . I have attended to such legal matters as were necessary , but whether my wishes will ever be carried out I do not know .
You may have an opportunity to say a word to some of those for whom I feel an interest . Ask them to judge me not harshly , When they hear of me again , doubtless my body shall have been placed in concrete beneath this old tower , or my bones shall have made a pyre . But I shall have served my country . Maybe some historian will record me among the despised class of war victims … Doubtless my demise shall be heralded as that of a spy , but I have spiritual consolation . Others have suffered and I must accept the reward of fate .
The second day of the trial was interrupted when a young man whom The Times described as being " of foreign appearance " was arrested and removed from the court on the orders of Captain Reginald " Blinker " Hall , the Director of Naval Intelligence . The interloper was one Charles Stuart Nairne , an Irishman and former Royal Navy lieutenant whom Hall spotted in the public gallery and considered to be " either a lunatic or a very dangerous person " . As Nairne was being removed into military custody , he attempted to shake Lody 's hand in the dock .
Lody was then called to give evidence . It was revealed to the public for the first time that he was an officer in the Imperial German Navy and that he had been ordered by a superior officer to spy in Britain . When he was asked for the name of that individual , his composure temporarily deserted him , as The Times ' reporter recorded :
For the space of perhaps half a minute the prisoner hesitated , and then , in a voice broken by gradually deepening emotion , said , " I have pledged my word not to give that name . I cannot do it . Where names are found in my documents I certainly do not feel I have broken my word , but that name I cannot give . I have given my word of honour . "
The prisoner sobbed a moment , then turned pale , and gazed before him in a dazed manner . Recovering his self @-@ possession he said , " I beg pardon ; my nerves have given way . " A glass of water was handed up to the prisoner .
Lody stated that he had been sent to the UK " to remain until the first [ naval ] encounter had taken place between the two Powers , and to send accurate information as regards the actual losses of the British Fleet " , as well as to observe what he could of Fleet movements off the coast . The court martial went into an in camera session while sensitive evidence was being heard . Lody claimed that he had asked in August to be erased from military service on the grounds of poor health and to be allowed to travel to the United States . This was refused , he went on , but a member of naval intelligence whom he had previously never met coaxed him into undertaking a mission in the UK on the condition that he could go to the US afterwards . Lody told the tribunal that he was not pressured but that " I have never been a coward in my life and I certainly would not be a shirker " , and that he had persisted with his mission because " once a man has promised to do a thing he does it , that is the understanding . " His services were provided " absolutely as an honour and free " , while he had never intended to be a spy : " I was pressed for secret service , but not as a spy – oh , no . If that would have been mentioned to me at Berlin I surely would have refused . The word in the sentence , I do not think it goes together . " He claimed that he had " pledged my word of honour " not to name his controller .
Little of this was true , but at the time the British had no way of knowing this . The files of the Admiralstab in Berlin show that he was approached by N , rather than volunteering for intelligence service , entered their employment as early as May 1914 ( rather than in August as he claimed ) , received regular pay rather than being unpaid , and intended to return to Berlin on completing his mission . It is unknown whether he really had any intention of going to the US , and there is no indication from the Admiralstab files that he had been asked to keep his controller 's name a secret . After hearing Lody 's evidence the court martial was adjourned until the following Monday .
On the final day of the court martial , 2 November 1914 , the prosecution and defence put forward their final arguments . Lody 's counsel argued for mitigation on the grounds that Lody had " [ come ] to this country actuated by patriotic German motives , entirely paying his own expenses and carrying his life in his hands , to fulfil the mandate of his supporters . " As one newspaper report put it ,
He wished to go down to his final fate as a brave man , an honest man , and as an open @-@ hearted man . There was no suggestion of an attempt at pleading for mercy or for favourable treatment . " Englishmen will not deny him respect for the courage he has shown , " said Mr. Elliott . " His own grandfather , an old soldier , held a fortress against Napoleon … He knows that he carried his life in his hands , and he stands before the Court in that spirit … And he will face the decision of the Court like a man . " Lody was asked if he had any statement to make but said , " I have nothing more to say . "
The finding of guilt and sentence of death were pronounced in camera , without Lody present , before the court martial was adjourned .
= = Execution = =
No public announcement was made of the court martial 's verdict . Instead , the following day , the General Officer Commanding London District was sent instructions ordering the sentence to be promulgated on 5 November , with Lody being told , and for the sentence to be carried out at least 18 hours later . Great secrecy surrounded the proceedings which , when combined with the short timeframe , caused problems for the GOC in finding a suitable place of execution . He contacted Major @-@ General Henry Pipon , the Major of the Tower of London , to tell him :
I have been directed to carry out the execution of the German Spy who has been convicted by General Court Martial . The time given me has been short , so short that I have had only a few hours to arrange and have been directed to keep it secret . Under the circumstances the Tower is the only possible place and has been approved by the War Office .
While the Tower may have been " the only possible place " , in some respects it was a strange choice . It had not been used as a state prison for many years and the last execution there – that of Lord Lovat , the Jacobite rebel – had taken place in 1747 . It was one of London 's most popular tourist attractions , recording over 400 @,@ 000 visitors a year by the end of the 19th century , and remained open to tourists even on the day of Lody 's execution . During the Tower 's heyday , executions had been carried out in the open air on Tower Hill or Tower Green , but Lody 's execution was to take place at the Tower 's rifle range located in the eastern part of the Outer Ward between Martin and Constable Towers , behind the Outer Curtain wall and out of public sight . The Tower 's custodians , the Yeomen Warders ( " Beefeaters " ) , had long since become tourist guides rather than active @-@ duty soldiers , so eight men were selected from the 3rd Battalion , to carry out the sentence .
Lody was informed of his impending execution on the evening of 5 November and was brought to the Tower in a police van . According to the Daily Express , he " received the news calmly and with no sign of surprise . " He was held in the Casemates on the west side of the Tower , an area where the Yeoman Warders now live . His last meal was probably prepared by one of the Warders ' wives , as the Tower had no proper accommodation or dining facilities for prisoners . While at the Tower he wrote a couple of final letters . One was addressed to the Commanding Officer of the 3rd Battalion to thank his captors for their care of him :
Sir ,
I feel it my duty as a German officer to express my sincere thanks and appreciation towards the staff of officers and men who were in charge of my person during my confinement .
Their kind and considered treatment has called my highest esteem and admiration as regards good fellowship even towards the enemy and if I may be permitted , I would thank you for making this known to them .
The Guards apparently never saw the letter ; the Adjutant General instead directed the letter to be placed in a War Office file rather than being sent to the regiment .
Lody also wrote a letter to his sister , which was published posthumously in the Frankfurter Zeitung newspaper , in which he told her and his other relatives :
My dear ones ,
I have trusted in God and He has decided . My hour has come , and I must start on the journey through the Dark Valley like so many of my comrades in this terrible War of Nations . May my life be offered as a humble offering on the altar of the Fatherland .
A hero 's death on the battlefield is certainly finer , but such is not to be my lot , and I die here in the Enemy 's country silent and unknown , but the consciousness that I die in the service of the Fatherland makes death easy .
The Supreme Court @-@ Martial of London has sentenced me to death for Military Conspiracy . Tomorrow I shall be shot here in the Tower . I have had just Judges , and I shall die as an Officer , not as a spy .
Farewell . God bless you ,
Hans .
Lody also left instructions that his ring was to be forwarded to his ex @-@ wife , which was carried out after his execution .
At dawn on the morning of 6 November 1914 , in cold , foggy and bleak weather , Lody was fetched from his cell by the Assistant Provost @-@ Marshal , Lord Athlumney . He asked , " I suppose that you will not care to shake hands with a German spy ? " , to which the reply came , " No . But I will shake hands with a brave man . " A small procession formed up for the short journey to the rifle range , comprising Lody and his armed escort , the Tower 's Chaplain and the eight @-@ man firing squad . John Fraser , one of the Yeoman Warders , witnessed it and later described it :
Nobody liked this sort of thing . It was altogether too cold @-@ blooded for an ordinary stomach ( particularly that of a soldier , who hates cold @-@ bloodedness ) to face with equanimity , and it is not too much to say that , of that sad little procession , the calmest and most composed member was the condemned man himself .
For the Chaplain , in particular , it was a bad time . He had never had a similar experience , and his voice had a shake in it as he intoned the solemn words of the Burial Service over the living form of the man it most concerned . . .
The escort and the firing @-@ party , too , were far from comfortable , and one could see that the slow march suitable to the occasion was getting badly on their nerves . They wanted to hurry over it , and get the beastly business finished .
But the prisoner walked steadily , stiffly upright , and yet as easily and unconcernedly as though he was going to a tea @-@ party , instead of to his death . His eyes were upturned to the gloomy skies , and his nostrils eagerly drank in the precious air that was soon to be denied them . But his face was quite calm and composed – almost expressionless .
At the rifle range Lody was strapped into a chair . He refused to have his eyes bandaged , as he wished to die with his eyes open . A few moments later the inhabitants of the Tower heard " the muffled sound of a single volley " . His body was taken away to be buried in an unmarked grave in the East London Cemetery in Plaistow . The War Office issued a terse announcement of the execution a few days later on 10 November : " Sentence is duly confirmed . "
= = Reaction = =
Lody 's courageous demeanour in court produced widespread sympathy and admiration , a development that neither side had anticipated . Even his captors were captivated ; although MO5 ( g ) had recommended his execution as early as 3 October , by the time the trial was over , Kell was said by his wife to have considered Lody a " really fine man " of whom Kell " felt it deeply that so brave a man should have to pay the death penalty for carrying out what he considered to be his duty to his country . " Sir Basil Thomson of Scotland Yard commented that " there was some difference of opinion as to whether it was sound policy to execute spies and to begin with a patriotic spy like Lody . " According to Robert Jackson , the biographer of Lody 's prosecutor Sir Archibald Bodkin , Lody 's " bearing and frankness when caught so impressed Britain 's spy @-@ catchers and prosecutors that they talked about trying to get the Government to waive the internationally recognised rule that spies caught in wartime automatically are put to death . Only the certainty that Germany would not be as merciful to our own spies made them refrain . " Thomson also paid tribute to Lody in his 1937 book The Scene Changes :
Lody won the respect of all who came into contact with him . In the quiet heroism with which he faced his trial and his execution there was no suspicion of play @-@ acting . He never flinched , he never cringed , but he died as one would wish all Englishmen to die – quietly and undramatically , supported by the proud consciousness of having done his duty .
Lody 's conduct was contrasted favourably with the German spies captured after him , many of whom were nationals of neutral countries , who followed him to the execution chair . Lady Constance Kell commented that " most of the agents employed by the Germans worked only for the money they gained and were regarded with utter contempt " . Similarly , Thomson described " the scum of neutral spies " , of whom he said , " we came to wish that a distinction could have been made between patriotic spies like Lody and the hirelings who pestered us through the ensuing years " . Shortly after Lody 's death he was described in the House of Commons as " a patriot who had died for his country as much as any soldier who fell in the field . "
The British and German publics also took a positive view of Lody . His trial became something of a celebrity occasion ; as The New York Times observed , on the first day , " many fashionably dressed women thronged the galleries of the courtroom " and the final day was attended by " many leaders of London society as well as by prominent jurists , politicians , and military and naval men . " The Daily Express opined that " one cannot withhold a tribute to his daring resourcefulness and inflexible courage " and called Lody " one of the cleverest spies in Steinhauer 's service " , though it advised its readers to bear in mind that he was " a most dangerous spy . "
Louise Storz , Lody 's former wife , received his ring in early December along with a letter from him . She refused to disclose its contents , saying , " It is his last message to me and in no way concerns anyone else . The ring had also been our wedding ring . " She spoke of her reaction to his death in an interview in November 1914 with The Kansas City Star while visiting Excelsior Springs , Missouri . She said :
My nerves are completely upset and I have come to this quiet place where I hope to escape even the loving sympathy of my many friends in Omaha . I want to forget . But the awfulness of such a fate , I fear , I cannot soon erase from my memory ... He was so fine in so many ways . Of fine learning , an accomplished linguist , and of high courage . He used to talk entrancingly of his love and devotion to his country . It must have been a beautiful thing , according to his way of thinking , to die if need be for his Fatherland . But I want to forget . I owe it to myself and my parents to call the chapter closed .
Her father refused to comment , saying that his interest in the Lody case was " only a passing one " . A rumour had it that the German government paid Louise Storz $ 15 @,@ 000 in compensation for her ex @-@ husband 's death , but she denied this in 1915 .
In Germany , Lody 's home town of Nordhausen planted an oak tree in his memory . Newspaper commentary was limited ; the first article about the case that The Times noted was only published around 19 November , in the Frankfurter Zeitung , in which a pseudonymous columnist suggested that the British might have been tempted to show Lody mercy : " I myself am convinced that the noble manliness with which this strong German composure bore itself before the Court touched the heart of the Judge , that the Judge said " If only we English had many such Hans Lodys ! " and that Hans Lody lives ... We shall not forget him , for he staked his country more than his life – his name and his honour . " A death notice was published in early December in the Stuttgarter Neues Tagblatt , stating that he had " died the hero 's death for the Fatherland in England , November 6 " .
Lody 's death produced a low @-@ key response from the German government . The Admiralstab recommended at the end of 1914 that he should be awarded a posthumous Iron Cross , Second Class , and argued that the recruitment of naval agents would be assisted if espionage could be rewarded with such a prestigious medal . The Kaiser agreed , though not without some reluctance .
The bravery Lody exhibited during his trial and execution was praised by many post @-@ war British writers . Sir George Aston , writing in his 1930 book Secret Service , called on his readers to " pay a tribute to a real German spy of the highest type ... Karl Lody " , while John Bulloch commented in his 1963 history of MI5 that Lody 's bearing made him " something of a hero even in the country against which he was working . " E.T. Woodhall , a former detective , collected accounts from officers who had been involved in the investigation and wrote in 1932 : " They are unanimous in their admiration for his manly and brazen qualities , but they all criticise his amazing lack of caution ... He was admired by everybody for his bravery and straightforward , patriotic devotion to his country . "
Lody may have had more complex motives than simple patriotism . Thomas Boghardt notes the " exceptional " way in which Lody bore himself at his trial , pointing out that " virtually all other German agents accused of espionage understandably tried to deny or minimise their involvement with N " . Boghardt had the advantage of being able to review the Admiralstab 's files on the case and highlights " small but important changes " , or rather discrepancies , between Lody 's statements in court and the facts preserved in the case files . As Boghardt puts it ,
All this suggests that Lody was less concerned with averting a harsh sentence than he was with projecting a certain image of himself , that of a patriot who , despite his reluctance to join the secret service , rendered his fatherland a final service before starting a new life in America ; in short , a ' man of honour ' rather than a traitorous spy . Until his death , Lody conformed superbly to this image ... During the last weeks of his life , Lody tried to shatter the negative image usually attached to spies , and in this regard he was utterly successful .
Lody , suggests Boghardt , " had accepted his trial and probable execution as a form of expiation for events that had occurred long before his becoming a secret agent . " He raises the possibility that Lody was motivated by what had happened two years earlier in Omaha , when Lody had responded to the accusations of being a wife @-@ beater by declaring that he would " defend the honour of a gentleman " . Boghardt comments that " his eagerness to display his honour may indicate a concern that others doubted this very quality in him . While presenting himself to the world as a man of honour and accepting his fate courageously , Lody may have found comfort and strength in the thought that whoever had doubted his honour previously would now be persuade otherwise . "
= = From spy to national hero = =
During the Nazi era , Lody 's memory was appropriated by the new regime to promote a more muscular image of German patriotism . An elaborate commemoration of his death was held in Lübeck on 6 November 1934 , when flags across the city flew at half @-@ mast and bells tolled between 6 @.@ 45 and 7 am , the time of his execution . Later that day a memorial was unveiled at the Burgtor gateway near the harbour , depicting a knight in armour with a closed visor ( representing Lody ) , with his hands fettered ( representing captivity ) and a serpent entwining his feet ( representing betrayal ) . Below it an inscription was set into the gate 's brickwork , reading " CARL HANS LODY starb für uns 6 @.@ 11 @.@ 1914 im Tower zu London " ( " Carl Hans Lody died for us 6 @.@ 11 @.@ 1914 in the Tower of London " ) .
During the unveiling ceremony , which was attended by Lody 's sister and representatives of the present Reichsmarine and old Imperial German Navy , the road leading from the gateway to the harbour was also renamed " Karl @-@ Hans @-@ Lody @-@ Weg " . On the same day , officers from the Hamburg @-@ America Line presented city officials with a ship 's bell bearing the inscription " In Memory of Karl Hans Lody " , to be rung each 6 November at the time of his death . After World War II , when Lübeck was part of the British Zone of Occupation , the statue was taken down and the niche in which it stood was bricked up , though the inscription was allowed to remain and is still visible today .
Lody was further memorialised in 1937 when the newly launched destroyer Z10 was christened Hans Lody . Other ships in the same class were also given the names of German officers who had died in action . The ship served throughout the Second World War in the Baltic and North Sea theatres , survived the war and was captured by the British in 1945 . After a few years in Royal Navy service she was scrapped in Sunderland in 1949 .
Lody was also the subject of literary and stage works ; a hagiographic biographical account , Lody – Ein Weg um Ehre ( Lody – One Way to Honour ) , was published by Hans Fuchs in 1936 and a play called Lody : vom Leben und Sterben eines deutschen Offiziers ( Lody : the life and death of a German officer ) , by Walter Heuer , premiered on Germany 's National Heroes ' Day in 1937 . It depicts Lody as brave and patriotic but clumsy , leaving a trail of clues behind him as he travels in the UK : wearing clothes marked " Made in Germany " , writing naval secrets on the back of a bus ticket which he loses and a Scotland Yard detective finds , coming to attention when an orchestra in London plays the German naval anthem , arousing suspicion when he calls for German wine while writing secret reports to Berlin , and leaving incriminating letters in the pockets of suits which he sends to be pressed . Lody is arrested in London and sentenced to death . Offered a chance to escape , he refuses and drinks a glass of wine with the firing squad , toasting Anglo @-@ German friendship . He is led out to his execution , saying his final words : " I shall see Germany once more – from the stars . " The Dundee Evening Telegraph described the storyline as " quaint " .
The Lodystraße in Berlin was named in his honour .
= = Burial = =
The 17 @-@ year @-@ old Bertolt Brecht wrote a eulogy to Lody in 1915 in which he imagined the purpose behind the spy 's death :
The reality was very different . Lody 's body was buried in an unmarked common grave in the East London Cemetery in Plaistow along with seventeen other men – ten executed spies and seven prisoners who died of ill @-@ health or accidents . It was not until 1924 that the grave received a marker , at the instigation of the German Embassy . Lody 's relatives were visiting it once a year and enquired whether his body could be exhumed and buried in a private grave . The War Office agreed , providing that the body could be identified , but the Foreign Office was more reluctant and pointed out that a licence for exhumation would have to be authorised by the Home Office . The Lody family placed a white headstone and kerb on the grave some time around 1934 .
In September 1937 the German government again requested that Lody 's body be exhumed and moved to a separate grave . This proved impractical for several reasons ; he had been buried with seven other men , each coffin had been cemented down and the lapse of time would make identification very difficult . Instead , the British Imperial War Graves Commission suggested that a memorial should be constructed in another part of the cemetery to bear the names of all the German civilians who were buried there . The proposal met with German agreement and the memorial was duly installed . During the Second World War , Lody 's original headstone was destroyed by misaimed Luftwaffe bombs . It was replaced in 1974 .
One further proposal was made to rebury Lody in the 1960s . In 1959 the British and German governments agreed to move German war dead who had been buried in various locations around the UK to a new central cemetery at Cannock Chase in Staffordshire . The German War Graves Commission ( VDK ) asked if it would be possible to disinter Lody 's body and move it to Cannock Chase . By that time , the plot had been reused for further common graves , buried above Lody 's body . The VDK was told that it would not be possible to disinter the other bodies without the permission of the relatives , which would have been an almost impossible task where common graves were concerned . The proposal was abandoned and Lody 's body remains at Plaistow .
= Ontario Highway 77 =
King 's Highway 77 , commonly referred to as Highway 77 , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . One of three highways within Essex County , Highway 77 serves to interconnect Highway 3 near Leamington with Highway 401 near Tilbury . Prior to 1998 , the highway extended south into Leamington , ending at the former routing of Highway 3 and Highway 18 . This section was turned over to Essex County and renamed Erie Street . The speed limit on Highway 77 is 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) in most places , dropping to 50 km / h in built @-@ up areas . It is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police .
= = Route description = =
Due to the flat topography of Essex County , the land use surrounding Highway 77 is almost entirely agricultural . Soil conditions in Essex are ideal for farming , and as a result very few natural areas can be found in the county . Many streams have been diverted to irrigate the endless farmland to either side of the highway . Relief from the plain is provided only by the few hamlets along the route . In addition , Lake Erie and Lake St Clair are both a short distance from Highway 77 .
Highway 77 begins at the Leamington Bypass , north of the city of the same name . The western section of Highway 3 shares its eastern terminus with Highway 77 ; from there it travels west towards Windsor . Several greenhouses are visible near the southern end of the highway , a small percentage of the 610 hectares ( 1 @,@ 500 acres ) of land occupied by them in the Leamington area . Point Pelee National Park , the southernmost point in Canada , is also nearby .
The highway runs 11 @.@ 5 km ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) north through Mount Carmel and Blytheswood to the village of Staples before turning to the east . It continues in this direction for 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) before returning to its northward orientation . North of there , the highway passes to the east of the Comber and District Historical Society Museum . The museum , which focuses on the history of agriculture , was established in the former Maple Grove Schoolhouse , which was built in 1894 . Pressing north to Highway 401 , it passes Middle Road ( once Highway 98 ) in the centre of Comber . Highway 401 provides access to Windsor and the United States to the west , and to the town of Tilbury and city of Chatham – Kent to the east . To the north , the road continues as Essex County Road 35 to Stoney Point on the shores of Lake Huron .
Traffic levels along Highway 77 vary , but are generally low . The busiest section of the highway lies at the southern end between Leamington and Blythesville , with an average of 6 @,@ 000 vehicles travelling it per day . North of that , traffic drops considerably to 3 @,@ 000 vehicles , but increases approaching Comber and Highway 401 to around 4 @,@ 500 .
= = History = =
The Highway 77 designation was first applied on August 5 , 1936 to a road running southeast from Rodney , Ontario to Highway 3 at New Glasgow . On December 5 , 1957 , the highway was transferred to Elgin County and is now known as Elgin County Road 103 . The current Highway 77 was designated between Leamington and Highway 401 on April 1 , 1963 . The southern end followed present @-@ day Erie Street south through the city to Talbot Road . At the time , Highway 3 travelled along that road ; Highway 77 continued south of Talbot Road as Highway 18 . In early December 1999 , the Leamington Bypass of Highway 3 opened . The southern terminus of Highway 77 was subsequently truncated by 1 @.@ 7 km ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) to end at the new bypass .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 77 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in Essex County .
= Chambersburg , Pennsylvania =
Chambersburg is a borough in the South Central region of Pennsylvania , United States . It is 13 miles ( 21 km ) miles north of Maryland and the Mason @-@ Dixon line and 52 miles ( 84 km ) southwest of Harrisburg in the Cumberland Valley , which is part of the Great Appalachian Valley . Chambersburg is the county seat of Franklin County . According to the United States Census Bureau the 2010 population was 20 @,@ 268 . When combined with the surrounding Greene , Hamilton , and Guilford Townships , the population of Greater Chambersburg is 52 @,@ 273 . Chambersburg is at the core of the Chambersburg , PA Micropolitan Statistical Area which includes surrounding Franklin County . The population of the Chambersburg Micropolitan Area in 2010 was 149 @,@ 618 .
Chambersburg 's settlement began in 1730 when water mills were built at the confluence of Conococheague Creek and Falling Spring Creek that now run through the center of the town . Its history includes episodes relating to the French and Indian War , the Whiskey Rebellion , John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry , and the American Civil War . The borough was the only major northern community burned down by Confederate forces during the war .
Chambersburg is located along the Lincoln Highway , U.S. 30 , between McConnellsburg and Gettysburg , Pennsylvania and along U.S. 11 , the Molly Pitcher Highway , between Shippensburg , Pennsylvania , and Hagerstown , Maryland . Interstate 81 skirts the borough to its east . The town also lies approximately midpoint on US Route 30 between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia with the local geography reflecting both flatter areas like Philadelphia and mountainous areas like Pittsburgh .
= = History = =
= = = European settlement = = =
Native Americans living or hunting in the area during the 18th century included the Iroquois , Lenape and Shawnee . " Falling Spring " was first settled by Benjamin Chambers , a Scots @-@ Irish immigrant , in 1730 , who started a grist mill and saw mill by a then @-@ 26 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) high waterfall where Falling Spring Creek joined Conococheague Creek . The creek provided power to the mills , and the settlement was known as " Falling Spring . "
On March 30 , 1734 , Chambers was issued a " Blunston license " for 400 acres ( 160 ha ) , from a representative of the Penn family , but European settlement in the area was of questionable legality until the treaty ending the French and Indian War , because not all Indian tribes with land claims had signed treaties . The Penn family encouraged settlement in the area in order to strengthen its case in a border dispute with the Maryland Colony , which had resulted in hostilities known as Cresap 's War . This dispute was not settled until 1767 and the surveying of the border known as the Mason @-@ Dixon line . Chambers traveled to England to testify in support of Penn 's claims . To maintain peace with the Indians , European settlers were sometimes removed from the nearby area . In May 1750 , Benjamin Chambers participated in removing settlers from nearby Burnt Cabins , which took its name from the incident .
The area was officially part of Chester County , then Lancaster , and then Cumberland until it became part of the newly established Franklin County in 1784 .
The Great Wagon Road connecting Philadelphia with the Shenandoah Valley passed nearby . In 1744 , it was completed through Harris 's Ferry , Carlisle , Shippensburg , and Chambersburg to the Potomac River .
In 1748 a local militia was formed for protection against Indians , with Benjamin Chambers being named colonel .
Chambersburg was on the frontier during the French and Indian War . The area 's population dropped from about 3 @,@ 000 in 1755 at the start of the war to about 300 , with most settlers not returning until after 1764 when the peace treaty was signed . Benjamin Chambers built a private stone fort during the war , which was equipped with two 4 pounder cannons and fighting occurred nearby . Because Chambers 's fort was otherwise lightly defended , the authorities attempted to remove the cannons to prevent them from being captured by Indians and used against other forts . The attempted removal was unsuccessful , and one of the cannons was used to celebrate Independence Day in 1840 . The Forbes Road and other trails going to Fort Pitt passed nearby as well . The Forbes Road developed into part of the main road connecting Pittsburg and Philadelphia , and much later into US 30 , and Chambersburg developed as a transportation hub at the crossroads of Forbes Road and the Great Wagon Road .
Fighting continued in the area after the war , most notably the Enoch Brown school massacre during Pontiac 's Rebellion and the Black Boys rebellion against British troops at Fort Loudon .
The first settlers were Scots @-@ Irish Presbyterians and German Protestants came soon afterward . Quakers and English Protestants , who made up a large proportion of early Pennsylvania settlers , did not often move as far west as Chambersburg . Blacks lived in Chambersburg almost from the start of settlement . Benjamin Chambers owned a black female slave sometime before the French and Indian War and twenty slaves were recorded as taxable property in 1786 .
The earliest church was established by Scots @-@ Irish Presbyterians in 1734 . Chambers gave land to the congregation in 1768 , requiring only a single rose as annual rent . Later land was given to the First Lutheran Church ( 1780 ) and Zion Reformed Church ( organized in 1780 ) under the same agreement , and these churches came to be known as the " Rose Rent Churches . " A Catholic community organized in 1785 . The Jewish cemetery dates back to 1840 . The Mt . Moriah First African Baptist Church dates to 1887 .
The town was first laid out in 1764 , and lots were advertised for sale on July 19 in Benjamin Franklin 's Pennsylvania Gazette
Notice is hereby given to the Public , that there is a town is laid out on Conegogig Creek , on both sides of the Great Falling Spring , where is falls into said creek , by Benjamin Chambers , of Cumberland County . Lots may be had on reasonable terms and Firm Deeds granted for them by said Chambers : the day appointed for drawing of said lots is the 28th day of June inst .. which is a Thursday . The situation of this town is very good for water and stone , both free and marble , and sand all handy to the spot , and a well timbered part of the country adjoining it ; within said town is a good Gistmill , Sawmill , and Grindstones going by water . The articles of the Town shall be read on the day appointed for the drawing of the Lots , and the terms of the sale published by me
= = = 1775 – 1858 = = =
In June 1775 , soon after the Battle of Lexington , local troops were raised to fight the British in the American Revolution under the command of Benjamin Chambers 's eldest son Captain James Chambers , as part of the 1st Pennsylvania Regiment . These troops were among the first non @-@ New Englanders to join the siege of Boston , arriving on August 7 , 1775 . James Chambers fought for seven years during the revolution , reaching the rank of Colonel of Continental troops on September 26 , 1776 . His two brothers , William and Benjamin , Jr . , each served for much of the war and reached the rank of Captain . James Chambers commanded local troops at the Battle of Long Island , and at White Plains , Trenton , Princeton , Brandywine , Germantown and Monmouth . He was part of the rear guard covering the retreat from Brooklyn , and was wounded at the Battle of Brandywine while facing Hessian troops under General Knuphausen at Chadds Ford .
During the Whiskey Rebellion , local citizens raised a liberty pole in support of the rebels , and to protest conscription of soldiers to put down the rebellion . Nevertheless , these citizens were censured in a town meeting and removed the pole the next day . President George Washington , while leading United States troops against the rebels , came through town on the way from Carlisle to Bedford , staying overnight on October 12 , 1794 . According to tradition , Washington lodged with Dr. Robert Johnson , a surgeon in the Pennsylvania line during the Revolution . This march was one of only two times that a sitting president personally commanded the military in the field . ( The other was after President James Madison fled the British occupation of Washington , D.C. during the War of 1812 . ) After sending the troops toward Pittsburgh from Bedford under General Henry " Light Horse Harry " Lee , Washington returned through Chambersburg sometime between October 21 – 26 . James Chambers was appointed a Brigadier General of Militia during the Whiskey Rebellion .
Chambersburg was incorporated on March 21 , 1803 , and declared the County Seat when the State Assembly established a formal government . The first courthouse was John Jack 's tavern on the Diamond ( town square ) in 1784 , with a permanent courthouse built in 1793 , and the first county jail built 1795 . The " Old Jail " was built in 1818 , survived the fire of 1864 and is the oldest jail building in Pennsylvania . It was originally used as the sheriff 's residence and had the longest continuous use of any jail in the state , operating until 1971 . Today the Old Jail is a museum and home to the Franklin County – Kittochtinny Historical Society . The county 's gallows still stand in the jail 's courtyard .
Much of the town 's growth was due to its position as a transportation center , first as the starting point on the Forbes Road to Pittsburgh . The U.S. Congress placed Chambersburg on the Philadelphia @-@ Pittsburgh postal road in 1803 . The road was rebuilt as the Chambersburg @-@ Bedford Turnpike in 1811 . The Cumberland Valley Railroad was built in 1837 and was the area 's center of economic activity for nearly 100 years . Until the completion of the Pennsylvania Railroad 's main line in 1857 , the fastest route from Pittsburgh to Philadelphia was by stagecoach from Pittsburgh to Chambersburg , and then by train to Philadelphia .
= = = Civil War era = = =
= = = = Underground railroad / John Brown = = = =
By 1859 , Chambersburg was a stop on the Underground Railroad . John Brown stayed in an upstairs room at Mary Ritner 's boarding house between June and October , 1859 while preparing for his raid on Harpers Ferry . Several of his fellow raiders stayed in the house as well , and four of them escaped capture and briefly visited the house after the raid . The house still stands at 225 East King Street . While in Chambersburg Brown posed as Dr. Isaac Smith , an iron mine developer , and bought and stored weapons under the guise of mining equipment .
Brown ( using the name John Smith ) and John Henry Kagi met with Frederick Douglass and Shields Green at an abandoned quarry outside of town to discuss the raid on August 19 . According to Douglass 's account , Brown described the planned raid in detail and Douglass advised him against it . Douglass also provided $ 10 from a supporter , and had helped Green – a future raider – locate Brown .
= = = = First two Confederate occupations , selective burnings = = = =
During the American Civil War on October 10 , 1862 , Confederate Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart , with 1 @,@ 800 cavalrymen , raided Chambersburg , destroying $ 250 @,@ 000 of railroad property and taking 500 guns , hundreds of horses , and at least " eight young colored men and boys . " They failed , however , to accomplish one of the main targets of the raid : to burn the railroad bridge across the Conococheague Creek at Scotland , five miles ( 8 km ) north of town .
During the early days of the 1863 Gettysburg Campaign , a Virginia cavalry brigade under Brig. Gen. Albert G. Jenkins occupied the town and burned several warehouses and Cumberland Valley Railroad structures and the bridge at Scotland . From June 24 – 28 , 1863 , much of the Army of Northern Virginia passed through Chambersburg en route to Carlisle and Gettysburg , and Robert E. Lee established his headquarters at a nearby farm .
= = = = Burning of entire town 1864 = = = =
The following year , Chambersburg was invaded for a third time , as cavalry , dispatched from the Shenandoah Valley by Jubal Early , arrived . On July 30 , 1864 , a large portion of the town was burned down by Brig. Gen. John McCausland for failing to provide a ransom of $ 500 @,@ 000 in U.S. currency , or $ 100 @,@ 000 in gold . Among the few buildings left standing was the Masonic Temple , which had been guarded under orders by a Confederate mason . Norland , the home of Republican politician and editor Alexander McClure , was burned even though it was well north of the main fire .
One black Chambersburg resident was killed when Confederates refused to allow him to leave his burning house . Another man was asked by the Confederates if he had ever educated " niggers " ; after replying that he had , the Confederates burned his house as well . Subsequently , " Remember Chambersburg " soon became a Union battle cry .
= = = Civil War Legacy = = =
= = = = General Jubal Early accused of war crimes : flees the United States = = = =
Lieutenant General Jubal Early was accused of war crimes for ordering the burning of Chambersburg . When the Army of Northern Virginia surrendered on April 9 , 1865 , Early escaped to Texas by horseback , where he hoped to find a Confederate force still holding out . He proceeded to Mexico , and from there , sailed to Cuba and Canada . Living in Toronto , he wrote his memoir , A Memoir of the Last Year of the War for Independence , in the Confederate States of America , which focused on his Valley Campaign . The book was published in 1867 .
= = = = Reconstruction of town = = = =
The town was rebuilt with a combination of state and private funding . Many new buildings were erected quickly and were not initially built to the original standards .
It took more than 30 years to fully restore the town 's housing stock to pre @-@ Civil War standards .
= = = = Formation of first school for orphaned children of soldiers killed in the Civil War = = = =
Due to an incident where two children of dead Union soldiers came begging for food to the doors of Chambersburg residents , the first school in Pennsylvania was created to serve children of Veterans orphaned due to war . The Governor of the state eventually established 69 additional such schools across the state . The original school in Chambersburg was renamed " The Scotland School for Veterans Children " in the 1890s .
The school remained open until 2010 and graduated more than 10 @,@ 000 children during its lifetime .
= = = = Early memorialization of Civil War = = = =
Memorial Fountain , built in the center of the diamond to honor the Civil War soldiers , was dedicated on July 17 , 1878 with fifteen thousand people in attendance .
A statue of a Union soldier stands next to the fountain , facing south to guard against the return of southern raiders .
= = = = Contemporary memorialization = = = =
To this day , the Civil War burning of Chambersburg remains a part of the town 's historic identity and yearly memorial events are held .
Chambersburg has also recently been the subject of study on how people have historically perceived and responded to war tragedies .
= = = National Register of Historic Places = = =
The following places in Chambersburg are on the National Register of Historic Places :
= = = Historic images = = =
Colorized photographs taken from a series of 22 postcard views mailed in 1921 .
= = Geography = =
According to the United States Census Bureau , Chambersburg has a total area of 6 @.@ 8 square miles ( 17 @.@ 6 km2 ) , all land . The elevation is 617 feet ( 188 m ) above sea level . Chambersburg is located in the Cumberland Valley next to the Appalachian Mountains . It also sits right outside of Caledonia State Park , a 1 @,@ 125 @-@ acre ( 455 ha ) park with fishing and hunting areas and hiking trails , including a section of the Appalachian Trail . Also outside of Chambersburg is Michaux State Forest , a 85 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 34 @,@ 000 ha ) forest . Both of these places provide recreation for residents .
Conococheague Creek , a noted trout stream , runs through the center of town . It is a tributary of the Potomac River . The northernmost reach of the Potomac watershed is a few miles north of town .
Chambersburg has a cold climate , according to the United States Department of Energy . The area receives anywhere from 38 to 42 inches ( 970 to 1 @,@ 070 mm ) of precipitation per year . And Chambersburg falls within the warmest part of the Humid Continental Climate with some characteristics in the summer of a Humid Subtropical Climate , but bears much more characteristics of the former . The average January low is 20 ° F ( − 7 ° C ) and the average high is 37 ° F ( 3 ° C ) . The average July high is 85 ° F ( 29 ° C ) and the average low is 62 ° F ( 17 ° C ) .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2000 , there were 17 @,@ 862 people , 7 @,@ 722 households , and 4 @,@ 386 families residing in the borough . The population density was 2 @,@ 601 @.@ 3 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 003 @.@ 9 / km2 ) . There were 8 @,@ 305 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 209 @.@ 5 per square mile ( 466 @.@ 8 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the borough was 86 @.@ 43 % White , 7 @.@ 56 % African American , 0 @.@ 18 % Native American , 0 @.@ 87 % Asian , 0 @.@ 05 % Pacific Islander , 3 @.@ 08 % from other races , and 1 @.@ 83 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6 @.@ 38 % of the population .
There were 7 @,@ 722 households , out of which 24 @.@ 1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 41 @.@ 2 % were married couples living together , 11 @.@ 7 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 43 @.@ 2 % were non @-@ families . 37 @.@ 5 % of all households were made up of individuals , and 16 @.@ 8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 16 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 83 .
In the borough the population was spread out , with 20 @.@ 8 % under the age of 18 , 9 @.@ 1 % from 18 to 24 , 26 @.@ 8 % from 25 to 44 , 20 @.@ 6 % from 45 to 64 , and 22 @.@ 7 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 40 years . For every 100 females there were 81 @.@ 7 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 77 @.@ 1 males .
The median income for a household in the borough was $ 32 @,@ 336 , and the median income for a family was $ 40 @,@ 352 . Males had a median income of $ 31 @,@ 803 versus $ 21 @,@ 548 for females . The per capita income for the borough was $ 19 @,@ 278 . About 9 @.@ 8 % of families and 12 @.@ 9 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 18 @.@ 3 % of those under age 18 and 9 @.@ 1 % of those age 65 or over .
The population stood at 7 @,@ 863 in 1890 ; 8 @,@ 864 in 1900 ; 11 @,@ 800 in 1910 ; 13 @,@ 171 in 1920 ; and 14 @,@ 852 in 1940 . It was estimated to be around 18 @,@ 000 people in January 2008 .
= = Economy = =
The surrounding area has a large farming population , including many Amish and Mennonite families . Franklin County 's largest crop is corn ( maize ) with 579 farms that cover 29 @,@ 916 acres ( 12 @,@ 107 ha ) of land . Franklin also has 344 wheat farms and 299 barley farms which combined cover 14 @,@ 063 acres ( 5 @,@ 691 ha ) . Manufacturing in Chambersburg includes machinery production , metal fabrication , and food processing according to the 1997 Economic Census of Franklin County . The largest sectors by payroll were manufacturing companies such as T B Wood 's Inc . , Manitowoc cranes , retail trade , and health care and social assistance . Despite suburban growth , much of the economy of the area is still largely based on agriculture .
Retail stores such as Wal @-@ Mart and Lowe 's serve the population with jobs and basic needs . The Chambersburg Mall with four anchor stores and about fifty smaller stores is located in the unincorporated village of Scotland , about four miles ( 6 km ) north of town on Interstate 81 . Chambersburg 's retail sector has grown quickly since 2006 with the opening of Target , Petsmart , Michaels , and Kohls near the newly built Exit 17 of Interstate 81 . Several restaurants new to the region have also opened , including Sonic , Starbucks , T.G.I. Fridays , Red Robin , Fuddruckers , Ruby Tuesday , Panera Bread , Chipotle , Texas Roadhouse , Olive Garden , and Longhorn Steakhouse .
The city 's location on Interstate 81 within 100 miles ( 160 km ) of both Washington , D.C. and Baltimore , Maryland encourages trucking and distribution businesses . The Letterkenny Army Depot five miles ( 8 km ) north of town is a major employer . Camp David also employs Chambersburg residents . In 2004 Chambersburg had a per capita personal income ( PCPI ) of $ 28 @,@ 208 , below the national average of $ 33 @,@ 050 .
= = Culture = =
Chambersburg is part of small town America . Recreation includes hunting , sports events such as baseball games at Henninger Field , and high school football games . The town also hosts a professional football team , the Chambersburg Cardinals , that plays in the Gridiron Developmental Football League . People in the area speak in Pittsburgh English or with a Central Pennsylvania accent , over @-@ pronouncing " O 's " and " I 's " . Caledonia State Park provides an area for outdoor activities , with the park especially busy on July 4 .
The Capitol Theatre was opened as a movie palace on Main Street in 1927 . In 2003 , it reopened as the Capitol Theatre Center and is home to the Capitol Theatre Main Stage and Auditorium , Chambersburg Council for the Arts , Caledonia Theatre Company , Chambersburg Ballet Theatre School , and Chambersburg Community Theatre . In 2009 , Chambersburg ranked among Newsmax magazine 's list of the " Top 25 Most Uniquely American Cities and Towns , " a piece written by current CBS News travel editor Peter Greenberg . In determining his ranking , Greenberg cited the Capitol Theatre .
Wilson College is home to the Cumberland Valley School of Music , a local school offering private instruction on various musical instruments . It offers a wide range of lessons , classes , workshops , and summer camps , as well as presenting numerous recitals and concerts in Thomson Hall . CVSM sponsors a children 's chorus ( the Cumberbunds ) , a community band , a community orchestra , a concert jazz band , and the New Horizons Band , for adults age 50 or older .
Journalist David Brooks in 2001 used Chambersburg and Franklin County to typify Republican “ Red America . ” According to Brooks , there is little obvious income inequality and people don ’ t define their place in society by their income level . They value the work ethic and are anti @-@ union , anti @-@ welfare , pro @-@ free market , and religious social conservatives .
= = Government = =
The municipal government operates under the Pennsylvania Borough Code , with the Town Council holding both legislative and executive authority . The ten councilmen are elected from five wards ; two from each ward with staggered four @-@ year terms . The Mayor administers the Police Department and can cast tie @-@ breaking votes on the Council . Other departments are administered by the Borough Manager .
Darren Brown became Mayor on January 6 , 2014 .
As of January 2016 , the town councilmen are :
Samantha J. Bietsch , 2nd Ward ( R )
Sharon A. Bigler , 4th Ward ( D )
Jeremy D. Cate , 4th Ward ( D )
Allen B. Coffman , 1st Ward ( R ) ( Council President )
Louisa C. Cowles , 3rd Ward ( D )
Herbert R. Dolaway , 5th Ward ( D )
Alice C. Elia , 1st Ward ( D )
Kathy J. Leedy . 3re Ward ( D )
John " Sean " A. Scott III , 2nd Ward ( D )
Heath E. Talhelm , 5th Ward ( D ) ( Council Vice President )
Chambersburg is part of the 9th Congressional District of Pennsylvania and represented by Bill Shuster ( R ) in the House of Representatives , and by Pat Toomey ( R ) , and Bob Casey , Jr . ( D ) in the Senate .
= = Education = =
= = = Wilson College = = =
Wilson College is a private , Presbyterian @-@ related , liberal arts women 's college founded in 1869 and named for its first major donor , Sarah Wilson of Chambersburg . The college has 800 students and is known for its Women With Children , Veterinary Medical Technician , and Equestrian programs . Once an all women 's school , it currently is co @-@ education . In 2009 , the school opened the first " green " campus building in Chambersburg , PA . The building is part of the science and technology department and features a full @-@ length waterfall in the lobby . The waterfall begins on the third floor and ends in the basement of the building .
= = = Public schools = = =
Chambersburg Area Senior High School ( CASHS ) is a public school with around 2 @,@ 400 students in grades 9 – 12 , drawn from the borough of Chambersburg and the surrounding townships of Hamilton , Greene , Lurgan , Letterkenny and Guilford . CASHS is accredited by the Middle States Association and has occupied its current facilities since 1955 . Principal Dr. Barry Purvis was recognized as the 2006 High School Principal of the Year by the Pennsylvania Association of Elementary and Secondary School Principals .
Until August 2011 , J. Frank Faust Junior High School was the only public junior high school for eighth and ninth grade students of the Chambersburg Area School District . It served about 1400 students . J. Frank Faust is now a middle school for Chambersburg area students in the north . CAMS NORTH . It has 6th through 8th grade .
Chambersburg Area Middle School SOUTH was the only middle school , but as of August 2011 , it became CAMS SOUTH , 6th through 8th grade . During the 2001 – 02 school year , CAMS was recognized with the Blue Ribbon School Award of Excellence by the United States Department of Education , the highest award an American school can receive .
The Franklin County Career and Technology Center is also located in Chambersburg . FCCTC is a school designated for students and adults to learn vocational trades while still learning core subjects in school . The school offers training in about 20 – 30 different concentrations . There are currently six different school districts with students attending FCCTC : Chambersburg , Fannett @-@ Metal , Greencastle @-@ Antrim , Shippensburg , Tuscarora , and Waynesboro .
The Chambersburg school district includes seventeen elementary schools . Many school are being upgraded , rebuilt , or closed because of out @-@ of @-@ date buildings and lack of space . As of July 2008 , the current School Board President is Stanley Helman . Other members include Anne Boryan , Renee Sharpe , Norman Blowers , Lori Leedy , Fred Rice , Dave Schiamanna , and Joe Tosten . One seat is currently being filled after the resignation of the previous board president , Dr. Thomas Orndorff .
= = = Scotland School for Veterans ' Children = = =
The Scotland School for Veterans ' Children ( SSVC ) was a state owned school that offered tuition @-@ free residential education programs for children of Pennsylvania residents who are veterans or are currently serving in the U.S. armed forces . Scotland School had an original founding date of 1863 . It was founded as a result of two orphaned children going door to door begging for food . They knocked on the door of then governor , Andrew Gregg Curtin . Governor Curtin and his wife realized there was a forgotten group of people resulting from the American Civil War , the orphaned children of soldiers . Governor Curtin set up 70 schools across the state and they became known as the ' Soldier 's Orphan Schools ' . As students graduated , the student bodies of the schools began to decline and in 1895 all of the schools closed saved one , the one located in Scotland . The name was changed to Scotland School for Veteran 's Children . The purpose was then changed to provide an education to any child of any veteran , whether that veteran was living or deceased . Because of this new purpose and subsequent name change , the founding date of the school was changed to 1895 . It was located about four miles ( 6 km ) north of Chambersburg in the unincorporated village of Scotland and had about 300 students in grades 3 – 12 . The school was established in 1895 as the Pennsylvania Soldiers Orphans Industrial School . Over 10 @,@ 000 students have been educated at the school . The 186 @-@ acre ( 75 ha ) campus contains about 70 buildings including residential cottages . In 2009 , Governor Ed Rendell removed funding for the school in the year 's state budget , thereby forcing the school to close .
= = = Private schools = = =
Private schools include Corpus Christi , a Catholic school with 310 students and over 20 teachers and Cumberland Valley Christian School , a private Christian kindergarten through twelfth grade academy located in Chambersburg . Cumberland Valley Christian School is affiliated with the Open Door Church and has approximately four hundred students . Other private schools include the Montessori Academy of Chambersburg ( 22 months @-@ 12th grade , non @-@ sectarian ) and Shalom Christian Academy ( K @-@ 12 , Mennonite affiliation ) , and several elementary schools with Mennonite , Baptist , Brethren , Christian Science , and other religious orientations .
= = = Library = = =
Coyle Free Library has roots going back to 1891 , when a library of 166 books was organized by the local Afternoon Club . A member of the club , Blanche Coyle , left a bequest of $ 30 @,@ 435 in 1915 to construct a library building . The building was completed in 1924 , located at the corner of Second and Queen Streets . Later the library was made part of the Franklin County Library and began to receive funds from the County and State , though the Afternoon Club still donated funds though at least 1979 . The building it currently occupies is a former post office .
= = Media = =
= = = Newspapers = = =
The Chambersburg Public Opinion is the only daily newspaper published in town , and has weekday circulation about 17 @,@ 000 . It was founded in 1869 and is now owned by Gannett .
= = = Television and radio = = =
Television reception can be poor because of the surrounding mountains . WJAL , a family oriented station broadcasts from Chambersburg , and Harrisburg PBS station WITF @-@ TV rebroadcasts via low @-@ powered translator W38AN . Franklin County is included in Harrisburg DMA . All Harrisburg TV stations are available off air and on cable . WHTM is the first network affiliated television station to establish a bureau in Chambersburg . WHAG @-@ TV , WWPB , and WWPX , broadcast from nearby Hagerstown , Maryland .
Chambersburg shares a radio market , the 165th largest in the United States , with Waynesboro , Pennsylvania , and Hagerstown , Maryland .
= = Sister city = =
Gotemba , Shizuoka , Japan
= = Notable people = =
Betty Andujar , Texas politician
Philip Berlin , inventor of the railroad sleeping car .
D. Dudley Bloom , United States Navy officer and American businessman
George K. Brady , United States Army officer . Briefly commander of the Department of Alaska .
Ike Brookens , MLB player in 1975 with the Detroit Tigers .
Tom Brookens , MLB player from 1979 – 1990 , played third @-@ base for the 1984 World Series Champion Detroit Tigers
Revolutionary War soldier Margaret Corbin , known as " Captain Molly "
Abolistionist publisher Martin Delany , who in 1865 became the first African @-@ American field officer in the U.S. Army , was educated in Chambersburg in the 1830s .
Gus Dorner Major League Baseball pitcher ( 1902 – 1909 ) .
Henry Burchard Fine ( 1858 – 1928 ) was a dean at Princeton University and mathematician .
Baseball Hall of Famer Nellie Fox was born and lived just west of town in St. Thomas Township .
Patrick Gass ( 1771 – 1870 ) , the last surviving member of the Lewis and Clark expedition , was born just outside Chambersburg ( Falling Spring ) .
Kenton Harper , Virginia newspaper editor and Confederate army general during the Civil War , born and raised in Chambersburg
The Rev. John Grier Hibben , later President of Princeton University , served as pastor of Falling Spring Presbyterian Church , 1888 – 1891 .
Stephen D. Houston , a renowned Mayanist scholar , epigrapher , and anthropologist was born in Chambersburg in 1958 .
Archbishop John Hughes of New York lived in Chambersburg between 1817 and 1819 before going on to Mount St. Mary 's University . His family is buried at the Corpus Christi Church Cemetery in Chambersburg .
Journalist and author Gwen Ifill spent a portion of her childhood in Chambersburg while her father was pastor at St. James A.M.E. Church .
Alexander McClure , editor of the Franklin Repository from 1852 – 1864
David Fullerton Robison , a U.S. Representative , who in 1859 died of National Hotel disease , was born here
Joseph Winters an African @-@ American inventor and abolitionist , moved to Chambersburg in 1830 .
= Soldier ( Destiny 's Child song ) =
" Soldier " is a song by American recording group Destiny 's Child featuring American rappers T.I. and Lil Wayne . Columbia Records released " Soldier " as the second single from Destiny 's Child 's fourth studio album Destiny Fulfilled ( 2004 ) on December 7 , 2004 . The artists co @-@ wrote the song with Sean Garrett and Rich Harrison ; the latter co @-@ produced it with Destiny 's Child members Beyoncé and Kelly Rowland . A Southern hip hop mid @-@ tempo song , it lyrically describes each members ' favorite type of male love interest .
" Soldier " received mostly positive reviews from music critics who praised its composition and the trio 's vocal performances , but criticized the lyrical content . The song received a nomination in the category for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards and won a Best R & B / Soul Single by a Group , Band or Duo award at the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards . A commercial success , " Soldier " peaked within the top five in six European countries and in Australasia further being certified gold in the countries in the latter region . In the US , it peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and topped the Hot Dance Club Songs further receiving a Platinum certification by the RIAA .
The black @-@ and @-@ white music video directed by Ray Kay featured cameo appearances by several rappers and singers . It was nominated at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards under the category of Best Group Video . The band performed " Soldier " on several televised appearances in 2004 and 2005 and included it on the set list of their final tour Destiny Fulfilled ... And Lovin ' It ( 2005 ) . Both Beyoncé and Rowland performed the song during their solo tours after Destiny 's Child 's disbandment . The song was sampled in many songs by different artists , most notably by Nelly on his single " Grillz " ( 2005 ) .
= = Background and release = =
" Soldier " was written by the artists along with Sean Garrett and Rich Harrison ; the latter co @-@ produced it with Destiny 's Child members Beyoncé and Kelly Rowland . The guest verses from Lil Wayne and T.I. made them the only featured artists on the album . " Soldier " was recorded by Jim Caruana at Sony Music Studios in New York City in 2004 . It was mixed by Dexter Simmons and mastered by Tom Coyne .
Garrett initially wrote " Soldier " in a taxi while going to the studio where the band worked on Destiny Fulfilled ; he sang the hook to the members afterwards and they liked it . Garrett further revealed about his collaboration with the group , " I loved how Destiny 's Child evolved and became this really incredible pop group but I wanted to introduce them to the hood from the perspective of having the world look at them in a different way ... What was great about that was they all liked guys from the streets . Each verse was a representation of the guy they were actually into . " During an interview with MTV News , Rowland said that with " Soldier " each member wanted to talk about their preference for a man during their solo verses , the place where he lives and his physical appearance . Beyoncé stated that as the song had a " Southern feel " and beat , they wanted to collaborate with Lil Wayne and T.I. who according to her added " rawness , realness and edge to the song " . During an interview in 2014 , Lil Wayne discussed his contribution in the song , " That set me off . Them little eight bars right there , that got me there boy . If you ask me why , it was Beyoncé . That shit was big . " " Soldier " was included on the group 's compilation albums # 1 's ( 2005 ) and Playlist : The Very Best of Destiny 's Child ( 2012 ) .
= = Composition = =
" Soldier " is a mid @-@ tempo Southern hip hop song ; Alex MacPherson of Stylus Magazine further found elements of Crunk & B music while Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times noted electropop elements in its composition . Discussing the song musically , Kitty Empire from The Observer classified it as a " ghetto anthem @-@ in @-@ waiting that echoes the Southern bent of much contemporary hip hop " . According to the sheet music published on the website Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Soldier " was composed using common time in the key of C minor with a pulsing hip hop tempo of 75 beats per minute . The vocal elements span from the low note of G3 to the high note of F5 . The song is instrumentally complete with ticking staccato synths , fractured , syncopated keyboard instruments , organ stabs , and off @-@ kilter kick drums . Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan felt that its beat was similar to materials by Dr. Dre . Dimitri Ehrlich from Vibe found major influence of Jay @-@ Z in " Soldier " further saying that " T.I. and Lil Wayne ... seem like stand @-@ ins for Hova " .
Lyrically , " Soldier " is a continuation of the previous song on Destiny Fulfilled , " Lose My Breath " . As the singers feel that their man does not fulfill them in the way they want , they tell him " I need a soldier " , further " upping their standards " . They request their man to be a " thug " , proclaiming their love for " country boys " ; their preference include a " soldier " who is " street " and " hood " . MacPherson further felt that the trio cruised the ghetto for suitable men with " Soldier " , an " ode to gangsta love " . Corey Moss of MTV felt that the song was one of the most personal moments on Destiny Fulfilled in the sense that Beyoncé 's then @-@ relatively secret relationship with rapper Jay @-@ Z was acknowledged " on record for the first time " . Moss further elaborated , " Albeit minor , her [ Beyoncé 's ] verse ( about falling for a guy from the BK , as in Jay 's Brooklyn stomping grounds ) offers a rare moment of commentary on the couple , which has thus far only been chronicled by tabloid photographers . " The song opens with T.I. rhyming lines and glorifying the profound love " between a thug and a thugette " . As the song progresses , each member of Destiny 's Child describes their own favorite type of man , later harmonizing together for the chorus . Midway through the song , Lil Wayne 's verse contains a reference to rapper B.G .. Williams is the last artist to sing her solo lines , which were described as " the sexiest " by Rashod Ollisong of The Baltimore Sun .
= = Critical reception = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from the website AllMusic described " Soldier " as one of the " hard @-@ driving dance cuts " of Destiny Fulfilled further choosing it as a highlight . Similarly , Alex MacPherson of Stylus Magazine wrote in his review that " [ The album ] shoots its load quickly , although just as effectively : ' Lose My Breath ' and ' Soldier ' are stunning , both displaying the Beyoncé trademark of creepily submissive lyrics matched with dominatrix vocals and arrangements to superb effect . " MacPherson continued praising the song 's slow " contemptuous grind " and the singers ' vocal delivery further concluding that T.I. and Wayne " get comprehensively owned " . The New York Times writer Kelefa Sanneh described the track as part of the album 's " lovable " material and went on saying , " [ it ] takes a ludicrous premise ... and turns it into sharp , coldblooded electro @-@ pop " . Andy Battaglia writing for The A.V. Club felt that the song and " Cater 2 U " " make sassy end @-@ runs around notions of womanly subservience , but their best musical moments hide in tiny melismatic twirls instead of hooks " . The Guardian writer Caroline Sullivan described the track as " juddering " while BBC 's Nick Reynolds called it " good fun " . In a review of the song , Tom Breihan , an editor of Pitchfork Media , wrote that " Soldier " would have been a " perfectly acceptable album track " on The Writing 's on the Wall ( 1999 ) , but noted that its sound was different from the songs played on mainstream pop radio . Praising the trio for their vocal performances , he continued :
" ' Soldier ' might not carry with it the shock of the new , but it 's still a nice little single ... The women of Destiny 's Child don 't sound the slightest bit convincing singing about how they need thug boyfriends , but they wind their voices around a gorgeous hook exactly as well as they always have . T.I. and Lil Wayne stop by , not saying anything but sounding cool and tough and unflappable doing it . It 's pretty good , but don 't expect it to set your world on fire . "
Barbara Ellen of The Observer said the song was " of the exemplary standard " of the band 's previous albums , Survivor ( 2001 ) and The Writing 's on the Wall . Describing it as an " overt bid for street cred " , Entertainment Weekly 's Tom Sinclair felt that T.I and Lil Wayne " bring little to the party " with their contribution to the song . Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz writing for Billboard magazine felt that the group " cemented their street and chart credibility " with the song . Another reviewer from the same magazine felt that the band 's " personal transition from teen @-@ dom to womanhood " was most evident on " Soldier " and two other songs from the album . Jenny Eliscu from Rolling Stone wrote in her review , " It 's a hot track , even if the message feels affected coming from these church girls . " For the same reason , Vibe writer Dimitri Ehrlich described it as a Broadway show tune about thug life . Gil Kaufman from MTV News described the song as a " bouncy homage to thug love that featured the signature DC mix of urban grit and slick production " . Rashod Ollisong writing for The Baltimore Sun gave a more mixed review for the song , writing " It is catchy , but the beat is trite , and the lyrical message is downright trifling " before adding that it glorifies a " warped " image of black masculinity which he heavily criticized . He further argued that the group " should put more thought into their lyrics " due to the background and image each member created throughout their career .
= = = Recognition and accolades = = =
" Soldier " won in the category for Best R & B / Soul Single by a Group , Band or Duo during the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards . At the 48th Annual Grammy Awards , the song received a nomination for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration but lost to " Numb / Encore " ( 2004 ) by Jay @-@ Z and Linkin Park . At the 23rd Annual ASCAP Pop Music Awards , " Soldier " was recognized as one of the Most Performed Songs in 2005 along with the group 's other song " Lose My Breath " . The following year it was one of the Award Winning R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs at the 2006 ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Music Awards .
In 2013 , Lindsey Weber from Vulture put " Soldier " at number nine on her list of the top 25 songs by Destiny 's Child . Houston Chronicle 's Joey Guerra also included the song in his 2013 list of the band 's best songs . The same year it was ranked at number 64 on a list complied by Andrew Noz from Complex magazine of Lil Wayne 's 100 best songs . Similarly , Emily Exton from VH1 listed " Soldier " at the 19th position of T.I. ' s 20 best songs praising his " hot intro verse " . On the occasion of Beyoncé 's 32nd birthday , Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz from Billboard included " Soldier " at number 15 on the list of " Beyonce 's 30 Biggest Billboard Hits " .
= = Chart performance = =
After debuting on the chart for the week ending November 20 , 2004 , " Soldier " moved to number 41 on the US Billboard Hot 100 the following week . For the week ending December 10 , the single moved from number 14 to ten becoming the band 's tenth single to enter the top ten of the chart . It peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending February 12 , 2005 becoming the second single from the album to peak at that position . It fell from the top ten of the chart for the issue dated March 5 , 2005 after its position of number eight the previous week , thus spending a total of nine weeks in the first ten positions . Having spent a total of 23 weeks on the chart , " Soldier " was last seen at number 32 . The single was also successful on several other Billboard charts ; on the Hot Dance Club Songs it debuted at number 51 on the chart issue dated January 15 , 2004 and managed to peak at number one in its sixth week of charting for the issue dated February 26 , 2005 . " Soldier " further peaked at numbers three and four on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and Mainstream Top 40 charts respectively for the chart issues dated January 1 , 2005 and February 12 , 2005 . On May 18 , 2005 the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the single gold for selling 500 @,@ 000 digital copies in the US . Its ringtone was further certified platinum on June 14 , 2006 for shipment of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies .
" Soldier " was commercially successful in countries across Europe peaking within the top ten in six countries . On the Danish Singles Chart , it peaked at number five in its first week of charting on March 4 , 2005 . Having spent a total of ten weeks on that chart , of which four were in the top ten , it fell off on May 13 . In Finland , the song debuted at number seven which further became its peak position in two weeks of charting . In Switzerland , " Soldier " debuted at number 15 on February 20 , 2004 and peaked at number ten after two weeks . It spent an additional week at that position and fell off the chart after 12 weeks . In the UK , the single debuted at number four on the UK Singles Chart on the issue dated February 19 , 2005 . It gradually descended the chart , spending a total of seven weeks . On the Irish Singles Chart , the single debuted and peaked at number six on February 10 , 2005 . It also charted on other European charts , most notably at numbers 12 and 29 on the Spanish and French Singles Chart respectively .
In Australia , " Soldier " debuted and peaked at number three on the ARIA Singles Chart on February 20 , 2005 . It fell to numbers seven and eight respectively in the following two weeks and descended the chart for ten additional weeks before falling off on May 15 , 2005 . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) awarded the single with a gold certification in 2005 for shipment of 35 @,@ 000 copies in that country . " Soldier " had a similar success on the New Zealand Singles Chart where it peaked at number four on February 21 , 2005 and remained at that position for the following three weeks . It further spent the following four weeks in the top ten of the chart and fell off on May 23 , 2005 . In 2005 , the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) certified it gold for shipment of 7 @,@ 500 copies in that country .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Soldier " was filmed by Norwegian director Ray Kay and was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , becoming the band 's first clip using that technique . It marked the first time the group worked with Kay . During an interview , they praised him for shooting the scenes in a fast and convenient way , further describing the experience as " wonderful " . The video features cameo appearances by seven singers and rappers : Beyoncé 's sister Solange Knowles , Lloyd , Bow Wow , Ginuwine , Ice Cube , WC and Young Jeezy .
The video opens with Destiny 's Child walking between two rows of males interwined with close @-@ up shots of each member 's face . T.I. appears rapping his part wearing a hat , sunglasses and chains . As the song progresses , the members are seen dancing along with the males in the background who also pose for the camera . During the middle of the video , the girls are seen walking with leashed dogs in their hands and Lil Wayne appears rapping his part afterwards . The camera focuses on each member during their solo part in the song as they perform a dance choreography and lip @-@ sync the lyrics . During the end of the video , as the group sings the lines " known to carry big things " , they rub the belly of Solange Knowles who was pregnant at the time of shooting . The clip ends with the girls holding the previously seen dogs in their hands . Throughout the visual , shots of three cars with different registrations are shown – a Cadillac from Georgia with the words " Da Durty " , another car from New York City with the words " BK Style " and a third car from California with the word " Crenshaw " .
The music video was released on MTV on November 8 , 2004 . It is also featured on the DualDisc editions of the albums # 1 's and Destiny Fulfilled as well as on the bonus DVD of the Destiny Fulfilled Tour edition . VH1 aired the video during the program Pop @-@ Up Video on November 11 , 2011 along with trivial commentary . In 2013 it was included on the album Destiny 's Child Video Anthology which contained every music video the group had filmed during their career . Vulture 's Lindsay Weber described the clip as " camouflage @-@ heavy " . The video was nominated at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards under the category of Best Group Video but lost to Green Day 's " Boulevard of Broken Dreams " ( 2004 ) .
= = Live performances = =
In late 2004 , the group performed " Soldier " with T.I. during MTV 's Total Request Live ( TRL ) . At BET 's 106 & Park Destiny 's Child performed " Soldier " on November 15 , 2004 . At the beginning of the performance , Michelle Williams fell onstage during the group 's entrance . Williams addressed the incident during an interview in 2014 , saying , " I had no choice but to get up and act like it didn 't happen . Because of YouTube - 10 years later , at least once a week , somebody brings it to my attention . " She added that it would be the last time she discussed the incident and acknowledged that although " it lives on forever " a lot of " great things " have happened to her since then . On November 16 , 2004 another performance of the song was during the television show Good Morning America . Destiny 's Child appeared on CBS ' The Early Show on December 8 , 2004 and sang " Soldier " . The group performed the song again in early February 2005 at the British show Top of the Pops . At the 2005 NBA All @-@ Star Game on February 20 , 2005 they sang " Soldier " and " Lose My Breath " . Destiny 's Child also performed " Soldier " during the concert Rockin ' the Corps in April 2005 with the performance being featured on a DVD .
In 2005 , " Soldier " was added to the set list of Destiny 's Child 's final tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It . The group performed it against a backdrop of the American flag dressed in leather clothes taken from Beyoncé 's clothing line House of Deréon . The live rendition contained a sample from the song " Shout It Out " from the soundtrack of the film Drumline . Denise Sheppard writing for Rolling Stone felt that the drumline @-@ affected version performed during the concert was " for the delighted , largely female crowd " . While reviewing a concert in the UK , Adenike Adenitire of MTV News praised the group 's surprising look inspired by Mad Max noting that they proved " that you don 't need baggy jeans and a bandanna to be street " . Similarly , Barbara Ellen from The Observer felt that the look was emulating " all the Mad Max movies at once " . The song was included on the track listing of the group 's live album Destiny 's Child : Live in Atlanta ( 2006 ) chronicling a concert from the tour in that city for which T.I. and Wayne joined the band onstage performing their parts .
Following the group 's disbandment , both Beyoncé and Rowland included " Soldier " in the set list of their respective solo tours . The former performed it with her male background dancers during a Destiny 's Child medley at The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) along with a snippet of Soulja Boy 's " Crank That ( Soulja Boy ) " ( 2007 ) . It was subsequently included on the singer 's live DVD The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) dubbed as " Soldier Boy Crank Mix " . Rowland performed " Soldier " during her headlining concert tour Ms. Kelly Tour ( 2007 ) , on several dates during Chris Brown 's F.A.M.E. Tour ( 2011 ) where she appeared as a supporting act and during the co @-@ headlining Lights Out Tour ( 2013 ) with The @-@ Dream . She also performed " Soldier " on August 26 , 2010 during a promotional concert in New York City and at the Australian Supafest festival in April 2012 backed by male dancers .
= = Usage as sample = =
In 2005 , American rapper Nelly sampled " Soldier " for his song " Grillz " ( 2005 ) featuring Paul Wall , and Ali & Gipp from the album Sweatsuit ( 2005 ) . Mike Schiller from PopMatters wrote that Jermaine Dupri 's production on the song was " uncharacteristically fantastic , finding a down ' n ' dirty groove in the unlikely source material of Destiny 's Child 's ' Soldier ' " . The following year " Only God " from JME 's instrumental mixtape Boy Better Know - Edition 4 : Tropical ( 2006 ) sampled the song . Hip hop artist DJ Drama used a sample of the song in " Grillz Gleamin ' " featuring Lil ' Scrappy , Bohagon , Diamond and Princess from his album Gangsta Grillz : The Album ( 2007 ) . " Soldier " was also sampled one more time for " Body Marked Up " ( 2009 ) by Willy Northpole , the first single from his debut album Tha Connect .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of the album Destiny Fulfilled .
Lead vocals : Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams
Vocal production : Beyoncé Knowles and Kelly Rowland
Recording : Jim Caruna at Sony Music Studios , New York City
Additional vocals : Tom Tapley and Fabian Marasciullo
Audio mixing : Dexter Simmons
Additional Pro Tools Editing : Rommel Nino Villanueva
Audio mastering : Tom Coyne
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= SM U @-@ 40 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 40 or U @-@ XL was a U @-@ 27 class U @-@ boat or submarine for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . U @-@ 40 , built by the Austrian firm of Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) at the Pola Navy Yard , was launched in April 1917 and commissioned in August .
She had a single hull and was just over 121 feet ( 37 m ) in length . She displaced nearly 265 metric tons ( 261 long tons ) when surfaced and over 300 metric tons ( 295 long tons ) when submerged . Her two diesel engines moved her at up to 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) on the surface , while her twin electric motors propelled her at up to 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ; 8 @.@ 6 mph ) while underwater . She was armed with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry a load of up to four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and a machine gun .
During her service career , U @-@ 40 sank three ships and damaged two others , sending a combined tonnage of 9 @,@ 838 GRT to the bottom . U @-@ 40 was at Fiume at war 's end and was surrendered at Venice in March 1919 . She was granted to Italy as a war reparation and broken up the following year .
= = Design and construction = =
Austria @-@ Hungary 's U @-@ boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U @-@ 10 class from Germany , by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U @-@ 14 , and by building four submarines of the U @-@ 20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class .
After these steps alleviated their most urgent needs , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the German Type UB II design for its newest submarines in mid 1915 . The Germans were reluctant to allocate any of their wartime resources to Austro @-@ Hungarian construction , but were willing to sell plans for up to six of the UB II boats to be constructed under license in Austria @-@ Hungary . The Navy agreed to the proposal and purchased the plans from AG Weser of Bremen .
U @-@ 40 displaced 264 metric tons ( 260 long tons ) surfaced and 301 metric tons ( 296 long tons ) submerged . She had a single hull with saddle tanks , and was 121 feet 1 inch ( 36 @.@ 91 m ) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches ( 4 @.@ 37 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 71 m ) . For propulsion , she had two shafts , twin diesel engines of 270 bhp ( 200 kW ) for surface running , and twin electric motors of 280 shp ( 210 kW ) for submerged travel . She was capable of 9 knots ( 16 @.@ 7 km / h ) while surfaced and 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 40 in Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 , the German UB II boats , upon which the U @-@ 27 class was based , had a range of over 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) surfaced , and 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ) submerged . U @-@ 27 @-@ class boats were designed for a crew of 23 – 24 .
U @-@ 40 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry a complement of four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm / 26 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
U @-@ 40 was ordered from Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) after funds for her purchase were raised and donated to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy by the Östereichischen Flottenverein . She was laid down on 8 August 1916 at the Pola Navy Yard , and launched on 21 April 1917 .
= = Service career = =
U @-@ 40 underwent diving trials on 3 July 1917 , reaching a depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . One month later , on 4 August , the SM U @-@ 40 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Johann Krsnjavi . Previously in command of U @-@ 11 , Krsnjavi was a 30 @-@ year @-@ old native of Djakovo ( the present @-@ day Đakovo in Croatia ) .
U @-@ 40 departed on her first patrol on 5 August , sailing through the Brioni islands . Two days out , the submarine came under attack by two aircraft . Bombs from the two planes damaged one of U @-@ 40 's fuel tanks but the U @-@ boat was able to continue to her Mediterranean patrol area . There , east of Malta , she unsuccessfully attacked a steamer on the 15th . Four days later — a little more than two weeks after the U @-@ boat 's commissioning — Krsnjavi and U @-@ 40 achieved their first kills . Gartness , a British steamer of 2 @,@ 422 gross register tons ( GRT ) , was transporting manganese ore , lead , and arsenic from Ergasteria for Middlesbrough when torpedoed by U @-@ 40 some 140 nautical miles ( 260 km ) southeast of Malta . The ship 's master and twelve other crewmen were killed in the attack .
Ten days later , after a rendezvous with sister boat U @-@ 32 in the Ionian Sea , U @-@ 40 damaged the collier Clifftower in a torpedo attack . Clifftower , carrying a load of coal from Newcastle , suffered no casualties in the attack . After successfully passing through the Otranto Barrage on 31 August , U @-@ 40 concluded her first patrol when she docked at Cattaro on 3 September . On 15 October , U @-@ 40 set out from Cattaro on her next patrol . She spent two days , 16 to 18 October , patrolling off Durazzo . Departing there , she headed for her assigned patrol area off Port Said . On 20 October , two aircraft from Corfu forced Krsnjavi to make an emergency dive , but the U @-@ boat escaped damage . On 25 October , U @-@ 40 encountered a severe storm that damager one of her fuel tanks . Three days later , Krsnjavi ordered the boat back to port when the gyrocompass broke . The boat made Cattaro on 1 November and underwent repairs there over the next five weeks .
Departing from Cattaro on her third patrol on 10 December , Krsnjavi steered the boat to her patrol area : cruising the Mediterranean between Alexandria and Malta . The first day of the new year brought U @-@ 40 's next success . On 1 January 1918 , the 5 @,@ 134 GRT Sandon Hall , a British steamer headed from Basra to London with a cargo of linseed oil and dates , was sent to the bottom 22 nautical miles ( 41 km ) north @-@ northeast of Linosa . A torpedo attack two days later on another steamer produced no result . Having exhausted her supply of torpedoes , U @-@ 40 headed back to port . On 6 January , the U @-@ boat 's deck gun was used to destroy a floating mine . The following day the boat was fired upon by three drifters of the Otranto Barrage but safely returned to Cattaro on 8 January .
After two month at Cattaro , Krsnjavi lead U @-@ 40 out on her fourth patrol on 5 March . The U @-@ boat came under attack on consecutive days while headed into the Mediterranean . On 9 March , two destroyers forced her to crash dive , while the following day a pair of aircraft did the same . Nine days later , U @-@ 40 torpedoed the Canadian steamer Lord Ormonde , but only damaged the 3 @,@ 914 @-@ ton ship . On 20 March , U @-@ 40 sent the Greek cargo ship Antonios M. Theophilatos and her load of ammunition to the bottom . U @-@ 40 launched an unsuccessful torpedo attack on a steamer in a convoy on 23 March . U @-@ 40 ended her patrol on 2 April at Cattaro . Gibson and Prendergast report on the claim of the Italian torpedo boat Ardea that she had depth charged and sunk U @-@ 40 in the Adriatic on 26 April . As Gibson and Prendergast note , U @-@ 40 did not sink that day , discrediting the report . U @-@ 40 did depart from Cattaro for Pola at the end of May to undergo repairs for the next two months .
U @-@ 40 departed from Pola on 5 August , but developed a leak a few days out and put in at Cattaro on 10 August . The U @-@ boat returned to Pola about two weeks later and remained there until October . While at Pola , command of U @-@ 40 passed to Linienschiffsleutnant Wladimir Pfeifer on 19 September . The 27 @-@ year @-@ old native of Leskovec ( in present @-@ day Slovenia ) , was previously in command of U @-@ 17 and had , like Krsnjavi , also served a stint as commander of U @-@ 11 . On 19 October , U @-@ 40 departed Pola and eventually arrived at Fiume , where she remained through the end of the war . The U @-@ boat was taken to Venice on 23 March 1919 , where she was surrendered to the Italians as a war reparation . She was scrapped at Venice the following year . In her 15 @-@ month service career , U @-@ 40 sank three ships with a combined tonnage of 9 @,@ 838 , and damaged two others .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
* damaged but not sunk
= Battle of Marathon =
The Battle of Marathon ( Greek : Μάχη τοῦ Μαραθῶνος , Machē tou Marathōnos ) took place in 490 BC , during the first Persian invasion of Greece . It was fought between the citizens of Athens , aided by Plataea , and a Persian force commanded by Datis and Artaphernes . The battle was the culmination of the first attempt by Persia , under King Darius I , to subjugate Greece . The Greek army decisively defeated the more numerous Persians , marking a turning point in the Greco @-@ Persian Wars .
The first Persian invasion was a response to Greek involvement in the Ionian Revolt , when Athens and Eretria had sent a force to support the cities of Ionia in their attempt to overthrow Persian rule . The Athenians and Eretrians had succeeded in capturing and burning Sardis , but they were then forced to retreat with heavy losses . In response to this raid , Darius swore to burn down Athens and Eretria . According to Herodotus , Darius asked for his bow , he placed an arrow upon the string and he discharged it upwards towards heaven , and as he shot into the air he said : " Zeus , grant me to take vengeance upon the Athenians ! " . Also he charged one of his servants , to say to him , every day before dinner , three times : " Master , remember the Athenians . "
At the time of the battle , Sparta and Athens were the two largest city states . Once the Ionian revolt was finally crushed by the Persian victory at the Battle of Lade in 494 BC , Darius began plans to subjugate Greece . In 490 BC , he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean , to subjugate the Cyclades , and then to make punitive attacks on Athens and Eretria . Reaching Euboea in mid @-@ summer after a successful campaign in the Aegean , the Persians proceeded to besiege and capture Eretria . The Persian force then sailed for Attica , landing in the bay near the town of Marathon . The Athenians , joined by a small force from Plataea , marched to Marathon , and succeeded in blocking the two exits from the plain of Marathon . The Athenians also sent a message asking for support to the Spartans . However , at the time the Spartans were involved in a religious festival and gave this as a reason for refusing to aid the Athenians .
The Greeks could not hope to face the superior Persian cavalry ; however , the location chosen was surrounded by marshes and mountains and so the cavalry was unable to join the main Persian army . Miltiades , the Greek general , ordered a general attack against the Persians . He reinforced his flanks , luring the Persians ' best fighters into his centre . The inward wheeling flanks enveloped the Persians , routing them . The Persian army broke in panic towards their ships , and large numbers were slaughtered . The defeat at Marathon marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece , and the Persian force retreated to Asia . Darius then began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece ; however , in 486 BC , his Egyptian subjects revolted , indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition . After Darius died , his son Xerxes I restarted the preparations for a second invasion of Greece , which finally began in 480 BC .
The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco @-@ Persian wars , showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten ; the eventual Greek triumph in these wars can be seen to begin at Marathon . The battle also showed the Greeks that they were able to win battles without the Spartans , as they had heavily relied on Sparta previously . This win was largely due to the Athenians , and Marathon raised Greek esteem of them . Since the following two hundred years saw the rise of the Classical Greek civilization , which has been enduringly influential in western society , the Battle of Marathon is often seen as a pivotal moment in European history .
The battle is perhaps now more famous as the inspiration for the marathon race . Although thought to be historically inaccurate , the legend of the Greek messenger Pheidippides running to Athens with news of the victory became the inspiration for this athletic event , introduced at the 1896 Athens Olympics , and originally run between Marathon and Athens .
= = Background = =
The first Persian invasion of Greece had its immediate roots in the Ionian Revolt , the earliest phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . However , it was also the result of the longer @-@ term interaction between the Greeks and Persians . In 500 BC the Persian Empire was still relatively young and highly expansionistic , but prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples . Moreover , the Persian King Darius was a usurper , and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule . Even before the Ionian Revolt , Darius had begun to expand the empire into Europe , subjugating Thrace , and forcing Macedon to become a vassal of Persia . Attempts at further expansion into the politically fractious world of ancient Greece may have been inevitable . However , the Ionian Revolt had directly threatened the integrity of the Persian empire , and the states of mainland Greece remained a potential menace to its future stability . Darius thus resolved to subjugate and pacify Greece and the Aegean , and to punish those involved in the Ionian Revolt .
The Ionian Revolt had begun with an unsuccessful expedition against Naxos , a joint venture between the Persian satrap Artaphernes and the Milesian tyrant Aristagoras . In the aftermath , Artaphernes decided to remove Aristagoras from power , but before he could do so , Aristagoras abdicated , and declared Miletus a democracy . The other Ionian cities followed suit , ejecting their Persian @-@ appointed tyrants , and declaring themselves democracies . Aristagoras then appealed to the states of mainland Greece for support , but only Athens and Eretria offered to send troops .
The involvement of Athens in the Ionian Revolt arose from a complex set of circumstances , beginning with the establishment of the Athenian Democracy in the late 6th century BC .
In 510 BC , with the aid of Cleomenes I , King of Sparta , the Athenian people had expelled Hippias , the tyrant ruler of Athens . With Hippias 's father Peisistratus , the family had ruled for 36 out of the previous 50 years and fully intended to continue Hippias 's rule . Hippias fled to Sardis to the court of the Persian satrap , Artaphernes and promised control of Athens to the Persians if they were to help restore him . In the meantime , Cleomenes helped install a pro @-@ Spartan tyranny under Isagoras in Athens , in opposition to Cleisthenes , the leader of the traditionally powerful Alcmaeonidae family , who considered themselves the natural heirs to the rule of Athens . Cleisthenes , however , found himself being politically defeated by a coalition led by Isagoras and decided to change the rules of the game by appealing to the demos ( the people ) , in effect making them a new faction in the political arena . This tactic succeeded , but the Spartan King | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, Cleomenes I , returned at the request of Isagoras and so Cleisthenes , the Alcmaeonids and other prominent Athenian families were exiled from Athens . When Isagoras attempted to create a narrow oligarchic government , the Athenian people , in a spontaneous and unprecedented move , expelled Cleomenes and Isagoras . Cleisthenes was thus restored to Athens ( 507 BC ) , and at breakneck speed began to reform the state with the aim of securing his position . The result was not actually a democracy or a real civic state , but he enabled the development of a fully democratic government , which would emerge in the next generation as the demos realized its power . The new @-@ found freedom and self @-@ governance of the Athenians meant that they were thereafter exceptionally hostile to the return of the tyranny of Hippias , or any form of outside subjugation , by Sparta , Persia , or anyone else .
Cleomenes was not pleased with events , and marched on Athens with the Spartan army . Cleomenes 's attempts to restore Isagoras to Athens ended in a debacle , but fearing the worst , the Athenians had by this point already sent an embassy to Artaphernes in Sardis , to request aid from the Persian empire . Artaphernes requested that the Athenians give him an ' earth and water ' , a traditional token of submission , to which the Athenian ambassadors acquiesced . They were , however , severely censured for this when they returned to Athens . At some later point Cleomenes instigated a plot to restore Hippias to the rule of Athens . This failed and Hippias again fled to Sardis and tried to persuade the Persians to subjugate Athens . The Athenians dispatched ambassadors to Artaphernes to dissuade him from taking action , but Artaphernes merely instructed the Athenians to take Hippias back as tyrant . The Athenians indignantly declined , and instead resolved to open war with Persia . Having thus become the enemy of Persia , Athens was already in a position to support the Ionian cities when they began their revolt . The fact that the Ionian democracies were inspired by the example the Athenians had set no doubt further persuaded the Athenians to support the Ionian Revolt , especially since the cities of Ionia were originally Athenian colonies .
The Athenians and Eretrians sent a task force of 25 triremes to Asia Minor to aid the revolt . Whilst there , the Greek army surprised and outmaneuvered Artaphernes , marching to Sardis and burning the lower city . This was , however , as much as the Greeks achieved , and they were then repelled and pursued back to the coast by Persian horsemen , losing many men in the process . Despite the fact that their actions were ultimately fruitless , the Eretrians and in particular the Athenians had earned Darius 's lasting enmity , and he vowed to punish both cities . The Persian naval victory at the Battle of Lade ( 494 BC ) all but ended the Ionian Revolt , and by 493 BC , the last hold @-@ outs were vanquished by the Persian fleet . The revolt was used as an opportunity by Darius to extend the empire 's border to the islands of the eastern Aegean and the Propontis , which had not been part of the Persian dominions before . The pacification of Ionia allowed the Persians to begin planning their next moves ; to extinguish the threat to the empire from Greece and to punish Athens and Eretria .
In 492 BC , after the Ionian Revolt had finally been crushed , Darius dispatched an expedition to Greece under the command of his son @-@ in @-@ law , Mardonius . Mardonius re @-@ conquered Thrace and compelled Alexander I of Macedon to make Macedon a client kingdom to Persia , before the wrecking of his fleet brought a premature end to the campaign . However , in 490 BC , following the successes of the previous campaign , Darius decided to send a maritime expedition led by Artaphernes , ( son of the satrap to whom Hippias had fled ) and Datis , a Median admiral . Mardonius had been injured in the prior campaign and had fallen out of favor . The expedition was intended to bring the Cyclades into the Persian empire , to punish Naxos ( which had resisted a Persian assault in 499 BC ) and then to head to Greece to force Eretria and Athens to submit to Darius or be destroyed . After island @-@ hopping across the Aegean , including successfully attacking Naxos , the Persian task force arrived off Euboea in mid summer . The Persians then proceeded to besiege , capture and burn Eretria . They then headed south down the coast of Attica , en route to complete the final objective of the campaign — punish Athens .
= = Prelude = =
The Persians sailed down the coast of Attica , and landed at the bay of Marathon , roughly 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Athens , on the advice of the exiled Athenian tyrant Hippias ( who had accompanied the expedition ) . Under the guidance of Miltiades , the Athenian general with the greatest experience of fighting the Persians , the Athenian army marched quickly to block the two exits from the plain of Marathon , and prevent the Persians moving inland . At the same time , Athens 's greatest runner , Pheidippides ( or Philippides in some accounts ) had been sent to Sparta to request that the Spartan army march to the aid of Athens . Pheidippides arrived during the festival of Carneia , a sacrosanct period of peace , and was informed that the Spartan army could not march to war until the full moon rose ; Athens could not expect reinforcement for at least ten days . The Athenians would have to hold out at Marathon for the time being , although they were reinforced by the full muster of 1 @,@ 000 hoplites from the small city of Plataea ; a gesture which did much to steady the nerves of the Athenians , and won unending Athenian gratitude to Plataea .
For approximately five days the armies therefore confronted each other across the plain of Marathon in stalemate . The flanks of the Athenian camp were protected either by a grove of trees , or an abbatis of stakes ( depending on the exact reading ) . Since every day brought the arrival of the Spartans closer , the delay worked in favor of the Athenians . There were ten Athenian strategoi ( generals ) at Marathon , elected by each of the ten tribes that the Athenians were divided into ; Miltiades was one of these . In addition , in overall charge , was the War @-@ Archon ( polemarch ) , Callimachus , who had been elected by the whole citizen body . Herodotus suggests that command rotated between the strategoi , each taking in turn a day to command the army . He further suggests that each strategos , on his day in command , instead deferred to Miltiades . In Herodotus 's account , Miltiades is keen to attack the Persians ( despite knowing that the Spartans are coming to aid the Athenians ) , but strangely , chooses to wait until his actual day of command to attack . This passage is undoubtedly problematic ; the Athenians had little to gain by attacking before the Spartans arrived , and there is no real evidence of this rotating generalship . There does , however , seem to have been a delay between the Athenian arrival at Marathon , and the battle ; Herodotus , who evidently believed that Miltiades was eager to attack , may have made a mistake whilst seeking to explain this delay .
As is discussed below , the reason for the delay was probably simply that neither the Athenians nor the Persians were willing to risk battle initially . This then raises the question of why the battle occurred when it did . Herodotus explicitly tells us that the Greeks attacked the Persians ( and the other sources confirm this ) , but it is not clear why they did this before the arrival of the Spartans . There are two main theories to explain this .
The first theory is that the Persian cavalry left Marathon for an unspecified reason , and that the Greeks moved to take advantage of this by attacking . This theory is based on the absence of any mention of cavalry in Herodotus ' account of the battle , and an entry in the Suda dictionary . The entry χωρίς ἰππεῖς ( " without cavalry " ) is explained thus :
The cavalry left . When Datis surrendered and was ready for retreat , the Ionians climbed the trees and gave the Athenians the signal that the cavalry had left . And when Miltiades realized that , he attacked and thus won . From there comes the above @-@ mentioned quote , which is used when someone breaks ranks before battle .
There are many variations of this theory , but perhaps the most prevalent is that the cavalry was re @-@ embarked on the ships , and was to be sent by sea to attack ( undefended ) Athens in the rear , whilst the rest of the Persians pinned down the Athenian army at Marathon . This theory therefore utilises Herodotus ' suggestion that after Marathon , the Persian army re @-@ embarked and tried to sail around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly ; however , according to the theory this attempt would have occurred before the battle ( and indeed have triggered the battle ) .
The second theory is simply that the battle occurred because the Persians finally moved to attack the Athenians . Although this theory has the Persians moving to the strategic offensive , this can be reconciled with the traditional account of the Athenians attacking the Persians by assuming that , seeing the Persians advancing , the Athenians took the tactical offensive , and attacked them . Obviously , it cannot be firmly established which theory ( if either ) is correct . However , both theories imply that there was some kind of Persian activity which occurred on or about the fifth day which ultimately triggered the battle . It is also possible that both theories are correct : when the Persians sent the cavalry by ship to attack Athens , they simultaneously sent their infantry to attack at Marathon , triggering the Greek counterattack .
= = = Date of the battle = = =
Herodotus mentions for several events a date in the lunisolar calendar , of which each Greek city @-@ state used a variant . Astronomical computation allows us to derive an absolute date in the proleptic Julian calendar which is much used by historians as the chronological frame . Philipp August Böckh in 1855 concluded that the battle took place on September 12 , 490 BC in the Julian calendar , and this is the conventionally accepted date . However , this depends on when exactly the Spartans held their festival and it is possible that the Spartan calendar was one month ahead of that of Athens . In that case the battle took place on August 12 , 490 BC .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Athenians = = =
Herodotus does not give a figure for the size of the Athenian army . However , Cornelius Nepos , Pausanias and Plutarch all give the figure of 9 @,@ 000 Athenians and 1 @,@ 000 Plataeans ; while Justin suggests that there were 10 @,@ 000 Athenians and 1 @,@ 000 Plataeans . These numbers are highly comparable to the number of troops Herodotus says that the Athenians and Plataeans sent to the Battle of Plataea 11 years later . Pausanias noticed on the monument to the battle the names of former slaves who were freed in exchange for military services . Modern historians generally accept these numbers as reasonable .
= = = Persians = = =
According to Herodotus , the fleet sent by Darius consisted of 600 triremes . Herodotus does not estimate the size of the Persian army , only saying that they were a " large infantry that was well packed " . Among ancient sources , the poet Simonides , another near @-@ contemporary , says the campaign force numbered 200 @,@ 000 ; while a later writer , the Roman Cornelius Nepos estimates 200 @,@ 000 infantry and 10 @,@ 000 cavalry , of which only 100 @,@ 000 fought in the battle , while the rest were loaded into the fleet that was rounding Cape Sounion ; Plutarch and Pausanias both independently give 300 @,@ 000 , as does the Suda dictionary . Plato and Lysias give 500 @,@ 000 ; and Justinus 600 @,@ 000 .
Modern historians have proposed wide ranging numbers for the infantry , from 20 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 with a consensus of perhaps 25 @,@ 000 ; estimates for the cavalry are in the range of 1 @,@ 000 .
However , the lower end of that range contradicts the statement by Herodotus of a " large infantry that was well packed " . The 25 @,@ 000 fighting force by no means could be neither " large " nor intimidating to the eyes of the 11 @,@ 000 Greeks especially in the scenario ( see below ) that half of the Persian force circumnavigated cape Sounion to take Athens by surprise , leaving thus on the field a force almost equal numerically with Miltiades ' army . Probably the 25 @,@ 000 is the army that remained after the split of the Persian army , raising the size of the initial landing army in 50 @,@ 000 combatants .
To this force furthermore some adjustments must be made :
a ) In the hypothesis ( less likely ) that the 600 ships of Herodotus represent the entire Persian naval force ( both the combat and the troop @-@ transporting fleets ) and each ship carried a total crew of 230 @-@ 240 ( considering the 30 additional marines that Herodotus mentions ) we have a minimum of 138 @,@ 000 to 144 @,@ 000 personnel . It is unlikely that the Persians gathered such a fleet to just ferry across the Aegean only 50 @,@ 000 combatants , especially after making an effort to pack 30 marines more to each vessel .
In order to curry supplies for 2 months and ferry their 1 @,@ 800 strong cavalry , the Persians should have had in addition 200 supply ships and 70 horse @-@ transports ( see below ) ; thus a 870 @-@ strong fleet .
On the composition of the fleet in Marathon the following examples should be also considered :
-The Persian fleet that invaded Greece 10 years later ( 480 BC ) had 1207 triremes and 3000 transports .
-The Athenian fleet on the Sicilian expedition ~ 60 years later ( 415 BC ) had 40 % transports .
-The Punic fleet that campaigned against the Sicilian Greeks ~ 80 years later ( 406 BC ) had 120 triremes and 1000 transports ( siege of Selinous , siege of Acragas ) and again 400 triremes and 600 transports in 396 BC ( siege of Syracuse ) .
b ) In all the aforementioned cases the transport fleet were at least equal in size - if not larger - than the combat fleet . In the following ( more likely ) hypothesis the transport fleet will be the 2 / 3 of the 600 @-@ strong combat fleet representing thus the 30 % of the total ( 400 transports over 1 @,@ 370 ships ) :
Here is to be noted that the ships ' oarsmen and sailors were armed each with a light shield , a short sword and a helmet . Leather armors and missile weapons were also frequent . They were serving as light infantry and skirmishers when the ships were to be captured and - in rare occasions ( i.e. Battle of Naupactus 429 BC ) - in the main battlefield .
Because ancient historians are usually referring to the combat fleet of a naval force when they don 't mention the troop @-@ transports separately ( as in this case ) a possible breakdown of the Persian fleet in Marathon could be the following :
-600 combat ships ( aphraktae or open triremes ) . Represented the main fighting vessel in naval battles . They were called " open " because they had their upper deck almost completely removed in order to lighten and gain speed and maneuverability . They were carrying usually 30 @-@ 40 marines ( as in the Ionian Greek fleets and the Persian fleet ) but in some rare cases these force could be further more reduced in just 14 marines ( Athenian triremes during the city 's heyday of naval power ) to additionally increase speed . The triremes in Marathon were packed with 30 additional marines , for the purposes of the campaign . Thus :
Crew : 170 oarsmen , 15 sailors and officers , 60 marines .
( x600 ships : 109 @,@ 200 crew ; 36 @,@ 000 marines )
-400 troop @-@ transports ( kataphraktae or closed triremes ) . Specially modified triremes where the two lower rows of oarsmen were removed and an upper deck was added in order to house more land troops . With less oarsmen and additional weight , those triremes were slow and heavy ; thus totally useless in naval combat and in need of escort .
Crew : 70 oarsmen , 15 sailors and officers , 160 land troops .
( x400 ships : 34 @,@ 000 crew ; 64 @,@ 000 land troops )
-70 cavalry @-@ transports ( modified kataphraktae triremes ) .
Crew : 70 oarsmen , 15 sailors and officers , 25 horses with their riders and complete gear .
( x70 ships : 5 @,@ 950 crew ; 1 @,@ 750 cavalry )
-300 supply ships . They were normal merchant ships that were carrying supplies ( mostly grain ) during wars . A 250 @,@ 000 @-@ strong army needs 250 tons of supplies daily ( 5 ships ) .
Crew : 22 oarsmen , 10 sailors , 50 tons of supplies ( grain ) .
( x300 ships : 6 @,@ 600 oarsmen ; 3 @,@ 000 sailors ; 15 @,@ 000 tons of supplies , enough for 2 months )
TOTAL : 257 @,@ 500 - > 155 @,@ 750 oarsmen and sailors ; 100 @,@ 000 soldiers and marines ; 1 @,@ 750 cavalry ; 1 @,@ 370 ships . Thus the account of the near @-@ contemporary Simonides ( 200 @,@ 000 men ) must be closest to the truth . The Greeks however fought half of that force in Marathon , on September 490 BC ( ~ 50 @,@ 000 foot @-@ soldiers and marines ) .
NOTE : The Persian fleet campaigned during the long Greek summer ( 5 months ) . They didn 't need to have more than 60 days of supplies because they could replenish their scores of provision in various ways ( through trade , pillaging or conquest ) . The fall of Eretria a few weeks earlier , in late summer just after the collecting of the crops , should have provided plenty of supplies to the Persians . The island of Euboea ( on which Eretria stands ) was at the time the main grain supplier for Athens . Furthermore , the fear of being low on supplies by the end of the campaigning season , drove the Persians to attempt the surprise attack on Athens by circumnavigating cape Sounion with half of their army .
= = Strategic and tactical considerations = =
From a strategic point of view , the Athenians had some disadvantages at Marathon . In order to face the Persians in battle , the Athenians had to summon all available hoplites ; and even then they were still probably outnumbered at least 2 to 1 . Furthermore , raising such a large army had denuded Athens of defenders , and thus any secondary attack in the Athenian rear would cut the army off from the city ; and any direct attack on the city could not be defended against . Still further , defeat at Marathon would mean the complete defeat of Athens , since no other Athenian army existed . The Athenian strategy was therefore to keep the Persian army pinned down at Marathon , blocking both exits from the plain , and thus preventing themselves from being outmaneuvered . However , these disadvantages were balanced by some advantages . The Athenians initially had no need to seek battle , since they had managed to confine the Persians to the plain of Marathon . Furthermore , time worked in their favour , as every day brought the arrival of the Spartans closer . Having everything to lose by attacking , and much to gain by waiting , the Athenians remained on the defensive in the run up to the battle . Tactically , hoplites were vulnerable to attacks by cavalry , and since the Persians had substantial numbers of cavalry , this made any offensive maneuver by the Athenians even more of a risk , and thus reinforced the defensive strategy of the Athenians .
The Persian strategy , on the other hand , was probably principally determined by tactical considerations . The Persian infantry was evidently lightly armoured , and no match for hoplites in a head @-@ on confrontation ( as would be demonstrated at the later battles of Thermopylae and Plataea . ) Since the Athenians seem to have taken up a strong defensive position at Marathon , the Persian hesitance was probably a reluctance to attack the Athenians head @-@ on .
Whatever event eventually triggered the battle , it obviously altered the strategic or tactical balance sufficiently to induce the Athenians to attack the Persians . If the first theory is correct ( see above ) , then the absence of cavalry removed the main Athenian tactical disadvantage , and the threat of being outflanked made it imperative to attack . Conversely , if the second theory is correct , then the Athenians were merely reacting to the Persians attacking them . Since the Persian force obviously contained a high proportion of missile troops , a static defensive position would have made little sense for the Athenians ; the strength of the hoplite was in the melee , and the sooner that could be brought about , the better , from the Athenian point of view . If the second theory is correct , this raises the further question of why the Persians , having hesitated for several days , then attacked . There may have been several strategic reasons for this ; perhaps they were aware ( or suspected ) that the Athenians were expecting reinforcements . Alternatively , since they may have felt the need to force some kind of victory — they could hardly remain at Marathon indefinitely .
= = Battle = =
The distance between the two armies at the point of battle had narrowed to " a distance not less than 8 stadia " or about 1 @,@ 500 meters . Miltiades ordered the two tribes that were forming the center of the Greek formation , the Leontis tribe led by Themistocles and the Antiochis tribe led by Aristides , to be arranged in the depth of four ranks while the rest of the tribes at their flanks were in ranks of eight . Some modern commentators have suggested this was a deliberate ploy to encourage a double envelopment of the Persian centre . However , this suggests a level of training that the Greeks were thought not to possess . There is little evidence for any such tactical thinking in Greek battles until Leuctra in 371 BC . It is therefore possible that this arrangement was made , perhaps at the last moment , so that the Athenian line was as long as the Persian line , and would not therefore be outflanked .
When the Athenian line was ready , according to one source , the simple signal to advance was given by Miltiades : " At them " . Herodotus implies the Athenians ran the whole distance to the Persian lines , a feat under the weight of hoplite armory generally thought to be physically impossible . More likely , they marched until they reached the limit of the archers ' effectiveness , the " beaten zone " ( roughly 200 meters ) , and then broke into a run towards their enemy . Another possibility is that they ran up to the 200 meter @-@ mark in broken ranks , and then reformed for the march into battle from there . Herodotus suggests that this was the first time a Greek army ran into battle in this way ; this was probably because it was the first time that a Greek army had faced an enemy composed primarily of missile troops . All this was evidently much to the surprise of the Persians ; " ... in their minds they charged the Athenians with madness which must be fatal , seeing that they were few and yet were pressing forwards at a run , having neither cavalry nor archers " . Indeed , based on their previous experience of the Greeks , the Persians might be excused for this ; Herodotus tells us that the Athenians at Marathon were " first to endure looking at Median dress and men wearing it , for up until then just hearing the name of the Medes caused the Hellenes to panic " . Passing through the hail of arrows launched by the Persian army , protected for the most part by their armour , the Greek line finally collided with the enemy army . Holland provides an evocative description :
The enemy directly in their path ... realised to their horror that [ the Athenians ] , far from providing the easy pickings for their bowmen , as they had first imagined , were not going to be halted ... The impact was devastating . The Athenians had honed their style of fighting in combat with other phalanxes , wooden shields smashing against wooden shields , iron spear tips clattering against breastplates of bronze ... in those first terrible seconds of collision , there was nothing but a pulverizing crash of metal into flesh and bone ; then the rolling of the Athenian tide over men wearing , at most , quilted jerkins for protection , and armed , perhaps , with nothing more than bows or slings . The hoplites ' ash spears , rather than shivering ... could instead stab and stab again , and those of the enemy who avoided their fearful jabbing might easily be crushed to death beneath the sheer weight of the advancing men of bronze .
The Athenian wings quickly routed the inferior Persian levies on the flanks , before turning inwards to surround the Persian centre , which had been more successful against the thin Greek centre . The battle ended when the Persian centre then broke in panic towards their ships , pursued by the Greeks . Some , unaware of the local terrain , ran towards the swamps where unknown numbers drowned . The Athenians pursued the Persians back to their ships , and managed to capture seven ships , though the majority were able to launch successfully . Herodotus recounts the story that Cynaegirus , brother of the playwright Aeschylus , who was also among the fighters , charged into the sea , grabbed one Persian trireme , and started pulling it towards shore . A member of the crew saw him , cut off his hand , and Cynaegirus died .
Herodotus records that 6 @,@ 400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield , and it is unknown how many more perished in the swamps . The Athenians lost 192 men and the Plataeans 11 . Among the dead were the war archon Callimachus and the general Stesilaos .
= = Conclusions = =
There are several explanations of the Greek success . Most scholars believe that the Greeks had better equipment and used superior tactics . According to Herodotus , the Greeks were better equipped ; however , they did not use bronze armour at this time , but that of leather or linen . The phalanx formation proved successful , because the hoplites had a long tradition in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , whereas the Persian soldiers were accustomed to a very different kind of conflict . At Marathon , the Athenians thinned their centre in order to make their army equal in length to the Persian army , not as a result of a tactical planning . It seems that the Persian centre tried to return , realizing that their wings had broken , and was caught in the flanks by the victorious Greek wings . Lazenby believes that the ultimate reason for the Greek success was the courage the Greeks displayed :
Marathon was won because ordinary , amateur soldiers found the courage to break into a trot when the arrows begun to fall , instead of grinding to a halt , and when surprisingly the enemy wings fled , not to take the easy way out and follow them , but to stop and somehow come to the aid of the hard pressured centre .
= = Aftermath = =
In the immediate aftermath of the battle , Herodotus says that the Persian fleet sailed around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly . As has been discussed above , some modern historians place this attempt just before the battle . Either way , the Athenians evidently realised that their city was still under threat , and marched as quickly as possible back to Athens . The two tribes which had been in the centre of the Athenian line stayed to guard the battlefield under the command of Aristides . The Athenians arrived in time to prevent the Persians from securing a landing , and seeing that the opportunity was lost , the Persians turned about and returned to Asia . Connected with this episode , Herodotus recounts a rumour that this manoeuver by the Persians had been planned in conjunction with the Alcmaeonids , the prominent Athenian aristocratic family , and that a " shield @-@ signal " had been given after the battle . Although many interpretations of this have been offered , it is impossible to tell whether this was true , and if so , what exactly the signal meant . On the next day , the Spartan army arrived at Marathon , having covered the 220 kilometers ( 140 mi ) in only three days . The Spartans toured the battlefield at Marathon , and agreed that the Athenians had won a great victory .
The dead of Marathon were buried on the battlefield . On the tomb of the Athenians this epigram composed by Simonides was written :
Ἑλλήνων προμαχοῦντες Ἀθηναῖοι Μαραθῶνι
χρυσοφόρων Μήδων ἐστόρεσαν δύναμιν
Fighting at the forefront of the Greeks , the Athenians at Marathon
laid low the army of the gilded Medes .
In the meanwhile , Darius began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece ; however , in 486 BC , his Egyptian subjects revolted , indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition . Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt , and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt , and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece . The epic second Persian invasion of Greece finally began in 480 BC , and the Persians met with initial success at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium . However , defeat at the Battle of Salamis would be the turning point in the campaign , and the next year the expedition was ended by the decisive Greek victory at the Battle of Plataea .
= = Significance = =
The defeat at Marathon barely touched the vast resources of the Persian empire , yet for the Greeks it was an enormously significant victory . It was the first time the Greeks had beaten the Persians , proving that the Persians were not invincible , and that resistance , rather than subjugation , was possible .
The battle was a defining moment for the young Athenian democracy , showing what might be achieved through unity and self @-@ belief ; indeed , the battle effectively marks the start of a " golden age " for Athens . This was also applicable to Greece as a whole ; " their victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny that was to endure for three centuries , during which western culture was born " . John Stuart Mill 's famous opinion was that " the Battle of Marathon , even as an event in British history , is more important than the Battle of Hastings " . It seems that the Athenian playwright Aeschylus considered his participation at Marathon to be his greatest achievement in life ( rather than his plays ) since on his gravestone there was the following epigram :
Αἰσχύλον Εὐφορίωνος Ἀθηναῖον τόδε κεύθει
μνῆμα καταφθίμενον πυροφόροιο Γέλας ·
ἀλκὴν δ ’ εὐδόκιμον Μαραθώνιον ἄλσος ἂν εἴποι
καὶ βαθυχαιτήεις Μῆδος ἐπιστάμενος
This tomb the dust of Aeschylus doth hide ,
Euphorion 's son and fruitful Gela 's pride .
How tried his valor , Marathon may tell ,
And long @-@ haired Medes , who knew it all too well .
Militarily , a major lesson for the Greeks was the potential of the hoplite phalanx . This style had developed during internecine warfare amongst the Greeks ; since each city @-@ state fought in the same way , the advantages and disadvantages of the hoplite phalanx had not been obvious . Marathon was the first time a phalanx faced more lightly armed troops , and revealed how effective the hoplites could be in battle . The phalanx formation was still vulnerable to cavalry ( the cause of much caution by the Greek forces at the Battle of Plataea ) , but used in the right circumstances , it was now shown to be a potentially devastating weapon .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Legends associated with the battle = = =
The most famous legend associated with Marathon is that of the runner Pheidippides / Philippides bringing news to Athens of the battle , which is described below .
Pheidippides ' run to Sparta to bring aid has other legends associated with it . Herodotus mentions that Pheidippides was visited by the god Pan on his way to Sparta ( or perhaps on his return journey ) . Pan asked why the Athenians did not honor him and the awed Pheidippides promised that they would do so from then on . The god apparently felt that the promise would be kept , so he appeared in battle and at the crucial moment he instilled the Persians with his own brand of fear , the mindless , frenzied fear that bore his name : " panic " . After the battle , a sacred precinct was established for Pan in a grotto on the north slope of the Acropolis , and a sacrifice was annually offered .
Similarly , after the victory the festival of the Agroteras Thysia ( " sacrifice to the Agrotéra " ) was held at Agrae near Athens , in honor of Artemis Agrotera ( " Artemis the Huntress " ) . This was in fulfillment of a vow made by the city before the battle , to offer in sacrifice a number of goats equal to that of the Persians slain in the conflict . The number was so great , it was decided to offer 500 goats yearly until the number was filled . Xenophon notes that at his time , 90 years after the battle , goats were still offered yearly .
Plutarch mentions that the Athenians saw the phantom of King Theseus , the mythical hero of Athens , leading the army in full battle gear in the charge against the Persians , and indeed he was depicted in the mural of the Stoa Poikile fighting for the Athenians , along with the twelve Olympian gods and other heroes . Pausanias also tells us that :
They say too that there chanced to be present in the battle a man of rustic appearance and dress . Having slaughtered many of the foreigners with a plough he was seen no more after the engagement . When the Athenians made enquiries at the oracle , the god merely ordered them to honor Echetlaeus ( " he of the Plough @-@ tail " ) as a hero .
Another tale from the conflict is of the dog of Marathon . Aelian relates that one hoplite brought his dog to the Athenian encampment . The dog followed his master to battle and attacked the Persians at his master 's side . He also informs us that this dog is depicted in the mural of the Stoa Poikile .
= = = Marathon run = = =
According to Herodotus , an Athenian runner named Pheidippides was sent to run from Athens to Sparta to ask for assistance before the battle . He ran a distance of over 225 kilometers ( 140 miles ) , arriving in Sparta the day after he left . Then , following the battle , the Athenian army marched the 40 kilometers ( 25 miles ) or so back to Athens at a very high pace ( considering the quantity of armour , and the fatigue after the battle ) , in order to head off the Persian force sailing around Cape Sounion . They arrived back in the late afternoon , in time to see the Persian ships turn away from Athens , thus completing the Athenian victory .
Later , in popular imagination , these two events became confused with each other , leading to a legendary but inaccurate version of events . This myth has Pheidippides running from Marathon to Athens after the battle , to announce the Greek victory with the word " nenikēkamen ! " ( Attic : νενικήκαμεν ; we 've won ! ) , whereupon he promptly died of exhaustion . Most accounts incorrectly attribute this story to Herodotus ; actually , the story first appears in Plutarch 's On the Glory of Athens in the 1st century AD , who quotes from Heracleides of Pontus 's lost work , giving the runner 's name as either Thersipus of Erchius or Eucles . Lucian of Samosata ( 2nd century AD ) gives the same story but names the runner Philippides ( not Pheidippides ) . It should be noted that in some medieval codices of Herodotus the name of the runner between Athens and Sparta before the battle is given as Philippides and in a few modern editions this name is preferred .
When the idea of a modern Olympics became a reality at the end of the 19th century , the initiators and organizers were looking for a great popularizing event , recalling the ancient glory of Greece . The idea of organizing a ' marathon race ' came from Michel Bréal , who wanted the event to feature in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in Athens . This idea was heavily supported by Pierre de Coubertin , the founder of the modern Olympics , as well as the Greeks . This would echo the legendary version of events , with the competitors running from Marathon to Athens . So popular was this event that it quickly caught on , becoming a fixture at the Olympic games , with major cities staging their own annual events . The distance eventually became fixed at 26 miles 385 yards , or 42 @.@ 195 km , though for the first years it was variable , being around 25 miles ( 40 km ) — the approximate distance from Marathon to Athens .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
= = = Modern studies = = =
= = = Historiography = = =
Fink , Dennis L. The Battle of Marathon in Scholarship : Research , Theories and Controversies since 1850 ( McFarland , 2014 ) . 240 pp. online review
= Glenrothes =
Glenrothes ( listen ; / ɡlɛnˈrɒθᵻs / , glen @-@ ROTH @-@ iss ; Scottish Gaelic : Gleann Ràthais ) is a town situated in the heart of Fife , in east @-@ central Scotland . It is located approximately 30 miles ( 48 km ) from both Edinburgh , which lies to the south and Dundee to the north . The town had a population of 39 @,@ 277 in 2011 as recorded by the census , making it the third largest settlement in Fife and the 18th most populous settlement in Scotland . The name Glenrothes comes from its historical link with the Earl of Rothes who owned much of the land upon which the new town has been built ; " Glen " ( Scottish for valley ) was added to the name to avoid confusion with Rothes in Moray and in recognition that the town lies in a river valley . The motto of Glenrothes is " Ex terra vis " , meaning " Out of the earth , strength " , which dates back to the founding of the town .
Planned in the late 1940s as one of Scotland 's first post @-@ second world war new towns its original purpose was to house miners who were to work at a newly established coal mine , the Rothes Colliery . Following the failure of the mine the town developed as an important industrial centre in Scotland 's Silicon Glen between 1961 and 2000 with several major electronics and hi @-@ tech companies setting up facilities in the town . The Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) , a non @-@ departmental public body , was established to develop , manage and promote the new town . The GDC supported by the local authority oversaw the governance of Glenrothes until the wind @-@ up of the GDC in 1995 , after which all responsibility was transferred to Fife Council .
Glenrothes is the administrative capital of Fife containing both the Fife Council and Police Scotland Fife Division headquarters . Home to Fife 's main concentration of specialist manufacturing and engineering companies , several organisations have their global headquarters based in Glenrothes . Public services and service industries are also important to the town 's economy . Major employers include Bosch Rexroth ( hydraulics manufacturing ) , Brand Rex ( fibre optics manufacturing ) , Fife College ( education ) and Raytheon ( defence and electronics ) . Glenrothes is unique in Fife as the majority of the town 's centre is contained indoors , within Fife 's largest indoor shopping centre , the Kingdom Shopping Centre .
The town has won multiple horticultural awards in the " Beautiful Scotland " and " Britain in Bloom " contests for the quality of its parks and landscaping . It has numerous outdoor sculptures and artworks , a result of the appointment of town artists in the early development of the town . Public facilities include a regional sports and leisure centre , two golf courses , major parks , a civic centre and theatre and a college campus . The A92 trunk road provides the principal access to the town passing through Glenrothes and connecting it to the wider Scottish motorway and trunk road network . A major bus station is located in the town centre providing regional and local bus services to surrounding settlements .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The name Rothes comes from the association with the north @-@ east Scotland Earl of Rothes , family name Leslie . The Leslie family historically owned much of the land upon which Glenrothes has been built and their family name gave the adjacent village of Leslie its name . Glen ( from the Scottish Gaelic word ' gleann ' meaning valley ) was added to prevent confusion with Rothes in Moray and to reflect the location of the town within the Leven valley .
The different areas ( precincts ) of Glenrothes have been named after the hamlets already established ( e.g. Cadham , Woodside ) , the farms which once occupied the land ( e.g. Caskieberran , Collydean , Rimbleton ) or historical country houses in the area ( e.g. Balbirnie , Balgeddie , Leslie Parks ) .
= = = Glenrothes new town = = =
Glenrothes was designated in 1948 under the New Towns ( Scotland ) Act 1946 as Scotland 's second post @-@ war new town . The case for developing the new town was partially driven by a national energy strategy created by the British Government following the Second World War . The concept was further advanced in a report produced in 1946 by Sir Frank Mears to the Central and South @-@ East Scotland Planning Committee . This made the case for a new town in the Leslie @-@ Markinch area to support growth in the coal mining industry in Fife .
The planning , development , management and promotion of the new town was the responsibility of the Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) , a quango appointed by the Secretary of State for Scotland . The corporation board consisted of eight members including a chairman and deputy chairman . The first meeting of the GDC was in Auchmuty House , provided by Tullis Russell on 20 June 1949 .
The original plan was to build a new settlement for a population of 32 @,@ 000 to 35 @,@ 000 people . The land which Glenrothes now occupies was largely agricultural and once contained a number of small rural communities and the hamlets of Cadham and Woodside which were established to house workers at local paper mills . Originally proposals for the new town would have centred it on Markinch ; however the village 's infrastructure was deemed unable to withstand the substantial growth required to realise a new town and there was considerable local opposition to the proposal . Leslie and Thornton were also considered as possible locations , again meeting local opposition , and eventually an area of 5 @,@ 320 acres ( 2 @,@ 153 ha ) between all of these villages was zoned for the new town 's development . Much of the historical Aytoun , Balfour , Balgonie and Rothes estates were included in Glenrothes ' assigned area along with the historical country houses Balbirnie House , Balgeddie House and Leslie House .
Prior to the development of Glenrothes the main industries in the area were papermaking , coal mining and farming . Tullis Russell was the largest paper manufacturer in the area and operated from its site for over 200 years . Other paper manufacturers established operations at the Fettykil and Prinlaws Mills at Leslie to the west of the town , and Dixons Mill at Markinch in the east . The location of the mills was strategic to capitalise on the natural energy provided by the River Leven .
The Rothes Colliery , the new coal mine associated with the town 's development , was built on land to the west of Thornton , an established village south of Glenrothes . The mine which was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1957 was promoted as being a key driver in the economic regeneration of central Fife . However , un @-@ stemmable flooding and geological problems in the area combined with a lessening demand for coal nationally had a significant impact on the viability of the mine which resulted in its eventual closure in 1965 . Ironically , miners who had worked in older deep pits in the area had fore @-@ warned against the development of the Rothes Pit for this very reason .
The coal mine 's closure almost resulted in further development of Glenrothes being stopped . However shortly following the closure Central Government decided to change the town 's role by appointing Glenrothes as one of the economic focal points for Central Scotland as part of a National Plan for economic growth and development . The Glenrothes Development Corporation were successful in attracting a plethora of light industries and modern electronics factories to the town as a consequence . The first big overseas electronic investor was Beckmans Instruments in 1959 followed by Hughes Industries in the early 1960s . A number of other important companies followed establishing Glenrothes as a major industrial hub in Scotland 's Silicon Glen . During the middle of the 1970s , the town also became the headquarters of Fife Regional Council ; effectively the county town of Fife , taking over the role from Cupar .
Unlike the other post @-@ war Scottish new towns ; Cumbernauld , East Kilbride , Irvine or Livingston , Glenrothes was not originally to be a Glasgow overspill new town , although it did later take this role . It was however populated in the early 1950s , in part , by families moving from the declining coalfield areas of Scotland .
Major industrial estates were developed to the south of Glenrothes , largely due to the proximity to the proposed East Fife Regional Road ( A92 ) which was developed in 1989 giving dual carriageway access to the main central Scotland road network . The Silicon Glen era peaked in the 1990s with Canon developing their first UK manufacturing plant at Westwood Park in Glenrothes in 1992 . ADC Telecommunications , a major American electronics company , established a base at Bankhead in early 2000 with the promise of a substantial number of jobs . By 2004 both companies had closed their Glenrothes operations with the promised jobs growth never materialising to any substantial level . The electronics industrial sector in Glenrothes and most of central Scotland was dependent upon an inward investment strategy that led to almost 43 % of employment in foreign @-@ owned plants which were susceptible to changes in global economic markets . Around the start of the 21st century , a decline in major electronics manufacturing in Scotland impacted on the town 's economy and as a result the industrial base of the town was forced to diversify for the second time in it 's short history .
by 1995 the GDC left a lasting legacy on the town by overseeing the development of 15 @,@ 378 houses , 5 @,@ 174 @,@ 125 square feet ( 480 @,@ 692 m2 ) of industrial floorspace , 735 @,@ 476 square feet ( 68 @,@ 328 m2 ) of office floorspace and 576 @,@ 977 square feet ( 53 @,@ 603 m2 ) of shopping floorspace . Since the winding up of the GDC Glenrothes continues to serve as Fife 's principal administrative centre and serves a wider sub @-@ regional area as a major centre for services and employment .
In 2008 Canadian artist and researcher Sylvia Grace Borda chose to holiday for a week in Glenrothes to explore , as was perceived , " an area considered by many Scots as uninteresting and unworthy of documentation " . She was curious to explore the town as if she were a late @-@ 1960s photographer of common places following on from a similar study of East Kilbride new town . The outcome was the production of a series of images which the artist believes contradict how some Scots would ' see ' Glenrothes , and reinforce the observation that it often takes a visitor to see what others take for granted . Just as in real time , it is too easy to rush by the everyday . The work sought to position itself so the everyday environment can cause the viewer pause and to regard the commonplace as extraordinary .
Glenrothes gained national publicity in 2009 by winning a Carbuncle Award following an unofficial contest operated by Urban Realm and Carnyx Group which was set up to criticise the quality of built environments in Scotland . The judges of the contest awarded Glenrothes the category of the most dismal place in Scotland for its " depressed and investment starved town centre " . This generated mixed views from locals and built environment professions alike .
By contrast in 2010 the town has won awards for being the " Best Kept Large Town " and the most " Clean , sustainable and beautiful community " in Scotland in the Beautiful Scotland competition and was the winner in the " large town " category in the 2011 Royal Horticultural Society Britain in Bloom competition . The town continued its horticultural success by achieving further Gold awards in the 2013 and 2014 UK finals .
In 2011 Historic Scotland completed an assessment of the town art in Glenrothes , ultimately awarding listed building status to a number of artworks scattered throughout the town . The organisation also gave positive recognition to Glenrothes ' significant role in helping to create the idea of art being a key factor in creating a sense of place .
Glenrothes ' place and importance in the history and development of Scotland has been enshrined in the Great Tapestry of Scotland , which was unveiled in 2013 in the Scottish Parliament . The Glenrothes panel shows various pieces of the town 's public artworks , along with visual references to its important industrial heritage associated originally with coal mining and later as a major centre for " Silicon Glen " industries .
= = Governance = =
In the early years of the creation of the new town the Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) with input from the local authority , then Fife County Council , oversaw the governance of the new town . In the early 1990s the then Conservative UK Government established a wind @-@ up order for all of the UK 's new town development corporations . Responsibilities for the assets , management and governance of all of the new towns were to be transferred to either private sector companies or to the local authorities or other government organisations . The GDC was finally wound up in 1995 after which responsibility for Glenrothes was largely transferred to Fife Council with some assets such as the Kingdom Shopping Centre , industrial and office units sold off to private sector companies .
Glenrothes is represented by a number of tiers of elected government . North Glenrothes Community Council and Pitteuchar , Stenton and Finglassie Community Council form the lowest tier of governance whose statutory role is to communicate local opinion to local and central government . Glenrothes now lies within one of the 32 council areas of Scotland . Fife Council is the executive , deliberative and legislative body responsible for local governance in the region and has its main headquarters based in Glenrothes . Council meetings take place in Fife House ( formerly known as Glenrothes House ) in the town centre . The west wing of the building was built by the Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) as their offices in 1969 , which was later used as the headquarters of Fife Regional Council . Since the last Scottish election in 2012 , Fife Council is governed by a minority Labour Party , claiming a total of 35 seats , with the support of Conservative Party and Independent Councillors .
Glenrothes forms part of the county constituency of Glenrothes , electing one Member of Parliament ( MP ) to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom by the first past the post system . Peter Grant of the Scottish National Party is the MP for Glenrothes after being elected in the 2015 general election . For the purposes of the Scottish Parliament , Glenrothes forms part of the Mid Fife and Glenrothes constituency following the 2011 Scottish elections . This newly formed constituency replaces the former Central Fife constituency taking in the Leven , Largo and Kennoway ward and excluding the Buckhaven , Methil and Wemyss Villages ward . Each constituency elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament ( MSP ) by the first past the post system of election , and the region elects seven additional members to produce a form of proportional representation . Following the 2016 Scottish Elections the constituency is represented by Jenny Gilruth MSP of the Scottish National Party who replaces now retired Tricia Marwick former Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament .
= = Geography = =
Glenrothes lies in mid @-@ Fife between the agricultural " Howe of Fife " in the north and east and Fife 's industrial heartland in the south and west . The neighbouring settlements are Coaltown of Balgonie , Leslie , Markinch and Thornton . The boundaries of the town are virtually indistinguishable between its neighbouring small towns and villages forming a contiguous urban area . The villages of Kinglassie , Milton of Balgonie and Star of Markinch are located slightly further away and are physically separated from Glenrothes by farmland . Kirkcaldy , a traditional industrial centre is the next nearest large town and lies approximately 7 miles ( 11 km ) to the south of the town . Glenrothes is also located equidistant from two of Fife 's other principal settlements , Dunfermline and St Andrews , at 19 miles ( 31 km ) and 21 miles ( 34 km ) away . Two of Scotland 's major cities , Edinburgh and Dundee , are located almost equidistantly from Glenrothes at 32 miles ( 51 km ) and 27 miles ( 43 km ) away , respectively . The smaller Scottish city of Perth is located 23 miles ( 37 km ) to the northwest .
The northern parts of the settlement lie upland on the southern fringes of the Lomond Hills Regional Park . The central parts of the town extend between the southern edge of the River Leven valley ; a substantial green space which passes east west through the town , and the Warout Ridge . Southern parts of Glenrothes are largely industrial and are situated on land which gently slopes south towards the Lochty Burn and the village of Thornton . The height above mean sea level at the town centre is 300 feet ( 91 m ) . Temperatures in Glenrothes , like the rest of Scotland , are relatively moderate given its northern latitude . Fife is a peninsula , located between the Firth of Tay in the north , the Firth of Forth in the south and the North Sea in the east . Summers are relatively cool and the warming of the water over the summer results in warm winters . Average annual temperatures in Glenrothes range from a maximum of 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) to a minimum of 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) .
A linked network of semi @-@ natural landscape areas throughout the town allow for a mix of biodiversity with different flora and fauna and wildlife habitats . Areas of ancient woodland are found in Riverside Park and Balbirnie Park , both of which are also designated historic gardens and designed landscapes . Balbirnie Park is renowned for having a large collection of rhododendron species . Protected wildlife species found in the Glenrothes area include red squirrels , water voles and various types of bats . Landscape areas also act as natural drainage systems , reducing the likelihood of flooding in the built up areas of the town , with rainwater flows channelled to the River Leven , or to the Lochty Burn . Landscape planning has also ensured that Glenrothes ' road network , with particular focuses on the town 's many roundabouts , provides green networks throughout the town .
= = = Built environment and urban form = = =
Careful consideration was given to the form and infrastructure of the town , focusing on the creation of individual suburban type neighbourhoods ( precincts ) , each with their own architectural identity . Engineers , planners , builders and architects were tasked with creating not only good quality mass @-@ produced housing but green spaces , tree planting , wildlife corridors and soft and hard landscaping . This was seen as an equally important part of the process , helping to provide a sense of place and connection to the land that a New Town was felt to need in order to become a successful place where people would want to live and raise children . Separating industry as far as possible from housing areas in planned industrial estates was a key element of early plans . This was at the time seen as an important change from the " chaotic " , congested and polluted industrial towns and cities of the previous centuries where cramped unsanitary housing and dirty industries were built in close proximity to one another . The vision for Glenrothes was to provide a clean , healthy and safe environment for the town 's residents .
The settlement has been purposely planned using a series of masterplans . Development of Glenrothes started in Woodside in the east and progressed westwards . The first town masterplan was implemented as far as South Parks and Rimbleton housing precincts . Early residential precincts were based on Ebenezer Howard 's Garden City philosophy , using relatively tried and tested principles of town planning and architecture which is reflected in their housing styles and layouts . The first town masterplan sub @-@ divided the town 's designated area into self @-@ contained residential precincts with their own primary schools , local shops and community facilities .
A second town masterplan was developed in the late 1960s following Glenrothes ' change of role and was to accommodate an increased population target of 50 @,@ 000 @-@ 70 @,@ 000 . New areas of land in the north and south of the designated area were brought into production for new development . The road network was upgraded to deal with projected increases in car ownership and new housing estates were developed to the west , then to the south and finally to the north of the designated area .
The housing precincts of the 1960s and 1970s , developed under the second masterplan , departed slightly from the garden city ideals instead adopting Radburn principles ; separating as far as practical footpaths from roads . The housing precincts were designed to better accommodate increases in car ownership which increased significantly from the 1960s onwards . The townscape changed in this period with a mixture of higher densities , more contemporary architectural styles and new development layouts . Terraced housing and flats were predominantly developed with the fronts of houses designed to face onto public footpaths and open spaces . Car parking was kept either to the rear of properties or in parking bays located nearby in efforts to reduce the likelihood of road accidents occurring . Housing precincts from the 1980s onwards were largely developed by the private sector with the majority of this housing developed in low density suburban cul @-@ de @-@ sacs . Landscaping around the town included the blending of housing into the northern hillside through the use of structural planting and tree belts .
= = = Geology = = =
The Glenrothes area 's geology is predominantly made up by glacial deposits with the subsoil largely consisting of boulder clay with a band of sand and gravel in the area to the north of the River Leven . The river valley largely comprises alluvium deposits and there are also igneous intrusions of olivine dolerite throughout the area . Productive coal measures were largely recorded in the southern parts of Glenrothes , approximately south of the line of the B921 Kinglassie road . These coal measures form part of the East Fife coalfield and prior to 1962 the deposits there were to be worked by the Rothes Colliery , until it was found that there were severe issues with water penetration and subsequent flooding . Smaller limestone coal outcrops that had been historically worked were recorded around the Balbirnie and Cadham / Balfarg areas with the land that is now Gilvenbank Park found particularly to be heavily undermined .
= = Demography = =
In 1950 the population in the Glenrothes designated area was approximately 1 @,@ 000 people who were located in the hamlets of Woodside and Cadham and in the numerous farm steadings that were spread throughout the area . Population growth in the early phases of the town was described as being slow due to the dependence on the growth of work places at the Rothes Colliery . In 1960 the town population was shown to have increased to 12 @,@ 499 people rising to 28 @,@ 098 by 1969 . The town experienced its greatest levels of population growth between 1964 and 1969 with an average inward migration level of 1 @,@ 900 persons per annum . In 1981 Glenrothes ' population was estimated to have risen to 35 @,@ 000 and at the time the GDC was disbanded in 1995 it was estimated that the town 's population stood at just over 40 @,@ 000 people .
The 2001 census recorded the population of Glenrothes at 38 @,@ 679 representing 11 % of Fife 's total population . The 2011 census recorded a 1 @.@ 5 % population rise to 39 @,@ 277 . The total population in the wider Glenrothes area was estimated at 50 @,@ 701 based on 2013 mid @-@ year estimates from the National Records of Scotland . The number of households in Glenrothes in 2011 was recorded at 16 @,@ 910 ; 64 @.@ 5 % of which were owned . The age groups from 30 @-@ 44 year olds ( 20 @.@ 2 % ) and 45 @-@ 59 year olds ( 21 @.@ 3 % ) form the largest portion of the population . 16 @-@ 29 year olds made up 16 @.@ 6 % of the town 's population .
A study undertaken by Heriot @-@ Watt University in 2008 showed a local average gross weekly wage of £ 450 in the Glenrothes area , against a Fife average of £ 449 and a Scottish average of £ 468 . Wages are reflective of the type of jobs available locally , including higher than average employment in manufacturing and the public sector . The working age population of the town in 2011 was 29 @,@ 079 . The percentage of population economically active in Glenrothes was recorded at 68 @.@ 2 % in 2011 .
The number of Jobseekers Allowance ( JSA ) claimants at January 2016 in the Glenrothes area was 722 representing a 2 @.@ 2 % rate . This compares with 825 JSA claimants in January 2015 representing an annual drop of 103 claiments . Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation ( SIMD ) figures indicate that Auchmuty , Cadham , Collydean , Macedonia and Tanshall areas in Glenrothes fall within the 10 @-@ 15 % banding of deprived communities in Scotland . Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation figures in 2012 records the percentage of local population that is employment deprived at 14 @.@ 5 % against a Fife and Scottish Average of 12 @.@ 8 % . The percentage of the local population that is income deprived in 2012 was recorded at 15 @.@ 7 % against a Fife and Scottish average of 13 @.@ 4 % .
= = Economy = =
The Glenrothes area 's economy predominantly comprises manufacturing and engineering industries , health and public sector jobs and service sector jobs . The number of people employed in Glenrothes is around 24 @,@ 700 ; approximately 15 % of the 163 @,@ 000 jobs in Fife . Glenrothes is recognised for having the main concentration of specialist manufacturing and engineering companies in Fife . There are a total of 46 " Top 200 Fife Businesses " located in Glenrothes and there was a recorded 532 @,@ 100 square metres ( 5 @,@ 727 @,@ 477 sq ft ) of industrial and business floorpace within the town 's employment areas following a survey carried out in 2014 with the largest concentrations of premises in the south of the town and in around the town centre . Major employment areas in Glenrothes include : Bankhead , Eastfield , Pentland Park , Queensway , Southfield , Viewfield , Westwood Park and Whitehill .
= = = Manufacturing and engineering industries = = =
In 2011 manufacturing accounted for almost 15 % of employment in Glenrothes . A number of high tech industrial companies are located in the town largely specialised in electronics manufacturing . These are what remain of the clustering of Silicon Glen operations in the area which has gradually reduced and consolidated since the peak in the late 1990s . Remaining companies specialised in this sector include Brand Rex which specialises in the development of fibre optic cabling , Compugraphics which develops photomasks for the microelectronics sector , Raytheon which specialises in electronics for the defence industry , Regenersis which provides technology repair and test services and Semefab which produces Micro Electric Mechanical Systems ( MEMS ) . Other major companies which have established a base in Glenrothes include Bosch Rexroth ( hydraulics manufacturing ) and FiFab ( precision engineering ) . Indian beverages group Kyndal entered into a joint venture with John Fergus & Co Ltd to establish a new Scotch whisky distillery and bonded warehouse facility in Glenrothes . The new distillery , named Inchdairnie , focuses on exporting to markets in India , Africa and the Far East . It opened in May 2016 creating 15 new jobs as well as generating new exports worth a predicted £ 3 @.@ 6 million to Scotland over the next three years . It is located at Whitehill Industrial Estate adjacent to Fife Airport .
= = = Public sector = = =
A number of public service agencies and authorities are based in Glenrothes contributing to the town 's administrative centre function . Police Scotland has established its Fife Division headquarters in Glenrothes at Viewfield . HM Revenue and Customs , Kingdom Housing Association and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency ( SEPA ) also have offices in Glenrothes at Pentland Park ; a business park within the town . Fife College is also a key employer in Glenrothes with a large campus based at Stenton Road adjacent to Viewfield Industrial Estate . Fife Council is a major employer in the locality with its prominent local authority headquarters building located in Glenrothes town centre . Many of the other council departments are contained in a number of the town centre 's office blocks and a major depot and office facility is located at Bankhead .
= = = Retail and service sectors = = =
Retail jobs accounted for approximately 11 % of the total number of jobs in the local economy in 2011 . The majority of shopping , retail services and administrative facilities in Glenrothes are concentrated in the town centre ( central business district ) . The Kingdom Centre provides the main shopping element of the town centre containing approximately 120 shop units and is anchored by a Dunnes department store . Community and commercial leisure facilities within the shopping centre include the Rothes Halls complex ; the town 's theatre , library , civic and exhibition centre . A cinema , restaurant , pub and bingo hall complex are located adjacent to the shopping centre at Carrick Gate / Church Street . Ten @-@ pin bowling facilities will also be available in the town centre with an announcement to refurbish and reopen the former Fraser bowling alley facility at Albany Gate .
The town centre has expanded beyond its original boundaries into the adjacent Queensway employment area . A number of commercial operators including the town 's major supermarkets and a large bingohall complex are located in Queensway . The town 's largest retail employers are Asda and Morrisons , which both trade from large stores at Queensway . A retail park has also been constructed at the Saltire Centre , approximately half of a mile ( 1 km ) to the southwest of the town centre .
Other types of service industries also add to the town 's economic mix , with large single employers being in the ' accommodation and food services ' sector which accounted for around 4 % of the town 's total jobs . Balbirnie House Hotel and Balgeddie House Hotel are the largest hotel operators in the immediate area . The Golden Acorn Hotel and pub is located at the eastern end of the town centre on North Street . Finance and professional employed represent 15 @.@ 6 % of the total number of jobs in the town .
= = = Regeneration and future development = = =
A Glenrothes town centre action plan has been developed to create a vision for the wider town centre area . This was informed by a summit that was held in March 2013 which was attended by representatives of the local business community , voluntary groups and other individuals with an interest in the future of Glenrothes Town Centre . In May 2013 , it was agreed at Glenrothes Area Committee to approve the Glenrothes Town Centre Action Plan . A range of projects are being delivered to assist in the regeneration of the town centre . New development is being proposed at sites on North Street and at the eastern entrance of the Kingdom Shopping Centre .
Glenrothes is to be home to the UK 's First 100 % Green Data Centre which is to be built at Queensway Business Park . This has been hailed as an extremely significant economic development for the area and a strategically important part of Scotland 's IT infrastructure as a whole . The £ 40 million development will create over 300 construction jobs during the build process and up to 50 full time posts created on completion , including technical and operational staff . The facility will be the first of its kind in the UK drawing its energy from a renewable source with power coming directly from the RWE biomass plant in the town . Queensway Data Centre will accommodate up to 1500 high performance computer racks offering the highest levels of resilience and data security . The facility will be built to a BREEAM outstanding standard with a power usage effectiveness rating of less than 1 @.@ 15 .
In Mid @-@ 2015 Tullis Russell Papermakers , a stalwart to the local area economy for around 200 years , went into administration . The Scottish Government and Fife Council established a Fife Taskforce , involving key partners , to support economic growth and employment creation , with particular focus on Glenrothes and Central Fife , to help mitigate the effects of job losses and put in place appropriate support for a sustainable future for the area . Around £ 6 million has been set aside to support the Fife Taskforce ’ s Action Plan which will include projects such as the Queensway Green Technology Park . This supports plans for the regeneration of Queensway Industrial Estate to develop a modern business and technology park which can utilise the proximity to RWE ’ s Biomass Power Generation facility and to the Green Data Centre . A Glenrothes Enterprise Hub is another project to be established which will create a dedicated “ one @-@ stop shop ” approach to develop an entrepreneurial culture and improve overall performance of new enterprises in the local economy .
= = Culture and community = =
In 1968 Glenrothes was the first town in the UK to appoint a town artist . This is now recognised as playing a significant role , both in a Scottish and in an international context , in helping to create the idea of art being a key factor in creating a sense of place . Two town artists , David Harding ( 1968 – 78 ) and Malcolm Robertson ( 1978 – 91 ) , were employed in the lifetime of the GDC . Both artists , supported by a number of assistants , created a large variety of artworks and sculptures that are scattered throughout the town . Other artists have also contributed to the creation of the town 's artworks . The first sculpture erected in Glenrothes was " Ex Terra " , created by Benno Schotz . " The Good Samaritan " sculpture in Riverside Park was produced by Edinburgh @-@ based sculptor , Ronald Rae , who was commissioned by the GDC to produce a piece of art work in celebration of the town 's 40th anniversary in 1988 .
The town has won numerous awards locally and nationally for the quality of its landscaping ; something that is promoted by the " Take a Pride in Glenrothes " ( TAPIG ) group . The Glenrothes Development Corporation devoted around one third of land in Glenrothes to the provision of open space . As a consequence the town has numerous parks , the largest being Balbirnie Park , Carleton Park , Gilvenbank Park , Riverside Park , and Warout Park . The Lomond Hills Regional Park borders and enters the town to the north and east .
The Rothes Halls complex is the town 's main theatre , exhibition , conference and civic centre venue . The town 's central library and a cafe also form part of the complex . When the new town of Glenrothes began construction , a number of small venues served the community for entertainment purposes . However , despite frequent requests from the community , no plan for a larger @-@ scale theatre or community hall made it past the planning stages . By the 1970s , calls from the community and District Council for an entertainment venue increased . In 1972 , a working party was formed to investigate potential sites and designs for such a building ; designs for a town centre complex were agreed upon , but financial constraints meant they were not followed through . In 1983 , proposals were put forward for what would become Rothes Halls . Again , financial constraints delayed construction , but in 1993 the building was finally constructed , offering state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art facilities and some of the biggest , most flexible theatre spaces available in Fife . The Rothes Halls was officially opened by actor and director Richard Wilson on 30 November 1993 . Since then , Rothes Halls has played host to a vast range of local , national and international shows ; popular music and entertainment acts , and amateur societies have all performed there .
The Glenrothes & Area Heritage Centre established a permanent base in November 2013 following a series of successful temporary exhibitions held previously in the town centre . The heritage centre is run by local volunteers and operates from a shop unit in the Kingdom Shopping Centre . It focuses on the history of the Glenrothes area from a period between the early 19th century to the late 20th century .
Glenrothes Hospital is a community hospital located in the Forresters Lodge area to the northwest of the town centre . Opened in October 1981 the hospital has over 80 nursing staff and over 60 beds , as well as around 20 day hospital beds . Glenrothes Hospital provides a wide range of services including ; speech and language therapy , occupational therapy , physiotherapy , dietetics , district nurses , health visitors , podiatry , hospital pharmacy and x @-@ ray services . There is , however , no accident and emergency service within this hospital .
A war memorial was constructed in Glenrothes in 2007 following the deaths of two local Black Watch soldiers in Iraq . Prior to this Glenrothes was in the unusual position of not being able to host its own Remembrance Sunday commemorations . Unlike traditional memorials , the Glenrothes war memorial consists of two interlinking rings of standing stones .
There are a number of social clubs and organisations operating within Glenrothes which contribute to the cultural and community offerings of the town . These include an art club , various youth clubs , a floral art club , amateur theatre groups , a choral society and a variety of sports clubs . Glenrothes hosts an annual gala which is held at Warout Park and has a variety of family activities including a dog show , highland dancing and a travelling funfair with stalls . Summer and winter festivals were held in Riverside Park in 2012 . The summer festival included sporting events along with arts and crafts , food stalls and fairground shows . The winter festival coincided with bonfire night celebrations and included the town 's annual fireworks display which was previously held at Warout Park . Markinch and Thornton each host an annual Highland Games and the other surrounding villages host their own annual gala days and festivals .
The town has a large variety of established sports facilities including two 18 @-@ hole golf courses ( Glenrothes and Balbirnie ) , a football stadium at Warout and a major sports complex , the Michael Woods Sports and Leisure Centre . The new centre was named after the late SNP Councillor Michael Woods in a controversial decision taken by the Glenrothes Area Committee in 2012 . The sports centre was recognised for its architectural quality in the 2014 Scottish Property Awards , coming second place in the Architectural Excellence Award for Public Buildings .
The local football club is the Glenrothes F.C. , a junior side who play at Warout Park . Glenrothes also has a rugby club based at Carleton Park and a cricket club who play at Riverside Park . The Road Running Festival in Glenrothes is the largest annual sporting event in the town with over 1500 people of all ages and levels of fitness taking part and has been held annually since 1983 . The town is also an established destination in hosting the BDO British International Championships for darts which are held annually at the town 's CISWO club .
Glenrothes has a twin @-@ town link with Böblingen , a city in Baden @-@ Württemberg in Germany since 1971 . As early as 1962 a local councillor had suggested that the town might " twin " with a town on the Continent . Some years later a friendship grew up between teachers at Glenrothes High School and the ' Gymnasium ' in Böblingen which eventually led to the twinning of the towns . Since then there have been a number of exchanges on official , club and personal levels .
Famous people associated with the town include the actor Dougray Scott who grew up in Glenrothes and attended Auchmuty High School . Douglas Mason , known as one of the engineers of the " Thatcher revolution " and the " father of the poll tax " set up home in Glenrothes in the 1960s and spent most of his adult life living there . Henry McLeish , the former First Minister of Scotland lived in Glenrothes , having been brought up in nearby Kennoway . Glenrothes town centre is home to the building involved in the notorious Officegate scandal , which ultimately led to McLeish 's resignation as First Minister in 2001 .
= = Landmarks = =
The most prominent landmarks in Glenrothes are the River Leven Bridge , the Tullis Russell factory chimneys , Raeburn Heights ; a residential tower block and Fife House ; an office block , both of which sit at the western corners of the town centre . The River Leven Bridge , which spans Riverside Park and carries the town 's Western Distributor Road , is a cable @-@ stayed bridge that was completed in 1995 . The bridge was designed by Dundee @-@ based Nicoll Russell Studios , Architects and was commissioned by the Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) as a landmark creating a gateway into Riverside Park that could be seen from further afield . The bridge was constructed by Balfour Beatty Construction ( Scotland ) and it was the first reinforced @-@ concrete cable @-@ stayed structure ever built in the UK .
A number of Glenrothes ' artworks and sculptures act as landmarks at major gateways into the town , such as the " Giant Irises " at Leslie Roundabout , and the Glenrothes " Gateway Totum " at Bankhead Roundabout . Former town artist Malcolm Robertson produced the " Giant Irises " sculpture as Glenrothes ' contribution to the Glasgow Garden Festival . The sculpture was the winner of the John Brown Clydebank award for the " Most Original and Amusing Artifact " and following the festival , it was re @-@ erected at Leslie Roundabout . A number of other sculptures were relocated in 2011 to more visually prominent locations around the town creating new landmarks . Four pieces of Glenrothes artworks have been awarded listed status by Historic Scotland . " Ex Terra " has been listed at Category B and the " The Birds " , " The Henge " and " Work " ( or Industry , Past and Present ) at Category C. Historic Scotland has also produced a website , a video and an information brochure dedicated to the Glenrothes town art .
Glenrothes is home to the remains of ancient stone circles which can be seen at Balbirnie and Balfarg in the northeast of the town . The Balfarg henge was constructed around 3,000BC and contains the remnants of a stone circle which has been partly reconstructed . The henge was excavated between 1977 and 1978 prior to the development of a new housing estate . The Balbirnie henge which is only located approximately 500m away from Balfarg was excavated between 1970 and 1971 . In order to allow widening of the A92 the stones were moved a short distance to a new location at North Lodge and reconstructed as nearly as possible in the original way . The stone circle has been carbon dated as being from the bronze age . It is thought that the Balbrinie stone circle and the Balfarg circle once formed part of a larger ceremonial complex .
There are a number of former stately homes located in Glenrothes . Balbirnie House , the category @-@ A listed Georgian former home of the Balfour family , was bought along with its grounds in 1969 by the GDC from the Balfour family to be developed as Balbirnie Park and golf course . The house was later occupied and restored by the GDC in 1981 , to stop the property falling into disrepair . This led to potential interest and the house was converted into a four @-@ star hotel in 1989 . The B @-@ listed former stable block of the house was converted into a craft centre . Balgeddie House , a C @-@ Listed former Edwardian residence of Sir Robert Spencer Nairn located in the northwest of the town , has also been converted into a high quality hotel . Leslie House , the category @-@ A listed 17th century former home of the Leslie family , became a care home for the elderly in 1945 ; owned by the Church of Scotland . The building was in the process of being renovated , when the interior and roof of the house were destroyed by a fire in February 2009 . This has put the redevelopment on hold . Much of the former grounds of Leslie House have been used to create Riverside Park . Collydean precinct hosts a ruin of a 17th @-@ century house called Pitcairn House which was built for and first occupied by Archibald Pitcairne famous Scottish physician .
The town is also home to a number of churches which act as important landmarks as a result of their unique architectural styles and sometimes their locations at key road junctions . The three earliest churches are now listed buildings . These are St. Margaret 's Church in Woodside ( category C listed ) , St. Paul 's RC Church in Auchmuty ( category A listed ) , and St. Columba 's Church on Church Street ( category A listed ) in the town centre . St. Paul 's RC was designed by architects Gillespie , Kidd and Coia . In 1993 it was listed as one of sixty key monuments of post @-@ war architecture by the international conservation organisation DoCoMoMo . The church sits at a junction between two main distributor roads . St Columba 's Church , designed by architects Wheeler & Sproson , underwent significant restoration in 2009 . Internally the church contains a large mural created by Alberto Morrocco titled ' The Way of the Cross ' , which was completed in 1962 . Externally the church with its distinctive triangular iron bell tower and Mondrian inspired stain glass windows acts as a landmark at the south @-@ western gateway to the town centre .
One other local landmark of worthy mention is Balgonie Castle , located east of Glenrothes on the south bank of the River Leven near Milton of Balgonie and Coaltown of Balgonie . The castle keep dates from the 14th century , and the remaining structures were added piecemeal until the 18th century . The keep has been recently restored , although other parts of the castle are roofless ruins . The castle was awarded category A listing in 1972 by Historic Scotland .
= = Education = =
Early precincts in the town were served by their own primary schools which were to be provided on the basis of one school for every 1 @,@ 000 houses . The first primary school to be opened in Glenrothes was Carleton Primary School , built in 1953 in Woodside . In total thirteen primary schools were developed in the town , twelve of which are non @-@ denominational and one which serves catholic pupils . In February 2014 Fife Council 's Executive Committee voted to close one of Glenrothes ' primary schools at Tanshall . This was done as part of a wider school estate review which sought to reduce costs . The closure has faced considerable local opposition and the proposals were called @-@ in by the Scottish Government , but it was subsequently announced that the closure of the school would go ahead as planned .
There are three secondary schools in Glenrothes , the earliest of which is Auchmuty High School , opened in 1957 . Secondary Schools were to be provided on the basis of one school for every 4 @,@ 000 houses . Glenwood High School was built in 1962 to serve the western precincts . Prior to 1966 older pupils had to attend schools in neighbouring towns to continue " Higher " examinations as Auchmuty and Glenwood only provided for pupils at junior secondary level . Glenrothes High School was built in 1966 to accommodate pupils at a higher level . However changes in the education system nationally meant that both Auchmuty and Glenwood were raised to full high school status in the 1970s . Auchmuty High School serves the east and southern parts of Glenrothes as well as the villages of Markinch , Coaltown of Balgonie and Thornton . As part of the £ 126 million Building Fife 's Future Project a replacement for Auchmuty was completed and opened to pupils in 2013 . Glenrothes High School serves the central and northern areas in the town . Glenwood High School serves the western parts of Glenrothes and the villages of Leslie and Kinglassie . Catholic pupils in Glenrothes attend St Andrew 's High School in neighbouring Kirkcaldy .
Further education in the town is provided at Fife College ; created in August 2013 from the merger between the former Adam Smith College and Carnegie College which was based in Dunfermline . Construction of a Glenrothes college campus began in the early 1970s , originally specialising in paper manufacturing , mechanical engineering and electrical engineering courses . A second institute known as FIPRE ( Fife Institute of Physical and Recreational Education ) was built adjacent catering for sport and physical education as well as providing a sports centre for the town . The Glenrothes campus of the college is located at Stenton Road in Viewfield . A smaller campus also exists within the Southfield Industrial Estate . The Stenton Road Campus was significantly extended in 2010 with the development of the " Future Skills Centre " . This centre includes new departments in engineering , construction , renewables and science to cater for emerging industries specialising in renewable energy and low carbon technologies as well as provide training for major engineering projects .
= = Transport = =
Glenrothes has a planned road network with original masterplans establishing the principle that " through traffic " be bypassed around the housing precincts by a network of " Freeway " and " Highway " distributor roads . These would connect each precinct to the purposely designed town centre and to the industrial estates . Another element that was adopted was the use of roundabouts at junctions instead of traffic lights which would allow traffic to flow freely .
The town has direct dual @-@ carriageway access to the M90 via the A92 Trunk Road . The A92 passes north / south through the town and connects Glenrothes with Dundee in the north and Dunfermline in the southwest where it merges with the M90 . This gives Glenrothes a continuous dual @-@ carriageway link to Edinburgh and the major central Scotland road networks , whilst much of the route north to Dundee remains a single @-@ carriageway . Local campaigners have for a number of years sought the upgrade of the A92 north of Glenrothes . The A911 road passes east / west through the town and connects it with Levenmouth in the east and Milnathort and the M90 in the west . The B921 Kinglassie Road , described in early masterplans as the Southern Freeway , links Glenrothes to the former mining communities of Cardenden and Kinglassie , and to Westfield . The route is a dual carriageway between Bankhead Roundabout and as far west as Fife Airport . Early masterplans show that this route was originally intended to be upgraded to provide dualled connections to the A92 Chapel junction in Kirkcaldy , however this has never been implemented .
The town has a major bus station in the town centre providing frequent links to the cities of Dundee , Edinburgh , Glasgow and Perth as well as to surrounding towns and villages . Two railway stations on the edge of the main town serve the Glenrothes area - Glenrothes with Thornton railway station and Markinch railway station . Glenrothes is home to an airfield , Fife Airport ( ICAO code EGPJ ) , which is used for general aviation with private light aircraft . Edinburgh Airport is the nearest international airport to Glenrothes , Dundee Airport operates daily flights to London , Birmingham and Belfast .
A purposely designed pedestrian and cycle system was also created using a network of ring and radial routes throughout the town . This includes a near three mile continuous linear cycle path , called Boblingen Way , which extends across the length of Glenrothes , from Leslie in the west , to Woodside in the east . Glenrothes is connected to the National Cycle Network via Route 766 which runs north from Kirkcaldy to north of Glenrothes , linking to the wider network via Route 76 and Route 1 .
= Liberum veto =
The liberum veto ( Latin for " the free veto " ) was a parliamentary device in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . It was a form of unanimity voting rule that allowed any member of the Sejm ( legislature ) to force an immediate end to the current session and nullify any legislation that had already been passed at the session by shouting Sisto activitatem ! ( Latin : " I stop the activity ! " ) or Nie pozwalam ! ( Polish : " I do not allow ! " ) . The rule was in place from the mid @-@ 17th to the late 18th century in the Sejm 's parliamentary deliberations . It was based on the premise that since all Polish noblemen were equal , every measure that came before the Sejm had to be passed unanimously . The principle of liberum veto was a key part of the political system of the Commonwealth , strengthening democratic elements and checking royal power , going against the European @-@ wide trend of having a strong executive ( absolute monarchy ) .
Many historians hold that the principle of liberum veto was a major cause of the deterioration of the Commonwealth political system — particularly in the 18th century , when foreign powers bribed Sejm members to paralyze its proceedings — and the Commonwealth 's eventual destruction in the partitions of Poland and foreign occupation , dominance and manipulation of Poland for the next 200 years or so . Piotr Stefan Wandycz wrote that the " liberum veto had become the sinister symbol of old Polish anarchy . " In the period of 1573 – 1763 , about 150 sejms were held , out of which about a third failed to pass any legislation , mostly due to liberum veto . The expression Polish parliament in many European languages originated from this apparent paralysis .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
This rule evolved from the principle of unanimous consent , which derived from the traditions of decision @-@ making in the Kingdom of Poland , and developed under the federative character of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . Each deputy to a Sejm was elected at a sejmik ( the local sejm for a region ) and represented the entire region . He thus assumed responsibility to his sejmik for all decisions taken at the Sejm . Since all noblemen were considered equal , a decision taken by a majority against the will of a minority ( even if only a single sejmik ) was considered a violation of the principle of political equality .
At first , the dissenting deputies were often convinced or cowed back to withdraw their objections . Also , in its early manifestation , the rule was used to strike down only individual laws , not to dissolve the chamber and throw out all measures passed . For example , as historian Władysław Czapliński describes in the Sejm of 1611 context , some resolutions were struck down , but others passed . From the mid @-@ 17th century onward , however , an objection to any item of Sejm legislation from a deputy or senator automatically caused other , earlier adopted legislation to be rejected . This was because all legislation adopted by a given Sejm formed a whole .
It is commonly , and erroneously , believed that a Sejm was first disrupted by means of liberum veto by a Trakai deputy , Władysław Siciński , in 1652 . In reality , he only vetoed the continuation of the Sejm 's deliberations beyond the statutory time limit . He had , however , set up a dangerous precedent . Over the proceedings of the next few sejms , the veto was still occasionally overruled , but the acceptance of it was gradually extended . It was fewer than 20 years later , in 1669 , in Kraków , that the entire Sejm was prematurely disrupted on the strength of the liberum veto before it had finished its deliberations . This was done by the Kiev deputy , Adam Olizar . The practice spiraled out of control , and in 1688 the Sejm was dissolved before the proceedings had begun or the Marshal of the Sejm was elected .
= = = Zenith = = =
During the reign of John III Sobieski ( 1674 – 1696 ) , half of Sejm proceedings were scuttled by the veto . The practice also spread from the national Sejm to local sejmik proceedings . In the first half of the 18th century , it became increasingly common for Sejm sessions to be broken up by liberum veto , as the Commonwealth 's neighbours – chiefly Russia and Prussia — found this a useful tool to frustrate attempts at reforming and strengthening the Commonwealth . By bribing deputies to exercise their vetoes , Poland 's neighbours could derail any measures not to their liking . The Commonwealth deteriorated from a European power into a state of anarchy . Only a few Sejms were able to meet during the reign of the House of Saxony in Poland ( 1696 – 1763 ) , the last one in 1736 . Only eight out of 18 Sejm sessions during the reign of Augustus II ( 1697 – 1733 ) passed legislation . For a period of 30 years around the reign of Augustus III , only one session was able to pass legislation ( 1734 – 1763 ) . The government was near collapse , giving rise to the term " Polish anarchy " , and the country was managed by provincial assemblies and magnates .
Disruption of the Commonwealth governance caused by the liberum veto was highly significant . In the period of 1573 – 1763 , about 150 Sejms where held , of which 53 failed to pass any legislation . Historian Jacek Jędruch notes that out of the 53 disrupted Sejms , 32 were disrupted due to liberum veto .
= = = Final years = = =
The 18th century saw an institution known as a " confederated sejm " evolve . It was a parliament session that operated under the rules of a confederation . Its primary purpose was to avoid disruption by the liberum veto , unlike the national Sejm , which was paralyzed by the veto during this period . On some occasions , a confederated sejm was formed of the whole membership of the national Sejm , so that the liberum veto would not operate there .
The second half of the 18th century , marking the age of the Enlightenment in Poland , also witnessed an increased trend aiming at the reform of the inefficient governance of the Commonwealth . Reforms of 1764 – 1766 improved the proceedings of the Sejm . They introduced majority voting for non @-@ crucial items , including most economic and tax matters , and outlawed binding instructions from sejmiks . The road to reform was not easy , as conservatives , supported by foreign powers , opposed most of the changes , attempting to defend liberum veto and other elements perpetuating the inefficient governance , most notably through the Cardinal Laws of 1768 .
The liberum veto was finally abolished by the Constitution of 3 May 1791 , adopted by a confederated sejm , which permanently established the principle of majority rule . The achievements of that constitution , however – which historian Norman Davies called " the first constitution of its kind in Europe " — were undone by another confederated sejm , meeting at Grodno in 1793 . That Sejm , under duress from Russia and Prussia , ratified the Second Partition of Poland , anticipating the final disappearance of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian state two years later .
= = Significance = =
Harvard political scientist Grzegorz Ekiert , assessing the history of the liberum veto in the Kingdom of Poland , 1569 @-@ 1795 , concludes :
The principle of the liberum veto preserved the feudal features of Poland 's political system , weakened the role of the monarchy , led to anarchy in political life , and contributed to the economic and political decline of the Polish state . Such a situation made the country vulnerable to foreign invasions and ultimately led to its collapse .
Political scientist Dalibor Roháč noted that the " principle of liberum veto played an important role in [ the ] emergence of the unique Polish form of constitutionalism " and acted as a significant constraint on the powers of the monarch by making the " rule of law , religious tolerance and limited constitutional government ... the norm in Poland in times when the rest of Europe was being devastated by religious hatred and despotism . " It was seen as one of the key principles of the Commonwealth political system and culture , the Golden Liberty .
At the same time , historians hold that the principle of liberum veto was a major cause of the deterioration of the Commonwealth political system and Commonwealth 's eventual downfall . Deputies bribed by magnates or foreign powers , or simply content to believe they were living in some kind of " Golden Age " , for over a century paralysed the Commonwealth 's government , stemming any attempts at reform . Piotr Stefan Wandycz wrote that the " liberum veto had become the sinister symbol of old Polish anarchy . " Wagner echoed him thus : " Certainly , there was no other institution of old Poland which has been more sharply criticized in more recent times than this one . " .
= = Modern parallels and popular culture = =
A 2004 Polish collectible card game , Veto , set in the background of a royal election during an election sejm , is named after this procedure .
Until the early 1990s , IBM had a decision @-@ making process called " non @-@ concur " in which any department head could veto a company @-@ wide strategy if it didn 't fit in with his department 's outlook . This effectively turned IBM into several independent fiefdoms . " Non @-@ concur " was eliminated by CEO Louis Gerstner who was brought in to revive the declining company .
= The Boat Race 1865 =
The 22nd Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 8 April 1865 . Oxford won by four lengths in a time of 21 minutes 24 seconds . The race , described as " one of the most sensational races in this history " thus far , was umpired by Joseph William Chitty . It was the first time that a crew had won the Boat Race having been behind at Hammersmith Bridge .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1864 race by nine lengths , with Oxford leading overall with eleven victories to Cambridge 's ten .
Cambridge were coached by their non @-@ rowing president J. G. Chambers ( who had rowed in the 1862 and 1863 races ) , while Oxford 's coach was G. Morrison ( who had rowed for Oxford three times as well as being a non @-@ rowing president in 1862 ) . Both university boats were constructed by J. & S. Salter of Oxford using cedar wood . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 11 @.@ 25 lb ( 74 @.@ 8 kg ) , 1 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 6 kg ) per rower more than their Light Blue opposition . Cambridge saw the return of five former Blues , including the cox Francis Archer and number four Robert Kinglake , both of whom had represented the university twice before . Three of Oxford 's crew had rowed in the previous year 's race .
= = Race = =
Both crews had initially returned to the boathouses upon the instruction of their boat club president 's who had demanded the steamers stay behind the start . Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . Following an indifferent start from both crews , Cambridge took the lead , and were a length ahead by Bishop 's Creek . To avoid the steamers pressing from behind , the Light Blue cox Archer steered his boat to the middle to the river , while his counterpart , Charles Tottenham , manoeuvred too close to the bank , resulting in a two @-@ length lead for Cambridge by Craven Cottage . By the Crab Tree pub , the lead was three lengths . Despite dominating the race , by the time the crews passed below Hammersmith Bridge , Oxford had reduced the lead to three @-@ quarters of a length , and at The Doves pub , the lead was down to half a length .
Soon after the Oxford boat overlapped their opponents yet Cambridge pushed away again before Chiswick Eyot where the Dark Blues once began to overlap the Light Blues ' stern . Cambridge 's stroke Lawes reacted and pushed to keep the lead , but by Chiswick Church the crews were level . Oxford 's better line in the river saw them draw away rapidly from Cambridge , whereupon the Light Blues were regarded as " falling to pieces " . Oxford 's lead at Barnes Bridge was around three lengths , and by the time they passed the finishing line they had won by four lengths in a time of 21 minutes 24 seconds , securing the Dark Blue 's fifth consecutive win and taking the overall record to 12 – 10 in their favour . Drinkwater suggested that , of the 22 races conducted thus far , it was " one of the most sensational races in this history " , while Burnell described it as a " splendid race " .
= Mount Vesuvius =
Mount Vesuvius ( pronunciation : / vᵻˈsuːviəs / ; Italian : Monte Vesuvio [ ˈmonte veˈzuːvjo ] , Latin : Mons Vesuvius [ mõːs wɛˈsʊwɪ.ʊs ] ; also Vesevus or Vesaevus in Roman sources ) is a stratovolcano in the Gulf of Naples , Italy , about 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) east of Naples and a short distance from the shore . It is one of several volcanoes which form the Campanian volcanic arc . Vesuvius consists of a large cone partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera caused by the collapse of an earlier and originally much higher structure .
Mount Vesuvius is best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii , Herculaneum , and several other settlements . That eruption ejected a cloud of stones , ash , and fumes to a height of 33 km ( 20 @.@ 5 mi ) , spewing molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 1 @.@ 5 million tons per second , ultimately releasing a hundred thousand times the thermal energy released by the Hiroshima bombing . At least 1 @,@ 000 people died in the eruption . The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus .
Vesuvius has erupted many times since and is the only volcano on the European mainland to have erupted within the last hundred years . Today , it is regarded as one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world because of the population of 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 people living nearby and its tendency towards explosive ( Plinian ) eruptions . It is the most densely populated volcanic region in the world .
= = Mythology = =
Vesuvius has a long historic and literary tradition . It was considered a divinity of the Genius type at the time of the eruption of 79 AD : it appears under the inscribed name Vesuvius as a serpent in the decorative frescos of many lararia , or household shrines , surviving from Pompeii . An inscription from Capua to IOVI VESVVIO indicates that he was worshipped as a power of Jupiter ; that is , Jupiter Vesuvius .
The historian Diodorus Siculus relates a tradition that Hercules , in the performance of his labors , passed through the country of nearby Cumae on his way to Sicily and found there a place called " the Phlegraean Plain " ( phlegraion pedion , " plain of fire " ) , " from a hill which anciently vomited out fire ... now called Vesuvius . " It was inhabited by bandits , " the sons of the Earth , " who were giants . With the assistance of the gods he pacified the region and went on . The facts behind the tradition , if any , remain unknown , as does whether Herculaneum was named after it . An epigram by the poet Martial in 88 AD suggests that both Venus , patroness of Pompeii , and Hercules were worshipped in the region devastated by the eruption of 79 . Mount Vesuvius was regarded by the Romans as being devoted to the hero and demigod Hercules .
= = Origin of the name = =
Vesuvius was a name of the volcano in frequent use by the authors of the late Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire . Its collateral forms were Vesaevus , Vesevus , Vesbius and Vesvius . Writers in ancient Greek used | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
-@ Tang , including Wu @-@ Tang Forever ( 1997 ) , which is certified as a quadruple platinum record . None of the subsequent Wu @-@ Tang Clan albums have garnered the critical accolades that their debut was accorded .
In 2013 , the group reunited , at the behest of RZA , for an album and tour celebrating the 20th anniversary of the album 's release . The album was titled A Better Tomorrow and the tour included dates throughout the United States , Europe and Russia . All original members of the group who performed on Enter the Wu @-@ Tang participated in both the tour and reunion album , excepting Ol ' Dirty Bastard , who died in 2004 .
= = Track listing = =
= = = CD = = =
Tracks 1 – 5 are on the Shaolin Sword side of the album and tracks 6 – 12 are on the Wu @-@ Tang Sword side .
An asterisk ( * ) indicates international version bonus track
= = = Vinyl / cassette = = =
The vinyl and cassette track order is slightly different to that of the CD :
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Accolades = =
The information regarding accolades attributed to Enter the Wu @-@ Tang is taken from AcclaimedMusic.net , except for lists with additional sources .
( * ) designates lists that are unordered .
= Barn owl =
The barn owl ( Tyto alba ) is the most widely distributed species of owl , and one of the most widespread of all birds . It is also referred to as the common barn owl , to distinguish it from other species in its family , Tytonidae , which forms one of the two main lineages of living owls , the other being the typical owls ( Strigidae ) . The barn owl is found almost everywhere in the world except polar and desert regions , Asia north of the Himalayas , most of Indonesia , and some Pacific islands .
Phylogenetic evidence shows that there are at least three major lineages of barn owl , one in Eurasia and Africa , one in Australasia and one in the Americas , and some highly divergent taxa on islands . Some authorities further split the group , recognising up to five species , and further research needs to be done to clarify the position . There is a considerable variation between the sizes and colour of the approximately 28 subspecies but most are between 33 and 39 cm ( 13 and 15 in ) in length with wingspans ranging from 80 to 95 cm ( 31 to 37 in ) . The plumage on head and back is a mottled shade of grey or brown , the underparts vary from white to brown and are sometimes speckled with dark markings . The face is characteristically heart @-@ shaped and is white in most subspecies . This owl does not hoot , but utters an eerie , drawn @-@ out shriek .
The barn owl is nocturnal over most of its range , but in Britain and some Pacific islands , it also hunts by day . Barn owls specialise in hunting animals on the ground and nearly all of their food consists of small mammals which they locate by sound , their hearing being very acute . They mate for life unless one of the pair gets killed , when a new pair bond may be formed . Breeding takes place at varying times of year according to locality , with a clutch , averaging about four eggs , being laid in a nest in a hollow tree , old building or fissure in a cliff . The female does all the incubation , and she and the young chicks are reliant on the male for food . When large numbers of small prey are readily available , barn owl populations can expand rapidly , and globally the bird is considered to be of least conservation concern . Some subspecies with restricted ranges are more threatened .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The barn owl was one of several species of bird first described in 1769 by the Tyrolean physician and naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in his Anni Historico @-@ Naturales . He gave it the scientific name Strix alba . As more species of owl were described , the genus name Strix came to be used solely for the wood owls in the typical owl family Strigidae , and the barn owl became Tyto alba in the barn owl family Tytonidae . The name literally means " white owl " , from the onomatopoeic Ancient Greek tyto ( τυτώ ) for an owl – compare English " hooter " – and Latin alba , " white " . The bird is known by many common names which refer to its appearance , call , habitat , or its eerie , silent flight : white owl , silver owl , demon owl , ghost owl , death owl , night owl , rat owl , church owl , cave owl , stone owl , monkey @-@ faced owl , hissing owl , hobgoblin or hobby owl , dobby owl , white @-@ breasted owl , golden owl , scritch owl , screech owl , straw owl , barnyard owl , and delicate owl . " Golden owl " might also refer to the related golden masked owl ( T. aurantia ) . " Hissing owl " and , particularly in the UK and in India , " screech owl " , refers to the piercing calls of these birds . The latter name is also applied to a different group of birds , the screech @-@ owls in the genus Megascops .
The ashy @-@ faced owl ( T. glaucops ) was for some time included in T. alba , and by some authors its populations from the Lesser Antilles still are . Based on DNA evidence , König , Weick & Becking ( 2009 ) recognised the American Barn Owl ( T. furcata ) and the Curaçao Barn Owl ( T. bargei ) as separate species . They also proposed that T. a. delicatula should be split off as a separate species , to be known as the eastern barn owl , which would include the subspecies T. d. sumbaensis , T. d. meeki , T. d. crassirostris and T. d. interposita . However , the International Ornithological Committee has doubts about this and states that the split of Tyto delicatula from T. alba " may need to be revisited " . Some island subspecies are occasionally treated as distinct species , a move which should await further research into barn owl phylogeography . According to Bruce in the Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 5 : Barn @-@ owls to Hummingbirds , " a review of the whole group [ is ] long overdue " . Molecular analysis of mitochondrial DNA shows a separation of the species into two clades , an Old World alba and a New World furcata , but this study did not include T. a. delicatula which the authors seem to have accepted as a separate species . A high amount of genetic variation was also found between the Indonesian T. a. stertens and other members of the alba clade .
The barn owl has a wider distribution than any other species of owl . Many subspecies have been proposed over the years but several are generally considered to be intergrades between more distinct populations . Twenty to thirty are usually recognised , varying mainly in body proportions , size and colour . Island forms are mostly smaller than mainland ones , and those inhabiting forests have darker plumage and shorter wings than those occurring in open grasslands . Barn owls range in colour from the almost beige @-@ and @-@ white nominate subspecies , erlangeri and niveicauda , to the nearly black @-@ and @-@ brown contempta .
In the Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 5 : Barn @-@ owls to Hummingbirds , the following subspecies are listed :
= = Description = =
The barn owl is a medium @-@ sized , pale @-@ coloured owl with long wings and a short , squarish tail . There is considerable size variation across the subspecies with a typical specimen measuring about 33 to 39 cm ( 13 to 15 in ) in overall length , with a wingspan of some 80 to 95 cm ( 31 to 37 in ) . Adult body mass is also variable with male owls from the Galapagos weighing 260 g ( 9 @.@ 2 oz ) while male Pacific barn owls average 555 g ( 19 @.@ 6 oz ) . In general , owls living on small islands are smaller and lighter , perhaps because they have a higher dependence on insect prey and need to be more manoeuvrable . The shape of the tail is a means of distinguishing the barn owl from typical owls when seen in the air . Other distinguishing features are the undulating flight pattern and the dangling , feathered legs . The pale face with its heart shape and black eyes give the flying bird a distinctive appearance , like a flat mask with oversized , oblique black eyeslits , the ridge of feathers above the beak somewhat resembling a nose .
The bird 's head and upper body typically vary between pale brown and some shade of grey ( especially on the forehead and back ) in most subspecies . Some are purer , richer brown instead , and all have fine black @-@ and @-@ white speckles except on the remiges and rectrices ( main wing feathers ) , which are light brown with darker bands . The heart @-@ shaped face is usually bright white , but in some subspecies it is brown . The underparts , including the tarsometatarsal ( lower leg ) feathers , vary from white to reddish buff among the subspecies , and are either mostly unpatterned or bear a varying number of tiny blackish @-@ brown speckles . It has been found that at least in the continental European populations , females with more spotting are healthier than plainer birds . This does not hold true for European males by contrast , where the spotting varies according to subspecies . The beak varies from pale horn to dark buff , corresponding to the general plumage hue , and the iris is blackish brown . The talons , like the beak , vary in colour , ranging from pink to dark pinkish @-@ grey and the talons are black .
On average within any one population , males tend to have fewer spots on the underside and are paler in colour than females . The latter are also larger with a strong female T. alba of a large subspecies weighing over 550 g ( 19 @.@ 4 oz ) , while males are typically about 10 % lighter . Nestlings are covered in white down , but the heart @-@ shaped facial disk becomes visible soon after hatching .
Contrary to popular belief , the barn owl does not hoot ( such calls are made by typical owls , like the tawny owl or other members of the genus Strix ) . It instead produces the characteristic shree scream , ear @-@ shattering at close range , an eerie , long @-@ drawn @-@ out shriek . Males in courtship give a shrill twitter . Both young and old can hiss like a snake to scare away intruders . Other sounds produced include a purring chirrup denoting pleasure , and a " kee @-@ yak " , which resembles one of the vocalisations of the tawny owl . When captured or cornered , the barn owl throws itself on its back and flails with sharp @-@ taloned feet , making for an effective defence . In such situations it may emit rasping sounds or clicking snaps , produced probably by the beak but possibly by the tongue .
= = Distribution = =
The barn owl is the most widespread landbird species in the world , occurring in every continent except Antarctica . Its range includes all of Europe ( except Fennoscandia and Malta ) , most of Africa apart from the Sahara , the Indian subcontinent , Southeast Asia , Australia , many Pacific Islands , and North , Central and South America . In general it is considered to be sedentary , and indeed many individuals , having taken up residence in a particular location , remain there even when better foraging areas nearby become vacant . In the British Isles , the young seem largely to disperse along river corridors and the distance travelled from their natal site averages about 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) .
In continental Europe the distance travelled is greater , commonly somewhere between 50 and 100 kilometres ( 31 and 62 mi ) but exceptionally 1 @,@ 500 km ( 932 mi ) , with ringed birds from the Netherlands ending up in Spain and in Ukraine . In the United States , dispersal is typically over distances of 80 and 320 km ( 50 and 199 mi ) , with the most travelled individuals ending up some 1 @,@ 760 km ( 1 @,@ 094 mi ) from the point of origin . Movements in the African continent include 1 @,@ 000 km ( 621 mi ) from Senegambia to Sierra Leone and up to 579 km ( 360 mi ) within South Africa . In Australia there is some migration as the birds move towards the northern coast in the dry season and southward in the wet , and also nomadic movements in association with rodent plagues . Occasionally , some of these birds turn up on Norfolk Island , Lord Howe Island or New Zealand , showing that crossing the ocean is not beyond their capabilities . In 2008 , barn owls were recorded for the first time breeding in New Zealand . The barn owl has been successfully introduced into the Hawaiian island of Kauai in an attempt to control rodents , however it has been found to also feed on native birds .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Like most owls , the barn owl is nocturnal , relying on its acute sense of hearing when hunting in complete darkness . It often becomes active shortly before dusk and can sometimes be seen during the day when relocating from one roosting site to another . In Britain , on various Pacific Islands and perhaps elsewhere , it sometimes hunts by day . This practice may depend on whether the owl is mobbed by other birds if it emerges in daylight . However , in Britain , some birds continue to hunt by day even when mobbed by such birds as magpies , rooks and black @-@ headed gulls , such diurnal activity possibly occurring when the previous night has been wet making hunting difficult . By contrast , in southern Europe and the tropics , the birds seem to be almost exclusively nocturnal , with the few birds that hunt by day being severely mobbed .
Barn owls are not particularly territorial but have a home range inside which they forage . For males in Scotland this has a radius of about 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) from the nest site and an average size of about 300 hectares . Female home ranges largely coincide with that of their mates . Outside the breeding season , males and females usually roost separately , each one having about three favoured sites in which to conceal themselves by day , and which are also visited for short periods during the night . Roosting sites include holes in trees , fissures in cliffs , disused buildings , chimneys and haysheds and are often small in comparison to nesting sites . As the breeding season approaches , the birds move back to the vicinity of the chosen nest to roost .
The barn owl is a bird of open country such as farmland or grassland with some interspersed woodland , usually at altitudes below 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) but occasionally as high as 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in the tropics . This owl prefers to hunt along the edges of woods or in rough grass strips adjoining pasture . It has an effortless wavering flight as it quarters the ground , alert to the sounds made by potential prey . Like most owls , the barn owl flies silently ; tiny serrations on the leading edges of its flight feathers and a hairlike fringe to the trailing edges help to break up the flow of air over the wings , thereby reducing turbulence and the noise that accompanies it . Hairlike extensions to the barbules of its feathers , which give the plumage a soft feel , also minimise noise produced during wingbeats . The behaviour and ecological preferences may differ slightly even among neighbouring subspecies , as shown in the case of the European T. a. guttata and T. a. alba that probably evolved , respectively , in allopatric glacial refugia in southeastern Europe , and in Iberia or southern France .
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
The diet of the barn owl has been much studied ; the items consumed can be ascertained from identifying the prey fragments in the pellets of indigestible matter that the bird regurgitates . Studies of diet have been made in most parts of the bird 's range , and in moist temperate areas over 90 % of the prey tends to be small mammals , whereas in hot , dry , unproductive areas , the proportion is lower , and a great variety of other creatures are eaten depending on local abundance . Most prey is terrestrial but bats and birds are also taken , as well as lizards , amphibians and insects . Even when they are plentiful and other prey scarce , earthworms do not seem to be consumed .
In North America and most of Europe , voles predominate in the diet and shrews are the second most common food choice . Mice and rats form the main foodstuffs in the Mediterranean region , the tropics , sub @-@ tropics and Australia . Barn owls are usually more specialist feeders in productive areas and generalists in drier areas . On the Cape Verde Islands , geckos are the mainstay of the diet , supplemented by birds such as plovers , godwits , turnstones , weavers and pratincoles , and on a rocky islet off the coast of California , a clutch of four young were being reared on a diet of Leach 's storm petrel ( Oceanodroma leucorhoa ) . In Ireland , the accidental introduction of the bank vole in the 1950s led to a major shift in the barn owl 's diet : where their ranges overlap , the vole is now by far the largest prey item . Locally superabundant rodent species in the weight class of several grams per individual usually make up the single largest proportion of prey . In the United States , rodents and other small mammals usually make up ninety @-@ five percent of the diet and worldwide , over ninety percent of the prey caught .
The barn owl hunts by flying slowly , quartering the ground and hovering over spots that may conceal prey . It may also use branches , fence posts or other lookouts to scan its surroundings , and this is the main means of prey location in the oil palm plantations of Malaysia . The bird has long , broad wings , enabling it to manoeuvre and turn abruptly . Its legs and toes are long and slender which improves its ability to forage among dense foliage or beneath the snow and gives it a wide spread of talons when attacking prey . Studies have shown that an individual barn owl may eat one or more voles ( or their equivalent ) per night , equivalent to about twenty @-@ three percent of the bird 's bodyweight . Excess food is often cached at roosting sites and can be used when food is scarce .
Small prey is usually torn into chunks and eaten completely including bones and fur , while prey larger than about 100 g ( 4 oz ) , such as baby rabbits , Cryptomys blesmols , or Otomys vlei rats , is usually dismembered and the inedible parts discarded . Contrary to what is sometimes assumed , the barn owl does not eat domestic animals on any sort of regular basis . Regionally , non @-@ rodent foods are used as per availability . On bird @-@ rich islands , a barn owl might include some fifteen to twenty percent of birds in its diet , while in grassland it will gorge itself on swarming termites , or on Orthoptera such as Copiphorinae katydids , Jerusalem crickets ( Stenopelmatidae ) or true crickets ( Gryllidae ) . Bats and even frogs , lizards and snakes may make a minor but significant contribution to the diet ; small Soricomorpha like Suncus shrews may be a secondary prey of major importance .
The barn owl has acute hearing , with ears placed asymmetrically . This improves detection of sound position and distance and the bird does not require sight to hunt . The facial disc plays a part in this process , as is shown by the fact that with the ruff feathers removed , the bird can still locate the source in azimuth but fails to do so in elevation . Hunting nocturnally or crepuscularly , this bird can target its prey and dive to the ground , penetrating its talons through snow , grass or brush to seize small creatures with deadly accuracy . Compared to other owls of similar size , the barn owl has a much higher metabolic rate , requiring relatively more food . Weight for weight , barn owls consume more rodents — often regarded as pests by humans — than possibly any other creature . This makes the barn owl one of the most economically valuable wildlife animals for agriculture . Farmers often find these owls more effective than poison in keeping down rodent pests , and they can encourage barn owl habitation by providing nest sites .
= = = Breeding = = =
Barn owls living in tropical regions can breed at any time of year , but some seasonality in nesting is still evident . Where there are distinct wet and dry seasons , egg @-@ laying usually takes place during the dry season , with increased rodent prey becoming available to the birds as the vegetation dies off . In arid regions , such as parts of Australia , breeding may be irregular and may happen in wet periods , triggered by temporary increases in the populations of small mammals . In temperate climates , nesting seasons become more distinct and there are some seasons of the year when no egg @-@ laying takes place . In Europe and North America , most nesting takes place between March and June when temperatures are increasing . The actual dates of egg @-@ laying vary by year and by location , being correlated with the amount of prey @-@ rich foraging habitat around the nest site and often with the phase of the rodent abundance cycle . An increase in rodent populations will usually stimulate the local barn owls to begin nesting ; thus , even in the cooler parts of its range , two broods are often raised in a good year .
Females are ready to breed at ten to eleven months of age although males sometimes wait till the following year . Barn owls are usually monogamous , sticking to one partner for life unless one of the pair dies . During the non @-@ breeding season they may roost separately , but as the breeding season approaches they return to their established nesting site , showing considerable site fidelity . In colder climates , in harsh weather and where winter food supplies may be scarce , they may roost in farm buildings and in barns between hay bales , but they then run the risk that their selected nesting hole may be taken over by some other , earlier @-@ nesting species . Single males may establish feeding territories , patrolling the hunting areas , occasionally stopping to hover , and perching on lofty eminences where they screech to attract a mate . Where a female has lost her mate but maintained her breeding site , she usually seems to manage to attract a new spouse .
Once a pair @-@ bond has been formed , the male will make short flights at dusk around the nesting and roosting sites and then longer circuits to establish a home range . When he is later joined by the female , there is much chasing , turning and twisting in flight , and frequent screeches , the male 's being high @-@ pitched and tremulous and the female 's lower and harsher . At later stages of courtship , the male emerges at dusk , climbs high into the sky and then swoops back to the vicinity of the female at speed . He then sets off to forage . The female meanwhile sits in an eminent position and preens , returning to the nest a minute or two before the male arrives with food for her . Such feeding behaviour of the female by the male is common , helps build the pair @-@ bond and increases the female 's fitness before egg @-@ laying commences .
Barn owls are cavity nesters . They choose holes in trees , fissures in cliff faces , the large nests of other birds such as the hamerkop ( Scopus umbretta ) and , particularly in Europe and North America , old buildings such as farm sheds and church towers . Buildings are preferred to trees in wetter climates in the British Isles and provide better protection for fledglings from inclement weather . Trees tend to be in open habitats rather than in the middle of woodland and nest holes tend to be higher in North America than in Europe because of possible predation by raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) . No nesting material is used as such but , as the female sits incubating the eggs , she draws in the dry furry material of which her regurgitated pellets are composed , so that by the time the chicks are hatched , they are surrounded by a carpet of shredded pellets . Oftentimes other birds such as jackdaws ( Corvus monedula ) nest in the same hollow tree or building and seem to live harmoniously with the owls .
Before commencing laying , the female spends much time near the nest and is entirely provisioned by the male . Meanwhile , the male roosts nearby and may cache any prey that is surplus to their requirements . When the female has reached peak weight , the male provides a ritual presentation of food and copulation occurs at the nest . The female lays eggs on alternate days and the clutch size averages about five eggs ( range two to nine ) . The eggs are chalky white , somewhat elliptical and about the size of bantam 's eggs , and incubation begins as soon as the first egg is laid . While she is sitting on the nest , the male is constantly bringing more provisions and they may pile up beside the female . The incubation period is about thirty days , hatching takes place over a prolonged period and the youngest chick may be several weeks younger than its oldest sibling . In years with plentiful supplies of food , there may be a hatching success rate of about 75 % . The male continues to copulate with the female when he brings food which makes the newly hatched chicks vulnerable to injury .
The chicks are at first covered with greyish @-@ white down and develop rapidly . Within a week they can hold their heads up and shuffle around in the nest . The female tears up the food brought by the male and distributes it to the chicks . Initially these make a " chittering " sound but this soon changes into a food @-@ demanding " snore " . By two weeks old they are already half their adult weight and look naked as the amount of down is insufficient to cover their growing bodies . By three weeks old , quills are starting to push through the skin and the chicks stand , making snoring noises with wings raised and tail stumps waggling , begging for food items which are now given whole . The male is the main provider of food until all the chicks are at least four weeks old at which time the female begins to leave the nest and starts to roost elsewhere . By the sixth week the chicks are as big as the adults but have slimmed down somewhat by the ninth week when they are fully fledged and start leaving the nest briefly themselves . They are still dependent on the parent birds until about thirteen weeks and receive training from the female in finding , and eventually catching , prey .
= = = Moulting = = =
Feathers become abraded over time and all birds need to replace them at intervals . Barn owls are particularly dependent on their ability to fly quietly and manoeuvre efficiently , and in temperate areas their prolonged moult lasts through three phases over a period of two years . The female starts to moult while incubating the eggs and brooding the chicks , a time when the male feeds her so she does not need to fly much . The first primary feather to be shed is the central one , number 6 , and it has regrown completely by the time the female resumes hunting . Feathers 4 , 5 , 7 and 8 are dropped at a similar time the following year and feathers 1 , 2 , 3 , 9 and 10 in the bird 's third year of adulthood . The secondary and tail feathers are lost and replaced over a similar timescale , again starting while incubation is taking place . In the case of the tail , the two outermost tail feathers are first shed followed by the two central ones , the other tail feathers being moulted the following year .
In temperate areas , the male owl moults rather later in the year than the female , at a time when there is an abundance of food , the female has recommenced hunting and the demands of the chicks are lessening . Unmated males without family responsibilities often start losing feathers earlier in the year . The moult follows a similar prolonged pattern to that of the female and the first sign that the male is moulting is often when a tail feather has been dropped at the roost . A consequence of moulting is the loss of thermal insulation . This is of little importance in the tropics and barn owls here usually moult a complete complement of flight feathers annually . The hot @-@ climate moult may still take place over a long period but is usually concentrated at a particular time of year outside the breeding season .
= = = Predators and parasites = = =
Predators of the barn owl include large American opossums ( Didelphis ) , the common raccoon , and similar carnivorous mammals , as well as eagles , larger hawks and other owls . Among the latter , the great horned owl ( Bubo virginianus ) in the Americas and the Eurasian eagle @-@ owl ( B. bubo ) are noted predators of barn owls ( though there is little evidence for predation on wild birds by great horned owls ) . In Europe , the chief diurnal predators are the northern goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis ) and the common buzzard ( Buteo buteo ) . The goshawk and the eagle owl are on the increase because of the greater protection these birds now receive .
When disturbed at its roosting site , an angry barn owl lowers its head and sways it from side to side , or the head may be lowered and stretched forward and the wings drooped while the bird emits hisses and makes snapping noises with its beak . A defensive attitude involves lying flat on the ground or crouching with wings spread out .
Barn owls are hosts to a wide range of parasites . Fleas are present at nesting sites and externally the birds are attacked by feather lice and feather mites which chew the barbules of the feathers and which are transferred from bird to bird by direct contact . Blood @-@ sucking flies such as Ornithomyia avicularia are often present , moving about among the plumage . Internal parasites include the fluke Strigea strigis , the tape worm Paruternia candelabraria , several species of parasitic round worm and spiny @-@ headed worms in the genus Centrorhynchus . These gut parasites are acquired when the birds feed on infected prey which provide intermediate hosts for the parasites . There is some indication that female birds with more and larger spots have a greater resistance to external parasites . This is correlated with smaller bursae of Fabricius , glands associated with antibody production , and a lower fecundity of the blood @-@ sucking fly Carnus hemapterus that attacks nestlings .
= = = Lifespan = = =
Unusually for such a medium @-@ sized carnivorous animal , the barn owl exhibits r @-@ selection , producing large number of offspring with a high growth rate , many of which have a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood . While wild barn owls are thus decidedly short @-@ lived , the actual longevity of the species is much higher – captive individuals may reach twenty years of age or more . But occasionally , a wild bird reaches an advanced age . The American record age for a wild barn owl is eleven and a half years , while a Dutch bird was noted to have reached an age of seventeen years , ten months . Another captive barn owl , in England , lived to be over twenty @-@ five years old . Taking into account such extremely long @-@ lived individuals , the average lifespan of the barn owl is about four years , and statistically two @-@ thirds to three @-@ quarters of all adults survive from one year to the next . However , the mortality is not evenly distributed throughout the bird 's life , and only one young in three manages to live to its first breeding attempt .
The most significant cause of death in temperate areas is likely to be starvation , particularly over the autumn and winter period when first year birds are still perfecting their hunting skills . In northern and upland areas , there is some correlation between mortality in older birds and adverse weather , deep @-@ lying snow and prolonged low temperatures . Collision with road vehicles is another cause of mortality , and may result when birds forage on mown verges . Some of these birds are in poor condition and may have been less able to evade oncoming vehicles than fit individuals would have been . Historically , many deaths were caused by the use of pesticides , and this may still be the case in some parts of the world . Collisions with power @-@ lines kill some birds and shooting accounts for others , especially in Mediterranean regions .
= = Status and conservation = =
Barn owls are relatively common throughout most of their range and not considered globally threatened . However , locally severe declines from organochlorine ( e.g. , DDT ) poisoning in the mid @-@ 20th century and rodenticides in the late 20th century have affected some populations , particularly in Europe and North America . Intensification of agricultural practices often means that the rough grassland that provides the best foraging habitat is lost . While barn owls are prolific breeders and able to recover from short @-@ term population decreases , they are not as common in some areas as they used to be . A 1995 – 1997 survey put their British population at between 3 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 breeding pairs , out of an average of about 150 @,@ 000 pairs in the whole of Europe . In the USA , barn owls are listed as endangered species in seven Midwestern states , and in the European Community they are considered a Species of European Concern .
In some areas , it may be an insufficiency of suitable nesting sites that is the factor limiting barn owl numbers . The provision of nest boxes under the eaves of buildings and in other locations can be very successful in increasing the local population . In Malaysia , large areas of rainforest were felled to make way for oil palm plantations and with few tree cavities for breeding , the barn owl population , with its ability to control rodent pests , diminished . The provision of two hundred nest boxes in a trial saw almost one hundred percent occupancy and as the programme expanded , the plantations supported one of the densest barn owl populations in the world . Similarly , providing nesting boxes has increased the number of barn owls in rice @-@ growing areas of Malaysia where the rodents do much damage to the crop . However , although barn owl numbers have increased in both these instances , it is unclear as to how effective this biological control of the rats is as compared to the trapping and baiting that occurred previously .
Common names such as " demon owl " , " death owl " , or " ghost owl " show that traditionally , rural populations in many places considered barn owls to be birds of evil omen . Consequently , they were often persecuted by farmers who were unaware of the benefit these birds bring . The Canary barn owl is particularly at risk , and as late as 1975 , hunting by fearful locals was limiting the population on Fuerteventura where only a few dozen pairs remain . On Lanzarote a somewhat larger number of these birds still seem to exist , but altogether this particular subspecies is precariously rare : Probably less than three hundred and perhaps fewer than two hundred individuals still remain . Similarly , the birds on the western Canary Islands which are usually assigned to the nominate subspecies have declined much , and here wanton destruction seems still to be significant . On Tenerife they seem relatively numerous but on the other islands , the situation looks about as bleak as on Fuerteventura . Due to their assignment to the nominate subspecies , which is common in mainland Spain , the western Canary Islands population is not classified as threatened .
In the United Kingdom , the " Barn Owl Nest Box Scheme " is promoted by the World Owl Trust and has many participants in local areas such as Somerset , where a webcam has been set up inside a nest box in which seven young were reared in 2014 . Another barn owl nest box live @-@ streaming webcam located in California , United States has proved popular online . In May 2012 , it was revealed that farmers in Israel and Jordan had , over a period of ten years , replaced pesticides with barn owls in a joint conservation venture called " Project Barn Owl " .
= Loch Arkaig treasure =
The treasure of Loch Arkaig , sometimes known as the Jacobite gold , was a large amount of specie provided by Spain to finance the Jacobite rising in Scotland in 1745 , and rumoured still to be hidden at Loch Arkaig in Lochaber .
= = Background = =
In 1745 , Prince Charles Edward Stuart ( Bonnie Prince Charlie ) arrived in Scotland from France and claimed the thrones of Scotland , England and Ireland , in the name of his father James Stuart ( the Old Pretender ) . Although Charles asserted that his venture was supported by Louis XV of France , and that the arrival of French forces in Scotland was imminent , in truth France had little intention to intervene on the Stuarts ' behalf . However , some limited financial support was supplied by both Spain and the Pope .
Spain pledged some 400 @,@ 000 livres ( or Louis d 'Or ) per month for the Jacobite cause . However , getting this money to the rebel army was the difficulty . The first instalment ( sent via Charles ' brother Henry who was resident in France ) was dispatched in 1745 . The French sloop Hazard ( renamed the Prince Charles ) successfully landed its monies on the west coast of Scotland . Unfortunately for the Jacobites , the riches were soon captured by Clan Mackay , who were loyal to King George II , in the Skirmish of Tongue .
= = Treasure arrives = =
In April 1746 , the ships Mars and Bellona arrived in Scotland with 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 livres ( another Spanish instalment , plus a large French supplement ) . However , on learning of the Jacobite defeat at the Battle of Culloden on 16 April , the ships left , unloading only the Spanish money at Loch nan Uamh , Arisaig on 30 April ( the same place from where the prince had disembarked the year before , and would later embark for France ) . Thus , seven caskets of Spanish gold arrived in Scotland . As the Jacobite cause was by then lost , with the army scattered and the prince and his lieutenants in hiding , the money was to be used to assist the Jacobite clansmen ( then being subjected to the brutalities of the government forces of the Duke of Cumberland ) and to facilitate the escape of leading Jacobites to the continent .
Six caskets ( one having been stolen by McDonald of Barrisdale 's men ) were brought to Loch Arkaig ( just north of Fort William ) and hidden . Their secret was entrusted to Murray of Broughton , one of the Jacobite fugitives . Murray began the distribution to clan chiefs , but when he was apprehended by the government ( and later turned state 's evidence ) the treasure was entrusted first to Lochiel , the chief of Clan Cameron , and then to Macpherson of Cluny , head of Clan Macpherson . Cluny was hiding in a cave at Ben Alder , which came to be known as " the cage " , and when Charles briefly joined him there , Cluny had control of the money , which was still hidden at Arkaig .
= = Treasure hunt = =
Charles finally escaped Scotland in the French frigate L 'Heureux and arrived back in France in September 1746 . However , the fate of the money is not as clear . Cluny is believed to have retained control of it , and during his long years as a fugitive was at the centre of various futile plots to finance another uprising . Indeed , he remained in hiding in his Highland " cage " for the next eight years . Meanwhile , a cash @-@ strapped Charles was constantly looking for his money and at least some of it came to him later , paying for the minting of a campaign medal in the 1750s . However , it is said that all of the gold was never recovered . Charles , years later , accused Cluny of embezzlement . Whatever the case , the gold became a source of discord and grievance among the surviving Jacobites .
In 1753 , Archibald Cameron — Lochiel 's brother , who was acting as secretary to the Old Pretender — was sent back to Scotland to locate the treasure . However , whilst staying secretly at Brenachyle by Loch Katrine , he was betrayed ( apparently by the notorious " Pickle " , a Hanoverian spy ) and arrested . He was charged under the Act of Attainder for his part in the 1745 uprising and sentenced to death , being drawn and then hanged on 7 June 1753 , at Tyburn ( the last Jacobite to be executed ) .
The trail then goes cold . However , the Stuarts ' papers ( now in the possession of Queen Elizabeth II ) record a host of claims , counter @-@ claims and accusations among the Highland chiefs and Jacobites in exile , as to the fate of the monies . The historian Andrew Lang ( who was one of the first people to research the papers since Walter Scott secured them for the crown ) recorded , in his book Pickle the Spy ( 1897 ) , the sordid tale , and the involvement of both the prince and his father in trying to locate the monies . The Stuart papers also include an account from around 1750 , drawn up in Rome by Archibald Cameron , which indicates that Cluny had not or could not account for all of it .
According to Clan Cameron records , some French gold coins were found buried in nearby woods in the 1850s .
= = In fiction = =
The " Arkaig treasure " is featured in Nigel Tranter 's historical fiction novel Gold for Prince Charlie .
The missing treasure features in Neil Munro 's novel Children of the Tempest , a love story set in the Outer Hebrides in the late 18th century . Published originally in 1903 , rev.ed 2002 .
= History of Indiana =
The history of human activity in Indiana , a US state in the Midwest , began with migratory tribes of Native Americans who inhabited Indiana as early as 8000 BC . Tribes succeeded one another in dominance for several thousand years and reached their peak of development during the period of Mississippian culture . The region entered recorded history in the 1670s when the first Europeans came to Indiana and claimed the territory for the Kingdom of France . After France ruled for 100 years ( with little settlement in this area ) , it was defeated by Great Britain in the French and Indian War ( Seven Years ' War ) and ceded its territory east of the Mississippi . Britain held the land for more than twenty years , until after its defeat in the American Revolutionary War . At that time , Britain ceded the entire trans @-@ Allegheny region , including what is now Indiana , to the new United States .
The United States government divided the trans @-@ Allegheny region into several new territories . The largest of these was the Northwest Territory , which was progressively divided into several smaller territories by the United States Congress . In 1800 , the Indiana Territory was the first new territory established from a portion of the Northwest Territory . The territory grew in population and development until it was admitted to the Union in 1816 as the nineteenth state , Indiana . Following statehood , the newly established state government laid out on an ambitious plan to transform Indiana from a segment of the frontier into a developed , well populated , and thriving state . The state 's founders initiated a program that led to the construction of roads , canals , railroads , and state @-@ funded public schools . Despite the noble aims of the project , profligate spending ruined the state 's credit . By 1841 the state was near bankruptcy and forced to liquidate most of its public works . By its new constitution of 1851 , it restricted rights of free blacks and excluded them from the suffrage . During the 1850s , the state 's population grew to exceed one million . The ambitious program of its founders was realized as Indiana became the fourth @-@ largest state in terms of population , as measured by the 1860 census .
Indiana became politically influential and played an important role in the Union during the American Civil War . Indiana was the first western state to mobilize for the war , and its soldiers participated in almost every engagement during the war . Following the Civil War , Indiana remained politically important as it became a critical swing state in U.S. Presidential elections . It helped decide control of the presidency for three decades . During the Indiana Gas Boom of the late 19th century , industry began to develop rapidly in the state . The state 's Golden Age of Literature began in the same time period , increasing its cultural influence . By the early 20th century , Indiana developed into a strong manufacturing state and attracted numerous immigrants and internal migrants to its industries . It experienced setbacks during the Great Depression of the 1930s . Construction of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway , expansion of the auto industry , urban development , and two wars contributed to the state 's industrial growth . During the second half of the 20th century , Indiana became a leader in the pharmaceutical industry due to the innovations of companies such as Eli Lilly .
= = Early civilizations = =
Following the end of the last glacial period , Indiana 's topography was dominated by spruce and pine forests and was home to mastodon , caribou , and saber @-@ toothed cats . While Northern Indiana had been covered by glaciers , Southern Indiana remained unaltered by the ice 's advance , leaving plants and animals that could sustain human communities . Indiana 's earliest known inhabitants were Paleo @-@ Indians . Evidence exists that humans were in Indiana as early as the Archaic stage ( 8000 – 6000 BC ) . Hunting camps of the nomadic Clovis culture have been found in Indiana . Carbon dating of artifacts found in the Wyandotte Caves of Southern Indiana shows humans mined flint there as early 2000 BC . These nomads ate quantities of freshwater mussels from local streams , as shown by their shell mounds found throughout southern Indiana .
The Early Woodland period in Indiana came between 1000 BC and 200 AD and produced the Adena culture . It domesticated wild squash and made pottery , which were large cultural advances over the Clovis culture . The natives built burial mounds ; one of this type has been dated as the oldest earthwork in Anderson 's Mounds State Park .
Natives in the Middle Woodland period developed the Hopewell culture and may have been in Indiana as early as 200 BC . The Hopewells were the first culture to create permanent settlements in Indiana . About 1 AD , the Hopewells mastered agriculture and grew crops of sunflowers and squash . Around 200 AD , the Hopewells began to construct mounds used for ceremonies and burials . The Hopewells in Indiana were connected by trade to other native tribes as far away as Central America . For unknown reasons , the Hopewell culture went into decline around 400 and completely disappeared by 500 .
The Late Woodland era is generally considered to have begun about 600 AD and lasted until the arrival of Europeans in Indiana . It was a period of rapid cultural change . One of the new developments — which has yet to be explained — was the introduction of masonry , shown by the construction of large , stone forts , many of which overlook the Ohio River . Romantic legend used to attribute the forts to Welsh Indians who supposedly arrived centuries before Christopher Columbus reached the Caribbean . Archaeologists and other scholars have found no evidence for that theory and believe that the cultural development was engendered by the Mississippian culture .
= = = Mississippians = = =
Evidence suggests that after the collapse of the Hopewell , Indiana had a low population until the rise of the Fort Ancient and Mississippian culture around 900 AD . The Ohio River Valley was densely populated by the Mississippians from about 1100 to 1450 AD . Their settlements , like those of the Hopewell , were known for their ceremonial earthwork mounds . Some of these remain visible at locations near the Ohio River . The Mississippian mounds were constructed on a grander scale than the mounds built by the Hopewell . The agrarian Mississippian culture was the first to grow maize in the region . The people also developed the bow and arrow and copper working during this time period .
Mississippian society was complex , dense , and highly developed ; the largest Mississippian city of Cahokia ( in Illinois ) contained as many as 30 @,@ 000 inhabitants . They had a class society with certain groups specializing as artisans . The elite held related political and religious positions . Their cities were typically sited near rivers . Representing their cosmology , the central developments were dominated by a large central mound , several smaller mounds , and a large open plaza . Wooden palisades were built later around the complex , apparently for defensive purposes . The remains of a major settlement known as Angel Mounds lie east of present @-@ day Evansville . Mississippian houses were generally square @-@ shaped with plastered walls and thatched roofs . For reasons that remain unclear , the Mississippians disappeared in the middle of the 15th century , about 200 years before the Europeans first entered what would become modern Indiana . Mississippian culture marked the high point of native development in Indiana .
It was during this period that American Bison began a periodic east – west trek through Indiana , crossing the Falls of the Ohio and the Wabash River near modern @-@ day Vincennes . These herds became important to civilizations in southern Indiana and created a well @-@ established Buffalo Trace , later used by European @-@ American pioneers moving west .
Before 1600 , a major war broke out in eastern North America among Native Americans ; it was later called the Beaver Wars . Five American Indian Iroquois tribes confederated to battle against their neighbors . The Iroquois were opposed by a confederation of primarily Algonquian tribes including the Shawnee , Miami , Wea , Pottawatomie , and the Illinois . These tribes were significantly less advanced than the Mississippian culture that had preceded them . The tribes were semi @-@ nomadic , used stone tools rather than copper , and did not create the large @-@ scale construction and farming works of their Mississippian predecessors . The war continued with sporadic fighting for at least a century as the Iroquois sought to dominate the expanding fur trade with the Europeans . They achieved this goal for several decades . During the war , the Iroquois drove the tribes from the Ohio Valley to the south and west . They kept control of the area for hunting grounds .
As a result of the war , several tribes , including the Shawnee , migrated into Indiana , where they attempted to resettle in land belonging to the Miami . The Iroquois gained the military advantage after they were supplied with firearms by the Europeans . With their superior weapons , the Iroquois subjugated at least thirty tribes and nearly destroyed several others in northern Indiana .
= = = European contact = = =
When the first Europeans entered Indiana during the 1670s , the region was in the final years of the Beaver Wars . The French attempted to trade with the Algonquian tribes in Indiana , selling them firearms in exchange for furs . This incurred the wrath of the Iroquois , who destroyed a French outpost in Indiana in retaliation . Appalled by the Iroquois , the French continued to supply the western tribes with firearms and openly allied with the Algonquian tribes . A major battle — and a turning point in the conflict — occurred near modern South Bend when the Miami and their allies repulsed a large Iroquois force in an ambush . With the firearms they received from the French , the odds were evened . The war finally ended in 1701 with the Great Peace of Montreal . Both Indian confederacies were left exhausted , having suffered heavy casualties . Much of Ohio , Michigan and Indiana was left depopulated as many tribes fled west to escape the fighting .
The Miami and Pottawatomie nations returned to Indiana following the war . Other tribes , such as the Algonquian Lenape , were pushed westward into the Midwest from the East Coast by encroachment of European colonists . Around 1770 the Miami invited the Lenape to settle on the White River . The Shawnee arrived in present @-@ day Indiana after the three other nations . These four nations were later to be participants in the Sixty Years ' War , a struggle between native nations and European settlers for control of the Great Lakes region . Hostilities with the tribes began early . The Piankeshaw killed five French fur traders in 1752 near the Vermilion River . But the tribes also traded successfully with the French for decades .
= = Colonial period = =
French fur traders from Canada were the first Europeans to enter Indiana , beginning in the 1670s . The quickest route connecting the New France districts of Canada and Louisiana ran along Indiana 's Wabash River . The Terre Haute highlands were once considered the border between the two French districts . This made Indiana a vital part of French lines of communication and trade routes . The French established Vincennes as a permanent settlement in Indiana during European rule , but the population of the area remained primarily Native American . As French influence grew in the region , Great Britain , competing with France for control of North America , came to believe that control of Indiana was important to halt French expansion on the continent .
= = = France = = =
The first European outpost within modern Indiana was Tassinong , a French trading post established in 1673 near the Kankakee River . French explorer René @-@ Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle came to the area in 1679 , claiming it for King Louis the XIV of France . La Salle came to explore a portage between the St. Joseph and Kankakee rivers , and Father Ribourde , who traveled with La Salle , marked trees along the way . The marks survived to be photographed in the 19th century . In 1681 , La Salle negotiated a common defense treaty between the Illinois and Miami nations against the Iroquois .
Further exploration of Indiana led to the French establishing an important trade route between Canada and Louisiana via the Maumee and Wabash rivers . The French built a series of forts and outposts in Indiana as a hedge against the westward expansion of the British colonies from the east coast of North America and to encourage trade with the native tribes . The tribes were able to procure metal tools , cooking utensils , and other manufactured items in exchange for animal pelts . The French built Fort Miamis in the Miami town of Kekionga ( modern Fort Wayne , Indiana ) . France assigned Jean Baptiste Bissot , Sieur de Vincennes , as the first agent to the Miami at Kekionga .
In 1717 , François @-@ Marie Picoté de Belestre established the post of Ouiatenon ( modern Lafayette , Indiana ) to discourage the Wea from coming under British influence . In 1732 , François @-@ Marie Bissot , Sieur de Vincennes , established a similar post near the Piankeshaw in the town that still bears his name . Although the forts were garrisoned by men from New France , Fort Vincennes was the only outpost to maintain a permanent European presence until the modern day . Jesuit priests accompanied many of the French soldiers into Indiana in an attempt to convert the natives to Christianity . The Jesuits conducted missionary activities , lived among the natives and learned their languages , and accompanied them on hunts and migrations . Gabriel Marest , one of the first missionaries in Indiana , taught among the Kaskaskia as early as 1712 . The missionaries came to have great influence among the natives and played an important role in keeping the native tribes allied with the French .
During the French and Indian War , the North American front of the Seven Years ' War in Europe , the British directly challenged France for control of the region . Although no pitched battles occurred in Indiana , the native tribes of the region supported the French . At the beginning of the war , the tribes sent large groups of warriors to support the French in resisting the British advance and to raid British colonies . Using Fort Pitt as a forward base , British commander Robert Rogers overcame the native resistance and drove deep into the frontier to capture Fort Detroit . The rangers moved south from Detroit and captured many of the key French outposts in Indiana , including Fort Miamis and Fort Vincennes . As the war progressed , the French lost control of Canada after the fall of Montreal . No longer able to effectively fight the British in interior North America , they lost Indiana to British forces . By 1761 the French were entirely forced out of Indiana . Following the French expulsion , the native tribes , led by Chief Pontiac , confederated in an attempt to rebel against the British without French assistance . While Pontiac was besieging British @-@ held Fort Detroit , other tribes in Indiana rose up against the British . They were forced to surrender Fort Miamis and Fort Ouiatenon . In 1763 , while Pontiac was fighting the British , the French signed the Treaty of Paris and ceded control of Indiana to the British .
= = = Great Britain = = =
When the British gained control of Indiana , the entire region was in the middle of Pontiac 's Rebellion . During the next year , British officials negotiated with the various tribes , splitting them from their alliance with Pontiac . Eventually , Pontiac lost most of his allies , forcing him to make peace with the British on July 25 , 1766 . As a concession to Pontiac , Great Britain issued a proclamation that the territory west of the Appalachian Mountains was to be reserved for Native Americans . Despite the treaty , Pontiac was still considered a threat to British interests , but after he was murdered on April 20 , 1769 , the region saw several years of peace .
After Britain established peace with the natives , many of the former French trading posts and forts in the region were abandoned . Fort Miamis was maintained for several years because it was considered to be " of great importance " , but even it was eventually abandoned . The Jesuit priests were expelled , and no provisional government was established ; the British hoped the French in the area would leave . Many did leave , but the British gradually became more accommodating to the French who remained and continued the fur trade with the Native American nations .
In 1768 , a treaty was negotiated between several of the British colonies and the Iroquois . The Iroquois sold their territorial claims to the colonies as part of the treaty . The company created to hold that claim was named the Indiana Land Company , the first recorded use of the word Indiana . The claim was disputed by the colony of Virginia , which did not participate in the treaty because it already laid claim to the land through its royal charter . In 1773 , the territory of Indiana was brought under the administration of Province of Quebec to appease its French population . The Quebec Act was listed as one of the Intolerable Acts the Thirteen Colonies cited as a reason for the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War . The thirteen colonies thought themselves entitled to the territory for their support of Great Britain during the French and Indian War , and were incensed that it was given to the enemy the colonies had been fighting .
Although the United States gained official possession of the region following the conclusion of the American Revolution , British influence on its Native American allies in the region remained strong , especially near Fort Detroit . This influence caused the Northwest Indian War , which began when British @-@ influenced native tribes refused to recognize American authority and were backed in their resistance by British merchants in the area . American military victories in the region and the ratification of the Jay Treaty , which called for British withdrawal from the region 's forts , caused a formal evacuation , but the British were not fully expelled from the area until the conclusion of the War of 1812 .
= = = United States = = =
After the outbreak of the American Revolution , George Rogers Clark was sent from Virginia to enforce its claim to much of the land in the Great Lakes region . In July 1778 , Clark and about 175 men crossed the Ohio River and took control of Kaskaskia , Vincennes , and several other villages in British Indiana . The occupation was accomplished without firing a shot because Clark carried letters from the French ambassador stating that France supported the Americans . These letters made most of the French and Native American inhabitants of the area unwilling to support the British .
The fort at Vincennes , renamed Fort Sackville by the British , had been abandoned years earlier and no garrison was present when the Americans occupied it . Captain Leonard Helm became the first American commandant at Vincennes . To counter Clark 's advance , the British under Lieutenant Governor Henry Hamilton reoccupied Vincennes with a small force . In February 1779 , Clark arrived at Vincennes in a surprise winter expedition and retook the town , capturing Hamilton in the process . This expedition secured most of southern Indiana for the United States .
In 1780 , emulating Clark 's success at Vincennes , French officer Augustin de La Balme organized a militia force of French residents to capture Fort Detroit . While marching to Detroit , the force stopped to sack Kekionga . The delay proved fatal when the expedition met the warriors of the Miami tribe under Miami Chief Little Turtle along the Eel River , and the entire force was killed or captured . Clark organized another assault on Fort Detroit in 1781 , but it was aborted when Chief Joseph Brant captured a significant part of Clark 's army at a battle known as Lochry 's Defeat , near present @-@ day Aurora , Indiana .
Other minor skirmishes occurred in Indiana , including the battle at Petit Fort in 1780 . In 1783 , when the war came to an end , Britain ceded the entire trans @-@ Allegheny region to the United States — including Indiana — in the peace treaty negotiated in Paris .
Clark 's militia was under the authority of the state of Virginia , and although a continental flag was flown over Fort Sackville , the area was governed as Virginia territory until the state gave it to the United States federal government in 1784 . Clark was awarded large tracts of land in southern Indiana for his service in the war and modern Clark County is named in his honor .
= = Indiana Territory = =
In 1785 , the Northwest Indian War began . In an attempt to end the native rebellion , the Miami town of Kekionga was attacked unsuccessfully by General Josiah Harmar and Northwest Territory Governor Arthur St. Clair . St. Clair 's Defeat is the worst defeat of the U.S. Army by Native Americans in history , leaving almost the entire army dead or captured . The defeat led to the appointment of General " Mad Anthony " Wayne who organized the Legion of the United States and defeated a Native American force at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 . In 1795 , the Treaty of Greenville was signed and a small part of eastern Indiana was opened for settlement . Fort Miami at Kekionga was occupied by the United States , who rebuilt it as Fort Wayne . After the treaty , the powerful Miami nation considered themselves allies with the United States . The war ended hostilities with the Native Americans , leaving them victorious in 31 of the 37 recorded incidents involving white settlers during the 18th century .
The Northwest Territory was formed by the Congress of the Confederation on July 13 , 1787 , and included all land between the Appalachian Mountains , the Mississippi River , the Great Lakes and the Ohio River . This single territory became the states of Ohio , Michigan , Indiana , Illinois , Wisconsin , and part of eastern Minnesota . The act established an administration to oversee the territory and had the land surveyed in accordance with The Land Ordinance of 1785 . At the time the territory was created , there were only two American settlements in what would become Indiana : Vincennes and Clark 's Grant . The population of the northwest included fewer than 5 @,@ 000 Europeans . The Native American population was estimated to be near 20 @,@ 000 , but may have been as high as 75 @,@ 000 .
On July 4 , 1800 , the Indiana Territory was established out of Northwest Territory in preparation for Ohio 's statehood . The Indiana Land Company , which still held claim to Indiana , had been dissolved by a United States Supreme Court decision in 1798 . The name Indiana meant " Land of the Indians " , and referred to the fact that most of the area north of the Ohio River was still inhabited by Native Americans . ( Kentucky , South of the Ohio River , had been a traditional hunting ground for tribes that resided north of the river , and early American settlers in Kentucky referred to the North bank as the land of the Indians . ) Although the company 's claim was extinguished , Congress used their name for the new territory . The Indiana Territory contained present day Indiana , Illinois , Michigan , Wisconsin and part of Minnesota . Those areas were separated out in 1805 and 1809 . The first Governor of the Territory was William Henry Harrison , who served from 1800 until 1813 . Harrison County was named in honor of Harrison , who later become the ninth President of The United States . He was succeeded by Thomas Posey who served from 1813 until 1816 .
The first capital was established in Vincennes where it remained for thirteen years . After the territory was reorganized in 1809 , the legislature made plans to move the capital to Corydon to be more centralized with the population . Corydon was established in 1808 on land donated by William Henry Harrison . The new capitol building was finished in 1813 and the government quickly relocated following the outbreak of war on the frontier .
As the population of the territory grew , so did the people 's exercising of their freedoms . In 1809 , the territory was granted permission to fully elect its own legislature for the first time . Before that , Governor Harrison appointed the legislature . Although Article 6 of the Northwest Ordinance had prohibited slavery , it had existed in the region since French rule . In addition , settlers from the Upper South occupied areas along the Ohio River , bringing slaves with them . They wanted to have it be legal in the territory , but others from the northern states opposed the expansion of slavery into this region . The anti @-@ slavery party won a strong majority in the first election . Governor Harrison was at odds with the new legislature , which proceeded to overturn the indenturing and pro @-@ slavery laws he had enacted . Slavery remained the defining issue in the state for the decades to follow . In these early decades , although the legislature did not encourage free blacks to settle here , it extended suffrage to them .
= = = War of 1812 = = =
The first major event in the territory was the resumption of hostilities with the Indians . Unhappy with their treatment since the peace of 1795 , the native tribes , led by the Shawnee Chief Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa , formed a coalition against the Americans . Tecumseh 's War started in 1811 when General William Henry Harrison led his army to rebuff aggressive movements of Tecumseh 's confederation . The war continued until the Battle of Tippecanoe which firmly ended the Native American uprising and allowed the Americans to take full control of all of Indiana . The Battle earned Harrison national fame , and the nickname " Old Tippecanoe " .
The war between Tecumseh and Harrison merged with the War of 1812 when the remnants of the Indian Confederation allied with the British in Canada . The Siege of Fort Harrison is considered to be the United States ' first land victory during the war . Other battles that occurred in the modern state of Indiana include the Siege of Fort Wayne , the Pigeon Roost Massacre and the Battle of the Mississinewa . The Treaty of Ghent , signed in 1814 , ended the war and relieved American settlers from their fears of the nearby British and their Indian allies . This marked the end of hostilities with the Native Americans in Indiana . Of the 58 recorded incidents between Native Americans and the United States in Indiana during the 19th century , 43 were Indian victories .
= = Statehood = =
In 1812 , Jonathan Jennings defeated Harrison 's chosen candidate and became the territory 's representative to Congress . Jennings immediately introduced legislation to grant Indiana statehood , even though the population of the entire territory was under 25 @,@ 000 , but no action was taken on the legislation because of the outbreak of the War of 1812 .
Posey had created a rift in the politics of the territory by supporting slavery , much to the chagrin of opponents like Jennings , Dennis Pennington , and others who dominated the Territorial Legislature and who sought to use the bid for statehood to permanently end slavery in the territory .
= = = Founding = = =
In early 1816 , the Territory approved a census and Pennington was named to be the census enumerator . The population of the territory was found to be 63 @,@ 897 , above the cutoff required for statehood . A constitutional convention met on June 10 , 1816 , in Corydon . Because of the heat of the season , the delegation moved outdoors on many days and wrote the constitution beneath the shade of a giant elm tree . The state 's first constitution was completed on June 29 , and elections were held in August to fill the offices of the new state government . In November Congress approved statehood .
Jennings and his supporters had control of the convention and Jennings was elected its president . Other notable delegates at the convention included Dennis Pennington , Davis Floyd , and William Hendricks . Pennington and Jennings were at the forefront of the effort to prevent slavery from entering Indiana and sought to create a constitutional ban on it . Pennington was quoted as saying " Let us be on our guard when our convention men are chosen that they be men opposed to slavery " . They succeeded in their goal and a ban was placed in the new constitution . But , persons already held in bondage stayed in that status for some time . That same year Indiana statehood was approved by Congress . While settlers did not want slavery , they also wanted to exclude free blacks , and established barriers to their immigration to the state .
Jonathan Jennings , whose motto was " No slavery in Indiana " , was elected governor of the state , defeating Thomas Posey 5 @,@ 211 to 3 @,@ 934 votes . Jennings served two terms as governor and then went on to represent the state in congress for another 18 years . Upon election , Jennings declared Indiana a free state . The abolitionists won a key victory in the 1820 Indiana Supreme Court case of Polly v. Lasselle ; slavery was finally extinct by 1830 .
As the northern tribal lands gradually opened to white settlement , Indiana 's population rapidly increased and the center of population shifted continually northward . Indianapolis was selected to be the site of the new state capital in 1820 because of its central position within the state . The city founders assumed the White River would serve as a major transportation artery ; however , the waterway was too sandy for navigation . In 1825 , Indianapolis replaced Corydon as the seat of government . The government became established in the Marion County Courthouse as the second state capital building .
= = = Early development = = =
The National Road reached Indianapolis in 1829 , connecting Indiana to the Eastern United States . It was also about this time that citizens of Indiana became known as Hoosiers and the state took on the motto " Crossroads of America " . In 1832 , construction began on the Wabash and Erie Canal , a project connecting the waterways of the Great Lakes to the Ohio River . Railroads soon made the canal system obsolete . These developments in transportation served to economically connect Indiana to the Northern East Coast , rather than relying solely on the natural waterways which connected Indiana to the Mississippi River and Gulf Coast states .
In 1831 , construction on the third state capitol building began . This building , designed by the firm of Ithiel Town and Alexander Jackson Davis , had a design inspired by the Greek Parthenon and opened in 1841 . It was the first statehouse that was built and used exclusively by the state government .
The state suffered from financial difficulties during its first three decades . Jonathan Jennings attempted to begin a period of internal improvements . Among his projects , the Indiana Canal Company was reestablished to build a canal around the Falls of the Ohio . The Panic of 1819 caused the state 's only two banks to fold . This hurt Indiana 's credit , halted the projects , and hampered the start of new projects until the 1830s , after the repair of the state 's finances during the terms of William Hendricks and Noah Noble . Beginning in 1831 , large scale plans for statewide improvements were set into motion . Overspending on the internal improvements led to a large deficit that had to be funded by state bonds through the newly created Bank of Indiana and sale of over nine million acres ( 36 @,@ 000 km ² ) of public land . By 1841 the debt had become unmanageable . Having borrowed over $ 13 million , the equivalent to the state 's first fifteen years of tax revenue , the government could not even pay interest on the debt . The state narrowly avoided bankruptcy by negotiating the liquidation of the public works , transferring them to the state 's creditors in exchange for a 50 % reduction in the state 's debt . The internal improvements began under Jennings paid off as the state began to experience rapid population growth that slowly remedied the state 's funding problems . The improvements led to a fourfold increase in land value , and an even larger increase in farm produce .
During the 1840s , Indiana completed the removal of the Native American tribes . The majority of the Potawatomi voluntarily relocated to Kansas in 1838 . Those who did not leave were forced to travel to Kansas in what came to be called the Potawatomi Trail of Death , leaving only the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians in the Indiana area . The majority of the Miami tribe left in 1846 , although many members of the tribe were permitted to remain in the state on lands they held privately under the terms of the 1818 Treaty of St. Mary 's . The other tribes were also convinced to leave the state voluntarily through the payment of subsidies and land grants further west . The Shawnee migrated westward to settle in Missouri , and the Lenape migrated into Canada . The other minor tribes in the state , including the Wea , moved westward , mostly to Kansas .
By the 1850s , Indiana had undergone major changes : what was once a frontier with sparse population had become a developing state with several cities . In 1816 , Indiana 's population was around 65 @,@ 000 , and in less than 50 years , it had increased to more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
Because of the rapidly changing state , the constitution of 1816 began to be criticized . Opponents claimed the constitution had too many appointed positions , the terms established were inadequate , and some of the clauses were too easily manipulated by the political parties that did not exist when then constitution was written . The first constitution had not been put to a vote by the general public , and following the great population growth in the state , it was seen as inadequate . A constitutional convention was called in January 1851 to create a new one . The new constitution was approved by the convention on February 10 , 1851 , and submitted for a vote to the electorate that year . It was approved and has since been the official constitution .
= = = Religion = = =
Frontier Indiana was prime ground missionary for the Second Great Awakening , with a never @-@ ending parade of camp meetings and revivals . Baptist church records show an intense interest in private moral behavior at the weekly meetings , including drinking and proper child @-@ rearing practices . The most contentious issue was antimission controversy , in which the more traditional elements denounced missionary societies as unbiblical .
Eastern Presbyterian and Congregational denominations funded an aggressive missionary program , 1826 – 55 , through the American Home Missionary Society ( AHMS ) . It sought to bring sinners to Christ and also to modernize society promoted middle class values , mutual trust among the members , and tried to minimize violence and drinking . The frontierspeople were the reformees and they displayed their annoyance at the new morality being imposed on society . The political crisis came in 1854 @-@ 55 over a pietistic campaign to enact " dry " prohibition of liquor sales . They were strongly opposed by the " wets , " especially non @-@ churched , the Catholics , Episcopalians , the antimissionary elements , and the German recent arrivals . Prohibition failed in 1855 and the moralistic pietistic Protestants switched to a new , equally moralistic cause , the anti @-@ slavery crusade led by the new Republican Party .
= = Education = =
For a list of institutions , see Category : Universities and colleges in Indiana .
The earliest institutions of education in Indiana were missions , established by French Jesuit priests to convert local Native American nations . The Jefferson Academy was founded in 1801 as a public university for the Indiana Territory , and was reincorporated as Vincennes University in 1806 , the first in the state .
The 1816 constitution required that Indiana 's state legislature create a " general system of education , ascending in a regular gradation , from township schools to a state university , wherein tuition shall be gratis , and equally open to all " . It took several years for the legislature to fulfill its promise , partly because of a debate about whether a new public university should be founded to replace the territorial university . The 1820s saw the start of free public township schools . During the administration of William Hendricks , a plot of ground was set aside in each township for the construction of a schoolhouse .
The state government chartered Indiana University in Bloomington in 1820 as the State Seminary . Construction began in 1822 , the first professor was hired in 1823 , and classes were offered in 1824 .
Other state colleges were established for specialized needs . They included Indiana State University , established in Terre Haute in 1865 as the state normal school for training teachers . Purdue University was founded in 1869 as the state 's land @-@ grant university , a school of science and agriculture . Ball State University was founded as a normal school in the early 20th century and given to the state in 1918 .
Public colleges lagged behind the private religious colleges in both size and educational standards until the 1890s . Asbury College ( now Depauw University ) was Methodist . Wabash College was Presbyterian ; they led the Protestant schools . The University of Notre Dame , founded by Rev Edward Sorin in 1842 , proclaims itself as a prominent Catholic college . Indiana lagged the rest of the Midwest with the lowest literacy and education rates into the early 20th century .
= = Transportation = =
In the early 19th century , most transportation of goods in Indiana was done by river . Most of the state 's estuaries drained into the Wabash River or the Ohio River , ultimately meeting up with the Mississippi River , where goods were transported to and sold in St. Louis or New Orleans .
The first road in the region was the Buffalo Trace , an old bison trail that ran from the Falls of the Ohio to Vincennes . After the capitol was relocated to Corydon , several local roads were created to connect the new capitol to the Ohio River at Mauckport and to New Albany . The first major road in the state was the National Road , a project funded by the federal government . The road entered Indiana in 1829 , connecting Richmond , Indianapolis , and Terre Haute with the eastern states and eventually Illinois and Missouri in the west . The state adopted the advanced methods used to build the national road on a statewide basis and began to build a new road network that was usable year @-@ round . The North @-@ South Michigan Road was built in the 1830s , connecting Michigan and Kentucky and passing through Indianapolis in the middle . These two new roads were roughly perpendicular within the state and served as the foundation for a road system to encompass all of Indiana .
In 1832 , the state began construction on the Wabash and Erie Canal . The canal was started at Lake Erie , passed through Fort Wayne , and connected to the Wabash River . This new canal made water transport possible from New Orleans to Lake Erie on an internal route rather than sailing around the whole of the Eastern United States and entering through Canada . Other canal projects were started , but all were abandoned before completion due to the state 's foundering credit after the devaluation of the bonds .
The first railroad in Indiana was built in Shelbyville in the late 1830s . The first major line was completed in 1847 , connecting Madison with Indianapolis . By the 1850s , the railroad began to become popular in Indiana . The railroad brought major changes to Indiana and enhanced the state 's economic growth . Although Indiana 's natural waterways connected it to the South via cities such as St. Louis and New Orleans , the new rail lines ran East @-@ West , and connected Indiana with the economies of the northern states . As late as mid @-@ 1859 , no rail line yet bridged the Ohio or Mississippi rivers . Because of an increased demand on the state 's resources and the embargo against the Confederacy , the rail system was mostly completed by the end of the American Civil War .
= = Suffrage and racial discrimination = =
Indiana put further restrictions on blacks , prohibiting them from testifying in court in a case against a white man . The new constitution of 1851 expanded suffrage for white males , but excluded blacks from suffrage . While the state did not have legal segregation , it excluded black children from public schools as a matter of custom .
= = = Temperance movement = = =
Temperance became a part of the evangelical Protestant initiative during Indiana 's pioneer era and early statehood . Many Hoosiers freely indulged in drinking locally distilled whiskey on a daily basis , with binges on election days and holidays , and during community celebrations Reformers announced that the devil was at work and must be repudiated . A state temperance society formed in 1829 and local temperance societies soon organized in Indianapolis , Fort Wayne , and Logansport . By the 1830s pietistic ( evangelical ) Protestants and community leaders had joined forces to curb consumption of alcohol . In 1847 the Indiana General Assembly passed a local option bill that allowed a vote on whether to prohibit alcohol sales in a township . The liquor issue pitted wets and drys in stable uncompromising coalitions that formed a main theme of Hoosier politics into the 1930s .
By the 1850s Indiana 's Republican party , whose adherents tended to favor the temperance movement , began challenging the state 's Democrats , who supported personal freedom and a limited federal government , for political power . Early temperance legislation in Indiana earned only limited and temporary success . In 1853 Republicans persuaded the state legislature to pass a local option law that would allow township voters to declare their township dry , but it was later deemed unconstitutional . In 1855 a statewide prohibition law was passed , but it met the same fate as the local option . In the decades to come Protestant churches , especially the Methodists , Baptists , Presbyterians , Disciples of Christ , Quakers , and women 's groups would continue to support temperance efforts and gave strong support to the mostly dry Republican Party . The Catholics , Episcopalians and Lutherans stood opposed and gave strong support to the wet Democratic Party .
= = Civil War = =
Indiana , a free state and the boyhood home of Abraham Lincoln , remained a member of the Union during the American Civil War . Indiana regiments were involved in all the major engagements of the war and almost all the engagements in the western theater . Hoosiers were present in the first and last battles of the war . During the war , Indiana provided 126 infantry regiments , 26 batteries of artillery , and 13 regiments of cavalry to the cause of the Union .
In the initial call to arms issued in 1861 , Indiana was assigned a quota of 7 @,@ 500 men — a tenth of the amount called — to join the Union Army in putting down the rebellion . So many volunteered in the first call that thousands had to be turned away . Before the war ended , Indiana contributed 208 @,@ 367 men to fight and serve in the war . Casualties were over 35 % among these men : 24 @,@ 416 lost their lives in the conflict and over 50 @,@ 000 more were wounded .
At the outbreak of the war , Indiana was run by a Democratic and southern sympathetic majority in the state legislature . It was by the actions of Governor Oliver Morton , who illegally borrowed millions of dollars to finance the army , that Indiana could contribute so greatly to the war effort . Morton suppressed the state legislature with the help of the Republican minority to prevent it from assembling during 1861 and 1862 . This prevented any chance the Democrats might have had to interfere with the war effort or to attempt to secede from the Union .
= = = Raids = = =
Two raids on Indiana soil during the war caused a brief panic in Indianapolis and southern Indiana . The Newburgh Raid on July 18 , 1862 , occurred when Confederate officer Adam Johnson briefly captured Newburgh by convincing the Union troops garrisoning the town that he had cannon on the surrounding hills , when in fact they were merely camouflaged stovepipes . The raid convinced the federal government that it was necessary to supply Indiana with a permanent force of regular Union Army soldiers to counter future raids .
The most significant Civil War battle fought in Indiana was a small skirmish during Morgan 's Raid . On the morning of July 9 , 1863 , Morgan attempted to cross the Ohio River into Indiana with his force of 2 @,@ 400 Confederate cavalry . After his crossing was briefly contested , he marched north to Corydon where he fought the Indiana Legion in the short Battle of Corydon . Morgan took command of the heights south of Corydon and shot two shells from his batteries into the town , which promptly surrendered . The battle left 15 dead and 40 wounded . Morgan 's main body of troopers briefly raided New Salisbury , Crandall , Palmyra , and Salem . Fear gripped the capitol , and the militia began to form there to contest Morgan 's advance . After Salem , however , Morgan turned east , raiding and skirmishing along this path and leaving Indiana through West Harrison on July 13 into Ohio , where he was captured .
= = = Aftermath = = =
The Civil War had a major effect on the development of Indiana . Before the war , the population was generally in the south of the state , where many had entered via the Ohio River , which provided a cheap and convenient means to export products and agriculture to New Orleans to be sold . The war closed the Mississippi River to traffic for nearly four years , forcing Indiana to find other means to export its produce . This led to a population shift to the north where the state came to rely more on the Great Lakes and the railroad for exports .
Before the war , New Albany was the largest city in the state , mainly because of its river contacts and extensive trade with the South . Over half of Hoosiers with over $ 100 @,@ 000 lived in New Albany . During the war , the trade with the South came to a halt , and many residents considered those of New Albany as too friendly to the South . The city never regained its stature . It was stilled as a city of 40 @,@ 000 with its early @-@ Victorian Mansion @-@ Row buildings remaining from the boom period .
= = Post @-@ Civil War era = =
= = = Economic growth = = =
Ohio River ports had been stifled by an embargo on the Confederate South and never fully recovered their economic prominence , leading the south into an economic decline . By contrast , northern Indiana experienced an economic boom when natural gas was discovered in the 1880s , which directly contributed to the rapid growth of cities such as Gas City , Hartford City , and Muncie where a glass industry developed to utilize the cheap fuel . The Indiana gas field was then the largest known in the world . The boom lasted until the early 20th century , when the gas supplies ran low . This began northern Indiana 's industrialization .
The development of heavy industry attracted thousands of European immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , as well as internal migrants , both black and white , from the rural and small town South . These developments dramatically altered the demographics of the state . Indiana industrial cities were among the destinations of the Great Migration . After World War II , industrial restructuring and the shifts in heavy industry resulted in Indiana 's becoming part of the Rust Belt .
In 1876 , chemist Eli Lilly , a Union colonel during the Civil War , founded Eli Lilly and Company , a pharmaceutical company . His initial innovation of gelatin @-@ coating for pills led to a rapid growth of the company that eventually developed as Indiana 's largest corporation , and one of the largest corporations in the world . Over the years , the corporation developed many widely used drugs , including insulin , and it became the first company to mass @-@ produce penicillin . The company 's many advances made Indiana the leading state in the production and development of medicines .
Charles Conn returned to Elkhart after the Civil War and established C.G. Conn Ltd . , a manufacturer of musical instruments . The company 's innovation in band instruments made Elkhart an important center of the music world , and it became a base of Elkhart 's economy for decades . Nearby South Bend experienced continued growth following the Civil War , and became a large manufacturing city centered around the Oliver Farm Equipment Company , the nation 's leading plow producer . Gary was founded in 1906 by the United States Steel Corporation as the home for its new plant .
The administration of Governor James D. Williams proposed the construction of the fourth state capitol building in 1878 . The third state capitol building was razed and the new one was constructed on the same site . Two million dollars was appropriated for construction and the new building was completed in 1888 . The building was still in use in 2008 .
The Panic of 1893 had a severely negative effect on the Hoosier economy when many factories closed and several railroads declared bankruptcy . The Pullman Strike of 1894 hurt the Chicago area and coal miners in southern Indiana participated in a national strike . Hard times were not limited to industry ; farmers also felt a financial pinch from falling prices . The economy began to recover when World War I broke out in Europe , creating a higher demand for American goods . Despite economic setbacks , advances in industrial technology continued throughout the last years of the 19th and into the 20th century . On July 4 , 1894 , Elwood Haynes successfully road tested his first automobile , and opened the Haynes @-@ Apperson auto company in 1896 . In 1895 , William Johnson invented a process for casting aluminum .
= = = Political battleground = = =
During the postwar era , Indiana became a critical swing state that often helped decide which party controlled the presidency . Elections were very close , and became the center of frenzied attention with many parades , speeches and rallies as election day approached ; voter turnout ranging over 90 % to near 100 % in such elections as 1888 and 1896 . In remote areas , both sides paid their supporters to vote , and occasionally paid supporters of the opposition not to vote . Despite allegations , historians have found very little fraud in national elections .
To win the electoral vote , both national parties looked for Indiana candidates for the national tickets ; a Hoosier was included in all but one presidential election between 1880 and 1924 .
In 1888 , Indiana Senator Benjamin Harrison , grandson of territorial Governor William Henry Harrison , was elected President after an intense battle that attracted more than 300 @,@ 000 partisans to Indianapolis to hear him speak from his famous front porch . Fort Benjamin Harrison was named in his honor . Five Hoosiers were elected as Vice @-@ President . The most recent was Dan Quayle , elected in 1988 .
= = = High culture = = =
The last decades of the 19th century began what is known as the " golden age of Indiana literature " , a period that lasted until the 1920s . Edward Eggleston wrote The Hoosier Schoolmaster ( 1871 ) , the first best seller to originate in the state . Many other followed , including Maurice Thompson 's Hoosier Mosaics ( 1875 ) , and Lew Wallace 's Ben @-@ Hur ( 1880 ) . Indiana developed a reputation as the " American heartland " following several widely read novels beginning with Booth Tarkington 's The Gentleman from Indiana ( 1899 ) , Meredith Nicholson 's The Hoosiers ( 1900 ) , and Thompson 's second famous novel , Alice of Old Vincennes ( 1900 ) . James Whitcomb Riley , known as the " Hoosier Poet " and the most popular poet of his age , wrote hundreds of poems celebrating Hoosier themes , including Little Orphant Annie . A unique art culture also began developing in the late 19th century , beginning the Hoosier School of landscape painting and the Richmond Group of impressionist painters . The painters were known for their use of vivid colors and artists including T. C. Steele , whose work was influenced by the colorful hills of southern Indiana . Prominent musicians and composers from Indiana also reached national acclaim during the time , including Paul Dresser whose most popular song , " On the Banks of the Wabash , Far Away " , was later adopted as the official state song .
= = = Prohibition and woman suffrage = = =
By the late nineteenth and early twentieth century , prohibition and woman suffrage had become the major reform issues in the state . Although supporters and their opponents closely linked the two movements , temperance received a broader hearing than the efforts toward equal suffrage . While the congregations of Protestant churches in Indiana supported temperance , few provided a forum for discussions on women 's voting rights .
The drive for woman suffrage began in the 1870s , and was sponsored by the leaders of the prohibition movement , especially the Woman 's Christian Temperance Union ( WCTU ) . The Indiana chapter of the WCTU was formed in 1874 with Zerelda G. Wallace as its first president . The Indiana branch of the American Woman Suffrage Association was re @-@ established in 1869 . In 1878 May Wright Sewall founded the Indianapolis Equal Suffrage Society , and fought for world peace before the nation plunged into World War I. Several Indiana women also became temperance leaders and took an active role in the movement .
The first major effort to give women the right to vote in all non @-@ federal elections attempted to amend the state constitution . It passed by both houses of the state legislature in 1881 ; however , the bill failed to pass in the next legislative session in 1883 as state law required . Temperance efforts fared little better . In 1881 the Indiana chapter of the WCTU , along with organizations participating in the Indiana Grand Council of Temperance , successfully lobbied the Indiana General Assembly to pass an amendment to the state constitution to prohibit the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages in the state , but the Indiana Liquor League and a Democratic majority in the state legislature killed the bill in the legislative session in 1883 . Following these legislative defeats woman suffrage and prohibition became sensitive issues in local politics as the Democrats rallied the opposition . In German strongholds such as Fort Wayne , opposition to prohibition and woman suffrage was strong until World War I. As one historian notes , " within German workingclass family traditions , women in particular were sharply defined in terms of family responsibilities . Suffrage and women 's rights ran counter to deep social and religious traditions that placed women in a subservient relationship to men . " Renewed interest in woman suffrage did not occur until the end of the century , while prohibition crusaders continued to press for legislative action .
To gain political power in favor of prohibition legislation , a state Prohibition Party was formed in 1884 ; however , it was never able to effectively mobilize a significant force of voters within the state . Many temperance advocates continued to work within the more established political parties . One legislative success occurred in 1895 , when the state legislature passed the Nicholson law , a local option law authored by S. E. Nicholson , a Quaker minister who served in the state legislature and was a leader of the national Anti @-@ Saloon League . The League became a political powerhouse , mobilizing pietistic Protestant voters ( that is , members of the major denominations except Lutherans and Episcopalians ) to support dry legislation . The Nicholson law allowed voters in a city or township to file a remonstrance that would prevent an individual saloon owner from acquiring a liquor license . Additional legislative efforts to extend the Nicholson law and achieve statewide prohibition in Indiana would not occur until the early twentieth century .
In May , 1906 , in Kokomo , a meeting was called to try to revive the defunct Indiana suffragist movement . An Indiana Auxiliary of the National American Woman Suffrage Association was formed and officers were elected . The officers included : Sarah Davis , President ; Laura Schofield , first vice @-@ president ; Anna Dunn Noland , second vice @-@ president ; Mrs. E. M. Wood , secretary ; Marion Harvie Barnard , treasurer ; and Jane Pond and Judge Samuel Artman , auditors .
= = = High profile crime = = =
Hoosiers were fascinated with crime and criminals . Some historians have argued that the popularity of bandits and their exploits in robbing banks and getting away with murder derived from working class resentment against the excesses of the Gilded Age . A group of brothers from Seymour , who had served in the Civil War , formed the Reno Gang , the first outlaw gang in the United States . The Reno Gang , named for the brothers , terrorized Indiana and the region for several years . They were responsible for the first train robbery in the United States which occurred near Seymour in 1866 . Their actions inspired a host of other outlaw gangs who copied their work , beginning several decades of high @-@ profile train robberies . Pursued by detectives from the Pinkerton Detective Agency , most of the gang was captured in 1868 and lynched by vigilantes . Other notorious Hoosiers also flourished in the post @-@ war years , including Belle Gunness , an infamous " black widow " serial killer . She killed more than twenty people , most of them men , between 1881 and her own murder in 1908 .
In response to the Reno Gang and other criminals , several white cap groups began operating in the state , primarily in the southern counties . They began carrying out lynchings against suspected criminals , leading the state to attempt to crack down on their practices . By the turn of the 20th century , they had become so notorious that anti @-@ lynching laws were passed and in one incident the governor called out the militia to protect a prisoner . When the white caps showed up to lynch him , the militia opened fire , killing one and wounding eleven . Vigilante activity decreased following the incident , and remained low until the rise of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s .
Crime stories grabbed the headlines in the 1920s and 1930s . After Prohibition took effect in 1920 until its demise in 1933 , it opened up a financial bonanza for criminal activity , especially underground bootlegging and the smuggling of liquor into Chicago , Gary , South Bend , Fort Wayne , Indianapolis , Evansville and other thirsty cities . Enforcement was haphazard ; the Anti @-@ Saloon League was more of a lobbying agency and never rallied community support for enforcement . The KKK called for punishment of bootleggers and set up the " Horse Thief Detective Association " ( HTDA ) to make extra @-@ legal raids on speakeasies and gambling joints . It seldom cooperated with law enforcement or the state or federal courts . Instead gave enforcement a bad name . Arthur Gillom , a Republican elected state attorney general over Klan opposition in 1924 , did not tolerate its extra @-@ legal operations . Instead , " He stressed the dangers of citizens relinquishing their constitutional rights and personal freedoms , and emphasized the importance of representative government ( at all levels ) , states ' rights , and the concept of separation of church and state . " When Rev. Shumaker proposed that " personal liberty had to be sacrificed in order to save people , " Gilliom replied that surrendering power and individual freedoms was a slippery slope to centralized government and tyranny .
John Dillinger , a native of Indianapolis , began his streak of bank robberies in Indiana and the Midwest during the 1920s . He was in prison 1924 to 1933 . After a return to crime , Dillinger was returned to prison the same year , but escaped with the help of his gang . His gang was responsible for multiple murders and the theft of over $ 300 @,@ 000 . Dillinger was killed by the FBI in a shootout in Chicago in 1934 .
= = Twentieth century = =
= = = Economic modernization = = =
Although industry was rapidly expanding throughout the northern part of the state , Indiana remained largely rural at the turn of the 20th century with a growing population of 2 @.@ 5 million . Like much of the rest of the American Midwest , Indiana 's exports and job providers remained largely agricultural until after World War I. Indiana 's developing industry , backed by inexpensive natural gas from the large Trenton Gas Field , an educated population , low taxes , easy access to transportation , and business @-@ friendly government , led Indiana to grow into one of the leading manufacturing states by the mid @-@ 1920s .
The state 's central location gave it an dense network of railroads . The line most identified with the state was the Monon Line . It provided passenger service for students en route to Purdue , Indiana U. and numerous small colleges , painted its cars in school colors , and was especially popular on football weekends . The Monon was merged into larger lines in 1971 , closed its passenger service , and lost its identity . Entrepreneurs built an elaborate " interurban " network of light rails to connect rural areas to shopping opportunities in the cities . They began operation in 1892 , and by 1908 there were 2 @,@ 300 miles of track in 62 counties . The automobile made the lines unprofitable unless the destinaction was Chicago . By 2001 the " South Shore " was the last one ; it still operating from South Bend to Chicago .
In 1907 , Indiana became the first state to adopt eugenics legislation , that allowed the involuntary sterilization of dangerous male criminals and the mentally defectives . It was never put in effect and in 1921 Indiana became the first state to rule such legislation unconstitutional when the Supreme Court of Indiana acted . A revised eugenics law was passed in 1927 , and it remained in effect until 1974 .
The Indianapolis Motor Speedway complex was built in 1909 , inaugurating a new era in history . Most Indiana cities within 200 miles of Detroit became part of the giant automobile industry after 1910 . The Indianapolis speedway was a venue for auto companies to show off their products . The Indianapolis 500 quickly became the standard in auto racing as European and American companies competed to build the fastest automobile and win at the track . Industrial and technological industries thrived during this era , George Kingston developed an early carburetor in 1902 ; in 1912 , Elwood Haynes received a patent for stainless steel .
= = = Statewide prohibition = = =
In the first two decades of the twentieth century the Indiana Anti @-@ Saloon League ( IASL ) , formed in 1898 as a state auxiliary of the national Anti @-@ Saloon League , and the Woman 's Christian Temperance Union successfully organized pressure on Indiana politicians , especially members of the Republican party , to support the dry cause . The IASL , although not the first organization to take up the dry crusade in Indiana , became a key force behind efforts at attaining passage of statewide prohibition in early 1917 , and rallied state support for ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1919 . The IASL 's success , under the leadership of Edward S. Shumaker , an ordained Methodist minister , made it a model for the League 's other state organizations . Shumaker made clear to politicians he did not care whether they drank , but insisted they vote for dry laws or face defeated in the next election by dry voters .
In 1905 passage of the Moore amendment expanded the state 's Nicholson local option law to apply to all liquor license applicants within a local township or city ward . The next step was to seek countywide prohibition . The IASL appealed to the general public , holding large rallies in Indianapolis and elsewhere , to support a county option law that would provide a more restrictive ban on alcohol . In September 1908 Indiana governor J. Frank Hanly , a Methodist , Republican , and teetotaler , called for a special legislative session to establish a county option that would allow county voters to prohibit alcohol sales throughout their county . The state legislature passed the bill with only a narrow margin . By November 1909 seventy of Indiana 's ninety @-@ two counties were dry . In 1911 a Democratic legislative majority replaced the county option with the Proctor law , a less @-@ geographically restrictive local option , and the number of dry counties was reduced to twenty @-@ six . Despite the setback prohibition advocates continued to lobby legislators for support . In December 1917 several temperance organizations formed the Indiana Dry Federation to fight the politically powerful liquor interests , with the IASL joining the group a short time later . The Federation and the League vigorously campaigned for statewide prohibition , which the Indiana General Assembly adopted in February 1917 . Subsequent legal challenges delayed implementation of statewide prohibition until 1918 , when a court ruled in June that Indiana 's prohibition law was constitutionally valid .
On January 14 , 1919 , Indiana became the twenty @-@ fifth state to ratify the Eighteenth Amendment , which mandated nationwide prohibition . Three days later Nebraska became the thirty @-@ sixth state to ratify the amendment , providing the two @-@ thirds majority of states required to amend the U.S. Constitution . With the beginning of nationwide Prohibition on January 17 , 1920 , after formal ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment the previous day , efforts turned to enforcement of the new law . Protestant support for Prohibition remained intense in Indiana in the 1920s . Shumaker and the IASL lead a statewide grassroots campaign that successfully passed a new prohibition law for the state . Sponsored by Indiana representative Frank Wright and known as the Wright bone @-@ dry law , it was enacted in 1925 . The Wright law was part of a national trend toward stricter prohibition legislation and imposed severe penalties for alcohol possession .
The Great Depression and the election of Democratic party candidates in 1932 ended widespread national support for Prohibition . Franklin D. Roosevelt , who included repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment as a major issue of his presidential campaign in 1932 , made good on his promise to American voters . On December 5 , 1933 , the Twenty @-@ first Amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment and ended nationwide Prohibition . However , Indiana 's legislature continued to regulate alcohol within the state through allocation of state liquor licenses and prohibition of sales on Sunday .
= = = Women 's activism = = =
Middle @-@ class Indiana women learned organizational skills through the suffrage and temperance movements . By the 1890s they were applying their new skills to the needs of their home communities , by organizing women 's clubs , the combined literary activity with social activism focused on such needs as public health , sanitation , and good schools . The women increasingly learn to focus their energies on obtainable objectives through specialized local organizations . In Lafayette , for example , the suffragists concentrated in the Lafayette Franchise League , while those oriented toward social concerns worked through the Lafayette Charity Organization Society ( LCOS ) , the Free Kindergarten and Industrial School Association ( FKISA ) , and the Martha Home .
Middle class black women activists were organized through their Baptist and Methodist churches , and under the leadership of Hallie Quinn Brown formed a statewide umbrella group , the Indiana Association of Colored Women 's Clubs . They sponsored 56 clubs in 46 cities in the state , with 2000 members by 1933 , and a budget of over $ 20 @,@ 000 . Most members were public school teachers or hairdressers , as well as women active and local business in the black community , and in government positions . They affiliated with the National Federation of Afro @-@ American Women , headed by Mrs. Booker T. Washington , and became part of her husband 's powerful network of black activists . One of the most prominent member in Indiana was Madame C. J. Walker of Indianapolis , who owned a nationally successful business selling beauty and hair products for black women . Club meetings focused on home @-@ making classes , research and statistics regarding the status of blacks in Indiana and nationwide , suffrage , and anti @-@ lynching activism . The local clubs operated rescue missions , nursery schools , and educational programs .
= = = Floods = = =
Between March 23 and March 27 , 1913 , Indiana and more than a dozen other states experienced major flooding during the Great Flood of 1913 ; it was Indiana 's worst flood disaster up to that time . The weather system that created the unprecedented flooding arrived in Indiana on Sunday , March 23 , with a major tornado at Terre Haute . In four days , rainfall topped nine inches in southern Indiana , more than half of it falling within a twenty @-@ four @-@ hour period on March 25 . Heavy rains , runoff , and rising rivers resulted in extensive flooding in northeast , central , and southern Indiana . Indiana 's flood @-@ related deaths were estimated at 100 to 200 , with flood damage estimated at $ 25 million ( in 1913 dollars ) . State and local communities handled their own disaster response and relief . The American Red Cross , still a small organization at that time , established a temporary headquarters in Indianapolis and served the six hardest @-@ hit Indiana counties . Indiana governor Samuel M. Ralston appealed to Indiana cities and other states for relief assistance and appointed a trustee to receive relief funds and arrange for distribution of supplies . Independent organizations , such as the Rotary Club of Indianapolis and others , helped with local relief efforts .
= = = World War I = = =
Hoosiers were divided about entering World War I. Before Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and tried to enlist Mexico as a military ally in 1917 , most Hoosiers wanted the U.S. to be neutral in the war . Support for Britain came from professions and businessmen . Opposition came from churchmen , women , farmers and Irish Catholics and German @-@ American elements . They called for neutrality and strongly opposed going to war to rescue the British Empire . Influential Hoosiers who opposed involvement in the war included Democratic Senator John W. Kern , and Vice President Thomas R. Marshall . Supporters of military preparedness included James Whitcomb Riley and George Ade . Most of the opposition dissipated when the United States officially declared war against Germany in April 1917 , but some teachers lost their jobs on suspicion of disloyalty , and public schools could no longer teach in German . Socialist leader Eugene V. Debs , from Terre Haute , went to federal prison for encouraging young men to evade the draft .
The Indiana National Guard was federalized during WWI ; many units were sent to Europe . A separate organization , the Liberty Guard , had been formed in 1910 , primarily for social purposes : members marched in parades and at patriotic events . Governor Samuel Ralston had to call out the Liberty Guard in November 1913 to put down a growing workers strike in Indianapolis . By 1920 , the state decided to formalize this group , renaming it the Indiana Civil Defense Force and supplying it with equipment and training . In 1941 , the unit was named the Indiana Guard Reserve ; it effectively became a state militia . During World War II , it was again federalized and members were called up by the federal government .
Indiana provided 130 @,@ 670 troops during the war ; a majority of them were drafted . Over 3 @,@ 000 men died , many from influenza and pneumonia . To honor the Hoosier veterans of the war , the state began construction of the Indiana World War Memorial .
= = = Twenties and the Great Depression = = =
The war @-@ time economy provided a boom to Indiana 's industry and agriculture , which led to more urbanization throughout the 1920s . By 1925 , more workers were employed in industry than in agriculture in Indiana . Indiana 's greatest industries were steel production , iron , automobiles , and railroad cars .
Scandal erupted across the state in 1925 when it was discovered that over half the seats in the General Assembly were controlled by the Indiana Ku Klux Klan , including members of three political parties . The Klan pushed an anti @-@ Catholic legislative agenda , including a ban on parochial education . During the 1925 General Assembly session , Grand Dragon D. C. Stephenson boasted , " I am the law in Indiana . " Stephenson was convicted for the murder of Madge Oberholtzer that year and sentenced to life in prison . After Governor Edward L. Jackson , whom Stephenson helped elect , refused to pardon him , Stephenson began to name many of his co @-@ conspirators . This led the state 's making a string of arrests and indictments against political leaders , including the governor , mayor of Indianapolis , | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
01 they had a brief relegation scare that was solved with the arrival of Terry Venables as co @-@ manager , and a 3 – 0 win away at Arsenal in April was the team 's best result . The trend of buying European stars continued with the acquisitions of Christian Karembeu and Alen Bokšić .
Bryan Robson left the club before the start of 2001 – 02 season , having served as manager for seven years , and was replaced by Manchester United assistant coach Steve McClaren . The following seasons saw Premiership security maintained as Middlesbrough slowly improved and were seen as a tough side to beat when playing at the Riverside Stadium . During McClaren 's reign , Middlesbrough achieved their highest Premier league placing of 7th in the 2004 – 05 season .
The 2003 – 04 season was the most successful in the club 's history as they finally won a major trophy after beating Bolton 2 – 1 in the League Cup final under manager Steve McClaren . This success also ensured that Middlesbrough would qualify for Europe – the UEFA Cup – for the first time , in which they reached the last 16 . UEFA Cup qualification was achieved for the second consecutive year after a dramatic 1 – 1 away draw with Manchester City thanks to a late penalty save from Mark Schwarzer in the last game of the season .
Middlesbrough reached the 2006 UEFA Cup Final in Eindhoven , following two comebacks from 3 – 0 down in the rounds preceding it , but lost 4 – 0 to Sevilla . Following the cup final , McClaren left to head up the England team , and captain Gareth Southgate took over . Despite not having the coaching qualifications , he was allowed to continue after receiving special dispensation . During the 2007 – 08 season , Southgate broke Middlesbrough 's record transfer fee , paying £ 13 @.@ 6 million for Brazilian striker Afonso Alves . Southgate 's first two seasons saw the club finish in 12th and 13th places . He oversaw the club reaching the quarter finals of the FA Cup for three seasons , but the club was relegated to the Football League Championship on the last day of the 2008 – 09 season . Southgate was sacked in October 2009 , and replaced by Gordon Strachan . At the time of Southgate 's dismissal , Boro were fourth in the Championship and only one point away from the automatic promotion spot , but their form under Strachan was significantly worse and they finished mid @-@ table .
Despite starting the 2010 – 11 campaign as promotion favourites , the club endured a disappointing start to the season securing only one point in five away games . Having slipped to 20th in the Championship following a home defeat to rivals Leeds , Strachan resigned on 18 October . A week later , Tony Mowbray was confirmed as the new manager . Having staved off the threat of relegation , Mowbray successfully transformed Boro 's fortunes , eventually guiding them to a top @-@ half finish . Boro ended the season top of the form table after four consecutive league wins , the first such run since 1998 . However , despite a magnificent first half of the season , Boro failed to capitalise , and finished seventh in the league , missing out on the play @-@ offs by five points and one position .
Following a poor run of form of two wins in 12 games in the 2013 – 14 campaign , on 21 October 2013 , nearly three years after his arrival , Tony Mowbray left the club with immediate effect . Aitor Karanka , a former Spanish defender and assistant coach at Real Madrid to José Mourinho became the new Middlesbrough manager on 13 November 2013 , signing a two @-@ year contract . He became the first non @-@ British manager at the club , which finished the season 12th in the final league standings .
In his first full season in charge Middlesbrough finished fourth and thus qualified for the 2015 Football League play @-@ offs . After seeing off Brentford 5 – 1 on aggregate in the semi @-@ final , the club lost 0 – 2 to Norwich City at the Wembley Stadium in the final . Under Karanka 's tutelage Patrick Bamford , on loan from Chelsea , won the Championship Player of the Year award for the 2014 – 15 Football League Championship . Middlesbrough were promoted back to the Premier League after finishing second in the Championship in the 2015 / 16 season , drawing 1 @-@ 1 with Brighton & Hove Albion on the final day of the season .
= = = Overall = = =
Seasons spent at Level 1 of the football league system : 60
Seasons spent at Level 2 of the football league system : 44
Seasons spent at Level 3 of the football league system : 2
Seasons spent at Level 4 of the football league system : 0
As of season 2015 / 16 .
= = Colours and crest = =
Middlesbrough 's original home kit upon election to the Football League in 1899 was a white home shirt with blue shorts and they did not adopt their colours of red and white until later that season . Previous kits included a white shirt with a blue and white polka dotted collar from around 1889 . The Middlesbrough kit has remained broadly the same over the years with a red shirt and socks and either red or white shorts . The distinctive broad white stripe across the chest was introduced by Jack Charlton in 1973 ( following an attempt to change the home shirt to a Leeds United @-@ style white shirt ) and brought back for a one @-@ off in 1997 – 98 and then again for the 2000 – 01 and 2004 – 05 seasons due to popular demand . The club subsequently announced in December 2007 that the club would allow the fans to decide via an online and text vote whether the white band should return for the following season . On 8 January 2008 the club announced that the white band was to return , with 77 @.@ 4 % of voters voting in its favour , with the fans to choose the final shirt design from a selection of three designs , of which the winner was announced on 7 May 2008 .
The Middlesbrough crest has gone through four changes since the formation of the club . Initially , the badge was simply the town of Middlesbrough 's crest with a red lion instead of a blue lion in order to fit in with the club 's colours . Following the adoption of the white band on the shirts in 1973 , only the red lion remained with the letters " M.F.C " underneath in red . This was further adapted following the reformation of the club in 1986 to a circular crest with the lion in the middle and the words " Middlesbrough Football Club 1986 " around the circle in order to reflect this new era . In 2007 , Middlesbrough changed their crest again , this time with the lion inside a shield and the words " Middlesbrough Football Club 1876 " underneath . The club stated that this was to reflect the club 's long history and not just their post @-@ liquidation status .
= = Kit information = =
= = Stadium = =
After formation in 1876 , and with the club still amateurs , Middlesbrough 's first two years of football were played at Albert Park in Middlesbrough . After seeing the damage being caused by players and supporters , the Park Committee ordered the club to find an alternate venue . The club moved to Breckon Hill , behind the former Middlesbrough College longlands site , after agreeing to rent the land from its owner . However , two years later in 1880 , the owner increased the rent and the club decided to move . They moved into the Linthorpe Road Ground in 1882 , home at the time of Middlesbrough Cricket Club . The cricket club departed in 1893 – 94 to move to the Breckon Hill field , and Middlesbrough Football Club became sole users of the ground .
With the club 's growing size , and entry to the Football League , they had to move to a new ground in 1903 , Ayresome Park . It was designed by Archibald Leitch and would be the club 's home for the next 92 years . Following the Taylor Report in 1990 , the ground either needed modernising or the club needed a new stadium . The club decided on the latter , and moved out at the end of the 1994 – 95 season . It was used as a training ground during 1995 – 96 , before it was demolished in 1997 and a housing estate built in its place . The club now trains at a £ 7 million complex at Rockliffe Park , in Hurworth , on the outskirts of Darlington .
The Riverside Stadium , named by the supporters of the club after a vote , became the club 's home in 1995 . It was the first stadium to be built in line with the Taylor Report 's recommendations on all @-@ seater stadia for clubs in the top two divisions of the English football league system . It was originally a 30 @,@ 000 seater stadium , constructed at a cost of £ 16 million , before it was expanded in 1998 to a capacity of 35 @,@ 100 for an extra £ 5 million .
Since then , several reorganisations of the Riverside Stadium have taken place . At the start of the 2013 – 14 season , away fans were moved from behind the goal in the South stand to the South East corner , whilst home fans are now situated behind both goals to help create a better atmosphere inside the stadium . A giant TV screen was also installed at the back of the South @-@ East corner , replacing the older style scoreboards attached to the North and South stand roofs . For the start of the 2016 @-@ 17 season ( and return to the Premier League ) the club had to improve the stadium 's broadcasting facilities and floodlighting in order to meet current Premier League requirements . As a result of these changes , the current stadium capacity has been reduced to 33 @,@ 746 . The club also took the opportunity to move the main camera gantry to the back of the East stand where it will now face the main West stand .
Average attendances at Middlesbrough matches have fluctuated over the past several years , moving from a 2004 – 05 high average of 32 @,@ 012 to a low of 26 @,@ 092 in 2006 – 07 , then up again to 28 @,@ 428 in 2008 – 09 . Following relegation to the Championship attendances have dipped , although the crowd of 23 @,@ 451 which saw Middlesbrough 's first Championship game against Sheffield United represents far higher gates than is usual for the division , and indeed larger than those of some Premier League clubs . The club attracted an average of 24 @,@ 627 for their 2015 / 16 promotion season from the Championship to the Premier league .
= = Supporters = =
Traditionally supporters come from Middlesbrough itself and towns in the immediate area . Middlesbrough have one of the highest proportions in Britain of locally born season ticket holders at 80 % , and one of the highest proportions of female fans at 20 % . A survey at the start of the 2007 – 08 season found Middlesbrough supporters were the seventh loudest set of fans in the Premier League .
Middlesbrough Official Supporters Club , which features its own team in the local football league , has links with supporters ' clubs across the globe . The largest supporters ' clubs include the Official Supporters ' Club , the Middlesbrough Disabled Supporters ' Association , Yarm Reds , Red Faction and Middlesbrough Supporters South .
Middlesbrough supporters ' main rivals are Sunderland ( with whom they contest the Tees – Wear derby ) , Newcastle United ( with whom they contest the Tyne – Tees derby ) , and Leeds United , a fact confirmed by planetfootball.com 's 2004 survey , . Carlisle United see Middlesbrough as their biggest rivals , but Middlesbrough supporters have not reciprocated , as they do not see Carlisle as a top three rival .
The nickname Smoggies was first used as a derogatory term by opposing supporters ; it relates to the industrial air pollution ( smog ) that used to hang over the town , but it was later used by Middlesbrough fans in a somewhat self @-@ deprecating manner before finally being adopted as a badge of pride by supporters of the club . An example of this can be seen on the banners carried to away games stating " Smoggies on Tour " . Middlesbrough fans were notably praised by UEFA Chief Executive Lars @-@ Christer Olsson after their behaviour during the 2005 – 06 UEFA Cup campaign . He commended that :
You have the satisfaction of knowing that , although your team did not win the game , your supporters present in Eindhoven proved to the world that football fans can turn a match into a friendly , violence @-@ free celebration .
Middlesbrough fans had also been praised by Cleveland Police for their behaviour in previous rounds , particularly in the light of aggravation prior to and during the match at Roma .
= = Media relations = =
Middlesbrough were the first football club in the world to launch its own TV channel – Boro TV . The first broadcasts were tied to the club 's first ever major cup final appearance in 1997 , a full year ahead of Manchester United 's MUTV , which still claims to be the first in the world . The channel was the brainchild of then NTL marketing director , Peter Wilcock . The programme became synonymous with former Middlesbrough star Bernie Slaven and radio commentator Alastair Brownlee who proveed to be as popular on TV as they were on radio . Its programmes were not live initially but were pre @-@ recorded and hosted by local radio / TV broadcaster & Boro fan , Dave Roberts . Boro TV went on to claim another first when in August 2001 it become the first English football club to broadcast time @-@ delayed full @-@ match footage of their league games on their own channel . Boro TV ran through NTL cable television until July 2005 . The club now show match highlights through a subscription @-@ based scheme on their official website .
Middlesbrough 's official matchday programme , Redsquare , was Programme Monthly 's 2006 – 07 Programme of the Year . There are numerous other fanzines available , most notably Fly Me to the Moon , formed in September 1988 following Bruce Rioch 's quote to Tony Mowbray , stating " If I had to go to the moon I 'd want him by my side " .
= = Community = =
Middlesbrough Football Club in the Community ( MFCIC ) was founded in 1995 by club chairman Steve Gibson and is one of the largest community @-@ based football schemes in the United Kingdom . It is run separately from the football club but receives support from both the club in terms of providing players , staff , stadium facilities and PR in the matchday programme and other publications , as well as support from other local organisations .
Since 2002 , the club and MFCIC have also run the Middlesbrough Enterprise Academy , a scheme which helps local children improve their entrepreneurial skills and increase their awareness of business planning and finance . In March 2008 , plans were announced by the Premier League to roll out the scheme nationally amongst all Premier League clubs .
It was announced in December 2007 that Middlesbrough football club had carried out more community work during 2006 – 07 than any other Premier League club , rising from second place the previous year , with the club making 318 appearances – almost twice the Premier League average of 162 . They were in the top two for community appearances again in 2007 – 08 , with 374 – a 17 % increase on the previous season .
Middlesbrough 's mascot is Roary the Lion . The club runs Roary 's Children 's Charity Fund which purchases items for local children 's charities .
In 2009 , steel producer Corus Group announced the possibility that it would mothball its Teesside plant , with up to 4 @,@ 000 employees and contractors facing redundancy , after a consortium of steel magnates walked away from a 10 @-@ year deal . Middlesbrough Football Club helped with the " Save Our Steel " campaign by hosting dozens of steel workers and their families as they marched around the ground , promoted the campaign via the stadium 's PA system , scoreboards and in match day programmes , while players wore T @-@ shirts during warm @-@ ups promoting the campaign . Chairman Steve Gibson said :
" Middlesbrough Football Club exists for the community , for the people of Teesside — and the closure of the steel plants threatens to rip the heart out of our community . We cannot stand by and allow that to happen . We want the steelworkers and their families to know that we are behind them and will help their campaign in any way we can ... We like to think that the football club is the flagship of Teesside . Well this is our town and these are our people and we have to do what we can to help them . "
= = Honours = =
= = = Domestic = = =
= = = = League = = = =
Second Division / Division One / Championship :
Winners ( 4 ) : 1926 – 27 , 1928 – 29 , 1973 – 74 , 1994 – 95
Runners @-@ up ( 4 ) : 1901 – 02 , 1991 – 92 , 1997 – 98 , 2015 – 16
Play @-@ off winners ( 1 ) : 1987 – 88
Football League Third Division :
Runners @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1966 – 67 , 1986 – 87
Northern League :
Winners ( 3 ) : 1893 – 94 , 1894 – 95 , 1896 – 97
Runners @-@ up ( 3 ) : 1890 – 91 , 1891 – 92 , 1897 – 98
= = = = Cup = = = =
League Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 2003 – 04
Runners @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1996 – 97 , 1997 – 98
FA Cup
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1996 – 97
FA Amateur Cup
Winners ( 2 ) : 1895 , 1898
Full Members Cup
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1990
FA Youth Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 2004
Runners @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1990 , 2003
= = = International = = =
UEFA Cup
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06
Anglo @-@ Scottish Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1976
Kirin Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1980
= = Club staff = =
As of 20 July 2016
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = = Out on loan = = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Reserves and Academy = = =
= = Notable players = =
= = = Middlesbrough Legends = = =
These 10 players were voted for by fans as part of a campaign with the Evening Gazette .
= = = Top appearances = = =
These players made more than 430 appearances during their time at the club . The number in brackets indicates the number of appearances in all competitions .
= = = Top goalscorers = = =
These players scored more than 140 goals during their time with the club . The number in brackets indicates the number of goals scored in all competitions .
= = = Player of the Year award winners = = =
= = = Football League 100 Legends = = =
The Football League 100 Legends is a list of 100 legendary football players produced by The Football League in 1998 , to celebrate the 100th season of League football .
= = = English Football Hall of Fame = = =
The English Football Hall of Fame is housed at The National Football Museum in Preston , England . The Hall aims to celebrate and highlight the achievements of top English Footballers and Footballers who have played in England . These players appeared for or managed Middlesbrough at some point in their careers .
= = = Scottish Football Hall of Fame = = =
The following former Middlesbrough players and managers have been inducted into the Scottish Football Hall of Fame .
= = Managers = =
The following are all the full @-@ time Middlesbrough managers since the club turned professional in 1899 .
= Government of the Han dynasty =
The Han dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) of ancient China was the second imperial dynasty of China , following the Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BC ) . It was divided into the periods of Former Han ( 202 BC – 9 AD ) and Later Han ( 25 – 220 AD ) , briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty ( 9 – 23 AD ) of Wang Mang . The capital of Western Han was Chang 'an , and the capital of Eastern Han was Luoyang . The emperor headed the government , promulgating all written laws , serving as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces , and presiding as the chief executive official . He appointed all government officials who earned a salary of 600 bushels of grain or more ( though these salaries were largely paid in coin cash ) with the help of advisors who reviewed each nominee . The empress dowager could either be the emperor 's actual or symbolic mother , and was in practice more powerful than the emperor , as she could override his decisions . The emperor 's executive powers could also be practiced by any official upon whom he bestowed the Staff of Authority . These powers included the right to execute criminals without the imperial court 's permission .
Near the beginning of the dynasty , semi @-@ autonomous regional kings rivaled the emperor 's authority . This autonomy was greatly diminished when the imperial court enacted reforms following the threats to central control like the Rebellion of the Seven States . The End of the Han dynasty came about during a time of civil , military and religious upheaval , which resulted in the period of Three Kingdoms .
The highest officials in the central bureaucracy , who provided advisory , censorial , executive , and judicial roles in governing the empire , consisted of cabinet members known as the Excellencies , heads of large specialized ministries known as the Nine Ministers , and various metropolitan officials of the capital region . Distinguished salary @-@ ranks were granted to officials in the bureaucracy , nobles of the imperial family , concubines of the harem , and military officers of the armed forces .
Local government divisions , in descending order by size , were the province , commandery , county , and district . Local fiefs of the nobility included the kingdom , which was modeled largely upon the regular commandery , as well as the marquessate , modelled largely upon the regular county . Although the central government 's monopolies on salt , iron , and liquor eventually failed and were relinquished back to private production , the government successfully nationalized the issuing of coin currency through its imperial mint , which lasted from 113 BC until the end of the dynasty . The conscription system for commoners as non @-@ professional soldiers was reduced in size in favor of a volunteer army and a substitution tax by Eastern Han . A small professional standing army existed throughout Western and Eastern Han . During times of crisis , the volunteer army increased in size , but large militias were raised and certain officer titles were revived for temporary use .
= = Salaries = =
During the Han dynasty , the power a government official exercised was determined by his annual salary @-@ rank , measured in grain units known as dan ( 石 , a unit of volume , approximately 35 litres ( 0 @.@ 99 US bsh ) ) . However , approximately half an official 's salary in grain was made in payments of cash coins , the standard of which , after 119 BC , was the wushu ( 五銖 ) coin measuring 3 @.@ 2 g ( 0 @.@ 11 oz ) . The other half of an official 's salary consisted of unhusked grain and husked grain measured in hu ( 觳 , approximately 20 L / 676 oz ) ; since one hu of unhusked grain was equal to 100 coins and one hu of husked grain was equal to 160 coins , the conversion ratio for unhusked grain to husked grain was 10 to 6 ( see table below ) . The most senior officials in central government earned a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ dan salary . The officials who oversaw nine specialized ministries each earned the Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan rank , while the magistrate of a county earned a 600 @-@ dan rank . Occasionally , emperors bestowed luxurious gifts of wine , foodstuffs , and silk clothes upon high officials . These gifts , in some generous cases , could equal as much as half the value of the officials ' standard annual salary . Aged officials were often retired from service and given a pension . Below is a table outlining salaries measured in coin cash , unhusked grain , and husked grain for the highest to lowest @-@ paid officials in Han officialdom :
= = Central government = =
= = = Emperor = = =
= = = = Qin 's imperial model = = = =
Qin Shi Huang , the first ruler of the Qin dynasty , established China 's imperial system of government in 221 BC after unifying the Seven Warring States through conquest , bringing to an end the Warring States period . For a time , the rulers of the warring states claimed nominal allegiance to an overlord king of the Zhou dynasty ( c . 1050 – 256 BC ) , yet the Zhou kings ' political power and prestige was less than that of later Chinese emperors . The imperial system fell apart after the fall of Qin in 206 BC . However , following Han 's victory over Chu , the King of Han reestablished the imperial system and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu ( r . 202 – 195 BC ) .
The Han system of imperial government borrowed many of its core features from the regime established by the Qin dynasty . For example , Gaozu 's Chancellor Xiao He ( d . 193 BC ) integrated much of the statutes of the Qin law code into the newly compiled Han law code . Yet Gaozu 's establishment of central control over only a third of the empire — the other two @-@ thirds of territory was controlled by semi @-@ autonomous kingdoms — strayed from Qin 's imperial model which gave the emperor direct control over all of China . However , a series of reforms eventually stripped away any vestiges of the kingdoms ' independence . Han emperors thereafter enjoyed full and direct control over China , as had the first Qin emperor . The Han court 's gradual move towards reestablishing central control can also be seen in its monetary policy . While the Qin regime installed a nationwide standard currency , the early Western Han regime oscillated between abolishing and legalizing private mints , commandery @-@ level mints , and kingdom @-@ level mints issuing various coins . In 113 BC the Han court finally established the central government 's monopoly control over the issuance of a standard , nationwide currency .
= = = = Roles , rights , and responsibilities = = = =
The emperor , who enjoyed paramount social status , was the head of the government administration . His rule was virtually absolute , although civil officials , representing the competing interests of different state organs , scrutinized his decisions . Although the Grand Commandant had a nominal role as commander @-@ in @-@ chief , the emperor served as the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces . The emperor had the sole right to appoint central government officials whose salary @-@ rank was 600 @-@ dan or higher . The emperor also appointed the leading officials at the provincial , commandery , and county levels of government . Appointees to office were usually recommended men from the commanderies , family relatives of high officials , or student graduates of the Imperial University . This institution was established in 124 BC , and provided a Confucian @-@ based education for those entering civil service .
The emperor had the exclusive right to modify the law code and issue new laws in the form of imperial edicts ( zhao 詔 ) and decrees ( ling 令 ) . However , he often accepted the decisions and reforms suggested by his chief judicial minister , the Commandant of Justice . The emperor also acted as the supreme judge . Any lawsuits which a county administration , then commandery administration , and then Minister of Justice could not resolve were deferred to the emperor .
The emperor 's role as supreme judge could be temporarily duplicated by any official he designated in times of emergency or in distant borderlands where central government had little influence . This entailed a symbolic conferral of power , which was embodied in the Staff of Authority ( Jiezhang 節杖 ) . Roughly 2 m ( 6 ft ) in height and decorated with ribbons , the Staff of Authority was often granted to an official with a specific errand , such as acting on behalf of the emperor as ambassador to a foreign country , appointing civilians to office , or immediately promoting a deserving military officer on the field of battle . Moreover , it granted its bearer the authority to sentence criminals and political rebels with execution without notifying the court first .
During the Qin dynasty , the first Qin emperor 's legitimacy to rule was ultimately decided by his ability to conquer others . However , by the time of Wang Mang 's ( r . 9 – 23 AD ) reign , the Mandate of Heaven was considered the only legitimate source of imperial authority . This concept was given greater prominence after the state officially sponsored the worship of Heaven over that of the Five Powers in 31 BC . Moreover , the philosophy of the scholar Dong Zhongshu ( 179 – 104 BC ) , which held that a dynasty 's rule on earth was bound to greater cosmological cycles in the universe , was officially sponsored by the Han court from Emperor Wu 's ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) reign onward . The emperor was expected to behave according to proper ritual , ethics , and morals , lest he incur the wrath of Heaven and bring an end to his reign . He became the highest priest in the land . By performing certain religious rites and rituals , the emperor acted as a sacred link between Heaven and Earth .
= = = = Court conferences = = = =
Although the emperor held supreme power , he more often sought the advice of his cabinet and other ministers before making decisions and when revoking them . He often assembled leading officials for debates or discussions on policy , known as court conferences ( tingyi 廷議 ) . Various issues were debated at these gatherings , such as installment of new emperors , enfeoffment of nobles , the establishment of new ancestral temples , reforms to the state religion , the monetary or tax systems , management of government monopolies on salt and iron ( when they existed during Western Han ) , the introduction of new laws or the repeal of old ones , complex lawsuits , or whether or not to declare war on a foreign country or accept peaceful negotiation . Although the emperor could reject the decisions reached by his court conference , he did so at the risk of alienating his leading ministers . More often than not , he was forced to accept the majority consensus of his ministers , whose individual opinions were equally tallied regardless of their standing or salary @-@ rank .
= = = Empress dowager = = =
When the emperor died without officially appointing a successor , his widow , the empress dowager , had the sole right to appoint one of the late emperor 's surviving sons or relatives to the position . Most often the successor chosen in this fashion was a minor , thus the empress dowager served as regent over the government . A high @-@ status male relative , usually a father or brother , would assume control of the Imperial Secretariat . Even when an emperor reached his majority and became an active ruler , he often sought the advice and acceptance of the empress dowager on policy decisions ; she also had the right to override his decisions . The empress dowager was protected by the Minister of the Guards , yet if her faction — the consort clan — was removed from power , he was then responsible for keeping her under house arrest .
= = = Grand Tutor = = =
The post of Grand Tutor ( Taifu 太傅 ) , although given the highest civil status below the emperor , was not regularly occupied . The role was considered an honorary rather than substantive office . In Western Han , a Grand Tutor was supposedly appointed at the beginning of each emperor 's reign , and was not replaced until that emperor 's death . However , only four Grand Tutors were appointed between 202 BC – 6 AD . In contrast , during Eastern Han , a new Grand Tutor was appointed when every emperor except Emperor Huan of Han ( r . 146 – 168 AD ) had a Grand Tutor installed at the beginning of their reigns . The Grand Tutor 's salary @-@ rank was unspecified in literary sources , although it was likely higher than the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ dan rank . The Grand Tutor was nominally in charge of providing a young emperor with moral guidance , but it is doubtful that this role was ever taken seriously or formally conducted . The post often served to deliberately block someone from obtaining a more important post , such as one of the Excellencies , while Grand Tutors were usually elder statesmen chosen for their age rather than merits ( so they would die off quickly after being appointed ) .
= = = Excellencies = = =
= = = = Title variations = = = =
The Excellencies ( gong , literally translated as " dukes " ) were the foremost officials in central government who formed the cabinet during both Western and Eastern Han . For most of Western Han , the Excellencies were the Chancellor ( Chengxiang 丞相 ) , the Imperial Counselor ( Yushi dafu 御史大夫 ) , and the Grand Commandant ( Taiwei 太尉 ) . The Great Commandant 's post was irregularly filled , and it was retitled to Grand Marshal ( Da sima 大司馬 ) in 119 BC . In 8 BC , the post of Imperial Counselor was abolished in favor of a Grand Excellency of Works ( da sikong 大司空 ) , and by 1 BC the Chancellor 's post was abolished and replaced by the Grand Excellency Over the Masses ( da situ 大司徒 ) . On 8 June , 51 AD the prefix " Grand " ( 大 ) was removed from the titles of the Excellency over the Masses and Excellency of Works , while the Grand Marshal was reinstated with the original title of Grand Commandant , and would remain so for the rest of Eastern Han . The exact salary figures for the Excellencies before 8 BC are unknown , although from that year forward they were given a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ dan salary @-@ rank , in addition to periodic gifts which further boosted their incomes .
= = = = Chancellor = = = =
During Western Han , the Chancellor was the chief civil official . The duties of the chancellery were divided between a Right Chancellor ( 右丞相 ) and Left Chancellor ( 左丞相 ) between 196 and 180 BC . After 180 BC , the Left Chancellor 's post was merely titular and its incumbent had no real authority . The Western Han Chancellor oversaw state finances , logistics for military campaigns , registers for land and population , maps of the empire 's territories , annual provincial reports , high @-@ profile lawsuits , and drafted the government budget . The Chancellor could directly appoint officials who were ranked 600 @-@ dan or below , while he was also able to recommend nominees to the emperor for recruitment to the senior roles in central government . The Chancellor was held responsible for the actions of officials he recommended and appointed , yet he could also punish inadequate officials without the emperor 's consent .
Whenever the emperor was absent from a court conference but sought its advice , he relied on the chancellor to direct it and inform him of the resulting majority opinion . If the attending ministers were split into opposing factions of roughly equal size , the chancellor would listen to the positions of both sides and count the exact number of ministers who supported either opposing opinion .
The Palace Writers ( Zhongshu 中書 ) were originally palace eunuch secretaries ( Zhongshu guan 中書官 ) from Emperor Wu 's reign until 29 BC , when they were staffed by regular officials . They usurped much of the Chancellor 's powers by the end of the Western Han . The position of Chancellor was abolished for much of Eastern Han and replaced by the Excellency over the Masses . However , in 208 AD the Excellency of Works Cao Cao ( 155 – 220 AD ) assumed the revived post of Chancellor while acting as the de facto ruler over the court of Emperor Xian ( r . 189 – 220 AD ) . Cao Cao also abolished the Grand Commandant and Excellency of Works while reinstating the Imperial Counselor .
= = = = Imperial Counselor = = = =
During Western Han the Imperial Counselor , also known as the Grandee Secretary and Imperial Secretary , was considered the second @-@ ranking official below the Chancellor . Like the Chancellor , he exercised censorial powers over provincial officials who also sent him annual reports . His primary duty was to uphold disciplinary procedures for officials ; he could investigate even those attached to the chancellery and the imperial palace . Since one of his main functions was to prevent abuse of authority , his jurisdiction over officialdom tended to overlap with that of the Chancellor 's . His subordinates included the Imperial Clerks ( Shiyushi 侍御史 ; also known as Attending Secretaries ) , led by the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk ( Yushi zhongcheng 禦史中丞 ; also known as the Palace Assistant Secretary ) . They were often sent out into the provinces to investigate possible wrongdoing on the part of local officials .
The Imperial Counselor transmitted and received imperial edicts to and from the chancellery and also presented officials ' memorials to the throne . During Western Han , the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk 's office was located within the walls of the palace . He had the authority to investigate attendants and eunuchs of the palace and to reject improperly written memorials before submission to the Imperial Counselor . The Masters of Writing under the Minister Steward then processed these memorials before they were sent to the throne . The Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk 's proximity to the emperor during Eastern Han allowed him to surpass the authority of his nominal superior , the Excellency of Works , yet his Western @-@ Han @-@ era power to inspect local provincial authorities was removed . The Minister Steward — who was supervised by the Imperial Counselor ( and later Excellency of Works ) — became the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk 's new superior by early Eastern Han . The Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk also managed the Imperial Library in both Western and Eastern Han , this duty being transferred to a subordinate of the Minister of Ceremonies in 159 AD .
= = = = Grand Commandant = = = =
The Grand Commandant ( also known as the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief ) was the head commander of the military in Western Han , yet his office was irregularly filled ( from 205 – 202 BC , from 196 – 195 BC , from 189 – 177 BC , from 154 – 150 BC , and in 140 BC ) . After 119 BC , the generals Huo Qubing ( d . 117 BC ) and Wei Qing ( d . 106 BC ) simultaneously held the title until their deaths , but when the post was revived in 87 BC it became politicized when conferred as a regent 's title for Huo Guang ( d . 68 BC ) . The regent was thus considered one of the Three Excellencies , although he was not technically part of the cabinet .
The Grand Commandant 's office witnessed significant changes during the Eastern Han . Wang Mang separated the regent 's role from the Grand Commandant 's post during the Xin dynasty ( 9 – 23 AD ) , since he did not want an active regent for his regime . This was retained by Eastern Han , while the third Grand Commandant of Eastern Han appointed in 51 AD transformed his ministry into a primarily civilian one . Although the Eastern @-@ Han Grand Commandant shared the same salary @-@ rank as the other two Excellencies who were nominally considered his equals , he was nonetheless given de facto privilege as the most senior civil official . However , his censorial jurisdiction now overlapped with the other two Excellencies ( i.e. he was able to investigate the same officials in central and local government ) , who shared an advisory role to the emperor ( policy suggestions could be submitted independently or jointly by all three cabinet members ) . His various bureaus handled appointment , promotion , and demotion of officials , population registers and agriculture , the upkeep of transportation facilities , post offices , and couriers , civil law cases , granary storage , and military affairs . He was also given formal powers to supervise three of the Nine Ministers : the Minister of Ceremonies , Minister of the Household , and Minister of the Guards .
= = = = Excellency over the Masses = = = =
The Excellency over the Masses ( also known as the Minister over the Masses ) shared the same censorial and advisory roles as the other two Excellencies , the Excellency of Works and Grand Commandant . Like his previous counterpart , the Chancellor , he must have been responsible for drawing up the annual budget , although contemporary sources fail to mention this point . Aside from the court conference , the Great Conference of leading officials across the empire was conducted by his ministry . The Chancellor 's bureaus were also retained by the Excellency over the Masses , and were nearly identical to that of the new Eastern @-@ Han Grand Commandant 's bureaus . He was given formal powers to supervise three of the Nine Ministers : the Minister Coachman , Minister of Justice , and Minister Herald .
= = = = Excellency of Works = = = =
The Excellency of Works , also known as the Minister of Works , was less powerful than his previous counterpart , the Imperial Counselor . This official 's advisory and censorial responsibilities coincided with those of two other Excellencies , forming a tripartite cabinet arrangement . Unlike the abolished Imperial Counselor , he was given the specialized role of overseeing public works projects throughout the empire . The Excellency of Works was responsible for the construction of city walls , towns , canals , irrigation ditches , dykes and dams , and other structural engineering projects . The Court Architect supervised only imperial building projects . The Excellency of Works made annual reports to the throne about the progress of local administrations ' conduct of construction projects . He was given formal powers to supervise three of the Nine Ministers : the Minister of the Imperial Clan , Minister of Finance , and Minister Steward .
= = = Nine Ministers = = =
The Nine Ministers , who were supervised by the Three Excellencies but not direct subordinates of the cabinet , each headed a specialized government ministry and held a salary @-@ rank of Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . Along with the tripartite cabinet members , these ministers usually attended court conferences .
= = = = Minister of Ceremonies = = = =
The Minister of Ceremonies ( Taichang 太常 ) also known as Grand Master of Ceremonies , was the chief official in charge of religious rites , rituals , prayers , and the maintenance of ancestral temples and altars . The role 's title was changed to Upholder of Ceremonies ( Fengchang 奉常 ) from 195 to 144 BC before reverting to the original title . Although his main concern was to link the emperor with the supernatural world and Heaven , he was also given the task of setting educational standards for the Imperial University ( est . 124 BC ) and the academic chairs ( boshi 博士 ) who specialized in the Five Classics , the canon of Confucianism .
One of the Minister of Ceremonies ' many subordinates was the Court Astronomer ( Taishi ling 太史令 ; also known as the Prefect Grand Astrologer ) , who made astronomical observations and drafted the annual lunisolar calendar . The Court Astronomer also upheld a literacy test of 9 @,@ 000 characters for nominees aspiring to become subordinate officials for either the Minister Steward or Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk . These nominees were often recommended subordinates of commandery @-@ level Administrators . Other subordinates of the Minister of Ceremonies reported illegal acts at ancestral temples , prepared sacrificial offerings of food and wine at shrines and temples , and arranged for the music and dancing that accompanied ceremonies .
= = = = Minister of the Household = = = =
The Minister of the Household ( Guangluxun 光祿勳 ) , also known as Superintendent of the Household and Supervisor of Attendants , was originally titled the Prefect of the Gentlemen of the Palace ( Lang zhongling 郎中令 ) before 104 BC . He was responsible for the emperor 's security within the palace grounds , external imperial parks , and wherever the emperor made an outing by chariot . However , to ensure that the emperor 's entire safety was not entrusted to a single officer , the subordinates of the Minister of the Guards were given sole right to patrol the palaces ' entrances and walls while the eunuchs guarded the emperor 's private apartments and harem . Three of the five cadet corps commanded by the Minister of the Household were actually armed civilian nominees serving a period of probation before appointment to a government office ; the other two corps were composed of imperial bodyguards who were never appointed to civilian offices . The former were often recommended by commandery @-@ level Administrators as Filial and Incorrupt , while others could be relatives of high officials in central government . The Minister of the Household oversaw subordinate court advisors ( Yi Lang 議郎 / 议郎 ） who advised the emperor and engaged in scholarly debates . They were allowed to openly criticize the emperor , participate in provincial inspections , and conduct mourning ceremonies for recently deceased kings and marquesses while installing their successors . Internuncios ( Yezhe 謁者 ) , led by a Supervisor of the Internuncios ( Yezhe puye 謁者僕射 ) , were subordinates of the Minister of the Household who participated in state ceremonies , condoled on behalf of the emperor for recently deceased officials , inspected public works and military camps along the frontiers , and acted as diplomats to the semi @-@ autonomous fiefs and non @-@ Han @-@ Chinese peoples along the borders .
= = = = Minister of the Guards = = = =
The Minister of the Guards ( Weiwei 衛尉 ) was also known as Commandant of the Guards ) , and briefly as the Prefect of the Palace Grandees ( Zhong da fuling 中大夫令 ) during Emperor Jing of Han 's reign ( r . 157 – 141 BC ) before reverting to the original title . This Minister was responsible for securing and patrolling the walls , towers , and gates of the imperial palaces . The duties of his ministry were carried out by prefects , one of whom controlled the gates where nominees for office were received and officials sent memorials to the throne . To control and monitor the flow of traffic through the palace gates , the prefects used a complex passport system involving wooden and metal tallies . During an emergency , the tallies were collected and no @-@ one was allowed to enter unless they breached the gates by force . The guards were conscripted peasants who served for a year 's term as soldiers and were invited to attend a celebratory feast hosted by the emperor before demobilization .
= = = = Minister Coachman = = = =
The Minister Coachman ( Taipu 太僕 ) , also known as the Grand Coachman , was responsible for the maintenance of imperial stables , horses , carriages and coachhouses for the emperor and his palace attendants , and for the supply of horses for the armed forces . His latter duty entailed the supervising of large breeding grounds of frontier pastures , tended by tens of thousands of government slaves . By the reign of Emperor Wu of Han ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) these contained 300 @,@ 000 warhorses intended for use in campaigns against the nomadic Xiongnu Confederation . Some of the Minister Coachman 's subordinates managed stables outside the capital city . These stables housed Ferghana horses that were imported or gathered as tribute from Central Asian countries .
In Eastern Han — possibly due to the Coachman 's influence over the transport of arms — a prefect in charge of manufacturing bows , crossbows , swords , and armor for the military was transferred from the Minister Steward 's ministry to that of the Minister Coachman .
= = = = Minister of Justice = = = =
The Minister of Justice ( Tingwei 廷尉 ) , also known as the Commandant of Justice , and was known as the Grand Judge ( Dali 大理 ) between 144 BC and 137 BC and again between 1 BC and c . 25 AD . He was the chief official in charge of upholding , administering , and interpreting the law . Only the emperor , in his role as judge , was superior to this minister . The Minister of Justice was the supreme civil @-@ appointed judge for cases deferred to the capital from provincial lawsuits . His judicial powers , however , were similar to those of the Chancellor . He could recommend changes to the law code and the granting of general amnesties to those charged with crimes . His ministry was responsible for maintaining the Imperial Prison , where trials were conducted , and carrying out executions . It is unknown whether he oversaw all of the twenty @-@ six prisons in Western Han Chang 'an , which were built to house convicted ex @-@ officials . However , during Eastern Han , the Imperial Prison in Luoyang was the only prison managed by the Minister of Justice .
= = = = Minister Herald = = = =
The Minister Herald ( Dahonglu 大鴻臚 ) was also known as the Grand Herald ; he was also called the Director of Guests ( Dianke 典客 ) between 202 BC and 144 BC and Prefect Grand Usher ( Daxingling 大行令 ) between 144 BC and 104 BC . He was the chief official in charge of receiving honored guests , such as nobles and foreign ambassadors , at the imperial court . Alongside the Minister of the Imperial Clan , his ministry oversaw the inheritance of titles and fiefs by condoling on behalf of the emperor at kings ' funerals and memorializing the posthumous names of kings and marquises . The Minister Herald 's office received the annual reports from the commanderies and kingdoms when they arrived in the capital at the beginning of the year , before passing them on to the Excellencies . His subordinates acted as seating guides and ushers for officials , nobles , and foreign delegates at imperial ceremonies and sacrifices . One of his subordinates maintained living quarters for officials in the commanderies and kingdoms who were traveling to the capital . While the Minister Herald had always conducted the formal reception of foreign envoys and enlisted the aid of interpreters , his powers in matters of foreign affairs were expanded further when the post of Director of Dependent States was abolished in 28 BC . However , by Eastern Han his duties involving the affairs of Dependent States were transferred to local administrations along the borders .
= = = = Minister of the Imperial Clan = = = =
While eight of the Nine Ministers could be of commoner origin , the post of Minister of the Imperial Clan ( Zongzheng 宗正 ) , also known as the Director of the Imperial Clan , was always occupied by a member of the imperial family . He oversaw the imperial court 's interactions with the empire 's nobility and extended imperial family , such as granting fiefs and titles . His ministry was responsible for record @-@ keeping of all nobles , a register being updated at the beginning of each year . When a serious infraction was committed by a member of the imperial family , the Minister of the Imperial Clan was the first high official to be notified before the emperor , who made the ultimate decision about any possible legal action . This minister 's subordinates heard grievances of imperial family members and informed them about new ordinances . Unlike kings and marquesses , who were not responsible to any of the Nine Ministers , imperial princesses and their fiefs were kept under surveillance by the Minister of the Imperial Clan .
= = = = Minister of Finance = = = =
The Minister of Finance ( Da sinong 大司農 ) was also called the Grand Minister of Agriculture , and before 144 BC , was known as Clerk of the Capital for Grain ( Zhisu neishi 治粟內史 ) . This minister was the central government 's treasurer for the official bureaucracy and the armed forces . While the Chancellor drafted the state budget , the Minister of Finance was responsible for funding it . He was in charge of storing the poll taxes , which were gathered in coin cash , and land tax , which was gathered as a proportion of farmers ' annual crop yields . He was also responsible for setting the standards for units of measurement . In addition to reviewing tax collections , he could implement policies for price control exacted on certain commercial commodities .
During Western Han , the Minister of Finance 's powers were limited to the public treasury , the Minister Steward being responsible for the emperor 's private wealth . However , in Eastern Han , the responsibilities for the public treasury and the emperor 's private wealth were amalgamated and entrusted solely to the Minister of Finance , which later proved disastrous when handled by irresponsible emperors such as Ling ( r . 168 – 189 AD ) . During Western Han , the Minister of Finance managed the government 's monopolized salt and iron agencies , which were abolished during Eastern Han and transferred to local administrations and private entrepreneurship . He also managed the government 's brief monopoly over liquor from 98 – 81 BC , before it was returned to private production . Although the Minister Steward and then the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks managed the imperial mint for issuing standard coins during Western Han , in Eastern Han the imperial mint was transferred to the office of the Minister of Finance .
= = = = Minister Steward = = = =
The Minister Steward ( Shaofu 少府 ) , also known as the Privy Treasurer and Small Treasurer , served the emperor exclusively , providing him with entertainment and amusements , proper food and clothing , medicine and physical care , valuables and equipment . For this purpose he was given responsibility for the emperor 's personal finances during Western Han , yet this responsibility was transferred to the Minister of Finance during Eastern Han . Although he was not a castrated eunuch , many of his subordinates were , since his ministry managed the imperial harem housing concubines . His secretaries were headed by a Prefect of the Masters of Writing ( Shangshu ling 尚書令 ) . The secretaries were responsible for relaying all written messages to the emperor , official correspondence with Excellencies , senior ministers , provincial authorities , common people who submitted memorials to the throne , and non @-@ Han @-@ Chinese peoples within and outside the empire . Since the Masters of Writing were not eunuchs , and thus not allowed into the imperial harem , Emperor Wu established an all @-@ eunuch office of secretaries for the inner palace , which was abolished in 29 BC .
The Minister Steward had many subordinates , including the Court Physician ( Taiyi ling 太醫令 ) , also known as the Prefect Grand Physician , who checked the emperor 's health every morning and accompanied him on imperial hunting trips . The Court Provisioner ( Taiguan ling 太官令 ) , also known as the Prefect Grand Provisioner , was responsible for managing the kitchen , its cooks , and supplying food for the emperor . Other subordinates managed the weaving houses which supplied the clothes for the emperor , the workshops which produced wares , utensils , and funerary items for the emperor , and the imperial parks and gardens where the emperor could hunt and attend outings . The Bureau of Music ( Yuefu 樂府 ) was overseen by the Minister Steward and was in charge of musical performances at imperial ceremonies and entertaining the emperor with folk songs gathered from throughout the empire ; it was disbanded in 7 BC and its musicians transferred to the Minister of Ceremonies .
= = = Staffs of the heir apparent , empress , and harems = = =
When a Liu @-@ family relative of an emperor — usually a princely son — was designated as his heir apparent , he was provided living quarters within the palace and a personal staff which was not disbanded until he became the next emperor . During Western Han , the staff had two divisions : one was led by educators of the heir apparent , known as the Grand Tutor of the Heir Apparent ( ranked 2000 – dan ) and Junior Tutor of the Heir Apparent ( ranked 2000 – dan ) , the other led by a Supervisor of the Household ( ranked 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ) . During Eastern Han , the Grand Tutor of the Heir Apparent lost his administrative role but remained the chief educator and was promoted in rank to Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ; the Junior Tutor remained an administrator with a salary @-@ rank of 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . The post of Supervisor of the Household was abolished . Other Western Han staff offices of the heir apparent were abolished during Eastern Han , such as the Chief of the Kitchen and the Household Prison of the Heir Apparent . If he reached adulthood , the heir apparent could be married to a principal wife who led a harem of his concubines .
The empress , the legal wife of the emperor , also had an area of the palace separate from that of the emperor 's private apartments , where the empress was expected to spend every fifth night with the emperor . Both the empress and the heir apparent received an income from the taxes of forty counties . She also had a Supervisor of the Household ( ranked 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ) , and many other subordinates , either male eunuchs or female maids , who took care of domestic needs . The concubines of the harem were subordinates of the empress and were ranked below her in fourteen grades by the reign of Emperor Yuan of Han ( r . 49 – 33 ) . However , the founder of Eastern Han abolished the fourteen salary @-@ ranks in favor of three ranks with no definite salary ; instead , the concubines were irregularly granted gifts . The chief concubine of Western Han , the Brilliant Companion , shared the same salary @-@ rank as the Chancellor , while the concubine ranked just below her , the Favorite Beauty , shared the same salary @-@ rank as any one of the Nine Ministers .
= = = Metropolitan offices = = =
The metropolitan areas of both Western Han Chang 'an and Eastern Han Luoyang were governed and secured by several officials and officers . The county and municipal divisions of the capital cities were governed by a Prefect ( Ling 令 ) . The Prefect was also responsible for a prison and could arrest officials of high rank . The Colonel of the City Gates ( Chengmen xiaowei 城門校衛 ) commanded the garrisons at the twelve city gates , each guarded by a captain , in both Western Han Chang 'an and Eastern Han Luoyang .
= = = = Bearer of the Mace = = = =
The Bearer of the Mace ( Zhi jinwu 執金吾 ) was also known as the Bearer of the Gilded Mace . This official , whose title had been Commandant of the Capital ( Zhongwei 中尉 ) before 104 BC , maintained law and order in the capital city — excluding the imperial palaces — in both Western Han Chang 'an and Eastern Han Luoyang . During Western Han , his salary @-@ rank was Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , thus his prestige was similar to that of the Nine Ministers . However , during Eastern Han his salary @-@ rank was reduced from Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan to Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan .
While his subordinates were on constant patrol , the Bearer of the Mace personally inspected the city three times each month . He was responsible for the military arsenal as well as disaster relief efforts during floods and fires . The Bearer of the Mace had a large staff of subordinates during Western Han , whose posts were abolished or transferred elsewhere during Eastern Han . This included the abolition of the Captains of the Standard Bearers , and the emperor 's entourage became responsible for clearing the roadways when the emperor left the palace and hoisting colored standards to signal his return .
= = = = Court Architect = = = =
The Court Architect ( Jiangzuo dajiang 將作大匠 ) was in charge of the construction , maintenance , and repair of imperial palace halls , government halls , temples , grave tumuli , buildings in funerary parks , roads leading out of the capital , and flood control works . His salary @-@ rank was 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . He directed the efforts of conscripted corvée laborers until this duty was transferred to the ministry of the newly created Excellency of Works in 8 BC . The Court Architect 's subordinates were responsible for gathering timber for carpenters and stone for masons . Although his office existed at the establishment of Eastern Han , it was abolished in 57 AD and his duties were transferred to an Internuncio in the Ministry of the Household . However , the post was reinstated in 76 AD with the original salary @-@ rank , yet many of his subordinates remained abolished . Since most buildings were constructed from wood , with ceramic roof tiles , a large workforce was needed to maintain buildings that fell into disrepair . The restoration of the Imperial University during Emperor Shun 's ( r . 125 – 144 AD ) reign required 100 @,@ 000 laborers to work for a year under the supervision of the Court Architect .
= = = = Colonel Director of Retainers = = = =
The Colonel Director of Retainers ( Sili xiaowei 司隸校尉 ) , also known as Colonel of Censure and Colonel Director of Convict @-@ Laborers , was originally called the Director of Retainers ( Sili 司隸 ) . His task was to supervise 1 @,@ 200 convicts in their construction of roads and canals . In 91 BC , an unsuccessful five @-@ day rebellion in Chang 'an was instigated by Crown Prince Liu Ju ( d . 91 BC ) and his mother Empress Wei Zifu ( d . 91 BC ) , who had been accused of witchcraft and black magic . For this event , Emperor Wu prefixed " colonel " to the Director of Retainers ' title in 89 BC , promoting him to the salary @-@ rank 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , and granted him the Staff of Authority , allowing him to arrest and punish those allegedly practicing witchcraft .
Following the crisis , the Colonel Director of Retainers retained his privileged possession of the Staff of Authority and was granted the same investigative and censorial powers as the Chancellor and Imperial Counselor over officialdom . He routinely inspected the conduct of officials in the capital region and seven nearby commanderies . His investigative powers matched those of a provincial Inspector , although his Staff of Authority made him more powerful than the latter . The Colonel Director of Retainers was a personal servant of the emperor , answering only to him , allowing the emperor to greatly enhance his control over the bureaucracy . However , the Staff of Authority was removed from the Colonel in 45 BC , limiting his powers to inspection , investigation , and impeachment and he was distinguished from a provincial Inspector only by a higher salary @-@ rank . The office of Colonel Director of Retainers was abolished in 9 BC , and reinstated once more as the Director of Retainers in 7 BC . He was now a subordinate of the new Excellency of Works and supervised convicts in public works projects , like his early Western Han counterpart . In Eastern Han , the Colonel Director of Retainers was reappointed without the Staff of Authority , with powers to inspect the capital region , but his salary @-@ rank was reduced from 2000 – dan to Equivalent to 2000 – dan .
= = = = Superintendent of Waterways and Parks = = = =
The Superintendent of Waterways and Parks ( Shuiheng duwei 水衡都尉 ) was also known as the Chief Commandant of Waterways and Parks , and was once a subordinate of the Minister Steward until 115 BC , when he , and other former subordinates of that ministry , became independent officers . His salary @-@ rank was equivalent to 2000 – dan . The Superintendent of Waterways and Parks managed a large imperial hunting park located outside Chang 'an , including its palaces , rest stops , granaries , and cultivated patches of fruit and vegetable gardens , which , along with game meat , provided food for the emperor 's household . He also collected taxes from commoners using the park 's grounds and transmitted these funds to the Minister Steward , who managed the emperor 's finances . One of the Superintendent 's subordinates supervised convicted criminals in their care of the park 's hunting dogs .
In 115 BC the central government 's mint was transferred from the Minister Steward 's ministry to the park managed by the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks . In 113 BC the central government closed all commandery @-@ level mints ; private minting had previously been outlawed in 144 BC . The Superintendent 's imperial mint in the park outside Chang 'an had the sole right to issue coinage throughout the empire . However , Emperor Guangwu of Han ( r . 25 – 57 AD ) abolished the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks and revived his post annually during autumn to conduct a ritual sacrifice . The imperial mint became the responsibility of the Minister of Finance and the imperial park located outside Eastern @-@ Han Luoyang was administered by a prefect .
= = = = Director of Dependent States = = = =
The Director of Dependent States ( Dian shuguo 典屬國 ) , whose salary @-@ rank was 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , was responsible for embassies to foreign countries and nomadic peoples along Han 's borders and the annual exchange of hostages — usually foreign princes — submitted to the Han court . Dependent States ( Shuguo 屬國 ) were first established in 121 BC and composed mostly non @-@ Han @-@ Chinese nomadic tribes and confederations who surrendered after negotiation or armed conflict and accepted Han suzerainty . They served as a buffer between Han territory and hostile tribes , such as the Xiongnu , and as a means to quell tribes in the Ordos Desert . The Han court appointed a Commandant ( Duwei 都尉 ) , also known as Chief Commandant , ranked Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , to govern the non @-@ Han @-@ Chinese populations of each Dependent State . The Director of Dependent States ' title was abolished in 28 BC ; his duties and his subordinates , the Commandants , became the responsibilities of the Minister Herald . The Protectorate of the Western Regions , established in 60 BC , which conducted foreign affairs with the oasis city @-@ states in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia , was not the responsibility of the Director of Dependent States .
= = Local government = =
= = = Provincial authorities = = =
The Han Empire was divided by hierarchical political divisions in the following descending order : provinces ( zhou ) , commanderies ( jun ) , and counties ( xian ) . This model of local government was adopted from the previous government structure of the Qin dynasty .
A Han province consisted of a group of commanderies , the administrations of which were subject to scrutiny and inspection by centrally appointed officials . These were the Inspectors ( Cishi 刺史 ) , also known as the Circuit Inspector , who were first appointed in 106 BC at a salary @-@ rank of 600 @-@ dan . In Western Han they were supervised by the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk and were subordinates of the Imperial Counselor . Aside from the province @-@ sized capital region which was entrusted to the Colonel Director of Retainers from 89 – 9 BC , there were thirteen provinces during Western Han . Eventually , the title of Inspector was changed to Governor ( Mu 牧 ; literally " Shepherd " ) , a post with a considerably higher salary @-@ rank of 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . From 5 – 1 BC , this post was reverted to Inspector , but was once again re @-@ titled Governor , who was now responsible to all Three Excellencies .
During early Eastern Han , the loss of Han 's control over the Ordos Desert prompted the Han court to reduce the provinces to twelve — excluding the capital region — in 35 AD . In that year , the Inspectors @-@ cum @-@ Governors were still appointed by the central government , but their staffs were recruited from local administrations where they were transferred . By 42 AD , the title Governor once more became Inspector , who remained the head of provincial authorities until 188 AD . In 188 AD , at the urging of the official Liu Yan , Emperor Ling reinstated the office of Governor , yet some of the provinces were still administered by Inspectors ; this arrangement remained in place until the end of the Han dynasty in 220 AD . A key difference between the roles was that an Inspector had no executive powers and only an advisory role , whereas a Governor could execute decisions on his own behalf . There were exceptions to this rule . If banditry or rebellion simultaneously arose in several commanderies under his jurisdiction at once , the Inspector was authorized to raise troops throughout all commanderies under his watch and lead this united force as commander to quell the disruption .
Both the Inspector and Governor were responsible for inspecting commandery @-@ level Administrators and their staffs , as well as the semi @-@ autonomous kingdoms and their staffs . They evaluated officials on criteria of competence , honesty , obedience to the imperial court , adherence to the law , their treatment of convicts , and any signs of extortion , nepotism , or factionalism . These reports were submitted to the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk and Imperial Counselor during Western Han , but by Eastern Han these reports were submitted to each of the Three Excellencies . The reports were then used to promote , demote , dismiss , or prosecute local officials .
= = = Commandery administration = = =
There were thirteen commanderies , including the capital region , and ten kingdoms at the beginning of Western Han . Many kingdoms were reduced in size and the empire 's territory expanded through conquest . By 2 AD there were eighty @-@ three commanderies and twenty kingdoms containing an aggregate total of approximately 58 million people according to the census . A commandery consisted of a group of counties and was governed by an Administrator ( Taishou 太守 ) , also known as Grand Administrator , who was appointed by the central government and earned a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan salary @-@ rank . The Administrator was the civil and military leader of the commandery . He was not allowed to govern over his native commandery .
An Administrator was assisted by one or several Commandants ( Duwei 都尉 ) also known as Chief Commandant , who handled all local military affairs such as raising militias , suppressing bandit groups , and building beacon towers . The Commandants ' salary @-@ rank was Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . After 30 AD , all Commandants who were not located in distant frontier commanderies were abolished , yet if the commandery was located along borders where raids and armed incursions by hostile nomadic groups were frequent , he was still appointed . A Commandant in an interior commandery could only be appointed temporarily to deal with crises as they arose . Each commandery also had secretaries , a treasurer , and an Official in Charge of Accounts who submitted annual reports to the imperial court on the Administrator 's performance .
Many of the Administrators ' duties were seasonal , such as inspections of counties every spring to check on agriculture and maintain roads , bridges , dikes and other public works . In the fall he sent subordinates into the counties to report whether local criminal lawsuits had been conducted fairly . He was responsible for recommending worthy nominees , known as Filial and Incorrupt , to the capital at the end each year during winter ; the nominees would then be considered for an appointment to a central or local government office . This followed a system of quotas for each of the commanderies that was first established during Emperor Wu 's reign , when two Filial and Incorrupt men from each commandery were sent to the capital . This was changed in 92 AD to one man for every 200 @,@ 000 households in a commandery . After the Commandants of interior commanderies were abolished , the Administrators assumed their duties , yet they were still not allowed to raise militias , mobilize troops , or send troops outside their commandery without permission frm the central government .
= = = County administration = = =
The nationwide census conducted in 2 AD , listed 1 @,@ 587 counties . The Han county was the smallest political division containing a centrally appointed official . In larger counties of about 10 @,@ 000 households he was known as the Prefect ( Ling 令 ) ; in smaller counties he was known as the Chief ( Zhang 長 ) . Depending on the size of the county , the Prefect 's salary @-@ rank was 600 @-@ dan or 1 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , while a Chief was ranked at 300 @-@ dan or 500 @-@ dan . Due to their judicial role , historian Rafe de Crespigny does not differentiate between Prefects and Chiefs , referring to both as magistrate . The county 's head civil servants , usually respected scholars or elders in their local communities , were appointed directly by the Magistrate .
A county Magistrate was in charge of maintaining law and order , storing grain in case of famine , registering the populace for taxation , mobilizing conscripted commoners for corvée labor projects , supervising public works , renovating schools , and performing rituals . They were also given the duty to act as judge for all lawsuits brought to the county court . The judicial jurisdictions of the commandery Administrator and county Magistrate overlapped , so it was generally agreed that whoever arrested a criminal first would try him or her . Under Emperor Wu , commanderies and kingdoms operated public schools , and although counties could operate their own public schools , not all of them did .
The county was further divided into districts , each consisting of at least several hamlets grouped together ; typically a community of approximately one hundred families . A chief of police was assigned to each district by the county Magistrate . A county Magistrate heavily relied on the cooperation of local elders and leaders at the district level ; these carried out much of the day @-@ to @-@ day affairs of arbitrating disputes in their communities , collecting taxes , and fighting crime .
= = = Kingdoms , marquisates , and fiefs of princesses = = =
A Han kingdom was much like a commandery in size and administration , except it was officially , and after 145 BC , nominally , the fief of a relative to the emperor , including brothers , uncles , nephews , and sons — excluding the heir apparent . The policy of awarding kingdoms only to imperial relatives was gradually adopted by the founder Emperor Gaozu of Han ( r . 202 – 195 BC ) , as many of the early kings were non @-@ relatives who were leading officers during the Chu @-@ Han contention ( 206 – 202 BC ) . Kingdoms were usually inherited by the king 's eldest son born to his queen .
The number of kingdoms fluctuated between Western and Eastern Han , but there were never fewer than eight nor greater than twenty @-@ five . In the early Western Han , the kingdoms accounted for approximately two @-@ thirds of the empire . The imperial court ruled over the commanderies located in the western third of the empire , while kings ruled their fiefs with little or no central government intervention . The administrative staffs of each kingdom paralleled the model of central government , as each kingdom had a Grand Tutor ( ranked 2000 – dan ) , Chancellor ( 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ) , and Imperial Secretary ( 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ) . No kingdom was allowed to have a Grand Commandant , since they were not allowed to initiate war campaigns on their own behalf . Although the kingdoms ' Chancellors were appointed by the imperial court , the king had the right to appoint all other officials in his fief .
The power of the kings declined after the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC ; the number of kingdoms and their sizes were reduced . An imperial edict in 145 BC removed the kings ' rights to appoint officials above the salary @-@ rank of 400 @-@ dan , and all officials ranked higher than this were appointed directly by the central government . Excluding the kingdom @-@ level Minister Coachman , the kingdoms ' Nine Ministers and Imperial Counselors were abolished . The Chancellor , now the equivalent of a commandery Administrator , was retained , although he was still appointed by the central government . After these reforms , the kings were no longer administrative heads and merely took a portion of the taxes collected by the government in their kingdoms as personal income . Charles Hucker notes that after this transformation of kingdoms and marquessates into virtual commanderies and counties , respectively , a " ... fully centralized government was achieved " for the first time since the Qin dynasty .
Han society below the level of kings was divided into twenty ranks , which awarded certain privileges such as exemption from certain laws , the nineteenth being a marquess and the twentieth being a full marquess — the difference being the former was only given a pension while the latter was given a marquessate ( houguo 侯國 ) — typically the size of a county . If the kings ' sons were grandsons of the emperor , they were made full marquesses ; if not , they were considered commoners . However , this rule was changed in 127 BC so that all the kings ' sons were made full marquesses . It is unknown whether early Western @-@ Han marquessates enjoyed the same level of autonomy as early Western @-@ Han kingdoms ; by 145 BC , all marquessates ' staff were appointed by the central government . The marquess had no administrative role over his marquessate ; he merely collected a portion of the tax revenues . His Chancellor was the equivalent of a county Prefect .
The emperor 's sisters and daughters were made either senior princesses , who shared the same rank as kings , or princesses , who shared the same rank as full marquesses ; a princess 's fief was typically the size of a county . The husband of a princess was ranked as a marquess . The daughters of kings were also princesses , but their fiefs were typically the smaller size of county districts , and could not be inherited by sons . Unlike the fiefs of kings and marquesses , the staffs of the princesses ' fiefs answered directly to one of the Nine Ministers : the Minister of the Imperial Clan .
= = Military = =
= = = Conscripted soldiers and militias = = =
Upon reaching the age of twenty @-@ three , male commoners became eligible for conscription into the armed forces ( zhengzu 正卒 ) for one year of training and one year of service ; the year of service could be served until the age of fifty @-@ six . Conscripts were trained , and would serve in one of three branches of the military : infantry , cavalry , or naval marine . The year of service could take the form of soldiering at frontier garrisons protecting the borders against nomadic enemies , serving as guards in the courts of kings or as guards under the Minister of the Guards in the capital . By 155 BC , the minimum age for conscription was lowered to twenty . During Emperor Zhao of Han 's ( r . 87 – 74 BC ) reign , the minimum age was raised to twenty @-@ three , but after his reign it was once again reduced to twenty .
Although this system of conscription survived into Eastern Han , conscription could be avoided upon payment of a commutable tax .
The government also exempted those who presented authorities with a slave , a horse , or grain . In the system of twenty ranks bestowed on commoners and nobles alike , those of the ninth rank and above were exempt from military service . To compensate for the loss of manpower , the Eastern Han government favored the recruitment of a largely volunteer army . Many other soldiers in Eastern Han were convicted criminals who commuted their sentences by joining the army . Mercenaries eventually comprised much of the capital guard , while foreign nomadic tribes were often employed to guard the frontiers .
After their year of active service , Western Han @-@ era soldiers were demobilized and sent home , where they were obligated to join the local militia that convened every eighth month of the year . This obligation was intended to curb local and regional warlordism that nonetheless became prevalent by the end of Han . Militias dismissed members who reached the age of fifty @-@ six . By Eastern Han , the obligation upon retired soldiers to join local militias was removed .
= = = Standing army and army reserves = = =
The non @-@ professional conscripted soldiers who served a one @-@ year term under the Minister of the Guards belonged to the Southern Army ( Nanjun 南軍 ) . Non @-@ conscripted , professional soldiers belonged to a standing army known as the Northern Army ( Beijun 北軍 ) . The Northern Army 's main purpose was to defend the capital , but it was sometimes required to repel foreign invasions . The Northern Army is first mentioned in Han records in about 180 BC , yet little is known of its command structure at that time . Several decades later , Emperor Wu reformed the Northern Army 's officer corps so that its command was shared by five Colonels ( Xiaowei 校尉 ) who each ranked 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan and commanded a regiment . Emperor Wu also appointed three other Colonels , ranked 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , whose forces were considered an extension of the Northern Army yet were stationed far outside the capital at strategic passes . Each of the eight Colonels was assisted by a Major ( Sima 司馬 ) who was ranked at 1 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . Professional soldiers could also be found in agricultural garrisons established in the Western Regions , such as those led by the Wu and Ji Colonels ( Wuji xiaowei 戊己校尉 ) , who were ranked Equivalent to 600 @-@ dan and were based at the Turpan oasis .
During Eastern Han , the conscripted army largely gave way to a volunteer army . The conscripted army under the Minister of the Guards was no longer referred to as the Southern Army . The Northern Army was retained , although it was reformed so that there were five Colonels instead of eight . The Eastern Han @-@ era Colonels of the Northern Army were also demoted to the rank of Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan .
According to Eastern Han @-@ era sources , the Northern Army was a relatively small fighting force of between 3 @,@ 500 and 4 @,@ 200 professional soldiers , each regiment consisting of approximately 750 soldiers and 150 junior officers . To aid this force , Emperor Guangwu established a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ soldier unit of army reserves in Liyang County along the Yellow River in 43 AD , while two other reserve units were created in 110 AD ; these were headed by a Commandant ( the same title used for the commandery @-@ level military officer ) . The main purpose of these reserve units was to position Han troops at strategic passes to guard the lower Wei River against Xiongnu , Wuhuan , and Tibetan tribes .
= = = Wartime militia and officers = = =
During peacetime and war , the command structure of the Northern Army remained the same . However , during times of great conflict and crisis , the raising of large militias required the appointment of many new officers with various titles , which were often bestowed as honorary titles to officials during times of peace . Large divisions were led by a General ( Jiangjun 將軍 ) whose rank depended on status ; divisions were divided into a number of regiments commanded by a Colonel , and sometimes by a Major . Regiments were divided into companies and led by Captains , who ranked Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , while companies were further divided into platoons .
= Subtropical cyclone =
A subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some characteristics of a tropical and an extratropical cyclone .
As early as the 1950s , meteorologists were unclear whether they should be characterized as tropical or extratropical cyclones . They were officially recognized by the National Hurricane Center in 1972 . Subtropical cyclones began to receive names from the official tropical cyclone lists in the North Atlantic , South @-@ west Indian Ocean and South Atlantic basins .
There are two definitions currently used for subtropical cyclones . Across the north Atlantic and southwest Indian ocean , they require central convection fairly near the center and a warming core in the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere . Across the eastern half of the northern Pacific , they require a mid @-@ tropospheric cyclone to cut off from the main belt of the westerlies and only a weak surface circulation . Subtropical cyclones have broad wind patterns with maximum sustained winds located farther from the center than typical tropical cyclones , and have no weather fronts linked into their center .
Since they form from initially extratropical cyclones which have colder temperatures aloft than normally found in the tropics , the sea surface temperatures required for their formation are lower than the tropical cyclone threshold by 3 ° C ( 5 ° F ) , lying around 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) . This also means that subtropical cyclones are more likely to form outside the traditional bounds of the North Atlantic hurricane season . Subtropical cyclones are also observed to form in the South Atlantic ; South Atlantic subtropical cyclones are observed in all months .
= = History of term = =
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s , the term semi @-@ tropical and quasi @-@ tropical were used for what would become known as subtropical cyclones . The term subtropical cyclone merely referred to any cyclone located in the subtropical belt near and just north of the horse latitudes . Intense debate ensued in the late 1960s , after a number of hybrid cyclones formed in the Atlantic Basin . In 1972 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) finally designated these storms as subtropical cyclones in real @-@ time , and updated the hurricane database to include subtropical cyclones from 1968 through 1971 . The term " neutercane " began to be used for small subtropical cyclones which formed from mesoscale features , and the NHC began issuing public statements during the 1972 Atlantic hurricane season employing that classification . This name was not noted as controversial in contemporary news reports , but it was dropped less than a year later . Recent articles , published after the year 2000 , have suggested that the name " neutercane " was considered sexist in the 1970s , but there do not appear to be any published reports from that period making this claim .
= = Naming = =
In the North Atlantic basin , subtropical cyclones were initially named from the NATO phonetic alphabet list in the early to mid @-@ 1970s . In the intervening years of 1975 – 2001 , subtropical storms were either named from the traditional list and considered tropical in real @-@ time , or used a separate numbering system . Between 1992 and 2001 , two different numbers were given to subtropical depressions or subtropical storms , one for public use , the other one for NRL and NHC reference . For example , Hurricane Karen in 2001 was initially known as Subtropical Storm One as well as AL1301 ( or 13L for short ) . In 2002 , the NHC began giving numbers to subtropical depressions and names to subtropical storms from the same sequence as tropical cyclones . From 2002 onwards , Subtropical Depression 13L would be known as Subtropical Depression Thirteen instead . Hurricane Gustav of 2002 was the first Subtropical Storm to receive a name but became tropical shortly after naming . Subtropical Storm Nicole , from the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season was the first subtropical storm that did not become tropical since the policy change . A subtropical storm from the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season also did not become tropical , but was not named since it was not recognized until post @-@ season analysis . In the southern Indian ocean , subtropical cyclones are also named once winds reach tropical storm , or gale , force . Since 2011 , subtropical storms in the South Atlantic Ocean are named by the Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center .
= = Formation = =
Subtropical cyclones form in a wide band of latitude , mainly south of the 50th parallel in the northern hemisphere . Due to the increased frequency of cyclones which cut off from the main belt of the westerlies during the summer and fall , subtropical cyclones are significantly more frequent across the North Atlantic than the northwestern Pacific ocean . In the eastern half of the north Pacific ocean and north Indian ocean , the older subtropical cyclone definition term is still used , which requires a weak circulation forming underneath a mid to upper @-@ tropospheric low which has cut off from the main belt of the westerlies during the cold season ( winter ) . In the case of the north Indian ocean , the formation of this type of vortex leads to the onset of monsoon rains during the wet season . In the southern hemisphere , subtropical cyclones are regularly observed across southern portions of the Mozambique Channel .
Most subtropical cyclones form when a deep cold @-@ core extratropical cyclone drops down into the subtropics . The system becomes blocked by a high latitude ridge , and eventually sheds its frontal boundaries as its source of cool and dry air from the high latitudes diverts away from the system . Temperature differences between the 500 hPa pressure level , or 5 @,@ 900 meters ( 19 @,@ 400 ft ) above ground level , and the sea surface temperatures initially exceed the dry adiabatic lapse rate , which causes an initial round of thunderstorms to form at a distance east of the center . Due to the initial cold temperatures aloft , sea surface temperatures usually need to reach at least 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) for this initial round of thunderstorms . The initial thunderstorm activity moistens up the environment around the low , which destabilizes the atmosphere by reducing the lapse rate needed for convection . When the next shortwave or upper level jet streak ( wind maximum within the jet stream ) moves nearby , convection reignites closer to the center and the system develops into a true subtropical cyclone . The average sea surface temperature that helps lead to subtropical cyclogenesis is 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) . If the thunderstorm activity becomes deep and persistent , allowing its initial low level warm core to deepen , tropical cyclogenesis is possible . The locus of formation for North Atlantic subtropical cyclones is out in the open ocean ; the island of Bermuda is regularly impacted by these systems .
The South Atlantic environment for formation of subtropical cyclones has both stronger vertical wind shear and lower sea surface temperatures , yet subtropical cyclogenesis is regularly observed in the open ocean in the South Atlantic . A second mechanism for formation has been diagnosed for South Atlantic subtropical cyclones : lee cyclogenesis in the region of the Brazil Current .
= = = Transition from extratropical = = =
By gaining tropical characteristics , an extratropical low may transit into a subtropical depression or storm . A subtropical depression / storm may further gain tropical characteristics to become a pure tropical depression or storm , which may eventually develop into a hurricane , and there are at least three cases of tropical storms transforming into a subtropical storm ( Hurricane Klaus in 1984 , Tropical Storm Allison in 2001 and Tropical Storm Lee in 2011 ) . Generally , a tropical storm or tropical depression is not called subtropical while it is becoming extratropical , after hitting either land or colder waters . This transition normally requires significant instability through the atmosphere , with temperature differences between the underlying ocean and the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere requiring over 20 ° C , or 72 ° F , of contrast in this roughly 5 @,@ 900 meters ( 19 @,@ 400 ft ) layer of the lower atmosphere . The mode of the sea surface temperatures that subtropical cyclones form over is 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) . Transition from subtropical cyclones into tropical cyclones occurs only in very rare cases over the South Atlantic Ocean , such as Hurricane Catarina in 2004 .
= = Characteristics = =
These storms can have maximum winds extending farther from the center than in a purely tropical cyclone and have no weather fronts linking directly to the center of circulation . The maximum recorded wind speed for a subtropical storm is 33 m / s ( 119 km / h , 65 knots , or 74 mph ) , also the minimum for a hurricane . In the Atlantic Basin , the United States NOAA classifies subtropical cyclones similarly to their tropical cousins , based on maximum sustained surface winds . Those with winds below 18 m / s , 65 km / h , 35 knots , or 39 mph are called subtropical depressions , while those at or above this speed are referred to as subtropical storms .
Subtropical cyclones are also more likely than tropical cyclones to form outside of a region 's designated hurricane season . North Atlantic examples include Subtropical Storm Alex ( which became Hurricane Alex ) in mid @-@ January of the 2016 Atlantic hurricane season , Subtropical Storm Ana ( which became Tropical Storm Ana ) in late April of the 2003 hurricane season , Subtropical Storm Andrea in early May and Subtropical Storm Olga ( which became Tropical Storm Olga ) in mid @-@ December of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season , and Subtropical Storm Beryl ( which became Tropical Storm Beryl ) in late May of the 2012 hurricane season . Diagrams which depict a cyclone 's phase depict subtropical cyclones with a shallow warm core and as asymmetric systems , similar to tropical cyclones which have begun the transition to an extratropical cyclone .
= = Types = =
= = = Upper @-@ level low = = =
The most common type of subtropical storm is an upper @-@ level cold low with circulation extending to the surface layer and maximum sustained winds generally occurring at a radius of about 160 kilometers ( 99 mi ) or more from the center . In comparison to tropical cyclones , such systems have a relatively broad zone of maximum winds that is located farther from the center , and typically have a less symmetric wind field and distribution of convection .
= = = Mesoscale low = = =
A second type of subtropical cyclone is a mesoscale low originating in or near a frontolyzing zone of horizontal wind shear , also known as a dying frontal zone , with radius of maximum sustained winds generally less than 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) . The entire circulation may initially have a diameter of less than 160 kilometers ( 99 mi ) . These generally short @-@ lived systems may be either cold core or warm core , and in 1972 this type of subtropical cyclone was referred to as a " neutercane " .
= = Kona storm = =
Kona storms ( or Kona lows ) are deep cyclones that form during the cool season of the central Pacific ocean . A definition change in the term during the early 1970s makes categorization of the systems more complex , as many kona lows are extratropical cyclones , complete with their own weather fronts . Those across the northeast Pacific ocean consider them subtropical cyclones as long as a weak surface circulation is present . Kona is a Hawaiian term for leeward , which explains the change in wind direction for the Hawaiian Islands from easterly to southerly when this type of cyclone is present .
= = Australian East Coast Lows = =
Australian east coast lows ( known locally as east coast lows and sometimes as east coast cyclones ) are extratropical cyclones , the most intense of these systems have many of the characteristics of subtropical cyclones . They develop between 25 ˚ south and 40 ˚ south and within 5 ˚ of the Australian coastline , typically during the winter months . Each year there are about ten " significant impact " maritime lows . Explosive cyclogenesis is seen on average just once per year , but these storms cause significant wind and flood damage when they occur . Australian east coast cyclones vary in size from mesoscale ( approximately 10 km to 100 km ) to synoptic scale ( approximately 100 km to 1 @,@ 000 km ) . These storms which mostly affect the south east coast should not be confused with Australian region tropical cyclones which typically affect the northern half of the continent .
= The Orb =
The Orb are an English electronic music group known for spawning the genre of ambient house . Founded in 1988 by Alex Paterson and KLF member Jimmy Cauty , the Orb began as ambient and dub DJs in London . Their early performances were inspired by ambient and electronic artists of the 1970s and 1980s , most notably Brian Eno and Kraftwerk . Because of their trippy sound , the Orb developed a cult following among clubbers " coming down " from drug @-@ induced highs . The Orb has maintained their drug @-@ related and science fiction themes despite personnel changes , including the departure of Cauty and other Orb members Kris Weston , Andy Falconer , Simon Phillips , Nick Burton and Andy Hughes . Paterson has been the only permanent member , continuing to work as the Orb with the Swiss @-@ German producer Thomas Fehlmann and , later , with Killing Joke 's Martin " Youth " Glover and Tim Bran of Dreadzone .
Alex Paterson prides the Orb on manipulating obscure samples beyond recognition on their albums and concerts ; his unauthorised use of other artists ' works has led to disputes with musicians , most notably with Rickie Lee Jones . During their live shows of the 1990s , the Orb performed using digital audio tape machines optimised for live mixing and sampling before switching to laptops and digital media . Despite changes in performance method , the Orb maintained their colourful light shows and psychedelic imagery in concert . These visually intense performances prompted critics to compare the group to Pink Floyd .
The Orb 's critical and commercial success in the United Kingdom peaked in the early 1990s with the albums The Orb 's Adventures Beyond The Ultraworld and U.F.Orb , the latter of which reached # 1 on the British album charts in 1992 . This success led to its infamous appearance on Top of the Pops , where the group showcased their quirky style by playing chess ( an interest of Paterson 's since his early youth ) while the group 's single " Blue Room " ran in the background . The Orb 's mid @-@ 1990s albums were met with mixed reactions from British critics ; their work received praise from American publications such as Rolling Stone . The group experimented with vocalists on the next two albums , which critics generally described as bland and uninspired . The Orb then shifted gears to a minimal techno style spearheaded by member Thomas Fehlmann , releasing their new material on the record label Kompakt .
= = History = =
= = = 1988 – 1990 : Paterson & Cauty = = =
Alex Paterson began his music career in the early 1980s as a roadie for the post @-@ punk rock band Killing Joke , for whom his childhood friend Martin " Youth " Glover played bass . After leaving Killing Joke in 1986 , Paterson met future KLF member Jimmy Cauty and the duo began DJ @-@ ing and producing music together under the name The Orb . Paterson and Cauty 's first release was a 1988 acid house anthem track , " Tripping on Sunshine " , released on the German record compilation Eternity Project One . The following year , the Orb released the Kiss EP , a four @-@ track EP based on samples from New York City 's KISS FM . It was released on Paterson and Glover 's new record label WAU ! Mr. Modo Records , which they created out of a desire to maintain financial independence from larger record labels . After spending a weekend of making what Paterson described as " really shit drum sounds " , the duo decided to abandon beat @-@ heavy music and instead work on music for after @-@ hours listening by removing the percussion tracks . Paterson and Cauty began DJ @-@ ing in London and landed a deal for the Orb to play the chill out room at London nightclub Heaven . Resident DJ Paul Oakenfold brought in the duo as ambient DJs for his " The Land of Oz " event at Heaven . Though the Orb 's Monday night performances had only several hardcore followers initially , their chill @-@ out room act grew popular over the course of their six @-@ month stay to the point that the room was often packed with around 100 people . The Orb 's performances became most popular among weary DJs and clubbers seeking solace from the loud , rhythmic music of the dancefloor . The Orb built up melodies using multitrack recordings linked to multiple record decks and a mixer . The group incorporated many CDs , cassettes , and BBC sound effects into the act , often accompanied with pieces of popular dance tracks such as " Sueño Latino . " Though the group used a variety of samples , they avoided heavy rhythm and drums so that the intended ambient atmosphere was not disrupted . Most often , the group played dub and other chill @-@ out music , which it described as ambient house for the E generation .
Throughout 1989 the Orb , along with Martin Glover , developed a music production style that incorporated ambient music with a diverse array of samples and recordings . The British music press later labelled the music ambient house . The culmination of the group 's musical work came toward the end of the same year when they recorded a session for John Peel on BBC Radio 1 . The track , then known as " Loving You , " was largely improvisational and featured a wealth of sound effects and samples from science fiction radio plays , nature sounds , and Minnie Riperton 's " Lovin ' You . " For its release as a single on the record label Big Life , the Orb changed the title to " A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain That Rules from the Centre of the Ultraworld . " Upon the single 's release , Riperton 's management forced Big Life to remove the unlicensed Riperton sample , ensuring that only the initial first @-@ week release of the single contained the original vocals of Minnie Riperton ; subsequent pressings used vocals from a sound @-@ alike . Despite its running time of 22 minutes , the sample @-@ laden single reached # 78 on the British singles charts . Soon thereafter , the Orb were commissioned by Dave Stewart to remix his top @-@ 20 single " Lily Was Here . " The group obliged and were soon offered several more remix jobs from artists including Erasure and System 7 .
In 1990 , Paterson and Cauty held several recording sessions at Cauty 's studio , Trancentral . When offered an album deal by Big Life , the Orb found themselves at a crossroads : Cauty preferred that the Orb release their music through his KLF Communications label , whereas Paterson wanted to ensure that the group did not become a side @-@ project of the KLF . Because of these issues , Cauty and Paterson split in April 1990 , with Paterson keeping the name the Orb . As a result of the break @-@ up , Cauty removed Paterson 's contributions from the in @-@ progress recordings and released the album as Space on KLF Communications . Also out of these sessions came the KLF album Chill Out , on which Paterson appeared in an uncredited role .
Following the split , Paterson began working with Youth on the track " Little Fluffy Clouds " . The group incorporated samples from Steve Reich 's Electric Counterpoint . The signature of the piece centres around the repeated phrases sampled from the voice of singer / songwriter Rickie Lee Jones , her spaced @-@ out childlike ramble taken from a promotional CD released by Geffen records for her 1989 Flying Cowboys CD . In it she muses on the picturesque images of clouds from her Arizona childhood .
= = = 1991 – 1994 : Paterson & Weston = = =
In 1991 , Paterson invited freelance studio engineer Andy Falconer to join the Orb . He was closely followed by studio engineer Kris " Thrash " Weston . Steve Hillage , who Paterson had met while DJ @-@ ing in London , also joined as a guitarist . Along with producer Thomas Fehlmann , the Orb completed several additional tracks for their first album , The Orb 's Adventures Beyond The Ultraworld . At least six studios and twenty outside musicians were used during the three weeks of recording . Falconer 's and Weston 's technical abilities and Hillage 's guitar work allowed the group to craft panoramic sounds portraying aspects of space travel , including the launch of Apollo 11 . Adventures sold well in the United Kingdom and received praise for its balance of ambient music , house music , and sampling . Retrospectively , Adventures is considered ground @-@ breaking for changing the way musicians view sampling and as a vital work for the genres of ambient and dance music . The completion of Adventures saw the departure of Andy Falconer , whose last contribution was to one of the Orb 's Peel Sessions . To promote the release of an edited single @-@ disc version for an American release on Mercury Records , the Orb embarked on their first tour of the United States beginning in Phoenix , Arizona , in October 1991 .
In late 1991 and early 1992 , Paterson and Weston wrote their next single , " Blue Room " . Assisting with the recording was bassist Jah Wobble , keyboardist Miquette Giraudy , and guitarist Hillage . Despite its playing time of almost 40 minutes , " Blue Room " entered the British charts at # 12 and peaked at # 8 , making it the longest track to reach the charts . The Orb promoted this single with a " legendary avant @-@ garde " performance on Top of the Pops where Patterson and Weston played a game of chess in space suits while footage of dolphins and an edited version of " Blue Room " ran in the background . In July 1992 , U.F.Orb was released featuring " Blue Room " and , in the US release , the Orb 's next single , " Assassin " . Weston integrated his technical and creative expertise with Paterson 's Eno @-@ influenced ambience on U.F.Orb , combining " drum and bass rhythms " with " velvet keyboards " and " rippling synth lines " . U.F.Orb reached # 1 on the British album charts to the shock of critics , who were surprised that fans had embraced what journalists considered to be progressive rock . Despite the Orb 's success , Paterson and Weston preferred to avoid personal publicity and instead allow their music to be the focus of attention . Because of this partial anonymity and the Orb 's rotating membership , they are often recognised as more of a musical collective than a " band " .
Over the next year and a half , Paterson and Weston continued to produce new material , but releases stalled when Paterson began to feel that Big Life was trying to dictate the direction of the Orb 's music . This led to intense disagreements with Big Life and the Orb soon left the label to sign a deal with Island Records . Their first release on Island Records was the live album Live 93 , which gathered highlights from their recent performances in Europe and Asia . It featured the live crew of Paterson , Weston , producers Nick Burton and Simon Phillips , as well as audio engineer Andy Hughes , who had stepped in previously when Weston had decided to stop touring . The Orb 's first studio production on Island Records was Pomme Fritz , a chaotic EP noted for its heavy use of strange samples and its lack of conventional harmonies . Though Pomme Fritz reached # 6 on the British charts , critics panned it as " doodling " . Island Records " hated it " and " didn 't understand it at all " , according to Paterson . Soon after production finished on Pomme Fritz , Paterson , Weston , and Orb contributor Thomas Fehlmann joined with Robert Fripp to form the group FFWD as a side project . FFWD released a single self @-@ titled album on Paterson 's Inter @-@ Modo label , which Fehlmann later described as " an Orb track which became so long that it became a whole album ! " . Due to this aimlessness , FFWD lacked an artistic goal and disbanded after a single release . Soon after the release of FFWD in August 1994 , Weston suddenly left the Orb . Paterson claimed that Weston 's departure was due to his desire to have more control in the Orb . In an interview with i @-@ D , Weston attributed the split to Paterson , saying that Paterson " didn 't do his 50 per cent of the work . " Paterson reaffirmed the status of the Orb saying , " The Orb is the Orb , and nothing can change that " , and continued work with Hughes and Fehlmann .
= = = 1995 – 2001 : Paterson , Fehlmann & Hughes = = =
Following Weston 's departure from the Orb , Thomas Fehlmann joined as a full @-@ time studio member , but did not always participate in live performances . Paterson , Hughes , and Fehlmann then finished producing the album Orbus Terrarum , on which Paterson and Weston had been working . Orbus Terrarum , released in 1995 , featured more " earthbound " and " organic " sounds than their previous trippy science @-@ fiction @-@ themed music . Orbus Terrarum suffered , as Paterson described it , " a good kicking " at the hands of the British press , who described it as " generic " and a low point for Paterson 's creativity . Orbus Terrarum alienated many of the group 's fans , and only reached # 20 on the British charts . American critics gave it great acclaim , including Rolling Stone who made it their album of the month , citing its symphonic flow coupled with the Orb 's " uniquely British wit " . After a long world tour , the Orb , with Andy Hughes and Steve Hillage , settled down to produce their next album , Orblivion — the process of which saw a return to their spacey sounds . Though Orblivion was recorded in May 1996 , it was not released until almost a year later , due to Island Records ' desire to promote it as a follow up to U2 's techno @-@ rock album Pop . Orblivion sold well in Europe as well as the United States , where it reached the Billboard Top 200 . The first Orblivion single , " Toxygene " , was the highest charting single by the Orb , reaching # 4 in the United Kingdom on 8 February 1997 . Despite high sales , Orblivion received a lukewarm reception from the British press . As with Orbus Terrarum , Orblivion was better received by American critics , including Rolling Stone , who praised its " contrast of chaos and euphony " . Meanwhile , the stresses of touring sat heavily on Paterson ; he considered retiring the Orb , but continued touring and producing . In 1997 the band sold their studio Joe 's Garage to the Godfrey brothers of Morcheeba .
Paterson and Fehlmann , along with usual collaborators Hughes , Nick Burton , and Phillips , wrote and produced Cydonia for a planned 1999 release . Featured on the album were appearances from Robert Fripp , John Roome ( Witchman ) , and Fil Le Gonidec , one of the Orb 's live performers . Singers Nina Walsh and Aki Omori appeared on two tracks each , providing vocals and co @-@ writing lyrics with Paterson . Paterson felt that this new direction of songwriting for the Orb was more similar to the experimental work of Orbus Terrarum than to the techno @-@ pop of Orblivion . Island Records was in a period of restructuring due to its recent purchase by Universal Music Group , and Cydonia was not released until 2001 . Upon release , critics noted that Cydonia merged pop , trance , and ambient @-@ dub music , which they felt to be a conglomeration of bland vocals and uninventive ambience that lacked the appeal of the Orb 's earlier work . NME harshly described it as " a stillborn relic , flawed throughout by chronically stunted ambitions " and describing its only appropriate audience to be " old ravers " seeking nostalgia . The Orb were generally regarded by the British press as past their prime and an " ambient dinosaur " out of place in the current dance music environment . After the release of Cydonia , Hughes left the group for undisclosed reasons , becoming " another acrimonious departure from the Orb " according to The Guardian .
= = = 2001 – 2004 : Paterson , Fehlmann & Phillips = = =
In 2001 , Alex Paterson formed the record label Badorb.com as an outlet for Orb members ' side projects . To promote both Badorb.com and Cydonia , the Orb toured internationally , including their first visit to the United States in four years . NME described the Orb 's tour as " charming " and that they were " freed from the Floydian pretensions that dogged the band throughout the mid- ' 90s . "
The Orb , now composed of Paterson , Phillips , and Fehlmann , with guest John Roome , accepted an invitation to join the Area : One concert tour with Moby , Paul Oakenfold , New Order and other alternative and electronic artists . Though the Orb were paired with more mainstream artists during the tour such as Incubus , Paterson and Fehlmann made their next releases a series of several low @-@ key EPs for German label Kompakt in 2002 . The Orb found critical success on Kompakt ; but Badorb.com collapsed soon after releasing the compilation Bless You . Badorb.com had released fourteen records over the course of fourteen months from artists including Guy Pratt ( Conduit ) , Ayumi Hamasaki , and Takayuki Shiraishi , as well as the Orb 's three @-@ track Daleth of Elphame EP . Though Badorb.com was an internet @-@ based record label , they only sold vinyl releases ( with one exception , the Orb EP ) , which Paterson later remarked was a poor idea because " not many people ... have record players " .
Though their musical style had changed somewhat since the 1990s , the Orb continued to use their odd synthetic sounds on 2004 's Bicycles & Tricycles , to mixed reviews . The Daily Telegraph praised Bicycles & Tricycles as being " inclusive , exploratory , and an enjoyable journey " ; other publications dismissed it as " stoner dub " and irrelevant to current electronic music . Like Cydonia , Bicycles & Tricycles featured vocals , including female rapper MC Soom @-@ T who added a hip hop contribution to the album . The Orb left Island Records and released the album on Cooking Vinyl and Sanctuary Records . To promote the album , the band began a UK tour with dub artist Mad Professor . Though the Orb still pulled in large crowds , The Guardian noted that they lacked the intensity found in their earlier performances .
= = = 2004 – 2007 : Paterson & Fehlmann , The Transit Kings = = =
After two more EPs on Kompakt , the Orb ( now composed of only Paterson and Fehlmann ) released Okie Dokie It 's The Orb on Kompakt , which featured new material in addition to tweaked versions of their previous Kompakt output . By this stage , Allmusic observed , Thomas Fehlmann had become the primary creative figure in the Orb , " inhibiting Alex Paterson 's whimsical impulses " . Because of this , Okie Dokie was considerably more focused and less " goofy " than Cydonia and Bicycles & Tricycles . Fehlmann 's trademark hypnotic loops and delays made him the centre of Okie Dokie production and , according to Pitchfork Media , made it " difficult to say where [ Paterson ] is in the picture " . The Orb 's releases with Kompakt gained them back much of their musical credibility with the press and showed that they could " age gracefully " .
In August 2006 , the founders of the Orb - Paterson and Cauty - released Living in a Giant Candle Winking at God , their debut album as the Transit Kings with Guy Pratt and Pratt 's associate , Dom Beken . The album featured appearances from Smiths ' guitarist Johnny Marr and comedian Simon Day . Beken described Living in a Giant Candle Winking at God as " self @-@ consciously musically written and less sample @-@ based " compared to the members ' previous work . Living had been in production since 2001 , but due to members ' other obligations , it was delayed for several years . The album received mixed critical reactions , with reviewers such as The Sun comparing the album favourably to the music of DJ Shadow and Röyksopp while other publications , such as The Times , called it " Orb @-@ lite " and proclaimed it to be " Deep Forest @-@ style sludge " . Soon after the album 's release , Cauty left the Transit Kings on " extended leave " , leaving the project in indefinite limbo . Paterson and Beken reunited in 2008 as High Frequency Bandwidth , an ambient hip hop group on the Malicious Damage label .
= = = 2007 – present = = =
The Orb 's next studio album , The Dream , was released in Japan in 2007 and the following year in the United States and United Kingdom . Fehlmann is absent on The Dream and Paterson was instead reunited with Martin Glover and joined by Tim Bran of Dreadzone . The album saw a return to the Orb 's sounds of the early 1990s , with peculiar vocals and playful samples . The Orb also brought in jazz and house music singer Juliet Roberts and guitarist Steve Hillage .
After July 2006 re @-@ release of The Orb 's Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld 3 @-@ CD Deluxe Edition , 2007 and 2008 saw releases of expanded 2 @-@ CD editions of the band 's subsequent regular studio records : U.F.Orb , Pomme Fritz EP , Orbus Terrarum , Orblivion and Cydonia . In late 2008 a double @-@ cd compilation of BBC Radio 1 sessions called The Orb : Complete BBC Sessions 1989 @-@ 2001 was released .
In May 2009 , the British Malicious Damage Records ( run by the members of Killing Joke ) | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
force , while the peasants were annoyed by the unwillingness to redistribute land from the latifundia . Landowners matched the strike with a lockout , and many peasants , probably a majority in the strike centres , were left without tenancies when the planting season ended in mid @-@ December . In December 1893 the failure of the Giolitti government to restore public order gave rise to a general demand that Crispi should return to power . Giolitti had to resign on November 24 , 1893 , as a result of the Banca Romana scandal .
In addition to the unrest in Sicily , a wave of rioting spread through Italy in August 1893 , triggered by the killing of a number of migrant workers in the salt pans of Aigues Mortes in southern France escalated into a more generalized working @-@ class revolt supported by anarchists and violent riots in Rome and Naples . Italy seemed to be slipping to a revolution . By the time Crispi returned to power in December 1893 , Italy appeared to many to be on the brink of collapse . Crispi promised important measures of land reform for the near future . He was not blind to the misery and the need for social reform . Before 1891 he had been the patron of the Sicilian working @-@ class and many of their associations had been named after him . Colajanni , the chief architect of Giolitti ’ s fall by exposing the Banca Romana scandal , was first offered the Ministry of Agriculture , which he refused , then sent to Sicily on a mission of appeasement .
Crispi ’ s good intentions got lost in the outcry for strong measures . In the three weeks of uncertainty before the government was formed , the rapid spread of violence drove many local authorities to defy Giolitti ’ s ban on the use of firearms . In December 1893 , 92 peasants lost their lives in clashes with the police and army . Government building were burned as well as flour mills and bakeries that refused to lower their prices when taxes were lowered or abolished . Eleven people were killed on December 10 , 1893 , in Giardinello after a rally that asked for the abolition of taxes on food and disbandment of the local field guards ( guardie campestri ) . The protestors carried the portrait of the King taken from the municipality and burned tax files . On December 17 , 1893 , many people were wounded when troops fired on a manifestation in Monreale . Another 11 protestors were killed in Lercara Friddi on December 25 . On January 1 , 1894 , 20 people were killed and many wounded in Gibellina and Pietraperzia . On January 2 , there two dead in Belmonte Mezzagno and the next day 18 dead and many wounded in Marineo . Two days after , on January 5 , thirteen dead and many wounded closed the series in Santa Caterina .
The disorders were not the product of a revolutionary plot , but Crispi chose to believe otherwise . On the basis of dubious documents and reports , Crispi claimed that there was an organised conspiracy to separate Sicily from Italy ; the leaders of the Fasci conspired with the clerics and were financed by French gold , and war and invasion were looming .
= = Crackdown = =
On January 3 , 1894 , Crispi declared a state of siege throughout Sicily . Army reservists were recalled and General Roberto Morra di Lavriano was dispatched with 40 @,@ 000 troops . The old order was restored through the use of extreme force , including summary executions . The Fasci were outlawed , the army and the polices killed scores of protesters , and hundreds wounded . Thousands of militants , including all the leaders , were put in jail or sent into internal exile . Some 1 @,@ 000 persons were deported to the penal islands without trial . All working @-@ class societies and cooperatives were dissolved and freedom of the press , meeting and association was suspended . A solidarity revolt of anarchists and republicans in the Lunigiana was crushed as well . The government also seized the opportunity to ' revise ' the electoral registers . In Catania 5 @,@ 000 of the 9 @,@ 000 electors were struck off .
Exactly in the early days of January a meeting of the Central Committee of the Fasci took place in Palermo to discuss the position of the movement . Two sharply contrasting positions emerged . De Felice Giuffrida , known for his anarchist tendencies , supported the need to take advantage of the situation of unrest to provoke a revolution on the island . However , the majority took an opposite view , arguing the need to proceed peacefully . A revolt was not only inappropriate , but it would be detrimental to the movement . The meeting condemned the violent incidents in various parts of the island , and launched an appeal to stay calm and not to retaliate . In the end De Felice Giuffrida accepted the position of the majority . But the die was cast for the authorities to arrest De Felice , Montalto , Petrina , and others . Garibaldi Bosco , Barbato and Verro were arrested on board the steamship Bagnara that was about to leave for Tunis .
On February 28 , 1894 Crispi presented the " evidence " for a widespread conspiracy in parliament : the so @-@ called " International Treaty of Bisacquino " , signed by the French Government , the Czar of Russia , Giuseppe De Felice , the anarchists and the Vatican , with the goal to detach Sicily from the rest of the country and put it under a Franco @-@ Russian protectorate . The Radical deputy Felice Cavallotti ridiculed the conspiracy of Crispi , poking fun at " the famous treaty between the Emperor of Russia , the President of the French Republic , and Mr De Felice " . The so @-@ called " Treaty of Bisacquino " was so named not because it was signed in the Sicilian town , but because it had been invented by the Director of Public Safety of Bisacquino , the Neapolitan Sessi .
= = Trial in Palermo = =
The trials against the central committee of the Fasci that took place in Palermo , in April and May 1894 , were the final blow to the movement . In spite of an eloquent defence , which turned the Court into a political platform and thrilled every socialist in the country , they were condemned to heavy sentences of imprisonment . On May 30 , 1894 , the leaders of the movement received their sentence : Giuseppe de Felice Giuffrida to 18 years and Rosario Bosco , Nicola Barbato and Bernardino Verro to 12 years in jail .
“ In front of you , ” Barbato told the judges , “ we provided the documents and evidence of our innocence . My friends thought it necessary to support their defence legally ; I will not do so . Not because I have no confidence in you , but it is the law that does not concern me . So I do not defend myself . You have to sentence : we are the elements that destroy your sacred institutions . You have to sentence : it is logical , human . I will always pay tribute to your loyalty . But we say to our friends outside : do not ask for pardon , do not ask for amnesty . Socialist civilization should not begin with an act of cowardice . We demand a condemnation , we do not ask for mercy . Martyrs are more useful to the holy cause than any propaganda . Condemn us ! ”
The heavy sentence aroused strong reactions in Italy and in the United States . In Palermo a group of students went to the Teatro Bellini and asked the orchestra to perform the hymn of Garibaldi . And the theatre applauded . In March 1896 , after Crispi had to resign due to the humiliating defeat of the Italian army at Battle of Adwa in Ethiopia during First Italo @-@ Ethiopian War , the new government under Prime minister Antonio Di Rudinì recognized the excessive brutality of the repression . Many Fasci members were pardoned and released from jail . Di Rudinì made it clear though that a reorganization of the Fasci would not be tolerated . After their release , De Felice , Barbato and Bosco were met by a large crowd of supporters in Rome , who released the horses form their carriage and dragged them to the hotel , cheering for socialism and denouncing Crispi .
= = Aftermath = =
The brutal repression backfired to some extent . The Fasci leaders used the military tribunals to make impassioned and well @-@ reported speeches in their defence . The tribunals were too repressive and revolted the Liberal consciences of many Northern Italians . In an attempt to regain his former ' left wing ' , Crispi introduced a bill in July 1894 to take over large estates and uncultivated land . The idea was to rent out the land on long leases in medium @-@ sized holdings and leaseholders would be given reduced credit and tax concessions . While the bill failed to convince the Radicals and democrats of Crispi 's good intentions , it angered the Sicilian landowners . After the suppression of the Fasci those were now unwilling to make any concessions . Under the leadership of Di Rudiní , they battled against the bill . When Crispi fell from power after Adwa in March 1896 , their proponent Di Rudiní became Prime Minister and the Sicilian landowners were safe .
Nevertheless , the revolt inspired social reforms . In 1898 two measures of social legislation were passed by the minister of the treasury of Di Rudini ’ s cabinet , Luigi Luzzatti . The industrial workmen ’ s compensation scheme from 1883 was made obligatory with the employer bearing all costs ; and a voluntary fund for contributory disability and old age pensions was created .
Many former adherents of the Fasci left Sicily . Life had grown hard and employment difficult to find because of their involvement with the movement . For those in Sicily who wanted to change their life for the better in those days , there were only two alternatives : rebel or emigrate . After the failure of the rebellion many peasants had no choice but to vote with their feet and opted for emigration . Others remained , and a year later , in 1895 , protests against unjust taxes and about the issue of communal land resumed in many towns in Sicily . The disbandment of troop had to be postponed .
According to Hobsbawm , the Fasci were a prime example of primitive agrarian movement that became modern by aligning itself with socialism and communism . Many of its leaders continued in the Socialist Party and continued the struggle for land rights and land reform once they were released . Despite the 1894 defeat , permanent movements were set up in some areas of Sicily using modern socialist models of organisation .
With the dissolution of the Fasci , the unrest on Sicily did not subside . In January 1898 , peasants demanding work and bread ransacked the town hall in Siculiana . In the fall of 1901 , Sicilian peasants – following the example of numerous agrarian strikes that were affecting the whole of Italy – again set off a wave of agrarian unrest , conscious of the fact that in a way they resumed " the march abruptly interrupted in 1894 by the repression of the Fasci . " Just as the Fasci movement , one of the main goals of the 1901 strikes and was a revision of the land leases to undermine the economic power of the gabellotti . After the First World War the communist movement In Sicily built on the incipient organisational structures of the Fasci , such as during the Biennio Rosso . The Fasci inspired social struggle in Sicily well into the 1950s .
= = The role of women = =
The role of women in the Fasci siciliani was substantial , but is regularly overlooked in historical accounts . Women were often at the forefront of demonstrations and strikes , taking the word in meetings and conferences . During municipal elections they made sure that men were going to vote ( women did not have the right to vote at the time ) . They patrolled the taverns to prevent the men from betraying the duty of militancy with bottles of wine . They also took care of many organizational aspects and were particularly active in proselytizing for the movement , decorating the stage of the rallies , preparing ceremonies such as the inauguration opening of the flag of the Fasci , and welcoming the leaders who came to the towns with flowers .
Women were among the most ardent . In some municipalities the women organized themselves into women 's sections and in others even in exclusively female Fasci . The strongest and most numerous presence of women was in the Fascio of Piana degli Albanesi , where over a thousand of the 3 @,@ 500 members were women in a town of 9 @,@ 000 inhabitants . For the Fasci the women abandoned the Church , but not the religious sentiment , to protest against the priests , who had tried to frighten them and isolate them with the threat of excommunication . In Piana the women organised a boycott of annual religious procession in protest of the priest ’ s opposition to the movement in 1893 .
At the congress in Palermo in May 1893 where the union of all the Fasci in Sicily was decided , Maria Cammarata , of the Fascio of Piana , urged the audience to ensure the registration of women . The presence and political sophistication of the female representatives at the congress surprised the editor of the Giornale di Sicilia : " I could not believe it myself . They spoke loudly and clearly , with ease and astonishing courage . " One of the most prominent women was Marietta De Felice Giuffrida , the daughter of Giuseppe de Felice Giuffrida – one of the founders of the movement . Only 14 years old , she accompanied her father throughout Sicily to help him setting up Fasci in the interior . She was " extraordinarily animated by the spirit of socialism , who spoke to the people with a fervour of a missionary , and because of her sex and age , she commanded the fascination of the masses . "
The authorities watched the Fasci closely and in a report to the government in Rome noticed that the female Fasci in Piana , Belmonte Mezzagno and San Giuseppe Jato should be considered as dangerous . The women had developed " highly successful propaganda activities and revolutionary agendas , through which they exercised considerable influence on the other fasci in the region . "
= = Mafia involvement = =
Some historians emphasize that the leagues were engaged in class struggle against a coalition of landowners and mafiosi and ignore evidence of strategic alliances between the Fasci and the Mafia . The leagues were not only led by socialists and anarchists ; some were run by local gentry and mafiosi . The Mafia bosses Vito Cascioferro and Nunzio Giaimo led the Fasci in Bisacquino in alliance with Verro . The Mafia was sometimes needed to enforce flying pickets with credible threats of violence and to make the strike costly to landowners by destroying their property .
In order to give the strike teeth and to protect himself from harm , Verro became a member of a Mafia group in Corleone , the Fratuzzi ( Little Brothers ) . However , during the great strike of the Fasci in September 1893 , the Fratuzzi mobilized to boycott it , providing the necessary manpower to work on the lands that the peasants refused to cultivate . Since then Verro broke away from the mafiosi , and – according to police reports – became their most bitter enemy . He was killed by the Mafia in 1915 when he was the mayor of Corleone .
= = In literature and film = =
Luigi Pirandello 's 1913 novel I vecchi e i giovani ( The Old and the Young ) retraces the history of the failure and repression of the Fasci Siciliani in the period from 1893 @-@ 94 . Although Pirandello was not an active member of this movement , he had close ties of friendship with some of its leading ideologists : Rosario Garibaldi Bosco , Enrico La Loggia , Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida and Francesco De Luca .
The film Il giorno di San Sebastiano ( Saint Sebastian 's Day ) ( 1993 ) , directed by Pasquale Scimeca , is based on the Caltavuturo massacre on January 20 , 1893 , when during the celebration of Saint Sebastian , a firing squad killed 15 peasants who claimed their right to state @-@ owned land . It won a Golden Globe and was presented at the Venice film festival . The play , a monologue depicting a peasant woman whose husband was killed in the events at Caltavuturo , was written by Rosario Garibaldi Bosco and first performed on February 2 , 1893 , in Palermo to raise money for the victims .
= 3rd Ranger Infantry Company ( United States ) =
The 3rd Ranger Infantry Company ( Airborne ) was a Ranger light infantry company of the United States Army active during the Korean War . As a small special forces unit , it specialized in irregular warfare .
Four Airborne Ranger Companies were formed in the fall of 1950 . They were trained and graduated on November 15 . By the end of 1950 , the 1st , 2nd , and 4th Companies had deployed early for combat in Korea . The 3rd Ranger Company had been drawn upon heavily to replace training losses of the deploying companies . It received 80 trainees and completed a second cycle of Ranger training at the Ranger Training Center at Fort Benning , Georgia . The company deployed to South Korea in March 1951 and was assigned to the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division for four months , where it was used as a reconnaissance and scouting unit , probing North Korean People 's Volunteer Army positions . The company is known for its " Battle of Bloody Ridge " on 11 April where , on its first mission , it was able to push back the opposing force . The company later supported the 3rd Infantry Division at the Battle of the Imjin River .
Later in the summer , the company was used as a stealth " target acquisition " force , infiltrating Chinese positions and spotting concentrations of troops and equipment for artillery attack . The company was deactivated on 1 August 1951 , and was merged with the U.S. 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team alongside all other Ranger units .
= = Origins = =
With the 25 June 1950 outbreak of the Korean War , the North Korean People 's Army had invaded the Republic of Korea ( ROK ) with 90 @,@ 000 well @-@ trained and equipped troops who had easily overrun the smaller and more poorly equipped Republic of Korea Army . The United States ( U.S. ) and United Nations ( UN ) began an intervention campaign to prevent South Korea from collapsing . The U.S. troops engaged the North Koreans first at the Battle of Osan , being badly defeated on 5 July by the better @-@ trained North Koreans . From then on , the U.S. and UN saw a steady stream of defeats until they had been pushed back to the tip of the peninsula , into a 140 @-@ mile ( 230 km ) -long fortification dubbed Pusan Perimeter by August . At the same time , North Korean agents began to infiltrate behind UN lines and attack military targets and cities .
UN units , spread out along the Pusan Perimeter , were having a difficult time repelling these units as they were untrained in combating guerrilla warfare . North Korean special forces units such as the NK 766th Independent Infantry Regiment had defeated ROK troops and used irregular warfare tactics effectively , prompting Army Chief of Staff General J. Lawton Collins to order the creation of an elite force which could " infiltrate through enemy lines and attack command posts , artillery , tank parks , and key communications centers or facilities . " All U.S. Army Ranger units had been disbanded after World War II because they required time @-@ consuming training , specialization , and expensive equipment .
With the defeat of the NK 766th Regiment at the Battle of P 'ohang @-@ dong , and the strength of U.S. infantry units in question , U.S. commanders felt recreating Ranger units was essential . In early August , as the Battle of Pusan Perimeter was beginning , the Eighth United States Army , in command of all US forces in Korea , ordered Lieutenant Colonel John H. McGee , the head of its G @-@ 3 Operations miscellaneous division , to create a new experimental Army Ranger unit , the Eighth Army Ranger Company . In the meantime , the Ranger Training Center was established at Fort Benning , Georgia .
= = = Organization = = =
With the successful development of the Eighth Army Ranger Company as a " test " unit for the United States Army to bring back Army Ranger units , additional Ranger companies were ordered . The companies were small light infantry special forces units which specialized in infiltration and irregular warfare .
The new 3rd Army Ranger Infantry Company was formulated based on the Table of Organization and Equipment documents of Ranger units in World War II , all of which had been deactivated . The 3rd Ranger Infantry Company was organized into three platoons . A headquarters element of five men oversaw the platoons . However , due to lack of battalion support for clerical , transportation , supply and mess kitchen support , 3rd company had to acquire the personnel , vehicles , and other equipment needed to support their operations . This resulted in the involvement of considerably more highly trained personnel than the five called for by the TOE . Each platoon had three squads of ten men each , with a platoon sergeant and assistant platoon sergeant ( a.k.a platoon guide ) . Each squad had two fireteams of five men each and one man in each fireteam carried a M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle . The BAR was the largest weapon in the platoon . The 60mm M2 mortars , the 57mm recoilless rifles , and the M20 Super Bazookas were carried on the company M35 2 ½ ton cargo truck but seldom used . The company was authorized two vehicles ; an M38 Jeep and an M35 2 ½ ton cargo truck . The company was more heavily armed than the Eighth Army Ranger Company but less in strength and fire power than standard infantry companies . Like the other numbered Ranger companies , its organization called for five officers and 107 enlisted men in three platoons .
The troops for the Ranger company were to be Airborne qualified , so the Ranger Training Center heavily recruited troops from the 82nd Airborne Division and 11th Airborne Division who had already completed United States Army Airborne School . In spite of this , only one Ranger operation in the conflict ever required an airborne landing . At the first Airborne Ranger graduation in November 1950 , each Ranger was given a black and gold Ranger Tab as a shoulder sleeve insignia . A few days later , each Ranger was issued a blue and white tab and instructed to sew it above the Ranger Tab . The Airborne Ranger Companies then in Korea were deactivated on August 1 , 1951 . They were merged into the 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team to bring them back up to strength with airborne @-@ qualified combat @-@ experienced replacements . The 187th had been moved to Kyushu , Japan ’ s southern island to take on a ( then Top Secret ) mission to save the UN negotiators at Kaesong , North Korea . All of the Ranger officers and top NCO ’ s met in a mess hall at Camp Chickamauga , Beppu , Kyushu , Japan . Some of the senior NCOs had been WWII Rangers . At this meeting , they designed a scroll @-@ type patch similar to the WWII Ranger patches . In the center , was Ranger on top and Airborne underneath . On the left was the company number . On the right was “ Co . ” . At a later date , back in the states , more patches were made with Airborne on top and Ranger underneath .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and training = = =
Of a pool of 5 @,@ 000 applicants , the Ranger Training School selected 22 officers and 314 enlisted men for the first three Ranger companies on 2 October , which were entirely white . A fourth , all African @-@ American company was organized several days later . The 3rd Ranger Infantry Company ( Airborne ) was organized on 9 October 1950 , assuming the lineage of A Company of the 3rd Ranger Battalion . It had an initial strength of 135 enlisted men and five officers . The unit was formally activated on 25 October 1950 at Fort Benning . It was placed under command of Captain Jesse Tidwell and Bob Channon , who would be later promoted to Captain and in December , 1950 , to executive officer .
The Rangers trained extensively in reconnaissance , long @-@ range patrols , setting up roadblocks , land navigation , camouflage , concealment , and adjusting indirect fire . They undertook frequent live fire exercises , many at night , simulating raids , ambushes and infiltrations . The Rangers trained 60 hours per week and ran 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) each day and frequently held 20 miles ( 32 km ) speed marches , which were considered traditions for Ranger training from World War II . The training for the numbered companies included much of the program used by second lieutenant Ralph Puckett to train the Eighth Army Ranger Company . In spite of a 30 percent dropout rate , most of the men completed the course and graduated 15 November 1950 .
While the 1st , 2nd and 4th Ranger Company each embarked for Korea shortly after their training was complete , the 3rd Ranger Company was retained at Fort Benning , to train the next cycle of Rangers along with the 5th , 6th , 7th and 8th Ranger Company . After providing fillers to 1st and 4th companies to cover their training losses , the 3rd had 40 men left . In mid @-@ December , they took an additional 80 men from 7th Company and completed a second cycle of Ranger training . This proved beneficial to the 3rd Company , as it was given cold @-@ weather training alongside the 5th and 8th companies at Fort Carson , Colorado . After the first training cycle was complete ; the Ranger units already in Korea had not received this training and were thus unprepared for the Korean winter . The 3rd Company also received additional training which better prepared it for combat , including tactics of the People 's Volunteer Army , which the other companies had learned in battle and tracer designation of targets during night attacks . They also received 57mm M18 Recoilless Rifles , however , these were kept on the cargo truck due to the necessity to break up a rifle team to man a crew @-@ served weapon , which didn 't happen . The entire company was trained to be their own forward observers for artillery . In March 1951 , the 3rd , 5th , and 8th Companies sailed for Korea , a trip which was fraught with frequent discipline problems as the Rangers continuously got into fights with U.S. Marines on board the troopship while en route . After spending one night in Kobe , Japan , the next morning they sailed for Pusan , South Korea .
= = = Bloody Nose Ridge = = =
The Rangers arrived in Korea on 24 March . They disembarked from the Army Transport Ship at Pusan . After spending a night or two there , all three companies continued on to Inchon on an LST Landing Ship , Tank , arriving at Inchon on 31 March . There , 3rd Airborne Ranger Company separated from its sister companies and was attached to the US 3rd Infantry Division near the Imjin River , where the division was engaged in an intense battle with Chinese forces , attempting to push them further north .
The 3rd Ranger Company entered action on 11 April , part of a tank @-@ infantry task force conducting aggressive reconnaissance in a wide valley near the river . Encountering a village , the 3rd Platoon cleared the village and killed two Chinese stragglers . After the lead elements of the tank company and the 3rd Platoon had taken the Kantongyon village , the tank company commander wanted to move his company west into the center of the valley before continuing north . Captain and now Executive Officer , Bob Channon was near the rear of the company column . CO , Jess Tidwell , riding with the tank Co , called Channon on the radio and instructed him to come up and take control of the 1st and 2nd Platoons . By the time Channon reached the two platoons , they were crossing over two small hills just north of Kantongyon . As they crossed over one of the hills , Channon and his radio operator were wounded by Chinese mortar rounds . Channon took the radio from Walker , who was now incapacitated , and joined the two platoons at the bottom of the hill . Channon then called Jess Tidwell for instructions , who responded , “ move out when the tanks move out . ” Two tanks had passed through a gap in the hills and were in front of them . Soon , the two tanks moved out at high speed to join their company in the center of the valley . As the Rangers started to move forward , toward the nose of a ridge from which the fire was coming about 700 @-@ 800 yards ahead , they began taking casualties from machine gun and rifle fire . About 100 yards out from the ridge , they received a heavy mortar barrage , resulting in a number of them being wounded . Channon also received a couple of burp gun rounds to his lower left leg . Shortly after , a couple of light tanks arrived . Pete Hamilton ( 1st Plt Ldr ) and Channon crawled up on the tanks , bore @-@ sighted the guns on the machine guns and blew them away . About 30 yards out from a Chinese trench at the base of the ridge nose , they received a heavy volley of grenades . Abandoning protocol ( once you start a charge , you are not supposed to hit the ground ) , Channon , knowing that he ’ d have no trouble getting his Rangers up again , had them hit the ground . When they got up , the Rangers took the ridge nose in a bayonet and grenade fight . When their position was secure , Platoon Sergeant Barber reported that they only had eight Rangers capable of continuing on . Pete Hamilton had been too seriously wounded to continue . Channon called Tidwell for instructions and was instructed to join the tanks and the 3rd Platoon in the center of the valley . The 2nd Platoon had been supporting the 1st Platoon with enfilade fire on the hill from their left flank . Channon put the 2nd Platoon in the lead , followed by the remnant of the 1st Platoon . The tanks and the 3rd Platoon had moved up the center of the wide valley and were more than a thousand yards to the northwest . Fortunately , after about 300 yards of sniper fire from higher on the ridge to their right , they were able to gain cover from a 3 @-@ 4 foot field dyke , and then joined the 3rd Platoon in the center of the valley . Channon moved the company up around the tanks on a small hill ahead . The tank company commander then moved the tanks up to the final objective for the day about 300 @-@ 400 yards ahead . Jess Tildwell was with him , so Channon brought the company up to that small hill and got it organized . Bob Scully , Channon 's third radio operator for the day , was wounded when a mortar round hit . Jess Tildwell had Channon get on a tank with other wounded for the trip back to clearing station . On the way back Channon noticed that there was more than a two thousand yard gap before they saw any fighting elements . So before continuing on , he had a jeep take him to the tank battalion CP . He strongly suggested the gap be closed before dark , which was done and 3rd Company was replaced on line . In addition to those wounded who were able to continue on , four Rangers were killed along with 25 wounded and evacuated in this first engagement .
The company then advanced up the valley under sniper and artillery fire until it located and destroyed a Chinese communications and supply center at the end , before returning to 3rd Infantry Division lines . In all , they had killed over 100 Chinese in this fight , and the division commanders considered the mission a success in spite of the high casualty count . In this action , the Rangers adopted a new motto , " Die Bastard , die ! " [ 1 ] They also picked up the nickname “ Cold Steel Third ” , when division commander Major General Seoul , who was observing the action with other senior officers , was heard to say , “ There go my Rangers . They like that cold steel . ”
= = = Imjin River missions = = =
Despite suffering over 50 percent casualties by this time and with few reinforcements , 3rd Ranger Company remained on the line , and was used as a reconnaissance element for the division . As the 3rd Infantry Division advanced , pressing gains from the Chinese , the company was used to guard a vital bridge over the Hantan River . It then massed with several combat engineers and other division elements to form Task Force Rogers . The task force then probed north searching for Chinese concentrations , but did not encounter any Chinese troops .
On 19 April , the Chinese conducted a counteroffensive in the 3rd Infantry Division sector , first striking to the east , followed by a feint that struck near the Rangers ' position . The task force was assigned to rescue a group of five 3rd Division tanks that had been disabled 8 miles ( 13 km ) inside Chinese territory . Advancing , they suppressed a Chinese ambush before the Chinese could attack , and advanced under mortar attack and took the hills surrounding the tanks . They then returned the stranded tanks to UN lines at a cost of two wounded .
On 22 April , the Rangers , tanks and engineers conducted another probe of the Chinese positions , to ensure they could not launch a surprise attack on nearby Republic of Korea Army formations . Encountering two Chinese companies dug in at a hill with one route of attack , Tidwell ordered a surprise attack on the hill , which was successful in pushing Chinese forces off the outlying fortifications .
It then moved to reinforce the British 29th Infantry Brigade , which was cut off on Hill 235 after ROK troops folded under attack . After two days of intense fighting and foot marching , the Rangers moved to relieve the British troops , despite itself being at only 67 percent strength . Encountering heavy resistance , they were initially unable to break through Chinese formations to relieve the British .
Chinese forces counterattacked , destroying a 3rd Infantry Division tank column sent to assist the Rangers and attacking the 3rd Ranger Company from three sides , as they dug into a hill . Though the Rangers eventually were forced to withdraw , the defense of the Rangers , the US 3rd Division and the British 29th Brigade had broken the momentum of the Chinese offensive .
= = = Target acquisition unit = = =
The 3rd Infantry Division then moved to the offensive , in early May 1951 they were used to scout for Chinese concentrations and then call in artillery to destroy them . These actions have been viewed by historians as one of few instances where Rangers in Korea were effectively employed , used as a stealthy infiltration force for terrain too difficult for conventional units .
On 11 May , with Chinese forces slackening their offensive , 3rd Ranger Company was recalled to Kimpo Airfield for parachute proficiency training , above the objections of the 3rd Infantry Division commanders who considered the company invaluable . The company spent several weeks in division reserve , and undertook various missions such as convoy security and guarding command posts , as well as surveillance and visiting patrols behind the front lines . In one of these rearguard actions , the Rangers evacuated a rundown village only to have one member of the unit , Corporal Dave Rauls , captured by three Chinese infiltrators .
By 17 June , the company was returned to the front and operated again as a target acquisition unit . Paired with 3rd Infantry Division 's reconnaissance company , an artillery battery and a forward air control party , they became known as " Task Force Ferret . " Positioned 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) ahead of the main division positions , the unit was also placed to warn the rest of the lines should the Chinese attack . By this time , however , the front lines in the battle had begun to largely stabilize , and as both armies fortified stationary positions , the Rangers infiltration abilities became unusable .
= = = Final mission and disbandment = = =
In July , the division was holding on the " Iron Triangle , " strategically important and defensible ground . In an attempt to strengthen its forces , the 3rd Infantry Division evacuated hills 682 and 717 at the southern base of the triangle , positioning the Rangers to appear as if they were still manned the hills . After eight days of patrols , Tidwell ordered an aggressive patrol to strike Chinese positions . Over three nights , they ambushed four Chinese patrols , causing several casualties and suffering few of their own .
On 10 July , the U.S. Army ordered the deactivation of all of its Ranger companies . The Army noted that the Ranger companies were only an exercise directed by The Pentagon which was complete . The 3rd Ranger Company was deactivated on 1 August 1951 in Korea . Like many of the other Ranger units , most of the Ranger veterans were folded into the 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team , where their airborne skills could be used . Still , Operation Tomahawk was the last airborne jump of the war .
= = Awards and decorations = =
The 3rd Ranger Infantry Company was awarded three campaign streamers and two unit citations for its service in the Korean War . In 1953 , the unit was again designated A Company of the 3rd Battalion , 75th Ranger Regiment , that unit carries on the 3rd Ranger Company 's lineage .
= Varagavank =
Varagavank ( Armenian : Վարագավանք , " Monastery of Varag " ; Turkish : Yedi Kilise , " Seven Churches " ) was an Armenian monastery on the slopes of Mount Varag ( Erek Dağı ) , 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) southeast of the city of Van , in eastern Turkey .
The monastery was founded in the early 11th century by Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes , the Armenian King of Vaspurakan , on a preexisting religious site . Initially serving as the necropolis of the Artsruni kings , it eventually became the seat of the archbishop of the Armenian Church in Van . The monastery has been described as one of the great monastic centers of the Armenian church by Ara Sarafian and the richest and most celebrated monastery of the Lake Van area by Robert H. Hewsen .
During the Armenian Genocide , in April – May 1915 , the Turkish army attacked , burned , and destroyed much of the monastery . Much of it was destroyed in the 1960s , although good sections are barely extant .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
According to tradition , in the late 3rd century St. Rhipsime hid the remnant of the True Cross she wore on her neck at the site of the monastery . In 653 , when the location was discovered , Catholicos Nerses III the Builder built the Church of Surb Nshan ( Holy Seal ) . It is described by Robert H. Hewsen as " a simple hermitage " . Catholicos Nerses also established the Feast of the Holy Cross of Varag ( Վարագա սուրբ խաչի տոն ) , celebrated by the Armenian Apostolic Church on the Sunday nearest to September 28 , always two weeks after the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross .
Queen Khushush , the daughter of Armenian King Gagik I and spouse of Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes , the future Artsruni King of Vaspurakan , built a church at the site in 981 dedicated to the Holy Wisdom ( Surb Sopi ) . In the late medieval period it was converted into a castle and was known as Berdavor ( " berd " means " fortress " in Armenian ) . The Church of Surb Hovhannes ( Saint John ) was built to the north in the 10th century .
= = = Foundation and medieval period = = =
The monastery itself was founded by Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes early in his reign ( 1003 – 24 ) to house a relic of the True Cross that had been kept on the site since Rhipsime . In 1021 , when Vaspurakan fell to Byzantine rule , Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes took the relic to Sebastia , where the following year his son Atom founded the Surb Nshan Monastery . In 1025 , following his death , Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes was buried at Varagavank and the True Cross was returned to the monastery . Fearing an attack by Muslims , Varagavank Father Ghukas took the True Cross in 1237 to the Tavush region of northeastern Armenia . There he settled in the Anapat monastery , which was renamed Nor Varagavank ( " New Varagavank " ) . In 1318 the Mongols invaded the region and ransacked the monastery . All the churches were destroyed except St. Hovhannes , which had an iron door and was where the monks hid . Between 1320 and the 1350s the monastery was completely restored .
= = = Modern period = = =
Persian Shah Tahmasp I ransacked the monastery in 1534 . In 1648 along with other buildings in the region , Varagavank was destroyed by an earthquake . Its restoration began immediately thereafter by monastery father Kirakos who found financial support among the wealthy merchants in Van . According to the 17th @-@ century historian Arakel of Tabriz four churches were restored and renovated .
The architect Tiratur built a square @-@ planned gavit ( narthex ) west of Church of Surb Astvatsatsin ( Holy Mother of God ) in 1648 . It functioned as a church during the 19th century , called Surb Gevorg . To the west of the narthex was a 17th @-@ century three @-@ arched open @-@ air porch ; to the north was Church of Surb Khach ( Holy Cross ) ; while to the south was the 17th @-@ century Church of Surb Sion . Urartian cuneiform inscriptions were used as lintels on their western entrances .
Suleyman , the prince of Hoşap Castle , invaded the monastery in 1651 , looting it of its Holy Cross , manuscripts and treasures . The cross was later repurchased and it was added to the Tiramayr Church of Van in 1655 . The monastery declined in the late 17th century , and in 1679 many of its treasures were sold due to economic difficulties . Archbishop Bardughimeos Shushanetsi renovated the monastery in 1724 .
In 1779 father Baghdasar vardapet decorated the narthex walls with frescoes of King Abgar , Empire Theodosius , Saint Gayane , Saint Rhipsime , Khosrovidukht , and Gabriel . According to Murad Hasratyan , the unknown painter had fused together the styles of Armenian , Persian , and Western European art .
= = = = 19th century = = = =
A wall was built around the monastery in 1803 , and fourteen years later , the Church of Surb Khach ( Holy Cross ) was completely renovated and converted into a depository of manuscripts by archbishop Galust . In 1832 Tamur pasha of Van robbed the monastery 's treasures and strangled the father Mktrich vardapet Gaghatatsi to death . In 1849 Gabriel vardapet Shiroyan restored the Church of Sion , which had been destroyed by an earthquake , and converted it into a wheat warehouse .
Mkrtich Khrimian , the future head of the Armenian Church , became father of Varagavank in 1857 and made the monastery effectively independent and subordinate only to the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople . He founded a printing house and began publishing Artsiv Vaspurakani ( " The Eagle of Vaspurakan " ) , the first newspaper in historical Armenia , which was published between 1858 and 1864 . He also established a modern school . The school taught subjects such as theology , music , grammar , geography , Armenian studies and history ; the prominent novelist Raffi was briefly one of the teachers . The school produced its first graduates in 1862 .
During the Hamidian massacres of 1896 the monastery was sacked and robbed , while some teachers and students were killed . According to a contemporary report by an American at Van , " Varak , the most famous and historic monastery in all this [ Van ] region , which has weathered the storms of centuries is almost certain to go [ on fire ] . "
= = = Sacking and abandonment = = =
Early in 1915 — during the early stages of the Armenian Genocide — Turkish government forces laid siege to Van , while the local Armenians organized self @-@ defense in what became the most notable resistance to the Turkish campaign of deportations and massacres . During most of April , the monastery was held by Armenians , but was captured and burnt by the Turks some time in late April and early May . The date of the burning of the monastery is contested . An April 27 , 1915 a message sent to " To Americans , or any Foreign Consul " by missionaries Clarence Ussher and Ernest Yarrow said that " From our window we could plainly see Shushantz afire on its mountain @-@ side and Varak Monastery , with its priceless store of ancient manuscripts , going up in smoke . " Missionary Elizabeth Barrows Ussher , Clarence 's wife , wrote in her diary that the monastery was attacked by 200 cavalry and foot soldiers on April 30 , but they were repulsed . She gave May 4 as the day when the monastery was burned . American missionary teacher Grace H. Knapp recounted , however , that " On the 8th May we saw the place in flames , and Varak Monastery near by , with its priceless ancient manuscripts , also went up in smoke . "
Van Governor Djevdet Bey ordered the Erzerum Battalion , composed of 300 cavalrymen and 1 @,@ 000 militiamen equipped with cannons , to attack Varag on May 8 . The 250 Armenian defenders were overwhelmed , and the monastery 's collections of medieval manuscripts burned and destroyed .
= = Current state = =
A significant number of the structures surviving the 1915 destruction were destroyed in the 1960s . As of 2006 the monastery 's remains were used a barn . According to historian Ara Sarafian , as of 2012 , " good sections have just barely survived until our days . " Dr. Jenny B. White , a scholar on Turkey , wrote in 2013 that on her visit the remains of the monastery " consisted of nothing more than a few brick vaults used to house goats amid a clutch of tumbledown Kurdish homes . " The best @-@ preserved section of the monastery is the church of Surb Gevorg ( St. George ) , which is now looked after by a caretaker . The dome is partly collapsed and contains some traces of surviving frescoes . The dome of the church of Surb Nshan is entirely gone .
In February 2010 , following the renovation of the Holy Cross Cathedral at Akdamar Island in Lake Van , Halil Berk , the Deputy Governor of Van Province , announced that the Governor 's Office sought to restore Varagavank and the Ktuts monastery at Çarpanak Island . In June of that year , the governor also stated that the monastery at Çarpanak Island and Varagavank would be renovated " in the near future . " In October 2010 Radikal reported that a nearby mosque , built in 1997 , would be demolished to make room for the restoration of Varagavank .
The monastery was damaged as a result of the 2011 Van earthquake . According to Ara Sarafian , " parts of the main church collapsed , while other parts were significantly weakened . Old cracks got bigger , new ones appeared . " Turkish engineers reportedly inspected it and announced that they would commence restoration work in the spring of 2012 . Sarafian wrote that " such promises have been made in the past and one needs to be a little skeptical . The current state of the church makes such work much harder than at any time in the past . " He noted in a 2012 article that the local and provincial governments supported the preservation and restoration of the monastery . In October 2012 , the artist Raffi Bedrosyan , who contributed to the restoration of the St. Giragos Church in Diyarbakır , stated that he had hoped to restore Varagavank and added that " Both Ankara and Van agreed to launch the restoration project , but social and natural obstacles delayed the process . "
= = = Ownership = = =
Taraf reported in September 2012 that the monastery is owned by the Turkish journalist and media executive Fatih Altaylı . In an interview Altaylı told the newspaper that the monastery belonged to his grandfather and he inherited it from his father . The monastery was confiscated during the Armenian Genocide . A group of Armenians in Turkey , led by the activist Nadya Uygun started a petition asking him to " Apply to the Armenian Patriarchate of Turkey and transfer the title deed of the church to the concerned [ Armenian community ] foundation . " Altayli told Agos that he is ready to give it to the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople , but no government authority has approached him to respond to his offer to give back the church to its owners , and that they displayed no interest in cooperating . Revolutionary Socialist Workers ' Party ( DSİP ) activists demonstrated in early October 2012 before the Habertürk headquarters in Beyoğlu , Istanbul demanding the return of the monastery land to the Armenians . As of September 2014 there was no progress .
= = Architecture and manuscripts = =
The monastery was composed of six churches , gavit , narthex ( nakhasrah ) and other structures . The main church of Varagavank was called Surb Astvatsatsin ( Holy Mother of God ) . It dated to the 11th century and was similar in plan to the prominent Saint Hripsime Church in Vagharshapat . The earliest structure was on the southern part of the ensemble and was known as Surb Sopia ( 10th century ) . Queen Khushush left an inscription ( dated 981 ) on its western wall .
In the 10th century Queen Mlke , the wife of Gagik I , presented the monastery the " Gospel of Queen Mlke " ( arm ) , one of the best known Armenian illuminated manuscripts . In the 14th – 16th centuries the monastery became a major center of manuscript production . A number of Varagavank manuscripts are now kept at the Matenadaran in Yerevan .
= = Cultural references = =
Raffi mentions the monastery in volume two of the novel Sparkles ( « Կայծեր » , 1883 – 87 ) . The prominent poet Hovhannes Tumanyan wrote an article about the monastery in 1910 on the fiftieth anniversary of Mkrtich Khrimian becoming father of Varag and the monastery 's subsequent revival as a great center of education and culture .
= = European visitors = =
Austen Henry Layard ( 1853 ) : " ... the large Armenian convent of Yedi Klissia , or the seven churches , built of substantial stone masonry , and inclosing a spacious courtyard planted with trees . [ ... ] The church , a substantial modern edifice , stand within the courtyard . Its walls are covered with pictyres as primitive in design as in execution . "
Henry Fanshawe Tozer ( 1881 ) : " ... the broken Varak Dagh formed a noble object on the further side of the plain . In one of the upper valleys of the last @-@ named mountain lies an important monastery , which is the residence of the archbishop , and has a good school . "
H. F. B. Lynch ( 1893 ) : " The monastery of Yed Kilisa , situated on the slopes of that mountain , is the most frequented of the numerous cloisters in the neighbourhood ... "
= = Gallery = =
= British cavalry during the First World War =
The British cavalry were the first British Army units to see action during the First World War . Captain Hornby of the 4th ( Royal Irish ) Dragoon Guards is reputed to have been the first British soldier to kill a German soldier , using his sword , and Drummer Edward Thomas of the same regiment is reputed to have fired the first British shot shortly after 06 : 30 on 22 August 1914 , near the Belgian village of Casteau . The following Battle of Mons was the first engagement fought by British soldiers in Western Europe since the Battle of Waterloo , ninety @-@ nine years earlier . In the first year of the war in France nine cavalry brigades were formed for three British cavalry divisions . Other regiments served in six brigades of the two British Indian Army cavalry divisions that were formed for service on the Western Front . Three regiments also fought in the campaign in Mesopotamia , the only other theatre of the First World War where British cavalry served .
The doctrine of the British cavalry had been highly influenced by their experiences in the Second Boer War fifteen years earlier , during which one commander had preferred using irregular units to the professional cavalry regiments . By necessity , cavalry doctrine had changed since then , with emphasis being placed on dismounted firepower and covering fire from the flanks , using machine guns and attached artillery , to support cavalry charges . Cavalrymen dominated the higher command positions within the British Army during the war . The only officers to command the British Expeditionary Force on the Western Front were both cavalrymen , while the original commander of the British Cavalry Division went on to command the Egyptian Expeditionary Force during the Palestine Campaign , and another cavalryman became the Chief of the Imperial General Staff . Altogether on the Western Front , five of the ten officers who commanded the five British armies were provided by the cavalry , while another ten commanded corps , and twenty @-@ seven served as divisional commanders .
Among other decorations for their valour , eight cavalrymen were awarded the Victoria Cross , Britain 's highest award for bravery in the face of the enemy . Three of the awards came in the first month of the war . All but one of the thirty @-@ two British regular army cavalry regiments fought in a recognised theatre of war , either on the Western Front or in the Mesopotamia Campaign , during which over 5 @,@ 600 cavalrymen were killed , including several senior officers .
= = Background = =
The traditional role of cavalry in war is scouting — gathering information about the enemy 's location , strength , and movements — while denying the enemy the same information about one 's own forces . Other tasks include raiding into enemy territory and damaging their infrastructure and economy while avoiding conflict with enemy forces . On the field of battle , cavalry were expected to charge into and break up enemy infantry and cavalry formations . The prestige gained by participating in a cavalry charge was such that additional officers would attempt to join one whenever possible . Notable examples of this include Louis Nolan of the 15th Hussars joining the Charge of the Light Brigade in the Crimean War and Winston Churchill of the 4th Hussars joining the 21st Lancers for their charge during the Battle of Omdurman .
The normal peacetime British Army cavalry formation was the brigade , but twice a cavalry division had been formed . The first time was during the Anglo @-@ Egyptian War in 1882 . The second was during the Second Boer War ( 1899 – 1901 ) in South Africa , the last major conflict fought by the British Army before the First World War . During the fighting in South Africa , it was the 7 @,@ 000 @-@ strong colonial mounted contingent , not the 5 @,@ 000 @-@ strong regular cavalry , that led the way in tactical development . They were better trained , better armed , and more efficient , if only because they had been correctly trained to use the right weapons and tactics for the conflict . Since 1880 British cavalrymen had been armed with only carbines and swords , although some carried a lance ; it was not until 1903 that the cavalry were issued rifles , the same ones used by the rest of the army . The regular cavalry regiments were considered so poor in quality that General Sir Redvers Henry Buller , commanding the advance into Northern Natal , left his six cavalry regiments behind at Ladysmith , trusting in the irregular mounted forces to carry out patrols in their stead .
Their Boer opponents taught not only the cavalry but the whole army some lessons . In one engagement at Dronfield , 150 Boers held off the British cavalry division , which was then supported by several artillery batteries , and at Bergendal seventy @-@ four men held up the entire British Army . So effective were their tactics that they forced the British cavalry , if only for a short time , to leave their swords and lances behind and concentrate on their firepower . This proved to the British Army the value of a full size rifle over a carbine . Soon the cavalry were practising working dismounted and advancing in open order . Their change in tactics was evidenced during the charge at Klip Drift . On their way to relieve the siege of Kimberley , the cavalry used their horses and rifles instead of swords and lances to get behind the defending Boers . The charge was later described as " an ideal cavalry operation , but not a cavalry charge as the term is generally understood . " Nevertheless , it would prove to be the last time that a full British cavalry division conducted a mounted charge .
Following the Boer War there were calls for the disbandment of the cavalry by such notable persons as the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Forces Lord Roberts and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle . Between 1900 and 1903 the cavalry 's share of the army budget was cut from six to under 4 @.@ 5 per cent , and recruiting for the cavalry was suspended for a year . Added to this , the Commonwealth Defence Act 1903 proposed a force of nine brigades formed by a militia , with six of the brigades planned to be mounted infantry known as light horse . In the same year , Lord Roberts appointed Robert Baden @-@ Powell of the 5th Dragoon Guards to the position of Inspector General of Cavalry , a surprising choice as Roberts had earlier described him as being " certainly not a General " . Within the year , Baden @-@ Powell was endorsing a change in policy , recommending that instead of countering an enemy charge with a countercharge of their own , the cavalry should dismount and engage them with rifle fire . For cavalry to survive , by necessity British cavalry doctrine had to change , as the emphasis was now on dismounted firepower and cavalry charges that were supported by covering fire from the flanks , by their own machine guns , and the guns of the Royal Horse Artillery ( RHA ) . To support this change in policy , cavalrymen were now required to do two hours rifle or sword practice a day . This made them just as proficient as the infantry with their rifles . In 1908 one regiment , the 14th Hussars , recorded having 354 marksmen , 212 first class shots , thirty @-@ five second class , and only four third class shots .
The resulting reforms helped shape the cavalry 's contribution to the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) , which was established with one cavalry division supported by two brigades of horse artillery . All would be trained for the mounted charge but would also be armed with rifles , the only major power to do so . The cavalry regiments were armed with Maxim Machine Guns , although these were replaced by Vickers Machine Guns from 1912 . More than anything else , the issue of entrenching tools that were carried on the troop packhorses demonstrated how much the cavalry 's doctrine had changed since the Boer Wars .
= = Organisation = =
In 1914 , prior to the start of the First World War , there were just over 15 @,@ 000 cavalrymen serving in thirty @-@ one British Army cavalry regiments . There were three Household Cavalry regiments and twenty @-@ eight line cavalry regiments consisting of seven dragoon guards , three dragoon , twelve hussar , and six lancer regiments . In the British Army the term " cavalry " was only used for regular army units . The other mounted regiments in the army , which were part of the Territorial Force reserve , were the fifty @-@ five yeomanry regiments and three special reserve regiments of horse . Several of the cavalry regiments , amounting to 6 @,@ 000 men , were serving overseas in British India , South Africa , and Egypt . Twelve of the regiments based in Great Britain were assigned to four cavalry brigades , three regiments per brigade , identified as being part of the cavalry division for the BEF . After the declaration of war in August 1914 , the cavalry joined the rest of the BEF in France , together with a fifth independent cavalry brigade , formed from three un @-@ brigaded regiments then based in England . British cavalry brigades were a third larger than French and German brigades , which only had two regiments . To provide a reconnaissance force for the six infantry divisions , two regiments the 15th Hussars and the 19th Hussars were split up with one squadron being assigned to each infantry division . Also in August 1914 , a thirty @-@ second regiment , the Household Cavalry Composite Regiment , was formed from three squadrons that were drawn from each of the Household Cavalry regiments ; its existence proved short @-@ lived as it was disbanded on 11 November 1914 , with its manpower returning to their parent regiments .
Early in the war twenty @-@ four reserve cavalry regiments were formed to provide training to recruits for the cavalry and yeomanry regiments . Only four of them saw any combat — the 6th , 8th , 9th , and 10th Reserve Cavalry Regiments — all during the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin . The 6th Reserve Cavalry Regiment , with thirty @-@ five officers and 851 other ranks , was the largest unit then available to Dublin commander Brigadier General William Lowe of the 7th Dragoon Guards .
= = = Commanders = = =
The cavalry were well represented among the British Army 's higher ranks , with five of the ten officers who would command the five armies on the Western Front being cavalrymen . The two commanders of the BEF during the First World War , Field Marshals John French and Douglas Haig , came from the 19th Hussars and 7th Hussars respectively . William Robertson , 3rd Dragoon Guards , who rose in rank from private to field marshal , was the Quartermaster General , then Chief of Staff of the BEF before becoming the Chief of the Imperial General Staff in December 1915 .
Edmund Allenby , 6th Dragoons , who started the war as the commander of the Cavalry Division , went on to command the Cavalry Corps , then V Corps , the Third Army , and the Egyptian Expeditionary Force . He was replaced as commander of the Third Army by Julian Byng , 10th Hussars , who had previously commanded the Canadian Corps . Hubert Gough of the 16th Lancers , known before the war for his involvement in the Curragh incident mutiny , started the war as a brigade commander , became the commander of the I Corps , then the Fifth Army . He was replaced by William Birdwood , 12th Lancers , who had previously commanded the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps during the Gallipoli Campaign . Charles Briggs , 1st Dragoon Guards , commanded the British Salonika Army . William Peyton , 15th Hussars , commanded the Western Desert Force during the Senussi Campaign . He later transferred to the Western Front , where he was temporarily commander of the Fifth Army before taking over command of the X Corps .
Philip Chetwood , 19th Hussars , commanded the XX Corps in Allenby 's Egyptian Expeditionary Force . Charles Kavanagh , 10th Hussars , commanded the I Corps and the Cavalry Corps . Hugh Fanshaw , 19th Hussars , commanded the Cavalry Corps and the V Corps . Beauvoir De Lisle , 1st Dragoons , commanded both the XIII and XV Corps . Michael Rimington 6th Dragoons , commanded the Indian Cavalry Corps . Altogether during the First World War , the British cavalry provided ten corps and twenty @-@ seven divisional commanders .
= = = Divisions and brigades = = =
The original cavalry division consisted of a ninety @-@ six man headquarters , as well as 6 @,@ 872 cavalrymen in four brigades , 1 @,@ 682 artillerymen in four artillery batteries , 191 men in a Royal Engineers field squadron and another 206 men in the engineers signal squadron , twenty @-@ six men in an Army Service Corps headquarters , and four field ambulances with 496 men . This made a total of 9 @,@ 269 men , 9 @,@ 518 horses , 425 wagons , twenty @-@ three cars , 412 bicycles , eighteen motorcycles , twenty @-@ four 13 @-@ pounder guns , and twenty @-@ four Vickers machine guns . It was a large force when mounted , but when asked to serve dismounted , the cavalry division was only the equivalent of two weakened infantry brigades , with less artillery than an infantry division . It did , however , have a higher allocation of artillery compared to foreign cavalry divisions .
By September 1914 , the cavalry division was numbered the 1st Cavalry Division . It was joined by the 2nd Cavalry Division , which had been formed on 6 September , and the 3rd Cavalry Division , formed on 29 September . By the end of the year another six British cavalry regiments ( as well as artillery and support elements ) , which had been in India , were now in France serving in two cavalry divisions that were part of the British Indian Army . The 1st Indian Cavalry Division arrived in November and the 2nd Indian Cavalry Division in December . They were renumbered the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions in December 1916 . Although they were numbered , to prevent confusion with similar numbered British and Indian brigades , the latter were generally known by their names : for example , the Mhow Cavalry Brigade instead of the 5th ( Mhow ) Cavalry Brigade for example . The three British and two Indian cavalry divisions now came under the command of the British Cavalry Corps and the Indian Cavalry Corps .
By the end of 1915 , after several occasions when the British had to temporarily dismount regiments and send them into the front lines , an establishment for the Dismounted Cavalry Division was created . The three British cavalry divisions each formed a dismounted cavalry brigade , with the 1st Brigade being raised from the 1st Division , and so on . The cavalry brigades formed a dismounted cavalry battalion , numbered after their parent brigades , so the 9th Cavalry Brigade formed the 9th Dismounted Battalion , for example . The cavalry regiments each formed one dismounted company and a machine gun section for their battalion . However , the Dismounted Cavalry Division , with only three brigades , was smaller than an infantry division , which had four brigades . This disadvantage was felt throughout the formation , with the dismounted cavalry brigade only having three battalions instead of the four in an infantry formation , and the dismounted cavalry battalion only having three , albeit larger , companies as opposed to the four of an infantry battalion . There was one other divisional @-@ sized formation raised in 1916 that contained British cavalry regiments . This was the Imperial Cavalry Division , which served in the campaign in Mesopotamia . This was another British Indian Army division , and like all Indian divisions , it had one British regiment per brigade .
By April 1915 the British Army had formed nine cavalry brigades , serving in three cavalry divisions . A cavalry brigade headquarters had seven officers and forty @-@ seven men , which controlled three cavalry regiments , a battery of six 13 @-@ pounder guns provided by the Royal Horse Artillery , and a signals troop from the Royal Engineers . When dismounted , one man in four would be assigned to hold the horses ; therefore a brigade 's rifle fire was only equivalent to an infantry battalion . By now only three British cavalry regiments were not serving on the Western Front , having remained in India on internal security duties . These were the 7th Hussars , 14th Hussars , and the 21st Lancers . When the two hussar regiments left for the Mesopotamia Campaign in 1915 , only one regiment , the 21st Lancers , remained . They did , however , see action on the North West Frontier , winning one of the eight Victoria Crosses awarded to British cavalrymen during the war .
In March 1916 the two cavalry corps were disbanded and the five divisions were assigned to the five British armies . A skeleton corps staff was retained to allow for the re @-@ establishment of a new corps if one was required , which did happen the following September . At the same time , Gough was appointed as the Inspector General of Training of Cavalry Divisions . The cavalry divisions went through a period of training , re @-@ organisation , and issuance of new equipment . One of the major changes was the withdrawal of the regiments ' machine guns for their concentration in newly formed brigade machine gun squadrons , each of twelve sections with two machine guns to a section . The division also received a Light Armoured Car Battery equipped with six Rolls Royce Armoured Cars . The training covered topics such as how to cross trench systems using mobile bridging equipment , tactics to employ against an entrenched enemy , blowing up and filling in trenches , and skill at arms , including machine guns and bayonet fighting .
= = = The cavalry regiment = = =
The 1914 British cavalry regiment was composed of twenty @-@ six officers and 523 other ranks . The commanding officer was a lieutenant colonel , with a major as the second in command ; other officers in the headquarters were an adjutant , quartermaster , signals officer , medical officer , and a veterinary officer . The other ranks included one warrant officer , thirty @-@ seven senior non commissioned officers , twenty @-@ two artificers , six trumpeters , and 457 privates , or twenty @-@ seven officers and 598 other ranks in the regiments based in India .
Of these men , forty @-@ eight were part of the regimental headquarters , and twenty @-@ seven , armed with two Vickers Machine Guns , were assigned to the machine gun section . In 1909 the School of Musketry proposed that each regiment should have six machine guns , but this was declined for " financial reasons " . The remaining 474 men were in the regiment 's three squadrons , four troops per squadron . Commanded by a major with a captain as the second in command , a squadron had 158 men , six officers , a squadron sergeant major , a squadron quartermaster sergeant , eight sergeants , two trumpeters , six artificers , and 134 other ranks . Each troop had one officer , two sergeants , one artificer , and thirty other ranks . Regiments in India had four squadrons with 173 men in each squadron .
To look after the regiment 's horses , attached to the regimental headquarters , was a veterinary officer , a quartermaster sergeant farrier ( also responsible for killing wounded or sick horses ) , a saddler sergeant , and a saddle @-@ tree maker . Each squadron had two saddlers , one a sergeant , and each troop had a shoeing smith . The regiment had 528 riding horses , seventy @-@ four draught horses , six pack horses , eighteen carts or horse @-@ drawn wagons , and fifteen bicycles .
British cavalry were armed with a 1908 pattern sword ; lancers were armed with a 9 @.@ 1 feet ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) lance with a steel head mounted on an ash stave . Cavalrymen were also armed with Lee – Enfield rifles , unlike their French and German counterparts , who were only armed with a shorter range carbine . As the war progressed , the cavalrymen were issued with brodie helmets , hand grenades , trench mortars , and Hotchkiss light machine guns . The replacement of the Vickers Guns with the Hotchkiss , issued one per troop , greatly increased the firepower of the cavalry regiments . Like the infantry , cavalrymen were dressed in a khaki uniform , with a service dress cap . Instead of infantry webbing , they carried their ammunition in a bandolier . The French cuirassiers , by comparison , would not have looked out of place in the Napoleonic Wars ; they still wore blue and red uniforms with breast and back metal plates and plumed brass @-@ steel helmets . While the Germans had a standard field grey uniform , their uhlans still wore Polish style czapka helmets and tunics with plastron fronts , while the hussars wore frogged jackets and the cuirassiers had steel spiked helmets .
= = = Casualties = = =
Although the trench warfare on the Western Front was dominated by the artillery and infantry , the cavalry still suffered 5 @,@ 674 dead and 14 @,@ 630 other casualties . For comparison , one infantry regiment — the Northumberland Fusiliers — had 16 @,@ 000 casualties . Unlike the huge losses in the infantry regiments , only ten cavalry regiments suffered over 200 dead . The 3rd Dragoon Guards , with 333 dead , had the most killed , while the 7th Hussars had eighty dead , one less than the 21st Lancers , which had remained in India throughout the war . The dead included one major general , eleven brigadier generals , but only twenty @-@ eight of the 1 @,@ 161 lieutenant colonels killed during the war were from the cavalry , several of those after having assumed command of an infantry battalion .
= = Aftermath = =
The British Army tried to learn the lessons of the First World War and incorporate them into its doctrine . In the 1920s and much of the 1930s , the General Staff tried to establish a small , mechanised , professional army ; one result was the Experimental Mechanized Force . There was also a general reduction in the army , which resulted in the cavalry branch being reduced in numbers , with several famous regiments being amalgamated . In the Household Cavalry , the 1st and 2nd Life Guards became the Life Guards . In the line cavalry , sixteen regiments were amalgamated , becoming eight new regiments . The 3rd and 6th Dragoon Guards became the 3rd Carabiniers ( Prince of Wales 's Dragoon Guards ) , and the 5th Dragoon Guards and the 6th Dragoons became the 5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards . The other amalgamations used their previous regimental numbers as part of their new regimental names . The new regiments were the 4th / 7th Royal Dragoon Guards , the 13th / 18th Royal Hussars , the 14th / 20th King 's Hussars , the 15th / 19th The King 's Royal Hussars , the 16th / 5th The Queen 's Royal Lancers , and finally the 17th / 21st Lancers .
Although mechanisation of the British cavalry was well advanced by 1939 , there was still a 1st Cavalry Division that served in the Syria – Lebanon Campaign during the Second World War . Eventually all the cavalry regiments were mechanised and became part of the Household Cavalry and the Royal Armoured Corps . There is still one regiment that retains their horses , the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment , which together with the Household Cavalry Regiment was formed from the Life Guards and the Blues and Royals , which was itself an amalgamation of the Royal Horse Guards ( Blues ) and the 1st ( Royal ) Dragoons .
= = British cavalry regiments , brigades , and divisions = =
Other units that served in British cavalry , brigades , divisions and corps during the war
= Skeptic 's Toolbox =
Held every August since 1992 , the Skeptic 's Toolbox was formed by psychologist and now @-@ retired University of Oregon professor Ray Hyman . The workshop , held over four days , focuses on making people into better critical thinkers by investigating a central theme . The attendees are broken up into groups and given tasks that they must work on together and present in front of the entire group on the last day . The Skeptic 's Toolbox is sponsored by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry .
= = History = =
Hyman created the Skeptic 's Toolbox in 1989 to teach people how to be better skeptics . He tells James Underdown that " we were putting out more fires by skeptics than by believers ... they were going overboard " . The first toolbox was in Buffalo , NY with himself , James Alcock and Steve Shaw ( now called Banachek ) . With the exception of one year when the toolbox was held in Boulder , Colorado , the toolbox has been held at the University of Oregon in Eugene . In general , the faculty likes to keep the numbers at about 90 in order to give everyone personalized attention , and allow everyone the chance to participate . At the 1993 Toolbox , " More than a hundred people participated , from 19 states , Canada , and Hong Kong , and their enthusiasm continued to grow with each passing day , ending on the fifth day with what appeared to be a unanimous ' If only we had more time ! ' " .
In 1997 Skeptical Inquirer Magazine announced that CFI would begin offering an academic certificate for students in a three @-@ year program . Students needed to complete 30 units in academic work as well as in workshops . The two certificates offered were Humanistic Studies and Science and the Paranormal , attending The Skeptic 's Toolbox would satisfy one of the workshop requirements .
= = Methodology and focus = =
While critical thinking is the overall focus , lectures designed around the theme focus on the specialties of the faculty . A reporter for the Register @-@ Guard attended the 2003 toolbox and wrote of his experience hearing lectures on post traumatic stress syndrome , graphology , repressed memory court cases , communication with the dead , healing through prayer , traditional Chinese medicine and psychic dogs . All that and Jerry Andrus 's display of optical illusions too . The goal of the Toolbox is to " help skeptics add to their arsenal of tools and techniques with which to both guard against deception and properly evaluate paranormal claims " . Learning how to communicate with believers is also considered important : " Skeptics search for truths , believers tend to want validation of their experiences " .
Getting the skeptical message across to believers was a focus at the 1993 event . Faculty felt that non @-@ skeptics might be more receptive if attendees understood how they were perceived by others . " Many people view skeptics as die @-@ hard cynics and debunkers , even as enemies of free speech . Nonskeptics often hear only the " COP " in CSICOP " .
In 2010 , interviewed by D. J. Grothe , Hyman explained , " give people the tools to think , help them to become better thinkers " . Mentalist Bob Fellows performed at the second conference and told the audience , " The effect ( of a magic trick ) on audiences who ( believe the trick is real magic ) can be enormously powerful . And when deceit is involved , they can be potentially harmful as well " . Hyman felt that it was necessary to teach attendees with a " case @-@ based approach ... concrete examples as a first step toward extracting broad examples ... ( giving ) the benefit of context " to the learning experience .
= = Faculty of the Toolbox = =
Loren Pankratz - A founding faculty member of the Skeptic 's Toolbox , Pankratz explained to Harriet Hall , about the beginnings of the Toolbox , " Ray Hyman , Jerry Andrus and I were meeting together once a month or so and we decided that maybe the three of us could put a Toolbox together . "
Barry Beyerstein - " One of the many enjoyable tasks I undertake for CSICOP is to lecture in Ray Hyman 's annual summer workshop at the University of Oregon . Not only is it the towering presence of Ray himself , and the joy of observing the sheer brainpower of my fellow faculty at work , it is also the people , literally from around the world , who enroll in this and other CSICOP functions that keep me from suffering that occupational hazard ' skeptic 's burnout . ' They are a remarkable lot , genuinely nice people committed to critical thinking and leaving the place a bit better than they found it . They make me very pleased that my fate was to become a skeptical inquirer . "
Harriet Hall - Prior to attending the Toolbox as a student , Hall had been a " passive skeptic " , " I hadn 't done any writing ... Ray Hyman and Wally Sampson encouraged me to try my hand at writing , one thing led to another and now I 'm on the faculty of the Skeptic 's Toolbox . "
Lindsay Beyerstein - She started attending the Skeptic 's Toolbox when she was 14 ; her father Barry Beyerstein strongly influenced her involvement in the skeptical movement . " It 's sorta funny , the skeptics ' movement is now finally old enough , it 's like Scientology , we have second gen ! " She recounts , " I was always involved with my Dad in skeptical meetings ... " We would have family newsletter @-@ stuffing nights ( for the BC Skeptics ) . " instead of hiring babysitters her father would take Lindsay to his media interviews . " Does Satanic music cause suicide ? Out @-@ of @-@ body experiences ... it was always something new and different . "
James Alcock - " Ray and I and a magician by the name of Steve Shaw , now known as Banachek did the very first Toolbox in Buffalo ... a little while later Ray asked me if I could come out here to this group . " Ray stated " It took a long while to get Jim out here , but finally we managed it . "
= = Other = =
Gallery of photos
= Marty Mayberry =
Marty Mayberry ( born 9 February 1986 ) is a double leg amputee LW3 classified Paralympic alpine skier from Australia . He lost both legs after contracting meningococcal disease when he was sixteen years old . His experiences led him to study medicine , and he attended Griffith University and the University of Sydney where he pursued health science courses . Beyond the classroom , he has written a paper on Meningococcal disease , worked part @-@ time on research about the disease , and talked about his experiences at a conference . While at a music festival , he met his future wife whom he married in June 2010 .
Having started out as an able @-@ bodied skier , Mayberry took up the disability sport . He made his national team debut in 2005 , and went on to represent Australia at the 2006 Winter Paralympics the following year , when he did not medal . With the aid of a prosthesis , adjustments were made to his skiing legs , and he competed in several skiing competitions during 2007 , 2008 and 2009 . He was selected for the Australian 2010 Winter Paralympics team at a ceremony in Canberra in November 2009 . Between then and the start of the Games , he participated in a few more competitions , including one where he picked up a gold medal , and participated in a national team training camp . He was selected as Australia 's flag bearer for the opening ceremony . In competition , he earned a silver medal in the men 's downhill standing event , finished 24th in the Super @-@ G , was disqualified from the slalom , and failed to finish in the giant slalom . Following the games , he retired from skiing .
= = Personal = =
Mayberry was born on 9 February 1986 , and grew up in Byron Bay , New South Wales , where he attended Byron Bay High School . By 2009 , he resided in Queensland , and was living in Yeerongpilly , Queensland by 2010 . In June 2010 , he married. a woman he met at a music festival .
Following a high school ski trip when he was in year 11 , Mayberry contracted meningococcal disease at the age of 16 , and this resulted in double below the knee amputations . He was in a coma for two weeks as a result of the disease , and , when he woke up at [ [ Lismore Base
Hospital ] ] , learned his legs had been amputated . One of the things that motivated him to keep going during rehabilitation was the opportunity for sports .
Mayberry studied health sciences at Griffith University , and medicine at the University of Sydney . He went into medicine partly because of his illness during high school . He relocated to Sydney with his fiance to do so not long before the start of the 2009 — 2010 ski season . In August 2010 , he was the opening speaker at the Amanda Young Foundation Meningococcal Conference , and in 2010 and 2011 , worked part @-@ time at the Kids Research Institute at the Children 's Hospital at Westmead , where he was in contact with " Robert Booy in his research on the psycho @-@ social impact of meningococcal B on families . " He wrote up his experiences in dealing with meningococcal infection in the Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health .
He lives by Gandhi 's quote " Be the change you want to see in the world " .
= = Skiing = =
Mayberry is an LW3 classified skier who competes in standing events using a pair of artificial legs . Prior to contracting meningococcal , he was involved with skiing . He was back to competing at it on the disability side by 2004 . When fully kitted out , he looks like an able @-@ bodied skier , and is capable of skiing faster than 110 kilometres per hour ( 68 mph ) . He received support for his skiing from the Australian Institute of Sport , New South Wales Institute of Sport and the Australian Government Sports Training Grants program .
Mayberry has won medals at IPC Alpine Skiing World Cup events and the Paralympic Games . He made his Australian national team debut in 2005 at the European Cup Finals , and went on to represent Australia the following year at the 2006 Torino Games where he failed to medal in the four men 's standing events he competed in . He finished 33rd in the downhill , 21st in the Giant Slalom , 19th in the Slalom and did not finish in the Super G. Mayberry attributed his poor performance at the 2006 Games to his prosthetic legs , which " just didn 't feel right during the speed events in Italy . " Following those Games , he worked with prosthetist Peter Farrand to develop new legs that would address the problems in Italy . Continuing to ski following the 2006 Games , he earned a gold medal at a World Cup event in 2007 in Slalom , and earned a bronze medal in slalom event at a 2008 World Cup competition .
During Australia 's 2009 — 2010 summer , Mayberry was based in Europe and North America for training . At the 2009 World Championships , he had a pair of sixth places finished in the Super G and downhill events . That year , at a Spanish hosted IPC World Cup , he crashed in the giant slalom event and did not score a time . He was officially named to the Australian 2010 Winter Paralympics team in November 2009 . A ceremony was held in Canberra with Australian Paralympic Committee president Greg Hartung and Minister for Sport Kate Ellis making the announcement . Mayberry was selected to the largest Winter Paralympics team that Australia had ever sent to the Games .
In 2010 , he was the only elite skier with his type of disability in his classification . At the second to last World Cup event before the 2010 Games , on a course in Vancouver , Canada , he won a silver medal in the downhill with a time of 1 : 16 @.@ 02 . In Aspen , Colorado , at the last World Cup event before the 2010 Games , he won a gold medal in the downhill event . Prior to the start of the Games , he participated in a national team training camp in Vail , Colorado before the Aspen hosted World Cup . He and the rest of Australia 's para @-@ alpine team arrived in the Paralympic village on 9 March 2010 .
As a 24 @-@ year @-@ old , Mayberry competed in five events in the 2010 Paralympic games : downhill , super G , super combined , giant slalom , and slalom . His parents were in Vancouver to watch him compete . Mayberry won a silver medal in the men 's standing downhill event where he tied with another skier , and had a combined time of 1 : 22 @.@ 78 He finished 24th in the Super @-@ G , was disqualified from the slalom event after missing a gate , and did not finish in the Giant Slalom . Following the Games , he returned with the team to Sydney , where he attended a press conference at Sydney International Airport . He won an Australian Institute of Sport Sport Achievement Award in 2010 . By September 2010 , he had retired from elite skiing , one of several 2010 Winter Paralympic skiers to retire following the games . Others who retired at the same time he did included Shannon Dallas and Bart Bunting .
= Red Museum =
" Red Museum " is the tenth episode of the second season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on December 9 , 1994 . It was written by Chris Carter , directed by Win Phelps , and featured guest appearances by Mark Rolston , Paul Sand , Bob Frazer , and Robert Clothier . The episode helps to explore the series ' overarching mythology . " Red Museum " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 4 , being watched by 9 @.@ 9 million households in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to negative reviews from critics , with many noting the episode 's complexity as a detractor .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Mulder and Scully travel to Wisconsin after several teens are found wandering in the woods in their underwear with “ He Is One ” scrawled on their backs . However , the duo soon stumble upon a strange cult of vegetarian “ walk @-@ ins . ”
Originally , the episode was slated to be a crossover episode with the CBS show Picket Fences . However , the networks nixed the idea before any filming could begin . A facet of the episode , that the adherents of the Red Museum believe that the year 2012 will bring about the dawning of The New Age , is later referenced in the series ' finale " The Truth " , seven seasons later .
= = Plot = =
Fox Mulder and Dana Scully are called in to investigate a number of kidnappings in Delta Glen , Wisconsin where local teenagers are recovered half @-@ naked and drugged with either the phrase " He is one " or " She is one " written on their backs . Meeting with Sheriff Mazeroski , the agents initially suspect a nearby cult , the Church of the Red Museum , which was founded by vegetarian Richard Odin . Mulder , Scully and Mazeroski attend a ceremony of the Red Museum , causing Mulder to believe that they are walk @-@ ins , people whose souls have been taken over by someone else . One of the kidnap victims claims to have felt an animal spirit enter him .
The girlfriend of Mazeroski 's son , Rick , is the latest to be found , and her blood is found to contain an unknown alkaloid substance and high levels of scopolamine , a controlled substance . This appears to link her to Odin , a former doctor . Meanwhile , the agents meet an old man who points to a pair of men injecting growth serum into cattle , which he believes is at the cause of the trouble . That night , local doctor Jerrold Larson is killed in a plane crash . An investigation of the site turns up shipping orders that trace back to the kidnapped teens . One of the men injecting the cows is murdered by the Crew Cut Man . The other , a peeping tom named Gerd Thomas , is revealed to be the kidnapper after the agents find a hidden supply of videotapes in the home of one of the victims . Thomas claims that Larson had been turning the children into " monsters " with the drugs he had been injecting in them , which he claims to be unknown .
Meanwhile , Rick is murdered by the Crew Cut Man . Having passed by him on the road , Scully recognizes him as the assassin who killed Deep Throat . Her toxicology results on the victims show what she thinks is the mysterious substance known as " Purity Control " . Mulder theorizes that Larson had been injecting the children with alien DNA , and convinces Mazeroski to round up all of the children who had been receiving treatment from Larson and hide them with the Church of the Red Museum . Mulder tracks the Crew Cut Man down at a beef processing plant that he is about to destroy . While Mulder wants him alive , Mazeroski kills him as revenge for Rick 's murder .
Scully reports that the Crew Cut Man had no records on file with the FBI or other agencies . The material injected into the cows and children is found to be an unknown substance . All the children who were inoculated came down with a flu @-@ like illness while those in the Church of the Red Museum did not , causing her to think they were a control group . Scully declares the case open and unsolved .
= = Production = =
This episode was originally intended to be a crossover episode with the CBS show Picket Fences , which was set in another town in Wisconsin . David E. Kelley , the series creator of Picket Fences , and Chris Carter , the series creator of The X @-@ Files , were talking in a parking lot and thought it might be interesting to have Mulder and Scully visit Rome , Wisconsin for an X @-@ Files episode . Unlike a traditional crossover , the two shows would be shot with different viewpoints and one would be aired as an X @-@ Files episode and the other as an episode of Picket Fences . Ultimately , CBS decided against the crossover and both episodes created ended up becoming stand @-@ alones . Executive producer Robert Goodwin said of the experience " I spent days on the phone with a producer of Picket Fences . We spent days organizing our schedules . Then at the very last minute , of course , we found out that no one had told CBS , and they said ' Forget it . We 're having enough trouble on Friday nights without publicizing The X @-@ Files . ' It 's too bad . " The Picket Fences episode intended to be part of the crossover was called " Away in the Manger " and aired the week following " Red Museum . " While every reference to Picket Fences has been purged from the X @-@ Files episode , there still are some small winks left in the Picket Fences episode referring to the happenings at the X @-@ Files , including a mention of Dr. Larson . Ladner , British Columbia served as a location for Delta Glen , while the beef processing plant was shot in a facility in Cloverdale , with the local employees being used for the butchering and cleaning up scenes .
Producer Glen Morgan was disappointed with the resolution regarding the Crew Cut Man , saying " My feeling is that to bring this guy back , his presence should have been better developed , and he 's shot off screen . I thought ' Geez , this is the guy who killed Deep Throat , who the audience loved , and it 's kind of tossed away . ' The episode just seems like half of one thing for a while , then half of something else . I think that was a curious choice for Chris [ Carter ] . He wanted to take a real left turn , but I 'd rather have seen a whole episode about that guy showing up and Mulder getting back at him . " X @-@ Files writer James Wong also had a negative view of the episode , saying " I think that was one of the most confusing episodes I 've ever seen . It had some really neat ideas in it , but I don 't think it pulled together finally . "
The episode is the first in the series to mention the concept of walk @-@ ins , a plot device that would later be used five seasons later , when the truth about Samantha 's abduction was finally revealed to Mulder . It should also be noted that the adherents of the Red Museum believed that the year 2012 will bring about the dawning of The New Age . In the series ' finale , " The Truth , " it is revealed to Mulder by the Cigarette Smoking Man that the alien colonists plan to colonize the earth on December 22nd , 2012 . Despite the developments in the show 's mythological plot arc , this 2012 reference is the first explicit reference to the date of the planned colonization , a date that is only finally confirmed in the series finale — both to Mulder and the audience — seven seasons later . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Red Museum " premiered on the Fox network on December 9 , 1994 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 4 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 9 @.@ 9 million households .
The episode received mostly mixed to negative reviews from critics . Entertainment Weekly gave " Red Museum " a B , noting that the episode was " creative if convoluted . " Reviewer Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club criticized the way " Red Museum " was written , writing that the episode , " tries the neat trick of combining what appears to be a [ Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week ] ep with mythos ; the results are intriguing , but not entirely successful . " He concluded that the episode was " good " but ultimately " forgettable . " Critical Myth 's John Keegan gave the episode 5 / 10 , criticizing the complexity of the plot . He wrote that " Fairly quickly , The X @-@ Files gained a reputation for episodes that were so convoluted and confusing that few people could make sense of them . This episode stands as one of the shining examples of that trend , and it ’ s only appropriate that the episode was written by Chris Carter . "
= Henry Chadwick ( theologian ) =
Henry Chadwick , KBE , FBA ( 23 June 1920 – 17 June 2008 ) was a British academic and Church of England priest . A former Dean of Christ Church Cathedral , Oxford – and as such , head of Christ Church , Oxford – he also served as Master of Peterhouse , Cambridge , becoming the first person in four centuries to have headed a college at both universities .
A leading historian of the early church , Chadwick was appointed Regius Professor at both the universities of Oxford and Cambridge . He was a noted supporter of improved relations with the Roman Catholic Church , and a leading member of the Anglican – Roman Catholic International Commission ( ARCIC ) . An accomplished musician , having studied music to degree level , he took a leading part in the revision and updating of hymnals widely used within Anglicanism , chairing the board of the publisher , Hymns Ancient & Modern Ltd . , for twenty years .
= = Family and early life = =
Born in Bromley , Kent , Henry Chadwick was the son of a barrister ( who died when Chadwick was five ) and a music @-@ loving mother . He had a number of accomplished siblings : Sir John Chadwick served as the British Ambassador to Romania , and the Revd William Owen Chadwick and his other brother also became priests . Despite this , it was one of his sisters he would later describe as " the brightest of us all " . Chadwick was educated at Eton College , where he became a King 's Scholar . Although he did not show much aptitude as a Grecian , his lifelong love of music made its first appearance and resulted in his receiving organ lessons from Henry Ley .
After leaving Eton , he went to Magdalene College , Cambridge , on a music scholarship , and was expected to make music his career . A highlight of his undergraduate musical career was playing a two piano arrangement of Chabrier 's España with Boris Ord , then organist of King 's College , Cambridge . However , Chadwick chose to further his interest in Evangelical Christianity , which had existed from his school days . He graduated in 1941 and began his theological training in 1942 , at Ridley Hall , Cambridge , being ordained deacon by the Archbishop of Canterbury , in Canterbury Cathedral , in 1943 and priest by the Bishop of Dover in 1944 . He served a curacy at the Evangelical parish of Emmanuel , Croydon , arriving towards the end of the Second World War , as Croydon was attacked by German V @-@ weapons , which provided a difficult pastoral challenge . From there , he became an assistant master at Wellington College . He married Peggy in 1945 .
= = Academic career = =
= = = Cambridge = = =
Chadwick became a Fellow of Queens ' College , Cambridge , with his appointment as Chaplain in 1946 , and in 1950 advanced to the position of Dean . His rising academic reputation was confirmed in 1953 with the publication of a project had occupied him since the days of his curacy — his new translation of Origen 's Contra Celsum , with introduction and notes . He had by now made himself an expert in Patristic Greek ; only an inexactness in philology marking his earlier abandonment of Greek for music . Also in 1953 he was appointed co @-@ editor ( with Hedley Sparks ) of the Journal of Theological Studies and continued editing it until 1985 . He held the university appointment of Hulsean Lecturer from 1954 – 6 .
= = = Oxford = = =
Chadwick moved to Oxford in 1959 , to take up the position of Regius Professor of Divinity ( and with it the associated canonry at Christ Church Cathedral ) at the relatively young age of 39 . He was named a Fellow of the British Academy ( FBA ) soon after , and in 1962 Gifford Lecturer at the University of St Andrews lecturing on Authority in the Early Church . He gave a second series of lectures in 1963 – 4 , on Authority in Christian Theology . 1963 also saw him appointed to an early Anglican inquiry into the issues surrounding the ordination of women . In the 1960s , along with scholars like E. R. Dodds , Peter Brown , and John Matthews , Chadwick helped make Oxford a centre in the developing study of Late Antiquity . He clarified the classical philosophical roots of Christian thinkers from Justin Martyr and Clement of Alexandria to Augustine of Hippo , and set about raising academic standards within the theology department — in particular making the degree of Doctor of Divinity ( DD ) into a genuine research degree , as opposed to an honorary award made to senior clerics who had produced a volume of sermons . 1967 saw the publication of his most widely read work , The Early Church , published under the Pelican imprint of Penguin Books . He was disappointed that he was allowed to include so few footnotes in the original publication , and correspondingly delighted when the publishers of a German edition requested additional notes for their translation . That same year he was appointed to a Church of England doctrine commission investigating " The place of the Articles in the Anglican tradition and the question of Subscription and Assent to them " , which produced its report in July 1968 ready for that year 's Lambeth Conference . The report ultimately led to changes in the doctrinal affirmations required of Church of England clergy at their ordination or on taking up new appointments . In 1968 he was appointed a vice @-@ president of the British Academy .
In 1969 , Chadwick was appointed Dean of Christ Church , uniquely a dual role as a cathedral dean and head of a college . This period was not entirely happy ; a scholarly ability to see all sides of a question , along with an ingrained desire not to upset his colleagues , sometimes made it hard for him to make a quick or firm decision . However , during his time as Dean the college benefited from a continued programme of renovation with internal changes that provided more student accommodation . The position gave Chadwick the chance to influence the musical direction of the cathedral . In The Independent newspaper , obituary writer Andrew Louth notes that at the retirement of Sydney Watson as organist , when he and Chadwick played piano duets together Chadwick 's technique was the equal of Watson 's . The new organist , Simon Preston , had ambitious plans for improving musical standards , and Chadwick was pleased to be able to support these , not least by raising funds for a new organ .
Chadwick also found time to contribute to the administration of the wider university , serving on the Hebdomadal Council , as a Delegate of Oxford University Press , as one of the curators of the Bodleian , and as Pro @-@ Vice @-@ Chancellor 1974 – 5 . It was during this period that he began to participate in the discussions of the Anglican – Roman Catholic International Commission ( ARCIC ) ; he was a member of the commission 1969 – 81 and again 1983 – 90 @.@ his early Evangelical sympathies having been tempered over time , helped by his friendship with Edward Yarnold , Master of Campion Hall . He was a master of the Anglican approach of producing statements capable of a range of interpretations to enable common ground to be reached , this worked well for simpler historical differences , but did not always impress the Roman Catholic members of the commission when it came to questions of ecclesiology and church authority . He was also able to use his historical background to put forward summaries of early church positions on a variety of subjects , and he had a true desire to establish consensus on the basis of the principles revealed by this research . Although his scholarly output suffered from the pressures on his time , he was editor of Oxford Early Christian Texts ( from 1970 ) , and was able to work on two major monographs , Priscillian of Avila : the occult and the charismatic in the early Church ( published 1976 ) and Boethius : the consolations of music , logic , theology and philosophy ( published 1981 ) . The second of these in particular allowing him to draw on the full range of his interests .
= = = Return to Cambridge = = =
In 1979 , Chadwick resigned the deanship , returning to Cambridge to take up the Regius Chair of Divinity . Additionally , he became a Syndic of Cambridge University Press , a Fellow of Magdalene , and was installed as an honorary canon of Ely Cathedral . He gained a reputation as a popular lecturer in Cambridge , and between 1982 and 1983 gave the Sarum Lectures in Oxford , for which his subject was Augustine of Hippo . Edited , these lectures became the basis for his 1986 book , Augustine . He retired from the professorship in 1983 and settled in Oxford .
After four years in retirement , he received an unexpected invitation to become Master of Peterhouse in 1987 , thus becoming the first person in over four centuries to lead a college at both Oxford and Cambridge . Chadwick 's second appointment as head of a college proved a happier experience than his first . The college had been experiencing some problems following the admission of the first female students , to which some fellows were implacably opposed , making their displeasure known at High Table . Chadwick insisted on civility , which coupled with the retirement of some of the fellows , ensured an improvement in the atmosphere within the college . This continued after his second retirement ( again to Oxford ) in 1993 . He was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1989 Queen 's Birthday Honours . In 1991 he published a new translation of Augustine 's Confessions , with extensive notes revealing Augustine 's debt to Plotinus .
Chadwick also edited Oxford Early Christian Studies ( from 1990 ) . With his brother Owen , he edited The Oxford History of the Christian Church ( 12 vols . , 1981 – 2010 ) . His own volumes in this series were The Church in Ancient Society : from Galilee to Gregory the Great ( 2001 ) and East and West : The Making of a Rift in the Church : From Apostolic Times until the Council of Florence ( 2005 ) . His final work was to have been on Photios I of Constantinople , research for which covered many of his interests , particularly classical learning and Christianity , and ecumenism . Some of his material on the topic was published in East and West . He was also an Editorial Advisor of Dionysius . He died in Oxford on 17 June 2008 .
= = Reputation and recognition = =
Writing in an obituary for The Guardian , the then Archbishop of Canterbury , Rowan Williams , wrote , " ' The Anglican church , ' it was said , ' may not have a Pope , but it does have Henry Chadwick . ' " and further described him as an " aristocrat among Anglican scholars " . Other obituaries and appreciations describe how he was generous with his time and knowledge , and always ready to point students in the right direction . The Independent credits his capacious memory and a personal library of around 20 @,@ 000 books as the foundation of his broad scholarship . According to The Times , when reviewing others ' writing he was usually generous , though capable of a courteous demolition job when well @-@ deserved .
A capable preacher , though doubtful of his ability when preaching to a non @-@ academic congregation , Chadwick was well regarded as a lecturer and companion at High Table . However , a natural shyness could give him a rather remote air . On an American lecture tour , he noticed three young women who came to every lecture , but took no notes . At the end of lectures he asked the women how they had enjoyed them , to be told that they had no real interest in the subject itself , but they loved to hear him speak . The character of the college provost in the A Staircase in Surrey novels of Christ Church colleague J. I. M. Stewart was based on that of Chadwick .
Chadwick held honorary degrees from the universities of Glasgow , Uppsala , Yale , Leeds , Manchester , Surrey , Chicago , Harvard , Jena and the Augustinian University of Rome . He was made an honorary fellow of Queens ' College , Cambridge , in 1958 , just before he took up his Oxford Chair ; and of Magdalene College , Cambridge , in 1962 . He also treasured a stole given to him by Pope John Paul II in 1982 , and this was placed on his coffin during his funeral at Christ Church on 25 June 2008 . Two Festschriften were made in his honour , one for his contributions to the study of church history ( Christian Authority , ed . Gillian Evans , 1988 ) , the other for his ecumenical work ( The Making of Orthodoxy , ed . Rowan Williams , 1989 ) . In addition to his work on ARCIC he was involved in similar conversations with the Eastern Orthodox Churches . In 1974 Ladbrokes had Chadwick at odds of 7 – 1 for appointment as the next Archbishop of Canterbury ; his brother Owen was at 6 – 1 . In 1984 The Times reported that both brothers were reputed to have turned down more than one bishopric .
Chadwick 's love of music led him to serve for twenty years as chairman of the council of Hymns Ancient & Modern Ltd . During this time the company expanded its scope . From producing the hymnbooks Hymns Ancient and Modern ( A & M ) , and The English Hymnal , it also took ownership of Canterbury Press , SCM Press , and the Church Times , leading to jokes that Chadwick was an ecclesiastical Rupert Murdoch . He was heavily involved in the editorial process leading to the supplements to A & M , 100 Hymns for Today , More Hymns for Today , Worship Songs Ancient and Modern , and Hymns Ancient and Modern New Standard , which combined the best of the original book with that from the supplements into a single volume , and also the most recent revision , Common Praise . He had particularly argued for the inclusion of the Spiritual , Steal Away , and this was amongst the music used at his funeral .
= = Publications = =
Chadwick published over 125 books , monographs , articles etc . Mentioned in obituaries as being particularly notable are :
Origen : Contra Celsum ( 1953 )
Early Christian Thought and The Classical Tradition : Studies in Justin , Clement , and Origen ( Oxford , 1966 )
Priscillian of Avila : The Occult and the Charismatic in the Early Church ( 1976 )
Augustine ( Past Masters , Oxford , 1986 )
Saint Augustine : Confessions ( Translation , introduction , notes . Oxford , 1991 )
The Early Church ( The Penguin History of the Church , 1967 revised 1993 )
The Church in Ancient Society : From Galilee to Gregory the Great ( Oxford History of the Christian Church , 2001 )
East and West : the making of a rift in the Church ( History of the Christian Church , 2003 )
= Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European root =
The roots of the reconstructed Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European language ( PIE ) are basic parts of words that carry a lexical meaning , so @-@ called morphemes . PIE roots usually have verbal meaning like " eat " or " run " . Roots never occur alone in the language . Complete inflected words like verbs , nouns or adjectives are formed by adding further morphemes to a root .
= = Word formation = =
Typically , a root plus a suffix forms a stem , and adding an ending forms a word .
<formula>
For example , * bʰéreti ' he carries ' can be split into the root * bʰer- ' to carry ' , the suffix * -e- ' imperfective aspect ' and the ending * -ti ' present tense , third person singular ' .
The suffix is sometimes missing , which has been interpreted as a zero suffix . Words with zero suffix are termed root verbs and root nouns . Beyond this basic structure , there is the nasal infix , a present tense marker , and reduplication , a sort of prefix with a number of grammatical and derivational functions .
= = = Finite verbs = = =
Verbal suffixes , including the zero suffix , convey grammatical information about tense and aspect , two grammatical categories that are not clearly distinguished . Present and aorist are universally recognised , while some of the other aspects remain controversial . Two of the four moods , the subjunctive and the optative , are also formed with suffixes , which sometimes results in forms with two consecutive suffixes : * bʰér @-@ e @-@ e @-@ ti > * bʰérēti ' he would carry ' , with the first * e being the present tense marker , and the second the subjunctive marker . Reduplication can mark the present and the perfect .
Verbal endings convey information about grammatical person , number and voice . The imperative mood has its own set of endings .
= = = Nouns and adjectives = = =
Nouns usually derive from roots or verb stems by suffixation or by other means ( see the morphology of the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European noun for some examples ) . This can hold even for roots that are often translated as nouns : * ped- , for example , can mean ' to tread ' or ' foot ' , depending on the ablaut grade and ending . Some nouns like * agʷn @-@ o- ' lamb ' or * h ₂ ster- ' star ' , however , do not derive from verbal roots . In any case , the meaning of a noun is given by its stem , whether this is composed of a root plus a suffix or not . This leaves the ending , which conveys case and number .
Adjectives are also derived by suffixation of ( usually verbal ) roots . An example is * ǵn ̥ h ₁ -tó @-@ s ' begotten , produced ' from the root * ǵenh ₁ - ' to beget , to produce ' . The endings are the same as with nouns .
= = = Infinitives and participles = = =
Infinitives are verbal nouns and , just like other nouns , are formed with suffixes . It is not clear whether any of the infinitive suffixes reconstructed from the daughter languages ( * -dʰye- , * -tu- , * -ti- , among others ) was actually used to express an infinitive in PIE .
Participles are verbal adjectives formed with the suffixes * -ent- ( active imperfective and aorist participle ) , * -wos- ( perfect participle ) and * -mh ₁ no- or * -m ( e ) no- ( mediopassive participle ) , among others .
= = Shape of a | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
me with what I lacked [ so ] I resolved , about six years ago , to turn my hand in good earnest to the making of punches , matrices and moulds for all sorts of characters , for the accommodation both of the public and of myself .
Jannon 's career took place during a politically tense period . Jannon was a Protestant in mostly Catholic France , and began his career as printer for the Protestant Academy at Sedan in what is now north @-@ eastern France before taking up punchcutting , in his thirties by his report . Sedan the time enjoyed an unstable independence as a principality at a time when the French government had conceded through the Edict of Nantes to allowing a complicated system of restricted liberties for Protestants . While acknowledging his talent and commissioning equipment from him , as documented by the surviving purchase order , it is known that authorities in 1644 raided an office in Caen where he had been commissioned to do printing . Warde initially assumed that this was the source of the Jannon materials in the Imprimerie Nationale before the government 's purchase order from Jannon came to light . Jannon 's types and their descendants are recognizable by the triangular serifs on the top left of such characters as ' m ' , ' n ' and ' r ' , which have a very steep slant in Jannon 's design compared to Garamond 's . The italics are also very different to Garamond 's own or Granjon 's , being much more ornate .
By the nineteenth century , Jannon 's matrices had come to be known as the Caractères de l 'Université ( Characters of the University ) . It has sometimes been claimed that this term was an official name designated for the Jannon type by Cardinal Richelieu , while Warde in 1926 more plausibly suggested it might be a garbled recollection of Jannon 's work with the Sedan Academy , which operated much like a university despite not using the name . Carter in the 1970s followed this conclusion . Mosley , however , concludes that no report of the term ( or much use of Jannon 's type at all ) exists before the nineteenth century , and it may originate from a generic term of the previous century simply meaning older or more conservative typeface designs , perhaps those preferred in academic publishing .
= = = After Jannon = = =
The old @-@ style typefaces of Garamond and his contemporaries and successors remained in use in printing for over two hundred years after Garamond 's death , and became influential on Dutch printing during the period known as Dutch golden age , when Dutch printing was itself very influential across Europe . Dutch printers and punchcutters , however , sometimes favoured more solid , darker designs than Garamond 's .
Old @-@ style serif typefaces by Garamond and his colleagues finally fell out of use with the arrival of what is now called the Didone style of printing in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries , promoted by the Didot family in France and others . This favoured a much more geometric , constructed style of letter which could show off the increasingly refined paper and printing technologies of the period . Mosley comments :
The upheavals of the Revolution coincided with the major shift in the style of printing types that is associated with the family of Didot , and the stock of old materials abruptly lost its value , except as scrap . Punches rust , and the copper of matrices is recyclable . All traces of the early types that had been in the hands of the trade typefounders like Le Bé , Sanlecque and Lamesle in Paris vanished completely . No relics of them were saved anywhere , except in commercial centres that had become relative backwaters , like Antwerp , where the Plantin @-@ Moretus printing office piously preserved the collection of its founder ... the term caractères de l 'Université became attached by default to the set of apparently early matrices that had survived , its provenance forgotten , in the mixed stock of materials of the national printing @-@ office .
Garamond 's reputation remained respected , even by members of the Didot family whose type designs came to dominate French printing .
= = = Revival era = = =
A revival of interest in ' old @-@ style ' serif typefaces took place in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century . This saw a revival of the Imprimerie royale typefaces ( the office was now called the Imprimerie nationale following the end of the French monarchy ) , which , unlike Garamond 's own work , had survived in Paris . The attribution came to be considered certain by the Imprimerie 's director Arthur Christian .
Early revivals were often based directly on the Imprimerie nationale types , one of the first by Peignot and then by American Type Founders . These revivals could be made using pantograph machine engraving systems , which gave a cleaner result than historic typefaces whose master punches had been hand @-@ carved out of steel , and allowed rapid development of a large range of sizes . In addition , the new hot metal typesetting technology of the period created increasing availability and demand for new fonts . Among hot metal typesetting companies , Monotype 's branches in Britain and the United States brought out separate versions , and the American branch of Linotype licensed that of ATF .
A number of historians began in the early twentieth century to question if the Imprimerie nationale Latin @-@ alphabet type was really the work Garamond as the Grecs du Roi undoubtedly were . Doubt was raised by French historian Jean Paillard , but he died in the First World War soon after publishing his conclusions in 1914 and his work remained little @-@ read . ATF 's historian Henry Lewis Bullen secretly doubted that the ' Garamond ' his company was reviving was really Garamond 's work , noting that he had never seen it in a sixteenth @-@ century book . He discussed his concerns with ATF junior librarian Beatrice Warde , who would later move to Europe and become a prominent writer on printing advising the British branch of Monotype .
In a 1926 paper published on the British typography journal The Fleuron , Beatrice Warde revealed her discovery that the Imprimerie nationale type had been created by Jean Jannon , something she had discovered by examining printing credited to him in London and Paris and through reading the work of Paillard .
By the time Warde 's article was published some revivals had been released that were more authentic revivals of Garamond 's work , based on period books and printing specimens . The German company Stempel brought out a crisp revival of the original Garamond typefaces in the 1920s , inspired by a rediscovered specimen from the Egenolff @-@ Berner foundry in Frankfurt , as did Linotype in Britain .
= = Timeline = =
= = = The Renaissance = = =
1470 – first book printed in France , by a Swiss / German team at the Sorbonne , Paris . Early books printed in France use type of a blackletter design or influenced by it .
1496 – Aldus Manutius publishes De Aetna , a short text of poetry that serves as his first printing in the Latin alphabet . Its new ' roman ' metal type sets a standard imitated by French printers .
= = = Late Renaissance = = =
1510 – Garamond may have been born around this time .
1530 – Robert Estienne begins to publish in a new and more elegant style of ' roman ' type , influenced by De Aetna with its asymmetrical ' M ' . These typefaces were once attributed to Garamond . Vervliet has argued that they are not by Garamond , but notes that the attribution of them to him begins quite early .
1541 – Garamond is advanced money to cut the Grecs du Roi type .
1561 – Death of Garamond .
1563 – Christophe Plantin buys matrices and other equipment in Paris at auction , some from Garamond 's widow , for his partnership in Antwerp . Other equipment is bought by other Parisian and German printers ; a specimen sheet identifying his types is issued by a Frankfurt foundry in 1592 .
1560 – 70s – The work of Garamond and his contemporaries becomes very influential in the Low Countries and western Germany . A decline sets into the production of new typefaces , probably mostly due to simple saturation of the market with typefaces of acceptable quality , and possibly also due to economic and religious factors causing the emigration of printers and typefounders to other countries . Typefounding now a clearly separate industry to printing .
= = = Early modern period = = =
1580 – birth of Jannon
1621 – Jannon issues a specimen of his type .
1640 – Jannon leaves Sedan for Paris .
1641 – foundation of the Imprimerie Royale , which buys matrices from Jannon
1644 – Jannon 's printing office in Caen is raided by authorities concerned that he may have been publishing banned material . Jannon is not imprisoned , but returns to Sedan .
1658 – death of Jannon
= = = Eighteenth century = = =
1756 – Parisian printer Jean @-@ Pierre Fournier , who had inherited the Le Bé foundry , writes of his collection of vintage type that " I own the foundry of Garamond , the Le Bé family and Granjon . I shall be happy to display my punches and matrices to all those who are lovers of true beauty ... these are the types that made the reputations of the Estiennes , Plantin and the Elzevirs . " However , his extensive collections are dispersed after his death in 1783 and ultimately ' traditional ' old @-@ style type falls out of use in France .
= = = Early revival era = = =
Late nineteenth century – revival in interest in ' old @-@ style ' typefaces such as the Caslon type ( 1730s , England ) and that of Jenson ( 1470s , Venice ) .
1912 – revival of the Imprimerie Royale ( now Imprimerie nationale , following the revolution ) type by the Peignot foundry .
1914 – Jean Paillard publishes a book arguing that the Imprimerie nationale type was not created by Garamond but his work attracts little attention . He is killed serving in the First World War a few months later .
1920 – a copy of the 1592 Berner specimen of typefaces is published in facsimile .
1923 – ATF issue a specimen of their Garamond revival , in development for several years prior . ATF 's historian Henry Bullen privately tells Beatrice Warde , then a junior librarian , that he suspects that Garamond had nothing to do with the type , since he had never seen it in a contemporary book , but has no better candidate for its creator . Warde subsequently moves to Europe , becoming a freelance writer on printing and adviser to Monotype in London .
1925 – Based on the Egelhoff @-@ Berner specimen , Stempel Garamond is released in Germany : later also released by Linotype , it is the first Garamond revival actually based on his work .
1923 – Monotype Garamond is published based on the Imprimerie nationale type .
1926 – Warde discovers and reveals that the Imprimerie nationale type was created by Jannon , and that all revivals based on it are not directly based on Garamond 's work .
= = Contemporary versions = =
= = = Based on Garamond 's design = = =
= = = = Adobe Garamond = = = =
Released in 1989 , Adobe Garamond is designed by Robert Slimbach for Adobe Systems , based on a Roman type by Garamond and an italic type by Robert Granjon . The font family contains regular , semibold , and bold weights and was developed through viewing fifteenth @-@ century equipment at the Plantin @-@ Moretus Museum . Its quite even , mature design attracted attention on release for its authenticity to Garamond 's work , a contrast to the much more aggressive ITC Garamond popular at the time . The OpenType version of the font family was released in 2000 as Adobe Garamond Pro , with enhanced support for its alternate glyphs such as ligatures , small caps and italic swash capitals , and is sold through Adobe 's Typekit system . It is one of the most popular versions of Garamond in books and fine printing .
= = = = Garamond Premier = = = =
Slimbach started planning for a second interpretation of Garamond after visiting the Plantin @-@ Moretus Museum in 1988 , during the production of Adobe Garamond . His visit there led him to conclude that Garamond could not be truly revived digitally unless in a set of optical sizes , with adaptations in the design for different sizes of text . Unable to create such a large range of styles practically with the technology and business requirements of the 1980s , he completed the project in 2005 with several optical sizes , each designed in four weights ( regular , medium , semibold and bold , with an additional light weight for display sizes ) using the OpenType font format . It features glyph coverage for Central European , Cyrillic and Greek characters including polytonics . Professor Gerry Leonidas , an expert in Greek @-@ language printing , described it in 2005 as " bar none , the most accomplished typeface you can get for complex Greek texts " . Adobe executive Thomas Phinney described it as a " modernized interpretation " different to their earlier Garamond , which remains on sale .
= = = = Stempel Garamond = = = =
A hot @-@ metal period adaptation created by the Stempel Type Foundry in the inter @-@ war period , and released through Linotype in other countries , that has remained popular . It is sharp , somewhat angular design with a crisp hook rather than a teardrop at top left of the ' a ' . Stempel Garamond has relatively short descenders , allowing it to be particularly tightly linespaced . An unusual feature is the digit 0 , which has reversed contrast , with the thickest points of the number on the top and bottom of the digit .
= = = = Sabon = = = =
Sabon is a Garamond revival designed by Jan Tschichold in 1964 , jointly released by Linotype , Monotype and Stempel in 1967 . It is named after Jacques Sabon , who introduced Garamond 's types to German printing . An unusual feature of many releases of Sabon is that the italic , based on Granjon 's work , is wider than most normal italics , at the same width as the roman style . This suited the hot metal typesetting machines of the period . Later Sabon versions , such as Jean François Porchez 's Sabon Next , have not always maintained this principle .
= = = = EB Garamond = = = =
Released in 2011 by Georg Duffner , EB Garamond is a free software version of Garamond released under the Open Font License and available through Google Fonts . Duffner based the design on a specimen printed by Egelnoff @-@ Berner in 1592 , with italic and Greek characters based on Robert Granjon 's work , as well as the addition of Cyrillic characters and OpenType features such as swash italic capitals and schoolbook alternates . It is intended to include multiple optical sizes , as of 2014 including fonts based on the 8 and 12 point forms on the 1592 specimen . It has been described as " one of the best open source fonts " by prominent typeface designer Erik Spiekermann . As of February 2016 , no bold weight has yet been released .
= = = = URW + + Garamond No. 8 = = = =
Garamond No. 8 is a freeware version of Garamond contributed by URW + + to the Ghostscript project , based on Stempel Garamond . Featuring a bold weight , small capitals , optional text figures and automatic ligature insertion , it is particularly popular in the TeX community and is also included on some Linux distributions . Originally released as a PostScript Type 1 , it has been converted into the TrueType format , usable by most current software . It is distributed under the AFP license , which allows it to be used freely ( without support ) but not sold or have its distribution charged for .
= = = = Granjon = = = =
Despite the name , Granjon , by the English branch of Linotype , is based on the original Garamond roman with a Granjon italic . ( Warde commented " It would seem that Garamond 's name , having so long been used on a design he never cut , is now by stern justice left off a face which is undoubtedly his . " )
= = = Based on Jannon 's design = = =
= = = = ATF Garamond / Garamond No. 3 = = = =
American Type Founders created a revival of the Imprimerie Nationale typefaces around 1919 – 1923 , designed in @-@ house by its design department led by Morris Fuller Benton . It received a first sumptuous showing , marketed especially towards advertisers , in ATF 's 1923 specimen book . Also involved in the revival was book designer T.M. Cleland , who created a set of matching borders and ornaments . The design gained its current name in a more practical hot metal adaptation licensed to and marketed by Linotype 's American branch from around 1936 ; the number distinguished it from Stempel 's version and other variants which Linotype also sold . It was the style of Garamond preferred by prominent designer Massimo Vignelli . A variant is used by Deutsche Bahn , and the original ATF Garamond on which it was based has also been revived .
= = = = Monotype Garamond = = = =
Monotype 's 1922 design , based on Jannon 's work in the Imprimerie Nationale , is bundled with many Microsoft products . Its italic , faithful to Jannon 's , is extremely calligraphic , with a very variable angle of slant and flourishes on several lower @-@ case letters . Its commercial release is more extensive than the basic Microsoft release , featuring additional features such as swash capitals and small capitals , although like many pre @-@ digital fonts these are only included in the regular weight . Popular in the metal type era , its digitisation has been criticised for having too light a colour on the page for body text if printed with many common printing systems . This is a known problem with many Monotype digitisations of the period . Some publicity art for it in the metal period was created by a young Rodney Peppé . Monotype 's 1933 guide to identifying their typefaces noted the asymmetrical T , the sharp triangular serif at top left of m , n , p and r , and a q unlike the p , with a point at top right rather than a full serif .
= = = = Garamont = = = =
A revival by Frederic Goudy for the American branch of Monotype , the name chosen to differ from other revivals . An elegant sample created by Bruce Rogers was shown in a spring 1923 issue of Monotype 's magazine . It like Monotype Garamond features a large range of swash characters , based on Imprimerie Nationale specimen sheets .
Mosley has described it as " a lively type , underappreciated I think . " LTC 's digitisation deliberately maintained its eccentricity and irregularity true to period printing , avoiding perfect verticals . In 1923 , Morison at the British branch of Monotype thought it somewhat florid in comparison to the version of his branch which he considered a personal project , noting in a 1923 letter to American printer Daniel Berkeley Updike that " I entertain very decided opinions about this latest of Mr. Goudy 's achievements ... a comparison leaves me with a preference for our version . " He added that he " could not bring myself to believe " that Garamond himself had cut the swash capitals that " Mr. Goudy has done his best to reproduce " .
= = = = Jannon = = = =
František Štorm 's 2010 revival with optical sizes is one of the few modern revivals of Jannon 's work . Štorm also created a matching sans @-@ serif companion design , Jannon Sans .
= = = Related fonts = = =
As one of the most popular typefaces in history , a number of designs have been created that are influenced by Garamond 's design but follow different design paths .
= = = = ITC Garamond = = = =
ITC Garamond was created by Tony Stan in 1975 , and follows ITC 's house style of unusually high x @-@ height . It was initially intended to serve as a display version but was used for text , in which its tight spacing and high x @-@ height gives it a somewhat hectoring appearance . As a result , it has proven somewhat controversial among designers ; it is generally considered poorly @-@ proportioned for body text . It remains the corporate font of the California State University system in printed text . As seen below , it was also modified into Apple Garamond which served as Apple 's corporate font from 1984 until replacement with Myriad . Publishers using it included O 'Reilly Media and French publisher Actes Sud .
= = = = Cormorant = = = =
An open @-@ source adaptation of Garamond intended for display sizes , designed by Christian Thalmann and co @-@ released with Google Fonts . It features a delicate style suitable for printing at larger sizes , and considerable contrast in stroke weight in its larger sizes . Thalmann added several unusual alternate designs such as an upright italic and unicase styles , as well as exaggerated , highly slanting accents .
= = = = Claude Sans = = = =
A humanist sans @-@ serif based on the letterforms of Jannon 's type , created by Alan Meeks and published by Letraset and later ITC .
= = In popular culture = =
This list focuses on notable references to Garamond or his typefaces , not including the extremely large number of books printed in them .
In Umberto Eco 's novel Foucault 's Pendulum , the protagonists work for a pair of related publishing companies , Garamond and Manuzio , both owned by a Mister Garamond .
Garamond is the name of a character in the Wii game Super Paper Mario . He appears in the world of Flopside ( the mirror @-@ image of Flipside , where the game begins ) . He is a prolific and highly successful author , unlike his Flipside counterpart , Helvetica ( a probable recognition of the relative suitability of the two fonts for use in book typesetting ) .
For many years the masthead of British newspaper The Guardian used " The " in Garamond and " Guardian " in bold Helvetica .
A condensed variant of ITC Garamond was adopted by Apple in 1984 upon the release of the Macintosh , known as Apple Garamond . This was a proprietary font not publicly available , less condensed than the publicly released ITC Garamond Condensed .
One of the initial goals of the literary journal Timothy McSweeney 's Quarterly Concern was to use only a single font : Garamond 3 . The editor of the journal , Dave Eggers , has stated that it is his favourite font , " because it looked good in so many permutations — italics , small caps , all caps , tracked out , justified or not . "
In Robin Sloan 's fantasy novel Mr. Penumbra 's 24 @-@ Hour Bookstore several character names derive from historical figures associated with the Garamond typeface .
= = = Printer ink claim = = =
It has been claimed that Garamond uses much less ink than Times New Roman at a similar point size , so changing to Garamond could be a cost @-@ saver for large organizations that print large numbers of documents , especially if using inkjet printers . Garamond , along with Times New Roman and Century Gothic , has been identified by the GSA as a " toner @-@ efficient " font .
This claim has been criticised as a misinterpretation of how typefaces are actually measured and what printing methods are desirable . Monotype Garamond , the version bundled with Windows , has a generally smaller design at the same notional point size compared to Times New Roman and quite spindly strokes , giving it a more elegant but less readable appearance . To make letters , especially the lower @-@ case , as high as in an equivalent setting of Times New Roman , the text size must be increased , counterbalancing any cost savings . Thomas Phinney , an expert on digital fonts , noted that the effect of simply swapping Garamond in would be compromised legibility : " any of those changes , swapping to a font that sets smaller at the same nominal point size , or actually reducing the point size , or picking a thinner typeface , will reduce the legibility of the text . That seems like a bad idea , as the percentage of Americans with poor eyesight is skyrocketing . " Professional font designer Jackson Cavanaugh commented " If we 're actually interested in reducing waste , just printing less – using less paper – is obviously more efficient . "
= = Gallery = =
= Texas Recreational Road 8 =
Recreational Road 8 ( RE 8 ) is a Recreational Road located in McMullen County in the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Texas . The highway is approximately 1 @.@ 1 miles ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) in length , and connects Texas State Highway 72 ( TX 72 ) to the community of Calliham and Choke Canyon State Park . The roadway travels through rural areas and central Calliham . Calliham was first laid out in 1922 , and a road first appeared in the location of RE 8 by 1940 . Farm to Market Road 99 ( FM 99 ) was designated in the location of RE 8 in 1954 . Recreational Road 8 was officially designated in June of 1981 , after FM 99 was relocated . The highway was cancelled and relocated in 1983 . The highway is currently the only route to deviate from the recreational road criteria .
= = Route description = =
RE 8 begins at an at @-@ grade intersection with TX 72 south of the unincorporated community of Calliham . The highway proceeds as a two @-@ lane , paved road , traveling northward toward Calliham . As it travels through mainly rural areas , the route intersects a small dirt road before entering the southern portion of Calliham . The road intersects Fletcher Street and continues past several houses , traveling parallel to Naylor Street for a short distance before it intersects Ritcher Street , where it bends northeastward and continues . The road passes a large RV park and intersects Deer Trail before continuing past several houses . It proceeds to its northern terminus , an intersection with Quail Run Road at the edge of Choke Canyon State Park . A long park road continues north into the park , providing access to several campgrounds and recreational areas .
The highway is maintained by the Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) . Part of the job of the TxDOT is to measure traffic along the highway . These counts are taken using a metric called annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) . This is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles that travel along a portion of the highway . The TxDOT usually measures AADT near an intersection . In 2011 , the highway 's AADT was 530 vehicles , taken at a point just north of the intersection with TX 72 . This was an increase from the previous year , when the count was just 330 vehicles , which was taken at the same point . This was a decrease from 2009 , when the AADT for the route was 390 vehicles . No portion of the roadway is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . RE 8 is currently the only route in the Recreational Road system to deviate from the system criteria . The TxDOT defines a Recreatonal Road as a route which travels " to a recognized recreational area " , while RE 8 serves Choke Canyon State Park .
= = History = =
The community of Calliham was first settled in 1918 , and was known as Guffeyola . The settlement was a simple camp city , but boomed in 1922 when oil was discovered nearby . In 1923 , due to the rapid expansion , J. W. Stephenson laid out the plan for the townsite for the community , which contained all roads and sites . The community continued to expand into the 1930s . By 1940 , an unimproved dirt road connected central Calliham to camps north of the community . The road crossed the Frio River on a concrete bridge , and had a single cattle guard located on its course . By 1951 , the road 's first block from its southern terminus was improved to a graded , bituminous surface , made up of crushed rock and asphalt . On October 28 , 1952 , FM 2153 was designated along the course of the highway , for a length of approximately 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) . On October 13 , 1954 , the Texas Transportation Commission ( TTC ) cancelled FM 2153 , and extended FM 99 over its course . The designation was officially passed by the Texas State Highway Department 's Administration Circle on December 1 , 1954 .
By 1956 , the entire length of the highway had been graded and resurfaced with crushed rock , as well as being minorly straightened . Between then and 1961 , the route was listed as being a Federal Aid Secondary Road , its surface was improved to bituminous , the bridge over the Frio River was replaced , and the road 's course was minorly straightened . On March 27 , 1981 , FM 99 was approved to be relocated around the location of the newly created Choke Canyon Reservoir . The relocation was officially designated on June 15 , 1981 . On April 3 , 1981 , RE 8 was approved to be designated over the relocated portion of FM 99 . The designation was made official the same day FM 99 was relocated . On June 29 , 1983 , the TTC approved the cancellation and redesignation of RE 8 , and on August 18 , 1983 the redesignation was approved . The route was shifted to its present location , with a total length of about 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) . In 1988 , Calliham was shifted southward from the Choke Canyon Reservoir , causing RE 8 to be shortened by about 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in McMullen County .
= U.S. Route 223 =
US Route 223 or US Highway 223 ( US 223 ) is a diagonal ( northwest – southeast ) United States Numbered Highway lying in the states of Michigan and Ohio . The southernmost section is completely concurrent with the US 23 freeway , including all of the Ohio segment . It connects US 23 in the south near Toledo , Ohio , with US 127 south of Jackson , Michigan . The highway passes through farmland in southern Michigan and woodland in the Irish Hills . Including the concurrency on the southern end , US 223 is 46 @.@ 34 miles ( 74 @.@ 58 km ) in total length .
The highway designation was created in 1930 out of the southern end of US 127 . Three sets of reroutings through Adrian have resulted in the creation of two different business loops through the city . A change proposed in the 1960s and implemented in the 1970s shifted the southern end of US 223 to replace M @-@ 151 and then run along the US 23 freeway between Whiteford Township , Michigan , and Sylvania , Ohio . Since the 1980s , US 223 no longer reaches Toledo , instead feeding into the freeway system for the city . Changes proposed and enacted into law in the 1990s would upgrade the highway as an Interstate Highway . Congress has designated this corridor as part of Interstate 73 ( I @-@ 73 ) , although neither state intends at this time to complete the freeway .
= = Route description = =
US 223 starts at an interchange in with State Route 51 ( SR 51 ) and SR 184 in Sylvania on the northwest side of the Toledo , Ohio metropolitan area . Although unsigned by the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) along the US 23 freeway , US 223 runs concurrently around two @-@ thirds of a mile ( 1 @.@ 0 km ) to the Ohio – Michigan state line . Once across the border , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) has signed both numbers along the freeway . The two highways ' designations follow the freeway northward through rural farmland . At exit 5 , US 223 separates from the freeway and turns west along an extension of St. Anthony Road .
The highway continues westward through the farmland as a two @-@ lane road to the Monroe – Lenawee county line . US 223 meets its former routing and turns northwesterly along Lansing Road , crossing a branch of the Indiana & Ohio Railway . US 223 runs parallel to the Adrian & Blissfield Railroad that branches off southwest of the highway . Both the highway and rail line run northwesterly into Blissfield . The two cross while US 223 runs along Adrian Street through downtown , and the highway makes its first crossing of the River Raisin before leaving downtown . The second crossing is in Palmyra northwest of Blissfield .
US 223 returns to a due west track as it crosses a branch of the Norfolk Southern Railway , and the roadway approaches the outskirts of Adrian . The highway runs along the southern city limits for Adrian as it meets M @-@ 52 . The only business loop for US 223 runs north of this intersection with M @-@ 52 into downtown Adrian while US 223 continues through this secondary business corridor south and west of town . US 223 crosses Beaver Creek and then intersects M @-@ 34 on the western city line in a residential section of Adrian . As US 223 crosses fully into the city of Adrian , it continues northwesterly , then turns due west at the intersection were it meets its business loop 's western terminus . Outside of town , the highway cross through more farmland continuing to northwestern Lenawee County .
US 223 passes out of flat farmlands into the Irish Hills region as the highway runs northeast of Manitou Beach as the roadway rounds the northern shore of Devils Lake . The Irish Hills region has gently rolling hills that transition to forests from farms . Southeast of Somerset US 223 meets US 127 and ends . The entire highway in both Ohio and Michigan is listed on the National Highway System , a system of highways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
As early as 1912 , the Ohio section of what is now US 223 was shown on maps as SR 54 , however the road was not signed with the number at the time . The Michigan section carried two numbers when the signs were erected by July 1 , 1919 . The segment from Somerset to Adrian was M @-@ 80 , and the remainder in Michigan was M @-@ 34 . Ohio signed its highways , including SR 54 , by July 1923 .
When the United States Numbered Highway System debuted on November 11 , 1926 , these highways were all used as part of the southern end of US 127 , which started in Lansing , Michigan , and ended in Toledo at the time . In 1930 , US 127 south of Somerset was rerouted to replace M @-@ 14 to the state line and extended to end in Cincinnati , Ohio . The section of US 127 between Somerset and Toledo was then renumbered US 223 , making the highway a spur of US 23 .
The routing of US 223 was changed through Adrian in 1935 , shifting the highway along different streets through town . Another change in 1942 through Adrian led to the creation of the first business loop through the city . This version of the business loop lasted until the main highway was moved a second time in 1956 . With this subsequent move , the business loop designation was shifted to its current location .
Michigan first started converting US 23 into a freeway in 1957 . Several years later , the state first proposed a realignment of US 223 in 1965 . This change would reroute the highway to replace M @-@ 151 in southern Monroe County , and use the US 23 freeway to connect to Sylvania , Ohio . The Michigan State Highway Department truncated M @-@ 151 in 1965 , eliminating the section that ran eastward through Samaria to US 25 south of Monroe . The remainder of the US 223 realignment change was made in 1977 when Michigan shifted its segment of US 223 over M @-@ 151 as previously proposed . Instead of running south through Ottawa Lake , US 223 continued east to the US 23 freeway and south into Ohio .
The last major change occurred when ODOT truncated US 223 at exit 234 . The city of Toledo and the state proposed the change in late 1985 to simplify travel in the area . The section of US 223 from Sylvania into downtown Toledo was used for an extension of SR 51 when the change was made between 1985 and 1987 . A local regional planning group in Michigan proposed upgrading the section of US 223 through Lenawee County in 1990 , citing increased congestion and accidents in the previous five years . The commission also supported upgrades to the highway because it was the main route between the Jackson and Toledo areas . Subsequent upgrades during 2000 added passing lanes near Palmyra and 6 @.@ 6 miles ( 10 @.@ 6 km ) of roads were resurfaced .
= = Future = =
The original defined alignment of I @-@ 73 would have run along I @-@ 75 to Detroit . However , Congress amended that definition in 1995 to have a branch along the US 223 corridor to south of Jackson and the US 127 corridor north to I @-@ 75 near Grayling . From Grayling it would use I @-@ 75 to Sault Ste . Marie . Except south of Jackson , where the existing highways are two @-@ lane roads and a section of road north of Lansing where the freeway reverts to a divided highway , this corridor is mostly a rural four @-@ lane freeway . While there are no immediate plans to convert the section of US 127 between St. Johns and Ithaca to freeway , MDOT continues to purchase parcels for right @-@ of @-@ way to be used for future upgrades .
MDOT included using the US 223 corridor as one of its three options to build I @-@ 73 in 2000 . The others included using the US 127 corridor all the way into Ohio with a connection to the Ohio Turnpike or using US 127 south and a new freeway connection to US 223 at Adrian . MDOT abandoned further study of I @-@ 73 after June 12 , 2001 , diverting remaining funding to safety improvement projects along the corridor . The department stated there was a " lack of need " for sections of the proposed freeway , and the project website was closed down in 2002 . According to press reports in 2011 , a group advocating on behalf of the freeway is working to revive the I @-@ 73 project in Michigan . According to an MDOT spokesman , " to my knowledge , we ’ re not taking that issue up again . " The Lenawee County Road Commission is not interested in the freeway , and according to the president of the Adrian Area Chamber of Commerce , " there seems to be little chance of having an I @-@ 73 link between Toledo and Jackson built in the foreseeable future . "
In 2012 , MDOT announced a construction project along the US 23 / US 223 freeway in southern Monroe County what would rebuild the northbound lanes of the freeway between exits 1 and 5 in addition to improving the interchange ramps in the area . The interchange between US 223 the freeway at exit 5 will also be upgraded to contain a pair of roundabouts in a configuration known as a dumbbell interchange .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Business loop = =
Business US Highway 223 ( Bus . US 223 ) is a business route running through downtown Adrian , Michigan . It is also currently the highest numbered and signed business routing in the state of Michigan . Both Business Spur I @-@ 375 ( BS I @-@ 375 ) and Capitol Loop currently exist but BS I @-@ 375 is not signed and the Capitol Loop , while inventoried as Connector 496 does not use that number on signs .
The current routing of Bus . US 223 marks the second time the designation has been used in the Adrian area . The first was created in 1942 when the first bypass of Adrian was constructed . This bypass was built along Cadmus Road at Treat Highway west to M @-@ 52 ( Adrian Highway ) . US 223 then ran along M @-@ 52 to connect with the previous routing . Bus . US 223 was designated along Church , Center , Beecher and Treat streets , the former routing of US 223 through downtown . This incarnation of Bus . US 223 would survive until March 26 , 1956 when another new bypass of Adrian was built . The first Bus . US 223 was deleted to allow the designation to be used on the routing of the first US 223 bypass . This first bypass became the current alignment of Bus . US 223 .
In the current routing , Bus . US 223 follows M @-@ 52 ( Adrian Highway / Main Street ) and a former route of US 223 through downtown . The southern terminus is at US 223 at an intersection with M @-@ 52 near downtown Adrian . The business loop follows M @-@ 52 north into downtown on Main Street . At Church Street , the Bus . US 223 turns northwest and follows that street to Maumee Street . The loop follows Maumee Street west out of the center of town back to the main highway . The northern terminus of Bus . US 223 is an intersection with US 223 northwest of downtown Adrian .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Lenawee County .
= Ralph Richardson =
Sir Ralph David Richardson ( 19 December 1902 – 10 October 1983 ) was an English actor who , along with his contemporaries John Gielgud and Laurence Olivier , dominated the British stage of the mid @-@ 20th century . He worked in films throughout most of his career , and played more than sixty cinema roles . From an artistic but not theatrical background , Richardson had no thought of a stage career until a production of Hamlet in Brighton inspired him to become an actor . He learned his craft in the 1920s with a touring company and later the Birmingham Repertory Theatre . In 1931 he joined the Old Vic , playing mostly Shakespearean roles . He led the company the following season , succeeding Gielgud , who had taught him much about stage technique . After he left the company , a series of leading roles took him to stardom in the West End and on Broadway .
In the 1940s , together with Olivier and John Burrell , Richardson was the co @-@ director of the Old Vic company . There , his most celebrated roles included Peer Gynt and Falstaff . He and Olivier led the company to Europe and Broadway in 1945 and 1946 , before their success provoked resentment among the governing board of the Old Vic , leading to their dismissal from the company in 1947 . In the 1950s , in the West End and occasionally on tour , Richardson played in modern and classic works including The Heiress , Home at Seven , and Three Sisters . He continued on stage and in films until shortly before his sudden death at the age of eighty . He was celebrated in later years for his work with Peter Hall 's National Theatre and his frequent stage partnership with Gielgud . He was not known for his portrayal of the great tragic roles in the classics , preferring character parts in old and new plays .
Richardson 's film career began as an extra in 1931 . He was soon cast in leading roles in British and American films including Things to Come in the 1930s , The Fallen Idol and The Heiress in the 1940s , and Long Day 's Journey into Night and Doctor Zhivago in the 1960s . He received nominations and awards in the UK , Europe and the US for his stage and screen work from 1948 until his death , and beyond , with a posthumous Academy Award nomination for his final film , Greystoke .
Throughout his career , and increasingly in later years , Richardson was known for his eccentric behaviour on and off stage . He was often seen as detached from conventional ways of looking at the world , and his acting was regularly described as poetic or magical .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Richardson was born in Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , the third son and youngest child of Arthur Richardson and his wife Lydia ( née Russell ) . The couple had met while both were in Paris , studying with the painter William @-@ Adolphe Bouguereau . Arthur Richardson had been senior art master at Cheltenham Ladies ' College from 1893 .
In 1907 the family split up ; there was no divorce or formal separation , but the two elder boys , Christopher and Ambrose , remained with their father and Lydia left them , taking Ralph with her . The ostensible cause of the couple 's separation was a row over Lydia 's choice of wallpaper for her husband 's study . According to John Miller 's biography , whatever underlying causes there may have been are unknown . An earlier biographer , Garry O 'Connor , speculates that Arthur Richardson might have been having an extramarital affair . There does not seem to have been a religious element , although Arthur was a dedicated Quaker , whose first two sons were brought up in that faith , whereas Lydia was a devout convert to Roman Catholicism , in which she raised Ralph . Mother and son had a variety of homes , the first of which was a bungalow converted from two railway carriages in Shoreham @-@ by @-@ Sea on the south coast of England .
Lydia wanted Richardson to become a priest . In Brighton he served as an altar boy , which he enjoyed , but when sent at about fifteen to the nearby Xaverian College , a seminary for trainee priests , he ran away . As a pupil at a series of schools he was uninterested in most subjects and was an indifferent scholar . His Latin was poor , and during church services he would improvise parts of the Latin responses , developing a talent for invention when memory failed that proved useful in his later career .
In 1919 , aged sixteen , Richardson took a post as office boy with the Brighton branch of the Liverpool and Victoria insurance company . The pay , ten shillings a week , was attractive , but office life was not ; he lacked concentration , frequently posting documents to the wrong people as well as engaging in pranks that alarmed his superiors . His paternal grandmother died and left him £ 500 , which , he later said , transformed his life . He resigned from the office post , just in time to avoid being dismissed , and enrolled at the Brighton School of Art . His studies there convinced him that he lacked creativity , and that his draughtsmanship was not good enough .
Richardson left the art school in 1920 , and considered how else he might make a career . He briefly thought of pharmacy and then of journalism , abandoning each when he learned how much study the former required and how difficult mastering shorthand for the latter would be . He was still unsure what to do , when he saw Sir Frank Benson as Hamlet in a touring production . He was thrilled , and felt at once that he must become an actor .
Buttressed by what was left of the legacy from his grandmother , Richardson determined to learn to act . He paid a local theatrical manager , Frank R Growcott , ten shillings a week to be a member of his company and be taught the craft of an actor . He made his stage debut in December 1920 with Growcott 's St Nicholas Players at the St Nicholas Hall , Brighton , a converted bacon factory . He played a gendarme in an adaptation of Les Misérables , and was soon entrusted with larger parts including Banquo in Macbeth and Malvolio in Twelfth Night .
= = = Early career = = =
The heyday of the touring actor @-@ manager was nearing its end but some companies still flourished . As well as Benson 's , there were those of Sir John Martin @-@ Harvey , Ben Greet , and , only slightly less prestigious , Charles Doran . Richardson wrote to all four managers : the first two did not reply ; Greet saw him but had no vacancy ; Doran engaged him , at a wage of £ 3 a week . Richardson made his first appearance as a professional actor at the Marina Theatre , Lowestoft , in August 1921 , as Lorenzo in The Merchant of Venice . He remained with Doran 's company for most of the next two years , gradually gaining more important roles , including Banquo in Macbeth and Mark Antony in Julius Caesar .
Doran 's company specialised in the classics , principally Shakespeare . After two years of period costumes Richardson felt the urge to act in a modern work . He left Doran in 1923 and toured in a new play , Outward Bound by Sutton Vane . He returned to the classics in August 1924 , in Nigel Playfair 's touring production of The Way of the World , playing Fainall . While on that tour he married Muriel Hewitt , a young member of Doran 's company , known to him as " Kit " . To his great happiness , the two were able to work together for most of 1925 , both being engaged by Sir Barry Jackson of the Birmingham Repertory Theatre for a touring production of The Farmer 's Wife . From December of that year they were members of the main repertory company in Birmingham . Through Jackson 's chief director , the veteran taskmaster H K Ayliff , Richardson " absorbed the influence of older contemporaries like Gerald du Maurier , Charles Hawtrey and Mrs Patrick Campbell . " Hewitt was seen as a rising star but Richardson 's talents were not yet so apparent ; he was allotted supporting roles such as Lane in The Importance of Being Earnest and Albert Prossor in Hobson 's Choice .
Richardson made his London debut in July 1926 as the stranger in Oedipus at Colonus in a Sunday @-@ night performance at the Scala Theatre , with a cast including Percy Walsh , John Laurie and D A Clarke @-@ Smith . He then toured for three months in Eden Phillpotts 's comedy Devonshire Cream with Jackson 's company led by Cedric Hardwicke .
When Phillpotts 's next comedy , Yellow Sands , was to be mounted at the Haymarket Theatre in the West End , Richardson and his wife were both cast in good roles . The play opened in November 1926 and ran until September 1928 ; with 610 performances it was the longest London run of Richardson 's entire career . During the run Muriel Hewitt began to show early symptoms of encephalitis lethargica , a progressive and ultimately fatal illness .
Richardson left the run of Yellow Sands in March 1928 and rejoined Ayliff , playing Pygmalion in Back to Methuselah at the Royal Court Theatre ; also in the cast was a former colleague from the Birmingham Repertory , Laurence Olivier . The critics began to notice Richardson and he gained some favourable reviews . As Tranio in Ayliff 's modern @-@ dress production of The Taming of the Shrew , Richardson played the character as a breezy cockney , winning praise for turning a usually dreary role into something richly entertaining . For the rest of 1928 he appeared in what Miller describes as several unremarkable modern plays . For much of 1929 he toured South Africa in Gerald Lawrence 's company in three period costume plays , including The School for Scandal , in which he played Joseph Surface . The sole venture into musical comedy of his career was in Silver Wings in the West End and on tour . It was not a personal triumph ; the director 's final injunction to the company was , " For God 's sake don 't let Richardson sing " . In May 1930 Richardson was given the role of Roderigo in Othello in what seemed likely to be a prestigious production , with Paul Robeson in the title role . The biographer Ronald Hayman writes that though a fine singer , " Robeson had no ear for blank verse " and even Peggy Ashcroft 's superb performance as Desdemona was not enough to save the production from failure . Ashcroft 's notices were laudatory , while Richardson 's were mixed ; they admired each other and worked together frequently during the next four decades .
= = = Old Vic , 1930 – 32 = = =
In 1930 Richardson , with some misgivings , accepted an invitation to join The Old Vic company . The theatre , in an unfashionable location south of the Thames , had offered inexpensive tickets for opera and drama under its proprietor Lilian Baylis since 1912 . Its profile had been raised considerably by Baylis 's producer , Harcourt Williams , who in 1929 persuaded the young West End star John Gielgud to lead the drama company . For the following season Williams wanted Richardson to join , with a view to succeeding Gielgud from 1931 to 1932 . Richardson agreed , though he was not sure of his own suitability for a mainly Shakespearean repertoire , and was not enthusiastic about working with Gielgud : " I found his clothes extravagant , I found his conversation flippant . He was the New Young Man of his time and I didn 't like him . "
The first production of the season was Henry IV , Part 1 , with Gielgud as Hotspur and Richardson as Prince Hal ; the latter was thought by The Daily Telegraph " vivacious , but a figure of modern comedy rather than Shakespeare . " Richardson 's notices , and the relationship of the two leading men , improved markedly when Gielgud , who was playing Prospero , helped Richardson with his performance as Caliban in The Tempest :
He gave me about two hundred ideas , as he usually does , twenty @-@ five of which I eagerly seized on , and when I went away I thought , " This chap , you know , I don 't like him very much but by God he knows something about this here play . " ... And then out of that we formed a friendship .
The friendship and professional association lasted until the end of Richardson 's life . Gielgud wrote in 1983 , " Besides cherishing our long years of work together in the theatre , where he was such an inspiring and generous partner , I grew to love him in private life as a great gentleman , a rare spirit , fair and balanced , devotedly loyal and tolerant and , as a companion , bursting with vitality , curiosity and humour . " Among Richardson 's other parts in his first Old Vic season , Enobarbus in Antony and Cleopatra gained particularly good notices . The Morning Post commented that it placed him in the first rank of Shakespearean actors . At the beginning of 1931 Baylis re @-@ opened Sadler 's Wells Theatre with a production of Twelfth Night starring Gielgud as Malvolio and Richardson as Sir Toby Belch . W. A. Darlington in The Daily Telegraph wrote of Richardson 's " ripe , rich and mellow Sir Toby , [ which ] I would go many miles to see again . "
During the summer break between the Old Vic 1930 – 31 and 1931 – 32 seasons , Richardson played at the Malvern Festival , under the direction of his old Birmingham director , Ayliff . Salaries at the Old Vic and the Festival were not large , and Richardson was glad of a job as an extra in the 1931 film Dreyfus . As his wife 's condition worsened he needed to pay for more and more nursing ; she was looked after in a succession of hospitals and care homes .
Succeeding Gielgud as leading man at the Old Vic , Richardson had a varied season , in which there were conspicuous successes interspersed with critical failures . James Agate was not convinced by him as the domineering Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew ; in Julius Caesar the whole cast received tepid reviews . In Othello Richardson divided the critics . He emphasised the plausible charm of the murderous Iago to a degree that Agate thought " very good Richardson , but indifferent Shakespeare " , whereas The Times said , " He never stalked or hissed like a plain villain , and , in fact , we have seldom seen a man smile and smile and be a villain so adequately . " His biggest success of the season was as Bottom in A Midsummer Night 's Dream . Both Agate and Darlington commented on how the actor transformed the character from the bumbling workman to the magically changed creature on whom Titania dotes . Agate wrote that most of those who had played the part hitherto " seem to have thought Bottom , with the ass 's head on , was the same Bottom , only funnier . Shakespeare says he was ' translated ' , and Mr Richardson translated him . " With Sybil Thorndike as a guest star and Richardson as Ralph , The Knight of the Burning Pestle was a hit with audiences and critics , as was a revival of Twelfth Night , with Edith Evans as Viola and Richardson again playing Sir Toby , finishing the season to renewed praise .
= = = West End and Broadway = = =
Richardson returned to the Malvern Festival in August 1932 . He was in four plays , the last of which , Bernard Shaw 's Too True to Be Good , transferred to the New Theatre in London the following month . The play was not liked by audiences and ran for only forty @-@ seven performances , but Richardson , in Agate 's phrase , " ran away with the piece " , and established himself as a West End star . In 1933 he had his first speaking part in a film , playing the villain , Nigel Hartley , in The Ghoul , which starred Cedric Hardwicke and Boris Karloff . The following year he was cast in his first starring role in a film , as the hero in The Return of Bulldog Drummond . The Times commented , " Mr Ralph Richardson makes Drummond as brave and stupid on the screen as he is in print . "
Over the next two years Richardson appeared in six plays in London ranging from Peter Pan ( as Mr Darling and Captain Hook ) to Cornelius , an allegorical play written for and dedicated to him by J B Priestley . Cornelius ran for two months ; this was less than expected , and left Richardson with a gap in engagements in the second half of 1935 . He filled it by accepting an invitation from Katharine Cornell and Guthrie McClintic to play Mercutio in their production of Romeo and Juliet on a US tour and on Broadway . Romeo was played by Maurice Evans and Juliet by Cornell . Richardson 's performance greatly impressed American critics , and Cornell invited him to return to New York to co @-@ star with her in Macbeth and Antony and Cleopatra , though nothing came of this .
In 1936 London Films released Things to Come , in which Richardson played the swaggering warlord " The Boss " . His performance parodied the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini so effectively that the film was immediately banned in Italy . The producer was Alexander Korda ; the two men formed a long and mutually beneficial friendship . Richardson later said of Korda , " Though not so very much older than I am , I regarded him in a way as a father , and to me he was as generous as a prince . " In May 1936 Richardson and Olivier jointly directed and starred in a new piece by Priestley , Bees on the Boatdeck . Both actors won excellent notices , but the play , an allegory of Britain 's decline , did not attract the public . It closed after four weeks , the last in a succession of West End productions in which Richardson appeared to much acclaim but which were box @-@ office failures . In August of the same year he finally had a long @-@ running star part , the title role in Barré Lyndon 's comedy thriller , The Amazing Dr Clitterhouse , which played for 492 performances , closing in October 1937 .
After a short run in The Silent Knight , described by Miller as " a Hungarian fantasy in rhymed verse set in the fifteenth century " , Richardson returned to the Old Vic for the 1937 – 38 season , playing Bottom once again and switching parts in Othello , playing the title role , with Olivier as Iago . The director , Tyrone Guthrie , wanted to experiment with the theory that Iago 's villainy is driven by suppressed homosexual love for Othello . Olivier was willing to co @-@ operate , but Richardson was not ; audiences and most critics failed to spot the supposed motivation of Olivier 's Iago , and Richardson 's Othello seemed underpowered . O 'Connor believes that Richardson did not succeed with Othello or Macbeth because of the characters ' single @-@ minded " blind driving passion – too extreme , too inhuman " , which was incomprehensible and alien to him . It was for the same reason , in O 'Connor 's view , that he never attempted the title roles in Hamlet or King Lear .
Richardson made his television debut in January 1939 , reprising his 1936 stage role of the chief engineer in Bees on the Boatdeck . His last stage part in the 1930s was Robert Johnson , an Everyman figure , in Priestley 's Johnson Over Jordan directed by Basil Dean . It was an experimental piece , using music ( by Benjamin Britten ) and dance as well as dialogue , and was another production in which Richardson was widely praised but which did not prosper at the box @-@ office . After it closed , in May 1939 , he did not act on stage for more than five years .
= = = Second World War = = =
At the outbreak of war Richardson joined the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve as a sub @-@ lieutenant pilot . He had taken flying lessons during the 1930s and had logged 200 hours of flying time , but , though a notoriously reckless driver , he admitted to being a timid pilot . He counted himself lucky to have been accepted , but the Fleet Air Arm was short of pilots . He rose to the rank of lieutenant @-@ commander . His work was mostly routine administration , probably because of " the large number of planes which seemed to fall to pieces under his control " , through which he acquired the nickname " Pranger " Richardson . He served at several bases in the south of England , and in April 1941 , at the Royal Naval Air Station , Lee @-@ on @-@ Solent , he was able to welcome Olivier , newly commissioned as a temporary sub @-@ lieutenant . Olivier rapidly eclipsed Richardson 's record for pranging .
In 1942 , on his way to visit his wife at the cottage where she was cared for by a devoted couple , Richardson crashed his motor @-@ bike and was in hospital for several weeks . Kit was at that point mobile enough to visit him , but later in the year her condition worsened and in October she died . He was intensely lonely , though the comradeship of naval life was some comfort . In 1944 he married again . His second wife was the actress Meriel Forbes , a member of the Forbes @-@ Robertson theatrical family . The marriage brought him lifelong happiness and a son , Charles ( 1945 – 98 ) , who became a television stage manager .
During the war Richardson compered occasional morale @-@ boosting shows at the Royal Albert Hall and elsewhere , and made one short film and three full @-@ length ones , including The Silver Fleet , in which he played a Dutch Resistance hero , and The Volunteer , a propaganda film in which he appeared as himself .
Throughout the war Guthrie had striven to keep the Old Vic company going , even after German bombing in 1942 left the theatre a near @-@ ruin . A small troupe toured the provinces , with Sybil Thorndike at its head . By 1944 , with the tide of the war turning , Guthrie felt it time to re @-@ establish the company in a London base , and invited Richardson to head it . Richardson made two stipulations : first , as he was unwilling to seek his own release from the forces , the governing board of the Old Vic should explain to the authorities why it should be granted ; secondly , that he should share the acting and management in a triumvirate . Initially he proposed Gielgud and Olivier as his colleagues , but the former declined , saying , " It would be a disaster , you would have to spend your whole time as referee between Larry and me . " It was finally agreed that the third member would be the stage director John Burrell . The Old Vic governors approached the Royal Navy to secure the release of Richardson and Olivier ; the Sea Lords consented , with , as Olivier put it , " a speediness and lack of reluctance which was positively hurtful . "
= = = Old Vic , 1944 – 47 = = =
The triumvirate secured the New Theatre for their first season and recruited a company . Thorndike was joined by , among others , Harcourt Williams , Joyce Redman and Margaret Leighton . It was agreed to open with a repertory of four plays : Peer Gynt , Arms and the Man , Richard III and Uncle Vanya . Richardson 's roles were Peer , Bluntschli , Richmond and Vanya ; Olivier played the Button Moulder , Sergius , Richard and Astrov . The first three productions met with acclaim from reviewers and audiences ; Uncle Vanya had a mixed reception . The Times thought Olivier 's Astrov " a most distinguished portrait " and Richardson 's Vanya " the perfect compound of absurdity and pathos " . Agate , on the other hand , commented , " ' Floored for life , sir , and jolly miserable ' is what Uncle Vanya takes three acts to say . And I just cannot believe in Mr Richardson wallowing in misery : his voice is the wrong colour . " In 1945 the company toured Germany , where they were seen by many thousands of Allied servicemen ; they also appeared at the Comédie @-@ Française theatre in Paris , the first foreign company to be given that honour . The critic Harold Hobson wrote that Richardson and Olivier quickly " made the Old Vic the most famous theatre in the Anglo @-@ Saxon world . "
The second season , in 1945 , featured two double @-@ bills . The first consisted of Henry IV , Parts 1 and 2 . Olivier played the warrior Hotspur in the first and the doddering Justice Shallow in the second . He received good notices , but by general consent the production belonged to Richardson as Falstaff . Agate wrote , " He had everything the part wants – the exuberance , the mischief , the gusto . ... Here is something better than virtuosity in character @-@ acting – the spirit of the part shining through the actor . " As a teenager , the director Peter Hall saw the production ; he said fifty years later , " Of the performances I 've seen in my life I 'm gladdest I saw that . " In the second double bill it was Olivier who dominated , in the title roles of Oedipus Rex and The Critic . Richardson took the supporting role of Tiresias in the first , and the silent , cameo part of Lord Burleigh in the second . After the London season the company played both the double @-@ bills and Uncle Vanya in a six @-@ week season on Broadway .
The third , and final , season under the triumvirate was in 1946 – 47 . Olivier played King Lear , and Richardson , Cyrano de Bergerac . Olivier would have preferred the roles to be cast the other way about , but Richardson did not wish to attempt Lear . Richardson 's other roles in the season were Inspector Goole in An Inspector Calls , Face in The Alchemist and John of Gaunt in Richard II , which he directed , with Alec Guinness in the title role .
During the run of Cyrano , Richardson was knighted , to Olivier 's undisguised envy . The younger man received the accolade six months later , by which time the days of the triumvirate were numbered . The high profile of the two star actors did not endear them to the new chairman of the Old Vic governors , Lord Esher . He had ambitions to be the first head of the National Theatre and had no intention of letting actors run it . He was encouraged by Guthrie , who , having instigated the appointment of Richardson and Olivier , had come to resent their knighthoods and international fame . Esher terminated their contracts while both were out of the country , and they and Burrell were said to have " resigned " .
Looking back in 1971 , Bernard Levin wrote that the Old Vic company of 1944 to 1947 " was probably the most illustrious that has ever been assembled in this country " . The Times said that the triumvirate 's years were the greatest in the Old Vic 's history ; as The Guardian put it , " the governors summarily sacked them in the interests of a more mediocre company spirit " .
= = = International fame = = =
For Richardson , parting company with the Old Vic brought the advantage of being free , for the first time , to earn substantial pay . The company 's highest salary had been £ 40 a week . After his final Old Vic season he made two films in quick succession for Korda . The first , Anna Karenina , with Vivien Leigh , was an expensive failure , although Richardson 's notices in the role of Karenin were excellent . The second , The Fallen Idol , had notable commercial and critical success , and won awards in Europe and America . It remained one of Richardson 's favourites of his films . In Miller 's words , " Carol Reed 's sensitive direction drew faultless performances not just from Ralph as Baines ( the butler and mistakenly suspected murderer ) , but also from Michèle Morgan as his mistress , Sonia Dresdel as his cold @-@ hearted wife , and especially from Bobby Henrey as the distraught boy , Felipe . "
Richardson had gained a national reputation as a great actor while at the Old Vic ; films gave him the opportunity to reach an international audience . Unlike some of his theatre colleagues , he was never condescending about film work . He admitted that film could be " a cage for an actor , but a cage in which they sometimes put a little gold " , but he did not regard filming as merely a means of subsidising his much less profitable stage work . He said , " I 've never been one of those chaps who scoff at films . I think they 're a marvellous medium , and are to the stage what engravings are to painting . The theatre may give you big chances , but the cinema teaches you the details of craftsmanship . " The Fallen Idol was followed by Richardson 's first Hollywood part . He played Dr Sloper , the overprotective father of Olivia de Havilland in The Heiress , based on Henry James 's novel Washington Square . The film did not prosper at the box @-@ office despite good reviews , an Academy Award for Best Actress for Havilland , and nominations for the director ( William Wyler ) and Richardson .
The Heiress had been a Broadway play before it was a film . Richardson so liked his part that he decided to play it in the West End , with Ashcroft as Sloper 's daughter Catherine . The piece was to open in February 1949 at Richardson 's favourite theatre , the Haymarket . Rehearsals were chaotic . Burrell , whom Richardson had asked to direct , was not up to the task – possibly , Miller speculates , because of nervous exhaustion from the recent traumas at the Old Vic . With only a week to go before the first performance , the producer , Binkie Beaumont , asked him to stand down , and Gielgud was recruited in his place . Matters improved astonishingly ; the production was a complete success and ran in London for 644 performances .
After one long run in The Heiress , Richardson appeared in another , R C Sherriff 's Home at Seven , in 1950 . He played an amnesiac bank clerk who fears he may have committed murder . He later recreated the part in a radio broadcast , and in a film version , which was his sole venture into direction for the screen . Once he had played himself into a role in a long run , Richardson felt able to work during the daytime in films , and made two others in the early 1950s beside the film of the Sherriff piece : Outcast of the Islands , directed by Carol Reed , and David Lean 's The Sound Barrier , released in 1951 and 1952 respectively . For the latter he won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor . With his characteristic liking for switching between modern roles and the classics , his next stage part was Colonel Vershinin in Three Sisters in 1951 . He headed a strong cast , with Renée Asherson , Margaret Leighton and Celia Johnson as the sisters , but reviewers found the production weakly directed , and some felt that Richardson failed to disguise his positive personality when playing the ineffectual Vershinin . He did not attempt Chekhov again for more than a quarter of a century .
In 1952 Richardson appeared at the Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon Festival at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre ( forerunner of the Royal Shakespeare Company ) . His return to Shakespeare for the first time since his Old Vic days was keenly anticipated , but turned out to be a serious disappointment . He had poor reviews for his Prospero in The Tempest , judged too prosaic . In the second production of the festival his Macbeth , directed by Gielgud , was generally considered a failure . He was thought unconvincingly villainous ; the influential young critic Kenneth Tynan professed himself " unmoved to the point of paralysis , " though blaming the director more than the star . Richardson 's third and final role in the Stratford season , Volpone in Ben Jonson 's play , received much better , but not ecstatic , notices . He did not play at Stratford again .
Back in the West End , Richardson was in another Sherriff play , The White Carnation , in 1953 , and in November of the same year he and Gielgud starred together in N C Hunter 's A Day by the Sea , which ran at the Haymarket for 386 performances . During this period , Richardson played Dr Watson in an American / BBC radio co @-@ production of Sherlock Holmes stories , with Gielgud as Holmes and Orson Welles as the evil Professor Moriarty . These recordings were later released commercially on disc .
In late 1954 and early 1955 Richardson and his wife toured Australia together with Sybil Thorndike and her husband , Lewis Casson , playing Terence Rattigan 's plays The Sleeping Prince and Separate Tables . The following year he worked with Olivier again , playing Buckingham to Olivier 's Richard in the 1955 film of Richard III . Olivier , who directed , was exasperated at his old friend 's insistence on playing the role sympathetically .
Richardson turned down the role of Estragon in Peter Hall 's premiere of the English language version of Samuel Beckett 's Waiting for Godot in 1955 and later reproached himself for missing the chance to be in " the greatest play of my generation " . He had consulted Gielgud , who dismissed the piece as rubbish , and even after discussing the play with the author , Richardson could not understand the play or the character . Richardson 's Timon of Athens in his 1956 return to the Old Vic was well received , as was his Broadway appearance in The Waltz of the Toreadors for which he was nominated for a Tony Award in 1957 . He concluded the 1950s with two contrasting West End successes , Robert Bolt 's Flowering Cherry , and Graham Greene 's The Complaisant Lover . The former , a sad piece about a failed and deluded insurance manager , ran for 435 performances in 1957 – 58 ; Richardson co @-@ starred with three leading ladies in succession : Celia Johnson , Wendy Hiller and his wife . Greene 's comedy was a surprise hit , running for 402 performances from June 1959 . Throughout rehearsals the cast treated the love @-@ triangle theme as one of despair , and were astonished to find themselves playing to continual laughter . During the run , Richardson worked by day on another Greene work , the film Our Man in Havana . Alec Guinness , who played the main role , noted " the object @-@ lesson in upstaging in the last scene between Richardson and Noël Coward " , faithfully captured by the director , Carol Reed .
= = = 1960s = = =
Richardson began the 1960s with a failure . Enid Bagnold 's play The Last Joke was savaged by the critics ( " a meaningless jumble of pretentious whimsy " was one description ) . His only reason for playing in the piece was the chance of acting with Gielgud , but both men quickly regretted their involvement . Richardson then went to the US to appear in Sidney Lumet 's film adaptation of Long Day 's Journey into Night , alongside Katharine Hepburn . Lumet later recalled how little guidance Richardson needed . Once , the director went into lengthy detail about the playing of a scene , and when he had finished , Richardson said , " Ah , I think I know what you want – a little more flute and a little less cello " . After that , Lumet was sparing with suggestions . Richardson was jointly awarded the Cannes Film Festival 's Best Actor prize with his co @-@ stars Jason Robards Jr and Dean Stockwell .
Richardson 's next stage role was in a starry revival of The School for Scandal , as Sir Peter Teazle , directed by Gielgud in 1962 . The production was taken on a North American tour , in which Gielgud joined the cast as , he said , " the oldest Joseph Surface in the business " . A revival of Six Characters in Search of an Author in 1963 was judged by the critic Sheridan Morley to have been a high @-@ point of the actor 's work in the 1960s . Richardson joined a British Council tour of South Africa and Europe the following year ; he played Bottom again , and Shylock in The Merchant of Venice .
For his next four stage productions , Richardson was at the Haymarket . Father Carving a Statue ( 1964 ) by Graham Greene was short @-@ lived . He had a more reliable vehicle in Shaw 's You Never Can Tell ( 1966 ) in which he played the philosopher @-@ waiter William , and in the same year he had a great success as Sir Anthony Absolute in The Rivals . The critic David Benedictus wrote of Richardson 's performance , " ... he is choleric and gouty certainly , the script demands that he shall be , but his most engaging quality , his love for his son in spite of himself , shines through every line . " In 1967 he again played Shylock ; this was the last time he acted in a Shakespeare play on stage . His performance won critical praise , but the rest of the cast were less well received .
Interspersed with his stage plays , Richardson made thirteen cinema films during the decade . On screen he played historical figures including Sir Edward Carson ( Oscar Wilde , 1960 ) , W E Gladstone ( Khartoum , 1966 ) and Sir Edward Grey ( Oh ! What a Lovely War , 1969 ) . He was scrupulous about historical accuracy in his portrayals , and researched eras and characters in great detail before filming . Occasionally his precision was greater than directors wished , as when , in Khartoum , he insisted on wearing a small black finger @-@ stall because the real Gladstone had worn one following an injury . After a role playing a disabled tycoon and Sean Connery 's father in Woman of Straw , in 1965 he played Alexander Gromeko in Lean 's Doctor Zhivago , an exceptionally successful film at the box office , which , together with The Wrong Box and Khartoum , earned him a BAFTA nomination for best leading actor in 1966 . Other film roles from this period included Lord Fortnum ( The Bed @-@ Sitting Room , 1969 ) and Leclerc ( The Looking Glass War , 1969 ) . The casts of Oh ! What a Lovely War and Khartoum included Olivier , but he and Richardson did not appear in the same scenes , and never met during the filming . Olivier was by now running the National Theatre , temporarily based at the Old Vic , but showed little desire to recruit his former colleague for any of the company 's productions .
In 1964 Richardson was the voice of General Haig in the twenty @-@ six @-@ part BBC documentary series The Great War . In 1967 he played Lord Emsworth on BBC television in dramatisations of P G Wodehouse 's Blandings Castle stories , with his wife playing Emsworth 's bossy sister Constance , and Stanley Holloway as the butler , Beach . He was nervous about acting in a television series : " I 'm sixty @-@ four and that 's a bit old to be taking on a new medium . " The performances divided critical opinion . The Times thought the stars " a sheer delight ... situation comedy is joy in their hands " . The reviewers in The Guardian and The Observer thought the three too theatrical to be effective on the small screen . For television he recorded studio versions of two plays in which he had appeared on stage : Johnson Over Jordan ( 1965 ) and Twelfth Night ( 1968 ) .
During the decade , Richardson made numerous sound recordings . For the Caedmon Audio label he re @-@ created his role as Cyrano de Bergerac opposite Anna Massey as Roxane , and played the title role in a complete recording of Julius Caesar , with a cast that included Anthony Quayle as Brutus , John Mills as Cassius and Alan Bates as Antony . Other Caedmon recordings were Measure for Measure , The School for Scandal and No Man 's Land . Richardson also recorded some English Romantic poetry , including The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and poems by Keats and Shelley for the label . For Decca Records Richardson recorded the narration for Prokofiev 's Peter and the Wolf , and for RCA the superscriptions for Vaughan Williams 's Sinfonia antartica – both with the London Symphony Orchestra , the Prokofiev conducted by Sir Malcolm Sargent and the Vaughan Williams by André Previn .
Richardson 's last stage role of the decade was in 1969 , as Dr Rance in What the Butler Saw by Joe Orton . It was a conspicuous failure . The public hated the play and made the fact vociferously clear at the first night .
= = = 1970 – 74 = = =
In 1970 Richardson was with Gielgud at the Royal Court in David Storey 's Home . The play is set in the gardens of a nursing home for mental patients , though this is not clear at first . The two elderly men converse in a desultory way , are joined and briefly enlivened by two more extrovert female patients , are slightly scared by another male patient , and are then left together , conversing even more emptily . The Punch critic , Jeremy Kingston wrote :
At the end of the play , as the climax to two perfect , delicate performances , Sir Ralph and Sir John are standing , staring out above the heads of the audience , cheeks wet with tears in memory of some unnamed misery , weeping soundlessly as the lights fade on them . It makes a tragic , unforgettable close .
The play transferred to the West End and then to Broadway . In The New York Times Clive Barnes wrote , " The two men , bleakly examining the little nothingness of their lives , are John Gielgud and Ralph Richardson giving two of the greatest performances of two careers that have been among the glories of the English @-@ speaking theater . " The original cast recorded the play for television in 1972 .
Back at the Royal Court in 1971 Richardson starred in John Osborne 's West of Suez , after which , in July 1972 , he surprised many by joining Peggy Ashcroft in a drawing @-@ room comedy , Lloyd George Knew My Father by William Douglas @-@ Home . Some critics felt the play was too slight for its two stars , but Harold Hobson thought Richardson found unsuspected depths in the character of the ostensibly phlegmatic General Boothroyd . The play was a hit with the public , and when Ashcroft left after four months , Celia Johnson took over until May 1973 , when Richardson handed over to Andrew Cruickshank in the West End . Richardson afterwards toured the play in Australia and Canada with his wife as co @-@ star . An Australian critic wrote , " The play is a vehicle for Sir Ralph ... but the real driver is Lady Richardson . "
Richardson 's film roles of the early 1970s ranged from the Crypt Keeper in Tales from the Crypt ( 1972 ) to the Caterpillar in Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland ( 1972 ) and Dr Rank in Ibsen 's A Doll 's House ( 1973 ) . The last of these was released at the same time as an American film of the same play , starring Jane Fonda ; the timing detracted from the impact of both versions , but Richardson 's performance won good reviews . In The Observer , George Melly wrote , " As for Sir Ralph as Dr Rank , he grows from the ageing elegant cynic of his first appearance ( it 's even a pleasure to watch him remove his top hat ) to become the heroic dying stoic of his final exit without in any way forcing the pace . " In 1973 Richardson received a BAFTA nomination for his performance of George IV in Lady Caroline Lamb , in which Olivier appeared as Wellington .
= = = 1975 – 83 = = =
Peter Hall , having succeeded Olivier as director of the National Theatre , was determined to attract Ashcroft , Gielgud and Richardson into the company . In 1975 he successfully offered Richardson the title role in Ibsen 's John Gabriel Borkman , with Ashcroft and Wendy Hiller in the two main female roles . The production was one of the early successes of Hall 's initially difficult tenure . The critic Michael Billington wrote that Hall had done the impossible in reconciling the contradictory aspects of the play and that " Richardson 's Borkman is both moral monster and self @-@ made superman ; and the performance is full of a strange , unearthly music that belongs to this actor alone . "
Richardson continued his long stage association with Gielgud in Harold Pinter 's No Man 's Land ( 1975 ) directed by Hall at the National . Gielgud played Spooner , a down @-@ at @-@ heel sponger and opportunist , and Richardson was Hirst , a prosperous but isolated and vulnerable author . There is both comedy and pain in the piece : the critic Michael Coveney called their performance " the funniest double @-@ act in town " , but Peter Hall said of Richardson , " I do not think any other actor could fill Hirst with such a sense of loneliness and creativity as Ralph does . The production was a critical and box @-@ office success , and played at the Old Vic , in the West End , at the Lyttelton Theatre in the new National Theatre complex , on Broadway and on television , over a period of three years .
After No Man 's Land , Richardson once again turned to light comedy by Douglas @-@ Home , from whom he commissioned The Kingfisher . A story of an old love affair rekindled , it opened with Celia Johnson as the female lead . It ran for six months , and would have lasted much longer had Johnson not withdrawn , leaving Richardson unwilling to rehearse the piece with anyone else . He returned to the National , and to Chekhov , in 1978 as the aged retainer Firs in The Cherry Orchard . The notices for the production were mixed ; those for Richardson 's next West End play were uniformly dreadful . This was Alice 's Boys , a spy and murder piece generally agreed to be preposterous . A legend , possibly apocryphal , grew that during the short run Richardson walked to the front of the stage one night and asked , " Is there a doctor in the house ? " A doctor stood up , and Richardson sadly said to him , " Doctor , isn 't this a terrible play ? "
After this débâcle the rest of Richardson 's stage career was at the National , with one late exception . He played Lord Touchwood in The Double Dealer ( 1978 ) , the Master in The Fruits of Enlightenment ( 1979 ) , Old Ekdal in The Wild Duck ( 1979 ) and Kitchen in Storey 's Early Days , specially written for him . The last toured in North America after the London run . His final West End play was The Understanding ( 1982 ) , a gentle comedy of late @-@ flowering love . Celia Johnson was cast as his co @-@ star , but died suddenly just before the first night . Joan Greenwood stepped into the breach , but the momentum of the production had gone , and it closed after eight weeks .
Films in which Richardson appeared in the later 1970s and early 1980s include Rollerball ( 1975 ) , The Man in the Iron Mask ( 1977 ) Dragonslayer ( 1981 ) in which he played a wizard and Time Bandits ( 1981 ) in which he played the Supreme Being . In 1983 he was seen as Pfordten in Tony Palmer 's Wagner ; this was a film of enormous length , starring Richard Burton as Richard Wagner and was noted at the time , and subsequently , for the cameo roles of three conspiratorial courtiers , played by Gielgud , Olivier and Richardson – the only film in which the three played scenes together . For television , Richardson played Simeon in Jesus of Nazareth ( 1977 ) , made studio recordings of No Man 's Land ( 1978 ) and Early Days ( 1982 ) , and was a guest in the 1981 Morecambe and Wise Christmas Show . His last radio broadcast was in 1982 in a documentary programme about Little Tich , whom he had watched at the Brighton Hippodrome before the First World War .
Richardson 's final role was Don Alberto in Inner Voices by Eduardo De Filippo at the National in 1983 . The direction was criticised by reviewers , but Richardson 's performance won high praise . He played an old man who denounces the next @-@ door family for murder and then realises he dreamt it but cannot persuade the police that he was wrong . Both Punch and The New York Times found his performance " mesmerising " . After the London run the piece was scheduled to go on tour in October . Just before that , Richardson suffered a series of strokes , from which he died on 10 October , at the age of eighty . All the theatres in London dimmed their lights in tribute ; the funeral Mass was at Richardson 's favourite church , the Church of our Lady of the Assumption and St Gregory , in Soho ; he was buried in Highgate Cemetery ; and the following month there was a memorial service in Westminster Abbey .
Richardson 's last films – one for television and two for the cinema – were released after his death . These were Witness for the Prosecution , in which he played the barrister Sir Wilfrid Robarts , co @-@ starring with Deborah Kerr and Diana Rigg ; Give My Regards to Broad Street , with Paul McCartney ; and Greystoke , a retelling of the Tarzan story . In the last , Richardson played the stern old Lord Greystoke , rejuvenated in his latter days by his lost grandson , reclaimed from the wild ; he was posthumously nominated for an Academy Award . The film bears the superscription , " Dedicated to Ralph Richardson 1902 – 1983 – In Loving Memory "
= = Character and reputation = =
As a man , Richardson was on the one hand deeply private and on the other flamboyantly unconventional . Frank Muir said of him , " It 's the Ralphdom of Ralph that one has to cling to ; he wasn 't really quite like other people . " In Coveney 's phrase , " His oddness was ever startling and never hardened into mere eccentricity . " Richardson would introduce colleagues to his ferrets by name , ride at high speed on his powerful motor @-@ bike in his seventies , have a parrot flying round his study eating his pencils , or take a pet mouse out for a stroll , but behind such unorthodox behaviour there was a closely guarded self who remained an enigma to even his closest colleagues . Tynan wrote in The New Yorker that Richardson " made me feel that I have known this man all my life and that I have never met anyone who more adroitly buttonholed me while keeping me firmly at arm 's length . "
Richardson was not known for his political views . He reportedly voted for Winston Churchill 's Conservative party in 1945 , but there is little other mention of party politics in the biographies . Having been a devoted Roman Catholic as a boy , he became disillusioned with religion as a young man , but drifted back to faith : " I came to a kind of feeling I could touch a live wire through prayer " . He retained his early love of painting , and listed it and tennis in his Who 's Who entry as his recreations .
Peter Hall said of Richardson , " I think he was the greatest actor I have ever worked with . " The director David Ayliff , son of Richardson 's and Olivier 's mentor , said , " Ralph was a natural actor , he couldn 't stop being a perfect actor ; Olivier did it through sheer hard work and determination . " Comparing the two , Hobson said that Olivier always made the audience feel inferior , and Richardson always made them feel superior . The actor Edward Hardwicke agreed , saying that audiences were in awe of Olivier , " whereas Ralph would always make you feel sympathy ... you wanted to give him a big hug . But they were both giants . "
Richardson thought himself temperamentally unsuited to the great tragic roles , and most reviewers agreed , but to critics of several generations he was peerless in classic comedies . Kenneth Tynan judged any Falstaff against Richardson 's , which he considered " matchless " , and Gielgud judged " definitive " . Richardson , though hardly ever satisfied with his own performances , evidently believed he had done well as Falstaff . Hall and others tried hard to get him to play the part again , but referring to it he said , " Those things I 've done in which I 've succeeded a little bit , I 'd hate to do again . "
A leading actor of a younger generation , Albert Finney , has said that Richardson was not really an actor at all , but a magician . Miller , who interviewed a large number of Richardson 's colleagues for his 1995 biography , notes that when talking about Richardson 's acting , " magical " was a word many of them used . The Guardian judged Richardson " indisputably our most poetic actor " . For The Times , he " was ideally equipped to make an ordinary character seem extraordinary or an extraordinary one seem ordinary " . He himself touched on this dichotomy in his variously reported comments that acting was " merely the art of keeping a large group of people from coughing " or , alternatively , " dreaming to order " .
Tynan , who could be brutally critical when he thought Richardson miscast , nevertheless thought there was something godlike about him , " should you imagine the Almighty to be a whimsical , enigmatic magician , capable of fearful blunders , sometimes inexplicably ferocious , at other times dazzling in his innocence and benignity " . Harold Hobson wrote , " Sir Ralph is an actor who , whatever his failure in heroic parts , however short of tragic grandeur his Othello or his Macbeth may have fallen , has nevertheless , in unromantic tweeds and provincial hats , received a revelation . There are more graceful players than he upon the stage ; there is none who has been so touched by Grace . "
= Battle of Halmyros =
The Battle of Halmyros , known by older scholars as the Battle of the Cephissus or Battle of Orchomenos , was fought on 15 March 1311 between the forces of the Frankish Duchy of Athens and its vassals under Walter of Brienne and the mercenaries of the Catalan Company , resulting in a devastating victory for the Catalans .
Engaged in conflict with their original employers , the Byzantine Empire , the Catalan Company had traversed the southern Balkans and arrived in southern Greece in 1309 . The new Duke of Athens , Walter of Brienne , hired them to attack the Greek ruler of neighbouring Thessaly . Although the Catalans conquered much of the region for him , Walter refused to pay them the salaries owed , and prepared to forcibly expel them from their gains . The two armies met at Halmyros in southern Thessaly ( or at the Boeotic Cephissus , near Orchomenos , according to an earlier interpretation ) . The Catalans were considerably outnumbered and weakened by the reluctance of their Turkish auxiliaries to fight . The Company did have the advantage of selecting the battleground , positioning themselves behind marshy terrain , which they further inundated with water . On the Athenian side , many of the most important lords of Frankish Greece were present and Walter , a prideful man and confident in the prowess of his heavy cavalry , proceeded to charge headlong against the Catalan line . The marsh impeded the Frankish attack and the Catalan infantry stood firm . The Turks , seeing that battle was joined in earnest , re @-@ joined the Company , and the Frankish army was routed ; Walter and almost the entire knighthood of his realm fell in the field . As a result of the battle , the leaderless Duchy of Athens was taken over by the Catalans , who ruled that part of Greece until the 1380s .
= = Background = =
In 1309 , the Burgundian noble Walter of Brienne was selected as the Duke of Athens in Frankish Greece after the death of Guy II de la Roche . At that time the Greek world was in turmoil owing to the actions of the Catalan Company . These were a group of mercenaries , veterans of the War of the Sicilian Vespers , originally hired by the Byzantine Empire against the Turks in Asia Minor . Soon , however , mutual suspicion and quarrels brought about an open conflict ; evicted from their base in Gallipoli in 1307 , the Catalans marched west through Thrace and Macedonia , until , pressed by Byzantine troops under Chandrenos , they entered Thessaly in early 1309 .
The arrival of the marauding Company , some 8 @,@ 000 strong , in Thessaly caused concern to the region 's Greek ruler , John II Doukas . Having just availed himself of the death of Guy II to throw off the tutelage of the Dukes of Athens , John turned to Byzantium and the other Greek principality , the state of Epirus , for aid . Defeated by the Greeks , the Catalans agreed to pass peacefully through Thessaly to the south , towards the Frankish principalities of southern Greece . Walter of Brienne , who in his youth had fought against the Catalans in Italy , spoke Catalan and had gained the Catalans ' respect , now hired the Company for six months against the Greeks , at a high price : four ounces of gold for every heavy cavalryman , two for every light cavalryman and one for every infantryman , with two months ' payment in advance . Turning back , the Catalans captured the town of Domokos and some thirty other fortresses , and plundered the rich plain of Thessaly , forcing the Greek states to come to terms with Walter .
The Catalans gave Walter a remarkable success , which brought him accolades and financial rewards from Pope Clement V , but the Duke now declined to fulfil his end of the deal and pay the remaining four months ' pay . Instead , Walter picked the best 200 horsemen and 300 Almogavar infantry from the Company , paid them their arrears and gave them land so that they would remain in his service , while ordering the rest to hand over their conquests and depart his lands . In response , the Catalans offered to recognize him as their lord if they were allowed to keep some of the land they had taken to establish themselves , but Walter rejected their proposal and began preparations to expel them by force . To this purpose , the Duke of Athens assembled a large army , comprising his own feudatories — among them the most prominent were Albert Pallavicini , Margrave of Bodonitsa , Thomas III d 'Autremencourt , Lord of Salona and Marshal of Achaea , and the barons of Euboea , Boniface of Verona , George I Ghisi and John of Maisy — as well as reinforcements sent from the other principalities of Frankish Greece .
= = Battle = =
Three sources report in some detail on the events before and during the battle , all of them drawing on first @-@ hand Catalan accounts and reflecting the Catalan point of view : the near @-@ contemporary chronicle of Ramon Muntaner , the Aragonese version of the Chronicle of the Morea , and the account found in the history of the Byzantine writer Nikephoros Gregoras ( ca . 1359 ) . According to the Chronicle of the Morea , the Catalan army comprised 2 @,@ 000 cavalry and 4 @,@ 000 infantry , at least 1 @,@ 100 of whom were Turkish prisoners captured during their previous campaigns , and whose skill as archers they had come to value . Many of these Turks had even converted to Christianity . The sources differ on the size of Walter 's army : Gregoras reports 6 @,@ 400 cavalry and 8 @,@ 000 infantry , the Aragonese version of the Chronicle of the Morea puts it at more than 2 @,@ 000 cavalry and 4 @,@ 000 infantry , while Ramon Muntaner asserts that it comprised 700 knights and 24 @,@ 000 infantry , mostly native Greeks . Modern scholars consider these numbers to be clearly exaggerated , but they do suggest that the Athenian army had numerical superiority over the Catalans .
Ramon Muntaner and Gregoras place the site of the battle at the Boeotic Cephissus , which resulted in the identification of the battle with that locality in older literature , including the standard history of Frankish Greece by William Miller , but also repeated in more recent works . The Chronicle of the Morea on the other hand places the battle at " Halmyros " , apparently the town of the same name in southern Thessaly . William Miller rejected this identification on the basis of the topography described by Muntaner , but the discovery of a 1327 letter by the Venetian statesman Marino Sanudo , which was not published until 1940 and which also places the battle at Halmyros , has altered the scholarly consensus , and Halmyros is now the commonly accepted site of the battle .
Faced with a numerically superior , but less experienced enemy , the Company assumed a defensive position , taking care to select a battleground that favoured them . They chose a naturally strong position , protected by a swamp which , according to Gregoras , they further enhanced by digging trenches and inundating them with water diverted from the nearby river . The Catalans themselves took up positions on dry ground behind the swamp , arranging themselves in a solid line , but the sources give no further details as to their exact disposition . The Athenian army on the other hand assembled at Lamia . On 10 March 1311 , Walter of Brienne composed his testament there and led his army forth . On the eve of battle , the 500 Catalans in the Duke 's service , stricken by conscience , went to him and asked for leave to rejoin their old comrades @-@ in @-@ arms , saying that they would rather die than fight against them . Walter reportedly gave them permission to leave , replying that they were welcome to die with the others . At the same time , however , the Catalans ' Turkish auxiliaries took up a separate position nearby , thinking the quarrel was a pretext arranged by the Company and the Duke of Athens to exterminate them .
Walter was reputed for his bravery , bordering on recklessness , and was confident of success , as evidenced by his haughty reply to the 500 mercenaries . Walter 's pride and arrogance , combined with his numerical advantage and his innate belief in the superiority of heavy noble cavalry over infantry , led him to fatally underestimate his opponent and order a charge across even such an adverse terrain . Impatient for action , according to Muntaner Walter formed a cavalry line of 200 Frankish knights " with golden spurs " , followed by the infantry , and placed himself with his banner in the vanguard . The Frankish attack failed , but the reason is unclear ; Muntaner 's description is short and provides no details , while Gregoras states that the heavy Frankish cavalry got completely stuck in the mud , with the Almogavars , lightly armed with swords and darts , dispatching the knights , encumbered by their heavy armour . This is the commonly accepted version among scholars as well . The Chronicle of the Morea on the other hand implies that the battle was hard @-@ fought , which as military historian Kelly DeVries notes seems to contradict Gregoras , and that the marsh possibly simply reduced the impact of the charge instead of bogging it down entirely . What is clear is that the Catalans held , and that the Duke and most of his men fell . As the two lines clashed , the Turkish auxiliaries , reassured that this was not a ruse , descended from their camp upon the Athenian army , panicking and routing what remained of it .
Gregoras reports that 6 @,@ 400 cavalrymen and 8 @,@ 000 infantrymen fell in the battle , the same number he gives for Walter 's forces . According to Muntaner , 20 @,@ 000 infantrymen were killed , and only two of the seven hundred knights survived the battle , Roger Deslaur and Boniface of Verona . Like the numbers for the overall number of troops involved in the battle , these numbers are unverifiable and probably exaggerated , but they are nevertheless indicative of the scale of the Athenian defeat . In addition , other senior members of the Frankish nobility are known to have survived : Nicholas Sanudo , later Duke of the Archipelago , managed to escape the battlefield , and a few others such as Antoine le Flamenc , who is known to have participated in and survived the battle , were probably captured and later ransomed . Walter 's head was severed by the Catalans , and many years later was taken to Lecce in Italy , where his son buried him in the Church of Santa Croce .
= = Aftermath = =
According to DeVries , the battle was " significant and perhaps even could be defined as decisive " . Almost the entire Frankish elite of Athens and its vassal states lay dead in the field , and when the Catalans moved onto the lands of the Duchy , there was scant resistance : the Greek inhabitants of Livadeia immediately and willingly surrendered their strongly fortified town , for which they were rewarded with the rights of Frankish citizens ; Thebes , the capital of the Duchy , was abandoned by many of its inhabitants , who fled to the Venetian stronghold of Negroponte , and plundered by the Catalan troops ; and finally Athens itself was surrendered to the victors by Walter 's widow , Joanna of Châtillon . The entirety of Attica and Boeotia passed peacefully into the hands of the Catalans , and only the lordship of Argos and Nauplia in the Peloponnese remained in the hands of Brienne loyalists . The Catalans ' Turkish allies however refused the offer to settle in the Duchy , and instead , taking their share of the booty , departed to return to Asia Minor , only to be attacked and almost annihilated by the joint forces of the Byzantines and the Genoese as they were trying to cross the Dardanelles a few months later .
Lacking a leader of stature , the Catalan Company turned to their two distinguished captives : at first they asked Boniface of Verona , whom they knew and respected , to lead them , but after he declined , they chose Roger Deslaur instead . Deslaur proved unequal to the task , however , and the hostility of Venice and the other Frankish states compelled the Catalans to seek a powerful protector . Thus they turned to Frederick II of Sicily , who appointed his son Manfred as Duke of Athens . In reality , the Duchy was governed by a succession of vicars @-@ general appointed by the Aragonese Crown , often cadet members of the Aragonese royal family . The most successful of the vicars @-@ general , Alfonso Fadrique , expanded the Duchy into Thessaly , establishing the Duchy of Neopatras in 1319 . The Catalans consolidated their rule and survived a Briennist attempt to recover the Duchy in 1331 – 32 . In the 1360s , the twin duchies were plagued by internal strife , including a quasi @-@ war with Venice , and increasingly felt the threat of the Ottoman Turks , but another Briennist attempt to launch a campaign against them in 1370 – 71 came to naught . It was not until 1379 – 80 that Catalan rule faced its first major setback , when the Navarrese Company conquered Thebes and much of Boeotia . Finally , in 1386 – 88 , the ambitious lord of Corinth , Nerio I Acciaioli , captured Athens and claimed the Duchy for himself from the Crown of Aragon . With his capture of Neopatras in 1390 , the era of Catalan rule in Greece came to an end .
= = = Primary = = =
Lady Goodenough , ed . ( 1920 – 21 ) . The Chronicle of Ramon Muntaner ( PDF ) . London : Hakluyt Society .
Morel @-@ Fatio , Alfred , ed . ( 1885 ) . Libro de los fechos et conquistas del principado de la Morea compilado por comandamiento de Don Fray Johan Ferrandez de Heredia , maestro del Hospital de S. Johan de Jerusalem - Chronique de Morée aux XIIe et XIVe siècles , publiée & traduite pour la première fois pour la Société de l 'Orient Latin par Alfred Morel @-@ Fatio . Geneva : Jules @-@ Guillaume Fick .
Migne , Jacques Paul , ed . ( 1865 ) . Nicephori Gregorae , Byzantinae Historiae Libri XXXVII . Patrologia Graeca , vol . 148 . Paris : Garnier .
= = = Secondary = = =
DeVries , Kelly ( 1996 ) . Infantry Warfare in the Early Fourteenth Century . Woodbridge : Boydell Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 85115 @-@ 567 @-@ 7 .
Fine , John Van Antwerp ( 1994 ) . The Late Medieval Balkans : A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest . Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 472 @-@ 08260 @-@ 5 .
Lock , Peter ( 2006 ) . The Routledge Companion to the Crus | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
British Guiana . Unfortunately , Constantine arrived late after a newspaper advertised the wrong starting time , and did not play . However , he made his first @-@ class debut in the following match , the final of the tournament , against Barbados on 21 September 1921 . He scored a duck in his first innings , batting at number eight in the batting order . After taking two wickets at a cost of 44 runs in Barbados ' only innings , he scored 24 in his second innings , batting at number three .
Constantine played for Trinidad in the next Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament , in British Guiana in 1922 . Although in two games he scored only 45 runs and took four wickets , commentators considered his fielding in the covers to be exceptional , and he retained his place in the team largely as a fielder . Although Trinidad lost to Barbados in the final , the Barbados captain Harold Austin , who was also captain of the West Indies team , was impressed by Constantine . Mainly on the strength of his fielding , Austin secured Constantine 's selection for the 1923 West Indian tour of England ; it was a surprising choice , as there were other candidates who appeared to have stronger claims . By this time Constantine was working for Llewellyn Roberts , a larger solicitors ' practice which paid better . As his new employer 's longer working hours restricted Constantine 's cricket practice , when he was selected for the West Indies tour he resigned his position .
= = = Tour of England in 1923 = = =
The 1923 West Indies touring team played 21 first @-@ class matches in England , of which six were won , seven lost and the others drawn . The team 's relative success , and particularly the performance of leading batsman George Challenor , persuaded English critics that West Indies cricket was stronger than previously supposed ; this was instrumental in the promotion of the team to Test match status in 1928 . Challenor was the biggest individual success of the tour , but Constantine impressed English critics , through his style of play more than his statistical achievements . He played 20 first @-@ class matches on the tour , scoring 425 runs at an average of 15 @.@ 74 and taking 37 wickets at an average of 21 @.@ 86 . Against Oxford University , he scored 77 , his maiden first @-@ class fifty ; his only other half century came against Derbyshire . He also took five wickets in an innings for the first time , in the match against Kent .
Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack recorded that his batting , while highly unorthodox in technique , could be very effective when he was in form . Wisden also noted that his bowling was fast . Several English players , including Jack Hobbs , singled out Constantine as an unusually talented cricketer on the strength of his performances in 1923 . Pelham Warner , a former England captain and influential journalist and administrator , described Constantine after the tour as the best fielder in the world ; his fielding was also praised by the press and in the pages of Wisden . James later wrote : " He is a success , but he has not set the Thames on fire , and , what is more , he hasn 't tried to . "
= = = Mid @-@ 1920s career = = =
John Arlott later commented that , on his first tour of England , Constantine " learnt much that he never forgot , by no means all of it about cricket : and he recognised the game as his only possible ladder to the kind of life he wanted . " When Constantine returned to Trinidad , he had no permanent job and little prospect of advancement in any suitable profession . He took several temporary jobs but was often forced to rely financially upon his family . However , his success had inspired him to pursue a career as a professional cricketer in England , and he began to practise to reach the required standard . Although he scored 167 for Shannon in 1924 , and took eight for 38 for Trinidad against Barbados , Constantine 's cricket was steady but not consistently successful . He was initially dropped from the West Indies team to face the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) touring team during 1926 , though he was recalled for the second match , once again at the insistence of Austin , who wanted a good cover fielder in the team . In the match Constantine was involved in an incident over short @-@ pitched bowling . The MCC fast bowlers had bowled short at the 49 @-@ year @-@ old Austin ; in retaliation , Constantine bounced the MCC captain , Freddie Calthorpe , and only stopped after James pointed out the diplomatic row which would follow if Calthorpe , a respected figure in the British establishment , was hit by the ball . Once more , Constantine 's performances were not statistically exceptional , but his style impressed critics and spectators , and he came top of the West Indies bowling averages .
A new , permanent job with Trinidad Leaseholds allowed Constantine to devote more time to cricket . Constantine realised that to succeed as a professional cricketer , he needed to improve ; his bowling lacked true speed and , when batting , he was often dismissed playing shots which were too adventurous . After his relative failure in 1926 , he increased his level of practice , improved his fitness and trained to become a slip fielder to conserve his energies for genuine fast bowling . In the trial matches before the 1928 tour of England , Constantine secured his place on the tour by taking five for 32 and scoring 63 . He left behind his wife Norma , whom he had married in 1927 , and his newly @-@ born daughter .
= = = Tour of England in 1928 = = =
Constantine 's main objective on the 1928 tour was to secure a contract to play cricket professionally in England . James wrote that Constantine " had revolted against the revolting contrast between his first @-@ class status as a cricketer and his third @-@ class status as a man ... The restraints imposed upon him by social conditions in the West Indies had become intolerable and he decided to stand them no longer . " According to James , Constantine would never have left Trinidad had he been able to live with " honour [ and ] a little profit " . In the tour 's opening first @-@ class match , against Derbyshire , Constantine began his second innings when the West Indians needed 40 runs to win ; in seven scoring shots , Constantine hit 31 runs and took the team to a two @-@ wicket victory . In the following match he scored his maiden first @-@ class century , 130 in 90 minutes , against Essex .
As the tour proceeded , Constantine continued his success ; the Middlesex game at Lord 's brought his name to the widest notice in cricket circles . Although struggling for fitness , he chose to play knowing that he was a star attraction in this high profile game . Middlesex batted first , and reached 352 before declaring the innings closed — Constantine bowled little owing to his injury — and the West Indies were struggling at 79 for five when Constantine came in to bat . He scored 50 in 18 minutes and reached 86 in under an hour , to avert his side 's follow @-@ on . In Middlesex 's second innings , Constantine took seven for 57 in a spell of extremely fast bowling and the county were dismissed for 136 . The West Indies needed 259 to win ; they looked likely to lose when Constantine returned to bat with the score 121 for five . He scored 103 in 60 minutes , hitting two sixes and 12 fours and guiding the West Indies to a three @-@ wicket victory . For players and spectators this was the defining match of Constantine 's career ; many years later , cricket writer E. W. Swanton suggested that there were few all @-@ round performances in the history of cricket to match it . Shortly after the game , Nelson , a cricket club in the Lancashire League , offered Constantine a professional contract .
The rest of Constantine 's 1928 tour was generally successful ; only in the three Test matches , the first played by the West Indies , was he less effective . Although he took the West Indies ' first wicket in Test cricket , dismissing Charlie Hallows , and finished with innings figures of four for 82 , he took only one more wicket during the remainder of the series and ended with five wickets at an average of 52 @.@ 40 ; with the bat , he scored 89 runs in six innings at 14 @.@ 83 . Even so , Jack Hobbs said that Constantine 's opening overs to him in the first Test were among the fastest he ever faced , Constantine believed his captain , Karl Nunes , over @-@ bowled him ; the pair did not get along well . When the tour ended , Constantine had scored more runs and taken more wickets and catches in first @-@ class games than any other tourist . He was second in the team 's batting averages with 1 @,@ 381 runs at 34 @.@ 52 , and led the bowling averages with 107 wickets at 22 @.@ 95 . It was the manner in which Constantine played which set him apart from the restrained form of cricket generally played in England at the time : his style , aggression and entertainment value made a big impression on the crowds . According to Peter Mason in his biography of Constantine , he established a unique style of West Indian cricket and possibly established the template for West Indian cricketers for years to come .
= = = Series against England and Australia = = =
At the end of the 1928 tour Constantine returned home and helped Trinidad to win the Intercolonial Tournament . He took 16 wickets in the two games and scored 133 in the final against Barbados , the highest score of his career and a record for Trinidad at the time . These were his last matches in the tournament , as the rules did not permit professional cricketers ( which he became when he signed for Nelson ) to take part . In 1929 Constantine played one match in Jamaica for a West Indies team against an English touring team and then travelled to Nelson to begin his professional career .
Constantine returned to the West Indies to face England ( represented by the MCC as was usual in those days ) in a four @-@ match Test series early in 1930 . The first Test was drawn ; Constantine scored few runs , but bowled for a long time and fielded well . After the game , he was awarded a bat for his contribution . Calthorpe , the MCC captain , criticised his use of short @-@ pitched bowling to a leg side field ; one such ball struck Andy Sandham , but Constantine only reverted to more conventional tactics after a request from the MCC manager . During the second Test Constantine scored a rapid 58 and took six wickets , but the West Indies lost by 167 runs . In the following match the West Indies recorded their first win in Test matches ; after centuries from George Headley and Clifford Roach , Constantine took four for 35 and five for 87 to secure the victory . Constantine was omitted from the final match in Jamaica , because inter @-@ island politics meant that selectors tended to pick players from the island hosting the Test . In the series , 29 players represented the West Indies and the team had a different captain in each match . In the three matches in which he played , Constantine scored 144 runs at 14 @.@ 40 and took 18 wickets at 27 @.@ 61 .
After his second season at Nelson , Constantine joined the first West Indies team to tour Australia in the 1930 – 31 season . The side felt some trepidation over how the black members of the side would be received , but the tour passed off without incident ; Constantine later praised the reception the team was accorded . The West Indians were captained by Jackie Grant , a white man who had played for Cambridge University but was unfamiliar with his team . Constantine considered this unsatisfactory , and felt it affected the team 's performances . The West Indies were heavily defeated in the five @-@ Test series , losing the first four matches before winning the last . Constantine achieved little in the series , scoring 72 runs at 7 @.@ 20 and taking eight wickets at 50 @.@ 87 . In other first @-@ class games , he was more successful and , although Headley performed very well , it was Constantine who proved most popular with spectators . Even before the Tests began , his fielding drew praise from the press and he was described in The Sydney Mail as the fastest bowler seen in Australia for years . Monty Noble , a former Australian captain , writing in the Sydney Sun described one innings of 59 runs as " sensational " and one of the best played in Australia since the war . Constantine scored a century in 52 minutes against Tasmania , played five other innings over fifty and took three five @-@ wicket returns . In 1950 Donald Bradman , who played against Constantine that season , described him as the greatest fielder he had seen . In all first @-@ class matches , Constantine scored 708 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 78 and took 47 wickets at 20 @.@ 21 ; he led the team 's bowling averages and came fourth in batting .
= = = Test series against England in 1933 and 1934 – 35 = = =
By now living in Nelson and barred from the Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament , Constantine played no first @-@ class cricket for two years . His contract with Nelson made him unavailable for much of the 1933 West Indies ' tour of England under Grant . Constantine never challenged Nelson over this ; some critics suggested he was swayed by the greater financial rewards the club provided . He appeared once for the tourists in May , scoring 57 in 27 minutes and taking four wickets in a victory over an MCC team at Lord 's . The West Indian board unsuccessfully tried to secure his release for the first Test match , which the West Indies lost heavily . After he took nine wickets in the tourists ' game against Yorkshire , Nelson gave him permission to appear in the second Test at Manchester .
During the previous winter , England had played Australia in the controversial Bodyline series in which the English bowlers were accused of bowling the ball on the line of leg stump . The deliveries were often short @-@ pitched with four or five fielders close by on the leg side waiting to catch deflections off the bat . The tactics were difficult for batsmen to counter and were designed to be intimidatory . In the 1933 English season , Bodyline was a sensitive subject . There had already been controversy in the tourists ' match against the MCC , during which Constantine and Manny Martindale , another West Indian fast bowler , were criticised in the press for bowling short . Frustrated by a slow pitch which he believed was intended to neutralise his fast bowlers , Grant had ordered Constantine to bowl Bodyline against Yorkshire , and decided to repeat the tactics in the second Test . The West Indies scored 375 , of which Constantine made 31 . When England replied , several batsmen were discomfited by the Bodyline bowling ; Wally Hammond was struck on the chin and retired hurt . Constantine and Martindale bowled up to four short deliveries each over so that the ball rose to head height ; occasionally they bowled around the wicket .
Although not as fast as he had been on the previous tour , Constantine was still capable of short bursts of very fast bowling . However , the slowness of the pitch reduced the effectiveness of the Bodyline tactics , and Constantine took one for 55 ; England 's captain Douglas Jardine , who had implemented the Bodyline tactics in Australia , batted for five hours to score his only Test century . The public disapproval expressed during and after the match was instrumental in turning English attitudes against Bodyline , something Constantine considered hypocritical . In the West Indies ' second innings Constantine 's innings of 64 in an hour ensured that the match was drawn . Nelson initially agreed to release him for the third Test , with Essex all @-@ rounder Stan Nichols to be Constantine 's substitute for the club team . When Jardine heard , he convinced the England selectors to include Nichols in the England team for the Test , the deal collapsed and Constantine did not play . Most critics believed that the West Indies underachieved in the Test series ; Constantine believed that one cause was the inadequacy of Grant as captain . In all first @-@ class games on the tour Constantine scored 181 runs at 20 @.@ 11 and took 14 wickets at 22 @.@ 14 .
Constantine worked in India as a cricket coach during 1934 , playing two matches in the Moin @-@ ud @-@ Dowlah Gold Cup Tournament . He was invited to play in the 1935 Test series against England in the West Indies , and although he arrived too late for the first Test , won by England , he played in the remaining three games of the series . In a match for Trinidad before the second Test , he and his brother Elias appeared together for the only time in a first @-@ class match , and shared a partnership of 93 . In the next Test Constantine scored 90 , his highest Test score . England needed 325 to win in the fourth innings , but lost early wickets . In the final stages of the match Constantine was warned by the umpire for bowling Bodyline , and Grant withdrew him from the bowling attack . After the crowd protested , Constantine returned to bowl ; with two balls of the match left , took the final English wicket . The West Indies won by 217 runs , with Constantine taking three for 11 ; in the match as a whole he scored 121 runs and took five wickets . The third Test was drawn , leaving the final Test to decide the series . After making a large total , the West Indies bowled England out twice to win by an innings and record their first Test series victory . As well as taking six wickets in the game , Constantine captained the team to victory after Grant injured an ankle on the last morning and asked Constantine to assume the leadership . Peter Mason writes : " Given the measures that the West Indian authorities had taken to ensure that no black man would ever captain a regional side , it was a great irony and a huge source of delight to Constantine that he should be the man to lead the team at the moment of their greatest achievement so far . " Once more , the press praised Constantine and hailed his achievements . In the series , he scored 169 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 80 and took 15 wickets at 13 @.@ 13 .
= = = Tour of England in 1939 = = =
Apart from one guest appearance for Barbados in a friendly match early in 1939 , Constantine did not play first @-@ class cricket after 1935 until the West Indies toured England in 1939 . Constantine had deliberately not signed a league contract in 1939 , to be available for the tour . However , he was unhappy with the playing strength of the touring team and the £ 600 he was offered in wages . He believed that the captain , Rolph Grant ( younger brother of Jackie ) , was unqualified for the job and had been appointed only because he was white . Constantine captained the side in one match , but was reprimanded by the West Indies board for not pursuing a win . The West Indies lost the three @-@ match Test series 1 – 0 against a very strong England side , although critics judged the overall playing record of the team to be good . In the three Tests , Constantine scored 110 runs at 27 @.@ 50 and took 11 wickets at 29 @.@ 81 , including five for 75 in the final Test .
By this time Constantine bowled generally at medium pace from a short run @-@ up . To compensate for his reduced pace he mixed up his bowling style , spinning the ball and bowling at speeds varying from slow to very fast . He bowled more overs than any other member of the team , and was the side 's leading wicket @-@ taker with 103 wickets in the season . His bowling average of 17 @.@ 77 placed him first in the team 's bowling averages and seventh in the English national averages . With the bat , Constantine scored 614 runs at 21 @.@ 17 ; Preston wrote that Constantine " often electrified onlookers with his almost impudent zest for runs " . His highest innings came in the final Test match when he scored 79 in an hour and hit 11 fours . Wisden commented : " Constantine , in the mood suggesting his work in Saturday afternoon League cricket , brought a welcome air of gaiety to the Test arena . He revolutionised all the recognised features of cricket and , surpass [ ed ] Bradman in his amazing stroke play . " For his all @-@ round performances during the season he was chosen as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year .
The third Test match , after which the tour was abandoned owing to the imminent outbreak of the Second World War , was Constantine 's last . In 18 Test matches between 1928 and 1939 he scored 635 runs at an average of 19 @.@ 24 , took 58 wickets at 30 @.@ 10 and held 28 catches . He played one more first @-@ class match when , in 1945 , he captained a team representing the " Dominions " against England at Lord 's . The match was narrowly won by the Dominions . Constantine , in the second innings , shared a partnership of 117 in 45 minutes with Keith Miller . He bowled very little , but ran out a batsman at a key point in the final innings . In all first @-@ class cricket , Constantine scored 4 @,@ 475 runs at 24 @.@ 05 and took 439 wickets at 20 @.@ 48 .
= = = Lancashire League cricketer = = =
In 1928 Constantine had signed an initial three @-@ year contract with Nelson , to play in the Lancashire League . The contract was worth £ 500 per season , plus performance bonuses and travelling expenses . He remained there until 1937 , an unusually long time for a professional to remain with one club . Constantine 's appearances boosted attendances and gate receipts for all Nelson 's matches , and was of great financial benefit to both the club and the League as a whole . In Constantine 's nine seasons at the club , Nelson never finished lower than second , won the league competition seven times and the knockout cup twice . In 1931 Constantine renewed his contract for £ 650 per season ; when in 1935 a rival league attempted to sign him , all the Lancashire League clubs contributed to his wage , which rose to £ 750 per year between 1935 and 1937 . This was far more than the then maximum wage for a professional footballer of £ 386 , or the £ 500 per season that a top county cricketer could potentially earn , and possibly made Constantine the best @-@ paid sportsman in the country . Consequently , he and his family enjoyed a good standard of living for the first time in their lives .
As Nelson 's professional , Constantine was immediately successful . Although he produced better figures in subsequent years , he considered his first season at Nelson the most enjoyable of his life , owing to the freedom and excitement of the cricket . In nine years at the club he scored 6 @,@ 363 runs at an average of 37 @.@ 65 and took 776 wickets at 9 @.@ 50 . His highest score was 192 , and his best bowling figures were ten wickets for ten runs . In each season except for 1932 , he averaged over 30 with the bat and in 1933 he scored 1 @,@ 000 runs at an average of over 50 . He took over 70 wickets every season and his bowling average never rose above 11 @.@ 30 ; in five seasons , he averaged under ten runs per wicket . In 1933 he took 96 wickets , his highest seasonal aggregate , and had he not missed two games to play for the West Indies touring team , would likely have completed the cricketer 's double ( 1 @,@ 000 runs and 100 wickets ) , an unprecedented feat in the league .
In the mid @-@ 1930s , representatives from Lancashire County Cricket Club twice approached Constantine with a view to him joining the club — his time in Nelson meant that he qualified to play for Lancashire , having lived in the county for the required time . There was a precedent for such a course , as the Australian Ted McDonald had joined Lancashire after playing as Nelson 's professional in the 1920s . In the case of Constantine nothing happened , as members of the Lancashire Board and , later , players in the team opposed the idea of a black man playing for the county . In any case Constantine preferred league cricket to what he perceived was the negativity and dullness of county cricket . He found the standard of play very high , stating : " Never in my life have I played harder than in Lancashire . " In his history of West Indies cricket , Michael Manley writes that league cricket at this time was intense and unrelenting , but : " it was in this special atmosphere of League cricket that Constantine was supreme . "
For the 1938 season , Constantine played for Rochdale in the Central Lancashire Cricket League , although he continued to live in Nelson . He received £ 812 for the season , and performed successfully , but did not enjoy the experience . The nature of the pitches was different in his new league ; furthermore , some of the players seemed resentful of his high earnings . There was also an incident of racial abuse which Constantine believed the Central Lancashire League committee effectively covered up . This season ended Constantine 's career in the Lancashire Leagues , although during the war he returned to play for Nelson as an amateur .
= = = Style and technique = = =
Swanton believed that Constantine was the first West Indian cricketer to make an impression on the British public : " he ... personified West Indian cricket from the first faltering entry in the Test arena in 1928 until the post @-@ war emergence of the trinity of Worrell , Weekes and Walcott . " Swanton continued : " There have been many all @-@ rounders with better records ... but it is hard to think of one who made a more sensational impact [ and ] impossible to imagine his superior as a fielder anywhere . " In 1934 Neville Cardus described Constantine as a " genius " and the " most original cricketer of recent years " . R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow called Constantine the most exciting cricketer to watch of all his contemporaries . This was partly because his style of cricket meant that he could alter the course of a match in a short space of time , although he developed his technique to minimise risk .
Constantine 's batting was based on good eyesight , quick reflexes and natural ability . He used his wrists to adjust the angle of the bat at the last second , allowing him to counter unexpected late movement of the ball . He batted by instinct and , according to Manley , " his every stroke [ owed ] more to energy than calculation " . He was capable of scoring rapidly against any standard of bowling , but rarely survived for long periods because he chose not to defend . His best shots were the cut , pull and hook . Critics believed that Constantine 's batting reached its peak once he became an accomplished league cricketer . By setting himself to master the variety of pitch conditions he encountered , and adopting a style of fast @-@ scoring and occasionally unorthodox batting , he became an adaptable and effective batsman in all forms of cricket , improvising where necessary to prevent bowlers getting on top .
As a cover @-@ point fielder Constantine was , according to Manley , " athletic , panther @-@ quick , sure handed and with an arm that could rifle the ball into the wicket @-@ keeper 's gloves like a bullet even from the deepest boundary " . Many critics considered him to be one of the best fielders of all time . As a bowler , Constantine accelerated from a relatively short run into what Manley calls an " explosive " delivery . James believes he reached his best form as a bowler in 1939 , using what he had learned in the leagues . By this time his varieties of spin , pace and flight made him effective even when conditions favoured the batsmen . Although Constantine 's Test bowling record was modest , this may to some extent reflect the poor standard of fielding in the early West Indies teams , in particular their propensity to drop catches .
Manley writes that wherever Constantine played he brought " style and humour : that aggressiveness that is somehow good @-@ natured and which is the distinctively West Indian quality in all sport . Constantine 's extrovert exuberance was , of course , more particularly Trinidadian than generally West Indian . Perhaps it is this last characteristic that gave him that special quality of panache which sets him apart from all other West Indian cricketers . "
= = Life in England = =
= = = Nelson = = =
During his time in Nelson , Constantine made a deep impression and remained a celebrity there even after leaving the town ; his general community involvement was such that a regional historian described him as a " local champion " . He appreciated the greater freedom he enjoyed in Nelson as compared with Trinidad , where racial issues predominated . Although Nelson suffered from the effects of the Depression , Constantine 's high earnings were never a source of resentment ; of his time in Nelson he wrote : " If I had not come ... I could not have been the person I am today ... I am a better citizen for the time I have spent in Nelson . "
Constantine 's first season was difficult ; both he and the residents of the town were at that stage uncertain of each other . Few black people had been seen in Nelson , and although some residents wrote welcoming letters , the Constantines also received racist and abusive ones . He quickly established boundaries over what he considered acceptable , permitting and even sharing small jokes over skin colour but protesting strongly at outright racism . John Arlott wrote : " [ Constantine ] fought discrimination against his people with a dignity firm but free of acrimony . " Although Constantine later attributed some of the initial uneasiness to ignorance , at the time he seriously considered returning to Trinidad after the first season . His wife persuaded him otherwise , pointing out the benefits from remaining to complete his contract . From 1930 Constantine found life more comfortable ; the family began to develop friendships and to engage in the social life of the town . They continued to visit Trinidad in the English winters , but Nelson became the family 's permanent home .
In 1931 the Constantines settled in a fairly prosperous , middle @-@ class area of Nelson , where they were to live until 1949 . During 1932 , they took C. L. R. James — who knew Constantine through having played cricket against him in Trinidad — as a lodger ; James had come to London but had run out of money . James was at the forefront of a growing West Indian nationalist movement , though Constantine had until then consciously avoided politics . Through James ' influence , Constantine realised that his position gave him opportunities to further the cause of racial equality and Trinidadian independence . He joined the League of Coloured Peoples , an organisation aiming to achieve racial equality for black people in Britain . He helped James to get a job with the Manchester Guardian , and in return , James helped Constantine to write his first book , Cricket and I , which was published in 1933 . Later commentators have identified Constantine 's book as an important step in West Indian nationalism , and an encouragement to future authors . At that time , James wrote , few active cricketers wrote books and " no one in the West Indies that I knew , cricketer or not , was writing books at all ; certainly none was being printed abroad . " Constantine and James drifted apart once the latter returned to London ; they remained in contact but did not always agree politically or morally . Mason believes , however that without Constantine 's assistance James may not have later established himself as a celebrated political writer .
= = = Career during the war = = =
During the war , Constantine continued his cricket career as a league professional ; also , as a popular player who could boost crowd attendances , he appeared in many wartime charity games . However , the war ended his career in top @-@ class cricket and signalled a change in his life 's priorities . Remaining in Nelson when the war started , he initially served as an Air Raid Precautions equipment officer , and as a billeting officer for incoming evacuees . After applying for a job with the Ministry of Labour , Constantine was offered a senior position as Welfare Officer by the Ministry of Labour and National Service .
Using his familiarity with life in England , and his high profile and status as a cricketer , Constantine became responsible for the many West Indians who had been recruited to work in factories in the north @-@ west of England for the duration of the war . Working mainly from Liverpool , he helped these men to adapt to their unfamiliar environment and to deal with the severe racism and discrimination which many of them faced . Constantine also worked closely with trade unions in an attempt to ease the fears and suspicions of white workers . He used his influence with the Ministry of Labour to pressurise companies who refused to employ West Indians , but generally preferred negotiation to confrontation , an approach that was often successful . Constantine 's wartime experiences caused him to increase his involvement in the League of Coloured Peoples , sometimes referring cases to them . He particularly took up the cause of the children of white women and black overseas servicemen ; these children were often abandoned by their parents . However , plans to create a children 's home for them came to nothing , leaving Constantine frustrated . He remained in his post until the summer of 1946 , latterly concerned with the repatriation of the West Indian workers at the end of the war . For his wartime work he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in 1947 .
During the war , at the request of the British government , Constantine made radio broadcasts to the West Indies , reporting on the involvement of West Indians in the war effort . As a result , he was often asked to speak on BBC radio about his life in England . His radio performances met with critical acclaim , and he became a frequent guest on radio panel shows ; he also took part in a film documentary , West Indies calling , in 1943 .
= = = Constantine v Imperial London Hotels = = =
In August 1943 Constantine played in a charity cricket match at Lord 's and had booked rooms for himself , his wife and daughter at the Imperial Hotel , London for four nights . He had been specifically told that his colour would not be an issue at the hotel . When he arrived on 30 July , he was told that they could only stay for one night because their presence might offend other guests . When Arnold Watson , a colleague of Constantine at the Ministry of Labour , arrived and attempted to intervene , he was told by the manager : " We are not going to have these niggers in our hotel , " and that his presence might offend American guests . Watson argued , to no avail , that not only was Constantine a British subject , he worked for the government . Eventually Watson persuaded Constantine to leave and stay at another hotel which , owned by the same company as the Imperial , proved to be welcoming . The Imperial Hotel incident affected Constantine deeply , both because of the involvement of his family and also because he was due to play cricket for a team representing the British Empire and Commonwealth .
In September questions were asked in the House of Commons about the incident , by which time Constantine had decided to take legal action . In June 1944 Constantine v Imperial London Hotels was heard in the High Court . Although there was no law against racial discrimination in Britain at the time , Constantine argued that the hotel had breached its contract with him . Constantine informed the court that the attitude of the hotel changed between his booking and arrival , owing to the presence of white American servicemen . The defence argued that they had met their contract by accommodating Constantine in another hotel and that he had left the Imperial voluntarily . The managing director of the hotel denied that racist language had been used . After two days of evidence , the judge found in Constantine 's favour , rejecting the defence 's arguments and praising the way Constantine had handled the situation . Although the law limited the award of damages against the hotel to five guineas , Constantine was vindicated . He did not pursue the case any further as he believed he had sufficiently raised the issue of racism in the public eye ; the case was widely reported in the press , and Constantine received great support from both the public and the government .
Although racial discrimination continued in England , this case was the first to challenge such practices in court . Critics regard it as a milestone in British racial equality in demonstrating that black people had legal recourse against some forms of racism . According to Mason , it " was one of the key milestones along the road to the creation of the Race Relations Act of 1965 . "
= = = Legal studies = = =
While living and playing cricket in Nelson before the war , Constantine had made plans for a future legal career . James helped him with his studies for a short time , and he later worked in a local solicitors ' office . In 1944 he enrolled as a student in the Middle Temple , London . To finance his studies , he continued his professional cricket career in Bradford until 1948 , and supplemented his income by coaching : at Trinity College , Dublin , in 1946 and in Ceylon in 1953 . Constantine also extended his work in journalism and broadcasting , as a cricket reporter and as a radio commentator when the West Indies toured England in 1950 . He also wrote several cricket books , probably with the help of a ghostwriter . Cricket in the Sun ( 1947 ) covered his career but also discussed the racism he had encountered and suggested then @-@ radical ideas for the future of cricket , such as a one @-@ day " world cup " . Cricketers ' Carnival ( 1948 ) , Cricket Crackers , Cricketers ' Cricket ( both 1949 ) and How To Play Cricket ( 1951 ) were more traditional cricket books , which included coaching tips and opinions .
In 1947 Constantine became chairman of the League of Coloured Peoples , a position he held until the League was discontinued in 1951 . In 1948 he was elected president of the Caribbean Congress of Labour , and between 1947 and 1950 was a member of the Colonial Office 's Colonial Social Welfare Advisory Committee . Also in 1950 , he became involved in a controversy over the interracial marriage of Seretse Khama , the future president of Botswana . Constantine lobbied the government on Khama 's behalf , organised meetings and even approached the United Nations . Little was achieved , and Constantine disapproved of the approach of the Labour government and its Prime Minister , Clement Attlee , but declined an opportunity to become a Liberal parliamentary candidate .
Constantine neither enjoyed his legal studies , nor found the work easy , but was determined to prove he could succeed . His wife kept him motivated , restricted visitors to avoid distractions and forced him to study , making him continue when he was several times tempted to give up . The family moved to London in 1949 ; between 1950 and 1954 , Constantine passed the required series of examinations , and in 1954 he was called to the bar by the Middle Temple .
Having turned down an offer in 1947 to return to his old employer , Trinidad Leaseholds , in 1954 Constantine agreed to join the same company as an assistant legal advisor . Uncertain about going back to Trinidad after living for 25 years in England , he nevertheless believed it was a good time to return , particularly as his daughter was moving there to marry . Before leaving England , he published his book Colour Bar ( 1954 ) , which addressed race relations in Britain and the racism he had experienced . It also discussed world @-@ wide racial oppression and how the lives of black people could be improved . At the time , according to Peter Mason , this was " an explosive , challenging , hard hitting tome , the more so because it came not from a known black militant but from someone who seemed so charming , so unruffled , so suited to British society " . Although not viewed as radical by black audiences , it was aimed at white British readers . The British press gave it mixed reviews and criticised him for unfairness in parts of the book ; other critics accused him of communist sympathies .
= = Return to Trinidad = =
When Constantine returned to Trinidad in late 1954 , he found a growing desire for independence from Britain . At Trinidad Leaseholds he felt isolated from other , mainly white , senior staff ; this drew him towards political involvement . Eric Williams , leader of the newly founded People 's National Movement ( PNM ) , was aware of Constantine 's popular appeal and recruited him . By January 1956 Constantine , with the full co @-@ operation and blessing of his employers , was party chairman and a member of its executive committee . Feeling that the PNM 's policies were in harmony with his views on improving the lives of black people , and encouraged by his wife , Constantine stood for election in the parliamentary constituency of Tunapuna in 1956 . He won a narrow victory , which his colleagues believed few in the party could have done , and resigned from Trinidad Leaseholds . The PNM formed a government , in which Constantine became the Minister of Communications , Works and Utilities .
In his ministerial role , Constantine promoted development of Trinidad 's road , rail , water and electricity infrastructure . However , in late 1958 he was accused of corruption , over a ship leasing deal . His angry response to the charge , in the Legislative Council , created a perception of arrogance among his colleagues , and suggested that he had not sufficiently adapted to parliamentary politics . According to Mason , the speech was a miscalculation which made the public , perhaps already sceptical of his commitment to Trinidad after so many years away , question his fitness for a ministerial role , a view increasingly held by commentators .
In the later 1950s , Constantine supported the campaign , led by James , to appoint West Indies cricket 's first black captain ; the success of black people like Constantine in attaining government positions while not permitted to captain the cricket team was a key factor in an ultimately successful campaign . While in government , Constantine assisted in the development of the West Indies Federation , as a step towards the independence of the islands , and his fame and familiarity with Britain played some part in the negotiations which led to Trinidad 's independence in 1962 . After he decided not to stand for re @-@ election in 1961 , Williams appointed him as Trinidad and Tobago 's first High Commissioner in London .
Peter Mason writes that Constantine 's political career in Trinidad was a success : he was efficient , active , respected and popular . Mason concedes that he was not a natural politician , often sensitive to criticism and that his experience abroad was a cause for mistrust in Trinidad , rather than seen as an advantage . Gerald Howat believes that Constantine 's political career , while not without successes , was undermined by several factors : his age , his over @-@ frequent references to his English experience , his rejection of political theorising and lack of debating skills . However , his personal popularity undoubtedly attracted support to the PNM .
= = Back to England = =
= = = High Commissioner = = =
Constantine began his role as High Commissioner in June 1961 . In the New Year 's Honours list for 1962 , he was knighted and became Sir Learie Constantine ; among other accolades he received at this time was the freedom of the town of Nelson . Mason notes that Constantine had now " passed firmly into the consciousness as a British treasure " . However , his tenure as High Commissioner ended in controversy . Constantine felt that his high profile required him to speak out on racial issues affecting all West Indian immigrants , not just Trinidadians . In April 1963 , when a Bristol bus company was refusing to employ black staff , Constantine visited the city and spoke to the press about the issue . His intervention assisted in a speedy resolution of the affair which , according to Mason , was crucial in persuading the British government of the need for a Race Relations Act . However , politicians in both Trinidad and Britain felt a senior diplomat should not be so closely involved in British domestic affairs , particularly as he acted without consulting his government . Williams effectively withdrew his support from Constantine , who decided not to continue as High Commissioner when his term expired in February 1964 .
Although as High Commissioner Constantine looked after his staff and was respected by other diplomats , Howat observes there is limited evidence that he was successful in the post : " In the one area in which he acted positively , he blundered — the Bristol affair . In the language of the game he loved ... his timing was wrong though he was full of good intentions " . Howat adds that he did not increase his stature or reputation during his term of office . Mason believes that " there was too much of the welfare officer about him and not enough of the government focused diplomat . "
= = = Final years = = =
For the remainder of his life , Constantine lived in London . He returned to legal practice and was elected an Honorary Bencher of the Middle Temple in 1963 , despite his limited experience . He also resumed work in journalism : he wrote and broadcast on cricket , race and the Commonwealth , and produced two more books : a coaching book The Young Cricketers Companion ( 1964 ) , and The Changing Face of Cricket ( 1966 ) which included his thoughts on modern cricket . He made his debut as a television cricket commentator , although his failing health and talkative style meant he was less successful than on the radio .
In 1965 Constantine became a founding member of the Sports Council , which aimed to develop sport in Britain . Two years later , he was appointed to the three @-@ person Race Relations Board , formed through the Race Relations Act , to investigate cases of racial discrimination . In this role he spoke out against the Commonwealth Immigrants Act , a stance that led to an offer from the Liberal Party , which he declined , to stand as parliamentary candidate for Nelson . Later , he was involved in an unsuccessful attempt to negotiate the release , after a military coup , of Abubakar Tafawa Balewa , the overthrown Prime Minister of Nigeria . Constantine was appointed to the BBC 's General Advisory Committee in 1966 and became a BBC Governor two years later , although declining health restricted his involvement . The following year the students of St Andrews University elected Constantine as Rector , but again his health prevented him performing effectively in this role . In his last years , Constantine was criticised for becoming part of the Establishment ; Private Eye mocked him , while the new generation of West Indian immigrants believed he was out of touch . More radical black spokesmen disapproved of his conciliatory approach to racist incidents .
Constantine was awarded a life peerage in 1969 , becoming the first black man to sit in the House of Lords ; there were rumours that Trinidad had prevented earlier attempts to ennoble him . He took the title of Baron Constantine of Maraval in Trinidad and Nelson in the County Palatine of Lancaster . His investiture attracted widespread media attention ; Constantine stated : " I think it must have been for what I have endeavoured to do to make it possible for people of different colour to know each other better and live well together . " He sat as a crossbencher in the House , but was well enough to make only one speech in his time there .
Although Constantine was reluctant to leave England , his poor health necessitated a return to Trinidad , but before he could do so he died of a heart attack , probably brought about by bronchitis , on 1 July 1971 . His body was flown to Trinidad , where he received a state funeral before being buried in Arouca . He was posthumously awarded Trinidad 's highest honour , the Trinity Cross . Later in the month , a memorial service was held in London in Westminster Abbey .
= = Family life = =
Constantine met his future wife , Norma Agatha Cox , in 1921 . She had little interest in cricket and , although their relationship developed during the early 1920s , she resented that he gave more time to cricket than he did to her . However , the relationship lasted and she began to take more of an interest in his sporting achievements . They were married on 25 July 1927 ; their only child , Gloria , was born in April 1928 . Throughout their marriage , his wife motivated him to continue his efforts to further his career and they remained close . Norma died two months after her husband in 1971 .
= = Personality = =
John Arlott describes Constantine as a man of " easy humour and essential patience ... His outlook was that of a compassionate radical and he maintained his high moral standards unswervingly . " E. W. Swanton writes : " None could call Lord Constantine a modest man , but gifts of warmth and friendliness as well as a shrewd brain and a ready tongue helped to make him one of the personalities of his time . " He did not get along with everyone ; he and England cricketer Wally Hammond feuded for nearly ten years over what Constantine perceived as a slight in 1925 – 26 . Subsequently , Constantine continually bowled short when he encountered Hammond on the field , until the pair made peace in the Old Trafford Test match of 1933 . After this , they pursued a more good @-@ natured rivalry and became quite friendly ; Hammond publicly expressed sympathy towards Constantine and other black West Indians for the discrimination that they faced .
In his earlier years , acquaintances believed Constantine was too conscious of colour . James wrote : " Many doors in England were open to him . That doors were closed to other West Indians seemed more important to him . " Michael Manley describes him as an extrovert who displayed great self @-@ belief in everything he did . He also notes that " Constantine was too long in England and perhaps too slight in Test @-@ match performance to make the impact on the Caribbean that he did on England . But he enchanted England . " Howat writes : " Cricket apart ... Constantine 's reputation must rest on his contribution to racial tolerance , his benevolent view of empire and Commonwealth , and his personal acceptance within the British ' establishment ' . In the end he was more English than Trinidadian and he needed that wider platform . "
= Ucu Agustin =
This is an Indonesian name which does not have a family name . The subject should be referred to as Ucu
Ucu Agustin ( born 19 August 1976 in Sukabumi , Indonesia ) is an Indonesian journalist , writer , and documentary filmmaker .
Educated in an Islamic boarding school , Ucu became interested in journalism after realising that there were many prostitutes from her hometown . Beginning in the print media , she moved to making documentaries after she saw a lack of opportunities for human interest pieces in newspapers . One of her first documentaries , Death in Jakarta , was produced with the help of funds from the Jakarta International Film Festival . Other documentaries include Ragat 'e Anak and Konspirasi Hening . She has also written several children 's books and short stories .
Ucu has been described as " one of Indonesia 's top documentary filmmakers " and often deals with social issues in her work . Ragat 'e Anak was screened at the Berlin International Film Festival in 2009 .
= = Early life , education and early career = =
Ucu was born in Sukabumi , West Java , on 19 August 1976 to a strict Muslim family . As a child , she studied in the Darunnajah Islamic boarding school in Jakarta for six years ; removed from the outside world , she felt shocked when she learned that many of the women in her hometown worked as prostitutes . This discovery led her to become more critical of the world around her and made her interested in journalism . Ucu later attended the Jakarta Islamic State University .
After graduation , Ucu began working with print media , contributing to Pantau magazine after publishing several short stories and articles elsewhere . Dissatisfied with the lack of opportunities for writing pieces dealing with social issues she later switched to audio @-@ visual media ; she has also cited the intense amount of editing that her works went through as a reason for the change , noting that there " always seemed to be a wide space between the reality that happened and the ' reality ' that was reported " .
Ucu also became active in writing . She published five Islamic @-@ themed children 's books in 2003 , insisting on receiving royalties rather than the standard flat rate . She has also written a short story , entitled " Lelaki yang Menetas di Tubuhku " ( " The Man That Hatched Inside My Body " ) , for inclusion in the lesbian @-@ themed short story collection Un Soir du Paris ( An Evening in Paris ) . The book also included stories by Clara Ng , Seno Gumira Ajidarma , and Agus Noor .
= = Filmmaking = =
Ucu 's first documentary was Pramoedya : Last Chapter . In 2005 , Ucu made the 28 @-@ minute documentary Death in Jakarta . This film , dealing with the experiences of poor people after a loved one dies in Jakarta , was inspired by her observations when passing Utan Kayu Public Cemetery in Utan Kayu , East Jakarta . It was produced after becoming one of four finalists in the Jakarta International Film Festival Script Development Competition . Ucu received Rp . 25 million ( US $ 3 @,@ 000 ) in prize money and was lent a camera by the competition ; it was her first time using a professional @-@ grade camera . In April of that year she released Kalau Kanakar ( If Kalakar ? ) , a short story collection .
Her next film , Ragat 'e Anak ( For The Sake of Children ) , dealt with the lives of two part @-@ time prostitutes in a cemetery in Tulungagung , East Java . The documentary was included in Pertaruhan ( At Stake ) , a compilation of works produced by the Kalyana Shira Foundation . In August 2006 , Ucu released a short story compilation , Dunia di Kepala Alice ( The World in Alice 's Head ) , and a novel , Being Ing . On 4 June 2009 , the Tulungagung government shut down the prostitution district as a result of the documentary ; in response , Ucu said that she regretted the decision .
Her next documentary , Konspirasi Hening ( Conspiracy of Silence ) was produced by Nia Dinata . It drew its title from a statement by Kartono Mohamad , former head of the Indonesian Doctors Association , that a " conspiracy of silence " had led to rules about healthcare being essentially unenforceable . The feature @-@ length film , Ucu 's first , explored healthcare issues in Indonesia by following the lives of three people , two who had suffered from malpractice and a poor man without access to healthcare .
In 2011 Ucu collaborated with Dinata again on Batik : Our Love Story , a documentary on the traditional textile batik . Dinata directed , while Ucu served as screenwriter . As of September 2011 , Ucu is working on three documentaries : Knocking The Door , about the Indonesian Bill for Public Information ; Thank You for Loving Me , about deforestation in Indonesia ; and Where Did You Go My Love , about kidnap victims .
Through the Cipta Media Bersama program , run by the Ford Foundation in collaboration with several other groups , in November 2011 Ucu received a Rp.700 million ( US $ 100 @,@ 000 ) grant to produce a new film . The film , entitled Tidak Bermula [ dan Tidak Berakhir ] dengan Berita ( Not Starting [ and Not Ending ] With News ) will compare the habits of the press during the death of former president Soeharto and the media in 2012 ; it is hoped to shed light on issues faced by the press in both periods and promote media literacy .
= = Themes = =
Ucu 's Islamic children 's books take a moderate stance .
Ika Krismantari , writing for The Jakarta Post , notes that Ucu tends to deal with " challenging " themes such as social injustice , healthcare , and gender inequality in her documentaries ; gender issues are present in most of her works . Ucu considers social justice and human rights other key themes of her works .
Ucu has noted that she hopes that viewers are influenced by the hard lives faced by the subjects , whom she calls " inspiring " . In September 2011 , she stated that she was most pleased with Death in Jakarta , Ragat 'e Anak , and Konspirasi Hening . Many of her documentaries are distributed online .
= = Reception = =
Krismantari describes Ucu as " one of Indonesia ’ s top documentary filmmakers " .
Ucu was one of the winners of the 2005 Jakarta International Film Festival Script Development Competition , which led to her being able to make Death in Jakarta . Pertaruhan , containing her documentary Ragat 'e Anak , was shown in the Panorama section of the Berlin International Film Festival in 2009 ; together with Laskar Pelangi ( also shown that year ) , it was the first Indonesian film shown in Panorama . Ucu went to Berlin with Dinata to attend the showing .
= = Personal life = =
Krismantari describes Ucu as being " a petite woman who can pack a fair punch " , in reference to Ucu 's 1 @.@ 55 m ( 5 ft 1 in ) frame and strong mind .
= = Filmography = =
Pramoedya : Last Chapter ( 2006 )
Death in Jakarta ( 2006 )
Nine Lives of A Women ( 2007 )
Women Behind the Cut ( 2008 )
An Unfinished One ( 2008 )
Ragat 'e Anak ( For The Sake of Children ; 2008 )
Waktu itu , Januari 2008 : Sebuah Catatan Kaki ( That Time , January 2008 : A Footnote ; 2009 )
Konspirasi Hening ( Conspiracy of Silence ; 2010 )
= Hurricane Howard ( 2004 ) =
Hurricane Howard was a powerful Category 4 hurricane which produced large swells along the coasts of the Baja California Peninsula and southern California . The eighth named storm of the 2004 Pacific hurricane season , Howard originated out of a tropical wave off the coast of Mexico on August 30 . Traveling towards the northwest , the storm gradually strengthened , becoming a hurricane on September 1 and reaching its peak intensity the following day with winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) . Decreasing sea surface temperatures then caused the storm to weaken . By September 4 , Howard was downgraded to a tropical storm . The next day , it degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low pressure area which persisted for another five days before dissipating over open waters .
Although the storm never made landfall , the fringe effects of the storm produced significant flooding across the Baja California Peninsula which damaged agricultural land and dozens of homes . Howard also produced large swells which reached 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 4 m ) along the Baja coastline and 10 ft ( 3 m ) along the California coastline . About 1 @,@ 000 lifeguard rescues took place in California due to the waves . Moisture from the storm also enhanced rainfall in parts of Arizona , leading to minor accumulations .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Howard began as a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on August 18 . The wave moved across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea with little associated convection . By August 26 , the wave produced disorganized convection as it moved through the western Caribbean , across Central America , and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean . Paralleling the southern coast of Mexico , the wave became increasingly organized and it was estimated that the tropical wave spawned a tropical depression around 1200 UTC on August 30 about 400 mi ( 645 km ) south @-@ southwest of Acapulco , Mexico . Classified as Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E , the system tracked west @-@ northwestward under the steering currents of a weak mid @-@ level ridge . In the hours after formation , the depression lacked a concentration of deep convection near the center . However , conditions favored eventual development , including warm sea surface temperatures and low amounts of wind shear .
Based on increased organization and the formation of banding features , it was estimated that the cyclone intensified into Tropical Storm Howard at 0000 UTC on August 31 . A mid @-@ level anticyclone located over southern California was steering the storm towards the northwest . Early on September 1 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) stated that Howard had an 80 percent chance of undergoing rapid intensification based on further development of the storm and a highly favorable environment around the cyclone . Based on the formation of an eye feature , the NHC upgraded Howard to a hurricane early on September 1 while the storm was located about 420 mi ( 675 km ) southwest of Manzanillo , Colima . Later that day , the eye of Howard became apparent on satellite imagery , which organized into a pinhole eye surrounded by a ring of symmetric , deep convection . At 0600 UTC on September 2 , Howard was upgraded to a major hurricane — a storm with winds of 111 mph ( 178 km / h ) or higher . Shortly after , the cyclone reached its peak intensity as a low @-@ end Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , with winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) while located about 410 mi ( 660 km ) south @-@ southwest of the southern tip of Baja California Sur .
Not long after reaching peak intensity , the storm moved over cooler waters , causing the eyewall to deteriorate and cloud tops to warm . The next day , the eye of Howard disappeared from satellite imagery , leading to the cyclone being downgraded to a Category 2 hurricane . Continued deterioration of the system caused rapid weakening , with Howard being downgraded to a tropical storm by 1200 UTC on September 4 . Convection associated with the storm was separated from the center later that day . Early on September 5 , Howard was further downgraded to a tropical depression and later degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low pressure area about 265 mi ( 425 km ) west @-@ southwest of Punta Eugenia , Mexico . The remnants of the hurricane continued towards the northwest before turning towards the southwest the following day as it tracked along the southeast side of a ridge of high pressure . The low continued in this general direction until it dissipated on September 10 about 1 @,@ 150 mi ( 1 @,@ 850 km ) west of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico .
= = Preparations and Impact = =
Because Howard remained away from land no tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued . One ship , the Strong Virginian , reported sustained winds 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) at 0600 UTC on September 4 . Along the Baja California Peninsula , 16 – 18 ft ( 4 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 4 m ) swells were reported . All ships were required to remain at port due to the rough seas . Heavy rains in the mountainous and Pacific coastal areas of Baja California produced flooding which washed out several roads in San José del Cabo . The rains did help increase water levels in some reservoirs in Baja California . An estimated 2 @,@ 000 hectares of agricultural land was damaged by the storm and 48 households were damaged throughout four communities . State and federal authorities purchased temporary homes for those who needed shelter in the affected areas . The State Civil Protection in Mexico provided rehabilitation for a total of 393 homes affected by Howard .
Large swells produced by the storm resulted in about 1 @,@ 000 lifeguard rescues in Orange County , California . High temperatures in southern California , exceeding 100 ° F ( 37 @.@ 7 ° C ) in places , and cool ocean temperatures led to an estimated 575 @,@ 000 people going to beaches during the Labor Day weekend . One incident required 25 rescues as dozens of people were overwhelmed by 8 – 10 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 m ) waves . Officials in San Bernardino County advised residents to take precautions for the possibility of flooding as a result of moisture from the remnants of Howard . Following wildfires in 2003 , foothills were highly susceptible to flooding . Residents were advised to have sandbags ready , ensure their emergency supplies were stocked and have an evacuation plan . Despite all the preparations undertaken , Howard did not produced any rainfall in California . The moisture also enhanced rainfall across portions of Arizona . This led to minor rainfall accumulations throughout the state .
= Irving Gottesman =
Irving Isadore Gottesman ( December 29 , 1930 – June 29 , 2016 ) was an American professor of psychology who devoted most of his career to the study of the genetics of schizophrenia . He has written 17 books and more than 290 other publications , mostly on schizophrenia and behavioral genetics , and created the first academic program on behavioral genetics in the United States . He has won awards such as the Hofheimer Prize for Research , the highest award from the American Psychiatric Association for psychiatric research . Lastly , Gottesman was a professor in the psychology department at the University of Minnesota , where he received his Ph.D.
A native of Ohio , Gottesman studied psychology for his undergraduate and graduate degrees , became a faculty member at various universities , and spent most of his career at the University of Virginia and the University of Minnesota . He is known for researching schizophrenia in identical twins to document the contributions of genetics and the family , social , cultural , and economic environment to the onset , progress , and inter @-@ generational transmission of the disorder . Gottesman has worked with researchers to analyze hospital records and conduct follow @-@ up interviews of twins where one or both were schizophrenic . He has also researched the effects of genetics and the environment on human violence and variations in human intelligence . Gottesman and co @-@ researcher James Shields introduced the word epigenetics — the control of genes by biochemical signals modified by the environment from other parts of the genome — to the field of psychiatric genetics .
Gottesman has written and co @-@ written a series of books which summarize his work . These publications include raw data from various studies , their statistical interpretation , and possible conclusions presented with necessary background material . The books also include first @-@ hand accounts of schizophrenic patients and relatives tending to them , giving an insight into jumbled thoughts , the disorder 's primary symptom . Gottesman and Shields have built models to explain the cause , transmission , and progression of the disorder , which is controlled by many genes acting in concert with the environment , with no cause sufficient by itself .
= = Background = =
Gottesman was born in Cleveland , Ohio , in 1930 , to Bernard and Virginia Gottesman ( née Weitzner ) , who were Hungarian – Romanian Jewish immigrants . He was educated at Miles Standish Elementary and a public school in Cleveland 's Shaker Heights . After leaving school , Gottesman joined the United States Navy , where he was given a scholarship and the rank of midshipman , and was assigned to the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago . He first specialized in physics but changed to psychology , receiving his B.S. degree in 1953 .
Gottesman did his graduate work at the University of Minnesota , which then patterned its clinical psychology program on the Boulder model , which emphasized research theory and clinical practice . He joined the graduate program in 1956 after three years with the Navy , supported by the Korean War G.I. Bill . He began investigating personality traits in identical and fraternal twins who had filled out the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory ( MMPI ) . His Ph.D. thesis , submitted to Psychological Monographs , was rejected before a review on the grounds that the nature – nurture issue it addressed had already been settled in favor of nurture . On appeal , the thesis was reviewed and accepted for publication .
Gottesman began his career at Harvard University as a social relations and psychology lecturer . This non @-@ tenure @-@ track position ended after three years . Then he worked with researcher James Shields at the Maudsley – Bethlem hospital complex in London , using its twin registry to analyze traits of identical and fraternal twins at the lab of Eliot Slater , whom Gottesman met in Rome at the Second International Congress on Human Genetics in 1961 . After his return to the University of Minnesota in 1966 , Gottesman created a program on behavioral genetics , the first in the U.S. In 1972 – 1973 he received a Guggenheim fellowship to work with K.O. Christiansen in Denmark . In 1980 he left to join the Washington University School of Medicine , then moved to the University of Virginia in 1985 , where he started the clinical psychology training program . Gottesman continued vising London and collaborating with Shields , with whom he co @-@ wrote a series of books.After spending 16 years at the University of Virginia , Gottesman retired from an active role after 41 years of research , but continues research part @-@ time in psychology and psychiatry .
From 2011 till his death , Gottesman was a professor with an endowed chair in adult psychiatry and a senior fellow in psychology at the University of Minnesota ; a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science , the Academy of Clinical Psychology , and the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University ; a Guggenheim Fellow for 1972 – 1973 at the University of Copenhagen ; an emeritus in psychology with a chair endowment at the University of Virginia ; and an honorary fellow at the London Royal College of Psychiatrists . He has advised 35 graduate students , and an annual lecture on behavior and neurogenetics has been established in his name by the University of Virginia . Gottesman was married to Carol Applen , whom he wed on December 23 , 1970 ; they had two sons . Gottesman died June 29 , 2016 .
= = Scientific contributions = =
= = = Studies on schizophrenia and psychopathology = = =
Gottesman first studied the genetics of schizophrenia on a large scale using the Maudsley – Bethlem register of twin admissions for 16 years . Later he worked on psychiatric genetics and genomics . In his Twin Cities MMPI study , part of his Ph.D. thesis , Gottesman found high levels of inheritance in the scales related to schizophrenia , depression , anti @-@ social personality disorder , and social introversion . Genes strongly influenced social introversion and aggressive tendencies . This led to further studies on personality traits of identical twins such as the Minnesota Study of Identical Twins Reared Apart .
Analyzing the results of the Maudsley – Bethlem study , Gottesman and Shields devised the multi @-@ element , polygenic causation model for schizophrenia by modeling schizophrenia diagnoses using the recently introduced liability @-@ threshold model . The book that summarized and expanded on the study , Schizophrenia and Genetics : A Twin Study Vantage Point , argued that schizophrenia is a product of several genes acting together , and introduced the techniques of precise analysis in the field of behavioral genetics.Gottesman and Shields introduced terms such as " reaction ranges / surface " , " endophenotype " and " epigenetic puzzle " into the behavioral sciences . The threshold model hypothesized that both genetic and environmental risks combined to produce schizophrenia , and pushed an individual into a diagnosable condition when their influence grew strong enough . The reaction range concept is the idea that the genes and the environment control behavior , but with separate upper and lower limits on the strength of that control in each case , a concept now part of basic psychology . Before the study , the prevailing opinion was that schizophrenia originated from bad parental relationships . The researchers showed identical twins were more likely to either have or not have schizophrenia together , concluding the disorder was the " outcome of a genetically determined developmental predisposition " .
The Maudsley – Bethlem study also hypothesized that schizophrenia was caused by a mixture of many small traits working together . These endophenotypes could be used for diagnosis . Endophenotypes have been interpreted as a link between genes and the final behavior , acted on by the environment and chance elements , with biochemical and epigenetic influences changing the genome but not being passed on to children . Molecular @-@ biological studies in genetics have referred to endophenotypes to explain genetic causes of psychopathology . The researchers also examined how schizoids , those with mild , schizophrenia @-@ like personality disorders , were linked to schizophrenics . Gottesman and Shields extended the term to classes of mild psychological disorders in twins and relatives of schizophrenics . The researchers had hypothesized that schizoida in a twin was how a schizophrenia carrier gene , one in a non @-@ schizophrenic still passing on a genetic risk , expressed itself . The twin study did not confirm this .
In the Denmark study , the researchers evaluated the extent to which genes underpin psychopathology . Their twin studies of criminality found that a genetic disposition to poor self @-@ control caused both identical twins to become felons , or to not become felons . They also studied identical twins who were discordant for schizophrenia , where one twin was schizophrenic and the other not , and found children of such twins had equal genetic vulnerability to the disease . A later study in the mid @-@ 1980s , resulting in a paper awarded the Kurt Schneider Prize , concluded that children of identical twins were at higher risk than those of fraternal twins , indicating the non @-@ schizophrenic identical twin passed on a latent genetic disposition , even if it had not been expressed through schizoida . The Denmark study introduced the concepts of " unexpressed genotypes " — the latent genetic risk , and " epigenetic control " — the biochemical regulation of how genes work , into the new field of behavioral genetics .
= = = Studies on delinquency and violence = = =
In a 1989 review of the research on juvenile delinquency and violence , Lisabeth DiLalla and Gottesman found delinquency could be transitory or continuous , and genes contributed more to the continuous type . In 1991 the same authors published a critique of the then @-@ prevalent idea of antisocialism being transmitted through generations by child abuse alone in antisocial families . They stated that a review by Cathy Spatz Widom and the studies she cited had missed an element : children maltreated in families might have been targets because their genes might have influenced them into committing antisocial acts and attracting such treatment from parents .
Gottesman was one of the presenters at the 1995 conference at the Aspen Institute in Maryland on how strongly genes controlled a person 's leaning toward violence and crime . Gottesman presented results from studies on the influence of genes in criminality , stating that identical twins separated at birth were likely to show similar levels of criminal behavior . This concordance indicated that genes influenced such behavior . He did point out that behavioral patterns were strongly influenced by the environment and not set by genes alone . The conference , funded by the National Institutes of Health , was contentious , with detractors arguing that such studies would lead to minority groups , more likely to be criminals because they had lower social status or were poor , being targeted with gene therapy for violence . Protesters disrupted the conference and swarmed into the auditorium . Gottesman reasserted his belief that scientists should proceed with the research , not waiting for humanity to become ethical enough not to misuse it .
= = = Work on IQ = = =
In 1972 , Gottesman was called before the United States Senate by senator Walter Mondale to discuss the then 15 @-@ point IQ gap separating African Americans and white Americans . Gottesman testified that genes influenced IQ , but only in conjunction with elements such as schooling , money , and nutritious food from childhood onwards . In 2003 , he and colleagues published a study showing that heritability was higher for IQ differences within high socioeconomic status ( SES ) people than among low SES people . Genes influenced differences in test scores more in high SES children than in low SES children . Gottesman said that this was because genes have a weaker influence than poverty .
= = = Humanistic views = = =
Gottesman has researched and published about the abuse of genetic research in Nazi Germany , and has provided expert testimony in a Chinese human rights case involving schizophrenia in the family . His scholarly books on schizophrenia have also focused on the human costs of the disorder . In Schizophrenia Genesis : The Origins of Madness , he provided chapters in which patients describe their experiences of the disease , and those of their families . Gottesman has emphasized that genetics influences patients ' behavior in concert with the family , social , economic , and cultural contexts . According to him , random events are the third element determining behavior and destiny , and the interaction between these elements is known only at the level of probabilities , and not as fixed and precise quantities .
= = Books = =
Gottesman has authored nine books , all related to schizophrenia and psychiatric genetics .
= = = Schizophrenia and Genetics : A Twin Study Vantage Point = = =
Gottesman and Shields published Schizophrenia and Genetics to document their twin @-@ study research at the Maudsley Hospital in London , the work that in part earned them the Hofheimer Prize for Research , the highest award for psychiatric research from the American Psychiatric Association . The study expanded on an earlier one by Eliot Slater at the same hospital , covering 24 identical and 33 fraternal twins , with at least one from every pair a schizophrenic being treated at the hospital between 1948 and 1964 . This study was one of eleven such in the contemporary literature , and the book detailed the methodology and analytic detail differentiating it from the others .
Chapters on methodology comprise a third of the book 's core . Identical and fraternal twins were classified using fingerprints and blood groups . Follow @-@ up interviews were recorded to monitor the progress of their patients ( the probands ) and their twins , some schizophrenic and others not . Two psychological tests — the MMPI and the Object Sorting Test ( Goldstein Scheerer Test of Concept Formation ) — were used to measure mental traits and functioning . Case summaries were prepared by the Scandinavian psychiatrist Erick Essen @-@ Moller , and these were sent , with data on identical @-@ or @-@ fraternal @-@ twin status and diagnosis @-@ of @-@ schizophrenia removed , to six judges from the U.S. , U.K. and Japan . The judges independently evaluated whether the patients were schizophrenic .
Results of studies comprise another third of the core of Schizophrenia and Genetics . The data showed that genes made a person likely to develop schizophrenia under environmental pressures . The study was not designed to find the genes responsible , but the authors hypothesized there would be several acting in tandem.Contextual elements responsible could not be identified , though some , such as an overly protective mother , birth order , natal weight , and social and economic elements were ruled out . Gottesman and Shields found roughly half of identical twins had a shared schizophrenic or non @-@ schizophrenic status , but only one @-@ eleventh of fraternal twins had such a shared diagnosis . MMPI scales coincided among identical twin pairs but not among fraternal twin pairs . The Object Sorting Test showed no useful relations . Those meeker than their twins were more liable to develop schizophrenia where their genes already put them at risk .
The book presents case histories of all the twin @-@ pairs studied and the raw data from the analyses . Its last chapters put the results in the context of existing studies , and presented a new theory and model to explain the causes and continuance of the disorder . The environmental aspects the researchers checked drew on existing literature , and multiple judgments were pooled to both compare and mutually cancel differing criteria for diagnosing schizophrenia . The theory in the book was that many genes work together to dispose a person to the disorder under certain environmental pressures . The model provided no specific therapeutic insight , but was useful as a guideline for further study .
= = = Schizophrenia : The Epigenetic Puzzle = = =
Schizophrenia : The Epigenetic Puzzle outlined the approaches , conclusions and models Gottesman used in his study of schizophrenia . He co @-@ wrote the book with James Shields , who died before it was published . The book introduces methods for diagnosing schizophrenia in a research setting , taking into account national differences in how the disorder was defined , debunked myths such as the mother transmitting schizophrenia , and introduced the concepts of the threshold model and the reaction range .
The book provided a tutorial on genetics to make the material self @-@ contained . Family , adoption and twin studies were investigated to determine the ways vulnerability to the disorder changed with genetic similarity to the patient . Together they supported the presence of a genetic contribution to the cause and the progress of schizophrenia . Contextual elements such as birth problems and stressful incidents were also analyzed to help the authors build a combined model to explain the disorder . The researchers analyzed populations to determine the role of genes using simplified mathematical models of the influence of genes and the environment on each other , and with no biochemical signal of the disorder to guide them . Rue L. Cromwell , writing in PsycCRITIQUES , wrote that this approach lacked rigor . The role of genes was less emphasized in the results , with a heritability of 70 % , than in earlier studies by Kallman . The researchers investigated neuroanatomy , and specifically the neurotransmitter dopamine , as a possible route by which genes influence the functioning of the brain to produce the symptoms of the disorder .
The authors investigated autism and psychiatric disorders among children , but found little relation to adult schizophrenia or genetic influence . They also covered the social implications of the disease , concluding that most schizophrenics were poor because the disorder eroded their resources and abilities . A chapter was devoted to social issues , violence , illnesses , death rates , sexual aspects , and the ability to father or bear children affecting schizophrenics . The authors provided data on the chance of relapse after an episode of the disorder . The book covered new methods and new models for studying schizophrenia . Because the disorder had no unanimously accepted diagnostic criteria , the researchers asked six clinicians and three colleagues to provide their analyses on the reports on 120 twins , and found an agreement of 86 % among the clinicians . Averaging the criteria of the clinicians produced a set close to that of Manfred Bleuler , who had adapted it from Emil Kraepelin .
= = = Schizophrenia Genesis : The Origins of Madness = = =
Schizophrenia Genesis : The Origins of Madness , written in 1991 , won the William James award from the American Psychological Association . It extensively reviewed how science has looked at schizophrenia . The book presented a vulnerability / diathesis – stress model to explain the causes of the disorder and a many @-@ cause , many @-@ gene model to explain how it is passed from parents to children . The book has been translated into Japanese and German . Schizophrenia Genesis was written for both the lay person and the clinical professional , and provides data , methods of interpreting the data , and an introduction to genetic analysis as used to analyze role of inheritance in behavior . The book also contains accounts of schizophrenics , with an artist depicting own suffering , saying , " I know ... it is craziness when every laugh is about me ... newspapers suddenly contain cures ... sparkles of light are demon eyes . "
Schizophrenia Genesis starts with the history of schizophrenia . Gottesman takes the view that schizophrenia is a disease of the industrial world. because it is not mentioned in the Bible , by the ancient Greeks , the ancient physicians , or authors including Shakespeare . He saw it first mentioned by physicians in 1809 and by Balzac in a short story in 1832 , showing minimally the disorder had by then been recognized as such . In 1896 , Kraepelin defined its symptoms , and his student Ernst Rüdin began a genetic study of its transmission in 1916 . } The book noted that schizophrenia existed across cultures and its rates had stayed steady for fifty years .
A chapter was devoted to criteria for determining schizophrenia , with Gottesman preferring those developed by Bleuler to those in the American Psychiatric Association ’ s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( version III @-@ R ) , the International Classification of Diseases ( ICD @-@ 9 ) and Kurt Schneider ’ s method . Diagnosis was based on the ways a person spoke and acted , and the standard measures were hallucinations , delusions , emotional apathy , jumbled thought , and sudden changes in a person . Gottesman mentioned a disparity in schizophrenia diagnosis after World War II across the Atlantic , when U.S. psychiatric diagnoses quadrupled those of British psychiatrists .
Family studies on schizophrenia were reviewed . That the disorder runs in families did not suggest it was genetically inherited , since cultural transmission occurs from parents to children . Twin and adoption studies were presented as the standard methods to disentangle contributions from genes and the environment . Gottesman used a computer @-@ based method for calculating the odds of becoming schizophrenic based on the many causes . The book examines the problems caused by schizophrenia for relatives of patients and for society at large , larger @-@ scale ones exemplified by the eugenics policies of states such as Nazi Germany . Two final chapters cover molecular biology and neuroanatomy briefly . Newer methods of behavioral genetics being researched at the time of publication , such as linkage analysis which used the likelihood of neighboring genes being inherited together , were not covered .
= = Committees and organizations = =
Gottesman is or has been :
an attendee at the Society for the Study of Social Biology 1967 conference at Princeton University which laid the groundwork for the Behavior Genetics Association ( BGA ) ;
president @-@ elect and program chair of the BGA in 1976 ;
American Psychological Association ( APA ) member from 1958 , and a fellow since 1975 ;
a fellow of the American Psychiatric Association ;
a fellow of the American Psychological Society ;
the vice @-@ president of the Society for the Study of Social Biology for 1976 – 1980 ;
the president of the Behavior Genetics Association in 1976 – 1977 ;
member of the American Society of Human Genetics ;
the president of the Society for Research in Psychopathology in 1993 ; and
a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences .
= = Awards = =
Gottesman has been recognized by professional organizations in the United States , Britain , and Japan . He has received the following awards :
Hofheimer Prize for Research in 1973 from the American Psychiatric Association ;
Dobzhansky Lifetime Achievement Award in 1990 from the Behavior Genetics Association ;
William James Book Award in 1991 from the APA Division of General Psychology ;
Kurt Schneider Prize from the University of Bonn ( Germany ) ( the first non @-@ German to win the prize ) ;
Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award in 2001 from the APA , is highest honor ( previous honorees include Jean Piaget and B.F. Skinner ;
Gold Medal Award for Life Achievement in the Science of Psychology in 2007 from the American Psychological Foundation ;
Outstanding Achievement for Research on Mental Health Disorders NARSAD ( National Alliance for Research in Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders ) Award in 2008 from the Brain & Behavior Research Foundation and
University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award in Psychology 2013
James McKeen Cattell Fellow Award from the Association for Psychological Science .
= = Books = =
Gottesman , Irving I. ; Erlenmeyer @-@ Kimling , L. ( 1970 ) . Differential Reproduction in Individuals with Mental and Physical Disorders : Conference Sponsored by the American Eugenics Society and the Biomedical Division of the Population Council Held at the Rockefeller University , Nov. 13 – 14 , 1970 . Chicago University Press. p . 136 .
Gottesman , Irving I. ; Shields , James T. ( 1972 ) . Schizophrenia and Genetics : A Twin Study Vantage Point . Boston : Academic Press. p . 433 . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 293450 @-@ 4 .
Gottesman , Irving I. ; Shields , James T. ( 1973 ) . Schizophrenia and Genetics ( Personality and psychopathology ) . Boston : Academic Press. p . 433 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0122934506 .
— — ( 1982 ) . Schizophrenia . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press. p . 249 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0521295598 .
Gottesman , Irving I. ; Shields , James T. ( 1982 ) . Schizophrenia : The Epigenetic Puzzle . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press. p . 258 . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 29559 @-@ 9 .
— — ( 1991 ) . Schizophrenia Genesis : The Origins of Madness . San Francisco : Freeman. p . 296 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7167 @-@ 2147 @-@ 3 .
Shields , James T. ; Gottesman , Irving I. ( 1971 ) . Man , Mind , and Heredity : Selected Papers of Eliot Slater on Psychiatry and Genetics . The Johns Hopkins University Press. p . 432 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0801811180 .
Fuller , Torrey E. ; Bowler , Ann E. ; Taylor , Edward H. ; Gottesman , Irving I. ( 1995 ) . Schizophrenia and manic @-@ depressive disorder : The biological roots of mental illness as revealed by the landmark study of identical twins . Basic Books. p . 304 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0465072859 .
McGuffin , Peter ; Owen , Michael , J. ; Gottesman , Irving I. ( 2004 ) . Psychiatric Genetics and Genomics . Oxford University Press. p . 502 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0198564867 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
= Third Amendment to the United States Constitution =
The Third Amendment ( Amendment III ) to the United States Constitution places restrictions on the quartering of soldiers in private homes without the owner 's consent , forbidding the practice in peacetime . The amendment is a response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the buildup to the American Revolutionary War , which had allowed the British Army to lodge soldiers in private residences .
The Third Amendment was introduced in Congress in 1789 by James Madison as a part of the United States Bill of Rights , in response to Anti @-@ Federalist objections to the new Constitution . Congress proposed the amendment to the states on September 28 , 1789 , and by December 15 , 1791 , the necessary three @-@ quarters of the states had ratified it . Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson announced the adoption of the amendment on March 1 , 1792 .
The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution and is rarely litigated , with the American Bar Association calling it the " runt piglet " of the U.S. Constitution . As of 2016 , it has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision .
= = Text = =
The amendment as proposed by Congress in 1789 reads as follows :
No Soldier shall , in time of peace be quartered in any house , without the consent of the Owner , nor in time of war , but in a manner to be prescribed by law .
= = Background = =
In 1765 , the British parliament enacted the first of the Quartering Acts , requiring the American colonies to pay the costs of British soldiers serving in the colonies , and requiring that if the local barracks provided insufficient space , that the colonists lodge the troops in alehouses , inns , and livery stables . After the Boston Tea Party , the Quartering Act of 1774 was enacted . One of the Intolerable Acts that pushed the colonies toward revolution , it authorized British troops to be housed wherever necessary , including in private homes . The quartering of troops was cited as one of the colonists ' grievances in the United States Declaration of Independence .
= = Adoption = =
After several years of comparatively weak government under the Articles of Confederation , a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia proposed a new constitution on September 17 , 1787 , featuring a stronger chief executive and other changes . George Mason , a Constitutional Convention delegate and the drafter of Virginia 's Declaration of Rights , proposed that a bill of rights listing and guaranteeing civil liberties be included . Other delegates — including future Bill of Rights drafter James Madison — disagreed , arguing that existing state guarantees of civil liberties were sufficient and that any attempt to enumerate individual rights risked the implication that other , unnamed rights were unprotected . After a brief debate , Mason 's proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations .
For the constitution to be ratified , however , nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions . Opposition to ratification ( " Anti @-@ Federalism " ) was partly based on the Constitution 's lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties . Supporters of the Constitution in states where popular sentiment was against ratification ( including Virginia , Massachusetts , and New York ) successfully proposed that their state conventions both ratify the Constitution and call for the addition of a bill of rights . Several state conventions specifically proposed a provision against the quartering of troops in private homes . At the 1788 Virginia Ratifying Convention , Patrick Henry stated , " One of our first complaints , under the former government , was the quartering of troops among us . This was one of the principal reasons for dissolving the connection with Great Britain . Here we may have troops in time of peace . They may be billeted in any manner — to tyrannize , oppress , and crush us . "
= = = Proposal and ratification = = =
In the 1st United States Congress , following the state legislatures ' request , James Madison proposed twenty constitutional amendments based on state bills of rights and English sources such as the Bill of Rights 1689 ; one of these was a prohibition against quartering troops in private homes . Several revisions to the future Third Amendment were proposed in Congress , which chiefly differed in the way in which peace and war were distinguished ( including the possibility of a situation , such as unrest , which was neither peace nor war ) , and whether the executive or the legislature would have the authority to authorize quartering . However , the amendment ultimately passed Congress almost unchanged and by unanimous vote . Congress reduced Madison 's proposed twenty amendments to twelve , and these were submitted to the states for ratification on September 25 , 1789 .
By the time the Bill of Rights was submitted to the states for ratification , opinions had shifted in both parties . Many Federalists , who had previously opposed a Bill of Rights , now supported the Bill as a means of silencing the Anti @-@ Federalists ' most effective criticism . Many Anti @-@ Federalists , in contrast , now opposed it , realizing that the Bill 's adoption would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention , which they desired . Anti @-@ Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution , such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation , intact .
On November 20 , 1789 , New Jersey ratified eleven of the twelve amendments , rejecting Article II , which regulated Congressional pay raises . On December 19 and 22 , respectively , Maryland and North Carolina ratified all twelve amendments . On January 19 , 25 , and 28 , 1790 , respectively , South Carolina , New Hampshire , and Delaware ratified the Bill , though New Hampshire rejected the amendment on Congressional pay raises , and Delaware rejected Article I , which regulated the size of the House . This brought the total of ratifying states to six of the required ten , but the process stalled in other states : Connecticut and Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify , while Massachusetts ratified most of the amendments , but failed to send official notice to the Secretary of State that it had done so .
In February through June of 1790 , New York , Pennsylvania , and Rhode Island ratified eleven of the amendments , though all three rejected the amendment on Congressional pay raises . Virginia initially postponed its debate , but after Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791 , the total number of states needed for ratification rose to eleven . Vermont ratified on November 3 , 1791 , approving all twelve amendments , and Virginia finally followed on December 15 , 1791 . Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson announced the adoption of the ten successfully ratified amendments on March 1 , 1792 .
= = Judicial interpretation = =
The Third Amendment is among the least cited sections of the U.S. Constitution . In the words of Encyclopedia Britannica , " as the history of the country progressed with little conflict on American soil , the amendment has had little occasion to be invoked . " As of 2015 , no major Supreme Court decision has used the amendment as its primary basis .
The Third Amendment has been invoked in a few instances as helping establish an implicit right to privacy in the Constitution . Justice William O. Douglas used the amendment along with others in the Bill of Rights as a partial basis for the majority decision in Griswold v. Connecticut ( 1965 ) , which cited the Third Amendment as implying a belief that an individual 's home should be free from agents of the state .
In one of the seven opinions in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer ( 1952 ) , Justice Robert H. Jackson cited the Third Amendment as providing evidence of the Framers ' intent to constrain executive power even during wartime :
" [ t ] hat military powers of the Commander in Chief were not to supersede representative government of internal affairs seems obvious from the Constitution and from elementary American history . Time out of mind , and even now in many parts of the world , a military commander can seize private housing to shelter his troops . Not so , however , in the United States , for the Third Amendment says ... [ E ] ven in war time , his seizure of needed military housing must be authorized by Congress . "
One of the few times a federal court was asked to invalidate a law or action on Third Amendment grounds was in Engblom v. Carey ( 1982 ) . In 1979 , prison officials in New York organized a strike ; they were evicted from their prison facility residences , which were reassigned to members of the National Guard who had temporarily taken their place as prison guards . The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit ruled : ( 1 ) that the term owner in the Third Amendment includes tenants ( paralleling similar cases regarding the Fourth Amendment , governing search and seizure ) , ( 2 ) National Guard troops count as soldiers for the purposes of the Third Amendment , and ( 3 ) that the Third Amendment is incorporated ( that is , that it applies to the states ) by virtue of the Fourteenth Amendment . The case was remanded to the district court , which dismissed the case on the grounds that state officials could not have been aware of this interpretation .
In the most recent Third Amendment decision handed down by a federal court , on February 2 , 2015 , the United States District Court for the District of Nevada held in Mitchell v. City of Henderson that the Third Amendment does not apply to intrusions by municipal police officers since they are not soldiers .
In an earlier case , United States v. Valenzuela ( 1951 ) , the defendant asked that a federal rent @-@ control law be struck down because it was " the incubator and hatchery of swarms of bureaucrats to be quartered as storm troopers upon the people in violation of Amendment III of the United States Constitution . " The court declined his request . Later , in Jones v. United States Secretary of Defense ( 1972 ) , Army reservists unsuccessfully cited the Third Amendment as justification for refusing to march in a parade . Similar arguments in a variety of contexts have been denied in other cases .
= Psittacosaurus =
Psittacosaurus ( / ˌsɪtəkəˈsɔːrəs / SIT @-@ ə @-@ kə @-@ SOR @-@ əs ; " parrot lizard " ) is a genus of extinct ceratopsian dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of what is now Asia , existing between 123 @.@ 2 and 100 million years ago . It is notable for being the most species @-@ rich dinosaur genus . Up to 11 species are known , from across Mongolia , Siberia , China , and possibly Thailand . The species of Psittacosaurus were obligate bipeds at adulthood , with a high skull and a robust beak . One individual was found preserved with long filaments on the tail , similar to those of Tianyulong , and scales across the rest of the animal . Psittacosaurus probably had complex behaviours , based on the proportions and relative size of the brain . It may have been active for short periods of time during the day and night , and had well @-@ developed senses of smell and vision .
Psittacosaurus was one of the earliest ceratopsians , but closer to Triceratops than Yinlong . Once in its own family , Psittacosauridae , with other genera like Hongshanosaurus , it is now considered to be senior synonym of the latter and an early offshoot of the branch that led to more derived forms . The genera closely related to Psittacosaurus are all from Asia , with the exception of Aquilops , from North America . The first species was either P. lujiatunensis or closely related , and it may have given rise to later forms of Psittacosaurus .
Psittacosaurus is one of the most completely known dinosaur genera . Fossils of hundreds of individuals have been collected so far , including many complete skeletons . Most age classes are represented , from hatchling through to adult , which has allowed several detailed studies of Psittacosaurus growth rates and reproductive biology . The abundance of this dinosaur in the fossil record has led to the labelling of Lower Cretaceous sediments of east Asia the Psittacosaurus biochron .
= = Description = =
The species of Psittacosaurus vary in size and specific features of the skull and skeleton , but share the same overall body shape . The best @-@ known — P. mongoliensis — can reach 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 5 ft ) in length . The maximum adult body weight was most likely over 20 kilogrammes ( 44 lb ) in P. mongoliensis . Several species approach P. mongoliensis in size ( P. lujiatunensis , P. neimongoliensis , P. xinjiangensis ) , while others are somewhat smaller ( P. sinensis , P. meileyingensis ) . The smallest known species , P. ordosensis , is 30 % smaller than P. mongoliensis . The largest are P. lujiatunensis and P. sibiricus , although neither is significantly larger than P. mongoliensis . Psittacosaurus postcranial skeletons are more typical of a ' generic ' bipedal ornithischian . There are only four digits on the manus ( ' hand ' ) , as opposed to the five found in most other ornithischians ( including all other ceratopsians ) , while the four @-@ toed hindfoot is very similar to many other small ornithischians .
The skull of Psittacosaurus is highly modified compared to other ornithischian dinosaurs of its time . Extremely tall in height and short in length , the skull has an almost round profile in some species . The portion in front of the orbit ( eye socket ) is only 40 % of total skull length , shorter than any other known ornithischian . The lower jaws of psittacosaurs are characterised by a bulbous vertical ridge down the centre of each tooth . Both upper and lower jaws sport a pronounced beak , formed from the rostral and predentary bones , respectively . The bony core of the beak may have been sheathed in keratin to provide a sharp cutting surface for cropping plant material . As the generic name suggests , the short skull and beak superficially resemble those of modern parrots . Psittacosaurus skulls share several adaptations with more derived ceratopsians , such as the unique rostral bone at the tip of the upper jaw , and the flared jugal ( cheek ) bones . There is still no sign of the bony neck frill or prominent facial horns which would develop in later ceratopsians . Bony horns protrude from the skull of P. sibiricus , but these are thought to be an example of convergent evolution .
= = = Species characteristics = = =
Skulls of P. mongoliensis are flat on top , especially over the back of the skull , with a triangular depression , the antorbital fossa , on the outside surface of the maxilla ( an upper jaw bone ) . A flange is present on the lower edge of the dentary ( the tooth @-@ bearing bone of the lower jaw ) , although it is not as prominent as in P. meileyingensis or P. major ( = P. lujiatunensis ) . P. mongoliensis is among the largest known species . The skull of the type specimen , which is probably a juvenile , is 15 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 6 in ) long , and the associated femur is 16 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) in length . Other specimens are larger , with the largest documented femur measuring about 21 centimetres ( 8 @.@ 25 in ) long .
P. sinensis is readily distinguished from all other species by numerous features of the skull . Adult skulls are smaller than those of P. mongoliensis and have less teeth . Uniquely , the premaxillary bone contacts the jugal ( cheek ) bone on the outside of the skull . The jugals flare out sideways , forming ' horns ' proportionally wider than in any other known Psittacosaurus species except P. sibiricus and P. lujiatunensis . Because of the flared cheeks , the skull is actually wider than it is long . A smaller ' horn ' is present behind the eye , at the contact of the jugal and postorbital bones , a feature also seen in P. sibiricus . The mandible ( lower jaw ) lacks the hollow opening , or fenestra , seen in other species , and the entire lower jaw is bowed outwards , giving the animal the appearance of an underbite . The skull of an adult P. sinensis can reach 11 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) in length .
P. sibiricus is the largest known species of Psittacosaurus . The skull of the type specimen is 20 @.@ 7 centimetres long ( 8 @.@ 25 in ) , and the femur is 22 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 75 in ) in length . It is also distinguished by its neck frill , which is longer than any other species , at 15 to 18 % of skull length . A very striking feature of P. sibiricus is the number of ' horns ' around the eyes , with three prominences on each postorbital , and one in front of each eye , on the palpebral bones . Similar horns found on the postorbital of P. sinensis are not as pronounced but may be homologous . The jugal has extremely prominent ' horns ' and may contact the premaxilla , both features also seen in the possibly related P. sinensis . There is a flange on the dentary of the lower jaw , similar to P. mongoliensis , P. meileyingensis , and P. sattayaraki . It can be told apart from the other species of Psittacosaurus by a combination of 32 anatomical features , including six that are unique to the species . Most of these are skull details , but one unusual feature is the presence of 23 vertebrae between the skull and pelvis , unlike the 21 or 22 in the other species where the vertebrae are known .
P. xinjiangensis is distinguished by a prominent jugal ' horn ' that is flattened on the front end , as well as some features of the teeth . The ilium , one of the three bones of the pelvis , also bears a characteristically long bony process behind the acetabulum ( hip socket ) . An adult femur has a published length of about 16 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) . P. meileyingensis has the shortest snout and neck frill of any species , making the skull nearly circular in profile . The orbit ( eye socket ) is roughly triangular , and there is a prominent flange on the lower edge of the dentary , a feature also seen in specimens of P. lujiatunensis , and to a lesser degree in P. mongoliensis , P. sattayaraki , and P. sibiricus . The complete type skull , probably adult , is 13 @.@ 7 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) long . The dentary of P. sattayaraki has a flange similar to that found in P. mongoliensis , P. sibiricus , P. lujiatunensis and P. meileyingensis , although it is less pronounced than in those species . The material appears to be roughly the same size as P. sinensis . The frontal bone of P. neimongoliensis is distinctly narrow compared to that of other species , resulting in a narrower skull overall . The ischium bone of the pelvis is also longer than the femur , which differs from other species in which these bones are known . The type specimen has a skull length of 13 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) and a femoral length of 13 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) , but is not fully grown . An adult P. neimongoliensis was probably smaller than P. mongoliensis , with a proportionately longer skull and tail . P. ordosensis can be distinguished by numerous features of the jugals , which have very prominent ' horns ' . It is also the smallest known species . One adult skull measures only 9 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 75 in ) in length .
The type skull of P. lujiatunensis measures 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) in length , while the largest known skull is 20 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 8 in ) long , so this species was similar in size to P. mongoliensis and P. sibiricus . There is a fossa in front of the eye , as in P. mongoliensis . The jugal bones flare outwards widely , making the skull wider than it is long , as seen in P. sinensis . Widely flared jugals are also found in P. sibiricus . Overall , this species is thought to exhibit several primitive characteristics compared to other species of Psittacosaurus , which is consistent with its greater geological age . P. gobiensis was small @-@ bodied ( 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long ) and differs from other species of Psittacosaurus by " significant , but structurally minor , details . " These include the presence of a pyramidal horn on the postorbital , a depression on the postorbital @-@ jugal contact , and enamel thickness . P. mongoliensis was a contemporary .
= = = Integument = = =
The integument , or body covering , of Psittacosaurus is known from a Chinese specimen , which most likely comes from the Yixian Formation of Liaoning Province , China . The specimen , which is not yet assigned to any particular species , was illegally exported from China , in violation of Chinese law , but was purchased by a German museum . It was described while awaiting repatriation .
Most of the body was covered in scales . Larger scales were arranged in irregular patterns , with numerous smaller scales occupying the spaces between them , similarly to skin impressions known from other ceratopsians , such as Chasmosaurus . A series of what appear to be hollow , tubular bristle @-@ like structures , approximately 16 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) long , were also preserved , arranged in a row down the dorsal ( upper ) surface of the tail . These were confirmed by the authors , as well as an independent scientist , to not represent plant material . The bristle @-@ like integumentary structures extend into the skin nearly to the vertebrae , and were likely circular or tubular before being preserved . Under ultraviolet light , they gave off the same fluorescence as scales , providing the possibility they were keratinized . As the authors of the study said , " At present , there is no convincing evidence which shows these structures to be homologous to the structurally different integumentary filaments of theropod dinosaurs " , however , they stated that all other feathery integument from the Yixian Formation is indeed feathers .
In 2008 , another study was published describing the integument and dermis of Psittacosaurus sp . , from two different specimens . The skin remains could be observed by a natural cross @-@ section to compare them to modern animals , showing that dinosaurian dermal layers evolved in parallel to those in many other large vertebrates . The collagen tissue fibres in Psittacosaurus are complex , virtually identical to all other vertebrates in structure but having an exceptional thickness of about forty layers . As the sections of dermis were collected from the abdomen , where the scales were eroded , the tissue may have assisted with the musculature of the stomach and intestines and offered protection against predators .
= = Paleobiology = =
The brain of P. lujiatunensis is well known ; a study on the anatomy and functionality of three specimens was published in 2007 . Until the study , it was generally thought the brain of Psittacosaurus would have been similar to other ceratopsians with low Encephalisation Quotients . Russell and Zhao ( 1996 ) believed " the small brain size of psittacosaurs implies a very restrictive behavioural repertoire relative to that of modern mammals of similar body size " . However , the 2007 study dispelled this theory when it found the brain to be more advanced . There is generally negative allometry for brain size with development in vertebrates , but this was shown not to be true in Psittacosaurus . The EQ score for P. lujiatunensis is 0 @.@ 31 , significantly higher than genera such as Triceratops . A higher EQ correlates with more complex behaviour , and various dinosaurs have high EQs , similar to birds , which range from 0 @.@ 36 to 2 @.@ 98 . Thus , Psittacosaurus behaviour could have been as complex as that in Tyrannosaurus , whose EQ ranges from 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 38 . Behaviours influenced by high EQs include nest @-@ building , parental care , and bird @-@ like sleeping , some of which have been shown to be present in Psittacosaurus .
The senses of Psittacosaurus can be inferred from the endocast . Large olfactory bulbs are present , indicating the genus had an acute sense of smell . The size of these bulbs are comparable to large predatory theropods , although they likely evolved to avoid predators instead of to seek out prey . The sclerotic rings in reptiles directly show the size of the eyeball . The rings are not well preserved in Psittacosaurus , with one individual preserving them likely contracted postmortem , but if they are similar to those of Protoceratops , Psittacosaurus would have had large eyes and acute vision . The curvature of the semicircular canals is related to the agility of reptiles , and the large curved canals in Psittacosaurus show that the genus was much more agile than later ceratopsians . Comparisons between the scleral rings of Psittacosaurus and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day and for short intervals at night .
Ford and Martin ( 2010 ) proposed that Psittacosaurus was semi @-@ aquatic , swimming with its tail like a crocodile , and paddling and kicking . They based their interpretation on evidence including : the lacustrine ( lake ) depositional setting of many specimens ; the position of the nostrils and eyes ; interpretations of the motions of the arms and legs ; tails with long chevrons ( and with the bristles on the tail interpreted as possibly skin @-@ covered , forming a fin ) , providing a propulsive surface ; and the presence of gastroliths , interpreted as ballast . They further suggested that some species of Psittacosaurus were more terrestrial than others .
= = = Diet = = =
Psittacosaurs had self @-@ sharpening teeth that would have been useful for cropping and slicing tough plant material . Unlike later ceratopsians , they did not have teeth suitable for grinding or chewing their food . Instead , they used gastroliths — stones swallowed to wear down food as it passed through the digestive system . Sometimes numbering more than fifty , these stones are occasionally found in the abdominal cavities of psittacosaurs , and may have been stored in a gizzard , as in modern birds .
Unlike many other dinosaurs , psittacosaurs had akinetic skulls : that is to say , the upper and lower jaws each behaved as a single unit , without internal joints . The only joint was the jaw joint itself , and psittacosaurs could slide their lower jaws forward and backward on the joint , permitting a shearing action . Unlike most ceratopsians , their beaks did not form curved tips , but were instead rounded and flattened . If the jaws were aligned , the beaks could be used to crop objects , but if the lower jaw was retracted so that the lower beak was inside the upper beak , the jaws may have served a nutcracking function . A nut- or seed @-@ rich diet would also match well with the gastroliths often seen in well @-@ preserved psittacosaur skeletons .
= = = Limb function = = =
Studies by Phil Senter in 2007 conducted on P. neimongoliensis and P. mongoliensis concluded that the forelimbs of these taxa ( and likely those of other Psittacosaurus species ) were too short ( only about 58 % as long as the hindlimbs ) to reach the ground , and their range of motion indicates they could neither be pronated nor generate propulsive force for locomotion , suggesting that Psittacosaurus was entirely bipedal . The forelimbs were also too short to be used in digging or bringing food to the mouth , and Senter suggested that if Psittacosaurus needed to dig depressions in the ground it may have used its hindlimbs instead . The forelimbs could be used for two @-@ handed grasping of objects or scratching the body , but due to their extremely limited flexibility and reach , they could have only been used to grasp objects very close to the belly or sides of the animal and could have scratched only the belly , flank and knees . Even though the hands could not reach the mouth , Psittacosaurus could have still used them to carry nesting material or food to a desired location .
However , Psittacosaurus may not have been entirely bipedal for its entire lifespan . Taking sections from the limb bones of 16 specimens of Psittacosaurus , ranging in age from less than a year old to ten @-@ year old adults , Qi Zhao from the University of Bristol found that Psittacosaurus was probably secondarily bipedal . The infants ' front limbs grew at faster rates than the hind limbs at between birth and three years of age . At the age of between four and six years , arm growth slowed and leg growth accelerated as the animal became mature . At this stage , Psittacosaurs would switch to a bipedal stance . These findings further reveal that the ancestor of Psittacosaurus was likely quadrupedal and eventually gained the ability to become bipedal as it evolved , with the young retaining the quadrupedal gait of the ancestor in question . These findings also lead to the hypothesis that many such dinosaur families may have evolved along this path at some point in their evolution .
= = = Growth rate = = =
Several juvenile Psittacosaurus have been found . The smallest is a P. mongoliensis hatchling conserved in the American Museum of Natural History ( AMNH ) , which is only 11 to 13 centimetres ( 4 – 5 inches ) long , with a skull 2 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 1 in ) in length . Another hatchling skull at the AMNH is only 4 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 8 inches ) long . Both specimens are from Mongolia . Juveniles discovered in the Yixian Formation are approximately the same age as the larger AMNH specimen .
A histological examination of P. mongoliensis has determined the growth rate of these animals . The smallest specimens in the study were estimated at three years old and less than 1 kilogramme ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) , while the largest were nine years old and weighed almost 20 kilogrammes ( 44 lb ) . This indicates relatively rapid growth compared to most reptiles and marsupial mammals , but slower than modern birds and placental mammals . An age determination study performed on the fossilized remains of P. mongoliensis by using growth ring counts suggest that the longevity of the basal ceratopsian was 10 to 11 years .
= = = Gregarious juveniles = = =
The find of a herd of six Psittacosaurus individuals killed and buried by a volcanic mudflow indicates the presence of at least two age groups from two distinct clutches gathered together . This find has been taken as evidence for group fidelity and gregariousness extending beyond the nest ; the earliest such evidence for any ceratopsian . Even very young psittacosaur teeth appear worn , indicating they chewed their own food and may have been precocial . Another juvenile @-@ only cluster shows that specimens of different ages grouped together . These juveniles may have associated together as a close knit , mixed @-@ age herd either for protection , to enhance their foraging , or as putative helpers at the parental nest . There is no evidence for parental care .
In 2004 , a specimen found in the Yixian Formation was claimed as evidence for parental care in dinosaurs . The specimen DNHM D2156 consists of 34 articulated juvenile Psittacosaurus skeletons , closely associated with the skull of an adult . The juveniles , all approximately the same age , are intertwined in a group underneath the adult , although all 34 skulls are positioned above the mass of bodies , as they would have been in life . This suggests that the animals were alive at the time of burial , which must have been extremely rapid , perhaps due to the collapse of a burrow . However , a 2013 paper pointed out that the adult specimen did not belong with the nest , its skull having no sedimentary connection to the main slab where the juveniles occurred , but had been glued onto it . This artificial association led to the inference that the skull belonged to an individual , possibly a " mother " , that was providing parental care for the 34 juveniles – a claim that is unfounded . Furthermore , the adult was also shown to be six years old , whereas histological studies have shown P. mongoliensis was unable to breed until it reached ten years of age . It is also unlikely that a single female would have so many offspring at one time .
A 2014 analysis of the same specimen concluded that the proximity of the six @-@ year @-@ old specimen to the post @-@ hatchlings may indicate post @-@ hatchling cooperation , making the six @-@ year @-@ old specimen a possible caretaker . Such behaviour is also found in cooperative breeding modern birds .
= = = Pathology = = =
Out of the hundreds of known Psittacosaurus specimens , only one has been described to possess any sort of pathology . The specimen in question , consisting of a complete adult skeleton and tentatively assigned to P. mongoliensis , was found in the lower beds of the Yixian Formation . There is no sign of a bone fracture , but very clear signs of an infection can be seen near the midpoint of the right fibula . The bone exhibits a large round pit , evidence of necrosis due to a lack of blood supply to the region . The pit is surrounded by a massive amount of swelling along the lower third of the bone . This large amount of bone deposited around the injury indicates that the animal survived for quite a while despite the injury and subsequent infection . As psittacosaurids were bipedal animals , a similar injury to a weight bearing bone in the leg would most likely have been fatal . Unlike the femur and tibia , the fibula is not a weight @-@ bearing bone , so this animal would still have been able to walk to some extent . The source of the injury remains unknown .
= = = Predation = = =
Another fossil from the Yixian Formation provides direct evidence of Psittacosaurus as a prey animal . One skeleton of Repenomamus robustus , a large triconodont mammal , is preserved with the remains of a juvenile Psittacosaurus in its abdominal cavity . Several of the juvenile 's bones are still articulated , indicating that the carnivorous mammal swallowed its prey in large chunks . This specimen is notable in that it is the first known example of Mesozoic mammals preying on live dinosaurs . Heavy predation on juvenile Psittacosaurus may have resulted in R @-@ selection , the production of more numerous offspring to counteract this loss .
= = Paleoecology = =
Psittacosaurus is known from hundreds of individual specimens , of which over 75 have been assigned to the type species , P. mongoliensis . All Psittacosaurus fossils discovered so far have been found in Early Cretaceous sediments in Asia , from southern Siberia to northern China , and possibly as far south as Thailand . The most common age of geologic formations bearing Psittacosaurus fossils is from the late Barremian through Albian stages of the Early Cretaceous , or approximately 123 to 100 mya ( million years ago ) . Many terrestrial sedimentary formations of this age in Mongolia and northern China have produced fossils of Psittacosaurus , leading to the definition of this time period in the region as the Psittacosaurus biochron .
The earliest known species is P. lujiatunensis , found in the lowest beds of the Yixian Formation . Over 200 specimens attributed to this genus have been recovered from these and other beds of the Yixian , the age of which is the subject of much debate . Although many early studies using radiometric dating put the Yixian in the Jurassic Period , tens of millions of years outside of the expected temporal range of Psittacosaurus , most recent work dates it to the Early Cretaceous . Using argon @-@ argon dating , a team of Chinese scientists dated the lowest beds in the formation to about 128 mya , and the highest to approximately 122 mya . A more recent Chinese study , using uranium @-@ lead dating , suggests that the lower beds are younger , approximately 123 @.@ 2 mya , while agreeing with an age of 122 mya for the upper beds .
= = History of discovery = =
Psittacosaurus was first described as a genus in 1923 , by Henry Fairfield Osborn . He named the type species P. mongoliensis , for the location of its discovery in Mongolia , placing it in the new family Psittacosauridae . Remains of this dinosaur were first discovered the year before , on the third American Museum of Natural History expedition to the Gobi Desert of Mongolia , when one of the expedition 's drivers found the type specimen ( AMNH 6254 ) , which preserves a nearly complete skull , as well as a post cranial skeleton lacking sections of the limbs . This same expedition turned up the remains of many other famous Mongolian dinosaurs , including Protoceratops , Oviraptor , and Velociraptor . Many later expeditions by various combinations of Mongolian , Russian , Chinese , American , Polish , Japanese , and Canadian paleontologists also recovered specimens from throughout Mongolia and northern China . In these areas , Psittacosaurus mongoliensis fossils are found in most sedimentary strata dating to the Aptian to Albian stages of the Early Cretaceous Period , or approximately 125 to 100 Ma ( million years ago ) . Fossil remains of over 75 individuals have been recovered , including nearly 20 complete skeletons with skulls . Individuals of all ages are known , from hatchlings less than 13 centimetres ( 5 in ) long , to very old adults reaching nearly 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 5 ft ) in length .
When describing Psittacosaurus mongoliensis in 1923 , Osborn also gave the name Protiguanodon mongoliense to another skeleton found nearby , believing it to represent an ancestor of the ornithopod Iguanodon , in the new subfamily Protiguanodontinae . Protiguanodon mongoliense , AMNH 6523 , measured 1 @.@ 35 m ( 4 @.@ 4 ft ) long , and was known from much of the skeleton , although at the time of description the neck vertebrae were still covered by matrix . Osborn diagnosed his taxa on the basis of features of the teeth and snout . However , modern taxonomists find these features insignificant , instead placing Protiguanodon mongoliense within Psittacosaurus mongoliensis . When the skeleton was prepared further , it became clear that it was nearly identical to Psittacosaurus mongoliensis . In 1958 , Chinese paleontologist Yang Zhongjian ( better known as C. C. Young ) renamed the skeleton Psittacosaurus protiguanodonensis . Today the specimen is generally referred to as the species Psittacosaurus mongoliensis and the names Protiguanodon mongoliense and Psittacosaurus protiguanodonensis are considered junior synonyms of the name Psittacosaurus mongoliensis , which was coined first .
In 1931 , C. C. Young named a new species of Psittacosaurus for a partial skull discovered in Inner Mongolia , China . The skull was named P. osborni after Henry Fairfield Osborn . The validity of this species is now considered equivocal . Sereno ( 1990 ) considered it a synonym of P. mongoliensis , which is found in nearby strata of the same age . You and Dodson ( 2004 ) listed it as valid in a table , but not in their text . In a 2010 review , Sereno again regarded P. osborni as a synonym of P. mongoliensis , but noted it was tentative because of the presence of multiple valid psittacosaur species in Inner Mongolia . Young also described the species P. tingi in the same 1931 report which contained P. osborni . It is based on several skull fragments . He later synonymised the two species under the name P. osborni . You and Dodson ( 2004 ) followed this in a table , but Sereno regarded both species as synonyms of P. mongoliensis ; a table in the latter reported P. tingi as a nomen dubium , however . The front half of a skull from Guyang County in Inner Mongolia was described as Psittacosaurus guyangensis in 1983 . Disarticulated postcranial remains representing multiple individuals were found at the same locality and were assigned to the species . While it differs from the type specimen of P. mongoliensis , it falls within the range of individual variation seen in other specimens of that species and is no longer recognised as a valid species . You and Dodson ( 2004 ) included P. guyangensis in a table of valid taxa , but did not include it as such in their text .
= = = Assigned species = = =
Seventeen species have been referred to the genus Psittacosaurus , although only nine to eleven are considered valid today . This is the highest number of valid species currently assigned to any single dinosaur genus ( not including birds ) . In contrast , most other dinosaur genera are monospecific , containing only a single known species . The difference is most likely due to artifacts of the fossilisation process . While Psittacosaurus is known from hundreds of fossil specimens , most other dinosaur species are known from far fewer , and many are represented by only a single specimen . With a very high sample size , the diversity of Psittacosaurus can be analysed more completely than that of most dinosaur genera , resulting in the recognition of more species . Most extant animal genera are represented by multiple species , suggesting that this may have been the case for extinct dinosaur genera as well , although most of these species may not have been preserved . In addition , most dinosaurs are known solely from bones and can only be evaluated from a morphological standpoint , whereas extant species often have very similar skeletal morphology but differ in other ways which would not normally be preserved in the fossil record , such as behaviour , or colouration . Therefore , actual species diversity may be much higher than currently recognised in this and other dinosaur genera . As some species are known only from skull material , species of Psittacosaurus are primarily distinguished by features of the skull and teeth . Several species can be recognised by features of the pelvis as well .
In the 1950s , a new Chinese species of Psittacosaurus was found in the Aptian @-@ Albian Qingshan Formation of Shandong Province , southeast of Beijing . C. C. Young called it P. sinensis to differentiate it from P. mongoliensis , which had originally been found in Mongolia . Fossils of more than twenty individuals have since been recovered , including several complete skulls and skeletons , making this the most well @-@ known species after P. mongoliensis . Chinese paleontologist Zhao Xijin named a new species after his mentor , C. C. Young , in 1962 . However , the type specimen of P. youngi ( a partial skeleton and skull ) was discovered in the same rocks as P. sinensis and appears to be very similar , so P. youngi is generally considered a junior synonym of that better @-@ known species . As with P. guyangensis and P. osborni , You and Dodson ( 2004 ) listed it as valid in a table , but not in their text .
In 1988 , Zhao and American paleontologist Paul Sereno described P. xinjiangensis , named after the Xinjiang Autonomous Region in which it was discovered . Several individuals of different ages were discovered in the early 1970s by Chinese paleontologists and described by Sereno and Zhao , although the holotype and most complete skeleton belonged to a juvenile . An adult skeleton was later discovered at a different locality in Xinjiang . These specimens come from the upper part of the Tugulu Group , which is regarded as Aptian @-@ Albian in age . A second species described in 1988 by Sereno and Zhao , along with two Chinese colleagues , was P. meileyingensis from the Jiufotang Formation , near the town of Meileyingzi , Liaoning Province , northeastern China . This species is known from four fossil skulls , one associated with some skeletal material , found in 1973 by Chinese scientists . The age of the Jiufotang in Liaoning is unknown , but in the neighbouring province of Inner Mongolia , it has been dated to about 110 Ma , in the Albian stage of the Early Cretaceous .
French paleontologist Eric Buffetaut and a Thai colleague , Varavudh Suteethorn , described a partial upper and lower jaw from the Aptian @-@ Albian Khok Kruat Formation of Thailand in 1992 , giving it the name Psittacosaurus sattayaraki . In 2000 , Sereno questioned the validity of this species , citing its eroded and fragmentary nature , and noted an absence of features characteristic of the genus Psittacosaurus . However , in 2002 the original authors published new images of the fossil which seem to show teeth in the lower jaw that exhibit the bulbous vertical ridge characteristic of psittacosaurs . Other authors have also defended its validity , while some continue to regard it as dubious . Sereno ( 2010 ) proposed that the best assignment for the type material may be Ceratopsia incertae sedis .
Two new species of Psittacosaurus were described by Canadian Dale Russell and Zhao in 1996 . The first was named P. neimongoliensis , after the Mandarin Chinese name for Inner Mongolia . It is based on a nearly complete fossil skeleton , including most of the skull , found in the Early Cretaceous Ejinhoro Formation with seven other individuals . Russell and Zhao also named P. ordosensis in 1996 , after the Ordos prefecture of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region . The type specimen is a nearly complete skeleton , including part of the skull . However , only the skull , lower jaw , and foot have been described . Three other specimens were referred to this species but remain undescribed . Like P. neimongoliensis , this species was discovered in the Eijnhoro Formation . Sereno ( 2010 ) found the species as described to be indistinguishable from P. sinensis , another small species , but suggested that additional study of P. ordosensis might reveal diagnostic features . He provisionally designated P. ordosensis a nomen dubium .
Xu Xing , another Chinese paleontologist , named a new species of Psittacosaurus in 1997 , based on a complete skull with associated vertebrae and a forelimb . This material was recovered in Gansu Province , near the border with Inner Mongolia . This species is named P. mazongshanensis after the nearby mountain called Mazongshan ( Horse Mane Mountain ) and has been described in a preliminary manner . Unfortunately , the skull was damaged while in the care of the Chinese Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology ( IVPP ) , and several fragments have been lost , including all of the teeth . The remains were found in the Lower Xinminbao Formation , which have not been precisely dated , although there is some evidence that they were deposited in the late Barremian through Aptian stages . Sereno suggested in 2000 that P. mazongshanensis was a nomen dubium , with no unique features that separate it from any other species of Psittacosaurus . However , more recent authors have noted that it can be distinguished by its proportionally long snout compared to other species of Psittacosaurus , as well as a prominent bony protuberance , pointing outwards and downwards , on the maxilla of the upper jaw . The maxillary protuberance is also now missing . Other features originally used to distinguish the species have been recognised as the results of the deformation of the skull after fossilisation . Sereno ( 2010 ) remained unconvinced of its validity .
Beginning in the 1950s , Russian paleontologists began excavating Psittacosaurus remains at a locality near the village of Shestakovo in the oblast of Kemerovo in Siberia . Two other nearby localities were explored in the 1990s , one of which produced several complete skeletons . This species was named P. sibiricus in 2000 in a scientific paper written by five Russian paleontologists , but credit for the name is officially given to two of those authors , Alexei Voronkevich and Alexander Averianov . The remains were not completely described until 2006 . Two nearly complete , articulated skeletons and a variety of disarticulated material from other individuals of all ages are known from the Ilek Formation of Siberia , which ranges from the Aptian to Albian stages of the Early Cretaceous .
P. lujiatunensis , named in 2006 by Chinese paleontologist Zhou Chang @-@ Fu and three Chinese colleagues , is one of the oldest known species , based on four skulls from the lower beds of Yixian Formation , near the village of Lujiatun . While this bed has been dated differently by different authors , from 128 Ma in the Barremian stage , to 125 Ma in the earliest Aptian , revised dating methods have shown them to be about 123 million years old . P. lujiatunensis was contemporaneous with another psittacosaurid species , Hongshanosaurus houi , which was found in the same beds . It is potentially synonymous with H. houi ; Sereno ( 2010 ) , who proposed that Hongshanosaurus is a synonym of Psittacosaurus , opted to leave P. lujiatunensis and H. houi separate species due to the inadequacies of the latter 's type specimen . One nearly complete skeleton of P. lujiatunensis from the same lower beds of the Yixian Formation had previously been classified in its own species , Psittacosaurus major , named for the large size of its skull by Sereno , Zhao and two colleagues in 2007 . You and colleagues described an additional specimen and concurred that it was distinct from P. lujiatunensis . P. major was originally characterised by a proportionately large skull , which was 39 % of the length of its torso , compared to 30 % in P. mongoliensis , and other features . However , a 2013 study utilising morphometric analysis showed that the supposed differences between P. lujiatunensis and P. major were due to differences in preservation and crushing . The study concluded that both represented a single species .
A third species of Lujiatun psittacosaur , the first to be named , was described as Hongshanosaurus houi in 2003 . The generic name Hongshanosaurus was derived from the Mandarin Chinese words 紅 ( hóng : " red " ) and 山 ( shān : " hill " ) , as well as the Greek word sauros ( " lizard " ) . This name refers to the ancient Hongshan culture of northeastern China , who lived in the same general area in which the fossil skull of Hongshanosaurus was found . The type and only named species , H. houi , honours Hou Lianhai , a professor at the IVPP in Beijing , who curated the specimen . Genus and species were both named by Chinese paleontologists You Hailu , Xu Xing , and Wang Xiaolin in 2003 . Sereno ( 2010 ) regarded its distinct proportions as due to crushing and compression of the Hongshanosaurus skulls . He regarded Hongshanosaurus as a junior synonym of Psittacosaurus , and potentially the same as P. lujiatunensis . He did not synonymise the two species because of difficulties with the holotype skull of H. houi , instead considering new combination P. houi a nomen | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
is known about how ctenophores get rid of waste products produced by the cells . The ciliary rosettes in the gastrodermis may help to remove wastes from the mesoglea , and may also help to adjust the animal 's buoyancy by pumping water into or out of the mesoglea .
= = = = Locomotion = = = =
The outer surface bears usually eight comb rows , called swimming @-@ plates , which are used for swimming . The rows are oriented to run from near the mouth ( the " oral pole " ) to the opposite end ( the " aboral pole " ) , and are spaced more or less evenly around the body , although spacing patterns vary by species and in most species the comb rows extend only part of the distance from the aboral pole towards the mouth . The " combs " ( also called " ctenes " or " comb plates " ) run across each row , and each consists of thousands of unusually long cilia , up to 2 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) . Unlike conventional cilia and flagella , which has a filament structure arranged in a 9 + 2 pattern , these cilia are arranged in a 9 + 3 pattern , where the extra compact filament is suspected to have a supporting function . These normally beat so that the propulsion stroke is away from the mouth , although they can also reverse direction . Hence ctenophores usually swim in the direction in which the mouth is eating , unlike jellyfish . When trying to escape predators , one species can accelerate to six times its normal speed ; some other species reverse direction as part of their escape behavior , by reversing the power stroke of the comb plate cilia .
It is uncertain how ctenophores control their buoyancy , but experiments have shown that some species rely on osmotic pressure to adapt to water of different densities . Their body fluids are normally as concentrated as seawater . If they enter less dense brackish water , the ciliary rosettes in the body cavity may pump this into the mesoglea to increase its bulk and decrease its density , to avoid sinking . Conversely if they move from brackish to full @-@ strength seawater , the rosettes may pump water out of the mesoglea to reduce its volume and increase its density .
= = = = Nervous system and senses = = = =
Ctenophores have no brain or central nervous system , but instead have a nerve net ( rather like a cobweb ) that forms a ring round the mouth and is densest near structures such as the comb rows , pharynx , tentacles ( if present ) and the sensory complex furthest from the mouth .
The largest single sensory feature is the aboral organ ( at the opposite end from the mouth ) . Its main component is a statocyst , a balance sensor consisting of a statolith , a tiny grain of calcium carbonate , supported on four bundles of cilia , called " balancers " , that sense its orientation . The statocyst is protected by a transparent dome made of long , immobile cilia . A ctenophore does not automatically try to keep the statolith resting equally on all the balancers . Instead its response is determined by the animal 's " mood " , in other words the overall state of the nervous system . For example , if a ctenophore with trailing tentacles captures prey , it will often put some comb rows into reverse , spinning the mouth towards the prey .
= = = Cydippids = = =
Cydippid ctenophores have bodies that are more or less rounded , sometimes nearly spherical and other times more cylindrical or egg @-@ shaped ; the common coastal " sea gooseberry , " Pleurobrachia , sometimes has an egg @-@ shaped body with the mouth at the narrow end , although some individuals are more uniformly round . From opposite sides of the body extends a pair of long , slender tentacles , each housed in a sheath into which it can be withdrawn . Some species of cydippids have bodies that are flattened to various extents , so that they are wider in the plane of the tentacles .
The tentacles of cydippid ctenophores are typically fringed with tentilla ( " little tentacles " ) , although a few genera have simple tentacles without these sidebranches . The tentacles and tentilla are densely covered with microscopic colloblasts that capture prey by sticking to it . Colloblasts are specialized mushroom @-@ shaped cells in the outer layer of the epidermis , and have three main components : a domed head with vesicles ( chambers ) that contain adhesive ; a stalk that anchors the cell in the lower layer of the epidermis or in the mesoglea ; and a spiral thread that coils round the stalk and is attached to the head and to the root of the stalk . The function of the spiral thread is uncertain , but it may absorb stress when prey tries to escape , and thus prevent the collobast from being torn apart . In addition to colloblasts , members of the genus Haeckelia , which feed mainly on jellyfish , incorporate their victims ' stinging nematocytes into their own tentacles – some cnidaria @-@ eating nudibranchs similarly incorporate nematocytes into their bodies for defense . The tentilla of Euplokamis differ significantly from those of other cydippids : they contain striated muscle , a cell type otherwise unknown in the phylum Ctenophora ; and they are coiled when relaxed , while the tentilla of all other known ctenophores elongate when relaxed . Euplokamis ' tentilla have three types of movement that are used in capturing prey : they may flick out very quickly ( in 40 to 60 milliseconds ) ; they can wriggle , which may lure prey by behaving like small planktonic worms ; and they coil round prey . The unique flicking is an uncoiling movement powered by contraction of the striated muscle . The wriggling motion is produced by smooth muscles , but of a highly specialized type . Coiling around prey is accomplished largely by the return of the tentilla to their inactive state , but the coils may be tightened by smooth muscle .
There are eight rows of combs that run from near the mouth to the opposite end , and are spaced evenly round the body . The " combs " beat in a metachronal rhythm rather like that of a Mexican wave . From each balancer in the statocyst a ciliary groove runs out under the dome and then splits to connect with two adjacent comb rows , and in some species runs all the way along the comb rows . This forms a mechanical system for transmitting the beat rhythm from the combs to the balancers , via water disturbances created by the cilia .
= = = Lobates = = =
The Lobata have a pair of lobes , which are muscular , cuplike extensions of the body that project beyond the mouth . Their inconspicuous tentacles originate from the corners of the mouth , running in convoluted grooves and spreading out over the inner surface of the lobes ( rather than trailing far behind , as in the Cydippida ) . Between the lobes on either side of the mouth , many species of lobates have four auricles , gelatinous projections edged with cilia that produce water currents that help direct microscopic prey toward the mouth . This combination of structures enables lobates to feed continuously on suspended planktonic prey .
Lobates have eight comb @-@ rows , originating at the aboral pole and usually not extending beyond the body to the lobes ; in species with ( four ) auricles , the cilia edging the auricles are extensions of cilia in four of the comb rows . Most lobates are quite passive when moving through the water , using the cilia on their comb rows for propulsion , although Leucothea has long and active auricles whose movements also contribute to propulsion . Members of the lobate genera Bathocyroe and Ocyropsis can escape from danger by clapping their lobes , so that the jet of expelled water drives them backwards very quickly . Unlike cydippids , the movements of lobates ' combs are coordinated by nerves rather than by water disturbances created by the cilia , yet combs on the same row beat in the same Mexican wave style as the mechanically coordinated comb rows of cydippids and beroids . This may have enabled lobates to grow larger than cydippids and to have shapes that are less egg @-@ like .
An unusual species first described in 2000 , Lobatolampea tetragona , has been classified as a lobate , although the lobes are " primitive " and the body is medusa @-@ like when floating and disk @-@ like when resting on the sea @-@ bed .
= = = Beroids = = =
The Beroida , also known as Nuda , have no feeding appendages , but their large pharynx , just inside the large mouth and filling most of the saclike body , bears " macrocilia " at the oral end . These fused bundles of several thousand large cilia are able to " bite " off pieces of prey that are too large to swallow whole – almost always other ctenophores . In front of the field of macrocilia , on the mouth " lips " in some species of Beroe , is a pair of narrow strips of adhesive epithelial cells on the stomach wall that " zip " the mouth shut when the animal is not feeding , by forming intercellular connections with the opposite adhesive strip . This tight closure streamlines the front of the animal when it is pursuing prey .
= = = Other body forms = = =
The Ganeshida have a pair of small oral lobes and a pair of tentacles . The body is circular rather than oval in cross @-@ section , and the pharynx extends over the inner surfaces of the lobes .
The Thalassocalycida , only discovered in 1978 and known from only one species , are medusa @-@ like , with bodies that are shortened in the oral @-@ aboral direction , and short comb @-@ rows on the surface furthest from the mouth , originating from near the aboral pole . They capture prey by movements of the bell and possibly by using two short tentacles .
The Cestida ( " belt animals " ) are ribbon @-@ shaped planktonic animals , with the mouth and aboral organ aligned in the middle of opposite edges of the ribbon . There is a pair of comb @-@ rows along each aboral edge , and tentilla emerging from a groove all along the oral edge , which stream back across most of the wing @-@ like body surface . Cestids can swim by undulating their bodies as well as by the beating of their comb @-@ rows . There are two known species , with worldwide distribution in warm , and warm @-@ temperate waters : Cestum veneris ( " Venus ' girdle " ) is among the largest ctenophores – up to 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) long , and can undulate slowly or quite rapidly . Velamen parallelum , which is typically less than 20 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 66 ft ) long , can move much faster in what has been described as a " darting motion " .
Most Platyctenida have oval bodies that are flattened in the oral @-@ aboral direction , with a pair of tentilla @-@ bearing tentacles on the aboral surface . They cling to and creep on surfaces by everting the pharynx and using it as a muscular " foot " . All but one of the known platyctenid species lack comb @-@ rows . Platyctenids are usually cryptically colored , live on rocks , algae , or the body surfaces of other invertebrates , and are often revealed by their long tentacles with many sidebranches , seen streaming off the back of the ctenophore into the current .
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
Adults of most species can regenerate tissues that are damaged or removed , although only platyctenids reproduce by cloning , splitting off from the edges of their flat bodies fragments that develop into new individuals .
Almost all species are hermaphrodites , in other words they function as both males and females at the same time – except that in two species of the genus Ocryopsis individuals remain of the same single sex all their lives . The gonads are located in the parts of the internal canal network under the comb rows , and eggs and sperm are released via pores in the epidermis . Fertilization is external in most species , but platyctenids use internal fertilization and keep the eggs in brood chambers until they hatch . Self @-@ fertilization has occasionally been seen in species of the genus Mnemiopsis , and it is thought that most of the hermaphroditic species are self @-@ fertile .
Development of the fertilized eggs is direct , in other words there is no distinctive larval form , and juveniles of all groups generally resemble miniature cydippid adults . In the genus Beroe the juveniles , like the adults , lack tentacles and tentacle sheaths . In most species the juveniles gradually develop the body forms of their parents . In some groups , such as the flat , bottom @-@ dwelling platyctenids , the juveniles behave more like true larvae , as they live among the plankton and thus occupy a different ecological niche from their parents and attain the adult form by a more radical metamorphosis , after dropping to the sea @-@ floor .
At least in some species , juvenile ctenophores appear capable of producing small quantities of eggs and sperm while they are well below adult size , and adults produce eggs and sperm for as long as they have sufficient food . If they run short of food , they first stop producing eggs and sperm , and then shrink in size . When the food supply improves , they grow back to normal size and then resume reproduction . These features make ctenophores capable of increasing their populations very quickly .
= = = Colors and bioluminescence = = =
Most ctenophores that live near the surface are mostly colorless and almost transparent . However some deeper @-@ living species are strongly pigmented , for example the species known as " Tortugas red " ( see illustration here ) , which has not yet been formally described . Platyctenids generally live attached to other sea @-@ bottom organisms , and often have similar colors to these host organisms . The gut of the deep @-@ sea genus Bathocyroe is red , which hides the bioluminescence of copepods it has swallowed .
The comb rows of most planktonic ctenophores produce a rainbow effect , which is not caused by bioluminescence but by the scattering of light as the combs move . Most species are also bioluminescent , but the light is usually blue or green and can only be seen in darkness . However some significant groups , including all known platyctenids and the cydippid genus Pleurobrachia , are incapable of bioluminescence .
When some species , including Bathyctena chuni , Euplokamis stationis and Eurhamphaea vexilligera , are disturbed , they produce secretions ( ink ) that luminesce at much the same wavelengths as their bodies . Juveniles will luminesce more brightly in relation to their body size than adults , whose luminescence is diffused over their bodies . Detailed statistical investigation has not suggested the function of ctenophores ' bioluminescence nor produced any correlation between its exact color and any aspect of the animals ' environments , such as depth or whether they live in coastal or mid @-@ ocean waters .
In ctenophores , bioluminescence is caused by the activation of calcium @-@ activated proteins named photoproteins in cells called photocytes , which are often confined to the meridional canals that underlie the eight comb rows . In the genome of Mnemiopsis leidyi ten genes encode photoproteins . These genes are co @-@ expressed with opsin genes in the developing photocytes of Mnemiopsis leidyi , raising the possibility that light production and light detection may be working together in these animals .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Ctenophores are found in most marine environments : from polar waters to the tropics ; near coasts and in mid @-@ ocean ; from the surface waters to the ocean depths . The best @-@ understood are the genera Pleurobrachia , Beroe and Mnemiopsis , as these planktonic coastal forms are among the most likely to be collected near shore . No ctenophores have been found in fresh water .
= = = Prey and predators = = =
Almost all ctenophores are predators – there are no vegetarians and only one genus that is partly parasitic . If food is plentiful , they can eat 10 times their own weight per day . While Beroe preys mainly on other ctenophores , other surface @-@ water species prey on zooplankton ( planktonic animals ) ranging in size from the microscopic , including mollusc and fish larvae , to small adult crustaceans such as copepods , amphipods , and even krill . Members of the genus Haeckelia prey on jellyfish and incorporate their prey 's nematocysts ( stinging cells ) into their own tentacles instead of colloblasts . Ctenophores have been compared to spiders in their wide range of techniques from capturing prey – some hang motionless in the water using their tentacles as " webs " , some are ambush predators like Salticid jumping spiders , and some dangle a sticky droplet at the end of a fine thread , as bolas spiders do . This variety explains the wide range of body forms in a phylum with rather few species . The two @-@ tentacled " cydippid " Lampea feeds exclusively on salps , close relatives of sea @-@ squirts that form large chain @-@ like floating colonies , and juveniles of Lampea attach themselves like parasites to salps that are too large for them to swallow . Members of the cydippid genus Pleurobrachia and the lobate Bolinopsis often reach high population densities at the same place and time because they specialize in different types of prey : Pleurobrachia 's long tentacles mainly capture relatively strong swimmers such as adult copepods , while Bolinopsis generally feeds on smaller , weaker swimmers such as rotifers and mollusc and crustacean larvae .
Ctenophores used to be regarded as " dead ends " in marine food chains because it was thought their low ratio of organic matter to salt and water made them a poor diet for other animals . It is also often difficult to identify the remains of ctenophores in the guts of possible predators , although the combs sometimes remain intact long enough to provide a clue . Detailed investigation of chum salmon , Oncorhynchus keta , showed that these fish digest ctenophores 20 times as fast as an equal weight of shrimps , and that ctenophores can provide a good diet if there are enough of them around . Beroids prey mainly on other ctenophores . Some jellyfish and turtles eat large quantities of ctenophores , and jellyfish may temporarily wipe out ctenophore populations . Since ctenophores and jellyfish often have large seasonal variations in population , most fish that prey on them are generalists , and may have a greater effect on populations than the specialist jelly @-@ eaters . This is underlined by an observation of herbivorous fishes deliberately feeding on gelatinous zooplankton during blooms in the Red Sea . The larvae of some sea anemones are parasites on ctenophores , as are the larvae of some flatworms that parasitize fish when they reach adulthood .
= = = Ecological impacts = = =
Ctenophores may balance marine ecosystems by preventing an over @-@ abundance of copepods from eating all the phytoplankton ( planktonic plants ) , which are the dominant marine producers of organic matter from non @-@ organic ingredients .
On the other hand , in the late 1980s the Western Atlantic ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi was accidentally introduced into the Black Sea and Sea of Azov via the ballast tanks of ships , and has been blamed for causing sharp drops in fish catches by eating both fish larvae and small crustaceans that would otherwise feed the adult fish . Mnemiopsis is well equipped to invade new territories ( although this was not predicted until after it so successfully colonized the Black Sea ) , as it can breed very rapidly and tolerate a wide range of water temperatures and salinities . The impact was increased by chronic overfishing , and by eutrophication that gave the entire ecosystem a short @-@ term boost , causing the Mnemiopsis population to increase even faster than normal – and above all by the absence of efficient predators on these introduced ctenophores . Mnemiopsis populations in those areas were eventually brought under control by the accidental introduction of the Mnemiopsis @-@ eating North American ctenophore Beroe ovata , and by a cooling of the local climate from 1991 to 1993 , which significantly slowed the animal 's metabolism . However the abundance of plankton in the area seems unlikely to be restored to pre @-@ Mnemiopsis levels .
In the late 1990s Mnemiopsis appeared in the Caspian Sea . Beroe ovata arrived shortly after , and is expected to reduce but not eliminate the impact of Mnemiopsis there . Mnemiopsis also reached the eastern Mediterranean in the late 1990s and now appears to be thriving in the North Sea and Baltic Sea .
= = Classification = =
The number of known living ctenophore species is uncertain , since many of those named and formally described have turned out to be identical to species known under other scientific names . Claudia Mills estimates that there about 100 to 150 valid species that are not duplicates , and that at least another 25 , mostly deep @-@ sea forms , have been recognized as distinct but not yet analyzed in enough detail to support a formal description and naming .
The traditional classification divides ctenophores into two classes , those with tentacles ( Tentaculata ) and those without ( Nuda ) . The Nuda contains only one order ( Beroida ) and family ( Beroidae ) , and two genera , Beroe ( several species ) and Neis ( one species ) .
The Tentaculata are divided into the following eight orders :
Cydippida , egg @-@ shaped animals with long tentacles
Lobata , with paired thick lobes
Platyctenida , flattened animals that live on or near the sea @-@ bed ; most lack combs as adults , and use their pharynges as suckers to attach themselves to surfaces
Ganeshida , with a pair of small lobes round the mouth , but an extended pharynx like that of platyctenids
Cambojiida
Cryptolobiferida
Thalassocalycida , with short tentacles and a jellyfish @-@ like " umbrella "
Cestida , ribbon @-@ shaped and the largest ctenophores
= = Evolutionary history = =
= = = Fossil record = = =
Because of their soft , gelatinous bodies , ctenophores are extremely rare as fossils , and fossils that have been interpreted as ctenophores have been found only in lagerstätten , places where the environment was exceptionally suited to preservation of soft tissue . Until the mid @-@ 1990s only two specimens good enough for analysis were known , both members of the crown group , from the early Devonian ( Emsian ) period . Three additional putative species were then found in the Burgess Shale and other Canadian rocks of similar age , about 505 million years ago in the mid @-@ Cambrian period . All three apparently lacked tentacles but had between 24 and 80 comb rows , far more than the 8 typical of living species . They also appear to have had internal organ @-@ like structures unlike anything found in living ctenophores . One of the fossil species first reported in 1996 had a large mouth , apparently surrounded by a folded edge that may have been muscular . Evidence from China a year later suggests that such ctenophores were widespread in the Cambrian , but perhaps very different from modern species – for example one fossil 's comb @-@ rows were mounted on prominent vanes . The Ediacaran Eoandromeda could putatively represent a comb jelly .
The early Cambrian sessile frond @-@ like fossil Stromatoveris , from China 's Chengjiang lagerstätte and dated to about 515 million years ago , is very similar to Vendobionta of the preceding Ediacaran period . De @-@ Gan Shu , Simon Conway Morris et al. found on its branches what they considered rows of cilia , used for filter feeding . They suggested that Stromatoveris was an evolutionary " aunt " of ctenophores , and that ctenophores originated from sessile animals whose descendants became swimmers and changed the cilia from a feeding mechanism to a propulsion system .
520 million years old Cambrian fossils also from Chengjiang in China show a now wholly extinct class of ctenophore , named " Scleroctenophora , " that had a complex internal skeleton with long spines .
= = = Relationship to other animal phyla = = =
The relationship of ctenophores to the rest of Metazoa is very important to our understanding of the early evolution of animals and the origin of multicellularity . It has been the focus of debate for many years . Ctenophores have been purported to be the sister lineage to the Bilateria , sister to the Cnidaria , sister to Cnidaria , Placozoa and Bilateria , and sister to all other animal phyla . A series of studies that looked at the presence and absence of members of gene families and signalling pathways ( e.g. , homeoboxes , nuclear receptors , the Wnt signaling pathway , and sodium channels ) showed evidence congruent with the latter two scenarios , that ctenophores are either sister to Cnidaria , Placozoa and Bilateria or sister to all other animal phyla . Several more recent studies comparing complete sequenced genomes of ctenophores with other sequenced animal genomes have also supported ctenophores as the sister lineage to all other animals . This position would suggest that neural and muscle cell types were either lost in major animal lineages ( e.g. , Porifera ) or that they evolved independently in the ctenophore lineage . However , other researchers have argued that the placement of Ctenophora as sister to all other animals is a statistical anomaly caused by the high rate of evolution in ctenophore genomes , and that Porifera ( sponges ) is the earliest @-@ diverging animal phylum instead . Ctenophores and sponges are also the only known animal phyla that lack any true hox genes .
= = = Relationships within Ctenophora = = =
Since all modern ctenophores except the beroids have cydippid @-@ like larvae , it has widely been assumed that their last common ancestor also resembled cydippids , having an egg @-@ shaped body and a pair of retractable tentacles . Richard Harbison 's purely morphological analysis in 1985 concluded that the cydippids are not monophyletic , in other words do not contain all and only the descendants of a single common ancestor that was itself a cydippid . Instead he found that various cydippid families were more similar to members of other ctenophore orders than to other cydippids . He also suggested that the last common ancestor of modern ctenophores was either cydippid @-@ like or beroid @-@ like . A molecular phylogeny analysis in 2001 , using 26 species , including 4 recently discovered ones , confirmed that the cydippids are not monophyletic and concluded that the last common ancestor of modern ctenophores was cydippid @-@ like . It also found that the genetic differences between these species were very small – so small that the relationships between the Lobata , Cestida and Thalassocalycida remained uncertain . This suggests that the last common ancestor of modern ctenophores was relatively recent , and perhaps was lucky enough to survive the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event 65 @.@ 5 million years ago while other lineages perished . When the analysis was broadened to include representatives of other phyla , it concluded that cnidarians are probably more closely related to bilaterians than either group is to ctenophores but that this diagnosis is uncertain .
= K @-@ 140 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 140 is a state highway in Ellsworth and Saline Counties in the U.S. state of Kansas . The highway travels 33 @.@ 224 miles ( 53 @.@ 469 km ) through mostly rural land between the cities of Ellsworth and Salina . In addition to connecting Ellsworth and Salina , K @-@ 140 travels through the communities of Carneiro , Brookville , and Bavaria . The highway has junctions with Kansas state highways K @-@ 14 , K @-@ 156 , K @-@ 111 , and K @-@ 141 , as well as Interstate 135 . The route was originally established as U.S. Route 40 and was redesignated K @-@ 140 after US @-@ 40 was made concurrent with Interstate 70 . K @-@ 140 is not a part of the United States National Highway System , and the entire route is paved with composite pavement . The western part of the highway is less traveled than the eastern part , with annual average daily traffic between 590 and 940 west of Brookville and between 700 and 1200 east of Brookville .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 140 begins at a junction with K @-@ 14 north of Ellsworth . It heads 0 @.@ 495 miles ( 0 @.@ 797 km ) due east from here to meet K @-@ 156 . It then travels a farther 3 @.@ 519 miles ( 5 @.@ 663 km ) through mostly rural land to a junction with K @-@ 111 north of Kanopolis . After the junction with K @-@ 111 , K @-@ 140 continues through rural areas before it goes through the small unincorporated community of Carneiro . Just after passing through Carneiro K @-@ 140 turns more northerly , again passing through mostly rural areas . It then serves as the northern terminus of K @-@ 141 before continuing eastward into Saline County . K @-@ 140 travels a total of 16 @.@ 455 miles ( 26 @.@ 482 km ) in Ellsworth County .
Entering Saline County K @-@ 140 travels in a general east @-@ northeast direction through rural land for 3 @.@ 246 miles ( 5 @.@ 224 km ) until entering Brookville . After traveling one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) through the city of Brookville , K @-@ 140 travels east then northeast to the unincorporated community of Bavaria . From there , the highway continues northeast through rural lands to its eastern terminus at Interstate 135 , with the road continuing east into the city of Salina as State Street . K @-@ 140 travels a total of 16 @.@ 769 miles ( 26 @.@ 987 km ) in Saline County . The total route length for K @-@ 140 is 33 @.@ 224 miles ( 53 @.@ 469 km ) .
The entire route is paved with composite pavement ( concrete which has been overlaid with asphaltic pavement ) . K @-@ 140 is not a part of the United States National Highway System . The route connects to the National Highway System at its junctions with K @-@ 156 and Interstate 135 . From the eastern city limits of Ellsworth to the end of the first 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of the route , K @-@ 140 has an annual average daily traffic of 781 . Between miles 1 and 5 ( kilometers 1 @.@ 6 and 8 @.@ 0 ) , the annual average daily traffic ranges from a low of 730 to a high of 745 . From mile 5 ( kilometer 8 @.@ 0 ) to mile 14 ( kilometer 23 ) the annual average daily traffic drops to between 590 and 650 . The amount of traffic then starts to rise as the highway crosses into Saline County , with annual average daily traffic ranging between 815 and 940 from mile 14 ( kilometer 23 ) to the western city limits of Brookville . From Brookville to mile 30 @.@ 445 ( kilometer 48 @.@ 996 ) the annual average daily traffic is higher , with a range between 1131 and 1200 . From there to the eastern terminus at Interstate 135 traffic levels vary widely , with annual average daily traffic ranging from 700 to 1193 .
= = History = =
K @-@ 140 's route was established in 1925 as U.S. Route 40S . By 1936 , the route had become the primary route of US @-@ 40 , with the old US @-@ 40N becoming U.S. Route 24 . By 1969 , after the majority of Interstate 70 had been completed , US @-@ 40 was rerouted to be concurrent with the newly constructed highway , and the old route of US @-@ 40 between Ellsworth and Salina was resigned as K @-@ 140 . The routing of K @-@ 140 has remained unchanged since . The K @-@ 140 route has been a paved road since at least 1932 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Ianto Jones =
Ianto Jones is a fictional character in the BBC television series Torchwood , played by Welsh actor Gareth David @-@ Lloyd . A series regular , Ianto appears in every episode of the programme 's first three seasons , as well as two crossover episodes of Torchwood 's parent show , Doctor Who . Additionally , Ianto appears in Expanded Universe material such as the Torchwood novels and audiobooks , comic books and radio plays . Within the narrative of the series , Ianto begins as general support officer for Torchwood Three , a team of alien hunters stationed in Cardiff , and develops into an active field agent . Initially the regular character with the least screen time , Ianto 's role expanded in response to growing cult appeal .
Reserved and efficient , Ianto was often used by writers to add humorous asides to the episodes ' scripts . The character becomes the main romantic interest of Captain Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) , who is the lead male of the series . Established to have had heterosexual relationships prior to the series , Ianto 's story forms a part of the show 's ongoing exploration of human sexuality . Expanded Universe material develops on Ianto 's sexual orientation and the nature of the relationship with Jack , describing Ianto as bisexual and his feelings for Jack as genuine love . Additionally , writers have used these other media to explore Ianto 's characterisation ; for example , some stories elaborate on Ianto 's backstory , or provide insight into his feelings .
Beginning as a casual relationship , with little on @-@ screen definition given , Ianto and Jack 's relationship deepened over the first three seasons of the programme . The character 's creator Russell T Davies chose to kill off Ianto in the third television series . Professional critics by and large gave the story extremely positive reviews . A number of fans , however , were upset by the death of the character , particularly with regards to the romantic storyline 's abrupt ending . Artistically , Davies felt that the relationship 's unexplored potential maximised the viewer 's sense of grief . Subsequent to the departure , fans set up websites in the character 's honour , petitioning the writers to resurrect him in future episodes of the series , raising money for charity . Torchwood writers and actors have expressed an unwillingness to reduce the weight of the death scene by bringing the character back , though David @-@ Lloyd penned a Torchwood comic book wherein an alternative universe Ianto survives .
= = Depictions = =
= = = Television = = =
The character of Ianto Jones is introduced in the first episode of Torchwood , in 2006 . Introduced as a mild @-@ mannered and quiet administrator working for Torchwood Three , the first episode to focus on him was " Cyberwoman " , which dealt with both his backstory and motivations . In the episode , Ianto is revealed as a former employee of Torchwood One in London ( first seen in parent series Doctor Who ) , whose girlfriend Lisa ( Caroline Chikezie ) has been partially converted into a Cyberman , a cyborg species seen repeatedly in Doctor Who . Ianto has been keeping her alive , concealed in the basement of the Hub , but she eventually breaks loose and kills two civilians . Ianto is forced into confrontation with team leader Captain Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) , who is later able to revive Ianto with a kiss when Lisa knocks him unconscious . Ultimately , the rest of Ianto 's team is forced to kill Lisa . Although Ianto 's thoughts continue to be concerned with Lisa , mid @-@ series he begins to develop a sexual relationship with Jack . By the penultimate episode of the series , Ianto is willing to shoot colleague Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) to protect Jack , and refutes claims he is merely his " part time shag " . In the series finale , an image of what appears to be Lisa 's ghost is used to bring Ianto to mutiny against Jack , but still later when Jack ( who cannot stay dead ) returns to life , he and Ianto immediately kiss one another .
Torchwood 's second series ( 2008 ) begins with the team working without Jack , who departed the Hub at the end of series one to reunite with the mysterious " Doctor " from his past . Ianto 's role within the team now more frequently includes field missions , to accommodate Jack 's absence . When Jack returns in the series two premiere , having seen the end of the world , he attempts to formalise his romantic relationship with Ianto , successfully asking him on a date . Jack and Ianto 's relationship becomes more overt , and Ianto 's character becomes less burdened by secrets and happier , beginning to express a newfound confidence and dour sense of humour . The penultimate episode of the series , " Fragments " explores Ianto 's backstory , specifically how he was recruited into Torchwood Three two years prior ; Ianto is persistent that Jack hire him after the destruction of Torchwood One , but only succeeds once he is able to aid Jack in capturing a stray pterodactyl . In the second series finale , Ianto and the team face Jack 's 51st @-@ century ex Captain John Hart ( James Marsters ) and younger brother Gray ( Lachlan Nieboer ) , who has vengefully sought to destroy Jack 's world . After Gray kills his teammates Toshiko ( Naoko Mori ) and Owen , the Torchwood team is left with a membership of only three . Following from this , Ianto makes his first crossover appearance in Doctor Who alongside Gwen ( Eve Myles ) and Jack in the two @-@ part finale of the 2008 series , where Torchwood is called on to help contact series protagonist the Doctor ( David Tennant ) during a Dalek invasion .
Torchwood 's third series ( 2009 ) is a five @-@ part miniseries broadcast over one week , called Children of Earth . In part one , Ianto starts to express insecurity to Jack about their status as couple . The audience are introduced to Ianto 's sister Rhiannon ( Katy Wix ) and brother @-@ in @-@ law Johnny Davies ( Rhodri Lewis ) , who confront Ianto about sightings of him on a date with Jack . Ianto eventually admits to being involved with Jack , but concedes that he is not sure where he stands . When aliens called the 456 return to Earth , John Frobisher ( Peter Capaldi ) puts a hit on Torchwood 's lives to cover a conspiracy . In part two , Ianto and Gwen survive a Hub explosion that obliterates Jack . Once regenerated , Jack is sealed in cement by agent Johnson ( Liz May Brice ) until Ianto rescues him with a forklift truck . In part three , the group watch helplessly as the 456 demand a tribute : 10 % of the Earth 's children ; the government appears willing to comply . In part four , Ianto and Jack storm the Thames House to confront the 456 . The pair refuse to sacrifice any lives to the alien demands . In response , the aliens release a fatal virus into the atmosphere . Thames House locks down , and Ianto dies in Jack 's arms , telling him that he loved him and begging Jack never to forget about him , to which Jack replies he never could .
= = = Literature = = =
Ianto appears in the first six of the Torchwood novels , published by BBC Books . The first wave , Another Life by Peter Anghelides , Border Princes by Dan Abnett , and Slow Decay by Andy Lane , were published in January 2007 . Published in March 2008 , and tying in with the concurrently airing second series of Torchwood , Ianto appears in the novels Trace Memory by David Llewellyn , The Twilight Streets by Gary Russell , and Something in the Water by Trevor Baxendale . October 2008 saw the release of three more Torchwood books by Peter Anghelides , series writer Phil Ford and writer for the Doctor Who and Torchwood websites , James Goss , the latter 's cover for Almost Perfect reflecting changes to the cast after the episode 2008 finale episode " Exit Wounds " . The character next appears in Into the Silence , Bay of the Dead and The House that Jack Built in June 2009 , and Risk Assessment , The Undertaker 's Gift and the short story anthology Consequences in October of that year .
First published in January 2008 , the monthly Torchwood Magazine began occasionally including Torchwood comic strips , in which Ianto also appears . In 2010 , Shrouded is one such two @-@ part comic , written by Gareth David @-@ Lloyd . The comic posits a " what @-@ if " scenario wherein Ianto , " who struggles with his feelings for Jack from the offset " , sees a face from the future and embarks on a mission that could change the course of his life ( from that of his eventual death in Children of Earth ) . David Lloyd comments that he " knows [ the ] character implicitly " . In the first part , Ianto ( originating from the timeframe of Season Two ) is approached by Rhys and Captain John , both post @-@ Children of Earth , who warn Ianto not to believe the offer made by a seductive , time @-@ travelling woman ; they do not tell him that their mission is to preserve the timeline in which he dies . In part two , the woman , Mairwyn , informs Ianto of the events of " Exit Wounds " and Children of Earth , and of Jack 's departure . Ianto tearfully watches the scene where Jack learns of Gwen 's engagement , and sleeps with Mairwyn . After learning of the devastating consequences of assisting Mairwyn , he defeats her and later " retcons " himself . However , in a divergent timeline Ianto appears with Mairwyn , observing his funeral , saying " I can 't believe there 's a reality where I said no . " In 2010 , " Shrouded " was republished in Titan 's dedicated Torchwood comic book .
During series two , the Torchwood website , www.torchwood.org.uk also hosted an interactive online game written by series writer Phil Ford . Updated weekly with the airing of the new episodes , the website features specially shot footage with Gareth David @-@ Lloyd in character as Ianto debriefing and informing the ' player ' with regards to their mission . Throughout both series one and two , the interactive websites co @-@ written by James Goss featured electronic literature content ( such as fictitious internet messaging conversations and letters ) which depict aspects of Ianto and the other Torchwood characters ' work and personal lives . The Torchwood Archives by Gary Russell collects much of this online literature in hardback form , along with new original material , some of which expands on what we know of Ianto . For example , it introduces his sister , Rhiannon and brother @-@ in @-@ law Johnny ; Rhiannon and Johnny later appear in 2009 's third televised series .
Spin @-@ off media has tried to fill in the gaps of Ianto 's character history from before he began working at Torchwood Three ; Ianto 's first week at Torchwood One is shown in a flashback in the novel Trace Memory . The segment also depicts his budding relationship with Lisa Hallett . Also expanding on Jones 's time living in London , the comic The Legacy of Torchwood One ! ( Torchwood # 1 ) shows how Ianto was taken under the wing of Rupert Howarth , a senior researcher , during his first few weeks at Torchwood One . Ianto 's characterisation is explored in The Twilight Streets , in which Ianto sheds some light on the difficulty he had " coming out " as a teenager ; Ianto 's mother tried to have a conversation with him about it , but he remarks " She didn 't work me out , Gwen . No one has . And if I ever do , I 'll let you know . " He then engages in a diatribe with Gwen about what it means to him to be bisexual after Gwen jokes to him that he has the " best of both worlds " . A scene in David @-@ Lloyd 's " Shrouded " , in which Ianto is emailing his sister , Owen is seen to wrestle control of the computer and tries to write to her that " I 've recently discovered that I 'm a Big Old Gay " ; Ianto rebukes him . In the storyline 's conclusion , an alternate timeline is created where Ianto did not die in the events of Children of Earth .
However , as with all Doctor Who and Torchwood spin @-@ off media , the canonicity in relation to the television series is unclear .
= = = Audio drama = = =
Ianto also appears in Torchwood audio books , the first two being Hidden written by Steven Savile and narrated by Naoko Mori , Everyone Says Hello written by Dan Abnett and narrated by Burn Gorman , released February 2008 , and In the Shadows by Joseph Lidster , released in September 2008 . Joseph Lidster also wrote a BBC Radio 4 Torchwood drama , " Lost Souls " which aired in Summer 2008 as an Afternoon Play featuring the voices of John Barrowman , Eve Myles , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd and Freema Agyeman ( Martha ) . Set after the events of the 2008 series , Ianto and the team make their first international adventure to CERN in Geneva , as part of Radio 4 's special celebration of the Large Hadron Collider being switched on . The special radio episode 's plot focuses on the Large Hadron Collider 's activation and the doomsday scenario some predicted it might incite , as well as the team 's mourning of Toshiko and Owen 's recent deaths .
Three further BBC radio dramas were produced in 2009 for the Afternoon Play slot on Radio 4 , each of which feature Ianto Jones . Chronologically , these occur between the second and third televised series but after " Lost Souls " . Transmitted in July 2009 , the first drama is " Asylum " , the second is " Golden Age " , and the third is " The Dead Line " . " The Dead Line " in particular focuses on Ianto 's characterisation , particularly with respect to his relationship with Jack . AfterElton reviewers stated that the radio drama " delivers for Janto [ a portmanteau used by the shipping fandom ] fans " ; David @-@ Lloyd delivers a monologue as Ianto , verbalising his insecurities to a comatose Jack . When Jack awakens from his coma , he promises " You will never be just a blip in time , Ianto Jones . "
After his character was written out of the televised series , David @-@ Lloyd still lends his voice 2011 audio drama series The Lost Files , tying into the televised fourth series , Torchwood : Miracle Day . Of these , " The House of the Dead " by James Goss focuses the most on Ianto . Ianto encounters the spirit of his father , with the claim that he , Ianto 's mother , Owen , Toshiko and Lisa will all be resurrected if Ianto betrays Jack . Exploiting its radio format , the drama reveals that Ianto too is a spirit , and that the story is a Jack solo mission set after series three . Jack and Ianto say a final goodbye and tell each other they love one another for the first time . Jack attempts to return to the land of the living alongside Ianto , but Ianto stays behind to close the Cardiff Rift forever with Jack 's device .
= = Characterisation = =
= = = Conception = = =
Gareth David @-@ Lloyd has revealed that his character was originally named Idris Hopper . This has led to speculation that he was the same Idris Hopper played by Aled Pedrick who appeared in the 2005 Doctor Who episode " Boom Town " as Margaret Blaine 's ( Annette Badland ) personal assistant . Writer Stephen James Walker wonders if Russell T Davies intended Idris to become a major character on Torchwood in the same way as Toshiko Sato , who originated in Doctor Who 's " Aliens of London " . Idris Hopper has since appeared in Gary Russell 's Torchwood novel The Twilight Streets . Initially , Ianto is introduced as a quiet worker and the least active character in the supporting cast . David @-@ Lloyd started the role believing Ianto would be killed off at the end of the first series , and was surprised when they " worked the character to become more popular , and it started growing from there . "
When Gareth David @-@ Lloyd was cast in the role , the character was renamed Ianto Jones . This was inspired by the character of Yanto Jones , also played by David @-@ Lloyd , in Russell T Davies 's 2004 comedy @-@ drama Mine All Mine . Ianto shares the surname " Jones " with Doctor Who characters Martha Jones and family as well as Harriet Jones , Torchwood character Eugene Jones ( " Random Shoes " ) , and Stuart Allen Jones in Davies 's earlier Queer as Folk ; Davies states that reusing names ( such as Tyler , Smith , Harper , Harkness and Jones ) allows him to get a grip of the character on the blank page . In developing the character 's attire , costume designer Ray Holman comments : " Ianto has a very distinct look but his suits actually vary quite a lot . He started off with some nice but boring Marks and Spencers suits in series one , which were top @-@ end fitted ones but always very sober . Towards the end of series one , I also got him into a waistcoat , and everyone thought that looked really good .
= = = Development = = =
On how he views the character , David @-@ Lloyd says that " outwardly , he 's straight @-@ laced , but there 's a darker side to him and a very playful side too . " Initially , in series one , Ianto is a quiet and more reserved character . Throughout the first series , Ianto 's secrets are exposed to the team , particularly in " Cyberwoman " when his motives for joining Torchwood Three are exposed . David @-@ Lloyd was " bowled over " by the Ianto @-@ centric script for " Cyberwoman " and the " wide range of emotions " it allowed him to play . From this point , Ianto 's focus changes and he begins more and more to come out of his shell .
Appearing in series two , Ianto assists the team in field missions and is used by the writers as a vehicle for one @-@ liner jokes . Commenting on this , portrayer Gareth David @-@ Lloyd notes that " This season it 's much more relaxed and he 's not all about keeping secrets , he 's about Torchwood and Jack — he 's found his meaning and his place so his dry humour comes out a lot more and he 's happier . " The developments in Ianto 's character were also reflected in the wardrobe choice . " For series two , " comments Ray Holman , " we evolved the look quite a lot , and now his suits come from all over the place . It 's just a question of where I see something that looks right for Gareth , so I 've brought him a suit from Savile Row and suits from Zara and Next . We realised we could be a bit more flash with Ianto now he 's come out of the background and started to assert himself a bit more . So we moved him into coloured shirts and snazzier ties . He started off in white and grey shirts but we realised his skin tones can take the extra colour and now he 's evolving into something much sharper , which looks really good filmed in high definition . "
In Torchwood Magazine , actor Gareth David @-@ Lloyd comments on some original character developments intended for Ianto . Originally , his character was the one supposed to die at the end of series two episode " Reset " . Davies 's plan had originally intended for Ianto to be revived , as Owen eventually was , in episode seven . From this point on , the character was intended to be " the Living Dead — pale , but still sexy " . The night before filming , however , Davies changed his mind and seven scripts began a process of being rewritten . New lines had to be handed to the actors on the day of filming . Davies also called a discussion with the actors involved to explain the change in the storyline . In the discussion with executive producer Russell T Davies and Burn Gorman , who portrays Owen , it was decided that Owen would experience the zombification storyline as he is a character who more overtly enjoys life , making it more interesting from a narrative perspective .
David @-@ Lloyd described the character 's development in the third series as " really exciting " . He felt that it was " great to be a fully @-@ fledged member of the team now rather than just the administration man . " He felt flattered to have the writer and producers put so much confidence in him . In this series , the writers also explore Jones 's background ; David @-@ Lloyd was happy with the execution of this backstory , through meeting Ianto 's sister , and commented that it was quite beautifully written . Through meeting his family , we discover that his father has died and that Ianto has grown very distant from his relatives as per the demands of his job . David @-@ Lloyd first concluded that Ianto was being killed off when his agent told him he was only needed for four out of five episodes . Although there was " a bit of disappointment " , he considers himself " lucky " for lasting so long on the series , especially since Ianto was supposed to die in series two . He believed the character 's death was justified by " the impact and the drama , and to keep the dangerous reality of Torchwood ever present " . Although it was " a tragedy that [ Ianto ] died " , David @-@ Lloyd felt that the series had " addressed everything about him that needed to be said " .
Creator Russell T Davies felt that killing off Ianto was necessary for Children of Earth ; it was his first decision to create a " horrible war casualty " for the story , because it would be unrealistic to have a great threat and have the main characters all come out unscathed . Ianto 's death also precedes the death of Captain Jack 's grandson Steven ( Bear McCausland ) , and for that scene to occur it necessitated making Jack " badly , badly damaged " . Ianto 's death caused " maximum damage " to Jack , and the loss of his lover ( and grandson ) makes Children of Earth a tale of retribution , as Jack had given away twelve children to the same aliens in 1965 . Davies has said that Ianto is " absolutely dead " . He explains his reasoning ; because it 's a " much more real world in Torchwood " , it wouldn 't work to " regenerate or go to a parallel universe . " Davies feels that Barrowman and David @-@ Lloyd would both be dismayed were that to happen . He stated " it would devalue the entire plot if we brought him back " . Wired magazine described Ianto 's arc , ending in the third series , as an " evolution from meek office assistant to heroic warrior " .
= = = Relationship with Jack = = =
Much of Ianto 's character development is centred on the character 's relationship with Captain Jack . On the character 's evolution from minor character to romantic interest , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd has commented that " To have a storyline where you 're involved with the leading character for any actor is awesome . " On the character 's development , David @-@ Lloyd has said that through Jack 's relationship , " he 's found his meaning and ... he 's happier . " Asked what it is that Ianto receives from Jack , David @-@ Lloyd responds " Support , meaning . I think he lost meaning . He was tortured and Jack gave him that meaning back . And reliability that he 'll always be there , I think . " John Barrowman and Gareth David @-@ Lloyd have also opined that Jack 's relationship with Ianto has however brought out Jack 's empathy , and helped to ground him , with John Barrowman reported as saying that Ianto " brings out the ' human ' in him , it brings out more of the empathy because he 's actually fallen for someone and he really cares about somebody . So , it 's really great and I think that 's what makes him warm to other people . It makes him more approachable . " In the same interview , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd said of the relationship and his character that " I think Ianto 's always made him care and that is really the heart of the show . Ianto 's always bearing his emotional side and vulnerable side and keeping his feet on the ground . I think of all the characters , he 's the one who tries to keep everyone else 's feet on the ground . He brings everyone back to reality , often with a dry , witty remark or taking a dig at somebody just to sort of bring people back down . "
Comparing Jack 's relationship with Ianto to his romantic tension with Gwen , David @-@ Lloyd states " I think [ there are ] different sorts of love or lust , as it might be , and I think that 's an ongoing thing ... At the moment , I think there 's two different sorts of love going on there . " He also states that he feels that Ianto 's relationship with Jack is his first same @-@ sex relationship , and doesn 't feel that Ianto would be a " labelist " , but were he , he would identify as bisexual , but that he " wouldn 't regard himself the same way as Jack does because they 're from different times . " Author Stephen James Walker feels sorry for Ianto , perceiving his relationship with Jack as a one @-@ sided one . To him , Ianto views the relationship as " serious and committed " , as seen in " A Day in the Death " where he tells Owen that it is not just about sex . However , from dialogue in " Something Borrowed " , Walker believes that Jack appears to equate his relationship with Ianto to nothing more than a " recreational activity " . Walker also notes how important it was for Ianto when he cut in to dance with Jack , as this is the first time that his relationship with Jack is presented before the rest of the crew . The novel The House that Jack Built includes a scene where Gwen tries to clarify whether Ianto understands the nature of his relationship with Jack , saying " You do know he 's ... " , which Ianto finishes " Just a shag ? " before adding " Yes I know . I can 't help it , though . I 've never been much good at casual . " In radio play " The Dead Line " , set just prior to series three , Ianto expounds his insecurities to Jack , who refutes them , confirming that his feelings for Ianto are real . When asked if the relationship will continue in series three , executive producer Julie Gardner replied , " Yes , I like seeing them as a couple " , while director Euros Lyn stated that " the love story between Captain Jack and Ianto [ would continue ] to unfold " in the third series . While Gareth David @-@ Lloyd feels that the love story between Jack and Ianto was not fully resolved , which is " part of the tragedy " , the character and his relationship with Jack had been sufficiently explored in the third series for David @-@ Lloyd to be " happy to walk away from it . "
Ianto makes a post @-@ death appearance in 2011 audio drama " The House of the Dead " . Encountering Ianto 's spirit at a haunted location in Wales , Jack and Ianto are permitted a final goodbye . Without Ianto in his life , Jack wishes to be swept up into the Rift as it closes in an attempt at suicide . Ianto tricks Jack into leaving the House of the Dead , however , despite the possibility of resurrection . As they are forced to part forever by the closing of the Rift , the couple declare their love for one another for the first and last time .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Awarding the character of Ianto the status of " Cult Spy Icon " , British entertainment news website Digital Spy describes him as a " cult legend " , citing his dour demeanour , one @-@ liners and " eye candy " label . Gay men 's website AfterElton placed Ianto as their seventh best gay and bisexual character in modern science fiction ( encompassing television , film and comic books ) , with Torchwood 's Jack , Ianto 's love interest , receiving first place . Wired magazine was impressed with the way Ianto 's romantic storyline was handled in the third series , and praised Davies 's writing for the " deft , sympathetic handling " of the Harkness @-@ Jones romance , compared with the " clumsiness " of the show 's homoerotic overtones in previous series . Because Ianto 's storyline grows out of the reality of the show , " it plays with such genuine sympathy and pathos that Jones 's eventual fate is easily the miniseries ' most powerful moment . " Wired describes David @-@ Lloyd 's performance as Jones as " a key element in the success of the five @-@ episode story arc . " One AfterElton contributor disliked the death scene partially for the loss of a " beloved gay character " , and because Ianto 's death was caused by Jack 's stupidity , goading on the aliens . They compared the death scene to that of Tara ( Amber Benson ) in Joss Whedon 's Buffy the Vampire Slayer which he felt was more satisfying , although " unbearably sad " because of its pivotal role in the character arc for Willow ( Alyson Hannigan ) , and as being " possibly the single most significant event in the whole seven @-@ season series . " He feels that both Joss Whedon and Russell T Davies toyed with their LGBT fans ' affections , and claim " neither Whedon nor Davies seem aware of the impact that these characters were having on viewers starved for such representations . " Later , AfterElton published an opposing view , which analysed the character 's death in view of the character 's earlier refusal to admit to his relationship with a man , and claimed that , instead of being an expression of homophobia , the death was a sign that the LGBT community was leaving behind its image of victimhood . In 2012 David Brown of the Radio Times described Ianto 's demise as one of televisions five most shocking death scenes and " surely [ Torchwood 's ] finest hour " .
The website Den of Geek praised Davies 's writing of Ianto 's death , and likened the tough story @-@ driven decision to those used in critically acclaimed shows The Sopranos , Battlestar Galactica and The Wire . Den of Geek felt the real tension of knowing any character could die , however popular , was " refreshing " in comparison to impossibly death @-@ defying characters such as 24 's Jack Bauer ( Kiefer Sutherland ) . In 2010 , Davies 's replacement as Doctor Who executive producer , Steven Moffat , commented saying " I thought his death scene was brilliant . " When the series screened in New Zealand , GayNZ compared the two contending perspectives , comparing those who viewed Ianto 's death from the perspective of " dramatic necessity " to those who disparaged it as the result of thoughtlessness on the part of the series creators about the relative absence of representations of enduring lesbian and gay couples within television series . Ianto 's death was compared to that of Tara as in the above critiques , but also contrasted to other television series where lesbian and gay couples were able to have enduring relationships , such as Six Feet Under 's David Fisher ( Michael C. Hall ) and Keith Charles ( Mathew St. Patrick ) and Bad Girls ' Nikki Wade ( Mandana Jones ) and Helen Stewart ( Simone Lahbib ) .
GayNZ writer Craig Young places Ianto , like Buffy 's Tara , in a larger literary tradition , commenting " just as Iphigenia 's sacrifice at the hands of Agamemnon was necessary to set in train the events of Aeschylus 's Oresteia ... just as Ophelia 's madness , suicide and accidental death led to the climatic duel between Hamlet and Laertes ... Ianto 's death can be argued to be a dramatic necessity which adds to character and narrative development . " The article acknowledged there being some validity in criticisms of modern TV dramas which uphold that it is frequently the gay relationships which " can never be seen to have long @-@ term , fulfilled relationships " . However , GayNZ questioned whether the pattern was solely gay , noting the equally tragic outcomes of homosexual and heterosexual relationships in American shows Buffy and Nip / Tuck . The website also took note of Ianto fans ' displeasure when Jack was introduced to a new romantic partner in Alonso Frame ( Russell Tovey ) in Doctor Who episode The End of Time ( 2010 ) , mirroring Willow 's romance with Kennedy ( Iyari Limon ) in Season Seven of Buffy the Vampire Slayer . The article intentionally avoided making a definitive conclusion as to which " side " of the argument was correct . Young later compared Ianto 's death with the subsequent killing off of core heterosexual couples in two British shows , Misfits and Being Human . These latter deaths are described as even more heartbreaking than Ianto 's , and Young argues that these character deaths tell us more about transatlantic differences in storytelling than about portrayals of sexuality .
= = = Fan reaction to death = = =
Some fans expressed their displeasure following Ianto 's death in the third series . The website End of Show comments that " writer James Moran was so inundated with messages to his Twitter account that he posted a number of impassioned pleas to tone down the vitriol . " End of Show writer Kirsty Walker comments that fans on Twitter accused Moran of " deliberately egging on the ' shippers ' . " Moran noted in his blog that of the thousands of messages from viewers , the " vast majority " were extremely positive , managing to express that they were " upset , angry and shocked " without making personal attacks . Moran declared the response from other commentators to be unacceptable , describing their conduct as the spewing of insults and " passive aggressive nonsense " . He noted that fans had accused him of deliberately trying to " mislead " , " lie " and " hurt " them , said that he hated them , was " laughing at them " and " slapping [ them ] in the face " , and claimed that he had " killed the show " , had attempted to drive away existing fans to court newer and " cooler " viewers , and had deliberately hurt depressed people " with dark storylines . " In a poll conducted by Digital Spy shortly after Ianto 's death , 27 @.@ 4 % of voters claimed that they would no longer watch Torchwood . Responding to these results , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd thanked the fans for their dedication to the show and the character but urged them to have faith in the writers . On the show 's Facebook groups , fans expressed anger towards creator Russell T Davies and some claimed they would stop watching the show . Walker herself had felt that the end of Jack 's relationship with Ianto could " change the show beyond all recognition . "
io9 commented that fans on Moran 's blog accused him of homophobia ; one quoted fan likened it to 1950s @-@ style homophobia " where all the queer folks died ... and the straight people walk away completely unscathed . " io9 writer Charlie Jane Anders comments , however , that " as people have had a bit more time to consider the new series , more thoughtful discussions have arisen . " One such cited notes that it is unlikely that Children of Earth was intentionally homophobic since the writer ( Davies ) and lead actor ( John Barrowman ) are both openly gay . The same reviewer notes that however , " especially when viewed on its own , Children of Earth looks a lot like the same heteronormative , homophobic , biphobic and gratuitous tropes that appear in so many bad representations of queer people in popular culture . " In response to the accusations of " de @-@ gaying " Torchwood , Davies advised those people do some research into his career ( creator of Queer as Folk ) and " stop riding on a bandwagon that they actually don 't know anything about " . Asked to respond to viewers who felt " cheated " that Jack and Ianto 's relationship did not come to fruition , Davies said :
That 's the point actually . Both in fiction and in life . When someone dies you lose all that potential . You grieve over everything they could have been . Everything you hoped for them . Everything they might have achieved with their lives , everyone they could have loved . Every job they could have had . Every joy they could have had . It 's gone .
Soon after the death of Ianto Jones during Torchwood 's third series , a campaign to bring him back was started through networking sites such as LiveJournal , Twitter and Facebook . The resulting website , www.saveiantojones.com , has organised a protest which encourages fans to send coffee , along with postcards and letters of complaint , to the BBC , a reference to Ianto 's status as the " coffee boy " . Via the Save Ianto Jones website , fans are also campaigning to raise money for the BBC charity Children in Need in honour of the character . The fundraising site states that " Though we , his devoted fans , still hope that he 'll come back ... we mourn him . In the series , he died saving the children of Earth ; so it seems fitting to honour his memory by helping the Children in Need . " Torchwood Magazine reported that the site had raised nearly £ 4 @,@ 000 , with individual donations ranging from £ 2 to £ 50 . John Barrowman described the charity campaign as " a fun way to mourn Ianto " and stated that it was " the kind of thing that 's really appreciated " . Gareth David @-@ Lloyd was flattered by the strong fan reaction , saying it is " satisfying in drama when you create such an emotional response , because that 's what you set out to do in the first place " . He praised the fan donations , claiming " So far , they 've raised about £ 3 @,@ 000 for Children in Need , and £ 1 @,@ 000 for Lluest Horse and Pony Trust in West Wales , which I 'm a patron of , so that 's got to be a good thing " . Coventry Telegraph records that by 21 July 2009 , £ 4 @,@ 172 had been donated in Ianto 's name .
In an interview with io9 on 28 July 2009 , creator Russell T Davies was asked about the controversy surrounding Ianto 's death and the fan reaction campaign . He replied " There 's a campaign , because he was a coffee boy . But do you know how many packets of coffee they 've received so far ? Nine . So I think people writing online might sound like thousands of people , but they are nine . " However , those involved in the movement believe that this number is much higher due to a post tallying the coffee sent within the community . When asked about the backlash in a separate interview with Michael Ausiello , Russell T Davies said " It 's not particularly a backlash . What 's actually happening is , well , nothing really to be honest . It 's a few people posting online and getting fans upset " . He also stated that the character was gone for good , and that his resurrection would devalue the " entire plot . " He recommended that fans who wish to stop watching the show should watch Supernatural " because those boys are beautiful " , or " look at poetry " if they " can 't handle drama " . Following these statements , the Save Ianto Jones website encouraged fans to contact BBC Wales rather than Davies , and temporarily presented on its front page the message " Mr Davies has made it clear in recent interviews that he views his fans with contempt , and as disposable , which saddens us " and asked not to be " abused " . At Comic @-@ Con 2009 , a fan claimed that Davies " hurt " a lot of internet fans with his decision to kill Ianto , which she called " out of line . " Davies replied that he would not change his mind regarding the decision , adding , " I 've got to be blunt about this , there have been campaigns to send packets of coffee to BBC Wales in protest . There have been nine packets sent . I 'm not taking the mickey , but that 's a very small number . " Executive producer Julie Gardner stated " We want people to be engaged , discuss and not always agree with us . At the end of the day , I make drama to support each author 's vision . It 's not a democracy . Whether people like it or not , it 's storytelling . " Simon Brew of Den of Geek has criticised the Internet campaigns to resurrect the character , citing that the show would " lose far more credibility " if he were brought back . Brew also expressed doubt that the fans stating they would boycott a fourth series will do so . He summarised : " Torchwood now needs to continue to have the courage of its convictions , and for that to happen , the reset switch simply isn 't an option . "
On 31 July 2009 , Digital Spy conducted a poll asking if it was " time to move on " from Ianto . However , a week later the website did not immediately publish the results , announcing " unfortunately it seems that this particular Poll was the subject of a campaign by diehard fans to distort the outcome " . Neil Wilkes opined that this action by the fans " suggests the answer to the question ' Have people overreacted to Ianto 's death ? ' is quite obvious " . Later , a footnote amendment noted that 31 @.@ 4 % said it was time to move on , " while the remainder demanded RTD 's head on a plate " , a reference to his own wording of the original poll , which gave readers the option of moving on from Ianto , or the executive producer 's head on a plate . James McCarthy of Wales Online described the reaction from some fans as " sickening " and quoted " crazed " fans on DeviantArt and Facebook who made explicit death threats against the Children of Earth writers . Gareth David @-@ Lloyd stated he was very disappointed in those fans , whose message board conduct he does not support at all and called " completely unacceptable " . David @-@ Lloyd added that he " would hope the writers would be able to ignore comments like that " . A number of fans were upset by the tone of the first Wales Online article , and their response prompted a follow up from McCarthy . In their comments , fans pointed out that his article disproportionately highlights what they called the " ill @-@ conceived | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
political powerlessness . " Manley notes that Headley rose to success at a time of political awakening in Jamaica , when the black majority of the population were increasingly determined to end the minority rule of landowners and challenge the racism of the time . According to Manley , the middle classes saw in Headley " the reassurance which they needed . He demonstrated black capacity . " The white upper classes were proud of his achievements as a West Indian , but Manley writes " it was to the black masses that Headley had the deepest significance ... [ He ] became the focus for longing of an entire people for proof : proof of their own self @-@ worth , their own capacity . Furthermore , they wanted this proof to be laid at the door of the white man who owned the world which defined their circumstances . " Manley sees the title of " Atlas " not just in sporting terms , but in his carrying " the hopes of the black , English @-@ speaking Caribbean man ... He was black excellence personified in a white world and in a white sport . "
= = Personal life = =
= = = Coaching career = = =
Following the 1955 cricket season , Headley was invited to become a national coach , a post created by the Jamaican government , which involved working mainly with young people . Headley and his second son travelled back to Jamaica , while the rest of the family remained in England . Headley had a heavy workload , particularly in rural areas ; together with his assistant Dickie Fuller his role involved encouraging school children to watch and play cricket , and trying to improve standards and facilities throughout the country . Headley became involved in the selection of teams , taking some of them overseas . At this time , he discovered the future West Indian Test player Roy Gilchrist and future Jamaican cricketer Henry Sewell . However , critics in the 1960s complained that there were not enough Jamaicans in the Test side and blamed Headley and Fuller , although the government remained supportive of their performance . In 1961 , Headley coached for six months in Nigeria and earned praise from the Nigerian Cricket Association . His official coaching role in Jamaica ended after a new government withdrew funding for coaching in 1962 .
= = = Family and retirement = = =
Headley married Rena Saunders in 1939 . He had nine children in total , including Ron Headley who was born two days after the end of the Lord 's Test of 1939 . Ron Headley went on to play professional cricket for the English counties Worcestershire and Derbyshire , and represented Jamaica before playing two Tests for West Indies in 1973 . Another son , Lyndie , reached the semi @-@ finals of the 100 metres and came fourth in the 100 metres relay at the 1964 Olympics ; he also won a gold medal with Jamaican sprint relay teams in the Central American and Caribbean Games of 1966 and silver with the relay team at the Commonwealth Games of the same year . Ron 's son Dean , Headley 's grandson , played Test cricket for England ; the family thus became the first to have three generations play Test cricket .
After his retirement from coaching , Headley remained associated with cricket , presenting awards and playing in friendly matches . He was the official representative of the Jamaican Cricket Board at Constantine 's funeral in 1971 . Official recognition came Headley 's way when he was awarded the M.B.E. in 1956 and was made an honorary life member of the MCC in 1958 . In 1969 , a bronze sculpture of his head was unveiled in Jamaica 's National Stadium , and in 1973 the Norman Manley Foundation gave him the Award for Excellence in Sports . In the latter year , he also received the Order of Distinction . He died in Kingston on 30 November 1983 .
= Interstate 81 in West Virginia =
In the U.S. state of West Virginia , Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) crosses the Eastern Panhandle region , linking Virginia to Maryland . The Interstate Highway , completed in 1966 , spans 26 @.@ 00 miles ( 41 @.@ 84 km ) through Berkeley County , paralleling U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) for its entire length . I @-@ 81 enters the state near Ridgeway and travels northeast , bypassing the city of Martinsburg , and leaves the state at the Potomac River , which serves as the state line . The first solicitations for the construction of I @-@ 81 were published in 1959 , with the first 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of freeway being opened in 1963 , and the full length was completed by 1966 . On average between 45 and 60 thousand vehicles use the freeway though the panhandle per day .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 81 enters the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia just west of Ridgeway , paralleling US 11 ( also known as the Valley Pike ) . The highway passes through some light farmland before entering a wooded area , north of Ridgeway . A welcome center for northbound travelers is passed before the woodlands give way to a light urban setting . As the highway approaches the community of Inwood , a diamond interchange with West Virginia Route 51 ( WV 51 ) provides access to the community , as well as Gerrardstown to the west of the freeway , and Charles Town to the east . A small business park is passed by before I @-@ 81 intersects County Route 32 , providing access to Arden , the Eastern WV Regional Airport and Tablers Station . The freeway turns more towards the north as it approaches Martinsburg , intersecting WV 45 , County Route 15 and Dry Run Road while in the city limits . I @-@ 81 bypasses downtown , running along the western border of town while US 11 continues through the town .
Just northeast of Martinsburg the freeway passes over a CSX Transportation rail line while a cloverleaf interchange with WV 9 provides access back to Martinsburg and to Hedgesville . As the freeway curves back east , it intersects WV 901 between Hainesville and Falling Waters . WV 901 is a short connector route back to US 11 . North of Falling Waters and south of Marlowe , US 11 intersects the freeway and continues north while I @-@ 81 turns east towards the Maryland state line at the Potomac River . Just south of the river is a welcome center intended for southbound travelers from Maryland .
Out of the six states that I @-@ 81 passes through , the segment in West Virginia is the second shortest , only longer than the Maryland segment . Every year the West Virginia Department of Transportation ( WVDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , WVDOT calculated that as few as 45 @,@ 000 vehicles traveled along the highway at the Virginia state line , and as many as 62 @,@ 500 vehicles used the freeway between County Routes 15 and 13 in Martinsburg . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire route is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
I @-@ 81 roughly parallels the Great Indian Warpath , an old Indian trail which connected New York to the Carolina Piedmont via Virginia and West Virginia . A series of roads linking Virginia to Maryland through Martinsburg were present on maps as early as 1873 .
Bids for construction of I @-@ 81 by WVDOT were published in 1959 , with a budget of about $ 10 @.@ 6 million to complete the highway . Completion of I @-@ 81 in Virginia up to the West Virginia state line was completed by the Virginia Department of Transportation in November 1965 . The first 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of the highway through West Virginia were completed between 1959 and 1963 . The construction of the remaining 20 miles ( 32 km ) of Interstate Highway through the Eastern Panhandle was completed by 1966 . Since then , there have been no major realignments , and the highway continues on its original path .
= = Future = =
In 2014 , WVDOT officials announced in conjunction with the Maryland State Highway Administration that the bridges over the Potomac River would be rehabilitated to accommodate three lanes of highway in each direction . The widening of the highway is proposed to head south along I @-@ 81 to exit 23 for US 11 . Construction is expected to start in the summer of 2016 .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Berkeley County .
= Literature in early modern Scotland =
Literature in early modern Scotland is literature written in Scotland or by Scottish writers between the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century and the beginnings of the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution in mid @-@ eighteenth century . By the beginning of this era Gaelic had been in geographical decline for three centuries and had begun to be a second class language , confined to the Highlands and Islands , but the tradition of Classic Gaelic Poetry survived . Middle Scots became the language of both the nobility and the majority population . The establishment of a printing press in 1507 made it easier to disseminate Scottish literature and was probably aimed at bolstering Scottish national identity .
James IV 's creation of a Renaissance court included the patronage of poets , or makars , who were mainly clerics . These included Gavin Douglas , whose Eneados ( 1513 ) was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language . James V was also a major patron of poets . George Buchanan founded a tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry . In the reign of Mary , Queen of Scots and the minority of her son James VI , cultural pursuits were limited by the lack of a royal court and by political turmoil . The Kirk discouraged poetry that was not devotional in nature but secular poetry survived . In the 1580s and 1590s James VI promoted literature in Scots . He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish court poets and musicians , later called the Castalian Band . David Lyndsay 's The Thrie Estaitis ( 1540 ) is the only complete play to survive from before the Reformation . Buchanan was major influence on Continental theatre , but his impact in Scotland was limited by his choice of Latin as a medium . There were isolated Scottish plays , but the system of professional companies of players and theatres that developed in England in this period was absent in Scotland .
The accession of James VI to the English throne in 1603 meant a loss of the court as a centre of patronage and he increasingly favoured the language of southern England . A number of Scottish poets accompanied the king to London , where they began to anglicise their written language . As the tradition of classical Gaelic poetry declined , a new tradition of vernacular Gaelic poetry began to emerge , often undertaken by women . The tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry reached its fruition with the publication of the anthology of the Deliciae Poetarum Scotorum ( 1637 ) . This period was marked by the work of the first named female Scottish poets , such as Elizabeth Melville , whose Ane Godlie Dream ( 1603 ) was the first book published by a woman in Scotland . This was the period when the ballad emerged as a significant written form in Scotland . From the seventeenth century they were used as a literary form by aristocratic authors .
After the Union in 1707 , the use of Scots was discouraged by many in authority and education . Allan Ramsay led a " vernacular revival " that laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature . He also led the trend for pastoral poetry and his pastoral opera The Gentle Shepherd was one of the most influential works of the era . Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English . Tobias Smollett was a poet , essayist , satirist and playwright , but is best known for his picaresque novels , for which he is often seen as Scotland 's first novelist . The early eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry that mixed traditional forms with influences from the Lowlands . Drama was pursued by Scottish playwrights in London . In Scotland drama was supplied by visiting English players and actors , but there were clashes with the Kirk . Ramsay was instrumental in establishing a small theatre in Edinburgh , but it closed soon after the passing of the 1737 Licensing Act . A new theatre was opened at Cannongate in 1747 and operated without a licence into the 1760s .
= = Sixteenth century = =
= = = Background = = =
By the early modern era Gaelic had been in geographical decline for three centuries and had begun to be a second class language , confined to the Highlands and Islands . The tradition of classic Gaelic poetry survived longer in Scotland than in Ireland , with the last fully competent member of the MacMhuirich dynasty , who were hereditary poets to the Lords of the Isles and then the Donalds of Clanranald , still working in the early eighteenth century . Nevertheless , interest in the sponsorship of panegyric Gaelic poetry was declining among the clan leaders . Gaelic was gradually being overtaken by Middle Scots , which became the language of both the nobility and the majority population . Middle Scots was derived substantially from Old English , with Gaelic and French influences . It was usually called Inglyshe and was very close to the language spoken in northern England , but by the sixteenth century it had established orthographic and literary norms largely independent of those developing in England . From the mid sixteenth century , written Scots was increasingly influenced by the developing Standard English of Southern England due to developments in royal and political interactions with England . With the increasing influence and availability of books printed in England , most writing in Scotland came to be done in the English fashion .
The establishment of a printing press under royal patent in 1507 would begin to make it easier to disseminate Scottish literature and was probably aimed at bolstering Scottish national identity . The first Scottish press was established in Southgait in Edinburgh by the merchant Walter Chepman ( c . 1473 – c . 1528 ) and the bookseller Andrew Myllar ( fl . 1505 – 08 ) . Although the first press was relatively short lived , beside law codes and religious works , the press also produced editions of the work of Scottish makars before its demise , probably about 1510 . The next recorded press was that of Thomas Davidson ( f . 1532 – 42 ) , the first in a long line of " king 's printers " , who also produced editions of works of the makars .
= = = Makars = = =
James IV 's ( r . 1488 – 1513 ) creation of a Renaissance court included the patronage of poets . These court poets , or makars , who were mainly clerics included Robert Henryson ( c . 1450 @-@ c . 1505 ) , who re @-@ worked Medieval and Classical sources , such as Chaucer and Aesop in works such as his Testament of Cresseid and The Morall Fabillis . William Dunbar ( 1460 – 1513 ) produced satires , lyrics , invectives and dream visions that established the vernacular as a flexible medium for poetry of any kind . Gavin Douglas ( 1475 – 1522 ) , who became Bishop of Dunkeld , injected humanist concerns and classical sources into his poetry . The landmark work in the reign of James IV was Douglas 's version of Virgil 's Aeneid , the Eneados . It was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language , finished in 1513 , but overshadowed by the disaster at Flodden that brought the reign to an end .
As a patron of poets and authors James V ( r . 1513 – 42 ) supported William Stewart and John Bellenden , who translated the Latin History of Scotland compiled in 1527 by Hector Boece , into verse and prose . David Lyndsay ( c . 1486 – 1555 ) , diplomat and the head of the Lyon Court , was a prolific poet . He wrote elegiac narratives , romances and satires . George Buchanan ( 1506 – 82 ) had a major influence as a Latin poet , founding a tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry that would continue in to the seventeenth century . Contributors to this tradition included royal secretary John Maitland ( 1537 – 95 ) , reformer Andrew Melville ( 1545 – 1622 ) , John Johnston ( 1570 ? – 1611 ) and David Hume of Godscroft ( 1558 – 1629 ) .
From the 1550s , in the reign of Mary , Queen of Scots ( r . 1542 – 67 ) and the minority of her son James VI ( r . 1567 – 1625 ) , cultural pursuits were limited by the lack of a royal court and by political turmoil . The Kirk , heavily influenced by Calvinism , also discouraged poetry that was not devotional in nature . Nevertheless , poets from this period included Richard Maitland of Lethington ( 1496 – 1586 ) , who produced meditative and satirical verses in the style of Dunbar ; John Rolland ( fl . 1530 – 75 ) , who wrote allegorical satires in the tradition of Douglas and courtier and minister Alexander Hume ( c . 1556 – 1609 ) , whose corpus of work includes nature poetry and epistolary verse . Alexander Scott 's ( ? 1520 – 82 / 3 ) use of short verse designed to be sung to music , opened the way for the Castalian poets of James VI 's adult reign .
Unlike many of his predecessors , James VI actively despised Gaelic culture . However , in the 1580s and 1590s he strongly promoted the literature of the country of his birth in Scots . His treatise , Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody , published in 1584 when he was aged 18 , was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue , to which he applied Renaissance principles . He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians , later called the Castalian Band , which included William Fowler ( c . 1560 – 1612 ) , John Stewart of Baldynneis ( c . 1545 – c . 1605 ) , and Alexander Montgomerie ( c . 1550 – 98 ) . They translated key Renaissance texts and produced poems using French forms , including sonnets and short sonnets , for narrative , nature description , satire and meditations on love . Later poets that followed in this vein included William Alexander ( c . 1567 – 1640 ) , Alexander Craig ( c . 1567 – 1627 ) and Robert Ayton ( 1570 – 1627 ) . By the late 1590s the king 's championing of his native Scottish tradition was to some extent diffused by the prospect of inheriting of the English throne .
= = = Dramatists = = =
Lyndsay produced an interlude at Linlithgow Palace for the king and queen thought to be a version of his play The Thrie Estaitis in 1540 , which satirised the corruption of church and state , and which is the only complete play to survive from before the Reformation . Buchanan was major influence on Continental theatre with plays such as Jepheths and Baptistes , which influenced Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine and through them the neo @-@ classical tradition in French drama , but his impact in Scotland was limited by his choice of Latin as a medium . The anonymous The Maner of the Cyring of ane Play ( before 1568 ) and Philotus ( published in London in 1603 ) , are isolated examples of surviving plays . The latter is a vernacular Scots comedy of errors , probably designed for court performance for Mary , Queen of Scots or James VI . The same system of professional companies of players and theatres that developed in England in this period was absent in Scotland , but James VI signalled his interest in drama by arranging for a company of English players to erect a playhouse and perform in 1599 .
= = Seventeenth century = =
= = = Poetry = = =
Having extolled the virtues of Scots " poesie " , after his accession to the English throne , James VI increasingly favoured the language of southern England . In 1611 the Kirk adopted the English Authorised King James Version of the Bible . In 1617 interpreters were declared no longer necessary in the port of London because Scots and Englishmen were now " not so far different bot ane understandeth ane uther " . Jenny Wormald described James as creating a " three @-@ tier system , with Gaelic at the bottom and English at the top " . The loss of the court as a centre of patronage in 1603 was a major blow to Scottish literature . A number of Scottish poets , including William Alexander , John Murray and Robert Aytoun , accompanied the king to London , where they continued to write , but they soon began to anglicise their written language . James 's characteristic role as active literary participant and patron in the English court made him a defining figure for English Renaissance poetry and drama , which would reach a pinnacle of achievement in his reign , but his patronage for the high style in his own Scottish tradition largely became sidelined . The only significant court poet to continue to work in Scotland after the king 's departure was William Drummond of Hawthornden ( 1585 – 1649 ) .
As the tradition of classical Gaelic poetry declined , a new tradition of vernacular Gaelic poetry began to emerge . While Classical poetry used a language largely fixed in the twelfth century , the vernacular continued to develop . In contrast to the Classical tradition , which used syllabic metre , vernacular poets tended to use stressed metre . However , they shared with the Classic poets a set of complex metaphors and role , as the verse was still often panegyric . A number of these vernacular poets were women , such as Mary MacLeod of Harris ( c . 1615 – 1707 ) .
The tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry reached its fruition with the publication of the anthology of the Deliciae Poetarum Scotorum ( 1637 ) , published in Amsterdam by Arthur Johnston ( c.1579 – 1641 ) and Sir John Scott of Scotstarvet ( 1585 – 1670 ) and containing work by the major Scottish practitioners since Buchanan . This period was marked by the work of the first named female Scottish poets . Elizabeth Melville 's ( f . 1585 – 1630 ) Ane Godlie Dream ( 1603 ) was a popular religious allegory and the first book published by a woman in Scotland . Anna Hume , daughter of David Hume of Godscroft , adapted Petrarch as Triumphs of Love : Chastitie : Death ( 1644 ) .
This was the period when the ballad emerged as a significant written form in Scotland . Some ballads may date back to the late medieval era and deal with events and people that can be traced back as far as the thirteenth century , including " Sir Patrick Spens " and " Thomas the Rhymer " , but which are not known to have existed until the eighteenth century . They were probably composed and transmitted orally and only began to be written down and printed , often as broadsides and as part of chapbooks , later being recorded and noted in books by collectors including Robert Burns and Walter Scott . From the seventeenth century they were used as a literary form by aristocratic authors including Robert Sempill ( c . 1595 @-@ c . 1665 ) , Lady Elizabeth Wardlaw ( 1627 – 1727 ) and Lady Grizel Baillie ( 1645 – 1746 ) .
= = = Theatre = = =
The loss of a royal court also meant there was no force to counter the Kirk 's dislike of theatre , which struggled to survive in Scotland . However , it was not entirely extinguished . The Kirk used theatre for its own purposes in schools and was slow to suppress popular folk dramas . Surviving plays for the period include William Alexander 's Monarchicke Tragedies , written just before his departure with the king for England in 1603 . They were closet dramas , designed to be read rather than performed , and already indicate Alexander 's preference for southern English over the Scots language . There were some attempts to revive Scottish drama . In 1663 Edinburgh lawyer William Clerke wrote Marciano or the Discovery , a play about the restoration of a legitimate dynasty in Florence after many years of civil war . It was performed at the Tennis @-@ Court Theatre at Holyrood Palace before the parliamentary high commissioner John Leslie , Earl of Rothes . Thomas Sydsurf 's Tarugo 's Wiles or the Coffee House , was first performed in London in 1667 and then in Edinburgh the year after and drew on Spanish comedy . A relative of Sydsurf , physician Archibald Pitcairne ( 1652 – 1713 ) wrote The Assembly or Scotch Reformation ( 1692 ) , a ribald satire on the morals of the Presbyterian Kirk , circulating in manuscript , but not published until 1722 , helping to secure the association between Jacobitism and professional drama that discouraged the creation of professional theatre .
= = Early eighteenth century = =
= = = Vernacular revival = = =
After the Union in 1707 and the shift of political power to England , the use of Scots was discouraged by many in authority and education . Nevertheless , Scots remained the vernacular of many rural communities and the growing number of urban working @-@ class Scots . Literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation . Allan Ramsay ( 1686 – 1758 ) was considered the most important literary figure of the era , often described as leading a " vernacular revival " . He laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature , publishing The Ever Green ( 1724 ) , a collection that included many major poetic works of the Stewart period . He led the trend for pastoral poetry , helping to develop the Habbie stanza , which would be later be used by Robert Burns as a poetic form . His Tea @-@ Table Miscellany ( 1724 – 37 ) contained poems old Scots folk material , his own poems in the folk style and " gentilizings " of Scots poems in the English neo @-@ classical style . His pastoral opera The Gentle Shepherd was one of the most influential works of the era . He would also play a leading role in supporting drama in Scotland and the attempt to found a permanent theatre in the capital .
= = = Verse and prose = = =
Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English . These included William Hamilton of Gilbertfield ( c . 1665 – 1751 ) , Robert Crawford ( 1695 – 1733 ) , Alexander Ross ( 1699 – 1784 ) , the Jacobite William Hamilton of Bangour ( 1704 – 54 ) , socialite Alison Rutherford Cockburn ( 1712 – 94 ) , and poet and playwright James Thompson 's ( 1700 – 48 ) , most famous for the nature poetry of his Seasons . Tobias Smollett ( 1721 – 71 ) was a poet , essayist , satirist and playwright , but is best known for his picaresque novels , such as The Adventures of Roderick Random ( 1748 ) and The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle ( 1751 ) for which he is often seen as Scotland 's first novelist . His work would be a major influence on later novelists such as Thackeray and Dickens .
The early eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry . Major figures included Rob Donn Mackay ( 1714 – 78 ) and Donnchadh Bàn Mac an t @-@ Saoir ( Duncan Ban MacIntyre ) ( 1724 – 1812 ) . The most significant figure in the tradition was Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair ( Alasdair MacDonald ) ( c . 1698 – 1770 ) . His interest in traditional forms can be seen in his most significant poem Clanranald 's Gallery . He also mixed these traditions with influences from the Lowlands , including Thompson 's Seasons , which helped inspire a new form of nature poetry in Gaelic , which was not focused on their relations to human concerns .
= = = Drama = = =
Drama was pursued by Scottish playwrights in London such as Catherine Trotter ( 1679 – 1749 ) , born in London to Scottish parents and later moving to Aberdeen . Her plays and included the verse @-@ tragedy Fatal Friendship ( 1698 ) , the comedy Love at a Loss ( 1700 ) and the history The Revolution in Sweden ( 1706 ) . David Crawford 's ( 1665 – 1726 ) plays included the Restoration comedies Courtship A @-@ la @-@ Mode ( 1700 ) and Love at First Sight ( 1704 ) . These developed the character of the stage Scot , often a clown , but cunning and loyal . Newburgh Hamilton ( 1691 – 1761 ) , born in Ireland of Scottish descent , produced the comedies The Petticoat @-@ Ploter ( 1712 ) and The Doating Lovers or The Libertine ( 1715 ) . He later wrote the libretto for Handel 's Samson ( 1743 ) , closely based on John Milton 's Samson Agonistes . James Thompson 's plays often dealt with the contest between public duty and private feelings , included Sophonisba ( 1730 ) , Agamemnon ( 1738 ) and Tancrid and Sigismuda ( 1745 ) , the last of which was an international success . David Mallet 's ( c . 1705 – 65 ) Eurydice ( 1731 ) was accused of being a coded Jacobite play and his later work indicates opposition to the Walpole administration . The opera Masque of Alfred ( 1740 ) was a collaboration between Thompson , Mallet and composer Thomas Arne , with Thompson supplying the lyrics for the his most famous work , the patriotic song Rule , Britannia !
In Scotland a troop of English players came to Edinburgh in 1715 where they performed Macbeth and a series of Restoration comedies , but they soon left , perhaps because of objections from local kirk presbyteries . By 1725 English actor Anthony Aston , a friend of Ramsay , was performing in Edinburgh , but seems to have fallen foul of the Scottish Master of the Revels , who licensed plays , companies and playhouses , and soon left . In 1727 the Kirk attacked theatres as immoral in the Admonition and Exhortation . The Edinburgh Company of Players were able to perform in Dundee , Montrose , Aberdeen and regular performances at the Taylor 's Hall in Edinburgh under the protection of a Royal Patent . Ramsay was instrumental in establishing them in a small theatre in Carruber 's Close in Edinburgh , but the passing of the 1737 Licensing Act made their activities illegal and the theatre soon closed . A new theatre was opened at Cannongate in 1747 and operated without a licence into the 1760s .
= Ridge Racer Revolution =
Ridge Racer Revolution is an arcade racing game developed and published by Namco for the PlayStation in 1995 . It is the PlayStation sequel of Ridge Racer ( the arcade sequel is Ridge Racer 2 ) . Like the original Ridge Racer , the player races computer @-@ controlled cars with the objective of winning a series of races , and supports Namco 's NeGcon controller . Ridge Racer Revolution adds two hidden cars , and two @-@ player support via the PlayStation Link cable , and took roughly the same time to develop as the first . The intention was to increase the depth and add features .
The game borrows most of its soundtrack from Ridge Racer 2 . Ridge Racer Revolution was re @-@ released in Japan for the PlayStation The Best range in June 1997 , and for the Platinum Range in PAL regions the following year . The game received generally positive reviews , although some criticised its similarity to the original . Ridge Racer Revolution was followed by a sequel , Rage Racer , in 1996 .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay system remains unchanged from Ridge Racer , with its checkpoint and time @-@ limit system remaining the same ; running out of time ends the game and passing through checkpoints grants additional time , although the car drifting is more like Ridge Racer 2 . The player drives using automatic transmission or manual transmission . Ridge Racer Revolution supports Namco 's NeGcon controller , and adds a rear @-@ view mirror when using the in @-@ car view . The game consists of three courses : ' Novice ' , ' Intermediate ' ( also called ' Advanced ' ) , and ' Expert ' , each having different sections opened , and incorporates modes from the original game ; Race , against eleven opponents , and Time Trial , against one . Ridge Racer Revolution adds a mode : Free Run , in which there are no other cars and the player practises driving . There is no lap limit . How fast the cars run depends on which of the four speed grades is used . The grade is selectable in Free Run , and can be unlocked for Race . It is not available in Time Trial . A new feature of the game is the option to select the time of day in which the race takes place . This is not available at the start of the game . Ridge Racer Revolution features a two @-@ player link @-@ up mode which allows the players access to the original Ridge Racer 's courses known as ' Special 1 ' and ' Special 2 ' . There are two modes in two @-@ player link @-@ up : Race , which is identical to its single @-@ player counterpart , and Versus , where only the players race against each other . Versus features a handicap option , which increases the speed of the trailing car .
Like the first Ridge Racer , the player normally starts with four cars . The remaining eight are selectable upon winning the mini game before the title screen ( the mini game is Galaga ' 88 instead of the original game 's Galaxian ) . They are mostly unchanged ; their names ( certain cars are named after other Namco titles ) and specifications are similar to the first game . After the player wins the first three circuits , reversed versions are unlocked , and Time Trial features an additional opponent driving a secret car . There are three secret cars ; the ' 13th Racing ' ( from the first Ridge Racer ) of the Novice course , and the new ' 13th Racing Kid ' ( of the Intermediate course ) and ' White Angel ' ( of the Expert course ) . These cars are unlocked upon winning the respective course 's Time Trial race .
Ridge Racer Revolution features two hidden modes ; ' Drift Contest ' , where the player earns points according to how well spins are performed on certain corners , and ' Pretty Racer ' ( also known as ' Buggy mode ' ) , in which the cars become buggies . Pocket Racer was inspired by this . Mirrored tracks that function identically to the original are accessible . As with the first game , the player can insert a music CD which can be listened to instead of the soundtrack . Unlike the first game , only the last course played is loaded into the PlayStation 's memory ; to switch , the player would need to reinsert the game disc before loading .
= = Development = =
Ridge Racer Revolution was developed over eight months by a team of more than twenty people , most of whom joined just for Ridge Racer Revolution . The biggest difficulties were the link @-@ up mode , rear @-@ view mirror , and running the game at high speeds . Each member had worked on other console games , and they commented that the graphics detail showed the improvements in skill and technique . The team wanted players to enjoy a more in @-@ depth game than the original , so rather than develop a port of Ridge Racer 2 , as many features as possible were added . The early designs for the new courses were made in a ' free run ' programme , and used to see how fast the cars went . The rear @-@ view mirror was added primarily with the two player link @-@ up mode in mind . The music was mostly taken from Ridge Racer 2 , and as a result , the sound was finished more quickly than the game . Soundtrack composition involved four musicians , who composed for Ridge Racer , Ridge Racer 2 , and Rave Racer . The team kept exploring the PlayStation 's capabilities to solve the high speed problem , although were confident it was possible . The designer , Hiroyuki Onada , commented that designing an original course was a challenge , and director Kazumi Mizuno believed that graphics quality would be degraded with a split @-@ screen multiplayer mode , so the team decided to focus on the PlayStation 's link @-@ up instead .
= = Reception = =
The game was a bestseller in the UK . The additional features and improvements over the original in particular were given high praise . Coming Soon Magazine praised its multiplayer mode , saying it " will furnish many hours of competitive fun ! " , and in their conclusion remarked that the game " is an excellent racing game that will yield much excitement and challenges " . Absolute PlayStation praised its playability , its ' greatly ' improved artificial Intelligence , and the two @-@ player link @-@ up feature . Electronic Gaming Monthly remarked that it is even better than the original due to the cleaner graphics and improved handling on the cars , which makes them easier to control . Maximum acknowledged the similarity to the original Ridge Racer but gave it a strong recommendation , arguing that removal of the slowdown and track updating of the original , the unlockables , and the two @-@ player mode make it worth buying . They concluded by remarking that the game is " an instantly playable arcade racer that oozes options and playability " .
The Electric Playground complimented the additions and improvements , including the " much improved " graphics and the scene changes , about which it was commented that it was a " serious improvement " . They commented that the colours are " sharp and pretty " , and the link @-@ up multiplayer mode , remarking that " Linked RR Revolution is worth the buy alone " , although the remixed music tracks were criticised because they " pale greatly in comparison to the original tracks " . Gamezilla commented that the new tracks are " always challenging and fun to race " and praised Free Run , saying it 's a " great way to learn the tracks " . GamePro praised the game , saying " Ridge Racer Revolution certainly upholds the Ridge Racer tradition by doing exactly what it should : It surpasses the original " , and Computer and Video Games Magazine commented that the game is " Everything Ridge Racer maniacs could have wanted from a sequel " .
Hugh Sterbakov of GameSpot was more critical . He called it " a clone of the original " , and criticised the lack of split @-@ screen multiplayer .
= Soul Sound =
" Soul Sound " is a song by British girl group Sugababes from their debut studio album One Touch ( 2000 ) . It was written by Charlotte Gordon Cumming during a trip to Kenya , Africa , where she was inspired to compose it based on her experiences there . Produced by Ron Tom , " Soul Sound " is a pop song featuring guitar and bass instrumentation . It was released in the United Kingdom on 16 July 2001 as the album 's fourth and final single . Critics praised the song for the group 's demeanour although some regarded it as inferior in comparison to the album 's other tracks .
To promote the song , a music video was directed by Max & Dania ; it features the Sugababes in an apartment where their souls are released by the music . The trio performed " Soul Sound " at Manchester Ampersand and at the London Notre Dame Hall . The song became the group 's lowest @-@ charting single at the time , peaking at number thirty on the UK Singles Chart , and remains one of their lowest @-@ selling singles to date . It was the final single that they released through London Records , and their last single to feature original member Siobhán Donaghy , who left the group in 2001 .
= = Background and composition = =
" Soul Sound " was written by the Scottish musician Charlotte Gordon Cumming during her trip to Kenya . Her inspiration to write the song stemmed from Africa , a continent which she visited frequently with her family as a child . According to Cumming , " In Africa I feel extremely alive , but also very small . The song was the essence of how I felt : seeing the beauty and horror of a place , and going into a heightened state . " She elaborated , " My songs are all about who I am and what I am feeling , which is why they can take so much out of me to perform – and I always feel a lot when I go to Africa " .
Cumming had spent a year with the Sugababes while they recorded their debut studio album One Touch ( 2000 ) ; according to the Daily Record , the trio 's management were desperate for them to sing " Soul Sound " . The song was produced by Ron Tom , who mixed and programmed it in collaboration with Mark Frank . Individuals who provide backing vocals on the song include Xavier Barnet and the Kenyan @-@ born British singer Lamya . " Soul Sound " was recorded at the Matrix Recording Studios in London , England .
" Soul Sound " is a pop record that experiments with pop @-@ rock balladry . The song features guitar and bass instrumentation , and according to the Daily Mail , evokes the music of harmony groups from the 1960s . John Mulvey of NME characteristed the song as having " tasteful slippery beats , tasteful acoustic guitars , [ and ] the usual indolent harmonies " . The song 's lyrics immediately begin with a sense of decision through the line " I Touch the sky " , and largely focus on the enjoyment of life .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
" Soul Sound " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . The Sunday Mirror 's Ian Hyland rated the song nine out of ten stars and described it as " [ p ] ure class from the ever @-@ smiling teens " . According to AllMusic 's Dean Carlson , " Soul Sound " is a representation that " the jitters of youth are [ on One Touch ] though tempered by shrewd ambition and a clever and unpredictable production aesthetic " . John Mulvey of NME stated that while the song lacked the quality of the trio 's debut single " Overload " , it " is pretty good nevertheless " . He elaborated , " the best thing about Sugababes is how they sound like they really can 't be arsed with anything , let alone any of this pop star business [ ... ] Enough with the dance routines and shit @-@ eating grins – does this mean total lack of enthusiasm 's the way forward for teen pop ? " Stylus Magazine writer Scott Plagenhoef described the single as " marvelous lilting [ and ] hopeful " , while Stephen Robinson from Hot Press was less favourable and criticised the song 's pop @-@ rock experimentation , which according to him " doesn 't work quite so well " . Neil Western of the South China Morning Post felt that " Soul Sound " , along with the album 's title track , " lack sparkle " .
= = = Commercial = = =
The song was released in the United Kingdom on 16 July 2001 as the fourth and final single from One Touch . Upon release , it debuted and peaked at number thirty on the UK Singles Chart , the group 's lowest @-@ charting single in the United Kingdom at the time . In the UK , " Soul Sound " is one of the group 's lowest @-@ selling singles to date . Unlike the previous singles from One Touch , " Soul Sound " failed to make an impact on the Irish Singles Chart . The song earned the Sugababes a 2001 MTV Awards nomination for Best European Single .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The accompanying music video for " Soul Sound " was directed by Max & Dania and filmed in London . Band member Siobhán Donaghy stated that around the time of the video 's filming , her and the other group members were not performing as a group frequently : " It 's been fairly quiet recently , but it usually is between singles . The other two have been doing their exams , and I have been doing some interviews for newspapers and magazines abroad . Apart from the video for ' Soul Sound ' we have not been doing too much together . " During the video , the group 's members are featured in an apartment and are seated on couches and chairs . The plot involves their inner souls being released by the music , while outside in the neighbourhood the music takes control of other people 's lives and causes their souls to be lifted too . The video was included on the CD release of " Soul Sound " .
= = = Live performances = = =
The Sugababes played " Soul Sound " on 27 March 2001 at Manchester Ampersand , in conjunction with many of the album 's tracks such as " Overload " and " Run for Cover " . This was their second @-@ ever live performance , which was sponsored by NME . Donaghy commented ,
We were very lucky that the tour was done in conjunction with NME , and it meant that we were playing to an older audience . We never set out to appeal to under @-@ 10s , because of the kind of stuff we listened to ourselves . If we manage to incorporate even a hint of that in our own music , we should appeal to quite an adult audience . We were all very nervous at all the gigs , but that was just because we were so worried about it going well .
According to Kitty Empire of NME , during the performance , " ' Soul Sound ' [ grew ] lovelier with every croon of its chorus " . Later that month , the trio performed the song at London 's Notre Dame Hall as part of a set list . The Guardian 's John Aizlewood commented that during its performance , the group " [ created ] a tidal wave of melody " .
= = Impact = =
The group 's members were dissatisfied with the release of " Soul Sound " as a single , because they wanted to venture into an R & B sound whereas their record label London Records pushed them into a more pop direction . Soon after the song 's release , Donaghy left the group and was replaced by former Atomic Kitten member Heidi Range , making it the last Sugababes single to feature her vocals . Further , the sales of One Touch and its last three singles , " New Year " , " Run for Cover " and " Soul Sound " , failed to meet the expectations of London Records and the group was subsequently dropped . Band member Keisha Buchanan has stated that the song 's release and subsequent commercial underperformance was a positive experience because , saying : " Everything happens for a reason and it looks like it has all worked out " . " Soul Sound " was featured in the 2001 film Summer Catch , which stars such actors as Freddie Prinze , Jr. and Jessica Biel .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Matrix Recording Studios , London , England
Personnel
Songwriting – Charlotte Edwards
Production – Ron Tom
Mixing – Mark Frank , Ron Tom
Guitar – Andrew Smith
Lead guitar – Ron Tom
Bass – Pino Palladino
Backing vocals – Lamya , Xavier Barnet
Programming – Ron Tom
Additional programming – Mark Frank
Credits are taken from the liner notes of One Touch , courtesy of London Records .
= = Charts = =
= Miguel Treviño Morales =
Miguel Ángel Treviño Morales ( born 18 November 1970 ) , commonly referred to by his alias Z @-@ 40 , is a former Mexican drug lord and leader of the criminal organization known as Los Zetas . Considered a violent and dangerous criminal , he was one of Mexico 's most @-@ wanted drug lords until his arrest in July 2013 .
Born into a family with six brothers and six sisters , Treviño Morales began his criminal career as a teenager , working for Los Tejas — a local gang from his hometown of Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas . His fluent English and experience of moving contraband along the U.S. – Mexico border enabled him to be recruited in the late 1990s by the drug lord Osiel Cárdenas Guillén , who headed the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas . Around 2005 , he was appointed as the regional boss of Los Zetas in Nuevo Laredo and was given the task to fight off the forces of the Sinaloa Cartel , which was attempting to take over the lucrative drug trafficking routes to the United States . After successfully securing these routes in Nuevo Laredo in 2006 , Treviño Morales was moved to Veracruz and appointed as the Zetas leader in the state after the death of the drug lord Efraín Teodoro Torres . Two years later , his boss Heriberto Lazcano Lazcano sent him to Guatemala to wipe out his competitors ; after completing the task successfully , he appointed Treviño Morales as the national commander of Los Zetas in 2008 . In 2010 , Los Zetas gained their independence from the Gulf Cartel , their former allies , and both organizations went to war with each other .
As the national commander of Los Zetas , Treviño Morales earned a notorious reputation for intimidating officials and citizens throughout Mexico . The Mexican authorities believe that he is responsible for a significant part of the violence in Mexico , including the murder of 72 migrants in 2010 and the massacre of 193 people in 2011 . A common torture method of his was known as guiso ( stew ) , in which victims would be dumped into oil barrels , doused with gasoline and burned alive . Following the death of his boss Lazcano Lazcano in October 2012 , Treviño Morales became his successor and the top leader of Los Zetas drug cartel amid an internal power struggle within the organization .
Mexican Marines arrested Treviño Morales on 15 July 2013 in the state of Nuevo León without a single bullet being fired . At the time of his capture , the Mexican government was offering up to a 30 million pesos ( US $ 2 @.@ 3 million ) reward for information leading to his arrest . The United States Department of Statewas offering up to US $ 5 million for information leading to his arrest and conviction . Authorities on both sides of the border believe that he was succeeded by his younger brother Omar Treviño Morales , a man who was also on the most @-@ wanted list .
= = Early life = =
Miguel Ángel Treviño Morales was born on 18 November 1970 in Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas , Mexico . His parents , Rodolfo Treviño and María Arcelia Morales , created a large family with six daughters and seven sons , including Miguel . Like many families along the U.S.-Mexico border , the Treviño family travelled from Mexico to the United States and vice versa , where they bought properties and opened several businesses . His father abandoned his family at a very young age , forcing Treviño Morales to single @-@ handedly raise the whole family . Treviño Morales grew up in a lower @-@ class neighborhood in Nuevo Laredo , but as a teenager , he worked for the wealthy by fixing their yards and washing their cars . He also did chores for the local drug lord Héctor Manuel Sauceda Gamboa ( alias El Karis ) , who later became his mentor ; Treviño Morales eventually replaced him as a Zetas leader in Nuevo Laredo . Treviño Morales grew up disliking Mexico 's class disparity and developed so much resentment as to partially explain his violent behavior as an adult . Treviño Morales frequented Dallas , Texas with his family . In 1993 , he was apprehended in Dallas County and charged with avoiding police arrest , after he had tried to lose the cops in a police car chase that ended in a street dead end . He paid a $ 672 @-@ dollar fine and was subsequently released from the county prison . Few details are known of Treviño Morales 's life in Dallas ; the U.S. authorities believe he learned about " power , money , weapons and the vast consumer market for illegal drugs " while living in Texas . They also believe that he perceived an anti @-@ Mexican bias among Americans , and especially towards Mexican immigrants like him . However , Treviño Morales considered Dallas his home because of his large family network that lives in the surrounding areas . According to U.S. investigators , he was last seen in the Dallas area in 2005 after entering the United States illegally , where visited his family and was said to have been at a strip club .
= = Criminal origins and ascension = =
As a teenager , he began to work for Los Tejas , a gang that ran the criminal activities in his hometown of Nuevo Laredo . From washing cars , running errands , and stealing car parts in Nuevo Laredo , Treviño Morales turned to the drug trade , starting with small @-@ scale drug retail sales and smuggling . Unlike the first members of Los Zetas , he was never in the military . He was hired by them and the Gulf Cartel in the late 1990s for his experience moving contraband across the border . His fluent English and his criminal contacts on both sides of the U.S.-Mexico border allowed him to gain the trust of the then @-@ leader of the Gulf Cartel , Osiel Cárdenas Guillén . When he joined the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas , Los Tejas , the local gang he once worked for , was absorbed by the former groups . Around 2005 , Treviño Morales became the regional boss of Nuevo Laredo ; he was in charge of fighting off the incursions of the Sinaloa Cartel , which was attempting to take control of the smuggling routes in the area . The Laredo – Nuevo Laredo area is a lucrative smuggling route for narcotics because of the Interstate 35 highway , which serves as a strategic pathway to San Antonio , Austin , and Dallas for future drug distribution . While in power , he orchestrated a number of assassinations in American cities and in Mexico by young U.S. citizens whom he put on his payroll . Treviño Morales was good at identifying and grooming young teenagers who he believed had the potential to become professional assassins for Los Zetas . These recruits , sometimes called Zetitas ( " Little Zetas " ) , usually joined organized crime as young as twelve @-@ years old to work first as smugglers and later as paid assassins .
By 2006 , the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas managed to defeat the forces of the Sinaloa Cartel in Nuevo Laredo . The latter cartel concentrated its efforts in northeastern Mexico , becoming dominant there . Los Zetas started to expand into other criminal activities beyond drug trafficking . Under Treviño Morales , the organization smuggled immigrants to the United States , carried out extortions and kidnappings , sold bootlegged CDs and DVDs , and intimidated and / or killed residents who failed to cooperate with them . Treviño Morales remained in charge of Los Zetas in the state of Nuevo León and in Piedras Negras , Coahuila , until March 2007 . He was reassigned to the coastal state of Veracruz , shortly after high @-@ ranking Zetas leader Efraín Teodoro Torres ( alias Z @-@ 14 ) was killed in a gun battle at a local horse race . Though Cárdenas Guillén was imprisoned in 2003 , he reportedly directed the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas behind bars ; when he was extradited to the United States in 2007 , Treviño Morales and Heriberto Lazcano Lazcano pushed for Los Zetas ' independence from the Gulf Cartel .
In November 2007 , the city of Laredo , Texas , issued an arrest warrant for Treviño in connection with a 2006 double homicide in Texas . In 2008 , Treviño Morales and Lazcano Lazcano , the two leaders of Los Zetas , forged an alliance with the Beltrán Leyva Cartel . It had just gone to war with the Sinaloa Cartel , believing that El Chapo Guzmán , their leader , had betrayed them . Treviño Morales subsequently joined them to kill the leader of the Sinaloa Cartel . Government sources said Los Zetas were fighting for control against La Federación ( The Federation ) , an alliance of several drug trafficking groups led by Joaquín El Chapo Guzmán and Ismael El Mayo Zambada , two drug lords who used to work for the Beltrán Leyva Cartel .
In February 2008 , Lazcano Lazcano sent Treviño Morales to kill rival drug traffickers and take control of the drug trafficking routes in Guatemala . Reportedly , he carried out a military @-@ like ambush that resulted in the death of the Guatemalan drug lord Juan José León Ardón ( alias Juancho ) in March . An unnamed U.S. official said that Treviño Morales may have been the man who fired the bullet that killed the drug kingpin . Having succeeded outside of Mexico , Treviño Morales was appointed by Lazcano Lazcano as the national commander of Los Zetas , a position traditionally reserved to Zetas members with military background . In this position , Treviño Morales had a say in nearly all the decisions Los Zetas made at a national level , creating some resentment among the old @-@ generation commanders of Los Zetas who , unlike him , had been in the Mexican Armed Forces before turning to the drug trade .
= = Leadership position = =
Treviño Morales acted as a cartel ' gate @-@ keeper , ' and his people collected a piso ( tariff ) at all drug territories controlled by Los Zetas . He controlled the highly lucrative Nuevo Laredo plaza ( turf ) , across the border from Laredo , Texas . He bribed and intimidated officials to help maintain control , and responded to any challenges to his authority or control with brutal violence . Treviño was feared and very few local journalists dared to write about him . He was alleged to favored a torture method known as the guiso ( stew ) , in which people are stuffed into an oil barrel , doused with gasoline , and set on fire to burn alive . His violent behavior gained him " the notoriety of a cult figure . " He reportedly survived gun battles unharmed , avoided making alliances with anyone , dismembered dozens of victims while they were still alive and dumped them , and " seemed unafraid to die . " Organization members claimed that Treviño Morales enjoyed driving around the city in a car , pointing at people randomly and saying , " kill this one and kill that one . " A former hitman who worked for him told the press in 2013 that Treviño Morales could not sleep at night if he did not kill someone . He also said that the drug lord would ask his victims how they wanted to be killed . Journalist Alfredo Corchado , head of The Dallas Morning News in Mexico , wrote in one of his books that Treviño Morales enjoyed eating out the hearts of his victims — even when they were still alive — because he believed that doing that would make him invincible among his enemies and authorities .
Treviño Morales reportedly coordinated several violent attacks throughout Mexico , including the murder of 72 migrants in 2010 and the massacre of 193 people a year later in San Fernando , Tamaulipas . He is also believed to have threatened to shoot down the plane of the former President Felipe Calderón in August 2012 while on a trip to the state of Tamaulipas . Although it was not the first time Calderón received death threats from organized crime , the authorities deemed the drug lord 's threat as credible , and urged the President to cancel his trip ( though he ultimately went anyway ) . Under Treviño Morales ' leadership , Los Zetas were considered by the Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) to be highly sophisticated , advanced , and one of the most dangerous criminal organizations operating in Mexico and the hemisphere . He was widely regarded as one of the most violent drug lords operating in Mexico .
Treviño Morales reportedly moved around through Mexico and Central America , and often met with Colombian drug lords in Mexico City , the nation 's capital , to do business . To escape law enforcement notice , he used " caravans " of purported businessmen and religious persons . In the northern part of the country , he reportedly maintained a close tie with a number of politicians . His brother Omar Treviño Morales ( Z @-@ 42 ) leads Los Zetas in the Gulf of Mexico .
= = Split between Los Zetas and the Gulf Cartel = =
Cárdenas Guillén was arrested in Matamoros , Tamaulipas , in 2003 and extradited to the United States in 2007 . While in prison in Mexico , he reportedly coordinated the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas from his prison cell . But with his extradition , Treviño Morales 's organization experienced a leadership crisis . La Compañía ( The Company ) , a name used to describe the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas as a conglomerate , remained in a loose cooperation until early 2010 , when violence erupted between both groups . On 18 January 2010 , several members of the Gulf Cartel kidnapped Víctor Peña Mendoza ( alias Concord 3 ) , a leader of Los Zetas and close associate and friend of Treviño Morales . When he was held captive , Peña Mendoza was asked to switch alliances and join the Gulf Cartel , but he refused , earning a beating followed by execution , presumably carried out by Samuel Flores Borrego .
Treviño Morales heard about the incident and issued an ultimatum to Flores Borrego and Gulf Cartel leader Jorge Eduardo Costilla Sánchez :
Hand over the assassin of my friend , you son of a bitch ... You have until the 25th , if you don 't comply , there will be war .
Both of the Gulf Cartel leaders ignored the command , and Treviño Morales moved swiftly to avenge the death of his former comrade . On 30 January 2010 , Treviño Morales kidnapped and slaughtered 16 Gulf Cartel members in Reynosa , Tamaulipas , marking the start of the cartel war between the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas in the Mexican states of Tamaulipas , Nuevo León , and Veracruz that has led to thousands of deaths . Los Zetas used violent and intimidatory tactics to expand , forging a reputation as Mexico 's most violent drug trafficking organization . It managed to take control of most of the territories owned by the Gulf Cartel when they had essentially served as a single organization . With Treviño Morales as the second @-@ in @-@ command of the criminal organization , Los Zetas began killing Gulf Cartel members and other rival drug traffickers en masse and winning their territories .
= = Infighting in Los Zetas = =
In 2011 , however , Treviño Morales 's criminal organization entered a new internal strife after Jesús Enrique Rejón Aguilar ( alias El Mamito ) , one of their highest @-@ ranking leaders , was arrested in July . Though he did not call out any names , he stated that someone within Los Zetas had betrayed him . Shortly thereafter , alleged organized crime members uploaded a narcocorrido music video on YouTube portraying Treviño Morales " as the New Judas " and accusing him of setting up the arrests and deaths of other commanders within the criminal organization and being disloyal to Lazcano Lazcano , his boss . In several articles published in August 2012 , a U.S. law enforcement official told the press that Treviño Morales had successfully taken the leadership of the cartel and displaced Heriberto Lazcano Lazcano , the long @-@ time leader . Treviño Morales began to take over the assets of Los Zetas and was working to remove Lazcano Lazcano as the head since early 2010 . Amidst the Zetas civil war , many high @-@ ranking members in Los Zetas began to fall . High @-@ ranking Zetas leader Iván Velázquez Caballero ( alias El Talibán ) was arrested in September 2012 , presumably set up either by rival gang members or gangsters aligned with a group related to Treviño Morales . On 6 October 2012 , drug lord Salvador Alfonso Martínez Escobedo ( alias La Ardilla ) was arrested in Nuevo Laredo by the Mexican Navy . After Velázquez 's fall , a split off group known as Los Legionarios ( The Legionaries ) was born in Nuevo Laredo and vowed to bring down Treviño Morales for allegedly betraying him . A second faction from Los Zetas , known as Sangre Zeta ( Zetas Blood ) , also broke up from the organization to join forces against him .
The active role of Treviño Morales got him the loyalty and respect of many in Los Zetas , and eventually many stopped paying to Lazcano Lazcano . In order to avoid his arrest or death from betrayal , Lazcano Lazcano reportedly fled the country and lived in Germany and Costa Rica for an unknown time with surrounding rumors that he had terminal cancer . Back in Mexico , Treviño Morales had become the stronger of the two in Los Zetas . Lazcano Lazcano was then killed by the Mexican Navy in the state of Coahuila on 7 October 2012 , and Treviño Morales succeeded him as the top leader of Los Zetas .
= = Bounty and indictments = =
In 2009 in New York and in 2010 in Washington , the U.S. Department of Justice released an indictment against Treviño Morales for conspiracy to manufacture and distribute cocaine into the United States from Mexico and Guatemala . There was a bounty for him in Mexico set at $ 30 million MXN ( US $ 2 @.@ 3 million ) and another one in the U.S. at US $ 5 million ( $ 62 @.@ 4 million MXN ) . Los Zetas are responsible for the smuggling of multiple tons of cocaine , marijuana , and heroin into the United States from Mexico annually . He was also considered one of Mexico 's most @-@ wanted drug lords .
Treviño Morales is known by various aliases : L @-@ 40 ( 40 , Z @-@ 40 , Zeta 40 ) , Comandante Cuarenta , El Cuarenta , David Estrada @-@ Corado , and La Mona .
= = = Kingpin Act sanction = = =
On 20 July 2009 , the United States Department of the Treasury sanctioned Treviño Morales under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act ( sometimes referred to simply as the " Kingpin Act " ) , for his involvement in drug trafficking along with three other international criminals . The act prohibited U.S. citizens and companies from doing any kind of business activity with him , and virtually froze all his assets in the U.S.
= = Arrest = =
A month before his capture , U.S. authorities had been passing down information to their counterparts in Mexico that Treviño Morales was making frequent visits to the Nuevo Laredo border area to see his newborn baby . They traded this intelligence information from wiretaps conversations and informants ' tips . Treviño Morales was apprehended by the Mexican Marines in Anáhuac , Nuevo León , near the border of Tamaulipas state , at around 3 : 45 a.m. on 15 July 2013 without a single shot fired . The truck he was traveling in was intercepted on the road by a Black Hawk helicopter from the Navy ; when the Marines got off the helicopter and tried to apprehend him , the capo attempted to escape by running through some bushes but was later caught . He was in possession of US $ 2 million ( $ 25 @,@ 316 @,@ 100 MXN ) in cash , eight weapons and hundreds of rounds of ammunition ; two other men were arrested with him and taken into custody . Rumors of Treviño Morales 's arrest and a mugshot of him in custody began to circulate through Twitter and other social media outlets around noon that day , but the Mexican government did not confirm the arrest , nor did the U.S. authorities receive a formal confirmation until hours later .
At the time of his arrest , Treviño Morales had pending charges for organized crime involvement , drug trafficking , torture , money laundering , and the illegal use of firearms under Mexican law , among other charges . However , he only declared the money and firearms that were confiscated during his arrest . Following his arrest , the drug lord was flown to Mexico City and kept at the SEIDO installations , Mexico 's organized crime investigatory agency . On 19 July 2013 , he was transferred to the Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1 maximum security prison in Almoloya de Juárez , State of Mexico , via helicopter . On January 2014 , a New York federal district court issued other criminal charges against the drug lord . The investigation alleged that Treviño Morales conspired to order killings against rival gangsters of Los Zetas , members of his own criminal organization , and Mexican policemen and personnel of the Mexican Army from September 2004 to July 2013 . The court , which sought his extradition , also stated that the drug lord conspired to traffic drugs to the U.S.
= = Family = =
Miguel 's brother José Treviño Morales was arrested on 12 June 2012 by a combined U.S. federal task force . He has been indicted as one of the money launderers for the Zetas through an Oklahoma @-@ based American Quarter Horse racing operation . His son Alejandro Treviño Chávez was killed during a shootout in the state of Coahuila on 5 October 2012 by a law enforcement group ; in response , Miguel ordered the murder of José Eduardo Moreira , nephew of governor of Coahuila Rubén Moreira , and son of Humberto Moreira ( Governor of the State of Coahuila from 2005 to 2011 ) .
Omar Treviño Morales , his younger brother , is a high @-@ level leader in Los Zetas and one of Mexico 's most @-@ wanted drug lords . The U.S government is offering up to US $ 5 million ( $ 62 @.@ 4 million MXN ) for information that leads to his arrest and conviction . He is responsible for several murders and kidnappings carried out in Nuevo Laredo between 2005 and 2006 . The authorities consider him the successor and " heir " of Los Zetas following Miguel 's arrest .
Miguel 's older brother , Juan Francisco Treviño Morales , is currently imprisoned in the United States ; his son ( and nephew of Miguel ) , Juan Francisco Treviño Chávez , alias El Quico , was arrested in Monterrey on 15 June 2012 . Eduardo Treviño Treviño , another nephew of Miguel , was arrested in Nuevo Laredo in May 2013 and awaits an extradition to the United States for kidnapping and drug trafficking charges that date back to 2010 . Miguel 's wife Juanita del Carmen Ríos Hernández was included in the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act on February 2014 , banning U.S. citizens from doing any kind of business activities with companies under her name .
= R & B Junkie =
" R & B Junkie " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Janet Jackson from her eighth studio album , Damita Jo ( 2004 ) . Written by Jackson , James Harris III , Terry Lewis , Tony " Prof T " Tolbert , Michael Jones and Nicholas Trevisick , the track was released as a promotional single in December 2004 by Virgin Records . " R & B Junkie " is an upbeat song which has a " retro " feel consisting of eighties soul , R & B funk , dance @-@ pop and synths , while it samples Evelyn King 's 1981 song " I 'm in Love " ; it has " oh @-@ oh @-@ ohs " throughout the verses .
" R & B Junkie " received positive reviews from music critics , who described it as " infectious " and one of the best tracks on Damita Jo . The song peaked at number one on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles , as it received a limited release . " R & B Junkie " was performed by Jackson during the 2004 BET Awards .
= = Recording and composition = =
" R & B Junkie " was recorded in 2003 , at Flyte Tyme Studios West at The Village , in Los Angeles , California . It was written by Janet Jackson , James Harris III , Terry Lewis , Tony " Prof T " Tolbert , Michael Jones and Nicholas Trevisick , while it was produced by Jackson , Jam and Lewis . The latter one also played the keyboards . The song had its drums and percussion played by IZ . Serban Ghenea did the mixing of " R & B Junkie " at MixStar Studios , Virginia Beach , with Tim Roberts being his assistant . Ian Cross engineered the song while Ghian Wright was an assistant . Additionally , the Pro @-@ Tools engineer was John Hanes .
" R & B Junkie " is an upbeat song which has a " retro " feel consisting of eighties funk , dance @-@ pop , and synths . It transforms a brief sample from Evelyn King 's 1981 song " I 'm in Love " into a new composition . According to LA Weekly , it worked in the context of a song that is " an ode to old @-@ school soul music and the dances those sounds inspired " . The magazine also considered the song a likely candidate for a summer club hit . " R & B Junkie " ' s positive vibe was described as a sonic " ambrosia " by Baltimore City Paper . Additionally , the song has " oh @-@ oh @-@ ohs " throughout the verses and on the chorus .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received positive reviews from music critics . Angus Batey from Yahoo ! Music described " R & B Junkie " as one of the high points from Damita Jo , describing it as a delicious throwback . BBC Music 's Ian Warde asserted that the song " is a nice Evelyn Champagne King infused number that parties like it 's 1982 " . Similarly , Michael Paoletta from Billboard called the song a " winner " from Damita Jo and noted that it " fabulously " referenced the sampled song . Mikael Wood from Baltimore City Paper commented that " R & B Junkie " had an enough positive vibe to shame American musician Michael J. Powell into early retirement . Ernest Hardy from LA Weekly described the song as the second best song from Damita Jo , after " Like You Don 't Love Me " . Spence D. from IGN called it as ultimately non @-@ descript , despite considering it infectious .
= = Live performance = =
Jackson performed a medley of " All Nite ( Don 't Stop ) " and " R & B Junkie " at the 2004 BET Awards . Following Jackson 's Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy , various performances on TV were aired with a time delay per the U.S. Federal Communications Commission 's guidelines , but the awards show was televised without a delay .
= = Track listing = =
US promo CD single
" R & B Junkie " – 3 : 10
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from Damita Jo album liner notes .
= = Chart performance = =
" R & B Junkie " was only released as promo single and was sent to Urban AC radio stations . It failed to chart on any main Billboard charts , but peaked at number one on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles .
= Todo a Su Tiempo ( Marc Anthony album ) =
Todo a Su Tiempo ( English : All in Due Time ) is the second studio album by American recording artist Marc Anthony , released by RMM Records on May 30 , 1995 . The album was produced by Sergio George , who was also involved with production of Anthony 's debut studio album , Otra Nota . The album comprises five new compositions , three of which were written by Omar Alfanno , and four cover versions . Eight singles were released from the album , all of which topped the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .
Todo a Su Tiempo peaked at number six on the Billboard Latin Albums chart and debuted at number one on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart . The album garnered critical praise as a major improvement over his first album and for revolutionizing the salsa music genre . It received a Grammy nomination , a Billboard Latin Music award , and a Lo Nuestro award . Two years later , the album made history as the first salsa disc to be certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Since the album 's release , it has sold over 800 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Background = =
Following the release of his debut album , Otra Nota , in 1993 , Anthony continued to work with producer Sergio George for the recording of Todo a Su Tiempo . Recording for the album took place at the Sound on Sound Studios and the Quad Recording Studios in New York City . According to George , Otra Nota was an experimental album and was on a low budget . George allowed Anthony to choose his own material and described the recording as more " mixed and aggressive " . Anthony described naming the album :
The album took awhile , but I learned that you can 't be afraid of time , waiting . I also learned there is a right time for everything which is why I named the album " Todo a Su Tiempo "
= = Composition and covers = =
The album comprises nine tracks , four of which are covers of songs previously recorded by several performers . Panamanian songwriter Omar Alfanno composed three tracks from the album : " Te Conozco Bien " ( " I Know You Well " ) , " Nadie Como Ella " ( " Nobody Like Her " ) , and " Llegaste a Mi " ( " You Came to Me " ) . The ballad " Y Sigues Siendo Tu " ( " And You Still Being You " ) was composed by Puerto Rican composers Eduardo Reyes , Laura Reyes , and Guadalupe Garcia . " Vieja Mesa " ( " Old Table " ) was composed by Dominican musician Víctor Víctor . The song incorporates the sound of bachata @-@ influenced bolero . " Se Me Sigue Olvidando " ( " I 'm Still Forgetting " ) was first performed by José Feliciano on his 1986 album , Te Amaré . " Por Amar Se da Todo " ( " To Love Gives Everything " ) was performed by Danny Rivera on the 1993 album of the same name . Manny Delgado wrote the song " Hasta Ayer " ( " Until Yesterday " ) for the Venezuelan pop band Los Terrícolas in 1979 . In the album , Anthony recorded the song as a bolero . " Te Amaré " ( " I Will Love You " ) was written by The Barrio Boyzz member Angel Ramirez Jr. for their 1993 album , Donde Quiera Donde Estes .
= = Commercial reception = =
= = = Album = = =
Todo a Su Tiempo was released on May 30 , 1995 , in the United States and was distributed by Sony Music until 1996 , when it was distributed by Universal Music Group . The album debuted at number six on the Billboard Latin Albums chart for the week of June 17 , 1995 . The same week , the album debuted at number one on the Billboard Tropical Albums and remained in that position for five consecutive weeks . A year later , the album returned to number one on the chart , and held the position for a total of six non @-@ consecutive weeks . It was third @-@ best @-@ selling tropical album of 1996 in the United States . During the week of April 12 , 1997 , the album once again reached number one the chart and held the position for four weeks . Two years after the album was released , it became the first salsa disc to receive a gold certification by the RIAA for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units . The album has sold over 800 @,@ 000 copies as of 2001 .
= = = Singles = = =
" Te Conozco Bien " was the lead single from the album . It peaked at number seven on the Billboard Latin Song chart and became his first number @-@ one single on the Billboard Tropical Song chart . The song spent eight weeks on top of the chart and was named the best @-@ performing tropical song of the year . The second single , " Se Me Sigue Olvidando " , reached number six on the Billboard Latin Songs chart . It became his second number @-@ one single on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart ; it spent six weeks on top of the chart . The third single , " Nadie Como Ella " , peaked at number thirteen on the Billboard Latin songs and became his third number @-@ one on the Tropical Songs chart . The fourth single , " Te Amaré " , reached number six on the Billboard Latin Songs chart and became his fourth single to reach number one on the Tropical Songs chart . The fifth single , " Llegaste a Mi " , reached number eleven on the Billboard Latin Songs chart and spent two weeks number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . " Hasta Ayer " was the sixth single to be released from the album . It peaked at number six on the Billboard Latin Songs chart and was number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs for three weeks . As the song was a bolero , RMM executive Ralph Mercado responded to the success of the song by stating that Anthony was no longer just a salsa musician . The seventh single , " Por Amar Se da Todo " , peaked at number seventeen on the Billboard Latin Songs and at number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . The last single , " Vieja Mesa " , peaked at number seven on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Todo a Su Tiempo received praise from music critics . Evan Gutierrez of Allmusic gave the album a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , praising the album as a step forward over Otra nota . He described Anthony 's voice as " soaring " and " luminescent " . He cited the album as setting the bar for salsa music and closed the review by it calling the album " without question one of the finest salsa records of the ' 90s " . David Wilson of Wilson and Alroy 's Record Review felt the album was an improvement from his last album , and commended the George 's arrangements as " varied and interesting " . He referred " Por Amar Se da Todo " as a song that " doesn 't let up " and " Nadie Como Ella " as " obvious , but catchy " . Of the song " Y Sigues Siendo Tu " , Wilson said that Anthony is " one of the few current male singers who can really make you believe in a sappy ballad " . Achy Obejas of the Chicago Tribune gave the album a four @-@ star rating and enjoyed how Anthony put a variety of sounds , including hip @-@ hop and R & B , to " good use " . She referred to " Hasta Ayer " as " an oldie but goodie totally transformed by soulful crooning " . Billboard 's mentioned Anthony as " grafting his muy soulful baritone onto vivid romantic narratives " and acknowledged " Nadie Como Ella " and " Se Me Sigue Olvidando " as " upbeat " . A writer for the Village Voice penned that the tracks were " nine swirling , complex dance tunes " . In 2015 , Billboard listed Todo a Su Tiempo as one of the Essential Latin Albums of Past 50 Year stating that the album " launched Anthony to fame as an instant salsa superstar and it wasn ’ t long before he was a household name " .
At the 38th Grammy Awards , the album received a nomination for " Best Tropical Latin Performance " , which was awarded to Gloria Estefan 's Abriendo Puertas . Anthony received two Billboard Latin Music Awards , including " Tropical / Salsa Album of the Year " and " Tropical / Salsa Hot Latin Track of the Year " for the song " Te Conozco Bien " . In 1996 , the album received a Lo Nuestro Award nomination for " Tropical Album of the Year " which it won the following year .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from Allmusic and from Todo a Su Tiempo liner notes .
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Chart performance = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Certification = = =
= = Release history = =
= Hurricane Kristy ( 2006 ) =
Hurricane Kristy in 2006 was a relatively long @-@ lived tropical cyclone in the 2006 Pacific hurricane season . It developed on August 30 from a tropical wave off the southwest coast of Mexico , and quickly intensified to attain hurricane status , reaching peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Subsequently , Kristy weakened from cooler waters and increased wind shear from Hurricane John to its northeast . Steering currents weakened , and turning to a southerly drift , it weakened to a tropical depression by September 2 . The next day it briefly regained tropical storm status , only to again deteriorate to depression status . After turning to the west , Kristy encountered marginally favorable conditions and attained tropical storm status for a third time , though unfavorable conditions caused it to dissipate on September 9 . The storm never affected land , although initially there was a slight threat to Clarion Island . Within the National Hurricane Center area of warning responsibility east of 140 ° W , Hurricane Kristy was the longest @-@ lasting tropical cyclone of the season .
= = Genesis = =
A tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa on August 13 . With a large swirl of low clouds and little convection , the system tracked westward for two weeks across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea , before crossing Central America on August 22 . On August 29 , the system became better organized , consisting of a broad low pressure area and thunderstorm activity . The convection persisted and organized further , and at 0000 UTC on August 30 it developed into Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E about 600 mi ( 970 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula .
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression was experiencing slight easterly wind shear , which distorted the convection to the west of the circulation . However , favorable conditions for strengthening were expected , and the depression was forecast to reach peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) before weakening . It tracked slowly northwestward along the southern periphery of a ridge , and quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Kristy after convection increased over its circulation center . By that time , wind shear had decreased to very low levels , and with very warm waters , the storm was expected to quickly intensify to reach hurricane status . By late on August 30 , the convection was wrapping into the center while an eye feature became intermittent . Organization continued , and Kristy attained hurricane status early on August 31 , about 30 hours after forming . Six hours after attaining hurricane status , an eye @-@ like featured was evident on satellite imagery , and it is estimated Kristy attained peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) about 550 mi ( 880 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California . However , satellite @-@ derived intensity estimates suggested the hurricane could have been as strong as 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) , or as weak as a tropical storm .
= = Weakening and demise = =
Subsequently , wind shear increased , caused by the outflow of powerful Hurricane John to its east . Additionally , the hurricane moved into an area of cooler water temperatures , and as a result its appearance became ragged and amorphous . At the same time , steering currents weakened , and the future of Kristy was uncertain ; the NHC forecast the hurricane to continue slowly westward , dissipating within four days . However , other hurricane models suggested a motion to the southwest , and two models predicted a Fujiwhara effect , or an orbiting of two tropical cyclones , which would eventually result in Kristy being absorbed by Hurricane John . On September 1 , Kristy weakened to tropical storm status , and it weakened faster as dry air encroached the storm . It turned southeastward as the ridge to its north strengthened . On September 2 , the circulation became exposed from the convection , and it was forecast to degenerate into a remnant low within 24 hours . Later that day , Kristy weakened to tropical depression status .
By September 3 , Tropical Depression Kristy was without persistent deep convection for about 18 hours . However , thunderstorms increased around the center later that day , developing a shallow eye @-@ like feature . The convection persisted along the western periphery of the circulation , and it is estimated Kristy re @-@ attained tropical storm status about 24 hours after it was first downgraded to depression status . Around the same time , the cyclone began a steady motion to the southwest . Its re @-@ intensification was short @-@ lived , as continued wind shear weakened the convection and left the center devoid of any thunderstorms . On September 4 , Kristy weakened to tropical depression status , and though quick dissipation was predicted , officials noted that intermittent convection flares could develop . One such convection flare occurred on September 5 , which persisted around the center and warranted Kristy being upgraded to tropical storm status . By that time , wind shear had decreased somewhat and the storm had turned westward , and with a track through warm water temperatures , Kristy was forecast to maintain tropical storm status for five days .
At one point as a tropical storm , the thunderstorm activity around Kristy appeared to be organizing into hooking bands , and further intensification was considered likely , potentially as strong as 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . However , the thunderstorm activity decreased markedly on September 6 , primarily from dry air entrainment , and it weakened to tropical depression status for the last time . In one forecast , Kristy was predicted to move into the area of warning responsibility of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center , or west of 140 ° W. However , the depression was unable to maintain organized convection around its center for a few days , and Kristy degenerated into a remnant low on September 8 . The low turned to the southwest , degenerating into a tropical wave on September 9 about 1500 miles ( 2400 km ) southeast of the island of Hawaii , or about 1600 miles ( 2600 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula . The remnant disturbance continued westward , and initially Kristy was believed to have developed into Tropical Depression Two @-@ C in the central Pacific Ocean ; however , post @-@ season analysis concluded the systems were separate .
= Baden @-@ Powell House =
Baden @-@ Powell House , colloquially known as B @-@ P House , is a Scouting hostel and conference centre in South Kensington , London , which was built as a tribute to Lord Baden @-@ Powell , the founder of Scouting . The house , owned by The Scout Association , hosts a small exhibition relating to Scouting in its current form and a granite statue by Don Potter .
The building committee , chaired by Sir Harold Gillett , Lord Mayor of London , purchased the site in 1956 , and assigned Ralph Tubbs to design the house in the modern architectural style . The foundation stone was laid in 1959 by World Chief Guide Olave , Lady Baden @-@ Powell , and it was opened in 1961 by Queen Elizabeth II . The largest part of the £ 400 @,@ 000 cost was provided by the Scout Movement itself . Over the years , the house has been refurbished several times , so that it now provides modern and affordable lodging for Scouts , Guides , their families and the general public staying in London . The building also hosts conference and event space for hire .
= = History = =
Acting on a 1942 initiative by Chief Scout Lord Somers , a formal Baden @-@ Powell House Committee was established by The Scout Association in 1953 under the direction of Sir Harold Gillett , later Lord Mayor of London . The committee 's directive was to build a hostel to provide Scouts a place to stay at reasonable cost while visiting London . For this purpose , in 1956 the committee purchased a bombed @-@ out property at the intersection of Cromwell Road and Queen 's Gate at a cost of £ 39 @,@ 000 .
The Scout Movement raised the major part of the funding of £ 400 @,@ 000 for building and furnishing the building between 1957 and 1959 . Scouts throughout the Country collected ' ship ' halfpennies , and this raised the bulk of the money for the building . Money was also raised through public appeals supported by publication in Scout Movement magazines , a collection of donations in 15 @,@ 000 brick @-@ shaped boxes , and 5 @,@ 000 appeal letters signed personally by then Chief Scout Lord Rowallan . Scouts representing every county were present at the opening .
In a celebration on 17 October 1959 the foundation stone was laid by the World Chief Guide ( Olave Baden @-@ Powell ) , in the presence of Lord Mayor Sir Harold Gillett , the new Chief Scout Sir Charles Maclean , and 400 other guests . A casket was buried under the foundation stone which held 1959 Scout mementoes , stamps , coins , photographs , etc . , and a programme of the ceremony .
With 142 Queen 's Scouts as Guard of Honour , and live broadcast by the BBC ( commentator Richard Dimbleby ) , Baden @-@ Powell House was opened on 12 July 1961 by Queen Elizabeth II . Afterwards , she toured the house with the Chief Scout and the president of The Scout Association , her uncle Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester . A black marble panel with gold lettering was put on the balcony in the hall to commemorate the event .
= = Modern architecture = =
The house was designed by the architect Ralph Tubbs in 1956 , whose works included the Dome of Discovery , the highlight of the 1951 Festival of Britain . Tubbs ' floor plans and a model of his design were displayed during a fundraising campaign and exhibition on 21 February 1957 in the Egyptian Hall of the Mansion House .
The six storied Baden @-@ Powell House is designed in the modern architectural style , as pioneered by the Swiss architect Le Corbusier from the late 1920s onwards , and predominating in the 1950s . At Baden @-@ Powell House , Tubbs made the first floor overhang the ground floor , a Le Corbusier architectural design choice to free the building from the ground , such as seen in his Pavillon Suisse at the Cité Internationale Universitaire in Paris . Additionally , Le Corbusier 's Sainte Marie de La Tourette priory in Lyon shows two floors of monk 's cells with small windows , cantilevered over the more open floors below , another design choice used by Tubbs in the facade of Baden @-@ Powell House . While Tubbs created Baden @-@ Powell House in the modern architectural style of Le Corbusier , he used more architectural restraint in his own design choices . For example , he made the main visible building component brick rather than concrete . This heavier evolution of Le Corbusier 's style was popular in England throughout the post @-@ war years until replaced by the Brutalist style in the later 1960s .
Baden @-@ Powell House was built to Tubbs ' design by Harry Neal Ltd , for which they received the 1961 Gold Medal of the Worshipful Company of Tylers and Bricklayers . At the opening , the house received the building design award for ' The building of most merit in London.'
Thirty @-@ five years after its opening , Baden @-@ Powell House was refurbished in a six @-@ month £ 2 million programme , providing all modern amenities such as private facilities for all rooms , double glazing , and air conditioning , as well as enhancing conference facilities for large and small events . Upon completion of the programme , the house was opened by the president of The Scout Association , Prince Edward , Duke of Kent on 5 June 1997 . In 2002 a Starbucks coffee ( discontinued before 2015 ) and sandwich bar was opened , as well as an outdoor roof garden adjacent to the meeting conference rooms on the second floor .
= = Baden @-@ Powell collection = =
Although it has since been replaced with a number of smaller displays available to the public in the reception area showing some traditional Scouting skills , a notable collection of Baden @-@ Powell memorabilia has been on display in the past for visitors in ' The story of B @-@ P ' exhibition . This included many drawings and letters by Baden @-@ Powell himself , such as the original of his Last Message to Scouts , Laws for me when I am old and several first editions of his books . The former exhibition also displayed the original painting by David Jagger , as presented to Baden @-@ Powell on 29 August 1929 at the ' Coming of Age ' 3rd World Scout Jamboree . This painting , a personal favourite of Baden @-@ Powell , is often used in publications throughout the Scout movement . The Baden @-@ Powell memorabilia has since been moved to the headquarters for Scouting in the UK , Gilwell Park .
As an introductory part of the collection , a nearly 3 meter high statue of Baden @-@ Powell has been erected in front of Baden @-@ Powell House , the only granite statue in London . The sculptor was Baden @-@ Powell 's personal friend Don Potter . It was unveiled on 12 July 1961 by the Duke of Gloucester , as part of the official opening of the house .
= = 21st century : Hostel and Conference centre = =
From 1974 to 2001 , Baden @-@ Powell House was the headquarters of The Scout Association , for which a dedicated extension to the house was completed in 1976 . In April 2001 , the headquarters formally moved to new accommodation at Gilwell Park . As the owner of Baden @-@ Powell House , The Scout Association receives a net income out of the revenues of approximately £ 1 @.@ 5 million .
Baden @-@ Powell House provides a hostel for people visiting London . In the period 2004 – 2006 the hostel participated in the Youth Hostel Association , after which the Scout Association entered into an agreement with German company Meininger City Hostels . The building is still owned by The Scout Association , but it is run by Meininger . As part of the arrangement with this company Scout members from the UK and abroad are able to stay at a reduced rate . It is also a conference and event space . Baden @-@ Powell House is rated Four Star by the Visit Britain Quality Assurance , and Mobility Level 1 ; also recent visitors rate it on average 4 out of 5 .
The hostel and conference centre is entered through a wide glazed atrium which serves as a large foyer containing the cafe and some Scouting displays . From the atrium the large hall is reached which can serve as an auditorium with seating for up to 300 people . The first floor has a restaurant seating 100 guests ; the second floor has meeting rooms , and conference facilities for groups up to 80 delegates per room . The upper floors contain 180 hostel bedrooms . In an average year , 30 thousand people spend the night , and 100 thousand meals are served in the restaurant .
= Botany =
Botany , also called plant science ( s ) , plant biology or phytology , is the science of plant life and a branch of biology . A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specializes in this field . The term " botany " comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη ( botanē ) meaning " pasture " , " grass " , or " fodder " ; βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν ( boskein ) , " to feed " or " to graze " . Traditionally , botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively , with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress . Nowadays , botanists study approximately 400 @,@ 000 species of living organisms of which some 260 @,@ 000 species are vascular plants and about 248 @,@ 000 are flowering plants .
Botany originated in prehistory as herbalism with the efforts of early humans to identify – and later cultivate – edible , medicinal and poisonous plants , making it one of the oldest branches of science . Medieval physic gardens , often attached to monasteries , contained plants of medical importance . They were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities , founded from the 1540s onwards . One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden . These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants . Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy , and led in 1753 to the binomial system of Carl Linnaeus that remains in use to this day .
In the 19th and 20th centuries , new techniques were developed for the study of plants , including methods of optical microscopy and live cell imaging , electron microscopy , analysis of chromosome number , plant chemistry and the structure and function of enzymes and other proteins . In the last two decades of the 20th century , botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis , including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately .
Modern botany is a broad , multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science and technology . Research topics include the study of plant structure , growth and differentiation , reproduction , biochemistry and primary metabolism , chemical products , development , diseases , evolutionary relationships , systematics , and plant taxonomy . Dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics , which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues . Botanical research has diverse applications in providing staple foods , materials such as timber , oil , rubber , fibre and drugs , in modern horticulture , agriculture and forestry , plant propagation , breeding and genetic modification , in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production , in environmental management , and the maintenance of biodiversity .
= = History = =
= = = Early botany = = =
Botany originated as herbalism , the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties . Many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10 @,@ 000 years ago . This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee , which make up much of the Cherokee land today . The early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications . Examples of early botanical works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC , in archaic Avestan writings , and in works from China before it was unified in 221 BC .
Modern botany traces its roots back to Ancient Greece , specifically to Theophrastus ( c . 371 – 287 BC ) , a student of Aristotle who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the scientific community as the " Father of Botany " . His major works , Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants , constitute the most important contributions to botanical science until the Middle Ages , almost seventeen centuries later .
Another work from Ancient Greece that made an early impact on botany is De Materia Medica , a five @-@ volume encyclopedia about herbal medicine written in the middle of the first century by Greek physician and pharmacologist Pedanius Dioscorides . De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1 @,@ 500 years . Important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyya 's Nabatean Agriculture , Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī 's ( 828 – 896 ) the Book of Plants , and Ibn Bassal 's The Classification of Soils . In the early 13th century , Abu al @-@ Abbas al @-@ Nabati , and Ibn al @-@ Baitar ( d . 1248 ) wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner .
In the mid @-@ 16th century , " botanical gardens " were founded in a number of Italian universities – the Padua botanical garden in 1545 is usually considered to be the first which is still in its original location . These gardens continued the practical value of earlier " physic gardens " , often associated with monasteries , in which plants were cultivated for medical use . They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject . Lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated . Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe ; the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621 . Throughout this period , botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine .
German physician Leonhart Fuchs ( 1501 – 1566 ) was one of " the three German fathers of botany " , along with theologian Otto Brunfels ( 1489 – 1534 ) and physician Hieronymus Bock ( 1498 – 1554 ) ( also called Hieronymus Tragus ) . Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own . Bock created his own system of plant classification .
Physician Valerius Cordus ( 1515 – 1544 ) authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance , the Dispensatorium in 1546 . Naturalist Conrad von Gesner ( 1516 – 1565 ) and herbalist John Gerard ( 1545 – c . 1611 ) published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants . Naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi ( 1522 – 1605 ) was considered the father of natural history , which included the study of plants . In 1665 , using an early microscope , Polymath Robert Hooke discovered cells , a term he coined , in cork , and a short time later in living plant tissue .
= = = Early modern botany = = =
During the 18th century , systems of plant identification were developed comparable to dichotomous keys , where unidentified plants are placed into taxonomic groups ( e.g. family , genus and species ) by making a series of choices between pairs of characters . The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification ( diagnostic keys ) or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys . By the 18th century , new plants for study were arriving in Europe in increasing numbers from newly discovered countries and the European colonies worldwide . In 1753 Carl von Linné ( Carl Linnaeus ) published his Species Plantarum , a hierarchical classification of plant species that remains the reference point for modern botanical nomenclature . This established a standardised binomial or two @-@ part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus . For the purposes of identification , Linnaeus 's Systema Sexuale classified plants into 24 groups according to the number of their male sexual organs . The 24th group , Cryptogamia , included all plants with concealed reproductive parts , mosses , liverworts , ferns , algae and fungi .
Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy , morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus had indicated . Adanson ( 1763 ) , de Jussieu ( 1789 ) , and Candolle ( 1819 ) all proposed various alternative natural systems of classification that grouped plants using a wider range of shared characters and were widely followed . The Candollean system reflected his ideas of the progression of morphological complexity and the later classification by Bentham and Hooker , which was influential until the mid @-@ 19th century , was influenced by Candolle 's approach . Darwin 's publication of the Origin of Species in 1859 and his concept of common descent required modifications to the Candollean system to reflect evolutionary relationships as distinct from mere morphological similarity .
Botany was greatly stimulated by the appearance of the first " modern " textbook , Matthias Schleiden 's Grundzüge der Wissenschaftlichen Botanik , published in English in 1849 as Principles of Scientific Botany . Schleiden was a microscopist and an early plant anatomist who co @-@ founded the cell theory with Theodor Schwann and Rudolf Virchow and was among the first to grasp the significance of the cell nucleus that had been described by Robert Brown in 1831 . In 1855 , Adolf Fick formulated Fick 's laws that enabled the calculation of the rates of molecular diffusion in biological systems .
= = = Modern botany = = =
Building upon the gene @-@ chromosome theory of heredity that originated with Gregor Mendel ( 1822 – 1884 ) , August Weismann ( 1834 – 1914 ) proved that inheritance only takes place through gametes . No other cells can pass on inherited characters . The work of Katherine Esau ( 1898 – 1997 ) on plant anatomy is still a major foundation of modern botany . Her books Plant Anatomy and Anatomy of Seed Plants have been key plant structural biology texts for more than half a century .
The discipline of plant ecology was pioneered in the late 19th century by botanists such as Eugenius Warming , who produced the hypothesis that plants form communities , and his mentor and successor Christen C. Raunkiær whose system for describing plant life forms is still in use today . The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles , Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements . Clements is credited with the idea of climax vegetation as the most complex vegetation that an environment can support and Tansley introduced the concept of ecosystems to biology . Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle , Nikolai Vavilov ( 1887 – 1943 ) produced accounts of the biogeography , centres of origin , and evolutionary history of economic plants .
Particularly since the mid @-@ 1960s there have been advances in understanding of the physics of plant physiological processes such as transpiration ( the transport of water within plant tissues ) , the temperature dependence of rates of water evaporation from the leaf surface and the molecular diffusion of water vapour and carbon dioxide through stomatal apertures . These developments , coupled with new methods for measuring the size of stomatal apertures , and the rate of photosynthesis have enabled precise description of the rates of gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere . Innovations in statistical analysis by Ronald Fisher , Frank Yates and others at Rothamsted Experimental Station facilitated rational experimental design and data analysis in botanical research . The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals . Frederick Campion Steward pioneered techniques of micropropagation and plant tissue culture controlled by plant hormones . The synthetic auxin 2 @,@ 4 @-@ Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid or 2 @,@ 4 @-@ D was one of the first commercial synthetic herbicides .
20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis , such as spectroscopy , chromatography and electrophoresis . With the rise of the related molecular @-@ scale biological approaches of molecular biology , genomics , proteomics and metabolomics , the relationship between the plant genome and most aspects of the biochemistry , physiology , morphology and behaviour of plants can be subjected to detailed experimental analysis . The concept originally stated by Gottlieb Haberlandt in 1902 that all plant cells are totipotent and can be grown in vitro ultimately enabled the use of genetic engineering experimentally to knock out a gene or genes responsible for a specific trait , or to add genes such as GFP that report when a gene of interest is being expressed . These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in bioreactors to synthesise pesticides , antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals , as well as the practical application of genetically modified crops designed for traits such as improved yield .
Modern morphology recognizes a continuum between the major morphological categories of root , stem ( caulome ) , leaf ( phyllome ) and trichome . Furthermore , it emphasizes structural dynamics . Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover phylogenetic relationships between plants . Modern Molecular phylogenetics largely ignores morphological characters , relying on DNA sequences as data . Molecular analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants enabled the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group to publish in 1998 a phylogeny of flowering plants , answering many of the questions about relationships among angiosperm families and species . The theoretical possibility of a practical method for identification of plant species and commercial varieties by DNA barcoding is the subject of active current research .
= = Scope and importance = =
The study of plants is vital because they underpin almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis , a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells . As a by @-@ product of photosynthesis , plants release oxygen into the atmosphere , a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration . In addition , they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils , preventing soil erosion . Plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food , oxygen , medicine , and products for people , as well as creating and preserving soil .
Historically , all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals . Botanists examine both the internal functions and processes within plant organelles , cells , tissues , whole plants , plant populations and plant communities . At each of these levels , a botanist may be concerned with the classification ( taxonomy ) , phylogeny and evolution , structure ( anatomy and morphology ) , or function ( physiology ) of plant life .
The strictest definition of " plant " includes only the " land plants " or embryophytes , which include seed plants ( gymnosperms , including the pines , and flowering plants ) and the free @-@ sporing cryptogams including ferns , clubmosses , liverworts , hornworts and mosses . Embryophytes are multicellular eukaryotes descended from an ancestor that obtained its energy from sunlight by photosynthesis . They have life cycles with alternating haploid and diploid phases . The sexual haploid phase of embryophytes , known as the gametophyte , nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life , even in the seed plants , where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte . Other groups of organisms that were previously studied by botanists include bacteria ( now studied in bacteriology ) , fungi ( mycology ) – including lichen @-@ forming fungi ( lichenology ) , non @-@ chlorophyte algae ( phycology ) , and viruses ( virology ) . However , attention is still given to these groups by botanists , and fungi ( including lichens ) and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses .
Paleobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants . Cyanobacteria , the first oxygen @-@ releasing photosynthetic organisms on Earth , are thought to have given rise to the ancestor of plants by entering into an endosymbiotic relationship with an early eukaryote , ultimately becoming the chloroplasts in plant cells . The new photosynthetic plants ( along with their algal relatives ) accelerated the rise in atmospheric oxygen started by the cyanobacteria , changing the ancient oxygen @-@ free , reducing , atmosphere to one in which free oxygen has been abundant for more than 2 billion years .
Among the important botanical questions of the 21st century are the role of plants as primary producers in the global cycling of life 's basic ingredients : energy , carbon , oxygen , nitrogen and water , and ways that our plant stewardship can help address the global environmental issues of resource management , conservation , human food security , biologically invasive organisms , carbon sequestration , climate change , and sustainability .
= = = Human nutrition = = =
Virtually all staple foods come either directly from primary production by plants , or indirectly from animals that eat them . Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are at the base of most food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere , converting them into a form that can be used by animals . This is what ecologists call the first trophic level . The modern forms of the major staple foods , such as maize , rice , wheat and other cereal grasses , pulses , bananas and plantains , as well as flax and cotton grown for their fibres , are the outcome of prehistoric selection over thousands of years from among wild ancestral plants with the most desirable characteristics . Botanists study how plants produce food and how to increase yields , for example through plant breeding , making their work important to mankind 's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations . Botanists also study weeds , which are a considerable problem in agriculture , and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems . Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people . When applied to the investigation of historical plant – people relationships ethnobotany may be referred to as archaeobotany or palaeoethnobotany . Some of the earliest plant @-@ people relationships arose between the indigenous people of Canada in identifying edible plants from inedible plants . This relationship the indigenous people had with plants was recorded by ethnobotanists .
= = Plant biochemistry = =
Plant biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes used by plants . Some of these processes are used in their primary metabolism like the photosynthetic Calvin cycle and crassulacean acid metabolism . Others make specialized materials like the cellulose and lignin used to build their bodies , and secondary products like resins and aroma compounds .
Plants and various other groups of photosynthetic eukaryotes collectively known as " algae " have unique organelles known as chloroplasts . Chloroplasts are thought to be descended from cyanobacteria that formed endosymbiotic relationships with ancient plant and algal ancestors . Chloroplasts and cyanobacteria contain the blue @-@ green pigment chlorophyll a . Chlorophyll a ( as well as its plant and green algal @-@ specific cousin chlorophyll b ) absorbs light in the blue @-@ violet and orange / red parts of the spectrum while reflecting and transmitting the green light that we see as the characteristic colour of these organisms . The energy in the red and blue light that these pigments absorb is used by chloroplasts to make energy @-@ rich carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and water by oxygenic photosynthesis , a process that generates molecular oxygen ( O2 ) as a by @-@ product .
The light energy captured by chlorophyll a is initially in the form of electrons ( and later a proton gradient ) that 's used to make molecules of ATP and NADPH which temporarily store and transport energy . Their energy is used in the light @-@ independent reactions of the Calvin cycle by the enzyme rubisco to produce molecules of the 3 @-@ carbon sugar glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate ( G3P ) . Glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate is the first product of photosynthesis and the raw material from which glucose and almost all other organic molecules of biological origin are synthesized . Some of the glucose is converted to starch which is stored in the chloroplast . Starch is the characteristic energy store of most land plants and algae , while inulin , a polymer of fructose is used for the same purpose in the sunflower family Asteraceae . Some of the glucose is converted to sucrose ( common table sugar ) for export to the rest of the plant .
Unlike in animals ( which lack chloroplasts ) , plants and their eukaryote relatives have delegated many biochemical roles to their chloroplasts , including synthesizing all their fatty acids , and most amino acids . The fatty acids that chloroplasts make are used for many things , such as providing material to build cell membranes out of and making the polymer cutin which is found in the plant cuticle that protects land plants from drying out .
Plants synthesize a number of unique polymers like the polysaccharide molecules cellulose , pectin and xyloglucan from which the land plant cell wall is constructed . Vascular land plants make lignin , a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress . Lignin is also used in other cell types like sclerenchyma fibers that provide structural support for a plant and is a major constituent of wood . Sporopollenin is a chemically resistant polymer found in the outer cell walls of spores and pollen of land plants responsible for the survival of early land plant spores and the pollen of seed plants in the fossil record . It is widely regarded as a marker for the start of land plant evolution during the Ordovician period . The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today is much lower than it was when plants emerged onto land during the Ordovician and Silurian periods . Many monocots like maize and the pineapple and some dicots like the Asteraceae have since independently evolved pathways like Crassulacean acid metabolism and the C4 carbon fixation pathway for photosynthesis which avoid the losses resulting from photorespiration in the more common C3 carbon fixation pathway . These biochemical strategies are unique to land plants .
= = = Medicine and materials = = =
Phytochemistry is a branch of plant biochemistry primarily concerned with the chemical substances produced by plants during secondary metabolism . Some of these compounds are toxins such as the alkaloid coniine from hemlock . Others , such as the essential oils peppermint oil and lemon oil are useful for their aroma , as flavourings and spices ( e.g. , capsaicin ) , and in medicine as pharmaceuticals as in opium from opium poppies . Many medicinal and recreational drugs , such as tetrahydrocannabinol ( active ingredient in cannabis ) , caffeine , morphine and nicotine come directly from plants . Others are simple derivatives of botanical natural products . For example , the pain killer aspirin is the acetyl ester of salicylic acid , originally isolated from the bark of willow trees , and a wide range of opiate painkillers like heroin are obtained by chemical modification of morphine obtained from the opium poppy . Popular stimulants come from plants , such as caffeine from coffee , tea and chocolate , and nicotine from tobacco . Most alcoholic beverages come from fermentation of carbohydrate @-@ rich plant products such as barley ( beer ) , rice ( sake ) and grapes ( wine ) . Native Americans have used various plants as ways of treating illness or disease for thousands of years . This knowledge Native Americans have on plants has been recorded by enthnobotanists and then in turn has been used by pharmaceutical companies as a way of drug discovery .
Plants can synthesise useful coloured dyes and pigments such as the anthocyanins responsible for the red colour of red wine , yellow weld and blue woad used together to produce Lincoln green , indoxyl , source of the blue dye indigo traditionally used to dye denim and the artist 's pigments gamboge and rose madder .
Sugar , starch , cotton , linen , hemp , some types of rope , wood and particle boards , papyrus and paper , vegetable oils , wax , and natural rubber are examples of commercially important materials made from plant tissues or their secondary products . Charcoal , a pure form of carbon made by pyrolysis of wood , has a long history as a metal @-@ smelting fuel , as a filter material and adsorbent and as an artist 's material and is one of the three ingredients of gunpowder . Cellulose , the world 's most abundant organic polymer , can be converted into energy , fuels , materials and chemical feedstock . Products made from cellulose include rayon and cellophane , wallpaper paste , biobutanol and gun cotton . Sugarcane , rapeseed and soy are some of the plants with a highly fermentable sugar or oil content that are used as sources of biofuels , important alternatives to fossil fuels , such as biodiesel . Sweetgrass was used by NativeAmericanse to ward of bugs like mosquitoes . These bug repelling properties of sweetgrass were later found by the American Chemical Society in the molecules phytol and coumarin .
= = Plant ecology = =
Plant ecology is the science of the functional relationships between plants and their habitats — the environments where they complete their life cycles . Plant ecologists study the composition of local and regional floras , their biodiversity , genetic diversity and fitness , the adaptation of plants to their environment , and their competitive or mutualistic interactions with other species . Some ecologists even rely on empirical data from indigenous people that is gathered by ethnobotanists . This information can relay a great deal of information on how the land once was thousands of years ago and how it has changed over that time . The goals of plant ecology are to understand the causes of their distribution patterns , productivity , environmental impact , evolution , and responses to environmental change .
Plants depend on certain edaphic ( soil ) and climatic factors in their environment but can modify these factors too . For example , they can change their environment 's albedo , increase runoff interception , stabilize mineral soils and develop their organic content , and affect local temperature . Plants compete with other organisms in their ecosystem for resources . They interact with their neighbours at a variety of spatial scales in groups , populations and communities that collectively constitute vegetation . Regions with characteristic vegetation types and dominant plants as well as similar abiotic and biotic factors , climate , and geography make up biomes like tundra or tropical rainforest .
Herbivores eat plants , but plants can defend themselves and some species are parasitic or even carnivorous . Other organisms form mutually beneficial relationships with plants . For example , mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobia provide plants with nutrients in exchange for food , ants are recruited by ant plants to provide protection , honey bees , bats and other animals pollinate flowers and humans and other animals act as dispersal vectors to spread spores and seeds .
= = = Plants , climate and environmental change = = =
Plant responses to climate and other environmental changes can inform our understanding of how these changes affect ecosystem function and productivity . For example , plant phenology can be a useful proxy for temperature in historical climatology , and the biological impact of climate change and global warming . Palynology , the analysis of fossil pollen deposits in sediments from thousands or millions of years ago allows the reconstruction of past climates . Estimates of atmospheric CO2 concentrations since the Palaeozoic have been obtained from stomatal densities and the leaf shapes and sizes of ancient land plants . Ozone depletion can expose plants to higher levels of ultraviolet radiation @-@ B ( UV @-@ B ) , resulting in lower growth rates . Moreover , information from studies of community ecology , plant systematics , and taxonomy is essential to understanding vegetation change , habitat destruction and species extinction .
= = Genetics = =
Inheritance in plants follows the same fundamental principles of genetics as in other multicellular organisms . Gregor Mendel discovered the genetic laws of inheritance by studying inherited traits such as shape in Pisum sativum ( peas ) . What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany . Similarly , " jumping genes " were discovered by Barbara McClintock while she was studying maize . Nevertheless , there are some distinctive genetic differences between plants and other organisms .
Species boundaries in plants may be weaker than in animals , and cross species hybrids are often possible . A familiar example is peppermint , Mentha × piperita , a sterile hybrid between Mentha aquatica and spearmint , Mentha spicata . The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra @-@ specific crosses between wild species and their hybrids . Angiosperms with monoecious flowers often have self @-@ incompatibility mechanisms that operate between the pollen and stigma so that the pollen either fails to reach the stigma or fails to germinate and produce male gametes . This is one of several methods used by plants to promote outcrossing . In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals . These species are said to be dioecious when referring to vascular plant sporophytes and dioicous when referring to bryophyte gametophytes .
Unlike in higher animals , where parthenogenesis is rare , asexual reproduction may occur in plants by several different mechanisms . The formation of stem tubers in potato is one example . Particularly in arctic or alpine habitats , where opportunities for fertilisation of flowers by animals are rare , plantlets or bulbs , may develop instead of flowers , replacing sexual reproduction with asexual reproduction and giving rise to clonal populations genetically identical to the parent . This is one of several types of apomixis that occur in plants . Apomixis can also happen in a seed , producing a seed that contains an embryo genetically identical to the parent .
Most sexually reproducing organisms are diploid , with paired chromosomes , but doubling of their chromosome number may occur due to errors in cytokinesis . This can occur early in development to produce an autopolyploid or partly autopolyploid organism , or during normal processes of cellular differentiation to produce some cell types that are polyploid ( endopolyploidy ) , or during gamete formation . An allopolyploid plant may result from a hybridisation event between two different species . Both autopolyploid and allopolyploid plants can often reproduce normally , but may be unable to cross @-@ breed successfully with the parent population because there is a mismatch in chromosome numbers . These plants that are reproductively isolated from the parent species but live within the same geographical area , may be sufficiently successful to form a new species . Some otherwise sterile plant polyploids can still reproduce vegetatively or by seed apomixis , forming clonal populations of identical individuals . Durum wheat is a fertile tetraploid allopolyploid , while bread wheat is a fertile hexaploid . The commercial banana is an example of a sterile , seedless triploid hybrid . Common dandelion is a triploid that produces viable seeds by apomictic seed .
As in other eukaryotes , the inheritance of endosymbiotic organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts in plants is non @-@ Mendelian . Chloroplasts are inherited through the male parent in gymnosperms but often through the female parent in flowering plants .
= = = Molecular genetics = = =
A considerable amount of new knowledge about plant function comes from studies of the molecular genetics of model plants such as the Thale cress , Arabidopsis thaliana , a weedy species in the mustard family ( Brassicaceae ) . The genome or hereditary information contained in the genes of this species is encoded by about 135 million base pairs of DNA , forming one of the smallest genomes among flowering plants . Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its genome sequenced , in 2000 . The sequencing of some other relatively small genomes , of rice ( Oryza sativa ) and Brachypodium distachyon , has made them important model species for understanding the genetics , cellular and molecular biology of cereals , grasses and monocots generally .
Model plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana are used for studying the molecular biology of plant cells and the chloroplast . Ideally , these organisms have small genomes that are well known or completely sequenced , small stature and short generation times . Corn has been used to study mechanisms of photosynthesis and phloem loading of sugar in C4 plants . The single celled green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii , while not an embryophyte itself , contains a green @-@ pigmented chloroplast related to that of land plants , making it useful for study . A red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae has also been used to study some basic chloroplast functions . Spinach , peas , soybeans and a moss Physcomitrella patens are commonly used to study plant cell biology .
Agrobacterium tumefaciens , a soil rhizosphere bacterium , can attach to plant cells and infect them with a callus @-@ inducing Ti plasmid by horizontal gene transfer , causing a callus infection called crown gall disease . Schell and Van Montagu ( 1977 ) hypothesised that the Ti plasmid could be a natural vector for introducing the Nif gene responsible for nitrogen fixation in the root nodules of legumes and other plant species . Today , genetic modification of the Ti plasmid is one of the main techniques for introduction of transgenes to plants and the creation of genetically modified crops .
= = = Epigenetics = = =
Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene function that cannot be explained by changes in the underlying DNA sequence but cause the organism 's genes to behave ( or " express themselves " ) differently . One example of epigenetic change is the marking of the genes by DNA methylation which determines whether they will be expressed or not . Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed . Epigenetic marks may be added or removed from the DNA during programmed stages of development of the plant , and are responsible , for example , for the differences between anthers , petals and normal leaves , despite the fact that they all have the same underlying genetic code . Epigenetic changes may be temporary or may remain through successive cell divisions for the remainder of the cell 's life . Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be heritable , while others are reset in the germ cells .
Epigenetic changes in eukaryotic biology serve to regulate the process of cellular differentiation . During morphogenesis , totipotent stem cells become the various pluripotent cell lines of the embryo , which in turn become fully differentiated cells . A single fertilized egg cell , the zygote , gives rise to the many different plant cell types including parenchyma , xylem vessel elements , phloem sieve tubes , guard cells of the epidermis , etc. as it continues to divide . The process results from the epigenetic activation of some genes and inhibition of others .
Unlike animals , many plant cells , particularly those of the parenchyma , do not terminally differentiate , remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant . Exceptions include highly lignified cells , the sclerenchyma and xylem which are dead at maturity , and the phloem sieve tubes which lack nuclei . While plants use many of the same epigenetic mechanisms as animals , such as chromatin remodeling , an alternative hypothesis is that plants set their gene expression patterns using positional information from the environment and surrounding cells to determine their developmental fate .
= = Plant Evolution = =
The chloroplasts of plants have a number of biochemical , structural and genetic similarities to cyanobacteria , ( commonly but incorrectly known as " blue @-@ green algae " ) and are thought to be derived from an ancient endosymbiotic relationship between an ancestral eukaryotic cell and a cyanobacterial resident .
The algae are a polyphyletic group and are placed in various divisions , some more closely related to plants than others . There are many differences between them in features such as cell wall composition , biochemistry , pigmentation , chloroplast structure and nutrient reserves . The algal division Charophyta , sister to the green algal division Chlorophyta , is considered to contain the ancestor of true plants . The Charophyte class Charophyceae and the land plant sub @-@ kingdom Embryophyta together form the monophyletic group or clade Streptophytina .
Nonvascular land plants are embryophytes that lack the vascular tissues xylem and phloem . They include mosses , liverworts and hornworts . Pteridophytic vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free @-@ living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late Silurian and early Devonian . Representatives of the lycopods have survived to the present day . By the end of the Devonian period , several groups , including the lycopods , sphenophylls and progymnosperms , had independently evolved " megaspory " – their spores were of two distinct sizes , larger megaspores and smaller microspores . Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the spore @-@ producing organs ( megasporangia ) of the sporophyte , a condition known as endospory . Seeds consist of an endosporic megasporangium surrounded by one or two sheathing layers ( integuments ) . The young sporophyte develops within the seed , which on germination splits to release it . The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage . Following the evolution of the seed habit , seed plants diversified , giving rise to a number of now @-@ extinct groups , including seed ferns , as well as the modern gymnosperms and angiosperms . Gymnosperms produce " naked seeds " not fully enclosed in an ovary ; modern representatives include conifers , cycads , Ginkgo , and Gnetales . Angiosperms produce seeds enclosed in a structure such as a carpel or an ovary . Ongoing research on the molecular phylogenetics of living plants appears to show that the angiosperms are a sister clade to the gymnosperms .
= = Plant physiology = =
Plant physiology encompasses all the internal chemical and physical activities of plants associated with life . Chemicals obtained from the air , soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism . The energy of sunlight , captured by oxygenic photosynthesis and released by cellular respiration , is the basis of almost all life . Photoautotrophs , including all green plants , algae and cyanobacteria gather energy directly from sunlight by photosynthesis . Heterotrophs including all animals , all fungi , all completely parasitic plants , and non @-@ photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues . Respiration is the oxidation of carbon compounds by breaking them down into simpler structures to release the energy they contain , essentially the opposite of photosynthesis .
Molecules are moved within plants by transport processes that operate at a variety of spatial scales . Subcellular transport of ions , electrons and molecules such as water and enzymes occurs across cell membranes . Minerals and water are transported from roots to other parts of the plant in the transpiration stream . Diffusion , osmosis , and active transport and mass flow are all different ways transport can occur . Examples of elements that plants need to transport are nitrogen , phosphorus , potassium , calcium , magnesium , and sulphur . In vascular plants , these elements are extracted from the soil as soluble ions by the roots and transported throughout the plant in the xylem . Most of the elements required for plant | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
regained the Ashes with a 5 – 0 whitewash . It was an inconsistent series ; aside from three scores mentioned , Gilchrist failed to pass one in his other three innings . Between Ashes series , Gilchrist had averaged only 25 with one Test century .
However , both he and Australia suffered a surprising string of poor results in the 2006 @-@ 07 Commonwealth Bank Series , Gilchrist managing an average of only 22 @.@ 20 during the tournament . Australia won seven of their eight qualifying matches , but England won with two finals victories over the Australians . Gilchrist scored 60 and 61 in the first two matches but did not pass 30 thereafter . He was then rested for Australia 's winless three @-@ match ODI tour of New Zealand , before his selection for the 2007 Cricket World Cup . Having previously indicated that it was highly likely that he would retire after the 2007 World Cup , he then stated a desire to play on aftwerwards .
= = = 2007 World Cup = = =
Gilchrist and Australia started their 2007 World Cup campaign by winning all three of their matches in Group A , against Scotland , the Netherlands and South Africa . Australia won all six of their matches in the Super8 stage with little difficulty — the margins of victory were exceeded 80 runs or six wickets in every instance . They topped the table and thus qualifying for a semi @-@ final rematch against fourth @-@ placed South Africa . Gilchrist opened the Australian batting in each match , taking a pinch @-@ hitting role in the opening powerplays . Initially successful in the group matches , scoring 46 , 57 and 42 , he failed in the first Super8 match against West Indies ( 7 ) , but bounced back to score a second half @-@ century ( 59 not out ) in a ten @-@ wicket victory against Bangladesh in a match drastically shortened due to rain . After a run of middling scores , he failed again in the final Super8 match against New Zealand .
As a batsman , Gilchrist was dismissed for a single run in the semi @-@ final against South Africa , despite which Australia won by seven wickets . As wicket @-@ keeper , however , he took four catches , equalling the most dismissals in one match in the tournament and bringing his total for the tournament to 14 , second behind Sri Lanka 's Kumar Sangakkara .
Gilchrist opened the batting against Sri Lanka in the final . This was Gilchrist 's third successive World Cup final , and the third time he scored at least a 50 runs in World Cup finals and he went on to make his only ever century in a world cup match . Gilchrist went on to score 149 runs off 104 balls with thirteen fours and eight sixes , the highest individual score in a World Cup final , eclipsing his captain Ricky Ponting 's score of 140 in the 2003 final . Australia won and he was named the man of the match . Subsequently there has been some controversy over Gilchrist 's use of a squash ball inside his glove during this innings . The MCC stated that Gilchrist had not acted against the laws or the spirit of the game , since there is no restriction against the external or internal form of batting gloves .
In September 2007 , Gilchrist played in the inaugural World Twenty20 . He scored 169 runs at 33 @.@ 80 as Australia were knocked out by India in the semifinals . Gilchrist then scored 208 runs at 34 @.@ 66 as Australia took an away ODI series against India 4 – 2 . In November , Gilchrist 's peers voted him the greatest Australian ODI cricketer ever , for which he was awarded an honour at an ACA function before Australia 's second Test against Sri Lanka . He was only required to bat once in the Tests , and made 67 not out as Australia swept Sri Lanka aside 2 – 0 .
= = = Retirement = = =
On 26 January 2008 during the 4th and final Test of the 2007 – 08 series against India , Gilchrist announced that he would retire from international cricket at the end of the season . A back injury kept Ricky Ponting off the field for sections of the Indian 's second innings , resulting in Gilchrist captaining the team for the part of final two days of his Test cricket career . India batted out the match for a draw , so Gilchrist 's 14 in the first innings was his final Test innings ; he took his 379th and final catch when Virender Sehwag was caught behind . Gilchrist had scored only 150 runs at 21 @.@ 42 in his final Test series .
John Buchanan , who coached Australia during most of Gilchrist 's international career , predicted that Gilchrist 's retirement would have more impact than the previous year 's retirements of Damien Martyn , Glenn McGrath , Shane Warne and Justin Langer and Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd asked Gilchrist to reconsider . Gilchrist later revealed that he chose to retire after dropping VVS Laxman during the first innings , and realising that he had lost his " competitive edge . " He played out the summer 's ODI series , before ending in disappointment when India beat Australia 2 – 0 in the 2007 @-@ 08 Commonwealth Bank Series finals . Gilchrist managed only seven and two in the finals . His highlight of the series was his scoring 118 and being named Man of the Match in his final match at his adopted home in Perth on 15 February 2008 , against Sri Lanka . He ended his final series with 322 runs at 32 @.@ 20 .
= = = Indian Premier League = = =
Gilchrist was contracted by the Hyderabad @-@ based Deccan Chargers in the inaugural season 's player auction for US $ 700 @,@ 000 . In Deccan 's fourth match of the inaugural 2008 season , Gilchrist hammered the second fastest hundred in the IPL , off just 42 balls , as Deccan recorded their first win , against Mumbai . Gilchrist led the Deccan Chargers in the second half of the IPL in the absence of regular captain VVS Laxman , who was ruled out for the rest of the tournament due to injury . Deccan came last , winning only two of 14 matches .
In the second season , Gilchrist was installed as captain in place of Laxman by new coach and former Australian teammate Darren Lehmann . The team started well and won their first four matches but stumbled and won only three of their remaining ten qualifying matches . They qualified fourth into the semifinals and Gilchrist led the team to the final by striking 85 off just 35 balls against the Delhi Daredevils . Although made a duck in the final against the Royal Challengers Bangalore , Deccan won by six runs to take the title . Gilchrist was named the Player of The Tournament .
In the fourth season , Gilchrist was contracted by Kings XI Punjab for US $ 900 @,@ 000 . He was chosen the captain for the team as Kumar Sangakkara ( former captain of Punjab ) had moved to Deccan Chargers . In March 2012 he was named " player @-@ coach " , replacing his friend and former Australia teammate Michael Bevan , whose contract as head coach was not renewed . Gilchrist had speculated on retiring from the IPL at the end of the 2012 season , after Kings XI Punjab failed to make it to the play @-@ offs .
In the sixth season , Gilchrist made a comeback for his final IPL stint . He stated the reason as being the Kings XI management 's decision to renew his contract for another season . An interesting change in the team staff was the induction of Darren Lehmann as the new Kings XI coach . This brought together the duo of Gilchrist and Lehmann who had guided their previous franchise , the Deccan Chargers to its 2009 IPL victory . Some good performances by the players led the Kings XI Punjab team eyeing for the fourth spot in the play @-@ offs and a possible maiden win under Gilchrist 's leadership . They were knocked out very late in the tournament . In his final game at IPL , Gilchrist decided to bowl the last over of the match against the Mumbai Indians , where he got the wicket of Harbhajan Singh of his first ball , securing KXIP 's victory in the match . In a recent press conference , Gilchrist has confirmed that this will be his final IPL season and that he was looking forward to a fresh start in the inaugural Caribbean Premier League in July 2013 .
= = = Middlesex = = =
He signed a short @-@ term contract in November 2009 to play English Twenty20 cricket for Middlesex between 3 and 24 June 2010 . He was appointed interim captain on 11 June upon the sudden resignation of Shaun Udal . In addition to the seven Twenty20 fixtures , he is also captaining the county versus the touring Australians in a fifty @-@ over friendly .
In addition to this he will be taking part in the major sporting events Titans of Cricket in October 2011 – an evening of exciting challenges for famous sportsmen , touring across the UK in Manchester and Birmingham , with the grand finale in London 's O2
In July 2014 , he played for the Rest of the World side in the Bicentenary Celebration match at Lord 's .
= = Style of play = =
Gilchrist 's attacking batting has been a key part of Australia 's one @-@ day success , as he usually opened the batting . He was a part of the successful 1999 , 2003 and 2007 Cricket World Cup campaigns . Gilchrist 's Test batting average in the upper 40s is unusually high for a wicket @-@ keeper . He is currently 45th on the all – time list of highest batting averages . He maintains a Test strike @-@ rate of 82 runs per hundred balls , the highest since balls were recorded in full . His combination of attack and consistency create one of the most dynamic world cricketers ever , playing shots to all areas of the field with uncommon timing . He second on the all @-@ time list of most sixes in Tests at 100 with only Brendon McCullum ahead of him with 107 . Gilchrist 's skills as a wicket @-@ keeper are sometimes questioned ; some people would claim that he is the best keeper in Australia while Victorian wicket @-@ keeper Darren Berry was regarded by many as the best Australian wicket @-@ keeper of the 1990s and early 2000s .
In this role , Gilchrist is perhaps disadvantaged by his relatively tall stature for a pure wicket @-@ keeper . However , while perhaps not as elegant as some , he has successfully kept wicket for spin bowler Shane Warne and fast bowlers Glenn McGrath and Brett Lee for most of his international career . His partnerships with McGrath and Lee are second and fourth respectively in both test and ODI history for the number of wickets taken . With Alec Stewart and Mark Boucher , he shares the record for most catches ( 6 ) by a wicketkeeper in a ODI match , however he has now achieved this feat five times , the most recent versus India in 2008 CB Series . The match in 2007 was also the second time he took six dismissals and scored a half century in the same ODI ; he remains the only player to do so even once . At Old Trafford in August 2005 , he passed Alec Stewart 's world record of 4 @,@ 540 runs as a Test wicketkeeper , Statistically , he is currently the most successful ODI wicket @-@ keeper in history ; with 417 catches and 55 stumpings , a total of 472 dismissals , his closest rival , Mark Boucher , is more than 80 dismissals behind .
= = Walking and discipline = =
Cricket has for many years debated whether batsmen should " walk " , that is to agree that they have been dismissed and leave the field of play without waiting for ( or contrary to ) an umpire 's decision . Gilchrist reignited this debate by walking during a high @-@ profile match , the 2003 World Cup semi @-@ final against Sri Lanka , after the umpire ruled him to be not out . He has since proclaimed himself to be " a walker " , or a batsman who will consistently walk , and has done so on numerous occasions . On one occasion against Bangladesh , Gilchrist walked but TV replays failed to suggest any contact between his bat and the ball . Without such contact , he could not have been caught out .
Gilchrist 's actions have sparked debate amongst current and former players and umpires . Ricky Ponting has declared on several occasions that he is not a walker but will leave it to each player to decide whether they wish to walk or not . While no other Australian top order batsmen have expressly declared themselves to be walkers , lower @-@ order batsmen Jason Gillespie and Michael Kasprowicz both walked during Test matches in India in 2004 . In 2004 , New Zealand captain Stephen Fleming accused Gilchrist of conducting a " walking crusade " when Craig McMillan refused to walk after Gilchrist had caught him off an edge from the bowling of Jason Gillespie in the First Test in Brisbane . After the appeal was turned down by the umpire , who did not hear the edge , Gilchrist goaded McMillan about the edge , and McMillan 's angry response was picked up by the stump microphone : " ... not everyone is walking , Gilly ... not everyone has to walk , mate ... " . The taunt was effective , however , as McMillan , perhaps distracted , missed the next ball and was given out leg before wicket . Gilchrist said in his autobiography that he had " zero support in the team " for his stance and that he felt that the topic made the dressing room uncomfortable . He added that he " felt isolated " and " silently accused of betraying the team . Implictly I was made to feel selfish , as if I was walking for the sake of my own clean image , thereby making everyone else look dishonest . "
Gilchrist has been noted for his emotional outbursts on the cricket field , and has been fined multiple times for dissent against umpiring decisions . In January 2006 , he was fined 40 % of his match fee in an ODI against South Africa . In another instance , in early 2004 in Sri Lanka , Gilchrist audibly argued with umpire Peter Manuel after batting partner Andrew Symonds was given out . After the argument concluded , Manuel consulted umpiring partner Billy Bowden and reversed his decision , recalling Symonds to the crease . Gilchrist was also reprimanded by the Australian Cricket Board for publicly questioning the legality of Muttiah Muralitharan 's bowling action in 2002 , as his comments were found to be in breach of the clause in the player code of conduct relating to " detrimental public comment " .
During the 2003 World Cup , Gilchrist accused Pakistani wicketkeeper Rashid Latif of making a racist remark towards him while the latter was batting in their group match . Latif who was cleared by match referee Clive Lloyd , threatened to sue Gilchrist for this claim .
= = Charity , media , business career and political work = =
Outside cricket , Gilchrist is an ambassador for the charity World Vision in India , a country in which he is popular due to his cricketing achievements , and sponsors a boy whose father has died . He was approached in early 2005 by the US baseball franchise , the Boston Red Sox , with a view to him playing for them when his cricket career ended . However , he was selected for the 2007 Cricket World Cup and announced his retirement from Test and One @-@ Day cricket in early 2008 .
In March 2008 , Gilchrist joined the Nine Network . Gilchrist has appeared as one of a panel of revolving co @-@ hosts for the revived Wide World of Sports Weekend Edition . He made his debut on the program in March 2008 , and commentates on Nine 's cricket coverage during the Australian summer . In 2013 Gilchrist joined Ricky Ponting and various other names in cricket to commentate for Channel Ten in the third series of the Big Bash League .
As Amway Australia Ambassador , Gilchrist has played a role in many of their charity events . In August 2010 , he presented the Freedom Wheels program , an initiative to provide modified bikes to kids with disabilities , a cheque for $ 20 @,@ 000 .
Gilchrist has been the chair of the National Australia Day Council since 2008 . In 2008 , Gilchrist supported debate on whether Australia Day should be moved to a new date because the current date marks European settlement and is offensive to many Aboriginal Australians . Gilchrist is considered to have left @-@ wing views ; Australian captain Ricky Ponting commented in his annual Captain 's Diary that his deputy had a penchant for reading Karl Marx while on tour .
Gilchrist has had a number of company directorships outside of cricket . His appointment to the board of ASX listed sandalwood company TFS Corporation , committee member of Commonwealth Business Forum in Perth and director of Travelex . The appointment to TFS Corporation was not without controversy when as a board member of TFS he was named as a plaintiff suing his own TFS shareholders for defamation
= = Autobiography = =
Gilchrist 's autobiography True Colours , published in 2008 , was the subject of much controversy . Gilchrist questioned the integrity of leading Indian batsman Sachin Tendulkar in relation to the evidence he presented in the Monkeygate dispute , which was about allegations of racism against Harbhajan Singh . The autobiography said that Tendulkar told the first hearing that he could not hear what Harbhajan said to Andrew Symonds ; Gilchrist said he was " certain he [ Tendulkar ] was telling the truth " because he was " a fair way away " . Gilchrist then questioned why Tendulkar then agreed with Harbhajan 's claim at the second hearing that the exchange was an obscenity , and concluded that the process was " a joke " . He also raised questions over Tendulkar 's sportsmanship and said he was " hard to find for a changing @-@ room handshake after we have beaten India " .
There was a backlash in India , which forced Gilchrist to clarify his position . Gilchrist later insisted that he did not accuse Tendulkar of lying in his testimony . He also denied calling the Indian a " bad sport " in regards to the handshake issue . Tendulkar responded by saying that " those remarks came from someone who doesn 't know me enough . I think he made loose statements ... I reminded him that I was the first person to shake hands after the Sydney defeat . " The autobiography also blamed the ICC for allowing Sri Lankan cricketer Muralitharan to bowl ; Gilchrist believes that ICC changed the throwing law to legitimise a bowling action that he regards as illegitimate . The law change was described as " a load of horse crap . That 's rubbish . " Gilchrist claimed that Muralitharan threw the ball and alleged that the ICC protected him because Sri Lankan cricket authorities portrayed any criticism of the bowler 's legitimacy as racism and a witchhunt conducted by whites . In response to these comments , former Sri Lankan captain Marvan Atapattu said that by questioning the credentials of players like Muralitharan and Tendulkar , Gilchrist had done no good to his own reputation .
= = Achievements = =
= = = Awards = = =
Gilchrist was one of five Wisden Cricketers of the Year for 2002 , and Australia 's One @-@ day International Player of the Year in 2003 and 2004 . He was awarded the Allan Border Medal in 2003 , and was the only Australian cricketer who was a current player at the time to have been named in " Richie Benaud 's Greatest XI " in 2004 . He was selected in the ICC World XI for the charity series against the ACC Asian XI , 2004 – 05 , was voted as " World 's Scariest Batsman " in a poll of international bowlers , and was named as wicket @-@ keeper and opening batsman in Australia 's " greatest ever ODI team . " In a poll of over ten thousand people hosted in 2007 by ESPNcricinfo , he was voted the ninth greatest all @-@ rounder of the last one hundred years . A panel of prominent cricket writers selected him in Australia 's all @-@ time best XI for ESPNcricinfo . Gilchrist has not only left his mark on Australian cricket but the whole cricketing world . In 2010 , Gilchrist was made a Member of the Order of Australia for his services to cricket and the community . He was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 2012 . On 9 @-@ December @-@ 2013 , ICC announced that they had inducted Gilchrist in the prestigious ICC Hall of Fame .
= = = Test match performance = = =
Test debut : vs Pakistan , Brisbane , 1999 – 2000 .
Gilchrist 's best Test batting score of 204 not out was made against South Africa , Johannesburg , 2001 – 2002 .
He has captained Australia in six Tests : four wins , one loss , one draw .
Holder of the second most sixes in a Test career , with 100 sixes .
Holder of fourth fastest Test hundred ( 100 in 57 deliveries ) vs England , 16 December 2006 .
Holder of the second most Test dismissals by a wicketkeeper ( 416 ) , 4 February 2008 .
Holder of most Test centuries by a wicketkeeper ( 17 ) , 4 February 2008 .
= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match awards ( Test matches ) = = =
= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ series awards ( Test match series ) = = =
= = = ODI highlights = = =
ODI debut : vs South Africa , Faridabad , 1996 – 97 .
Holder of most ODI dismissals by a wicketkeeper ( 472 ) , as of 4 November 2011 .
Gilchrist 's best ODI batting score of 172 was made against Zimbabwe , Hobart , 2003 – 04 .
He has captained Australia in 15 ODIs : 11 wins , 4 losses .
Holder for record of second fastest ODI century by an Australian ( 100 from 67 deliveries against Sri Lanka on 14 February 2006 ) .
Holder of most ODI centuries by a wicketkeeper ( 15 ) , 4 February 2008 .
= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match awards ( ODIs ) = = =
= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ series awards ( ODI series ) = = =
= = = Twenty20 Centuries = = =
= = Career Best Performances = =
= Carom billiards =
Carom billiards , sometimes called carambole billiards or simply carambole ( and in some cases used as a synonym for the game of straight rail from which many carom games derive ) , is the overarching title of a family of billiards games generally played on cloth @-@ covered , 1 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 3 @.@ 0 @-@ metre ( 5 by 10 ft ) pocketless tables , which often feature heated slate beds . In its simplest form , the object of the game is to score points or " counts " by caroming one 's own cue ball off both the opponent 's cue ball and the object ball ( s ) on a single shot . The invention as well as the exact date of origin of carom billiards is somewhat obscure but is thought to be traceable to 18th @-@ century France .
There is a large array of carom billiards disciplines . Some of the more prevalent today and historically are ( chronologically by apparent date of development ) : straight rail , cushion caroms , balkline , three @-@ cushion billiards and artistic billiards . There are many other carom billiards games , predominantly intermediary or offshoot games combining elements of those already listed , such as the champion 's game , an intermediary game between straight rail and balkline , as well as games which are hybrids of carom billiards and pocket billiards , such as English billiards played on a snooker table and its descendant games , American four @-@ ball billiards , and cowboy pool .
= = Etymology = =
The word carom , which simply means any strike and rebound , was in use in reference to billiards by at least 1779 , sometimes spelled " carrom " . Sources differ on the origin . It has been pegged variously as a shortening of the Spanish and Portuguese word carambola , or the French word carambole , which are used to describe the red object ball . Some etymologists have suggested that carambola , in turn , was derived from a yellow @-@ to @-@ orange , tropical Asian fruit also known in Portuguese as a carambola ( which was a corruption of the original name of the fruit , karambal in the Marathi language of India ) , also known as star fruit . But this may simply be folk etymology , as the fruit bears no resemblance to a billiard ball , and there is no direct evidence for such a derivation .
In modern French , the word carambolage means ' successive collision ' , currently used mainly in reference to carom or cannon shots in billiards , and to multiple @-@ vehicle car crashes ) .
= = Equipment = =
= = = Cloth = = =
Cloth has been used to cover billiards tables since the 15th century . The predecessor company of the most famous maker of billiard cloth , Iwan Simonis , was formed in 1453 . Most cloth made for carom billiards tables is a type of baize that is dyed green , and is made from 100 % worsted wool , which provides a very fast surface allowing the balls to travel with little resistance across the table bed . The green color of cloth was originally chosen to emulate the look of grass , and has been so colored since the 16th century . However , as in green eyeshades , the color also serves a useful function : Humans have a higher light sensitivity to green than to any other color , so green cloth permits play for longer periods of time without eye strain .
= = = Balls = = =
Modern billiard balls are made from highly resilient plastics with a typical diameter of 61 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 42 in ) . They are significantly larger and heavier than their pocket billiards counterparts , ranging between 205 and 220 grams ( 7 @.@ 2 and 7 @.@ 8 oz ) with a typical weight of 210 g ( 7 @.@ 5 oz ) . While UMB , the International Olympic Committee @-@ recognized world carom billiards authority , technically permits balls as small as 61 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) , no major manufacturer produces such balls any longer , and the de facto standard is 61 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 42 in ) . The three standard balls in most carom billiards games consist of a completely white cue ball , a second cue ball with typically a red or black dot on it ( to aid in differentiation between the two cue balls ) , and a third , red ball . In some sets of balls , however , the second cue ball is solid yellow . Both types of ball sets are permitted in tournament play .
Billiard balls have been made from many different materials throughout the history of the game , including clay , wood , ivory , plastics ( including celluloid , Bakelite , crystalate , and phenolic resin , polyester and acrylic ) and even steel . The dominant material from 1627 until the early- to mid @-@ 20th century was ivory . The search for a substitute for ivory use was not for environmental concerns but based on economic motivation and fear of danger for elephant hunters . It was in part spurred on by a New York billiard table manufacturer who announced a prize of $ 10 @,@ 000 for a substitute material . The first viable substitute was celluloid billiard balls , invented by John Wesley Hyatt in 1868 , but the material was volatile and highly inflammable , sometimes exploding during manufacture .
= = = Cues = = =
Carom billiard cues have specialized refinements making them different from the typical pool cue with which many people are more familiar . Such cues tend to be shorter and lighter overall , with a shorter ferrule , a thicker butt and joint , a wooden joint pin ( in high @-@ end examples ) and collarless wood @-@ to @-@ wood joint ( for a one @-@ piece cue " feel " ) , a fast , conical taper , and a smaller tip diameter as compared with pool cues . Typical cues are 140 – 140 cm ( 54 – 56 in ) in length and 470 – 520 g ( 16 @.@ 5 – 18 @.@ 5 oz ) in weight — lighter for straight rail , heavier for three @-@ cushion — with a tip 11 – 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 43 – 0 @.@ 47 in ) in diameter . The specialization makes the cue significantly stiffer , which aids in handling the larger and heavier billiard balls as compared with pool cues . It also acts to reduce deflection ( sometimes called " squirt " ) , which may be defined as displacement of the cue ball 's path away from the parallel line formed by the cue stick 's direction of travel . It is a factor that occurs every time english ( side ) is employed , and its effects are magnified by speed . In some carom games , deflection plays a large role because many shots require extremes of english , coupled with great speed ; this is a combination typically minimized as much as possible , by contrast , in pool . The wood used in carom cues can vary widely , and most quality carom cues are handmade .
= = = Heated slate = = =
The slate bed of a billiard table is often heated to about 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) above room temperature , which helps to keep moisture out of the cloth to aid the balls rolling and rebounding in a consistent manner , and generally makes a table play faster . A heated table is required under international carom rules and is an especially important requirement for the games of three @-@ cushion billiards and artistic billiards . Heating table beds is an old practice . Queen Victoria ( lived 1819 – 1901 ) had a billiard table that was heated using zinc tubes , although the aim at that time was chiefly to keep the then @-@ used ivory balls from warping . The first use of electric heating was for an 18 @.@ 2 balkline tournament held in December 1927 between Welker Cochran and Jacob Schaefer , Jr . The New York Times announced it with fanfare : " For the first time in the history of world 's championship balkline billiards a heated table will be used ... "
= = History of games = =
= = = Straight rail = = =
Straight rail , sometimes referred to as carom billiards , straight billiards , the three @-@ ball game , the carambole game , and the free game in Europe , is thought to date to the 18th century , although no exact time of origin is known . It was known as French caroms , French billiards or the French game in early times , taking those bygone names from the French who popularized it . The object of straight rail is simple : one point , called a " count " , is scored each time a player 's cue ball makes contact with both object balls ( the second cue ball and the third ball ) on a single stroke . A win is achieved by reaching an agreed upon number of counts .
At straight rail 's inception there was no restriction on the manner of scoring . However , the technique of crotching , or freezing two balls into the corner where the rails meet — the crotch — vastly increasing counts , resulted in an 1862 rule which allowed only three counts before at least one ball had to be driven away . Techniques continued to develop which increased counts greatly despite the crotching prohibition , especially the development of a variety of " nurse " techniques . The most important of these , the rail nurse , involves the progressive nudging of the object balls down a rail , ideally moving them just a few centimeters on each count , keeping them close together and positioned at the end of each stroke in the same or near the same configuration such that the nurse can be replicated again and again .
Straight rail is still popular in Europe , where it is considered a fine practice game for both balkline and three @-@ cushion billiards . Additionally , Europe hosts professional competitions known as pentathlons after the ancient Greek Olympic competitions , in which straight rail is featured as one of five billiards disciplines at which players compete , the other four being 47 @.@ 1 balkline , cushion caroms , 71 @.@ 2 balkline and three @-@ cushion billiards .
Straight rail was played professionally in the US from 1873 to 1879 , but is uncommon there today .
= = = The champion 's game = = =
The new game appearing in 1879 , called the champion 's game or limited @-@ rail , is considered an intermediary game between straight rail and balkline and was designed with the specific intent of frustrating the rail nurse . The game employed diagonal lines — balklines — at the table 's corners to regions where counts were restricted , thus " cutting off four triangular spaces in the four corners , [ taking ] away 711 mm ( 28 in ) of the ' nursing ' surface of the end rails and 1 @,@ 422 mm ( 56 in ) on the long rails . " Ultimately , however , despite its divergence from straight rail , the champion 's game simply expanded the dimensions of the balk space defined under the existing crotch prohibition which was not sufficient to stop nursing .
= = = Balkline = = =
Balkline succeeded the champion 's game , adding more rules to curb nursing techniques . There are many variation of balkline but all divide the table into marked regions called balk spaces . Such balk spaces define areas of the table surface in which a player may only score up to a threshold number of points while the object balls are within that region .
In the balkline games , rather than drawing balklines a few inches from the corners , the entire table is divided into rectangular balk spaces , by drawing balklines a certain distance lengthwise and widthwise across the length of the table a set number of inches parallel out from each rail . This divides the table into eight rectangular balkspaces . Additionally , rectangles are drawn where each balkline meets a rail , called anchor spaces , which developed to stop a number of nursing techniques that exploited the fact that if the object balls straddled a balkline , no count limit was in place .
For the most part , the differences between one balkline game to another is defined by two measures : 1 ) the spacing of the balklines , and 2 ) the number of points that are allowed in each balk space before at least one ball must leave the region . Generally , balkline games , and their particular restrictions , are given numerical names indicating both of these characteristics ; the first number indicated either inches or centimeters depending on the game , and the second , after a dot , indicates the count restriction in balk spaces , which is always either one or two . For example , in 18 @.@ 2 balkline , one of the more prominent balkline games and of U.S. origin , the name indicates that balklines are drawn 18 inches distant from each rail , and only two counts are allowed ( before the first short , we call " entrée " and for the second short " dedans " ) in a balk space before a ball must leave ( in 18 @.@ 1 , we call directly the first short " dedans " ) . By contrast , in 71 @.@ 2 balkline , of French invention , lines are drawn 71 centimeters distant from each rail , also with a two count restriction for balk spaces .
Over its history balkline has had many variations including 8 @.@ 2 , 10 @.@ 2 , 12 @.@ 2 , 13 @.@ 2 , 12 ½ .2 , 14 @.@ 1 , 14 @.@ 2 , 18 @.@ 1 , 18 @.@ 2 , 28 @.@ 2 , 38 @.@ 2 , 39 @.@ 2 , 42 @.@ 2 , 45 @.@ 1 , 45 @.@ 2 , 47 @.@ 1 , 47 @.@ 2 , 57 @.@ 2 and 71 @.@ 2 balkline . In its various incarnations , balkline was the predominate carom discipline from 1883 to the 1930s when it was overtaken by three @-@ cushion billiards ( and pocket billiards ) . Balkline is popular in Europe and the Far East .
= = = Cushion caroms = = =
Cushion caroms , sometimes called by its original name , the indirect game , is traceable to 1820 's Britain and is a descendant of the doublet game dating to at least 1807 . The game is sometimes referred to as one @-@ cushion or one @-@ cushion billiards , which is the direct translation of its name into English from various other languages such as Spanish ( " una banda " ) and German ( " einband " ) .
The object of the game is to score cushion caroms , meaning a carom off of both object balls with at least one rail being struck before the hit on the second object ball . Cushions caroms was defunct for a number of years , but was revived in the late 1860s as another alternative to straight rail , for the same reasons that balkline developed , i.e. , as an alternative to the tedium engendered by the use of the " rail nurse " ( see above ) . Cushion caroms is still popular in Europe .
= = = Three @-@ cushion billiards = = =
In three @-@ cushion billiards , sometimes called three @-@ cushion carom , or carambole , the object is to carom off both object balls with at least three rail cushions being contacted before the contact of the cue ball with the second object ball . Three @-@ cushion is a very difficult game . Averaging one point per inning is professional @-@ level play , and averaging 1 @.@ 5 to 2 is world @-@ class play . An average of one means that for every turn at the table , a player makes 1 point and misses once , thus making a point on 50 % of his or her shots .
The origin of the game is not entirely known . It is undisputed that one Wayman Crow McCreery of St. Louis , Missouri popularized the game in the 1870s . At least one publication categorically states he invented the game as well . The first three @-@ cushion billiards tournament took place January 14 – 31 , 1878 in St. Louis , with McCreery a participant and New Yorker Leon Magnus the winner . The high run for the tournament was just 6 points , and the high average a 0 @.@ 75 . The game was infrequently played , with many top carom players of the era voicing their dislike of it , until after the 1907 introduction of the Lambert Trophy . By 1924 , three @-@ cushion had become so popular that two giants in other billiard disciplines agreed to take up the game especially for a challenge match . On September 22 , 1924 , Willie Hoppe , the world 's balkline champion ( who later took up three @-@ cushion with a passion ) , and Ralph Greenleaf , the world 's straight pool title holder , played a well advertised , multi @-@ day , match to 600 points . Hoppe was the eventual winner with a final score in of 600 – 527 .
Three @-@ cushion billiards retains great popularity in parts of Europe , Asia , and Latin America , and is the most popular carom billiards game played in the US today , where pool is far more widespread . The principal governing body of the sport is the Union Mondiale de Billard ( UMB ) . It had been staging world three @-@ cushion championships since the late 1920s . The International Olympic Committee @-@ recognized World Pool @-@ Billiard Association ( WPA ) cooperates with the UMB to keep their rulesets synchronized .
= = = Artistic billiards = = =
In artistic billiards , sometimes called fantasy billiards or ( in French ) fantaisie classique , players compete at performing 76 preset shots of varying difficulty . Each set shot has a maximum point value assigned for perfect execution , ranging from a 4 @-@ point minimum for lowest level difficulty shots , and climbing to an 11 @-@ point maximum for shots deemed highest in difficulty level . There is a total of 500 points available to a player . The governing body of the sport is the Confédération Internationale de Billard Artistique ( CIBA ) .
Each shot in an artistic billiards match is played from a well @-@ defined position ( in some venues within an exacting two millimeter tolerance ) , and each shot must unfold in an established manner . Players are allowed three attempts at each shot . In general , the shots making up the game — even 4 @-@ point shots — require a high degree of skill , devoted practice and specialized knowledge to perform .
World title competition first started in 1986 and required the use of ivory balls . However , this requirement was dropped in 1990 . The highest score ever achieved in world competition was 374 , by the Frenchman Jean Reverchon in 1992 , while the highest score in competition overall is 427 set by Belgian Walter Bax on March 12 , 2006 at a competition held in Deurne , Belgium , beating his own previous record of 425 . The game is played predominantly in western Europe , especially in France , Belgium and the Netherlands .
= = Competition disciplines = =
Triathlon : Straight rail , Balkline and One @-@ cushion or Balkline , One @-@ cushion und Three @-@ cushion ( like the actually ANAG Billiard Cup ) .
Pentathlon : Straight rail , Balkline ( 47 @.@ 2 & 71 @.@ 2 ) , One @-@ cushion and Three @-@ cushion .
= 2012 Hawaii Bowl =
The 2012 Sheraton Hawaii Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game held on December 24 , 2012 at Aloha Stadium in Honolulu , Hawaii in the United States . The eleventh edition of the Hawaii Bowl began at 3 : 00 p.m. HAST and aired on ESPN . It featured the SMU Mustangs from Conference USA against the Mountain West Conference co @-@ champion Fresno State Bulldogs , and was the final game of the 2012 NCAA Division I FBS football season for both teams . The Mustangs accepted their invitation after earning a 6 @-@ 6 record in the regular season , while the Bulldogs accepted their invitation after a 9 @-@ 3 regular season record .
The pre @-@ game buildup focused primarily on the strong rushing attacks of both teams as well as the overall sound offense of Fresno State . Most analysts predicted a resounding victory by Fresno State . The point spread favored Fresno State as 12 @-@ point favorites over the Mustangs . Contrary to predictions , SMU won the game by a score of 43 @-@ 10 , largely thanks to the play of defensive end Margus Hunt , who forced two fumbles and totaled three sacks ( including one safety ) as well as two interceptions that were returned for touchdowns . Consequently , Hunt and Fresno State 's Davante Adams , who totaled 13 receptions for 144 yards and a touchdown , were named the game 's co @-@ Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) .
= = Teams = =
Conference USA has had its tie @-@ in to the Hawaii Bowl ever since the game 's establishment in 2002 . The Mountain West Conference started its affiliation with the game when the hometown Hawaii Warriors moved to said conference ( previously , Hawaii , and said tie @-@ in , belonged to the Western Athletic Conference ) . In fact , Hawaii has an automatic bid to the bowl game should it be eligible ; however , because of its 3 @-@ 9 record in 2012 , it was not bowl @-@ eligible , leaving the spot to the fifth bowl @-@ eligible Mountain West team . The 2012 Hawaii Bowl was the seventh meeting between Fresno State and SMU , the last one coming in 2004 .
This was the Mustangs ' second Hawaii Bowl , following the 2009 game where they defeated the Nevada Wolf Pack by a score of 45 @-@ 10 ( SMU 's first bowl bid since playing in Hawaii in the 1984 Aloha Bowl , and their first since the program was relaunched in 1989 after being shut down for two years due to massive NCAA rules violations ) . It also was the Mustangs ' final game as a member of Conference USA before they moved to the Big East Conference in 2013 .
= = Pregame buildup = =
One of the keys to the game , according to ESPN.com blogger Matt Fortuna , was to stop the run . Both teams had 1 @,@ 000 + yard rushers ( Zach Line for SMU , Robbie Rouse for Fresno State ) , but SMU 's rush defense ( 24th in FBS ) was better than Fresno State 's ( 73rd in FBS ) . Many analysts predicted that Fresno State would emerge victorious , some going as far as to predict a blowout , but said that for SMU to emerge victorious , they would have to win the field position battle as well as create turnovers .
= = = Fresno State = = =
In their first season in the Mountain West , the Bulldogs became co @-@ champions with a 7 @-@ 1 conference record . This was the Bulldogs ' first appearance in the Hawaii Bowl . Coming into the 2012 season , Bulldogs ' coach Tim DeRuyter said that his team would challenge for a Mountain West Conference title . After making good on that promise , the Bulldogs attempted to achieve their first bowl victory since the 2007 Humanitarian Bowl . A victory in the Hawaii Bowl would have given Fresno State a 10 @-@ win season for the first time since 2001 , when quarterback Derek Carr 's older brother David was the Bulldogs ' quarterback .
= = = = Offense = = = =
Fresno State was led offensively by their quarterback , junior Derek Carr , who finished 14th in the country in quarterback rating ( 155 @.@ 9 ) , 8th in passing yards ( 4 @,@ 104 ) , and tied for 3rd in touchdowns ( 37 ) . Carr was named the Mountain West Conference Player of the Year and announced before the game that he would return to Fresno State to play his senior season . The Bulldogs were riding a five @-@ game winning streak coming into the game ; the fewest points they scored during any game of that streak was 42 . The Bulldogs ' rushing attack was led by 5 @-@ foot , 7 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) 190 @-@ pound ( 86 kg ) senior running back Robbie Rouse , who rushed for 1490 yards , which ranked 14th in the country . Rouse , who rushed for over 100 yards in nine games during the regular season , was also Fresno State 's second @-@ leading receiver ( in terms of receptions ) , catching the ball 63 times for 435 yards . Carr 's top target in the passing game was redshirt freshman wideout Davante Adams , who had broken several school records during his freshman year including becoming just the seventh freshman in school history to record over 100 yards receiving in a single game and setting the single @-@ game school record for a freshman by recording 12 receptions against Oregon . In total , Adams amassed 102 catches for 1312 yards and 14 touchdowns , all of which led the team . His efforts earned him a spot on Phil Steele 's fourth @-@ team All @-@ America squad and accolades as the Mountain West Conference Freshman of the Year . Fresno State 's starter at tight end was senior Marcel Jensen , who totaled 20 receptions for 339 yards and 4 touchdowns , all of which were career highs . Jensen was an honorable mention all @-@ conference honoree . The Bulldogs ' offensive line was anchored by junior left tackle Austin Wentworth , who achieved first @-@ team all @-@ conference honors .
= = = = Defense = = = =
Described as " well @-@ rounded and explosive " by SBNation.com , Fresno State 's defense was paramount to their success during the season . Their 3 @-@ 4 defense was installed by their first @-@ year coach , DeRuyter , and proved effective throughout the season . They finished third in the NCAA in interceptions , amassing 22 of them . 8 of those 22 interceptions came from Fresno State 's defensive leader , Mountain West Conference Defensive Player of the Year , first @-@ team All @-@ American , and NCAA leader in interceptions senior safety Phillip Thomas , who also recorded a career high 82 tackles and finished second on the team with 4 sacks , the second @-@ most by a defensive back in the country . Fresno State 's defense was also successful rushing the passer ; they finished ninth in the NCAA in sacks with 39 of them . Fresno State 's front seven was led by sophomore Tyeler Davison , who achieved first team all @-@ conference accolades and recorded six tackles for loss during the season . The Bulldogs ' leader in sacks was junior nose tackle Andy Jennings , who achieved 5 @.@ 5 of them . The Bulldogs ' linebackers were led by senior Travis Brown . Brown totaled 68 tackles and was a first team all @-@ conference selection .
= = = SMU = = =
Coming into the 2012 season , SMU was widely expected to finish third in the Conference USA West Division . They exceeded that expectation by finishing second in the C @-@ USA West and earning a bid to the Hawaii Bowl . A year after his season ended due to a foot injury , running back Zach Line was poised to have a breakout year and was expected to win the Conference USA Offensive Player of the Year award .
= = = = Offense = = = =
At quarterback , University of Texas transfer Garrett Gilbert started for the Mustangs and struggled ; he totaled a 53 % completion percentage , 15 touchdowns , and 15 interceptions , the latter of which was tied for ninth @-@ most in the NCAA . The Mustangs ' offensive leader was three @-@ time All @-@ Conference USA player and 2012 Conference USA Offensive Player of the Year running back Zach Line , who had totaled 4 @,@ 185 rushing yards and 37 touchdowns in his career coming into the game . Line was also the Mustangs ' fourth @-@ leading receiver ( in terms of receptions ) , totaling 33 for 229 yards . SMU 's wide receiving corps featured a trio of standouts : senior Darius Johnson , junior Jeremy Johnson , and sophomore Der 'rikk Thompson . The former Johnson , who is one of just two SMU players ever to record three 60 @-@ catch seasons , led the Mustangs with 787 receiving yards from 64 receptions which included 5 touchdowns . The latter Johnson totaled 67 receptions , which led the team , for 679 yards and 3 touchdowns . Thompson , who led the trio by averaging 13 @.@ 0 yards per reception , caught the ball 41 times for 535 yards and 4 touchdowns during the regular season . Coach June Jones ' spread offense did not employ a tight end , and none were on the roster for the Mustangs . The Mustangs ' offensive line was led by senior Bryan Collins , who achieved 2nd team all @-@ conference honors .
= = = = Defense = = = =
The Mustangs were defensively anchored by senior defensive end Margus Hunt , who achieved eight sacks en route to a first @-@ team all @-@ conference selection . Prior to the game , there was significant hype surrounding the defensive matchup between Fresno State 's Davante Adams and SMU 's cornerback junior Kenneth Acker , who intercepted the ball three times during the season . Acker achieved second @-@ team all @-@ conference accolades . SMU 's defense also had an all @-@ conference honoree in the linebacking corps , senior Ja 'Gared Davis , who totaled 77 tackles during the season . The Mustangs were prolific in turnovers and led the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) in interceptions returned for touchdowns ( 8 ) , tied for fourth in interceptions ( 21 ) , and finished third in total takeaways ( 37 ) . Despite their success with turnovers , the Mustangs were far more mediocre in scoring defense , in which they allowed 25 @.@ 7 points per game ( tied for 54th nationally ) , and total defense , in which they gave up 396 @.@ 1 yards per game ( 62nd nationally ) .
= = Game summary = =
= = = Game notes = = =
= = = = First quarter = = = =
SMU received the ball to start the game and marched down the field on an 8 @-@ play , 52 @-@ yard drive highlighted by a 37 @-@ yard run by quarterback Garrett Gilbert to set up a 41 @-@ yard field goal attempt by Chase Hover which he missed . Fresno State 's subsequent drive lasted only two series and ended in a punt . The remainder of the first quarter 's drives ended in punts . There were a total of three drives that went three @-@ and @-@ out in the quarter , two by SMU and one by Fresno State .
= = = = Second quarter = = = =
SMU struck first in the second quarter via a 17 @-@ yard rush from Gilbert , their quarterback , to put the Bulldogs up 7 @-@ 0 . Fresno State 's ensuing drive started with a first down , but ended when quarterback Derek Carr was sacked by SMU defender Margus Hunt ; Hunt forced a fumble that was recovered by the Mustangs at the Fresno State 16 @-@ yard line . SMU gained only three yards on their drive , but due to their excellent field position , kicker Chase Hover was able to convert a 30 @-@ yard field goal making it 10 @-@ 0 .
Fresno State 's offensive woes continued on their next drive . On second down , Carr was sacked for a loss of 18 yards to the 6 @-@ yard line . On third down , Hunt recorded another sack which resulted in a safety to make the score 12 @-@ 0 SMU . Zach Line rushed for an 8 @-@ yard touchdown to cap an 11 @-@ play , 67 @-@ yard drive after the safety . This made the score 19 @-@ 0 .
Hunt continued his fantastic first @-@ half performance on Fresno State 's next drive , forcing running back Robbie Rouse to fumble . It was recovered by safety Taylor Reed . Hover kicked a 48 @-@ yard field goal to make the score 22 @-@ 0 . Fresno State finally started to put together a solid drive at the end of the half including three consecutive first @-@ down passes from Carr to Isaiah Burse for 16 yards , Greg Watson for 12 yards , and Davante Adams for 33 yards respectively that set up first and goal at the three @-@ yard line with 0 : 39 remaining in the half . The Bulldogs failed to execute , however , and ended the half without scoring at all . The final play of the half was a pass to tight end Marcel Jensen in the end zone , but he dropped the ball , thus ending the scoring threat .
= = = = Third quarter = = = =
Since SMU had received the ball to start the game , Fresno State got possession to start the second half . The first play from scrimmage of the half was a 38 @-@ yard pass from Carr to Burse which got the Bulldogs up to the Mustangs ' 41 @-@ yard line . The drive stalled from there , however , after a six @-@ yard loss on a pass play , a false start penalty , a pass completed for no gain , and an incomplete pass . After a 42 @-@ yard punt that was returned for 4 yards , SMU was set up at their 14 @-@ yard line . The ensuing drive for SMU showed promise after they got into Bulldog territory , but an interception by Sean Alston returned for 50 yards to the SMU 15 ended any chance of scoring for the Mustangs . Fresno State finally put points on the board after setting up in the red zone ; Carr threw a 6 @-@ yard pass to Adams making the score 22 @-@ 7 after Quentin Breshears tacked on the point after . On the ensuing drive , SMU ran 7 plays for 75 yards in 3 : 20 in a drive that culminated with a 21 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Gilbert to Darius Johnson ; the drive included a 27 @-@ yard rush by Zach Line as well as a 19 @-@ yard pass from Gilbert to Der 'rikk Thompson . After the TD , the score was 29 @-@ 7 SMU . The teams then exchanged punts for the remainder of the quarter .
= = = = Fourth quarter = = = =
Fresno State was able to run a 7 @-@ play , 72 @-@ yard drive to begin the fourth quarter that culminated with a 32 @-@ yard field goal by Breshears making the score 29 @-@ 10 . Any chance of a Bulldog comeback was quashed after Carr threw two interceptions returned for touchdowns to Reed and Hayden Greenbauer , the latter of which came with just 1 : 14 to play . The final score was 43 @-@ 10 , the Mustangs victorious .
= = = = Post @-@ game = = = =
SMU 's resounding victory was considered an upset , and during the game , the Mustangs set a single @-@ season record for most interceptions returned for a touchdown ( 8 ) , surpassing the 2011 Southern Miss Golden Eagles football team . Margus Hunt was named the game 's Most Valuable Player because of his two @-@ forced fumble , three @-@ sack ( including one safety ) performance . In total , the Mustangs achieved seven sacks , the most Fresno State had surrendered in a single game all year . Davante Adams ' third @-@ quarter touchdown reception lengthened his streak to eight consecutive games with a touchdown reception , tying a Fresno State record that was set by Henry Ellard in 1982 .
= = = Scoring summary = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = = = Team statistics = = = =
= = = = Individual statistics = = = =
= = = = = Passing = = = = =
= = = = = Rushing = = = = =
= = = = = Receiving = = = = =
Source :
= SM U @-@ 21 ( Germany ) =
SM U @-@ 21 was a U @-@ boat built for the Imperial German Navy shortly before World War I. The third of four Type U @-@ 19 @-@ class submarines , these were the first U @-@ boats in German service to be equipped with diesel engines . U @-@ 21 was built between 1910 and October 1913 at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig . She was armed with four torpedo tubes and a single deck gun , though a second was added during her career .
In September 1914 , U @-@ 21 became the first submarine to sink a ship with a self @-@ propelled torpedo when she destroyed the cruiser HMS Pathfinder off the Firth of Forth . She also sank several transports in the English Channel and the Irish Sea later in the year , all in accordance with the cruiser rules then in effect . In early 1915 , U @-@ 21 was transferred to the Mediterranean Sea to support the Ottoman Empire against the Anglo @-@ French attacks during the Gallipoli Campaign . Shortly after her arrival , she sank the British battleships HMS Triumph and HMS Majestic while they were bombarding Ottoman positions at Gallipoli . Further successes followed in the Mediterranean in 1916 , including the sinking of the French armored cruiser Amiral Charner in February .
Throughout 1916 , U @-@ 21 served in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as U @-@ 36 , since Germany was not yet at war with Italy and thus could not legally attack Italian warships under the German flag . She returned to Germany in March 1917 to join the unrestricted commerce war against British maritime trade . In 1918 , she was withdrawn from front line service and was employed as a training submarine for new crews . She survived the war and sank while under tow by a British warship in 1919 .
= = Design = =
U @-@ 21 was 64 @.@ 15 meters ( 210 @.@ 5 ft ) long overall with a beam of 6 @.@ 10 m ( 20 @.@ 0 ft ) and a height of 8 @.@ 10 m ( 26 @.@ 6 ft ) . She displaced 650 metric tons ( 640 long tons ; 720 short tons ) surfaced and 837 t ( 824 long tons ; 923 short tons ) submerged . The boat 's propulsion system consisted of a pair of 8 @-@ cylinder 2 @-@ stroke diesel engines manufactured by MAN SE for use on the surface and two electric double motor @-@ dynamos built by AEG for use while submerged . U @-@ 21 and her sister boats were the first German submarines to be equipped with diesel engines . The electric motors were powered by a bank of two 110 @-@ cell batteries . U @-@ 21 could cruise at a top speed of 15 @.@ 4 knots ( 28 @.@ 5 km / h ; 17 @.@ 7 mph ) on the surface and 9 @.@ 5 knots ( 17 @.@ 6 km / h ; 10 @.@ 9 mph ) submerged . Steering was controlled by a pair of hydroplanes forward and another pair aft , and a single rudder .
U @-@ 21 was armed with four 50 @-@ centimeter ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , which were supplied with a total of six torpedoes . One pair was located in the bow and the other was in the stern . She was initially fitted with a machine gun for use on the surface , but by the end of 1914 this was replaced with a 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 gun . In 1916 , a second 8 @.@ 8 cm gun was added . U @-@ 21 had a crew of four officers and twenty @-@ five enlisted sailors .
= = Service history = =
U @-@ 21 was built at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig ( now Gdańsk , Poland ) . She was laid down in 1910 and launched on 8 February 1913 . After fitting @-@ out work was completed , she was commissioned into the fleet on 22 October 1913 .
= = = North Sea operations = = =
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , U @-@ 21 was based at the island of Heligoland in the German Bight , commanded by Kapitänleutnant ( Captain Lieutenant ) Otto Hersing . In early August , Hersing took U @-@ 21 on a patrol into the Dover Straits but he found no British vessels . On 14 August U @-@ 21 went on a second patrol , this time in company with her sister boats U @-@ 19 and U @-@ 22 , to the northern North Sea between Norway and Scotland . The patrol was an attempt to locate the British blockade line and gather intelligence , but they spotted only a single cruiser and a destroyer off the Norwegian coast . Hersing attempted to enter the Firth of Forth — a major Royal Navy fleet base — later in the month but was unsuccessful .
On 5 September 1914 , U @-@ 21 encountered the British scout cruiser HMS Pathfinder off the Isle of May . Hersing had surfaced his U @-@ boat to recharge his batteries when a lookout spotted smoke from Pathfinder 's funnels on the horizon . U @-@ 21 submerged to make an attack , but Pathfinder turned away on her patrol line ; U @-@ 21 could not hope to keep up with the cruiser while submerged , so Hersing broke off the chase and resumed recharging his batteries . Shortly thereafter , Pathfinder reversed course again and headed back toward U @-@ 21 . Hersing maneuvered into an attack position and fired a single torpedo , which hit Pathfinder just aft of her conning tower . The torpedo detonated one of the cruiser 's magazines , which destroyed the ship in a large explosion . The British were able to lower only a single lifeboat before Pathfinder sank . Other survivors were found clinging to wreckage by torpedo boats that rushed to the scene . Pathfinder was the first warship to be sunk by a modern submarine . A total of 261 sailors were killed in the attack .
U @-@ 21 caught the French steamer SS Malachite on 14 November ; after forcing the ship to stop and examining her cargo manifest , Hersing ordered the crew to abandon ship before he sank Malachite with his deck gun . U @-@ 21 's next success came three days later with the British collier SS Primo , which he also sank in accordance with the cruiser rules that governed commerce raiding . These two ships were the first vessels to be sunk in the restricted German submarine offensive against British and French merchant shipping .
On 22 January , Hersing took his U @-@ boat through the Dover Barrage in the Channel before turning into the Irish Sea . He shelled the airfield on Walney Island , though a coastal battery quickly forced him to withdraw . The next day , U @-@ 21 stopped the collier SS Ben Cruachan ; after evacuating her crew , the Germans sank her with scuttling charges . Later that day , U @-@ 21 stopped and sank the steamers SS Linda Blanche and SS Kilcuan . In both cases , Hersing adhered to the prize rules , including flagging down a passing trawler to pick up the ships ' crews . After these successes , U @-@ 21 withdrew from the area to avoid the British patrols that would arrive in the aftermath of the sinkings . After passing back through the Dover Barrage , U @-@ 21 cruised back to Wilhelmshaven .
= = = In the Mediterranean 1915 – 17 = = =
In April 1915 , U @-@ 21 was transferred to the Mediterranean Sea to support Germany 's ally , Turkey . She left Kiel on 25 April , and the first leg of the voyage , from Germany to Austria @-@ Hungary , took eighteen days . Hersing took his submarine north around Scotland to avoid the Dover patrols , and rendezvoused with the supply ship SS Marzala off Cape Finisterre to refuel . Unfortunately for the Germans , Marzala carried poor quality crude oil that could not be burned in the boat 's diesel engines ; U @-@ 21 had less than half of her fuel supply remaining , and was only halfway on the voyage to Austria @-@ Hungary . Hersing was forced to run his U @-@ boat on the surface to conserve fuel , which increased the risk of detection by Allied forces . While en route the Germans managed to escape from patrolling British and French torpedo boats and transport ships that might have reported their location .
U @-@ 21 finally arrived in Cattaro on 13 May , with only 1 @.@ 8 t ( 1 @.@ 8 long tons ; 2 @.@ 0 short tons ) of fuel left in her tanks — she had left Germany with 56 t ( 55 long tons ; 62 short tons ) . She spent a week at the Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine bases at Pola and Cattaro in mid @-@ May , where she was visited by Georg von Trapp , an Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boat commander . Several other German submarines joined U @-@ 21 in the following months , after calls for assistance from the Ottoman ground forces on the Gallipoli peninsula , who were taking heavy casualties from the bombardments from Allied warships . These U @-@ boats included U @-@ 33 , U @-@ 34 , U @-@ 35 , and U @-@ 39 .
U @-@ 21 arrived in her operational area off Gallipoli on 25 May ; that day , she encountered the British pre @-@ dreadnought battleship HMS Triumph . Hersing brought his U @-@ boat to within 300 yards ( 270 m ) of his target and fired a single torpedo , which hit Triumph . U @-@ 21 then dived under the sinking battleship to escape the destroyers hunting her . Hersing then took his boat to the sea floor to wait for the Allied forces to abandon the chase . After twenty @-@ eight hours on the sea floor , U @-@ 21 surfaced to recharge her batteries and bring in fresh air . On 27 May , Hersing attacked and sank his second battleship , HMS Majestic . This time , the British had attempted to protect her with torpedo nets and several small ships , but Hersing was able to aim a torpedo through the defenses . Majestic sank in the span of four minutes . These two successes brought significant dividends : all Allied capital ships were withdrawn to protected anchorages and were thus unable to bombard Ottoman positions on the peninsula . For these two successes , the crew of U @-@ 21 was awarded the Iron Cross by Kaiser Wilhelm II , while Hersing himself received the Pour le Mérite , Germany 's highest award for valor .
After sinking Majestic , Hersing took his submarine to refuel at a Turkish port before attempting the dangerous route through the Dardanelles to Constantinople . While transiting the straits , U @-@ 21 was nearly pulled into a whirlpool but the Germans managed to escape . After arriving in the Ottoman capital , the crew were given a large welcoming ceremony attended by Enver Pasha . U @-@ 21 required significant maintenance , and so the crew was given a month of shore leave while the repairs were carried out . Once the repair work was finished , U @-@ 21 sortied through the Dardanelles for another patrol . Hersing spotted the Allied munitions ship Carthage , which he sank with a single torpedo . Later on the patrol , a lookout on an Allied trawler spotted U @-@ 21 's periscope ; the Germans had to crash dive to escape from being rammed , but doing so brought them into a minefield . One mine exploded off the U @-@ boat 's stern but it caused no significant damage , and U @-@ 21 was able to withdraw to Constantinople .
U @-@ 21 thereafter moved to the Black Sea where she and UB @-@ 14 served as the nucleus of the newly formed Black Sea Flotilla . In September , U @-@ 21 undertook another patrol in the eastern Mediterranean . In the meantime , the Allies had finally managed to establish a complete blockade of the Dardanelles with mines and nets to prevent submarines from operating out of Constantinople . Unable to return to Constantinople , Hersing instead took his U @-@ boat back to Cattaro . Germany would not be in a formal state of war with Italy until August 1916 . As a result , German U @-@ boats could not legally attack Italian ships , despite the fact that Italy was at war with Austria @-@ Hungary . To circumvent this restriction , German submarines operating in the Mediterranean were commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , though their German crews remained aboard . Following her arrival in Cattaro , U @-@ 21 was commissioned as the Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ 36 . She served under this name until Italy declared war on Germany on 27 August 1916 .
In the meantime , U @-@ 36 began to have further successes against Allied maritime trade . On 1 February 1916 , she sank the British steamer SS Belle of France . A week later , U @-@ 36 torpedoed and sank the French armored cruiser Amiral Charner off the Syrian coast . The cruiser sank quickly with heavy loss of life ; 427 men went down with their ship . In the spring of 1916 , while patrolling off Sicily , U @-@ 36 encountered an Allied Q @-@ ship , an auxiliary cruiser disguised as an unarmed merchant ship . U @-@ 36 fired a shot across the Q @-@ ship 's bow , but it refused to stop and returned fire with a small deck gun . Hersing decided to close and sink the ship , which then revealed her heavy armament . Wounded by shell splinters , Hersing withdrew his submarine under cover of a smoke screen before submerging .
On 30 April , Hersing sank the British steamer City of Lucknow . He sank three small , Italian sailing vessels off Corsica between 26 and 28 October , and on 31 October U @-@ 21 sent the 5 @,@ 800 t ( 5 @,@ 700 @-@ long @-@ ton ) steamship Glenlogan to the bottom . Over the next three days , another four Italian ships — the steamships Bernardo Canale and Torero and two small sailing vessels — were sunk off Sicily . On 23 December , U @-@ 21 torpedoed the British steamer SS Benalder east of Crete , but the ship managed to reach Alexandria .
= = = Return to the North Sea = = =
In early 1917 , U @-@ 21 was recalled to Germany to join the unrestricted submarine warfare campaign being waged against Britain . While en route , she stopped and sank a pair of British sailing vessels off Oporto on 16 February and another pair of Portuguese sailing ships the next day . On 20 February , U @-@ 21 sank the French steamer Cacique in the Bay of Biscay . Two days later in the Western Approaches , she finished off the Dutch steamer Bandoeng , which had been damaged by the submarine UC @-@ 5 on 15 February . Seven more ships followed Bandoeng that day . They included six more Dutch steamers — Eemland , Gaasterland , Jacatra , Noorderdijk , Zaandijk , and Menado — and the Norwegian steamer Normanna . On another patrol in late April , Hersing caught four more ships : the Norwegian Giskö and Theodore William on 22 April and Askepot on 29 April , along with the Russian Borrowdale on 30 April . Another Russian vessel , Lindisfarne , followed on 3 May . The British steamers Adansi and Killarney were sunk on 6 and 8 May , respectively . The Swedish Baltic , which proved to be Hersing 's last victory , was sunk on 27 June .
Hersing attacked a convoy of fifteen merchant ships escorted by fourteen destroyers in August south @-@ west of Ireland . He took U @-@ 21 between two of the escorting destroyers and briefly used his periscope to gauge the speed and course of the transports before firing two torpedoes and diving . Hersing reported both torpedoes hit and the destroyers immediately rushed to begin their depth charge attacks . After a five @-@ hour hunt , the destroyers withdrew to rejoin the convoy . The experience led Hersing to change tactics in future attacks on escorted convoys ; instead of attacking the ships from as far away as possible , he chose to fire his torpedoes at closer range and then dive under the transport ships , where the destroyers would be unable to launch their depth charges for fear of damaging the transports . As of 1918 , she was assigned to the III U @-@ boat Flotilla . Later in 1918 , the submarine was used as a training boat for new crews . She survived the war , but on 22 February 1919 , she accidentally sank in the North Sea while under tow to Britain , where she would be formally surrendered .
In the course of her commerce raiding , U @-@ 21 sank forty ships for a combined 113 @,@ 580 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and damaged two more for a total of 8 @,@ 918 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The ships sunk included two battleships and two cruisers .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
= Homer the Whopper =
" Homer the Whopper " is the season premiere of The Simpsons ' twenty @-@ first season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 27 , 2009 . In the episode , Comic Book Guy creates a new superhero called Everyman who takes powers from other superheroes . Homer is cast as the lead in the film adaptation . To get Homer into shape , the movie studio hires a celebrity fitness trainer , Lyle McCarthy , to help him . Homer gets into great shape and is really excited , but when McCarthy leaves to train another client , he starts over @-@ eating again and ultimately this leads to the film 's failure .
The episode was written by Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg , who are " obsessed " fans of the show , and directed by Lance Kramer . " Homer The Whopper " was intended to be a commentary on how Hollywood treats superhero films . Rogen also guest stars in the episode as the character Lyle McCarthy , making him the second guest star to both write an episode and appear in it ; Ricky Gervais was the first . " Homer the Whopper " has received mixed reviews from television critics and acquired a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 3 in its original broadcast .
= = Plot = =
Bart and Milhouse convince Comic Book Guy to publish a comic book he wrote titled Everyman , in which the title character can absorb superpowers from the characters of comic books he touches . The comic becomes an instant hit , and many Hollywood studios become interested in making it into a movie . Comic Book Guy agrees to let Everyman become a movie , but only if he can pick the star . When Comic Book Guy sees Homer , he considers Homer perfect for the role , as he wants Everyman to be played by a middle @-@ aged fat man . But the studio executives realize that audiences want a physically fit actor for the role , so they hire celebrity fitness trainer Lyle McCarthy to get Homer into shape . After a month , Homer becomes fit and the movie begins production .
Soon afterward , however , McCarthy leaves Homer for another client . Without McCarthy to keep him in shape , Homer starts eating again and gains all the weight back . Homer can no longer fit into his costume or even his trailer , and the movie begins to go over budget . The studio executives and Comic Book Guy worry that the film will not be successful . The final version of the movie features scenes with the fat Homer and the physically fit Homer merged , upsetting and confusing the audience . After the premiere of the film , McCarthy returns and offers to get Homer into shape again , which Homer accepts . The studio executives offer to let Comic Book Guy direct the sequel , on the condition that Comic Book Guy lie to the fans and say he liked the film . Though pleased by the offer , Comic Book Guy rejects it and openly criticizes the movie online , and thus it becomes a box office failure and Everyman is never adapted again .
= = Production = =
Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg , writers of the film Superbad , are " obsessed " fans of The Simpsons . After learning that The Simpsons executive producer James L. Brooks was a fan of Superbad , they decided to ask the producers of the show if they could write an episode . In 2006 , Ricky Gervais , co @-@ creator of The Office , received credit for writing the season 17 episode " Homer Simpson , This Is Your Wife " . Rogen and Goldberg " thought if [ Gervais ] got to write one , maybe [ they ] could try . " They were invited to The Simpsons writers room , where they pitched several episode ideas . One was accepted , and they wrote an outline with the help of some feedback from the regular writers .
Rogen commented that he and Goldberg wanted to show with the episode how Hollywood generally ruins superhero films . He said that " the whole joke is that Homer is cast to play a guy who 's an everyman and they try to make him into this physically fit guy . " Rogen also noted that the plot mirrors the situation he was in while working on the film The Green Hornet , when he had to lose weight and do physical training for his role . Show runner Al Jean commented that the writers tried not to repeat the comic book film theme from the " Radioactive Man " episode . Instead they decided to parody the fact that almost every comic book has been turned into a film . Jean commented that that scene in the episode in which the studio executives " are trying to think up an idea that hasn 't been done really is what they are doing these days [ in real life ] . "
The table read took place in August 2008 , and production on the episode began soon after that . Rogen later said that " we sat down for a read @-@ through and three hours later I 'm in a studio improv @-@ ing with Homer Simpson , it was the single greatest day of my life . " Rogen also guest stars in the episode as the character Lyle McCarthy , making him the second guest star to both write an episode and appear in it ; Gervais also appeared in the episode he wrote . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening also makes an appearance in the episode .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast in the United States on September 27 , 2009 , " Homer The Whopper " was watched in 8 @.@ 31 million homes and acquired a 4 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating / 12 % share . The rating was down seven percent from the previous season 's premiere , which was viewed in 9 @.@ 3 million homes the night it aired .
Since airing , " Homer The Whopper " has received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Steve Fritz of Newsarama called the episode " amazing " and commented that the " overall comic book theme was perfect . " Reviewers for TV Guide cited Matt Groening 's cameo , the dinner table scene , Homer trying to lose weight at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , and the opening scene where Bart questions Comic Book Guy about Spider @-@ Man as the highlights of the episode .
Robert Canning of IGN was positive about " Homer The Whopper " , giving it an 8 @.@ 6 / 10 rating . He commented that the first act of the episode was the strongest , while the others were weaker . Canning believed the reason for this was that the viewers have already seen Homer " struggle with his weight countless times , and Rogen 's trainer , though funny much of the time , will likely never be remembered as a classic guest role . " He added , however , that Rogen and Goldberg are able to find " a few new angles with the weight jokes , so it 's not a complete loss . " Overall , Canning thought " Homer The Whopper " was a good start to the twenty @-@ first season , and although the plot may not be very original , the writers added " freshness to the proceedings . " The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff did not think the script was as good as Gervais ' , but commented that Rogen and Goldberg " managed to make a mostly amusing season premiere . " He added that he thought the Hollywood satirizing featured in this episode had been overused on the show , but " the specificity of what the [ episode ] was making fun of — trainers who help stars slim down ( in this case , helping Homer slim down ) — went a long way toward making the episode palatable . " VanDerWerff concluded that while the episode " didn ’ t try anything new [ ... ] , [ he ] had fun with it all the same . "
= Overhill Cherokee =
Overhill Cherokee was the term for the Cherokee people located in their historic settlements in what is now the U.S. state of Tennessee in the Southeastern United States , on the west side of the Appalachian Mountains . This name was used by 18th @-@ century European traders and explorers from British colonies along the Atlantic coast , as they had to cross the mountains to reach these settlements .
Situated along the lower Little Tennessee , lower Tellico , and lower Hiwassee rivers , the Overhill towns rose to prominence within the Cherokee Nation in the early 18th century , when they began to standardize trade with the British colonists . In the early part of the century , the Overhill towns ' remote location at the far end of the Trading Path meant they were reached only by those traders and explorers adventurous enough to make the difficult journey to the interior over the mountain range . By the middle of the century , the Overhill towns were consistently courted by both British and French emissaries , as the two powers struggled for the control of the continent and the lucrative fur trade .
During and following the American Revolutionary War , in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , the westward thrust of Euro @-@ American settlement led to the decline of the Overhill towns . The Cherokee were forced to cede most of their lands in this area through a series of unfavorable treaties with the United States , and they migrated to the south and west away from settler pressure for a time .
The Overhill town of Chota , in present @-@ day Monroe County , Tennessee , was recognized as the de facto capital of the entire Cherokee Nation for most of the 18th century , when it was the major settlement . The town of Tanasi became the namesake for the state of Tennessee . Many prominent Cherokee leaders , including Attakullakulla , Oconastota , Nancy Ward , and Sequoyah , were born and raised in Overhill towns .
In the 1970s , most of the former Overhill sites were submerged by the impoundment of the Little Tennessee River in a Tennessee Valley Authority project . But , archaeologists conducted extensive excavations prior to this , during which they identified most of the Overhill towns and extracted thousands of artifacts , helping them develop volumes of invaluable information regarding the region 's Cherokee and pre @-@ Cherokee inhabitants . Different cultures of indigenous peoples had lived along the river for 12 @,@ 000 years .
= = Geographic area = =
The Overhill settlements were concentrated around three rivers at the base of the Great Smoky Mountains and the Unicoi Mountains , in what are now Monroe and Polk counties in Tennessee . The northernmost of these three rivers , the Little Tennessee , was the locus for a string of prominent Overhill settlements situated between modern @-@ day Vonore and Calderwood Dam . Other important settlements were situated along the Hiwassee River south of modern Etowah and along the Tellico River in modern Tellico Plains .
Although Native Americans used most of the Tennessee side of the Great Smoky Mountains primarily as a hunting ground , early Euro @-@ American explorers recalled abandoned villages and temporary hunting camps scattered around the region . These were often found in the game @-@ rich coves of the northern part of the range and near the junctions of major streams .
= = = Prominent Overhill villages = = =
Mialoquo ( Amaye 'le 'gwa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , on a now @-@ submerged island in the middle of the Little Tennessee River . This was just north of the modern U.S. Route 411 bridge . Mooney believed Mialoquo might have been the village of Nilaque , which the naturalist John Bartram recorded visiting . The term " Mialoquo " means " Great Island . " 35 @.@ 61534 ° N 84 @.@ 24048 ° W / 35 @.@ 61534 ; -84.24048
Tuskegee ( Taskigi ) – located at the confluence of the Tellico and Little Tennessee rivers south of modern @-@ day Fort Loudoun State Park . Tuskegee was the birthplace of Sequoyah , noted as the first person to independently create a written alphabet , which he did for the Cherokee language . 35 @.@ 59167 ° N 84 @.@ 20222 ° W / 35 @.@ 59167 ; -84.20222
Tomotley – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , adjacent to Toqua along the Little Tennessee River . Timberlake reported a councilhouse in Tomotley that would sound a " death hallow " to signify the return of a war party . 35 @.@ 57182 ° N 84 @.@ 18697 ° W / 35 @.@ 57182 ; -84.18697
Toqua ( Dakwa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , at the confluence of Toco Creek and the Little Tennessee River , just south of modern @-@ day Fort Loudoun State Park . 35 @.@ 56984 ° N 84 @.@ 17248 ° W / 35 @.@ 56984 ; -84.17248
Tanasi – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , adjacent to Chota along the Little Tennessee River . The town was the capital of the Overhill Cherokee c . 1721 – 1730 . The Little Tennessee was originally simply called the " Tennessee , " which was an alternate spelling of " Tanasi . " European @-@ American settlers eventually applied the name to the entire state . 35 @.@ 55005 ° N 84 @.@ 13374 ° W / 35 @.@ 55005 ; -84.13374
Chota ( Itsa 'sa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , along the Little Tennessee River , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of modern @-@ day Vonore . Chota was the de facto Cherokee capital in the mid @-@ 18th century , and birthplace of several prominent chiefs . At the time of Timberlake 's visit in 1761 , Chota consisted of a large councilhouse , which could seat 500 , and about 60 houses . The town 's name is sometimes spelled " Echota . " 35 @.@ 55507 ° N 84 @.@ 13104 ° W / 35 @.@ 55507 ; -84.13104
Citico ( Si 'tiku ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , at the confluence of Citico Creek and the Little Tennessee River . The town 's name is sometimes spelled " Settaco . " 35 @.@ 54887 ° N 84 @.@ 09891 ° W / 35 @.@ 54887 ; -84.09891
Chilhowee ( Tsu 'lun 'we ) – located in present @-@ day Blount and Monroe counties at the confluence of Abrams Creek and the Little Tennessee River . The junction of modern U.S. Route 129 and Foothills Parkway is nearby . 35 @.@ 55231 ° N 84 @.@ 00737 ° W / 35 @.@ 55231 ; -84.00737
Tallassee ( Ta 'lasi ) – located in present @-@ day Blount and Monroe counties along the Little Tennessee River , a mile or so downstream from the modern Calderwood Dam . The modern town of Tallassee is situated much further downstream , and its location should not be confused with that of the ancient village . The Cherokee Tallassee is sometimes referred to as " Tallassee Old Town . " 35 @.@ 50556 ° N 84 @.@ 00028 ° W / 35 @.@ 50556 ; -84.00028
Great Tellico ( Talikwa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , Tennessee , in Tellico Plains , where the Tellico River levels out at the base of the Unicoi Mountains . Great Tellico rose to prominence in early 18th century under its chief Moytoy . Sir Alexander Cuming , who visited the town in 1730 , reported that Great Tellico had the fiercest warriors of all the Overhill towns . Great Tellico 's sister town , Chatuga , was also located in the valley . 35 @.@ 36627 ° N 84 @.@ 28745 ° W / 35 @.@ 36627 ; -84.28745
Great Hiwassee ( Ayouwasi ) – located in present @-@ day Polk County , Tennessee , along the Hiwassee River at the base of the Unicoi Mountains , where the river levels into a fertile plain . The site has been developed as farmland . The term Hiwassee means " savanna " or " plain . " Hiwassee is sometimes called " Hiwassee Old Town . " 35 @.@ 24314 ° N 84 @.@ 58149 ° W / 35 @.@ 24314 ; -84.58149
= = = Trails and paths = = =
The Overhill settlements were connected by a series of well @-@ established Native American trails :
The Great Indian Warpath ran parallel to the base of the Appalachians , connecting the Overhill settlements to Cherokee villages in Georgia and Virginia .
The Trading Path ( later called the Unicoi Turnpike ) connected the Overhill towns with the Middle settlements in North Carolina , the Lower towns in South Carolina , and extended to Charleston , South Carolina .
The Warriors ' Path connected Hiwassee Old Town , Great Tellico , and Chota , which were the main villages along the three rivers in the Overhill country .
A branch of the Tuckaleechee and Southeastern Trail connected the Overhill towns along the Upper Little Tennessee with the Kitawha towns in North Carolina via Tuckaleechee Cove , Cades Cove and Ekaneetlee Gap ( near Gregory Bald ) .
The War Trace ran from the Upper Cherokee area , through southeast Kentucky , along Mason 's Creek or Mace 's Creek , and present @-@ day Viper , Kentucky , passing through the Overhill towns and reaching the Georgia Cherokee towns . It also had connections to the Warrior 's Path and the Cumberland Gap , Tennessee , area , and the Cherokee villages of Sullen Possum and Wildcat .
= = History = =
Early Euro @-@ American explorers in Southern Appalachia noted that the Cherokee were concentrated around three general regions . The " Lower Towns " were centered on the town of Keowee in the hills of South Carolina and northeastern Georgia . The " Middle Towns " were centered on Nequassee and Tassetchee amidst the Great Balsam Mountains and eastern Unicoi Mountains in western North Carolina . The Overhill Cherokee lived in settlements located between the Appalachian Mountains and the Tennessee Valley in what is now Tennessee . The Overhill capital , or " mother town , " shifted between Great Tellico , Tanasi , and Chota .
The Overhill settlements were established sometime between the late 16th century and the late 17th century , although scholars disagree as to a more exact timeframe . The major towns were well settled by the time the first Euro @-@ American explorers arrived in the late 17th century . The Overhill Cherokee were recognized as speaking a dialect distinctive from that found in the Middle and Lower towns , although all the people identified as Cherokee .
= = = Early accounts = = =
For most of the 17th century , the British colonies on the Atlantic coast dealt with the Cherokee via representatives of other tribes acting as middlemen . As the fur trade expanded in importance with rising demand in European markets , traders and trappers went to the Overhill settlements for direct contact with the Cherokee and other western tribes . In 1673 , Virginia merchants sent agents James Needham and Gabriel Arthur on a trip west of the Appalachians , hoping to open a direct trade route . While Needham was killed on the return trip , Arthur stayed behind . He later claimed to have accompanied the natives ( possibly the Cherokee ) on raids of Spanish settlements in Florida .
In 1725 , South Carolina sent Col. George Chicken on a diplomatic mission to the Overhill towns to address the issue of unlicensed traders , who were underselling merchants conducting business legally . Chicken arrived in Great Tellico in July . He described the village as " compact and thick settled ; " the town and tribe had long competed in the region with the Creek tribe . Chicken followed the Warriors ' Path north to the Little Tennessee River , where he met the " Head Warrior " of Tanasi and the chiefs of Citico and Tallassee .
= = = Alexander Cuming , 1730 = = =
Sir Alexander Cuming ( c . 1690 – 1775 ) arrived in Charleston , South Carolina in December 1729 . Although he lacked official diplomatic credentials , Cuming managed to convince several Charlestonians that he was an agent of King George II of Great Britain on a mission to gain the loyalty of the Cherokee . Cuming set out for the Overhill town of Tanasi in March 1730 , his stated goal being to gain the fabled " Crown of Tannassy . "
Cuming moved quickly along the Trading Path , interacting briefly with Lower and Middle chiefs . In just under a month , Cuming had crossed the Unicoi Mountains into the Overhill country , a dangerous place at the time due to the Cherokees ' ongoing war with the Creeks .
Years later colonial trader Ludovick Grant , who lived in Great Tellico and briefly accompanied Cuming during his tour , described the latter 's techniques . In each town , Cuming arranged a meeting with local Cherokee leaders . He arrived fully armed at the meeting at the town council house , in defiance of custom . There he made a prepared speech saying that he was a private citizen wishing only to see their country , and that if any Indians wished to return to England with him , he would take them . He asked them to join his party in a toast to the health of King George II , and to kneel in allegiance . He told his guides that he would have set fire to the townhouse and killed the assembled Indians if they refused .
During his stay in Great Tellico , Cuming was impressed by the display of its chief Moytoy . He described the encounter in his journal ( referring to his party in third person ) :
They arrived at great Telliquo in the Afternoon , saw the petrifying Cave , a great many Enemies Scalps brought in and put upon Poles at the Warriors Doors , made a Friend of the great Moytoy , and Jacob the Conjurer .
Cuming learned that Moytoy was trying to gain control of the entire Cherokee people , who were highly decentralized , with power associated with regional settlements . Cuming agreed to help Moytoy if the chief would help him get the Crown of Tanasi . On March 30 , 1730 , Cuming followed the Warriors ' Path from Great Tellico to Tanasi , which he found " pleasantly situated " along the Little Tennessee . Cuming met with the Tanasi Warrior , whom he understood to be the de facto leader of the Overhill at the time . After gaining the Tanasi Warrior 's allegiance , Cuming returned to Great Tellico . He accompanied Moytoy back across the Unicoi Mountains to Nequassee , and helped the chief be crowned as " Emperor of the Cherokee . "
Cuming returned to England on June 5 , 1730 , accompanied by several Cherokee and carrying a possum @-@ hair headdress , which he referred to as the " Crown of Tannassy . " Although he had planned to present the party and crown to King George II , a delegation from Charleston arrived claiming Cuming had defrauded them . While Cuming 's schemes led to his own downfall , his visit to the Overhill towns helped to solidify an alliance between the Cherokee and the English .
= = = Christian Priber , 1730s = = =
Around 1736 , Christian Priber , a German utopian idealist , reached Great Tellico . Although initially working as a French agent , Priber quickly abandoned his mission . He adopted Cherokee customs , learned the language , and quickly gained the tribe 's trust .
Priber attempted to organize Cherokee society in accordance with early 18th @-@ century European idealism . He promoted the idea that all things should be held in common , including wives and children . Claiming the English were fraudulent and greedy , he suggested moving the Cherokee capital to modern @-@ day Alabama , where it would be closer to the French colonial territory of La Louisiane . The English tried to arrest Priber in 1739 , but were prevented by the Cherokee . He was finally captured by the Creek people in 1743 and turned over to South Carolina authorities .
= = = Fort Loudoun , 1756 – 1760 = = =
At the outbreak of the Seven Years ' War ( or the French and Indian War as it was known in North America ) , the Cherokee aligned with the British . The Overhill towns agreed to provide military support , but asked that a fort be built to protect the area 's women and children while the warriors were away . In 1756 , the colonies dispatched Captain Raymond Demeré and engineer John DeBrahm to the area with several wagon loads of supplies for the construction of a fort along the Little Tennessee River . The fort , named after John Campbell , 4th Earl of Loudoun , stood at the junction of the Little Tennessee and the Tellico rivers . The Cherokee village of Tuskegee developed in its vicinity .
Shortly after the fort 's construction , relations between the English and the Cherokee soured . Several Cherokee returning home from battle were killed by settlers , and an increase in horse thefts created tension in Virginia . After a contingent of Cherokee chiefs were detained at Fort Prince George in late 1759 , the Cherokee , under Chief Standing Turkey , laid siege to Fort Loudoun . The fort 's garrison held out until August 1760 , when a lack of provisions forced them to surrender .
= = = Timberlake Expedition , 1761 = = =
The British colonies responded swiftly to the fall of Fort Loudoun . South Carolina sent Colonel James Grant against the Lower Towns , Virginia dispatched Colonel William Byrd to attack the Middle Towns in western North Carolina , and Colonel Adam Stephen detached from Byrd 's regiment and marched to Long Island on the Holston ( near modern @-@ day Kingsport , Tennessee ) with plans to attack the Overhill Towns . The Cherokee immediately sued for peace , which was granted . To help solidify the peace , Colonel Stephen dispatched Lieutenant Henry Timberlake and Sergeant Thomas Sumter to accompany a Cherokee delegation on a tour of the Overhill towns .
After a five @-@ day journey down the Holston , French Broad , and Little Tennessee rivers , Timberlake arrived in the Overhill town of Tomotley . There he was greeted by Ostenaco and witnessed a ceremonial return of a Cherokee war party . After smoking a peace pipe with Ostenaco , Timberlake proceeded southward to Chota , where he was met by some 400 Cherokee . Timberlake smoked a peace pipe with several tribal leaders , and recorded the layout and design of the town 's large council @-@ house .
The following day , Timberlake arrived in the town of Citico , where the residents greeted him with a long dance . After smoking a peace pipe with the town leader Cheulah , Timberlake proceeded southward to Chilhowee , where he gained similar assurances of peace . He returned via the trail to Long Island on the Holston . Timberlake 's journals , published in the 1760s , contain detailed descriptions of Cherokee councilhouses , residences , canoes , and other facets of everyday Cherokee life ; these were invaluable to historians .
= = = American Revolution = = =
At the close of the Seven Years ' War , Euro @-@ American settlers began trickling into east Tennessee from the eastern colonies . In 1772 , several pioneers negotiated a lease for Cherokee lands in northeast Tennessee and formed the Watauga Settlement . In spite of the agreement , tensions between the pioneers and the Cherokee rose steadily . By the outbreak of the American Revolution , the Cherokee were allied with the British against the rebellious American colonies , hoping to push the encroaching settlers out of their territory .
In 1776 , the Cherokee initiated a plan to drive the settlers out of the Washington District , North Carolina and invade Virginia . Virginia merchant , Isaac Thomas — later a co @-@ founder of Sevierville — was warned of the invasion by Nancy Ward , a Cherokee Beloved Woman . Thomas passed on the warning to the settlers , who prepared their defenses . The first prong of the attack , led by Dragging Canoe , was defeated by colonists at Heaton 's Station . The second prong , led by Abraham of Chilhowee , was routed at Fort Watauga . In response to these attacks , several thousand militia led by William Christian invaded the Overhill towns and burned Tuskegee and Citico . The Cherokee made peace shortly thereafter , under the Treaty of De Witt 's Corner . Chiefs Dragging Canoe and Ostenaco refused to sign another treaty , and fled south with their followers to continue the armed struggle , in what became known as the Cherokee – American wars .
In 1780 , while the North Carolina militia from the Washington District , often referred to as the " overhill militia " , were away at the Battle of Kings Mountain , the Cherokee launched sporadic raids against the settlers here . Upon returning , Colonel John Sevier , who had gained fame as a co @-@ commander at Kings Mountain , was dispatched , along with several thousand militia , to the south on a punitive expedition to the Overhill towns . After defeating the Cherokee in a fierce battle at Boyd 's Creek ( in modern @-@ day Sevier County ) , Sevier proceeded southward . He destroyed most of the remaining , lightly defended villages , including the capital of Chota .
= = = Cherokee – American wars = = =
After the Cherokee defeats at Heaton 's Station and Fort Watauga in 1776 , most Cherokee chiefs , including Attakullakulla and Oconastota , signed the Treaty of De Witt 's Corner . Dragging Canoe and Ostenaco refused to recognize this treaty , claiming the settlers were unlikely to abide by the treaty 's terms . Along with several renegade tribesmen from across the Cherokee tribes , they moved south to Chickamauga Creek , in the vicinity of what is now Chattanooga , and set up a series of villages .
Settlers called them the " Chickamauga Cherokee " after their location and to distinguish them from the greater Cherokee tribe . The Chickamauga ( or " Lower Cherokee " as they were also sometimes called ) proceeded to carry on an unconventional war against the encroaching Euro @-@ American settlers , ambushing small patrols and attacking small settlements . After Oconastota 's death in the early 1780s , Chief Old Tassel was recognized as the leader of the Overhill Cherokee . He sought more distance from the Chickamauga . After an expedition by Sevier destroyed the Chickamauga towns in 1782 , Dragging Canoe moved the Chickamaugas southwest to modern @-@ day Marion County , Tennessee , where he continued his struggle .
The end of the Revolutionary War released more energy for postwar settlement from the eastern states , and the Cherokee had to contend with new migrants in their territories . In 1788 , a renegade band of Cherokees massacred much of the family of John Kirk on Nine Mile Creek ( in modern Blount County , Tennessee ) , enraging the already uneasy settlers . Sevier rallied the militia at Hunter 's Station ( near Maryville ) and marched across Chilhowee Mountain to the Little Tennessee River . After capturing and burning Tallassee , Sevier entered Chilhowee and placed Abraham of Chilhowee and Old Tassel under arrest , while negotiating a truce . One of Kirk 's surviving sons got to the chiefs and tomahawked both of them to death . The killing of chiefs under a flag of truce was considered a grave insult by the Cherokee , and this event revived the dwindling power of the Chickamaugas for warfare .
After the massacre at Chilhowee , John Watts ( Old Tassel 's son ) and Doublehead ( Old Tassel 's brother ) aligned with Dragging Canoe ; together they carried on a protracted series of attacks against the settlers . Sevier again marched south , capturing and burning several villages before being forced to turn back . Although Dragging Canoe died in 1792 , John Watt and Doublehead continued to make sporadic attacks against Euro @-@ American settlements . Such raids gradually shifted and were conducted against settlements in the Cumberland region .
= = = Tellico Agency = = =
After the assassination of Old Tassel in 1788 , Chief Hanging Maw was recognized as the leader of the Overhill towns . With violence spiraling out of control , Hanging Maw petitioned the territorial governor , William Blount , for a fort to protect the peaceful Overhill villages from vengeful settlers . In 1794 , Hanging Maw donated land at the junction of Nine Mile Creek and the Little Tennessee River to the U.S. government for the construction of the Tellico Blockhouse .
Along with a small garrison of federal soldiers , the Tellico Blockhouse was the headquarters of the Tellico Agent , William Blountt , he official liaison between the U.S. and the Cherokee . On November 8 , 1794 , Blount met Hanging Maw ( representing the Overhill Cherokee ) and John Watt ( representing the Lower Cherokee ) to sign a treaty ending the Cherokee – American wars . Over the next ten years , the US made several other treaties with the Cherokee , persuading Cherokee leaders to cede large portions of land in East and Middle Tennessee , including the Overhill towns along the Little Tennessee , in an attempt to gain peace . With the cession of Overhill lands , the Cherokee Nation 's center of power shifted south to New Echota in Georgia . Settlers migrating throughout the Southeast kept up pressure to gain Cherokee lands .
= = Overhill sites today = =
In 1967 , the Tennessee Valley Authority began construction on Tellico Dam just above the mouth of the Little Tennessee . The impoundment created Tellico Lake and effectively flooded all of the original known Overhill sites along the Little Tennessee River . Before the flooding , the University of Tennessee conducted extensive archaeological excavations , identifying Chota 's townhouse and the grave of Oconastota . The site of Chota 's townhouse was covered with fill , raising it above water levels . A monument with eight pillars — one for the Cherokee Nation and each of its seven clans — was placed at the site along with the reinterred grave of Oconastota . Nearby , a small monument was erected marking the site of Tanasi , and recalling it as the root of the state 's name . Both sites are managed by the Eastern Band of the Cherokee .
Further upstream , Chilhowee Dam was named after the now @-@ submerged site of Chilhowee . Tennessee Reservoir Development Agency ( TRDA ) boat ramps have been named after the submerged former sites of Toqua and Tallassee . Abrams Creek , which traverses Cades Cove and empties into the Little Tennessee , is named after chief Abraham of Chilhowee .
In the 20th century , Fort Loudon was reconstructed by state teams , as well as a replica of a 17th @-@ century village dwelling of Tuskegee ; these are located within the Fort Loudoun State Park . The state park also manages the Tellico Blockhouse site , the foundations of which have been identified and marked . The Sequoyah Birthplace Museum , near Fort Loudoun in Vonore , is dedicated to the creator of the Cherokee alphabet . The Unicoi Trail , a cross @-@ country hiking trail , now connects the Sequoyah Museum with Murphy , North Carolina , roughly following the ancient Trading Path . The Frank H. McClung Museum at the University of Tennessee contains hundreds of Cherokee artifacts obtained from various excavations which the university has conducted in the Tennessee Valley over the past century .
= = Prominent Overhill Cherokee figures = =
Moytoy of Tellico ( c . 1687 – 1760 ) – headman at Great Tellico at the time of Cuming 's visit
Old Tassel ( Onitositaii ) ( c . 1700 – 1788 ) — headman of Toqua
Ostenaco ( c . 1700 – 1780 ) – head chief , Tomotley , at the time of Timberlake 's visit
Attakullakulla ( c.1710 – 1777 ) – born in Chota
Oconastota ( c . 1710 – 1783 ) – born and died in Chota
Jacob the Conjurer ( fl. ca . 1730 ) – in Great Tellico at the time of Cumming 's visit
Dragging Canoe ( c . 1738 – 1792 ) – born in Chota , onetime headman of Great Island Town
Nancy Ward ( c . 1738 – 1824 ) – born in Chota
John Watts ( 1753 – 1802 ) – nephew of Old Tassel , leader of the Chickamauga / Lower Cherokee after Dragging Canoe died in 1792 .
Moytoy of Citico ( 1759 – 1761 ) - began the Anglo @-@ Cherokee War
Sequoyah ( c . 1767 – 1843 ) – born in Tuskegee
Savanukah ; participated in the 1776 offensive into the Washington District , North Carolina , served as headman of the Overhills 1780 – 1781 .
Abraham of Chilhowee ( or Abram ) ( d . 1788 ) – led Cherokee assault against Fort Watauga in 1776
= Least weasel =
The least weasel ( Mustela nivalis ) , or simply weasel in the UK , is the smallest member of the genus Mustela and of the family Mustelidae ( as well as the smallest of the Carnivora ) , native to Eurasia , North America and North Africa , though it has been introduced to New Zealand , Australia , Malta , Crete , Bermuda , Madeira Island , the Azores , the Canary Islands , Sao Tome , the Falkland Islands , Argentina and Chile . It is classed as being of least concern by the IUCN , due to its wide distribution and presumed large population .
Least weasels from various parts of its range vary greatly in size . The body is slender and elongated and the legs and tail are relatively short . The colour varies geographically , as does the pelage type and length of tail . The dorsal surface , flanks , limbs and tail of the animal are usually some shade of brown while the underparts are white . The line delineating the boundary between the two colours is usually straight . At high altitudes and in the northern part of its range , the coat becomes pure white in winter . Eighteen subspecies are recognised .
Small rodents form the largest part of the least weasel 's diet , but it also kills and eats rabbits and other mammals , and occasionally birds , birds ' eggs , fish and frogs . Males mark their territories with olfactory signals and have exclusive home ranges which may intersect with or include several female ranges . Least weasels use pre @-@ existing holes to sleep , store food and raise their young . Breeding takes place in the spring and summer , and there is a single litter of about six kits which are reared exclusively by the female . Due to its small size , fierce nature and cunning behaviour , the least weasel plays an important part in the mythology and legend of various cultures .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The least weasel was given its scientific name Mustela nivalis by Carl Linnaeus in his 12th edition of Systema Naturae in 1766 . The type locality was Westrobothnia in Sweden . As an animal with a very wide distribution , the morphology of the least weasel varies geographically . The species was reviewed by Reichstein in 1957 and again by van Zyll de Jong in 1992 and Reig in 1997 . Youngman ( 1982 ) placed it in the subgenus Mustela while Abramov ( 1999 ) considered it should be included in the subgenus Gale . Based on skull characteristics , Reig ( 1997 ) proposed that the taxon should be split into four species , M. subpalmata , M. rixosa , M. vulgaris and M. eskimo . Abrimov and Baryshinikov ( 2000 ) disagreed , recognising only M. subpalmata as a separate species .
Within the genus Mustela , the least weasel is a relatively unspecialised form , as evidenced by its pedomorphic skull , which occurs even in large subspecies . Its direct ancestor was Mustela praenivalis , which lived in Europe during the Middle Pleistocene and Villafranchian . M. praenivalis itself was probably preceded by M. pliocaenica of the Pliocene . The modern species probably arose during the Late Pleistocene . The least weasel is the product of a process begun 5 – 7 million years ago , when northern forests were replaced by open grassland , thus prompting an explosive evolution of small , burrowing rodents . The weasel 's ancestors were larger than the current form , and underwent a reduction in size to exploit the new food source . The least weasel throve during the Ice Age , as its small size and long body allowed it to easily operate beneath snow , as well as hunt in burrows . It probably crossed to North America through the Bering land bridge 200 @,@ 000 years ago .
= = = Subspecies = = =
The least weasel has a high geographic variation , a fact which has historically led to numerous disagreements among biologists studying its systematics . Least weasel subspecies are divided into 3 categories :
The pygmaea – rixosa group ( small weasels ) : Tiny weasels with short tails , pedomorphic skulls , and pelts that turn pure white in winter . They inhabit northern European Russia , Siberia , the Russian Far East , Finland , northern Scandinavian Peninsula , Mongolia , northeastern China , Japan and North America .
The boccamela group ( large weasels ) : Very large weasels with large skulls , relatively long tails and lighter coloured pelts . Locally , they either do not turn white or only partially change colour in winter . They inhabit Transcaucasia , from western Kazakhstan to Semirechye and in the flat deserts of Middle Asia . They are also found in Morocco , Algeria , and Tunisia .
The nivalis group ( average weasels ) : Medium @-@ sized weasels , with tails of moderate length , representing a transitional form between the former two groups . They inhabit the middle and southern regions of European Russia , Crimea , Ciscaucasus , western Kazakhstan , southern and middle Urals and montane parts of Middle Asia , save for Koppet Dag .
As of 2005 , 18 subspecies are recognised .
= = Description = =
The least weasel has a thin , greatly elongated and extremely flexible body with a small , yet elongated , blunt @-@ muzzled head which is no thicker than the neck . The eyes are large , bulging and dark coloured . The legs and tail are relatively short , the latter constituting less than half the body length . The feet are armed with sharp , dark @-@ coloured claws , and the soles are heavily haired . The skull , especially that of the small rixosa group , has an infantile appearance when compared with that of other members of the genus Mustela ( in particular , the stoat and kolonok ) . This is expressed in the relatively large size of the cranium and shortened facial region . The skull is , overall , similar to that of the stoat , but smaller , though the skulls of large male weasels tend to overlap in size with those of small female stoats . There are usually four pairs of nipples but these are only visible in females . The baculum is short , 16 to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) , with a thick , straight shaft . Fat is deposited along the spine , kidneys , gut mesentries and around the limbs . The least weasel has muscular anal glands under the tail , which measure 7 by 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 by 0 @.@ 2 in ) , and contain sulphurous volatiles , including thietanes and dithiacyclopentanes . The smell and chemical composition of these chemicals are distinct from those of the stoat . The least weasel moves by jumping , the distance between the tracks of the fore and hind limbs being 18 to 35 cm ( 7 to 14 in ) .
Dimensions vary geographically , to an extent rarely found among other mammals . Least weasels of the vulgaris group , for example , may outweigh the smaller races by almost four times . In some large subspecies , the male may be 1 @.@ 5 times longer than the female . Variations in tail length are also variable , constituting from 13 – 30 % of the length of the body . Average body length in males is 130 to 260 mm ( 5 to 10 in ) , while females average 114 to 204 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 to 8 @.@ 0 in ) . The tail measures 12 to 87 mm ( 0 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 4 in ) in males and 17 to 60 mm ( 0 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) in females . Males weigh 36 to 250 g ( 1 @.@ 3 to 8 @.@ 8 oz ) , while females weigh 29 to 117 g ( 1 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 1 oz ) .
The winter fur is dense , but short and closely fitting . In northern subspecies , the fur is soft and silky , but coarse in southern forms . The summer fur is very short , sparser and rougher . The upper parts in the summer fur are dark , but vary geographically from dark @-@ tawny or dark @-@ chocolate to light pale tawny or sandy . The lower parts , including the lower jaw and inner sides of the legs , are white . There is often a brown spot at the corner of the mouth . The dividing line between the dark upper and light lower parts is usually straight but sometimes forms an irregular line . The tail is brown , and sometimes the tip is a little darker but it is never black . In the northern part of its range and at high altitudes , the least weasel changes colour in the winter , the coat becoming pure white and exhibiting a few black hairs in rare circumstances .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
The least weasel mates in April – July and there is a 34- to 37 @-@ day gestation period . In the Northern Hemisphere , the average litter size consists of 6 kits and these reach sexual maturity in 3 to 4 months . Males may mate during their first year of life , though this is usually unsuccessful . They are fecund in February – October , though the early stages of spermatogenesis do occur throughout the winter months . Anestrus in females lasts from September until February .
The female raises its kits without help from the male . They are 1 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 05 to 0 @.@ 16 oz ) in weight at birth . Newborn kits are born pink , naked , blind and deaf , but gain a white coat of downy fur at the age of 4 days . At 10 days , the margin between the dark upper parts and light under parts becomes visible . The milk teeth erupt at 2 to 3 weeks of age , at which point the young start to eat solid food , though lactation can last 12 weeks . The eyes and ears open at 3 to 4 weeks of age , and by 8 weeks , killing behaviour is developed . The family breaks up after 9 to 12 weeks . There is a single litter each year and least weasels can live for 7 or 8 years .
= = = Territorial and social behaviours = = =
The least weasel has a typical mustelid territorial pattern , consisting of exclusive male ranges encompassing multiple female ranges . The population density of each territory depends greatly on food supply and reproductive success , thus the social structure and population density of any given territory is unstable and flexible . Like the stoat , the male least weasel extends its range during spring or during food shortages . Its scent marking behaviour is similar to that of the stoat ; it uses faeces , urine and anal and dermal gland secretions , the latter two of which are deposited by anal dragging and body rubbing . The least weasel does not dig its own den , but nests in the abandoned burrow of another species such as a mole or rat . The burrow entrance measures about 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) across and leads to the nest chamber located up to 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) below ground . The nest chamber ( which is used for sleeping , rearing kits and storing food ) measures 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , and is lined with straw and the skins of the weasel 's prey .
The least weasel has four basic vocalisations ; a guttural hiss emitted when alarmed , which is interspersed with short screaming barks and shrieks when provoked . When defensive , it emits a shrill wail or squeal . During encounters between males and females or between a mother and kits , the least weasel emits a high @-@ pitched trilling . The least weasel 's way of expressing aggression is similar to that of the stoat . Dominant weasels exhibit lunges and shrieks during aggressive encounters , while subdominant weasels will emit submissive squeals .
= = = Diet = = =
The least weasel feeds predominantly on mouse @-@ like rodents , including mice , hamsters , gerbils and others . It usually does not attack adult hamsters and rats . Frogs , fish , small birds and bird eggs are rarely eaten . It can deal with adult pikas and gerbils , but usually cannot overcome brown rats and sousliks . Exceptional cases are known of least weasels killing prey far larger than themselves , such as capercaillie , hazel hen and hares . In England , a favoured prey item is the field vole ( Microtus agrestis ) . These have fluctuations in population size , and in years of abundance may form up to 54 % of the weasel 's diet . In years of scarcity , birds form a greater proportion of the diet and female least weasels may fail to breed .
Despite its small size , the least weasel is a fierce hunter , capable of killing a rabbit five to ten times its own weight . Although they are commonly taken , the rabbits are usually young specimens , and become an important food source during the spring , when small rodents are scarce and rabbit kits are plentiful . Male least weasels take a higher proportion of rabbits than females , as well as an overall greater variety of prey . This is linked to the fact that being larger , and having vaster territorial ranges than females , males have more opportunities to hunt a greater diversity of prey .
The least weasel forages undercover , to avoid being seen by foxes and birds of prey . It is adapted for pursuing its prey down tunnels , though it may also bolt prey from a burrow and kill it in the open . The least weasel kills small prey , such as voles , with a bite to the occipital region of the skull or the neck , dislocating the cervical vertebrae . Large prey typically dies of blood loss or circulatory shock . When food is abundant , only a small portion of the prey is eaten , usually the brain . The average daily food intake is 35 g ( 1 oz ) , which is equivalent to 30 – 35 % of the animal 's body weight .
= = = Predators and competitors = = =
The least weasel is small enough to be preyed upon by a range of other predators . Least weasel remains have been found in the excrement of red foxes , sables , steppe and forest polecat , stoats , eagle owls and buzzards . The owls most efficient at capturing | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
. It also occurs on Honshu and Hokkaido islands in Japan and on Kunashir , Iturup , and Sakhalin Islands in Russia .
The least weasel occupies a similar type of habitat as the stoat but it less often frequents wet places . It can be found in fields , open woodland , bushy or rocky areas , parks and gardens , and at altitudes of up to about 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) .
= = Conservation status = =
The least weasel has a very wide circumboreal range and a large total population and is therefore listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of " least concern " . Its chosen habitat is in areas of coarse vegetation and in some regions its numbers may be decreasing because of changes in agricultural practices , but altogether its population trend is thought to be steady . It is relatively common in Eurasia but less abundant in North America and is thought to be rare in the southeastern United States . It is subject to considerable variations in numbers in areas where its main rodent prey is liable to large population fluctuations . In years of rodent population booms , the least weasel numbers may rise by up to ten @-@ fold , only to slump again as prey becomes scarce again in the following years .
= = In folklore and mythology = =
The Ancient Macedonians believed that to see a least weasel was a good omen . In some districts of Macedon , women who suffered from headaches after having washed their heads in water drawn overnight would assume that a weasel had previously used the water as a mirror , but they would refrain from mentioning the animal 's name for fear that it would destroy their clothes . Similarly , a popular superstition in southern Greece had it that the least weasel had previously been a bride , who was transformed into a bitter animal which would destroy the wedding dresses of other brides out of jealousy . According to Pliny the Elder , the least weasel is the only animal capable of killing the basilisk ;
To this dreadful monster the effluvium of the weasel is fatal , a thing that has been tried with success , for kings have often desired to see its body when killed ; so true is it that it has pleased Nature that there should be nothing without its antidote . The animal is thrown into the hole of the basilisk , which is easily known from the soil around it being infected . The weasel destroys the basilisk by its odour , but dies itself in this struggle of nature against its own self .
The Chippewa believed that the least weasel could kill the dreaded wendigo giant by rushing up its anus . In Inuit mythology , the least weasel is credited with both great wisdom and courage , and whenever a mythical Inuit hero wished to accomplish a valorous task , he would generally change himself into a least weasel . According to Matthew Hopkins , a witch hunter general during the English Civil War , least weasels were the familiars of witches .
= Aseroe coccinea =
Aseroe coccinea is a species of stinkhorn fungus in the genus Aseroe . First reported in Japan in 1989 , it was not formally validated as a species until 2007 , the delay related to a publication error . The receptacle , or fruit body , begins as a partially buried whitish egg @-@ shaped structure , which bursts open as a hollow white stipe with reddish arms , then erupts and grows to a height of up to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) . It matures into a star @-@ shaped structure with seven to nine thin reddish tubular " arms " up to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) long radiating from the central area . The top of the receptacle is covered with dark olive @-@ brown spore @-@ slime , or gleba . A. coccinea can be distinguished from the more common species A. rubra by differences in the color of the receptacle , and in the structure of the arms . The edibility of the fungus has not been reported .
= = Taxonomy = =
The fungus was first described provisionally ( denoted by ad interim ) as Aseroe coccinea by the Japanese mycologists Yoshimi and Tsuguo Hongo in a 1989 publication with a Japanese description , based on a specimen collected on September 29 , 1985 in Utsunomiya , Tochigi Prefecture , Japan . The name , however , was not published validly ( nomen invalidum ) , according to Article 36 @.@ 1 of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature , which requires that " in order to be validly published , a name of a new taxon ( algal and all fossil taxa excepted ) must ... be accompanied by a Latin description or diagnosis or by a reference to a previously and effectively published Latin description or diagnosis " . Taiga Kasuya reexamined the type specimen and validated the species in a 2007 Mycoscience publication . The holotype specimen is kept at the National Museum of Nature and Science in Tokyo .
The specific epithet coccinea is derived from the Latin word coccineus , and means " bright red " . The mushroom 's Japanese name is Aka @-@ hitode @-@ take ( アカヒトデタケ ) .
= = Description = =
Like all Phallaceae species , A. coccinea begins its development in the form of a roughly spherical whitish " egg " that is 10 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) in diameter , lying on or partially submerged in the substrate . On the base of the egg is a white strand of mycelium . The exoperidium ( the outer tissue layer ) is white to cream @-@ colored with a fibrous surface . The inner layer is membranous , with a hyaline ( translucent ) endoperidium ( inner tissue layer ) . The slimy spore @-@ bearing mass , the gleba , is olive @-@ brown to greenish @-@ black , with a slightly fetid odor . When the mushroom is mature , it covers the upper surface of a disc on the top of the receptacle . The receptacle has a cylindrical stipe , 10 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) tall , 7 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) in diameter at the top , somewhat fusiform ( tapered at both ends ) or sometimes just tapered towards the base . The stipe is pale pink near the top , white to cream at the base , spongy in texture , and hollow . The top of the receptacle is flattened to form a disc that bears 7 – 9 , narrow , tapering " arms " . The arms consist of a single bright red tube @-@ like chamber , that is 4 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 39 in ) long and 0 @.@ 7 – 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 0 – 0 @.@ 1 in ) thick .
The thick @-@ walled spores are ellipsoid to cylindrical , and measure 4 – 5 by 2 – 2 @.@ 5 μm . They are hyaline ( translucent ) , have a smooth surface , and are sometimes truncated at the base . The peridium of the " egg " is divided into two distinct layers of tissue . The outer is up to 250 – 400 μm thick , and made of filamentous , interwoven hyphae measuring 2 @.@ 5 – 5 μm in diameter . These hyphae are thick @-@ walled , septate , and hyaline . Also present in this outer layer are thick @-@ walled pseudoparenchymatous cells ( angular , randomly arranged , and tightly packed ) that are 7 – 50 μm thick , spherical or nearly so , and yellowish @-@ brown to pale brown . The inner tissue layer of the peridium is 100 – 250 μm thick and made of elongated filamentous hyphae that are 2 – 5 μm in diameter . These thick @-@ walled hyphae are arranged in a roughly parallel fashion , septate , and hyaline . The receptacle consists of thick @-@ walled , roughly spherical pseudoparenchymatous cells 5 – 15 @.@ 5 μm thick , that contain intracellular pigment .
= = = Similar species = = =
A. coccinea closely resembles A. arachnoidea , but may be distinguished from the latter by its bright red arms , and its larger spores ( 4 – 5 by 2 @.@ 5 – 3 μm in A. coccinea compared with 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 by 1 @.@ 5 μm in A. arachnoidea ) . A. arachnoidea is known from Asia and West Africa . A. rubra is a relatively common pantropical species , and differs from A. coccinea in its reddish receptacle ( compared with pink to cream @-@ colored in A. coccinea ) and bifurcating arms that are typically multichambered .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Although Kasuya did not explicitly define the mode of nutrition for A. coccinea , most Phallaceae species are suspected to be saprobic — decomposers of wood and plant organic matter . The fruit bodies of A. coccinea , known only from temperate regions of Japan ( Tochigi Prefecture ) , grow solitarily or in groups on rice husks , straw , or dung . They are found from summer to autumn .
= Spit & Eggs =
" Spit & Eggs " is the ninth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fifty @-@ third episode overall . Written and directed by series creator Rob Thomas , the episode premiered on November 28 , 2006 , on The CW . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective .
In this episode , when the Greek system at Hearst College is suddenly reinstated , Veronica enlists the help of her friends in patrolling a party to look for date rape drugs . Eventually , she learns the identity of the Hearst serial rapist and puts herself in danger to catch him . In addition , Dean O 'Dell ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) acts increasingly erratically before he mysteriously appears dead in his office with a gunshot wound to the head . Meanwhile , Veronica and Logan ( Jason Dohring ) both deal with the emotional aftereffects of O 'Dell 's death .
" Spit & Eggs " was the second episode to be both written and directed by Thomas , who included several camera and prop changes that were not originally in the script . Series regular Tina Majorino returns to the series beginning in this episode after an absence since " My Big Fat Greek Rush Week " , a hiatus which was due to her filming Big Love . In addition , during production , the crew decided to change their narrative plan for the season , maintaining two of the shorter story arcs but removing the planned third .
The episode was viewed by 3 @.@ 44 million viewers in its initial airing , a series high . The episode received critical acclaim , with many critics praising the return of Mac and the increased role of peripheral characters , the resolution to the rape mystery , and the setup of the next major story arc . Eric Goldman of IGN praised the various plotlines converging , while Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club wrote that the plot twist " plays on everyone 's expectations . "
= = Plot synopsis = =
Beginning in medias res , while Piz ( Chris Lowell ) and Mac ( Tina Majorino ) are at a party , a bloodied Veronica stumbles to Piz ’ s door and collapses . The episode flashes back to two days earlier . As the Lilith House celebrates the end of the Greek system , Logan ( Jason Dohring ) abruptly breaks up with Veronica . Weevil helps Dean O ’ Dell ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) fix his TV . A man comes into the Dean ’ s office and implicitly threatens to remove his funding if the Greek system stays closed . The Dean tells Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) to track his wife , and Veronica sobs in the shower due to her breakup with Logan . The Dean unexpectedly reinstates the Greek system , to the delight of Dick ( Ryan Hansen ) . The Dean and Veronica spot a classified ad that states that a mysterious person will find his next victim at a party . After receiving an A on her paper , she visits Tim Foyle ( James Jordan ) and sees an investigation board . Veronica enlists Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) , Piz , and Mac for help in investigating an upcoming Pi Sig party .
At the party , Veronica notices that the “ rape coasters ” which test for date rape drugs do not actually work . Veronica , Mac , and Piz test various peoples ’ cups and find nothing . After Keith tells Dean O ’ Dell that his wife is cheating on him with Veronica ’ s criminology professor , he pulls out a gun . Wallace and Piz find a drink that was tested positive for GHB , and Wallace and Piz dash to her dorm . Dean O ’ Dell finds and enters into the room in which his wife and the criminology professor are carrying on their affair as Veronica learns that they have tracked the wrong girl . Just as Mercer ( Ryan Devlin ) ( the actual rapist ) is about to rape his next victim , he abruptly learns that Veronica has changed places with his victim . Veronica tases Mercer , and they have a quick fight before Veronica escapes . She is let into Moe ’ s ( Andrew McClain ) room .
Moe hands Veronica a drink . Immediately after discovering a picture of Mercer and Moe , Veronica experiences the effects of a date rape drug . She hides in the closet and struggles to remain conscious . Mercer and Moe enter the room and are about to miss her , but Veronica ’ s cell phone rings and they knock her out . Parker ( Julie Gonzalo ) calls attention to Mercer . In addition to a bomb threat against Hearst , Dean O ’ Dell notices his window being egged before a mysterious man enters and the Dean asks “ What are you doing here ? ” Keith arrests Mercer and Moe . Logan intentionally gets himself arrested so he can go into the cell with Mercer and Moe .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The episode was written and directed by series creator Rob Thomas , marking his seventh writing credit and second and final directing credit for the series ( after " Donut Run " ) . Starting with this episode , Thomas and the crew 's plan for the season changed — while they had initially scheduled three major story arcs for the season , this number was now bumped down to two , while the last few episodes would be standalone . The creative team decided that their choices for major mysteries had not worked since season one ; Thomas elaborated , " One feeling is that the big mysteries keep away the casual TV viewers , and the other is the thing that has been the least successful since season one [ … ] the big mysteries . " Thomas also recalled that his major design for the first season that was because Lilly had been murdered , everyone had a stake in the solving of the mystery and that the crew were finding it impossible to keep the same amount of emotional involvement since the first season ; Thomas thought that the new format would be a way of trying to return to a more emotionally driven format .
In addition , Thomas turned what was scheduled to be the third major mystery into a two @-@ episode storyline , with the last five episodes of the season being stand @-@ alone . He stated , " It seems like a good time to do it — a good fun test balloon . " Nevertheless , he confirmed that there would be ongoing stories in Veronica 's personal life . A week prior to the episode 's airing , Michael Ausiello received an advance screening of the episode , revealing several details that the network allowed him to divulge .
= = = Writing and directing = = =
On the Season Three DVD Commentary , Thomas remarks on his experience directing " Spit & Eggs " and shares his thoughts on several scenes of the episode . He called the scene in which Mercer attacks Veronica the one he was " happiest with for any number of reasons . " The scene was shot with 27 camera angles , the most for any Veronica Mars episode , and it took 10 or 11 hours to film . The scene also features a number of fake unicorns in various forms ; unicorns were an in @-@ joke among the cast and crew after one season 2 script involved Veronica calling a store " Unicornicopia . " While directing the scene , Thomas wanted to find an unusual weapon to be used , and " a unicorn struck [ him ] as funny . " The scene in which Moe removes the unicorn horn from Mercer 's leg was initially intended to be Moe bandaging Mercer , but Thomas thought that the final product would be more " interesting " while preparing for the scene .
Thomas included Piz dancing humorously at the fraternity party because he " could watch it over and over " , and there were roughly fifteen minutes of footage of him dancing . The band that plays at the party , the Diamond Smugglers , is from Thomas 's hometown of Austin , Texas , and they played at Thomas 's wedding and 40th birthday party . The scene near the end with Logan smashing a police car to get intentionally thrown in prison confused the crew , who doubted its artistic and technical plausibility . However , Thomas was pleased with the final output , and producer Dan Etheridge called it " one of the most compact and interesting visual storytelling pieces in the episode . " The episode went over budget . In this episode , Mac wears a shirt that says " Ask Me About My STD " , something which several critics commended for its comedic value . Thomas came up with the idea for the shirt and hired one of the other guest actors in the scene for another episode , commenting " It 's funny , I actually made that up , and I now have one , too . " In addition , because Thomas was so pleased with the acting in the scene from the boy who hands Mac a whiskey , he hired the actor for a role in a subsequent episode as an important witness to Dean O 'Dell 's death .
= = = Acting = = =
" Spit & Eggs " features the return of series regular Tina Majorino , who plays Mac on the show , after an absence of six episodes . Majorino had not appeared since the second episode of the season , " My Big Fat Greek Rush Week " . At the time , Majorino was also a series regular on the HBO series Big Love , so her schedule was difficult to determine . She stated : " It 's a little tough , but Big Love and Veronica Mars have both been really great about juggling the schedule so I could do both shows . " On October 24 , 2006 , the cast and crew were filming the episode . Because of this other commitment , Majorino appeared in eleven episodes of the season instead of the scheduled twelve . On that same date , Majorino revealed that she would be returning in " Spit & Eggs " , that it resolved the Hearst rapist storyline , and that it would introduce the show 's next major story arc . On her role in the episode and in the season as a whole in light of the events in the second season finale , Majorino commented , " It 's not like all of the sudden she 's over everything that happened . "
" Spit & Eggs " features the reveal that Mercer Hayes , played by Ryan Devlin , is the Hearst serial rapist . Devlin was unaware that he would be the perpetrator until reading the episode 's script ; he stated , " To tell you the truth , I 'm not even sure the writers knew where my story was headed . But I was happy to do it – it 's way more fun being bad than good ! " The episode also marks the final appearance by Ed Begley , Jr . , after his character is killed . The mystery surrounding his murder would be the next major story arc .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , the episode received 3 @.@ 44 million viewers , marking a series high and ranking 88th of 97 in the weekly rankings . Thomas was very pleased by the ratings .
The episode received critical acclaim , with many critics praising the return of Mac and the increased role of peripheral characters , the resolution to the rape mystery , and the setup of the next major story arc . Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode an 8 out of 10 , indicating that it was " great " . He wrote that " Spit & Eggs " was a welcome episode for longtime fans , as it involved several plots converging in a way that he found satisfactory . He praised the final few scenes , writing that the episode transitions well into the next mystery of Dean O 'Dell 's death by developing it slowly over the course of the season 's prior episodes , but he was more mixed towards the reveal of Mercer as the rapist , commenting " the ultimate revelation can 't help but be a little underwhelming , since not enough time has been spent on any of the credible suspects to really have a good handle on them or be invested in them one way or another . " Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , who was quite critical of the rape storyline in earlier episodes , said that the conclusion made the storyline slightly better overall . He praised the double reveal of Mercer and Moe as accomplices , stating , " That twist overall is effective because it plays on everyone 's expectations . The characters all believe there is a single culprit here . [ … ] It makes the revelations more plausible , while also making the need for those revelations less intense ( the two are related ) . "
Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B + " . Alan Sepinwall , on his blog What 's Alan Watching ? , was also relatively positive towards the episode . While calling the reveal of the rapist " out of left field " , he noted that there was some material in " My Big Fat Greek Rush Week " that pointed to this conclusion . In addition , he praised Parker rescuing Veronica and the start of the Dean O 'Dell mystery , writing " Rob quite cleverly threw the start of the new mystery into the tail end of the first one . " However , there were several plot issues that he found as well as that the nine @-@ episode storyline didn 't fully do the reveal justice , opining that Thomas and the crew had to rush to give the audience important information in this format . Cortney Martin of the Houston Chronicle enjoyed the major roles played by Wallace , Mac , Weevil , Piz , and Parker in the episode , writing " the show belongs to Veronica 's sidekicks this week . " Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune gave praise as well . While being lukewarm regarding the season as a whole , she thought that " Spit & Eggs " was " appropriately suspenseful . " In addition , she enjoyed that Veronica was less sarcastic and contemptuous in the episode , in contrast to previous episodes of the season .
Film.com praised the episode as well , lauding the in medias res opening scene , suspenseful tone , and Mac 's reappearance , and the setup for the next mystery arc , mong other aspects of the episode . Conversely , Keith McDuffee , writing for AOL TV , was more critical , calling it " way too fast for a partial season @-@ ender " , arguing that there were too many unanswered questions left after the episode 's conclusion .
= United Nations =
The United Nations ( UN ) is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co @-@ operation . A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations , the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict . At its founding , the UN had 51 member states ; there are now 193 . The headquarters of the United Nations is in Manhattan , New York City , and experiences extraterritoriality . Further main offices are situated in Geneva , Nairobi , and Vienna . The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states . Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security , promoting human rights , fostering social and economic development , protecting the environment , and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine , natural disaster , and armed conflict .
The United Nations Charter was drafted at a conference in April – June 1945 ; this charter took effect 24 October 1945 , and the UN began operation . The UN 's mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies . The organization participated in major actions in Korea and the Congo , as well as approving the creation of the state of Israel in 1947 . The organization 's membership grew significantly following widespread decolonization in the 1960s , and by the 1970s its budget for economic and social development programmes far outstripped its spending on peacekeeping . After the end of the Cold War , the UN took on major military and peacekeeping missions across the world with varying degrees of success .
The UN has six principal organs : the General Assembly ( the main deliberative assembly ) ; the Security Council ( for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security ) ; the Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) ( for promoting international economic and social co @-@ operation and development ) ; the Secretariat ( for providing studies , information , and facilities needed by the UN ) ; the International Court of Justice ( the primary judicial organ ) ; and the United Nations Trusteeship Council ( inactive since 1994 ) . UN System agencies include the World Bank Group , the World Health Organization , the World Food Programme , UNESCO , and UNICEF . The UN 's most prominent officer is the Secretary @-@ General , an office held by South Korean Ban Ki @-@ moon since 2007 . Non @-@ governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UN 's work .
The organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001 , and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize . Other evaluations of the UN 's effectiveness have been mixed . Some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development , while others have called the organization ineffective , corrupt , or biased .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
In the century prior to the UN 's creation , several international treaty organizations and conferences had been formed to regulate conflicts between nations , such as the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 . Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War , the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between countries . This organization resolved some territorial disputes and created international structures for areas such as postal mail , aviation , and opium control , some of which would later be absorbed into the UN . However , the League lacked representation for colonial peoples ( then half the world 's population ) and significant participation from several major powers , including the US , USSR , Germany , and Japan ; it failed to act against the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 , the Second Italo @-@ Ethiopian War in 1935 , the Japanese invasion of China in 1937 , and German expansions under Adolf Hitler that culminated in the Second World War .
= = = 1942 " Declaration of United Nations " by the Allies of World War II = = =
The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939 . The text of the " Declaration by United Nations " was drafted by President Franklin Roosevelt , British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , and Roosevelt aide Harry Hopkins , while meeting at the White House , 29 December 1941 . It incorporated Soviet suggestions , but left no role for France . " Four Policemen " was coined to refer four major Allied countries , United States , United Kingdom , Soviet Union , and China , which was emerged in Declaration by United Nations . Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries . " On New Year 's Day 1942 , President Roosevelt , Prime Minister Churchill , Maxim Litvinov , of the USSR , and T. V. Soong , of China , signed a short document which later came to be known as the United Nations Declaration and the next day the representatives of twenty @-@ two other nations added their signatures . " The term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration . One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom , which Stalin approved after Roosevelt insisted . By 1 March 1945 , 21 additional states had signed .
A JOINT DECLARATION BY THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA , THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND , THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS , CHINA , AUSTRALIA , BELGIUM , CANADA , COSTA RICA , CUBA , CZECHOSLOVAKIA , DOMINICAN REPUBLIC , EL SALVADOR , GREECE , GUATEMALA , HAITI , HONDURAS , INDIA , LUXEMBOURG , NETHERLANDS , NEW ZEALAND , NICARAGUA , NORWAY , PANAMA , POLAND , SOUTH AFRICA , YUGOSLAVIA
The Governments signatory hereto ,
Having subscribed to a common program of purposes and principles embodied in the Joint Declaration of the President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister of Great Britain dated August 14 , 1941 , known as the Atlantic Charter ,
Being convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life , liberty , independence and religious freedom , and to preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other lands , and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against savage and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world ,
DECLARE :
( 1 ) Each Government pledges itself to employ its full resources , military or economic , against those members of the Tripartite Pact and its adherents with which such government is at war .
( 2 ) Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto and not to make a separate armistice or peace with the enemies .
The foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are , or which may be , rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism .
During the war , the United Nations became the official term for the Allies . To join countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis .
= = = Founding the UN 1945 = = =
The United Nations was formulated and negotiated among the delegations from the Soviet Union , the UK , the US and China at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944 . After months of planning , the UN Conference on International Organization opened in San Francisco , 25 April 1945 , attended by 50 governments and a number of non @-@ governmental organizations involved in drafting the United Nations Charter . " The heads of the delegations of the sponsoring countries took turns as chairman of the plenary meetings : Anthony Eden , of Britain , Edward Stettinius , of the United States , T. V. Soong , of China , and Vyacheslav Molotov , of the Soviet Union . At the later meetings , Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden , Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong , and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov . " The UN officially came into existence 24 October 1945 , upon ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security Council — France , the Republic of China , the Soviet Union , the UK and the US — and by a majority of the other 46 signatories .
The first meetings of the General Assembly , with 51 nations represented , and the Security Council took place in London beginning 6 January 1946 . The General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the United Nations , and the facility was completed in 1952 . Its site — like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva , Vienna , and Nairobi — is designated as international territory . The Norwegian Foreign Minister , Trygve Lie , was elected as the first UN Secretary @-@ General .
= = = Cold War era = = =
Though the UN 's primary mandate was peacekeeping , the division between the US and USSR often paralysed the organization , generally allowing it to intervene only in conflicts distant from the Cold War . ( A notable exception was a Security Council resolution in 1950 authorizing a US @-@ led coalition to repel the North Korean invasion of South Korea , passed in the absence of the USSR . ) In 1947 , the General Assembly approved a resolution to partition Palestine , approving the creation of the state of Israel . Two years later , Ralph Bunche , a UN official , negotiated an armistice to the resulting conflict . In 1956 , the first UN peacekeeping force was established to end the Suez Crisis ; however , the UN was unable to intervene against the USSR 's simultaneous invasion of Hungary following that country 's revolution .
In 1960 , the UN deployed United Nations Operation in the Congo ( UNOC ) , the largest military force of its early decades , to bring order to the breakaway State of Katanga , restoring it to the control of the Democratic Republic of the Congo by 1964 . While travelling to meet with rebel leader Moise Tshombe during the conflict , Dag Hammarskjöld , often named as one of the UN 's most effective Secretaries @-@ General , died in a plane crash ; months later he was posthumously awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . In 1964 , Hammarskjöld 's successor , U Thant , deployed the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus , which would become one of the UN 's longest @-@ running peacekeeping missions .
With the spread of decolonization in the 1960s , the organization 's membership saw an influx of newly independent nations . In 1960 alone , 17 new states joined the UN , 16 of them from Africa . On 25 October 1971 , with opposition from the United States , but with the support of many Third World nations , the mainland , communist People 's Republic of China was given the Chinese seat on the Security Council in place of the Republic of China that occupied Taiwan ; the vote was widely seen as a sign of waning US influence in the organization . Third World nations organized into the Group of 77 coalition under the leadership of Algeria , which briefly became a dominant power at the UN . In 1975 , a bloc comprising the USSR and Third World nations passed a resolution , over strenuous US and Israeli opposition , declaring Zionism to be racism ; the resolution was repealed in 1991 , shortly after the end of the Cold War .
With an increasing Third World presence and the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in the Middle East , Vietnam , and Kashmir , the UN increasingly shifted its attention to its ostensibly secondary goals of economic development and cultural exchange . By the 1970s , the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its peacekeeping budget .
= = = Post @-@ Cold War = = =
After the Cold War , the UN saw a radical expansion in its peacekeeping duties , taking on more missions in ten years than it had in the previous four decades . Between 1988 and 2000 , the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled , and the peacekeeping budget increased more than tenfold . The UN negotiated an end to the Salvadoran Civil War , launched a successful peacekeeping mission in Namibia , and oversaw democratic elections in post @-@ apartheid South Africa and post @-@ Khmer Rouge Cambodia . In 1991 , the UN authorized a US @-@ led coalition that repulsed the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait . Brian Urquhart , Under @-@ Secretary @-@ General from 1971 to 1985 , later described the hopes raised by these successes as a " false renaissance " for the organization , given the more troubled missions that followed .
Though the UN Charter had been written primarily to prevent aggression by one nation against another , in the early 1990s the UN faced a number of simultaneous , serious crises within nations such as Somalia , Haiti , Mozambique , and the former Yugoslavia . The UN mission in Somalia was widely viewed as a failure after the US withdrawal following casualties in the Battle of Mogadishu , and the UN mission to Bosnia faced " worldwide ridicule " for its indecisive and confused mission in the face of ethnic cleansing . In 1994 , the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide amid indecision in the Security Council .
Beginning in the last decades of the Cold War , American and European critics of the UN condemned the organization for perceived mismanagement and corruption . In 1984 , the US President , Ronald Reagan , withdrew his nation 's funding from UNESCO ( the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization , founded 1946 ) over allegations of mismanagement , followed by Britain and Singapore . Boutros Boutros @-@ Ghali , Secretary @-@ General from 1992 to 1996 , initiated a reform of the Secretariat , reducing the size of the organization somewhat . His successor , Kofi Annan ( 1997 – 2006 ) , initiated further management reforms in the face of threats from the United States to withhold its UN dues .
In the late 1990s and 2000s , international interventions authorized by the UN took a wider variety of forms . The UN mission in the Sierra Leone Civil War of 1991 – 2002 was supplemented by British Royal Marines , and the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 was overseen by NATO.In 2003 , the United States invaded Iraq despite failing to pass a UN Security Council resolution for authorization , prompting a new round of questioning of the organization 's effectiveness . Under the current Secretary @-@ General , Ban Ki @-@ moon , the UN has intervened with peacekeepers in crises including the War in Darfur in Sudan and the Kivu conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo and sent observers and chemical weapons inspectors to the Syrian Civil War . In 2013 , an internal review of UN actions in the final battles of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009 concluded that the organization had suffered " systemic failure " . One hundred and one UN personnel died in the 2010 Haiti earthquake , the worst loss of life in the organization 's history .
= = Structure = =
The United Nations ' system is based on five principal organs : the General Assembly , the Security Council , the Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) , the Secretariat , and the International Court of Justice . A sixth principal organ , the Trusteeship Council , suspended operations in 1994 , upon the independence of Palau , the last remaining UN trustee territory .
Four of the five principal organs are located at the main UN Headquarters in New York City . The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague , while other major agencies are based in the UN offices at Geneva , Vienna , and Nairobi . Other UN institutions are located throughout the world . The six official languages of the United Nations , used in intergovernmental meetings and documents , are Arabic , Chinese , English , French , Russian , and Spanish . On the basis of the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations , the UN and its agencies are immune from the laws of the countries where they operate , safeguarding the UN 's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries .
Below the six organs sit , in the words of the author Linda Fasulo , " an amazing collection of entities and organizations , some of which are actually older than the UN itself and operate with almost complete independence from it " . These include specialized agencies , research and training institutions , programmes and funds , and other UN entities .
The United Nations obey the Noblemaire principle , which is binding on any organization that belongs to the united nations system . This principle calls for salaries that will draw and keep citizens of countries where salaries are highest , and also calls for equal pay for work of equal value independent of the employee 's nationality . Staff salaries are subject to an internal tax that is administered by the UN organizations .
= = = General Assembly = = =
The General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the United Nations . Composed of all United Nations member states , the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions , but emergency sessions can also be called . The assembly is led by a president , elected from among the member states on a rotating regional basis , and 21 vice @-@ presidents . The first session convened 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall Westminster in London and included representatives of 51 nations .
When the General Assembly votes on important questions , a two @-@ thirds majority of those present and voting is required . Examples of important questions include recommendations on peace and security ; election of members to organs ; admission , suspension , and expulsion of members ; and budgetary matters . All other questions are decided by a majority vote . Each member country has one vote . Apart from approval of budgetary matters , resolutions are not binding on the members . The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN , except matters of peace and security that are under consideration by the Security Council .
Draft resolutions can be forwarded to the General Assembly by eight committees :
General Committee – a supervisory committee consisting of the assembly 's president , vice @-@ president , and committee heads
Credentials Committee – responsible for determining the credentials of each member nation 's UN representatives
First Committee ( Disarmament and International Security )
Second Committee ( Economic and Financial )
Third Committee ( Social , Humanitarian , and Cultural )
Fourth Committee ( Special Political and Decolonization )
Fifth Committee ( Administrative and Budgetary )
Sixth Committee ( Legal )
= = = Security Council = = =
The Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries . While other organs of the United Nations can only make " recommendations " to member states , the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member states have agreed to carry out , under the terms of Charter Article 25 . The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council resolutions .
The Security Council is made up of fifteen member states , consisting of five permanent members — China , France , Russia , the United Kingdom , and the United States — and ten non @-@ permanent members — Angola ( term ends 2016 ) , Chad ( 2015 ) , Chile ( 2015 ) , Jordan ( 2015 ) , Lithuania ( 2015 ) , Malaysia ( 2016 ) , New Zealand ( 2016 ) , Nigeria ( 2015 ) , Spain ( 2016 ) , and Venezuela ( 2016 ) . The five permanent members hold veto power over UN resolutions , allowing a permanent member to block adoption of a resolution , though not debate . The ten temporary seats are held for two @-@ year terms , with member states voted in by the General Assembly on a regional basis . The presidency of the Security Council rotates alphabetically each month .
= = = Secretariat = = =
The UN Secretariat is headed by the Secretary @-@ General , assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide . It provides studies , information , and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings . It also carries out tasks as directed by the Security Council , the General Assembly , the Economic and Social Council , and other UN bodies .
The Secretary @-@ General acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the UN . The position is defined in the UN Charter as the organization 's " chief administrative officer " . Article 99 of the charter states that the Secretary @-@ General can bring to the Security Council 's attention " any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security " , a phrase that Secretaries @-@ General since Trygve Lie have interpreted as giving the position broad scope for action on the world stage . The office has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN organization and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus to global issues .
The Secretary @-@ General is appointed by the General Assembly , after being recommended by the Security Council , where the permanent members have veto power . There are no specific criteria for the post , but over the years it has become accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years , that the post shall be appointed on the basis of geographical rotation , and that the Secretary @-@ General shall not originate from one of the five permanent Security Council member states . The current Secretary @-@ General is Ban Ki @-@ moon , who replaced Kofi Annan in 2007 and was elected for a second term to conclude at the end of 2016 .
= = = International Court of Justice = = =
The International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) , located in The Hague , in the Netherlands , is the primary judicial organ of the UN . Established in 1945 by the UN Charter , the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice . The ICJ is composed of 15 judges who serve 9 @-@ year terms and are appointed by the General Assembly ; every sitting judge must be from a different nation .
It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague , sharing the building with the Hague Academy of International Law , a private centre for the study of international law . The ICJ 's primary purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states . The court has heard cases related to war crimes , illegal state interference , ethnic cleansing , and other issues . The ICJ can also be called upon by other UN organs to provide advisory opinions .
= = = Economic and Social Council = = =
The Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social co @-@ operation and development . ECOSOC has 54 members , which are elected by the General Assembly for a three @-@ year term . The president is elected for a one @-@ year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC . The council has one annual meeting in July , held in either New York or Geneva . Viewed as separate from the specialized bodies it co @-@ ordinates , ECOSOC 's functions include information gathering , advising member nations , and making recommendations . Owing to its broad mandate of co @-@ ordinating many agencies , ECOSOC has at times been criticized as unfocused or irrelevant .
ECOSOC 's subsidiary bodies include the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues , which advises UN agencies on issues relating to indigenous peoples ; the United Nations Forum on Forests , which co @-@ ordinates and promotes sustainable forest management ; the United Nations Statistical Commission , which co @-@ ordinates information @-@ gathering efforts between agencies ; and the Commission on Sustainable Development , which co @-@ ordinates efforts between UN agencies and NGOs working toward sustainable development . ECOSOC may also grant consultative status to non @-@ governmental organizations ; by 2004 , more than 2 @,@ 200 organizations had received this status .
= = = Specialized agencies = = =
The UN Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the UN can establish various specialized agencies to fulfill its duties . Some best @-@ known agencies are the International Atomic Energy Agency , the Food and Agriculture Organization , UNESCO ( United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ) , the World Bank , and the World Health Organization ( WHO ) . The UN performs most of its humanitarian work through these agencies . Examples include mass vaccination programmes ( through WHO ) , the avoidance of famine and malnutrition ( through the work of the WFP ) , and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people ( for example , by UNHCR ) .
= = Membership = =
With the addition of South Sudan 14 July 2011 , there are 193 United Nations member states , including all undisputed independent states apart from Vatican City . The UN Charter outlines the rules for membership :
Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace @-@ loving states that accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and , in the judgment of the Organization , are able and willing to carry out these obligations .
The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council . Chapter II , Article 4
In addition , there are two non @-@ member observer states of the United Nations General Assembly : the Holy See ( which holds sovereignty over Vatican City ) and the State of Palestine . The Cook Islands and Niue , both states in free association with New Zealand , are full members of several UN specialized agencies and have had their " full treaty @-@ making capacity " recognized by the Secretariat .
= = = Group of 77 = = =
The Group of 77 at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations , designed to promote its members ' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations . Seventy @-@ seven nations founded the organization , but by November 2013 the organization had since expanded to 133 member countries . The group was founded 15 June 1964 by the " Joint Declaration of the Seventy @-@ Seven Countries " issued at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development ( UNCTAD ) . The group held its first major meeting in Algiers in 1967 , where it adopted the Charter of Algiers and established the basis for permanent institutional structures .
= = Objectives = =
= = = Peacekeeping and security = = =
The UN , after approval by the Security Council , sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities . Since the UN does not maintain its own military , peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states . These soldiers are sometimes nicknamed " Blue Helmets " for their distinctive gear . The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988 .
In September 2013 , the UN had peacekeeping soldiers deployed on 15 missions . The largest was the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( MONUSCO ) , which included 20 @,@ 688 uniformed personnel . The smallest , United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan ( UNMOGIP ) , included 42 uniformed personnel responsible for monitoring the ceasefire in Jammu and Kashmir . UN peacekeepers with the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization ( UNTSO ) have been stationed in the Middle East since 1948 , the longest @-@ running active peacekeeping mission .
A study by the RAND Corporation in 2005 found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts . It compared efforts at nation @-@ building by the United Nations to those of the United States , and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace , as compared with four out of eight US cases at peace . Also in 2005 , the Human Security Report documented a decline in the number of wars , genocides , and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War , and presented evidence , albeit circumstantial , that international activism — mostly spearheaded by the UN — has been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict in that period . Situations in which the UN has not only acted to keep the peace but also intervened include the Korean War ( 1950 – 53 ) and the authorization of intervention in Iraq after the Gulf War ( 1990 – 91 ) .
The UN has also drawn criticism for perceived failures . In many cases , member states have shown reluctance to achieve or enforce Security Council resolutions . Disagreements in the Security Council about military action and intervention are seen as having failed to prevent the Bangladesh genocide in 1971 , the Cambodian genocide in the 1970s , and the Rwandan genocide in 1994 . Similarly , UN inaction is blamed for failing to either prevent the Srebrenica massacre in 1995 or complete the peacekeeping operations in 1992 – 93 during the Somali Civil War . UN peacekeepers have also been accused of child rape , soliciting prostitutes , and sexual abuse during various peacekeeping missions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Haiti , Liberia , Sudan and what is now South Sudan , Burundi , and Ivory Coast . Scientists cited UN peacekeepers from Nepal as the likely source of the 2010 – 13 Haiti cholera outbreak , which killed more than 8 @,@ 000 Haitians following the 2010 Haiti earthquake .
In addition to peacekeeping , the UN is also active in encouraging disarmament . Regulation of armaments was included in the writing of the UN Charter in 1945 and was envisioned as a way of limiting the use of human and economic resources for their creation . The advent of nuclear weapons came only weeks after the signing of the charter , resulting in the first resolution of the first General Assembly meeting calling for specific proposals for " the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction " . The UN has been involved with arms @-@ limitation treaties , such as the Outer Space Treaty ( 1967 ) , the Treaty on the Non @-@ Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons ( 1968 ) , the Seabed Arms Control Treaty ( 1971 ) , the Biological Weapons Convention ( 1972 ) , the Chemical Weapons Convention ( 1992 ) , and the Ottawa Treaty ( 1997 ) , which prohibits landmines . Three UN bodies oversee arms proliferation issues : the International Atomic Energy Agency , the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons , and the Comprehensive Nuclear @-@ Test @-@ Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission .
= = = Human rights = = =
One of the UN 's primary purposes is " promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race , sex , language , or religion " , and member states pledge to undertake " joint and separate action " to protect these rights .
In 1948 , the General Assembly adopted a Universal Declaration of Human Rights , drafted by a committee headed by Franklin D. Roosevelt 's widow , Eleanor , and including the French lawyer René Cassin . The document proclaims basic civil , political , and economic rights common to all human beings , though its effectiveness toward achieving these ends has been disputed since its drafting . The Declaration serves as a " common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations " rather than a legally binding document , but it has become the basis of two binding treaties , the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights . In practice , the UN is unable to take significant action against human rights abuses without a Security Council resolution , though it does substantial work in investigating and reporting abuses .
In 1979 , the General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women , followed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989 . With the end of the Cold War , the push for human rights action took on new impetus . The United Nations Commission on Human Rights was formed in 1993 to oversee human rights issues for the UN , following the recommendation of that year 's World Conference on Human Rights . Jacques Fomerand , a scholar of the UN , describes this organization 's mandate as " broad and vague " , with only " meager " resources to carry it out . In 2006 , it was replaced by a Human Rights Council consisting of 47 nations . Also in 2006 , the General Assembly passed a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples , and in 2011 it passed its first resolution recognizing the rights of LGBT people .
Other UN bodies responsible for women 's rights issues include United Nations Commission on the Status of Women , a commission of ECOSOC founded in 1946 ; the United Nations Development Fund for Women , created in 1976 ; and the United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women , founded in 1979 . The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues , one of three bodies with a mandate to oversee issues related to indigenous peoples , held its first session in 2002 .
= = = Economic development and humanitarian assistance = = =
Another primary purpose of the UN is " to achieve international co @-@ operation in solving international problems of an economic , social , cultural , or humanitarian character " . Numerous bodies have been created to work towards this goal , primarily under the authority of the General Assembly and ECOSOC . In 2000 , the 192 United Nations member states agreed to achieve eight Millennium Development Goals by 2015 .
The UN Development Programme ( UNDP ) , an organization for grant @-@ based technical assistance founded in 1945 , is one of the leading bodies in the field of international development . The organization also publishes the UN Human Development Index , a comparative measure ranking countries by poverty , literacy , education , life expectancy , and other factors . The Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) , also founded in 1945 , promotes agricultural development and food security . UNICEF ( the United Nations Children 's Fund ) was created in 1946 to aid European children after the Second World War and expanded its mission to provide aid around the world and to uphold the Convention on the Rights of the Child .
The World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) are independent , specialized agencies and observers within the UN framework , according to a 1947 agreement . They were initially formed separately from the UN through the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1944 . The World Bank provides loans for international development , while the IMF promotes international economic co @-@ operation and gives emergency loans to indebted countries .
The World Health Organization ( WHO ) , which focuses on international health issues and disease eradication , is another of the UN 's largest agencies . In 1980 , the agency announced that the eradication of smallpox had been completed . In subsequent decades , WHO largely eradicated polio , river blindness , and leprosy . The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS ( UNAIDS ) , begun in 1996 , co @-@ ordinates the organization 's response to the AIDS epidemic . The UN Population Fund , which also dedicates part of its resources to combating HIV , is the world 's largest source of funding for reproductive health and family planning services .
Along with the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement , the UN often takes a leading role in co @-@ ordinating emergency relief . The World Food Programme ( WFP ) , created in 1961 , provides food aid in response to famine , natural disasters , and armed conflict . The organization reports that it feeds an average of 90 million people in 80 nations each year . The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) , established in 1950 , works to protect the rights of refugees , asylum seekers , and stateless people . UNHCR and WFP programmes are funded by voluntary contributions from governments , corporations , and individuals , though the UNHCR 's administrative costs are paid for by the UN 's primary budget .
= = = Other = = =
Since the UN 's creation , over 80 colonies have attained independence . The General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples in 1960 with no votes against but abstentions from all major colonial powers . The UN works toward decolonization through groups including the UN Committee on Decolonization , created in 1962 . The committee lists seventeen remaining " Non @-@ Self @-@ Governing Territories " , the largest and most populous of which is Western Sahara .
Beginning with the formation of the UN Environmental Programme ( UNEP ) in 1972 , the UN has made environmental issues a prominent part of its agenda . A lack of success in the first two decades of UN work in this area led to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , which sought to give new impetus to these efforts . In 1988 , the UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , another UN organization , established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which assesses and reports on research on global warming . The UN @-@ sponsored Kyoto Protocol , signed in 1997 , set legally binding emissions reduction targets for ratifying states .
The UN also declares and co @-@ ordinates international observances , periods of time to observe issues of international interest or concern . Examples include World Tuberculosis Day , Earth Day , and the International Year of Deserts and Desertification .
= = Funding = =
The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states . The General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for each member . This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay , as measured by its gross national income ( GNI ) , with adjustments for external debt and low per capita income . The two @-@ year budget for 2012 – 13 was $ 5 @.@ 512 billion in total .
The Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be unduly dependent on any one member to finance its operations . Thus , there is a " ceiling " rate , setting the maximum amount that any member can be assessed for the regular budget . In December 2000 , the Assembly revised the scale of assessments in response to pressure from the United States . As part of that revision , the regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25 % to 22 % . For the least developed countries ( LDCs ) , a ceiling rate of 0 @.@ 01 % is applied . In addition to the ceiling rates , the minimum amount assessed to any member nation ( or " floor " rate ) is set at 0 @.@ 001 % of the UN budget ( $ 55 @,@ 120 for the two year budget 2013 @-@ 2014 ) .
A large share of the UN 's expenditure addresses its core mission of peace and security , and this budget is assessed separately from the main organizational budget . The peacekeeping budget for the 2015 – 16 fiscal year was $ 8 @.@ 27 billion , supporting 82 @,@ 318 troops deployed in 15 missions around the world . UN peace operations are funded by assessments , using a formula derived from the regular funding scale that includes a weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members , who must approve all peacekeeping operations . This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries . In 2013 , the top 10 providers of assessed financial contributions to United Nations peacekeeping operations were the United States ( 28 @.@ 38 % ) , Japan ( 10 @.@ 83 % ) , France ( 7 @.@ 22 % ) , Germany ( 7 @.@ 14 % ) , the United Kingdom ( 6 @.@ 68 % ) , China ( 6 @.@ 64 % ) , Italy ( 4 @.@ 45 % ) , the Russian Federation ( 3 @.@ 15 % ) , Canada ( 2 @.@ 98 % ) , and Spain ( 2 @.@ 97 % ) .
Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget , such as UNICEF and the World Food Programme , are financed by voluntary contributions from member governments , corporations , and private individuals .
= = Evaluations , awards , and criticism = =
A number of agencies and individuals associated with the UN have won the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of their work . Two Secretaries @-@ General , Dag Hammarskjöld and Kofi Annan , were each awarded the prize ( in 1961 and 2001 , respectively ) , as were Ralph Bunche ( 1950 ) , a UN negotiator , René Cassin ( 1968 ) , a contributor to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , and the US Secretary of State Cordell Hull ( 1945 ) , the latter for his role in the organization 's founding . Lester B. Pearson , the Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs , was awarded the prize in 1957 for his role in organizing the UN 's first peacekeeping force to resolve the Suez Crisis . UNICEF won the prize in 1965 , the International Labour Organization in 1969 , the UN Peace @-@ Keeping Forces in 1988 , the International Atomic Energy Agency ( which reports to the UN ) in 2005 , and the UN @-@ supported Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons in 2013 . The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was awarded in 1954 and 1981 , becoming one of only two recipients to win the prize twice . The UN as a whole was awarded the prize in 2001 , sharing it with Annan .
Since its founding , there have been many calls for reform of the United Nations but little consensus on how to do so . Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs , while others want its role reduced to humanitarian work . There have also been numerous calls for the UN Security Council 's membership to be increased , for different ways of electing the UN 's Secretary @-@ General , and for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly . Jacques Fomerand states the most enduring divide in views of the UN is " the North – South split " between richer Northern nations and developing Southern nations . Southern nations tend to favor a more empowered UN with a stronger General Assembly , allowing them a greater voice in world affairs , while Northern nations prefer an economically laissez @-@ faire UN that focuses on transnational threats such as terrorism .
After World War II , the French Committee of National Liberation was late to be recognized by the US as the government of France , and so the country was initially excluded from the conferences that created the new organization . The future French president Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN , famously calling it a machin ( " contraption " ) , and was not convinced that a global security alliance would help maintain world peace , preferring direct defence treaties between countries . Throughout the Cold War , both the US and USSR repeatedly accused the UN of favoring the other . In 1953 , the USSR effectively forced the resignation of Trygve Lie , the Secretary @-@ General , through its refusal to deal with him , while in the 1950s and 1960s , a popular US bumper sticker read , " You can 't spell communism without U.N. " In a sometimes @-@ misquoted statement , President George W. Bush stated in February 2003 ( referring to UN uncertainty towards Iraqi provocations under the Saddam Hussein regime ) that " free nations will not allow the United Nations to fade into history as an ineffective , irrelevant debating society . " In contrast , the French President , François Hollande , stated in 2012 that " France trusts the United Nations . She knows that no state , no matter how powerful , can solve urgent problems , fight for development and bring an end to all crises ... France wants the UN to be the centre of global governance . " Critics such as Dore Gold , an Israeli diplomat , Robert S. Wistrich , a British scholar , Alan Dershowitz , an American legal scholar , Mark Dreyfus , an Australian politician , and the Anti @-@ Defamation League consider UN attention to Israel 's treatment of Palestinians to be excessive . In September 2015 , Saudi Arabia 's Faisal bin Hassan Trad has been elected Chair of the United Nations Human Rights Council panel that appoints independent experts , a move criticized by human rights groups .
Critics have also accused the UN of bureaucratic inefficiency , waste , and corruption . In 1976 , the General Assembly established the Joint Inspection Unit to seek out inefficiencies within the UN system . During the 1990s , the US withheld dues citing inefficiency and only started repayment on the condition that a major reforms initiative was introduced . In 1994 , the Office of Internal Oversight Services ( OIOS ) was established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog . In 1994 , former Special Representative of the Secretary @-@ General of the UN to Somalia Mohamed Sahnoun published " Somalia : The Missed Opportunities " , a book in which he analyses the reasons for the failure of the 1992 UN intervention in Somalia , showing that , between the start of the Somali civil war in 1988 and the fall of the Siad Barre regime in January 1991 , the UN missed at least three opportunities to prevent major human tragedies ; when the UN tried to provide humanitarian assistance , they were totally outperformed by NGOs , whose competence and dedication sharply contrasted with the UN 's excessive caution and bureaucratic inefficiencies . If radical reform was not undertaken , warned Mohamed Sahnoun , then the UN would continue to respond to such crisis with inept improvisation . In 2004 , the UN faced accusations that its recently ended Oil @-@ for @-@ Food Programme — in which Iraq had been allowed to trade oil for basic needs to relieve the pressure of sanctions — had suffered from widespread corruption , including billions of dollars of kickbacks . An independent inquiry created by the UN found that many of its officials had been involved , as well as raising " significant " questions about the role of Kojo Annan , the son of Kofi Annan .
In evaluating the UN as a whole , Jacques Fomerand writes that the " accomplishments of the United Nations in the last 60 years are impressive in their own terms . Progress in human development during the 20th century has been dramatic and the UN and its agencies have certainly helped the world become a more hospitable and livable place for millions . " Evaluating the first 50 years of the UN 's history , the author Stanley Meisler writes that " the United Nations never fulfilled the hopes of its founders , but it accomplished a great deal nevertheless " , citing its role in decolonization and its many successful peacekeeping efforts . The British historian Paul Kennedy states that while the organization has suffered some major setbacks , " when all its aspects are considered , the UN has brought great benefits to our generation and ... will bring benefits to our children 's and grandchildren 's generations as well . "
= 12 Days =
12 Days is a debut graphic novel / global manga written and illustrated by June Kim . Basing the plot partially on a story told to her by a stranger , Kim began an early version of 12 Days as a sophomore in college to help herself cope with the end of a relationship . After moving on emotionally with her break @-@ up , she stopped developing the comic and later left South Korea to attend the School of Visual Arts in Manhattan , New York , United States , from which she graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in cartooning . Following her successful pitch of 12 Days to manga publisher Tokyopop , she resumed work on it in early 2005 and finished in the middle of August 2006 . 12 Days focuses on Jackie Yuen , who decides to drink the ashes of her former lover for twelve days in beverages as a way to cope with her grief over her death .
Tokyopop published 12 Days in North America on 7 November 2006 , to generally positive reviews . Critics praised the manga for its mature portrayal of grief and relationships , and its realistic artwork , although the choice of print for the dialogue was considered distracting . Reviewers also discussed the comic 's treatment of the issues of love , loss , and lesbian elements . In May 2011 , Tokyopop shut down its North American publishing branch , with the status of its original , global manga titles left unclear .
= = Plot = =
For the first eight chapters , 12 Days centers on Jackie Yuen , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old part Cantonese and part Korean editor . After the death of her former lover , the Korean American school nurse Noah Yoon , she decides to drink her ashes over twelve days in beverages as a way of coping with her grief . Nicholas " Nick " Yoon , Noah 's younger half brother , steals some of Noah 's ashes for her to use , and soon joins her in mourning . She reminisces on how she met her and became involved in a lesbian relationship ; however , Noah ended their relationship to marry a man to appease her father , and died returning from her honeymoon in a car accident a month ago . As Jackie continues her ritual , she begins to feel ill and eventually faints . Nick takes her to the hospital , where she recovers . On New Year 's Day , she parts from Nick and returns to her apartment to find that he has taken the engagement ring she had wanted to give Noah , and unknown to her , he mixes it in with the remaining ashes . 12 Days concludes with " Chapter 0 " , set before the events in the rest of the comic : Noah finds Nick studying for exams , and they briefly discuss Artemisia II of Caria , an ancient Greek queen who drank the ashes of her husband . Noah then hints that she has found someone whose ashes she would drink .
= = Style and issues = =
June Kim , the author and illustrator for 12 Days , primarily drew the artwork in the realism style , although she occasionally rendered characters as super @-@ deformed versions of themselves . While the cover art incorporates red and silver coloring , the artwork primarily appears in black and white , with occasional gray shading . Kim used pen and ink as the artistic medium , then toned her art with the software application ComicStudio . For the narrative , she explores the characters ' pasts through dreams , and periodic , nonlinear flashbacks . Several character traits , such as Jackie 's chocolate allergy , are presented to the reader through inference rather than exposition . Additionally , Kim uses a brief , untranslated Korean song alongside the predominantly English text .
Critics have focused on the issues of love and loss . 12 Days primarily deals with " a love affair and its aftermath , " according to Dirk Deppey of The Comics Journal . He considered it " a meditation on loss , " which explores " a relationship neither fully ended nor easily forgotten by either party . " Theron Martin of Anime News Network considered it a story about " trying to find a way to cope with a devastating loss " . According to Katherine Dacey , the former senior manga editor for PopCultureShock , 12 Days contains " lovely , quiet observations about the way we grieve , define family , express desire , and remember moments of hurt and betrayal . " Johanna Draper Carlson , a reviewer for Publishers Weekly , wrote that Jackie 's action of consuming the ashes serves as " a transition period , a way to indulge her grief and then a time to be able to be herself again . " AfterEllen.com 's editor @-@ in @-@ chief Karman Kregloe stated that the comic " explores the impact of loss , and how relationships are supported and broken in times of grief . "
To a lesser extent , critics also discussed the lesbian aspect . Martin felt that the lesbian element of 12 Days had been addressed , without becoming overstated . Casey Brienza , a fellow reviewer for Anime News Network , suggested that the shame Jackie and Noah felt as lesbians " ultimately destroyed their relationship . " In her comparison of Alison Bechdel 's 2006 graphic memoir Fun Home and 12 Days , Erica Friedman , the founder of the lesbian @-@ themed anime convention Yuricon , considered neither story to be " lesbian narratives " , but rather " narratives of grief , of relationships and of missed opportunities for communication and closeness . "
= = Production = =
Partially modeled on a story told to Kim by a stranger , 12 Days began during her sophomore year in college as a way of coping with the end of a relationship . Kim soon abandoned the unfinished comic after moving on emotionally from the breakup , and considered the early concept " poorly built . " After completing her junior year in college in Seoul , South Korea , where she had been studying Japanese language and literature , Kim moved to New York , United States . There , she attended the School of Visual Arts in Manhattan , New York , for four years , and graduated in 2002 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in cartooning . In addition to illustrating the cover of Australian rock band Jet 's 2003 debut album Get Born , she had three of her short comics published in anthologies : " SheepSheepSleep " ( 2003 ) in Broad Appeal , " B @-@ 612 " ( 2003 / 4 ) in New Thing Vol.2 , and " Repeat " ( 2005 ) in SheWolf Vol.1.
At the 2004 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , she encountered now @-@ former Tokyopop editors Mark Paniccia and Lillian M. Diaz @-@ Przybyl , who helped to pitch 12 Days to their publisher . Kim later expressed surprise for her successful pitch of 12 Days , and commented : " It made me believe there is room for diverse stories . " Resuming work on 12 Days in early 2005 , Kim felt that her " slow speed , other projects and family matters " delayed its production . Additionally , the South Korean @-@ native Kim , who speaks Korean , English , and Japanese fluently , would think of ideas in Korean that did not translate well over to English , ultimately leading her to change her method of thinking for the comic . She considered her creation of a global manga " a bit ironic , " because she " wanted to do something different from manhwa or manga , " which she had grown up around . Completed in the middle of August 2006 , 12 Days was published by Tokyopop in North America in November of the same year . However , in May 2011 , Tokyopop shut down its North American branch , with the status of global manga titles left unclear . 12 Days is also published in Germany by Tokyopop Germany .
= = Reception = =
12 Days received generally positive reviews from critics . Caroline Ryder of The Advocate , a LGBT @-@ interest magazine , highlighted 12 Days as " a dark , deeply emotional graphic novel . " Brienza complimented Kim 's artistic attention to the background and setting 's details , and summed up the comic as " a sensitive depiction of lesbians that strives for literariness " . While not personally enjoying the comic , Friedman considered it " excellent and well worth reading . " Noting the potentially confusing flashblacks , Martin stated : " 12 Days doesn 't easily fall into any of the normal manga ( or manga @-@ like ) categories . It avoids any kind of sensationalism in providing a mature piece about a difficult topic , which may limit its appeal but certainly makes it worth reading . " While Deppey praised it as " an ambitious and partly satisfying work that very nearly succeeds , " he considered it not " as daring or complex a work " as Fun Home . Although Dacey disliked the backgrounds and the " self @-@ consciously literary " ashes @-@ in @-@ beverages aspect , she enjoyed the plot and Kim 's use of naturalism in her artwork . She later placed it on her list of the top ten global manga . Draper Carlson recommended it , commenting : " The emotions the book carries will be familiar to anyone who ’ s suffered a loss in love . It ’ s a work to meditate on . " Conversely , A. E. Sparrow of IGN wrote that the story sacrificed its coherency in its attempt " for a deeper level of understanding " ; Sparrow concluded : " 12 Days is simply trying too hard , burying some absolutely beautiful illustrations in a sea of chaotic storytelling . "
= Salesforce Marketing Cloud =
Salesforce Marketing Cloud ( formerly known as ExactTarget ) is a provider of digital marketing automation and analytics software and services . It was founded in 2000 under the name ExactTarget . The company filed for an IPO in 2007 , but then withdrew its filing two years later and raised $ 145 million in funding . It acquired CoTweet , Pardot , iGoDigital and Keymail Marketing . In 2012 , it raised $ 161 @.@ 5 million in an initial public offering , before being acquired by Salesforce for $ 2 @.@ 5 billion in 2013 . ExactTarget was renamed to Salesforce Marketing Cloud in 2014 after the acquisition by Salesforce .
= = Corporate history = =
Salesforce Marketing Cloud was founded under the name ExactTarget in late 2000 by Scott Dorsey , Chris Baggott , and Peter McCormick with $ 200 @,@ 000 in financing.Joanna Milliken , joined ExactTarget as the first employee in 2001 . It raised $ 10 @.@ 5 million in funding from Insight Venture Partners in 2004 . The firm grew from $ 11 @.@ 5 million in its second year of operations to $ 41 @.@ 1 million in 2006 , which was its first profitable year . In December 2007 , ExactTarget filed an intent for an initial public offering with the Securities Exchange Commission , but withdrew its filing in May 2009 . Instead , it announced $ 70 million in venture funding had been raised for international expansion , which was followed by another $ 75 million round later that year . An office was established in London with the acquisition of a UK @-@ based ExactTarget reseller , Keymail Marketing , in September 2009 . The company also hired 200 additional employees . In 2010 , ExactTarget acquired CoTweet , a company founded in 2008 that develops and markets software for managing multiple Twitter accounts .
ExactTarget went public in March 2012 and raised $ 161 @.@ 5 million in funding on the New York Stock Exchange . In late 2012 , it acquired a marketing automation vendor , Pardot , for $ 96 million , and the developers of a product recommendation engine , iGoDigital , for $ 21 million . In 2012 , its revenues grew 40 percent over the preceding year . The following June , ExactTarget was acquired by salesforce.com for $ 2 @.@ 5 billion . A few months later , salesforce.com said it was laying off 200 staff due to overlaps after the ExactTarget acquisition . That September at the ExactTarget Connections conference , salesforce.com said it was integrating ExactTarget into a new division called Salesforce ExactTarget Marketing Cloud .
In May 2014 , Scott Dorsey stepped down as CEO of ExactTarget and was replaced by Scott McCorkle . The company was renamed in October 2014 to " Salesforce Marketing Cloud " , removing " ExactTarget " from its name , as part of its integration with Salesforce .
= = Software and services = =
Salesforce Marketing Cloud develops marketing automation and analytics software for email , mobile , social and online marketing . It also offers consulting and implementation services . The software is sold primarily on a multi @-@ year subscription basis . The price of the subscription is based on what features are enabled , number of users and level of customer service .
The software 's Interactive Marketing Hub was released in 2010 , when the software 's user interface was re @-@ done . It serves as the software 's primary user interface for managing communications and content through different mediums . The Salesforce Marketing Cloud software is offered in a hosted , online subscription model . The company owns the CoTweet , Pardot , and iGoDigital tools . Its mobile features , as well as many of its workflow and collaboration tools , were released in July 2013 .
Salesforce Marketing Cloud was originally founded as an email marketing vendor . Its email management software maintains mailing lists and schedules and modifies email messages based on what recipients read , click @-@ on or forward .
In September 2014 the company introduced the Journey Builder for Apps , which is intended to create customer lifecycle maps of mobile app users . That month , at the September 2014 ExactTarget Connections conference , they announced numerous updates to their software . This included integration with software products owned by Salesforce.com , such as Buddy Media and Social Studio , as well as improvements to workflow and content management tools .
In November 2014 the company released a new version of Social Studio . This release expanded Social Studio beyond Salesforce ’ s Marketing Cloud , where it started , integrating it with the Service Cloud and the Sales Cloud . This enabled sending leads over to the Sales Cloud — the salesperson can see the full context of the company ’ s social media interactions with the lead .
= = Operations = =
As of December 2012 , about two thirds of ExactTarget 's 1 @,@ 500 employees were located in Indianapolis . The company hosts an annual user conference called the ExactTarget Connections Event ; the first Connections event in 2007 attracted 500 attendees , and it has since grown into one of the largest conferences on digital marketing . The event was located in Indianapolis from 2007 until 2014 , New York City in 2015 , Atlanta in 2016 and is planned for Chicago in 2017 .
= Belgian ship A4 =
Patrol vessel A4 ( French : Patrouilleur A4 ) was a small Mersey @-@ class naval trawler operated by Belgium during the Second World War . Originally built for the British Royal Navy , as HMS John Ebbs , the ship is notable for its role in evacuating Belgian gold reserves to England during the Battle of Belgium in May 1940 . The success of the operation not only allowed the Belgian government in exile to fund its operations but deprived the German occupiers of an important asset to support their war effort . After the Belgian surrender , the vessel and its crew interned themselves in neutral Spain . In 1946 , the vessel and its crew were released and the ship was scrapped soon afterwards .
= = Background = =
Pilote 4 ( later renamed Patrouilleur A4 ) was purchased by the Belgian Corps de Marine in 1920 , having previously served in the British Royal Navy during the First World War as HMS John Ebbs ( FY3566 ) . The vessel was a Mersey @-@ class naval trawler , built by Cochranes in Selby , North Yorkshire , and was launched on 2 October 1917 . Displacing 334 long tons ( 339 t ) , the vessel was 148 feet ( 45 m ) long , and had a draught of 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) . Fitted with engines that were capable of producing 600 horsepower ( 450 kW ) , it could travel at between 9 and 10 knots . With a complement of 27 , the Belgians armed the ship with two Maxim machine guns on the bridge and a 47mm gun at the stern . In 1939 , A4 was waiting to be scrapped , but the deteriorating international situation caused by German expansionism led to its reactivation by the Ministry of National Defence .
Because of Belgium 's neutral status in the early stages of the Second World War , A4 had large Belgian tricolours painted on each side of its hull , as well as the word " BELGIË " ( Dutch for " Belgium " ) in white , to prevent it being mistaken for a belligerent ship . After Belgium was invaded by German forces on 10 May 1940 , it was not repainted .
= = Evacuation of Belgian gold = =
During the interwar period , Belgium had created a gold @-@ based currency , called the Belga , which ran parallel to the Belgian franc . The Belga was intended for international trading and meant that the National Bank of Belgium amassed considerable gold reserves , amounting to some 600 tonnes by 1940 .
During the escalating international tensions in the 1930s , the Belgian government began moving large amounts of gold to the United States , Great Britain and Canada , but was forced to retain some gold in the country to maintain the Belga 's value .
By the time the Germans invaded Belgium in May 1940 , there were still 40 tonnes of gold left in Belgium , held at the bank 's offices in the port of Ostend . The only ship available in the area was A4 , commanded by Lieutenant Van Vaerenbergh . On 19 May 1940 , the vessel was loaded with the gold and , avoiding Dunkirk which was being bombed by the Luftwaffe , headed for the British coast , accompanied by the ship P16 which was carrying refugees . After being transferred from port to port because of concerns for the safety of the cargo during unloading , the gold was landed at Plymouth on 26 May , two days before the Belgian surrender . The gold was finally deposited at the Bank of England . A4 also carried Hubert Ansiaux , the civil servant charged with overseeing the evacuation of the gold to England and the future Governor of the National Bank .
The fact that so much Belgian gold had been rescued before the German occupation allowed the Belgian government in exile to finance its own operations , unlike most other exiled governments which had to rely on British financial support .
= = Aftermath = =
Since Belgium had officially surrendered on 28 May and no official Belgian government yet existed in England , the crew of A4 took their ship to Bilbao in neutral Spain to avoid having to return to Belgium and become German prisoners of war . They arrived in Spain on 26 June and spent the rest of the war interned . Control of the ship was returned to Belgium in 1946 and it was scrapped in 1948 .
For his role in the evacuation of the gold , Lieutenant Van Vaerenbergh was awarded the Order of Leopold II .
= Egypt at the 2012 Summer Olympics =
Egypt competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , from 27 July to 12 August 2012 , sending one of its largest delegations ever . A total of 110 Egyptian athletes participated in 83 events across 20 sports , with more women taking part than ever before . The nation 's flagbearer in the opening ceremonies was Hesham Mesbah , a judoka who was its only medalist from the 2008 Summer Olympics . Egypt won two medals in London : Alaaeldin Abouelkassem earned silver in the men 's foil , becoming the first competitor from an African nation to win a fencing medal , while Karam Gaber captured silver in the men 's 84 kg Greco @-@ Roman wrestling event . Among other achievements , Mostafa Mansour was the nation 's first competitor in sprint canoeing while fencer Shaimaa El @-@ Gammal became the first Egyptian female to appear in four editions of the Olympics .
Prior to 2012 , Egypt had sent athletes to nineteen editions of the Summer Olympic Games , the 1906 Intercalated Games , equestrian at the 1956 Summer Olympics , and the 1984 Winter Olympics . Before the Games began , the Egyptian Olympic Committee distributed counterfeit Nike gear to its athletes , due to its financial troubles following the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 . Nike , however , ended up donating legitimate equipment to the Egyptians . In addition to the success of the silver medalists , one weightlifter , Tarek Yehia , finished just off the podium in fourth in the men 's 85 kg event , while three others , Ibrahim Ramadan , Abeer Abdelrahman , and Nahla Ramadan , were fifth in their respective events . Tamer Bayoumi , a 2004 Olympic bronze medalist and the nation ’ s most successful taekwondo practitioner at the 2012 edition , was chosen to carry Egypt ’ s flag at the closing ceremony .
Aside from the team sport of football , which had 16 participants , fencing and wrestling were the sports in which Egypt participated the most , sending 12 representatives to each . Of them , wrestling was almost exclusively male with only one female , Rabab Eid , taking part . The sport with the most Egyptian female participation was synchronized swimming , an all @-@ woman tournament at the Olympics , with eight , while the nation sent six women to fencing , the highest amount for a mixed sport . Among tournaments with the potential for both men and women to take part , Egypt qualified females , but not males , for badminton , and males , but not females , for track and field athletics , boxing , canoeing , equestrian , football , judo , and sailing .
= = Medalists = =
= = Background = =
Prior to 2012 , Egypt had sent athletes to nineteen editions of the Summer Olympic Games ( three times as the United Arab Republic ) , the 1906 Intercalated Games , equestrian at the 1956 Summer Olympics , and the 1984 Winter Olympics . With the exception of the Soviet @-@ boycotted 1984 Summer Olympics , Egypt 's 2012 delegation was the largest ever , and chose Hesham Mesbah , a 2008 Olympic medalist in judo , as its flagbearer in the opening ceremony . A total of 110 Egyptians , 76 men and 34 women , travelled to London and competed in 20 different sports . It was the largest delegation of women in the country 's Olympic history . Prior the start of the Olympic Games , the Egyptian Olympic Committee ( EOC ) distributed counterfeit Nike gear from a Chinese distributor to its athletes , due to its financial troubles following the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 . Nike ended up donating equipment to the Egyptians , despite the EOC 's eventual willingness to pay .
= = Competitors = =
Shaimaa El @-@ Gammal became the nation 's first female to appear in her fourth Olympic games , while former Olympic medalists Tamer Bayoumi ( taekwondo ) , Karam Gaber ( Greco @-@ Roman wrestling ) , and Hesham Mesbah ( judo ) returned to compete again . Middleweight boxer Mohamed Hikal and skeet shooter Mostafa Hamdy also made a fourth appearance at the Games , while Gaber , Mesbah , and six other athletes made their third Olympic appearance : discus thrower Omar Ahmed El Ghazaly , modern pentathlete Aya Medany , table tennis player El @-@ sayed Lashin , Greco @-@ Roman wrestlers Ashraf El @-@ Gharably and Mohamed Abdelfatah , and judoka Islam El Shehaby . Skeet shooter Mona El @-@ Hawary , aged 49 , was the oldest athlete on the team , while sprint freestyle swimmer Farida Osman was the youngest at age 17 . Bayoumi was selected as Egypt 's flagbearer for the closing ceremony .
= = Archery = =
Two Egyptian archers , one male and one female , qualified for the Olympics , both of whom earned their berths at the 2012 African Archery Championships . Ahmed El @-@ Nemr finished second at that tournament , behind Philippe Kouassi of Côte d 'Ivoire , and entered the men 's individual event . El @-@ Nemr had won three medals at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , gold in the individual recurve 90 metres and silver in the individual recurve FITA and the team event . In London he scored 644 points in the ranking round and placed 57th overall out of 64 competitors . In the round of 64 he defeated eighth @-@ ranked Crispin Duenas of Canada three sets to one and then faced Kuo Cheng @-@ wei , who was representing Chinese Taipei . El @-@ Nemr lost this round three sets to one and was eliminated from the tournament , leaving with a final ranking of 17th . Nada Kamel , who had earned seven medals at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , won the women 's event at the 2012 African Championships and entered the individual tournament . There she scored 611 points in the ranking round and placed 56th overall out of 64 participants . She was defeated by Ksenia Perova of Russia three sets to none in the opening round and finished the event joint @-@ 33rd and last .
Key : W
= Competitor won the match ; L =
Competitor lost the match ; BM = Bronze medal match
= = Athletics = =
Seven Egyptian athletes , six men and one woman , qualified for the Olympics , although one did not compete . Noura Elsayed , the lone woman , was slated to run in the 800 metres , but withdrew due to injury . The only Egyptian to participate in more than one event was Amr Ibrahim Mostafa Seoud , a veteran of the 200 metre event at the 2008 Summer Olympics . Seoud , who had won gold medals in the 100 metres at the 2007 Pan Arab and 2011 All @-@ African Games , and the 200 metres at the 2007 Pan Arab and 2009 Mediterranean Games , as well as the 2010 African Championships , met the " A " qualifying standard for both the 100 metres and 200 metres . In the 100 he drew the same heat as world record @-@ holder and defending Olympic champion Usain Bolt of Jamaica and finished fourth , which was insufficient to advance . He had the same result in the opening heats of the 200 . Hamada Mohamed met the " A " qualifying standard for the 800 metres and won his opening heat in London , advancing to the semifinals . He was placed in the same heat as David Rudisha of Kenya , the world @-@ record holder and upcoming gold medalist , and finished eighth out of nine competitors , failing reach the final .
The remaining Egyptians , all of whom qualified through the B standard , competed in field events . Omar Ahmed El Ghazaly , in the discus , was the most experienced of the quartet , with senior international medals going back to bronze at the 2002 African Championships in Athletics , in addition to past Olympic appearances in 2004 and 2008 . In London he finished 26th among 41 participants with a best throw of 60 @.@ 26 meters . Ihab El @-@ Sayed , in the javelin throw , had missed the 2008 Summer Olympics , despite having been a silver medalist at the 2007 Pan Arab Games , but had won the event at the 2010 African Championships and the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London he placed 29th out of 44 competitors with a best throw of 77 @.@ 35 meters . Mostafa Al @-@ Gamel , in the hammer throw , was the gold medalist from the 2011 All @-@ African Games and a silver medalist from the 2008 African Championships and the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London he was 29th among 41 participants with a best throw of 71 @.@ 36 meters . Mohamed Fathalla Difallah , who had come in fourth at the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games , was 37th out of 41 competitors in the qualifying round of the long jump in London , with a distance of 7 @.@ 08 meters , and did not advance to the final .
Men
Track & road events
Field events
Women
Track & road events
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Key : Q
= Qualified for the next round ; N / A =
Round not applicable for the event ; DNS = Athlete failed to start the event
= = Badminton = =
One Egyptian badminton player qualified for the Olympics , Hadia Hosny El Said . A veteran of the 2008 Summer Games , she trained for London at the University of Bath , where she was a graduate student in bioscience . Ranked 102nd in the world , she qualified by being the top player on the African continent . In the women 's singles , she lost to Pi Hongyan of France and Chloe Magee of Ireland , finished in the bottom of her group , and was eliminated from the tournament .
Key : L
= Competitor lost the match ; BM =
Bronze medal match
= = Boxing = =
Five Egyptian boxers qualified for the Olympics , all of whom were men and earned their spots at the 2012 African Boxing Olympic Qualification Tournament . The only Egyptian to win a bout in London was Hesham Yehia , in the flyweight division , who defeated Benson Gicharu of Kenya before losing to Jasurbek Latipov of Uzbekistan in the round of 16 . Yehia 's most successful major international tournament had been the 2011 Pan Arab Games , where he had been the flyweight runner @-@ up . The most experienced boxer was Mohamed Hikal , who had competed in the light @-@ middleweight , welterweight , and middleweight categories of the 2000 , 2004 , and 2008 Summer Olympics respectively . Among his international boxing distinctions , he was 1999 and 2003 All @-@ African champion , 2005 Mediterranean champion , 2007 and 2011 Pan Arab champion , and 2007 African champion , and won a bronze medal at the 2005 World Championships . In 2012 he was once again representing Egypt as a middleweight and lost his first bout to Soltan Migitinov of Azerbaijan . Ramy Helmy El @-@ Awadi , a bronze medalist from the 2007 Pan Arab Games , received a bye in the opening round of the light flyweight class and was defeated by Ferhat Pehlivan of Turkey in the round of 16 . Mohamed Ramadan and Eslam El @-@ Gendy lost their first bouts to eventual silver medalist Han Soon @-@ Chul of South Korea and Gyula Káté of Hungary in the lightweight and light welterweight events respectively .
Men
Key : W
= Competitor won the match ; L =
Competitor lost the match ; Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Canoeing = =
Egypt 's first ever Olympic competitor in canoe and kayak , Mostafa Mansour , qualified for the 2012 Games . Having taken up the sport in 2007 , after abandoning his initial pursuit of rowing , Mansour qualified for the K @-@ 1 200 metres by coming in third in the event at the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games . The Olympic spots were originally meant to go to the top two finishers , Greg Louw of South Africa and Mohamed Mrabet of Tunisia , but South Africa did not select Louw for the Games . Mansour 's best time in the K @-@ 1 1000 metres earned him a spot in that event as a continental wildcard . He was eliminated in the opening round of both events in London , after finishing last in his heats .
= = = Sprint = = =
= = Equestrian = =
One Egyptian equestrian qualified for show jumping for the Olympics . Karim El @-@ Zoghby , a veteran of the 2008 Games , qualified with his horse Wervel Wind due to his ranking at the 2010 FEI World Equestrian Games . In the months leading up to the Olympics , he trained full @-@ time in the Netherlands and won a silver medal in the team jumping event at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London , Zoghby survived the first qualifying course by finishing joint @-@ 53rd with five penalties , but was eliminated after placing 51st in round two with an additional five penalties .
= = = Show jumping = = =
Key : Q = Qualified for the next round
= = Fencing = =
Twelve Egyptian fencers , six men and six women , qualified for the Olympics . Both the men and women qualified their foil teams by being the top African nation in this category , while Ayman Mohamed Fayez and Salma Mahran were selected as the second highest @-@ ranked Africans in the men 's épée and the women 's sabre respectively . The final competitors , Mona Hassanein in the women 's épée and Mannad Zeid in the men 's sabre , won an African qualifier to earn their spots . Both foil teams lost their opening rounds against Great Britain and were eliminated from the tournament .
In the men 's events , Alaaeldin Abouelkassem , who captured gold in the individual and team foil events at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , won a silver medal in the men 's foil , after the losing the final against Lei Sheng of China . To qualify for the final he defeated American Miles Chamley @-@ Watson , Germany 's Peter Joppich , Italy 's Andrea Cassarà , and South Korea 's Choi Byung @-@ Chul , and became the first African to win an Olympic fencing medal . One of his teammates , Tarek Ayad , who had also been part of the gold medal @-@ winning foil team at the 2011 Pan Arab Games and had won bronze individually , defeated fellow Egyptian Anas Mostafa in the opening round , before losing to Aleksey Cheremisinov of Russia in the round of 32 . Fayez , who won gold in the individual and team épée events at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , and Zeid were defeated in their opening rounds by eventual gold medalist Rubén Limardo of Venezuela and Malaysia 's Yu Peng Kean respectively . None of the women won any bouts in London , but Shaimaa El @-@ Gammal became the first Egyptian female to compete in four Olympics , having taken part in the 2000 , 2004 , and 2008 editions .
Men
Women
Key : W
= Competitor won the match ; L =
Competitor lost the match ; BM
= Bronze medal match ; N / A =
Round not applicable for the event ; Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Football = =
= = = Men 's tournament = = =
The Egyptian national football team qualified for the Olympics after its third @-@ place finish at the 2011 CAF U @-@ 23 Championship . It was the nation 's first Olympic appearance since the 1992 Games and they chose Mohamed Aboutrika , Ahmed Fathy , and Emad Moteab as their three over @-@ 23 players . The squad was coached by Hany Ramzy . In the tournament , Egypt was drawn into Group C. It lost its first match against Brazil 3 – 2 , but tied New Zealand 1 – 1 and defeated Belarus 3 – 1 to advance to the knockout stage . This was their fifth time in eleven tournaments that Egypt progressed out of the group stage . Egypt met Japan in the quarterfinals and lost 3 – 0 , eliminating them from the tournament .
Team roster
The following is the Egypt squad in the men 's football tournament of the 2012 Summer Olympics .
Coach : Hany Ramzy
* Indicates that player was born prior to 1 January 1989 . According to FIFA regulations , only three such players are permitted on an Olympic squad .
Group play
Quarterfinal
= = Gymnastics = =
Four Egyptian gymnasts , three artistic and one rhythmic , qualified for the Olympics . Mohamed El @-@ Saharty , the lone male , was invited to London as the highest @-@ ranked African in the individual all @-@ around at the 2011 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships . He was individual all @-@ around Arab Champion in 2011 and 2012 , African Champion in 2010 and 2012 , and Pan Arab Champion in 2011 . At the latter tournament , he had also taken gold in the horizontal bar , the pommel horse , the vault , and the team event . In London his best event was the vault , where he finished 12th . He was 52nd in the horizontal bar , 56th in the floor , 57th in the pommel horse , 61st in the rings , and 65th in the parallel bars . His final rank in the individual all @-@ around was 37th .
Salma El @-@ Said and Sherine El @-@ Zeiny qualified for the Olympics as the second and third @-@ ranked Africans at the 2011 World Championships , with El @-@ Zeiny having been offered a spot after the highest @-@ placed African , Nicole Szabo of South Africa , turned down the invitation due to injury . El @-@ Said had taken a break from active competition while recovering from an injury of her own and came back shortly before the World Championships . Since then she had taken the individual all @-@ around title at the 2011 Arab Games and the 2012 African Championships . El @-@ Zeiny was a veteran of the 2008 tournament and both had been a part of Egypt 's victorious all @-@ around team at the 2012 African Championships . In London , El @-@ Said 's best event was the balance beam , in which she placed 42nd . She was also 63rd in the uneven bars , 69th in the floor exercise , and was ranked 41st overall in the individual all @-@ around . El @-@ Zeiny was 53rd on the balance beam , but finished 82nd and last in the floor exercise after suffering an injury . Yasmine Rostom , the rhythmic gymnast , qualified by being the top performer from Africa at the 2011 World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships . In London she was 23rd in the ball and the hoop , 20th in the clubs , and last in the ribbon to finish 23rd out of 24 competitors overall .
= = = Artistic = = =
Men
F
= Floor exercise ; PH =
Pommel horse ; R
= Rings ; V =
Vault ; PB
= Parallel bars ; HB =
Horizontal bar ; N / A
= Round not applicable for the event
Women
F =
Floor exercise ; PH
= Pommel horse ; UB =
Uneven bars ; BB
= Balance beam ; N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
= = = Rhythmic = = =
= = Judo = =
Five Egyptian judoka qualified for the Olympics , all men , two of which advanced beyond the round of 32 . Ahmed Awad , who was the 2011 African and All @-@ Africa Games champion , as well as the runner @-@ up at the 2009 Mediterranean Games and a bronze medalist at the 2012 African Championships , earned a spot in the 66 kg event by being the highest ranked African in the division . He defeated Humaid Al @-@ Derei of the United Arab Emirates before losing against Tarlan Karimov of Azerbaijan in the round of 16 . Hussein Hafiz , who was the 2011 Pan Arab and 2012 African Champion , as well as the 2011 African runner @-@ up and a bronze medalist at the 2009 and 2010 editions and the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games , qualified for London by being ranked 18th in the world in the 73 kg class . He won his opening match against Osman Murillo Segura of Costa Rica before being defeated by France 's Ugo Legrand , an eventual bronze medalist . Hesham Mesbah , who was Egypt 's only medalist at the 2008 Summer Olympics , returned to the 90 kg division by being ranked 13th in the world , but was eliminated his first match , against Timur Bolat of Kazakhstan .
Islam El Shehaby had participated in the 2004 and 2008 Summer Olympics and had international judo titles in the + 100 kg division as far back as the 1999 Pan Arab Games . He was most recentely African Champion in the + 100 kg and open classes at the 2011 African Championships , and was runner @-@ up in the former category at the 2012 edition . Coming into the 2012 Olympics he was ranked fourth in the world , but lost in the opening round against Ihar Makarau of Belarus . The final judoka , Ramadan Darwish , had won every African championship in the 100 kg class since 2009 , was the 2009 Mediterranean champion and 2011 All @-@ Africa Games runner @-@ up , and had earned a bronze medal at the 2009 World Judo Championships . He qualified for the 100 kg event at the Olympic Games by being ranked ninth worldwide , but was defeated in his first match by France 's Thierry Fabre .
Key : W
= Competitor won the match ; L =
Competitor lost the match ; N / A
= Round not applicable for the event ; Bye =
Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Modern pentathlon = =
Three Egyptian athletes qualified for the Olympic modern pentathlon tournament , two men and one woman . Aya Medany , a veteran of the 2004 and 2008 Games , was the most experienced of the three , having competed internationally since 1999 at the age of 10 . She won the 2011 African Championships to earn her spot in London , which was her fifth title at the tournament since 2004 . In the women 's event in London , she won 20 of her fencing bouts and was ranked joint @-@ eighth after the first round . She was 18th in swimming , 19th in riding , and 21st in the combined running / shooting portion to finish 16th overall . On the men 's side , Yasser Hefny won the 2011 African Championships and entered the men 's event in London , where he won 17 of his fencing bouts and was ranked joint @-@ thirteenth after the first round . He was 19th in the swimming , 28th in riding , and 31st in the combined running / shooting competition to finish 28th overall .
Amro El Geziry was a veteran of the 2008 Games , having won the 2006 and 2007 African Championships , and was following his brother Emad , who had participated in the 2000 edition . He won a bronze medal with another brother , Omar , at the 2009 World Modern Pentathlon Championships and eventually qualified for the 2012 Olympics by virtue of his world ranking . He received a berth during the second round of Olympic allocations , when spots won by nations who qualified more than the maximum two athletes were redistributed . In London he was victorious in 18 of his fencing bouts and was ranked joint @-@ 11th after the first round , but then won the swimming event with an Olympic record time of 1 : 55 @.@ 70 . He placed 33rd and 34th in the riding and combined riding / shooting competition , however , and finished 33rd overall .
Key : MP Points
= Points earned towards total score ; WR =
World record ; OR
= Olympic record ; NR =
National record
= = Rowing = =
Five Egyptians in three events qualified for the Olympic rowing tournament , all of whom earned their places at the African Continental Qualification Regatta in November 2011 . A member of the national team since 2007 , Nour El Din Hassanein normally rowed in the double sculls and , with Moustafa Fathy , finished last in the " C " final and 15th overall in that event at the 2010 World Rowing Championships . In London , however , he competed in the men 's single sculls and placed second in the " D " final and 20th overall . In the men 's lightweight double sculls , Omar Emira and Mohamed Nofel , who were first in the " E " final and 25th overall at the 2011 World Rowing Championships , finished 20th overall and last . In the women 's version , Sara Baraka and Fatma Rashed , the latter of whom replaced Baraka 's regular partner Ingy Hassem El Din also finished last .
Men
Women
Key : FA
= Qualified for final A ( medal ) ; FB =
Qualified for final B ( non @-@ medal ) ; FC
= Qualified for final C ( non @-@ medal ) ; FD =
Qualified for final D ( non @-@ medal ) ; FE
= Qualified for final E ( non @-@ medal ) ; FF =
Qualified for final F ( non @-@ medal ) ; SA / B
= Qualified for semifinals A / B ; SC / D =
Qualified for semifinals C / D ; SE / F
= Qualified for semifinals E / F ; QF =
Qualified for quarterfinals ; R
= Qualified for repechage ; WR =
World record ; OR
= Olympic record ; NR =
National record ; N / A
= Round not applicable for the event ; Bye =
Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Sailing = =
One Egyptian windsurfer qualified for the Olympics , Ahmed Habash , who took up the sport as a teenager , but quit prior to the 2008 Games due to a serious injury . He re @-@ entered competition in 2012 and won the Egyptian National Championships . This qualified him for the World Championships , where he performed well enough to earn a spot on the national delegation to London . In the sailboard , Habash finished last overall , with 334 net points , and was eliminated prior to the medal round .
Men
Key : M *
= Medal race ; EL =
Eliminated – did not advance into the medal race ; X = Points from this race were discarded as being the competitor 's worst race
= = Shooting = =
Egypt earned seven quota places for shooting events , five of which went to men and two of which were for women . Mona El @-@ Hawary , competing in the women 's skeet , was 17th and last in her event , but still ranked higher than any other Egyptian shooter . She was also a veteran of the 2008 Summer Olympics . The other woman , Nourhan Amer , was 41st of 56 competitors in the 10 metre air rifle . She had won three medals in team events at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . Egypt 's best @-@ ranked man was Mostafa Hamdy , a veteran of the 1996 , 2000 , and 2004 Olympic tournaments , who was 18th among 36 participants in the men 's skeet . Azmy Mehelba , the 2011 Pan Arab runner up , also competed in the skeet , but was last . Ahmed Zaher , in the trap , was 22nd of 34 competitors , while Karim Wagih was 38th of 44 participants in the 10 metre air pistol . Amgad Hosen , a team gold medalist from the 2011 Pan Arab Games , finished 29th out of 47 competitors in the 10 metre air rifle .
Men
Women
Key : WR
= World record ; OR =
Olympic record ; NR = National record
= = Swimming = =
Three Egyptian swimmers , one female and two males , qualified for the Olympics . American @-@ born Farida Osman , the woman , was the youngest member of the 2012 national delegation and qualified for the Games based on having made the Olympic Standard Time in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle . In the lead up to the Olympics , she won seven gold medals at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , as well as the 50 @-@ metre butterfly title at that year 's All @-@ Africa Games and World Junior Championships . In London she was sixth in her heat in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle and was eliminated from the tournament , ranking 42nd overall . On the men 's side , Shehab Younis qualified for the 50 @-@ metre freestyle by meeting the Olympic Selection Time of 22 @.@ 88 at an international meet in Eindhoven , Netherlands , with a result of 22 @.@ 85 . Prior to the Olympics he had won a bronze medal in the event at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London he was third in his heat and 34th overall , failing to advance to the semifinals . Mazen Metwaly , a Saudi @-@ born Egyptian training and studying at Southern Illinois University Carbondale , made the team at an Olympic qualifier in Setúbal , Portugal in June 2012 , the second of his two opportunities ( his first having been the 2011 World Championships ) . At the Games , in the marathon 10 kilometre , he was 24th out of 25 competitors .
Men
Women
Key : Q
= Qualified for the next round ; WR =
World record ; OR
= Olympic record ; NR =
National record ; N / A
= Round not applicable for the event ; Bye =
Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Synchronized swimming = =
Egypt 's synchronized swimming team qualified for the Olympics by being the top African nation at the 2011 World Aquatics Championships . It was the second time that the nation had qualified for the team event , having previously appeared in 2008 . Shaza Abdelrahman and Dalia El @-@ Gebaly , veterans of the 2008 tournament , represented Egypt in the duet , where they placed 24th and last . In the team competition , the nation finished seventh out of eight nations , ranking higher than Australia .
Key | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
generate standing waves in the airflow which concentrate insects near vertical areas . Crag martins exploit the area close to the cliff when they hunt , relying on their high manoeuvrability and ability to perform tight turns . When not breeding , they may also hunt low over open ground . The insects caught depend on what is locally available , but may include mosquitoes , flies , Hymenoptera , ants and beetles . This martin often feeds alone , but sizeable groups may gather at grass fires to feast on the fleeing insects , and outside the breeding season flocks of up to 300 may form where food is abundant , such as agricultural areas , wetlands and sewage works . The pale crag martin drinks in flight as it skims the water surface , although at least some of its water requirement is obtained from the insects it consumes . Wintering hirundines of other species are not normally found in the dry , rocky areas in which the pale crag martin nests , so there is little competition for food .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Some falcons have the speed and agility to catch swallows and martins in flight , and pale crag martins may be hunted by species such as the peregrine falcon , Taita falcon , African hobby and wintering Eurasian hobby . Pale crag martins often share their nesting sites with little swifts , which sometimes forcibly take over martins ' nests .
The argasid tick Hyalomma marginatum was found in pale crag martin nests on a sarcophagus and an ancient tomb in Egypt . This tick has been implicated in the transmission of Bahig virus , a pathogenic arbovirus previously thought to be transmitted only by mosquitoes . Another argasid tick , Argas africolumbae , was found in a nest of the closely related rock martins in Kenya . The nasal mite Ptilonyssus echinatus was found in a pale crag martin in the Tibesti Mountains of northern Chad .
= = Status = =
The pale crag martin has a very large range of 5 @.@ 9 million km2 ( 2 @.@ 29 million sq mi ) . The total population is unknown , but the bird is described as very common in Jordan and common in Egypt . It has an expanding range and increasing population . Its large range and presumably high numbers mean that the pale crag martin is not considered to be threatened , and it is classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
This species is locally common in Algeria , scarce in Morocco , and scarce in Pakistan . It has colonised southern Israel , where it breeds on houses , in the 1970s , and large numbers may occur outside the breeding season in Saudi Arabia and Oman . Population estimates include 10 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 pairs breeding in Egypt , 10 @,@ 000 pairs in the United Arab Emirates , and an Arabian winter population of up to 150 @,@ 000 birds in flocks that sometimes contain 300 – 500 birds . A large breeding range expansion in the Arabian Peninsula has been aided by the use of high @-@ rise buildings as nesting sites , and possibly a greater supply of insects from agricultural land . Breeding is now regular in Abu Dhabi , and Qatar 's tall buildings may be the next site for colonisation . The pale crag martin first bred in Iraq in 2009 .
= Grus ( constellation ) =
Grus ( / ˈɡrʌs / , or colloquially / ˈɡruːs / ) is a constellation in the southern sky . Its name is Latin for the crane , a type of bird . It is one of twelve constellations conceived by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman . Grus first appeared on a 35 @-@ cm ( 14 in ) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius and Jodocus Hondius and was depicted in Johann Bayer 's star atlas Uranometria of 1603 . French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille gave Bayer designations to its stars in 1756 , some of which had been previously considered part of the neighbouring constellation Piscis Austrinus . The constellations Grus , Pavo , Phoenix and Tucana are collectively known as the " Southern Birds " .
The constellation 's brightest star , Alpha Gruis , is also known as Alnair and appears as a 1 @.@ 7 @-@ magnitude blue @-@ white star . Beta Gruis is a red giant variable star with a minimum magnitude of 2 @.@ 3 and a maximum magnitude of 2 @.@ 0 . Six star systems have been found to have planets : the red dwarf Gliese 832 is one of the closest stars to Earth to have a planetary system . Another — WASP @-@ 95 — has a planet that orbits every two days . Deep @-@ sky objects found in Grus include the planetary nebula IC 5148 , also known as the Spare Tyre Nebula , and a group of four interacting galaxies known as the Grus Quartet .
= = History = =
The stars that form Grus were originally considered part of the neighbouring constellation Piscis Austrinus ( the southern fish ) , with Gamma Gruis seen as part of the fish 's tail . The stars were first defined as a separate constellation by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius , who created twelve new constellations based on the observations of the southern sky by the Dutch explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman , who had sailed on the first Dutch trading expedition , known as the Eerste Schipvaart , to the East Indies . Grus first appeared on a 35 @-@ cm diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius . Its first depiction in a celestial atlas was in the German cartographer Johann Bayer 's Uranometria of 1603 . De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue the same year under the Dutch name Den Reygher , " The Heron " , but Bayer followed Plancius and Hondius in using Grus .
An alternative name for the constellation , Phoenicopterus ( Latin " flamingo " ) , was used briefly during the early 17th century , seen in the 1605 work Cosmographiae Generalis by Paul Merula of Leiden University and a c . 1625 globe by Dutch globe maker Pieter van den Keere . Astronomer Ian Ridpath has reported the symbolism likely came from Plancius originally , who had worked with both of these people . Grus and the nearby constellations Phoenix , Tucana and Pavo are collectively called the " Southern Birds " .
The stars that correspond to Grus were generally too far south to be seen from China . In Chinese astronomy , Gamma and Lambda Gruis may have been included in the tub @-@ shaped asterism Bàijiù , along with stars from Piscis Austrinus . In Central Australia , the Arrernte and Luritja people living on a mission in Hermannsburg viewed the sky as divided between them , east of the Milky Way representing Arrernte camps and west denoting Luritja camps . Alpha and Beta Gruis , along with Fomalhaut , Alpha Pavonis and the stars of Musca , were all claimed by the Arrernte .
= = Characteristics = =
Grus is bordered by Piscis Austrinus to the north , Sculptor to the northeast , Phoenix to the east , Tucana to the south , Indus to the southwest , and Microscopium to the west . Bayer straightened the tail of Piscis Austrinus to make way for Grus in his Uranometria . Covering 366 square degrees , it ranks 45th of the 88 modern constellations in size and covers 0 @.@ 887 % of the night sky . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is " Gru " . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined as a polygon of 6 segments . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 21h 27.4m and 23h 27.1m , while the declination coordinates are between − 36 @.@ 31 ° and − 56 @.@ 39 ° . Grus is located too far south to be seen by observers in the British Isles and the northern United States , though it can easily be seen from Florida or California ; the whole constellation is visible to observers south of latitude 33 ° N.
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Keyser and de Houtman assigned twelve stars to the constellation . Bayer depicted Grus on his chart , but did not assign its stars Bayer designations . French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille labelled them Alpha to Phi in 1756 with some omissions . In 1879 , American astronomer Benjamin Gould added Kappa , Nu , Omicron and Xi , which had all been catalogued by Lacaille but not given Bayer designations . Lacaille considered them too faint , while Gould thought otherwise . Xi Gruis had originally been placed in Microscopium . Conversely , Gould dropped Lacaille 's Sigma as he thought it was too dim .
Grus has several bright stars . Marking the left wing is Alpha Gruis , a blue @-@ white star of spectral type B6V and apparent magnitude 1 @.@ 7 , around 101 light @-@ years from Earth . Its traditional name , Alnair , means " the bright one " and refers to its status as the brightest star in Grus . Alnair is around 380 times as luminous and has over 3 times the diameter of the Sun . Lying 5 degrees west of Alnair , denoting the Crane 's heart is Beta Gruis , a red giant of spectral type M5III . It has a diameter of 0 @.@ 8 astronomical units ( AU ) ( if placed in the Solar System it would extend to the orbit of Venus ) located around 170 light @-@ years from Earth . It is a variable star with a minimum magnitude of 2 @.@ 3 and a maximum magnitude of 2 @.@ 0 . An imaginary line drawn from the Great Square of Pegasus through Fomalhaut will lead to Alnair and Beta Gruis .
Lying in the northwest corner of the constellation and marking the crane 's eye is Gamma Gruis , a blue @-@ white subgiant of spectral type B8III and magnitude 3 @.@ 0 lying around 211 light @-@ years from Earth . Also known as Al Dhanab , it has finished fusing its core hydrogen and has begun cooling and expanding , which will see it transform into a red giant .
There are several naked @-@ eye double stars in Grus . Forming a triangle with Alnair and Beta , Delta Gruis is an optical double whose components — Delta1 and Delta2 — are separated by 45 arcseconds . Delta1 is a yellow giant of spectral type G7III and magnitude 4 @.@ 0 , 309 light @-@ years from Earth , and may have its own magnitude 12 orange dwarf companion . Delta2 is a red giant of spectral type M4.5III and semiregular variable that ranges between magnitudes 3 @.@ 99 and 4 @.@ 2 , located 325 light @-@ years from Earth . It has around 3 times the mass and 135 times the diameter of our sun . Mu Gruis , composed of Mu1 and Mu2 , is also an optical double — both stars are yellow giants of spectral type G8III around 2 @.@ 5 times as massive as the Sun with surface temperatures of around 4900 K. Mu1 is the brighter of the two at magnitude 4 @.@ 8 located around 275 light @-@ years from Earth , while Mu2 the dimmer at magnitude 5 @.@ 11 lies 265 light @-@ years distant from Earth . Pi Gruis , an optical double with a variable component , is composed of Pi1 Gruis and Pi2 . Pi1 is a semi @-@ regular red giant of spectral type S5 , ranging from magnitude 5 @.@ 31 to 7 @.@ 01 over a period of 191 days , and is around 532 light @-@ years from Earth . One of the brightest S @-@ class stars to Earth viewers , it has a companion star of apparent magnitude 10 @.@ 9 with sunlike properties , being a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G0V . The pair make up a likely binary system . Pi2 is a giant star of spectral type F3III @-@ IV located around 130 light @-@ years from Earth , and is often brighter than its companion at magnitude 5 @.@ 6 . Marking the right wing is Theta Gruis , yet another double star , lying 5 degrees east of Delta1 and Delta2 .
RZ Gruis is a binary system of apparent magnitude 12 @.@ 3 with occasional dimming to 13 @.@ 4 , whose components — a white dwarf and main sequence star — are thought to orbit each other roughly every 8 @.@ 5 to 10 hours . It belongs to the UX Ursae Majoris subgroup of cataclysmic variable star systems , where material from the donor star is drawn to the white dwarf where it forms an accretion disc that remains bright and outshines the two component stars . The system is poorly understood , though the donor star has been calculated to be of spectral type F5V . These stars have spectra very similar to novae that have returned to quiescence after outbursts , yet they have not been observed to have erupted themselves . The American Association of Variable Star Observers recommends watching them for future events . CE Gruis ( also known as Grus V @-@ 1 ) is a faint ( magnitude 18 – 21 ) star system also composed of a white dwarf and donor star ; in this case the two are so close they are tidally locked . Known as polars , material from the donor star does not form an accretion disc around the white dwarf , but rather streams directly onto it .
Six star systems are thought to have planetary systems . Tau1 Gruis is a yellow star of magnitude 6 @.@ 0 located around 106 light @-@ years away . It may be a main sequence star or be just beginning to depart from the sequence as it expands and cools . In 2002 the star was found to have a planetary companion . HD 215456 , HD 213240 and WASP @-@ 95 are yellow sunlike stars discovered to have two planets , a planet and a remote red dwarf , and a hot Jupiter respectively ; this last — WASP @-@ 95b — completes an orbit round its sun in a mere two days . Gliese 832 is a red dwarf of spectral type M1.5V and apparent magnitude 8 @.@ 66 located only 16 @.@ 1 light @-@ years distant ; hence it is one of the nearest stars to the Solar System . A Jupiter @-@ like planet — Gliese 832 b — orbiting the red dwarf over a period of 9 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 4 years was discovered in 2008 . WISE 2220 − 3628 is a brown dwarf of spectral type Y , and hence one of the coolest star @-@ like objects known . It has been calculated as being around 26 light @-@ years distant from Earth .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
Nicknamed the spare @-@ tyre nebula , IC 5148 is a planetary nebula located around 1 degree west of Lambda Gruis . Around 3000 light @-@ years distant , it is expanding at 50 kilometres a second , one of the fastest rates of expansion of all planetary nebulae .
Northeast of Theta Gruis are four interacting galaxies known as the Grus Quartet . These galaxies are NGC 7552 , NGC 7590 , NGC 7599 , and NGC 7582 . The latter three galaxies occupy an area of sky only 10 arcminutes across and are sometimes referred to as the " Grus Triplet , " although all four are part of a larger loose group of galaxies called the IC 1459 Grus Group . NGC 7552 and 7582 are exhibiting high starburst activity ; this is thought to have arisen because of the tidal forces from interacting . Located on the border of Grus with Piscis Austrinus , IC 1459 is a peculiar E3 giant elliptical galaxy . It has a fast counterrotating stellar core , and shells and ripples in its outer region . The galaxy has an apparent magnitude of 11 @.@ 9 and is around 80 million light years distant .
NGC 7424 is a barred spiral galaxy with an apparent magnitude of 10 @.@ 4 @.@ located around 4 degrees west of the Grus Triplet . Approximately 37 @.@ 5 million light years distant , it is about 100 @,@ 000 light years in diameter , has well defined spiral arms and is thought to resemble the Milky Way . Two ultraluminous X @-@ ray sources and one supernova have been observed in NGC 7424 . SN 2001ig was discovered in 2001 and classified as a Type IIb supernova , one that initially showed a weak hydrogen line in its spectrum , but this emission later became undetectable and was replaced by lines of oxygen , magnesium and calcium , as well as other features that resembled the spectrum of a Type Ib supernova . A massive star of spectral type F , A or B is thought to be the surviving binary companion to SN 2001ig , which was believed to have been a Wolf – Rayet star .
Located near Alnair is NGC 7213 , a face @-@ on type 1 Seyfert galaxy located approximately 71 @.@ 7 million light years from Earth . It has an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 1 . Appearing undisturbed in visible light , it shows signs of having undergone a collision or merger when viewed at longer wavelengths , with disturbed patterns of ionized hydrogen including a filament of gas around 64 @,@ 000 light @-@ years long . It is part of a group of ten galaxies .
NGC 7410 is a spiral galaxy discovered by British astronomer John Herschel during observations at the Cape of Good Hope in October 1834 . The galaxy has a visual magnitude of 11 @.@ 7 and is approximately 122 million light years distant from Earth .
= Pedro del Valle =
Lieutenant General Pedro Augusto del Valle ( August 28 , 1893 — April 28 , 1978 ) was a United States Marine Corps officer who became the first Hispanic to reach the rank of Lieutenant General . His military career included service in World War I , Haiti and Nicaragua during the Banana Wars of the 1920s , in the seizure of Guadalcanal , and later as Commanding General of the 1st Marine Division during World War II .
= = Early years = =
Del Valle was born on August 28 , 1893 in San Juan , Puerto Rico when the island was still under Spanish colonial rule . He was related to Dr. Francisco del Valle , a surgeon who had served as mayor of San Juan from 1907 to 1910 . In 1900 , two years after the Spanish – American War , the del Valle family moved to Maryland where they became U.S. citizens ( The Jones Act of 1917 later gave United States Citizenship to all Puerto Ricans born on the island ) . He received his primary and secondary education in Maryland .
On June 17 , 1911 , after he graduated from high school , del Valle received an appointment by George Radcliffe Colton , who served from 1909 to 1913 as the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico , to attend the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland . Del Valle graduated from the academy in June 1915 and was commissioned a second lieutenant of the Marine Corps on June 5 , 1915 .
= = Military career = =
= = = The Banana Wars & pre @-@ World War II = = =
Pedro del Valle helped the Marine Corps in the capture of Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic , in 1916 , for which he was awarded his first Legion of Merit . Del Valle commanded the Marine detachment on board the USS Texas ( BB @-@ 35 ) in the North Atlantic during World War I. In 1919 , he participated in the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet . Later he served as " Aide @-@ de @-@ camp " to Major General Joseph Henry Pendleton after serving on a tour of sea duty aboard the USS Wyoming ( BB @-@ 32 ) . His job included an inspection tour of the West Indies in the company of General Pendleton .
In 1926 , del Valle served with the Gendarmerie of Haiti for three years and , during that time , he also became active in the war against Augusto César Sandino in Nicaragua . In 1929 , he returned to the United States and attended the Field Officers Course at the Marine Corps School in MCB Quantico , Virginia .
In 1931 , Brigadier General Randolph C. Berkeley appointed del Valle to the " Landing Operations Text Board " in Quantico , the first organizational step taken by the Marines to develop a working doctrine for amphibious assault . In 1932 , he wrote an essay titled " Ship @-@ to @-@ Shore in Amphibious Operations " which was published in the Marine Corps Gazette . In his essay , he stressed the importance of a coordinated amphibious assault and of an execution of an opposed landing .
He worked as an intelligence officer in Havana , Cuba in 1933 under Admiral Charles Freeman , following the Cuban Sergeant 's Revolt . From 1935 – 1937 , del Valle was Assistant Naval Attache , attached to the American Embassy to Italy in Rome . While on duty , del Valle participated as an observer with the Italian Forces during the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War . The experiences which del Valle gained as an observer led him to author the book " Roman Eagles Over Ethiopia " where he describes the events leading up to the Italian expedition and the complete movements of combat operations by the Italian Army under Generals De Bono , Badoglio , and Graziani . In 1939 , he was ordered to attend the Army War College in Washington , D.C. and after graduating was named Executive Officer of the Division of Plans and Policies , USMC .
= = = World War II = = =
On March 1941 , del Valle became the commanding officer of the 11th Marine Regiment , ( artillery ) . Upon the outbreak of World War II , del Valle led his regiment and participated in the Guadalcanal Campaign , providing artillery support for the 1st Marine Division . In the Battle of the Tenaru , the firepower provided by del Valle 's artillery units killed many assaulting Japanese soldiers before they ever reached the Marine positions . The attackers were killed almost to the last man . The outcome of the battle was so stunning that the Japanese commander , Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki , committed seppuku shortly afterwards . Major General Alexander Vandegrift , impressed with del Valle 's leadership recommended his promotion and on October 1 , 1942 , del Valle became a brigadier general . Vandegrift retained del Valle as head of the 11th Marines , the only time that the regiment has ever had a general as their commanding officer . In 1943 , he served as Commander of Marine Forces overseeing Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and the Russell and Florida Islands .
On April 1 , 1944 , del Valle , as Commanding General of the Third Corps Artillery , III Marine Amphibious Corps , took part in the Battle of Guam and was awarded an award star in lieu of a second Legion of Merit . The men under his command did such a good job with their heavy artillery that no one man could be singled out for commendation . Instead , each man was given a letter of commendation by del Valle which was carried in their record books .
In late October 1944 , he succeeded Major General William H. Rupertus as Commanding General of the 1st Marine Division , being personally greeted in his new command by Colonel Lewis Burwell " Chesty " Puller . At the time , the 1st Marine Division was training on the island of Pavuvu for the invasion of Okinawa . He subsequently led the division throughout the campaign . Del Valle was awarded a Distinguished Service Medal for his leadership during the battle and the subsequent occupation and reorganization of Okinawa .
= = = Post @-@ World War II = = =
After World War II ended , del Valle was ordered back to Headquarters Marine Corps , where he was named Inspector General , a position which he held until he retired on January 1 , 1948 . On February 19 , 1946 New Mexico Senator Dennis Chavez and del Valle held a meeting with President Harry S. Truman in the White House , in which Chavez recommended del Valle for the position of governor of Puerto Rico . From 1898 to 1942 , the governors of the island were officials appointed by the President of the United States . Local Puerto Rican politicians , such as Luis Muñoz Marín , opposed the naming of del Valle in favor of Jesús T. Piñero ; to which Del Valle eventually asked President Truman to withdraw his name among those considered for the position . The first civilian and native Puerto Rican appointed governor of Puerto Rico thus became Piñero in 1946 . If Congress had not approved legislation in 1947 allowing Puerto Ricans to elect their own Governor , del Valle may have been appointed to the governorship .
= = Later years = =
After retiring from the Marine Corps , del Valle worked as a representative of ITT in the company 's office in Cairo , Egypt . After some time with the company he was named president of ITT for all South America in Buenos Aires , Argentina , a position that he held until 1951 .
Believing that the United States was in danger of a communist threat , del Valle tried to convince the Central Intelligence Agency and Department of Defense to form a vigilante minuteman group . He also believed that the CIA should operate behind Russian and Chinese lines . After his ideas were turned down , he decided to form his own group . In 1953 , del Valle met with LtCol John H. Hoffman , LtCol Eugene Cowles Poneroy , Brigadier General Bonner Fellers , and Major General Claire Chennault ( USAF ) to form the " Defenders of the American Constitution " ( DAC ) . DAC 's main goal was to purge the United States of any communist influence . The idea behind the group was to organize the citizens in each state as vigilantes against sabotage and other forms of treason , then link them up in some national headquarters . Del Valle ran for governor of Maryland in 1953 and was defeated in his attempt to be nominated in the Republican primary election . The controversial views shared by some of the members of " DAC " was to blame for the organization 's decline in popularity . On April 12 , 1961 , del Valle invoked The Protocols of the Elders of Zion ( an antisemitic hoax ) during a speech before the United States Daughters of 1812 , in an attempt to " prove " that Communism and Socialism were introduced to Russia by an " Invisible Government " whose intention was to destroy that country . Del Valle also belonged to a group known as the Sons of Liberty , established in 1967 in Annapolis , Maryland and named after the secret patriotic society which directed the actions of the Boston Tea Party on December 13 , 1773 .
Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle was married to Katharine Nelson ( 1890 – 1983 ) . He died on April 28 , 1978 in Annapolis , Maryland and was buried in the United States Naval Academy Cemetery and Columbarium . After del Valle ’ s death at age 85 , the DAC ceased to exist .
= = Written Works by Pedro del Valle = =
Books
Diary and reports of the U.S. naval observer of Italian Operations in East Africa : March 1937 ( Washington : Government Printing Office , 1937 ) .
Roman Eagles Over Ethiopia ( Harrisburg , PA : Military service Pub . Co . , 1940 ) .
Semper fidelis : An autobiography ( Hawthorne , CA : Christian Book Club of America , 1976 ) .
Lieutenant General Pedro A. del Valle , U.S. Marine Corps ( retired ) ( Oral history program ) .
Articles
" Guam , the Classical Amphibious Operation " Military Review ( 1944 ) .
" Massed Fires on Guam " Marine Corps Gazette ( 1944 ) .
= = Awards and recognitions = =
Among Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle 's decorations and medals were the following :
= September 11 attacks =
The September 11 attacks ( also referred to as 9 / 11 ) were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al @-@ Qaeda on the United States on the morning of September 11 , 2001 . The attacks killed 2 @,@ 996 people and injured over 6 @,@ 000 others and caused at least $ 10 billion in property and infrastructure damage and $ 3 trillion in total costs .
Four passenger airliners operated by two major U.S. passenger air carriers ( United Airlines and American Airlines ) — all of which departed from airports on the northeastern United States bound for California — were hijacked by 19 al @-@ Qaeda terrorists . Two of the planes , American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175 , were crashed into the North and South towers , respectively , of the World Trade Center complex in New York City . Within an hour and 42 minutes , both 110 @-@ story towers collapsed , with debris and the resulting fires causing partial or complete collapse of all other buildings in the World Trade Center complex , including the 47 @-@ story 7 World Trade Center tower , as well as significant damage to ten other large surrounding structures . A third plane , American Airlines Flight 77 , was crashed into the Pentagon ( the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense ) in Arlington County , Virginia , leading to a partial collapse of the building 's western side . The fourth plane , United Airlines Flight 93 , initially was steered toward Washington , D.C. , but crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville , Pennsylvania , after its passengers tried to overcome the hijackers . A total of 2 @,@ 996 people , including the 19 hijackers , were killed and more than 6 @,@ 000 others injured . It was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States , with 343 and 72 killed respectively .
Suspicion for the attack quickly fell on al @-@ Qaeda . The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban , which had harbored al @-@ Qaeda . Many countries strengthened their anti @-@ terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks . Although al @-@ Qaeda 's leader , Osama bin Laden , initially denied any involvement , in 2004 he claimed responsibility for the attacks . Al @-@ Qaeda and bin Laden cited U.S. support of Israel , the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia , and sanctions against Iraq as motives . Having evaded capture for almost a decade , bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U.S. military in May 2011 .
The destruction of the World Trade Center and nearby infrastructure caused serious damage to the economy of Lower Manhattan and had a significant effect on global markets , closing Wall Street until September 17 and the civilian airspace in the U.S. and Canada until September 13 . Many closings , evacuations , and cancellations followed , out of respect or fear of further attacks . Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002 , and the Pentagon was repaired within a year . On November 18 , 2006 , construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site . The building was officially opened on November 3 , 2014 . Numerous memorials have been constructed , including the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in New York City , the Pentagon Memorial in Arlington County , Virginia , and the Flight 93 National Memorial in a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville , Pennsylvania .
= = Background = =
= = = Al @-@ Qaeda = = =
The origins of al @-@ Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan . Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets . Under the guidance of Ayman al @-@ Zawahiri , bin Laden became more radical . In 1996 , bin Laden issued his first fatwā , calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia .
In a second fatwā in 1998 , bin Laden outlined his objections to American foreign policy with respect to Israel , as well as the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia after the Gulf War . Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed . Muslim legal scholars " have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries " , according to bin Laden .
= = = = Osama bin Laden = = = =
Bin Laden , who orchestrated the attacks , initially denied but later admitted involvement . Al Jazeera broadcast a statement by bin Laden on September 16 , 2001 , stating , " I stress that I have not carried out this act , which appears to have been carried out by individuals with their own motivation . " In November 2001 , U.S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad , Afghanistan . In the video , bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al @-@ Harbi and admits foreknowledge of the attacks . On December 27 , 2001 , a second bin Laden video was released . In the video , he said , " It has become clear that the West in general and America in particular have an unspeakable hatred for Islam . ... It is the hatred of crusaders . Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice , aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel , which kills our people . ... We say that the end of the United States is imminent , whether Bin Laden or his followers are alive or dead , for the awakening of the Muslim umma ( nation ) has occurred " , but he stopped short of admitting responsibility for the attacks . The transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims .
Shortly before the U.S. presidential election in 2004 , in a taped statement , bin Laden publicly acknowledged al @-@ Qaeda 's involvement in the attacks on the U.S. and admitted his direct link to the attacks . He said that the attacks were carried out because , " we are free ... and want to regain freedom for our nation . As you undermine our security we undermine yours . " Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon . Another video obtained by Al Jazeera in September 2006 shows bin Laden with Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh , as well as two hijackers , Hamza al @-@ Ghamdi and Wail al @-@ Shehri , as they make preparations for the attacks . The U.S. never formally indicted bin Laden for the 9 / 11 attacks but he was on the FBI 's Most Wanted List for the bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Dar es Salaam , Tanzania , and Nairobi , Kenya . After a 10 @-@ year manhunt , bin Laden was killed by American special forces in a compound in Abbottabad , Pakistan on May 2 , 2011 .
= = = = Khalid Sheikh Mohammed = = = =
The journalist Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel Al Jazeera reported that , in April 2002 , Khalid Sheikh Mohammed admitted his involvement , along with Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh . The 9 / 11 Commission Report determined that the animosity towards the United States felt by Mohammed , the principal architect of the 9 / 11 attacks , stemmed from his " violent disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel " . Mohammed was also an adviser and financier of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the uncle of Ramzi Yousef , the lead bomber in that attack .
Mohammed was arrested on March 1 , 2003 , in Rawalpindi , Pakistan , by Pakistani security officials working with the CIA , then transported to Guantanamo Bay and interrogated using methods including waterboarding . During U.S. hearings at Guantanamo Bay in March 2007 , Mohammed again confessed his responsibility for the attacks , stating he " was responsible for the 9 / 11 operation from A to Z " and that his statement was not made under duress .
= = = = Other al @-@ Qaeda members = = = =
In " Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed " from the trial of Zacarias Moussaoui , five people are identified as having been completely aware of the operation 's details . They are bin Laden , Khalid Sheikh Mohammed , Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh , Abu Turab al @-@ Urduni , and Mohammed Atef . To date , only peripheral figures have been tried or convicted for the attacks .
On September 26 , 2005 , the Spanish high court sentenced Abu Dahdah to 27 years in prison for conspiracy on the 9 / 11 attacks and being a member of the terrorist organization al @-@ Qaeda . At the same time , another 17 al @-@ Qaeda members were sentenced to penalties of between six and eleven years . On February 16 , 2006 , the Spanish Supreme Court reduced the Abu Dahdah penalty to 12 years because it considered that his participation in the conspiracy was not proven .
Also , in 2006 , Moussaoui , who some originally suspected might have been the assigned 20th hijacker , was convicted for the lesser role of conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism and air piracy . He is serving a life sentence without parole in the United States . Mounir el @-@ Motassadeq , an associate of the Hamburg @-@ based hijackers , is serving 15 years in Germany for his role in helping the hijackers prepare for the attacks .
The Hamburg cell in Germany included radical Islamists who eventually came to be key operatives in the 9 / 11 attacks . Mohamed Atta , Marwan al @-@ Shehhi , Ziad Jarrah , Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh , and Said Bahaji were all members of al @-@ Qaeda 's Hamburg cell .
= = = Motives = = =
Osama bin Laden 's declaration of a holy war against the United States , and a 1998 fatwā signed by bin Laden and others , calling for the killing of Americans , are seen by investigators as evidence of his motivation . In bin Laden 's November 2002 " Letter to America " , he explicitly stated that al @-@ Qaeda 's motives for their attacks include :
U.S. support of Israel
support for the " attacks against Muslims " in Somalia
support of Russian " atrocities against Muslims " in Chechnya
pro @-@ American governments in the Middle East ( who " act as your agents " ) being against Muslim interests
support of Indian " oppression against Muslims " in Kashmir
the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia
the sanctions against Iraq
After the attacks , bin Laden and al @-@ Zawahiri released additional video tapes and audio tapes , some of which repeated those reasons for the attacks . Two particularly important publications were bin Laden 's 2002 " Letter to America " , and a 2004 video tape by bin Laden .
Bin Laden interpreted Muhammad as having banned the " permanent presence of infidels in Arabia " . In 1996 , bin Laden issued a fatwā calling for American troops to leave Saudi Arabia . In 1998 , al @-@ Qaeda wrote , " for over seven years the United States has been occupying the lands of Islam in the holiest of places , the Arabian Peninsula , plundering its riches , dictating to its rulers , humiliating its people , terrorizing its neighbors , and turning its bases in the Peninsula into a spearhead through which to fight the neighboring Muslim peoples . "
In a December 1999 interview , bin Laden said he felt that Americans were " too near to Mecca " , and considered this a provocation to the entire Muslim world . One analysis of suicide terrorism suggested that without U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia , al @-@ Qaeda likely would not have been able to get people to commit to suicide missions .
In the 1998 fatwā , al @-@ Qaeda identified the Iraq sanctions as a reason to kill Americans , condemning the " protracted blockade " among other actions that constitute a declaration of war against " Allah , his messenger , and Muslims . " The fatwā declared that " the ruling to kill the Americans and their allies – civilians and military – is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it , in order to liberate the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque of Mecca from their grip , and in order for their [ the Americans ' ] armies to move out of all the lands of Islam , defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim . "
Bin Laden claimed , in 2004 , that the idea of destroying the towers had first occurred to him in 1982 , when he witnessed Israel 's bombardment of high @-@ rise apartment buildings during the 1982 Lebanon War . Some analysts , including Mearsheimer and Walt , also claim that one motivation for the attacks was U.S. support of Israel . In 2004 and 2010 , bin Laden again connected the September 11 attacks with U.S. support of Israel , although most of the letter expressed bin Laden 's disdain for President Bush and bin Laden 's hope to " destroy and bankrupt " the U.S.
Other motives have been suggested in addition to those stated by bin Laden and al @-@ Qaeda , including western support of Islamic and non @-@ Islamic authoritarian regimes in Saudi Arabia , Iran , Egypt , Iraq , Pakistan and northern Africa , and the presence of western troops in some of these countries . Some authors suggest the " humiliation " resulting from the Islamic world falling behind the Western world – this discrepancy rendered especially visible by the globalization trend and a desire to provoke the U.S. into a broader war against the Islamic world in the hope of motivating more allies to support al @-@ Qaeda . Similarly , others have argued that 9 / 11 was a strategic move with the objective of provoking America into a war that would incite a pan @-@ Islamic revolution .
= = = Planning of the attacks = = =
The idea for the attacks came from Khalid Sheikh Mohammed , who first presented it to Osama bin Laden in 1996 . At that time , bin Laden and al @-@ Qaeda were in a period of transition , having just relocated back to Afghanistan from Sudan . The 1998 African Embassy bombings and bin Laden 's 1998 fatwā marked a turning point , as bin Laden became intent on attacking the United States .
In late 1998 or early 1999 , bin Laden gave approval for Mohammed to go forward with organizing the plot . A series of meetings occurred in early 1999 , involving Mohammed , bin Laden , and his deputy Mohammed Atef . Atef provided operational support for the plot , including target selections and helping arrange travel for the hijackers . Bin Laden overruled Mohammed , rejecting some potential targets such as the U.S. Bank Tower in Los Angeles because , " there was not enough time to prepare for such an operation " .
Bin Laden provided leadership and financial support for the plot , and was involved in selecting participants . Bin Laden initially selected Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi and Khalid al @-@ Mihdhar , both experienced jihadists who had fought in Bosnia . Hazmi and Mihdhar arrived in the United States in mid @-@ January 2000 . In spring 2000 , Hazmi and Mihdhar took flying lessons in San Diego , California , but both spoke little English , performed poorly with flying lessons , and eventually served as secondary – or " muscle " – hijackers .
In late 1999 , a group of men from Hamburg , Germany arrived in Afghanistan , including Mohamed Atta , Marwan al @-@ Shehhi , Ziad Jarrah , and Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh . Bin Laden selected these men because they were educated , could speak English , and had experience living in the West . New recruits were routinely screened for special skills and al @-@ Qaeda leaders consequently discovered that Hani Hanjour already had a commercial pilot 's license . Mohammed later said that he helped the hijackers blend in by teaching them how to order food in restaurants and dress in Western clothing .
Hanjour arrived in San Diego on December 8 , 2000 , joining Hazmi . They soon left for Arizona , where Hanjour took refresher training . Marwan al @-@ Shehhi arrived at the end of May 2000 , while Atta arrived on June 3 , 2000 , and Jarrah arrived on June 27 , 2000 . Bin al @-@ Shibh applied several times for a visa to the United States , but as a Yemeni , he was rejected out of concerns he would overstay his visa and remain as an illegal immigrant . Bin al @-@ Shibh stayed in Hamburg , providing coordination between Atta and Mohammed . The three Hamburg cell members all took pilot training in South Florida .
In spring 2001 , the secondary hijackers began arriving in the United States . In July 2001 , Atta met with bin al @-@ Shibh in Spain , where they coordinated details of the plot , including final target selection . Bin al @-@ Shibh also passed along bin Laden 's wish for the attacks to be carried out as soon as possible . Some of the hijackers received passports from corrupt Saudi officials who were family members , or used fraudulent passports to gain entry .
= = = Intelligence before the attacks = = =
In late 1999 , al @-@ Qaeda associate Khallad contacted Mihdhar , telling him to meet him in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia ; Hazmi and Abu Bara al Yemeni would also be in attendance . The NSA intercepted a telephone call mentioning the meeting , Mihdhar , and the name " Nawaf " ( Hazmi ) . While the agency feared that " Something nefarious might be afoot , " it took no further action . The CIA had already been alerted by Saudi intelligence to the status of Mihdhar and Hazmi as al @-@ Qaeda members , and a CIA team broke into Mihdhar 's Dubai hotel room and discovered that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa . While Alec Station alerted intelligence agencies worldwide about this fact , it did not share this information with the FBI . The Malaysian Special Branch observed the January 5 , 2000 , meeting of the two al @-@ Qaeda members , and informed the CIA that Mihdhar , Hazmi , and Khallad were flying to Bangkok , but the CIA never notified other agencies of this , nor did it ask the State Department to put Mihdhar on its watchlist . An FBI liaison to Alec Station asked permission to inform the FBI of the meeting , but was told that " ' This is not a matter for the FBI . ' "
By late June , senior counter @-@ terrorism official Richard Clarke and CIA director George Tenet were " convinced that a major series of attacks was about to come , " although the CIA believed that the attacks would likely occur in Saudi Arabia or Israel . In early July , Clarke put domestic agencies on " full alert , " telling them that " Something really spectacular is going to happen here ... soon . " He asked the FBI and the State Department to alert the embassies and police departments , and the Defense Department to go to " Threat Condition Delta . " Clarke would later write that " Somewhere in CIA there was information that two known al Qaeda terrorists had come into the United States ... in [ the ] FBI there was information that strange things had been going on at flight schools in the United States ... They had specific information about individual terrorists ... None of that information got to me or the White House . "
On July 13 , Tom Wilshire , a CIA agent assigned to the FBI 's international terrorism division , emailed his superiors at the CIA 's Counterterrorism Center ( CTC ) , requesting permission to inform the FBI that Hazmi was in the country and that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa . However , the CIA never responded .
The same day in July , Margarette Gillespie , an FBI analyst working in the CTC , was told to review material about the Malaysia meeting . She was not told of the participants ' presence in the U.S. However , the CIA did give Gillespie surveillance photos of Mihdhar and Hazmi from the meeting to show to FBI counterterrorism , but did not tell her their significance . The Intelink database informed her not to share intelligence material on the meeting to criminal investigators . When shown the photos , the FBI were refused more details on their significance , and also did not receive Mihdhar 's date of birth or passport number . In late August 2001 , Gillespie told the INS , the State Department , the Customs Service , and the FBI to put Hazmi and Mihdhar on their watchlists , but the FBI was prohibited from using criminal agents in the search for the duo , which hindered their efforts .
Also in July , a Phoenix @-@ based FBI agent sent a message to FBI headquarters , Alec Station , and to FBI agents in New York , alerting them to " the possibility of a coordinated effort by Osama bin Laden to send students to the United States to attend civil aviation universities and colleges . " The agent , Kenneth Williams , suggested the need to interview all flight school managers and identify all Arab students seeking flight training . In July , Jordan alerted the U.S. that al @-@ Qaeda was planning an attack on the U.S. ; " months later , " Jordan notified the U.S. that the attack 's codename was " The Big Wedding , " and that it involved airplanes .
On August 6 , the CIA 's Presidential Daily Brief , designated " For the President Only , " was entitled " Bin Ladin Determined to Strike in U.S. " The memo noted that " The FBI information ... indicates patterns of suspicious activity in this country consistent with preparations for hijackings or other types of attacks . "
In mid @-@ August , one Minnesota flight school alerted the FBI to Zacarias Moussaoui , who had asked " suspicious questions . " The FBI found that he was a radical who had traveled to Pakistan , and the INS arrested him for overstaying his French visa . However , their request to search his laptop was denied by FBI headquarters due to the lack of probable cause .
The failures in intelligence @-@ sharing were attributed to 1995 Justice Department policies limiting intelligence sharing , combined with CIA and NSA reluctance in revealing " sensitive sources and methods " such as tapped phones . Testifying before the 9 / 11 Commission in April 2004 , then @-@ Attorney General John Ashcroft recalled that the " single greatest structural cause for the September 11th problem was the wall that segregated or separated criminal investigators and intelligence agents . " Clarke also wrote that " There were failures in the organizations ... failures to get information to the right place at the right time ... "
= = Attacks = =
Early on the morning of September 11 , 2001 , 19 hijackers took control of four commercial airliners ( two Boeing 757 and two Boeing 767 ) en route to California ( three headed to LAX in Los Angeles , and one to SFO in San Francisco ) after takeoffs from Logan International Airport in Boston , Massachusetts ; Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark , New Jersey ; and Washington Dulles International Airport in Loudoun and Fairfax counties in Virginia . Large planes with long flights were selected for hijacking because they would be heavily fueled .
The four flights were :
American Airlines Flight 11 : a Boeing 767 aircraft , departed Logan Airport at 7 : 59 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of 11 and 76 passengers , not including five hijackers . The hijackers flew the plane into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 8 : 46 a.m.
United Airlines Flight 175 : a Boeing 767 aircraft , departed Logan Airport at 8 : 14 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of nine and 51 passengers , not including five hijackers . The hijackers flew the plane into the South Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 9 : 03 a.m.
American Airlines Flight 77 : a Boeing 757 aircraft , departed Washington Dulles International Airport at 8 : 20 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of six and 53 passengers , not including five hijackers . The hijackers flew the plane into the Pentagon in Arlington County , Virginia , at 9 : 37 a.m.
United Airlines Flight 93 : a Boeing 757 aircraft , departed Newark International Airport at 8 : 42 a.m. en route to San Francisco , with a crew of seven and 33 passengers , not including four hijackers . As passengers attempted to subdue the hijackers , the aircraft crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville , Pennsylvania , at 10 : 03 a.m.
Media coverage was extensive during the attacks and aftermath , beginning moments after the first crash into the World Trade Center .
= = = Events = = =
At 8 : 46 a.m. , five hijackers crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern façade of the World Trade Center 's North Tower ( 1 WTC ) , and at 9 : 03 a.m. , another five hijackers crashed United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern façade of the South Tower ( 2 WTC ) . Five hijackers flew American Airlines Flight 77 into the Pentagon at 9 : 37 a.m. A fourth flight , United Airlines Flight 93 , under the control of four hijackers , crashed near Shanksville , Pennsylvania , southeast of Pittsburgh , at 10 : 03 a.m. after the passengers fought the hijackers . Flight 93 's target is believed to have been either the Capitol or the White House . Flight 93 's cockpit voice recorder revealed crew and passengers tried to seize control of the plane from the hijackers after learning through phone calls that Flights 11 , 77 , and 175 had been crashed into buildings that morning . Once it became evident to the hijackers that the passengers might regain control of the plane , the hijackers rolled the plane and intentionally crashed it .
Some passengers and crew members who called from the aircraft using the cabin airphone service and mobile phones provided details : several hijackers were aboard each plane ; they used mace , tear gas , or pepper spray to overcome attendants ; and some people aboard had been stabbed . Reports indicated hijackers stabbed and killed pilots , flight attendants , and one or more passengers . According to the 9 / 11 Commission 's final report , the hijackers had recently purchased multi @-@ function hand tools and assorted Leatherman @-@ type utility knives with locking blades , which were not forbidden to passengers at the time , but were not found among the possessions left behind by the hijackers . A flight attendant on Flight 11 , a passenger on Flight 175 , and passengers on Flight 93 said the hijackers had bombs , but one of the passengers said he thought the bombs were fake . The FBI found no traces of explosives at the crash sites , and the 9 / 11 Commission concluded that the bombs were probably fake .
Three buildings in the World Trade Center collapsed due to fire @-@ induced structural failure . The South Tower collapsed at 9 : 59 a.m. after burning for 56 minutes in a fire caused by the impact of United Airlines Flight 175 and the explosion of its fuel . The North Tower collapsed at 10 : 28 a.m. after burning for 102 minutes . When the North Tower collapsed , debris fell on the nearby 7 World Trade Center building ( 7 WTC ) , damaging it and starting fires . These fires burned for hours , compromising the building 's structural integrity , and 7 WTC collapsed at 5 : 21 p.m. The west side of the Pentagon sustained significant damage .
At 9 : 42 a.m. , the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) grounded all civilian aircraft within the continental U.S. , and civilian aircraft already in flight were told to land immediately . All international civilian aircraft were either turned back or redirected to airports in Canada or Mexico , and were banned from landing on United States territory for three days . The attacks created widespread confusion among news organizations and air traffic controllers . Among the unconfirmed and often contradictory news reports aired throughout the day , one of the most prevalent said a car bomb had been detonated at the U.S. State Department 's headquarters in Washington , D.C. Another jet — Delta Air Lines Flight 1989 — was suspected of having been hijacked , but the aircraft responded to controllers and landed safely in Cleveland , Ohio .
In an April 2002 interview , Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh , who are believed to have organized the attacks , said Flight 93 's intended target was the United States Capitol , not the White House . During the planning stage of the attacks , Mohamed Atta , the hijacker and pilot of Flight 11 , thought the White House might be too tough a target and sought an assessment from Hani Hanjour ( who hijacked and piloted Flight 77 ) . Mohammed said al @-@ Qaeda initially planned to target nuclear installations rather than the World Trade Center and the Pentagon , but decided against it , fearing things could " get out of control " . Final decisions on targets , according to Mohammed , were left in the hands of the pilots .
= = = Casualties = = =
The attacks resulted in the deaths of 2 @,@ 996 people and the injuries of 6 @,@ 000 + others . The death toll included 265 on the four planes ( from which there were no survivors ) , 2 @,@ 606 in the World Trade Center and in the surrounding area , and 125 at the Pentagon . Nearly all of those who perished were civilians with the exceptions of 343 firefighters , 72 law enforcement officers , 55 military personnel , and the 19 terrorists who died in the attacks . After New York , New Jersey lost the most state citizens , with the city of Hoboken having the most citizens that died in the attacks . More than 90 countries lost citizens in the September 11 attacks . The attacks of September 11 , 2001 , marked it the worst terrorist attack in world history and the deadliest foreign attack on American soil since the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 .
In Arlington County , Virginia , 125 Pentagon workers lost their lives when Flight 77 crashed into the western side of the building . Of these , 70 were civilians and 55 were military personnel , many of them who worked for the United States Army or the United States Navy . The Army lost 47 civilian employees , six civilian contractors , and 22 soldiers , while the Navy lost six civilian employees , three civilian contractors , and 33 sailors . Seven Defense Intelligence Agency ( DIA ) civilian employees were also among the dead in the attack , as well as an Office of the Secretary of Defense ( OSD ) contractor . Lieutenant General Timothy Maude , an Army Deputy Chief of Staff , was the highest @-@ ranking military official killed at the Pentagon .
In New York City , more than 90 % of the workers and visitors who died in the towers had been at or above the points of impact . In the North Tower , 1 @,@ 355 people at or above the point of impact were trapped and died of smoke inhalation , fell or jumped from the tower to escape the smoke and flames , or were killed in the building 's eventual collapse . The destruction of all three staircases in the tower when Flight 11 hit made it impossible for anyone above the impact zone to escape . 107 people below the point of impact died as well .
In the South Tower , one stairwell , Stairwell A , was left intact after Flight 175 hit , allowing 14 people located on the floors of impact ( including one man who saw the plane coming at him ) and four more from the floors above to escape . New York City 911 operators who received calls from individuals inside the tower were not well informed of the situation as it rapidly unfolded and as a result , told callers not to descend the tower on their own . In total 630 people died in that tower , fewer than half the number killed in the North Tower . Casualties in the South Tower were significantly reduced by some occupants deciding to start evacuating as soon as the North Tower was struck .
At least 200 people fell or jumped to their deaths from the burning towers ( as exemplified in the photograph The Falling Man ) , landing on the streets and rooftops of adjacent buildings hundreds of feet below . Some occupants of each tower above the point of impact made their way toward the roof in hope of helicopter rescue , but the roof access doors were locked . No plan existed for helicopter rescues , and the combination of roof equipment and thick smoke and intense heat prevented helicopters from approaching . A total of 411 emergency workers died as they tried to rescue people and fight fires . The New York City Fire Department ( FDNY ) lost 343 firefighters , including a chaplain and two paramedics . The New York City Police Department ( NYPD ) lost 23 officers . The Port Authority Police Department ( PAPD ) lost 37 officers . Eight emergency medical technicians ( EMTs ) and paramedics from private emergency medical services units were killed .
Cantor Fitzgerald L.P. , an investment bank on the 101st – 105th floors of the North Tower , lost 658 employees , considerably more than any other employer . Marsh Inc . , located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93 – 100 , lost 358 employees , and 175 employees of Aon Corporation were also killed . The National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) estimated that about 17 @,@ 400 civilians were in the World Trade Center complex at the time of the attacks . Turnstile counts from the Port Authority suggest 14 @,@ 154 people were typically in the Twin Towers by 8 : 45 a.m. Most people below the impact zone safely evacuated the buildings .
Weeks after the attack , the death toll was estimated to be over 6 @,@ 000 , more than twice the number of deaths eventually confirmed . The city was only able to identify remains for about 1 @,@ 600 of the World Trade Center victims . The medical examiner 's office collected " about 10 @,@ 000 unidentified bone and tissue fragments that cannot be matched to the list of the dead " . Bone fragments were still being found in 2006 by workers who were preparing to demolish the damaged Deutsche Bank Building . In 2010 , a team of anthropologists and archaeologists searched for human remains and personal items at the Fresh Kills Landfill , where seventy @-@ two more human remains were recovered , bringing the total found to 1 @,@ 845 . DNA profiling continues in an attempt to identify additional victims . The remains are being held in storage in Memorial Park , outside the New York City Medical Examiner 's facilities . It was expected that the remains would be moved in 2013 to a repository behind a wall at the 9 / 11 museum . In July 2011 , a team of scientists at the Office of Chief Medical Examiner was still trying to identify remains , in the hope that improved technology will allow them to identify other victims . On March 20 , 2015 , the 1,640th victim was identified . There are still 1 @,@ 113 victims who have not been identified .
= = = Damage = = =
Along with the 110 @-@ floor Twin Towers , numerous other buildings at the World Trade Center site were destroyed or badly damaged , including WTC buildings 3 through 7 and St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church . The North Tower , South Tower , the Marriott Hotel ( 3 WTC ) , and 7 WTC were completely destroyed . The U.S. Customs House ( 6 World Trade Center ) , 4 World Trade Center , 5 World Trade Center , and both pedestrian bridges connecting buildings were severely damaged . The Deutsche Bank Building on 130 Liberty Street was partially damaged and demolished some years later , starting in 2007 . The two buildings of the World Financial Center also suffered damage .
The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned as uninhabitable because of toxic conditions inside the office tower , and was deconstructed . The Borough of Manhattan Community College 's Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was condemned due to extensive damage in the attacks , and is being rebuilt . Other neighboring buildings ( including 90 West Street and the Verizon Building ) suffered major damage but have been restored . World Financial Center buildings , One Liberty Plaza , the Millenium Hilton , and 90 Church Street had moderate damage and have since been restored . Communications equipment on top of the North Tower was also destroyed , but media stations were quickly able to reroute the signals and resume their broadcasts .
The Pentagon was severely damaged by the impact of American Airlines Flight 77 and ensuing fires , causing one section of the building to collapse . As the airplane approached the Pentagon , its wings knocked down light poles and its right engine hit a power generator before crashing into the western side of the building . The plane hit the Pentagon at the first @-@ floor level . The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact , while the mid and tail sections kept moving for another fraction of a second . Debris from the tail section penetrated furthest into the building , breaking through 310 feet ( 94 m ) of the three outermost of the building 's five rings .
= = = Rescue efforts = = =
The New York City Fire Department deployed 200 units ( half of the department ) to the World Trade Center . Their efforts were supplemented by numerous off @-@ duty firefighters and emergency medical technicians . The New York City Police Department sent Emergency Service Units and other police personnel , and deployed its aviation unit . Once on the scene , the FDNY , the NYPD , and the PAPD did not coordinate efforts and performed redundant searches for civilians . As conditions deteriorated , the NYPD aviation unit relayed information to police commanders , who issued orders for its personnel to evacuate the towers ; most NYPD officers were able to safely evacuate before the buildings collapsed . With separate command posts set up and incompatible radio communications between the agencies , warnings were not passed along to FDNY commanders .
After the first tower collapsed , FDNY commanders issued evacuation warnings ; however , due to technical difficulties with malfunctioning radio repeater systems , many firefighters never heard the evacuation orders . 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 dispatchers also received information from callers that was not passed along to commanders on the scene . Within hours of the attack , a substantial search and rescue operation was launched . After months of around @-@ the @-@ clock operations , the World Trade Center site was cleared by the end of May 2002 .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Immediate response = = =
At 8 : 32 a.m. , FAA officials were notified Flight 11 had been hijacked and they in turn notified the North American Aerospace Defense Command ( NORAD ) . NORAD scrambled two F @-@ 15s from Otis Air National Guard Base in Massachusetts and they were airborne by 8 : 53 a.m. Because of slow and confused communication from FAA officials , NORAD had 9 minutes ' notice that Flight 11 had been hijacked , and no notice about any of the other flights before they crashed . After both of the Twin Towers had already been hit , more fighters were scrambled from Langley Air Force Base in Virginia at 9 : 30 a.m. At 10 : 20 a.m. Vice President Dick Cheney issued orders to shoot down any commercial aircraft that could be positively identified as being hijacked . However , these instructions were not relayed in time for the fighters to take action . Some fighters took to the air without live ammunition , knowing that to prevent the hijackers from striking their intended targets , the pilots might have to intercept and crash their fighters into the hijacked planes , possibly ejecting at the last moment .
For the first time in U.S. history , SCATANA was invoked , thus stranding tens of thousands of passengers across the world . The FAA closed American airspace to all international flights , causing about five hundred flights to be turned back or redirected to other countries . Canada received 226 of the diverted flights and launched Operation Yellow Ribbon to deal with the large numbers of grounded planes and stranded passengers .
The 9 / 11 attacks had immediate effects upon the American people . Police and rescue workers from around the country took leaves of absence , traveling to New York City to help recover bodies from the twisted remnants of the Twin Towers . Blood donations across the U.S. surged in the weeks after 9 / 11 .
The deaths of adults in the attacks resulted in over 3 @,@ 000 children losing a parent . Subsequent studies documented children 's reactions to these actual losses and to feared losses of life , the protective environment in the aftermath of the attacks , and effects on surviving caregivers .
= = = Domestic reactions = = =
Following the attacks , President Bush 's approval rating soared to 90 % . On September 20 , 2001 , he addressed the nation and a joint session of the United States Congress regarding the events of September 11 and the subsequent nine days of rescue and recovery efforts , and described his intended response to the attacks . New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani 's highly visible role won him high praise in New York and nationally .
Many relief funds were immediately set up to assist victims of the attacks , with the task of providing financial assistance to the survivors of the attacks and to the families of victims . By the deadline for victim 's compensation on September 11 , 2003 , 2 @,@ 833 applications had been received from the families of those who were killed .
Contingency plans for the continuity of government and the evacuation of leaders were implemented soon after the attacks . However , Congress was not told that the United States had been under a continuity of government status until February 2002 .
In the largest restructuring of the U.S. government in contemporary history , the United States enacted the Homeland Security Act of 2002 , creating the Department of Homeland Security . Congress also passed the USA PATRIOT Act , saying it would help detect and prosecute terrorism and other crimes . Civil liberties groups have criticized the PATRIOT Act , saying it allows law enforcement to invade the privacy of citizens and that it eliminates judicial oversight of law enforcement and domestic intelligence . In an effort to effectively combat future acts of terrorism , the National Security Agency ( NSA ) was given broad powers . NSA commenced warrantless surveillance of telecommunications , which was sometimes criticized since it permitted the agency " to eavesdrop on telephone and e @-@ mail communications between the United States and people overseas without a warrant " . In response to requests by various intelligence agencies , the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court permitted an expansion of powers by the U.S. government in seeking , obtaining , and sharing information on U.S. citizens as well as non @-@ U.S. people from around the world .
= = = = Hate crimes = = = =
Shortly after the attacks , President Bush made a public appearance at Washington 's largest Islamic Center and acknowledged the " incredibly valuable contribution " that millions of American Muslims made to their country and called for them " to be treated with respect . " However , numerous incidents of harassment and hate crimes against Muslims and South Asians were reported in the days following the attacks . Sikhs were also targeted because Sikh males usually wear turbans , which are stereotypically associated with Muslims . There were reports of attacks on mosques and other religious buildings ( including the firebombing of a Hindu temple ) , and assaults on people , including one murder : Balbir Singh Sodhi , a Sikh mistaken for a Muslim , was fatally shot on September 15 , 2001 , in Mesa , Arizona .
According to an academic study , people perceived to be Middle Eastern were as likely to be victims of hate crimes as followers of Islam during this time . The study also found a similar increase in hate crimes against people who may have been perceived as Muslims , Arabs , and others thought to be of Middle Eastern origin . A report by the South Asian American advocacy group known as South Asian Americans Leading Together , documented media coverage of 645 bias incidents against Americans of South Asian or Middle Eastern descent between September 11 and 17 . Various crimes such as vandalism , arson , assault , shootings , harassment , and threats in numerous places were documented .
= = = = Muslim American response = = = =
Muslim organizations in the United States were swift to condemn the attacks and called " upon Muslim Americans to come forward with their skills and resources to help alleviate the sufferings of the affected people and their families " . These organizations included the Islamic Society of North America , American Muslim Alliance , American Muslim Council , Council on American @-@ Islamic Relations , Islamic Circle of North America , and the Shari 'a Scholars Association of North America . Along with monetary donations , many Islamic organizations launched blood drives and provided medical assistance , food , and shelter for victims .
= = = International reactions = = =
The attacks were denounced by mass media and governments worldwide . Across the globe , nations offered pro @-@ American support and solidarity . Leaders in most Middle Eastern countries , and Afghanistan , condemned the attacks . Iraq was a notable exception , with an immediate official statement that , " the American cowboys are reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity " . While the government of Saudi Arabia officially condemned the attacks , privately many Saudis favored bin Laden 's cause . As in the United States , the aftermath of the attacks saw tensions increase in other countries between Muslims and non @-@ Muslims .
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1368 condemned the attacks , and expressed readiness to take all necessary steps to respond and combat all forms of terrorism in accordance with their Charter . Numerous countries introduced anti @-@ terrorism legislation and froze bank accounts they suspected of al @-@ Qaeda ties . Law enforcement and intelligence agencies in a number of countries arrested alleged terrorists .
British Prime Minister Tony Blair said Britain stood " shoulder to shoulder " with the United States . A few days later , Blair flew to Washington to affirm British solidarity with the United States . In a speech to Congress , nine days after the attacks , which Blair attended as a guest , President Bush declared " America has no truer friend than Great Britain . " Subsequently , Prime Minister Blair embarked on two months of diplomacy to rally international support for military action ; he held 54 meetings with world leaders and travelled more than 40 @,@ 000 miles ( 60 @,@ 000 km ) .
Tens of thousands of people attempted to flee Afghanistan following the attacks , fearing a response by the United States . Pakistan , already home to many Afghan refugees from previous conflicts , closed its border with Afghanistan on September 17 , 2001 . Approximately one month after the attacks , the United States led a broad coalition of international forces to overthrow the Taliban regime from Afghanistan for their harboring of al @-@ Qaeda . Though Pakistani authorities were initially reluctant to align themselves with the United States against the Taliban , they permitted the coalition access to their military bases , and arrested and handed over to the U.S. over 600 suspected al @-@ Qaeda members .
The U.S. set up the Guantanamo Bay detention camp to hold inmates they defined as " illegal enemy combatants " . The legitimacy of these detentions has been questioned by the European Union and human rights organizations .
On September 25 , 2001 , Iran 's fifth president , Mohammad Khatami meeting British Foreign Secretary , Jack Straw , said : " Iran fully understands the feelings of the Americans about the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington on September 11 . " He said although the American administrations had been at best indifferent about terrorist operations in Iran ( since 1979 ) , the Iranians instead felt differently and had expressed their sympathetic feelings with bereaved Americans in the tragic incidents in the two cities . He also stated that " Nations should not be punished in place of terrorists . " According to Radio Farda 's website , when the attacks ' news was released , some Iranian citizens gathered in front of the Embassy of Switzerland in Tehran , which serves as the protecting power of the United States in Iran ( US interests protecting office in Iran ) , to express their sympathy and some of them lit candles as a symbol of mourning . This piece of news at Radio Farda 's website also states that in 2011 , on the anniversary of the attacks , United States Department of State , published a post at its blog , in which the Department thanked Iranian people for their sympathy and stated that they would never forget Iranian people 's kindness on those harsh days . After the attacks , both the President and the Supreme Leader of Iran , condemned the attacks . BBC and Time magazine published reports on holding candlelit vigils for the victims by Iranian citizens at their websites . According to Politico magazine , following the attacks , Sayyed Ali Khamenei , the Supreme Leader of Iran , " suspended the usual ' Death to America ' chants at Friday prayers " temporarily .
= = = Military operations = = =
At 2 : 40 p.m. in the afternoon of September 11 , Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was issuing rapid orders to his aides to look for evidence of Iraqi involvement . According to notes taken by senior policy official Stephen Cambone , Rumsfeld asked for , " Best info fast . Judge whether good enough hit S.H. " ( Saddam Hussein ) " at same time . Not only UBL " ( Osama bin Laden ) . Cambone 's notes quoted Rumsfeld as saying , " Need to move swiftly – Near term target needs – go massive – sweep it all up . Things related and not . " In a meeting at Camp David on September 15 the Bush administration rejected the idea of attacking Iraq in response to 9 / 11 .
The NATO council declared the attacks on the United States were an attack on all NATO nations which satisfied Article 5 of the NATO charter . This marked the first invocation of Article 5 , which had been written during the Cold War with an attack by the Soviet Union in mind . Australian Prime Minister John Howard who was in Washington D.C. during the attacks invoked Article IV of the ANZUS treaty . The Bush administration announced a War on Terror , with the stated goals of bringing bin Laden and al @-@ Qaeda to justice and preventing the emergence of other terrorist networks . These goals would be accomplished by imposing economic and military sanctions against states harboring terrorists , and increasing global surveillance and intelligence sharing .
On September 14 , 2001 , the U.S. Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists . Still in effect , it grants the President the authority to use all " necessary and appropriate force " against those whom he determined " planned , authorized , committed or aided " the September 11th attacks , or who harbored said persons or groups .
On October 7 , 2001 , the War in Afghanistan began when U.S. and British forces initiated aerial bombing campaigns targeting Taliban and al @-@ Qaeda camps , then later invaded Afghanistan with ground troops of the Special Forces . This eventually led to the overthrow of the Taliban rule of Afghanistan on December 9 , 2001 by U.S. led coalition forces . Conflict in Afghanistan between the Taliban insurgency and the Afghan forces backed by NATO Resolute Support Mission is ongoing . The Philippines and Indonesia , among other nations with their own internal conflicts with Islamic terrorism , also increased their military readiness .
The military forces of the United States of America and the Islamic Republic of Iran cooperated with each other to overthrow Taliban regime which had had conflicts with the government of Iran . Iran 's Quds Force helped US forces and Afghan rebels in 2001 uprising in Herat .
= = Effects = =
= = = Health issues = = =
Hundreds of thousands of tons of toxic debris containing more than 2 @,@ 500 contaminants , including known carcinogens , were spread across Lower Manhattan due to the collapse of the Twin Towers . Exposure to the toxins in the debris is alleged to have contributed to fatal or debilitating illnesses among people who were at ground zero . The Bush administration ordered the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) to issue reassuring statements regarding air quality in the aftermath of the attacks , citing national security , but the EPA did not determine that air quality had returned to pre @-@ September 11 levels until June 2002 .
Health effects extended to residents , students , and office workers of Lower Manhattan and nearby Chinatown . Several deaths have been linked to the toxic dust , and the victims ' names were included in the World Trade Center memorial . Approximately 18 @,@ 000 people have been estimated to have developed illnesses as a result of the toxic dust . There is also scientific speculation that exposure to various toxic products in the air may have negative effects on fetal development . A notable children 's environmental health center is currently analyzing the children whose mothers were pregnant during the WTC collapse , and were living or working nearby . A study of rescue workers released in April 2010 found that all those studied had impaired lung functions , and that 30 – 40 % were reporting little or no improvement in persistent symptoms that started within the first year of the attack .
Years after the attacks , legal disputes over the costs of illnesses related to the attacks were still in the court system . On October 17 , 2006 , a federal judge rejected New York City 's refusal to pay for health costs for rescue workers , allowing for the possibility of numerous suits against the city . Government officials have been faulted for urging the public to return to lower Manhattan in the weeks shortly after the attacks . Christine Todd Whitman , administrator of the EPA in the aftermath of the attacks , was heavily criticized by a U.S. District Judge for incorrectly saying that the area was environmentally safe . Mayor Giuliani was criticized for urging financial industry personnel to return quickly to the greater Wall Street area .
The United States Congress passed the James L. Zadroga 9 / 11 Health and Compensation Act on December 22 , 2010 , and President Barack Obama signed the act into law on January 2 , 2011 . It allocated $ 4 @.@ 2 billion to create the World Trade Center Health Program , which provides testing and treatment for people suffering from long @-@ term health problems related to the 9 / 11 attacks . The WTC Health Program replaced preexisting 9 / 11 @-@ related health programs such as the Medical Monitoring and Treatment Program and the WTC Environmental Health Center program .
According to a new study , pregnant women living near the World Trade Center during the 9 / 11 terror attacks experienced higher @-@ than @-@ normal negative birth outcomes . The study by Princeton University 's Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs found that these mothers were more likely to give birth prematurely and deliver babies with low birth weights . Their babies were also more likely to be admitted to neonatal intensive care units after birth ( especially baby boys ) , according to the study led by the Wilson School 's Janet Currie and Hannes Schwandt .
= = = Economic = = =
The attacks had a significant economic impact on United States and world markets . The stock exchanges did not open on September 11 and remained closed until September 17 . Reopening , the Dow Jones Industrial Average ( DJIA ) fell 684 points , or 7 @.@ 1 % , to 8921 , a record @-@ setting one @-@ day point decline . By the end of the week , the DJIA had fallen 1 @,@ 369 @.@ 7 points ( 14 @.@ 3 % ) , at the time its largest one @-@ week point drop in history . In 2001 dollars , U.S. stocks lost $ 1 @.@ 4 trillion in valuation for the week .
In New York City , about 430 @,@ 000 job @-@ months and $ 2 @.@ 8 billion dollars in wages were lost in the three months after the attacks . The economic effects were mainly on the economy 's export sectors . The city 's GDP was estimated to have declined by $ 27 @.@ 3 billion for the last three months of 2001 and all of 2002 . The U.S. government provided $ 11 @.@ 2 billion in immediate assistance to the Government of New York City in September 2001 , and $ 10 @.@ 5 billion in early 2002 for economic development and infrastructure needs . Also hurt were small businesses in Lower Manhattan near the World Trade Center , 18 @,@ 000 of which were destroyed or displaced , resulting in lost jobs and their consequent wages . Assistance was provided by Small Business Administration loans , federal government Community Development Block Grants , and Economic Injury Disaster Loans . Some 31 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 960 @,@ 000 m2 ) of Lower Manhattan office space was damaged or destroyed . Many wondered whether these jobs would return , and if the damaged tax base would recover . Studies of the economic effects of 9 / 11 show the Manhattan office real @-@ estate market and office employment were less affected than first feared , because of the financial services industry 's need for face @-@ to @-@ face interaction .
North American air space was closed for several days after the attacks and air travel decreased upon its reopening , leading to a nearly 20 % cutback in air travel capacity , and exacerbating financial problems in the struggling U.S. airline industry .
The September 11 attacks also led to the U.S. wars in Afghanistan and Iraq , as well as additional homeland security spending , totaling at least $ 5 trillion .
= = = Cultural = = =
The impact of 9 / 11 extends beyond geopolitics into society and culture in general . Immediate responses to 9 / 11 included greater focus on home life and time spent with family , higher church attendance , and increased expressions of patriotism such as the flying of flags . The radio industry responded by removing certain songs from playlists , and the attacks have subsequently been used as background , narrative or thematic elements in film , television , music and literature . Already @-@ running television shows as well as programs developed after 9 / 11 have reflected post @-@ 9 / 11 cultural concerns . 9 / 11 conspiracy theories have become social phenomena , despite lack of support from expert scientists , engineers , and historians . 9 / 11 has also had a major impact on the religious faith of many individuals ; for some it strengthened , to find consolation to cope with the loss of loved ones and overcome their grief ; others started to question their faith or lost it entirely , because they could not reconcile it with their view of religion .
The culture of America succeeding the attacks is noted for heightened security and an increased demand thereof , as well as paranoia and anxiety regarding future terrorist attacks that includes most of the nation . Psychologists have also confirmed that there has been an increased amount of national anxiety in commercial air travel .
= = = Government policies toward terrorism = = =
As a result of the attacks , many governments across the world passed legislation to combat terrorism . In Germany , where several of the 9 / 11 terrorists had resided and taken advantage of that country 's liberal asylum policies , two major anti @-@ terrorism packages were enacted . The first removed legal loopholes that permitted terrorists to live and raise money in Germany . The second addressed the effectiveness and communication of intelligence and law enforcement . Canada passed the Canadian Anti @-@ Terrorism Act , that nation 's first anti @-@ terrorism law . The United Kingdom passed the Anti @-@ terrorism , Crime and Security Act 2001 and the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 . New Zealand enacted the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002 .
In the United States , the Department of Homeland Security was created by the Homeland Security Act to coordinate domestic anti @-@ terrorism efforts . The USA Patriot Act gave the federal government greater powers , including the authority to detain foreign terror suspects for a week without charge , to monitor telephone communications , e @-@ mail , and Internet use by terror suspects , and to prosecute suspected terrorists without time restrictions . The FAA ordered that airplane cockpits be reinforced to prevent terrorists gaining control of planes , and assigned sky marshals to flights . Further , the Aviation and Transportation Security Act made the federal government , rather than airports , responsible for airport security . The law created the Transportation Security Administration to inspect passengers and luggage , causing long delays and concern over passenger privacy .
= = Investigations = =
= = = FBI = = =
Immediately after the attacks , the Federal Bureau of Investigation started PENTTBOM , the largest criminal inquiry in the history of the United States . At its height , more than half of the FBI 's agents worked on the investigation and followed a half @-@ million leads . The FBI concluded that there was " clear and irrefutable " evidence linking al @-@ Qaeda and bin Laden to the attacks .
The FBI was quickly able to identify the hijackers , including leader Mohamed Atta , when his luggage was discovered at Boston 's Logan Airport . Atta had been forced to check two of his three bags due to space limitations on the 19 @-@ seat commuter flight he took to Boston . Due to a new policy instituted to prevent flight delays , the luggage failed to make it aboard American Airlines Flight 11 as planned . The luggage contained the hijackers ' names , assignments and al @-@ Qaeda connections . " It had all these Arab @-@ language ( sic ) papers that amounted to the Rosetta stone of the investigation " , said one FBI agent . Within hours of the attacks , the FBI released the names and in many cases the personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers . On September 27 , 2001 , they released photos of all 19 hijackers , along with information about possible nationalities and aliases . Fifteen of the men were from Saudi Arabia , two from the United Arab Emirates , one from Egypt , and one from Lebanon .
By midday , the U.S. National Security Agency and German intelligence agencies had intercepted communications pointing to Osama bin Laden . Two of the hijackers were known to have travelled with a bin Laden associate to Malaysia in 2000 and hijacker Mohammed Atta had previously gone to Afghanistan . He and others were part of a terrorist cell in Hamburg . One of the members of the Hamburg cell was discovered to have been in communication with Khalid Sheik Mohammed who was identified as a member of al @-@ Qaeda .
Authorities in the United States and Britain also obtained electronic intercepts , including telephone conversations and electronic bank transfers , which indicate that Mohammed Atef , a bin Laden deputy , was a key figure in the planning of the 9 / 11 attacks . Intercepts were also obtained that revealed conversations that took place days before September 11 between bin Laden and an associate in Pakistan . In those conversations , the two referred to " an incident that would take place in America on , or around , September 11 " and they discussed potential repercussions . In another conversation with an associate in Afghanistan , bin Laden discussed the " scale and effects of a forthcoming operation . " These conversations did not specifically mention the World Trade Center or Pentagon , or other specifics .
= = = CIA = = =
The Inspector General of the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) conducted an internal review of the agency 's pre @-@ 9 / 11 performance and was harshly critical of senior CIA officials for not doing everything possible to confront terrorism . He criticized their failure to stop two of the 9 / 11 hijackers , Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi and Khalid al @-@ Mihdhar , as they entered the United States and their failure to share information on the two men with the FBI . In May 2007 , senators from both major U.S. political parties drafted legislation to make the review public . One of the backers , Senator Ron Wyden said , " The American people have a right to know what the Central Intelligence Agency was doing in those critical months before 9 / 11 . "
= = = Congressional inquiry = = =
In February 2002 the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence formed a joint inquiry into the performance of the U.S. Intelligence Community . Their 832 page report released in December 2002 detailed failings of the FBI and CIA to use available information , including about terrorists the CIA knew were in the United States , in order to disrupt the plots . The joint inquiry developed its information about possible involvement of Saudi Arabian government officials from non @-@ classified sources . Nevertheless , the Bush administration demanded 28 related pages remain classified . In December 2002 the inquiry 's chair Bob Graham ( D @-@ FL ) revealed in an interview that there was " evidence that there were foreign governments involved in facilitating the activities of at least some of the terrorists in the United States . " September 11th victim families were frustrated by the unanswered questions and redacted material from the Congressional inquiry and demanded an independent commission . September 11th victim families , members of congress and the Saudi Arabian government are still seeking release of the documents . In June 2016 , CIA chief John Brennan says that he believes 28 redacted pages of a congressional inquiry into 9 / 11 will soon be made public , and that they will prove that the government of Saudi Arabia had no involvement in the September 11 attacks .
= = = 9 / 11 Commission = = =
The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States ( 9 / 11 Commission ) , chaired by Thomas Kean and Lee H. Hamilton , was formed in late 2002 to prepare a thorough account of the circumstances surrounding the attacks , including preparedness for and the immediate response to the attacks . On July 22 , 2004 , the Commission issued the 9 / 11 Commission Report . The report detailed the events of 9 / 11 , found the attacks were carried out by members of al @-@ Qaeda , and examined how security and intelligence agencies were inadequately coordinated to prevent the attacks . Formed from an independent bipartisan group of mostly former Senators , Representatives , and Governors , the commissioners explained , " We believe the 9 / 11 attacks revealed four kinds of failures : in imagination , policy , capabilities , and management " . The Commission made numerous recommendations on how to prevent future attacks , and in 2011 was dismayed that several of its recommendations had yet to be implemented .
= = = Collapse of the World Trade Center = = =
The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) investigated the collapses of the Twin Towers and 7 WTC . The investigations examined why the buildings collapsed and what fire protection measures were in place , and evaluated how fire protection systems might be improved in future construction . The investigation into the collapse of 1 WTC and 2 WTC was concluded in October 2005 and that of 7 WTC was completed in August 2008 .
NIST found that the fireproofing on the Twin Towers ' steel infrastructures was blown off by the initial impact of the planes and that , had this not occurred , the towers likely would have remained standing . A 2007 study of the north tower 's collapse published by researchers of Purdue University determined that , since the plane 's impact had stripped off much of the structure 's thermal insulation , the heat from a typical office fire would have softened and weakened the exposed girders and columns enough to initiate the collapse regardless of the number of columns cut or damaged by the impact .
The director of the original investigation stated that , " the towers really did amazingly well . The terrorist aircraft didn 't bring the buildings down ; it was the fire which followed . It was proven that you could take out two thirds of the columns in a tower and the building would still stand . " The fires weakened the trusses supporting the floors , making the floors sag . The sagging floors pulled on the exterior steel columns causing the exterior columns to bow inward . With the damage to the core columns , the buckling exterior columns could no longer support the buildings , causing them to collapse . Additionally , the report found the towers ' stairwells were not adequately reinforced to provide adequate emergency escape for people above the impact zones . NIST concluded that uncontrolled fires in 7 WTC caused floor beams and girders to heat and subsequently " caused a critical support column to fail , initiating a fire @-@ induced progressive collapse that brought the building down " .
= = Rebuilding = =
On the day of the attacks , New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani stated : " We will rebuild . We 're going to come out of this stronger than before , politically stronger , economically stronger . The skyline will be made whole again . "
The damaged section of the Pentagon was rebuilt and occupied within a year of the attacks . The temporary World Trade Center PATH station opened in late 2003 and construction of the new 7 World Trade Center was completed in 2006 . Work on rebuilding the main World Trade Center site was delayed until late 2006 when leaseholder Larry Silverstein and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed on financing . The construction of One World Trade Center began on April 27 , 2006 , and reached its full height on May 20 , 2013 . The spire was installed atop the building at that date , putting 1 WTC 's height at 1 @,@ 776 feet ( 541 m ) and thus claiming the title of the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere . One WTC finished construction and opened on November 3 , 2014 .
On the World Trade Center site , three more office towers are expected to be built one block east of where the original towers stood . Construction has begun on all three of these towers .
= = Memorials = =
In the days immediately following the attacks , many memorials and vigils were held around the world , and photographs of the dead and missing were posted around Ground Zero . A witness described being unable to " get away from faces of innocent victims who were killed . Their pictures are everywhere , on phone booths , street lights , walls of subway stations . Everything reminded me of a huge funeral , people quiet and sad , but also very nice . Before , New York gave me a cold feeling ; now people were reaching out to help each other . "
One of the first memorials was the Tribute in Light , an installation of 88 searchlights at the footprints of the World Trade Center towers . In New York , the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition was held to design an appropriate memorial on the site . The winning design , Reflecting Absence , was selected in August 2006 , and consists of a pair of reflecting pools in the footprints of the towers , surrounded by a list of the victims ' names in an underground memorial space .
The Pentagon Memorial was completed and opened to the public on the seventh anniversary of the attacks in 2008 . It consists of a landscaped park with 184 benches facing the Pentagon . When the Pentagon was repaired in 2001 – 2002 , a private chapel and indoor memorial were included , located at the spot where Flight 77 crashed into the building .
In Shanksville , a permanent Flight 93 National Memorial is planned to include a sculpted grove of trees forming a circle around the crash site , bisected by the plane 's path , while wind chimes will bear the names of the victims . A temporary memorial is located 500 yards ( 457 m ) from the crash site . New York City firefighters donated a cross made of steel from the World Trade Center and mounted on top of a platform shaped like the Pentagon . It was installed outside the firehouse on August 25 , 2008 . Many other permanent memorials are elsewhere . Scholarships and charities have been established by the victims ' families , and by many other organizations and private figures .
On every anniversary , in New York City , the names of the victims who died there are read out against a background of somber music . The President of the United States attends a memorial service at the Pentagon , and asks Americans to observe Patriot Day with a moment of silence . Smaller services are held in Shanksville , Pennsylvania , which are usually attended by the President 's spouse .
= Loyalty to Loyalty =
Loyalty to Loyalty is the second studio album by American indie rock band Cold War Kids . It was released on September 23 , 2008 by Downtown Records .
Following the success of their debut album Robbers & Cowards and spending the rest of 2007 touring across North America and Europe , the band started recording new material for their next album over the course of four months . Taking its title from the paper of the same name by American philosopher Josiah Royce , Loyalty to Loyalty carries a darker tone than its previous album by having a more experimental sound throughout and songs that deal with philosophies and politics , including suicide , crisis of faith , public security and job satisfaction .
The album received a generally positive reception but critics said it was uneven in terms of songwriting and performance . Loyalty to Loyalty debuted at number 21 on the Billboard 200 and spawned two singles : " Something Is Not Right with Me " and " I 've Seen Enough " , the former was voted number 38 in the Triple J Hottest 100 in 2008 . To promote the album , the band toured across North America , Europe and Australia with appearances at music festivals and talk shows .
= = Background = =
Cold War Kids released their debut album Robbers & Cowards on October 11 , 2006 . The album garnered a largely positive reception from critics , but Marc Hogan of Pitchfork Media criticized the band for its songwriting , melodies and Christian symbolism , saying that " Robbers and Cowards insults our intelligence a few times too often . " Cat Dirt Sez of the San Diego CityBeat said that Hogan 's review was an example of lazy journalism , with lead guitarist Jonnie Russell saying that the reviewer wanted a wittier approach to the album rather than a thoughtful assessment of it . To promote the album , the band spent most of 2007 touring across North America and Europe through appearances at music festivals and talk shows . Bassist Matt Maust said that touring exhausted the band and that they were eager to return to the studio to write new material for their next album .
Loyalty to Loyalty 's title comes from a paper of the same name by American philosopher Josiah Royce , in which he challenged Friedrich Nietzsche 's ideas about " will to power " and the übermensch , " saying that the ultimate pursuit of mankind should be to live in community and embrace each other , not to try to trample each other and rise to the top . " Maust said that he could relate to that phrase with the band saying that it 's " very similar to how [ we ] conduct ourselves , the way that [ we ] write songs and the way that [ we ] view each other in the band . No one person is writing for the other person , but we are loyal to each other . We 're loyal to loyalty . " For the recording process , Maust explained that they took four months to experiment with deeper and grittier sounds they were comfortable with , compared to the first record that took eight days to create that carried " a much more polished , for @-@ radio sound . " He also commented that the overall dark tone throughout the album was the cause of constant touring across Europe , but said that it did more good than harm for the band because it led to them crafting songs that weren 't written from the perspective of being on the road .
= = Music and lyrics = =
For the techniques used to craft the overall sound of the album , August Brown of the Los Angeles Times described the band foregoing the use of full chords and verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse structures in favor of " distant guitar effects , crunchy bass grooves and smatterings of percussion . " Regarding the songs from the album , Maust said that lead singer Nathan Willett 's lyrics were a mixture of folk tales and topical stories , stating that " a lot of people say the last record was more about yesteryear . This [ new record ] has some of that , but it 's much more today . The characters are people from today . " The thirteen tracks off the album deal with a variety of philosophies and politics that range from contemplating suicide , crisis of faith , alienation , anonymity , public security and job satisfaction .
Opening track " Against Privacy " was described by Willett as a " bohemian manifesto " made by a person with an affinity for the arts and wanting to live on an art commune . " Mexican Dogs " was written by the band during a trip in Mexico City where they saw a pack of unnamed three @-@ legged dogs running wild across the field . Maust said that he saw it as a metaphor for how the band operates as a whole , saying it 's " the way we conduct business as a band and art as a band . The way we write songs is very community oriented and very democratic . " The overall sound of the track is reminiscent of boogie rock . The track " Every Valley Is Not a Lake " was a song that was left off Robbers & Cowards . It tells the story about a mother lecturing her daughter about going wild in the world and the consequences she may face if not careful . The song utilizes jazz piano for its melodies . " Something Is Not Right with Me " is an upbeat track about a person losing touch with the revolving world and its constant changes from people to technology . Critics described the song as having " Stones @-@ styled bluesy licks " and " Lodger @-@ era Bowie rhythms . "
" Welcome to the Occupation " is about a teacher limited with his career who strives to be an artist . Willett was inspired by his job as an English high school teacher in Torrance to write the song , saying that it didn 't give him " a lot of creative space to really be very inspired to be a teacher . " " Golden Gate Jumpers " is about a woman who goes to the Golden Gate Bridge and contemplates taking her life away . The tracks " Avalanche in B " and " I 've Seen Enough " were originally conceived by the band as one @-@ long track but instead cut into two songs . The former uses snow as a metaphor for how bleak and empty life is when it is coming straight towards you . The latter was created during a jam session in which the band played one continuous chord progression that stuck with them throughout the session . " Every Man I Fall For " is about a woman 's perspective on relationships . Inspired by his own mother 's relationship with men , Willett saw something he could craft from that emotion , saying that it 's " important to me in ways , because it was something I always saw in relationships ; like my mom being a single mother and seeing how men treat these women and how they operate in relationships . "
" Dreams Old Men Dream " was inspired by the Ingmar Bergman film Wild Strawberries and Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's short story The Dream of a Ridiculous Man . It tells the story of an elderly man reflecting back on the life he had and what he wished he had done before . " On the Night My Love Broke Through " was the last song made for the album that was recorded live . It was inspired by the works of German @-@ American poet Charles Bukowski . " Relief " is written from the perspective of a person that questions God 's way of controlling the Earth and handling its inhabitants . God himself answers the person 's question when Willett sings , " Flash flood , you got too comfortable , so I showed you , who 's really in control . " The overall sound of the track is described as electronica in the vein of " mid @-@ era Radiohead . " The album closer , " Cryptomnesia " , was inspired by a case involving Russian @-@ American novelist Vladimir Nabokov being accused of plagiarism involving his 1955 novel Lolita . Willett said that it is " an apt word for the way history seeps into his songwriting today . "
= = Singles and promotion = =
The band released a one @-@ minute long " teaser " for the album on their YouTube page on June 25 , 2008 . The album 's lead single , " Something Is Not Right with Me " , first appeared on the Cold War Kids Myspace page in July 2008 and was given an official release on September 1 , 2008 through iTunes . It debuted and peaked at number 39 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart ; their second top 40 hit on that chart . A music video directed by Sophie Muller was created for the single and premiered on the band 's YouTube page on September 17 , 2008 . The song was voted number 38 in the Triple J Hottest 100 , 2008 . A second single , " I 've Seen Enough " , was released on October 22 , 2008 but failed to chart . Two music videos were created to promote the single . The first video was directed by Vern Moen and shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , premiering on the band 's YouTube page on February 23 , 2009 . The second video was a collaboration with director Sam Jones ( who had previously directed I Am Trying to Break Your Heart : A Film About Wilco ) and his production company Tool of North America . The video was interactive and involved each band member playing his instrument solo on a dark stage , with the viewers given free rein to choose which instruments were played and to make their own mixes of the song . The video was nominated in the ' Online Film & Video ' category for Best Use of Interactive Video at the 2010 Webby Awards and won the People 's Choice Award .
On July 25 , the band announced a 55 @-@ city nationwide tour to promote Loyalty to Loyalty ahead of its release , beginning with Byron Bay 's Splendour in the Grass festival and finishing at Paris ' Bataclan . The tour was marked with several festival appearances at Belladrum and Outside Lands . During that tour , they made television appearances on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson .
= = Critical reception = =
Loyalty to Loyalty received generally favorable reviews but music critics were divided by the band 's musical departure and Nathan Willett 's delivery in terms of performance and songwriting . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 66 , based on 20 reviews .
James McMahon of NME praised the band for their production and songwriting , concluding with " Almost in defiance of poor sales and cult following , CWK and their charming second album embody everything you hoped music might be . " Bart Blasengame of Paste found the album " [ to be ] more interesting than Robbers and Cowards , " praising the band for the new direction in their sound and calling it " a better @-@ than @-@ solid album from a band that seemed equipped to someday make a classic one . " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone commended the band for continuing with their blues rock sound , saying that " Cold War Kids attack their songs with unusual intensity , infusing even the most nourish , unsettling songs – fractured narratives about hipster bohemia and suicide – with a feeling enchantment . "
Rudy Klap of Sputnikmusic gave praise to the production and songwriting , singling out " Golden Gate Jumpers " with having " one of the record 's best lyrics and melodies , " but was critical of Willett 's performance saying that " his voice can turn from interesting and fresh to grating and intolerable with just a few misplaced falsettos . " Heather Phares of AllMusic was also critical about Willett throughout the album , finding his voice " unfettered to the point of grating ( " Something Is Not Right with Me " ) " and lyrics to be " overworked instead of clever ( " Against Privacy " ) " but found some of the songs carried sharp songwriting skills ( " Golden Gate Jumpers " ) and flair ( " I 've Seen Enough " ) concluding that " Cold War Kids deserve credit for their ambitions , but there 's a fine line between trying hard and trying too hard . More often than not , Loyalty to Loyalty takes a disappointing stumble on it . "
Chris Mincher of The A.V. Club was disappointed with the album , finding it stripped of its songwriting and control in lead singer Nathan Willett 's voice from their debut album . Blake Solomon of AbsolutePunk found the album lacking in terms of instrumentals and songwriting saying , " It 's easy to see the great ideas from previous songs at work here , but there seems to be an intentional restraint placed on the band 's likeable pop inclinations . " The Guardian criticized the album for its lackluster blues rock production and Willett 's performance , saying " his voice is too drearily clean @-@ cut to deliver a true emotional punch . " Ian Cohen of Pitchfork Media felt that the album was hampered by the band 's uninspired musicianship and songwriting and the hype surrounding them , saying that " Proponents raved that Cold War Kids arrived fully formed , but as the band continues to stubbornly emphasize their weaknesses , Loyalty To Loyalty is proof that their detractors can say the same thing . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Loyalty to Loyalty was the band 's first album to reach the top 50 on the Billboard 200 , debuting at number 21 with 22 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . It later dropped to number 74 the next week before leaving the chart . It additionally charted within the top 40 of several additional territories , surpassing what Robbers & Cowards achieved previously . The record debuted at number 20 in Australia before dropping to number 35 the next week and leaving the chart . It debuted at numbers 29 and 48 in Belgium and France respectively ( whereas their previous album charted at numbers 43 and 79 ) . However , it charted thirty @-@ three spots lower than Robbers & Cowards in the United Kingdom , entering at number 68 in that country for one week .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Cold War Kids .
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from the Loyalty to Loyalty inlay notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Lice ( The Office ) =
" Lice " is the tenth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office . The episode was written by Niki Schwartz @-@ Wright and directed by Rodman Flender . It originally aired on NBC on January 10 , 2013 . The episode guest stars Julius " Dr. J " Erving as himself .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) accidentally brings lice into the office but lets Meredith Palmer ( Kate Flannery ) take the fall while Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) vows to destroy the parasites . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) spends a great day in Philadelphia with a potential business associate ( Erving ) ; Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) , Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) , and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) interfere with Darryl Philbin 's ( Craig Robinson ) love life .
" Lice " received mixed reviews from television critics ; many reviewers enjoyed the emphasis the episode placed on Flannery 's character , although others felt the story did not work . The episode was also viewed by 4 @.@ 54 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 2 / 6 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third in its timeslot . The episode ultimately ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) finds managing her household without her husband Jim ( John Krasinski ) to be more | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
and police , gathered to watch the attack . There was a celebratory atmosphere at the event , and many children attended during their lunch hour . Members of the mob castrated Washington , cut off his fingers , and hung him over a bonfire . He was repeatedly lowered and raised over the fire for about two hours . After the fire was extinguished , his charred torso was dragged through the town and parts of his body were sold as souvenirs . A professional photographer took pictures as the event unfolded , providing rare imagery of a lynching in progress . The pictures were printed and sold as postcards in Waco .
Although the lynching was supported by many Waco residents , it was condemned by newspapers around the United States . The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) hired Elisabeth Freeman to investigate ; she conducted a detailed probe in Waco , despite the reluctance of many residents to speak about the event . After receiving Freeman 's report on the lynching , NAACP co @-@ founder and editor W. E. B. Du Bois published an in @-@ depth report featuring photographs of Washington 's charred body in The Crisis , and the NAACP featured his death in their anti @-@ lynching campaign . Although Waco had been regarded as a modern , progressive city , the lynching demonstrated that it still tolerated racial violence ; the event was nicknamed the " Waco horror " . The city subsequently gained a reputation for racism , but city leaders prevented violence on several occasions in subsequent decades . Historians have noted that Washington 's death helped alter the way that lynching was viewed ; the publicity it received curbed public support for the practice , which became viewed as barbarism rather than as an acceptable form of justice . In the 1990s and 2000s , some Waco residents lobbied for a monument to the lynching , an idea that has failed to garner wide support in the city .
= = Background = =
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , a significant number of lynchings occurred in the Southern United States , primarily of African Americans in the states of Georgia , Mississippi , and Texas . Between 1890 and 1920 , about 3 @,@ 000 African Americans were killed by lynch mobs , usually after whites were the victims of crimes purportedly committed by blacks . Supporters of lynching justified the practice as a way to assert dominance over African Americans , to whom they attributed a criminal nature . Lynching also provided a sense of white solidarity in a culture with changing demographics and power structures . Although lynching was tolerated by much of southern society , opponents of the practice emerged , including some religious leaders and the nascent National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) .
In 1916 , Waco , Texas , was a prosperous city with a population of more than 30 @,@ 000 . After it became associated with crime in the 19th century , community leaders sought to change its reputation , sending delegations across the U.S. to promote it as an idyllic locale . By the 1910s , Waco 's economy had become strong and the city had gained a pious reputation . A black middle class had emerged in the area , along with two black colleges . In the mid @-@ 1910s , blacks comprised about twenty percent of the Waco population . In her 2006 study of lynching , journalist Patricia Bernstein describes the city as then having a " thin veneer " of peace and respectability . Racial tension was present in the city : local newspapers often emphasized crimes committed by African Americans , and Sank Majors , a black man , was hanged from a bridge near downtown Waco in 1905 . A small number of anti @-@ lynching activists lived in the area , including the president of Waco 's Baylor University . In 1916 , several factors led to an increase in local racism , including the screening of The Birth of a Nation , a movie that promoted white supremacy and glorified the Ku Klux Klan , and the sale of photographs of a recently lynched black man in Temple , Texas .
= = Murder and arrest = =
In Robinson , Texas , Lucy Fryer was murdered while alone at her house on May 8 , 1916 . She and her husband George were English immigrants , and had become well respected in the rural community where they operated a farm . News of the death quickly reached the McLennan County sheriff , Samuel Fleming , who immediately investigated with a team of law enforcement officers , a group of local men , and a doctor . The doctor determined that Fryer had been killed by blunt @-@ force trauma to the head . The local men suspected that Jesse Washington , a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old black man who had worked on the Fryers ' farm for five months , was responsible ; one of them stated that he had seen Washington near the Fryer house a few minutes before Lucy 's body was discovered . That night , sheriff 's deputies traveled to Washington 's home , finding him in front of the house wearing blood @-@ stained overalls . He attributed the stains to a nosebleed . Jesse , his brother William , and their parents were taken to nearby Waco to be questioned by the sheriff 's department ; although Jesse 's parents and brother were released after a short time , he was held for further interrogation . His questioners in Waco reported that he denied complicity in Fryer 's death , but offered contradictory details about his actions . Rumors spread after his arrest that he had been in an altercation with a white man a few days before the murder .
On May 9 , Fleming took Washington to Hill County to prevent vigilante action . The Hill County sheriff , Fred Long , questioned Washington with Fleming ; Washington told them he had killed Fryer following an argument about her mules , and described the murder weapon and its location . Long brought Washington to Dallas , Texas , while Fleming returned to Robinson . Fleming soon reported that he found a bloody hammer where Washington had indicated . In Dallas , Washington dictated and signed a statement that described the rape and murder of Fryer ; the confession was published the next day in Waco newspapers . Newspapers sensationalized the murder , describing Fryer 's attempts to resist Washington 's attack , although the doctor who had examined her body concluded that she was killed before she could resist . A lynch mob assembled in Waco that night to search the local jail , but dispersed after they did not find Washington . Nevertheless , a local paper praised their effort . That night , a small private funeral and burial were held for Lucy Fryer .
On May 11 , a grand jury was assembled in McLennan County and quickly returned an indictment against Washington ; the trial was scheduled for May 15 . The Times @-@ Herald of Waco published a notice on May 12 requesting that residents let the justice system determine Washington 's fate . Fleming traveled to Robinson on May 13 to ask residents to remain calm ; his address was well received . Washington was assigned several inexperienced lawyers . His lawyers prepared no defense , and noted that he appeared placid in the days before the trial .
= = Trial and lynching = =
On the morning of May 15 , Waco 's courthouse quickly filled to capacity in anticipation of the trial : the crowd nearly prevented some jurors from entering . Observers also filled the sidewalks around the courthouse ; over two thousand spectators were present . Attendees were almost entirely white , but a few quiet members of Waco 's black community were present . As Washington was led into the courtroom , one audience member pointed a gun at him , but was quickly overpowered . As the trial commenced , the judge attempted to keep order , insisting that the audience remain silent . Jury selection proceeded quickly : the defense did not challenge any selections of the prosecution . Bernstein states that the trial had a " kangaroo @-@ court atmosphere " . The judge asked Washington for a plea , and explained the potential sentences . Washington muttered a response , possibly " yes " , interpreted by the court as a guilty plea . The prosecution described the charges , and the court heard testimony from law enforcement officers and the doctor who examined Fryer 's body . The doctor discussed how Fryer died , but did not mention rape . The prosecution rested , and Washington 's attorney asked him whether he had committed the offense . Washington replied , " That 's what I done [ sic ] " and quietly apologized . The lead prosecutor addressed the courtroom and declared that the trial had been conducted fairly , prompting an ovation from the crowd . The jury was then sent to deliberate .
After four minutes of deliberation , the jury 's foreman announced a guilty verdict and a sentence of death . The trial lasted about one hour . Court officers approached Washington to escort him away , but were pushed aside by a surge of spectators , who seized Washington and dragged him outside . Washington initially fought back , biting one man , but was soon beaten . A chain was placed around his neck and he was dragged toward city hall by a growing mob ; on the way downtown , he was stripped , stabbed , and repeatedly beaten with blunt objects . By the time he arrived at city hall , a group had prepared wood for a bonfire next to a tree in front of the building . Washington , semiconscious and covered in blood , was doused with oil , hung from the tree by a chain , and then lowered to the ground . Members of the crowd cut off his fingers , toes , and genitals . The fire was lit and Washington was repeatedly raised and lowered into the flames until he burned to death . German scholar Manfred Berg posits that the executioners attempted to keep him alive to increase his suffering . Washington attempted to climb the chain , but was unable to , owing to his lack of fingers . The fire was extinguished after two hours , allowing bystanders to collect souvenirs from the site of the lynching , including Washington 's bones and links of the chain . One attendee kept part of Washington 's genitalia ; a group of children snapped the teeth out of Washington 's head to sell as souvenirs . By the time that the fire was extinguished , parts of Washington 's arms and legs had been burned off and his torso and head were charred . His body was removed from the tree and dragged behind a horse throughout the town . Washington 's remains were transported to Robinson , where they were publicly displayed until a constable obtained the body late in the day and buried it .
The lynching drew a large crowd , including the mayor and the chief of police , although lynching was illegal in Texas . Sheriff Fleming told his deputies not to stop the lynching , and no one was arrested after the event . Bernstein speculates that his actions were motivated by a desire to harshly deal with crime to help his candidacy for re @-@ election that year . Mayor John Dollins may have also encouraged the mob owing to the belief that a lynching would be politically beneficial . The crowd numbered 15 @,@ 000 at its peak . Telephones helped spread word of the lynching , allowing spectators to gather more quickly than was previously possible . Local media reported that " shouts of delight " were heard as Washington burned , although they noted that some attendees disapproved . The Waco Semi @-@ Weekly Tribune maintained that a number of black Waco residents attended , a claim that historian Grace Hale of the University of Virginia sees as dubious . Waco residents , who likely had no connection with the rural Fryer family , comprised most of the crowd . Some people from nearby rural communities traveled to the city before the trial to witness the events . As the lynching occurred at midday , children from local schools walked downtown to observe , some climbing into trees for a better view . Many parents approved of their children 's attendance , hoping that the lynching would reinforce a belief in white supremacy . Some Texans saw participation in a lynching as a rite of passage for young men .
= = Aftermath = =
Fred Gildersleeve , a Waco @-@ based professional photographer , arrived at city hall shortly before the lynching , possibly at the mayor 's request , and photographed the event . His photographs provide rare depictions of a lynching in progress , rather than typical lynching photography , which only shows dead victims . Gildersleeve 's photographs include views of the crowd shot from a building and close images of Washington 's body ; some may have been taken by an assistant . Gildersleeve produced postcards featuring images of adolescents , some as young as twelve , gathered around Washington 's body . The individuals in the photographs made no attempts to hide their identities . Berg believes that their willingness to be photographed indicates that they knew that no one would be prosecuted for Washington 's death . Although some Waco residents sent the cards to out @-@ of @-@ town relatives , several prominent local citizens persuaded Gildersleeve to stop selling them , fearing that the images would come to characterize the town .
In the days after the lynching , newspapers fiercely condemned the event . Within a week , news of the lynching was published as far away as London . A New York Times editorial opined that , " in no other land even pretending to be civilized could a man be burned to death in the streets of a considerable city amid the savage exultation of its inhabitants " . In the New York Age , James Weldon Johnson described the members of the lynch mob as " lower than any other people who at present inhabit the earth " . Although many southern newspapers had previously defended lynching as a defense of civilized society , after Washington 's death , they did not cast the practice in such terms . The Montgomery Advertiser wrote that , " no savage was ever more cruel ... than the men who participated in this horrible , almost unbelievable episode " . In Texas , the Houston Chronicle and the Austin American criticized the lynch mob , but spoke highly of Waco . The Morning News of Dallas reported the story , but did not publish an accompanying editorial . In Waco , the Times @-@ Herald refrained from editorializing about the lynching . The Waco Morning News briefly noted their disapproval of the lynching , focusing their criticism on papers they felt had attacked the city unfairly . They cast the condemnatory editorials in the aftermath of the lynching as " Holier than thou " remarks . A writer for the Waco Semi @-@ Weekly Tribune defended the lynching , stating that Washington deserved to die and that blacks should view Washington 's death as a warning against crime . The paper later carried an editorial from the Houston Post condemning the lynching , characterizing the column as part of an attack on the city .
Some Waco residents condemned the lynching , including local ministers and leaders of Baylor University . The judge who presided over Washington 's trial later stated that members of the lynch mob were " murderers " ; the jury 's foreman told the NAACP that he disapproved of their actions . Some people who witnessed the lynching recorded persistent nightmares and psychological trauma . A few citizens contemplated staging a protest against the lynching , but declined to do so owing to concerns about reprisals or the appearance of hypocrisy . After the lynching , town officials maintained that it was attended by a small group of malcontents . Although their claim is contradicted by photographic evidence , several histories of Waco have repeated this assertion . There were no negative repercussions for Dollins or Police Chief John McNamara : although they made no attempt to stop the mob , they remained well respected in Waco . As was common with such attacks , no one was prosecuted for the lynching .
Although leaders of Waco 's black community gave public condolences to the Fryer family , they complained about Washington 's lynching only in private . One exception was the Paul Quinn Weekly newspaper , of Texas ' Paul Quinn College — an all @-@ black institution — which published several articles that criticized the lynch mob and city leadership . In one article , the author proclaimed that Jesse Washington was innocent and George Fryer was guilty . A. T. Smith , the paper 's editor , was subsequently convicted of libel . George Fryer also sued the college for libel ; his vehemence caused some Robinson residents to suspect that he played a part in his wife 's death . Bernstein states that it is " highly unlikely " that George Fryer played a role in Lucy 's murder , but notes that there is the " shadow of a possibility " that he bore some guilt .
= = NAACP investigation and campaign = =
The NAACP hired Elisabeth Freeman , a women 's suffrage activist from New York City , to investigate the lynching . She had traveled to Texas in late 1915 or early 1916 to help organize the suffrage movement there . After attending a suffrage convention in Dallas in early May , she began her assignment in Waco , posing as a journalist and attempting to interview people about the lynching . She found that almost all residents were reluctant to discuss the event . She spoke with town officials and obtained pictures of the lynching from Gildersleeve , who was initially reluctant to provide them . Although she feared for her safety , she enjoyed the challenge of the investigation . When speaking with city leaders , Freeman convinced them that she planned to defend Waco against criticism when she returned to the north . Some journalists soon grew suspicious of her presence and warned residents not to talk to outsiders . Local African Americans , however , gave her a warm reception .
Fleming and the judge who presided over the trial each spoke with her ; both argued that they did not deserve blame for the lynching . A schoolteacher who had known Washington told Freeman that Washington was illiterate , and that all attempts to teach him to read had been futile . Freeman concluded that white residents were generally supportive of Washington 's lynching , although many disliked that his body was mutilated . She determined that the mob was led by a bricklayer , a saloonkeeper , and several employees of an ice company . The NAACP did not publicly identify them . Freeman concluded that Washington killed Fryer , and that he was motivated by her domineering attitude towards him .
W. E. B. Du Bois was incensed by news of the attack , saying " any talk of the triumph of Christianity , or the spread of human culture , is idle twaddle as long as the Waco lynching is possible in the United States " . After receiving Freeman 's report , he placed an image of Washington 's body on the cover of an issue of The Crisis , the NAACP 's newsletter , which discussed the event . The issue was titled " The Waco Horror " and was published as an eight @-@ page supplement to the July edition . Du Bois popularized " Waco Horror " as a name for Washington 's lynching ; the Houston Chronicle and the New York Times had previously used the word " horror " to describe the event . In 1916 , The Crisis had a circulation of about 30 @,@ 000 , three times the size of the NAACP 's membership . Although the paper had campaigned against lynching in the past , this issue was the first that contained images of an attack . The NAACP 's board was initially hesitant to publish such graphic content , but Du Bois insisted on doing so , arguing that uncensored coverage would push white Americans to support change . In addition to images , the issue included accounts of the lynching that Freeman obtained from Waco residents . Du Bois wrote The Crisis ' article on the lynching ; he edited and organized Freeman 's report for publication , although she was not named in the issue . The article concluded with a call to support the anti @-@ lynching movement . The NAACP distributed the report to hundreds of newspapers and politicians , a campaign that led to wide condemnation of the lynching . Many white observers were disturbed by the southerners who celebrated the lynching . The Crisis included more images of lynchings in subsequent issues . Washington 's death received continued discussion in The Crisis . Oswald Garrison Villard wrote in a later edition of the paper that " the crime at Waco is a challenge to our American civilization " .
Other black newspapers also carried significant coverage of the lynching , as did liberal papers such as The New Republic and The Nation . Freeman traveled around the U.S. to speak to audiences about her investigation , maintaining that a shift in public opinion could accomplish more than legislative actions . Although there were other lynchings as brutal as Washington 's , the availability of images and the setting of his death made it a cause célèbre . Leaders of the NAACP hoped to launch a legal battle against those responsible for Washington 's death , but abandoned the plan owing to the projected cost .
The NAACP had struggled financially around that time . Their anti @-@ lynching campaign saw some success in raising funds , but it was scaled back as the U.S. entered World War I. NAACP president Joel Elias Spingarn later stated that the group 's campaign placed " lynching into the public mind as something like a national problem " . In her 2006 study of lynching , Bernstein describes this anti @-@ lynching campaign as the " barest beginnings of a battle that would last many years " .
The number of lynchings in the U.S. increased in the late 1910s . Additional lynchings occurred in Waco in the 1920s , partially owing to the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan . By the late 1920s , however , Waco authorities had begun to protect blacks from lynching , as in the case of Roy Mitchell . Authorities feared that negative publicity generated by lynchings — such as the NAACP 's campaign following Washington 's death — would hinder their efforts to attract investors . The NAACP fought to portray lynching as a savage , barbaric practice , an idea which eventually gained traction in the public mind . Bernstein credits the group 's efforts with helping to end " the worst public atrocities of the racist system " in the Waco region .
= = Analysis and legacy = =
In 2011 , Berg concluded that Washington probably murdered Fryer , but doubted that he raped her . The same year , Julie Armstrong of the University of South Florida argued that Washington was probably innocent of both charges . Bernstein notes that Washington 's motives have never been established . She also states that his confession could have been coerced , and that the murder weapon — perhaps the strongest evidence against him — could have been planted by authorities .
Bernstein states that Washington 's lynching was a unique event because it occurred in a city with a reputation for progressiveness , but was attended by thousands of people who were excited by the brutal torture . Similar acts of mob violence typically occurred in smaller towns with fewer spectators . William Carrigan of Rowan University argues that the culture of central Texas had glorified retributive mob violence for decades before Washington 's lynching , maintaining that this culture of violence explains how such a brutal attack could be publicly celebrated . Hale posits that Washington 's death signaled a transition in the practice of lynching , demonstrating its acceptance in modernized , 20th @-@ century cities . She notes that Washington 's lynching illustrates how technological innovations , such as telephones and inexpensive photographs , could empower lynch mobs but also increase society 's condemnation of their actions .
In their 2004 study of lynching , Peter Ehrenhaus and A. Susan Owen compare the lynching to a blood sacrifice , arguing Waco residents felt a sense of collective righteousness after Washington 's death , as they saw him as the presence of evil in the community . Bernstein compares the public brutality of the lynch mob to the medieval English practice of hanging , drawing , and quartering people convicted of high treason .
Amy Louise Wood of Illinois State University writes that the event was " a defining moment in the history of lynching , " arguing that with Washington 's death , " lynching began to sow the seeds of its own collapse . " Although the spectacle of violent mob attacks had previously benefited white supremacists , Wood contends that after Washington 's death was publicized , the anti @-@ lynching movement included images of racially motivated brutality in their campaigns . Carrigan notes that Washington 's death may have received more public attention than any other lynching in the United States , and sees the event as a " turning point in the history of mob violence in Central Texas " . Although the outcry it provoked did not end the practice , it helped bring an end to public support of such attacks by city leaders . Carrigan states that the lynching was " the most infamous day in the history of central Texas " until the Waco siege of 1993 .
After the practice of lynching was suppressed in central Texas , it received little attention from local historians . However , Waco developed a reputation for racism — propagated in part by American history textbooks — to the vexation of the city 's white residents . In the years following the lynching , African Americans often held Waco in disdain , and some viewed the 1953 Waco tornado outbreak as divine retribution . White leaders of Waco took a non @-@ violent approach in response to demonstrations during the Civil Rights Movement , possibly owing to a desire to avoid stigmatizing the city again .
Blues musician Sammy Price recorded a version of " Hesitation Blues " that referenced Washington 's lynching . Price lived in Waco as a child , possibly at the time of Washington 's death . Waco @-@ based novelist Madison Cooper featured a lynching , thought to be based on Washington 's death , as a key event in his 1952 novel Sironia , Texas .
In the 1990s , Lawrence Johnson , a member of Waco 's city council , viewed pictures of the Washington lynching at the National Civil Rights Museum , and began to lobby for a monument to the lynching . In 2002 , Lester Gibson , another member of the city council , proposed that a plaque be installed at the courthouse where Washington was lynched . He further stated that the plaque should carry an apology from the city . The ideas were discussed , but proved unfruitful . In the 2000s , the idea of a memorial was revived by a McLennan County commissioner and the Waco Chamber of Commerce ; the Waco Herald Tribune has editorialized in support of a historical marker on the site of the lynching . Some descendants of Fryer objected to the proposed memorial .
= = = Books = = =
Apel , Dora ( 2004 ) . Imagery of Lynching : Black Men , White Women , and the Mob . Rutgers University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8135 @-@ 3459 @-@ 6 .
Armstrong , Julie Buckner ( 2011 ) . Mary Turner and the Memory of Lynching . University of Georgia Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8203 @-@ 3765 @-@ 4 .
Berg , Manfred ( 2011 ) . Popular Justice : A History of Lynching in America . Government Institutes . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56663 @-@ 802 @-@ 9 .
Bernstein , Patricia ( 2006 ) . The First Waco Horror : The Lynching of Jesse Washington and the Rise of the NAACP . Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 544 @-@ 8 .
Bernstein , Patricia ( 2007 ) . " Waco Lynching " . In Paul Finkelman . Encyclopedia of African American History , 1896 to the Present : From the Age of Segregation to the Twenty @-@ First Century 5 . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 516779 @-@ 5 .
Carrigan , William D. ( 2006 ) . The Making of a Lynching Culture : Violence and Vigilantism in Central Texas , 1836 – 1916 . University of Illinois Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 07430 @-@ 1 .
DuRocher , Kristina ( 2011 ) . Raising Racists : The Socialization of White Children in the Jim Crow South . University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8131 @-@ 3001 @-@ 9 .
Gussow , Adam ( 2002 ) . Seems Like Murder Here : Southern Violence and the Blues Tradition . University of Chicago Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 31098 @-@ 5 .
Hale , Grace Elizabeth ( 1998 ) . Making Whiteness : the Culture of Segregation in the South , 1890 – 1940 . Vintage Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 679 @-@ 77620 @-@ 8 .
Nevels , Cynthia Skove ( 2007 ) . Lynching to Belong : Claiming Whiteness Through Racial Violence . Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 589 @-@ 9 .
Rice , Anne P. ( 2003 ) . Witnessing Lynching : American Writers Respond . Rutgers University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8135 @-@ 3330 @-@ 8 .
SoRelle , James M. ( 2007 ) . " The " Waco Horror " : The Lynching of Jesse Washington " . In Bruce A. Glasrud and James Smallwood . The African American Experience in Texas : An Anthology . Texas Tech University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89672 @-@ 609 @-@ 3 .
Waldrep , Christopher ( 2009 ) . African Americans Confront Lynching : Strategies of Resistance from the Civil War to the Civil Rights Era . Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7425 @-@ 5272 @-@ 2 .
Wood , Amy Louise ( 2009 ) . Lynching and Spectacle : Witnessing Racial Violence in America , 1890 – 1940 . University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8078 @-@ 3254 @-@ 7 .
Zangrando , Robert L. ( 1980 ) . The NAACP Crusade Against Lynching , 1909 – 1950 . Temple University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87722 @-@ 174 @-@ 6 .
= = = Journals = = =
Francis , Megan Ming ( 2011 ) . " The Battle for the Hearts and Minds of America " . Souls : A Critical Journal of Black Politics , Culture , and Society 13 ( 1 ) : 46 – 71 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 10999949 @.@ 2011 @.@ 551477 .
Ehrenhaus , Peter ; Owen , A. Susan ( July – October 2004 ) . " Race Lynching and Christian Evangelicalism : Performances of Faith " . Text and Performance Quarterly 24 ( 3 / 4 ) : 276 – 301 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 1046293042000312779 .
Wood , Amy Louise ( 2005 ) . " Lynching Photography and the Visual Reproduction of White Supremacy " . American Nineteenth Century History 6 ( 3 ) : 373 – 99 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 14664650500381090 .
= = = Newspapers = = =
Blumenthal , Ralph ( May 1 , 2005 ) . " Fresh Outrage in Waco at Grisly Lynching of 1916 " . The New York Times . Retrieved April 19 , 2012 .
Moreno , Sylvia ( April 26 , 2006 ) . " In Waco , a Push To Atone for The Region 's Lynch @-@ Mob Past " . The Washington Post . Retrieved April 19 , 2012 .
= = = Websites = = =
" The Crisis Vol . 12 , No. 3 " . Digitized Journals . Modernist Journals Project . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 .
= Love Kraft =
Love Kraft is the seventh studio album by Welsh indie rock band Super Furry Animals , released on 22 August 2005 through Epic Records in the United Kingdom . The album was recorded in Spain with producer Mario Caldato Jr and was something of a departure for the band , with all members contributing songs and lead vocals alongside Gruff Rhys who had been main songwriter for the Super Furries until this point . In selecting tracks for Love Kraft a conscious effort was made by the band not to choose songs on their individual merit but rather to pick those which went well together in order to create as cohesive an album as possible . The album 's name was taken from a sex shop , Love Craft , near the Cardiff offices of the Super Furries ' management team and is also a nod to American horror writer H. P. Lovecraft .
Critical response was generally positive with some reviews claiming the album was the best of the group 's career . However , a few reviewers expressed reservations that Love Kraft was " merely a very good Super Furry Animals effort " and was not as impressive as the band 's previous records . The track " Lazer Beam " was released as a single and reached # 28 in the UK Singles Chart .
= = Recording = =
Love Kraft was recorded in Figueres , a small city in Catalonia , Spain . According to Rhys the band found themselves in the " unusual " position of recording their seventh album together and began looking at groups who had made lots of records , such as Fleetwood Mac and The Beach Boys . These bands had made " foreign records " ( Tusk and Holland respectively ) so the Super Furries decided to do the same although on " a much tighter budget . " Leaving their usual Cardiff studio behind had an effect on the songs according to Rhys :
The band did a lot of experimenting and arranging in Cardiff before going into the studio , as a result of which Love Kraft was recorded in just three weeks . Drummer Dafydd Ieuan also attributes the album sessions ' speedy conclusion to producer Mario Caldato Jr. who was very good at keeping the group together and on the right track .
The album represented a departure from the band 's previous working methods : although all five members had always contributed to the development of the songs , Gruff Rhys had been the main songwriter . On Love Kraft this was no longer the case , as Rhys , Huw Bunford , Dafydd Ieuan and Cian Ciaran all contributed songs and lead vocals . The group also abandoned their usual practise of picking songs on their individual merit , instead choosing tracks that would work well together and " create a sound that was as cohesive as possible " . Of the " 30 @-@ 40 " songs written by band members the group chose " the more introspective ones " which meant that some of Rhys 's tracks were left off the album as they were " energetic and poppy " and " didn 't really fit in with everybody else 's work " .
Several ' found sounds ' were recorded and used on the album including the buzzing of a Brazilian electrical substation , the sound of pool balls being rubbed against each other and a recording of Huw Bunford jumping into a swimming pool . The latter opens the album , preceding the intro to " Zoom ! " .
Love Kraft was mixed in a suburb of Rio de Janeiro at the request of Brazilian born Caldato . According to Rhys the band toyed with the idea of using Latin musical elements and had fantasies of " Marcos Valle doing backing vocals , and getting Rogerio Duprat to arrange the strings " but ultimately thought it would be a " bit too embarrassing " and actively tried not to make a " Brazilian sounding " record . This point was echoed by Guto Pryce in an interview with Birmingham 's Metro although he conceded that " in Rio music is everywhere . The beats and rhythms are non @-@ stop so that probably seeped into our minds as a subconscious influence . "
The album is named after a sex shop , Lovecraft Limited , near the Ankst Management offices on Cowbridge Road , Cardiff and is also a reference to American horror writer H. P. Lovecraft . In a 2005 interview with The Daily Telegraph , Gruff Rhys explained that the name also stems from the fact that the record has " a general warm glow of love " and that it was originally conceived as a " love record " before " some of the lyrics went completely off the rails " .
= = Release = =
Love Kraft was released on CD , SACD , vinyl and as a digital download on 22 August 2005 in the United Kingdom and was the band 's last release for Sony 's Epic imprint before they moved to independent label Rough Trade . The album reached # 19 in the UK Albums Chart . In America the album was released on 13 September 2005 by Beggars Banquet US . " Lazer Beam " was the only track to be released as a single from the album , reaching # 28 in the UK Singles Chart .
= = Critical response = =
The album received a generally positive reaction from critics . British newspaper The Guardian described Love Kraft as the band 's " best album yet " and musicOMH claimed it to be " the greatest realisation of the Super Furry vision to date " . Uncut was similarly impressed calling the album " perhaps the defining record of [ the band 's ] career " while Yahoo Music UK thought Love Kraft was " perfect pop " .
The NME had reservations however , stating that although the album is " easily as engaging and full of the wild possibilities of pop music as anything else in their peerless canon " it is " not quite up there with Radiator due to its brace of shonky ballad filler ( " Cloudberries " and " Cabin Fever " ) " . Writing for Allmusic , Stephen Thomas Erlewine was largely impressed with Love Kraft but admitted to being disappointed that it is " merely a very good Super Furry Animals effort , with few surprises outside of its alluring sleek " . The band 's singer , Gruff Rhys , has described the album as " the most beautiful record we 've made ... really orchestral and fairly timeless " .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Tour = =
The Super Furry Animals played numerous festivals in Great Britain prior to Love Kraft 's release including Scotland 's T in the Park , Oxegen , the Secret Garden Party in Cambridge and the V Festival , warming up for these dates with a small show at Barry Memorial Hall on 22 July 2005 . A gig at Somerset House in London on 8 July 2005 went ahead despite coming just one day after the 7 / 7 bombings caused Queens of the Stone Age to cancel their show at the venue .
Following the release of Love Kraft in the United Kingdom the Super Furry Animals played Bestival on the Isle of Wight before embarking on an 11 date tour of the UK and Ireland , beginning at the University of East Anglia in Norwich on 14 September 2005 and ending on 27 September at Dublin 's Olympia Theatre venue . A month long tour of Canada and the United States followed , starting on 1 November in Montreal and ending in San Diego on 1 December .
The band experienced a " very different atmosphere " at initial shows on the Love Kraft tour , when they played the " slow " songs from the album . This contributed to their decision to make follow up Hey Venus ! a " rowdy pop record " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Super Furry Animals .
= = Personnel = =
The following people contributed to Love Kraft :
= = = Band = = =
Gruff Rhys – vocals , guitar
Huw Bunford – guitar , backing vocals , lead vocals on " The Horn " , " Oi Frango " , and " Back on a Roll "
Guto Pryce – bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – keyboards , backing vocals , lead vocals on " Walk You Home " and " Cabin Fever "
Dafydd Ieuan – drums , backing vocals , lead vocals on " Atomik Lust " and " Cabin Fever "
= = = Additional musicians = = =
= = = Recording personnel = = =
Mario Caldato Jr . – production , mixing , engineering
Super Furry Animals – production , mixing , surround sound mix
Richard Jackson – engineering ( Stir Studios )
Greg Jackman – engineering ( The Dairy )
Jordi – recording assistant ( Musician )
Jordan – recording assistant ( Musician )
Luizao Dantas – recording assistant ( AR Studios )
Leo Moreira – recording assistant ( AR Studios )
Sam Wetmore – surround sound mix
= = = Artwork = = =
Pete Fowler – artwork
Mark James – artwork
Alexis West – photography
Leon West – photography
= = Album chart positions = =
= SS Fort Stikine =
Fort Stikine was a British Fort ship which was built in Canada in 1942 . Owned by the American War Shipping Administration , she was leased under charter to the Ministry of War Transport under the Lend @-@ Lease scheme and operated under the management of the Port Line . Fort Stikine only had a short career , and was destroyed in an explosion at Bombay , India , in April 1944 that caused the loss of a further thirteen ships .
= = Construction = =
Fort Stikine was 441 feet 5 inches ( 134 @.@ 54 m ) long , with a beam of 57 feet 2 inches ( 17 @.@ 42 m ) . She had a depth of 35 feet 0 inches ( 10 @.@ 67 m ) and a draught of 26 feet 11 @.@ 5 inches ( 8 @.@ 22 m ) . The ship was propelled by a 505 NHP triple expansion steam engine which was built by the Dominion Engineering Works , Montreal , Quebec , Canada . It had cylinders of 241 ⁄ 2 inches ( 62 cm ) , 37 inches ( 94 cm ) and 70 inches ( 180 cm ) bore by 48 inches ( 120 cm ) stroke .
= = History = =
Fort Stikine was built by Prince Rupert Drydock & Shipyard , Prince Rupert , British Columbia , Canada as yard number 43 . She was built under auspices of the Wartime Merchant Shipping Ltd . , a Canadian government corporation coordinating wartime shipbuilding in Canada , and on completion on 31 July 1942 delivered by that corporation to the United States War Shipping Administration ( WSA ) which then delivered the ship to the Ministry of War Transport under Lend Lease at Vancouver , British Columbia on the same date . Ownership was retained by WSA with the Ministry of War Transport placing her under the management of the Port Line . The United Kingdom Official Number 168351 and Code Letters BKLG were allocated . Her port of registry was London .
Fort Stikine departed from New Westminster , British Columbia , Canada on 7 September 1942 and arrived at Vancouver the next day . She then sailed to Comox , British Columbia , arriving on 10 September . She sailed two days later for Victoria , British Columbia arriving on 13 September . Fort Stikine sailed that day for Los Angeles , California , United States , where she arrived on 23 September . She sailed five days later for Balboa , Panama , arriving on 10 October . After transiting the Panama Canal , Fort Stikine departed from Cristobal , Panama on 17 October with Convoy ZG8 . The convoy consisted eighteen merchant vessels escorted by six United States Navy warships . It arrived at Guantanamo Bay , Cuba on 21 October .
Fort Stikine departed from Guantanamo Bay on 23 October as a member of Convoy GN 14 . The unescorted convoy consisted of 33 merchant ships ; it arrived at New York on 30 October . She departed on 3 November with Convoy HX 214 . The convoy consisted of 33 merchant ships , escorted by a total of seventeen warships over the duration of the convoy . Fort Stikine carried general cargo and mails . The convoy arrived at Liverpool , Lancashire , United Kingdom on 14 December . She then sailed to the Clyde , arriving on 16 December .
Fort Stikine departed from the Clyde on 24 December with Convoy KMS 6G . The convoy comprised 60 merchant ships escorted by a total of 22 warships over the duration of the convoy . The CAM ship Empire Darwin also provided some protection to the convoy . Two merchant ships were lost to enemy action and another was damaged . The convoy arrived at Bône , Algeria on 8 January 1943 , but Fort Stikine had split from the convoy the previous day and arrived at Oran , Algeria . She sailed on 21 January to join Convoy MKS 6 , which had departed from Philippeville , Algeria on 19 January and arrived back at Liverpool on 1 February . The convoy consisted of 50 merchant ships escorted by a total of 30 warships over the duration of the convoy , which also included Empire Darwin . One merchant vessel was lost to enemy action . The convoy arrived at Liverpool on 1 February . Fort Stikine had left the convoy off Ireland and arrived at the Clyde on 31 January .
Fort Stikine was a member of Convoy KMS 10G , which departed from the Clyde on 26 February . It consisted of 62 merchant ships , escorted by a total of nineteen warships over the duration of the convoy . One merchant ship was sunk and three were damaged by enemy action . On 4 March U @-@ 87 attacked the convoy , but was attacked with depth charges and sunk by HMCS Shediac and HMCS St. Croix . The convoy arrived at Bône on 11 March . As with Convoy KMS 6G , Fort Stikine left the convoy and arrived at Oran a day earlier . She sailed on 31 March to join Convoy ET 16 , which had departed from Bône earlier that day . The unescorted convoy included fifteen merchant vessels , two of which were sunk by enemy action . ET 16 arrived at Gibraltar on 1 April . The Fort Stikine then joined Convoy RS 4 , which departed on 14 April . The unescorted convoy , comprising nineteen merchant ships , arrived at Freetown , Sierra Leone on 25 April . Laden with a cargo of iron ore , Fort Stikine departed with Convoy SL 129 on 11 May . The convoy , comprising 47 merchant ships and nine warships , combined at sea with Convoy MKS 13 on 24 May . The combined convoy arrived at Liverpool on 1 June . Fort Stikine left the convoy before arrival at Liverpool and entered Loch Ewe . She then sailed to Middlesbrough , Yorkshire , via convoys WN 436 and FS 1133 .
Fort Stikine departed from Middlesbrough on 20 June to join Convoy FN 1051 , which had departed from Southend , Essex the previous day and arrived at Methil on 21 June . She then joined Convoy EN 246 which sailed the next day and arrived at Loch Ewe on 24 June . Fort Stikine joined Convoy ON 190 , which had departed from Liverpool on 24 June . The convoy consisted of 85 merchant ships escorted by 23 warships over the duration of the convoy , which arrived at New York on 9 July . Fort Stikine sailed on to Baltimore , Maryland , arriving the next day . She departed from Baltimore on 3 August for the Hampton Roads , off the coast of Virginia . Fort Stikine sailed on 7 August with Convoy UGS 14 . The convoy consisted of 106 merchant ships escorted by 31 warships over the duration of the convoy . Two merchant ships were lost to enemy action . The convoy arrived at Alexandria , Egypt on 2 September . Fort Stikine departed from Alexandria on 22 September and sailed via Port Said and Suez to Aden , where she arrived on 30 September .
On 10 October , Fort Stikine departed from Aden with Convoy AKD 3 . The unescorted convoy , consisting eighteen merchant vessels , arrived at Durban , South Africa on 29 October . She left the convoy at Beira , Mozambique , arriving on 26 October . Fort Stikine sailed on 11 November and joined Convoy DKA 6 . The unescorted convoy , consisting 20 merchant ships in total , had departed from Durban five days earlier and arrived at Aden on 28 November , but Fort Stikine had put in to Dar es Salaam , Tanganyika , where she arrived on 17 November . She sailed on 20 November for Mombasa , Kenya , arriving the next day . She sailed a week later for Aden , from where she departed on 9 December for Suez and Port Said , arriving at the latter port on 19 December . Fort Stikine was a member of Convoy GUS 25 , which departed from Port Said on 16 December . The convoy , consisting 106 merchant ships escorted by sixteen warships over its duration , arrived at the Hampton Roads on 17 January 1944 . One merchant vessel was lost to enemy action . Fort Stikine left the convoy at Gibraltar , where she arrived on 28 December 1943 .
Laden with copper , sisal and general cargo , Fort Stikine departed from Gibraltar on 11 January 1944 as a member of Convoy MKS 36G . The convoy , of twenty merchant ships and five escorting warships , made a rendezvous at sea with Convoy SL 145 the next day . The combined convoy arrived at Liverpool on 24 January .
Fort Stikine loaded at Birkenhead , Cheshire . Her cargo was described as general cargo ; it consisted 1 @,@ 396 long tons ( 1 @,@ 418 t ) of flares and signal rockets , incendiary bombs , mines , shells and torpedoes . These were bound for Bombay , India . A container with 31 crates each containing four gold bars was loaded in № 2 hold . Each gold bar weighed 28 pounds ( 12 @.@ 70 kg ) . She was also carrying twelve Supermarine Spitfire aircraft , some gliders and a further quantity of explosives that were destined to be offloaded at Karachi , India .
Fort Stikine joined Convoy OS 69KM , which departed from Liverpool on 23 February 1944 . The convoy , consisting of 49 merchant ships escorted by twelve warships , split at sea on 5 March . The two convoys thus formed were OS 69 , which arrived at Freetown on 15 March ; and Convoy KMS 43G , which arrived at Gibraltar on 6 March . During the voyage to Gibraltar , a stowaway was discovered . He was put to work under the charge of the ship 's Chief Engineer .
Fort Stikine continued her voyage as part of Convoy KMS 43 , which departed from Gibraltar that day . The convoy , consisting 81 merchant ships and 4 escorting warships , arrived at Port Said on 16 March , having evaded an attack by four Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 Condor aircraft . She sailed on to Suez , from where she departed the next day for Aden . The stowaway was offloaded at Port Tawfiq , Suez . Having reached Aden on 23 March , she sailed the same day for Karachi , arriving on 30 March .
To replace the cargo offloaded at Karachi , 8 @,@ 700 bales of raw cotton were loaded , along with various quantities of fish manure , resin , rice , scrap iron , sulphur , and timber . Added to this were 1 @,@ 000 barrels of lubricating oil . The ship 's captain was concerned about having to take the flammable items but was told that they had to go . A proposal to add 750 drums of turpentine was refused . The ship 's officers also expressed concerns over mixing the cargoes of cotton and the oil and explosives , but were unable to find paperwork that advised against this practice . In 1942 , the United States Government had published a book which advised against the carriage of raw cotton . A common myth at the time was that wet cotton bales could spontaneously combust . This was not the case , although cotton soaked in oil would readily do so . Before the ship sailed , the crew discovered that the barrels of lubricating oil leaked . Tarpaulins were nailed over the lower hold covers and the firefighting equipment on board was thoroughly tested . Extra fire drills were scheduled during the voyage to Karachi . Fort Stikine sailed on 9 April to join Convoy PB 74 , which had departed from Bandar Abbas , Iran on 6 April . The unescorted convoy arrived at Bombay on 12 April .
= = Loss = =
Fort Stikine arrived at Bombay in the early morning of 12 April . Having taken on a pilot shortly before 10 : 00 she was docked at the Victoria Dock at midday . The practice of flying a red flag to signify dangerous cargo on board had been discontinued in wartime as doing so would identify such vessels in the event of an enemy air raid on a port . Also , the practice on unloading such vessels into lighters offshore had also been discontinued due to the war . At the time , explosives were graded as Category A , B , or C. Category A explosives , such as those carried on board Fort Stikine , were the most dangerous . These were only allowed to be offloaded onto lighters , and not directly to the quayside .
Unloading of Fort Stikine began with the lubricating oil , followed by the fish manure . An extra gang of stevedores were employed on this task , which continued through the night of 13 – 14 April . At midday on 13 April , lighters arrived for the explosives . Minor engine repairs also started at that time , rendering the ship unable to move under her own power . At 12 : 30 , the Chief Officer of Fort Crevier noticed smoke issuing from the ventilators of the № 2 hold of Fort Stikine . This was also seen a short time later by a DEMS gunner on board Iran . Despite being seen by these ( and other ) witnesses , everyone assumed that the situation was under control . The alarm was not raised until 13 : 45 . The fire pump in the ship 's engine room was started and the firefighting operation began .
With crew members and stevedores abandoning ship , it was realised by the dock authorities that there was a problem on board Fort Stikine . A fire crew was sent on board and an order was given for more fire engines to be sent for . Due to difficulties in contacting the fire control centre , initially only two engines were sent . Those on board Fort Stikine were unable to discover the seat of the fire and water was poured blindly into the hold . With the arrival of the two fire appliances , there were now eleven hoses in use . Captain Oberst , of the Indian Army Ordnance Corps arrived a few minutes later to assess the situation . He was in charge of the explosives only after they had been landed . A meeting was held on board between the ship 's officers , Oberst , and Commander Longmore of the Royal Indian Navy , the Chief Salvage Officer in Bombay . It was stated by Oberst that Fort Stikine had explosives equivalent to 150 Blockbuster bombs on board and that the ship should be scuttled . Her captain countered that the boiler room and engine room could be flooded , but he doubted that the ship would sink in that condition . More fire appliances arrived , bringing the total number of hoses in use to 32 @.@ by 14 : 45 , ammunition in № 2 hold was exploding . Colonel Sadler , the General Manager of the docks at Bombay , was sent for . He arrived at 14 : 50 and suggested that Fort Stikine should be removed from the docks , which would have required the use of tugs due to Fort Stikine being disabled . An argument developed and Colonel Sadler 's parting remark was that the ship would probably explode before she could be taken out of port .
Shortly after 15 : 00 , two fireboats , the Doris and Panwell , arrived . A further nine hoses were played on the ship . Neither of the two people who could have taken overall charge of the situation were contactable , and none of those on board Fort Stikine were willing to take charge . Firefighting continued , but at 15 : 50 a flame erupted from the hold , reaching higher than the ship 's mast . The order was given to abandon ship , with some jumping from the ship onto the quayside , and others into the water . At 16 : 06 , an explosion occurred on board Fort Stikine . The ship was split in two , with her boiler found half a mile ( 800m ) away . The explosion caused a tsunami within the dock , which deposited one vessel on the quayside . At 16 : 33 , a second explosion occurred . The cargo ship Jalapadma had her stern blown off . It landed about 200 yards ( 180 m ) away . This explosion also wrecked the cargo liner Baroda .
= = = Investigation = = =
The accident was investigated by the authorities at Bombay . The report was released on 11 September 1944 and concluded that the fire and subsequent explosion on Fort Stikine was an accident . Sabotage was ruled out . The death toll was given as 231 service and port personnel killed , with 476 injured . Civilian casualties were in excess of 500 killed , with 2 @,@ 408 treated in hospital .
= = = Ships lost or severely damaged = = =
Apart from Fort Stikine , the following vessels were sunk or severely damaged .
= A Trip to the Moon =
A Trip to the Moon ( French : Le Voyage dans la Lune ) is a 1902 French silent film directed by Georges Méliès . Inspired by a wide variety of sources , including Jules Verne 's novels From the Earth to the Moon and Around the Moon , the film follows a group of astronomers who travel to the Moon in a cannon @-@ propelled capsule , explore the Moon 's surface , escape from an underground group of Selenites ( lunar inhabitants ) , and return to Earth with a captive Selenite . It features an ensemble cast of French theatrical performers , led by Méliès himself in the main role of Professor Barbenfouillis , and is filmed in the overtly theatrical style for which Méliès became famous .
The film was an internationally popular success on its release , and was extensively pirated by other studios , especially in the United States . Its unusual length , lavish production values , innovative special effects , and emphasis on storytelling were markedly influential on other film @-@ makers and ultimately on the development of narrative film as a whole . Scholars have commented upon the film 's extensive use of pataphysical and anti @-@ imperialist satire , as well as on its wide influence on later film @-@ makers and its artistic significance within the French theatrical féerie tradition . Though the film disappeared into obscurity after Méliès 's retirement from the film industry , it was rediscovered around 1930 , when Méliès 's importance to the history of cinema was beginning to be recognized by film devotees . An original hand @-@ colored print was discovered in 1993 and restored in 2011 .
A Trip to the Moon was named one of the 100 greatest films of the 20th century by The Village Voice , ranked 84th . The film remains the best @-@ known of the hundreds of films made by Méliès , and the moment in which the capsule lands in the Moon 's eye remains one of the most iconic and frequently referenced images in the history of cinema . It is widely regarded as the earliest example of the science fiction film genre and , more generally , as one of the most influential films in cinema history .
= = Plot = =
At a meeting of the Astronomic Club , its president , Professor Barbenfouillis , proposes a trip to the Moon . After addressing some dissent , five other brave astronomers — Nostradamus , Alcofrisbas , Omega , Micromegas , and Parafaragaramus — agree to the plan . They build a space capsule in the shape of a bullet , and a huge cannon to shoot it into space . The astronomers embark and their capsule is fired from the cannon with the help of " marines " , most of whom are played by a bevy of young women in sailors ' outfits . The Man in the Moon watches the capsule as it approaches , and it hits him in the eye .
Landing safely on the Moon , the astronomers get out of the capsule ( without the need of space suits ) and watch the Earth rise in the distance . Exhausted by their journey , they unroll their blankets and sleep . As they sleep , a comet passes , the Big Dipper appears with human faces peering out of each star , old Saturn leans out of a window in his ringed planet , and Phoebe , goddess of the Moon , appears seated in a crescent @-@ moon swing . Phoebe causes a snowfall that awakens the astronomers , and they seek shelter in a cavern where they discover giant mushrooms . One astronomer opens his umbrella ; it promptly takes root and turns into a giant mushroom itself .
At this point , a Selenite ( an insectoid alien inhabitant of the Moon , named after one of the Greek moon goddesses , Selene ) appears , but it is killed easily by an astronomer , as the creatures explode if they are hit with force . More Selenites appear and it becomes increasingly difficult for the astronomers to destroy them as they are surrounded . The Selenites capture the astronomers and take them to the palace of their king . An astronomer lifts the Selenite King off his throne and throws him to the ground , causing him to explode .
The astronomers run back to their capsule while continuing to hit the pursuing Selenites , and five get inside . The sixth astronomer , Barbenfouillis himself , uses a rope to tip the capsule over a ledge on the Moon and into space . A Selenite tries to seize the capsule at the last minute . Astronomer , capsule , and Selenite fall through space and land in an ocean on Earth , where they are rescued by a ship and towed ashore . The final sequence ( missing from some prints of the film ) depicts a celebratory parade in honor of the travelers ' return , including a display of the captive Selenite and the unveiling of a commemorative statue bearing the motto " Labor omnia vincit " .
= = Cast = =
When A Trip to the Moon was made , film actors performed anonymously and no credits were given ; the practice of supplying opening and closing credits in films was a later innovation . Nonetheless , the following cast details can be reconstructed from available evidence :
Georges Méliès as Professor Barbenfouillis . Méliès , a pioneering French film @-@ maker and magician now generally regarded as the first person to recognize the potential of narrative film , had already achieved considerable success with his film versions of Cinderella ( 1899 ) and Joan of Arc ( 1900 ) . His extensive involvement in all of his films as director , producer , writer , designer , technician , publicist , editor , and often actor makes him one of the first cinematic auteurs . Speaking about his work late in life , Méliès commented : " The greatest difficulty in realising my own ideas forced me to sometimes play the leading role in my films ... I was a star without knowing I was one , since the term did not yet exist . " All told , Méliès took an acting role in at least 300 of his 520 films .
Bleuette Bernon as Phoebe ( the woman on the crescent moon ) . Méliès discovered Bernon in the 1890s , when she was performing as a singer at the cabaret L 'Enfer . She also appeared in his 1899 adaption of Cinderella .
François Lallement as the officer of the marines . Lallement was one of the salaried camera operators for the Star Film Company .
Henri Delannoy as the captain of the rocket
Jules @-@ Eugène Legris as the parade leader . Legris was a magician who performed at Méliès 's theater of stage illusions , the Théâtre Robert @-@ Houdin in Paris .
Victor André , Delpierre , Farjaux , Kelm , and Brunnet as the astronomers . André worked at the Théâtre de Cluny ; the others were singers in French music halls .
Ballet of the Théâtre du Châtelet as stars and as cannon attendants
Acrobats of the Folies Bergère as Selenites
= = Production = =
= = = Inspiration = = =
When asked in 1930 what inspired him for A Trip to the Moon , Méliès credited Jules Verne 's novels From the Earth to the Moon and Around the Moon . Cinema historians , the mid @-@ 20th @-@ century French writer Georges Sadoul first among them , have frequently suggested H. G. Wells 's The First Men in the Moon , a French translation of which was published a few months before Méliès made the film , as another likely influence . Sadoul argued that the first half of the film ( up to the shooting of the projectile ) is derived from Verne and that the second half ( the travelers ' adventures on and in the moon ) is derived from Wells .
In addition to these literary sources , various film scholars have suggested that Méliès was heavily influenced by other works , especially Jacques Offenbach 's operetta Le voyage dans la lune ( an unauthorized parody of Verne 's novels ) and the A Trip to the Moon attraction at the 1901 Pan @-@ American Exposition in Buffalo , New York . The French film historian Thierry Lefebvre hypothesizes that Méliès drew upon both of these works , but in different ways : he appears to have taken the structure of the film — " a trip to the moon , a moon landing , an encounter with extraterrestrials with a deformity , an underground trek , an interview with the Man in the Moon , and a brutal return to reality back on earth " — directly from the 1901 attraction , but also incorporated many plot elements ( including the presence of six astronomers with pseudo @-@ scientific names , telescopes that transform into stools , a moonshot cannon mounted above ground , a scene in which the moon appears to approach the viewer , a lunar snowstorm , an earthrise scene , and umbrella @-@ wielding travelers ) , not to mention the parodic tone of the film , from the Offenbach operetta .
= = = Filming = = =
As the science writer Ron Miller notes , A Trip to the Moon was one of the most complex films that Méliès had made , and employed " every trick he had learned or invented " . It was his longest film at the time ; both the budget and filming duration were unusually lavish , costing ₣ 10 @,@ 000 to make and taking three months to complete . The camera operators were Théophile Michault and Lucien Tainguy , who worked on a daily basis with Méliès as salaried employees for the Star Film Company . In addition to their work as cameramen , Méliès 's operators also did odd jobs for the company such as developing film and helping to set up scenery , and another salaried operator , François Lallement , appeared onscreen as the marine officer . By contrast , Méliès hired his actors on a film @-@ by @-@ film basis , drawing from talented individuals in the Parisian theatrical world , with which he had many connections . They were paid one Louis d 'or per day , a considerably higher salary than that offered by competitors , and had a full free meal at noon with Méliès .
Méliès 's film studio , which he had built in Montreuil , Seine @-@ Saint @-@ Denis in 1897 , was a greenhouse @-@ like building with glass walls and a glass ceiling to let in as much sunlight as possible , a concept used by most still photography studios from the 1860s onward ; it was built with the same dimensions as Méliès 's own Théâtre Robert @-@ Houdin ( 13 @.@ 5 × 6.6m ) . Throughout his film career , Méliès worked on a strict schedule of planning films in the morning , filming scenes during the brightest hours of the day , tending to the film laboratory and the Théâtre Robert @-@ Houdin in the late afternoon , and attending performances at Parisian theaters in the evening .
According to Méliès 's recollections , much of the unusual cost of A Trip to the Moon was due to the mechanically operated scenery and the Selenite costumes in particular , which were made for the film using cardboard and canvas . Méliès himself sculpted prototypes for the heads , feet , and kneecap pieces in terra cotta , and then created plaster molds for them . A specialist in mask @-@ making used these molds to produce cardboard versions for the actors to wear . One of the backdrops for the film , showing the inside of the glass @-@ roofed workshop in which the space capsule is built , was painted to look like the actual glass @-@ roofed studio in which the film was made .
Many of the special effects in A Trip to the Moon , as in numerous other Méliès films , were created using the substitution splice technique , in which the camera operator stopped filming long enough for something onscreen to be altered , added , or taken away . Méliès carefully spliced the resulting shots together to create apparently magical effects , such as the transformation of the astronomers ' telescopes into stools or the disappearance of the exploding Selenites in puffs of smoke . Other effects were created using theatrical means , such as stage machinery and pyrotechnics . The film also features transitional dissolves .
The pseudo @-@ tracking shot in which the camera appears to approach the Man in the Moon was accomplished using an effect Méliès had invented the previous year for the film The Man with the Rubber Head . Rather than attempting to move his weighty camera toward an actor , he set a pulley @-@ operated chair upon a rail @-@ fitted ramp , placed the actor ( covered up to the neck in black velvet ) on the chair , and pulled him toward the camera . In addition to its technical practicality , this technique also allowed Méliès to control the placement of the face within the frame to a much greater degree of specificity than moving his camera allowed . A substitution splice allowed a model capsule to suddenly appear in the eye of the actor playing the Moon , completing the shot . Another notable sequence in the film , the plunge of the capsule into real ocean waves filmed on location , was created through multiple exposure , with a shot of the capsule falling in front of a black background superimposed upon the footage of the ocean . The shot is followed by an underwater glimpse of the capsule floating back to the surface , created by combining a moving cardboard cutout of the capsule with an aquarium containing tadpoles and air jets . The descent of the rocket from the Moon was covered in four shots , taking up about twenty seconds of film time .
= = = Coloring = = =
As with at least 4 % of Méliès 's output ( including major films such as The Kingdom of the Fairies , The Impossible Voyage , and The Barber of Seville ) , some prints of A Trip to the Moon were individually hand @-@ colored by Elisabeth Thuillier 's coloring lab in Paris . Thuillier , a former colorist of glass and celluloid products , directed a studio of two hundred people painting directly on film stock with brushes , in the colors she chose and specified . Each worker was assigned a different color in assembly line style , with more than twenty separate colors often used for a single film . On average , Thuillier 's lab produced about sixty hand @-@ colored copies of a film .
= = = Music = = =
Though Méliès 's films were of course silent , they were not intended to be seen silently ; exhibitors often used a bonimenteur , or narrator , to explain the story as it unfolded on the screen , accompanied by sound effects and live music . Méliès himself took considerable interest in musical accompaniment for his films , and prepared special film scores for several of them , including The Kingdom of the Fairies and The Barber of Seville . However , Méliès never required a specific musical score to be used with any film , allowing exhibitors freedom to choose whatever accompaniment they felt most suitable . When the film was screened at the Olympia music hall in Paris in 1902 , an original film score was reportedly written for it .
In 1903 , the English composer Ezra Read published a piano piece called A Trip to the Moon : Comic Descriptive Fantasia , which follows Méliès 's film scene by scene and may have been used as a score for the film ; it may have been commissioned by Méliès himself , who had likely met Read on one of his trips to England . More recent composers who have recorded scores for A Trip to the Moon include Nicolas Godin and Jean @-@ Benoit Dunckel of Air ( for the 2011 restoration ; see the Hand @-@ colored version section below ) , Frederick Hodges , Robert Israel , Eric Le Guen , Lawrence Lehérissey ( a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Méliès ) , Donald Sosin , and Victor Young ( for an abridged print featured as a prologue to the 1956 film Around the World in 80 Days ) .
= = Style = =
The film 's style , like that of most of Méliès 's other films , is deliberately theatrical . The mise en scéne is highly stylized , recalling the traditions of the 19th @-@ century stage , and is filmed by a stationary camera , placed to evoke the perspective of an audience member sitting in a theatre . This stylistic choice was one of Méliès 's first and biggest innovations . Although he had initially followed the popular trend of the time by making mainly actuality films ( short " slice of life " documentary films capturing actual scenes and events for the camera ) , in his first few years of filming Méliès gradually moved into the far less common genre of fictional narrative films , which he called his scènes composées or " artificially arranged scenes . " The new genre was extensively influenced by Méliès 's experience in theatre and magic , especially his familiarity with the popular French féerie stage tradition . In an advertisement he proudly described the difference between his innovative films and the actualities still being made by his contemporaries : " these fantastic and artistic films reproduce stage scenes and create a new genre entirely different from the ordinary cinematographic views of real people and real streets . "
Because A Trip to the Moon preceded the development of narrative film editing by filmmakers such as Edwin S. Porter and D. W. Griffith , it does not use the cinematic vocabulary to which American and European audiences later became accustomed , a vocabulary built on the purposeful use of techniques such as varied camera angles , intercutting , juxtapositions of shots , and other filmic ideas . Rather , each camera setup in Méliès 's film is designed as a distinct dramatic scene uninterrupted by visible editing , an approach fitting the theatrical style in which the film was designed . Similarly , film scholars have noted that the most famous moment in A Trip to the Moon plays with temporal continuity by showing an event twice : first the capsule is shown suddenly appearing in the eye of an anthropomorphic moon ; then , in a much closer shot , the landing occurs very differently , and much more realistically , with the capsule actually plummeting into believable lunar terrain . This kind of nonlinear storytelling — in which time and space are treated as repeatable and flexible rather than linear and causal — is highly unconventional by the standards of Griffith and his followers ; before the development of continuity editing , however , other filmmakers performed similar experiments with time . ( Porter , for instance , used temporal discontinuity and repetition extensively in his 1903 film Life of an American Fireman . ) Later in the twentieth century , with sports television 's development of the instant replay , temporal repetition again became a familiar device to screen audiences .
Because Méliès does not use a modern cinematic vocabulary , some film scholars have created other frameworks of thought with which to assess his films . For example , some recent academicians , while not necessarily denying Méliès 's influence on film , have argued that his works are better understood as spectacular theatrical creations rooted in the 19th @-@ century stage tradition of the féerie . Similarly , Tom Gunning has argued that to fault Méliès for not inventing a more intimate and cinematic storytelling style is to misunderstand the purpose of his films ; in Gunning 's view , the first decade of film history may be considered a " cinema of attractions , " in which filmmakers experimented with a presentational style based on spectacle and direct address rather than on intricate editing . Though the attraction style of filmmaking declined in popularity in favor of a more integrated " story film " approach , it remains an important component of certain types of cinema , including science fiction films , musicals , and avant @-@ garde films .
= = Themes = =
With its pioneering use of themes of scientific ambition and discovery , A Trip to the Moon is sometimes described as the first science fiction film . A Short History of Film argues that it codified " many of the basic generic situations that are still used in science fiction films today " . However , several other genre designations are possible ; Méliès himself advertised the film as a pièce à grand spectacle , a term referring to a type of spectacular Parisian stage extravaganza popularized by Jules Verne and Adolphe d 'Ennery in the second half of the nineteenth century . Richard Abel describes the film as belonging to the féerie genre , as does Frank Kessler . It can also be described simply as a trick film , a catch @-@ all term for the popular early film genre of innovative , special @-@ effects @-@ filled shorts — a genre Méliès himself had codified and popularized in his earlier works .
A Trip to the Moon is highly satirical in tone , poking fun at nineteenth @-@ century science by exaggerating it in the format of an adventure story . The film makes no pretense whatsoever to be scientifically plausible ; the real waves in the splashdown scene are the only concession to realism . The film scholar Alison McMahan calls A Trip to the Moon one of the earliest examples of pataphysical film , saying it " aims to show the illogicality of logical thinking " with its satirically portrayed inept scientists , anthropomorphic moon face , and impossible transgressions of laws of physics . The film historian Richard Abel believes Méliès aimed in the film to " invert the hierarchal values of modern French society and hold them up to ridicule in a riot of the carnivalesque " . Similarly , the literary and film scholar Edward Wagenknecht described the film as a work " satirizing the pretensions of professors and scientific societies while simultaneously appealing to man 's sense of wonder in the face of an unexplored universe . "
There is also a strong anti @-@ imperialist vein in the film 's satire . The film scholar Matthew Solomon notes that the last part of the film ( the parade and commemoration sequence missing in some prints ) is especially forceful in this regard . He argues that Méliès , who had previously worked as an anti @-@ Boulangist political cartoonist , mocks imperialistic domination in the film by presenting his colonial conquerors as bumbling pedants who mercilessly attack the alien lifeforms they meet and return with a mistreated captive amid fanfares of self @-@ congratulation . The statue of Barbenfouillis shown in the film 's final shot even resembles the pompous , bullying colonialists in Méliès 's political cartoons . The film scholar Elizabeth Ezra agrees that " Méliès mocks the pretensions of colonialist accounts of the conquest of one culture by another , " and adds that " his film also thematizes social differentiation on the home front , as the hierarchical patterns on the moon are shown to bear a curious resemblance to those on earth . "
= = Release = =
Méliès , who had begun A Trip to the Moon in May 1902 , finished the film in August of that year and began selling prints to French distributors in the same month . From September through December 1902 , a hand @-@ colored print of A Trip to the Moon was screened at Méliès 's Théâtre Robert @-@ Houdin in Paris . The film was shown after Saturday and Thursday matinee performances by Méliès 's colleague and fellow magician , Jules @-@ Eugène Legris , who appeared as the leader of the parade in the two final scenes . Méliès sold black @-@ and @-@ white and color prints of the film through his Star Film Company , where the film was assigned the catalogue number 399 – 411 and given the descriptive subtitle Pièce à grand spectacle en 30 tableaux . In France , black @-@ and @-@ white prints sold for ₣ 560 , and hand @-@ colored prints for ₣ 1 @,@ 000 . Méliès also sold the film indirectly through Charles Urban 's Warwick Trading Company in London .
Many circumstances surrounding the film — including its unusual budget , length , and production time , as well as its similarities to the 1901 New York attraction — indicate that Méliès was especially keen to release the film in the United States . Because of rampant film piracy , Méliès never received most of the profits of the popular film . One account reports that Méliès sold a print of the film to the Paris photographer Charles Gerschel for use in an Algiers theatre , under strict stipulation that the print only be shown in Algeria . Gerschel sold the print , and various other Méliès films , to the Edison Manufacturing Company employee Alfred C. Abadie , who sent them directly to Edison 's laboratories to be duplicated and sold by Vitagraph . Copies of the print spread to other firms , and by 1904 Siegmund Lubin , the Selig Polyscope Company , and Edison were all redistributing it . Edison 's print of the film was even offered in a hand @-@ colored version available at a higher price , just as Méliès had done . Méliès was often uncredited altogether ; for the first six months of the film 's distribution , the only American exhibitor to credit Méliès in advertisements for the film was Thomas Lincoln Tally , who chose the film as the inaugural presentation of his Electric Theater .
In order to combat the problem of film piracy that became clear during the release of A Trip to the Moon , Méliès opened an American branch of the Star Film Company , directed by his brother Gaston Méliès , in New York in 1903 . The office was designed to sell Méliès 's films directly and to protect them by registering them under United States copyright . The introduction to the English @-@ language edition of the Star Film Company catalog announced : " In opening a factory and office in New York we are prepared and determined energetically to pursue all counterfeiters and pirates . We will not speak twice , we will act ! "
In addition to the opening of the American branch , various trade arrangements were made with other film companies , including American Mutoscope and Biograph , the Warwick Trading Company , the Charles Urban Trading Co . , Robert W. Paul 's studio , and Gaumont . In these negotiations , a print sale price of US $ 0 @.@ 15 per foot was standardized across the American market , which proved useful to Méliès . However , later price standardizations by the Motion Picture Patents Company in 1908 hastened Méliès 's financial ruin , as his films were impractically expensive under the new standards . In addition , in the years following 1908 his films suffered from the fashions of the time , as the fanciful magic films he made were no longer in vogue .
= = Reception = =
According to Méliès 's memoirs , his initial attempts to sell A Trip to the Moon to French fairground exhibitors met with failure because of the film 's unusually high price . Finally , Méliès offered to let one such exhibitor borrow a print of the film to screen for free . The applause from the very first showing was so enthusiastic that fairgoers kept the theater packed until midnight . The exhibitor bought the film immediately , and when he was reminded of his initial reluctance he even offered to add ₣ 200 to compensate " for [ Méliès 's ] inconvenience . " The film was a pronounced success in France , running uninterrupted at the Olympia music hall in Paris for several months .
A Trip to the Moon was met with especially large enthusiasm in the United States , where ( to Méliès 's chagrin ) its piracy by Lubin , Selig , Edison and others gave it wide distribution . Exhibitors in New York City , Washington D.C. , Cleveland , Detroit , New Orleans , and Kansas City reported on the film 's great success in their theaters . The film also did well in other countries , including Germany , Canada , and Italy , where it was featured as a headline attraction through 1904 .
A Trip to the Moon was one of the most popular films of the first few years of the twentieth century , rivaled only by a small handful of others ( similarly spectacular Méliès films such as The Kingdom of the Fairies and The Impossible Voyage among them ) . Late in life , Méliès remarked that A Trip to the Moon was " surely not one of my best , " but acknowledged that it was widely considered his masterpiece and that " it left an indel | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
7 ) fueled the Pequot 's desire to upgrade their bingo hall to a full casino . In the wake of that decision , Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act ( IGRA ) on October 17 , 1988 . Tureen and Margolin concluded that the IGRA required Connecticut to negotiate a tribal @-@ state compact with the Pequot in good faith because of a state statute that permitted non @-@ profits , with a state license , to hold " Las Vegas nights " twice a year . The state statute in question had been lobbied for by Mothers Against Drunk Driving ( MADD ) in 1987 . At the request of Governor O 'Neill , acting state attorney general Clarine Riddle prepared a memorandum highlighting the differences between high school students playing casino games for monopoly money and a full @-@ scale , for @-@ profit casino . O 'Neill denied the Pequot 's request .
= = = Creation of Foxwoods = = =
When the state failed to negotiate , on November 3 , 1989 , the tribe sued the state under a provision of the IGRA — subsequently declared unconstitutional in Seminole Tribe v. Florida ( 1996 ) — that permitted such suits if state did not negotiate in good faith within 180 days . The case was docketed again before Judge Dorsey . Dorsey granted the tribe summary judgment in May 1990 , ordering the state to resume negotiations and conclude a compact within 60 days . The Second Circuit upheld Dorsey 's ruling on September 4 , 1990 . The compact was forwarded to Secretary of Interior Manuel Lujan , Jr. on October 1990 for his approval . On April 22 , 1991 , the Supreme Court declined to grant certiorari to the state 's appeal from the Second Circuit 's ruling .
Former Senator Weicker replaced O 'Neil as governor in January 1991 . Weicker was opposed to gambling , and was advised that repealing the " Las Vegas night " statute was the only way to avoid a Pequot casino . Moreover , Weicker would have had to repeal the law before Secretary Lujan gave final approval to the compact . The Pequots retained lobbyists , reached out to charity groups that utilized the " Las Vegas night " statute , and brought in Native American Rights Fund executive director John Echohawk to defeat Weicker 's proposed bill . Weicker 's bill prevailed by 18 @-@ 17 with one absent in the Connecticut Senate . However , the House rejected the bill by more than 20 votes . Secretary Lujan approved the compact on May 31 , 1991 .
The Pequots signed a financing agreement with Malaysian partners on February 25 , 1991 for the construction of Foxwoods Resort Casino . Foxwoods opened on February 12 , 1992 . That year , even though slot machines had yet to be installed , the 245 @-@ member Pequot tribe received $ 148 million in revenue and $ 51 million in profit from Foxwoods . Threatened with the possibility of competition from non @-@ Indian gambling , the Pequots offered the state a share of slot machine revenue in October 1992 ( the issue of slot machines had been left for the courts in the original compact ) . A provision of the agreement provided that if slot machine gambling were to be legalized in the state , the revenue sharing would cease . On January 13 , 1993 , the tribe and state announced a deal that would give the state 25 % of gross slot machine revenue , guaranteeing at least $ 100M / year . By 1998 , Foxwoods was generating $ 1 billion in revenue and $ 152 million in net income for the tribe .
= = = Reservation expansion = = =
Starting in 1993 , the Pequot began negotiations to purchase additional lands and convey those lands to the Department of Interior in trust under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 . Local towns sued the tribes to prevent this . In 1996 and 1998 , Interior Department , under Secretary Bruce Babbitt , approved the tribe 's request to put 165 new acres ( 0 @.@ 67 km2 ) and 146 new acres ( 0 @.@ 59 km2 ) , respectively , into trust . The Supreme Court 's decision in Carcieri v. Salazar ( 2009 ) prevents any further such transfers .
= North American XB @-@ 70 Valkyrie =
The North American Aviation XB @-@ 70 Valkyrie is the prototype of the B @-@ 70 nuclear @-@ armed , deep @-@ penetration strategic bomber for the U.S. Air Force 's Strategic Air Command . In the late 1950s North American Aviation designed the Valkyrie bomber as a large , six @-@ engined aircraft capable of reaching Mach 3 + while flying at 70 @,@ 000 feet ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) .
At these speeds , it was expected that the B @-@ 70 would be almost immune to interceptor aircraft , the only effective weapon against bomber aircraft at the time . The bomber would spend only a few minutes over a particular radar station , flying out of its range before the controllers could position their fighters in a suitable location for an interception . Its high speed also made the aircraft difficult to see on the radar displays , and its high altitude flight could not be matched by any contemporary Soviet fighter .
The introduction of the first Soviet surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles in the late 1950s put the near @-@ invulnerability of the B @-@ 70 in doubt . In response , the US Air Force ( USAF ) began flying its missions at low level , where the missile radar 's line of sight was limited by local terrain . In this low @-@ level penetration role , the B @-@ 70 offered little additional performance over the B @-@ 52 it was meant to replace . It was , however , far more expensive and had shorter range . Other alternate missions were proposed , but these were of limited scope . As the strategic role passed from bombers to intercontinental ballistic missiles ( ICBMs ) during the late 1950s , manned bombers were increasingly seen as obsolete .
The USAF eventually gave up fighting for its production , and the B @-@ 70 program was canceled in 1961 . Development was then turned over to a research program to study the effects of long @-@ duration high @-@ speed flight . As such , two prototype aircraft were built , and designated XB @-@ 70A ; these aircraft were used for supersonic test @-@ flights during 1964 – 69 . In 1966 , one prototype crashed after colliding in mid @-@ air with a smaller jet aircraft ; the remaining Valkyrie bomber is in the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton , Ohio .
= = Development = =
= = = Background = = =
As an offshoot of Boeing 's MX @-@ 2145 manned boost @-@ glide bomber project , Boeing partnered with RAND Corporation in January 1954 to explore what sort of bomber aircraft would be needed to deliver the various nuclear weapons then under development . At the time , nuclear weapons weighed several tons , and the need to carry enough fuel to fly that payload from the continental United States to the Soviet Union demanded large bombers . They also concluded that after release of bombs the aircraft would need supersonic speed to escape the critical blast @-@ radius .
The aviation industry had been studying this problem for some time . From the mid @-@ 1940s , there was much interest in using nuclear @-@ powered aircraft in the bomber role . In a conventional jet engine , thrust is provided by heating air using jet fuel and accelerating it out a nozzle . In a nuclear engine , heat is supplied by a reactor , whose consumables last for months instead of hours . Most designs also carried a small amount of jet fuel for use during high @-@ power portions of flight — take @-@ off and high @-@ speed dashes .
Another possibility being explored at the time was the use of boron @-@ enriched " zip fuels " , which improves the energy density of jet fuel by about 40 percent , and could be used in modified versions of existing jet engine designs . Zip fuels appeared to offer sufficient performance improvement to produce a strategic bomber with supersonic speed .
= = = WS @-@ 110A = = =
The U.S. Air Force ( USAF ) followed these developments closely , and in 1955 issued General Operational Requirement No. 38 for a new bomber combining the payload and intercontinental range of the B @-@ 52 with the Mach 2 top speed of the Convair B @-@ 58 Hustler . The new bomber was expected to enter service in 1963 . Both nuclear and conventional designs would be considered . The nuclear @-@ powered bomber was organized as " Weapon System 125A " and pursued simultaneously with the jet @-@ powered version , " Weapon System 110A " .
The USAF Air Research and Development Command 's ( ARDC ) requirement for WS @-@ 110A asked for a chemical fuel bomber with Mach 0 @.@ 9 cruising speed and " maximum possible " speed during a 1 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 852 km ) entrance and exit from the target . The requirement also called for a 50 @,@ 000 pound ( 22 @,@ 670 kg ) payload and a combat radius of 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 600 mi , 7 @,@ 400 km ) . The Air Force formed similar requirements for a WS @-@ 110L intercontinental reconnaissance system in 1955 , but this was later canceled in 1958 due to better options . In July 1955 , six contractors were selected to bid on WS @-@ 110A studies . Boeing and North American Aviation ( NAA ) submitted proposals , and on 8 November 1955 were awarded contracts for Phase 1 development .
In mid @-@ 1956 , initial designs were presented by the two companies . Zip fuel was to be used in the afterburners to improve range by 10 to 15 percent over conventional fuel . Both designs featured huge wing tip fuel tanks that could be jettisoned when their fuel was depleted before a supersonic dash to the target . The tanks also included the outer portions of the wing , which would also be jettisoned to produce a smaller wing suitable for supersonic speeds . Both became trapezoidal wings after ejection , at that time the highest performance planform known . They also featured flush cockpits to maintain the highest fineness ratio possible in spite of its effects on visibility .
The two designs had takeoff weights of approximately 750 @,@ 000 pounds ( 340 @,@ 000 kg ) with large fuel loads . The Air Force evaluated the designs , and in September 1956 deemed them too large and complicated for operations . General Curtis LeMay was dismissive , declaiming , " This is not an airplane , it 's a three @-@ ship formation . " The USAF ended Phase 1 development in October 1956 and instructed the two contractors to continue design studies .
= = = New designs = = =
During the period that the original proposals were being studied , advances in supersonic flight were proceeding rapidly . The narrow delta was establishing itself as a preferred planform for supersonic flight , replacing earlier designs like the swept @-@ wing and trapezoidal layouts seen on designs like the Lockheed F @-@ 104 Starfighter and the earlier WS @-@ 110 concepts . Engines able to cope with higher temperatures and widely varying intake ramp air speeds were also under design , allowing for sustained supersonic speeds .
This work led to an interesting discovery . When an engine was optimized specifically for high speed , it burned perhaps twice as much fuel at that speed than when it was running at subsonic speeds . However , the aircraft would be flying as much as four times as fast . Thus its most economical cruise speed , in terms of fuel per mile , was its maximum speed . This was entirely unexpected and implied that there was no point in the dash concept ; if the aircraft was able to reach Mach 3 , it may as well fly its entire mission at that speed . The question remained whether such a concept was technically feasible , but by March 1957 , engine development and wind tunnel testing had progressed enough to suggest it was .
WS @-@ 110 was redesigned as an aircraft flying Mach 3 for the entire mission . Zip fuel was retained for the engine 's afterburner to increase range . Both North American and Boeing returned new designs with very long fuselages and large delta wings . They differed primarily in engine layout ; the NAA design arranged its six engines in a semi @-@ circular duct under the rear fuselage , while the Boeing design used separate podded engines located individually on pylons below the wing , like the Hustler .
North American had scoured the literature to find any additional advantage . This led them to an obscure report by two NACA wind tunnel experts , who wrote a report in 1956 titled " Aircraft Configurations Developing High Lift @-@ Drag Ratios at High Supersonic Speeds " . Known today as compression lift , the idea was to use the shock wave generated off the nose or other sharp points on the aircraft as a source of high @-@ pressure air . By carefully positioning the wing in relation to the shock , the shock 's high pressure could be captured on the bottom of the wing and generate additional lift . To take maximum advantage of this effect , they redesigned the underside of the aircraft to feature a large triangular intake area far forward of the engines , better positioning the shock in relation to the wing .
North American improved on the basic concept by adding a set of drooping wing tip panels that were lowered at high speed . This helped trap the shock wave under the wing between the downturned wing tips . It also added more vertical surface to the aircraft to maintain directional stability at high speeds . NAA 's solution had an additional advantage , as it decreased the surface area of the rear of the wing when the panels were moved into their high @-@ speed position . This helped offset the rearward shift of the center of pressure , or " average lift point " , with increasing speeds . Under normal conditions this caused an increasing nose @-@ down trim , which had to be offset by moving the control surfaces , increasing drag . When the wing tips were drooped the surface area at the rear of the wings was lowered , moving the lift forward and counteracting this effect , reducing the need for control inputs .
The buildup of heat due to skin friction during sustained supersonic flight had to be addressed . During a Mach 3 cruise , the aircraft would reach an average of 450 ° F ( 230 ° C ) , with leading edges reaching 630 ° F ( 330 ° C ) , and up to 1 @,@ 000 ° F ( 540 ° C ) in engine compartments . NAA proposed building their design out of sandwich panels , with each panel consisting of two thin sheets of stainless steel brazed to opposite faces of a honeycomb @-@ shaped foil core . Expensive titanium would be used only in high @-@ temperature areas like the leading edge of the horizontal stabilizer , and the nose . For cooling the interior , the XB @-@ 70 pumped fuel en route to the engines through heat exchangers .
On 30 August 1957 , the Air Force decided that enough data was available on the NAA and Boeing designs that a competition could begin . On 18 September , the Air Force issued operational requirements which called for a cruising speed of Mach 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 2 , an over @-@ target altitude of 70 @,@ 000 – 75 @,@ 000 ft ( 21 @,@ 300 – 22 @,@ 700 m ) , a range of up to 10 @,@ 500 mi ( 16 @,@ 900 km ) , and a gross weight not to exceed 490 @,@ 000 lb ( 222 @,@ 000 kg ) . The aircraft would have to use the hangars , runways and handling procedures used by the B @-@ 52 . On 23 December 1957 , the North American proposal was declared the winner of the competition , and on 24 January 1958 , a contract was issued for Phase 1 development .
In February 1958 , the proposed bomber was designated B @-@ 70 , with the prototypes receiving the " X " experimental prototype designation . The name " Valkyrie " was the winning submission in early 1958 , selected from 20 @,@ 000 entries in a USAF " Name the B @-@ 70 " contest . The Air Force approved an 18 @-@ month program acceleration in March 1958 that rescheduled the first flight to December 1961 . But in late 1958 the service announced that this acceleration would not be possible due to lack of funding . In December 1958 , a Phase II contract was issued . The mockup of the B @-@ 70 was reviewed by the Air Force in March 1959 . Provisions for air @-@ to @-@ surface missiles and external fuel tanks were requested afterward . At the same time , North American was developing the F @-@ 108 supersonic interceptor . To reduce program costs , the F @-@ 108 would share two of the engines , the escape capsule , and some smaller systems with the B @-@ 70 . In early 1960 , North American and the USAF released the first drawing of the XB @-@ 70 to the public .
= = = The " missile problem " = = =
The B @-@ 70 was planned to use a high @-@ speed , high @-@ altitude bombing approach that followed a trend of bombers flying progressively faster and higher since the start of manned bomber use . Through that same period , only two weapons proved effective against bombers , fighter aircraft and anti @-@ aircraft artillery ( AAA ) . Flying higher and faster made it more difficult for both ; higher speeds allowed the bomber to fly out of range of the weapons more quickly , while higher altitudes increased the time needed for fighters to climb to the bombers , and greatly increased the size of the AAA weapons needed to reach those altitudes .
As early as 1942 , German flak commanders had already concluded that AAA would be essentially useless against jet aircraft , and began development of guided missiles to fill this role . Most forces reached the same conclusion soon after , with both the US and UK starting missile development programs before the war ended . The UK 's Green Mace was one of the last attempts to develop a useful high @-@ altitude AAA weapon , but its development ended in 1957 .
Interceptor aircraft with ever @-@ improving performance remained the only effective anti @-@ bomber weapons by the early 1950s , and even these were having problems keeping up with the latest designs ; Soviet interceptors during the late 1950s could not intercept the high @-@ altitude U @-@ 2 reconnaissance aircraft , in spite of its relatively low speeds . It was later discovered that flying faster also made radar detection much more difficult due to an effect known as the blip @-@ to @-@ scan ratio , and any reduction in tracking efficiency would further interfere with the operation and guidance of fighters .
The introduction of the first effective anti @-@ aircraft missiles by the late 1950s changed this picture dramatically . Missiles could stand ready for immediate launch , eliminating operational delays like the time needed to get the pilot into the cockpit of a fighter . Guidance did not require wide @-@ area tracking or calculation of an intercept course : a simple comparison of the time needed to fly to the altitude of the target returned the required deflection . Missiles also had greater altitude capability than any aircraft , and improving this to adapt to new aircraft was a low @-@ cost development path . The US was aware of Soviet work in the field , and had reduced the expected operational lifetime of the U @-@ 2 , knowing that it would become vulnerable to these missiles as they were improved . This later happened with the 1960 downing of the U @-@ 2 flown by Gary Powers .
Faced with this problem , military doctrine had already started shifting away from high @-@ altitude supersonic bombing toward low @-@ altitude penetration . Radar is line @-@ of @-@ sight , so aircraft could dramatically shorten detection distances by flying close to the Earth and hiding behind terrain . Missile sites spaced to overlap in range when attacking bombers at high altitudes would leave large gaps between their coverage for bombers flying at lower levels . With an appropriate map of the missile sites , the bombers could fly between and around the defences . Additionally , early missiles generally flew unguided for a period of time before the radar systems were able to track the missile and start sending it guidance signals . With the SA @-@ 2 Guideline missile , this minimum altitude was roughly 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) . Flying below this would make the bomber effectively invulnerable to the missiles , even if they happened to fly into range .
Flying at low level provided protection against fighters as well . Radars of the era did not have the ability to look down ; if the radar were aimed down to detect targets at a lower altitude , the reflection of the ground would overwhelm the signal returned from a target . An interceptor flying at normal altitudes would be effectively blind to bombers far below it . The interceptor could descend to lower altitudes to increase the amount of visible sky , but doing so would limit its radar range in the same way as the missile sites , as well as greatly increasing fuel use and thus reducing mission time . The Soviet Union would not introduce an interceptor with look @-@ down capability until 1972 with the High Lark radar , and even this model had very limited capability .
Strategic Air Command found itself in an uncomfortable position ; bombers had been tuned for efficiency at high speeds and altitudes , performance that had been purchased at great cost in both engineering and financial terms . Before the B @-@ 70 was to replace the B @-@ 52 in the long @-@ range role , SAC had introduced the B @-@ 58 Hustler to replace the Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojet in the medium @-@ range role . The Hustler was expensive to develop and purchase , and required enormous amounts of fuel and maintenance in comparison to the B @-@ 47 . It was estimated that it cost three times as much to operate as the much larger and longer @-@ ranged B @-@ 52 .
The B @-@ 70 , designed for even higher speeds , altitudes and range than the B @-@ 58 , suffered even more in relative terms . At high altitudes , the B @-@ 70 was as much as four times as fast as the B @-@ 52 , but at low altitudes it was limited to only Mach 0 @.@ 95 , only modestly faster than the B @-@ 52 at the same altitudes . It also had a smaller bombload and shorter range . Its only major advantage would be its ability to use high speed in areas without missile cover , especially on the long journey from the USA to USSR . The value was limited ; the USAF 's doctrine stressed that the primary reason for maintaining the bomber force in an era of ICBMs was that the bombers could remain in the air at long ranges from their bases and were thus immune to sneak attack . In this case , the higher speed would be used for only a short period of time between the staging areas and the Soviet coastline .
Adding to the problems , the zip fuel program was canceled in 1959 . After burning , the fuel turned into liquids and solids that increased wear on moving turbine engine components . Although the B @-@ 70 was intended to use zip only in the afterburners , and thus avoid this problem , the enormous cost of the zip program for such limited gains led to its cancellation . This by itself was not a fatal problem , however , as newly developed high @-@ energy fuels like JP @-@ 6 were available to make up some of the difference . Most of the range lost in the change from zip fuel was restored by filling one of the two bomb bays with a fuel tank . However , another problem arose when the F @-@ 108 program was canceled in September 1959 , which ended the shared development that benefited the B @-@ 70 program .
= = = Downsizing , upswing , cancellation = = =
At two secret meetings on 16 and 18 November 1959 , the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , Air Force General Twining , recommended the Air Force 's plan for the B @-@ 70 to reconnoiter and strike rail @-@ mobile Soviet ICBMs , but the Chief of Staff of the Air Force , General White , admitted the Soviets would " be able to hit the B @-@ 70 with rockets " and requested the B @-@ 70 be downgraded to " a bare minimum research and development program " at $ 200 million for fiscal year 1960 . President Eisenhower responded that the reconnaissance and strike mission was " crazy " since the nuclear mission was to attack known production and military complexes , and emphasized that he saw no need for the B @-@ 70 since the ICBM is " a cheaper , more effective way of doing the same thing " . Eisenhower also identified that the B @-@ 70 would not be in manufacturing until " eight to ten years from now " and " said he thought we were talking about bows and arrows at a time of gunpowder when we spoke of bombers in the missile age " . In December 1959 the Air Force announced the B @-@ 70 project would be cut to a single prototype , and most of the planned B @-@ 70 subsystems would no longer be developed .
Then interest increased due to the politics of presidential campaign of 1960 . A central plank of John F. Kennedy 's campaign was that Eisenhower and the Republicans were weak on defense , and pointed to the B @-@ 70 as an example . He told a San Diego audience near NAA facilities , " I endorse wholeheartedly the B @-@ 70 manned aircraft . " Kennedy also made similar campaign claims regarding other aircraft : near the Seattle Boeing plant he affirmed the need for B @-@ 52s and in Fort Worth he praised the B @-@ 58 .
The Air Force changed the program to full weapon development and awarded a contract for an XB @-@ 70 prototype and 11 YB @-@ 70s in August 1960 . In November 1960 , the B @-@ 70 program received a $ 265 million appropriation from Congress for FY 1961 . Nixon , trailing in his home state of California , also publicly endorsed the B @-@ 70 , and on 30 October Eisenhower helped the Republican campaign with a pledge of an additional $ 155 million for the B @-@ 70 development program .
On taking office in January 1961 , Kennedy was informed that the missile gap was an illusion . On 28 March 1961 , after $ 800 million had been spent on the B @-@ 70 program , Kennedy canceled the project as " unnecessary and economically unjustifiable " because it " stood little chance of penetrating enemy defenses successfully . " Instead , Kennedy recommended " the B @-@ 70 program be carried forward essentially to explore the problem of flying at three times the speed of sound with an airframe potentially useful as a bomber . " After Congress approved $ 290 million of B @-@ 70 " add @-@ on " funds to the President 's 12 May 1960 modified FY 1961 budget , the Administration decided on a " Planned Utilization " of only $ 100 million of these funds . The Department of Defense subsequently presented data to Congress that the B @-@ 70 would add little performance for the high cost .
However , after becoming the new Air Force Chief of Staff in July 1961 , Curtis LeMay increased his B @-@ 70 advocacy , including interviews for August Reader 's Digest and November Aviation Week articles , and allowing a 25 February General Electric tour at which the press was provided artist conceptions of , and other info about , the B @-@ 70 . Congress had also continued B @-@ 70 appropriations in an effort to resurrect bomber development . After Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara explained again to the House Armed Services Committee ( HASC ) on 24 January 1962 that the B @-@ 70 was unjustifiable , LeMay subsequently argued for the B @-@ 70 to both the House and Senate committees — and was chastised by McNamara on 1 March . By 7 March 1962 , the HASC — with 21 members having B @-@ 70 work in their districts — had written an appropriations bill to " direct " — by law — the Executive Branch to use all of the nearly $ 500 million appropriated for the RS @-@ 70 . McNamara was unsuccessful with an address to the HASC on 14 March , but a 19 March 1962 11th hour White House Rose Garden agreement between Kennedy and HASC chairman Carl Vinson retracted the bill 's language and the bomber remained canceled .
= = = Experimental aircraft = = =
The XB @-@ 70s were intended to be used for the advanced study of aerodynamics , propulsion , and other subjects related to large supersonic transports . The crew was reduced to only the two pilots , as a navigator and a bombardier were not needed for this research role . The production order was reduced to three prototypes in March 1961 with the third aircraft to incorporate improvements from the previous prototype . The order was later reduced to two experimental XB @-@ 70As , named Air Vehicle 1 and 2 ( AV @-@ 1 and AV @-@ 2 ) . XB @-@ 70 No. 1 was completed on 7 May 1964 , and rolled out on 11 May 1964 at Palmdale , California . One report stated " nothing like it existed anywhere " . AV @-@ 2 was completed on 15 October 1964 . The manufacture of the third prototype ( AV @-@ 3 ) was canceled in July 1964 before completion . The first XB @-@ 70 carried out its maiden flight in September 1964 and many more test flights followed .
The data from the XB @-@ 70 test flights and aerospace materials development were used in the later B @-@ 1 bomber program , the American supersonic transport ( SST ) program , and via espionage , the Soviet Union 's Tupolev Tu @-@ 144 SST program . The development of the Lockheed U @-@ 2 and the SR @-@ 71 Blackbird reconnaissance aircraft , as well as the XB @-@ 70 , prompted Soviet aerospace engineers to design and develop their high @-@ altitude and high @-@ speed MiG @-@ 25 interceptor .
= = Design = =
The Valkyrie was designed to be a high @-@ altitude Mach 3 bomber with six engines . Harrison Storms shaped the aircraft with a canard surface and a delta wing , which was built largely of stainless steel , sandwiched honeycomb panels , and titanium . The XB @-@ 70 was designed to use supersonic technologies developed for the Mach 3 Navaho , as well as a modified form of the SM @-@ 64 Navaho 's all @-@ inertial guidance system .
The XB @-@ 70 used compression lift , which arose from a shock wave generated by the sharp leading edge of the central engine intake splitter plate below the wing . At Mach 3 cruising speed , the shock wave attached along the wing leading edge , preventing the high pressure behind the shock front from leaking up over the wing . The compression lift provided five percent of the total lift . The wing included inboard camber to more effectively use the higher pressure field behind the strong shock wave . Unique among aircraft of its size , the outer portions of the wings were hinged , and could be pivoted downward by up to 65 degrees , acting almost as a type of variable @-@ geometry wingtip device . This increased the aircraft 's directional stability at supersonic speeds , shifted the center of lift to a more favorable position at high speeds , and strengthened the compression lift effect . With the wingtips drooped downwards , the compression lift shock wave would be further trapped under the wings .
The XB @-@ 70 was equipped with six General Electric YJ93 @-@ GE @-@ 3 turbojet engines , designed to use JP @-@ 6 jet fuel . The engine was stated to be in the " 30 @,@ 000 @-@ pound class " , but actually produced 28 @,@ 000 lbf ( 124 @.@ 6 kN ) with afterburner and 19 @,@ 900 lbf ( 88 kN ) without afterburner . The Valkyrie used fuel for cooling ; it was pumped through heat exchangers before reaching the engines . To reduce the likelihood of autoignition , nitrogen was injected into the JP @-@ 6 during refueling , and the " fuel pressurization and inerting system " vaporized a 700 lb ( 320 kg ) supply of liquid nitrogen to fill the fuel tank vent space and maintain tank pressure .
= = Operational history = =
The XB @-@ 70 's maiden flight was on 21 September 1964 . In the first flight test , between Palmdale and Edwards AFB , one engine had to be shut down shortly after take @-@ off , and an undercarriage malfunction warning meant that the flight was flown with the undercarriage down as a precaution , limiting speed to 390 mph - about half that planned . On landing , the rear wheels of the port side main gear locked , the tires ruptured , and a fire started .
The Valkyrie first became supersonic ( Mach 1 @.@ 1 ) on the third test flight on 12 October 1964 , and flew above Mach 1 for 40 minutes during the following flight on 24 October . The wing tips were also lowered partially in this flight . XB @-@ 70 No. 1 surpassed Mach 3 on 14 October 1965 by reaching Mach 3 @.@ 02 at 70 @,@ 000 ft ( 21 @,@ 300 m ) . The first aircraft was found to suffer from weaknesses in the honeycomb panels , primarily due to inexperience with fabrication and quality control of this new material . On two occasions , honeycomb panels failed and were torn off during supersonic flight , necessitating a Mach 2 @.@ 5 limit being placed on the aircraft .
The deficiencies discovered on AV @-@ 1 were almost completely solved on the second XB @-@ 70 , which first flew on 17 July 1965 . On 3 January 1966 , XB @-@ 70 No. 2 attained a speed of Mach 3 @.@ 05 while flying at 72 @,@ 000 ft ( 21 @,@ 900 m ) . AV @-@ 2 reached a top speed of Mach 3 @.@ 08 and maintained it for 20 minutes on 12 April 1966 . On 19 May 1966 , AV @-@ 2 reached Mach 3 @.@ 06 and flew at Mach 3 for 32 minutes , covering 2 @,@ 400 mi ( 3 @,@ 840 km ) in 91 minutes of total flight .
A joint NASA / USAF research program was conducted from 3 November 1966 to 31 January 1967 for measuring the intensity and signature of sonic booms for the National Sonic Boom Program ( NSBP ) . Testing was planned to cover a range of sonic boom overpressures on the ground similar to but higher than the proposed American SST . In 1966 , AV @-@ 2 was selected for the program and was outfitted with test sensors . It flew the first sonic boom test on 6 June 1966 , attaining a speed of Mach 3 @.@ 05 at 72 @,@ 000 ft ( 21 @,@ 900 m ) . Two days later , AV @-@ 2 crashed following a mid @-@ air collision with an F @-@ 104 while flying in a multi @-@ aircraft formation . Sonic boom and later testing continued with XB @-@ 70A # 1 .
The second flight research program ( NASA NAS4 @-@ 1174 ) investigated " control of structural dynamics " from 25 April 1967 through the XB @-@ 70 's last flight in 1969 . At high altitude and high speed , the XB @-@ 70A experienced unwanted changes in altitude . NASA testing from June 1968 included two small vanes on the nose of AV @-@ 1 for measuring the response of the aircraft 's stability augmentation system . AV @-@ 1 flew a total of 83 flights .
The XB @-@ 70 's last supersonic flight took place on 17 December 1968 . On 4 February 1969 , AV @-@ 1 took its final flight to Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base for museum display ( now the National Museum of the United States Air Force ) . Flight data was collected on this subsonic trip . North American Rockwell completed a four @-@ volume report on the B @-@ 70 that was published by NASA in April 1972 .
= = Variants = =
XB @-@ 70A
Prototype of B @-@ 70 . Two were built .
AV @-@ 1 , NAA Model Number NA @-@ 278 , USAF S / N 62 @-@ 0001 , completed 83 flights spanning 160 hours and 16 minutes .
AV @-@ 2 , NAA Model Number NA @-@ 278 , USAF S / N 62 @-@ 0207 , flew 46 times over 92 hours and 22 minutes , before it crashed in June 1966 .
XB @-@ 70B
AV @-@ 3 , NAA Model Number NA @-@ 274 , USAF S / N 62 @-@ 0208 , was originally to be the first YB @-@ 70A in March 1961 . This advanced prototype was canceled during early manufacture .
YB @-@ 70
Planned preproduction version with improvements based on XB @-@ 70s .
B @-@ 70A
Planned bomber production version of Valkyrie . A fleet of up to 65 operational bombers was planned .
RS @-@ 70
Proposed reconnaissance @-@ strike version with a crew of four and in @-@ flight refueling capability .
= = Incidents and accidents = =
= = = Incidents = = =
On 7 May 1965 , the divider separating the left and right halves of XB @-@ 70A AV @-@ 1 's engine intake ramp broke off in flight and was ingested by all six engines , damaging them beyond repair .
On 14 October 1965 , AV @-@ 1 surpassed Mach 3 , but heat and stress damaged the honeycomb panels , leaving 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) of the leading edge of the left wing missing . The first aircraft was limited to Mach 2 @.@ 5 afterwards .
= = = Mid @-@ air collision = = =
On 8 June 1966 , XB @-@ 70A No. 2 was in close formation with four other aircraft ( an F @-@ 4 , F @-@ 5 , T @-@ 38 , and F @-@ 104 ) for a photoshoot at the behest of General Electric , manufacturer of the engines of all five aircraft . After the completion of the photoshoot , the F @-@ 104 drifted into contact with the XB @-@ 70 's right wing , flipped over and rolled inverted over the top of the Valkyrie , striking the vertical stabilizers and left wing of the bomber . The F @-@ 104 exploded , destroying the Valkyrie 's rudders and damaging its left wing . With the loss of both rudders and damage to the wings , the Valkyrie entered an uncontrollable spin and crashed into the ground north of Barstow , California . NASA Chief Test Pilot Joe Walker ( F @-@ 104 pilot ) and Carl Cross ( XB @-@ 70 co @-@ pilot ) were killed . Al White ( XB @-@ 70 pilot ) ejected , sustaining serious injuries , including one arm crushed by the closing clamshell @-@ like escape crew capsule moments prior to ejection .
The USAF summary report of the accident investigation stated that , given the position of the F @-@ 104 relative to the XB @-@ 70 , the F @-@ 104 pilot would not have been able to see the XB @-@ 70 's wing , except by uncomfortably looking back over his left shoulder . The report said that it was likely that Walker , piloting the F @-@ 104 , maintained his position by looking at the fuselage of the XB @-@ 70 , forward of his position . The F @-@ 104 was estimated to be 70 ft ( 21 m ) to the side of , and 10 ft ( 3 m ) below , the fuselage of the XB @-@ 70 . The report concluded that from that position , without appropriate sight cues , Walker was unable to properly perceive his motion relative to the Valkyrie , leading to his aircraft drifting into contact with the XB @-@ 70 's wing . The accident investigation also pointed to the wake vortex off the XB @-@ 70 's right wingtip as the reason for the F @-@ 104 's sudden roll over and into the bomber .
= = Aircraft on display = =
Valkyrie AV @-@ 1 ( AF Ser . No. 62 @-@ 0001 ) is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright @-@ Patterson AFB near Dayton , Ohio . The aircraft was flown to the museum on 4 February 1969 , following the conclusion of the XB @-@ 70 testing program . The Valkyrie became the museum 's signature aircraft , appearing on Museum letterhead , and even appearing as the chief design feature for the Museum 's restaurant , the Valkyrie Cafe . In 2011 , the XB @-@ 70 was on display in the museum 's Research & Development Hangar alongside other experimental aircraft . After completion of the fourth hangar at the museum 's main campus , the XB @-@ 70 was moved there in late October 2015 .
= = Specifications ( XB @-@ 70A ) = =
Data from Pace , USAF XB @-@ 70 Fact sheet B @-@ 70 Aircraft Study
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Length : 189 ft 0 in ( 57 @.@ 6 m )
Wingspan : 105 ft 0 in ( 32 m )
Height : 30 ft 0 in ( 9 @.@ 1 m )
Wing area : 6 @,@ 297 ft2 ( 585 m2 )
Airfoil : Hexagonal ; 0 @.@ 30 Hex modified root , 0 @.@ 70 Hex modified tip
Empty weight : 253 @,@ 600 lb ( 115 @,@ 030 kg ; operating empty weight )
Loaded weight : 534 @,@ 700 lb ( 242 @,@ 500 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 542 @,@ 000 lb ( 246 @,@ 000 kg )
Powerplant : 6 × General Electric YJ93 @-@ GE @-@ 3 afterburning turbojet
Dry thrust : 19 @,@ 900 lbf ( 84 kN ) each
Thrust with afterburner : 28 @,@ 800 lbf ( 128 kN ) each
Internal fuel capacity : 300 @,@ 000 lb ( 136 @,@ 100 kg ) or 46 @,@ 745 US gallons ( 177 @,@ 000 L )
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 3 @.@ 1 ( 2 @,@ 056 mph , 3 @,@ 309 km / h )
Cruise speed : Mach 3 @.@ 0 ( 2 @,@ 000 mph , 3 @,@ 200 km / h )
Range : 3 @,@ 725 nmi ( 4 @,@ 288 mi , 6 @,@ 900 km ) on combat mission
Service ceiling : 77 @,@ 350 ft ( 23 @,@ 600 m )
Wing loading : 84 @.@ 93 lb / ft2 ( 414 @.@ 7 kg / m2 )
lift @-@ to @-@ drag : about 6 at Mach 2
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 314
= Eurovision Song Contest 's Greatest Hits =
Eurovision Song Contest 's Greatest Hits ( also known as Eurovision 's Greatest Hits ) was a live television concert programme organised by the European Broadcasting Union ( EBU ) and produced by the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) to commemorate the Eurovision Song Contest 's 60th anniversary . The concert took place on 31 March 2015 at the Eventim Apollo , in Hammersmith , London . Guy Freeman was the executive producer and Geoff Posner the director , both of whom held the same positions as the last time the BBC hosted the Eurovision Song Contest in 1998 . Simon Proctor was the senior producer and David Arch was the musical director for the concert . Tickets for the event went on sale at 10am on 6 February 2015 .
Graham Norton and Petra Mede hosted the event , which saw fifteen acts from thirteen countries performing their Eurovision entries from yesteryear . During the televised show , video montages for some of the Eurovision Song Contest archives were shown in @-@ between each live performance . The United Kingdom entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 was performed at the concert , but never broadcast on the televised show . Riverdance performed a reprise of their 1994 Eurovision Song Contest interval act as part of the anniversary celebrations .
Several countries confirmed that they would air the delayed broadcast of the concert on various dates that suited the broadcasters scheduling , including Australia , who competed in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 as a wildcard entry . The host broadcaster , BBC , and Raidió Teilifís Éireann ( RTÉ ) , simulcast the show on Good Friday , 3 April 2015 . The Dutch broadcaster , AVROTROS , were the first to announce their decision to not broadcast the event . Other countries also announced their decision to decline broadcasting the event , including Luxembourg , who had an act taking part in the event .
= = Location = =
Confirmation was revealed on 3 February 2015 that the concert event were to take place in the Eventim Apollo , in Hammersmith , London . The last time the United Kingdom capital held any Eurovision events was the Eurovision Dance Contest 2007 .
= = Organisation = =
It was announced on 22 October 2014 , that the EBU had agreed with the United Kingdom 's broadcaster , BBC , to produce a special anniversary show to celebrate sixty @-@ years of the Eurovision Song Contest , similar to the show Congratulations : 50 Years of the Eurovision Song Contest which took place in 2005 . The details regarding the title of the show were unknown at the time the announcement was made . >
The EBU later issued the following statement regarding the 60th anniversary : " There are various exciting proposals from member broadcasters on the table to celebrate the 60th anniversary beyond the contest in May , which are currently in the final stages of being evaluated . A decision is expected shortly , so stay tuned ! " . Edgar Böhm , executive producer of the 2015 Eurovision Song Contest said in an interview that the BBC had been chosen to host a special anniversary show . Guy Freeman was appointed as executive producer for the event , assisted by senior producer Simon Proctor , whilst the director was Geoff Posner .
Tickets for the anniversary concert went on sale from 10 : 15am ( GMT ) on Friday 6 February 2015 via the BBC 's Eurovision website and the official Eurovision Song Contest 's website .
On 3 February 2015 it was announced that Graham Norton and Petra Mede would co @-@ host the concert show . Norton , who co @-@ hosted the Eurovision Dance Contest with Claudia Winkleman in 2007 and 2008 , and is also the current Eurovision commentator for the United Kingdom . Mede was the host for Melodifestivalen 2009 ( Swedish national selection show ) , as well as host for the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 .
= = Programme = =
The concert was recorded live on 31 March 2015 , at the Eventim Apollo , London ; allowing participating broadcasters the freedom to air the programme on a date and channel that was convenient for their broadcasting schedules . Fifteen artists , representing thirteen countries , consisting of some of Eurovision 's greatest hits , took part in the sixtieth anniversary gala event . The first @-@ ever winner of the contest ( in 1956 ) , Lys Assia , appeared in the audience as a guest of honour . During the broadcast , video montages were shown prior to each entry , showing footage for that particular year 's contest , ending with Eurovision Song Contest footage for the entry that was about to perform on stage . Recap montages of Eurovision entries over the last sixty years , were also broadcast in @-@ between performances . These were as follows :
Electro Velvet performed their United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 entry , " Still in Love with You " . This performance did not appear on the televised show , but was exclusively done for the audience members of the concert hall itself .
= = = Interval act = = =
It was confirmed on 22 March 2015 that the interval act for Eurovision Song Contest 's Greatest Hits would be Riverdance . The theatrical show consisting mainly of traditional Irish music and dance , and featured Irish dancing champions Jean Butler and Michael Flatley , with a score composed by Limerick native Bill Whelan , originated as an interval performance during the Eurovision Song Contest 1994 .
= = = Performances = = =
Fifteen Eurovision acts from thirteen countries participated in the anniversary concert . Although there were originally fourteen acts confirmed by the BBC , it was later announced on 5 March 2015 that Norway 's Bobbysocks would join the line @-@ up increasing the total to fifteen . Video montages were shown prior to each entry , showing footage for that particular year 's contest , ending with Eurovision Song Contest footage for the entry that was about to perform on stage .
1 . ^ Entries performed as a medley .
2 . ^ Winning song of the Eurovision Song Contest 1968 , originally performed by Massiel .
3 . ^ One of the winning songs of the Eurovision Song Contest 1969 ( along with France , Netherlands , and United Kingdom ) , and originally performed by Salomé .
4 . ^ Originally performed by Mocedades , finishing in 2nd place at the Eurovision Song Contest 1973 .
5 . ^ Johnny Logan wrote the song " Why Me ? " , which won the Eurovision Song Contest 1992 , originally performed by Linda Martin .
= = = Reprise performance = = =
A medley of some of the Eurovision Song Contest 's greatest hits were performed in English by all of the participating artists , as a reprise act at the close of the show , including : Anne @-@ Marie David singing Israel 's winning entry of the Eurovision Song Contest 1979 , " Hallelujah " . Swedish trio , Herreys , sang " Nel blu dipinto di blu " , which finished in third place at the 1958 Eurovision for Italy 's Domenico Modugno . Bucks Fizz 's " Making Your Mind Up " , the winning entry for United Kingdom in 1981 , was performed by Bobbysocks . The reprise concluded with Concita Wurst and Dana International leading all of the remaining performers ( except Loreen ) back on stage to sing ABBA 's Eurovision Song Contest 1974 winning entry , " Waterloo " .
= = International broadcasting = =
As the anniversary concert show was not broadcast live , the participating national broadcasters were able to broadcast the show on a date and channel that was convenient for their broadcasting schedules . Some broadcasters – such as Austria and Sweden – recorded additional links and interviews for their viewers in London .
= = = Commentators = = =
The following countries , listed in order of broadcasting dates , had confirmed that they would broadcast the anniversary show .
= = = Broadcasting unknown = = =
The following list of countries , who are members of the EBU had not announced their plans on whether to broadcast the show .
= Broken World ( Millennium ) =
" ' Broken World " is the twentieth episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on May 2 , 1997 . The episode was written by Robert Moresco and Patrick Harbinson , and directed by Winrich Kolbe . " Broken World " featured guest appearances by Ingrid Kavelaars , Donnelly Rhodes and Jo Anderson .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) travels to North Dakota to track down a burgeoning serial killer who has progressed from mauling horses to attacking and killing people .
" Broken World " featured the last directorial effort for the series by Kolbe , and the last script written by Moresco ; however , Harbinson would return to write further episodes in later seasons . The episode has been compared to Peter Shaffer 's 1973 play Equus , and received a Genesis Award from the Humane Society of the United States in 1998 .
= = Plot = =
In Bowman , North Dakota , a stable @-@ hand named Sally Dumont ( Ingrid Kavelaars ) is attacked and left unconscious after she finds a horse has been murdered in its stall . Private investigation organization the Millennium Group send offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) to investigate , as twenty @-@ one horses have been killed in the same manner over the past two years in the area . Black believes the culprit is in the early stages of developing into a sexually motivated serial killer . Investigating the stables , the word " help " is found written in human blood , while semen is found near where the horse was killed . Black concludes the killer is struggling with the new feelings of having attacked a person and not an animal .
The killer — Willi Borgsen ( Van Quattro ) — is next seen attacking pigs in a trailer using a cattle prod . Borgsen is accosted by the pigs ' owner , and responds by turning the cattle prod on him . The victim 's body is later found in a nearby thicket . Black examines the scene , determining from the bootprints and evidence of the cattle prod being used that the killer works in a slaughterhouse .
Another human victim is later found on a farm , alongside another dead horse . The phrase " thank you " is daubed on a nearby wall . The North Dakota police set up an anonymous phone number to appeal for information , which Borgsen uses to taunt Black by describing the pleasure he derives from killing . Black consults with a veterinarian , Claudia Vaughan ( Jo Anderson ) , about the case , and learns that the area is home to a Premarin farm — estrogen for pharmaceutical use is derived from the urine of mares which are kept pregnant , their foals killed for meat to be exported . Black feels the killer may have been raised on one of these farms .
Borgsen contacts Black again , confessing that his latest killing has not satisfied him . Black warns that his urges will only grow , and will never be satisfied again . When Borgsen hangs up , Black deduces that Vaughan is to be the next victim . Black , fellow Group member Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) and Sheriff Falkner ( John Dennis Johnston ) track the kidnapped Vaughan to an equine slaughterhouse . Falkner is attacked and incapacitated by Borgsen as Black locates a still @-@ living Vaughan , who has been hung by her jacket from a meat hook . Black is then confronted by Borgsen , who knocks him down with the cattle prod . Borgsen is about to kill Black with a captive bolt pistol , but is trampled to death by several escaped horses .
= = Production = =
" Broken World " was written by Robert Moresco and Patrick Harbinson . Moresco had previously written " Covenant " earlier in the first season , and also acted as a producer during the series ' run . Harbinson , making his first contribution to the series with this episode , would later pen a further four episodes in the third season — " Via Dolorosa " , " Darwin 's Eye " , " The Sound of Snow " and " Through a Glass Darkly " . " Broken World " also marked the final episode of Millennium helmed by director Winrich Kolbe , who had previously worked on " Lamentation " , " Force Majeure " and " Kingdom Come " .
During production , " Broken World " was instead set to be titled " Equus " , which is Latin for " horse " and was also the title of a 1973 play by Peter Shaffer concerning a young man with violent sexual urges towards horses . The episode opens with a quote from Friedrich Nietzsche 's 1883 – 1885 treatise Thus Spoke Zarathustra — " Man is the cruelest animal " . Guest star Donnelly Rhodes , who portrayed Peter Dumont , would later make an appearance in the third season episode " ... Thirteen Years Later " in an unrelated role .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Broken World " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on May 2 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 8 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 8 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented 6 @.@ 6 million households , and left the episode the sixty @-@ eighth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a C , comparing it to the first act of Shaffer 's Equus . VanDerWerff described the episode as " a bland , boring mess that ends with one of the most ridiculous deux ex machinas [ sic ] I ’ ve seen in ages " , and felt that " the guest cast is uniformly poor " , singling out Van Quattro as being " laughably bad " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 3 out of 5 , calling it " enthralling " but " not completely successful " . Gibron felt that elements of the setting were " very sinister " , but found the " overwhelming pro @-@ horse mantras " of some characters to be " silly " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Broken World " three stars out of five , finding it " too familiar and too tentative to make much impact " . Shearman felt that the episode would have been better placed earlier in the series ' broadcast order , but by this stage in the first season it had been " outgrown " .
" Broken World " received a Genesis Award in 1998 , presented by the Humane Society of the United States in the category " Television Dramatic Series " .
= Battle of Jajau =
The Battle of Jajau was fought between the two Mughal princes and brothers Bahadur Shah I and Muhammad Azam Shah on 20 June 1707 . In 1707 , their father Aurangzeb died without having declared a successor ; instead leaving a will in which he instructed his sons to divide the kingdom between themselves . Their failure to reach a satisfactory agreement led to a military conflict . After Azam Shah and his three sons were killed in the Battle of Jajau , Bahadur Shah was crowned as the Mughal emperor on 19 June 1707 at the age of 63 .
= = Background and preparations = =
After a 49 @-@ year reign , the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb died in 1707 without officially declaring a crown prince . He left a will advising his sons to divide the empire between themselves .
At the time of Aurangzeb 's death , his eldest son , Bahadur Shah I , was stationed at Jamrud , 12 miles west of Peshawar . His second son , Muhammad Azam Shah , was stationed at Ahmednagar , east of Bombay . With the distance between Jamrud and Agra being 715 miles and the distance between Ahmednagar and Agra being 700 miles , whoever reached the capital city of Agra first would capture the Mughal throne .
Even before Aurangzeb died , Bahadur Shah I had made preparations for a battle for the Mughal throne . With the help of Munim Khan , the naib subahdar of Lahore , he gathered troops from local rulers in Beas and Satluj . He had built bridges and improved the roads between Lahore and Peshawar . He was also successful in persuading Rao Budh Singh ( the king of Bundi ) and Bijai Singh of Kachhwa to send their soldiers to him .
With his children , Khujista Akhtar and Rafi @-@ ush @-@ Shan , Bahadur Shah reached Lahore and declared himself the Mughal ruler on 3 May 1707 . After taking 28 lakh rupees , he left the city on 5 May 1707 . By 1 June , he reached Delhi . Reaching the city , he visited the Nizamuddin Dargah and the shrine of Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki . From the Red Fort , he took 30 lakh rupees , and on 3 June , he resumed his journey . By 12 June , he had reached Agra and camped in Poyah Ghat on the outskirts of the city . Baqi Khan Qul , commandant of the Agra Fort , surrendered the fort to Munim Khan , who subsequently sealed the treasury .
Bahadur Shah sent a letter to Azam Shah asking him to be content with Southern India , the part of India which had been willed to him by their father Aurangzeb . He also wrote that , if he was not happy with his part , then he was ready to give him the territories of Gujarat and Ajmer . He added that , if Azam Shah was not satisfied with this offer , he would have to use the " sword to decide " the monarch of the kingdom . In his reply , Azam wrote :
My share is from the floor to the roof of the house . Yours is from the roof to the firmament .
= = Conflict = =
Realising that a battle could not be avoided , Bahadur Shah I marched towards Agra , having decided to fight a battle at Dholpur ( 34 miles from the city ) . Under his command , prince Azim @-@ ush @-@ Shan was dispatched with 80 @,@ 000 horsemen , with 11 crore rupees that he had collected from Bengal , where he was the governor . He was ordered to capture the forts in Chambal ( one mile from Dholpur ) .
As soon as Azam Shah heard that Bahadur Shah I had started preparing for a march towards Agra , he left the fort of Gwalior in charge of the wazir , Asad Khan . He crossed the Chambal at the Kamthra crossing and made for Dholpur . He made his son , Bidar Bakht , the commander of the vanguard of the troops . Leading 25 @,@ 000 horsemen , he was accompanied by his brother , Mirza Wala @-@ Jah , and other Rajput chiefs . When they neared Dholpur , Azam Shah made Bakht the commander of a further 65 @,@ 000 horsemen and 40 @,@ 000 infantry . The army was divided into four branches commanded by Bidar Bakht , Azam Shah himself , and his sons Ali Tabar and Wala Jah . Though the army did not have " large cannons " and " mortars " , it possessed camel @-@ guns and elephant @-@ guns . Azam Shah was of the opinion that " an artillery fight was a stripling 's pastime and the only real weapon was the sword " .
On 17 June , Azam Shah and his battalion reached Mania near Dholpur . After this intelligence reached him , Bahadur Shah I reached Jajau and camped four miles from the city on 18 June . Taking advice from astrologers , he decided to strike on 20 June .
To collect water , on 20 June , Bidar Bakht and his men headed towards Jajau without knowing that Bahadur Shah was camped there . He came across a village where he found a flowing stream of water . To inform Azam Shah , he sent his messenger , Iradat Khan , to him with the message . When he returned , he informed Bidar Bakht that he had seen Bahadur Shah 's advance tents . Khan Alam Dakhvini and Munavvar Khan , who were in charge of the central wing of the troops , were dispatched to attack the tents . Azim @-@ ush @-@ Shan 's 500 elephants failed to mount a resistance against the invading forces . The attackers looted the tents and then set them on fire .
Unable to put up a strong fight , Azim @-@ ush @-@ Shan wrote to Bahadur Shah for reinforcements . He responded by sending Munim Khan , Jahandar Shah . Meanwhile , Zulfiqar Khan , who was in charge of the left wing of Azam Shah 's army , advised him to wait until the next day to start a full @-@ fledged battle . However , Shah paid no heed . Seeing 50 @,@ 000 horsemen approaching , Iradat Khan informed Azam Shah about their advance . In reply , he said that he was " coming to his son " .
Bidar Bakht found it difficult to mobilise all of his men to fight since they were " scattered to plunder camp " . The attacking force started raining arrows on them and discharging rockets at them . Khan Alam Dakhini charged Bahadur Shah 's army with three hundred soldiers . He threw a spear towards Azim @-@ ush @-@ Shan seated in the howdah of the elephant . It missed him and instead hit his attendant , Jalal Khan . Dakhini was killed by an arrow as he attempted to jump on the prince 's howdah . Jalal Khan boarded a separate elephant , and after he inflicted an injury on Munavvar Khan , Munavvar Khan 's soldiers fled . This exposed the wing of Prince Wala @-@ Jah . Seeing this , Amanullah Khan , who was in charge of a separate wing , hastened to render assistance . But his elephant was set on fire , and his troops fled , thinking that their leader was dead . This made Wala @-@ Jah retreat from the battle .
After this confrontation , Bahadur Shah 's Rajput chiefs attacked Zulfiqar Khan . Though Khan 's army was successful in repelling them , he was wounded in the leg . As Azim @-@ ush @-@ Shan 's entire army charged Khan , he fled the battle . Khan was followed by Jai Singh Kchwa , who fled from Bidar Bakht 's left wing . Even after the death of most of his commanders and soldiers and his two sons , Bidar Bakht and Ali Tabar , Azam Shah himself charged the enemy on his elephant . Court historian Kamraj , in Ibratnama , wrote that he was wounded " several times by arrows , but he paid no heed to the wounds " . He was ultimately killed by a musket ball which struck him on his forehead .
As soon as Bahadur Shah came to know about his brother 's death , he sent men to retrieve the corpse . They were attacked by Wala @-@ Jah , but Wala @-@ Jah fainted and died . Around 8 o 'clock in the evening , Bahadur Shah 's aide , Rustam Dil Khan , mounted the dead prince 's elephant , beheaded the prince , and made his way to Bahadur Shah . However , instead of praises , he received reproaches for his action . His elephant was followed by two other elephants ; the first one contained the dead body of Ali Tabar , the other one carried the dead princes ' women , who were assured protection by Bahadur Shah .
= = Aftermath = =
The Ibratnama estimates that 12 @,@ 000 horsemen of Azam Shah lay dead on the battlefield . It further estimates that at least 10 @,@ 000 infantry soldiers from both sides were dead . Khan Zaman and Khan Alam Dakhini 's bodies were sent to Gwalior for burial . Ram Singh Hada and Rao Dalpat Bundela 's bodies were sent to Nurabad for cremation . Azam Shah and his three dead sons were buried at Humayun 's Tomb in Delhi .
= Green Wing =
Green Wing is an award @-@ winning British sitcom set in the fictional East Hampton Hospital . It was created by the same team behind the sketch show Smack the Pony , led by Victoria Pile , and stars Tamsin Greig , Stephen Mangan and Julian Rhind @-@ Tutt .
Although set in a hospital , it uses no medical storylines ; the action is produced by a series of soap opera @-@ style twists and turns in the personal lives of the characters . They proceed through a series of often absurd sketch @-@ like scenes , or by sequences where the film is slowed down or sped up , often emphasizing the body language of the characters . The show had eight writers . Two series were made by the Talkback Thames production company for Channel 4 .
The series ran between 3 September 2004 and 19 May 2006 . An episode was filmed with the second series , which was shown as a 90 minute long special on 4 January 2007 in the UK , but was shown in Australia and Belgium on 29 December 2006 .
Separate from the series , a sketch was made for Comic Relief and screened on 11 March 2005 . Another was performed live at The Secret Policeman 's Ball on 14 October 2006 .
= = Synopsis = =
Green Wing 's plot revolves around the lives of the staff of the East Hampton Hospital Trust , a fictional NHS hospital with staff ranging from the slightly unusual to the completely surreal .
The series begins with a new arrival , surgical registrar Caroline Todd ( Tamsin Greig ) . Caroline suffers from constant embarrassment and bad luck , stumbling from one crisis to the next due to a mixture of her own neurosis , impulsiveness , and general misfortune . Caroline works alongside two other doctors : Guy Secretan ( Stephen Mangan ) , an arrogant , half @-@ Swiss , womanizing anaesthetist , and " Mac " Macartney ( Julian Rhind @-@ Tutt ) , a suave , desirably fashionable surgeon . It is not long before Caroline begins to develop feelings for both of them , though she is unsure as to which of the two she truly loves . Throughout the series , it becomes clear that Mac is her true love , but a range of misadventures prevent their relationship from flourishing . Other people Caroline meets include Martin Dear ( Karl Theobald ) , a friendly house officer who is constantly failing his exams . He is unloved by his mother and is often bullied by Guy . Martin soon develops feelings for Caroline , and begins to fall in love with her . There is also Angela Hunter ( Sarah Alexander ) , a seemingly @-@ perfect , but irritating , senior registrar in paediatrics . Whilst Angela appears to mean well , Caroline cannot stand her and despite her best efforts to avoid Angela , she ends up as Caroline 's lodger .
Caroline 's main rival for Mac 's affections is Sue White ( Michelle Gomez ) , the Scottish staff liaison officer employed to listen and respond to the problems of East Hampton 's staff . However , Sue is perhaps the least suited person for the job ; she is mean @-@ spirited , insensitive , unsympathetic , controlling and vain . Her office is a place where the impossible tends to happen , and anyone who enters is normally treated with a mixture of verbal abuse and psychological torture , so she can get back to doing nothing , or thinking about how to upset the next visitor . The only person she treats with any affection is Mac , whom she loves to the point of madness , but Mac , like almost everyone else , tries his best to avoid her . Anyone who attempts to get involved with Mac is treated with contempt and hatred by Sue , in particular Caroline , whom Sue attempts several times to murder .
Perhaps the most eccentric member of staff is Alan Statham ( Mark Heap ) , an overbearing , stuttering and eccentric consultant radiologist , whose everyday actions regularly border on insanity . He is desperately and hopelessly in love with Joanna Clore ( Pippa Haywood ) , the 48 @-@ year @-@ old head of human resources with an increasingly sardonic attitude . Their relationship is an open secret , with student doctor Boyce ( Oliver Chris ) , often using it as a weapon against them , bullying Alan constantly . Joanna 's human resources staff also use it against her , in particular Kim Alabaster ( Sally Bretton ) , who has a bad attitude towards most of the people she meets , and Naughty Rachel ( Katie Lyons ) , who earned her nickname due to her love of sex . The other HR staff include Harriet Schulenburg ( Olivia Colman ) , an overworked mother of four trapped in an unhappy marriage , and Karen Ball ( Lucinda Raikes ) , who divides her time between doing much of the office 's work , trying to attract Martin 's affections , and being bullied by Kim and Rachel .
= = Creation = =
= = = Writers and crew = = =
Green Wing was devised , created and produced by Victoria Pile . She was also the casting director , one of the writers and was involved in the editing , filming and post @-@ production . She described Green Wing as " a sketch @-@ meets @-@ comedy @-@ drama @-@ meets @-@ soap " , and a continuation of her previous show , Smack the Pony , where Green Wing 's crew also worked . Unusually for a British sitcom , which normally have only one or two writers , the show had eight writers : Pile , her husband Robert Harley , Gary Howe , Stuart Kenworthy , Oriane Messina , Richard Preddy , Fay Rusling and James Henry .
Pile and her co @-@ writers initially used battery packs to represent characters , moving them around on her desk to develop scenarios for the show . The decision to make the characters doctors came later . Pile recalls that she mentioned to Peter Fincham that a hospital setting would work well and that he subsequently reported that Channel 4 were enthusiastic about a hospital location , which settled the matter . Even later still , a plot was developed and wall charts were used to mark up story arcs .
The show was directed and edited ( along with Pile ) by Tristram Shapeero and Dominic Brigstocke . Sketches were sped up or slowed down to create comic effect , often using body language to create humour . Editing was also used due to the amount of corpsing that occurred during the filming of the show . Tamsin Greig was said to corpse frequently , and episodes were written to minimize the contact between the characters of Caroline Todd and Alan Statham because Greig found it difficult not to laugh when acting alongside Mark Heap . The music , which plays prominently in the show , was written by Jonathan Whitehead ( under the name " Trellis " ) and won him an RTS Craft & Design Award .
= = = Production = = =
Following her success with Smack the Pony , Channel 4 gave Pile a fairly free hand with her next project . Their only requirement was that it should have enough of a narrative thread to make it more of a sitcom than a sketch show .
The show had a half @-@ hour pilot made in 2002 that was never aired . Scenes from the pilot were used in the first episode , " Caroline 's First Day " , and can be spotted due to the characters ' appearance , most notably Rhind @-@ Tutt 's haircut . The pilot allowed the writers to experiment , such as using different filming techniques . In the pilot , Doon Mackichan played Joanna Clore and was meant to play her in the original series , but left when she became pregnant .
Although each script is fully written , the actors are allowed to improvise their own jokes , frequently adding to what has already been written . Normally workshops are used to allow actors to improvise their own material . One example of improvised material was Stephen Mangan 's idea of Guy falling in love with Caroline . Rusling , Howe , Messina and Harley all have had speaking parts in the show , most notably Harley playing Charles Robertson , the hospital 's CEO . The show 's crew also make appearances in the show as extras . For example , Pile 's former assistant Phil Secretan ( whom Guy is named after ) appears at the end of a scene in the first episode . Henry appears in the background during Martin 's exam in the episode , " Tests " .
The filming was done at two hospitals , the Northwick Park Hospital in Middlesex and the North Hampshire Hospital in Basingstoke . This presented a problem because the show had to work around the real @-@ life hospital , with its actual doctors , patients and emergency situations . In one scene in the final episode in series one , Guy ( Mangan ) was hitting squash balls behind him , and nearly hit a patient . However , some scenes , such as those in Sue 's and Alan 's offices , were filmed in a studio .
Green Wing 's title is said to have come from a small plastic green man with wings that was in executive producer Peter Fincham 's top pocket , and fell on Pile 's desk . Fincham claimed it was not his , so Pile kept it . This plastic man appears at the end of the credits on every show .
= = = Unused storylines = = =
Green Wing had some plot lines that were never used . Unused storylines included Alan having an eighty @-@ year @-@ old wife and step @-@ grandchildren as old as him , and Guy suffering from impotence . Pile originally wanted the show to cover the entire hospital , not just doctors , but also porters , car park attendants and kitchen staff . However , she eventually decided that they had enough material with the eight main doctors and human resources workers .
Two endings were created for the special . The alternative ending is included on the DVD release of Green Wing , along with deleted scenes from the episode . The alternative ending was planned to be used if a third series was going to be commissioned , as this ending was much more ambiguous . It is known that the actors wanted the alternative ending , but after some debate , it was not shown .
= = Series summaries = =
= = = Series 1 = = =
Caroline arrives at East Hampton for her first day of work , where she begins work with Guy and Mac . She soon develops feelings for both of them , first believing that she loves Guy , but then – after a day out with him – realising that it is Mac she truly loves . At the same time , Martin begins to fall in love with her , and Angela becomes Caroline 's lodger . Elsewhere in the hospital , Alan and Joanna try to hide their relationship from the rest of the staff , unsuccessfully . Then Joanna becomes attracted to Lyndon Jones ( Paterson Joseph ) , the hospital 's head of I.T. , with Alan becoming jealous of Lyndon .
Sue becomes jealous of Caroline as she starts to fall for Mac , and does her best to try to stop her , even to the point of attempted murder . However , Caroline is having problems in the form of Mac 's current girlfriend , Emily . Martin is having problems with his exams , as well as avoiding letting anyone know that Joanna is his mother . Boyce is busy mocking Alan and having a relationship with Kim . With Alan and Joanna 's relationship falling apart , Alan becomes a Christian , but this is mainly due to the attractive chaplain . Lyndon soon tells Joanna that he finds her disturbing , and Joanna then puts an end to Alan 's new @-@ found Christian beliefs .
Mac decides to move to Sheffield to get a better job , taking Emily with him . Before he leaves , Mac bets Guy that he cannot sleep with Joanna . Guy accepts the bet and takes her home . However , Martin has discovered some shocking news and tries his best to stop them having sex , but is distracted by Karen 's affections . Caroline does her best to break up the relationship between Mac and Emily , but it is Emily who breaks up with Mac . Caroline accused Emily of being a fake but was proved wrong . Mac found this amusing and so Emily dumps him . Mac then tells Caroline that he felt three things when she had accused his then girlfriend : he was impressed and amused , but instead of saying the third thing he kisses her .
After Guy and Joanna have sex , Martin arrives to tell them that Joanna is Guy 's mother . She met Guy 's father whilst she was an exchange student in Switzerland . Guy then stabs a syringe full of Botox into Martin 's legs as an act of revenge . Martin is taken into an ambulance , and Caroline helps Joanna , but Guy punches Mac in a drunken rage and steals the ambulance . Mac tries to stop him and gets on the ambulance , which drives away . Guy drives the ambulance to Wales , with Mac and the paralysed Martin with him . Whilst Mac tries to phone the police , Guy drives into a field and almost goes over a cliff . The first series ends with Guy , Mac and Martin teetering on the edge – a literal cliffhanger – while ending up in a discussion about which of The Three Musketeers they are most like .
= = = Comic Relief sketch ( 2005 ) = = =
Mac fends off Sue 's advances by saying he will only allow her to touch his arse if she can raise £ 10 @,@ 000 for Comic Relief . Sue then proceeds to try to ask Martin , Joanna , Guy and Alan for the money , which she eventually manages to raise , though Mac runs off before she can get hold of him .
= = = Series 2 = = =
Eight weeks after the incident with the ambulance , Mac is in a coma and Guy has been suspended from his job . Caroline is spending too much time with Mac , in Sue 's opinion , and tries to stop her from seeing him . During his coma , Sue steals some of Mac 's semen to make herself pregnant . Mac then comes out of his coma , but is suffering from memory loss and cannot remember his new @-@ found love for Caroline . Angela soon leaves the hospital in order to take a career in television . With Angela gone , Guy becomes Caroline 's new lodger .
Alan and Joanna are still having problems , though Martin and Karen seem to be getting along well . Martin then decides to leave Karen , and Joanna then tries to pull Lyndon again . However , Lyndon avoids this by saying he is dating Harriet . After a date , Harriet feels uncomfortable with the relationship and leaves him , but soon her husband Ian dumps her for having the affair .
Just when Caroline thinks she has managed to win Mac back , his former girlfriend Holly ( Sally Phillips ) returns to the hospital , to replace Angela . Things become even worse when it is discovered that she never had the abortion that was the cause of Mac and Holly 's breakup years ago , and that Mac has a son . Caroline distances herself from Mac , and Guy starts to fall in love with her . Caroline however seems to have feelings for Jake Leaf ( Darren Boyd ) , a complementary therapist . Guy takes actions into his own hands and throws a Swiss army knife into Jake 's head . Sue then discovers that Holly is lying , that Mac is not her son 's father after all . Holly leaves the hospital . Caroline dumps Jake and then tries to impress Mac again .
When Alan becomes unusually happy after winning an internet caption competition , Joanna plans to make him upset again . Using her dwarf cousin ( Big Mick ) , she plans to scare him . The plan backfires when Alan is so scared , he beats Joanna 's cousin to death with a stuffed heron . Alan and Joanna throw the body into the incinerator , but become paranoid that they will be discovered . Alan however learns from Boyce that the death is being viewed as a suicide , so Alan and Joanna go on a rampage , thinking themselves above the law .
After the death of a patient known as " Yo @-@ yo Man " who offers them wise advice , Guy , Mac and Martin all decide to propose to Caroline . She rejects Martin , considers the offer from Guy , and Mac appears to be unable to form a proposal . Caroline then learns that Mac wants to meet her at the train station , but when she arrives , it is Guy who turns up . Mac is still at the hospital , where he learns that he is going to die . Caroline then accepts Guy 's proposal of marriage . Meanwhile , in the HR department , Karen is sitting on a windowsill , due to her fear of Clangers . Whilst sitting there , Rachel opens the window behind her , and causes Karen to fall out . However , no one seems to notice .
The police arrive at the hospital . Alan and Joanna believe that they will be arrested , and with Boyce 's help escape from the hospital . Alan and Joanna then escape in a camper van , with Alan becoming increasingly unstable . When it is discovered that Martin is riding in the back , Alan then drives into a field , and nearly drives the camper van over the same cliff that Martin was teetering over at the end of the first series .
= = = Secret Policeman 's Ball sketch ( 2006 ) = = =
A sketch was performed for Amnesty International 's Secret Policeman 's Ball , with performances from Tamsin Greig , Stephen Mangan , Julian Rhind @-@ Tutt and Michelle Gomez . Mangan and Rhind @-@ Tutt appeared in two sketches .
When the announcer at the ball asks if there is a doctor in the house , Mac puts his hand up , to Caroline 's embarrassment . Things get more embarrassing when Guy also volunteers , and asks why Caroline is sitting next to Mac when she is Guy 's fiancée . A unconscious patient lies on an operating table . Guy touches her breasts , takes pictures of her naked body under the blanket , and kisses her . Caroline alleges that the patient is transgender , which repels Guy . Sue White then appears in a tutu , claiming that the patient is stalking Mac , and repeating the assertion that the patient is transgender .
= = = Special = = =
The episode begins with the funeral of Angela , who departed the show during the second series , after being killed by a moose , at least according to Guy . Mac , after a month 's leave , discovers what has happened between Caroline and Guy , and although hurt , makes no attempt to interfere . Guy , on learning of Mac 's terminal illness , tells Caroline to marry Mac instead of him .
Meanwhile , Alan and Joanna are still on the run , rescued by Martin who calls the AA . Whilst on their journey , they accidentally kill three more people , a mechanic , a shop assistant and a policeman . Soon , they decide that , with no transport , money or employment , the only option is suicide . They are last seen , naked , walking hand @-@ in @-@ hand towards the sea . Meanwhile , Karen returns to work after her fall , but has changed drastically . She has become more confident and has developed better dress sense . Boyce ends up missing Alan , after his replacement turns out to be even more horrible . With Joanna gone , the office girls start to run riot , as in The Lord of the Flies . They form their own tribe and become hostile to anyone who enters the department .
Mac and Caroline finally marry , despite Mac 's terminal illness ( the exact nature of which is never disclosed , although Mac does tell Guy that its name has an " a " and an " e " in it ) . Sue gets over her obsession with Mac and finds love with a new man , who reciprocates her feelings . The episode concludes with Caroline being carried into the air by a mass of helium filled balloons at the wedding reception , although on the DVD boxset extras it shows an alternate ending where Guy and Mac grab onto Caroline 's ankles and are taken to the sky with her ; this alternative ending ends with Mac saying , " Caroline , there 's something I 've been meaning to tell you . "
= = Signature jokes = =
Green Wing contains running jokes . These include Guyball , a sport invented by Guy when he was at public school , with somewhat confusing rules . The basic object of the game is to throw a ball into a " Topmiler " , a basket attached to a helmet . This game was even played at the Wingin ' It Green Wing Convention .
Another signature joke is the frequent visits by main characters to Sue White 's office , in which these characters expect Sue to act as some kind of psychiatric cousellor to them , only to be thwarted by Sue 's ever more peculiar behaviour .
Also , Guy often says things that are inappropriate and sexually inappropriate and after noticing the reaction from the person to whom he is speaking , follows his comment with " ... let me finish " and a clarification . After trying to teach Martin this method in the very first episode , Guy also regularly attempts to pick up women throughout the two series by talking on his phone and saying " I 'll see you in Zurich " , in an attempt to sound " jet @-@ setty " .
Another Green Wing series of running jokes is about hair . One of the more notable was various cracks about Mac 's untidy hair , with Sue lending him a hair tie and hair clips before he goes in for an interview . Another was the character Karen getting her hair trapped in a printer in the first episode . Mac was often referred to as a Ginger by the other characters . Guy 's hair becomes gradually curlier as the series goes on and Rachel dyes her hair from blonde to brunette after the first series . Other recurring jokes include Boyce 's practical jokes , the bizarre games played by the human resources staff and surgery scenes where Caroline , Guy and Mac mess around while performing operations .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main characters = = =
Sarah Alexander - Angela Hunter
Sally Bretton - Kim Alabaster
Oliver Chris - Boyce
Olivia Colman - Harriet Schulenburg
Tamsin Greig - Caroline Todd
Michelle Gomez - Sue White
Pippa Haywood - Joanna Clore
Mark Heap - Alan Statham
Katie Lyons - Naughty Rachel
Stephen Mangan - Guy Secretan
Lucinda Raikes - Karen Ball
Julian Rhind @-@ Tutt - " Mac " Macartney
Karl Theobald - Martin Dear
= = = Recurring characters = = =
Darren Boyd - Jake Leaf
Keir Charles - Oliver
Daisy Haggard - Emmy
Paterson Joseph - Lyndon Jones
Sally Phillips - Holly Hawkes
= = Critical reaction = =
The show has received generally very positive reviews . The Evening Standard said that it was " a comedy as physically adroit as it was verbally sharp " , and The Guardian said that " Channel 4 ’ s hospital sitcom is the most innovative comedy since , well , The Office . " In a review of television in 2006 , Kathryn Flett in The Observer voted it one of the top ten TV programmes of the year . In Broadcast magazine , the second series was voted joint @-@ second best comedy series in 2006 . In South Africa , where Green Wing is broadcast on BBC Prime , The Sunday Times of South Africa voted the show the best DStv programme of 2007 . Composer Daniel Pemberton wrote that the soundtrack to Green Wing was , " One of the most innovative TV soundtracks in recent years . " Famous fans of Green Wing include novelist Ian Rankin and comedian Catherine Tate .
Criticisms of Green Wing include the lazzi methods of filming and the overall length of the episodes , claiming that hour @-@ long episodes are too long . The show won the 2005 and 2006 Comedy Tumbleweed Awards for " Worst Camerawork " . Some were also critical of what was seen as a decline in quality when the second series began . Cathy Pryor in The Independent on Sunday said that , " Sadly , though , since I 'm something of a fan , I have to report that the first episode of the second series is , disappointingly , rather flat . To be fair , there were a couple of laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments - Dr Statham banging his head and falling down being one of them - but the whole [ thing ] didn 't quite gel . Or should that be coagulate ? I 'll stop making bad jokes now since I 'm still not as funny as anyone in the show . But I sincerely hope that the opener is a one- off and not a sign that Green Wing is going down the pan . "
Similar comments were made by A. A. Gill . When the first series was broadcast , he praised the cast and characters , but commented negatively on the filming style and dramatic qualities . He also said :
" ... it was one of the most freshly funny and crisply innovative comedies for years . The humour was all based in the character , not the situation . The story lines were negligible ; there were no catch phrases ; it was surreal in a way we hadn ’ t seen since Monty Python ; and the cast were actors being funny from inside a characterization , not stand @-@ up comics bolting a cartoon persona onto the back of gags . "
Subsequently , Gill attacked the first episode of series two , in particular the use of a dream sequence at the beginning of the episode . He wrote ,
" Now , every 11 @-@ year @-@ old knows dream sequences are the lowest form of plotting solution , lower than unexplained superpowers such as the ability to stop time or become invisible ; even lower than a magic get @-@ better potion . Within two minutes , Green Wing had destroyed itself , lost its assured grip on the cliff of comedy and tumbled into the abyss of embarrassing overacting , formless gurning and pointless repetition . What had once looked Dada @-@ ishly brilliant now looked like stoned improv from a show @-@ off 's drama school . The lack of plot and coherent narrative that previously had been a blessed freedom was revealed to be a formless free @-@ for @-@ all , brilliant performances as silly mannerisms . Nothing I 've seen this year has disappointed me as sharply as the second series of Green Wing . As Tom Paine so poignantly pointed out , only a step separates the sublime from the ridiculous . "
The rest of the series received some praise and , in a 2009 article , Gill - writing about the current comedy output at the time - said : " Show me a funny indigenous comedy series ; show me one that has been made in the past five years , other than Green Wing . "
= = Media = =
= = = DVDs = = =
= = = Books = = =
The first series scripts were released as Green Wing : The Complete First Series Scripts in paperback on 22 October 2006 ( ISBN 1 @-@ 84576 @-@ 421 @-@ 8 ) , by Titan Books . The book contains bonus material made exclusively for the book and previously unseen photos .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack , entitled Green Wing : Original Television Soundtrack by Trellis was released by Silva Screen on 8 October 2007 . It contains 23 tracks of the best of Jonathan Whitehead 's Original Music created for the show .
= = = Online viewing = = =
On 7 May 2009 , the first series became available on Hulu . Both series are now available on Hulu and Hulu Plus . It is also available ( both complete series ) on Channel 4 on Demand and on the LoveFilm instant streaming service run by Amazon in the United Kingdom .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Green Wing won the first BAFTA Pioneer Audience Award in 2005 . This is the only BAFTA award that is voted on by the general public . Pippa Haywood won the 2005 Rose d 'Or for " Best Female Comedy Performance " . Tamsin Greig won an award at the RTS Awards in 2005 for " Best Comedy Performance " . Jonathan Whitehead won " Best Original Score " at the RTS Craft & Design Awards 2005 .
Green Wing has also won a number of times in The Comedy.co.uk Awards , including the " Comedy Of The Year " award in 2006 .
= = Possible spin @-@ off = =
The cast , crew and writers of Green Wing have shown no interest in creating a third series because of scheduling difficulties due to new projects being undertaken by the creators and talkbackTHAMES not having a big enough budget . However , creator Victoria Pile mentioned in an interview in the Radio Times that she may do a spin @-@ off , saying , " I 'm hoping to do another Channel 4 comedy imminently , possibly starring some of the same cast . Hopefully , it will be some kind of spin @-@ off from Green Wing . "
In 2009 , Pile and most of the writing team behind Green Wing created a sitcom pilot set in a university entitled Campus , which features similar concepts to Green Wing , including improvisation . The motto of the university is " with wings " , a reference to the show . The pilot was broadcast as part of Channel 4 's Comedy Showcase . A full series began in 2011 , but was cancelled after one series .
= = Impact = =
A cocktail called the Green Wing was served at the 2005 BAFTAs . It is made using vodka , cloudy apple juice , elderflower cordial and sparkling mineral water .
A Green Wing convention called " Wingin ' It " was organised to raise money for Great Ormond Street Hospital , and took place on 13 January 2007 at the Brook Green Hotel , Hammersmith . A DVD of the convention is to be released .
There was a special appearance by Green Wing cast at the British Film Institute , on 17 January 2007 . Pile , Greig , Mangan and Rhind @-@ Tutt appeared . Some of the other writers , as well as Theobald and Heap , were in the audience . The event was hosted by John Lloyd . Green Wing appeared in an episode of the BBC documentary series Imagine , entitled A Funny Thing Happened On The Way To The Studio . Some of the funeral scenes from the special were shown , and the presenter of the show , Alan Yentob , appeared as one of the mourners .
= No. 457 Squadron RAAF =
No. 457 Squadron was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) fighter squadron of World War II . Equipped with Supermarine Spitfire fighters , it was formed in England during June 1941 under Article XV of the Empire Air Training Scheme . The squadron was transferred to Australia in June 1942 and saw combat in the South West Pacific Area before being disbanded in November 1945 .
The squadron saw combat against both Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan during the war . From March to May 1942 it was based in southern England and flew missions over German @-@ occupied France during which it shot down at least five Luftwaffe aircraft . After being deployed to Australia , No. 457 Squadron was based near Darwin as part of No. 1 Wing RAAF and intercepted several Japanese raids on Allied bases in northern Australia between March and November 1943 . The squadron remained at Darwin and saw almost no combat during 1944 , but moved to Morotai and later Labuan in 1945 from where it attacked Japanese positions in the Netherlands East Indies and Borneo as part of Allied offensives in these areas .
= = History = =
= = = Britain = = =
No. 457 Squadron was formed at RAF Baginton in England on 16 June 1941 . It was equipped with Supermarine Spitfires and was the second RAAF fighter unit to be formed in England after No. 452 Squadron . The establishment of both these squadrons formed part of an expansion of RAF Fighter Command which sought to improve its ability to defend Britain from a renewed German air offensive and to conduct offensive operations over occupied Europe . At the time of its formation the squadron 's commanding officer , Squadron Leader Peter Malam Brothers , both flight commanders and all members of the ground crew were British , but most pilots were Australian . The squadron 's ground crew component had been formed at RAAF Station Williamtown in Australia on 10 June , and departed for England on 7 August . On the same day No. 457 Squadron moved to RAF Jurby and thence to RAF Andreas , which were both situated on the Isle of Man to undertake training . While at the Isle of Man the squadron trained both its own pilots and pilots from other squadrons for operational duties , and for a time functioned as an operational training unit at RAF Andreas . It also escorted Allied convoys in the Irish Sea , but did not make contact with German aircraft . By October all the British pilots other than Brothers and the flight commanders had been replaced by Australians . The squadron 's ground crew arrived in Britain during October and November , making it an almost entirely Australian unit .
In March 1942 the squadron moved to RAF Redhill , Surrey where it assumed No. 452 Squadron 's front line duties as part of No. 11 Group RAF . These included shipping protection patrols , escorting bombers , conducting fighter sweeps over northern France and contributing to the air defence of southern England . Fighter Command had received authorisation to launch a full @-@ scale offensive campaign against German air units shortly before No. 457 Squadron arrived at Redhill , and it became part of this effort . The squadron first saw action on 26 March when Brothers shot down a Bf 109 during a multi @-@ squadron fighter sweep over France , though one of its Spitfires was lost in this action . By the end of its first week of operations No. 457 Squadron had shot down three German aircraft and inflicted damage on several others and it went on to conduct 32 operations over German territory by 26 April . These operations often encountered fierce opposition , and German Fw 190 fighters proved superior to the Spitfire Mark Vs that No. 457 Squadron was equipped with . The squadron scored its last victory over Europe on 29 April , though fighter sweeps over France continued until almost the end of May .
On 28 May 1942 British Prime Minister Winston Churchill agreed to an Australian Government request to dispatch three fully equipped Spitfire squadrons to Australia to reinforce the RAAF . The squadrons selected were the Australian No. 452 and No. 457 Squadrons as well as the British No. 54 Squadron RAF . Accordingly , No. 457 Squadron was withdrawn from operations on 28 May to prepare to be redeployed to Australia . By this time its pilots had been credited with five confirmed " kills " and another four " probables " and damaging seven aircraft . On 20 June the squadron left England on board the MV Stirling Castle , which was also carrying the men of No. 452 and No. 54 Squadrons .
= = = Darwin = = =
The Stirling Castle arrived at Melbourne on 13 August . After being given 14 days leave the squadron 's personnel reassembled at Richmond , New South Wales on 6 September . On 7 October it became part of No. 1 Wing RAAF along with No. 54 and No. 452 Squadrons . Most of the Spitfires intended for the wing had been diverted to the Middle East during the voyage to Australia , however , and the squadron initially only had CAC Wirraway and Ryan ST aircraft for training purposes . No. 457 Squadron was fully equipped with Spitfires by November and moved to Camden on the 7th of the month where it continued an intensive training program . In December the squadron was informed that it would be deployed to Darwin in the Northern Territory to counter the Japanese air raids against the town . The squadron 's advance party departed on 31 December , and the main body followed by sea on 12 January 1943 . No. 457 Squadron commenced air operations from Batchelor Airfield on 20 January and moved to Livingstone Airfield on the last day of the month .
No. 457 Squadron first saw combat against the Japanese in March 1943 . Although the squadron was scrambled a number of times in February , it did not claim its first " kill " until 7 March when two Spitfires shot down a Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 46 " Dinah " reconnaissance aircraft near Darwin . On 15 March No. 1 Wing 's three squadrons intercepted a large raid on Darwin , and No. 457 Squadron shot down two A6M Zeros and damaged another of the fighters . The squadron was also credited with damaging a Mitsubishi G4M " Betty " bomber and claimed another three Zeros as " probables " . No further Japanese aircraft were encountered over northern Australia until May . During this period No. 457 Squadron practiced tactics and cooperation with RAAF and Australian Army units . Flying was normally limited to just one hour each day , however .
On 2 May No. 1 Wing responded to a major Japanese raid on Darwin . In the resulting air battle No. 457 Squadron shot down one fighter and claimed another two " probables " , but lost two Spitfires . Overall , the RAAF suffered 14 Spitfires destroyed or damaged while claiming only six " kills " , and the operation was not considered a success . Seven days later No. 457 Squadron deployed a detachment of six Spitfires to Milingimbi Island after the island 's airfield was attacked . This detachment intercepted Japanese raids on 10 and 28 May , shooting down two Zeros and two Bettys for the loss of three Spitfires . The squadron also continued to take part in operations over the Darwin region , seeing combat on a number of occasions . During the last major battle near the town on 6 July No. 457 Squadron shot down a Zero and damaged five Bettys , but lost three Spitfires .
Japanese air activity over northern Australia dropped away after 6 July , and No. 457 Squadron saw little further combat . As a result , the squadron 's personnel suffered greatly from boredom . No. 457 Squadron scored its next " kills " on 17 August , when its aircraft shot down three of the four Dinahs sent over Darwin that day ; the fourth was destroyed by No. 1 Wing 's acting commander , Wing Commander Clive Caldwell . The squadron shot down another two Dinahs on 20 August . On 7 September No. 1 Wing intercepted a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft escorted by 20 fighters . In the ensuing battle No. 457 Squadron shot down four Zeros without loss . On 4 November No. 457 Squadron deployed six Spitfires to Drysdale River Mission Airfield , and two days later they intercepted and damaged a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft . The squadron maintained a detachment at Drysdale River Mission until December , when No. 54 Squadron assumed this duty . During the early hours of 12 November three No. 457 Squadron Spitfires were part of a force which intercepted a raid on Darwin . No. 457 Squadron pilot Flying Officer John Smithson made the only interception and destroyed two Betty bombers .
The attack on 12 November was the final Japanese raid on the Darwin area . As a result , No. 1 Wing 's flying squadrons had little to do and the pilots became bored . No. 457 Squadron conducted little operational flying until 8 March 1944 , when it and No. 452 Squadron were ordered to Perth , Western Australia in response to fears that a Japanese naval force would raid the area . The squadrons departed Darwin on 9 March and arrived at RAAF Station Guildford ( modern Perth Airport ) three days later after flying through very difficult weather conditions . No attack eventuated , however , and the squadron returned to Livingstone Airfield between 23 and 28 March . The squadron next saw action on 18 April when two of its Spitfires took part in an attack on a Japanese radar station in the Babar Islands . In May 1944 , No. 1 Wing 's headquarters and No. 57 and 457 Squadrons were deployed to Exmouth Gulf , Western Australia to protect the facilities which had been established to refuel the British Eastern Fleet before Operation Transom , during which the fleet attacked Surabaya , Java . No. 457 Squadron departed for Exmouth Gulf on 10 May and returned to its new base at Sattler Airfield on the 24th of the month . The squadron again provided a detachment at Drysdale River Mission from 1 June 1944 and began to be reequipped with Mark VIII Spitfires on 2 July .
= = = Morotai and Labuan = = =
On 1 July 1944 No. 452 and No. 457 Squadrons were transferred to the newly formed No. 80 Wing RAAF . This wing had been established to support a planned offensive from Darwin into the Netherlands East Indies . The offensive was cancelled in June , but this was not communicated to the wing , which continued to train for the operation until August . After the operation was cancelled the wing and its squadrons had no purpose , but continued to conduct training exercises as a means of maintaining morale . In November the wing was informed that it was to move to Morotai island in the Netherlands East Indies to take part in Allied offensives in the region .
No. 457 Squadron 's movement to Morotai was delayed until early 1945 . The squadron 's ground crew departed Darwin by sea on 18 January and arrived on the island on 1 February . The Spitfires departed Sattler on 6 February and arrived at Morotai two days later . No. 457 Squadron flew its first operations from Morotai on 10 February . The squadron 's main roles in this period were to conduct ground attack missions against Japanese camps and shipping as well as escorting other aircraft engaged in attacking these targets . This involved a heavy workload , and the squadron flew over 293 operational sorties between February and the end of April . From May No. 457 Squadron 's Spitfires began using dive bombing tactics as well as strafing targets with their guns .
No. 457 Squadron participated in the Borneo Campaign during the final months of the war . On 27 May it was ordered to prepare for deployment , and on 5 June its personnel and equipment sailed for Labuan island off the north @-@ west coast of Borneo . During this operation the squadron was attached to No. 81 Wing . The Spitfires departed Morotai on 17 June and commenced operations from Labuan two days later alongside No. 76 Squadron RAAF with the primary roles of providing air support to Allied troops in the area and air defence for the island . On 20 June two No. 457 Squadron fighters shot down a Dinah ; this was the squadron 's first " kill " since 12 November 1943 . Operations against the Japanese continued until the end of the war on 15 August 1945 . During the war 25 of the squadron 's Australian personnel were killed .
Following the Japanese surrender No. 457 Squadron initially remained at Labuan . During this period it flew security patrols as well as training exercises and air tests . The squadron 's serviceable aircraft left Labuan on 9 October for Oakey , Queensland and arrived there on the last day of the month . No. 457 Squadron was officially disbanded at Labuan on 7 November 1945 . Following the war the squadron was awarded the battle honours " Fortress Europe , 1940 – 1944 " , " Pacific , 1941 – 1945 " , " Darwin , 1941 – 1944 " , " Morotai " , " Borneo , 1945 " and " Defence of Britain , 1940 – 1945 " .
= = Aircraft operated = =
No. 457 Squadron operated the following aircraft :
= = Squadron bases = =
No. 457 Squadron operated from the following bases and airfields :
= = Commanding officers = =
No. 457 Squadron was commanded by the following officers :
= Development of The Last of Us =
The development of The Last of Us , an action @-@ adventure survival horror video game , began after Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves ' release in October 2009 . Sony Computer Entertainment published The Last of Us on June 14 , 2013 for the PlayStation 3 . The three @-@ year development , led by studio Naughty Dog , was kept secret for the majority of development . In the game , players assume control of Joel , tasked with escorting the young Ellie across a post @-@ apocalyptic United States , in an attempt to create a potential cure against an infection to which Ellie is immune . Creative director Neil Druckmann was inspired to include Infected as a main feature of the game after discovering the Cordyceps fungi . His story , set twenty years after the outbreak starts and much of civilization is destroyed , explored the possibility of the fungi infecting humans .
Though Ellie was initially intended to be Joel 's daughter , the team found this to be too limiting in terms of further character development . The team chose Troy Baker and Ashley Johnson to portray Joel and Ellie , respectively . Providing both the voice and motion capture of the characters , Baker and Johnson assisted the team to develop the characters and help refine the story . The relationship between Joel and Ellie was the central focus of the game , and all other elements were developed around it . Various other characters were influenced by the story progression , ultimately becoming completely different from the initial vision .
The Last of Us features an original score , composed by musician Gustavo Santaolalla . Known for his minimalist approach to composing , Santaolalla was contacted early in development . Naughty Dog took a similar minimalist approach to other elements of the game , including the action , sound design and art design . The sound department began working early on the sound of the Infected , in order to achieve the best work possible . A similar direction was taken by the art department , whose designs influenced other elements of development . Naughty Dog overhauled their game engine for some elements of the game , particularly focusing on the lighting and animations .
The Last of Us was officially announced in 2011 ; it was heavily promoted and widely anticipated . Naughty Dog missed the original release date , delaying the game in order for further polishing . Naughty Dog marketed the game through video trailers and press demonstrations , announcing specific details about the game as development continued . Various special edition versions were released , along with a comic book featuring characters from the game .
= = Production = =
Preliminary work on The Last of Us , under the codename " Project Thing " or " T1 " , began after the release of Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves in October 2009 . For the first time in the company 's history , developer Naughty Dog split into two teams to work on projects concurrently ; while one team developed Uncharted 3 : Drake 's Deception ( 2011 ) , the other began work on The Last of Us . In order to run the two teams smoothly , co @-@ presidents Evan Wells and Christophe Balestra chose game director Bruce Straley and creative director Neil Druckmann to lead development on The Last of Us . Straley , who was employed at Naughty Dog in March 1999 , was selected to lead the project based on his experience and his work on previous projects , while Druckmann , an employee since 2004 , was chosen for his determination and talent for design .
= = = Story and setting = = =
As a student at Carnegie Mellon University in 2004 , Druckmann was tasked with creating a video game concept to present to film director George A. Romero , who would select a winner . Druckmann 's idea was to merge the gameplay of Ico ( 2001 ) in a story set during a zombie apocalypse , like that of Romero 's Night of the Living Dead ( 1968 ) , with a lead character similar to John Hartigan from Sin City ( 1991 – 2000 ) . The lead character , a police officer , would be tasked with protecting a young girl ; however , due to the lead character 's heart condition , players would often assume control of the young girl , reversing the roles . Though the idea did not win , Druckmann later developed it when creating the story of The Last of Us . An early idea for the game was that the infection only spread to women , though this was later deemed misogynistic .
The Infected , a core concept of the game , were inspired by a segment of the BBC nature documentary Planet Earth ( 2006 ) , which featured the Cordyceps fungi . Though the fungi mainly infect insects , taking control of their motor functions and forcing it to help cultivate the fungus , the game explores the concept of the fungus evolving and infecting humans , and the direct results of an outbreak of this infection . The game does not directly explain the cause of the virus ; Straley attributed this to the team 's focus on the characters , as opposed to the virus . They preferred to explain the events through subtext , rather than explicitly explaining the cause of the infection . Straley compared the subtext included in The Last of Us to that of BioShock Infinite ( 2013 ) . He felt that the latter had spawned various conversations within the industry , which he sees as a sign of a maturing industry . " I 've seen enough good stories in books and film . Now I want to see them in video games , " said Straley . The team used the concept of the Infected to force players to explore the limits of human perseverance . Throughout development , team assured that the Infected were strictly different from zombies .
In order to make the game as realistic as possible , the team conducted extensive research for the setting . Taking influences from Alan Weisman 's The World Without Us ( 2007 ) , Naughty Dog created a world that would force players to make decisions and utilize their limited supplies effectively . In his research , Druckmann found inspiration in real historical events ; the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic illustrated the depths of self @-@ protection and paranoia capable by humans under threat of extinction , while the polio epidemic of the 1880s demonstrated the influences of socioeconomic classes when assigning blame in a great disaster . Druckmann and Straley have also cited Amy Hennig 's " perfectionist mindset " and dedication to characters as an inspiration for the game 's story ; Hennig worked as head writer and creative director on the Uncharted series ( 2007 – present ) . The team also took inspiration from Gravity ( 2013 ) , in terms of the game 's simplicity and intensity .
When writing the script , Druckmann tried to exclude " fancy dialogue " , keeping everything " short and natural " . Community strategist Eric Monacelli has stated that the narrative 's overarching themes are " love , loyalty and redemption " , assuring their importance in the game , and fellow community strategist Arne Meyer said that the game 's violence fit the narrative . Straley reiterated this , stating " you have to have the dark to have the light " . Game designer Anthony Newman stated that the game deals with how people would react under pressure in extreme situations , which is represented through the violence and combat . The team felt interested in the story 's dark themes juxtaposed against the " beautiful " settings .
A major motif present throughout the game is that " life goes on " . A scene near the end of the game , in which Joel and Ellie discover a herd of giraffes , is referenced by many journalists as the realization point of this motif . Concept artist John Sweeney wrote that the scene was designed to " reignite [ Ellie 's ] lust for life " , triggering her curiosity and forgetting the surrounding struggle and death . He explained that the scene originally involved zebras , but were replaced by giraffes due to their gentleness and elegance , stating that they were " the most remarkable thing Ellie could possibly encounter " . Druckmann felt that the sequence " works because of all the horrible things " encountered beforehand . IGN 's Lucy O 'Brien wrote that the scene acts as a reminder of Ellie 's age , despite having been outwardly " stripped of any semblance of a childhood " , and Kotaku writer Kirk Hamilton found the scene to be a resemblance of hope for Ellie , having clearly suffered post @-@ traumatic stress following her encounter with David .
In regards to the ending , the team intended for it to be open to interpretation . Straley has stated that it 's " not your typical ending , but it ’ s still a nice resolution " . Both he and Druckmann stated their frustration when players told them they wanted a choice at the game 's ending ; Straley said that most of these players told him they would have chosen the same ending as the game anyway . Early in the game 's development , the team envisioned an ending in which Ellie was forced to kill someone in order to save the incapacitated Joel ; this ending was scrapped , as the team felt that it was not conforming to the character arcs . While the game 's focus testers hated the ending , suggesting alternative methods , Druckmann continued with it ; when the game 's music and gameplay became closer to completion , the focus testers began appreciating the ending more . When discussing the ending , VentureBeat writer Dean Takahashi referenced the quote " Whoever saves one life saves the world entire " , from Schindler 's List ( 1993 ) , highlighting its inaccuracy : " You save a life and doom the whole world , " he wrote .
= = = Character development = = =
Joel is voiced by veteran voice actor Troy Baker , while Ellie is voiced by actress Ashley Johnson . Their performances were mostly recorded using motion capture technology ; approximately 85 % of the game 's animations were recorded using motion capture , with remaining audio elements recorded later in a studio . Though the team quickly felt that Johnson fit the role of Ellie , they spent more time selecting the actor of Joel , as the chemistry between the two characters was imperative to the game . After Baker and Johnson played alongside each other , the team realised that the former perfectly fit the role of Joel , despite the actor 's young age . Druckmann attributed Baker 's voice and movement to the team 's choice of casting him . Baker and Johnson contributed greatly to the development of the characters . For example , Baker convinced Druckmann that Joel would care for Tess due to his loneliness , and Johnson convinced Druckmann to re @-@ write the character of Ellie in a stronger and more defensive manner . Some of the dialogue between the duo was improvised by the actors ; Druckmann attributed this to the fact that the script included an unnecessary amount of lines during gameplay sections , and he allowed the actors to choose what they felt was necessary . The characters of Joel and Ellie were the basis of the game ; the development between the characters was established first , and the game 's other concepts followed . From the beginning of development , the team intended for The Last of Us to feature dual protagonists with strong individual story arcs . During the Winter segment of the game , players assume control of Ellie . The developers ensured that this change was kept secretive prior to the game 's release , to surprise players ; they did the same with Ellie 's immunity , as well as with the game 's prologue , where players assume control of Joel 's daughter Sarah . The change of control from Joel to Ellie signifies a change in the role of the protector , echoing Druckmann 's previous ideas as a student . The character interactions were inspired by the relationship between Nathan Drake and Tenzin in Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves , in turn inspired by the video game Ico . The game 's protagonists represent the two eras that are shown in the game ; Joel represents the world before the outbreak , having spent most of his life during this period , while Ellie represents the world after the outbreak , as she was born in the post @-@ apocalyptic world . While the former is emotionally damaged due to the loss that he has experienced , the latter maintains an optimistic view of life , having become familiar to the damaged world ; spending time with each other saw these qualities overlapping , with Joel become more lively , and Ellie learning more survival skills .
Though Druckmann initially wrote the character of Joel using inspiration from Josh Brolin 's portrayal of Llewelyn Moss in No Country for Old Men ( 2007 ) , which he saw as " very quiet , very cool under pressure " , Baker 's interpretation of Joel as a more emotional person evolved the character in a different way . Ultimately , the narrative became an exploration of how willing a father is to save a child ; initially , Joel is willing to sacrifice himself , before evolving where he is willing to sacrifice his friends , until finally feeling that he would sacrifice all of humanity in order to save Ellie . Druckmann felt that players , specifically parents , would be able to relate to Joel 's character and his bonding with Ellie . Baker believes that Joel discovers morality throughout the game 's narrative , working out the difference between loss and sacrifice , and his true personality begins to show . When auditioning for the role , Baker read a phrase on the character sheet that stated Joel had " few moral lines left to cross " , which became the " anchor point " to the character for him . Baker found great difficulty in filming the game 's prologue , which features scenes with Joel and his daughter Sarah , portrayed by Hana Hayes . Upon later viewing of the first day of footage from the scene , Druckmann felt that it could still be improved . When filming the scene again , Druckmann explained to Baker how to perform it , and felt that it was the best take upon doing so . Though Baker initially found the take too " mechanical " , he retroactively realised that he had been previously trying to impress audiences by his acting , and that it was " not what the scene needed " .
When portraying Ellie , Johnson faced challenges in performing scenes that made her feel uncomfortable . " There were some days when we would shoot things that even at my age made me feel a little uncomfortable , " Johnson described . Johnson feels that video games rarely feature strong female characters such as Ellie , and expressed her excitement to portray the role for this reason . When questioned about the inspiration for Ellie as a gameplay feature , Druckmann recalled when he and Straley were brainstorming ideas for Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves and created a mute character who would summon the player to follow them , creating a " beautiful " relationship through gameplay alone . Though this concept was never included in the final game , the idea was raised when the team were discussing a new project , ultimately inspiring Ellie . Druckmann also felt inspired by the wars that took place in Syria and Afghanistan when creating Ellie ; he felt that conflict was a familiarity to the children in those countries , which is similar to Ellie 's view .
The character of Tess was originally intended to be featured as the main antagonist of The Last of Us , pursuing Joel for a year before a final confrontation in which she is killed by Ellie . However , the team found it difficult to believe that Tess would dispute with Joel and pursue him for a year ; this was solved by significantly adjusting the story . Actress Annie Wersching was impressed by the script , and Druckmann 's ability to write unique female characters . When writing the game 's female characters , particularly Tess and Ellie , Druckmann avoided external influences , such as the media 's portrayal of women , as he wished to write his own story . The character of Bill , portrayed by W. Earl Brown , is revealed to be homosexual at one point in the game . Druckmann initially left this vague in the script , but was inspired at the script read @-@ through to alter a few lines to further reflect Bill 's sexuality . To make Bill interesting , Druckmann explored the concept of contradictory statements ; while Bill states that becoming attached to people will lower chances of survival , it is revealed that he had a partner that he really cared for . Bill 's role in the game was also to voice Joel 's concerns about escorting Ellie , as Joel does not voice them . " [ T ] he reason to have Bill there is that Bill can actually say that to Joel , and warn Joel about that stuff , " Druckmann said . Veteran voice actor Nolan North , who portrays protagonist Nathan Drake in Naughty Dog 's Uncharted series , was chosen to play the role of David in the game . When approached by Druckmann about the role , North immediately accepted the part , appreciating its diversity from his previous acting roles . To portray the character , North approached his personality from multiple perspectives , viewing David as a " survivor " . North empathized with David , stating that most of David 's actions were understandable when considering the apocalyptic situation . He felt that David was initially attempting to protect Ellie , who was viewed as a " glimmer of hope " .
The team felt that the post @-@ apocalyptic world and the survival horror genre gave them the opportunity to better develop the characters . Taking inspiration from their work on the Uncharted games , the team used their knowledge of paralleling characters with the conflict in both gameplay and stories when developing The Last of Us . They also took inspiration from the books The Road ( 2006 ) and City of Thieves ( 2008 ) , and the film No Country for Old Men , noting that they all include memorable characters and using this as a point of inspiration . " [ W ] e can make you as a player feel more of what it 's truly like to exist inside of a world where every bullet counts and each step you take is a conscious choice that 's going to make or break your existence , " said Straley . The team also felt that the " pressures of the world " allowed them to better develop their characters . They felt that the pressure forced the characters to make interesting decisions , allowing better development .
= = = Technical and gameplay development = = =
For The Last of Us , the team had to create new engines to satisfy their needs . The artificial intelligence ( AI ) was created to coordinate with players on an intimate level , as opposed to the action elements from their previous projects ; the addition of Ellie as AI was also a major contributor to the engine . The team intentionally added a feature in which Ellie remains close to Joel , in order to avoid being conceived as a " burden " . Programmer Max Dyckhoff stated that , when working on Ellie as AI , he tried to imagine her experiences throughout the game 's events , in an attempt to achieve realism . The enemy AI , considered one of the most important features of the game , was developed to make random choices ; they study their surroundings , finding tactics to attack the player . This uniqueness to gameplay was a factor into the attempt at making players feel emotions towards the enemies . The lighting engine was also re @-@ created to incorporate soft light , in which the sunlight seeps in through spaces and reflects off surfaces . The team found great difficulty in developing the gameplay for The Last of Us , as they felt that every mechanic required thorough analysis . " You feel a lot of pressure to add things to make it ' more fun ' and it gets super difficult to keep those out sometimes , " Druckmann said . In The Last of Us , the weapon that players have equipped change the behavior of the human NPCs . In addition , the stealth system was intentionally developed to offer a sense of desperation , to make players feel the same .
There are multiple features omitted from the game that the team considered typical of most video games , such as boss fights . A traditional cover system was excluded for the game as the team wanted players to constantly move around . The team also attempted to cause players to feel as though they are lacking , particularly in the supplies that they collect . " You 're not building yourself into a tank , " said Straley . This also motivated many of the design decisions of the gameplay , such as the weightlessness of the animations , and the melee combat mechanic . To further add to the realism , the team developed the game 's combat mechanic in a way that forces players to spend more time planning . They also wanted players to be forced to retreat from combat after alerting the Infected , despite their belief that retreating is the " anti @-@ video game play mechanic " . The combat mechanic was developed to feel intense , intentionally moving the camera closer to players , in order for them to " feel every strike " . The team felt that the game forces players to make difficult choices , in terms of combat , stealth and resource management , allowing them to understand the decisions made by the characters .
Many gameplay elements from the Uncharted games were excluded from The Last of Us due to the nature of the latter . The team made Joel more " grounded and less nimble " than Uncharted 's Nathan Drake . The camera angle and melee system were also altered to fit with the team 's intention of the game . Some gameplay features were inspired by the game 's post @-@ apocalyptic nature ; for example , a task involving spatial problem solving was inspired by the prior inclusion of a strong water current that obstructs players . The team also felt that No Country for Old Men inspired them in terms of the minimalism , wanting to " get more intimate " with the gameplay scenarios . The team decided to include various optional paths for players to use . While at one point they felt that the additional content was useless , the team eventually felt that it feels " natural and organic " .
The game 's online multiplayer mode features three game types ; the team opted to limit the amount of game types , as opposed to creating an abundance of them , in order to create a " deeper game experience " . The multiplayer mode was inspired by the combat encounters of the single @-@ player campaign ; the team aimed to recreate the slow pace of the encounters , and maintain a similar crafting system . This was achieved by making weapons lethal , and placing crafting items in strategic locations across the map , which was intended to result in stealthy gameplay and careful selection of ambushes . It also emphasized the stealth and teamwork elements of the mode . Lead multiplayer designer Erin Daly felt that the slower pace was difficult to achieve in a multiplayer environment , stating that " in most multiplayer shooters ... players sprint around at high speeds and spray bullets at anything that moves " . In addition , the multiplayer was designed to support different play styles ; while some players prefer to act as sniper , others opt to perform as support . Adding a revive system — when players take a significant amount of damage , they slowly crawl around while bleeding to death — created a large consequence to death ; losing team members is intended to be a significant loss to players . When designing the multiplayer , the team wanted players to have very little information regarding the location of the threats , while still giving a minor indication of the location . Daly attributed this to the importance of threat detection in a competitive experience , particularly when the lethality is high . The in @-@ game purchasing system was designed to be akin to a role @-@ playing game by allocating a set of spendable points .
For the game 's character sculpting and rigging , the team introduced various new elements that were not used in their previous games . Lead character technical director Judd Simantov found that the creation of the faces was the most challenging , in terms of hardware . For the faces , the team used joint @-@ based facial rigs , with some blend @-@ shape correctives . To retain the shape of the face and avoid awkward movement , the faces were rigged with the mouth open and eyes slightly closed . The faces were also based on the Facial Action Coding System , allowing for an anatomical @-@ based approach . The use of a higher mesh density also allowed more volumes and creasing in the shape of the face , creating cleaner silhouettes and shapes and giving enough geometry to sculpt correctives . In an attempt to add subtle features , pupil dilation was added to the character models . For the bodies , the team edited the character movements from Uncharted 2 , softening some joint alignment . The animation of carpal joints was also added for the game , allowing more dynamic hand shapes , and flexibility . Another subtle addition was the arm mover controls , allowing minor editing on the arms ; though this feature was previously available , it was opened up to the animators for The Last of Us . A muscle system was also added , adding muscle shells that bulge , based on attachment joint distance ; the muscle system , written in Maya within a few days , works in real time . To solve an issue in which body movement resulted in awkward movement of clothing , runtime helpers were implemented . A total of 326 joints were used in the full character model , with 98 of these in the face ; 85 of these are runtime driven , while 241 are locked into animation .
The user interface design ( UI ) for The Last of Us underwent various different iterations throughout development . User interface designer Alexandria Neonakis originally intended to integrate the weapon upgrade system into the weapon slotting system , in order to constantly remind players to upgrade their weapons . Upon further iterations , Neonakis discovered that this integration resulted in a cluttered interface . Ultimately , it was decided that the upgrade system would be integrated in the form of upgrade benches , occasionally found throughout the game 's world ; this also solved another problem that Neonakis witnessed , in which players would upgrade to the lowest possible option , as opposed to saving parts for the higher options . Once it was decided to split the upgrade and slotting systems , the initial design was to select the weapons from a circle . This design , eventually considered " clunky and slow " , was replaced in preference of a list system . Neonakis has identified that the main problem with the list design was that it forced players to focus on navigating through menus during intense combat . This led to the final design , which allows players to swap and slot weapons in the same menu . To integrate the UI into the game , Neonakis separated the individual elements and changed their format . User interface programmer Paul Burg provided Neonakis with tools to move elements using their coordinates . All animated transitions were hard coded , which led to difficulty in creating smooth transitions . " This was tedious and at times incredibly frustrating , but it also meant that we all had to be pretty creative in how things were designed , " Neonakis said . The game 's crafting system was implemented into immediate gameplay , in order for players to feel involved . " We needed to make it streamlined and fast enough that you felt like you could take just that moment and be able to craft that thing that 's going to mean your survival in the next thirty seconds , or your failure to survive , " lead game designer Jacob Minkoff said .
= = = Art design = = =
When designing the game from an artistic viewpoint , the team took various pieces of work as inspiration . Robert Polidori 's photographs of Lower Ninth Ward following Hurricane Katrina were used as a reference point when designing the flooded areas of Pittsburgh . " [ Polidori ] did these amazingly beautiful , horrific photos ... it 's not just decay and rot and post @-@ apocalyptic grey , it 's a human world that we 're playing with when we portray this destruction , " said Straley . The concept of post @-@ apocalyptic environments was considered a " starting point " for the artists . The art team also strived to achieve realism within every piece of art . Straley explained that the artists " would be like , I 'm going to make this the most awesome fucking wall ever , " in terms of creating attractive environments . The art department were forced to fight for things that they wished to include , due to the high demand during development . Ultimately , the team settled on a balance between simplicity and detail ; while Straley and Druckmann preferred the former , the art team preferred the latter . The artistic composition of the game 's locations was also a feature strongly focused on , in order to evoke varying emotions from players . In the final weeks of development , roles from the art department were undertaken by other members of the team ; for example , Straley hand @-@ arranged the texts on the game 's training screens , a task that lead artist Nate Wells found unusual . " I have never even heard of a game director doing that ! That 's like ... an intern task , " Wells said .
When creating the look of the Infected , the art team cycled through various iterations . Some early ideas included the Infected looking like aliens or zombies . The final design was chosen when lead character artist Michael Knowland incorporated images of diseases and fungal growth onto a human . He expressed the difficulty in changing the art from 2D to 3D , which would allow viewing from different angles . The process of sending completed concept art to the lighting and visual effects artists , who re @-@ create the art within the game 's engine . Due to the lack of artificial light sources in the game 's world , the team was forced to work with natural light . To achieve high quality lighting , they used lightmaps . The use of lightmaps led to various problems , such as the discontinuities in the lighting ; this was fixed by slightly modifying the texel intensities . When characters were added to scenes , they initially looked out of place ; the addition of a shadow generally fixed this .
The game 's opening credits were directed by Kevin Joelson and designed by Henry Hobson . Original concept development for the opening sequence began in late January 2013 , and full production began in March 2013 . Though the team initially intended for the game to omit opening credits , they were later added to " bridge the gap " between the game 's prologue and the following scene , a cut that was previously deemed " too sudden " without opening credits . Sony San Diego produced the opening credits , using time @-@ lapse photography to record the growth of fungus over multiple days ; only the spores at the end of the credits are computer @-@ generated . The sequence was | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
known that Tawell had boarded a train to London , the telegraph was used to signal ahead to the terminus at Paddington and have him arrested there . The novelty of this use of the telegraph in crime @-@ fighting generated a great deal of publicity and led to increased acceptance and use of the telegraph by the public .
= = Inventors = =
The telegraph arose from a collaboration between William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone , best known to schoolchildren from the eponymous Wheatstone bridge . This was not a happy collaboration due to the differing objectives of the two men . Cooke was an inventor and entrepreneur who wished to patent and commercially exploit his inventions . Wheatstone , on the other hand , was an academic with no interest in commercial ventures . He intended to publish his results and allow others to freely make use of them . This difference in outlook eventually led to a bitter dispute between the two men over claims to priority for the invention . Their differences were taken to arbitration with Marc Isambard Brunel acting for Cooke and John Frederic Daniell acting for Wheatstone . Cooke eventually bought out Wheatstone 's interest in exchange for royalties .
Cooke had some ideas for building a telegraph prior to his partnership with Wheatstone and had consulted scientist Michael Faraday for expert advice . However , much of the scientific knowledge for the model actually put into practice came from Wheatstone . Cooke 's earlier ideas for a mechanical telegraph ( involving a clockwork mechanism with an electromagnetic detent ) were largely abandoned .
= = History = =
In January 1837 Cooke proposed a design for a 60 @-@ code telegraph to the directors of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway . This was too complicated for their purposes ; the immediate need was for a simple signal communication between the Liverpool station and a rope @-@ haulage engine house at the top of a steep incline through a long tunnel outside the station . Rope @-@ haulage into main stations was common at this time to avoid noise and pollution , and in this case the gradient was too steep for the locomotive to ascend unaided . All that was required were a few simple signals such as an indication to the engine house to start hauling . Cooke was requested to build a simpler version with fewer codes , which he did by the end of April 1837 . However , the railway decided to use instead a pneumatic telegraph equipped with whistles . Soon after this Cooke went into partnership with Wheatstone .
In May 1837 Cooke and Wheatstone patented a telegraph system which used a number of needles on a board that could be moved to point to letters of the alphabet . The patent recommended a five @-@ needle system , but any number of needles could be used depending on the number of characters it was required to code . A four @-@ needle system was installed between Euston and Camden Town in London on a rail line being constructed by Robert Stephenson between London and Birmingham . It was successfully demonstrated on 25 July 1837 . This was a similar application to the Liverpool project . The carriages were detached at Camden Town and travelled under gravity into Euston . A system was needed to signal to an engine house at Camden Town to start hauling the carriages back up the incline to the waiting locomotive . As at Liverpool , the electric telegraph was in the end rejected in favour of a pneumatic system with whistles .
Cooke and Wheatstone had their first commercial success with a telegraph installed on the Great Western Railway over the 13 miles ( 21 km ) from Paddington station to West Drayton in 1838 . Indeed , this was the first commercial telegraph in the world . This was a five @-@ needle , six @-@ wire system . The cables were originally installed underground in a steel conduit . However , the cables soon began to fail as a result of deteriorating insulation and were replaced with uninsulated wires on poles . As an interim measure , a two @-@ needle system was used with three of the remaining working underground wires , which despite using only two needles had a greater number of codes . But when the line was extended to Slough in 1843 , a one @-@ needle , two @-@ wire system was installed .
From this point the use of the electric telegraph started to grow on the new railways being built from London . The Blackwall Tunnel Railway ( another rope @-@ hauled application ) was equipped with the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph when it opened in 1840 , and many others followed . The one @-@ needle telegraph proved highly successful on British railways , and 15 @,@ 000 sets were still in use at the end of the nineteenth century . Some remained in service in the 1930s . In September 1845 the financier John Lewis Ricardo and Cooke formed the Electric Telegraph Company . This company bought out the Cooke and Wheatstone patents and solidly established the telegraph business . In 1869 the company was nationalised and became part of the General Post Office .
= = = Tawell Arrest = = =
Murder suspect John Tawell was apprehended following the use of a needle telegraph message from Slough to Paddington on 1 January 1845 . This is thought to be the first use of the telegraph to catch a murderer . The message was :
A MURDER HAS GUST BEEN COMMITTED AT SALT HILL AND THE SUSPECTED MURDERER WAS SEEN TO TAKE A FIRST CLASS TICKET TO LONDON BY THE TRAIN WHICH LEFT SLOUGH AT 742 PM HE IS IN THE GARB OF A KWAKER WITH A GREAT COAT ON WHICH REACHES NEARLY DOWN TO HIS FEET HE IS IN THE LAST COMPARTMENT OF THE SECOND CLASS COMPARTMENT
The Cooke and Wheatstone system did not support punctuation , lower case , or some letters . Even the two @-@ needle system omitted the letters J , Q , and Z ; hence the misspellings of ' just ' and ' Quaker ' . This caused some difficulty for the receiving operator at Paddington who repeatedly requested a resend after receiving K @-@ W @-@ A which he assumed was a mistake . This continued until a small boy suggested the sending operator be allowed to complete the word , after which it was understood . After arriving , Tawell was followed to a nearby coffee shop by a detective and arrested there . Newspaper coverage of this incident gave a great deal of publicity to the electric telegraph and brought it firmly into public view .
The widely publicised arrest of Tawell was one of two events which brought the telegraph to greater public attention and led to its widespread use beyond railway signalling . The other event was the announcement by telegraph of the birth of Alfred Ernest Albert , second son of Queen Victoria . The news was published in The Times at the unprecedented speed of 40 minutes after the announcement .
= = Operation = =
The Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph consisted of a number of magnetic needles which could be made to turn a short distance either clockwise or anti @-@ clockwise by electromagnetic induction from an energising winding . The direction of movement was determined by the direction of the current in the telegraph wires . The board was marked with a diamond shaped grid with a letter at each grid intersection , and so arranged that when two needles were energised they would point to a specific letter .
The number of wires required by the Cooke and Wheatstone system is equal to the number of needles used . The number of needles determines the number of characters that can be encoded . Cooke and Wheatstone 's patent recommends five needles , and this was the number on their early demonstration models . The number of codes that can be obtained from 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ... needles is 2 , 6 , 12 , 20 , 30 ... respectively .
At the sending end there were two rows of buttons , a pair of buttons for each coil in each row . The operator selected one button from each row . This connected two of the coils to the positive and negative ends of the battery respectively . The other ends of the coils were connected to the telegraph wires and thence to one end of the coils at the receiving station . The other end of the receiving coils , while in receive mode , were all commoned together . Thus the current flowed through the same two coils at both ends and energised the same two needles . With this system the needles were always energised in pairs and always rotated in opposite directions .
= = = Five @-@ needle telegraph = = =
The five @-@ needle telegraph with twenty possible needle positions was six codes short of being able to encode the complete alphabet . The letters omitted were C , J , Q , U , X and Z. A great selling point of this telegraph was that it was simple to use and required little operator training . There is no code to learn , as the letter being sent was visibly displayed to both the sending and receiving operator .
The Paddington to West Drayton telegraph originally used six wires rather than five , although it was a five @-@ needle system . The sixth wire was to provide a common return so that the needles could be operated independently , thus giving the possibility of more available codes . Using these codes , however , would have required more extensive operator training since the display could not be read on sight from the grid as the simple alphabetic codes were . Telegraph systems were later to use earth return to avoid the need for a return wire , but this principle was not established at the time of Cooke and Wheatstone 's telegraph . The economic need to reduce the number of wires in the end proved a stronger incentive than simplicity of use and led Cooke and Wheatstone to develop the two @-@ needle telegraph .
= = = Two @-@ needle telegraph = = =
The two @-@ needle telegraph required three wires , one for each needle and a common return . The coding was somewhat different from the five @-@ needle telegraph and needed to be learned , rather than read from a display . The needles could move to the left or right either one , two , or three times in quick succession , or a single time in both directions in quick succession . Either needle , or both together , could be moved . This gave a total of 24 codes , one of which was taken up by the stop code . Thus , three letters were omitted : J , Q and Z , which were substituted with G , K and S respectively .
= = = One @-@ needle telegraph = = =
This system was developed to replace the failing multi @-@ wire telegraph on the Paddington to West Drayton line . It required only two wires , but a more complex code and slower transmission speed . Whereas the two @-@ needle system needed a three @-@ unit code ( that is , up to three movements of the needles to represent each letter ) , the one @-@ needle system used a four @-@ unit code , but had enough codes to encode the entire alphabet . Like the preceding two @-@ needle system , the code units consisted of rapid deflections of the needle to either left or right in quick succession . The needle struck a post when it moved causing it to ring . Different tones were provided for the left and right movements so that the operator could hear which direction the needle had moved without looking at it .
= = Codes = =
The codes were refined and adapted as they were used . By 1867 numerals had been added to the five @-@ needle code . This was achieved through the provision of a sixth wire for common return making it possible to move just a single needle . With the original five wires it was only possible to move the needles in pairs and always in opposite directions since there was no common wire provided . Many more codes are theoretically possible with common return signalling , but not all of them can conveniently be used with a grid indication display . The numerals were worked in by marking them around the edge of the diamond grid . Needles 1 through 5 when energised to the right pointed to numerals 1 through 5 respectively , and to the left numerals 6 through 9 and 0 respectively . Two additional buttons were provided on the telegraph sets to enable the common return to be connected to either the positive or negative terminal of the battery according to the direction it was desired to move the needle .
Also by 1867 , codes for Q ( ) and Z ( ) were added to the one @-@ needle code , but not , apparently , for J. However , codes for Q ( ) , Z ( ) , and J ( ) are marked on the plates of later needle telegraphs , together with six @-@ unit codes for number shift ( ) and letter shift ( ) . Numerous compound codes were added for operator controls such as wait and repeat . These compounds are similar to the prosigns found in Morse code where the two characters are run together without a character gap . The two @-@ needle number shift and letter shift codes are also compounds , which is the reason they have been written with an overbar .
The codes used for the four @-@ needle telegraph are not known , and none of the equipment has survived . It is not even known which letters were assigned to the twelve possible codes .
= Caleb Strong =
Caleb Strong ( January 9 , 1745 – November 7 , 1819 ) was a Massachusetts lawyer and politician who served as the sixth and tenth Governor of Massachusetts between 1800 and 1807 , and again from 1812 until 1816 . He assisted in drafting the Massachusetts State Constitution in 1779 and served as a state senator and on the Massachusetts Governor 's Council before being elected to the inaugural United States Senate . A leading member of the Massachusetts Federalist Party , his political success delayed the decline of the Federalists in Massachusetts .
A successful Northampton lawyer prior to 1774 , Strong was politically active in the rebel cause during the American Revolutionary War . He played an influential role in the development of the United States Constitution at the 1788 Philadelphia Convention , and , as a US Senator , in the passage of its 11th Amendment . He also played a leading role in the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1789 , which established the federal court system .
Adept at moderating the sometimes harsh political conflict between Federalists and Democratic @-@ Republicans and popular in Massachusetts , he navigated the state in a Federalist direction through the early years of the 19th century as the rest of the country became progressively more Republican . Although he sought to retire from politics after losing the 1807 governor 's race , the advent of the War of 1812 brought him back to the governor 's office as a committed opponent of the war . He refused United States Army requests that state militia be placed under army command , and in 1814 sought to engage Nova Scotia Governor John Coape Sherbrooke in peace talks . The state and federal government 's weak defense of Massachusetts ' northern frontier during Strong 's tenure contributed to the successful drive for Maine 's statehood , which was granted in 1820 .
= = Early years = =
Caleb Strong was born on January 9 , 1745 , in Northampton , one of the principal towns of Hampshire County on the Connecticut River in the Province of Massachusetts Bay . His parents were Phebe Lyman Strong and Caleb Strong , the latter a descendant of early Massachusetts settlers such as John Strong , a 1630 immigrant to Massachusetts who was one of the founders of Northampton and the lead elder of the church for many years . Caleb was their only son . He received his early education from Rev. Samuel Moody , and entered Harvard College in 1760 , graduating four years later with high honors . He was shortly thereafter afflicted with smallpox , which temporarily blinded him and prevented him from engaging in the study of law for several years . He studied law with Joseph Hawley , was admitted to the bar in 1772 , and began the practice of law in Northampton . Hawley was also a political mentor , shaping Strong 's views on relations between the colonies and Great Britain .
= = American Revolution = =
Strong and Hawley were both elected to the Massachusetts Provincial Congress in 1774 . When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775 , Strong was unable to serve in the military because of his damaged sight , but he was otherwise active in the Patriot cause . He served on the Northampton Committee of Safety and in other local offices , but refused service in the Continental Congress . He was a delegate to the 1779 Massachusetts Constitutional Convention , and was elected to the committee that drafted the state constitution , ratified in 1780 . He then served on the first governor 's council and in the state senate from 1780 to 1789 .
Strong 's legal practice thrived during the tumultuous war years , and was one of the most successful in Hampshire County . He became a judge of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775 , and was appointed county attorney of Hampshire County the following year , a post he held until 1800 . On more than one occasion he was offered a seat on the state 's supreme court , but rejected the position on account of its inadequate salary . Strong was described by a contemporary as meticulously detailed in his preparation of legal paperwork and a persuasive advocate when speaking to a jury .
In 1781 Strong was one of the lawyers ( another was Worcester lawyer and future United States Attorney General Levi Lincoln , Sr. ) who worked on a series of legal cases surrounding Quock Walker , a former slave seeking to claim his freedom . One of the cases , Commonwealth of Massachusetts v. Nathaniel Jennison , firmly established that slavery was incompatible with the new state constitution .
= = United States Senator = =
Strong was elected as a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention that drafted the U.S. Constitution in 1787 . A committed Federalist , Strong opposed the idea of the Electoral College as a means of electing the president , instead supporting the idea that the legislature should choose him . Although he initially opposed proposals that the number of senators should be equal for all states , he eventually changed his mind , enabling passage of the Connecticut Compromise . To temper the power of the states , he introduced language requiring tax legislation to originate in the House of Representatives . Illness of his wife forced him to return to Massachusetts before the work was completed , so he did not sign the document . He was a vocal supporter of its adoption by the state 's ratifying convention .
When the Constitution came into force in 1789 , Strong was chosen by the state legislature to serve in the United States Senate . As what is now known as a Class 2 Senator he came up for reelection in 1792 , when he was again chosen . He was one of the principal drafters of the Judiciary Act of 1789 , which established the federal courts . He was also instrumental in 1793 and 1794 in the development and passage by Congress of the 11th Amendment to the United States Constitution . This measure was enacted in response to Chisholm v. Georgia , a Supreme Court decision in which a private individual sued the state of Georgia . The amendment expanded the sovereign immunity of states to limit suits against them by private individuals from other states .
Strong was also one of a small group of senators who convinced President George Washington in 1794 that a special envoy should be sent to Britain in order to avert war , and who convinced John Jay to accept that role . Jay ended up negotiating what became known as the Jay Treaty , which resolved a number of issues between the two nations , but also angered the leadership of Revolutionary France and was widely disliked , criticized , and opposed by Republicans .
Strong resigned his seat in 1796 and returned to private life in Northampton .
= = First term as governor = =
In the election of 1800 Strong was nominated by the Federalists as their candidate for governor ; his principal opponent was Elbridge Gerry , nominated by the Democratic @-@ Republicans . Strong was criticized by his opponents for his lack of military service and for the fact that he was a lawyer ; he countered by asserting his patriotism through his association with Joseph Hawley . His popularity in the western part of the state was decisive : the wide margin by which he won there overcame the smaller advantage by which Gerry carried the east . Acting Governor Moses Gill died ten days before Strong took office at the end of May .
Strong won annual reelection to the governor 's seat until 1807 . During this tenure the state introduced a new penitentiary system and reformed the judiciary , reducing the number of judges . Strong 's time as governor was also marked by virulent political debate in the state , principally over foreign policy related to British interference with Massachusetts maritime trade . That interference was a consequence of the ongoing Napoleonic Wars engulfing Europe . Over the years of Strong 's tenure the Republicans gradually gained in power both nationally and in Massachusetts .
In the 1806 election the Republicans secured a majority in the Massachusetts assembly , and the gubernatorial election was notably close . Running mainly against James Sullivan , Strong barely received a majority of the votes cast . With fewer than 200 votes in the balance , the Republican @-@ controlled legislature scrutinized the returns in a partisan manner , discarding ballots that had misspelled Strong 's name while retaining those that misspelled Sullivan 's and performing tallies in ways that favored their candidate . This process concluded with a finding that Strong in fact lacked a majority of votes , which was what was then required to carry the election , as opposed to the modern plurality requirement . Strong 's Federalist allies in the legislature were able to publicize the partisan nature of the analysis , resulting in a hostile public backlash . He was proclaimed the winner after further , less biased , analysis corrected the count in his favor . However , in the 1807 election the rising tide of Republicanism swept Strong ( along with other New England Federalists ) out of office . Federalists asked him to run in 1808 , but he refused , noting that he had " done his part " and that his home base in Hampshire County was strongly Federalist .
= = Second term and War of 1812 = =
In 1812 Strong was convinced by Massachusetts Federalist leaders to come out of retirement to run once again for governor . War with Britain was imminent , and the Federalists sought a strong candidate to oppose Elbridge Gerry , who had been victorious against Christopher Gore in the previous two elections . Gerry , who had originally been somewhat moderate , became increasingly partisan during his tenure , and Federalists viewed Strong 's earlier success in office and relatively modest demeanor as assets . Strong 's victory in the election , which saw the Federalists also regain control of the legislature , was attributed to several factors : Federalists capitalized on the partisanship of the recent redistricting of the state that resulted in the coining of the term " gerrymander " , and there was strong antiwar sentiment in the state . Strong was reelected by wide margins in the following war years .
Strong took a principled stand against the War of 1812 , generally refusing to assist federal government efforts to prosecute the war . Strong was part of a chorus of Massachusetts ( and more broadly New England ) Federalists who complained that in " Mr. Madison 's War " the federal government was trampling state and individual rights . He adhered to the view that state militia could not be required to serve under regular army command . When the first such requests were made by U. S. Army General Henry Dearborn , Strong , with the backing of not just the Governor 's Council but also the Supreme Judicial Court , refused , arguing that there was no need to call out the militia because invasion was not imminent . Because of his stance against regular army command , the state was denied a shipment of arms that was instead diverted to frontier areas and the war theater . Strong also took no particular actions to prevent widespread smuggling along the state 's frontiers with the neighboring British provinces .
Strong 's opposition to regular army control was more nuanced than that of neighboring Connecticut Governor John Cotton Smith , who ensured that his militia always remained under state command . Strong was more concerned that the state militia not be used except in defense of the state 's borders , and compromised on the issue of command . In 1812 , not long after refusing General Dearborn 's request , he authorized the dispatch of militia companies to the state 's eastern district ( now Maine ) under United States Army command .
With the British naval blockade tightening and threatening the state 's coastal communities in early 1814 , Strong authorized U. S. Brigadier General Thomas H. Cushing to command militia forces in the defenses of Boston Harbor , subject to reasonable limitations . Cushing was transferred to Connecticut , and General Dearborn again commanded the regular army forces in Massachusetts . Dearborn interpreted the agreement Strong had made with Cushing to apply statewide , and began reorganizing militia companies to conform to regular army practices . This engendered ill will among the militia , and Strong refused to place additional levies under Dearborn 's command .
The defense of Maine , however , proved problematic . Strong 's aide William H. Sumner negotiated an agreement with the Army command for the defense of Portland , but the ironically Republican @-@ dominated district militia objected , first to the idea of serving under any regular army leadership , and then to serving under a relatively low @-@ ranked officer ( a lieutenant colonel ) who was given command of Portland after the agreement was signed . Several units of local militia refused the perform their assigned duties . One consequence of the dispute was that most militia in the state remained under state control , and were thus paid for from state coffers at a cost that ran to $ 200 @,@ 000 per month . This further strained the state economy , which was already suffering due to the British blockade .
Following the British seizure of Castine in September 1814 , Strong called the legislature into session early in October to respond to the occupation . Given that the federal government was unwilling to fund militia not under its control , the legislature authorized Strong to borrow money to fund a major expansion of the militia , but most of the funds acquired were spent improving Boston 's defenses . Another result of the special session was a call for a meeting of states opposed to the war , which became known as the Hartford Convention . Around the time of the convention , which was held in Hartford , Connecticut beginning in December 1814 , Strong secretly wrote to Nova Scotia Lieutenant @-@ Governor Sir John Coape Sherbrooke , essentially offering a separate peace in exchange for the return of the seized territory . He also refused to authorize temporary Massachusetts funding for a federally led expedition to recover Castine , leading to further cries of indignation from Maine 's Republicans . The Treaty of Ghent ended the war before the Nova Scotia negotiations went anywhere . Strong 's policies during the war are credited as one of the reasons for Maine 's drive for statehood , which came to a successful conclusion in 1820 .
In 1816 , with the war at an end , Strong elected once again to retire from politics . Strong died in Northampton on November 7 , 1819 , and was buried in its Bridge Street Cemetery .
= = Family , charity , and legacy = =
In 1777 Strong married Sarah Hooker , the daughter of a local pastor . They had nine children , four of whom survived the couple . Strong was active in his church and was a leading member of local missionary and Bible societies . He was a founding member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , and a member of the Massachusetts Historical Society . In 1813 , Strong was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society .
In World War II , the United States liberty ship SS Caleb Strong was named in his honor . The town of Strong , Maine , incorporated in 1801 , was named for Strong and Windham Township , Portage County , Ohio was originally named Strongsburg in his honor . The Strongsburg land had been allocated to Strong as part of his ownership share in the Ohio Company , and was sold by him and several minority partners in 1810 .
= Press pass =
A press pass ( alternatively referred to as a press card or a journalist pass ) grants some type of special privilege to journalists . Some cards have recognized legal status ; others merely indicate that the bearer is a practicing journalist . The nature of the benefits is determined by the type of issuing agency , of which there are three major categories : news organizations , law @-@ enforcement agencies , and event organizers ( usually for a specific single affair like a corporate press conference ) . Each type of card grants different authorizations , thus it is often necessary or desirable for reporters to hold multiple press passes simultaneously .
= = Law @-@ enforcement cards = =
Police departments at a city , county , or state / provincial level may issue press passes in some countries . Such passes allow the bearer to cross police or fire lines to report breaking news , or grant access to crime scenes or other restricted areas – though admission may be denied if it would interfere with the duties of emergency personnel . Popular media of the mid @-@ 20th century often depicted reporters at a crime scene with their press passes tucked into their hat bands , which was unusual in reality .
Because of the exceptional dispensation endowed by police press passes , they are issued with discretion – some jurisdictions require an in @-@ person interview with all prospective applicants , complete set of fingerprints , and a background check . Generally , only reporters who cover breaking news are eligible ; other journalists ( feature writers , editors and editorialists , freelance writers , and bloggers ) are not .
Police @-@ issued passes do not grant access to government press conferences or any other such privileges : they are only recognized by emergency response personnel , and only valid within the jurisdiction of the issuing agencies .
= = = Parking permits = = =
Police parking permits , issued in some jurisdictions , exempt news vehicles from certain parking restrictions while on the job . They may be offered to any news @-@ gathering organization that covers breaking news for use in company vehicles employed by full @-@ time reporters , photographers , and camera operators . Often , these permits are only granted to journalists who already carry a police press card .
When conspicuously displayed , these permits may allow the bearer to park in restricted " resident @-@ only " parking zones , and may exempt him or her from parking @-@ meter costs . These privileges apply only for the duration of breaking @-@ news coverage , and do not nullify all parking restrictions : red zones , fire hydrants , crosswalks , bus zones , disabled parking zones or access ramps , commercial loading zones , taxi cab zones , " no stopping " or " no parking " zones , transit lanes , and other towaway zones are still off @-@ limits .
= = Event @-@ specific = =
For tradeshows , community gatherings , sporting events , award shows , professional conferences , or major events of any type , press passes are generally available . These are sometimes referred to as " press badges " . For many events publicity in news media and elsewhere is of great importance , and granting privileges to the press can help in this . The privileges granted to holders of press badges , and who is eligible to receive them , depends on the nature of the affair .
Generally , prospective recipients must apply in advance , offering evidence of their affiliation . Event sponsors may request past published material , or a letter from the news agency on its letterhead , detailing the job assignment . Generally , non @-@ reporting employees of news agencies ( executives , sales personnel , publishers , editors , etc . ) are not eligible for press passes . In addition to journalists , some bloggers may be granted event passes .
Many major events , especially trade shows , issue press kits to pass @-@ holders . A press pass may allow the bearer to request interviews with noteworthy attendees , and special rooms are sometimes set aside for this purpose .
= = = Open events = = =
For activities open to the public , such as community gatherings , school events , or trade shows , a police- or media @-@ issued press pass may offer little advantage . Free or reduced @-@ price admission , or guaranteed entry , can sometimes be arranged . The benefits may be more extensive , granting access to front @-@ row seats or to press @-@ only rooms . For sporting events , a press pass issued by a stadium grants access to the press box . Because open events are usually funded by paying attendees , the number of press passes may depend on the number of tickets sold .
= = = Closed events = = =
For events closed to the general public , police- or news organization @-@ issued press passes sometimes grant access , but almost all require advance application for admittance . Greater exclusivity , however , means more restrictions on potential pass recipients . For professional conferences or trade shows , passes may be granted only to journalists who regularly cover the industry or who hold a title of " industry analyst , " or with an editorial or reporting designation .
= = News agency cards = =
" You do not need to ask permission from anyone to be a journalist , " explains the Periodical Publishers Association ; " however , it is sometimes useful to be able to identify yourself as a journalist when needed . " To this end , journalistic agencies issue press cards to their reporters , editorialists , writers , and photographers . These do not have the legal merits of government @-@ issued cards , and they will not replace event @-@ specific passes ; the card only serves as proof of its bearer 's status as a legitimate newsperson according to the issuing organization . As such , card @-@ carriers may be better able to obtain interviews , acquire information from law @-@ enforcement , or gain access to exclusive venues .
In the United Kingdom , the UK Press Card Authority ( a voluntary consortium of news agencies ) issues a nationally standardized card to United Kingdom @-@ based news gatherers .
For freelance journalists , organizations like the National Writers Union , Professional Publishers Association .
= = Press armbands = =
Journalists in Asia use an armband to mark themselves , similar to a press badge . Journalists are encouraged by journalist trade union to wear press armbands to protect themselves during protests and government upheavals .
= = Fake cards = =
Genuine press cards can be obtained by people not entitled to them , counterfeit copies of real cards can be made , and plausible @-@ looking cards can be issued by anybody , or made . The reasons and consequences range from the trivial ( free drinks ) to the catastrophic ( access by terrorists to rulers ) .
Spurious cards
Press passes not issued by a recognised publication can be obtained or made , with the intention of gaining benefits offered to holders of legitimate press cards . Joan Stewart of the Public Relations Society of America reports , “ Fake press passes abound at restaurant and theater openings , sporting events , music festivals , political rallies , celebrity parties and even crime scenes . With a decent computer and color printer , almost anybody can crank out an official @-@ looking pass within minutes . ”
Counterfeit cards
Counterfeit copies of cards issued by legitimate publications can be made . Issuers of cards have taken measures to prevent counterfeiting of their cards , creating cards with holographic foil blocking , signature strips , and tamper @-@ resistant lamination .
= Winkler County nurse whistleblower case =
The Winkler County nurse whistleblower case was a series of legal proceedings in West Texas that centered on the retaliation upon two nurses who submitted an anonymous state medical board complaint against a physician in 2009 . The case attracted national attention for its implications on whistleblowing by nurses . After witnessing what they believed to be unsafe medical care , nurses Anne Mitchell and Vicki Galle submitted an anonymous complaint against Dr. Rolando Arafiles to the Texas Medical Board ( TMB ) .
When he learned of the complaint , Arafiles spoke with the sheriff of Winkler County , who was his friend and one of his patients . Arafiles alleged that the nurses ' reports to the medical board constituted harassment . The sheriff investigated and obtained the TMB complaint , which provided enough information about Mitchell and Galle to make them identifiable . Galle and Mitchell were terminated from the hospital and faced criminal charges of misuse of official information . Galle 's charges were dropped before trial and Mitchell was acquitted by a jury . In the aftermath of Mitchell 's trial , Arafiles , several county officials and a hospital administrator all faced jail time for their roles in the retaliation against the nurses .
The case raised questions about the extent of whistleblower protection for healthcare providers who report patient care concerns to licensing authorities . Texas law included remedies against retaliation for whistleblowers , but no known U.S. state had whistleblower laws that addressed appropriate prosecutorial conduct . According to the Texas Nurses Association , " No one ever imagined that a nurse would be criminally prosecuted for reporting a patient care concern to a licensing agency . " After the Mitchell case , protection from prosecution was incorporated into Texas whistleblower laws . The TMB stopped investigating anonymous complaints about physicians in September 2011 .
= = Background = =
The case originated at Winkler County Memorial Hospital ( WCMH ) , a 15 @-@ bed hospital in Kermit , Texas . Mitchell and Galle were registered nurses at WCMH . The two nurses held multiple roles at the hospital and both were employed there for more than 20 years . Galle headed quality improvement and utilization management for the hospital , while Mitchell served as its compliance officer . Galle and Mitchell also split the responsibilities of the medical staff coordinator position . Mitchell held a part @-@ time role as the county 's emergency management coordinator . She also had experience as a travel nurse and as an instructor and director in a licensed vocational nursing program .
In April 2008 , Arafiles arrived at WCMH . He had attended medical school in the Philippines and had come to the United States to train in Baltimore and Buffalo . Texas issued a medical license to him in 1998 . The year before Arafiles came to Winkler County , the TMB restricted his ability to supervise nurse practitioners and physician assistants for three years and fined him $ 1 @,@ 000 . In that case , Arafiles allegedly failed to adequately supervise a physician assistant at a weight loss clinic and failed to exercise independent medical judgement when applying protocols written by the clinic 's owner .
Mitchell and Galle had concerns about Arafiles 's care soon after he arrived at WCMH . The doctor 's practice in Kermit included the use of alternative medicine therapies such as herbal remedies . Witnesses later said that Mitchell made comments at work which characterized Arafiles as a " witch doctor " . Other coworkers said that Mitchell had legitimate concerns about the quality of the physician 's patient care ; they said that Mitchell first raised the issues with the hospital 's administration , but that her concerns were not addressed . In one incident , Arafiles was alleged to have performed a skin graft on an emergency room patient even though he was not credentialed to perform surgery at the facility . Another patient came to the hospital with a crushed finger and Arafiles allegedly took a rubber tip off of a pair of medical scissors and stitched it onto the patient 's finger .
Mitchell and Galle sent an anonymous complaint to the TMB detailing their concerns with Arafiles 's care of nine patients in 2008 and 2009 . The letter said that the nurses feared losing their jobs if their identities were revealed in connection with the complaint . Arafiles became aware of the complaint and spoke to Winkler County Sheriff Robert Roberts , alleging that the complaint amounted to harassment . The TMB issued a copy of the complaint to Roberts with the understanding that it would only be used to investigate criminal activity by Arafiles . Roberts sent the complaint to Arafiles and to WCMH administrator Stan Wiley . As WCMH was a small hospital , details from the letter identified Mitchell and Galle as the sources of the complaint .
Roberts obtained warrants to search the nurses ' computers and he found the letter to the TMB . The sheriff was friends with Arafiles . The doctor had treated Roberts in the emergency room for a heart attack . Roberts credited Arafiles with saving his life . He referred to the doctor as " the most sincerely caring person I have ever met . " Roberts later commented on the board report , saying , " If it ’ s made to destroy somebody ’ s reputation or forcing them to leave town , then I don ’ t believe it is good faith . "
= = Termination and criminal charges = =
Mitchell and Galle were terminated from WCMH in June 2009 . A few days later , both nurses were arrested . They were charged with misuse of official information , a felony that carries the possibility of ten years imprisonment and fines up to $ 5 @,@ 000 . Roberts said that the nurses filed the complaint as a personal vendetta rather than as a good faith reporting of facts . He also noted that Mitchell and Galle sent the medical records of ten patients to the TMB without their consent ; however , the reports did not include the names of patients and federal law exempts medical board reports from patient privacy laws .
The case attracted national attention in July 2009 when the American Nurses Association ( ANA ) and Texas Nurses Association ( TNA ) began to raise awareness of the plight of the nurses . Galle later said , " We didn 't have any support - emotional or financial - until TNA and ANA stepped in . " TNA filed a complaint with the Texas Department of State Health Services ( DSHS ) that resulted in an onsite investigation of the hospital . By February 2010 , the TNA Legal Defense Fund had collected more than $ 45 @,@ 000 in donations to the defense of Galle and Mitchell . TMB executive director Mari Robinson commented that such prosecution could have " a significant chilling effect " on the reporting of physician practice issues .
The charges against Galle were dropped before her case went to trial . Mitchell 's case was tried by county attorney Scott Tidwell , a political supporter of Roberts and the personal attorney for Arafiles , in February 2010 . Both the TMB executive director and the county attorney in nearby Andrews County discouraged Tidwell from trying the case . At trial , Mitchell did not testify . The relationship between Arafiles and Roberts was explored during the proceedings . Arafiles introduced Roberts to a supplement @-@ selling program known as Zrii , and recommended the supplements to his patients . Roberts sold the supplements , but he said that his friendship with Arafiles had not impacted his actions with the nurses and that he did not have a business relationship with Arafiles .
Attorneys with the office of the Texas Attorney General took on Mitchell 's case after being contacted by the TMB . Assistant Attorney General David Glickler later said that the case was the most bizarre he had seen in an 11 @-@ year stint with the office . " We 're used to dealing with cases where public officials have enriched themselves at the expense of the office and the public trust , like bribery and theft . But there was no financial benefit to the bad actors in this case . " The jury returned with a not guilty verdict after an hour of deliberation . Those present in the courtroom said that each juror approached Mitchell after the verdict and hugged her . In comments he made after the trial , jury foreman Harley Tyler said he wondered why the nurses were arrested . ANA president Rebecca Patton said that the verdict was " a resounding win on behalf of patient safety . "
= = Aftermath = =
TNA asserted that state laws , including the Texas Nursing Practice Act and the Public Employee Whistleblower Law , gave any health care provider the right to report concerns about the patient care of other providers . Under these protections , a termination could be presumed improper if it occurred within 60 days of filing such a complaint . Mitchell and Galle filed a civil lawsuit against Winkler County , WCMH , Wiley , Roberts , Tidwell and Arafiles . The lawsuit alleged violations of civil rights , breaches of due process and improper termination .
A few months after Mitchell 's trial , Galle and Mitchell split a $ 750 @,@ 000 settlement in the civil suit . The nurses , who both live in Jal , New Mexico , were unable to find employment in nursing after being terminated from WCMH . After signing the settlement , Wiley reinforced his support of Arafiles , saying , " He ’ s done a lot of good in this county . If you have a heart attack or anything of that nature in the emergency room , he is definitely the doctor that you want to take care of you . "
Several officials faced criminal charges for their involvement in the prosecution or termination of Galle and Mitchell . Wiley was the first to go to trial after he was indicted on two felony counts of retaliation . He pleaded guilty to the lesser of the two charges . He was sentenced to 30 days in jail and a $ 2 @,@ 000 fine and agreed to cooperate in the prosecution of other involved officials . Wiley terminated Galle and Mitchell after they submitted the anonymous medical board complaint . He submitted his resignation from the hospital in August 2010 , but the WCMH board of directors declined to accept it . He resigned again in October 2010 .
Roberts was convicted on two counts of misuse of official information , two counts of retaliation and two counts of official oppression . In June 2011 , he was sentenced to 100 days in jail , four years of felony probation and a $ 6 @,@ 000 fine . After the sentence , Roberts was removed as sheriff and forced to surrender his license as a peace officer . Convicted on similar charges , Tidwell was removed from office and sentenced to 120 days in jail , ten years of probation and a $ 6 @,@ 000 fine . Tidwell 's trial publicly uncovered a 2004 guilty plea he entered after being charged with soliciting a prostitute . DSHS assessed a $ 15 @,@ 850 fine against the hospital for inadequate supervision of Arafiles and illegal termination of Galle and Mitchell .
By mid @-@ 2011 , Arafiles had moved his practice to East Texas and was affiliated with Cozby Germany Hospital in Grand Saline . A hospital administrator there said that she had looked into some of the allegations against Arafiles that she found on the Internet but that no one had formally complained to her about the doctor . In November 2011 , Arafiles entered a guilty plea on two counts of misuse of official information . Two other charges were dismissed and a pending indictment for aggravated perjury was dropped . Arafiles was forced to surrender his medical license , sentenced to 60 days in jail and five years of probation , and assessed a $ 5 @,@ 000 fine .
Several of the people involved in the nurses ' case had assumed new employment by the summer of 2012 . Mitchell found a position in New Mexico working with the developmentally disabled . Galle , who said in 2010 that the case had " derailed our careers " , entered early retirement . Galle and Mitchell earned the Dean 's Advocacy Award from the Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center in 2010 . Arafiles was working at a Pizza Hut restaurant in Kermit as a janitor . Wiley left Winkler County for Lubbock . Tidwell was appealing the revocation of his license to practice law .
New legislation stopped the TMB from investigating anonymous complaints concerning physicians as of the fall of 2011 . The change was seen as a victory by physicians rights groups , who said that it would promote accountability in the investigations of physicians . Other groups worried that the new law would discourage the reporting of legitimate complaints against physicians . The board received 6 @,@ 849 complaints in 2010 ; four percent of the complaints were submitted anonymously .
= ESRB re @-@ rating of The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion =
On May 3 , 2006 , the North American Entertainment Software Rating Board ( ESRB ) changed the rating of The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion , a video game for PCs , the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360 , from Teen ( 13 + ) to Mature ( 17 + ) . The ESRB cited the presence of content not considered in their original review in the published edition of Oblivion . This included detailed depictions of blood and gore and sexually explicit content . The sexually explicit content was an art file , made accessible by a third @-@ party modification called the Oblivion Topless Mod , that rendered the game with topless female characters .
In response to the new content , the ESRB conducted a new review of Oblivion , showing to its reviewers the content originally submitted by the game 's publisher along with the newly disclosed content . The new review resulted in an M rating . The ESRB reported that Bethesda Softworks , the game 's developer and publisher , would promptly notify all retailers of the change , issue stickers for retailers and distributors to affix on the product , display the new rating in all following product shipments and marketing , and create a downloadable patch rendering the topless skin inaccessible . Bethesda complied with the request , but issued a press release declaring their disagreement with the ESRB 's rationale . Although certain retailers began to check for ID before selling Oblivion as a result of the change , and the change elicited criticism for the ESRB , the events passed by with little notice from the public at large . Other commentators remarked on the injustice of punishing a company for the actions of its clients , and one called the event a " pseudo @-@ sequel " to the Hot Coffee minigame controversy .
= = Background = =
= = = ESRB review process = = =
The ESRB 's review process involves the submission , by the game 's publisher , of a video which captures all " pertinent content " in the game , where pertinent content is defined as any content that accurately reflects both the " most extreme content of the final product " and " the final product as a whole . " That is to say , it must depict the " relative frequency " of said content . As ESRB President Patricia Vance explains it , the ESRB would not just want a " tape of one extreme cut to another , " but rather " context for the storyline , the missions , the features and functionality of a game , so that the raters really can get exposed to a pretty reasonable sense of what they 'd experience playing the game . " The fact that the content of Oblivion under investigation was inaccessible during normal play made no difference in the decision . ESRB policy had been " absolutely clear " since the Hot Coffee controversy , Patricia Vance told a reporter . Publishers were told that they could not leave unfinished or other pertinent content on a disc . If locked @-@ out content was " pertinent to a rating , " ESRB policy stated that it needed to be disclosed , and Bethesda had not done so .
= = = Oblivion Topless Mod = = =
Released in March 2006 and reported on game news sites as a curiosity in April of the same year , the Oblivion Topless Mod had been created by a woman calling herself " Maeyanie . " Maeyanie created the mod in protest against what she called " government / society / whatever forcing companies to ' protect our innocent population from seeing those evil dirty things 50 % of them possess personally anyways . ' " The gaming website Joystiq reported on the mod on April 6 , 2006 : " Modders are already hard at work on bending the code of the recently released PC version of Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion to their will . Early success : topless mod FTW ! " Kotaku , another gaming site , reporting on the mod on April 5 , 2006 , didn 't consider the mod anything new and said , " As usual in the world of computer gaming , one of the very first mods released for a popular game allows you to see the breasts of the main character . " The content of the mod , wrote commentator Michael Zenke , Editor of Slashdot games , was fairly tame . Without nudity of the lower torso , and without self @-@ consciousness on the part of the nude NPCs , Zenke wrote , the Oblivion Topless Mod was " as erotic as a doctor 's visit . " Pete Hines had discussed the mod with GameSpot staff before the game was re @-@ rated , saying that he did not consider it a concern . " We can 't control and don 't condone the actions of anyone who alters the game so that it displays material that may be considered offensive . We haven 't received any complaints on the issue from anyone . "
= = = ESRB re @-@ review and rating change = = =
During these investigations ESRB staff also found more blood and gore than the review tape had portrayed :
What Bethesda had originally disclosed to us , as an example : In that section of the game , there is a hanging corpse . What they disclosed to us was a hanging corpse in the dark , pretty far away and without much detail . And yet , when you bring a torch up to the hanging corpse in the actual game , you can see that it 's very mutilated with lots of blood and bones . That was a very different depiction , far more intense , far more extreme than what had been disclosed to us .
In response to the new content , the ESRB hastily conducted a new review of Oblivion , showing to its reviewers the content originally submitted by Bethesda along with the newly disclosed content . The new review resulted in a Mature rating . The ESRB reported that Bethesda , to correct for the discrepancy , would promptly notify all retailers of the change , issue stickers for retailers and distributors to affix on the product , display the new rating in all following product shipments and marketing , and create a patch for download rendering the topless skin inaccessible . In line with its stated mission of informing consumers regarding the age @-@ suitability of its marked games , the ESRB also released an ESRB Parent Advisory , ensuring that parents would be " immediately notified " of the change .
= = Industry impact = =
= = = Retailer response = = =
Following news of the rating change on May 3 , 2006 , the Interactive Entertainment Merchants Association ( IEMA ) , an organization of game retailers , which had previously eased the adoption of industry @-@ wide ratings enforcement , issued its own statement , lauding its own retailers for the speed with which they reacted to the rating change . The IEMA release further stated that identification was needed to secure the purchase of Mature @-@ rated games at roughly the same rate as was needed for R @-@ rated film admission . In compliance with the ESRB 's further demand that Bethesda request retailers " to adhere to their respective store policies not to sell the newly rated M ( Mature ) game to those under the age of 17 , " several retailers had begun to include cash register prompts tied to the game 's bar code , instructing the cashier to ask for ID . A report by Gamasutra observed that some retailers — Circuit City specifically — were even pulling the game from their shelves entirely , " presumably until rating modifications can be made . "
= = = Publisher response = = =
Following the announcement of the rating change , Bethesda issued their own press release . Bethesda announced that it was their organization , not Take @-@ Two Interactive , that had handled the ratings application , and that they stood behind it . Bethesda would not contest the change , and would promptly seek to implement the ESRB 's demands , without demanding a product recall . Nonetheless , Bethesda stated that Oblivion was not typical of Mature rated titles , and did not contain " central themes of violence " common to such titles . The response asserted that Bethesda 's submission to the ESRB was " full , accurate , and comprehensive , " following the forms and requirements published by the ESRB , and that nothing was withheld . Bethesda stressed that there was no nudity in their game without a modification , that the company " didn 't create a game with nudity " and did not intend for nudity to appear in their game . " Bethesda can not control tampering with Oblivion by third parties , " the press release concluded .
= = = Rating agency response outside the United States = = =
The British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) , the ESRB 's counterpart in the United Kingdom , did not change its rating of 15 . " Were it the case that the developer themselves had included and failed to disclose certain modifications of content , a recall may be required , but not as a result of a patch that has been placed on the Internet by a third party , " a BBFC spokesperson told GamesIndustry.biz reporters on May 4 , 2006 . Any modifications made after release fall outside the powers of the Video Recordings Act .
In July 2007 , the Pan European Game Information ( PEGI ) announced that it was extending its purview to cover " games playable online via consoles , PCs and mobiles . " Websites or online retail games participating in the program would be granted a PEGI Online logo , specifying whether " the particular game or site is under the control of an operator that cares about protecting young people . " An article by gaming website Shacknews noted at the time that PEGI 's initiative would address the concerns US publishers had with user @-@ created mods for San Andreas and Oblivion : responsibility for such mods would be placed on the participating publishers .
= = Public impact = =
The events passed by with little concern from either the public or gaming journalists in particular . Zenke attributed the draw in attention to bigger stories that came later in May . The news , for example , came just a week before E3 2006 , the last E3 before the show changed from a grand spectacle to a reserved industry @-@ only affair . The story did not pass completely unnoticed , as certain commentators issued statements regarding the issue in the days following the re @-@ rating . On May 4 , 2006 , then @-@ California Assemblyman Leland Yee used the rating change to criticize the ESRB . Yee , who had previously called on the ESRB to change their rating of Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas to AO ( Adults Only 18 + ) , issued a statement criticizing the ESRB for deceiving parents . Yee chastised the ESRB for failing parents again , and demonstrating their inability to police themselves . Yee called the ESRB 's rating system drastically flawed , and called for further legislation to assist parents and protect children . Attorney and activist Jack Thompson sought talk show appearances over the issue , planning to explain to prospective interviewers why the re @-@ rating issue was an even worse disaster than the Hot Coffee scandal , as children of all ages had already bought the game . The ESRB , Thompson said , had learned nothing from its past mistakes .
Game designer John Romero , lead designer of Doom , posted a statement in his blog criticizing the modders responsible :
Now what 's going to happen ? You 'll probably start seeing game data files becoming encrypted and the open door on assets getting slammed shut just to keep modders from financially screwing the company they should be helping . And the day a game company 's file encryption is hacked to add porn and the case goes to the ESRB for review – that 's when we 'll see how well game companies are protected from these antics and what the courts will rule . Hopefully it 'll be on the developer 's side .
When the ratings change came , Zenke saw political caution in the move , rather than an intelligent response to new content . Previous scandals had forced the Board 's hand , and the ratings change was an act of self @-@ preservation . Zenke , writing in June 2007 for online gaming magazine The Escapist , criticized the public for its failure to respond to the rating change , and emphasized what the change would mean to moddable games . At the core of Zenke 's article was concern that a developer or publisher could be punished for content they neither produced nor distributed . Echoing Romero 's concerns , Zenke saw the rating change as a threat , not only to modders , but to developers as well . Zenke asked what the ESRB would do in response to " Game 3 @.@ 0 " concepts , where community involvement is key . Referring to Sony 's LittleBigPlanet , Zenke asked , " Will Sony provide personnel to review every fan @-@ made level for offensive content ? Will the ESRB ? "
The Escapist , thinking the issues of a year past long since died down , especially since they hadn 't aroused much concern on first coming to light , did not expect the discord that ensued ; response on their forums was heated , and the ESRB took " vigorous exception " to the piece . Zenke conducted a follow @-@ up interview with ESRB President Patricia Vance . In regard to what is considered by the ESRB for rating a game , Vance stated , " Our policies are quite clear : it 's what 's created by the publisher and included on the disc , not what 's created or introduced by a mod . The mod may unlock it , the mod may make it accessible , but again , going back to the publisher 's burden ; putting the accountability on the publisher to fully account for the content that they create and they ship – that 's all we care about . " Vance went on to state that " ESRB can 't rate content that is created by other players . We never have , we never tried , nor will we ever , " and that the only warning ESRB issues regarding third @-@ party content is " Game Experience May Change During Online Play . "
= Development of Duke Nukem Forever =
The video game Duke Nukem Forever spent fifteen years in development , from 1996 to 2011 . It is a first @-@ person shooter for PC , PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , developed by 3D Realms , Triptych Games , Gearbox Software and Piranha Games . It is a sequel to the 1996 game Duke Nukem 3D , as part of the long @-@ running Duke Nukem video game series . Intended to be groundbreaking , Duke Nukem Forever has become infamous in the video games industry and was considered vaporware due to its severely protracted development schedule ; the game had been in development under 3D Realms since 1996 . Director George Broussard , one of the creators of the original Duke Nukem game , first announced the title 's development in April 1997 , and promotional information for the game was released in one form or another from 1997 until its release in 2011 .
After repeatedly announcing and deferring release dates , 3D Realms announced in 2001 that it would be released simply " when it 's done " . In May 2009 , 3D Realms was downsized for financial reasons , resulting in the loss of the game 's development team . Statements by the company indicated that the project was due to " go gold " soon with pictures of final development . Take @-@ Two Interactive , which owns the publishing rights to the game , filed a lawsuit in 2009 against 3D Realms over their " failure to finish development " . 3D Realms retorted that Take @-@ Two 's legal interest in the game is limited to their publishing right . The case was settled with prejudice and details undisclosed in May 2010 . On September 3 , 2010 , 14 years after the start of the development , Duke Nukem Forever was officially reported by 2K Games to be in development at Gearbox Software , with an expected release date of 2011 . The official release date was then revealed to be May 3 , 2011 , in North America , with a worldwide release following on May 6 , 2011 . This was however delayed by a month to June 10 internationally with a North American release on June 14 . Duke Nukem Forever was finally released after 15 years of development on June 10 , 2011 , to mostly negative reviews .
= = Background = =
Scott Miller was a lifelong gamer who released his text @-@ based video games as shareware in the 1980s . By 1988 , the shareware business was a $ 10 to $ 20 million a year market , but the distribution method had never been tried for video games . Miller found that gamers were not willing to pay for something they could get for free , so he came up with the idea of offering only the opening levels of his games ; players could purchase the game to receive the rest of the game . George Broussard , whom Miller met while he was in high school , joined Miller at his company , Apogee , which published and marketed games developed by other companies . While Miller was quiet , with a head for business , Broussard was an enthusiastic " creative impresario " . Apogee ( from which a new brand name was made in 1994 , 3D Realms ) grew from a small startup to a successful corporation . Among the titles they published was id Software 's Commander Keen in 1990 and Wolfenstein 3D in 1992 . Commander Keen met great success , leading to the development of many sidescrollers for the DOS platform , including many developed by Apogee and using the same engine that powered the Keen games , and Wolfenstein was highly successful , popularizing 3D gaming and establishing the first @-@ person shooter ( FPS ) genre .
By 1994 , Broussard began working on 3D Realms ' own first @-@ person shooter . Rather than the faceless marine of other games , players assumed the role of Duke Nukem , the title character of a pair of 2D platforms from Apogee , Duke Nukem and Duke Nukem II . Broussard described Duke as " a combo of John Wayne , Clint Eastwood , and Arnold Schwarzenegger . " After a year and a half of work , Duke Nukem 3D was released in January 1996 . Among game aspects that appealed to players were environmental interaction and adult @-@ oriented content — including blood and strippers . Buoyed by the success , Broussard announced a follow @-@ up , Duke Nukem Forever .
= = Quake II engine , 1996 – 1998 = =
Duke Nukem Forever was officially announced on April 28 , 1997 , with the intention of releasing the game no later than mid @-@ 1998 . Barely a year after the release of Duke Nukem 3D , the game 's graphics and its game engine , the Build engine , were antiquated . Id Software 's new Quake II engine was far superior to Build , so Broussard decided to license it . The price spent for the licensing rights was steep — estimates were as high as $ 500 @,@ 000 — but Broussard reasoned that it would save time used to write a game engine from scratch . Broussard and Miller were flush with cash from the sales of Duke Nukem 3D and other games , so they decided to fund Duke Nukem Forever themselves , turning marketing and publishing rights over to GT Interactive .
In August and September , the first screenshots of Duke Nukem Forever were released in PC Gamer . However , 3D Realms did not receive the Quake II engine code until November 1997 , and the earlier screenshots were mock @-@ ups with the Quake engine that the team had made in their spare time . 3D Realms unveiled the first video footage of Duke Nukem Forever using the Quake II engine at the 1998 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) conference . The trailer showed Duke fighting on the back of a moving truck and firefights with aliens . While critics were impressed , Broussard was not happy with the progress being made .
= = Unreal engine , 1998 – 2003 = =
Soon after the release of the Quake II engine , Epic Games had unveiled its own Unreal Engine . The Unreal Engine was more realistic than Quake II and was better suited to producing open spaces — 3D Realms had been struggling to render the Nevada desert . Soon after E3 , a programmer suggested that they make the switch . After discussions , the developers unanimously agreed to the change , which would mean scrapping much of their work so far , including significant changes 3D Realms had made to the Quake Engine . In June 1998 , 14 months after the Quake II announcement , 3D Realms made the switch announcement . Broussard said that the game would not be " significantly delayed " by the switch , but that the project would be back to where it was at E3 " within a month to six weeks " . Broussard also said that no content seen in the E3 trailer would be lost . Chris Hargrove , one of the game 's programmers at the time , confided that the change amounted to a complete reboot of the project .
By the end of 1999 , Duke Nukem Forever had missed several release dates and was largely unfinished ; half the game 's weapons remained concepts . Broussard shot back at criticisms of the game 's lengthy development time as the price paid for developing complex modern games : A significant factor contributing to the game 's protracted development was that Broussard was continually looking to add new elements to the game . A running joke at 3D Realms was to stop Broussard from seeing a new video game , as he would want to include portions of it in Duke Nukem Forever . Later that year , Broussard decided to upgrade to a new version of the Unreal engine that was designed for multiplayer matches . Former employees recalled that Broussard did not have a plan for what the finished game would look like . At the same time , GT Interactive was facing higher @-@ than @-@ expected losses and hired Bear Stearns to look into selling the company or merging it . Later that year , Infogrames Entertainment announced it was purchasing a controlling interest in GT Interactive . The publishing rights for Duke Nukem Forever passed to Gathering of Developers in early December 2000 .
To placate anxious fans , Broussard decided to create another trailer for E3 2001 — it was the first public look at the game in three years . The video showed a couple of minutes of in @-@ game footage , which notably showed the player moving in what appears to be Las Vegas and a certain level of interactivity ( the player buys a sandwich from a vending machine and pushes each individual button on a keypad with Duke 's outstretched finger ) . The trailer was impressive , and Duke Nukem was the talk of the convention ; IGN reported on the game 's graphics , saying , " Characters come to life with picturesque facial animations that are synced perfectly with speech , hair that swings as they bob their heads , eyes that follow gazes , and more . The particle effects system , meanwhile , boasts impressive explosion effects with shimmering fire , shattered glass , and blood spilt in every direction [ ... ] Add in real @-@ time lighting effects , interactive environments , and a variation in locales unequaled in any other first @-@ person shooter and you begin to see and understand why Duke Nukem Forever has been one of the most hotly anticipated titles over the last couple of years . " Duke Nukem Forever looked as good or better than most games , and staff at 3D Realms recalled a sense of elation after the presentation ; " The video was just being eaten up by people , " one said . " We were so far ahead of other people at the time . " While many of the staff expected Broussard to make a push for finishing the game , however , he still did not have a finished product in mind . Following the death of one of Gathering of Developers ' co @-@ founders and continuing financial problems , the publishers ' Texas @-@ based offices were shut down and absorbed into parent company Take @-@ Two Interactive .
= = Conflict with Take @-@ Two , 2003 – 2006 = =
By 2003 , only 18 people at 3D Realms were working on the game . One former employee said that Broussard and Miller were still operating on a " 1995 mentality " , before games became large @-@ team , big budget development affairs . Because they were financing the project themselves , the developers could also ignore pressure from their publisher ; their standard reply to when Duke Nukem Forever would ship was " when it 's done " . In 2003 , Take @-@ Two CEO Jeffrey Lapin reported that the game would not be out that year . He further said the company was writing off $ 5 @.@ 5 million from its earnings due to Duke Nukem Forever 's lengthy development time . Broussard shot back that " Take @-@ Two needs to STFU ... We don ’ t want Take @-@ Two saying stupid @-@ ass things in public for the sole purposes of helping their stock . It 's our time and our money we are spending on the game . So either we 're absolutely stupid and clueless , or we believe in what we are working on . " Later that year , Lapin said 3D Realms had told him that Duke Nukem Forever was expected to be finished by the end of 2004 , or the beginning of 2005 .
In 2004 , video game website GameSpot reported that Duke Nukem Forever had switched to the Doom 3 engine . Many gaming news sites mailed Broussard , asking him to confirm or deny the rumor . After receiving no answer from him , they published the rumor as fact , but Broussard explicitly denied the rumor soon after . Soon after 3D Realms replaced the game 's Karma physics system with one designed by Meqon , a relatively unknown Swedish firm . Closed @-@ doors demonstrations of the technology suggested that the physics of Duke Nukem Forever would be a step up from the critically acclaimed Half @-@ Life 2 . Rumors suggested that the game would appear at 2005 E3 . While 3D Realms ' previously canceled Prey made an appearance , the rumors of Duke Nukem Forever 's appearance proved false .
Broussard reported in a January 2006 interview that many of Duke Nukem Forever 's elements had been finished ; " we 're just basically pulling it all together and trying to make it fun " . Later that year Broussard demonstrated samples of the game , including an early level , a vehicle sequence , and a few test rooms . Among the features seen was the interactive use of an in @-@ game computer to send actual e @-@ mails . The developer seemed contrite and affected by the long delays ; while a journalist demoed the game Broussard referenced note cards and constantly apologized for the state of the game . In filing with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission , Take @-@ Two revealed they had renegotiated the Duke Nukem Forever deal , with the former publisher receiving $ 4 @.@ 25 million instead of $ 6 million on release of the game . Take @-@ Two offered a $ 500 @,@ 000 bonus if Duke Nukem Forever was commercially released by December 31 , 2006 . However , Broussard denied the rumors that DNF would be released , saying that 3D Realms never cared for or asked for the bonus . He stated that he would " never ship a game early . "
Some of the staff were tired of the delays — Duke Nukem Forever was the only 3D game many had worked on , giving them little to put on a resume , and as much of 3D Realms ' payment hinged on profit @-@ sharing after release , the continual delays meant deferred income . By August 2006 , between 7 – 10 employees had left since 2005 , a majority of the Duke Nukem Forever team ( which in recent months had shrunk to around 18 staff ) . While Shacknews speculated that the departures would lead to further delays , 3D Realms denied the claims , stating that the employees had left over a number of months and that the game was still moving ahead . Creative director Raphael van Lierop , hired in 2007 , played through the completed content and realized that there was more finished than he expected . Lierop told Broussard that he felt they could push the game and " blow everyone out of the water " , but Broussard responded that the game was still two years away from completion .
= = 3D Realms final years in development , 2007 – 2009 = =
The long delay strained Broussard and Miller 's relationship , and by the end of 2006 , Broussard appeared to become serious about shipping the title . On January 25 and May 22 , 2007 , Broussard posted two Gamasutra job ads with small screenshots of Duke Nukem and an enemy , which he later confirmed were real in @-@ game screenshots . The team doubled in size within a short timeframe . Among the new hires was project lead Brian Hook , who became the first person to successfully resist Broussard 's requests for changes .
A new game trailer was released on December 19 , 2007 , the first teaser in more than six years . The video was made by 3D Realms employees as part of holiday festivities . While Broussard maintained the release date would be " when it 's done " , he added that " you can expect more frequent media releases [ and ] we have considerable work behind us " . While the Dallas Business Journal " confirmed " a 2008 release date for the game , Broussard later reported that this was based on a misunderstanding of " off the record " information . In @-@ game footage of the game appeared in 2008 premiere episode of The Jace Hall Show . Filmed entirely on hand @-@ held cameras but not originally expected to be publicly released , the video showed host Jason Hall playing through parts of a single level on a PC at 3D Realms ' offices . The footage was confirmed to have been shot six months prior to the episode air date and according to Broussard , contained outdated particle and combat effects that had since been replaced . The game did not make an appearance at E3 2008 , an event which Miller described as " irrelevant " .
While the game neared completion , the funding began to dry up . Having spent more than $ 20 million of their own money , Broussard and Miller asked Take @-@ Two for $ 6 million to complete the game . According to Broussard and Miller , Take @-@ Two initially agreed , but then only offered $ 2 @.@ 5 million . Take @-@ Two maintained that they offered $ 2 @.@ 5 million up front and another $ 2 @.@ 5 million on completion . Broussard rejected the counteroffer , and on May 6 , 2009 , suspended all development .
= = DNF team laid off and 3D Realms downsized , 2009 – 2010 = =
3D Realms laid off the DNF staff on May 8 , 2009 due to lack of funding , but inside sources claimed it would still operate as a smaller company . Development on DNF halted , and its fate was unknown . Publisher Take @-@ Two Interactive , in response , stated that they still held the publishing rights for Duke Nukem Forever , but they were not funding the game . Prior to and after the action , unreleased screenshots , concept art , pictures of models from the game and a goodbye message from 3D Realms were posted by alleged former employees . Similar leaks followed after May 8 , 2009 .
Take @-@ Two filed a lawsuit against 3D Realms over their failure to complete Duke Nukem Forever , citing that they paid $ 12 million to Infogrames in 2000 to acquire the publishing rights . 3D Realms argued , however , that they never received that money , as it was a direct agreement between Infogrames and Take @-@ Two . The lawsuit seemed to be over a contractual breach , but not regarding the $ 12 million mentioned above . Take @-@ Two asked for a restraining order and a preliminary injunction , to make 3D Realms keep the Duke Nukem Forever assets intact during proceedings , but the court denied the publisher 's request for a temporary restraining order . In December 2009 , Apogee CEO Scott Miller clarified that " we 've never said that Duke Nukem Forever has ceased development , [ though ] we released the internal team , but that doesn 't correlate to the demise of the project . "
3D Realms made plans to hire an " external " developer to complete the progress while continuing to downsize itself , resulting in development on another title known as Duke Begins being halted . An unofficial compilation of gameplay footage was also released in December 2009 . By 2010 , 3D Realms and Take @-@ Two had settled the lawsuit and dismissed it with prejudice .
= = Gearbox revival and release , 2010 – 2011 = =
Despite the discontinuation of internal game development at 3D Realms , development of the game did not cease entirely . Nine ex @-@ employees including key personnel like Allen Blum , continued game development throughout 2009 from their homes . These employees would later become Triptych Games , an independent studio housed in the same building as Gearbox , with whom they collaborated on the project .
After ceasing internal game development , 3D Realms approached noted game developers Gearbox Software and asked them if they were interested in helping Triptych Games polish the nearly finished PC version and port it to the consoles . Gearbox CEO Randy Pitchford , who had worked on an expansion to Duke Nukem 3D and very briefly on Forever before he left to found Gearbox , felt that " Duke can 't die " and decided that he was going to help " in Duke ’ s time of need . " He started providing funding for the game and contacted 2K Games ' president to persuade his company that Gearbox and Triptych can complete the development of the game and get it released on all platforms in time . Duke Nukem Forever was originally intended to be a PC exclusive game , however 2K and Gearbox had hired Piranha Games to port the game designed for PC to Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 and added a Multiplayer in order to raise sales .
The game was officially re @-@ announced at the Penny Arcade Expo 2010 on September 3 , 2010 . It was the first time in the game 's development history that gamers were able to actually try the game — according to Pitchford , " the line has gotten up to four hours long to see the game " . Gearbox Software subsequently purchased the Duke Nukem intellectual property from 3D Realms , and 2K Games held the exclusive long @-@ term publishing rights of the game .
Development was almost complete with only minor polishing to be done before the game was to be released in 2011 . A playable demo of Duke Nukem Forever was released once Gearbox figured out the timing , with purchasers of the Game of the Year Edition of Borderlands gaining early access . The demo is unexpectedly different from the versions available at PAX and Firstlook . Those that purchased Borderlands on Valve 's Steam prior to October 12 , 2010 got the code for the demo without the need to buy the Game of the Year edition of the game . Duke Nukem Forever was initially scheduled for release on May 3 in the United States and May 6 internationally and after another delay was finally released on June 14 in North America and June 10 worldwide , nearly four weeks after the game had ' gone gold ' within 15 years .
= = Press coverage = =
Wired News has awarded Duke Nukem Forever its Vaporware Award several times . It placed second in June 2000 and topped the list in 2001 and 2002 . Wired magazine created the Vaporware Lifetime Achievement Award exclusively for DNF and awarded it in 2003 . George Broussard accepted the award , simply stating , " We 're undeniably late and we know it . " In 2004 , the game did not make the top 10 ; Wired editors said that they had given DNF the Lifetime Achievement Award to get it off of the list . However , upon readers ' demands , Wired changed its mind , and DNF won first place in 2005 , 2006 , and 2007 . In 2008 , Wired staff officially considered removing DNF from their annual list , citing that " even the best jokes get old eventually " , only to reconsider upon viewing the handheld camera footage of the game in The Jace Hall Show , awarding the game with first place once again . In 2009 , Wired published Wired News ' Vaporware Awards 2009 : Duke Nukem Forever was excluded from consideration on the grounds that the project was finally dead . Duke made a comeback with an unprecedented 11th place award on Wired 's 2010 Vaporware list . When the GameSpy editors compiled a list of the " Top 25 Dumbest Moments in Gaming History " in June 2003 , Duke Nukem Forever placed # 18 . Duke Nukem Forever has drawn a number of jokes related to its development timeline . The video gaming media and public in general have routinely suggested several names in place of Forever , calling it " Never " , " ( Taking ) Forever " , " Whenever " , " ForNever " , " Neverever " , and " If Ever " . The game has also been ridiculed as Duke Nukem : Forever In Development , " Either this is the longest game ever in production or an elaborate in @-@ joke at the expense of the industry " .
= = Additional references = =
= A Tale of Two Cities ( Lost ) =
" A Tale of Two Cities " is the third season premiere , and 50th episode overall , of the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) ' s serial drama television series Lost . The episode was written by co @-@ creators / executive producers J. J. Abrams and Damon Lindelof , based on a story by Lindelof and directed by executive producer Jack Bender . The episode begins with the introduction of Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) and The Barracks . The character of Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) is featured in the episode 's flashbacks . This is the only episode of the series other than the pilot to have been co @-@ written by J.J. Abrams .
When the episode first aired on October 4 , 2006 , in the United States , it was watched by an average of 19 million American viewers , making it the fourth most watched episode of the week . It premiered to generally positive reviews , with many praising Mitchell 's new character .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
In Jack 's flashbacks , Jack is going through a divorce from his wife Sarah ( Julie Bowen ) . He demands to know who she has been dating , but she refuses to tell him , so he spies on her and steals her cell phone . He proceeds to call every number in her phone , and his father Christian Shephard 's ( John Terry ) cell phone rings . After following Christian to an Alcoholics Anonymous meeting , Jack accuses him of sleeping with his wife and physically attacks him . After Jack is arrested , Sarah pays his bail , and tells him Christian is no longer sober . She then leaves with an unidentified man , after telling Jack that " now [ he has ] something to fix . "
= = = On the Island = = =
New character Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) prepares for a book club meeting in a modern suburban home . The club is in a heated discussion of Stephen King 's Carrie , when they are interrupted by what sounds like an earthquake . The group leaves Juliet 's house and Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) , previously known as " Henry Gale " to the survivors , appears along with Ethan Rom ( William Mapother ) , looking up to watch Oceanic Flight 815 break apart in mid @-@ air . Ben quickly orders Goodwin ( Brett Cullen ) and Ethan to join the survivors , stay undercover , and provide " lists in three days . " The camera zooms out to reveal that the suburb is actually on the Island and is inhabited by The Others , while in the background the smoke trail of the midsection and tail section of Flight 815 can be seen .
Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) wakes up on the floor of a locker room . Tom ( M.C. Gainey ) allows her to have a shower and afterwards , forces her to change into a dress , after which she is led to an elegant breakfast on the beach with Ben , who tells her to put on handcuffs before she can eat . She asks him why he is doing this , and he tells her that he wanted to give her something pleasant to remember , as the next two weeks will be " very unpleasant " . James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) wakes up in a cage in the jungle . A teenager , Karl ( Blake Bashoff ) , in a nearby cage initially ignores Sawyer but then later expresses interest in Sawyer 's camp and unlocks his cage then Sawyer 's . However , they are both caught and Tom makes Karl , who is now beaten and bloody , apologize to Sawyer before taking the teen away . Sawyer figures out the mechanical puzzle in his cage , though Tom says it " only took the bears two hours . " Kate is then put in Karl 's ( now empty ) cage .
Jack wakes up in a cell in the Hydra Station , where Juliet gently interrogates him . At one point Jack attacks her and attempts to escape , holding an improvised weapon at her throat . He orders her to open a door , but she refuses to comply , claiming that doing so would kill them both . Ben appears and agrees that opening the door will kill them all . Jack throws Juliet away , and then opens the door . As Ben dashes back through the door he came in , water starts rushing into the hallway . Juliet helps Jack struggle into an adjoining room , tells him to push a button which she had previously mentioned was for emergencies . He does so and she knocks him unconscious . When he awakes , she shows Jack a file which she says contains documents about his entire life . Juliet asks Jack if he has any questions about Sarah . After a pause , he asks , " Is she happy ? " Juliet replies yes , and walks outside , and Ben congratulates her on a job well done .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
" A Tale of Two Cities " was the first episode to introduce the character of Juliet . The actress who plays her , Elizabeth Mitchell , was cast in late July 2006 as a new series regular , who was meant to be a possible love interest for Jack . Mitchell has commented her first or second day of shooting was the opening sequence , when the Others watched Oceanic 815 fall out of the sky . When she first met actor Matthew Fox they briefly introduced themselves , but most of their initial conversation was in regard to the script and their characters . Mitchell found this helpful while shooting the premiere 's scenes , since then they knew the other as their characters , and not as Matthew and Elizabeth . The scene in which Jack yells at Juliet , and she responds " No Jack , I think you 're stubborn " , was used as her audition scene . One of the Others , Amelia , was played by the elderly Julie Adams , who was the protagonist in Creature from the Black Lagoon .
Previous guest actors William Mapother , Julie Bowen , M.C. Gainey , Brett Cullen , and John Terry made brief appearances in the episode . The premiere marked the first appearances of recurring guest actors Blake Bashoff and Stephen Semel . In addition to Mitchell 's new billing , only four other characters of star billing appeared in the episode : Michael Emerson , depicting Ben Linus , was promoted to a main character for the third season ; the other three were Matthew Fox playing Jack Shephard , Evangeline Lilly as Kate Austen and Josh Holloway as Sawyer . Henry Ian Cusick was also promoted to a main character as Desmond Hume , along with new characters Nikki and Paulo , played by Kiele Sanchez and Rodrigo Santoro respectively . Malcolm David Kelley ( Walt Lloyd ) , Harold Perrineau ( Michael Dawson ) , Michelle Rodriguez ( Ana Lucia Cortez ) , and Cynthia Watros ( Libby ) were no longer credited as main characters after each of their characters were written out at the end of the previous season .
= = = Writing = = =
Co @-@ creators and executive producers Damon Lindelof and J.J. Abrams wrote the premiere 's teleplay based upon a story by Lindelof . The episode was Abrams ' first Lost writing credit since the pilot . They laid out the third season with the idea of " us versus them " ; Carlton Cuse , a showrunner , explained , " And who is us ? And who is them ? I mean I think we all tend to objectify people who we don 't know much about and I think that 's the audience 's view of The Others right now -- they are bad , they are the malevolent force on the island . But over the course of the stories we 're going to be telling this season on the show we expect the audience 's view of The Others to change a lot . "
The opening sequence of the episode was meant to replicate the same idea of season 2 's premiere " Man of Science , Man of Faith " , where what seems to be a flashback is instead set on a new part of the island . Director Jack Bender questioned what Jack 's goal was when he pulled on the chain , but Lindelof told him not to worry , because " Fox will sell it , and he did " . Lindelof described when Jack attacks his father at the AA meeting as " pot @-@ committed ... it basically means you put so much money on the bluff , you can 't fold your cards " . The scene with Kate in a dress was inspired by Raiders of the Lost Ark , where Belloq gives a dress for Marion Ravenwood to wear , and was intended to make " tom @-@ boyish " Kate feel vulnerable . The title , inspired by Charles Dickens ' eponymous novel , refers to the reveal of another " city " on the island with the place where the Others live , in addition to the castaways ' beach camp . The episode has only three characters of the second season 's main cast , Jack , Kate and Sawyer . Lindelof later described this limited scope as " a mistake , when the audience is away from the show for that long , they want to see everybody " , causing the following season openers to have scenes with most of the main characters .
In the episode , Tom tells Kate that she is not his type . This comment resulted in online discussion in regard to Tom 's sexual orientation , and Lindelof and Cuse hinted that a Lost character would later be outed . Gainey joked , " if [ Kate 's ] not your type , you 're gay " , and began playing the character as such . After the broadcast of " Meet Kevin Johnson " , Lindelof and Cuse confirmed that the line from the third season premiere is an allusion to Tom 's sexuality , but felt that it needed to be explicitly confirmed in the show , although Lindelof noted that the confirmation scene in " Meet Kevin Johnson " " was not subtle , to say the least " . The beginning of the episode featured a scene where Juliet and Amelia discuss Ben 's feelings for Juliet , which was shot but deleted . This scene was later made into the twelfth " Lost : Missing Pieces " mobisode , " The Envelope " .
= = = Filming = = =
The exterior of the Hydra was shot in an abandoned theme park , which art director Andrew Murdock thought it fit as a location for the " kind of blocky , 80 's @-@ style architecture " , where everything was " aged , industrial , and a little bit larger , and a little bit unusual " . The opening sequence features Petula Clark 's " Downtown " , a song that would later be used in another third season episode featuring Juliet . Another song heard in the premiere , " Moonlight Serenade by Glenn Miller , was first used in the season two episode " The Long Con " . Lindelof has stated the songs they choose for Lost were often inspired from his childhood , when his mother would vacuum to music on Sundays .
= = Reception = =
On its original broadcast in the United States on ABC , the premiere was watched by an estimated 18 @.@ 82 million viewers , making it the most watched episode of the night and the fourth most watched of the week . " A Tale of Two Cities " had four million less viewers than the previous season premiere . In Canada , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 972 million viewers on CTV , easily winning its timeslot . In the United Kingdom , " A Tale of Two Cities " was broadcast on November 22 along with follow @-@ up " The Glass Ballerina " in Lost 's first broadcast after changing to Sky1 . With 1 @.@ 549 million viewers , it was most watched program of the week on the non @-@ terrestrial channels .
IGN 's Chris Carabott rated the premiere 9 / 10 , calling the " peek into the life of The Others ... exceptionally done " and the non @-@ appearance of the other survivors " a smart move " . Carabott also praised Jack 's flashbacks , writing " Previously , Jack has been written as the white knight and reluctant hero who everyone looked to in their time of need . The more chinks they show in Jack 's armor , the better - the more human he becomes . " He called " Juliet ... a promising new character who will hopefully add a new dimension to The Others this season " and concluded his review by calling the episode " a solid season opener " . Robert Bianco from USA Today praised the opening scene and called the episode " a fine start for a great series " but with reservations . Bianco wished Jack would " win one again for the team " , and was fearful that Lost could eventually become like Alias , " a series that became so entranced by its puzzle and its villains that it let the main characters vanish behind them " .
On a list of Lost episodes , the Los Angeles Times ranked " A Tale of Two Cities " number 66 out of 113 episodes , explaining it was " Not bad . The introduction of Juliet is a killer , and Jack raging against the Others is fun . But many of the big revelations -- Ben 's name , for example -- aren 't very well handled . " On a similar list , IGN ranked the episode at number 38 ; they called the opening " one of the show 's characteristic fake @-@ outs " , and Jack 's flashbacks " not nearly as interesting as his first encounters with Juliet " .
Matthew Fox submitted this episode for consideration for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series for the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards .
= Heffernan v. City of Paterson =
Heffernan v. City of Paterson , No. 14 @-@ 1280 , 578 U.S. _ _ _ ( 2016 ) , was a United States Supreme Court case concerning the First Amendment rights of public employees . By a 6 – 2 margin , the Court held that a public employee 's constitutional rights might be violated when an employer disciplines them for the belief that the employee was engaging in protected speech , even if the employee never actually exercised their constitutional rights .
The case was brought after Jeffrey Heffernan , a detective with the Paterson , New Jersey , police force , went to a distribution center and picked up a lawn sign for the candidate challenging the city 's incumbent mayor in the 2005 election as a favor for his mother . While Heffernan himself did not actually support the candidate , after other officers saw him with the sign they told senior officers , including the police chief , who strongly supported the mayor . For his apparent support of the other candidate , they demoted Heffernan to beat patrol work as a uniformed officer .
Heffernan brought suit alleging that his demotion violated his First Amendment rights . The case took a decade to reach the Supreme Court . For most of that time it was in federal district court , where it was heard by three different judges . A jury verdict in Heffernan 's favor was set aside , and a later summary judgment in the city 's favor was overturned on appeal before being granted again in the third trial .
Writing for a majority of the Court , Justice Stephen Breyer stated that the department 's belief was all that mattered , since the Court 's precedent in this area holds it is unconstitutional for a government agency to discipline an employee ( who does not work under a contract that explicitly permits such discipline ) for engaging in partisan political activity , as long as that activity is not disruptive to the agency 's operations . Even if Heffernan was not engaging in protected speech , he wrote , the discipline against him sent a message to others not to exercise their rights . Justice Clarence Thomas wrote a dissenting opinion in which he was joined by Justice Samuel Alito , where he agreed that Heffnernan had been harmed , but his constitutional rights had not been violated .
= = Legal background = =
The First Amendment guarantees the rights of freedom of speech and peaceable assembly , among others . While not explicitly mentioned , the Supreme Court has held that the right to assembly includes the freedom of association , particularly political association . These protections not only prohibit the government from passing laws which infringe upon these rights , but also from taking actions which would violate them . While the Bill of Rights — which includes the First Amendment — originally only applied to the federal government , the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment allowed for the application of the Bill of Rights to the states under the incorporation doctrine .
In order to better protect these rights in the Reconstruction era , Congress passed the Second Enforcement Act of 1871 at the request of president Ulysses S. Grant to better counter white supremacist organizations infringing on the voting rights of black citizens . The act provided a remedy for those citizens who were deprived of their constitutional rights under the " color of any statute , ordinance , regulation , custom , or usage , of any State or Territory or the District of Columbia " and is currently codified at 42 U.S.C. § 1983 . With its decision in Monroe v. Pape ( 1961 ) , the Court expanded the reach of section 1983 such that it is now used as a method of checking abuse by state officials who infringe upon constitutionally protected rights .
The First Amendment protects public employees from retaliation by their employer when speaking on matters of public concern . In Pickering v. Board of Education ( 1968 ) the Court first articulated the right of public employees to be protected from dismissal for exercising their right to free speech . There , the Supreme Court ruled in favor of a teacher who was fired after writing a letter to a local newspaper critical of its handling of a recent bond issue . Eight years later , this protection from dismissal was extended to cover partisan political ideology and affiliation in Elrod v. Burns .
The Court however has recognized that the " government as employer " has wider constitutional latitude in its decisions than the " government as sovereign " . In order to adequately delineate the limits of the government @-@ as @-@ employer 's discretion , the Court developed a framework in Connick v. Myers ( 1983 ) known as the Connick test . It consists of two prongs . The first is the threshold a plaintiff must pass to state a claim : the plaintiff must show that they were speaking on a matter of public concern . The second prong falls to the employer : they must show that the harm to workplace efficiency outweighs the harm caused by infringing upon the right to free speech .
In Waters v. Churchill ( 1994 ) the Court was faced with two differing accounts of the speech at issue . The question presented to the Court was whether the Connick test ought be applied to what the employer thought was said or what was actually said . The case revolved around a nurse dismissed for a conversation she had with a coworker . There was a discrepancy between what she argued was said and what her employer thought was said . Justice O 'Connor , joined by a plurality of justices , opined that the Connick test must be applied to the speech the employer thought occurred rather than that which the finder of fact determines did occur .
= = Facts of the case = =
= = = Original dispute = = =
In 2005 , Jeffrey Heffernan was a detective with the Paterson , New Jersey , police . His supervisor and the chief of police were both appointed by the city 's incumbent mayor , Jose Torres , who was being challenged by city councilman Lawrence Spagnola in that year 's election . Heffernan was friendly with Spagnola , a former police chief , and informally supported his campaign , although he could not vote in the election as he did not live in the city . At the request of his sick mother , he went while off @-@ duty to pick up a lawn sign for her after her previous sign was stolen . Other officers saw him at the distribution location holding a sign and talking to campaign staff . They soon notified superiors and the next day he was demoted from detective to patrol officer for his perceived " overt involvement " with the Spagnola campaign .
= = = District court = = =
Heffernan sued the city , the mayor , and his superior officers under 42 USC § 1983 in the federal District Court for New Jersey , claiming that his rights of freedom of speech as well as freedom of association had been violated . Heffernan contended that while he had not actually engaged in any protected speech , the department acted on the belief that he had , and the department should not have demoted him on the basis of that erroneous belief .
In 2009 , a jury found for Heffernan and awarded him damages from the police officials and the city . Despite the verdict , Heffernan sought a retrial because Judge Peter G. Sheridan had not allowed him to pursue the freedom of speech claim ; the defense did so as well because Judge Sheridan had allowed the freedom of association claim . While he was considering these motions , Judge Sheridan became aware of a conflict of interest through a former law firm and set aside the verdict , setting a new date for trial before Judge Dennis M. Cavanaugh .
Judge Cavanaugh granted summary judgment to the defendants on the freedom of speech claim based on their earlier motions , holding that Heffernan had not engaged in protected speech so his rights could not have been violated . In 2012 , the Third Circuit Court of Appeals reversed Judge Cavanaugh 's ruling and remanded the case to him with instructions that he was to allow Heffernan to present his freedom of association claim and consider the facts from the jury trial when reconsidering the summary @-@ judgment motions .
Judge Kevin McNulty heard the case on remand . After considering the parties ' motions for summary judgment again , he ruled in the city 's favor in 2014 . Heffernan , he ruled , had not engaged in any protected speech or expressive conduct . Judge McNulty also ruled that Heffernan could not prevail on claims his perceived speech was protected , per Ambrose v. Robinson Township , a previous case on that issue in the Third Circuit , or that his actions were protected since they aided and abetted speech . Judge McNulty also rejected similar claims for freedom of association . He decided that Dye v. Office of the Racing Commission , a case in which the Sixth Circuit had held that the First Amendment reached perceived political association , was not a precedent he could rely on since Dye itself explicitly rejected Ambrose and as a district judge he could not reject circuit precedent .
= = = Court of Appeals = = =
On appeal to the Third Circuit , a three @-@ judge panel of Judge Robert Cowen , Judge Morton Ira Greenberg and Judge Thomas I. Vanaskie unanimously held for the city . In a decision issued in 2015 , Judge Vanaskie , writing for the Court , reiterated Judge McNulty 's finding that Heffernan 's actions in picking up the sign for his mother did not constitute protected speech or association . He distinguished the case at hand from the Sixth Circuit 's ruling in Dye by noting that in that case , the employers had inferred the employees ' intent from their non @-@ participation in partisan politics rather than an actual action they had taken , as had occurred in Heffernan 's case .
Judge Vanaskie instead found guidance from the Supreme Court 's 1984 holding in Waters v. Churchill , where it had upheld an Illinois public hospital 's dismissal of a nurse for her comments about a supervisor to a colleague despite an ongoing factual dispute about the substance of those comments , since it found the hospital administration had made a reasonable attempt to investigate what the nurse had said before firing her . In that case , the Court had said explicitly that disciplining employees for things they did not actually do did not rise to the level of a constitutional violation .
= = = Supreme Court = = =
Following the Third Circuit 's decision , Heffernan petitioned the Supreme Court for certiorari , requesting they hear the case . After the Court considered both Heffernan 's petition and the city 's reply , it granted the petition on the first day of the 2015 term . Both parties consented to the filing of amicus curiae briefs by uninvolved parties who believed they had a stake in the outcome of the case . The National Association of Government Employees , Becket Fund for Religious Liberty and Thomas Jefferson Center for the Protection of Free Expression filed amicus briefs in support of Heffernan , while the New Jersey State League of Municipalities and the National Conference of State Legislatures filed briefs in support of the City of Paterson . The United States government also filed an amicus brief in support of Heffernan , as well as a motion to appear at oral argument , which the Court granted , meaning the Solicitor General 's office would be appearing at oral arguments , held on January 19 , 2016 .
= = = = Oral arguments = = = =
Mark Frost , arguing for petitioner Jeffrey Heffernan , was immediately met with questions from the justices : Anthony Kennedy asked for clarification on the particular right to be protected , and Antonin Scalia , Samuel Alito and Chief Justice John Roberts all questioned him about whether his rights could be infringed if he was not actually engaged in any speech . Justice Scalia ( who died before the decision was announced ) argued that there was " no constitutional right not to be fired for the wrong reason " . Frost responded that the motives of the government , rather than the actions of the individual , were important in this case . Assistant to the Solicitor General Ginger Anders , arguing on behalf of the United States as amicus curiae in favor of Heffernan , continued this argument stating that there is " a First Amendment right not to have adverse action taken against him by his employer for the unconstitutional purpose of suppressing disfavored political beliefs . "
Arguing for respondents , Thomas Goldstein distinguished between political neutrality and political apathy . He argued that the First Amendment protects political neutrality , the conscious choice to not take a position , but does not protect political apathy , when a person simply does not care and makes no particular choice to be neutral . As Heffernan claimed that he had no affiliation with the Spagnola , the respondents argued that Heffernan 's actions constitute unprotected apathy rather than a conscious choice of neutrality . Justice Elena Kagan questioned him as to the purpose of the First Amendment saying , " the idea has to do with why the government acted " to which Goldstein responded , " It 's called an individual right , not a government wrong . " Frost took a rebuttal to respond to Goldstein 's distinction between political neutrality and apathy arguing that there is little distinction as the government is acting for impermissible reasons in both cases .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
In a 6 – 2 decision authored by Justice Stephen Breyer , the Court reversed the ruling of the lower Court and ruled that the employer 's motive is material to First Amendment challenges . Citing Waters v. Churchill , Justice Breyer wrote ,
[ w ] e conclude that , as in Waters , the government 's reason for demoting Heffernan is what counts here . When an employer demotes an employee out of a desire to prevent the employee from engaging in political activity that the First Amendment protects , the employee is entitled to challenge that unlawful action under the First Amendment ... — even if , as here , the employer makes a factual mistake about the employee 's behavior .
The Court remanded the case to the Third Circuit and made clear in its opinion that while it is impermissable to retaliate based upon perceived protected speech , the lower courts should take into consideration whether Heffernan was disciplined for violating any different and neutral policies . The majority provided three main arguments in support of its reasoning : that their interpretation is more in line with the text of the First Amendment , that their interpretation better served the First Amendment 's purpose of limiting political patronage , and that such an interpretation will not significantly burden employers .
Justice Breyer argued that unlike the Fourteenth Amendment which focuses on the rights of the people , the First Amendment focuses on the actions of the government when it says , " Congress shall make no law ... abridging the freedom of speech . " As the text of the amendment focuses on the government 's abilities to make laws , it is the government 's actions and motives , not the actual actions of citizens which are proscribed by the Amendment . While the policy at issue was not a law of Congress , the actions were still that of a government official which infringed upon rights guaranteed by the First Amendment .
The Court supported this interpretation by recognizing that the First Amendment sought to prevent government actions from discouraging protected activity . Citing Branti v. Finkel , the Court pointed out that precedent never required plaintiffs in political affiliation cases to show change in allegiance to be successful , and similarly extended that logic to this case : the potential chilling affect on constitutionally protected speech still exists regardless of the factual basis of the employer 's reasoning . Because employees thinking of engaging in protected activity will be equally dissuaded by an incorrect dismissal as by a correct dismissal , both reasonings should be considered in violation of the First Amendment .
Respondents argued that finding employers liable for factual mistakes would place substantial costs upon employers . The Court rejected this argument , saying that an employee would still need to prove the employeer acted out of an improper motive . Referring to Heffernan 's case and those like it , the Court said that " the employee will , if anything , find it more difficult to prove that motive , for the employee will have to point to more than his own conduct to show an employer 's intent " .
= = = Dissent = = =
Justice Clarence Thomas authored the dissent , in which Justice Alito joined . Justice Thomas argued that the previous ruling should have been upheld " because federal law does not provide a cause of action to plaintiffs whose constitutional rights have not been violated " . The dissent focused on the text of the statute Heffernan was suing under : 42 U.S.C. § 1983 . The statute only provides a cause of action for those whose rights have actually been violated by the government . Because Heffernan maintained that he was not exercising his First Amendment rights , the dissent argued that those rights could not have been violated , and that a section 1983 claim requires that the employee engage in protected activity and that the employer retaliate against that activity .
The dissent argued that , for a section 1983 claim to be valid , " harm alone is not enough ; it has to be the right kind of harm " . Thomas provided an example of a law allowing police to pull over any driver without cause . This would obviously violate the Fourth Amendment rights of anyone stopped , but people stuck in traffic who were injured by the collateral damage of unconstitutional actions would not be able to sue because none of their rights were violated . Similarly , it is not enough for Heffernan to have shown injury but violation of an actual right as well . For the dissent , even if the dismissal was for the wrong reason and harm was suffered , the dismissal cannot infringe upon rights he never exercised .
Further supporting their argument , the dissent cited Monterey v. Del Monte Dunes at Monterey , Ltd. to argue that a Section 1983 claim falls under tort law in order to draw a distinction between how attempts are handled under tort and criminal law . Under criminal law , a factually impossible attempt , such as trying to steal from an empty pocket or defraud someone with no money , can still be tried as an attempt . No such doctrine exists in tort law . Because Heffernan was not engaged in protected activity , the police department could only have attempted to deprive him of his right and thus must fail because " there are no attempted torts . "
= = Commentary = =
The day after oral arguments , Gilad Edelman criticized the Court 's assumption that Heffernan never exercised his First Amendment rights , saying , " the Supreme Court may miss an opportunity to make sure that cases like his really are rare . " Edelman interpreted Heffernan 's actions as well within the existing First Amendment precedent . Though Heffernan was not necessarily supporting the candidate , he was talking and associating with people , actions already protected under existing precedent . Edelman went further and suggested that regardless of whether or not Heffernan intended to be identified as supporting the campaign , he was still punished for associating .
Soon after the ruling was announced , the decision was largely praised . Jonathan Stahl , a writer at the Constitution Daily , said that " [ t ] he potential impact of this case on our understanding of the First Amendment is notable " . Similarly , The Economist called it " good law " and a " significant development " for expanding the existing jurisprudence to perceived speech , not just actual speech .
= Regulamentul Organic =
Regulamentul Organic ( Romanian name , translated as Organic Statute or Organic Regulation ; French : Règlement Organique , Russian : Органический регламент , Organichesky reglament ) was a quasi @-@ constitutional organic law enforced in 1834 – 1835 by the Imperial Russian authorities in Moldavia and Wallachia ( the two Danubian Principalities that were to become the basis of the modern Romanian state ) . The document partially confirmed the traditional government ( including rule by the hospodars ) and set up a common Russian protectorate which lasted until 1854 . The Regulament itself remained in force until 1858 . Conservative in its scope , it also engendered a period of unprecedented reforms which provided a setting for the Westernization of the local society . The Regulament offered the two Principalities their first common system of government .
= = Background = =
The two principalities , owing tribute and progressively ceding political control to the Ottoman Empire since the Middle Ages , had been subject to frequent Russian interventions as early as the Russo @-@ Turkish War ( 1710 – 1711 ) , when a Russian army penetrated Moldavia and Emperor Peter the Great probably established links with the Wallachians . Eventually , the Ottomans enforced a tighter control on the region , effected under Phanariote hospodars ( who were appointed directly by the Porte ) . Ottoman rule over the region remained contested by competition from Russia , which , as an Eastern Orthodox empire with claim to a Byzantine heritage , exercised notable influence over locals . At the same time , the Porte made several concessions to the rulers and boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia , as a means to ensure the preservation of its rule .
The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca , signed in 1774 between the Ottomans and Russians , gave Russia the right to intervene on behalf of Eastern Orthodox Ottoman subjects in general , a right which it used to sanction Ottoman interventions in the Principalities in particular . Thus , Russia intervened to preserve reigns of hospodars who had lost Ottoman approval in the context of the Napoleonic Wars ( the casus belli for the 1806 – 12 conflict ) , and remained present in the Danubian states , vying for influence with the Austrian Empire , well into the 19th century and annexing Moldavia 's Bessarabia in 1812 .
Despite the influx of Greeks , arriving in the Principalities as a new bureaucracy favored by the hospodars , the traditional Estates of the realm ( the Divan ) remained under the tight control of a number of high boyar families , who , while intermarrying with members of newly arrived communities , opposed reformist attempts – and successfully preserved their privileges by appealing against their competitors to both Istanbul and Saint Petersburg .
In the last decades of the 18th century , the growing strategic importance of the region brought about the establishment of consulates representing European powers directly interested in observing local developments ( Russia , the Austrian Empire , and France ; later , British and Prussian ones were opened as well ) . An additional way for consuls to exercise particular policies was the awarding of a privileged status and protection to various individuals , who were known as sudiți ( " subjects " , in the language of the time ) of one or the other of the foreign powers .
A seminal event occurred in 1821 , when the rise of Greek nationalism in various parts of the Balkans in connection with the Greek War of Independence led to occupation of the two states by the Filiki Eteria , a Greek secret society who sought , and initially obtained , Russian approval . A mere takeover of the government in Moldavia , the Eterist expedition met a more complex situation in Wallachia , where a regency of high boyars attempted to have the anti @-@ Ottoman Greek nationalists confirm both their rule and the rejection of Phanariote institutions . A compromise was achieved through their common support for Tudor Vladimirescu , an Oltenian pandur leader who had already instigated an anti @-@ Phanariote rebellion ( as one of the Russian sudiți , it was hoped that Vladimirescu could assure Russia that the revolt was not aimed against its influence ) . However , the eventual withdrawal of Russian support made Vladimirescu seek a new agreement with the Ottomans , leaving him to be executed by an alliance of Eterists and weary locals ( alarmed by his new anti @-@ boyar program ) ; after the Ottomans invaded the region and crushed the Eteria , the boyars , still perceived as a third party , obtained from the Porte an end to the Phanariote system
= = Akkerman Convention and Treaty of Adrianople = =
The first reigns through locals – Ioniță Sandu Sturdza as Prince of Moldavia and Grigore IV Ghica as Prince of Wallachia – were , in essence , short @-@ lived : although the patron @-@ client relation between Phanariote hospodars and a foreign ruler was never revived , Sturdza and Ghica were deposed by the Russian military intervention during the Russo @-@ Turkish War , 1828 – 1829 . Sturdza 's time on the throne was marked by an important internal development : the last in a series of constitutional proposals , advanced by boyars as a means to curb princely authority , ended in a clear conflict between the rapidly decaying class of low @-@ ranking boyars ( already forming the upper level of the middle class rather than a segment of the traditional nobility ) and the high @-@ ranking families who had obtained the decisive say in politics . The proponent , Ionică Tăutu , was defeated in the Divan after the Russian consul sided with the conservatives ( expressing the official view that the aristocratic @-@ republican and liberal aims of the document could have threatened international conventions in place ) .
On October 7 , 1826 , the Ottoman Empire — anxious to prevent Russia 's intervention in the Greek Independence War — negotiatied with it a new status for the region in Akkerman , one which conceded to several requests of the inhabitants : the resulting Akkerman Convention was the first official document to nullify the principle of Phanariote reigns , instituting seven @-@ year terms for new princes elected by the respective Divans , and awarding the two countries the right to engage in unrestricted international trade ( as opposed to the tradition of limitations and Ottoman protectionism , it only allowed Istanbul to impose its priorities in the grain trade ) . The convention also made the first mention of new Statutes , enforced by both powers as governing documents , which were not drafted until after the war – although both Sturdza and Ghica had appointed commissions charged with adopting such projects .
The Russian military presence on the Principalities ' soil was inaugurated in the first days of the war : by late April 1828 , the Russian army of Peter Wittgenstein had reached the Danube ( in May , it entered present @-@ day Bulgaria ) . The campaign , prolonged for the following year and coinciding with devastating bubonic plague and cholera epidemics ( which together killed around 1 @.@ 6 % of the population in both countries ) , soon became a drain on local economy : according to British observers , the Wallachian state was required to indebt itself to European creditors for a total sum of ten million piast | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
reason that , amidst my deal @-@ making skills , I have a very strong pedagogical bent " , he says . " I really enjoy teaching , and believe it is one of the most important professions in our society . "
= = = Executive Producer = = =
Falk executive produced a number of sports @-@ related films , including Space Jam , which teamed Jordan with a number of Looney Tunes characters , Michael Jordan to the Max , the critically acclaimed large @-@ format feature , and the Sports Emmy Award @-@ winning On Hallowed Ground , a documentary on the history of the Rucker Park Basketball League .
= = = The Bald Truth = = =
Falk 's first book , The Bald Truth , was released on February 3 , 2009 .
= = Partial client list = =
Falk 's 2014 NBA player clients are in bold , while his non @-@ NBA player clients are in italics .
= Auricularia auricula @-@ judae =
Auricularia auricula @-@ judae , known as the Jew 's ear , wood ear , jelly ear or by a number of other common names , is a species of edible Auriculariales fungus found worldwide . The fruiting body is distinguished by its noticeably ear @-@ like shape and brown colouration ; it grows upon wood , especially elder . Its specific epithet is derived from the belief that Judas Iscariot hanged himself from an elder tree ; the common name " Judas 's ear " eventually became " Jew 's ear " , while today " jelly ear " and other names are sometimes used . The fungus can be found throughout the year in temperate regions worldwide , where it grows upon both dead and living wood .
In the West , A. auricula @-@ judae was used in folk medicine as recently as the 19th century for complaints including sore throats , sore eyes and jaundice , and as an astringent . Although it is not widely consumed in the West , it has long been popular in China , to the extent that Australia exported large volumes to China in the early twentieth century . Today , the fungus is a popular ingredient in many Chinese dishes , such as hot and sour soup , and also used in Chinese medicine . It is also used in Ghana , as a blood tonic . Modern research into possible medical applications have variously concluded that A. auricula @-@ judae has antitumour , hypoglycemic , anticoagulant and cholesterol @-@ lowering properties .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The species was first mentioned in the scientific literature as Tremella auricula by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum , and later ( 1789 ) described by Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard as Tremella auricula @-@ judae . However , the genus Tremella is now reserved for fungal species that live as parasites on other fungi . Tremella auricula @-@ judae is now considered a basionym . In 1791 , Bulliard transferred the species to the genus Peziza . In 1822 , Elias Magnus Fries transferred the species to Exidia , and , in so doing , sanctioned the name . In 1860 , Miles Joseph Berkeley described the species as a member of Hirneola , a genus described by Fries in 1848 , now considered synonymous with Auricularia .
The species was given the name Auricularia auricula @-@ judae in 1888 by Joseph Schröter . The specific name of A. auricula @-@ judae comprises auricula , the Latin word meaning ear , and Judae , meaning of Judas . Under binomial nomenclature , a species name can comprise only two words ; but the taxonomists responsible for this naming hyphenated the specific name to " bend the rules " and keep the name " within the letter of the law " . The name was criticised by mycologist Curtis Gates Lloyd , who said " Auricularia auricula @-@ Judae is cumbersome and in addition is a slander on the Jews " . Though critical of Lucien Marcus Underwood , saying he " would probably not have known the Jew 's ear from the calves ' liver " , he followed him in using Auricularia auricula , which was in turn used by Bernard Lowy in an article on the entire genus . Despite this , Auricularia auricula @-@ judae is the currently recognised name for the species by many sources , though Auricularia auricula is still occasionally used .
As well as the obligate synonyms from Bulliard , Fries and Berkeley , there are numerous other synonymous names . Mycologist George Willard Martin , writing in 1943 , noted that the species was known by at least 12 binomials , of which none appeared to be valid , and noted that " the citations given for the various names are extremely erratic " . Mycologist Mary F. Barrett attributes " such multiplication of names " to " the wide distribution of the Judas ' ear , its ability to grow upon many different kinds of decaying wood , and to its great variation in size , colour and shape " .
The fungus is associated with Judas Iscariot because of the belief that he hanged himself on an elder tree after his betrayal of Jesus Christ . Folklore suggests that the ears are Judas 's returned spirit , and are all that are left to remind us of his suicide . The common name of the fungus was originally " Judas 's ear " , but this was later shortened to " Judas ear " and , in the late 19th century , shortened again to " Jew 's ear " . Common names for the fungus which refer to Judas can be traced back to at least the end of the 16th century ; for instance , in the 17th century , Thomas Browne wrote of the species :
In Jews ' ears something is conceived extraordinary from the name , which is in propriety but fungus sambucinus , or an excrescence about the roots of elder , and concerneth not the nation of the Jews , but Judas Iscariot , upon a conceit he hanged on this tree ; and is become a famous medicine in quinsies , sore throats , and strangulations , ever since .
While the term " Jew 's meat " was a deprecatory term used for all fungi in the Middle Ages , the term is unrelated to the name " Jew 's ear " . A further change of name to " jelly ear " was recommended in the List of Recommended Names for Fungi . The idea was rejected by mycologist Patrick Harding who considered it " to be the result of political correctness where it is not necessary " , and who " will continue to call [ the species ] Jew 's ear " , explaining that , while anti @-@ Semitism was commonplace in Britain , the name " Jew 's ear " is in reference to Judas , who was a Jew . However , the name has been adopted in some recent field guides .
Unrelated common names include the " ear fungus " , " common ear fungus " , " the Chinese Fungus " , " the pig 's ear " , " the wood ear " , " the black wood ear " , " the tree ear " , and " Kikurage " . The species was known as " fungus sambuca " among herbalists , in reference to Sambuca , the generic name for elder .
= = Description = =
The fruit body of A. auricula @-@ judae is normally 3 to 8 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) across , but can be as much as 12 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . It is distinctively shaped , typically being reminiscent of a floppy ear , though the fruit bodies can also be cup @-@ shaped . It is normally attached to the substrate laterally and sometimes by a very short stalk . The species has a tough , gelatinous , elastic texture when fresh , but it dries hard and brittle . The outer surface is a bright reddish @-@ tan @-@ brown with a purplish hint , often covered in tiny , downy hairs of a grey colour . It can be smooth , as is typical of younger specimens , or undulating with folds and wrinkles . The colour becomes darker with age . The inner surface is a lighter grey @-@ brown in colour and smooth . It is sometimes wrinkled , again with folds and wrinkles , and may have " veins " , making it appear even more ear @-@ like .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
The spores of A. auricula @-@ judae are long and sausage shaped , ranging in size from 16 to 18 micrometres ( μm ) long by 6 to 8 μm thick . The spores themselves are white , cream or yellowish , and are hyaline . The spores can sometimes be seen in a whitish mass on the underside of the fruit body . The species has elongated cylindrical basidia with three transverse septa ( internal cross @-@ walls dividing the hyphae ) . Basidia 60 @-@ 72x 4 @-@ 7.5μm ; sterigmata lateral , well developed , 3 @-@ 4.5μm long . Spores smooth , hyaline , reniform to allantoid , 14 @-@ 18 Χ 6 @-@ 8μm , guttulate . Hairs on the fruit body are from 85 to 100 μm in length , and 5 to 6 μm in diameter . They are hyaline , lack a central strand and have rounded tips . They do not grow in dense tufts .
= = = Similar species = = =
Auricularia auricula @-@ judae is similar to A. fuscosuccinea in colour and texture , and " may be confused with it if only external features are considered " . The spore and basidia sizes of the two species are slightly different , but this is not a reliable way to tell them apart . A. cornea is another similar species in the same genus , but has distinct internal differences , is normally more pilose ( more covered in soft hair ) and tends to fruit in larger numbers .
= = Habitat , ecology and distribution = =
Auricularia auricula @-@ judae grows upon the wood of deciduous trees and shrubs , favouring elder . In up to 90 % of cases , the mushroom is found on elder , but it is often incorrectly assumed to grow exclusively on elder . It has also been recorded on Acer pseudoplatanus ( known in the United Kingdom as sycamore ) , beech , ash , spindle , and in one particular case , the sycamore draining board of an old sink in Hatton Garden . Recently , A. auricula @-@ judae has been recorded from semi @-@ evergreen to evergreen and wet evergreen shola forests in the Western Ghats , India . This species occurs scattered and in clusters on dead or dying branches of trees , on main trunk , decaying logs , etc . This species occurs during the monsoon period in large imbricate clusters and under high humid conditions produces exceptionally large sized basidiomes . A. auricula @-@ judae growing in wet evergreen and shola forests shows remarkable variation in size , shape and colour . In Australia , it is found in Eucalyptus woodland and rainforests ; in the rainforests , it can grow in very large colonies on fallen logs . It favours older branches , where it feeds as a saprophyte ( on dead wood ) or a weak parasite ( on living wood ) , and it causes white rot .
Commonly growing solitarily , it can also be gregarious ( in a group ) or caespitose ( in a tuft ) . Spores are ejected from the underside of the fruit bodies with as many as several hundred thousand an hour , and the high rate continues when the bodies have been significantly dried . Even when they have lost some 90 % of their weight through dehydration , the bodies continue to release a small number of spores . It is found all year , but is most common in autumn . It is widespread throughout temperate and sub @-@ tropical zones worldwide , and can be found across Europe , North America , Asia , Australia , South America and Africa . There has been some debate about the appearance of the species in the tropics ; while it has been frequently reported there , Bernard Lowy , in an article on Auricularia , said that " of the specimens I have examined , none could be assigned here " .
= = Uses = =
= = = Food = = =
Auricularia auricula @-@ judae has a soft , jelly @-@ like texture . Though edible , it was not held in high culinary regard in the west for many years . It has been likened to " eating an Indian rubber with bones in it " , while in 19th @-@ century Britain , it was said that " it has never been regarded here as an edible fungus " . It has a mild flavour , and is useful for mixed mushroom recipes , but is still considered bland in the west . It can be dried and rehydrated , sometimes swelling to a very large size . Young specimens are best , but the species is not edible when raw , needing to be cooked thoroughly . The whole fruit body can be eaten , but should be thoroughly washed before cooking . Cooking can sometimes take a comparatively long time . The nutritional content of 100 g ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) of dried fungus includes 370 kcal , 10 @.@ 6 g of protein , 0 @.@ 2 g of fat , 65 g of carbohydrate , 5 @.@ 8 g ash , and 0 @.@ 03 % mg of carotene . Fresh mushrooms contain about 90 % moisture . Dried specimens may be ground up into a powder and used to absorb excess liquid in soups and stews , as it rehydrates into tiny fragments .
Both A. auricula @-@ judae and the similar A. polytricha are popular in China , where the medicinal use of food is common ; a soup containing the species is used medicinally for dealing with colds and fevers by reducing the heat of the body . There is evidence that the species were being cultivated in China as early as the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) . Li Shizhen , in his Pen Tsao Kang Mu , quotes Tang Ying @-@ chuan from that period as saying " ... put the steamed bran on logs , cover with straw , Wood Ear will grow " . In the early 20th century , large volumes of A. auricula @-@ judae were exported from Australia to China , and it is today still sold in Asian food shops for culinary use . It is also popular in Vietnam , although the climate is there more suited to A. polytricha . A report on small @-@ scale fungi cultivation concluded that A. auricula @-@ judae would be suitable for cultivation only in cooler climates . According to a 2010 publication , the annual production of Auricularia species worldwide is the fourth highest among all industrially cultivated culinary and medicinal mushrooms , and in China , the estimated output was roughly 1 @.@ 655 million tonnes ( based on 2003 data ) , most of which are A. polytricha however ( which has by and large replaced A. auricula @-@ judae in international trade ) .
Auricularia auricula @-@ judae is also in cultivation elsewhere in the world , for instance , in Ghana . In the Brong @-@ Ahafo and Ashanti regions , it is grown with what is referred to as the " plastic bag method " . Sawdust is packed into polypropylene bags and then sterilised by steam for several hours . Once the sawdust has cooled , Sorghum grain spawn is added , and the bags are kept in moderately dark conditions . Once the sawdust is exposed to a humid environment , A. auricula @-@ judae fruit bodies begin to grow . Elsewhere in the world , a study on the use of mushrooms by the Bini people inhabiting a remote village in southern Nigeria found that the local inhabitants collected and ate A. auricula @-@ judae , but that it was not one of the mushrooms they used medicinally .
Collection of the mushroom for culinary use has also been documented in Nepal . However , the Nepalese do not consider it a choice mushroom for eating ; of the three grades given to edible mushrooms , it was given the worst . Again , unlike other mushrooms , no medicinal use was reported . The mushroom has also been the only non @-@ morel species exported from Nepal for culinary use .
Other places where A. auricula @-@ judae has been recorded as commonly consumed include Poland , Mozambique and Indonesia , while , in Bolivia , Goeldi 's monkeys have been recorded as commonly eating the sporocarps .
= = = Folk medicine = = =
Auricularia auricula @-@ judae has been used as a medicinal mushroom by many herbalists . It was used as a poultice to treat inflammations of the eye , as well as a palliative for throat problems . The 16th @-@ century herbalist John Gerard , writing in 1597 , recommended A. auricula @-@ judae for a very specific use ; other fungi were used more generally . He recommends the preparation of a liquid extract by boiling the fruit bodies in milk , or else leaving them steeped in beer , which would then be sipped slowly in order to cure a sore throat . The resultant broth was probably not dissimilar to the Chinese soups that use A. polytricha . Carolus Clusius , writing in 1601 , also said that the species could be gargled to cure a sore throat , and John Parkinson , writing in 1640 , reported that boiling in milk or steeping in vinegar was " the onely use the are put unto that I know " .
Writing in 1694 , herbalist John Pechey described A. auricula @-@ judae by saying " It grows to the Trunk of the Elder @-@ Tree . Being dried it will keep a good year . Boyl 'd in Milk , or infus 'd in Vinegarm ' tis good to gargle the Mouth or Throat in Quinsies , and other inflammations of the Mouth and Throat . And being infus 'd in some proper Water , it is good in Diseases of the Eyes . " The species also saw use as an astringent due to its ability to absorb water . There are recorded medicinal usages from Scotland , where it was again used as a gargle for sore throats , and from Ireland , where , in an attempt to cure jaundice , it was boiled in milk . The medicinal use of A. auricula @-@ judae continued until at least 1860 , when it was still sold at Covent Garden ; at the time , it was not considered edible in the United Kingdom .
Medicinal use in Indonesia was also recorded in the 1930s , and was more recently reported in modern @-@ day Ghana . A report for the 2005 Commonwealth Forestry Conference examining the possible effects of deforestation in southern Ghana on medicinal and edible fungi found that A. auricula @-@ judae was in use as a blood tonic .
= = = Pharmacology = = =
Auricularia auricula @-@ judae has been the subject of research into possible medicinal applications . Experiments in the 1980s concluded that two glucans isolated from the species showed potent antitumour properties when used on mice artificially implanted with Sarcoma 180 tumours . This was despite the conclusion of earlier research indicating that , while aqueous extracts from several other fungal species had antitumour effects , extracts from A. auricula @-@ judae did not . Further , research on genetically diabetic mice showed that a polysaccharide extracted from A. auricula @-@ judae had a hypoglycemic effect ; mice fed with food including the polysaccharide showed reduced plasma glucose , insulin , urinary glucose and food intake .
Another chemical extracted from the species was an acidic polysaccharide ( made up of mostly mannose , glucose , glucuronic acid and xylose ) which showed anticoagulant properties . The article concluded that " the polysaccharides from these mushrooms may constitute a new source of compounds with action on coagulation , platelet aggregation and , perhaps , on thrombosis " . Another study reported that the species may be effective in stopping platelet binding in vitro , with possible uses regarding hypercholesterolemia . Research has shown that A. auricula @-@ judae can be used to lower cholesterol levels generally , and , in particular , is one of two fungi shown to reduce the level of bad cholesterol .
= = Cultural depictions = =
The species is referred to in Christopher Marlowe 's play The Jew of Malta . Iathamore proclaims : " The hat he wears , Judas left under the elder when he hanged himself " . Later , the species was probably partially the inspiration for Emily Dickinson 's poem beginning " The Mushroom is the Elf of Plants " , which depicts a mushroom as the " ultimate betrayer " . Dickinson had both a religious and naturalistic background , and so it is more than likely that she knew of the common name of A. auricula @-@ judae , and of the folklore surrounding Judas 's suicide .
= Jersey Act =
The Jersey Act was introduced to prevent the registration of most American @-@ bred Thoroughbred horses in the British General Stud Book . It had its roots in the desire of the British to halt the influx of American @-@ bred racehorses of possibly impure bloodlines during the early 20th century . Many American @-@ bred horses were exported to Europe to race and retire to a breeding career after a number of US states banned gambling , which depressed Thoroughbred racing as well as breeding in that country . The loss of breeding records during the American Civil War and the late beginning of the registration of American Thoroughbreds led many in the British racing establishment to doubt that the American @-@ bred horses were purebred .
In 1913 the Jockey Club and the owners of the General Stud Book passed a regulation named by the foreign press after the Jockey Club 's senior steward , Lord Jersey , prohibiting the registration of horses in the book unless all of their ancestors had been registered . Despite protests from American breeders the regulation was in force until 1949 . Among the factors influencing its relaxation were the racing success of ineligible horses in Europe and the damage being caused to British and Irish breeders by the unavailability of French Thoroughbreds during and after the Second World War . In addition , by 1949 the impure ancestors of the American bloodlines had receded far back in most horses ' ancestry .
= = Background = =
Before the introduction in 1913 of what became popularly known — " with questionnable taste " according to a correspondent writing in The Times — as the Jersey Act , Thoroughbred horses in the United Kingdom were registered in the General Stud Book , the stud book for British and Irish Thoroughbreds . The rules allowed a horse to be registered if all of the horse 's ancestors were registered in the General Stud Book or if it had been bred outside of Britain or Ireland and was registered in the stud book of its country of origin . Overall the General Stud Book had the most stringent rules for registration of Thoroughbreds at the time , around 1900 ; other countries , including the United States , France , Australia and Russia , were considered by the British and Irish to be much laxer and to have allowed some non @-@ Thoroughbred horses into their national stud books .
The outlawing of race @-@ track betting in parts of the United States between 1900 and 1913 led to a large influx of American @-@ bred horses into Britain and Ireland , giving rise to fears among British breeders that they would be swamped by the American bloodlines and their own stock would become worthless . The biggest state to outlaw betting was New York , which passed the Hart – Agnew Law in 1908 . By 1911 , the average price for yearlings sold at auction was at a record low of $ 230 ( $ 5 @,@ 840 as of 2016 ) . Before 1900 , most horses were imported into Britain to race , and rarely stayed for a breeding career . The outlawing of gambling resulted in large numbers of American horses that could no longer be supported , and many were shipped to Europe for racing . Because of the downturn in the horse market in the US , it was assumed that most of the horses sent to Europe would stay there permanently and , after retirement from the racetrack , would enter their breeding careers outside the US . Between 1908 and 1913 , over 1500 Thoroughbreds were exported from the United States . Those exported included 24 horses who had been or would later become champions – among them Artful , Colin , Henry of Navarre , Peter Pan , and Ballot .
The American Stud Book , the registration book for American Thoroughbreds , was not founded until 1873 , much later than the General Stud Book , and the rules for registration required only that a horse have five generations of ancestors in the American Stud Book or other national stud books , unlike the General Stud Book rules . In addition , many breeding records were destroyed during the American Civil War , as fighting during that conflict took place in noted American Thoroughbred breeding centers . The result was that most American Thoroughbreds in 1913 were unable to show an unblemished pedigree according to the General Stud Book rules . Adding to the problem was the fact that American horses were beginning to win the big horse races in England , starting with Iroquois , who won the 1881 Epsom Derby .
J. B. Haggin , an American breeder and owner of the historic Elmendorf Farm , had begun to ship large contingents of horses to England for sale , including the 1908 Grand National steeplechase winner Rubio , and the fear was that if other American breeders followed his lead , the English racing market would be overwhelmed . As a first step , the English racing authorities began to limit the number of training licences at Newmarket Racecourse , turning away a number of American breeders . The General Stud Book rules for registration were also amended in 1909 to restrict registration to horses whose ancestry entirely traced to horses already registered in the General Stud Book , but horses registered in other national stud books were still allowed to be imported and registered .
= = Introduction = =
The owners of the General Stud Book , Weatherbys , consulted with the Jockey Club , the United Kingdom 's racing authority , and discussions were held about the problems in pedigrees recorded in the American Stud Book . At a meeting of the Jockey Club in spring 1913 , Victor Child Villiers , Lord Jersey , the club 's senior steward , proposed a resolution limiting the registration of American bloodlines . It passed unanimously in May , and a new regulation was placed in the General Stud Book , Volume 22 :
No horse or mare can , after this date , be considered as eligible for admission unless it can be traced without flaw on both sire 's and dam 's side of its pedigree to horses and mares themselves already accepted in the earlier volumes of the book .
Although named the Jersey Act by a critical foreign press , after Lord Jersey , the new regulation did not have the force of law as it was promulgated by the registration authorities of the Thoroughbred horse , not by the United Kingdom government . Nor was it promulgated by the Jockey Club , which had no authority over registration , only over racing matters . The regulation required that any horse registered in the General Stud Book trace in every line to a horse that had already been registered in the General Stud Book , effectively excluding most American @-@ bred Thoroughbreds .
= = Effects = =
The new rule was not applied retroactively , therefore all American @-@ bred horses registered before 1913 remained on the register , and their descendants were also eligible for registration . Of the 7 @,@ 756 mares in Volume 27 of the General Stud Book , published in 1933 , 930 would have been ineligible under the new rule . The Jersey Act did have an immediate impact however , as the winner of the 1914 Epsom Derby , Durbar II , was ineligible for registration , as his dam , Armenia , was bred in the United States and was not herself eligible for the General Stud Book .
The main problem for American breeders was the presence of the blood of Lexington in their breeding programs . Lexington 's pedigree on his dam 's side was suspect in the eyes of British racing authorities , and as he had been the leading sire of racehorses in the United States for 16 years , his descendants were numerous . Most American @-@ bred Thoroughbreds traced to Lexington at least once , and he was not the only horse with suspect bloodlines registered in the American Stud Book .
Most British breeders thought the regulation necessary and welcomed it , whereas most American breeders found it insulting , and believed that it was intended merely to protect the British racehorse market . The rule did adversely affect many British breeders as well though , including even one senior member of the Jockey Club , Lord Coventry , whose successful line of racehorses was ineligible for registration . Initially there was little foreign complaint or organized opposition , probably owing to the effect of the gambling bans in the United States on the domestic horse market . The American Jockey Club did not even remark on the Jersey Act in its official publication , the Racing Calendar , and no mention of it appears in the Jockey Club 's meeting minutes for 1913 . Contributing to the lack of outcry was a legal ruling in New York allowing oral betting at racetracks , which led to the growth of racing in the United States ; by 1920 the American breeding market had rebounded and was booming .
The Jersey Act did not prevent the racing of horses containing the banned bloodlines , as horses with the suspect breeding raced and won in England , but they were considered to be " half @-@ bred " . A number of American @-@ bred horses carrying the lines of Lexington had already been imported into England , including Americus , Rhoda B , and Sibola , and because they were grandfathered in , they and their descendants were allowed to be registered in the General Stud Book . Neither did it prevent the racing of horses that were not registered in the General Stud Book ; it just prevented registration in the General Stud Book . American bloodlines , whether registered in the General Stud Book or not , dominated English racing in the 1920s and 1930s . Horses that were ineligibile for General Stud Book registration , but were allowed to race , were identified with a Maltese cross in programs and auction listings .
A number of American breeders , including the then @-@ chairman of the American Jockey Club , William Woodward , Sr. , lobbied hard throughout the 1930s to have the regulation removed . Woodward , and other defenders of the American bloodlines , argued that the racing performance of the horses proved their purity , even if they could not produce papers that did so . Woodward declared in 1935 that " If we do not get together , we will grow apart . " Those arguing for keeping the Jersey Act in effect pointed out that the General Stud Book is a record of bloodlines , not a work recording racing ability .
The Jersey Act 's major effect was the opposite of what was intended . In the years before the Second World War British and Irish breeders had relied on imported Thoroughbreds from France to enrich their breeding lines , a source that was unavailable during the war , and concerns were beginning to be expressed that the situation might lead to excessive inbreeding . Additionally , by the end of the war American @-@ bred lines were some of the most successful racing lines in the world , effectively making the British and Irish breeding programmes that did not use them second @-@ rate , and harming the rebuilding of English racing . There were even calls for the creation of an international stud book to record all Thoroughbred pedigrees , thus eliminating any perceived slight on the bloodlines that were excluded from the General Stud Book .
= = 1949 amendment = =
Weatherbys , publishers of the Stud Book , approached the Jockey Club in 1948 to ask if it agreed that the Jersey Act was " too restrictive " . The rule was subsequently modified in June 1949 , after the racing careers of a number of horses such as Tourbillon and Djebel persuaded the Jockey Club to reconsider . A number of French @-@ bred Thoroughbreds began to race in England after the Second World War , but because they carried American lines they were considered half @-@ breds . In 1948 two of England 's five classic races were won by half @-@ bred horses , My Babu and Black Tarquin , prompting the Jockey Club to amend the rule in the preface to the General Stud Book , to state that :
Any animal claiming admission from now onwards must be able to prove satisfactorily some eight or nine crosses pure blood , to trace back for at least a century , and to show such performances of its immediate family on the Turf as to warrant the belief in the purity of its blood .
The amendment removed the stigma of not being considered purebred from American @-@ bred horses . A major consideration was that by the late 1940s most of the horses with suspect pedigrees were so far back in most horses ' ancestry that it no longer made much sense to exclude them . Neither did it make much sense to exclude some of the most successful racehorses in Europe from registration . Weatherby 's further amended its regulations in 1969 , introducing the word " thoroughbred " to describe the horses registered in previous volumes of the General Stud Book . In 2006 , Blood @-@ Horse Publications , publisher of The Blood @-@ Horse magazine , chose the " repeal " of the Jersey Act as the 39th most important moment in American Thoroughbred horse racing history .
= Little Wapwallopen Creek =
Little Wapwallopen Creek is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 17 miles ( 27 km ) long and flows through Rice Township , Dorrance Township , Conyngham Township , and Hollenback Township . The watershed of the creek has an area of 39 @.@ 5 square miles ( 102 km2 ) . The creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery and is not considered to be impaired . It has two named tributaries : Pond Creek and Nuangola Outlet . Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek .
Little Wapwallopen Creek ranges from slightly acidic to slightly basic . It is a significant source of flooding in Conyngham Township , Dorrance Township , and Rice Township . Numerous bridges have been constructed across the creek . The surficial geology in its vicinity consists of alluvium , alluvial terrace , alluvial fan , Wisconsinan Ice @-@ Contact Stratified Drift , Wisconsinan Till , and wetlands . Numerous bridges have also been constructed across the creek .
= = Course = =
Little Wapwallopen Creek begins in Boyle Pond in Rice Township . It flows west for several tenths of a mile and passes through another pond before turning south @-@ southwest for more than a mile ( two kilometers ) . It then turns west for a few tenths of a mile and receives Nuangola Outlet , its first named tributary , from the right . The creek turns south @-@ southwest for more than a mile before turning southwest and crossing Interstate 81 and entering Dorrance Township . Several tenths of a mile further downstream , it passes through Andy Pond and turns west @-@ northwest for a short distance . It then turns west @-@ southwest for considerably more than a mile before turning west and then west @-@ northwest . The creek then turns north for a few tenths of a mile before turning west for several tenths of a mile . For the next few miles , it flows roughly west @-@ southwest , entering Conyngham Township . The creek then turns south for several tenths of a mile , briefly entering Hollenback Township before turning north and flowing alongside Hess Mountain as it reenters Conyngham Township . Its valley broadens and it flows west @-@ southwest for a few miles , receiving the tributary Pond Creek and crossing Pennsylvania Route 239 . A short distance further downstream , it reaches its confluence with the Susquehanna River .
Little Wapwallopen Creek is approximately 17 miles ( 27 km ) long . It joins the Susquehanna River 168 @.@ 16 miles ( 270 @.@ 63 km ) upriver of its mouth .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Little Wapwallopen Creek has numerous unnamed tributaries and two named tributaries : Nuangola Outlet and Pond Creek . Pond Creek joins Little Wapwallopen Creek 1 @.@ 52 miles ( 2 @.@ 45 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 9 @.@ 69 square miles ( 25 @.@ 1 km2 ) . Nuangola Outlet joins Little Wapwallopen Creek 14 @.@ 55 miles ( 23 @.@ 42 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 2 @.@ 35 square miles ( 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) .
= = Hydrology = =
The discharge of Little Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth has been observed to range from 0 @.@ 87 to 54 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 025 to 1 @.@ 529 m3 / s ) . The turbidity level of the creek at this location was once measured to be fewer than 5 Jackson Turbidity Units . Its specific conductance ranged from 60 to 80 micro @-@ siemens per centimeter at 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) . The creek 's pH ranged between a slightly acidic 6 @.@ 3 and a slightly basic 7 @.@ 4 . The concentration of water hardness ranged from 19 to 23 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 019 to 0 @.@ 023 oz / cu ft ) . The creek is not considered to be impaired as of 2006 .
The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the waters of Little Wapwallopen Creek was measured in the 1970s to be 11 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0110 oz / cu ft ) . The carbon dioxide concentration ranged from 0 @.@ 5 to 9 @.@ 7 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00050 to 0 @.@ 00969 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of bicarbonate ranged from 8 to 12 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0080 to 0 @.@ 0120 oz / cu ft ) and no carbonate was observed .
The concentration of organic nitrogen in Little Wapwallopen Creek was once measured to be 0 @.@ 06 milligrams per liter ( 6 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) and the ammonia concentration was once measured to be 0 @.@ 064 milligrams per liter ( 6 @.@ 4 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrates was measured to be 0 @.@ 74 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00074 oz / cu ft ) and the concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrites was measured to be 0 @.@ 13 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00013 oz / cu ft ) .
In the 1970s , the concentration of calcium in the waters of Little Wapwallopen Creek were found to range from 5 @.@ 00 to 5 @.@ 90 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00499 to 0 @.@ 00589 oz / cu ft ) . The magnesium concentration ranged from 1 @.@ 50 to 2 @.@ 20 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00150 to 0 @.@ 00220 oz / cu ft ) . The combined concentrations of sodium and potassium ranged from 2 @.@ 3 to 3 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0023 to 0 @.@ 0030 oz / cu ft ) and the recoverable iron concentration was once measured at 0 @.@ 08 milligrams per liter ( 8 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) . The sulfate concentration ranged from 12 @.@ 0 to 16 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter and the concentration of chloride ranged from 2 @.@ 3 to 7 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0023 to 0 @.@ 0070 oz / cu ft ) .
The concentration of dissolved solids in Little Wapwallopen Creek was once measured to be 60 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 060 oz / cu ft ) .
At its mouth , the peak annual discharge of Little Wapwallopen Creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 750 cubic feet per second ( 78 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 5 @,@ 250 cubic feet per second ( 149 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 7 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 200 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 12 @,@ 500 cubic feet per second ( 350 m3 / s ) . Upstream of the tributary Pond Creek , the peak annual discharge of the creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 150 cubic feet per second ( 61 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of 4 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 120 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 5 @,@ 900 cubic feet per second ( 170 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 10 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 290 m3 / s ) .
At a point 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) downstream of Blue Ridge Trail , the peak annual discharge of Little Wapwallopen Creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 40 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 300 cubic feet per second ( 65 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 700 cubic feet per second ( 76 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 3 @,@ 900 cubic feet per second ( 110 m3 / s ) . At a point 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) upstream of Blue Ridge Trail , the peak annual discharge of the creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 250 cubic feet per second ( 35 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of 2 @,@ 070 cubic feet per second ( 59 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 470 cubic feet per second ( 70 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 3 @,@ 550 cubic feet per second ( 101 m3 / s ) .
= = Geography , geology , and climate = =
The elevation near the mouth of Little Wapwallopen Creek is 495 feet ( 151 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the creek 's source is approximately 1 @,@ 220 feet ( 370 m ) above sea level . The course of the creek is tortuous .
Alluvium , which consists of stratified sand , silt , and gravel , as well as some boulders , occurs in the valley of Little Wapwallopen Creek to a depth of 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) or more . Numerous deposits of Wisconsinan Ice @-@ Contact Stratified Drift are present as well . Alluvial terrace also occurs near the creek , which is the only place in the quadrangle of Sybertsville that contains it in the surficial geology . Wisconsinan Loess , which consists of windblown silt and fine sand , occurs in the southern part of the creek 's valley in the Sybertsville quadrangle . The remains of outwash terraces also occur near the creek in that quadrangle .
In the Sybertsville quadrangle , the surficial geology in the valley of Little Wapwallopen Creek mainly consists of alluvium , alluvial terrace , alluvial fan , Wisconsinan Ice @-@ Contact Stratified Drift , and some small patches of Wisconsinan Till . The surficial geology on the valley slopes and uplands mainly consists of bedrock . In the quadrangle of Freeland , the surficial geology near Little Wapwallopen Creek mainly features Wisconsinan Till , Wisconsinan Ice @-@ Contact Stratified Drift , and alluvium . The surficial geology near the creek in the Wilkes @-@ Barre West quadrangle mainly consists of Wisconsinan Till , with some scattered areas of bedrock and alluvium .
The Berwick Axis , which is also known as the Montour Axis , crosses the Susquehanna River half a mile downstream of the mouth of Little Wapwallopen Creek . There is concealed Marcellus shale near the creek in Hollenback Township .
The water temperature of Little Wapwallopen Creek near Wapwallopen was measured several times during the 1970s . The values ranged from 7 @.@ 0 ° C ( 44 @.@ 6 ° F ) in May 1971 to 19 @.@ 5 ° C ( 67 @.@ 1 ° F ) in September 1972 .
= = Watershed = =
The watershed of Little Wapwallopen Creek has an area of 39 @.@ 5 square miles ( 102 km2 ) . The mouth of the creek is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Berwick . However , its source is in the quadrangle of Wilkes @-@ Barre West . It also flows through the quadrangles of Freeland and Sybertsville . The creek is one of the major streams in Luzerne County .
The land in the 100 year floodplain of Little Wapwallopen Creek mainly consists of agricultural and forested land . However , there are also some areas of rural residential land . A natural gas pipeline 42 inches ( 110 cm ) in diameter and owned by the Transcontinental Gas Pipeline Company crosses an unnamed tributary of Little Wapwallopen Creek .
A 160 @-@ acre ( 65 ha ) lake known as Lilly Lake is in the watershed of Little Wapwallopen Creek , on one of its tributaries . A pond known as Triangle Pond is also in the upper reaches of the watershed . Henry C. Bradsby 's book History of Luzerne County , Pennsylvania described Round Pond as being in the watershed as well . A swamp known as Turner Swamp is also in the watershed . Other lakes in the creek 's vicinity include Andy Pond , Lake Blytheburn , Boyle Pond , Nuangola Lake , and the Ice Ponds . Many patches of wetlands are found in the watershed 's upper reaches .
A package wastewater treatment facility operated by the Crestwood School District discharges into Little Wapwallopen Creek in Rice Township . It has a capacity of 11 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 42 @,@ 000 l ) per day . Another package wastewater treatment facility is operated by Wilbar Realty in the same township and discharges into the creek . It serves 176 homes in Laurel Lake Village and has a capacity of 87 @,@ 500 US gallons ( 331 @,@ 000 l ) .
Little Wapwallopen Creek is one of the main sources of flooding in Conyngham Township , along with the Susquehanna River . The creek is also the main source of flooding in Dorrance Township and one of the main sources in Rice Township . A 100 year flood of the creek would flood substantial areas . Such flooding would also be exacerbated by backwater flooding from the Susquehanna River .
= = History = =
Little Wapwallopen Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2 , 1979 . Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1179707 .
Historically , a Native American path went from Council Cup up the Little Wapwallopen Creek valley and to Wilkes @-@ Barre . The path ran from Council Cup to the creek and then northeast alongside it before going past Lily Lake and over Penobscot Mountain towards where Wilkes @-@ Barre is now located . The first person to settle in Conyngham Township was Martin Harter , who settled on the creek near its mouth in 1795 .
In the late 1800s , there was an old ferry road near the mouth of Little Wapwallopen Creek . A railroad bridge also crosses the creek . Historically , a road ran from a small settlement on Big Wapwallopen Creek to an even smaller one on Little Wapwallopen Creek , near where Church Road presently is . The Glen Brook Water Company once had plans to construct a dam on the creek and also on its tributary Pond Creek . The Wilkes @-@ Barre Ice Company and the Hazleton Ice Company also dammed a stream in the creek 's watershed in 1912 and 1916 respectively , forming the Ice Ponds .
A concrete stringer / multi @-@ beam or girder bridge carrying Blytheburn Road was built over Little Wapwallopen Creek in 1920 . It is 33 @.@ 1 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) long . A concrete slab bridge was built across the creek in 1935 and repaired in 2007 . It is 23 @.@ 0 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) long and carries T @-@ 477 / Weyhenmyr Street . In 1940 , a bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 239 was constructed over the creek in Conyngham Township . This bridge is a steel stringer / multi @-@ beam or girder bridge with a length of 65 @.@ 0 feet ( 19 @.@ 8 m ) long .
A three @-@ span bridge carrying Interstate 81 northbound over Little Wapwallopen Creek was constructed in Rice Township in 1964 and repaired in 1987 . This bridge is a prestressed box beam bridge with a length of 162 @.@ 1 feet ( 49 @.@ 4 m ) . A bridge of the same type was built over the creek for Interstate 81 southbound in 1965 . This bridge was also repaired in 1987 and is 185 @.@ 0 feet ( 56 @.@ 4 m ) long . In 1975 , a prestressed stringer / multi @-@ beam or girder bridge carrying State Route 3008 / Ruckle Hill Road was built over the creek . This bridge is 92 @.@ 9 feet ( 28 @.@ 3 m ) long and is in Conyngham Township . A prestressed box beam or girders bridge was built in Dorrance Township in 1988 . It is 63 @.@ 0 feet ( 19 @.@ 2 m ) long . Another bridge of the same type , but with a length of 37 @.@ 1 feet ( 11 @.@ 3 m ) was constructed in 1996 for T @-@ 406 / Georges Road . A steel girder and floorbeam system bridge was built over the creek in 1997 . It is 60 @.@ 0 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) long and carries T @-@ 392 / Hollow Road .
Floodwaters from Little Wapwallopen Creek reached a height of 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) over St. Marys Road in Dorrance Township during a storm in 1972 . This is the only recorded flooding of a developed area caused by a major storm in the township . The creek also once flooded to a depth of 18 to 20 inches ( 46 to 51 cm ) over Hislop Road in Rice Township .
In August 2002 , the Pennsylvania Environmental Council received $ 57 @,@ 897 @.@ 76 to carry out a restoration plan on the upper reaches of Little Wapwallopen Creek . Since 2005 , a project to remedy streambank erosion on the creek has been successful . The creek has a watershed association known as the Little Wapwallopen Creek Watershed Association .
= = Biology = =
The drainage basin of Little Wapwallopen Creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek from its mouth upstream for 4 @.@ 40 miles ( 7 @.@ 08 km ) to T @-@ 392 . They also do so in the tributary Pond Creek from its headwaters downstream to its mouth .
Henry C. Bradsby 's 1893 book History of Luzerne County , Pennsylvania stated that Long Pond and Round Pond , two ponds in the watershed , had a large fish population . The creek was stocked with 700 fingerling , yearling , and adult brook trout in 1909 .
The greenway of Little Wapwallopen Creek has been proposed as a conservation area in the Open Space , Greenways & Outdoor Recreation Master Plan for Luzerne County and Lackawanna County .
= What It 's Like Being Alone =
What It 's Like Being Alone is a Canadian television program which aired on CBC Television in 2006 . It is a black comedy created by Brad Peyton , and combines clay animation with voice work by Stacey DePass , Adam Reid , Dwayne Hill , Julie Lemieux , Peter Cugno , and Andrew Sabiston .
Having debuted on 26 June 2006 , the series lasted only until 18 September of that year . The storylines of the thirteen episodes that aired during this timeframe center on the many attempts of fictional mutant children living in an orphanage to get adopted . Princess Lucy , a grey , fat , and warty orphan , is the main character , and the plot begins with her arrival at the orphanage . Critics regarded the series as unusual , and it received notably poor ratings . Commentators considered these ratings to reflect a generally poor performance of CBC programming in 2006 .
= = Characters = =
The storylines of What It 's Like Being Alone revolve around the residents of the fictional Gurney Orphanage , a dark , run @-@ down building . The orphanage has been described by a columnist as Victorian , and it may be set in a bog on the Canadian island of Newfoundland .
Aldous is the eldest of the orphans . She is tall , depressed , very gothic and obsessed with her own death , and carries a black umbrella . She spends most of her time moping about the orphanage and writing depressing poetry . It is insinuated that she actually cares for the other orphans , without letting this on too much . Aldous is voiced by Stacey DePass .
Armie is a boy with no limbs , except for his left arm . He glides around on a skateboard , and often falls over when he uses his arm for something . He is happy and hopeful , despite his obvious handicap . Armie is voiced by Adam Reid .
Brian Brain is an incredibly intelligent 9 @-@ year @-@ old boy with two brains and three eyes . He is often seen inventing things , or gloating about his superiority . His voice is provided by Andrew Sabiston .
Byron and Beasly is a blue baby with two heads . Byron is constantly teased by Beasly , the more demonic head . They vomit acid , and are nearly impossible to bathe . No one is credited with voicing this character .
Charlie is a somewhat homosexual boy who is always on fire . Though he tries not to harm other people , someone or something always ends up burning . Like the other orphan characters , Charlie was part of the story from the beginning , and was specifically inspired by one of Peyton 's jokes , " What ’ s it like being alone ? Like a sunset , but only if you 're on fire . " Charlie is voiced by Peter Cugno .
Princess Lucy is a short , fat , warty and grey girl who believes she is a princess . She is ego @-@ centric , and quite crude , and has a long , lizard @-@ like tongue ; she often carries a lollipop . She firmly believes that she is the most deserving of parents . Princess Lucy is voiced by Dwayne Hill , who was also part of the " Story Department . " Peyton has said that she is his favourite character .
Sammy Fishboy resembles a swamp monster . Outside of his tank , he must always keep a running hose over his head . He often is very rude , especially when he is drunk . He is in love with Isabella , a stone mermaid aquarium decoration , and becomes depressed when it is not around . Sammy is voiced by Julie Lemieux .
Seymore Talkless is an eleven @-@ year @-@ old boy with no mouth and one giant eye . He expresses his emotions through his violin or a variety of signs that have a word or phrase written on them , and expresses panic through crazed hand gestures . No one is credited with voicing this character .
Nanny Goodapple is the orphans ' caretaker . She never speaks , and glides around the other characters . When out , she leaves the welfare of the other children in Aldous ' hands . Nanny Goodapple is also something of a souse . No one is credited with voicing this character .
= = Plot = =
= = = Pilot = = =
The pilot of the series aired with some anticipation . Beforehand , columnist Randall Denley had written that " I suspect [ it ] will be the highlight of the evening , " noting the series had been described as " wondrous and fiendishly humorous . " The first episode , titled " The Gurney Orphanage For Beginners , " features Princess Lucy and her suitcase falling from the sky in front of the orphanage and killing three rabbits . Upon getting up and seeing the orphanage , Princess Lucy believes she has found her castle and royal family . Instead , she is surprised to find the building is full of mutant orphans , and devastated to learn she is an orphan herself . She tries to escape , but finds any way out blocked by a lake monster and a dangerous forest , among other things .
Eventually , a woman agrees to adopt Lucy . However , the other orphans see that the woman will probably not provide the best home for her , and intervene . Lucy ultimately decides that she belongs in the orphanage more so than her ideal castle .
= = = Series = = =
The series was continued with twelve more episodes : Themes explored include " social issues , pop culture references and humour . " Due to the show having the visual appearance of a children 's television series , each episode was preceded by a content warning , stating that the show was intended for an adult audience and that " parental discretion " was advised .
" Do Orphans Dream of Electric Parents ? " is the second episode . It is about Brian Brain inventing robots and making them his parents , only to find that the robots want to divorce each other . In the next episode , " An Orphans Life Indeed " , Princess Lucy seeks a best friend , but her vanity causes her to decide that only she can be her own best friend . Lucy then clones herself , but the clones prove troublesome . Seymore , who is in love with Lucy , ultimately solves the problem by slaughtering the clones with a chainsaw . One critic remarked that this was a particularly " disturbing " scene for the series .
The fourth episode , called " The Perfect Lesson " , sees the orphans trying to perform a play to impress visiting prospective parents . It is from this episode that the show 's title is derived , as the play repeatedly refers to " what it 's like being alone " . This was followed by the episode aired on 24 July , " The Poster Child " which is about a corporation that attempts to adopt Aldous to use her in advertisements . Aldous , under a witch 's curse , must accept this shallow adoption or die .
In the episode " Fire the Reverend " , a religious speaker visits the orphanage and confuses Charlie with Satan ; the real Satan and his son later emerge , and Charlie finds out that while he is mistaken for being evil , Satan 's son is trying to shed the perception that he is good . Eventually Charlie saves the day by persuading Satan and his son to leave the orphanage . The seventh episode is entitled " Red , White and Orphanage " . It is about another orphanage abducting Brian Brain in order to exploit him in their plans for world domination . This was followed by " Sammy 's Episode " , which is about Sammy taking various medications , as well as shock therapy . The ninth episode is " A Tale of Almost Unbearable Sadness , " which is focussed on declining morale in the orphanage and exploration of the dangerous forest .
Alternate names for the tenth episode are " Lucky Lucy " and " You Gotta Know When to Hold ' em " . In it , Princess Lucy bets that Byron and Beasly cannot be cleaned and wins . She afterwards gambles more but nearly loses the orphanage in the process . The episode " Armie Loves Cigarettes " sees Armie taking up smoking . According to the Internet Movie Database , the second last episode and season finale aired on the same day , 18 September . The twelfth and second last episode is called " A Frightful Flu , " and in it Aldous entrusts care for the ailing orphans to a witch . The final episode , " Silver Screen Lucy " or " The Sweet Stink of Success , " is about the orphans making short films to impress a prospective parent , but he ends up adopting Nanny Goodapple and Beasly and Byron , leaving the orphanage to Aldous .
= = Production = =
The show was created by Brad Peyton of Newfoundland and Labrador , who explained that he identified himself as a " freak " growing up , and was thus motivated to try " celebrating flawed characters " in his work ; he also employed stereotypical views of orphanages in the series . Peyton had previously made a black comedy short film called Evelyn : The Cutest Evil Dead Girl , and afterwards declined to shoot a major film . Instead , he turned to What It 's Like Being Alone . He described the genesis of the series :
I had a friend who was depressed , so I went over to her house and started drawing . I made her a little book . She liked it and said I should try to sell it . So I photocopied 200 at Kinkos and sold them at Pages Books . Made like $ 150 dollars . That book turned into What It 's Like Being Alone .
Peyton explained the writing by saying " it always comes out of an emotional place . " One of the writers was Karen Walton , who had previously written the Canadian werewolf film Ginger Snaps . The producers chose the type of animation due to Peyton 's personal interest in it , although he later claimed that a day 's work could lead to seconds ' worth of material . A factory was needed with 8 to 10 teams , with some of the animators having previously worked on the Tim Burton film Corpse Bride . The characters were made out of plastic and foam . Additionally , some animation was done through computers . Each character 's figure had a number of add @-@ on lips to express various sounds , and their eyes and eyebrows were also adjusted frequently during production . The figures could also be fastened into a surface , moved and fastened in again to portray movement . Peyton remarked that " The hardest thing is timing and pacing . " Still , he also liked to emphasize that the series did not cost too much money to produce .
The airing of the series had been stalled for a year , perhaps due to difficulties within the CBC . To get CBC to adopt the series , Peyton showed the company a commercial with the CBC logo in blood , remarking that " It 's been way too long that you 've waited to have your logo covered in blood . " He had also said that What It 's Like Being Alone was meant to attract university and high school students as an audience , and he felt that these people did not ordinarily watch the CBC . CBC itself was looking for original material , and was enthusiastic about the series because it seemed to stand out among Canadian television productions . Peyton 's co @-@ producer was Fred Fuchs , who later rose in the CBC staff ; one critic believed Fuchs ' promotion to be a reason why CBC adopted the series .
= = Reception = =
Critics generally found the series to be unusual . CBC critic Stephen Cole commented that What It 's Like Being Alone has " arguably the most surreal opening sequence in TV history " with a shift in view from a black and white Canadian flag to the orphan characters . He questioned whether the show indicated the CBC had adopted " Addams Family values " and said that it was " the wildest CBC comedy since Twitch City . "
One television critic briefly said that What It 's Like Being Alone is a " weird show , " and simply advised individual viewers to see it for themselves . If they " relate " to it , the critic added , " a ' Yikes ! ' is in order . " Bill Brioux of the Toronto Sun commented that in combining a feel one would usually expect from Tim Burton with elements of Sesame Street , What It 's Like Being Alone would probably not appeal fully to any demographic , despite its originality . Additionally , he felt Princess Lucy would be tiresome , and said he had hoped the show were more amusing .
In terms of ratings , the series did not do well . The Toronto Star described it as one of CBC 's " prime @-@ time dogs " with an audience of 78 @,@ 000 people . The executive Richard Stursberg was blamed for cancelling the more popular Da Vinci 's City Hall and This is Wonderland to make room for this and other shows , and in general for being a " one @-@ man wrecking ball " for the CBC ( the series The One : Making a Music Star had also flopped on CBC in 2006 ) . On 18 September , the series finale had only 163 @,@ 000 viewers , part of the perceived " shocking " low ratings CBC received that year , along with the low ratings of the documentary series Hockey : A People 's History and a mini @-@ series about former @-@ Quebec premier René Lévesque .
= Economy of England in the Middle Ages =
The economy of England in the Middle Ages , from the Norman invasion in 1066 , to the death of Henry VII in 1509 , was fundamentally agricultural , though even before the invasion the market economy was important to producers . Norman institutions , including serfdom , were superimposed on an existing system of open fields and mature , well @-@ established towns involved in international trade . Over the next five centuries the economy would at first grow and then suffer an acute crisis , resulting in significant political and economic change . Despite economic dislocation in urban and extraction economies , including shifts in the holders of wealth and the location of these economies , the economic output of towns and mines developed and intensified over the period . By the end of the period , England had a weak government , by later standards , overseeing an economy dominated by rented farms controlled by gentry , and a thriving community of indigenous English merchants and corporations .
The 12th and 13th centuries saw a huge development of the English economy . This was partially driven by the growth in the population from around 1 @.@ 5 million at the time of the creation of the Domesday Book in 1086 to between 4 and 5 million in 1300 . England remained a primarily agricultural economy , with the rights of major landowners and the duties of serfs increasingly enshrined in English law . More land , much of it at the expense of the royal forests , was brought into production to feed the growing population or to produce wool for export to Europe . Many hundreds of new towns , some of them planned , sprung up across England , supporting the creation of guilds , charter fairs and other important medieval institutions . The descendants of the Jewish financiers who had first come to England with William the Conqueror played a significant role in the growing economy , along with the new Cistercian and Augustinian religious orders that came to become major players in the wool trade of the north . Mining increased in England , with the silver boom of the 12th century helping to fuel a fast @-@ expanding currency .
Economic growth began to falter by the end of the 13th century , owing to a combination of over @-@ population , land shortages and depleted soils . The loss of life in the Great Famine of 1315 – 17 shook the English economy severely and population growth ceased ; the first outbreak of the Black Death in 1348 then killed around half the English population , with major implications for the post @-@ plague economy . The agricultural sector shrank , with higher wages , lower prices and shrinking profits leading to the final demise of the old demesne system and the advent of the modern farming system of cash rents for lands . The Peasants Revolt of 1381 shook the older feudal order and limited the levels of royal taxation considerably for a century to come . The 15th century saw the growth of the English cloth industry and the establishment of a new class of international English merchant , increasingly based in London and the South @-@ West , prospering at the expense of the older , shrinking economy of the eastern towns . These new trading systems brought about the end of many of the international fairs and the rise of the chartered company . Together with improvements in metalworking and shipbuilding , this represents the end of the medieval economy , and the beginnings of the early modern period in English economics .
= = Invasion and the early Norman period ( 1066 – 1100 ) = =
William the Conqueror invaded England in 1066 , defeating the Anglo @-@ Saxon King Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings and placing the country under Norman rule . This campaign was followed by fierce military operations known as the Harrying of the North in 1069 – 70 , extending Norman authority across the north of England . William 's system of government was broadly feudal in that the right to possess land was linked to service to the king , but in many other ways the invasion did little to alter the nature of the English economy . Most of the damage done in the invasion was in the north and the west of England , some of it still recorded as " wasteland " in 1086 . Many of the key features of the English agricultural and financial system remained in place in the decades immediately after the conquest .
= = = Agriculture and mining = = =
= = = = English agriculture = = = =
Agriculture formed the bulk of the English economy at the time of the Norman invasion . Twenty years after the invasion , 35 % of England was covered in arable land , 25 % was put to pasture , 15 % was covered by woodlands and the remaining 25 % was predominantly moorland , fens and heaths . Wheat formed the single most important arable crop , but rye , barley and oats were also cultivated extensively . In the more fertile parts of the country , such as the Thames valley , the Midlands and the east of England , legumes and beans were also cultivated . Sheep , cattle , oxen and pigs were kept on English holdings , although most of these breeds were much smaller than modern equivalents and most would have been slaughtered in winter .
= = = = Manorial system = = = =
In the century prior to the Norman invasion , England 's great estates , owned by the king , bishops , monasteries and thegns , had been slowly broken up as a consequence of inheritance , wills , marriage settlements or church purchases . Most of the smaller landowning nobility lived on their properties and managed their own estates . The pre @-@ Norman landscape had seen a trend away from isolated hamlets and towards larger villages engaged in arable cultivation in a band running north – south across England . These new villages had adopted an open field system in which fields were divided into small strips of land , individually owned , with crops rotated between the field each year and the local woodlands and other common lands carefully managed . Agricultural land on a manor was divided between some fields that the landowner would manage and cultivate directly , called demesne land , and the majority of the fields that would be cultivated by local peasants , who would pay rent to the landowner either through agricultural labour on the lord 's demesne fields or through cash or produce . Around 6 @,@ 000 watermills of varying power and efficiency had been built in order to grind flour , freeing up peasant labour for other more productive agricultural tasks . The early English economy was not a subsistence economy and many crops were grown by peasant farmers for sale to the early English towns .
The Normans initially did not significantly alter the operation of the manor or the village economy . William reassigned large tracts of land amongst the Norman elite , creating vast estates in some areas , particularly along the Welsh border and in Sussex . The biggest change in the years after the invasion was the rapid reduction in the number of slaves being held in England . In the 10th century slaves had been very numerous , although their number had begun to diminish as a result of economic and religious pressure . Nonetheless , the new Norman aristocracy proved harsh landlords . The wealthier , formerly more independent Anglo @-@ Saxon peasants found themselves rapidly sinking down the economic hierarchy , swelling the numbers of unfree workers , or serfs , forbidden to leave their manor and seek alternative employment . Those Anglo @-@ Saxon nobles who had survived the invasion itself were rapidly assimilated into the Norman elite or economically crushed .
= = = = Creation of the forests = = = =
The Normans also established the royal forests . In Anglo @-@ Saxon times there had been special woods for hunting called " hays " , but the Norman forests were much larger and backed by legal mandate . The new forests were not necessarily heavily wooded but were defined instead by their protection and exploitation by the crown . The Norman forests were subject to special royal jurisdiction ; forest law was " harsh and arbitrary , a matter purely for the King 's will " . Forests were expected to supply the king with hunting grounds , raw materials , goods and money . Revenue from forest rents and fines came to become extremely significant and forest wood was used for castles and royal ship building . Several forests played a key role in mining , such as the iron mining and working in the Forest of Dean and lead mining in the Forest of High Peak . Several other groups bound up economically with forests ; many monasteries had special rights in particular forests , for example for hunting or tree felling . The royal forests were accompanied by the rapid creation of locally owned parks and chases .
= = = Trade , manufacturing and the towns = = =
Although primarily rural , England had a number of old , economically important towns in 1066 . A large amount of trade came through the Eastern towns , including London , York , Winchester , Lincoln , Norwich , Ipswich and Thetford . Much of this trade was with France , the Low Countries and Germany , but the North @-@ East of England traded with partners as far away as Sweden . Cloth was already being imported to England before the invasion through the mercery trade .
Some towns , such as York , suffered from Norman sacking during William 's northern campaigns . Other towns saw the widespread demolition of houses to make room for new motte and bailey fortifications , as was the case in Lincoln . The Norman invasion also brought significant economic changes with the arrival of the first Jews to English cities . | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
William I brought over wealthy Jews from the Rouen community in Normandy to settle in London , apparently to carry out financial services for the crown . In the years immediately after the invasion , a lot of wealth was drawn out of England in various ways by the Norman rulers and reinvested in Normandy , making William immensely wealthy as an individual ruler .
The minting of coins was decentralised in the Saxon period ; every borough was mandated to have a mint and therefore a centre for trading in bullion . Nonetheless , there was strict royal control over these moneyers , and coin dies could only be made in London . William retained this process and generated a high standard of Norman coins , leading to the use of the term " sterling " as the name for the Norman silver coins .
= = = Governance and taxation = = =
William I inherited the Anglo @-@ Saxon system in which the king drew his revenues from : a mixture of customs ; profits from re @-@ minting coinage ; fines ; profits from his own demesne lands ; and the system of English land @-@ based taxation called the geld . William reaffirmed this system , enforcing collection of the geld through his new system of sheriffs and increasing the taxes on trade . William was also famous for commissioning the Domesday Book in 1086 , a vast document which attempted to record the economic condition of his new kingdom .
= = Mid @-@ medieval growth ( 1100 – 1290 ) = =
The 12th and 13th centuries were a period of huge economic growth in England . The population of England rose from around 1 @.@ 5 million in 1086 to around 4 or 5 million in 1300 , stimulating increased agricultural outputs and the export of raw materials to Europe . In contrast to the previous two centuries , England was relatively secure from invasion . Except for the years of the Anarchy , most military conflicts either had only localised economic impact or proved only temporarily disruptive . English economic thinking remained conservative , seeing the economy as consisting of three groups : the ordines , those who fought , or the nobility ; laboratores , those who worked , in particular the peasantry ; and oratores , those who prayed , or the clerics . Trade and merchants played little part in this model and were frequently vilified at the start of the period , although they were increasingly tolerated towards the end of the 13th century .
= = = Agriculture , fishing and mining = = =
= = = = English agriculture and the landscape = = = =
Agriculture remained by far the most important part of the English economy during the 12th and 13th centuries . There remained a wide variety in English agriculture , influenced by local geography ; in areas where grain could not be grown , other resources were exploited instead . In the Weald , for example , agriculture centred on grazing animals on the woodland pastures , whilst in the Fens fishing and bird @-@ hunting was supplemented by basket @-@ making and peat @-@ cutting . In some locations , such as Lincolnshire and Droitwich , salt manufacture was important , including production for the export market . Fishing became an important trade along the English coast , especially in Great Yarmouth and Scarborough , and the herring was a particularly popular catch ; salted at the coast , it could then be shipped inland or exported to Europe . Piracy between competing English fishing fleets was not unknown during the period . Sheep were the most common farm animal in England during the period , their numbers doubling by the 14th century . Sheep became increasingly widely used for wool , particularly in the Welsh borders , Lincolnshire and the Pennines . Pigs remained popular on holdings because of their ability to scavenge for food . Oxen remained the primary plough animal , with horses used more widely on farms in the south of England towards the end of the 12th century . Rabbits were introduced from France in the 13th century and farmed for their meat in special warrens .
The underlying productivity of English agriculture remained low , despite the increases in food production . Wheat prices fluctuated heavily year to year , depending on local harvests ; up to a third of the grain produced in England was potentially for sale , and much of it ended up in the growing towns . Despite their involvement in the market , even the wealthiest peasants prioritised spending on housing and clothing , with little left for other personal consumption . Records of household belongings show most possessing only " old , worn @-@ out and mended utensils " and tools .
The royal forests grew in size for much of the 12th century , before contracting in the late 13th and early 14th centuries . Henry I extended the size and scope of royal forests , especially in Yorkshire ; after the Anarchy of 1135 – 53 , Henry II continued to expand the forests until they comprised around 20 % of England . In 1217 the Charter of the Forest was enacted , in part to mitigate the worst excesses of royal jurisdiction , and established a more structured range of fines and punishments for peasants who illegally hunted or felled trees in the forests . By the end of the century the king had come under increasing pressure to reduce the size of the royal forests , leading to the " Great Perambulation " around 1300 ; this significantly reduced the extent to the forests , and by 1334 they were only around two @-@ thirds the size they had been in 1250 . Royal revenue streams from the shrinking forests diminished considerably in the early 14th century .
= = = = Development of estate management = = = =
The Normans retained and reinforced the manorial system with its division between demesne and peasant lands paid for in agricultural labour . Landowners could profit from the sales of goods from their demesne lands and a local lord could also expect to receive income from fines and local customs , whilst more powerful nobles profited from their own regional courts and rights .
During the 12th century major landowners tended to rent out their demesne lands for money , motivated by static prices for produce and the chaos of the Anarchy between 1135 and 1153 . This practice began to alter in the 1180s and 1190s , spurred by the greater political stability . In the first years of John 's reign , agricultural prices almost doubled , at once increasing the potential profits on the demesne estates and also increasing the cost of living for the landowners themselves . Landowners now attempted wherever possible to bring their demesne lands back into direct management , creating a system of administrators and officials to run their new system of estates .
New land was brought into cultivation to meet demand for food , including drained marshes and fens , such as Romney Marsh , the Somerset Levels and the Fens ; royal forests from the late 12th century onwards ; and poorer lands in the north , south @-@ west and in the Welsh Marches . The first windmills in England began to appear along the south and east coasts in the 12th century , expanding in number in the 13th , adding to the mechanised power available to the manors . By 1300 it has been estimated that there were more than 10 @,@ 000 watermills in England , used both for grinding corn and for fulling cloth . Fish ponds were created on most estates to provide freshwater fish for the consumption of the nobility and church ; these ponds were extremely expensive to create and maintain . Improved ways of running estates began to be circulated and were popularised in Walter de Henley 's famous book Le Dite de Hosebondrie , written around 1280 . In some regions and under some landowners , investment and innovation increased yields significantly through improved ploughing and fertilisers – particularly in Norfolk , where yields eventually equalled later 18th @-@ century levels .
= = = = Role of the Church in agriculture = = = =
The Church in England was a major landowner throughout the medieval period and played an important part in the development of agriculture and rural trade in the first two centuries of Norman rule . The Cistercian order first arrived in England in 1128 , establishing around 80 new monastic houses over the next few years ; the wealthy Augustinians also established themselves and expanded to occupy around 150 houses , all supported by agricultural estates , many of them in the north of England . By the 13th century these and other orders were acquiring new lands and had become major economic players both as landowners and as middlemen in the expanding wool trade . In particular , the Cistercians led the development of the grange system . Granges were separate manors in which the fields were all cultivated by the monastic officials , rather than being divided up between demesne and rented fields , and became known for trialling new agricultural techniques during the period . Elsewhere , many monasteries had significant economic impact on the landscape , such as the monks of Glastonbury , responsible for the draining of the Somerset Levels to create new pasture land .
The military crusading order of the Knights Templar also held extensive property in England , bringing in around £ 2 @,@ 200 per annum by the time of their fall . It comprised primarily rural holdings rented out for cash , but also included some urban properties in London . Following the dissolution of the Templar order in France by Philip IV of France , Edward II ordered their properties to be seized and passed to the Hospitaller order in 1313 , but in practice many properties were taken by local landowners and the Hospital was still attempting to reclaim them twenty @-@ five years later .
The Church was responsible for the system of tithes , a levy of 10 % on " all agrarian produce ... other natural products gained via labour ... wages received by servants and labourers , and to the profits of rural merchants " . Tithes gathered in the form of produce could be either consumed by the recipient , or sold on and bartered for other resources . The tithe was relatively onerous for the typical peasant , although in many instances the actual levy fell below the desired 10 % . Many clergy moved to the towns as part of the urban growth of the period , and by 1300 around one in twenty city dwellers was a clergyman . One effect of the tithe was to transfer a considerable amount of agriculture wealth into the cities , where it was then spent by these urban clergy . The need to sell tithe produce that could not be consumed by the local clergy also spurred the growth of trade .
= = = = Expansion of mining = = = =
Mining did not make up a large part of the English medieval economy , but the 12th and 13th centuries saw an increased demand for metals in the country , thanks to the considerable population growth and building construction , including the great cathedrals and churches . Four metals were mined commercially in England during the period , namely iron , tin , lead and silver ; coal was also mined from the 13th century onwards , using a variety of refining techniques .
Iron mining occurred in several locations , including the main English centre in the Forest of Dean , as well as in Durham and the Weald . Some iron to meet English demand was also imported from the continent , especially by the late 13th century . By the end of the 12th century , the older method of acquiring iron ore through strip mining was being supplemented by more advanced techniques , including tunnels , trenches and bell @-@ pits . Iron ore was usually locally processed at a bloomery , and by the 14th century the first water @-@ powered iron forge in England was built at Chingley . As a result of the diminishing woodlands and consequent increases in the cost of both wood and charcoal , demand for coal increased in the 12th century and it began to be commercially produced from bell @-@ pits and strip mining .
A silver boom occurred in England after the discovery of silver near Carlisle in 1133 . Huge quantities of silver were produced from a semicircle of mines reaching across Cumberland , Durham and Northumberland – up to three to four tonnes of silver were mined each year , more than ten times the previous annual production across the whole of Europe . The result was a local economic boom and a major uplift to 12th @-@ century royal finances . Tin mining was centred in Cornwall and Devon , exploiting alluvial deposits and governed by the special Stannary Courts and Parliaments . Tin formed a valuable export good , initially to Germany and then later in the 14th century to the Low Countries . Lead was usually mined as a by @-@ product of mining for silver , with mines in Yorkshire , Durham and the north , as well as in Devon . Economically fragile , the lead mines usually survived as a result of being subsidised by silver production .
= = = Trade , manufacturing and the towns = = =
= = = = Growth of English towns = = = =
After the end of the Anarchy , the number of small towns in England began to increase sharply . By 1297 , 120 new towns had been established , and in 1350 – by when the expansion had effectively ceased – there were around 500 towns in England . Many of these new towns were centrally planned : Richard I created Portsmouth , John founded Liverpool , and successive monarchs followed with Harwich , Stony Stratford , Dunstable , Royston , Baldock , Wokingham , Maidenhead and Reigate . The new towns were usually located with access to trade routes in mind , rather than defence , and the streets were laid out to make access to the town 's market convenient . A growing percentage of England 's population lived in urban areas ; estimates suggest that this rose from around 5 @.@ 5 % in 1086 to up to 10 % in 1377 .
London held a special status within the English economy . The nobility purchased and consumed many luxury goods and services in the capital , and as early as the 1170s the London markets were providing exotic products such as spices , incense , palm oil , gems , silks , furs and foreign weapons . London was also an important hub for industrial activity ; it had many blacksmiths making a wide range of goods , including decorative ironwork and early clocks . Pewter @-@ working , using English tin and lead , was also widespread in London during the period . The provincial towns also had a substantial number of trades by the end of the 13th century – a large town like Coventry , for example , contained over three hundred different specialist occupations , and a smaller town such as Durham could support some sixty different professions . The increasing wealth of the nobility and the church was reflected in the widespread building of cathedrals and other prestigious buildings in the larger towns , in turn making use of lead from English mines for roofing .
Land transport remained much more expensive than river or sea transport during the period . Many towns in this period , including York , Exeter and Lincoln , were linked to the oceans by navigable rivers and could act as seaports , with Bristol 's port coming to dominate the lucrative trade in wine with Gascony by the 13th century , but shipbuilding generally remained on a modest scale and economically unimportant to England at this time . Transport remained very costly in comparison to the overall price of products . By the 13th century , groups of common carriers ran carting businesses , and carting brokers existed in London to link traders and carters . These used the four major land routes crossing England : Ermine Street , the Fosse Way , Icknield Street and Watling Street . A large number of bridges were built during the 12th century to improve the trade network .
In the 13th century , England was still primarily supplying raw materials for export to Europe , rather than finished or processed goods . There were some exceptions , such as very high @-@ quality cloths from Stamford and Lincoln , including the famous " Lincoln Scarlet " dyed cloth . Despite royal efforts to encourage it , however , barely any English cloth was being exported by 1347 .
= = = = Expansion of the money supply = = = =
There was a gradual reduction in the number of locations allowed to mint coins in England ; under Henry II , only 30 boroughs were still able to use their own moneyers , and the tightening of controls continued throughout the 13th century . By the reign of Edward I there were only nine mints outside London and the king created a new official called the Master of the Mint to oversee these and the thirty furnaces operating in London to meet the demand for new coins . The amount of money in circulation hugely increased in this period ; before the Norman invasion there had been around £ 50 @,@ 000 in circulation as coin , but by 1311 this had risen to more than £ 1 million . At any particular point in time , though , much of this currency might be being stored prior to being used to support military campaigns or to be sent overseas to meet payments , resulting in bursts of temporary deflation as coins ceased to circulate within the English economy . One physical consequence of the growth in the coinage was that coins had to be manufactured in large numbers , being moved in barrels and sacks to be stored in local treasuries for royal use as the king travelled .
= = = = Rise of the guilds = = = =
The first English guilds emerged during the early 12th century . These guilds were fraternities of craftsmen that set out to manage their local affairs including " prices , workmanship , the welfare of its workers , and the suppression of interlopers and sharp practices " . Amongst these early guilds were the " guilds merchants " , who ran the local markets in towns and represented the merchant community in discussions with the crown . Other early guilds included the " craft guilds " , representing specific trades . By 1130 there were major weavers ' guilds in six English towns , as well as a fullers ' guild in Winchester . Over the following decades more guilds were created , often becoming increasingly involved in both local and national politics , although the guilds merchants were largely replaced by official groups established by new royal charters .
The craft guilds required relatively stable markets and a relative equality of income and opportunity amongst their members to function effectively . By the 14th century these conditions were increasingly uncommon . The first strains were seen in London , where the old guild system began to collapse – more trade was being conducted at a national level , making it hard for craftsmen to both manufacture goods and trade in them , and there were growing disparities in incomes between the richer and poorer craftsmen . As a result , under Edward III many guilds became companies or livery companies , chartered companies focusing on trade and finance , leaving the guild structures to represent the interests of the smaller , poorer manufacturers .
= = = = Merchants and the development of the charter fairs = = = =
The period also saw the development of charter fairs in England , which reached their heyday in the 13th century . From the 12th century onwards , many English towns acquired a charter from the Crown allowing them to hold an annual fair , usually serving a regional or local customer base and lasting for two or three days . The practice increased in the next century and over 2 @,@ 200 charters were issued to markets and fairs by English kings between 1200 and 1270 . Fairs grew in popularity as the international wool trade increased : the fairs allowed English wool producers and ports on the east coast to engage with visiting foreign merchants , circumnavigating those English merchants in London keen to make a profit as middlemen . At the same time , wealthy magnate consumers in England began to use the new fairs as a way to buy goods like spices , wax , preserved fish and foreign cloth in bulk from the international merchants at the fairs , again bypassing the usual London merchants .
Some fairs grew into major international events , falling into a set sequence during the economic year , with the Stamford fair in Lent , St Ives ' in Easter , Boston 's in July , Winchester 's in September and Northampton 's in November , with the many smaller fairs falling in @-@ between . Although not as large as the famous Champagne fairs in France , these English " great fairs " were still huge events ; St Ives ' Great Fair , for example , drew merchants from Flanders , Brabant , Norway , Germany and France for a four @-@ week event each year , turning the normally small town into " a major commercial emporium " .
The structure of the fairs reflected the importance of foreign merchants in the English economy and by 1273 only one @-@ third of the English wool trade was actually controlled by English merchants . Between 1280 and 1320 the trade was primarily dominated by Italian merchants , but by the early 14th century German merchants had begun to present serious competition to the Italians . The Germans formed a self @-@ governing alliance of merchants in London called the " Hanse of the Steelyard " – the eventual Hanseatic League – and their role was confirmed under the Great Charter of 1303 , which exempted them from paying the customary tolls for foreign merchants . One response to this was the creation of the Company of the Staple , a group of merchants established in English @-@ held Calais in 1314 with royal approval , who were granted a monopoly on wool sales to Europe .
= = = = Jewish contribution to the English economy = = = =
The Jewish community in England continued to provide essential money @-@ lending and banking services that were otherwise banned by the usury laws , and grew in the 12th century by Jewish immigrants fleeing the fighting around Rouen . The Jewish community spread beyond London to eleven major English cities , primarily the major trading hubs in the east of England with functioning mints , all with suitable castles for protection of the often persecuted Jewish minority . By the time of the Anarchy and the reign of Stephen , the communities were flourishing and providing financial loans to the king .
Under Henry II , the Jewish financial community continued to grow richer still . All major towns had Jewish centres , and even smaller towns , such as Windsor , saw visits by travelling Jewish merchants . Henry II used the Jewish community as " instruments for the collection of money for the Crown " , and placed them under royal protection . The Jewish community at York lent extensively to fund the Cistercian order 's acquisition of land and prospered considerably . Some Jewish merchants grew extremely wealthy , Aaron of Lincoln so much that upon his death a special royal department had to be established to unpick his financial holdings and affairs .
By the end of Henry 's reign the king ceased to borrow from the Jewish community and instead turned to an aggressive campaign of tallage taxation and fines . Financial and anti @-@ Semite violence grew under Richard I. After the massacre of the York community , in which numerous financial records were destroyed , seven towns were nominated to separately store Jewish bonds and money records and this arrangement ultimately evolved into the Exchequer of the Jews . After an initially peaceful start to John 's reign , the king again began to extort money from the Jewish community , imprisoning the wealthier members , including Isaac of Norwich , until a huge , new taillage was paid . During the Baron 's War of 1215 – 17 , the Jews were subjected to fresh anti @-@ Semitic attacks . Henry III restored some order and Jewish money @-@ lending became sufficiently successful again to allow fresh taxation . The Jewish community became poorer towards the end of the century and was finally expelled from England in 1290 by Edward I , being largely replaced by foreign merchants .
= = = Governance and taxation = = =
During the 12th century the Norman kings attempted to formalise the feudal governance system initially created after the invasion . After the invasion the king had enjoyed a combination of income from his own demesne lands , the Anglo @-@ Saxon geld tax and fines . Successive kings found that they needed additional revenues , especially in order to pay for mercenary forces . One way of doing this was to exploit the feudal system , and kings adopted the French feudal aid model , a levy of money imposed on feudal subordinates when necessary ; another method was to exploit the scutage system , in which feudal military service could be transmuted to a cash payment to the king . Taxation was also an option , although the old geld tax was increasingly ineffective due to a growing number of exemptions . Instead , a succession of kings created alternative land taxes , such as the tallage and carucage taxes . These were increasingly unpopular and , along with the feudal charges , were condemned and constrained in the Magna Carta of 1215 . As part of the formalisation of the royal finances , Henry I created the Chancellor of the Exchequer , a post which would lead to the maintenance of the Pipe rolls , a set of royal financial records of lasting significance to historians in tracking both royal finances and medieval prices .
Royal revenue streams still proved insufficient and from the middle of the 13th century there was a shift away from the earlier land @-@ based tax system towards one based on a mixture of indirect and direct taxation . At the same time , Henry III had introduced the practice of consulting with leading nobles on tax issues , leading to the system whereby the Parliament of England agreed on new taxes when required . In 1275 , the " Great and Ancient Custom " began to tax woollen products and hides , with the Great Charter of 1303 imposing additional levies on foreign merchants in England , with the poundage tax introduced in 1347 . In 1340 , the discredited tallage tax system was finally abolished by Edward III . Assessing the total impact of changes to royal revenues between 1086 and 1290 is difficult . At best , Edward I was struggling in 1300 to match in real terms the revenues that Henry II had enjoyed in 1100 , and considering the growth in the size of the English economy , the king 's share of the national income had dropped considerably .
In the English towns the burgage tenure for urban properties was established early on in the medieval period , and was based primarily on tenants paying cash rents rather than providing labour services . Further development of a set of taxes that could be raised by the towns included murage for walls , pavage for streets , and pontage , a temporary tax for the repair of bridges . Combined with the lex mercatoria , which was a set of codes and customary practices governing trading , these provided a reasonable basis for the economic governance of the towns .
The 12th century also saw a concerted attempt to curtail the remaining rights of unfree peasant workers and to set out their labour rents more explicitly in the form of the English Common Law . This process resulted in the Magna Carta explicitly authorising feudal landowners to settle law cases concerning feudal labour and fines through their own manorial courts rather than through the royal courts . These class relationships between lords and unfree peasants had complex economic implications . Peasant workers resented being unfree , but having continuing access to agricultural land was also important . Under those rare circumstances where peasants were offered a choice between freedom but no land , and continued servitude , not all chose freedom and a minority chose to remain in servitude on the land . Lords benefited economically from their control of the manorial courts and dominating the courts made it easier to manipulate land ownership and rights in their own favour when land became in particularly short supply at the end of this period . Many of the labour duties lords could compel from the local peasant communities became less useful over the period . Duties were fixed by custom , inflexible and understandably resented by the workers involved . As a result , by the end of the 13th century the productivity of such forced labour was significantly lower than that of free labour employed to do the same task . A number of lords responded by seeking to commute the duties of unfree peasants to cash alternatives , with the aim of hiring labour instead .
= = Mid @-@ medieval economic crisis – the Great Famine and the Black Death ( 1290 – 1350 ) = =
= = = Great Famine = = =
The Great Famine of 1315 began a number of acute crises in the English agrarian economy . The famine centred on a sequence of harvest failures in 1315 , 1316 and 1321 , combined with an outbreak of murrain , a sickness amongst sheep and oxen in 1319 – 21 and the fatal ergotism , a fungus amongst the remaining stocks of wheat . Many people died in the ensuing famine , and the peasantry were said to have been forced to eat horses , dogs and cats as well as conducted cannibalism against children , although these last reports are usually considered to be exaggerations . Poaching and encroachment on the royal forests surged , sometimes on a mass scale . Sheep and cattle numbers fell by up to a half , significantly reducing the availability of wool and meat , and food prices almost doubled , with grain prices particularly inflated . Food prices remained at similar levels for the next decade . Salt prices also increased sharply due to the wet weather .
Various factors exacerbated the crisis . Economic growth had already begun to slow significantly in the years prior to the crisis and the English rural population was increasingly under economic stress , with around half the peasantry estimated to possess insufficient land to provide them with a secure livelihood . Where additional land was being brought into cultivation , or existing land cultivated more intensively , the soil may have become exhausted and useless . Bad weather also played an important part in the disaster ; 1315 – 16 and 1318 saw torrential rains and an incredibly cold winter , which in combination badly impacted on harvests and stored supplies . The rains of these years were followed by drought in the 1320s and another fierce winter in 1321 , complicating recovery . Disease , independent of the famine , was also high during the period , striking at the wealthier as well as the poorer classes . The commencement of war with France in 1337 only added to the economic difficulties . The Great Famine firmly reversed the population growth of the 12th and 13th centuries and left a domestic economy that was " profoundly shaken , but not destroyed " .
= = = Black Death = = =
The Black Death epidemic first arrived in England in 1348 , re @-@ occurring in waves during 1360 – 62 , 1368 – 69 , 1375 and more sporadically thereafter . The most immediate economic impact of this disaster was the widespread loss of life , between around 27 % mortality amongst the upper classes , to 40 – 70 % amongst the peasantry . Despite the very high loss of life , few settlements were abandoned during the epidemic itself , but many were badly affected or nearly eliminated altogether . The medieval authorities did their best to respond in an organised fashion , but the economic disruption was immense . Building work ceased and many mining operations paused . In the short term , efforts were taken by the authorities to control wages and enforce pre @-@ epidemic working conditions . Coming on top of the previous years of famine , however , the longer @-@ term economic implications were profound . In contrast to the previous centuries of rapid growth , the English population would not begin to recover for over a century , despite the many positive reasons for a resurgence . The crisis would dramatically affect English agriculture , wages and prices for the remainder of the medieval period .
= = Late medieval economic recovery ( 1350 – 1509 ) = =
The events of the crisis between 1290 and 1348 and the subsequent epidemics produced many challenges for the English economy . In the decades after the disaster , the economic and social issues arising from the Black Death combined with the costs of the Hundred Years War to produce the Peasants Revolt of 1381 . Although the revolt was suppressed , it undermined many of the vestiges of the feudal economic order , and the countryside became dominated by estates organised as farms , frequently owned or rented by the new economic class of the gentry . The English agricultural economy remained depressed throughout the 15th century ; growth at this time came from the greatly increased English cloth trade and manufacturing . The economic consequences of this varied considerably from region to region , but generally London , the South and the West prospered at the expense of the Eastern and the older cities . The role of merchants and trade became increasingly seen as important to the country , and usury gradually became more widely accepted , with English economic thinking increasingly influenced by Renaissance humanist theories .
= = = Governance and taxation = = =
Even before the end of the first outbreak of the Black Death , there were efforts by the authorities to stem the upward pressure on wages and prices , with parliament passing the emergency Ordinance of Labourers in 1349 and the Statute of Labourers in 1351 . The efforts to regulate the economy continued as wages and prices rose , putting pressure on the landed classes , and in 1363 parliament attempted unsuccessfully to centrally regulate craft production , trading and retailing . A rising amount of the royal courts ' time was involved in enforcing the failing labour legislation – as much as 70 % by the 1370s . Many land owners attempted to vigorously enforce rents payable through agricultural service rather than money through their local manor courts , leading to attempts by many village communities to legally challenge local feudal practices using the Domesday Book as a legal basis for their claims . With the wages of the lower classes still rising , the government also attempted to regulate demand and consumption by reinstating the sumptuary laws in 1363 . These laws banned the lower classes from consuming certain products or wearing high @-@ status clothes , and reflected the significance of the consumption of high @-@ quality breads , ales and fabrics as a way of signifying social class in the late medieval period .
The 1370s also saw the government facing difficulties in funding the war with France . The impact of the Hundred Years War on the English economy as a whole remains uncertain ; one suggestion is that the high taxation required to pay for the conflict " shrunk and depleted " the English economy , whilst others have argued for a more modest or even neutral economic impact for the war . The English government clearly found it difficult to pay for its army and from 1377 turned to a new system of poll taxes , aiming to spread the costs of taxation across the entirety of English society .
= = = = Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 = = = =
One result of the economic and political tensions was the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 , in which widespread rural discontent was followed by an invasion of London involving thousands of rebels . The rebels had many demands , including the effective end of the feudal institution of serfdom and a cap on the levels of rural rents . The ensuing violence took the political classes by surprise and the revolt was not fully put down until the autumn ; up to 7 @,@ 000 rebels were executed in the aftermath . As a result of the revolt , parliament retreated from the poll tax and instead focused on a system of indirect taxes centring on foreign trade , drawing 80 % of tax revenues from the exports of wool . Parliament continued to collect direct tax levies at historically high levels up until 1422 , although they reduced them in later years . As a result , successive monarchs found that their tax revenues were uncertain , and Henry VI enjoyed less than half the annual tax revenue of the late 14th century . England 's monarchs became increasingly dependent on borrowing and forced loans to meet the gap between taxes and expenditure and even then faced later rebellions over levels of taxation , including the Yorkshire rebellion of 1489 and the Cornish rebellion of 1497 during the reign of Henry VII .
= = = Agriculture , fishing and mining = = =
= = = = Collapse of the demesne and the creation of the farming system = = = =
The agricultural sector of the English economy , still by far the largest , was transformed by the Black Death . With the shortage of manpower after the Black Death , wages for agricultural labourers rapidly increased and continued to then grow steadily throughout the 15th century . As their incomes increased , labourers ' living conditions and diet improved steadily . A trend for labourers to eat less barley and more wheat and rye , and to replace bread in their diet with more meat , had been apparent since before the Black Death , but intensified during this later period . Nonetheless , England 's much smaller population needed less food and the demand for agricultural products fell . The position of the larger landowners became increasingly difficult . Revenues from demesne lands were diminishing as demand remained low and wage costs increased ; nobles were also finding it more difficult to raise revenue from their local courts , fines and privileges in the years after the Peasants Revolt of 1381 . Despite attempts to increase money rents , by the end of the 14th century the rents paid from peasant lands were also declining , with revenues falling as much as 55 % between the 1380s and 1420s .
Noble and church landowners responded in various ways . They began to invest significantly less in agriculture and land was increasingly taken out of production altogether . In some cases entire settlements were abandoned , and nearly 1 @,@ 500 villages were lost during this period . Landowners also abandoned the system of direct management of their demesne lands , which had begun back in the 1180s , and turned instead to " farming " out large blocks of land for fixed money rents . Initially , livestock and land were rented out together under " stock and lease " contracts , but this was found to be increasingly impractical and contracts for farms became centred purely on land . Many of the rights to church parish tithes were also " farmed " out in exchange for fixed rents . This process was encouraged by the trend for tithe revenues being increasing " appropriated " by central church authorities , rather than being used to support local clergy : around 39 % of parish tithes had been centralised in this way by 1535 . As the major estates transformed , a new economic grouping , the gentry , became evident , many of them benefiting from the opportunities of the farming system . Land distribution remained heavily unequal ; estimates suggest that the English nobility owned 20 % of English lands , the Church and Crown 33 % , the gentry 25 % , and the remainder was owned by peasant farmers . Agriculture itself continued to innovate , and the loss of many English oxen to the murrain sickness in the crisis increased the number of horses used to plough fields in the 14th century , a significant improvement on older methods .
= = = = Forests , fishing and mining = = = =
The royal forests continued to diminish in size and decline in economic importance in the years after the Black Death . Royal enforcement of forest rights and laws became harder after 1348 and certainly after 1381 , and by the 15th century the royal forests were a " shadow of their former selves " in size and economic significance . In contrast , the English fishing industry continued to grow , and by the 15th century domestic merchants and financiers owned fleets of up to a hundred fishing vessels operating from key ports . Herring remained a key fishing catch , although as demand for herring declined with rising prosperity , the fleets began to focus instead on cod and other deep @-@ sea fish from the Icelandic waters . Despite being critical to the fishing industry , salt production in England diminished in the 15th century due to competition from French producers . The use of expensive freshwater fish ponds on estates began to decline during this period , as more of the gentry and nobility opted to purchase freshwater fish from commercial river fisheries .
Mining generally performed well at the end of the medieval period , helped by buoyant demand for manufactured and luxury goods . Cornish tin production plunged during the Black Death itself , leading to a doubling of prices . Tin exports also collapsed catastrophically , but picked up again over the next few years . By the turn of the 16th century , the available alluvial tin deposits in Cornwall and Devon had begun to decline , leading to the commencement of bell and surface mining to support the tin boom that had occurred in the late 15th century . Lead mining increased , and output almost doubled between 1300 and 1500 . Wood and charcoal became cheaper once again after the Black Death , and coal production declined as a result , remaining depressed for the rest of the period – nonetheless , some coal production was occurring in all the major English coalfields by the 16th century . Iron production continued to increase ; the Weald in the South @-@ East began to make increased use of water @-@ power , and overtook the Forest of Dean in the 15th century as England 's main iron @-@ producing region . The first blast furnace in England , a major technical step forward in metal smelting , was created in 1496 in Newbridge in the Weald .
= = = Trade , manufacturing and the towns = = =
= = = = Shrinking towns = = = =
The percentage of England 's population living in towns continued to grow but in absolute terms English towns shrunk significantly as a consequence of the Black Death , especially in the formerly prosperous east . The importance of England 's Eastern ports declined over the period , as trade from London and the South @-@ West increased in relative significance . Increasingly elaborate road networks were built across England , some involving the construction of up to thirty bridges to cross rivers and other obstacles . Nonetheless , it remained cheaper to move goods by water , and consequently timber was brought to London from as far away as the Baltic , and stone from Caen brought over the Channel to the South of England . Shipbuilding , particular in the South @-@ West , became a major industry for the first time and investment in trading ships such as cogs was probably the single biggest form of late medieval investment in England .
= = = = Rise of the cloth trade = = = =
Cloth manufactured in England increasingly dominated European markets during the 15th and early 16th centuries . England exported almost no cloth at all in 1347 , but by 1400 around 40 @,@ 000 cloths a year were being exported – the trade reached its first peak in 1447 when exports reached 60 @,@ 000 . Trade fell slightly during the serious depression of the mid @-@ 15th century , but picked up again and reached 130 @,@ 000 cloths a year by the 1540s . The centres of weaving in England shifted westwards towards the Stour Valley , the West Riding , the Cotswolds and Exeter , away from the former weaving centres in York , Coventry and Norwich .
The wool and cloth trade was primarily now being run by English merchants themselves rather than by foreigners . Increasingly , the trade was also passing through London and the ports of the South @-@ West . By the 1360s , 66 – 75 % of the export trade was in English hands and by the 15th century this had risen to 80 % ; London managed around 50 % of these exports in 1400 , and as much as 83 % of wool and cloth exports by 1540 . The growth in the numbers of chartered trading companies in London , such as the Worshipful Company of Drapers or the Company of Merchant Adventurers of London , continued , and English producers began to provide credit to European buyers , rather than the other way around . Usury grew during the period , and few cases were prosecuted by the authorities .
There were some reversals . The attempts of English merchants to break through the Hanseatic league directly into the Baltic markets failed in the domestic political chaos of the Wars of the Roses in the 1460s and 1470s . The wine trade with Gascony fell by half during the war with France , and the eventual loss of the province brought an end to the English domination of the business and temporary disruption to Bristol 's prosperity until wines began to be imported through the city a few years later . Indeed , the disruption to both the Baltic and the Gascon trade contributed to a sharp reduction in the consumption of furs and wine by the English gentry and nobility during the 15th century .
There were advances in manufacturing , especially in the South and West . Despite some French attacks , the war created much coastal prosperity thanks to the huge expenditure on shipbuilding during the war , and the South @-@ West also became a centre for English piracy against foreign vessels . Metalworking continued to grow , and in particular pewter working , which generated exports second only to cloth . By the 15th century pewter working in London was a large industry , with a hundred pewter workers recorded in London alone , and pewter working had also spread from the capital to eleven major cities across England . London goldsmithing remained significant but saw relatively little growth , with around 150 goldsmiths working in London during the period . Iron @-@ working continued to expand and in 1509 the first cast @-@ iron cannon was made in England . This was reflected in the rapid growth in the number of iron @-@ working guilds , from three in 1300 to fourteen by 1422 .
The result was a substantial influx of money that in turn encouraged the import of manufactured luxury goods ; by 1391 shipments from abroad routinely included " ivory , mirrors , paxes , armour , paper ... , painted clothes , spectacles , tin images , razors , calamine , treacle , sugar @-@ candy , marking irons , patens ... , ox @-@ horns and quantities of wainscot " . Imported spices now formed a part of almost all noble and gentry diets , with the quantities being consumed varying according to the wealth of the household . The English government was also importing large quantities of raw materials , including copper , for manufacturing weapons . Many major landowners tended to focus their efforts on maintaining a single major castle or house rather than the dozens a century before , but these were usually decorated much more luxurious than previously . Major merchants ' dwellings , too , were more lavish than in previous years .
= = = = Decline of the fair system = = = =
Towards the end of the 14th century , the position of fairs began to decline . The larger merchants , particularly in London , began to establish direct links with the larger landowners such as the nobility and the church ; rather than the landowner buying from a chartered fair , they would buy directly from the merchant . Meanwhile , the growth of the indigenous England merchant class in the major cities , especially London , gradually crowded out the foreign merchants upon whom the great chartered fairs had largely depended . The crown 's control over trade in the towns , especially the emerging newer towns towards the end of the 15th century that lacked central civic government , was increasingly weaker , making chartered status less relevant as more trade occurred from private properties and took place all year around . Nonetheless , the great fairs remained of importance well into the 15th century , as illustrated by their role in exchanging money , regional commerce and in providing choice for individual consumers .
= = Historiography = =
The first studies into the medieval economy of England began in the 1880s , principally around the work of English jurist and historian Frederic Maitland . This scholarship , drawing extensively on documents such as the Domesday Book and the Magna Carta , became known as the " Whiggish " view of economic history , focusing on law and government . Late Victorian writers argued that change in the English medieval economy stemmed primarily from the towns and cities , leading to a progressive and universalist interpretation of development over the period , focusing on trade and commerce . Influenced by the evolution of Norman laws , Maitland argued that there was a clear discontinuity between the Anglo @-@ Saxon and Norman economic systems .
In the 1930s the Whiggish view of the English economy was challenged by a group of scholars at the University of Cambridge , led by Eileen Power . Power and her colleagues widened the focus of study from legal and government documents to include " agrarian , archaeological , demographic , settlement , landscape and urban " evidence . This was combined with a neo @-@ positivist and econometric leaning that was at odds with the older Victorian tradition in the subject . Power died in 1940 , and her student and later husband , Michael Postan took forward their work , coming to dominate the post @-@ war field . Postan argued that demography was the principal driving force in the medieval English economy . In a distinctly Malthusian fashion , Postan proposed that the English agrarian economy saw little technical development during the period and by the early 14th century was unable to support the growing population , leading to inevitable famines and economic depression as the population came back into balance with land resources . Postan began the trend towards stressing continuities between the pre- and post @-@ invasion economies , aided by fresh evidence emerging from the use of archaeological techniques to understand the medieval economy from the 1950s onwards .
A Marxist critique of Postan emerged from the 1950s onwards , captured in the academic journal Past & Present . This school of thought agreed that the agrarian economy was central to medieval England , but argued that agrarian issues had less to do with demography than with the mode of production and feudal class relations . In this model the English economy entered the crisis of the early 14th century because of the struggles between landlords and peasant for resources and excessive extraction of rents by the nobility . Similar issues underpinned the Peasants Revolt of 1381 and later tax rebellions . Historians such as Frank Stenton developed the " honour " as a unit of economic analysis and a focus for understanding feudal relations in peasant communities ; Rodney Hilton developed the idea of the rise of the gentry as a key feature for understanding the late medieval period .
Fresh work in the 1970s and 1980s challenged both Postan 's and Marxist approaches to the medieval economy . Local studies of medieval economics , often in considerable detail and fusing new archaeological techniques and rescue archaeology with historical sources , often ran counter to their broader interpretations of change and development . The degree to which feudalism really existed and operated in England after the initial years of the invasion was thrown into considerable doubt , with historians such as David Crouch arguing that it existed primarily as a legal and fiscal model , rather than an actual economic system . Sociological and anthropological studies of contemporary economies , including the work of Ester Boserup showed many flaws with Postan 's key assumptions about demography and land use . The current academic preference is to see the English medieval economy as an " overlapping network of diverse communities " , in which active local choices and decisions are the result of independent agency , rather than historical determinism .
= Mortensrud ( station ) =
Mortensrud is a rapid transit station on the Østensjø Line of the Oslo Metro . It is located in Mortensrud in the Søndre Nordstrand borough of Oslo , Norway . Construction of the station started in 1995 , which was taken into use on 24 November 1997 , when it became the terminal station of the line — following a 2 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) extension from Skullerud . The extension cost NOK 215 million to build , and most of the section is in tunnels . The station is built in concrete , wood and stone , and cost NOK 35 million . It is served by line 3 , in addition to being an important bus terminal for the borough , including a feeder service to Bjørndal . Travel time along the 13 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 5 mi ) section to the city center is 24 minutes . In 2001 – 02 , the station had 2 @,@ 077 daily boarding passengers . The station serves the surrounding residential area , as well as an adjacent shopping center . South of the station is a turning line for trains .
= = History = =
The Østensjø Line opened as a light rail on 18 December 1923 . On 29 October 1967 , the upgraded metro standard was first used , and the line was connected to the Oslo Metro . A month later , the extension to Skullerud opened . The work with building the extension between Skullerud and Mortensrud was originally planned to start in 1992 , with completion planned for 1994 . However , construction did not start until 1995 . The 2 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) extension is built to allow speeds of 100 kilometres per hour ( 62 mph ) , and represents a considerable longer distance between stations than what is normal on the network . Most of the section is in tunnels , though there are also two viaducts . The extension ( without the new station ) cost NOK 215 million . The line runs somewhat south of the station , allowing space to line up trains , and for future further extension of the line .
The station was taken into use on 24 November 1997 , but not officially opened until 4 January 1998 . On the day of the official opening , the bus terminal was taken into use . The station costs NOK 35 million . At the time , it was estimated to have about 6000 daily users — both boarding and disembarking , including the bus terminal .
= = Facilities = =
The station is located in the residential area of Mortensrud , in Søndre Nordstrand . Mortensrud is an open station without any barriers and free access from the bus stops . The station area is one storey below from the surrounding area . It has step @-@ free access , and at the same level as the buses . Only the western portion of the two side platforms is in use , where direct connection can be made with buses . The station is located adjacent to the shopping center at Mortensrud . The station is designed by Arkitektskap . It is built in concrete , covered in red brick , steel , natural rock and wood , that will allow lianas to grow on them . The roofover the western platform is curved , and made of wood and glass . There is an underground parking lot in two levels .
= = Service = =
Mortensrud is served by line 3 on the Østensjø Line , operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with Ruter . The rapid transit serves the station every 15 minutes , except in the late evening and on weekend mornings , when there is a 30 @-@ minute headway . Travel time along the 13 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 5 mi ) portion to Stortinget in the city center is 24 minutes . In 2001 – 02 , the station had 2 @,@ 077 daily boarding passengers .
The station functions as a major bus terminal for Søndre Nordstrand . Ruter operates feeder bus services to Dal , Brenna , Kantarellen ( all no . 72 ) and Bjørndal ( no . 71 ) . The station is the end station of route 74 to the city center , and an intermediate stop on route 76 to Helsfyr and Hvervenbukta . Routes 71E and 73 to the city center also serve the station during rush hour .
= Vorbunker =
The Vorbunker ( upper bunker or forward bunker ) was an underground concrete structure originally intended to be a temporary air @-@ raid shelter for Adolf Hitler and his guards and servants . It was located behind the large reception hall that was added onto the old Reich Chancellery , in Berlin , Germany , in 1936 . The bunker was officially called the " Reich Chancellery Air @-@ Raid Shelter " until 1943 , when the complex was expanded with the addition of the Führerbunker , located one level below . On 16 January 1945 , Hitler moved into the Führerbunker . He was joined by his senior staff , including Martin Bormann . Later , Eva Braun and Joseph Goebbels moved into the Führerbunker while Magda Goebbels and their six children took residence in the upper Vorbunker . The Goebbels family lived in the Vorbunker until their deaths on 1 May 1945 .
= = Construction = =
In 1933 , Adolf Hitler decided to expand the Reich Chancellery ( Reichskanzlei ) , which he considered too small for his needs . On 21 July 1935 , Leonhard Gall submitted plans for a large reception hall ( that could also be used as a ballroom ) to be built onto the old Chancellery . The drawings were unique because of the large cellar that led a further one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half meters down to a bunker which later became known as the Vorbunker .
The Vorbunker 's roof was 1 @.@ 6 meters ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) thick , twice as thick as that of the bunker underneath the nearby Air Ministry building . The thick walls of the Vorbunker supported the weight of the reception hall overhead . It had three entry points , to the north , west , and south . Construction was completed in 1936 . It had 12 rooms branching out from a single corridor .
The Führerbunker was built by the Hochtief company as part of an extensive program of subterranean construction in Berlin . It was finished by 1944 and was connected to the Vorbunker by a stairway set at right angles ( not a spiral staircase ) . The two bunkers could be closed off from each other by a bulkhead and steel door . A permanent guard detail was posted by the steel door . The Führerbunker was located about 8 @.@ 5 metres ( 28 ft ) beneath the garden of the old Reich Chancellery , 120 meters ( 390 ft ) north of the new Reich Chancellery building at Voßstraße 6 . The Führerbunker was located 2 @.@ 5 meters lower than the Vorbunker and to the west @-@ southwest of it . The accommodations for Hitler were moved to the Führerbunker , and by February 1945 it had been decorated with high @-@ quality furniture taken from the Chancellery , along with several framed oil paintings .
= = Events = =
The first air @-@ raid drills for the Berlin central government district , which included the Reich Chancellery , occurred in the autumn of 1937 . The protocol for the drills stated , in part :
To carry out the air raid drills , a precise regulation is required for the three office buildings , Wilhelmstraße 77 , Wilhelmstraße 78 and Voßstraße 1 ... The officials and residents of Wilhelmstraße 78 and Voßstraße 1 can go to the substitute shelters in Wilhelmstraße 78 and Voßstraße 1 . The inhabitants of the Reich Chancellor House , Wilhelmstraße 77 , will use the shelter under the ballroom .
The only residents of Wilhelmstraße 77 were Hitler and his bodyguards , adjutants , orderlies and servants . It is unknown if the Vorbunker was used before January 1945 . Hitler transferred his headquarters to the Führerbunker in Berlin on 16 January 1945 , where he ( along with his influential private secretary , Reichsleiter Martin Bormann and others ) remained until the end of April . Thereafter , the Vorbunker was used by various military officers and housed men from Hitler 's personal bodyguard . In April 1945 , as the Battle in Berlin raged on , Joseph Goebbels showed his strong support for Hitler by moving his family into the Vorbunker . He occupied a room in the Führerbunker which had recently been vacated by Hitler 's personal physician , Theodor Morell . Two rooms in the Vorbunker were used for food supply . Constanze Manziarly , Hitler 's personal cook / dietitian , made meals in the kitchen , which was equipped with a refrigerator and a wine store .
On the evening of 1 May 1945 , Goebbels arranged for an SS dentist , Helmut Kunz , to inject his six children with morphine so that when they were unconscious , an ampule of cyanide could be crushed in each of their mouths . According to Kunz 's later testimony , he gave the children morphine injections but it was Magda Goebbels and SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Ludwig Stumpfegger , Hitler 's personal doctor , who administered the cyanide .
Afterwards , Goebbels and his wife went up the stairs to ground level and through the Führerbunker 's emergency exit to the bombed @-@ out garden behind the Reich Chancellery . There are several different accounts on what followed . According to one account , Goebbels shot his wife and then himself . Another account was that they each bit on a cyanide ampule and were given a coup de grâce immediately afterwards by Goebbels ' SS adjutant , Günther Schwägermann . Schwägermann testified in 1948 that the couple walked ahead of him up the stairs and out into the Chancellery garden . He waited in the stairwell and heard the " shots " sound . Schwägermann then walked up the remaining stairs and outside . There he saw the lifeless bodies of the couple . Following Joseph Goebbels ' prior order , Schwägermann told an SS soldier to make sure Goebbels ' was dead . The soldier fired into Goebbels ' body , which did not move . The bodies were then doused with petrol , but the remains were only partially burned and not buried .
At 01 : 00 on 2 May , the Soviets picked up a radio message from the LVI Panzer Corps requesting a cease @-@ fire and stating that emissaries would come under a white flag to Potsdamer bridge . Early in the morning of 2 May , the Soviets captured the Reich Chancellery . General of the Artillery Helmuth Weidling , the commander of the Berlin Defense Area , surrendered with his staff at 06 : 00 . Down in the Führerbunker , Chief of the Army General Staff General Hans Krebs and Hitler 's Chief Adjutant Generalleutnant Wilhelm Burgdorf committed suicide by gunshot to the head . Johannes Hentschel , the master electro @-@ mechanic for the bunker complex , stayed after everyone else had either committed suicide or left , as the field hospital in the Reich Chancellery above needed power and water . He surrendered to the Red Army as they entered the bunker complex at 09 : 00 on 2 May . The bodies of Goebbels six children were discovered on 3 May . They were found in their beds in the Vorbunker ; the clear mark of cyanide appeared on their faces .
= = Post @-@ war events = =
The ruins of both Chancellery buildings were levelled by the Soviets between 1945 and 1949 as part of an effort to destroy the landmarks of Nazi Germany . The bunker complex largely survived , although some areas were partially flooded . In December 1947 the Soviets tried to blow up the bunkers , but only the separation walls were damaged . In 1959 the East German government began a series of demolitions of the Chancellery , including the bunker complex . In 1974 , 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) of water was pumped from inside the bunkers , and the East Germany Stasi conducted a survey of the interior of the Vorbunker and took external measurements of the Führerbunker . Since it was near the Berlin Wall , the site was undeveloped and neglected until after reunification .
During the construction of residential housing and other buildings on the site in 1988 – 89 , several underground sections of the bunker complex were uncovered by work crews . In April 1988 , the East German government allowed several visits to the site by photo @-@ journalists . Water was pumped out of the Vorbunker for four days before access could be made via the underground passageway which led from the Chancellery . The interior floor of the Vorbunker was covered with a muddy sludge from having been underwater for so many years . Old empty wine bottles were found on the floor of the kitchen and wine store room . Still present in the room next to the kitchen were the broken frames of the bunk beds used by the Goebbels children . At the end of the hallway were the stairs leading down to the Führerbunker . However , the men could go no further than the mid @-@ landing , as the Führerbunker was still underwater and the ceiling beyond the doorway had collapsed due to the demolitions performed in 1947 . After these inspections , work crews for the most part removed and destroyed the bunker complex . The Vorbunker 's top and external walls were the first structures to be torn down . The construction of buildings in the area around the complex was a strategy for ensuring the surroundings remained anonymous and unremarkable . The emergency exit point for the Führerbunker ( which had been in the Chancellery gardens ) was occupied by a car park .
On 8 June 2006 , during the lead @-@ up to the 2006 FIFA World Cup , an information board was installed to mark the location of the bunker complex . Hitler 's bodyguard , Rochus Misch , one of the last people living who was in the bunker complex at the time of Hitler 's suicide , was on hand for the ceremony . The board , including a schematic diagram , can be found at the corner of In den Ministergärten and Gertrud @-@ Kolmar @-@ Straße , two small streets about three minutes ' walk from Potsdamer Platz .
= Francis Amasa Walker =
Francis Amasa Walker ( July 2 , 1840 – January 5 , 1897 ) was an American economist , statistician , journalist , educator , academic administrator , and military officer in the Union Army .
Walker was born into a prominent Boston family , the son of the economist and politician Amasa Walker , and he graduated from Amherst College at the age of 20 . He received a commission to join the 15th Massachusetts Infantry and quickly rose through the ranks as an assistant adjutant general . Walker fought in the Peninsula Campaign and was wounded at the Battle of Chancellorsville but subsequently participated in the Bristoe , Overland , and Richmond @-@ Petersburg Campaigns before being captured by Confederate forces and held at the infamous Libby Prison . In July 1866 , he was nominated by President Andrew Johnson and confirmed by the United States Senate for the award of the honorary grade of brevet brigadier general United States Volunteers , to rank from March 13 , 1865 , when he was age 24 .
Following the war , Walker served on the editorial staff of the Springfield Republican before using his family and military connections to gain appointment as the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics from 1869 to 1870 and Superintendent of the 1870 census where he published an award @-@ winning Statistical Atlas visualizing the data for the first time . He joined Yale University 's Sheffield Scientific School as a professor of political economy in 1872 and rose to international prominence serving as a chief member of the 1876 Philadelphia Exposition , American representative to the 1878 International Monetary Conference , President of the American Statistical Association in 1882 , and inaugural President of the American Economic Association in 1886 , and vice president of the National Academy of Sciences in 1890 . Walker also led the 1880 census which resulted in a twenty @-@ two volume census , cementing Walker 's reputation as the nation 's preeminent statistician .
As an economist , Walker debunked the wage @-@ fund doctrine and engaged in a prominent scholarly debate with Henry George on land , rent , and taxes . Walker argued in support of bimetallism and although he was an opponent of the nascent socialist movement , he argued that obligations existed between the employer and the employed . He published his International Bimetallism at the height of the 1896 presidential election campaign in which economic issues were prominent . Walker was a prolific writer , authoring ten books on political economy and military history . In recognition of his contributions to economic theory , beginning in 1947 , the American Economic Association recognized the lifetime achievement of an individual economist with a " Francis A. Walker Medal " .
Walker accepted the presidency of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1881 , a position he held for fifteen years until his death . During his tenure , he placed the institution on more stable financial footing by aggressively fund @-@ raising and securing grants from the Massachusetts government , implemented many curricular reforms , oversaw the launch of new academic programs , and expanded the size of the Boston campus , faculty , and student enrollments . MIT 's Walker Memorial Hall , a former students ' clubhouse and one of the original buildings on the Charles River campus , was dedicated to him in 1916 .
= = Background = =
Walker was born in Boston , Massachusetts , the youngest son of Hanna ( née Ambrose ) and Amasa Walker , a prominent economist and state politician . The Walkers had three children , Emma ( born 1835 ) , Robert ( born 1837 ) , and Francis . Because the Walkers ' next @-@ door neighbor was Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. , the junior Walker and junior Holmes were playmates as young children and renewed their friendship later in life . The family moved from Boston to North Brookfield , Massachusetts in 1843 and remained there . As a boy he had both a noted temper as well as a magnetic personality .
Beginning his schooling at the age of seven , Walker studied Latin at various private and public schools in Brookfield before being sent to the Leicester Academy when he was twelve . He completed his college preparation by the time he was fourteen and spent another year studying Greek and Latin under the future suffragist and abolitionist Lucy Stone , and entered Amherst College at the age of fifteen . Although he had planned to matriculate at Harvard after his first year at Amherst , Walker 's father believed his son was too young to enter the larger college and insisted he remain at Amherst . While he had entered with the class of 1859 , Walker became ill during his first year there and fell back a year . He was a member of the Delta Kappa and Athenian societies as a freshman , joined and withdrew from Alpha Sigma Phi as a sophomore on account of " rowdyism " , and finally joined Delta Kappa Epsilon . As a student , Walker was awarded the Sweetser Essay Prize and the Hardy Prize for extemporaneous speaking . He graduated in 1860 as Phi Beta Kappa with a degree in law . After graduation , he joined the law firm of Charles Devens and George Frisbie Hoar in Worcester , Massachusetts .
= = Military service = =
= = = 15th Massachusetts Infantry = = =
As tensions between the North and South increased over the winter of 1860 – 1861 , Walker equipped himself and began drilling with Major Devens ' 3rd Battalion of Rifles in Worcester and New York . Despite his older brother Robert serving in the 34th Massachusetts Infantry , his father objected to his youngest son mobilizing with the first wave of volunteers . Walker returned to Worcester but began to lobby William Schouler and Governor John Andrew to grant him a commission as a second lieutenant under Devens ' command of the 15th Massachusetts . Following his 21st birthday and the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861 , Walker secured the consent of his father to join the war effort as well as assurances by Devens that he would receive an officer 's commission . However , the lieutenancy never materialized and Devens instead offered Walker an appointment as a sergeant major , which he assumed on August 1 , 1861 , after re @-@ tailoring his previously ordered lieutenant 's uniform to reflect his enlisted status . However , by September 14 , 1861 , Walker had been recommended by Devens and reassigned to Brig. Gen. Darius N. Couch as assistant adjutant general and promoted to captain . Walker remained in Washington , D.C. , over the winter of 1861 – 1862 and did not see combat until May 1862 at the Battle of Williamsburg . Walker also served at Seven Pines as well as at the Seven Days Battles of the Peninsula Campaign in the summer of 1862 under Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan in the Army of the Potomac .
= = = Second Army Corps = = =
Walker remained at the Berkeley Plantation until his promotion on August 11 to major and transferral with General Couch to the II Corps of the Army of the Potomac . Although the II Corps later saw action at the battles of Antietam and Fredericksburg , the latter being under the new command of Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside , Walker and the Corps did not join Burnsides 's Mud March over the winter . Walker was promoted to lieutenant colonel on January 1 , 1863 , and remained with the II Corps . He fought the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863 , where his hand and wrist were shattered and neck lacerated by an exploding shell . A record of the 1880 Census indicated that he had " compound fracture of the metacarpal bones of the left hand resulting in permanent extension of his hand . " Later in 1896 , as the President of MIT , he would receive one of the first radiographs in the country , which documented the extent of the damage to his hand . He did not return to service until August 1863 . Walker participated in the Bristoe Campaign and narrowly escaped encirclement during the Battle of Bristoe Station before withdrawing and encamping near the Berry Hill Plantation for much of the winter and spending some leave in the North .
After extensive reorganization during the winter of 1863 – 1864 , Walker and the Army of the Potomac fought in the Overland Campaign through May and June 1864 . The Battle of Cold Harbor in early June took a substantial toll on the ranks of the II Corps and Walker injured his knee during the battle . In the ensuing Richmond @-@ Petersburg Campaign , Walker was appointed a brevet colonel . However , on August 25 , 1864 , as he rode to find Maj. Gen. John Gibbon at the front during the Second Battle of Ream 's Station , Walker was surrounded and captured by the 11th Georgia Infantry . On August 27 , Walker was able to escape from a marching prisoner column with another prisoner but was recaptured by the 51st North Carolina Infantry after trying to swim across the Appomattox River and nearly drowning . After being held as a prisoner in Petersburg , he was transferred to the infamous Libby Prison in Richmond , where his older brother was also held . In October 1864 , Walker was released with thirty other prisoners as a part of an exchange .
Walker returned to North Brookfield to recuperate and resigned his commission on January 8 , 1865 , as a result of his injuries and health . At the end of the war , Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock recommended that Walker be brevetted as a brigadier general of U.S. Volunteers in recognition of his meritorious services during the war and especially his gallant conduct at Chancellorsville . On July 9 , 1866 , Walker was nominated by President Andrew Johnson for the award of the honorary grade of brevet brigadier general , U.S. Volunteers , to rank from March 13 , 1865 ( when he was age 24 ) , for gallant conduct at the battle of Chancellorsville and meritorious services during the war . The U.S. Senate confirmed the award on July 23 , 1866 .
After the war , Walker became a companion of the Massachusetts Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States .
= = Postbellum activity = =
By late spring 1865 , Walker regained sufficient strength and began to assist his father by lecturing on political economy at Amherst as well as assisting him in the preparation of The Science of Wealth . He also taught Latin , Greek , and mathematics at the Williston Seminary in Easthampton , Massachusetts until being offered an editorial position at the Springfield Republican by Samuel Bowles . At the Republican , Walker wrote on Reconstruction era politics , railroad regulation , and representation .
= = = 1870 Census = = =
While his editorial career was moving forward , Walker called upon his own as well as his father 's political contacts to secure an appointment under David Ames Wells as the Chief of the U.S. Bureau of Statistics and Deputy Special Commissioner of Internal Revenue in January 1869 . On January 29 , 1869 , Major General J.D. Cox , who had also previously served in McClellan 's army and was currently the Secretary of the Interior under President Grant 's administration , notified the twenty @-@ nine @-@ year @-@ old Walker that he was being nominated to become the Superintendent of the 1870 census . After he was confirmed by the Senate , Walker sought to strike a moderate reformist position free from the inefficient and unscientific methods of the 1850 and 1860 censuses ; however , the required legislation was not passed and the census proceeded under the rules governing previous collections . Among the problems facing Walker included a lack of authority to determine , enforce , or control the marshals ' personnel , methods , or timing all of which were regularly manipulated by local political interests . Additionally , the 1870 census would not only occur five years after Civil War but would also be the first in which emancipated African Americans would be fully counted in the census .
Owing to the confluence of these problems , the Census was completed and tabulated several months behind schedule to much popular criticism , and led indirectly to a deterioration in Walker 's health during the spring of 1871 . Walker took leave to travel to England with Bowles that summer to recuperate and upon return that fall , despite an offer from The New York Times to join their editorial board with an annual salary of $ 8 @,@ 000 ( $ 143 @,@ 300 in 2009 ) , accepted Secretary Columbus Delano 's offer to become the U.S. Commissioner of Indian Affairs in November 1871 . The appointment was simultaneously a go @-@ around to continue to fund Walker 's federal responsibilities as Census superintendent despite Congress ' cessation of appropriations for the position as well as a political opportunity to replace a scandal @-@ ridden predecessor . Walker continued to work on the Census for several years thereafter , culminating in the publication of the Statistical Atlas of the United States that was unprecedented in its use of visual statistics and maps to report the results of the Census . The Atlas won him praise from both the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution as well as a First Class medal from the International Geographical Congress .
= = = Indian Bureau = = =
Despite his Census @-@ related efforts , Walker did not neglect his obligations as Indian Affairs Superintendent . In the post @-@ war era , the government redoubled efforts to issue western land grants to settlers , ranchers , miners , and railroads which only served to heighten tensions with the Native American tribes who had already been displaced from their homelands as well as stripped of their ostensible sovereignty following an 1872 act of Congress . The U.S. Army and various Indian tribes engaged in open hostilities throughout the 1860s and 1870s . Walker harbored no benevolence for the Indians , characterizing them as " voluptuary , " " garrulous , " " lazy , " " cowardly in battle , " and " beggar @-@ like " even after an expedition along the Platte River to meet various chieftains . Walker echoed Grant 's recommendation that the Native Americans be secured on reservations of limited mineral or agricultural value so they could be educated and reformed . In November 1872 , an eruption of settler @-@ Indian violence in Oregon known as the Modoc War hastened Walker 's disinterest in the position and he resigned as Commissioner on December 26 , 1872 to take a faculty position at Yale . However , Walker also criticized his successors ' graft , corruption , and abuse of power in subsequent years and published The Indian Question in 1874 .
= = = Other engagements = = =
1876 was a busy year for Walker . Henry Brooks Adams sought to recruit Walker to be the Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of his Boston Post after failing to recruit Horace White and Charles Nordhoff for the position . That spring , Walker was nominated to run for the Secretary of the State of Connecticut , running on a platform that would later be embodied by the " Mugwump " movement , but ultimately lost to Marvin H. Sanger by a margin of 7 @,@ 200 votes out of 99 @,@ 000 cast . In the summer , the faculty of Amherst attempted to recruit him to become the President , but the position went instead to the Rev. Julius Hawley Seelye to appease the more conservative trustees .
Walker 's rise to prominence was further accelerated by his appointment by Charles Francis Adams , Jr. as the Chief of the Bureau of Awards at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia . Previous world expositions in Europe were fraught with national factionalism and a superabundance of awards . Walker imposed a much leaner operation replacing juries with judges and being more selective in awarding prizes . Walker won formal international recognition when he was named a " Knight Commander " by Sweden and Norway and a " Comendador " by Spain . He was also invited to serve as Assistant Commissioner General for the 1878 Paris Exposition . The Centennial Exposition affected Walker 's later career by greatly increasing his interest in technical education as well as introducing him to MIT President John D. Runkle and Treasurer John C. Cummings .
= = = 1880 Census = = =
Walker accepted a re @-@ appointment as the superintendent of the 1880 Census because a new law , spearheaded by Congressman James A. Garfield , had been passed to allow him to appoint trained census enumerators free from political influence . Notably , the 1880 Census 's results suggested population throughout the Southern states had increased improbably over Walker 's 1870 census but an investigation revealed that the latter had been inaccurately enumerated . Walker publicized the discrepancy even as it effectively discredited the accuracy his 1870 work . The tenth Census resulted in the publication of twenty @-@ two volumes , was popularly regarded as the best census of any up to that time , and definitively established Walker 's reputation as the preeminent statistician in the nation . The Census was again delayed as a result of its size and was the subject of praise and criticism on its comprehensiveness and relevance . Walker also used the position as a bully pulpit to advocate for the creation of a permanent Census Bureau to not only ensure that professional statisticians could be trained and retained but that the information could be better popularized and disseminated . Following Garfield 's 1880 election , there was wide speculation that he would name Walker to be Secretary of the Interior , but Walker had accepted the offer to become President of MIT in the spring of 1881 instead .
= = Academic career = =
As his Census obligations diminished in 1872 , Walker reconsidered becoming an editorialist and even briefly entertained the idea of becoming a shoe manufacturer with his brother @-@ in @-@ law back in North Brookfield . However , in October 1872 , he was unanimously offered to fill Daniel Coit Gilman 's vacated post at Yale 's recently established Sheffield Scientific School led by the mineralogist George Jarvis Brush . While at Yale , Walker served as a member of the School Committee at New Haven ( 1877 – 1880 ) and the Connecticut Board of Education ( 1878 – 1881 ) .
Walker was awarded honorary or ad eundem degrees from Amherst ( M.A. 1863 , Ph.D. 1875 , LL.D. 1882 ) , Yale ( M.A. 1873 , LL.D. 1882 ) , Harvard ( LL.D. 1883 ) , Columbia ( LL.D. 1887 ) , St. Andrews ( LL.D. 1888 ) , Dublin ( LL.D. 1892 ) , Halle ( Ph.D. 1894 ) , and Edinburgh ( LL.D. 1896 ) . He was elected as an honorary member of the Royal Statistical Society in 1875 and the National Academy of Sciences in 1878 where he served as the vice president from 1890 until his death . In addition to being elected as the president of the American Statistical Association in 1882 , he helped found and launch the International Statistical Institute in 1885 and was named its " President @-@ adjoint " in 1893 . Walker also served as the inaugural president of the American Economic Association from 1885 to 1892 . He took appointments as a lecturer at Johns Hopkins University ( its first professor of economics ) from 1877 to 1879 , lecturer at Harvard University in 1882 , 1883 , and 1896 , and trustee at Amherst College from 1879 to 1889 .
= = = Wages @-@ fund theory = = =
Walker 's scholarly contributions are widely recognized as having broadened , liberalized , and modernized economic and statistical theory with his contributions to wages , wealth distribution , money , and social economics . Although his arguments presage both neoclassical economics and institutionalism , he is not readily classified into either . As a Professor of Political Economy , his first major scholarly contribution was on his The Wages Question which set out to debunk the wage @-@ fund doctrine as well as address the then @-@ radical notion of obligations between the employer and the employed . His theory of wage distribution later came to be known as residual theory and set the stage for contributions by John Bates Clark on the marginal productivity theory . Despite Walker 's advocacy of profit sharing and expansion of educational opportunities using trade and industrial schools , he was an avowed opponent of the nascent socialist movement and published critiques of Edward Bellamy 's popular novel Looking Backward .
= = = Henry George debates = = =
Beginning in 1879 , Walker and the political economist Henry George engaged in a prominent debate over economic rents , land , money , and taxes . Based on a series of lectures delivered at Harvard , Walker published his Land and Its Rent in 1883 as a criticism of George 's 1879 Progress and Poverty . Walker 's position on international bimetallism influenced his arguments that the primary cause of economic depressions was not land speculation , but rather constriction of the money supply . Walker also criticized George 's assumptions that technical progress was always labor saving and whether land held for speculation was unproductive or inefficient .
= = = Bimetallism = = =
In August 1878 , Walker represented the United States at the third International Monetary Conference in Paris while also attending the 1878 Exposition . Not only were the attempts by the United States to re @-@ establish an international silver standard defeated , but Walker also had to scramble to complete the report on the Exposition in only four days . Although he returned to the U.S. in October disheartened by the failure of the conference and exhausted by his obligations at the Exposition , the trip had secured Walker a commanding national and international reputation .
Walker published International Bimetallism in 1896 roundly critiquing the demonetization of silver out of political pressure and the impact of this change on prices and profits as well as worker employment and wages . Walker 's reputation and position on the issue isolated him among public figures and made him a target in the press . The book was published in the midst of the 1896 presidential election pitting populist " silver " candidate William Jennings Bryan against the capitalist " gold " candidate William McKinley and the competing interpretations of the nation 's leading economist 's stance on the issue became a political football during the campaign . The presidential candidate and economist were not close allies as Walker advocated a double standard by all leading financial nations while Bryan argued for the United States ' unilateral shift to a silver standard . The rift was heightened by the east @-@ west divide on the issue as well as Walker 's general distaste for political populism ; Walker 's position was supported by conservative bankers and statesmen like Henry Lee Higginson , George F. Hoar , John M. Forbes , and Henry Cabot Lodge .
= = = Other interests = = =
Political Economy , the first edition published in 1883 , was one of the most widely used textbooks of the 19th century as a component of the American Science Series . Robert Solow criticized the third edition ( 1888 ) for being devoid of facts , figures , and mostly full of off @-@ the @-@ cuff judgments on the practices and capacities of native Americans and immigrants , but generally embodying the state of the art of economics at the time .
Walker also took an interest in demographics later in his career , particularly towards the issues of immigration and birth rates . He published The Growth of the United States in 1882 and Restriction on Immigration in 1896 arguing for increasing restrictions out of concern about the diminished industrial and intellectual capacity of the most recent wave of immigrants . Walker also argued that unrestricted immigration was the major reason behind nineteenth @-@ century native American fertility decline , but while the argument was politically popular and became widely accepted in mobilizing restrictions on immigration , it rested upon a surprisingly facile statistical analysis that was later refuted . Writing on immigrants from southern Italy , Hungary , Austria , and Russia in The Atlantic , Walker claimed ,
" The entrance into our political , social , and industrial life of such vast masses of peasantry , degraded below our utmost conceptions , is a matter which no intelligent patriot can look upon without the gravest apprehension and alarm . These people have no history behind them which is of a nature to give encouragement . They have none of the inherited instincts and tendencies which made it comparatively easy to deal with the immigration of the olden time . They are beaten men from beaten races ; representing the worst failures in the struggle for existence . Centuries are against them , as centuries were on the side of those who formerly came to us . They have none of the ideas and aptitudes which fit men to take up readily and easily the problem of self @-@ care and self @-@ government , such as belong to those who are descended from the tribes that met under the oak @-@ trees of old Germany to make laws and choose chieftains . "
Based upon his experiences in the military , Walker published two books describing the history of the Second Army Corps ( 1886 ) as well as a biography of General Winfield Scott Hancock ( 1884 ) . Walker was elected Commander of the Massachusetts Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States in 1883 was also the President of the National Military Historical Association .
= = MIT presidency = =
Established in 1861 and opened in 1865 , the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) saw its financial stability severely undermined following the Panic of 1873 and subsequent Long Depression . Seventy @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old founder William Barton Rogers was elected interim president in 1878 after John Daniel Runkle stepped down . Rogers wrote Walker in June 1880 to offer him the Presidency , and Walker evidently debated the opportunity for some time as Rogers sent follow @-@ up inquiries in January and February 1881 requesting his committed decision . Walker ultimately accepted in early May and was formally elected President by the MIT Corporation on May 25 , 1881 , resigning his Yale appointment in June and his Census directorship in November . However , the assassination attempt on President Garfield in July 1881 and the ensuing illness before Garfield 's death in September upset Walker 's transition and delayed his formal introduction to the faculty of MIT until November 5 , 1881 . On May 30 , 1882 , during Walker 's first Commencement exercises , Rogers died mid @-@ speech where his last words were famously " bituminous coal " .
MIT 's inability to secure a more stable financial footing during this era can largely be attributed to the existence of the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard . Given the choice between funding technological research at the oldest university in the nation , or at an independent and adolescent institution , potential benefactors were indifferent or even hostile to funding MIT 's competing mission . Earlier overtures from Harvard President Charles William Eliot towards consolidation of the two schools were rejected or disrupted by Rogers in 1870 and 1878 . Despite his tenure at the analogous Sheffield School of Yale University , Walker remained committed to MIT 's independence from a larger institution . Walker also repeatedly received overtures from Leland Stanford to become the first president of his new university in Palo Alto , California , but Walker remained committed to MIT owing to his Boston upbringing .
= = = Aid and expansion = = =
In light of the difficulties in raising capital for these expansions and despite MIT 's privately endowed status , Walker and other members of the Corporation lobbied the Massachusetts legislature for a $ 200 @,@ 000 grant to aid in the industrial development of the Commonwealth ( $ 4 @,@ 446 @,@ 000 in 2009 dollars ) . After intensive negotiations that called upon Walker 's extensive connections and civic experience , in 1887 the legislature made a grant of $ 300 @,@ 000 over two years to the Institute , which would lead to a total of $ 1 @.@ 6 million in grants from the Commonwealth before the practice was discontinued in 1921 .
Walker sought to erect a new building to address the increasingly cramped conditions of the original Boylston Street campus located near Copley Square , in the increasingly fashionable and crowded Back Bay neighborhood of Boston . Because the stipulations of the original land grant prevented MIT from covering more than two @-@ ninths of its current lot , Walker announced his intention to build the industrial expansion on a lot directly across from the Trinity Church fully intending that expected opposition would lead to favorable terms for selling the proposed land and funding construction elsewhere . With the financial health of the Institute only beginning to recover , Walker began construction on the partially @-@ funded expansion , fully expecting the immediacy of the project to be a persuasive tool for raising its funds . The strategy was only partially successful , as the 1883 building had laboratory facilities that were second @-@ to @-@ none but also lacked the outward architectural grandeur of its sister building and was generally considered an eyesore on its surroundings . Mechanical shops were moved out of the original Rogers Building in the mid @-@ 1880s to accommodate other programs , and in 1892 the Institute began construction on another Copley Square building .
New programs were also launched under Walker 's tenure : Electrical Engineering in 1882 , Chemical Engineering in 1888 , Sanitary Engineering in 1889 , Geology in 1890 , Naval Architecture in 1893 .
= = = Reforms = = =
Although Walker continued Census @-@ related activities , he began to lecture on political economy as well as establishing a new general course of study ( Course IX ) emphasizing economics , history , law , English , and modern languages . Walker also set out to reform and expand the Institute 's organization by creating a smaller Executive Committee , apart from the fifty @-@ member Corporation , to handle regular administrative issues . Walker emphasized the importance of faculty governance by regularly attending their meetings and seeking their advice on major decisions .
Walker also sought to improve the state of student life and alumni relations by supporting the creation of a gymnasium , dormitories , and the Technology Club , which served to foster a stronger identity and loyalty among the largely commuter student body . He also won considerable praise from the student body by reducing the required time spent for recitation and preparation , limiting the faculty to examinations lasting no longer than three hours , expanding entrance examinations to other cities , starting a summer curriculum , and launching masters and doctoral graduate degree programs . These reforms were largely a response to Walker 's on @-@ going defense of the Institute and its curriculum from outside accusations of overwork , poor writing , inapplicable skills , and status as a " mere " trade school . Between 1881 and 1897 , enrollments quadrupled from 302 to 1 @,@ 198 students , annual degrees granted increased from 28 to 179 , faculty appointments quadrupled from 38 to 156 , and the endowment grew thirteenfold from $ 137 @,@ 000 to $ 1 @,@ 798 @,@ 000 ( $ 3 @,@ 046 @,@ 000 to $ 46 @,@ 367 @,@ 000 in 2009 dollars ) .
While MIT is a private institution , Walker 's extensive civic activities as President set the precedent for future presidents to use the post to fulfill civic and cultural obligations throughout Boston . He served as a member of the Massachusetts Board of Education ( 1882 – 1890 ) , Boston School Committee ( 1885 – 1888 ) , Boston Art Commission ( 1885 – 1897 ) , Boston Park Commission ( 1890 – 1896 ) , Massachusetts Historical Society ( 1883 – 1897 ) , and a trustee of the Boston Public Library in 1896 . Walker was committed to a variety of reforms in public and normal schools such as secular curricula , expanding the emphasis on arithmetic , reducing the emphasis on ineffectual home exercises , and increasing the pay and training of teachers .
= = Personal life = =
Walker married Exene Evelyn Stoughton on August 16 , 1865 ( born October 11 , 1840 ) . They had five sons and two daughters together : Stoughton ( b . June 3 , 1866 ) , Lucy ( b . September 1 , 1867 ) , Francis ( b . 1870 – 1871 ) , Ambrose ( b . December 28 , 1870 ) , Eveline ( b . 1875 – 1876 ) , Etheredge ( b . 1876 – 1877 ) , and Stuart ( b . 1878 – 1879 ) . Walker was an avid spectator and supporter of college football and baseball , and was a regular Yale enthusiast at the annual Harvard @-@ Yale football game , even during his MIT presidency .
Following a trip to a dedication in the " wilderness of Northern New York " in December 1896 , Walker returned exhausted and ill . He died on January 5 , 1897 as a result of apoplexy . His funeral service was conducted at Trinity Church , and Walker was buried at Walnut Grove cemetery in North Brookfield , Massachusetts . His grave can be found in Section 1 Lot 72 .
= = Legacy = =
Following Walker 's death , alumni and students began to raise funds to construct a monument to him and his fifteen years as leader of the university . Although the funds were easily raised , plans were delayed for over two decades as MIT made plans to move to a new campus on the western bank of the Charles River in Cambridge . The new Beaux @-@ Arts campus opened in 1916 , and featured a neo @-@ classical Walker Memorial building housing a gymnasium , students ' club and lounge , and a commons room .
Despite his prominence and leadership in the fields of economics , statistics , and political economy , Walker 's Course IX on General Studies was dissolved shortly after his death , and a seventy @-@ year debate followed over the appropriate role and scope of humanistic and social studies at MIT . Graduation requirements changed over the years , but have always included some number of courses in the humanities . Since 1975 , all undergraduate students are required to take eight classes distributed across the MIT School of Humanities , Arts , and Social Sciences before receiving their degrees . To address continuing concerns about poor communications skills , a Communication Requirement has been added for two of the classes taken in a designated major to be " communication @-@ intensive " , including " substantial instruction and practice in oral presentation " .
Beginning in 1947 , the American Economic Association recognized the lifetime achievement of an individual economist with a " Francis A. Walker Medal " . The quinquennial award was discontinued in 1982 after the creation of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences effectively made it superfluous . The medal was awarded to Wesley Clair Mitchell in 1947 , John Maurice Clark in 1952 , Frank Knight in 1957 , Jacob Viner in 1962 , Alvin Hansen in 1967 , Theodore Schultz in 1972 , and Simon Kuznets in 1977 .
= = Principal works = =
The Indian Question ( 1874 )
The Wages Question : A treatise on Wages and the Wages Class ( 1876 )
Money ( 1878 )
Money in its Relation to Trade and Industry ( 1879 )
Political Economy ( first edition , 1883 )
Land and its Rent ( 1883 )
History of the Second Army Corps ( 1886 )
Life of General Hancock ( 1894 )
The Making of the Nation ( 1895 )
International Bimetallism ( 1896 )
= Manal al @-@ Sharif =
Manal al @-@ Sharif ( Arabic : منال الشريف ) is a women 's rights activist from Saudi Arabia who helped start a women 's right to drive campaign in 2011 . A women 's rights activist who had previously filmed herself driving , Wajeha al @-@ Huwaider , filmed al @-@ Sharif driving a car as part of the campaign . The video was posted on YouTube and Facebook . Al @-@ Sharif was detained and released on 21 May and rearrested the following day . On 30 May , al @-@ Sharif was released on bail , on the conditions of returning for questioning if requested , not driving and not talking to the media . The New York Times and Associated Press associated the women 's driving campaign with the wider pattern of the Arab Spring and the long duration of al @-@ Sharif 's detention with Saudi authorities ' fear of protests .
Following her driving campaign , al @-@ Sharif remained an active critic of the Saudi government , tweeting on issues including imprisoned female foreign workers , the lack of elections for the Shura Council , and the murder of Lama al @-@ Ghamdi . Her work has been recognized by Foreign Policy , Time , and the Oslo Freedom Forum .
= = Background = =
Manal al @-@ Sharif graduated from King Abdulaziz University with a Bachelor of Science in computing and a Cisco Career Certification . Until May 2012 , she worked as an Internet Security Consultant for Saudi Aramco , the Saudi national oil company . She also wrote for Al Watan , a Saudi daily .
= = Women 's rights campaigns = =
In addition to her professional career , al @-@ Sharif has campaigned for women 's rights in Saudi Arabia for many years . According to the New York Times , al @-@ Sharif " has a reputation for pulling stunts to highlight the lack of rights for women " . Regarding the 2011 women driving campaign , Amnesty International stated that " Manal al @-@ Sharif is following in a long tradition of women activists around the world who have put themselves on the line to expose and challenge discriminatory laws and policies " .
= = = Women 's driving rights in Saudi Arabia = = =
As of 2013 , women in Saudi Arabia have limited freedom of movement and in practice are not allowed to drive motor vehicles . In 1990 , dozens of women in Riyadh drove their cars in protest , were imprisoned for one day , had their passports confiscated , and some of them lost their jobs . In September 2007 , the Association for the Protection and Defense of Women 's Rights in Saudi Arabia , co @-@ founded by Wajeha al @-@ Huwaider and Fawzia al @-@ Uyyouni , gave a 1 @,@ 100 signature petition to King Abdullah asking for women to be allowed to drive . On International Women 's Day 2008 , Huwaider filmed herself driving and received international media attention after the video was posted on YouTube . Inspired by the Arab Spring , a woman from Jeddah , Najla Hariri , started driving in the second week of May 2011 , stating " Before in Saudi , you never heard about protests . [ But ] after what has happened in the Middle East , we started to accept a group of people going outside and saying what they want in a loud voice , and this has had an impact on me . "
= = = 2011 women driving campaign = = =
In 2011 , a group of women including Manal al @-@ Sharif started a Facebook campaign named " Teach me how to drive so I can protect myself " or " Women2Drive " that says that women should be allowed to drive . The campaign calls for women to start driving from 17 June 2011 . By 21 May 2011 , about 12 @,@ 000 readers of the Facebook page had expressed their support . Al @-@ Sharif describes the action as acting within women 's rights , and " not protesting " . Wajeha al @-@ Huwaider was impressed by the campaign and decided to help .
In late May , Al @-@ Sharif drove her car in Khobar with al @-@ Huwaider filming . The video was posted to YouTube and Facebook . In the video , al @-@ Sharif stated , " This is a volunteer campaign to help the girls of this country [ learn to drive ] . At least for times of emergency , God forbid . What if whoever is driving them gets a heart attack ? " She was detained by the religious police ( CPVPV ) on 21 May and released after six hours . By 23 May 2011 , about 600 @,@ 000 people had watched the video .
The YouTube video of al @-@ Sharif 's drive became inaccessible at its original location , the Facebook page for the campaign was deleted , and the Twitter account used by al @-@ Sharif was " copied and altered " . Supporters republished the original video and Facebook page and a summary of al @-@ Sharif 's five recommended rules for the 17 June campaign were published on a blog and by the New York Times .
On 22 May , al @-@ Sharif was detained again and the Director General of Traffic Administration , Major @-@ General Suleiman Al @-@ Ajlan , was questioned by journalists regarding traffic regulations related to women driving . Al @-@ Ajlan stated that the journalists should " put the question " to members of the Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia . RTBF suggested that al @-@ Sharif had been sentenced to five days ' imprisonment .
The New York Times described al @-@ Sharif 's campaign as a " budding protest movement " that the Saudi government tried to " swiftly extinguish " . Associated Press said that Saudi authorities " cracked down harder than usual on al @-@ Sharif , after seeing her case become a rallying call for youths anxious for change " in the context of the Arab Spring . Both news organisations attributed the long duration of al @-@ Sharif 's detention to Saudi authorities ' fear of a wider protest movement in Saudi Arabia . Amnesty International declared Al @-@ Sharif to be a prisoner of conscience and called for her immediate and unconditional release .
The day after al @-@ Sharif 's arrest , another woman was detained for driving a car . She drove with two women passengers in Ar Rass and was detained by traffic police in the presence of the CPVPV . She was released after signing a statement that she would not drive again . In reaction to al @-@ Sharif 's arrest , several more Saudi women published videos of themselves driving during the following days . On 26 May , authorities said that al @-@ Sharif would remain in detention until 5 June 2011 , according to Waleed Abu Al @-@ Khair . Al @-@ Sharif was conditionally freed on 30 May . Her lawyer Adnan al @-@ Saleh said that she had been charged with " inciting women to drive " and " rallying public opinion " . The conditions of Al @-@ Sharif 's release include bail , returning for questioning if requested , not driving and not talking to the media . As possible reasons for al @-@ Sharif 's early release , The National cited al @-@ Sharif having written a letter to King Abdullah , 4 @,@ 500 Saudis signing an online petition to the King , and " an outpouring of indignation and disbelief by both Saudis and critics abroad that Ms al @-@ Sharif was jailed for something that is not a moral or criminal offence . "
Al @-@ Sharif filed an objection with the General Directorate of Traffic in Riyadh on 15 November 2011 because of officials rejecting her driver 's licence application . Samar Badawi filed a similar lawsuit on 4 February 2012 .
= = = 2011 women prisoners campaign = = =
Following her 30 May release from prison , al @-@ Sharif started a Twitter campaign called " Faraj " to release Saudi , Filipino and Indonesian women prisoners in the Dammam women 's prison who " are locked up just because they owe a small sum of money but cannot afford to pay the debt " . Al @-@ Sharif said that the women prisoners were mostly domestic workers who remained in prison after completing their prison terms , because they could not pay their debts and because their former Saudi employers did not help to release them or fund their flights to return to their countries of origin . She referred to 22 Indonesian women and named four women needing help and stated the amount of their debts . She called for donations to be made directly to the director of the Dammam women 's prison in order to reimburse the women 's debts and free them .
= = Post @-@ campaign = =
On 23 January 2012 , al @-@ Sharif was mistakenly reported dead in a car crash in Jeddah . On 25 January , The Guardian confirmed that she was in fact alive , and that the actual victim was an " unnamed member of a desert community " who was not involved in the female driving campaign .
Following al @-@ Sharif 's arrests , she reported being increasingly marginalized by her employers at Aramco . She quit following a dispute over her trip to Norway to receive the Václav Havel Prize for Creative Dissent .
In December 2012 , al @-@ Sharif criticized an initiative by the Saudi government to inform husbands via SMS when their wives or dependents leave the country , in accordance with a law making men the legal guardians of their wives . " The small fact of the SMS story gives you the idea of the bigger problem with the whole guardianship system " , she wrote on Twitter . When King Abdullah appointed women to the advisory Shura Council for the first time in January 2013 , al @-@ Sharif criticized the reform as too small , noting that the Council was still not an elected body and could not pass legislation . In February , she worked to bring international attention to the case of five @-@ year @-@ old Lama al @-@ Ghamdi , whose father Fayhan al @-@ Ghamdi fatally raped , beat , and burned her ; he served four months in jail and paid 200 @,@ 000 riyals ( roughly US $ 50 @,@ 000 ) in blood money .
= = Recognition = =
Foreign Policy magazine named al @-@ Sharif one of the Top 100 Global Thinkers of 2011 , and she was listed in Forbes list of Women Who ( Briefly ) Rocked in the same year . In 2012 , al @-@ Sharif was named one of the Fearless Women of the year by The Daily Beast , and Time magazine named her one of the 100 Most Influential People of 2012 . She was also one of three people awarded the first annual Václav Havel Prize for Creative Dissent at the Oslo Freedom Forum .
= Samus Aran =
Samus Aran ( Japanese : サムス ・ アラン , Hepburn : Samusu Aran ) is the protagonist of the Metroid science fiction action @-@ adventure game series by Nintendo . She was introduced in the 1986 video game Metroid .
Samus Aran is an ex @-@ soldier of the Galactic Federation who turned into a Galactic bounty hunter , usually fitted with a powered exoskeleton with weapons that include directed @-@ energy weapons and missiles . Throughout the series , she executes missions given to her by the Galactic Federation while hunting the antagonistic Space Pirates and their leader Ridley along with the parasitic energy @-@ draining organisms called Metroids .
Samus has appeared in every Metroid video game and has also been featured in media outside of the series , including the comic book version of Captain N : The Game Master and the Super Smash Bros. series . She is well known as one of the earliest female protagonists in video game history and has remained a popular character over a quarter @-@ century after her first appearance .
= = Character = =
Super Metroid 's Player 's Guide describes Samus as an athletic woman who is 6 ft 3 in ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) tall and weighs 198 pounds ( 90 kg ) without her armor . She is mostly seen inside the Power Suit , a powered exoskeleton which protects her from most dangers she encounters and can be enhanced by power @-@ ups collected during gameplay . Typically , one of her suit 's arms carries a cannon , which can be charged to shoot an extra @-@ powerful blast , a limited number of missiles , and various beams . Samus 's suit can collapse into a sphere , a mode called the Morph Ball , allowing her to roll through tight areas such as tunnels . The suit can scan objects to learn more about them , and has a grapple beam used to cross large distances , such as chasms . Since Metroid II : Return of Samus , Samus has been accompanied by her Gunship , which is used in the games to save progress and restore health and ammunition . ( While there are other rooms in the series containing devices that can be used to save progress , they may not necessarily provide all functions accessed inside the Gunship . ) Appearances of Samus outside the Power Suit occur mostly in cutscenes , such as ending screens showing Samus in more revealing clothing . Metroid : Zero Mission also introduced the Zero Suit , a form @-@ fitting jumpsuit that she dons below the Power Suit .
The Metroid e @-@ manga covers Samus 's origins . She was born and raised on the mining planet K @-@ 2L , and when she was a child , the planet was raided by Space Pirates led by Ridley in an attack that killed both her parents and destroyed the planet . The orphaned Samus was then found by a bird @-@ like alien race known as the Chozo , who brought her to their home planet , Zebes . Samus was infused with Chozo DNA to give her a strong resistance to foreign environments , then trained as a warrior and given one of the alien race 's artifacts , the Power Suit . She enlisted in the Galactic Federation Police , but left for disagreements with her commanding officer , Adam Malkovich . Samus then started working as a freelance bounty hunter , and is called on by the Galactic Federation to execute missions " because of her superior skills and sense of justice " . Most of her missions revolve around the galaxy whilst getting rid of unsavory elements like the enigmatic organism known as Metroids , who can drain life energy and are frequently used as biological weapons .
= = = Conception and development = = =
The style for the original Metroid game was designed to be a cross between the side @-@ scrolling gameplay of the Super Mario games and the exploration and puzzle @-@ solving aspects of The Legend of Zelda series with inspiration from science fiction . The game 's characters were conceived by Makoto Kano , while Hiroji Kiyotake designed the main protagonist Samus Aran . Samus is able to collapse into a ball to travel through tight areas . The ability , called the Maru Mari ( meaning " round ball " in Japanese ) in the original Metroid ( 1986 ) , and later the more popular title of Morph Ball in Super Metroid , was conceived by the developers because it required less effort to animate than " a cyborg crawling on all fours " , and the producer for Metroid , Gunpei Yokoi , took advantage of this shortcut .
The original game 's atmosphere was influenced by Ridley Scott 's film Alien . The series ' co @-@ creator Yoshio Sakamoto recalled , " We were partway through the development process when one of the staff members said ' Hey , wouldn 't that be kind of cool if it turned out that this person inside the suit was a woman ? ' " The developers voted on the concept , and it passed . The game 's instruction manual refers to Samus as if she were male to keep her true gender a secret until the end of the game . Sakamoto noted that during the course of the Metroid series , developers constantly try to express Samus 's femininity without turning her into a sex object . Samus 's image was based on actress Sigourney Weaver in her role as Ellen Ripley from Aliens , and actress Kim Basinger from 9 ½ Weeks and My Stepmother Is an Alien . Sakamoto and Kiyotake said that the character 's last name " Aran " was taken from Edson Arantes do Nascimento , the birth name of famous soccer player Pelé .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Metroid games = = =
In Metroid , the Galactic Federation sends Samus to track down the Space Pirates on their home planet of Zebes . Deep within their base , she battles Mother Brain , the organism that controls the base 's defenses , and she escapes just as the base self @-@ destructs . In Metroid II : Return of Samus , the Galactic Federation commissions Samus to exterminate all Metroid creatures on the planet SR388 . She travels deep into the planet 's caverns . After dispatching a Metroid Queen , Samus discovers a small Metroid hatchling , which imprints on her , thinking she is its mother . She spares its life and takes it back to her gunship .
In Super Metroid , just after giving the hatchling to a Federation research station , Samus tracks the hatchling ( stolen by Ridley ) to a newly rebuilt Space Pirate base on Zebes . She travels deep underground , eventually finding the now @-@ fully @-@ grown Metroid , then battling a newly rebuilt and more powerful Mother Brain . The Metroid hatchling sacrifices itself to save Samus , and Samus in turn defeats Mother Brain and escapes as the entire planet is destroyed . In Metroid Fusion , Samus returns to SR388 , where a parasitic infection nearly kills her . Federation scientists surgically remove large sections of her corrupted Varia Suit and inject her with the Metroid hatchling 's DNA to save her . To prevent the parasites from spreading beyond SR388 and the space station orbiting above it , Samus sets the station to crash into the planet .
Metroid : Other M , which takes place between Super Metroid and Fusion , provides more information about Samus 's backstory and her emotional connection to both the Metroid hatchling and her former commander , Adam Malkovich , as well as her relation to all four Mother Brain designs , namely Zebes ' Mother Brains , Aurora Unit 313 and MB .
In Metroid Prime , Samus travels to the planet Tallon IV , which contains a Chozo colony in ruins and a Space Pirate base . There she learns of Phazon , a mysterious mutagen that can alter the genetic material of any organism . Samus is eventually able to access the source of the planet 's Phazon contamination , a meteor impact crater , where she defeats the Phazon @-@ infused creature Metroid Prime . In Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes , Samus is sent to the planet Aether , a Phazon meteor @-@ ravaged planet split into light and dark dimensions . There she battles the Ing , creatures that are able to possess other organisms , and Dark Samus , an evil doppelgänger of herself formed from the remains of Metroid Prime . In Metroid Prime Hunters , Samus competes against six rival bounty hunters in a race to recover an alien ultimate weapon . In Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption , Samus is infected by Phazon and is slowly corrupted by the mutagen while she works to prevent it from spreading to other planets . By the end of the game , she renders all Phazon inert by destroying its original source , the planet Phaaze , and destroys Dark Samus .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Samus was featured in a series of comic books called Captain N : The Game Master , published by Valiant Comics in 1990 , based on the animated series of the same name , despite Samus never appearing in the cartoon version . In the comics , Samus is depicted as brash , money @-@ hungry , and fiercely independent . 1UP.com described Samus in the Captain N comics as " rambunctious , reckless , and gets into fighting contests with Lana over Kevin 's affections , which makes for some of the most entertaining situations in the series . " Comic book and manga adaptations of Metroid games were also developed .
Samus is a playable character in all four games in the Super Smash Bros. series of multiplayer fighting games , where she can use her array of weapons in combat against characters from other video games . Super Smash Bros. Brawl and the fourth Super Smash Bros. game also feature an alternate form of Samus called Zero Suit Samus , in which the heroine loses her Power Suit and has a different set of movements and attacks . She also stars in the Subspace Emissary fighting Ridley with Pikachu by her side . In the fourth Super Smash Bros. game , Samus in her power suit and her zero suit are listed as two separate characters , to avoid confusion with their move sets whereas in the previous game , Samus could access her zero suit by activating her final smash . Samus also receives a significant power upgrade with rocket powered boots which will work well for recovery .
Samus makes cameo appearances in the games Galactic Pinball ( 1995 ) , Super Mario RPG ( 1996 ) , Kirby Super Star ( 1996 ) , and Kirby 's Dream Land 3 ( 1997 ) , and also makes a non @-@ playable appearance in Dead or Alive : Dimensions by Metroid : Other M co @-@ developers Team Ninja .
Many various figures based on the character were produced by various manufacturers . First 4 Figures built 2 @,@ 500 Varia Suit Samus figures , selling all of them . Good Smile Company produced a figma and a statue of Samus based on the Other M Samus . Samus also launched as one of the twelve original Amiibo in November 2014 .
= = Reception and cultural impact = =
Samus was one of the first major female protagonists in a video game . Although Toby Masuyo ( " Kissy " ) from Namco 's Alien Sector ( Baraduke ) predates her by one year as a female protagonist , 2013 's Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition declared Samus as " the first playable human female character in a mainstream videogame " , and as being " enduringly " popular , noting that sales of the Metroid series has exceeded 17 @.@ 44 million copies as of September 2012 . As a woman in a male @-@ dominated role , Samus has been widely considered a breakthrough for female characters in video games .
In 2009 , GameDaily called Samus the video game industry 's " first dominant female , a femme de force that didn 't rely on a man to save her , " also ranking her number one on a list of the top Nintendo characters of all time . In 2010 , James Hawkins of Joystick Division ranked her as number one top " badass lady " in video games , adding that she " made every other character on this list possible , " while UGO.com ranked her as 20th in a list of top heroes of all @-@ time . In 2011 , Nintendo Power listed Samus as their third favourite hero , citing her bravery in the face of dangerous situations , while UGO.com also included her on the list of video game characters who need their own movies . That same year , Empire ranked her as the 26th greatest video game character , adding , " whether you see her as a breakthrough for feminism or just another faceless sci @-@ fi warrior , 1986 's unexpected reveal that showed women could be more in gaming lore than eye candy for geeky boys was a refreshing and unforgettable moment . " In 2012 , GamesRadar ranked her as the fiftth " most memorable , influential , and badass " protagonist in video games , adding : " Whether she 's 2D or 3D , in a sidescroller or FPS , her strength and determination always shine through , allowing her the power to defeat floating aliens and space pirates alike . " In 2013 , Complex ranked her as the 11th " most badass " video game character of all time , as well as the number one greatest heroine in video game history , and the third greatest soldier in video games .
Samus ' reveal in the original Metroid , which UGO.com called the original " jaw @-@ dropping moment " in gaming , was named as the greatest twist in video games by Game Informer in 2007 and as the greatest moment in Nintendo 's history by GameDaily in 2008 . The Irish Times found it refreshing to learn that the series ' protagonist , who is " well disguised under the suit of heavy armour " , is female , but Rupert Goodwins of The Independent wrote that the " Transformer @-@ like suit she wears could just as easily contain a large centipede ; it 's hardly a breakthrough for feminism . " According to the 2007 book Gaming Lives in the Twenty @-@ First Century : Literate Connections , Samus was perhaps the most nonsexualized female video @-@ game character ever , a belief shared by Steve Rabin in Introduction to Game Development , which also considered Samus as one of Nintendo 's most popular video game mascots . In 2002 , Justin Hoeger of The Sacramento Bee opined that " unlike most other female video game characters , Samus isn 't some husky @-@ voiced bimbo in tight leather included only for sex appeal . Samus is tough , silent , heavily armed and spends most of her time in a bulky suit of high @-@ tech Power Armor . " That same year , however , an article in Toronto Star retorted that the " sexual politics " surrounding Samus and the Metroid series needed to stop , arguing that the original " big crazy shock to the gaming public " was " some seriously misspent energy " as she " is not a woman for the benefit of the sweaty / excited crowd , and neither is she a standard @-@ bearer nor a courageous leader in the struggle for video game civil rights . She is a supremely talented action figure , and in the closeups on her helmet you can kind of see that she wears mascara , but that is all . " UGO.com included Samus ' one @-@ piece bathing swimsuit on the list of the best alternate costumes and IGN chose " Dude ( Looks Like a Lady ) " by Aerosmith as Samus ' theme song because she " spends her time running around in a manly battle suit blasting first and taking names later . " Featuring her in their 2004 list of " top ten forces of good " ( one section on their list of top 50 " retro " game characters ) , Retro Gamer opined she has remained " a distinct female character , not relying on cheap thrills to capture the attention of gamers , which is more than can be said for some . "
Nevertheless , much of her media reception came from her sex appeal . GameTrailers named Samus number one on a 2006 list of the top ten women of gaming , and number three among top ten " gamer babes " in 2007 . GameDaily ranked Samus seventh on a list of the top " hottest game babes " , describing her as " a refreshing change of pace , a tough , no nonsense warrior that isn 't afraid to remove her famous orange and yellow power suit and let her hair down , especially to reveal her skin tight clothing . " She was also listed on GameDaily 's list of " hottest " blondes in video games , described as both one of Nintendo 's most famous protagonists as well as a " curvaceous , drop @-@ dead @-@ gorgeous woman , " and used to illustrate the " smart and sexy heroine " concept on their list of top video game archetypes . In 2008 , Spike placed Samus on the top of their list of " video game vixen " as " a foxy broad that conceals her curves inside a weapon of death and destruction , " while MSN India listed her as one of " the best @-@ looking game characters with perfect figures . " In 2009 , UGO.com ranked Samus as 11th on a list of the top " girls of gaming " and as the eighth " hottest sci @-@ fi girl " , also including her in the 2011 list of 50 video game " hotties " . Her Zero Suit was ranked by ScrewAttack as fourth on their 2010 list of the sexiest outfits in games on GameTrailers , while Sarah Warn of AfterEllen ranked Samus as the tenth " hottest " female video game character . In 2011 , GameFront featured her twice on the list of the " best boobs in video game history " , at 40th spot for her reveal in the original game and at sixth place for her modern appearance in " a ridiculously form @-@ fitting jumpsuit . " That same year , Lisa Foiles of The Escapist ranked the Zero Suit Samus as number one " hottest blonde chick " in video games . In 2012 , Complex ranked her as the 24th " hottest " video game character , also ranking her as the fourth top " hot female killer " from video games , while Nixie Pixel from Revision3 placed Samus on top of her sexiest " game girls " list . In 2013 , Steve Jenkins of CheatCodes.com declared Samus the tenth " hottest video game girl " of all time . Thanh Niên ranked her as the tenth most sexy female character in 2015 , in particular for her Zero Suit .
Samus has been well received by the video game community . In 2001 , IGN remarked that Samus has a cult following greater than most other female video game characters . She was chosen by the users of IGN as the most requested character who should have her own movie franchise by the website 's users , the staff remarking that her tragic past makes her a perfect candidate for a movie , especially the loss of both her parents to the Space Pirates . Among their list of voted characters , IGN considered Samus to be the video game character that " could lead the pack of video game adaptations that actually manage to live up to the source material . " Samus appeared in multiple GameFAQs " Character Battle " contests , winning the " Character Battle V " in 2006 . In 2009 , GameSpot featured her in their poll " All Time Greatest Game Hero " , in which she lost to Mario in the semi @-@ finals . Paul O 'Connor , the lead game designer for Sammy Studios and a fan of the Metroid series , remarked that players empathize and identify with Samus because she is often rewarded for indulging in her curiosity . The book Videogames and Art noted that in the original Metroid the player is not briefed on Samus 's past or future ; the only interaction that they have with the character is by being her through gameplay , while bits of information can be gleaned from the handbook and through concept art , adding , " Samus is very rare for the character intimacy gained solely through game play and for her stasis and then drastic change , " referring to the revelation that she is a woman . MMA and actress Ronda Rousey told GameSpot in a 2016 interview that she " always wanted to be Samus " if a live @-@ action Metroid film is made .
In his review of Super Smash Bros. , GameSpot 's Jeff Gerstmann called Samus one of the characters that made Nintendo " what it is today . " Samus was ranked fifth on GameDaily 's 2009 list of top characters in the Smash Bros. series , while IGN ranked her as the third @-@ best character for Super Smash Bros. Her controversial portrayal in Metroid : Other M received mixed reactions . Unlike other Metroid games , where Samus took full advantage of weapons and abilities available , she deactivated most of them until Commander Adam Malkovich authorized their use , despite obvious uses for them . G4 TV considered the portrayal of Samus as " sexist " , stating that as she " cannot possibly wield the amount of power she possesses unless directed to by a man " and that her anxiety attack cannot be reconciled with her previous portrayals . The A.V. Club echoed the misgivings about Samus 's immaturity , petulant behavior , and misguided loyalty . According to GamePro , while the story and Samus ' monologues did not compel them , " it helped contextualize her entire existence " which developed the character to " an actual human being who 's using the vastness of space to try and put some distance between herself and the past . " 1UP.com 's Justin Hayward found the portrayal " lifeless and boring " and " nonsensical " . GamesRadar wrote that Other M painted Samus , widely considered a strong female lead character , as " an unsure , insecure woman who desperately wants the approval of her former [ male ] commanding officer . " Game Informer listed her 1st on their list of the top ten " dorks " of 2010 , citing her " lame backstory " in Other M. On the other hand , Bob " Moviebob " Chipman from ScrewAttack applauded the elaboration on Samus 's character , arguing that her breakdown is an accurate depiction of posttraumatic stress disorder and that she is portrayed as a three @-@ dimensional character , a step up from the fans ' long @-@ standing misconceptions of Samus as " pathologically emotionless man @-@ hating ice queen , " while " supposedly enlightened gamers and game commentators " are making gender assumptions that are " all in [ their heads ] . "
= Morihei Ueshiba =
Morihei Ueshiba ( 植芝 盛平 , Ueshiba Morihei , December 14 , 1883 – April 26 , 1969 ) was a martial artist and founder of the Japanese martial art of Aikido . He is often referred to as " the founder " Kaiso ( 開祖 ) or Ōsensei ( 大先生 / 翁先生 ) , " Great Teacher " .
The son of a landowner from Tanabe , Ueshiba studied a number of martial arts in his youth , and served in the Japanese Army during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . After being discharged in 1907 , he moved to Hokkaidō as the head of a pioneer settlement ; here he met and studied with Takeda Sokaku , the founder of Daitō @-@ ryū aiki @-@ jūjutsu . On leaving Hokkaido in 1919 , Ueshiba joined the Ōmoto @-@ kyō movement , a Shinto sect , in Ayabe , where he served as a martial arts instructor and opened his first dojo . He accompanied the head of the Ōmoto @-@ kyō group , Onisaburo Deguchi , on an expedition to Mongolia in 1924 , where they were captured by Chinese troops and returned to Japan . The following year , he experienced a great spiritual enlightenment , stating that , " a golden spirit sprang up from the ground , veiled my body , and changed my body into a golden one . " After this experience , his martial arts skill appeared to be greatly increased .
Ueshiba moved to Tokyo in 1926 , where he set up the Aikikai Hombu Dojo . In the aftermath of World War II the dojo was closed , but Ueshiba continued training at another dojo he had set up in Iwama . From the end of the war until the 1960s , he worked to promote aikido throughout Japan and abroad . He died from liver cancer in 1969 .
= = Early years = =
Morihei Ueshiba was born in Tanabe , Wakayama Prefecture , Japan on December 14 , 1883 , the fourth child ( and only son ) born to Yoroku Ueshiba and his wife Yuki .
The young Ueshiba was raised in a somewhat privileged setting . His father was a rich landowner who also traded in lumber and fishing and was politically active . Ueshiba was a rather weak , sickly child and bookish in his inclinations . At a young age his father encouraged him to take up sumo wrestling and swimming and entertained him with stories of his great @-@ grandfather Kichiemon , who was considered a very strong samurai in his era . The need for such strength was further emphasized when the young Ueshiba witnessed his father being attacked by followers of a competing politician .
At the age of six Ueshiba was sent to study at the Jizōderu Temple , but had little interest in the rote learning of Confucian education . However , his schoolmaster was also a priest of Shingon Buddhism , and taught the young Ueshiba some of the esoteric chants and ritual observances of the sect , which Ueshiba found intriguing . He went to Tanage Higher Elementary School and then to Tanabe Prefectural Middle School , but left formal education in his early teens , enrolling instead at the a private abacus academy , the Yoshida Institute , to study accountancy . On graduating from the academy , he worked at a local tax office for a few months , but the job did not suit him and in 1901 he left for Tokyo , funded by his father . Ueshiba Trading , the stationery business which he opened there was short @-@ lived ; unhappy with life in the capital , he returned to Tanabe less than a year later after suffering a bout of beri @-@ beri . Shortly thereafter he married his childhood acquaintance Hatsu Itokawa .
In 1903 , Ueshiba was called up for military service . He failed the initial physical examination , being shorter than the regulation 5 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 57 m ) . To overcome this , he stretched his spine by attaching heavy weights to his legs and suspending himself from tree branches ; when he re @-@ took the physical exam he had increased his height by the necessary half @-@ inch to pass . He was assigned to the Osaka Fourth Division , 37th Regiment , and was a corporal by the following year ; after serving on the front lines during the Russo @-@ Japanese War he was promoted to sergeant . He was discharged in 1907 , and again returned to his father 's farm in Tanabe . Here he befriended the writer and philosopher Minakata Kumagusu , becoming involved with Minakata 's opposition to the Meiji government 's Shrine Consolidation Policy . He and his wife had their first child , a daughter named Matsuko , in 1911 .
Ueshiba studied several martial arts during his early life , and was renowned for his physical strength during his youth . His training in Gotō @-@ ha Yagyū @-@ ryu under Masakatsu Nakai was sporadic due to his military service , although he was granted a diploma in the art within a few years . In 1901 he received some instruction from Tozawa Tokusaburōin in Tenjin Shin 'yō @-@ ryū jujutsu and he studied judo with Kiyoichi Takagi in Tanabe in 1911 .
= = Hokkaidō = =
In 1912 , Ueshiba and his wife left Tanabe and moved to Japan 's northernmost island , Hokkaidō . At the time , Hokkaidō was still largely unsettled by the Japanese , being occupied primarily by the indigenous Ainu . Ueshiba was the leader of the Kishū Settlement Group , a collective of eighty @-@ five pioneers who intended to settle in the Shirataki district and live as farmers . Poor soil conditions and bad weather led to crop failures during the first three years of the project , but the group still managed to cultivate mint and farm livestock . The burgeoning timber industry provided a boost to the settlement 's economy , but a fire in 1917 razed the entire village , leading to the departure of around twenty families . Ueshiba , elected to the village council that year , led the reconstruction efforts . In the summer of 1918 , Hatsu gave birth to their first son , Takemori .
In Hokkaidō , the young Ueshiba met Takeda Sokaku , the founder of Daitō @-@ ryū aiki @-@ jūjutsu at the Hisada Inn in Engaru , in March 1915 . Ueshiba was deeply impressed with Takeda 's martial art . He requested formal instruction and began studying Takeda 's style of jūjutsu in earnest , going so far as | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
's game board designs included elements later made famous in the version eventually produced by Parker Brothers , including black locomotives on the railroad spaces , the car on " Free Parking " , the red arrow for " Go " , the faucet on " Water Works " , the light bulb on " Electric Company " , and the question marks on the " Chance " spaces , though many of the actual icons were created by a hired graphic artist . While Darrow received a copyright on his game in 1933 , its specimens have disappeared from the files of the United States Copyright Office , though proof of its registration remains .
= = Acquisition by Parker Brothers = =
Darrow first took the game to Milton Bradley and attempted to sell it as his personal invention . They rejected it in a letter dated May 31 , 1934 . After Darrow sent the game to Parker Brothers later in 1934 , they rejected the game as " too complicated , too technical , [ and it ] took too long to play . " Darrow received a rejection letter from the firm dated October 19 , 1934 . During this time , the " 52 design errors " story was invented as a reason why Parker rejected Monopoly , but this has more recently been proven to be part of the Parker @-@ invented " creation myth " surrounding the game .
In early 1935 , however , the company heard about the game 's excellent sales during the Christmas season of 1934 in Philadelphia and at F.A.O. Schwarz in New York City . Robert Barton , President of Parker Brothers , contacted Darrow and scheduled a new meeting in New York City . On March 18 , Parker Brothers bought Darrow 's game , helped him take out a patent on it , and purchased his remaining inventory . By April , 1935 , the company had learned that Darrow was not the sole inventor of the game , but sought out an affidavit by Darrow to repeat his statements to the contrary , and thus bolster their claim to the game . Parker Brothers subsequently decided to buy out Magie 's 1924 patent and the copyrights of other commercial variants of the game to claim that it had legitimate undisputed rights to the game .
Robert Barton , president of Parker Brothers , bought the rights to Finance from Knapp Electric later in 1935 . Finance would be redeveloped , updated , and continued to be sold by Parker Brothers into the 1970s . Other board games based on a similar principle , such as a game called Inflation , designed by Rudy Copeland and published by the Thomas Sales Co . , in Fort Worth , Texas , also came to the attention of Parker Brothers management in the 1930s , after they began sales of Monopoly . Copeland continued sales of the latter game after Parker Brothers attempted a patent lawsuit against him . Parker Brothers held the Magie and Darrow patents , but settled with Copeland rather than going to trial , since Copeland was prepared to have witnesses testify that they had played Monopoly before Darrow 's " invention " of the game . The court settlement allowed Copeland to license Parker Brothers ' patents . Other agreements were reached on Big Business by Transogram , and Easy Money by Milton Bradley , based on Daniel Layman 's Finance . Another clone , called Fortune , was sold by Parker Brothers , and became combined with Finance in some editions .
Monopoly was first marketed on a broad scale by Parker Brothers in 1935 . A Standard Edition , with a small black box and separate board , and a larger Deluxe Edition , with a box large enough to hold the board , were sold in the first year of Parker Brothers ' ownership . These were based on the two editions sold by Darrow . Parker Brothers sets were the first to include metal tokens for playing pieces . George Parker himself rewrote many of the game 's rules , insisting that " short game " and " time limit " rules be included . On the original Parker Brothers board ( reprinted in 2002 by Winning Moves Games ) , there were no icons for the Community Chest spaces ( the blue chest overflowing with gold coins came later ) and no gold ring on the Luxury Tax space . Nor were there property values printed on spaces on the board . The Income Tax was slightly higher ( being $ 300 or 10 % , instead of the later $ 200 or 10 % ) . Some of the designs known today were implemented at the behest of George Parker . The Chance cards and Community Chest cards were illustrated ( though some prior editions consisted solely of text ) , but were without " Rich Uncle Pennybags " , who was introduced in 1936 .
Late in 1935 , after learning of The Landlord 's Game and Finance , Robert Barton held a second meeting with Charles Darrow in Boston . Darrow admitted that he had copied the game from a friend 's set , and he and Barton reached a revised royalty agreement , granting Parker Brothers worldwide rights and releasing Darrow from legal costs that would be incurred in defending the origin of the game .
= = = Licensing outside the United States = = =
In December 1935 , Parker Brothers sent a copy of the game to Victor Watson , Sr. of Waddington Games . Watson and his son Norman tried the game over a weekend , and liked it so much that Waddington took the ( then extraordinary ) step of making a transatlantic " trunk call " to Parker Brothers , the first such call made or received by either company . This impressed Parker Brothers sufficiently that Waddington was granted licensing rights for Europe and the then @-@ British Commonwealth , excluding Canada . Waddingtons version , their first board game , with locations from London substituted for the original Atlantic City ones , was first produced in 1936 .
The game was very successful in the United Kingdom and France , but the 1936 German edition , published by Schmidt Spiele disappeared from the market within three years . This edition , featuring locations from Berlin , was denounced , allegedly by Joseph Goebbels to the Hitler Youth due to the game 's " Jewish @-@ speculative character . " It is also alleged that the real reason behind the Nazi denouncement was due to the high @-@ ranking members ( i.e. Goebbels , again ) who lived on those sections of the game board given the highest property values , and not wanting to be associated with a game . The game last appeared in a pre @-@ World War II Schmidt Spiele catalog in 1938 . A new German edition , with " generic " street and train station names ( i.e. , not chosen from a single German city ) would not appear until 1953 . The 1936 German edition , with the original cards and Berlin locations , was reprinted in 1982 by Parker Brothers and again in 2003 ( in a wooden box ) , and 2011 ( in a red metal tin ) by Hasbro .
Waddington licensed other editions from 1936 to 1938 , and the game was exported from the UK and resold or reprinted in Switzerland , Belgium , Australia , Chile , The Netherlands , and Sweden . In Italy , under the fascists , the game was changed dramatically so that it would have an Italian name , locations in Milan , and major changes in the rules . This was for compliance under Italian law of the period . Italian publishers Editrice Giochi produced the game in Italy until 2009 , having held a unique licensing agreement from Parker Brothers and their own copyright dating back to 1935 / 1936 . As of 2009 , Hasbro has taken over the publishing of the game in Italy , but have also , for now , kept the Milan @-@ based properties .
In Austria , versions of the game first appeared as Business and Spekulation ( Speculation ) , and eventually evolved to become Das Kaufmännische Talent ( DKT ) ( The Businessman 's Talent ) . Versions of DKT have been sold in Austria since 1940 . The game first appeared as Monopoly in Austria in about 1981 . The Waddingtons edition was imported into The Netherlands starting in 1937 , and a fully translated edition first appeared in 1941 .
Waddingtons later produced special games during World War II which secretly contained files , a compass , a map printed on silk , and real currency hidden amongst the Monopoly money , to enable prisoners of war to escape from German camps . However , this story has come under recent scrutiny and is being disputed .
Collector Albert C. Veldhuis features a map on his " Monopoly Lexicon " website showing which versions of the game were remade and distributed in other countries , with the Atlantic City , London , and Paris versions being the most influential . After World War II , homemade games would sometimes appear behind the Iron Curtain , despite the fact that the game was effectively banned . Monopoly is cited as the board game played most often and most duplicated via hand made copies in the former German Democratic Republic . One official version of the game was printed for the Soviet Union by Parker Brothers in 1988 . After the Cold War ended , official editions have been published throughout eastern Europe by Parker , Tonka and Hasbro . Hungary was the first , in 1992 , followed by the Czech Republic and Poland in 1993 , Croatia in 1994 , Slovenia in 1996 , Romania and a new edition for Russia in 1997 , and Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania and Slovakia , all in 2001 .
= = Marketing within the United States 1930s = =
In 1936 , Parker Brothers published four further editions along with the original two : the Popular Edition , Fine Edition , Gold Edition , and Deluxe Edition , with prices ranging from US $ 2 to US $ 25 in 1930s money . After Parker Brothers began to release its first editions of the game , Elizabeth Magie Phillips was profiled in the Washington D.C. Evening Star newspaper , which discussed her two editions of The Landlord 's Game . In December 1936 , wary of the Mah @-@ Jongg and Ping @-@ Pong fads that had left unsold inventory stuck in Parker Brothers ' warehouse , George Parker ordered a stop to Monopoly production as sales leveled off . However , during the Christmas season , sales picked up again , and continued a resurgence . In early 1937 , as Parker Brothers was preparing to release the board game Bulls and Bears with Darrow 's photograph on the box lid ( though he had no involvement with the game ) , a Time magazine article about the game made it seem as if Darrow himself was the sole inventor of both Bulls and Bears and Monopoly :
= = Parker Brothers ' Marketing 1940s – 1960s = =
At the start of World War II , both Parker Brothers and Waddington stockpiled materials they could use for further game production . During the war , Monopoly was produced with wooden tokens in the U.S. , and the game 's cellophane cover was eliminated . In the UK , metal tokens were also eliminated , and a special spinner was introduced to take the place of dice . The game remained in print for a time even in the Netherlands , as the printer there was able to maintain a supply of paper . Elizabeth Magie 's second patent on The Landlord 's Game expired in September , 1941 , and it is believed that after the expiration , she was no longer promoted as an inventor of Monopoly . The game itself remained popular during the war , particularly in camps , and soldiers playing the game became part of the product 's advertising in 1944 .
After the war , sales went from 800 @,@ 000 a year to over one million . The French and German editions re @-@ entered production , and new editions for Spain , Greece , Finland and Israel were first produced . By the late 1950s , Parker Brothers printed only game sets with board , pieces and materials housed in a single white box . Several copies of this edition were exhibited at the American National Exhibition in Moscow in 1959 . All of them were stolen from the exhibit . In the early 1960s , " Monopoly happenings " began to occur , mostly marathon game sessions , which were recognized by a Monopoly Marathon Records Documentation Committee in New York City . In addition to marathon sessions , games were played on large indoor and outdoor boards , within backyard pits , on the ceiling in a University of Michigan dormitory room , and underwater . In 1965 , a 30th anniversary set was produced in a special plastic case .
= = End of Parker Brothers ' Independence = =
= = = Marketing under General Mills 1968 – 1985 = = =
Parker Brothers was acquired by General Mills in February 1968 . The first Monopoly edition in Braille is published in 1973 . Also in 1973 , as the Atlantic City Commissioner of Public Works considered name changes for Baltic and Mediterranean Avenues , fans of the board game , with support from the president of Parker Brothers , successfully lobbied for the city to keep the names . After Parker Brothers was taken over by General Mills , the Monopoly license to Waddingtons was renegotiated ( as was the Clue / Cluedo license to Parker Brothers / General Mills by Waddingtons ) . By 1974 , Parker Brothers had sold 80 million sets of the game . In 1975 , another anniversary edition was produced , but this edition came in a cardboard box looking much like a standard edition . Parker Brothers was under management by General Mills as the first six Monopoly Tournaments were held . See " The Monopoly Tournaments " below .
= = = Kenner Parker Toys and Kenner Parker Tonka 1985 – 1991 = = =
Kenner was combined with Parker Brothers and spun off as Kenner Parker Toys in 1985 . Regular and Deluxe 50th Anniversary editions of Monopoly were released that same year . The spinoff game Advance to Boardwalk was first published in 1985 . Kenner Parker was acquired by Tonka in 1987 . The 1987 / 1988 Monopoly Tournaments were held under Kenner Parker Tonka management .
In the United Kingdom , Monopoly publisher Waddingtons produced its first non @-@ London edition in 1989 , creating a Limited Edition based on Leeds as a charity fundraiser .
= = = Monopoly ( game show ) = = =
In 1990 , Merv Griffin Enterprises turned Monopoly into a prime time game show , airing after Super Jeopardy ! on Saturday nights on ABC . The program was hosted by Mike Reilly and announced by Charlie O 'Donnell .
= = Marketing 1990s = =
Monopoly Junior was first published in 1990 . Kenner Parker Tonka was acquired by Hasbro in 1991 . An all @-@ Europe edition was published by Parker Brothers in 1991 for the nations of the then European Communities , using the Ecu ( European Currency Unit ) . After acquisition by Hasbro , publication of Monopoly in the U.S. ceased at the Parker Brothers plant in Salem , Massachusetts in November 1991 .
In 1994 , the license to the company that would become USAopoly was issued , and they produced a San Diego , California edition as their first board . In 1995 , a license for new game variations and reprints of Monopoly was granted to Winning Moves Games . See the Localizations , licenses , and spin @-@ offs section below for details on further releases by both companies .
In 1995 , a 60th Anniversary edition was released in a gold box . In late 1998 , Hasbro announced a campaign to add an all @-@ new token to U.S. standard edition sets of Monopoly . Voters were allowed to select from a biplane , a piggy bank , and a sack of money — with votes being tallied through a special website , via a toll @-@ free phone number , and at FAO Schwarz stores .
In March 1999 , Hasbro announced that the winner was the sack of money ( with 51 percent of the vote , compared to 29 percent for the biplane and 20 percent for the piggy bank ) . Thus , the sack of money became the first new token added to the game since the early 1950s . In 1999 , Hasbro renamed the Rich Uncle Pennybags mascot " Mr. Monopoly " , and released Star Wars : Episode I , Pokémon and Millennium editions of Monopoly . A second European edition is released in 1999 , this time using the Euro as currency , but incorrectly listing Geneva as the capital of Switzerland .
= = Marketing 2000s = =
A 65th Anniversary Edition was released in a variation of the white box in 2000 . In 2001 , the European Edition is reissued , correcting the mistake of the 1999 printing , and correctly listing Bern as the capital of Switzerland . In 2005 , a 70th Anniversary Edition was released in a silver @-@ metallic tin with a plastic slip case . Also starting in 2005 , various " Here & Now " editions were released in multiple countries . The first release of this edition was for the UK market , and its success led to the selection of properties for a U.S. edition by online vote . The most popular properties were released on the U.S. " Here & Now " edition board in 2006 . This , in turn , led to a world @-@ wide " Here & Now " edition ( released in 2008 ) , along with other national editions ( including a second UK " Here and Now " edition ) with properties selected by online vote . The main principle of the " Here & Now " editions was " What if Monopoly had been invented today ? "
The first changes to the gameplay of the Monopoly game itself occurred with the publication of both the Monopoly Here & Now Electronic Banking Edition by Hasbro UK and Monopoly : The Mega Edition by Winning Moves Games in 2006 . The Electronic Banking Edition uses VISA @-@ branded debit cards and a debit card reader for monetary transactions , instead of paper bills . This edition is available in the UK , Germany , France , Australia and Ireland . A version was released in the U.S. in 2007 , albeit without the co @-@ branding by Visa . An electronic counter had been featured in the Stock Exchange editions released in Europe in the early 2000s ( decade ) , and is also a feature of the Monopoly City board game released in 2009 .
The Mega Edition has been expanded to include fifty @-@ two spaces ( with more street names taken from Atlantic City ) , skyscrapers ( to be played after hotels ) , train depots , the 1000 denomination of play money , as well as " bus tickets " and a speed die . Shortly after the release of Mega Monopoly in 2006 , Hasbro adopted the same blue version of the speed die into a special " Speed Die Edition " of the game . By 2008 , the die , now red , became a permanent addition to the game , though its use remains optional there . In 2009 's " Championship Edition " , use of the speed die is mandatory , as it also became mandatory in most of 2009 's Monopoly tournaments .
In addition to permanently adding the speed die in 2008 , Hasbro also instituted further changes to the United States standard edition of the board , including making Mediterranean and Baltic Avenues a brown color group , making the Income Tax space a flat $ 200 ( removing the 10 % option ) , changing the colors on the GO space from red to black , increasing the Luxury Tax to $ 100 ( from $ 75 ) , and changing certain of the Community Chest and Chance cards . The changes in these four areas made the U.S. standard edition more uniform with the UK and modern European editions . In 2009 , Winning Moves Games introduced " The Classic Edition " , with a pre @-@ 2008 game board and cards , re @-@ inclusion of the " sack of money " playing piece , and a plain MONOPOLY logo in the center of the board , with neither the 1985 or 2008 version of " Mr. Monopoly " present . Also in 2009 , Monopoly " theme packs " entered the retail market , including the Dog Lovers and Sports Fans editions , which include customized money , replacements for houses and hotels , and custom tokens , but no board .
= = Marketing 2010s = =
In early 2010 , Hasbro began selling the " Free Parking " and " Get out of Jail " add @-@ on games , which can be played alone or when a player lands on the respective Monopoly board spaces . If played during a Monopoly game , success at either game gets the winning player a " free taxi ride to any space on the board " or " out of jail free " , respectively . A new , customizable edition called " U @-@ Build " is also released . Later in 2010 , for the 75th anniversary of the game 's publication , Hasbro released Monopoly Revolution , giving the game a graphic redesign , as well as returning it to a round shape , which had not been seen since some of Darrow 's 1930s custom @-@ made sets . The game includes " bank cards " and keeps track of players ' assets electronically , as was introduced in the " Electronic Banking Edition " earlier in the decade . The game also features clear plastic playing pieces for movers , and electronic sound effects , triggered by certain events ( for instance , a " jail door slam " sound effect when a player goes to jail ) . Monopoly Live was announced at the New York Toy Fair in February , 2011 . The Monopoly Millionaire version of the game was released in 2012 .
In early 2013 , a board game version of the Monopoly Hotels online game was released . From January 8 to February 5 , 2013 , through the Monopoly page on Facebook in a campaign called " Save Your Token , " Hasbro took votes from the public to make another permanent change in the lineup of game tokens . The token with the least number of " Save Your Token " votes will be retired , and replaced with one of five other tokens , depending on which of the new candidates gets the most votes . The potential tokens were a robot , a helicopter , a cat , a guitar or a diamond ring . Neither the biplane nor the piggy bank from the 1998 vote are being considered this time . Early on February 6 , it was announced that the iron would be retired for having received the least votes , and the cat would be replacing it , having received the most votes . Starting in February 2013 , the U.S. discount chain Target will be selling a " Golden Token " set with the eight classic tokens and all five candidates . Special editions with the thirteen golden tokens have also been released in the UK and France . The first Monopoly game to have the new token lineup was released in June 2013 . In 2015 , the game celebrated its 80th anniversary with eight tokens from each decade in a special edition .
= = The Monopoly Tournaments 1973 – 2015 = =
The first Monopoly tournaments were suggested by Victor Watson of Waddington after the World Chess Championship 1972 . Such championships are also held for players of the board game Scrabble . The first European Championship was held in Reykjavík , Iceland , the same site as the 1972 World Chess Championship . Accounts differ as to the eventual winner : Philip Orbanes and Victor Watson name John Mair , representing Ireland and the eventual World Monopoly Champion of 1975 , as also having won the European Championship . Gyles Brandreth , himself a later European Monopoly Champion , names Pierre Milet , representing France , as the European Champion . One of the reasons there may be differing accounts of the eventual winner is attributable to a minor controversy with the final game . According to Parker Brothers ' Randolph " Ranny " P. Barton , an error was made by one of the participants and a protest was filed by an opponent . The judges ( Barton , Watson , and a representative from Miro , the French publishers of Monopoly ) weighed the options of starting the final game over and delaying the chartered plane that would take them home from Iceland vs allowing the game to stand with the error but allowing them to make their flight . In the end , the judges upheld the result of the game with the error uncorrected .
Victor Watson and Ranny Barton began holding tournaments in the UK and US , respectively . World Champions were declared in the United States in 1973 and 1974 ( and are still considered official World Champions by Hasbro ) . While the 1973 tournament , the first , matched three United States regional champions against the UK champion and thus could be argued as the first international tournament , true multinational international tournaments were first held in 1975 . Both authors ( Orbanes and Brandreth ) agree that John Mair was the first true World Champion , as decided in tournament play held in Washington , D.C. days after the conclusion of the European Championship ( which Mair had also won ) , in November 1975 .
By 1982 , tournaments in the United States featured a competition between tournament winners in all 50 states , competing to become the United States Champion . National tournaments were held in the US and UK the year before World Championships through 2003 – 2004 but during the same year as of 2009 ( see table , below ) . The determination of the US champion was changed for the 2003 tournament : winners of an Internet @-@ based quiz challenge were selected to compete , rather than one state champion for each of the 50 states . The tournaments are now typically held every six years . In the past , the US edition Monopoly board was used at the World championship level , while national variants are used at the national level . Since true international play began in 1975 , no World champion has come from the US , still considered the board game 's " birthplace . " However , Dana Terman , two @-@ time US Champion , placed second at the 1980 World Championship , Richard Marinaccio , the 2009 US Champion , placed third at the 2009 World Championship , and Brian Valentine , the 2015 US Representative , placed third at the 2015 World Championship .
Nicolò Falcone of Italy defeated players from 27 countries plus the defending champion in the 2015 World Championship held at The Venetian resort in Macau .
= = Localizations , licenses , and spin @-@ offs = =
The original hand made editions of the Monopoly game had been localized for the cities or areas in which it was played , and Parker Brothers has continued this practice . Their version of Monopoly has been produced for international markets , with the place names being localized for cities including London and Paris and for countries including the Netherlands and Germany , among others . By 1982 , Parker Brothers stated that the game " has been translated into over 15 languages .... " In 2009 , Hasbro reported that Monopoly is officially published in 27 languages , and has been licensed by them in 81 countries . As of January 2013 , Hasbro states that the game is now available in 43 languages and 111 countries .
The game has also inspired official spin @-@ offs , such as the board game Advance to Boardwalk from 1985 . There have been six card games : Water Works from 1972 , Free Parking from 1988 , Express Monopoly from 1993 , Monopoly : The Card Game from 1999 , Monopoly Deal from 2008 and Monopoly Millionaire Deal from 2012 . Finally , there have been two dice games : Don 't Go to Jail from 1991 and an update , Monopoly Express , ( 2006 – 2007 ) . A second product line of games and licenses exists in Monopoly Junior , first published in 1990 . In the late 1980s , official editions of Monopoly appeared for the Sega Master System and the Commodore 64 and Commodore 128 . A television game show , produced by King World Productions , was attempted in the summer of 1990 , but lasted for only 12 episodes . In 1991 – 1992 , official versions appeared for the Apple Macintosh and Nintendo 's NES , SNES , and Game Boy . In 1995 , as Hasbro ( which had taken over Kenner Parker Tonka in 1991 ) was preparing to launch Hasbro Interactive as a new brand , they chose Monopoly and Trivial Pursuit to be their first two CD @-@ ROM games . The Monopoly CD @-@ ROM game also allowed for play over the Internet . CD @-@ ROM versions of the officially licensed Star Wars and FIFA World Cup ' 98 editions also were released . Later CD @-@ ROM exclusive spin @-@ offs , Monopoly Casino and Monopoly Tycoon , were also produced under license .
Various manufacturers of the game have created dozens of officially licensed versions , in which the names of the properties and other elements of the game are replaced by others according to the game 's theme . The first such license was awarded in 1994 , to the company that became USAopoly , starting with a San Diego edition of Monopoly and later including themes such as national parks , Star Trek , Star Wars , Nintendo , Disney characters , Pokémon , Peanuts , various particular cities ( such as Las Vegas and New York City ) , states , colleges and universities , the World Cup , NASCAR , individual professional sports teams , and many others . USAopoly also sells special corporate editions of Monopoly . Official corporate editions have been produced for Best Buy , the Boy Scouts of America , FedEx , and UPS , among others . In 1995 , a second license was awarded to Winning Moves Games in Massachusetts . Winning Moves has produced a new board game and card games based on Monopoly in the United States . Winning Moves also produces official localized editions of the game in the UK , France , Germany and Australia . The Doctor Who 50th Anniversary Edition of Monopoly is a special case , having been originally produced by Winning Moves in the UK , and resold by USAopoly within the US . A third license was awarded in 2000 by Hasbro to Winning Solutions , Inc . , which produces specialty deluxe editions mostly for sale by specialized retailers . Other licensed localized editions of the game are being published in Nigeria and The Netherlands , among other locations .
When creating some of the modern licensed editions , such as the Looney Tunes and The Powerpuff Girls editions of Monopoly , Hasbro included special variant rules to be played in the theme of the licensed property . Infogrames , which has published a CD @-@ ROM edition of Monopoly , also includes the selection of " house rules " as a possible variant of play . Electronic Arts , which publishes current electronic versions of the game , such as for the Nintendo Wii , also includes the selection of certain house rules .
Unofficial versions of the game , which share some of the same playing features , but also incorporate changes so as not to infringe on copyrights , have been created by firms such as Late for the Sky Production Company and Help on Board . These are done for smaller cities , sometimes as charity fundraisers , and some have been created for college and university campuses . Others have non @-@ geographical themes such as Wine @-@ opoly and Chocolate @-@ opoly . There is also a version called Make Your Own -OPOLY , which allows you to customize all the game equipment and rules to your liking .
Before the creation of Hasbro Interactive , and after its later sale to Infogrames , official computer and video game versions have been made available on many platforms . In addition to the versions listed above , they have been produced for Amiga , BBC Micro , Game Boy Advance , Game Boy Color , GameCube , PC , Nintendo 64 , PlayStation , PlayStation 2 , Sega Genesis , Xbox , and mobile phones . A version for Windows CE was planned in 1999 . A handheld electronic game was first released in 1998 that allowed for one human player against up to three player @-@ selected or randomly chosen AI " personalities " out of five . A Nintendo DS release ( along with Battleship , Boggle , and Yahtzee ) has been published ( by Atari ) , as well as a stand @-@ alone edition for the same console ( by EA ) . In 2001 , Stern Pinball , Inc. released a pinball machine version of Monopoly , designed by Pat Lawlor .
= = = House rules and custom rules = = =
The official Parker Brothers rules and board remained largely unchanged from 1936 to 2008 . Ralph Anspach argued against this during an on @-@ air conversation with The Monopoly Book author Maxine Brady in 1975 , calling it an end to " steady progress " and an impediment to progress . Several authors who have written about the board game have noted many of the " house rules " that have become common among players , although they do not appear in Parker Brothers ' rules sheets . Gyles Brandreth included a section titled " Monopoly Variations , " Tim Moore notes several such rules used in his household in his Foreword , Phil Orbanes included his own section of variations , and Maxine Brady noted a few in her preface . Authors Noel Gunther and Richard Hutton published Beyond Boardwalk and Park Place in 1986 , as a guide , per the cover , " to making Monopoly fun again " , by introducing new variations of rules and strategies . R. Wayne Schmittberger , a former editor of Games magazine , acknowledged the work of Gunther and Hutton in his own 1992 guide New Rules for Classic Games ( which includes several pages of Monopoly variations and suggestions that vary from the standard rules of the game ) .
= = Anti @-@ Monopoly , Inc. vs. General Mills Fun Group , Inc. court case 1976 – 1985 = =
Starting in 1974 , Parker Brothers and its then corporate parent , General Mills , attempted to suppress publication of a game called Anti @-@ Monopoly , designed by San Francisco State University economics professor Ralph Anspach and first published the previous year . Anspach began to research the game 's history , and argued that the copyrights and trademarks held by Parker Brothers should be nullified , as the game came out of the public domain . Among other things , Anspach discovered the empty 1933 Charles B. Darrow file at the United States Copyright Office , testimony from the Inflation game case that was settled out of court , and letters from Knapp Electric challenging Parker Brothers over Monopoly . As the case went to trial in November 1976 , Anspach produced testimony by many involved with the early development of the game , including Catherine and Willard Allphin , Dorothea Raiford and Charles Todd . Willard Allphin attempted to sell a version of the game to Milton Bradley in 1931 , and published an article about the game 's early history in the UK in 1975 . Raiford had helped Ruth Hoskins produce the early Atlantic City games . Even Daniel Layman was interviewed , and Darrow 's widow was deposed . The presiding judge , Spencer Williams , originally ruled for Parker Brothers / General Mills in 1977 , allowing the Monopoly trademark to stand , and allowing the companies to destroy copies of Anspach 's Anti @-@ Monopoly . Anspach appealed .
In December 1979 , the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in favor of Professor Anspach , with an opinion that agreed with the facts about the game 's history and differed from Parker Brothers ' " official " account . The court also upheld a " purchasing motivation " test ( described in the decision as a " Genericness Doctrine " ) , a " test by which the trademark was valid only if consumers , when they asked for a Monopoly game , meant that they wanted Parker Brothers ' version .... " This had the effect of potentially nullifying the Monopoly trademark , and the court returned the case to Judge Williams . Williams heard the case again in 1980 , and in 1981 he again held for Parker Brothers . Anspach appealed again , and in August 1982 the appeals court again reversed . The case was then appealed by General Mills / Parker Brothers to the United States Supreme Court , which decided not to hear the case in February 1983 , and denied a petition for rehearing in April . This allowed the appeals court 's decision to stand and further allowed Anspach to resume publication of his game .
With the trademark nullified , the name " Monopoly " entered the public domain , where the naming of games was concerned , and a profusion of non @-@ Parker @-@ Brothers variants were published . Parker Brothers and other firms lobbied the United States Congress and obtained a revision of the trademark laws . The case was finally settled in 1985 , with Monopoly remaining a valid trademark of Parker Brothers , and Anspach assigning the Anti @-@ Monopoly trademark to the company but retaining the ability to use it under license . Anspach received compensation for court costs and the destroyed copies of his game , as well as unspecified damages . He was allowed to resume publication with a legal disclaimer . Anspach later self @-@ published a book about his research and legal fights with General Mills , Kenner Parker Toys , and Hasbro .
= = = Legal status = = =
Parker Brothers / Hasbro now claims trademark rights to the name and its variants , and has asserted it against others such as the publishers of Ghettopoly . Professor Anspach assigned the Anti @-@ Monopoly trademark back to Parker Brothers , and Hasbro now owns it . Anspach 's game remains in print . The previous publishers were a company called Talicor , but the game is currently distributed and sold by University Games worldwide .
Various patents have existed on the game of Monopoly and its predecessors , such as The Landlord 's Game , but all have now expired . The specific graphics of the game board , cards , and pieces are protected by copyright law and trademark law , as is the specific wording of the game 's rules .
= = Monopoly as a brand = =
Parker Brothers created a few accessories and licensed a few products shortly after it began publishing the game in 1935 . These included a money pad and the first stock exchange add @-@ on in 1936 , a birthday card , and a song by Charles Tobias ( lyrics ) and John Jacob Loeb ( music ) . At the conclusion of the Anti @-@ Monopoly case , Kenner Parker Toys began to seek trademarks on the design elements of Monopoly . It was at this time that the game 's main logo was redesigned to feature " Rich Uncle Pennybags " ( now " Mr. Monopoly " ) reaching out from the second " O " in the word Monopoly . To commemorate the game 's 50th anniversary in 1985 , the company commissioned artist Lou Brooks to redesign and illustrate the main logo as a red street sign @-@ like banner , as well as the character Rich Uncle Pennybags reaching out of the " O. " Brooks was also hired at the time to develop and illustrate the game 's special " Commemorative Edition " embossed tin box packaging . The art was also carried over onto the more traditional cardboard game box which was revised for the anniversary .
All items stamped with the red MONOPOLY logo also feature the word " Brand " in small print . In the mid @-@ 1980s , after the success of the first " collector 's tin anniversary edition " ( for the 50th anniversary ) , an edition of the game was produced by the Franklin Mint , the first edition to be published outside Parker Brothers . At about the same time , McDonald 's started its first Monopoly game promotions , considered the company 's most successful , which continue to the present . The twentieth such promotion was sponsored in 2012 .
In recent years , the Monopoly brand has been licensed onto a line of slot machines built by WMS Gaming ( first introduced in 1998 , six models had been made by 2000 , and over 20 by 2005 ) . The slots were named " Most Innovative Gaming Product in 1999 and voted " most popular " in 2001 . The brand has also been licensed onto instant @-@ win lottery tickets , and lines of 1 : 64 scale model cars produced by Johnny Lightning , which also included collectible game tokens . Other licenses have been issued for clothing and accessories , including a line of bathroom accessories . Licensee Winning Moves Games also had a Monopoly Calculator that could be used as a standard calculator , or used to aid in transactions during a game .
= = = Official sites = = =
The official U.S. Monopoly web site
The official UK Monopoly web site
Monopoly on Facebook
= = = History = = =
U.S. Patent 748 @,@ 626 – Patent for the first version of The Landlord 's Game , Issued Jan 5 , 1904
U.S. Patent 1 @,@ 509 @,@ 312 – Patent for the second version of The Landlord 's Game , Issued Sep 23 , 1924
U.S. Patent 2 @,@ 026 @,@ 082 – Patent awarded to C.B. Darrow for " Monopoly " on December 31 , 1935
The History of The Landlord 's Game and Monopoly .
History of Monopoly at World of Monopoly
Online photo album of many historical U.S. Monopoly sets , from Charles Darrow 's sets through the 1950s
Another online photo album of early Parker Brothers and Waddington sets , 1935 – 1954 .
Under the Boardwalk – The MONOPOLY Story – Film detailing the early history of the game with interviews including Phil Orbanes , Randolph Barton , Victor Watson , & Charles Darrow II .
= Humbert Roque Versace =
Captain Humbert Roque " Rocky " Versace ( July 2 , 1937 – September 26 , 1965 ) was a United States Army officer of Puerto Rican @-@ Italian descent who was awarded the United States ' highest military decoration — the Medal of Honor — for his heroic actions while a prisoner of war ( POW ) during the Vietnam War . He was the first member of the U.S. Army to be awarded the Medal of Honor for actions performed in Southeast Asia while in captivity .
= = Early years = =
Humbert Roque Versace was born in Honolulu , Hawaii on July 2 , 1937 . He was the eldest of five children born to Marie Teresa Ríos ( 1917 – 1999 ) — the author of three books , including the Fifteenth Pelican , on which The Flying Nun ( starring Sally Field ) , the TV series of the 1960s , was based — and Colonel Humbert Joseph Versace ( 1911 – 1972 ) . Versace grew up in Alexandria , Virginia and attended Gonzaga College High School in Washington , D.C. during his freshman and sophomore years . His junior year he attended Frankfurt American High School in Germany . He graduated from Norfolk Catholic High School in his senior year . He joined the Armed Forces in Norfolk , Virginia . As had his father before him , Versace entered the United States Military Academy West Point . He graduated in 1959 and was commissioned a Second Lieutenant of Armor in the U.S. Army .
He was a member of Ranger Class 4 – 60 and was awarded the Ranger Tab on December 18 , 1959 . Upon graduation from Ranger School , Capt. Versace attended Airborne School and was awarded the parachutist badge . He then served with 3rd Battalion , 40th Armor , 1st Cavalry Division in the Republic of Korea as an M @-@ 48 tank platoon leader from March 1960 to April 1961 . Captain Versace was then assigned to the 3d U.S. Infantry ( Old Guard ) , where he served as a tank platoon leader in Headquarters and Headquarters Company . After volunteering for duty in Vietnam , he attended the Military Assistance Institute , the Intelligence course at Fort Holabird , Maryland , and the USACS Vietnamese language Course at the Presidio of Monterey .
= = Vietnam War = =
On May 12 , 1962 , Versace began his first tour of duty in the Republic of Vietnam as an intelligence advisor . In May 1963 he volunteered for a six @-@ month extension of his tour , planning to attend seminary at the conclusion of his service and join the Catholic priesthood , hoping to return to Vietnam as a missionary working with orphans .
Less than two weeks before the end of his tour , on October 29 , 1963 , while visiting a Military Academy classmate in Detachment A @-@ 23 , 5th Special Forces Group in the Mekong Delta , Versace accompanied several companies of South Vietnamese Civilian Irregular Defense ( CIDG ) troops who had attacked to remove a Viet Cong ( VC ) command post located in the U Minh Forest , a VC stronghold . A VC Main Force battalion ambushed and overran Versace 's unit , wounding him in the process . He was able to provide enough covering fire so that the CIDG forces could withdraw from the killing zone .
A second government force of about 200 men operating only a few thousand yards from the main fight learned of the disaster too late to help . U.S. authorities said the communist radio jammers had knocked out both the main channel and the alternate channel on all local military radios . Versace was captured and taken to a prison deep in the jungle along with two other Americans , Lieutenant Nick Rowe and Sergeant Dan Pitzer . He tried to escape four times , but failed in his attempts . Versace insulted the Viet Cong during the indoctrination sessions and cited the Geneva Convention treaty time after time . The Viet Cong separated Versace from the other prisoners . The last time the prisoners heard his voice , he was loudly singing " God Bless America " . On September 26 , 1965 , North Vietnam 's " Liberation Radio ” announced the execution of Captain Humbert Roque Versace . Versace 's remains have never been recovered . His headstone at Arlington National Cemetery stands above an empty grave and can be located in the Memorial section MG @-@ 108 .
Upon learning of their son 's fate , Marie Teresa Rios Versace and her husband , Colonel Versace , tried to find out what they could about the circumstances . She went to Paris in the late 1960s , trying unsuccessfully to see the North Vietnamese delegation as it arrived for peace talks . Rios Versace expressed her frustration and anguish in poems .
Nominations to award Versace the Medal of Honor were initiated in 1969 , but the nomination failed and he was posthumously awarded the Silver Star instead . The quest for a Medal of Honor for Versace languished until the " Friends of Rocky Versace " reinitiated the crusade once more in 1999 . Language added by Congress in the 2002 Defense Authorization Act ended the standoff and authorized the award of the nation 's highest military decoration for combat valor to Versace .
On July 8 , 2002 , in a ceremony in the White House East Room , Versace was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor by President George W. Bush for his heroism , the first time an Army POW had been awarded the nation 's highest honor for actions in captivity . Present were his surviving siblings , Dr. Stephen Versace , Richard ( former coach of the Indiana Pacers ) , Michael and Trilby Versace . On November 7 , 2008 , the Department of the Army announced that the Silver Star awarded to Versace was revoked because the Silver Star award was upgraded to the Medal of Honor .
HEADQUARTERS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
WASHINGTON , DC , 29 December 2009
IV — SILVER STAR @-@ REVOKE . So much of Department of the Army General Orders , No. 31 , Headquarters , Department of the Army , Washington , D.C. , dated 1 July 1971 , pertaining to the award of the Silver Star to Captain Humbert R. Versace , United States Army , is herein revoked ; as announced in United States Human Resources Command , Permanent Orders 312 @-@ 07 , dated 7 November 2008 .
= = = Medal of Honor citation = = =
Humbert Roque Versace
Rank and organization : Captain , U.S. Army , Intelligence Advisor , Special Operations
Place : Republic of Vietnam
Entered service at : Norfolk , Virginia
Born : Honolulu , Hawaii
Citation :
For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while a prisoner of war during the period of October 29 , 1963 to September 26 , 1965 in the Republic of Vietnam . While accompanying a Civilian Irregular Defense Group patrol engaged in combat operations in Thoi Binh District , An Xuyen Province , Republic of Vietnam on October 29 , 1963 , Captain Versace and the CIDG assault force were caught in an ambush from intense mortar , automatic weapons , and small arms fire from elements of a reinforced enemy Main Force battalion . As the battle raged , Captain Versace fought valiantly and encouraged his CIDG patrol to return fire against overwhelming enemy forces . He provided covering fire from an exposed position to enable friendly forces to withdraw from the killing zone when it was apparent that their position would be overrun , and was severely wounded in the knee and back from automatic weapons fire and shrapnel . He stubbornly resisted capture with the last full measure of his strength and ammunition . Taken prisoner by the Viet Cong , he demonstrated exceptional leadership and resolute adherence to the tenets of the Code of Conduct from the time he entered into a prisoner of war status . Captain Versace assumed command of his fellow American prisoners , and despite being kept locked in irons in an isolation box , raised their morale by singing messages to popular songs of the day , and leaving inspiring messages at the latrine . Within three weeks of captivity , and despite the severity of his untreated wounds , he attempted the first of four escape attempts by dragging himself on his hands and knees out of the camp through dense swamp and forbidding vegetation to freedom . Crawling at a very slow pace due to his weakened condition , the guards quickly discovered him outside the camp and recaptured him . Captain Versace scorned the enemy 's exhaustive interrogation and indoctrination efforts , and inspired his fellow prisoners to resist to the best of their ability . When he used his Vietnamese language skills to protest improper treatment of the American prisoners by the guards , he was put into leg irons and gagged to keep his protestations out of earshot of the other American prisoners in the camp . The last time that any of his fellow prisoners heard from him , Captain Versace was singing God Bless America at the top of his voice from his isolation box . Unable to break his indomitable will , his faith in God , and his trust in the United States of America and his fellow prisoners , Captain Versace was executed by the Viet Cong on September 26 , 1965 . Captain Versaces extraordinary heroism , self @-@ sacrifice , and personal bravery involving conspicuous risk of life above and beyond the call of duty were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Army , and reflect great credit to himself and the U.S. Armed Forces .
= = In memory = =
The name Humbert R Versace is inscribed on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial ( " The Wall " ) on Panel 01E , Row 033 . On July 6 , 2002 , Rocky Versace Plaza in Alexandria , Virginia was dedicated in honor of Humbert R. Versace . There is a statue with the likeness of Versace in the Plaza , which was made possible with a donation of $ 125 @,@ 000 raised by the citizens of Alexandria , Virginia . On July 9 , 2002 , the day after the White House Medal of Honor ceremony , Secretary of the Army Thomas E. White and Army Chief of Staff General Eric K. Shinseki inducted Versace into the Pentagon Hall of Heroes .
In 2003 , he was inducted into the Military Intelligence Corps Hall of Fame . The Military Intelligence Hall of Fame is a Hall of Fame established by the Military Intelligence Corps of the United States Army in 1988 to honor soldiers and civilians who have made exceptional contributions to Military Intelligence . The Hall is administered by the United States Army Intelligence Center at Fort Huachuca , Arizona .
The name of Humbert Roque Versace was engraved in " El Monumento de la Recordación " ( Monument of Remembrance ) , dedicated to Puerto Rico 's fallen military members and situated in front of the Capitol Building in San Juan , Puerto Rico , and unveiled by Puerto Rico Senate President Kenneth McClintock ( see copy of speech ) and PR National Guard Adjutant General Col. David Carrión on Memorial Day , 2007 .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Among Capt. Humbert Roque Versace 's military decorations are the following :
Medal of Honor
Purple Heart
POW Medal
Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal
National Defense Service Medal
Vietnam Service Medal
Vietnam Campaign Medal
Badges :
Combat Infantryman Badge
Parachutist badge
Tabs :
Special Forces Tab
Ranger Tab
= Plug @-@ in electric vehicle =
A plug @-@ in electric vehicle ( PEV ) is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from an external source of electricity , such as wall sockets , and the electricity stored in the rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels . PEV is a subset of electric vehicles that includes all @-@ electric or battery electric vehicles ( BEVs ) , plug @-@ in hybrid vehicles ( PHEVs ) , and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles .
Plug @-@ in cars have several benefits compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles . They have lower operating and maintenance costs , and produce little or no local air pollution . They reduce dependence on petroleum and may reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the onboard source of power , depending on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation to charge the batteries . Plug @-@ in hybrids capture most of these benefits when they are operating in all @-@ electric mode . Despite their potential benefits , market penetration of plug @-@ in electric vehicles has been slower than expected as adoption faces several hurdles and limitations . As of 2016 , plug @-@ in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive than conventional vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium @-@ ion battery packs . Other factors discouraging the adoption of electric cars are the lack of public and private recharging infrastructure and , in the case of all @-@ electric vehicles , drivers ' fear of the batteries running out of energy before reaching their destination due to the limited range of existing electric cars . Plug @-@ in hybrids eliminate the problem of range anxiety associated to all @-@ electric vehicles , because the combustion engine works as a backup when the batteries are depleted , giving PHEVs driving range comparable to other vehicles with gasoline tanks .
Several national and local governments have established tax credits , subsidies , and other incentives to promote the introduction and adoption in the mass market of plug @-@ in electric vehicles depending on their battery size and all @-@ electric range . The term " plug @-@ in electric drive vehicle " is formally used in U.S. federal legislation to grant this type of consumer incentive . In China , plug @-@ in electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles ( NEVs ) , and only pure electric vehicles and plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicles are subject to purchase incentives . Cumulative global sales of highway legal plug @-@ in electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles passed the 1 @.@ 5 million unit milestone in May 2016 . Despite their rapid growth , plug @-@ in electric cars represented just 0 @.@ 1 % of the one billion cars on the world 's roads by the end of 2015 .
As of September 2015 , there were almost 70 models of highway legal plug @-@ in electric passenger cars and light @-@ duty utility vans available for retail sales in the world . As of March 2016 , the Nissan Leaf is the world 's all @-@ time top selling highway @-@ capable all @-@ electric car , with global sales of almost 220 @,@ 000 units , followed by the Tesla Model S with about 120 @,@ 000 units sold worldwide , and the Chevrolet Volt plug @-@ in hybrid , which together with its sibling the Opel / Vauxhall Ampera has combined global sales of over 110 @,@ 000 units . Ranking next are the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV with about 102 @,@ 000 units sold , and the Toyota Prius Plug @-@ in Hybrid with 75 @,@ 000 delivered worldwide .
As of June 2016 , cumulative sales by country are led by the United States with a stock of about 474 @,@ 000 highway legal light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles delivered since 2008 . China ranks second with almost 390 @,@ 000 units sold between 2011 and May 2016 , followed by Japan with more than 150 @,@ 000 plug @-@ ins sold between 2009 and April 2016 . Over 500 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in passenger cars and utility vans have been registered in Europe up until May 2016 , making the continent the world 's largest light @-@ duty plug @-@ in regional market . European sales are led by Norway with over 105 @,@ 000 units registered through May 2016 , followed by the Netherlands with over 93 @,@ 300 units registered at the end of May 2016 , and France with about 89 @,@ 600 units registered through May 2016 . China is the world 's leader in the plug @-@ in heavy @-@ duty segment , including electric all @-@ electric buses , and plug @-@ in commercial and sanitation trucks . The stock of new energy vehicles sold in China since 2011 passed the 500 @,@ 000 unit milestone in March 2016 .
= = Terminology = =
= = = Plug @-@ in electric vehicle = = =
A plug @-@ in electric vehicle ( PEV ) is any motor vehicle with rechargeable battery packs that can be charged from the electric grid , and the electricity stored on board drives or contributes to drive the wheels for propulsion . Plug @-@ in electric vehicles are also sometimes referred to as grid @-@ enabled vehicles ( GEV ) and also as electrically chargeable vehicles .
PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes battery electric vehicles ( BEVs ) , plug @-@ in hybrid vehicles , ( PHEVs ) , and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles . Even though conventional hybrid electric vehicles ( HEVs ) have a battery that is continually recharged with power from the internal combustion engine and regenerative braking , they can not be recharged from an off @-@ vehicle electric energy source , and therefore , they do not belong to the category of plug @-@ in electric vehicles .
" Plug @-@ in electric drive vehicle " is the legal term used in U.S. federal legislation to designate the category of motor vehicles eligible for federal tax credits depending on battery size and their all @-@ electric range . In some European countries , particularly in France , " electrically chargeable vehicle " is the formal term used to designate the vehicles eligible for these incentives . While the term " plug @-@ in electric vehicle " most often refers to automobiles or " plug @-@ in cars " , there are several other types of plug @-@ in electric vehicle , including scooters , motorcycles , neighborhood electric vehicles or microcars , city cars , vans , light trucks or light commercial vehicles , buses , trucks or lorries , and military vehicles .
= = = Battery electric vehicles = = =
A battery electric vehicle ( BEV ) uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs as its only source for propulsion . BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines ( ICEs ) for propulsion .
A plug @-@ in hybrid operates as an all @-@ electric vehicle or BEV when operating in charge @-@ depleting mode , but it switches to charge @-@ sustaining mode after the battery has reached its minimum state of charge ( SOC ) threshold , exhausting the vehicle 's all @-@ electric range ( AER ) .
= = = Plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicles = = =
A plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicle ( PHEV or PHV ) , also known as a plug @-@ in hybrid , is a hybrid electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric power source . A plug @-@ in hybrid shares the characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle and an all @-@ electric vehicle : it uses a gasoline engine and an electric motor for propulsion , but a PHEV has a larger battery pack that can be recharged , allowing operation in all @-@ electric mode until the battery is depleted .
= = = Aftermarket conversions = = =
An aftermarket electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle ( ICEV ) or hybrid electric vehicle ( HEV ) to electric propulsion , creating an all @-@ electric or plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicle .
There are several companies in the U.S. offering conversions . The most common conversions have been from hybrid electric cars to plug @-@ in hybrid , but due to the different technology used in hybrids by each carmaker , the easiest conversions are for 2004 – 2009 Toyota Prius and for the Ford Escape / Mercury Mariner Hybrid .
= = = New energy vehicles = = =
In China the term new energy vehicles ( NEVs ) refers to vehicles that are partially or fully powered by electricity , such as battery electric vehicles ( BEVs ) and plug @-@ in hybrids ( PHEVs ) . The Chinese government began implementation of its NEV program in 2009 to foster the development and introduction of new energy vehicles .
= = Advantages = =
= = = Lower operating and maintenance costs = = =
Internal combustion engines are relatively inefficient at converting on @-@ board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat , and the rest while the engine is idling . Electric motors , on the other hand , are more efficient at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle . Electric drive vehicles do not consume energy while at rest or coasting , and modern plug @-@ in cars can capture and reuse as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking through regenerative braking . Typically , conventional gasoline engines effectively use only 15 % of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories , and diesel engines can reach on @-@ board efficiencies of 20 % , while electric drive vehicles typically have on @-@ board efficiencies of around 80 % .
In the United States , as of early 2010 with a national average electricity rate of US $ 0 @.@ 10 per kWh , the cost per mile for a plug @-@ in electric vehicle operating in all @-@ electric mode is estimated between $ 0 @.@ 02 to $ 0 @.@ 04 , while the cost per mile of a standard automobile varies between $ 0 @.@ 08 to $ 0 @.@ 20 , considering a gasoline price of $ 3 @.@ 00 per gallon . As petroleum price is expected to increase in the future due to oil production decline and increases in global demand , the cost difference in favor of PEVs is expected to become even more advantageous .
According to Consumer Reports , as of December 2011 the Nissan Leaf has a cost of 3 @.@ 5 cents per mile and the Chevrolet Volt has a cost in electric mode of 3 @.@ 8 cents per mile . The Volt cost per mile is higher because it is heavier than the Leaf . These estimates are based on the fuel economy and energy consumption measured on their tests and using a U.S. national average rate of 11 cents per kWh of electricity . When the Volt runs in range @-@ extended mode using its premium gasoline @-@ powered engine , the plug @-@ in hybrid has a cost of 12 @.@ 5 cents per mile . The out @-@ of @-@ pocket cost per mile of the three most fuel efficient gasoline @-@ powered cars as tested by the magazine are the Toyota Prius , with a cost of 8 @.@ 6 cents per miles , the Honda Civic Hybrid with 9 @.@ 5 cents per mile , the Toyota Corolla with 11 @.@ 9 cents per mile , and the Hyundai Elantra 13 @.@ 1 cents per mile . The analysis also found that on trips up to 100 mi ( 160 km ) , the Volt is cheaper to drive than the Prius and the other three cars due to the Volt 's 35 mi ( 56 km ) driving range on electricity . The previous operating costs do not include maintenance , depreciation or other costs .
All @-@ electric and plug @-@ in hybrid vehicles also have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles , since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles , and the fewer mechanical systems on board last longer due to the better use of the electric engine . PEVs do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks .
The following table compares out @-@ of @-@ pocket fuel costs estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency according to its official ratings for fuel economy ( miles per gallon gasoline equivalent in the case of plug @-@ in electric vehicles ) for series production all @-@ electric passenger vehicles rated by the EPA as of December 2015 , versus EPA rated most fuel efficient plug @-@ in hybrid with long distance range ( Chevrolet Volt - second generation ) , gasoline @-@ electric hybrid car ( Toyota Prius Eco - fourth generation ) , and EPA 's average new 2016 vehicle , which has a fuel economy of 25 mpg @-@ US ( 9 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 30 mpg @-@ imp ) .
The following table compares EPA 's estimated out @-@ of @-@ pocket fuel costs and fuel economy ratings of serial production plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicles rated by EPA as of May 2016 expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ( mpg @-@ e ) , versus the most fuel efficient gasoline @-@ electric hybrid car , the 2016 Toyota Prius Eco ( fourth generation ) , rated 56 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 2 L / 100 km ; 67 mpg @-@ imp ) , and EPA 's average new 2016 vehicle , which has a fuel economy of 25 mpg @-@ US ( 9 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 30 mpg @-@ imp ) . The table also shows the fuel efficiency for plug @-@ in hybrids in all @-@ electric mode expressed as KWh / 100 mile , the metric used by EPA to rate electric cars before November 2010 .
The Edison Electric Institute ( EEI ) conducted an analysis that demonstrated that between January 1976 and February 2012 the real price for gasoline has been much more volatile than the real price of electricity in the United States . The analysis is based on a plug @-@ in electric vehicle with an efficiency of 3 @.@ 4 miles per kW @-@ hr ( like the Mitsubishi i MiEV ) and a gasoline @-@ powered vehicle with a fuel economy rated at 30 mpg @-@ US ( 7 @.@ 8 L / 100 km ; 36 mpg @-@ imp ) ( like the 2012 Fiat 500 ) . The EEI estimated that operating a plug @-@ in would have had an equivalent cost of around US $ 1 @.@ 50 a gallon in the late 1970s and early 1980s , and around US $ 1 @.@ 00 a gallon since the late 1990s . In contrast , the price to operate an internal combustion engine vehicle has had much ample variations , costing more than US $ 3 @.@ 50 per gallon during the 1979 energy crisis , then had a couple of lows with prices at less than US $ 1 @.@ 50 during 1999 and 2001 , only to climb and reach a maximum of more than US $ 4 @.@ 00 before the beginning of the 2007 – 2009 financial crisis , by early 2012 has fluctuated around US $ 3 @.@ 50 . The analysis found that the cost of an equivalent electric @-@ gallon of gasoline would have been not only cheaper to operate during the entire analysis period but also that equivalent electricity prices are more stable and have been declining in terms of equivalent dollars per gallon .
= = = Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions = = =
Electric cars , as well as plug @-@ in hybrids operating in all @-@ electric mode , emit no harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power , such as particulates ( soot ) , volatile organic compounds , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . The clean air benefit is usually local because , depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries , air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants . In a similar manner , plug @-@ in electric vehicles operating in all @-@ electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power , but from the point of view of a well @-@ to @-@ wheel assessment , the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation . This fact has been referred to as the long tailpipe of plug @-@ in electric vehicles . From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis , the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind , solar , hydroelectric , or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well @-@ to @-@ wheel emissions . On the other hand , when PEVs are recharged from coal @-@ fired plants , they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine vehicles and higher than hybrid electric vehicles . In the case of plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicles operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine , tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy .
The magnitude of the potential advantage depends on the mix of generation sources and therefore varies by country and by region . For example , France can obtain significant emission benefits from electric and plug @-@ in hybrids because most of its electricity is generated by nuclear power plants ; California , where most energy comes from natural gas , hydroelectric and nuclear plants can also secure substantial emission benefits . The U.K. also has a significant potential to benefit from PEVs as natural gas plants dominate the generation mix . On the other hand , emission benefits in Germany , China , India , and the central regions of the United States are limited or non @-@ existent because most electricity is generated from coal . However these countries and regions might still obtain some air quality benefits by reducing local air pollution in urban areas . Cities with chronic air pollution problems , such as Los Angeles , México City , Santiago , Chile , São Paulo , Beijing , Bangkok and Kathmandu may also gain local clean air benefits by shifting the harmful emission to electric generation plants located outside the cities . Nevertheless , the location of the plants is not relevant when considering greenhouse gas emission because their effect is global .
= = = = Carbon footprint during production = = = =
Ricardo
A report published in June 2011 , prepared by Ricardo in collaboration with experts from the UK 's Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership , found that hybrid electric cars , plug @-@ in hybrids and all @-@ electric cars generate more carbon emissions during their production than current conventional vehicles , but still have a lower overall carbon footprint over the full life cycle . The higher carbon footprint during production of electric drive vehicles is due mainly to the production of batteries . As an example , 43 percent of production emissions for a mid @-@ size electric car are generated from the battery production , while for standard mid @-@ sized gasolineinternal combustion engine vehicle , around 75 % of the embedded carbon emissions during production comes from the steel used in the vehicle glider . The following table summarizes key results of this study for four powertrain technologies :
The Ricardo study also found that the lifecycle carbon emissions for mid @-@ sized gasoline and diesel vehicles are almost identical , and that the greater fuel efficiency of the diesel engine is offset by higher production emissions .
Volkswagen
In 2014 Volkswagen published the results of life @-@ cycle assessment of its electric vehicles certified by TÜV NORD , and independent inspection agency . The study found that CO
2 emissions during the use phase of its all @-@ electric VW e @-@ Golf are 99 % lower than those of the Golf 1 @.@ 2 TSI when powers comes from exclusively hydroelectricity generated in Germany , Austria and Switzerland . Accounting for the full lifecycle , the e @-@ Golf reduces emissions by 61 % , offsetting higher production emissions . When the actual EU @-@ 27 electricity mix is considered , the e @-@ Golf emissions are still 26 % lower than those of the conventional Golf 1 @.@ 2 TSI . Similar results were found when comparing the e @-@ Golf with the Golf 1 @.@ 6 TDI . The analysis considered recycling of the three vehicles at the end of their lifetime .
= = = = Well @-@ to @-@ wheel GHG emissions in the U.S. = = = =
Environmental Protection Agency
The following table compares tailpipe and upstream CO2 emissions estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for all series production model year 2014 plug @-@ in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market . Total emissions include the emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity used to charge the vehicle , and for plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicles , it also includes emissions associated with tailpipe emissions produced from the internal combustion engine . These figures were published by the EPA in October 2014 in its annual report " Light @-@ Duty Automotive Technology , Carbon Dioxide Emissions , and Fuel Economy Trends : 1975 Through 2014 . " All emissions are estimated considering average real world city and highway operation based on the EPA 5 @-@ cycle label methodology , using a weighted 55 % city and 45 % highway driving . For the first time , the 2014 Trends report presents an analysis of the impact of alternative fuel vehicles , with emphasis in plug @-@ in electric vehicles because as their market share is approaching 1 % , the EPA concluded that PEVs began to have a measurable impact on the U.S. overall new vehicle fuel economy and CO2 emissions .
For purposes of an accurate estimation of emissions , the analysis took into consideration the differences in operation between plug @-@ in hybrids . Some , like the Chevrolet Volt , can operate in all @-@ electric mode without using gasoline , and others operate in a blended mode like the Toyota Prius PHV , which uses both energy stored in the battery and energy from the gasoline tank to propel the vehicle , but that can deliver substantial all @-@ electric driving in blended mode . In addition , since the all @-@ electric range of plug @-@ in hybrids depends on the size of the battery pack , the analysis introduced a utility factor as a projection of the share of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver , for both , electric only and blended EV modes . Since all @-@ electric cars do not produce tailpipe emissions , the utility factor applies only to plug @-@ in hybrids . The following table shows the overall fuel economy expressed in terms of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ( mpg @-@ e ) and the utility factor for the ten MY2014 plug @-@ in hybrids available in the U.S. market , and EPA 's best estimate of the CO2 tailpipe emissions produced by these PHEVs .
In order to account for the upstream CO2 emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity , and since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region , the EPA considered three scenarios / ranges with the low end scenario corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor , the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor , and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rocky Mountains . The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g CO2 / kWh in California to 986 g CO2 / kWh in the Rockies , with a national average of 648 g CO2 / kWh .
Union of Concerned Scientists
The Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) published a study in 2012 that assessed average greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. resulting from charging plug @-@ in car batteries from the perspective of the full life @-@ cycle ( well @-@ to @-@ wheel analysis ) and according to fuel and technology used to generate electric power by region . The study used the model year 2011 Nissan Leaf all @-@ electric car to establish the analysis baseline , and electric @-@ utility emissions are based on EPA 's 2009 estimates . The UCS study expressed the results in terms of miles per gallon instead of the conventional unit of grams of greenhouse gases or carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per year in order to make the results more friendly for consumers . The study found that in areas where electricity is generated from natural gas , nuclear , hydroelectric or renewable sources , the potential of plug @-@ in electric cars to reduce greenhouse emissions is significant . On the other hand , in regions where a high proportion of power is generated from coal , hybrid electric cars produce less CO2 equivalent emissions than plug @-@ in electric cars , and the best fuel efficient gasoline @-@ powered subcompact car produces slightly less emissions than a PEV . In the worst @-@ case scenario , the study estimated that for a region where all energy is generated from coal , a plug @-@ in electric car would emit greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to a gasoline car rated at a combined city / highway driving fuel economy of 30 mpg @-@ US ( 7 @.@ 8 L / 100 km ; 36 mpg @-@ imp ) . In contrast , in a region that is completely reliant on natural gas , the PEV would be equivalent to a gasoline @-@ powered car rated at 50 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ; 60 mpg @-@ imp ) .
The study concluded that for 45 % of the U.S. population , a plug @-@ in electric car will generate lower CO2 equivalent emissions than a gasoline @-@ powered car capable of combined 50 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ; 60 mpg @-@ imp ) , such as the Toyota Prius and the Prius c . The UCS also found that for 37 % of the population , the electric car emissions will fall in the range of a gasoline @-@ powered car rated at a combined fuel economy of 41 to 50 mpg @-@ US ( 5 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ; 49 to 60 mpg @-@ imp ) , such as the Honda Civic Hybrid and the Lexus CT200h . Only 18 % of the population lives in areas where the power @-@ supply is more dependent on burning carbon , and the greenhouse gas emissions will be equivalent to a car rated at a combined fuel economy of 31 to 40 mpg @-@ US ( 7 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 37 to 48 mpg @-@ imp ) , such as the Chevrolet Cruze and Ford Focus . The study found that there are no regions in the U.S. where plug @-@ in electric cars will have higher greenhouse gas emissions than the average new compact gasoline engine automobile , and the area with the dirtiest power supply produces CO2 emissions equivalent to a gasoline @-@ powered car rated at 33 mpg @-@ US ( 7 @.@ 1 L / 100 km ) .
In September 2014 the UCS published an updated analysis of its 2012 report . The 2014 analysis found that 60 % of Americans , up from 45 % in 2009 , live in regions where an all @-@ electric car produce fewer CO2 equivalent emissions per mile than the most efficient hybrid . The UCS study found several reasons for the improvement . First , electric utilities have adopted cleaner sources of electricity to their mix between the two analysis . The 2014 study used electric @-@ utility emissions based on EPA 's 2010 estimates , but since coal use nationwide is down by about 5 % from 2010 to 2014 , actual efficiency in 2014 is better than estimated in the UCS study . Second , electric vehicles have become more efficient , as the average 2013 all @-@ electric vehicle used 0 @.@ 33 kWh per mile , representing a 5 % improvement over 2011 models . Also , some new models are cleaner than the average , such as the BMW i3 , which is rated at 0 @.@ 27 kWh by the EPA . An i3 charged with power from the Midwest grid would be as clean as a gasoline @-@ powered car with about 50 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ) , up from 39 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 0 L / 100 km ) for the average electric car in the 2012 study . In states with a cleaner mix generation , the gains were larger . The average all @-@ electric car in California went up to 95 mpg @-@ US ( 2 @.@ 5 L / 100 km ) equivalent from 78 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 0 L / 100 km ) in the 2012 study . States with dirtier generation that rely heavily on coal still lag , such as Colorado , where the average BEV only achieves the same emissions as a 34 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 41 mpg @-@ imp ) gasoline @-@ powered car . The author of the 2014 analysis noted that the benefits are not distributed evenly across the U.S. because electric car adoptions is concentrated in the states with cleaner power .
In November 2015 the Union of Concerned Scientists published a new report comparing two battery electric vehicles ( BEVs ) with similar gasoline vehicles by examining their global warming emissions over their full life @-@ cycle , cradle @-@ to @-@ grave analysis . The two BEVs modeled , midsize and full @-@ size , are based on the two most popular BEV models sold in the United States in 2015 , the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model S. The study found that all @-@ electric cars representative of those sold today , on average produce less than half the global warming emissions of comparable gasoline @-@ powered vehicles , despite taken into account the higher emissions associated with BEV manufacturing . Considering the regions where the two most popular electric cars are being sold , excess manufacturing emissions are offset within 6 to 16 months of average driving . The study also concluded that driving an average EV results in lower global warming emissions than driving a gasoline car that gets 50 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ) in regions covering two @-@ thirds of the U.S. population , up from 45 % in 2009 . Based on where EVs are being sold in the United States in 2015 , the average EV produces global warming emissions equal to a gasoline vehicle with a 68 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 5 L / 100 km ) fuel economy rating . The authors identified two main reason for the fact that EV @-@ related emissions have become even lower in many parts of the country since the first study was conducted in 2012 . Electricity generation has been getting cleaner , as coal @-@ fired generation has declined while lower @-@ carbon alternatives have increased . In addition , electric cars are becoming more efficient . For example , the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt , have undergone improvements to increase their efficiencies compared to the original models launched in 2010 , and other even more efficient BEV models , such as the most lightweight and efficient BMW i3 , have entered the market .
National Bureau of Economic Research
One criticism to the UCS study is that the analysis was made using average emissions rates across regions instead of marginal generation at different times of the day . The former approach does not take into account the generation mix within interconnected electricity markets and shifting load profiles throughout the day . An analysis by three economist affiliated with the National Bureau of Economic Research ( NBER ) , published in November 2014 , developed a methodology to estimate marginal emissions of electricity demand that vary by location and time of day across the United States . The marginal analysis , applied to plug @-@ in electric vehicles , found that the emissions of charging PEVs vary by region and hours of the day . In some regions , such as the Western U.S. and Texas , CO2 emissions per mile from driving PEVs are less than those from driving a hybrid car . However , in other regions , such as the Upper Midwest , charging during the recommended hours of midnight to 4 a.m. implies that PEVs generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road . The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions . This occurs because coal @-@ fired units , which have higher emission rates , are most commonly used to meet base @-@ level and off @-@ peak electricity demand ; while natural gas units , which have relatively low emissions rates , are often brought online to meet peak demand .
= = = = Well @-@ to @-@ wheel GHG emissions in several countries = = = =
A study published in the UK in April 2013 assessed the carbon footprint of plug @-@ in electric vehicles in 20 countries . As a baseline the analysis established that manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2 / km for an electric car and 40 g CO2 / km for a petrol car . The study found that in countries with coal @-@ intensive generation , PEVs are no different from conventional petrol @-@ powered vehicles . Among these countries are China , Indonesia , Australia , South Africa and India . A pure electric car in India generates emissions comparable to a 20 mpg @-@ US ( 12 L / 100 km ; 24 mpg @-@ imp ) petrol car .
The country ranking was led by Paraguay , where all electricity is produced from hydropower , and Iceland , where electricity production relies on renewable power , mainly hydro and geothermal power . Resulting carbon emissions from an electric car in both countries are 70 g CO2 / km , which is equivalent to a 220 mpg @-@ US ( 1 @.@ 1 L / 100 km ; 260 mpg @-@ imp ) petrol car , and correspond to manufacturing emissions . Next in the ranking are other countries with low carbon electricity generation , including Sweden ( mostly hydro and nuclear power ) , Brazil ( mainly hydropower ) and France ( predominantly nuclear power ) . Countries ranking in the middle include Japan , Germany , the UK and the United States .
The following table shows the emissions intensity estimated in the study for those countries where electric vehicle are available , and the corresponding emissions equivalent in miles per US gallon of a petrol @-@ powered car :
= = = Less dependence on imported oil = = =
For many net oil importing countries the 2000s energy crisis brought back concerns first raised during the 1973 oil crisis . For the United States , the other developed countries and emerging countries their dependence on foreign oil has revived concerns about their vulnerability to price shocks and supply disruption . Also , there have been concerns about the uncertainty surrounding peak oil production and the higher cost of extracting unconventional oil . A third issue that has been raised is the threat to national security because most proven oil reserves are concentrated in relatively few geographic locations , including some countries with strong resource nationalism , unstable governments or hostile to U.S. interests . In addition , for many developing countries , and particularly for the poorest African countries , high oil prices have an adverse impact on the government budget and deteriorate their terms of trade thus jeopardizing their balance of payments , all leading to lower economic growth .
Through the gradual replacement of internal combustion engine vehicles for electric cars and plug @-@ in hybrids , electric drive vehicles can contribute significantly to lessen the dependence of the transport sector on imported oil as well as contributing to the development of a more resilient energy supply .
= = = Vehicle @-@ to @-@ grid = = =
Plug @-@ in electric vehicles offer users the opportunity to sell electricity stored in their batteries back to the power grid , thereby helping utilities to operate more efficiently in the management of their demand peaks . A vehicle @-@ to @-@ grid ( V2G ) system would take advantage of the fact that most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time . During such idle times the electricity stored in the batteries could be transferred from the PEV to the power lines and back to the grid . In the U.S this transfer back to the grid have an estimated value to the utilities of up to $ 4 @,@ 000 per year per car . In a V2G system it would also be expected that battery electric ( BEVs ) and plug @-@ in hybrids ( PHEVs ) would have the capability to communicate automatically with the power grid to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate .
= = Disadvantages = =
= = = Cost of batteries and cost of ownership = = =
Cost of batteries
As of 2015 , plug @-@ in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive as compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium @-@ ion battery pack . According to a 2010 study by the National Research Council , the cost of a lithium @-@ ion battery pack was about US $ 1 @,@ 700 / kWh of usable energy , and considering that a PHEV @-@ 10 requires about 2 @.@ 0 kWh and a PHEV @-@ 40 about 8 kWh , the manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV @-@ 10 is around US $ 3 @,@ 000 and it goes up to US $ 14 @,@ 000 for a PHEV @-@ 40 . As of June 2012 , and based on the three battery size options offered for the Tesla Model S , the New York Times estimated the cost of automotive battery packs between US $ 400 to US $ 500 per kilowatt @-@ hour . A 2013 study by the American Council for an Energy @-@ Efficient Economy reported that battery costs came down from US $ 1 @,@ 300 per kWh in 2007 to US $ 500 per kWh in 2012 . The U.S. Department of Energy has set cost targets for its sponsored battery research of US $ 300 per kWh in 2015 and US $ 125 per kWh by 2022 . Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production volumes will allow plug @-@ in electric vehicles to be more competitive with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles .
According to a study published in February 2016 by Bloomberg New Energy Finance ( BNEF ) , battery prices fell 65 % since 2010 , and 35 % just in 2015 , reaching US $ 350 per kWh . The study concludes that battery costs are on a trajectory to make electric vehicles without government subsidies as affordable as internal combustion engine cars in most countries by 2022 . BNEF projects that by 2040 , long @-@ range electric cars will cost less than US $ 22 @,@ 000 expressed in 2016 dollars . BNEF expects electric car battery costs to be well below US $ 120 per kWh by 2030 , and to fall further thereafter as new chemistries become available .
Cost of ownership
A study published in 2011 by the Belfer Center , Harvard University , found that the gasoline costs savings of plug @-@ in electric cars do not offset their higher purchase prices when comparing their lifetime net present value of purchase and operating costs for the U.S. market at 2010 prices , and assuming no government subidies . According to the study estimates , a PHEV @-@ 40 is US $ 5 @,@ 377 more expensive than a conventional internal combustion engine , while a battery electric vehicles is US $ 4 @,@ 819 more expensive . These findings assumed a battery cost of US $ 600 per kWh , which means that the Chevrolet Volt battery pack cost around US $ 10 @,@ 000 and the Nissan Leaf pack costs US $ 14 @,@ 400 . The study also assumed a gasoline price of US $ 3 @.@ 75 per gallon ( as of mid June 2011 ) , that vehicles are driven 12 @,@ 000 miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ) per year , an average price of electricity of US $ 0 @.@ 12 per kWh , that the plug @-@ in hybrid is driven in all @-@ electric mode 85 % of the time , and that the owner of PEVs pay US $ 1 @,@ 500 to install a Level II 220 / 240 volt charger at home .
The study also include hybrid electric vehicles in the comparison , and analyzed several scenarios to determine how the comparative net savings will change over the next 10 to 20 years , assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase , and also assuming higher fuel efficiency of conventional cars , among other scenarios . Under the future scenarios considered , the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than conventional cars ( US $ 1 @,@ 155 to US $ 7 @,@ 181 cheaper ) , while PHEVs , will be more expensive than BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios , and only less expensive than conventional cars in a scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices . The reason for the different savings among PEVs is because BEVs are simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel , while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and still have gasoline @-@ powered engines . The following table summarizes the results of four of the seven scenarios analyzed by the study .
According to a study by the Electric Power Research Institute published in June 2013 , the total cost of ownership of the 2013 Nissan Leaf SV is substantially lower than that of comparable conventional and hybrid vehicles . For comparison , the study constructed average hybrid and conventional vehicles and assumed an average US distance per trip distribution . The study took into account the manufacturer 's suggested retail price , taxes , credits , destination charge , electric charging station , fuel cost , maintenance cost , and additional cost due to the use of a gasoline vehicle for trips beyond the range of the Leaf .
= = = Availability of recharging infrastructure = = =
Despite the widespread assumption that plug @-@ in recharging will take place overnight at home , residents of cities , apartments , dormitories , and townhouses do not have garages or driveways with available power outlets , and they might be less likely to buy plug @-@ in electric vehicles unless recharging infrastructure is developed . Electrical outlets or charging stations near their places of residence , in commercial or public parking lots , streets and workplaces are required for these potential users to gain the full advantage of PHEVs , and in the case of EVs , to avoid the fear of the batteries running out energy before reaching their destination , commonly called range anxiety . Even house dwellers might need to charge at the office or to take advantage of opportunity charging at shopping centers . However , this infrastructure is not in place and it will require investments by both the private and public sectors .
Several cities in California and Oregon , and particularly San Francisco and other cities in the San Francisco Bay Area and Silicon Valley , already have deployed public charging stations and have expansion plans to attend both plug @-@ ins and all @-@ electric cars . Some local private firms such as Google and Adobe Systems have also deployed charging infrastructure . In Google 's case , its Mountain View campus has 100 available charging stations for its share @-@ use fleet of converted plug @-@ ins available to its employees . Solar panels are used to generate the electricity , and this pilot program is being monitored on a daily basis and performance results are published on the RechargeIT website . As of December 2013 , Estonia is the first and only country that had deployed an EV charging network with nationwide coverage , with 165 fast chargers available along highways at a minimum distance of between 40 to 60 km ( 25 to 37 mi ) , and a higher density in urban areas .
The importance to build the infrastructure necessary to support electric vehicles is illustrated by the decision of Car2Go in San Diego , California , that due to insufficient charging infrastructure decided to replace all of its all @-@ electric car fleet with gasoline @-@ powered cars starting on 1 May 2016 . When the carsharing service started in 2011 , Car2Go expected 1 @,@ 000 charging stations to be deployed around the city , but only 400 were in place by early 2016 . As a result , an average of 20 % of the carsharing fleet is unavailable at any given time because the cars are either being charged or because they don ’ t have enough electricity in them to be driven . Also , many of the company ’ s 40 @,@ 000 San Diego members say they often worry their Car2Go will run out of charge before they finish their trip .
= = = = Battery swapping = = = =
A different approach to resolve the problems of range anxiety and lack of recharging infrastructure for electric vehicles was developed by Better Place . Its business model considers that electric cars are built and sold separately from the battery pack . As customers are not allowed to purchase battery packs , they must lease them from Better Place which will deploy a network of battery swapping stations thus expanding EVs range and allowing long distance trips . Subscribed users pay a per @-@ distance fee to cover battery pack leasing , charging and swap infrastructure , the cost of sustainable electricity , and other costs . Better Place signed agreement for deployment in Australia , Denmark , Israel , Canada , California , and Hawaii . The Renault Fluence Z.E. was the electric car built with switchable battery technology sold for the Better Place network . The robotic battery @-@ switching operation was completed in about five minutes .
After implementing the first modern commercial deployment of the battery swapping model in Israel and Denmark , Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013 . The company 's financial difficulties were caused by the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure , about US $ 850 million in private capital , and a market penetration significantly lower than originally predicted by Shai Agassi . Less than 1 @,@ 000 Fluence Z.E. cars were deployed in Israel and around 400 units in Denmark .
Tesla Motors designed its Model S to allow fast battery swapping . In June 2013 , Tesla announced their goal to deploy a battery swapping station in each of its supercharging stations . At a demonstration event Tesla showed that a battery swap operation with the Model S takes just over 90 seconds , about half the time it takes to refill a gasoline @-@ powered car used for comparison purposes during the event . The first stations are planned to be deployed along Interstate 5 in California where , according to Tesla , a large number of Model S sedans make the San Francisco @-@ Los Angeles trip regularly . These will be followed by the Washington , DC to Boston corridor .
= = = = Other charging solutions = = = =
The REVA NXR exhibited in the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show and the Nissan Leaf SV trim both have roof @-@ mounted solar panels . These solar panels are designed to trickle charge the batteries when the car is moving or parked . Another proposed technology is REVive , by REVA . When the REVA NXR 's batteries are running low or are fully depleted , the driver is able to send an SMS to REVive and unlock a hidden reserve in the battery pack . REVA has not provided details on how the system will work . The Fisker Karma uses solar panel in the roof to recharge the 12 @-@ volt lead @-@ acid accessory battery . The Nissan Leaf SL trim also has a small solar panel at the rear of the roof / spoiler that can trickle charge the auxiliary 12 @-@ volt lead @-@ acid battery .
= = = Potential overload of the electrical grid = = =
The existing electrical grid , and local transformers in particular , may not have enough capacity to handle the additional power load that might be required in certain areas with high plug @-@ in electric car concentrations . As recharging a single electric @-@ drive car could consume three times as much electricity as a typical home , overloading problems may arise when several vehicles in the same neighborhood recharge at the same time , or during the normal summer peak loads . To avoid such problems , utility executives recommend owners to charge their vehicles overnight when the grid load is lower or to use smarter electric meters that help control demand . When market penetration of plug @-@ in electric vehicles begins to reach significant levels , utilities will have to invest in improvements for local electrical grids in order to handle the additional loads related to recharging to avoid blackouts due to grid overload . Also , some experts have suggested that by implementing variable time @-@ of @-@ day rates , utilities can provide an incentive for plug @-@ in owners to recharge mostly overnight , when rates are lower .
General Motors is sponsoring the Pecan Street demonstration project in Austin , Texas . The project objective is to learn the charging patterns of plug @-@ in electric car owners , and to study how a residential fleet of electric vehicles might strain the electric grid if all owners try to charge them at the same , which is what the preliminary monitoring found when the plug @-@ in cars return home in the evening . The Mueller neighborhood is the test ground , and as of June 2013 , the community has nearly 60 Chevrolet Volt owners alone . This cluster of Volts was achieved thanks to GM 's commitment to match the federal government 's $ 7 @,@ 500 rebate incentive , which effectively halves the purchase price of the plug @-@ hybrid electric cars .
= = = Risks associated with noise reduction = = =
Electric cars and plug @-@ in hybrids when operating in all @-@ electric mode at low speeds produce less roadway noise as compared to vehicles propelled by an internal combustion engine , thereby reducing harmful noise health effects . However , blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets , hence plug @-@ in electric cars and conventional hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard when operating at low speeds .
Several tests conducted in the U.S. have shown that this is a valid concern , as vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mph ( 30 km / h ) for all types of road users and not only the visually impaired . At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make sufficient audible noise . However , a 2011 study , commissioned by the UK Department for Transport ( DfT ) and conducted by the Transport Research Laboratory , found little correlation between pedestrian vehicle involvement density and noise level for the majority of vehicles . In addition , the analysis found no evidence of a pattern in pedestrian vehicle involvement densities when only considering those accidents occurring on 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) or slower roads , or where the pedestrian was disabled . A previous study did not found an increased pedestrian vehicle involvement density for electric and hybrid vehicles with respect to their conventional counterparts which raised the question as to whether added sound is necessarily required .
Some carmakers announced they have decided to address this safety issue , and as a result , the new Nissan Leaf electric car and Chevrolet Volt plug @-@ in hybrid , both launched in December 2010 , as well as the Fisker Karma plug @-@ in hybrid launched in 2011 launched in 2012 , include electric warning sounds to alert pedestrians , the blind and others to their presence . As of January 2014 , most of the hybrids and plug @-@ in electric and hybrids available in the United States , Japan and Europe make warning noises using a speaker system . The Tesla Model S is one of the few electric cars without warning sounds , because Tesla Motors will await until regulations are enacted . Volkswagen and BMW also decided to add artificial sounds to their electric drive cars only when required by regulation .
The Japanese Ministry of Land , Infrastructure , Transport and Tourism issued guidelines for hybrid and other near @-@ silent vehicles in January 2010 . In the United States the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 was approved by the U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives in December 2010 . The act does not stipulate a specific speed for the simulated noise but requires the U.S. Department of Transportation to study and establish a motor vehicle safety standard that would set requirements for an alert sound . A proposed rule was published for comment by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) in January , 2013 . It would require hybrids and electric vehicles traveling at less than 18 @.@ 6 miles per hour ( 30 km / h ) to emit warning sounds that pedestrians must be able to hear over background noises . According to the NHTSA proposal carmakers would be able to pick the sounds the vehicles make from a range of choices , and similar vehicles would have to make the same sounds . The rules were scheduled to go into effect in September 2014 . However , in January 2015 the NHTSA rescheduled the date for a final ruling to the end of 2015 . Since the regulation comes into force three years after being rendered as a final rule , compliance was delayed to 2018 .
On 6 February 2013 , the European Parliament approved a draft law to tighten noise limits for cars to protect public health , and also to add alerting sounds to ensure the audibility of hybrid and electric vehicles to improve the safety of vulnerable road users in urban areas , such as blind , visually and auditorily challenged pedestrians , cyclists and children . The draft legislation states a number of tests , standards and measures that must first be developed for an Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems ( AVAS ) to be compulsory in the future . The approved amendment establishes that the sound to be generated by the AVAS should be a continuous sound and should be easily indicative of vehicle behavior and should sound similar to the sound of a vehicle of the same category equipped with an internal combustion engine . " In April 2014 the European Parliament approved legislation that requires the mandatory use of the AVAS for all new electric and hybrid electric vehicles and car manufacturers have to comply within 5 years .
= = = Risks of battery fire = = =
Lithium @-@ ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture if overheated or overcharged , and in extreme cases this can lead to combustion . To reduce these risks , lithium @-@ ion battery packs contain fail @-@ safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range . When handled improperly , or if manufactured defectively , some rechargeable batteries can experience thermal runaway resulting in overheating . Especially prone to thermal runaway are lithium @-@ ion batteries . Reports of exploding cellphones have been reported in newspapers . In 2006 , batteries from Apple , HP , Toshiba , Lenovo , Dell and other notebook manufacturers were recalled because of fire and explosions . Also , during the Boeing 787 Dreamliner 's first year of service , at least four aircraft suffered from electrical system problems stemming from its lithium @-@ ion batteries , resulting in the whole Dreamliner fleet being voluntarily grounded in January 2013 .
Several plug @-@ in electric vehicle fire incidents have taken place since the introduction of mass @-@ production plug @-@ in electric vehicles in 2008 . Most of them have been thermal runaway incidents related to the lithium @-@ ion batteries and have involved the Zotye M300 EV , Chevrolet Volt , Fisker Karma , BYD e6 , Dodge Ram 1500 Plug @-@ in Hybrid , Toyota Prius Plug @-@ in Hybrid , Mitsubishi i @-@ MiEV and Outlander P @-@ HEV . As of November 2013 , four fires after a crash have been reported associated with the batteries of all @-@ electric cars involving a BYD e6 and three Tesla Model S cars .
The first modern crash @-@ related fire was reported in China in May 2012 , after a high @-@ speed car crashed into a BYD e6 taxi in Shenzhen . The second reported incident occurred in the United States in October 1 , 2013 , when a Tesla Model S caught fire after the electric car hit metal debris on a highway in Kent , Washington state , and the debris punctured one of 16 modules within the battery pack . A second reported fire occurred on October 18 , 2013 in Merida , Mexico . In this case the vehicle was being driven at high speed through a roundabout and crashed through a wall and into a tree . On November 6 , 2013 , a Tesla Model S being driven on Interstate 24 near Murfreesboro , Tennessee caught fire after it struck a tow hitch on the roadway , causing damage beneath the vehicle .
The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) is conducting a study due in 2014 to establish whether lithium @-@ ion batteries in plug @-@ electric vehicles pose a potential fire hazard . The research is looking at whether the high @-@ voltage batteries can cause fires when they are being charged and when the vehicles are involved in an accident . Both General Motors and Nissan have published a guide for firefighters and first responders to properly handle a crashed plug @-@ in electric @-@ drive vehicle and safely disable its battery and other high voltage systems .
= = = Rare earth metals availability and supply security = = =
Common technology for plug @-@ ins and electric cars is based on the lithium @-@ ion battery and an electric motor which uses rare earth elements . The demand for lithium , heavy metals , and other specific elements ( such as neodymium , boron and cobalt ) required for the batteries and powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the future sales increase of plug @-@ in electric vehicles in the mid and long term . As of 2011 , the Toyota Prius battery contains more than 20 lb ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) of the rare earth element lanthanum , and its motor magnets use neodymium and dysprosium . While only 0 @.@ 25 oz ( 7 g ) of lithium carbonate equivalent ( LCE ) are required in a smartphone and 1 @.@ 1 oz ( 30 g ) in a tablet computer , electric vehicles and stationary energy storage systems for homes , businesses or industry use much more lithium in their batteries . As of 2016 a hybrid electric passenger car might use 11 lb ( 5 kg ) of LCE , while one of Tesla 's high performance electric cars could use as much as 180 lb ( 80 kg ) .
Some of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals are located in countries with strong resource nationalism , unstable governments or hostility to U.S. interests , raising concerns about the risk of replacing dependence on foreign oil with a new dependence on hostile countries to supply strategic materials .
Lithium
The main deposits of lithium are found in China and throughout the Andes mountain chain in South America . In 2008 Chile was the leading lithium metal producer with almost 30 % , followed by China , Argentina , and Australia . In the United States lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada .
Nearly half the world 's known reserves are located in Bolivia , and according to the US Geological Survey , Bolivia 's Salar de Uyuni desert has 5 @.@ 4 million tons of lithium . Other important reserves are located in Chile , China , and Brazil . Since 2006 the Bolivian government have nationalized oil and gas projects and is keeping a tight control over mining its lithium reserves . Already the Japanese and South Korean governments , as well as companies from these two countries and France , have offered technical assistance to develop Bolivia 's lithium reserves and are seeking to gain access to the lithium resources through a mining and industrialization model suitable to Bolivian interests .
According to a 2011 study conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California Berkeley , the currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large @-@ scale battery production for electric vehicles , as the study estimated that on the order of 1 billion 40 kWh Li @-@ based batteries ( about 10 kg of lithium per car ) could be built with current reserves , as estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey . Another 2011 study by researchers from the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found that there are sufficient lithium resources to support global demand until 2100 , including the lithium required for the potential widespread use of hybrid electric , plug @-@ in hybrid electric and battery electric vehicles . The study estimated global lithium reserves at 39 million tons , and total demand for lithium during the 90 @-@ year period analyzed at 12 @-@ 20 million tons , depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates .
A 2016 study by Bloomberg New Energy Finance ( BNEF ) found that availability of lithium and other finite materials used in the battery packs will not be a limiting factor for the adoption of electric vehicles . BNEF estimated that battery packs will require less than 1 % of the known reserves of lithium , nickel , manganese , and copper through 2030 , and 4 % of the world ’ s cobalt . After 2030 , the study states that new battery chemistries will probably shift to other source materials , making packs lighter , smaller , and cheaper .
Rare earth elements
China has 48 % of the world 's reserves of rare earth elements , the United States has 13 % , and Russia , Australia , and Canada have significant deposits . Until the 1980s , the U.S. led the world in rare earth production , but since the mid @-@ 1990s China has controlled the world market for these elements . The mines in Bayan Obo near Baotou , Inner Mongolia , are currently the largest source of rare earth metals and are 80 % of China 's production . In 2010 China accounted for 97 % of the global production of 17 rare earth elements . Since 2006 the Chinese government has been imposing export quotas reducing supply at a rate of 5 % to 10 % a year .
Prices of several rare earth elements increased sharply by mid @-@ 2010 as China imposed a 40 % export reduction , citing environmental concerns as the reason for the export restrictions . These quotas have been interpreted as an attempt to control the supply of rare earths . However , the high prices have provided an incentive to begin or reactivate several rare earth mining projects around the world , including the United States , Australia , Vietnam , and Kazakhstan .
In September 2010 , China temporarily blocked all exports of rare earths to Japan in the midst of a diplomatic dispute between the two countries . These minerals are used in hybrid cars and other products such wind turbines and guided missiles , thereby augmenting the worries about the dependence on Chinese rare earth elements and the need for geographic diversity of supply . A December 2010 report published by the US DoE found that the American economy vulnerable to rare earth shortages and estimates that it could take 15 years to overcome dependence on Chinese supplies . China raised export taxes for some rare earths from 15 to 25 % , and also extended taxes to exports of some rare earth alloys that were not taxed before . The Chinese government also announced further reductions on its export quotas for the first months of 2011 , which represent a 35 % reduction in tonnage as compared to exports during the first half of 2010 .
On September 29 , 2010 , the U.S. House of Representatives approved the Rare Earths and Critical Materials Revitalization Act of 2010 ( H.R.6160 ) . The approved legislation is aimed at restoring the U.S. as a leading producer of rare earth elements , and would support activities in the U.S. Department of Energy ( US DoE ) to discover and develop rare earth sites inside of the U.S. in an effort to reduce the auto industry 's near @-@ complete dependence on China for the minerals . A similar bill , the Rare Earths Supply Technology and Resources Transformation Act of 2010 ( S. 3521 ) , is being discussed in the U.S. Senate .
In order to avoid its dependence on rare earth minerals , Toyota Motor Corporation announced in January 2011 that it is developing an alternative motor for future hybrid and electric cars that does not need rare earth materials . Toyota engineers in Japan and the U.S. are developing an induction motor that is lighter and more efficient than the magnet @-@ type motor used in the Prius , which uses two rare earths in its motor magnets . Other popular hybrids and plug @-@ in electric cars in the market that use these rare earth elements are the Nissan Leaf , the Chevrolet Volt and Honda Insight . For its second generation RAV4 EV due in 2012 , Toyota is using an induction motor supplied by Tesla Motors that does not require rare earth materials . The Tesla Roadster and the Tesla Model S use a similar motor .
= = = Car dealers reluctance to sell = = =
With the exception of Tesla Motors , almost all new cars in the United States are sold through dealerships , so they play a crucial role in the sales of electric vehicles , and negative attitudes can hinder early adoption of plug @-@ in electric vehicles . Dealers decide which cars they want to stock , and a salesperson can have a big impact on how someone feels about a prospective purchase . Sales people have ample knowledge of internal combustion cars while they do not have time to learn about a technology that represents a fraction of overall sales . As with any new technology , and in the particular case of advanced technology vehicles , retailers are central to ensuring that buyers , especially those switching to a new technology , have the information and support they need to gain the full benefits of adopting this new technology .
There are several reasons for the reluctance of some dealers to sell plug @-@ in electric vehicles . PEVs do not offer car dealers the same profits as gasoline @-@ powered car . Plug @-@ in electric vehicles take more time to sell because of the explaining required , which hurts overall sales and sales people commissions . Electric vehicles also may require less maintenance , resulting in loss of service revenue , and thus undermining the biggest source of dealer profits , their service departments . According to the National Automobile Dealers Association ( NADS ) , dealers on average make three times as much profit from service as they do from new car sales . However , a NADS spokesman said there was not sufficient data to prove that electric cars would require less maintenance . According to the New York Times , BMW and Nissan are among the companies whose dealers tend to be more enthusiastic and informed , but only about 10 % of dealers are knowledgeable on the new technology .
A study conducted at the Institute of Transportation Studies ( ITS ) , at the University of California , Davis ( UC Davis ) published in 2014 found that many car dealers are less than enthusiastic about plug @-@ in vehicles . ITS conducted 43 interviews with six automakers and 20 new car dealers selling plug @-@ in vehicles in California ’ s major metro markets . The study also analyzed national and state @-@ level J.D. Power 2013 Sales Satisfaction Index ( SSI ) study data on customer satisfaction with new car dealerships and Tesla retail stores . The researchers found that buyers of plug @-@ in electric vehicles were significantly less satisfied and rated the dealer purchase experience much lower than buyers of non @-@ premium conventional cars , while Tesla Motors earned industry @-@ high scores . According to the findings , plug @-@ in buyers expect more from dealers than conventional buyers , including product knowledge and support that extends beyond traditional offerings .
In 2014 Consumer Reports published results from a survey conducted with 19 secret shoppers that went to 85 dealerships in four states , making anonymous visits between December 2013 and March 2014 . The secret shoppers asked a number of specific questions about cars to test the salespeople ’ s knowledge about electric cars . The consumer magazine decided to conduct the survey after several consumers who wanted to buy a plug @-@ in car reported to the organization that some dealerships were steering them toward gasoline @-@ powered models . The survey found that not all sales people seemed enthusiastic about making PEV sales ; a few outright discouraged it , and even one dealer was reluctant to even show a plug @-@ in model despite having one in stock . And many sales people seemed not to have a good understanding of electric @-@ car tax breaks and other incentives or of charging needs and costs . Consumer Reports also found that when it came to answering basic questions , sales people at Chevrolet , Ford , and Nissan dealerships tended to be better informed than those at Honda and Toyota . The survey found that most of the Toyota dealerships visited recommended against buying a Prius Plug @-@ in and suggested buying a standard Prius hybrid instead . Overall , the secret shoppers reported that only 13 dealers “ discouraged sale of EV , ” with seven of them being in New York . However , at 35 of the 85 dealerships visited , the secret shoppers said sales people recommended buying a gasoline @-@ powered car instead .
The ITS @-@ Davis study also found that a small but influential minority of dealers have introduced new approaches to better meet the needs of plug @-@ in customers . Examples include marketing carpool lane stickers , enrolling buyers in charging networks , and preparing incentive paperwork for customers . Some dealers assign seasoned sales people as plug @-@ in experts , many of whom drive plug @-@ ins themselves to learn and be familiar with the technology and relate the car ’ s benefits to potential buyers . The study concluded also that carmakers could do much more to support dealers selling PEVs .
= = Government incentives = =
Several national and local governments around the world have established tax credits , grants and other financial and non @-@ financial incentives for consumers to purchase a plug @-@ in electric vehicle as a policy to promote the introduction and mass market adoption of this type of vehicles .
= = = Asia = = =
Japan
In May 2009 the Japanese Diet passed the " Green Vehicle Purchasing Promotion Measure " that went into effect on June 19 , 2009 , but retroactive to April 10 , 2009 . The program established tax deductions and exemptions for environmentally friendly and fuel efficient vehicles , according to a set of stipulated environmental performance criteria , and the requirements are applied equally to both foreign and domestically produced vehicles . The program provides purchasing subsidies for two type of cases , consumers purchasing a new passenger car without trade @-@ in ( non @-@ replacement program ) , and for those consumers buying a new car trading an used car registered 13 years ago or earlier ( scrappage program ) .
China
On June 1 , 2010 , The Chinese government announced a trial program to provide incentives up to 60 @,@ 000 yuan ( ~ US $ 8 @,@ 785 ) for private purchase of new battery electric vehicles and 50 @,@ 000 yuan ( ~ US $ 7 @,@ 320 ) for plug @-@ in hybrids in five cities .
= = = Europe = = =
As of 2010 , 17 of the 27 European Union member states provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles . The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions , as well as of bonus payments for buyers of PEVs and hybrid vehicles .
In the UK the Plug @-@ in Car Grant scheme provided a 25 % incentive towards the cost of new plug @-@ in electric cars that qualify as ultra @-@ low carbon vehicles , capped at GB £ 5 @,@ 000 ( US $ 7 @,@ 800 ) until February 2016 . Both private and business fleet buyers are eligible for the government grant . In December 2015 , the Department for Transport ( DfT ) announced that Plug @-@ in car grant was extended to encourage more than 100 @,@ 000 UK motorists to buy cleaner vehicles . The criteria for the Plug @-@ in Car Grant was updated and the maximum grant dropped from GB £ 5 @,@ 000 ( ~ US $ 7 @,@ 450 ) to GB £ 4 @,@ 500 ( ~ US $ 6 @,@ 700 ) . The eligible ultra @-@ low emission vehicles ( ULEVs ) must meet criteria in one of three categories depending on emission levels ( CO2 emissions bands between 50 and 75g / km ) and zero @-@ emission @-@ capable mileage ( minimum of 10 mi ( 16 km ) ) .
A price cap is in place , with all Category 1 plug @-@ in vehicles eligible for the full grant no matter what their purchase price , while Category 2 and 3 models with a list price of more than GB £ 60 @,@ 000 ( ~ US $ 90 @,@ 000 ) will not be eligible for the grant . Vehicles with a zero @-@ emission range of at least 70 miles ( 110 km ) ( category 1 ) , including hydrogen fuel cell vehicles , will get a full GB £ 4 @,@ 500 ( ~ US $ 6 @,@ 700 ) , but plug @-@ in hybrids ( categories 2 and 3 ) costing under GB £ 60 @,@ 000 ( ~ US $ 90 @,@ 000 ) will receive GB £ 2 @,@ 500 ( ~ US $ 3 @,@ 725 ) . Under the extended scheme , some plug @-@ in hybrid sports car will no longer be eligible for the grant , such as the BMW i8 because of its GB £ 100 @,@ 000 ( ~ US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) purchase price tag . The updated scheme went into force on 1 March 2016 .
Germany approved an incentive scheme in April 2016 with a budget of € 1 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 13 billion ) . The cost of the purchase incentive will be shared equally between the government and automakers . Electric car buyers will get a € 4 @,@ 000 ( US $ 4 @,@ 520 ) discount while buyers of plug @-@ in hybrid vehicles will get a discount of € 3 @,@ 000 ( US $ 3 @,@ 390 ) . Premium cars , such as the Tesla Model S and BMW i8 , are not eligible to the incentive because there is a cap of € 60 @,@ 000 ( US $ 67 @,@ 800 ) for the purchase price . The scheme is scheduled to start as early as May 2016 . Nissan , Volkswagen , Daimler and BMW have signed up to participate in the scheme .
= = = North America = = =
United States
In the United States the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 , and later the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 ( ACES ) granted tax credits for new qualified plug @-@ in electric vehicles . The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 ( ARRA ) also authorized federal tax credits for converted plug @-@ ins , though the credit is lower than for new PEVs .
The federal tax credit for new plug @-@ in electric vehicles is worth $ 2 @,@ 500 plus $ 417 for each kilowatt @-@ hour of battery capacity over 5 kWh , and the portion of the credit determined by battery capacity cannot exceed $ 5 @,@ 000 . Therefore , the total amount of the credit allowed for a new PEV is $ 7 @,@ 500 . Several states have established incentives and tax exemptions for BEVs and PHEV , and other non @-@ monetary incentives .
President Barack Obama set the goal of bringing 1 million plug @-@ in electric vehicles on the road by 2015 . However , considering the actual slow rate of PEV sales , as of mid @-@ 2012 several industry observers have concluded that this goal is unattainable . In September 2014 Governor of California Jerry Brown signed a bill , the Charge Ahead California Initiative , that sets a goal of placing at least 1 million zero @-@ emission vehicles and near @-@ zero @-@ emission vehicles on the road in California by January 1 , 2023 .
Canada
Ontario established a rebate between CA $ 5 @,@ 000 to CA $ 8 @,@ 500 ( ~ US $ 4 @,@ 900 to US $ 8 @,@ 320 ) , depending on battery size , for purchasing or leasing a new plug @-@ in electric vehicle after July 1 , 2010 . The rebates are available to the first 10 @,@ 000 applicants who qualify .
Quebec offers rebates of up to CA $ 8 @,@ 500 ( US $ 8 @,@ 485 ) from January 1 , 2012 , for the purchase of new plug @-@ in electric vehicles equipped with a minimum of 4 kWh battery , and new hybrid electric vehicles are eligible for a CA $ 1 @,@ 000 rebate . All @-@ electric vehicles with high @-@ capacity battery packs are eligible for the full C $ 8 @,@ 000 rebate , and incentives are reduced for low @-@ range electric cars and plug @-@ in hybrids .
= = Production plug @-@ in electric vehicles available = =
During the 1990s several highway @-@ capable plug @-@ in electric cars were produced in limited quantities , all were battery electric vehicles , and they were available through leasing mainly in California . Popular models included the General Motors EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV . Some of the latter were sold to the public and are in use still today . In the late 2000s began a new wave of mass production plug @-@ in electric cars , motorcycles and light trucks . However , as of 2011 , most electric vehicles in the world roads were low @-@ speed , | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
low @-@ range neighborhood electric vehicles ( NEVs ) or electric quadricycles . Pike Research estimated there were almost 479 @,@ 000 NEVs on the world roads in 2011 . Just in China , a total of 200 @,@ 000 low @-@ speed small electric cars were sold in 2013 , most of which are powered by lead @-@ acid batteries . As of October 2015 , the GEM neighborhood electric vehicle is the market leader in North America , with global sales of more than 50 @,@ 000 units since 1998 .
As of August 2015 , there were almost 70 models of highway @-@ capable plug @-@ in electric passenger cars and light @-@ utility vans available in the world , with 45 different plug @-@ in electric passenger car models offered in Europe , 20 available in North America , 19 in China , 14 in Japan , and 7 in Australia . There are also available several commercial models of plug @-@ in motorcycles , all @-@ electric buses , and heavy @-@ duty trucks .
As of December 2015 , the Renault @-@ Nissan Alliance is the leading electric vehicle manufacturer with global sales of 302 @,@ 000 all @-@ electric vehicles delivered since December 2010 , representing about half of the global light @-@ duty all @-@ electric market segment . Mitsubishi Motors ranks second , with global sales of about 135 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in electric vehicles since 2009 through December 2015 , consisting of all @-@ electric cars of the Mitsubishi i @-@ MiEV family , all @-@ electric Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV utility vans and trucks , and the plug @-@ in hybrid Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV . Ranking third is Tesla Motors with almost 125 @,@ 000 electric cars sold between 2008 and March 2016 . Next is General Motors with combined global sales since December 2010 of almost 113 @,@ 000 vehicles through December 2015 , consisting of over 106 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in hybrids of the Volt / Ampera family , over 4 @,@ 300 Chevrolet Spark EVs , and over 2 @,@ 400 Cadillac ELRs .
BYD Auto ended 2015 as the world 's best selling manufacturer of highway legal light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles , with 61 @,@ 722 units sold , mostly plug @-@ in hybrids , followed by Tesla Motors , with 50 @,@ 580 units sold in 2015 .
= = = Sales and main markets = = =
By mid @-@ September 2015 , the global stock of highway legal plug @-@ in electric passenger cars and utility vans passed the one million sales milestone . When global sales are broken down by type of powertrain , all @-@ electric cars have oversold plug @-@ in hybrids , with the pure electrics capturing 60 % of global sales as of December 2015 . Sales of plug @-@ in electric vehicles achieved the one million milestone almost twice as fast as hybrid electric vehicles ( HEV ) . While it took four years and 10 months to reach one @-@ million PEV sales , it took more than around nine years and a few months for HEVs to reach its first million sales .
Between 2007 and 2010 , only 11 @,@ 768 plug @-@ in electric vehicles were sold worldwide . By comparison , during the Golden Age of the electric car at the beginning of the 20th century , the EV stock peaked at approximately 30 @,@ 000 vehicles . After the introduction of the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt in late December 2010 , the first mass @-@ production plug @-@ in cars by major carmakers , plug @-@ in car sales grew to about 50 @,@ 000 units in 2011 , jumped to 125 @,@ 000 in 2012 , and rose to almost 213 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in electric cars and utility vans in 2013 . Sales totaled over 315 @,@ 000 units in 2014 , up 48 % from 2013 . In five years , global sales of highway legal light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles have increased more than ten @-@ fold , totaling more than 565 @,@ 00 units in 2015 . Plug @-@ in sales in 2015 increased about 80 % from 2014 , driven mainly by China and Europe . Both markets passed in 2105 the U.S. as the largest plug @-@ in electric car markets in terms of total annual sales , with China ranking as the world 's best @-@ selling plug @-@ in electric passenger car country market in 2015 . Over 220 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in cars and vans were sold during the first five months of 2016 .
Since 2004 , cumulative global sales totaled over 1 @.@ 5 million plug @-@ in cars and utility vans by the end of May 2016 . Despite the rapid growth experienced , the plug @-@ in electric car segment represented just 0 @.@ 1 % of the one billion cars on the world 's roads by the end of 2015 . JATO Dynamics , based on LMC Automotive ’ s forecasts , estimates the global market is expected to reach sales in excess of 700 @,@ 000 units in 2016 due to strong growth in China , Europe and the United States .
Research published by Bloomberg New Energy Finance in February 2016 predicts that as battery prices continue to fall , light @-@ duty electric vehicles without government subsidies will be as affordable as internal combustion engine cars in most countries by the mid @-@ 2020s . As a result , the study forecasts that annual sales of electric vehicles will hit 41 million by 2040 , representing 35 % of new light duty vehicle sales . In another scenario the study considers that if new carsharing services are successful , together with the adoption of autonomous cars , they could boost electric @-@ vehicle market share to 50 % of new car saless by 2040 . On the other hand , the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC ) in its 2015 World Oil Outlook projected that the market share of battery electric cars and fuel cell cars will remain below 1 % in 2040 , while the share of hybrid electric cars is projected to grow from 1 % in 2013 to 14 % in 2040 .
As of June 2016 , cumulative sales of highway legal light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles by country are led by the United States with a stock of about 474 @,@ 000 cars delivered since 2008 . China ranks second with 389 @,@ 885 units sold between 2011 and May 2016 , followed by Japan with 150 @,@ 142 plug @-@ in units sold between 2009 and April 2016 . As of May 2016 , more than 500 @,@ 000 light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles have been registered in Europe , making the continent the world 's largest plug @-@ in regional market in the light @-@ duty segment , which includes utility vans . European registrations are led by Norway with about 105 @,@ 306 units registered since 2004 through May 2016 , followed by the Netherlands with 93 @,@ 310 units registered at the end of May 2016 , France with 89 @,@ 629 units registered since 2010 through May 2016 , the UK with 75 @,@ 914 plug @-@ in cars and vans registered since 2006 , Germany with 57 @,@ 452 plug @-@ in cars registered since 2010 , and Sweden with 21 @,@ 439 registrations since 2011 . The other top selling country is Canada with 20 @,@ 352 new plug @-@ in cars sold between 2011 and May 2016 . As of April 2016 , over 534 @,@ 000 new energy vehicles have been sold in China since 2011 , making the country the world 's leader in the plug @-@ in heavy @-@ duty segment , including electric buses , plug @-@ in trucks , and sanitation trucks . As of December 2015 , China is also the world 's largest electric bus market .
Sales of series production PEVs during its first two years in the global market have been lower than initially expected in all countries . However , an analysis by Scientific American found that at the international level and considering the global top selling PEVs over a 36 @-@ month introductory period , monthly sales of the Volt , Prius PHV and Leaf are performing better than the conventional Prius during their respective introductory periods , with the exception of the Mitsubishi i @-@ MiEV , which has been outsold most of the time by the Prius HEV over their 36 @-@ month introductory periods . A similar trend was found by the U.S. Department of Energy for the American market . Combined sales of plug @-@ in hybrids and battery electric cars are climbing more rapidly and outselling by more than double sales of hybrid @-@ electric vehicles over their respective 24 month introductory periods , as shown in the graph at the left .
During 2014 , four of the ten top selling countries achieved plug @-@ in electric car sales with a market share higher than 1 % of new car sales , Norway ( 13 @.@ 84 % ) , the Netherlands ( 3 @.@ 87 % ) , Sweden ( 1 @.@ 53 % ) , and Japan ( 1 @.@ 06 % ) . Also two small countries achieved this mark in 2014 , Iceland ( 2 @.@ 71 % ) and Estonia ( 1 @.@ 57 % ) . In 2015 nine countries achieved plug @-@ in electric car sales with a market share equal or higher than 1 % of total new car sales , up from six in 2014 . The nine countries are Norway ( 22 @.@ 39 % ) , the Netherlands ( 9 @.@ 74 % ) , Hong Kong ( 4 @.@ 84 % ) , Iceland ( 2 @.@ 93 % ) , Sweden ( 2 @.@ 62 % ) , Denmark ( 2 @.@ 29 % ) , Switzerland ( 1 @.@ 98 % ) , France ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) , and the UK ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) . In 2015 the European plug @-@ in passenger car market share passed the one percent mark ( 1 @.@ 41 % ) for the first time .
The following table presents the top 10 countries according to their PEV market share of total new car sales between 2015 and 2013 . The market share for two selected regions , Europe and California , is also shown .
= = = = United States = = = =
As of June 2016 , the United States is the country with the largest fleet of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles in the world , with about 474 @,@ 000 highway @-@ capable plug @-@ in electric cars sold since the market launch of the Tesla Roadster in 2008 . As of May 2016 , the American plug @-@ in stock represented 30 @.@ 7 % of the global stock of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles . California is the country 's largest regional market with 200 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in electric vehicles delivered by March 2016 , representing 47 % of all plug @-@ in cars sold in American market since 2008 . As of mid 2013 , 52 % of American plug @-@ in electric car registrations were concentrated in five metropolitan areas : San Francisco , Los Angeles , Seattle , New York , and Atlanta .
Nationwide sales climbed from 17 @,@ 800 units delivered in 2011 to 53 @,@ 200 during 2012 , and reached 97 @,@ 100 in 2013 , up 83 % from the previous year . Cumulative plug @-@ in electric car sales since 2008 reached the 250 @,@ 000 unit milestone in August 2014 . During 2014 plug @-@ in electric car sales totaled 123 @,@ 248 units , up 27 @.@ 0 % from 2013 , and fell to 114 @,@ 248 in 2015 , down 7 @.@ 4 % from 2014 . A total of 64 @,@ 165 plug @-@ in cars were sold during the first half of 2016 , up 18 @.@ 9 % from the same period in 2015 . June 2016 is the best monthly plug @-@ in sales volume on record , with 13 @,@ 772 units delivered . The previous record was set in December 2015 , with over 13 @,@ 274 units delivered .
The market share of plug @-@ in electric passenger cars increased from 0 @.@ 14 % of new car sales in 2011 to 0 @.@ 37 % in 2012 , 0 @.@ 62 % in 2013 , and reached 0 @.@ 75 % of new car sales during 2014 . As plug @-@ in car sales slowed down during 2015 , the segment 's market share fell to 0 @.@ 66 % of new car sales . The market share increased to 0 @.@ 75 % during the first half of 2016 . The highest @-@ ever market share for plug @-@ in vehicles was achieved also in June 2016 with 0 @.@ 91 % of new car sales . California plug @-@ in sales in 2015 achieved a 3 @.@ 1 % market share , 4 @.@ 7 times higher than the U.S. , and its plug @-@ in market share was surpassed only by two countries , Norway ( 22 @.@ 4 % ) and the Netherlands ( 9 @.@ 7 % ) .
As of December 2014 , cumulative sales of plug @-@ in electric vehicles in the U.S. since December 2010 were led by plug @-@ in hybrids , with 150 @,@ 946 units sold representing 52 @.@ 7 % of all plug @-@ in car sales , while 135 @,@ 444 all @-@ electric cars ( 47 @.@ 3 % ) have been delivered to retail customers . This trend was reversed in 2015 , as the all @-@ electric segment grew much faster , with a total of 72 @,@ 303 all @-@ electric cars sold , up 6 @.@ 6 % year @-@ on @-@ year , while plug @-@ in hybrid were down 22 @.@ 4 % year @-@ on @-@ year , with 42 @,@ 959 units sold . As of December 2015 , a total of 206 @,@ 508 all @-@ electric cars and 193 @,@ 904 plug @-@ in hybrids had been sold in the U.S. since 2010 , with all @-@ electrics representing 51 @.@ 6 % of cumulative sales .
As of June 2016 , cumulative sales are led by the Chevrolet Volt plug @-@ in hybrid with 98 @,@ 558 units , followed by the Nissan Leaf all @-@ electric car with 95 @,@ 384 units delivered . The Leaf passed the Chevrolet Volt as the top selling PEV in March 2015 , but the Volt became once again the best selling plug @-@ in car in the American market in March 2016 . Both plug @-@ in cars were released in December 2010 . Launched in the U.S. market in June 2012 , the Tesla Model S ranks as the third top selling plug @-@ in electric car with 74 @,@ 861 units sold , followed by the Prius PHV , launched in February 2012 , with 42 @,@ 335 units . Ranking fifth is the Ford Fusion Energi with 34 @,@ 624 units delivered through June 2016 .
Plug @-@ in electric car sales in 2014 were led by the Nissan Leaf with 30 @,@ 200 units , followed the Volt with 18 @,@ 805 , and the Model S with 16 @,@ 689 units . The Tesla Model S was the top selling plug @-@ in car in the U.S. in 2015 with 25 @,@ 202 units delivered , followed by the Nissan Leaf with 17 @,@ 269 units , the Volt with 15 @,@ 393 , and the BMW i3 with 11 @,@ 024 . During the first half of 2016 the Model S continued as the top selling plug @-@ in car in the country with about 11 @,@ 700 units , followed by the Volt with 9 @,@ 808 , and the Fusion Energi with 7 @,@ 235 .
= = = = China = = = =
New energy vehicle sales between January 2011 and April 2016 totaled 534 @,@ 344 units , of which , almost 93 % were sold between January 2014 and April 2016 . These figures include heavy @-@ duty commercial vehicles such buses and sanitation trucks , and only include vehicles manufactured in the country as imports are not subject to government subsidies . As of March 2016 , the Chinese stock of plug @-@ in electric vehicles consisted of 366 @,@ 219 all @-@ electric vehicles ( 72 @.@ 9 % ) and 136 @,@ 353 plug @-@ in hybrids ( 27 @.@ 1 % ) .
As of December 2014 , a total of 83 @,@ 198 plug @-@ in electric passenger cars had been registered in the country since 2008 . With 176 @,@ 627 plug @-@ in passenger cars sold in 2015 , China passed the U.S. , the top selling country in 2014 , and became the world 's best @-@ selling plug @-@ in electric car country market in 2015 . As of March 2016 , in terms of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in passenger car stock , China ranks second after the United States , with cumulative sales of around 300 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in cars . As of December 2015 , the Chinese plug @-@ in stock represented 21 % of the global cumulative sales of highway legal plug @-@ in electric passenger cars .
The stock of new energy vehicles sold in China since 2011 , and accounting for all segments , passed the 500 @,@ 000 unit milestone in March 2016 , making the country the world 's leader in the plug @-@ in heavy @-@ duty segment , including electric buses , plug @-@ in trucks , and sanitation trucks . Over 160 @,@ 000 heavy @-@ duty new energy vehicles have been sold between 2011 and 2015 , of which , 123 @,@ 710 ( 77 @.@ 2 % ) were sold in 2015 . Sales of commercial new energy vehicles in 2015 consisted of 100 @,@ 763 all @-@ electric vehicles ( 81 @.@ 5 % ) and 22 @,@ 947 plug @-@ in hybrid vehicles ( 18 @.@ 5 % ) . The share of all @-@ electric bus sales in the Chinese bus market climbed from 2 % in 2010 to 9 @.@ 9 % in 2012 , and was expected to be closed to 20 % for 2013 . As of December 2014 , China had about 36 @,@ 500 all @-@ electric buses . As of December 2015 , China is the world 's largest electric bus market , and by 2020 , the country is expected to account for more than 50 % of the global electric bus market .
A total of 8 @,@ 159 new energy vehicles were sold in China during 2011 , including passenger cars ( 61 % ) and buses ( 28 % ) . Of these , 5 @,@ 579 units were all @-@ electric vehicles and 2 @,@ 580 plug @-@ in hybrids . Electric vehicle sales represented 0 @.@ 04 % of total new car sales in 2011 . Sales of new energy vehicles in 2012 reached 12 @,@ 791 units , which includes 11 @,@ 375 all @-@ electric vehicles and 1 @,@ 416 plug @-@ in hybrids . New energy vehicle sales in 2012 represented 0 @.@ 07 % of the country 's total new car sales . During 2013 new energy vehicle sales totaled 17 @,@ 642 units , up 37 @.@ 9 % from 2012 and representing 0 @.@ 08 % of the nearly 22 million new car sold in the country in 2013 . Deliveries included 14 @,@ 604 pure electric vehicles and 3 @,@ 038 plug @-@ in hybrids . The QQ3 EV was the top selling new energy car in China between 2011 and 2013 , with 2 @,@ 167 units sold in 2011 , 3 @,@ 129 in 2012 , and 5 @,@ 727 in 2013 . Cumulative sales since January 2011 through March 2014 reached 13 @,@ 039 units .
New energy vehicle sales during 2014 reached 74 @,@ 763 units , up 320 % from 2013 , and representing a market share of 0 @.@ 32 % of the 23 @.@ 5 million new car sales sold in the country that year . Of these , 71 % were passenger cars , 27 % buses , and 1 % trucks . A total of 45 @,@ 048 all @-@ electric vehicles were sold in 2014 , up 210 % from a year earlier , and 29 @,@ 715 plug @-@ in hybrids , up 880 % from 2013 . The BYD Qin plug @-@ in hybrid , introduced in December 2013 , ranked as the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in China in 2014 with 14 @,@ 747 units sold , and became the country 's top selling passenger NEV ever . The Qin was followed by the all @-@ electrics Zotye Zhidou E20 , with 7 @,@ 341 units , and BAIC E150 EV , with 5 @,@ 234 .
Domestically produced new energy vehicle sales in 2015 totaled a record 331 @,@ 092 units , consisting of 247 @,@ 482 all @-@ electric vehicles and 83 @,@ 610 plug @-@ in hybrid vehicles , up 449 % and 191 % from 2014 , respectively . Sales of plug @-@ in passenger cars , excluding imports , totaled 176 @,@ 627 units in 2015 , allowing China to rank as the world 's best @-@ selling plug @-@ in electric car country market in 2015 . The plug @-@ in electric passenger car segment market share rose to 0 @.@ 84 % in 2015 , up from 0 @.@ 25 % in 2014 . The top selling passenger models in 2015 were the BYD Qin plug @-@ in hybrid with 31 @,@ 898 units sold , followed by the BYD Tang ( 18 @,@ 375 ) , and the all @-@ electrics Kandi EV ( 16 @,@ 736 ) , BAIC E150 / 160 / 200 EV ( 16 @,@ 488 ) , and the Zotye Z100 EV ( 15 @,@ 467 ) .
As of December 2015 , the BYD Qin continues to rank as the all @-@ time top selling plug @-@ in passenger car in the country , with cumulative sales of 46 @,@ 787 units since its introduction . The BYD Qin was the world 's second best selling plug @-@ in hybrid car in 2015 after the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV , and also ranked fifth among the world 's top selling plug @-@ in electric cars in 2015 . As a reflexion of the explosive growth of the Chinese plug @-@ in electric car market in 2015 , BYD Auto ended 2015 as the world 's best selling manufacturer of highway legal light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles , with around 60 @,@ 000 units sold , ahead of Tesla Motors ( 50 @,@ 580 ) .
Sales of domestically produced new energy vehicle sales totaled 58 @,@ 125 units during the first quarter of 2016 , consisting of 42 @,@ 131 all @-@ electric vehicles and 15 @,@ 994 plug @-@ in hybrid vehicles , up 140 % and 43 % from the same quarter in 2015 , respectively . Sales in the new energy passenger segment totaled 39 @,@ 500 units , consisting of 24 @,@ 480 all @-@ electric cars and 14 @,@ 800 plug @-@ in hybrids , up 63 % and 37 % from the same quarter in 2015 , correspondinly .
= = = = Japan = = = =
As of March 2016 , the stock of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles in Japan is the third largest in the world after the United States and China , with about 150 @,@ 000 highway legal plug @-@ in electric vehicles sold in the country since 2009 . During 2012 , global sales of pure electric cars were led by Japan with a 28 % market share of total sales , followed by the United States with a 26 % share . Japan ranked second after the U.S. in terms of its share of plug @-@ in hybrid sales in 2012 , with a 12 % of global sales . A total of 30 @.@ 587 highway @-@ capable plug @-@ in electric vehicles were sold in Japan in 2013 . In 2014 the segment sales remained flat with 30 @,@ 390 units sold , and a market share of 1 @.@ 06 % of total new car sales in the country ( kei cars not included ) .
As of December 2014 , the Nissan Leaf is the market leader with 48 @,@ 641 units sold since December 2010 , followed by the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV with 19 @,@ 672 units sold since January 2013 . The Prius PHV has sold 19 @,@ 100 units between January 2012 and September 2014 , and the Mitsubishi i @-@ MiEV , launched for fleet customers in Japan in late July 2009 , with cumulative sales of 10 @,@ 423 i @-@ MiEVs through September 2014 . Combined sales of the van and truck version of the Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV reached 6 @,@ 291 units through December 2014 . Other models available in Japan are the Honda Accord Plug @-@ in Hybrid , Tesla Model S , BMW i3 , BMW i8 , and the Nissan e @-@ NV200 , but official sales figures are not available .
During 2013 sales were led by the Nissan Leaf with 13 @,@ 021 units , followed by the Outlander P @-@ HEV with 9 @,@ 608 units . The Leaf continued as the market leader in 2014 with 14 @,@ 177 units sold , followed by the Outlander P @-@ HEV with 10 @,@ 064 units , together representing about 80 % of the plug @-@ in segment sales in Japan in 2014 ( 30 @,@ 390 ) .
= = = = Europe = = = =
Cumulative sales of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles in Europe passed the 500 @,@ 000 unit milestone in May 2016 , representing about a third of global sales . Of these , 192 @,@ 827 units ( 38 @.@ 6 % ) were registered in 2015 . Out of the plug @-@ in stock registered in 2015 , passenger cars accounted for 186 @,@ 170 units ( 96 @.@ 5 % ) . European sales in the light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric segment , which includes utility vans , were led by the Netherlands with almost 90 @,@ 000 units registered at the end of 2015 . Almost 25 % of the European stock is on the roads in the Nordic countries , with over 100 @,@ 000 registered plug @-@ in electric cars as of December 2015 . Combined registrations in the four countries in 2015 were up 91 % from 2014 . The stock of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles registered in Norway passed the 100 @,@ 000 unit milestone in April 2016 , making the country the fourth largest plug @-@ in market in the world after the U.S. , China and Japan , and becoming the leading European market .
A total of 1 @,@ 614 all @-@ electric cars and 1 @,@ 305 light @-@ utility vehicles were sold in 2010 . Sales jumped from 2 @,@ 919 units in 2010 to 13 @,@ 779 in 2011 , consisting of 11 @,@ 271 pure electric cars and 2 @,@ 508 commercial vans . In addition , over 300 plug @-@ in hybrids were sold in 2011 , mainly Opel Amperas . Light @-@ duty plug @-@ in vehicle sales totaled 34 @,@ 333 units in 2012 , consisting of 24 @,@ 713 all @-@ electric cars and vans , and 9 @,@ 620 plug @-@ in hybrids . The Opel / Vauxhall Ampera plug @-@ in hybrid was Europe 's top selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2012 with 5 @,@ 268 units , closely followed by the all @-@ electric Nissan Leaf with 5 @,@ 210 units .
The plug @-@ in segment sales more than double to 71 @,@ 943 units in 2013 . Pure electric passenger and light commercial vehicles sales increased by 63 @.@ 9 % to 40 @,@ 496 units . In addition , a total of 31 @,@ 477 extended @-@ range cars and plug @-@ in hybrids were sold in 2013 . Registrations reached 104 @,@ 746 light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles in 2014 , up 45 @.@ 6 % from 2013 . A total of 65 @,@ 199 pure electric cars and light @-@ utility vehicles were registered in Europe in 2014 , up 60 @.@ 9 % from 2013 . All @-@ electric passenger cars represented 87 % of the European all @-@ electric segment registrations . Extended @-@ range cars and plug @-@ in hybrid registrations totaled 39 @,@ 547 units in 2014 , up 25 @.@ 8 % from 2013 .
For the first time in the region , in 2015 plug @-@ in hybrids ( 195 @,@ 140 ) outsold all @-@ electric cars ( 89 @,@ 640 ) in the passenger car segment , however , when light @-@ duty plug @-@ in utility vehicles are accounted for , the all @-@ electric segment totaled 97 @,@ 687 registrations in 2015 , up 65 @,@ 199 in 2014 , and ahead of the plug @-@ in hybrid segment . Also in 2015 , the European market share of plug @-@ in electric cars passed the 1 % mark for the first time , with a 1 @.@ 41 % share of new car sales that year .
During 2013 took place a surge in sales of plug @-@ in hybrids in the European market , particularly in the Netherlands , with 20 @,@ 164 PHEVs registered during the year . Out of the 71 @,@ 943 highway @-@ capable plug @-@ in electric passenger cars and utility vans sold in the region during 2013 , plug @-@ in hybrids totaled 31 @,@ 447 units , representing 44 % of the plug @-@ in electric vehicle segment sales that year . This trend continued in 2014 . Plug @-@ in hybrids represented almost 30 % of the plug @-@ in electric drive sales during the first six months of 2014 , and with the exception of the Nissan Leaf , sales of the previous European best selling models fell significantly , while recently introduced models captured a significant share of the segment sales , with the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV , Tesla Model S , BMW i3 , Renault Zoe , Volkswagen e @-@ Up ! , and the Volvo V60 Plug @-@ in Hybrid ranking among the top ten best selling models .
In 2014 Norway was the top selling country in the light @-@ duty all @-@ electric market segment , with 18 @,@ 649 passenger cars and utility vans registered , more than doubling its 2013 sales . France ranked second with 15 @,@ 046 units registered , followed by Germany with 8 @,@ 804 units , the UK with 7 @,@ 730 units , and the Netherlands with 3 @,@ 585 car and vans registrations . The Netherlands was the top selling country in the plug @-@ in hybrid segment with 12 @,@ 425 passenger cars registered , followed by the UK with 7 @,@ 821 , Germany with 4 @,@ 527 , and Sweden 3 @,@ 432 units . Five European countries achieved plug @-@ in electric car sales with a market share higher than 1 % of new car sales in 2014 , Norway ( 13 @.@ 84 % ) , the Netherlands ( 3 @.@ 87 % ) , Iceland ( 2 @.@ 71 % ) , Estonia ( 1 @.@ 57 % ) , and Sweden ( 1 @.@ 53 % ) .
In 2013 the top selling plug @-@ in was the Leaf with 11 @,@ 120 units sold , followed by the Outlander P @-@ HEV with 8 @,@ 197 units . The Mitsubishi Outlander plug @-@ in hybrid was the top selling plug @-@ in electric vehicle in Europe in 2014 with 19 @,@ 853 units sold , surpassing of the Nissan Leaf ( 14 @,@ 658 ) , which fell to second place . Ranking third was the Renault Zoe with 11 @,@ 231 units .
For a second year running , the Mitsubishi ’ s Outlander P @-@ HEV was the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in Europe with 31 @,@ 214 units sold in 2015 , up 57 % from 2014 . The Renault Zoe ranked second among plug @-@ in electric cars , with 18 @,@ 727 registrations , and surpassed the Nissan Leaf to become best selling pure electric car in Europe in 2015 . Ranking next were the Volkswagen Golf GTE plug @-@ in hybrid ( 17 @,@ 300 ) , followed by the all @-@ electric Tesla Model S ( 15 @,@ 515 ) and the Nissan Leaf ( 15 @,@ 455 ) , the BMW i3 , including its REx variant , ( 12 @,@ 047 ) , and the Audi A3 e @-@ tron plug @-@ in hybrid ( 11 @,@ 791 ) .
The Netherlands was the top selling country in the European light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric market segment , with 43 @,@ 971 passenger cars and utility vans registered in 2015 . Norway ranked second with 34 @,@ 455 units registered , followed by the UK with 28 @,@ 188 units , France with 27 @,@ 701 car and vans registrations , and Germany with 23 @,@ 464 plug @-@ in cars . Eight European countries achieved plug @-@ in electric car sales with a market share higher than 1 % of new car sales in 2015 , Norway ( 22 @.@ 4 % ) , the Netherlands ( 9 @.@ 7 % ) , Iceland ( 2 @.@ 9 % ) , Sweden ( 2 @.@ 6 % ) , Denmark ( 2 @.@ 3 % ) , Switzerland ( 2 @.@ 0 % ) , France ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) and the UK ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) .
As of December 2015 , and accounting for cumulative sales since 2010 , the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV is the all @-@ time top selling plug @-@ in electric car in the region with 59 @,@ 264 units delivered , followed by the Nissan Leaf with 48 @,@ 936 units , Renault Zoe with 38 @,@ 890 units , Tesla Model S with 28 @,@ 149 , and the BMW i3 with 23 @,@ 268 units . The Renault Kangoo Z.E. is the top selling all @-@ electric utility van with 21 @,@ 016 units .
= = = = = Norway = = = = =
The stock of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles registered in Norway passed the 100 @,@ 000 unit milestone in April 2016 , making the country the fourth largest plug @-@ in market in the world . Accounting for registrations of both new car sales and used imports , the Norwegian light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric fleet consist of about 81 @,@ 500 all @-@ electric passenger cars , almost 17 @,@ 100 plug @-@ in hybrids , and over 2 @,@ 000 all @-@ electric vans . The government 's target of 50 @,@ 000 all @-@ electric cars on Norwegian roads was reached in April 2015 , more than two years earlier than expected .
Sales of used imports in Norway are significant , and as of December 2015 , over 11 @,@ 500 used plug @-@ in vehicles from neighboring countries had been imported , mainly pure electric cars . Registrations of used all @-@ electric cars totaled 2 @,@ 086 units in 2013 , 3 @,@ 063 in 2014 and 5 @,@ 122 in 2015 . In addition , about 1 @,@ 300 used electric cars were imported into Norway before 2013 .
The Norwegian fleet of electric cars is one of the cleanest in the world because almost 100 % of the electricity generated in the country comes from hydropower . Norway , with about 5 @.@ 2 million people , is the country with the largest EV ownweship per capita in the world . In March 2014 , Norway became the first country where over one in every 100 registered passenger cars is plug @-@ in electric . The segment 's market penetration reached 2 % in March 2015 , and passed 3 % in December 2015 .
The Norwegian plug @-@ in electric vehicle market share of new car sales is the highest in the world , the EV segment market share rose from 1 @.@ 6 % in 2011 , to 3 @.@ 1 % in 2012 , and reached 5 @.@ 6 % of new car sales in 2013 . The Norwegian all @-@ electric segment increased its market share of new car sales to 12 @.@ 5 % in 2014 , and rises to 13 @.@ 8 % if plug @-@ in hybrids are accounted for . The combined sales of new plug @-@ in cars reached a market share of 23 @.@ 4 % of all new passenger cars sold in 2015 , with the all @-@ electric car segment reaching 17 @.@ 1 % , while the plug @-@ in hybrid segment reached 5 @.@ 2 % .
Also , Norway was the first country in the world to have electric cars topping the new car sales monthly ranking . The Tesla Model S has been the top selling new car four times , twice in 2013 , first in September and again in December , one more time in March 2014 , and again in March 2015 . The Nissan Leaf has topped the monthly new car sales ranking twice , first in October 2013 and again in January 2014 . In March 2014 the Tesla Model S also broke the 28 @-@ year @-@ old record for monthly sales of a single model regardless of its power source , with 1 @,@ 493 units sold , surpassing the Ford Sierra , which sold 1 @,@ 454 units in May 1986 . In March 2015 another record was set , with three all @-@ electric cars ranking as the top 3 selling new cars in the country , the Tesla Model S with 1 @,@ 140 units , the Volkswagen e @-@ Golf with 956 ( out of a total of 1 @,@ 421 units sold by the Golf nameplate ) , and the Nissan Leaf with 526 .
Plug @-@ in electric vehicle registrations totaled 10 @,@ 769 units in 2013 , and the segment achieved a 6 @.@ 9 % market share of total 2013 car registrations . The Leaf continued as the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2013 , with 4 @,@ 604 new units sold , followed by the Tesla Model S with 1 @,@ 986 units , and the Volkswagen e @-@ Up ! with 580 . A total of 23 @,@ 390 plug @-@ in electric vehicles were registered in 2014 including used imports . Combined sales of new and used plug @-@ in electric vehicles captured a 13 @.@ 84 % market share of total passenger car registrations in 2014 . Plug @-@ in electric car sales in 2014 were led by the Nissan Leaf with 4 @,@ 781 new registrations , followed by Tesla Model S with 4 @,@ 040 units . Norway ended 2014 as the top selling European country in the light @-@ duty all @-@ electric market segment , with 18 @,@ 649 passenger cars and utility vans registered .
A total of 39 @,@ 632 light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles were registered in Norway in 2015 , up 69 @.@ 3 % from 2014 . New plug @-@ in sales totaled 34 @,@ 455 units , consisting of 25 @,@ 779 pure electric cars , 7 @,@ 964 plug @-@ in hybrids , and 712 all @-@ electric utility vans . A total of 5 @,@ 177 used imports were registered , of which , 5 @,@ 122 were pure electric cars . The Norwegian fleet of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vechicles reached 84 @,@ 401 units registered as of December 2015 , including both new and used imports , and consisting of 74 @,@ 024 all @-@ electric passenger and light @-@ duty vehicles , and 10 @,@ 377 plug @-@ in hybrids .
The combined sales of new plug @-@ in cars reached a market share of 23 @.@ 4 % of all new passenger cars sold in 2015 , with the all @-@ electric car segment reaching 17 @.@ 1 % , up from 12 @.@ 5 % in 2014 , while the plug @-@ in hybrid segment reached 5 @.@ 2 % , up from 1 % in 2014 . The VW e @-@ Golf , with 8 @,@ 943 units sold , was the best @-@ selling plug @-@ in electric car in Norway in 2015 , ahead of the Tesla Model S ( 4 @,@ 039 ) and the Nissan Leaf ( 3 @,@ 189 ) . The top selling plug @-@ in hybrid in 2015 was the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV with 2 @,@ 875 units , followed by the Volkswagen Golf GTE with 2 @,@ 000 , and the Audi A3 e @-@ tron with 1 @,@ 684 units .
As of December 2015 , the Nissan Leaf continued as the all @-@ time best selling plug @-@ in electric car in the country with a total of 15 @,@ 245 new Leafs registered since 2011 . In addition , a significant number of used imported Leafs from neighboring countries have been registered in the country , raising the stock of registered Leafs to over 20 @,@ 000 units , meaning that more than 10 % of Leafs sold in the world are on Norwegian roads by November 2015 . Ranking second is the Volkswagen e @-@ Golf , with 10 @,@ 961 new units registered since 2014 , flowed by the Tesla Model S , with 10 @,@ 062 new units registered in Norway through December 2015 , representing about 10 % of the Model S global sales .
The highest @-@ ever monthly market share for plug @-@ in electric passenger segment was achieved in March 2016 with 33 @.@ 5 % of new car sales ; the all @-@ electric car segment had a 18 @.@ 7 % market share among new passenger cars , while the plug @-@ in hybrid segment had a 14 @.@ 8 % . Sales of new light @-@ duty plug @-@ in vehicles totaled 22 @,@ 425 units during the first half of 2016 , consisting of 11 @,@ 744 all @-@ electric cars , 10 @,@ 338 plug @-@ in hybrids , and 343 all @-@ electric vans . The combined sales of new plug @-@ in cars reached a market share of 28 @.@ 4 % of all new passenger cars sold during the first six months of 2016 , with the all @-@ electric car segment reaching 15 @.@ 1 % , down from 18 @.@ 4 % in the same period in 2015 , while the plug @-@ in hybrid segment reached a record 13 @.@ 3 % , up from 4 @.@ 5 % in 2015 . The all @-@ electric van segment captured 2 @.@ 2 % of new van sales , up from 0 @.@ 4 % during the same period the previous year . The VW e @-@ Golf continued as top selling all @-@ electric car during the first half of 2016 with 2 @,@ 859 units , representing 24 @.@ 3 % of the all @-@ electric car sales , while the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV was the top selling plug @-@ in hybrid , with 2 @,@ 843 units representing 27 @.@ 5 % of the segment sales .
= = = = = Netherlands = = = = =
A total of 93 @,@ 310 highway legal light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles were registered in the Netherlands by the end of May 2016 , consisting of 81 @,@ 124 range @-@ extended and plug @-@ in hybrids , 10 @,@ 690 pure electric cars , and 1 @,@ 496 all @-@ electric light utility vans . When buses , trucks , motorcycles , quadricycles and tricycles are accounted for , the Dutch plug @-@ in electric @-@ drive fleet climbs to 94 @,@ 726 units . The country 's electric vehicle stock reaches 128 @,@ 936 units when fuel cell electric vehicles ( 23 ) , mopeds ( 3 @,@ 682 ) , electric bicycles ( 30 @,@ 265 ) , and microcars ( 240 ) are accounted for .
As of May 2016 , the Netherlands ranks as the second top selling European market after Norway , and also has the world 's fifth largest light @-@ duty plug @-@ in vehicle stock . With 43 @,@ 971 plug @-@ in passenger cars and utility vans registered in 2015 , the Netherlands was the world 's third best @-@ selling country market for light @-@ duty plug @-@ in vehicles that year . The Netherlands is also among the country 's with the highest EV market penetration in the world .
Registrations of plug @-@ in electric car represented a 0 @.@ 57 % share of total new car registrations in the country during 2011 and 2012 . During 2013 plug @-@ in electric passenger car registrations totaled 22 @,@ 415 units , climbing 338 % from 2012 , the highest rate of growth of any country in the world in 2013 . The segment 's market share surged almost ten times from 2012 to 5 @.@ 37 % new car sales in the country during that year , the world 's second highest in 2013 after Norway ( 5 @.@ 6 % ) . The rapid growth of segment during 2013 , allowed the Netherlands to reach a market penetration for plug @-@ in vehicles of around 1 @.@ 71 vehicles per 1 @,@ 000 people , second only to Norway ( 4 @.@ 04 ) . The market share of the plug @-@ in electric passenger car segment in 2014 fell to 3 @.@ 86 % of total new passenger car registrations , after the end of some of the tax incentives . With 43 @,@ 769 plug @-@ in passenger cars registered in 2015 , the segment market share rose to a record 9 @.@ 7 % of new car sales in the Dutch market in 2015 , the second highest after Norway ( 22 @.@ 4 % ) .
In November 2013 , a total of 2 @,@ 736 Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEVs were sold , making the plug @-@ in hybrid the top selling new car in the country that month , representing a market share of 6 @.@ 8 % of all the new cars sold . Again in December 2013 , the Outlander P @-@ HEV ranked as the top selling new car in the country with 4 @,@ 976 units , representing a 12 @.@ 6 % market share of new car sales , contributing to a world record plug @-@ in vehicle market share of 23 @.@ 8 % of new car sales . The Netherlands is the second country , after Norway , where plug @-@ in electric cars have topped the monthly ranking of new car sales . The strong increase of plug @-@ in car sles during the last months of 2013 was due to the end of the total exemption of the registration fee for corporate cars , which is valid for 5 years . From January 1 , 2014 , all @-@ electric vehicles pay a 4 % registration fee and plug @-@ in hybrids a 7 % fee .
A total of 15 @,@ 678 light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles were registered in the Netherlands in 2014 , consisting of 12 @,@ 425 plug @-@ in hybrids , down 38 @.@ 4 % from 2013 , 2 @,@ 664 all @-@ electric cars , up 18 @.@ 3 % from a year earlier , and 589 vans , up 236 @.@ 6 % from 2013 . Sales in 2014 were led by the Outlander P @-@ HEV with 7 @,@ 666 units , followed by Volvo V60 Plug @-@ in Hybrid with 3 @,@ 126 units , and Tesla Model S with 1 @,@ 465 units sold .
The top 5 best @-@ selling plug @-@ in electric cars in 2015 were all plug @-@ in hybrids , led by the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV ( 8 @,@ 757 ) , followed by the Volkswagen Golf GTE ( 8 @,@ 183 ) , Audi A3 e @-@ tron ( 4 @,@ 354 ) , Volvo V60 Plug @-@ in Hybrid ( 3 @,@ 851 ) , and Volkswagen Passat GTE ( 2 @,@ 879 ) . The top selling all @-@ electric car was the Tesla Model S ( 1 @,@ 842 ) . Plug @-@ in car sales achieved its best monthly volume on record ever in December 2015 , with about 15 @,@ 900 units sold , and allowing the segment to reach a record market share of about 23 % . The surge in plug @-@ in car sales was due to reduction of the registration fees for plug @-@ in hybrids . From January 1 , 2016 , all @-@ electric vehicles continue to pay a 4 % registration fee , but for a plug @-@ in hybrid the fee rises from 7 % to 15 % if its CO2 emissions do not exceed 50 g / km . The rate for a conventional internal combustion car is 25 % of its book value .
As of December 2015 , the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV continues as the all @-@ time top @-@ selling plug @-@ in car in the country with 24 @,@ 506 registered . Ranking second is the Volvo V60 Plug @-@ in Hybrid ( 14 @,@ 470 ) , followed by the Volkswagen Golf GTE ( 8 @,@ 806 ) , Opel Ampera ( 4 @,@ 947 units ) , Tesla Model S ( 4 @,@ 832 ) , and Audi A3 e @-@ tron ( 4 @,@ 657 ) . A total of 78 @,@ 163 plug @-@ in hybrids out of 87 @,@ 531 passenger plug @-@ in electric vehicles were registered in the Netherlands as of 31 December 2015 , meaning that plug @-@ in hybrids dominate the Dutch market with a share of 89 @.@ 3 % of the country 's highway legal plug @-@ in electric car stock .
= = = = = France = = = = =
Since January 2010 , a total of 86 @,@ 909 light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles have been registered in France through April 2016 , consisting of 54 @,@ 066 electric passenger cars , 22 @,@ 473 all @-@ electric utility vans , and 10 @,@ 370 plug @-@ in hybrids . Electric car registrations increased from 184 units in 2010 to 2 @,@ 630 in 2011 . Sales in 2012 increased 115 % from 2011 to 5 @,@ 663 cars , allowing France to rank 4th among the top selling EV countries , with an 11 % market share of global all @-@ electric car sales in 2012 . Registrations reached 8 @,@ 779 electric cars in 2013 , up 55 @.@ 0 % from 2012 , and the all @-@ electric market share of total new car sales went up to 0 @.@ 49 % from 0 @.@ 3 % in 2012 .
In addition , 5 @,@ 175 electric utility vans were registered in 2013 , up 42 % from 2012 , and representing a market share of 1 @.@ 4 % of all new light commercial vehicles sold in 2013 . Sales of electric passenger cars and utility vans totaled 13 @,@ 954 units in 2013 , capturing a combined market share of 0 @.@ 65 of these two segments new car sales . When sales of pure electric cars and light utility vehicles are accounted together , France was the leading the European all @-@ electric market in 2012 and 2013 .
During 2014 sales of all @-@ electric vehicles in France passed the 10 @,@ 000 unit milestone for the first time . A total of 15 @,@ 045 all @-@ electric cars and vans were registered in 2014 , up 7 @.@ 8 % from 2013 . A total of 10 @,@ 560 pure electric passenger cars registered in 2014 , up 20 @.@ 3 % from the previous year . This figure rises to 10 @,@ 968 units if the BMW i3 with range extender is accounted for . All @-@ electric utility vans continued to be a significant share of the all @-@ electric segment , with 4 @,@ 485 units registered in 2014 , but down 13 @.@ 3 % from 2013 . All @-@ electric cars captured a 0 @.@ 59 % market share of the 1 @.@ 7 million new car registered in France in 2014 , while light @-@ duty electric vehicles reached a 1 @.@ 22 % market share of their segment . Combined both segments represented a market share of 0 @.@ 70 % of new registrations in the country in 2014 . Light @-@ duty all @-@ electric vehicle sales achieved its best monthly volume on record ever in December 2014 , with 2 @,@ 227 units registered , twice the volume registered the same month in 2013 . The slow down in sales that took place in the French EV market during the first half of 2014 , allowed Norway , with 18 @,@ 649 new all @-@ electric vehicles registered , to end 2014 as the top selling European market in the light @-@ duty all @-@ electric segment , and France ranked second . A total of 14 @,@ 833 light @-@ duty all @-@ electric vehicles were sold during the first nine months of 2015 , up 48 % from 2014 year @-@ on @-@ year .
In the French market plug @-@ in hybrids or rechargeable hybrids are classified and accounted together with conventional hybrid electric vehicles . Almost 1 @,@ 500 plug @-@ in hybrids were registered during 2012 and 2013 , 666 units in 2012 , and 808 units in 2013 . Plug @-@ in hybrid car registrations totaled 1 @,@ 519 units in 2014 , almost doubling registrations from a year earlier . Plug @-@ in hybrid sales were driven by the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV , with 820 units registered in 2014 , representing 54 % of the segment registrations in France that year . Between 2012 and 2014 , cumulative plug @-@ in hybrid registrations totaled 2 @,@ 985 units , rising cumulative French registrations of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles since 2005 to 46 @,@ 590 units , just ahead of the Netherlands ( 45 @,@ 020 ) , and making France the European country where there are more plug @-@ in electric vehicles on the road .
During 2012 , all @-@ electric car registrations in France were led by the Bolloré Bluecar with 1 @,@ 543 units . The Renault Kangoo Z.E. was the top selling utility electric vehicle with 2 @,@ 869 units registered in 2012 , representing a market share of 82 % of the segment . The Renault Twizy electric quadricycle , launched in March 2012 , sold 2 @,@ 232 units during 2012 , surpassing the Bolloré Bluecar , and ranked as the second best selling plug @-@ in electric vehicle after the Kangoo Z.E. During 2013 , registrations of pure electric cars were led by the Renault Zoe with 5 @,@ 511 units , representing 62 @.@ 8 % of total EV sales . Registrations of all @-@ electric light utility vehicles were led by the Renault Kangoo Z.E. with 4 @,@ 174 units , representing 80 @.@ 7 % of the segment sales .
The Zoe continued leading all @-@ electric vehicle registration in 2014 , with 5 @,@ 970 units registered , followed by the Kangoo Z.E. van with 2 @,@ 657 registrations , and the Nissan Leaf ranked next with 1 @,@ 600 units . As of December 2014 , the French leader in the all @-@ electric segment is the Renault Zoe with 11 @,@ 529 units registered since 2012 , followed by the Kangoo Z.E. utility van with 10 @,@ 483 units registered since 2010 , the Bolloré Bluecar with 3 @,@ 770 units , and the Nissan Leaf with 3 @,@ 645 units . Most units of the Bluecar are in operation for the Autolib ' carsharing service in Paris , and similar carsharing programs in Lyon and Bordeaux .
= = = = = United Kingdom = = = = =
About 71 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in electric vehicles have been registered in the UK up until March 2016 , including about 67 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in hybrids and all @-@ electric cars , and about 4 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in commercial vans . This figure includes a significant number of registered plug @-@ in electric cars and vans which were not eligible for the grant schemes . Since the launch of the Plug @-@ In Car Grant in January 2011 , a total of 66 @,@ 296 eligible cars have been registered through June 2016 , and , as of March 2016 , the number of claims made through the Plug @-@ in Van Grant scheme totaled 2 @,@ 167 units since the launch of the scheme in 2012 .
Before the introduction of series production plug @-@ in vehicles , a total of 1 @,@ 096 all @-@ electric vehicles were registered in the UK between 2006 and December 2010 . All @-@ electric car sales grew from 138 units in 2010 to 1 @,@ 082 units during 2011 . Before 2011 , the G @-@ Wiz , a heavy quadricycle , listed as the top @-@ selling EV for several years . During 2012 , a total of 2 @,@ 254 plug @-@ in electric cars were registered in the UK . Sales in 2012 were led by the Nissan Leaf with 699 units , followed by the Toyota Prius Plug @-@ in Hybrid with 470 . Vehicles eligible for the Plug @-@ in Car Grant accounted for 0 @.@ 1 % of total new car sales in 2012 . Plug @-@ in electric car registrations totaled 3 @,@ 584 units in 2013 , up 59 @.@ 0 % from 2012 . Plug @-@ in car sales represented a 0 @.@ 16 % market share of new cars sold in the UK in 2013 . The top selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2013 was the Nissan Leaf , with over 1 @,@ 650 units sold , and the Prius PHV ended 2013 as the top selling plug @-@ in hybrid with 509 units .
The British market experienced a rapid growth of plug @-@ in car sales during 2014 , driven by the introduction of new models such as the BMW i3 , Tesla Model S , Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV , Renault Zoe , and Volkswagen e @-@ Up ! . Plug @-@ in electric car registrations in the UK quadruple from 3 @,@ 586 in 2013 to 14 @,@ 518 units in 2014 . Registrations consisted of 6 @,@ 697 pure electrics and 7 @,@ 821 plug @-@ in hybrids . Total registrations in 2014 were up 305 % from 2013 , with all @-@ electric cars growing 167 % while plug @-@ in hybrid registrations were up 628 % from a year earlier . The plug @-@ in electric car segment captured a 0 @.@ 59 % market share of new car sales in 2014 , up from 0 @.@ 16 % in 2013 . In November 2014 the passenger plug @-@ in segment 's market share passed 1 % of monthly new car sales for the first time in the UK .
The Mitsubishi plug @-@ in hybrid became the top selling plug @-@ in electric vehicle in July 2014 and captured 43 % of all applications to the Plug @-@ in Car Grants scheme that month . The Outlander P @-@ HEV ended 2014 as the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in the UK that year with 5 @,@ 370 units sold . The Nissan Leaf sales also experienced a significant growth in 2014 , with 4 @,@ 051 units sold , up 124 % from the 1 @,@ 812 units sold in 2013 .
The surge in demand for plug @-@ in cars continued during 2015 . Plug @-@ in electric car registrations in the UK totaled 28 @,@ 188 units in 2015 , consisting of 9 @,@ 934 pure electric cars and 18 @,@ 254 plug @-@ in hybrids . Total registrations in 2015 were up 94 @.@ 0 % from 2014 , with all @-@ electric cars growing 48 @.@ 3 % year @-@ on @-@ year , while plug @-@ in hybrid registrations were up 133 @.@ 0 % year @-@ on @-@ year . The plug @-@ in electric car segment raised its market share of new car sales in 2015 to almost 1 @.@ 1 % , up from 0 @.@ 59 % in 2014 . The plug @-@ in segment reached a record market share of 1 @.@ 7 % of new car sales in the UK , the highest ever .
Sales of the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV in the British market reached the 10 @,@ 000 unit milestone in March 2015 , allowing the plug @-@ in hybrid to overtake the Leaf as the all @-@ time top selling plug @-@ in electric vehicle in the UK . Sales of the Nissan Leaf sales passed the 10 @,@ 000 unit milestone in June 2015 . The top selling models in 2015 were the Outlander P @-@ HEV with 11 @,@ 681 units registered , up 118 % from 2014 , followed by the Leaf with 5 @,@ 236 units ( up 29 % ) , and the BMW i3 with 2 @,@ 213 units ( up 59 % ) . As of December 2015 , the Outlander P @-@ HEV continued to rank as the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in the UK ever , with 17 @,@ 045 units registered , and the Nissan Leaf , the top selling all @-@ electric car ever , totaled 12 @,@ 433 units registered . Plug @-@ in car sales in March 2016 achieved the best monthly plug @-@ in sales volume on record ever , with 7 @,@ 144 grant eligible cars registered , exceeding the previous high of 6 @,@ 104 units , recorded in March 2015 .
A total of 19 @,@ 252 plug @-@ in electric cars were registered in the UK during the first half of 2016 , consisting of 5 @,@ 267 pure electrics , up 12 @.@ 5 % from the same period in 2015 , and 13 @,@ 985 plug @-@ in hybrids , up 40 @.@ 8 % from 2015 . During the first half of 2016 the plug @-@ in car segment 's market share reached 1 @.@ 36 % of new car sales . While overall new car registrations year @-@ to @-@ date increased 3 @.@ 2 % from the same period in 2015 , total plug @-@ in car registrations during the quarter increased 31 @.@ 8 % from 2015 .
= = = = = Germany = = = = =
As of April 2016 , there were about 57 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in electric cars registered in Germany . About 73 % of the about 50 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in cars registered in the country by the end of 2015 took place during the last two years , with 13 @,@ 049 units registered in 2014 , and 23 @,@ 464 registered in 2015 . The official German definition of electric vehicles changed at the beginning of 2013 , before that , official statistics only registered all @-@ electric vehicles because plug @-@ in hybrids were accounted together with conventional hybrids . As a result , the registrations figures for 2012 and older do not account for total new plug @-@ in electric car registrations . As of November 2014 , the country had 4 @,@ 800 public charging stations .
Total plug @-@ in electric car registrations increased from 1 @,@ 558 units in 2009 to 2 @,@ 307 in 2010 . The total registered plug @-@ in electric stock in 2011 increased 96 @.@ 8 % from 2010 to 4 @,@ 541 cars , to 7 @,@ 114 in 2012 , and reached 12 @,@ 156 registered cars on 1 January 2014 . Registrations of plug @-@ in electric drive vehicles represented a 0 @.@ 028 % market share of all passenger vehicles registered in Germany at the beginning of 2014 . The plug @-@ in hybrid segment in the German market in 2014 experienced an explosive growth of 226 @.@ 9 % year @-@ over @-@ year , and the overall plug @-@ in segment increased 75 @.@ 5 % from a year earlier . The surge in sales continued in 2015 , the plug @-@ in hybrid segment grew 125 @.@ 1 % year @-@ over @-@ year , while the all @-@ electric segment climbed 91 @.@ 2 % from the previous year .
During 2011 , a total of 2 @,@ 154 pure electric cars were registered in the country , up from 541 units in 2010 . All @-@ electric car sales for 2011 were led by the Mitsubishi i @-@ MiEV family with 683 i @-@ MiEVs , 208 Peugeot iOns and 200 Citroën C @-@ Zeros , representing 50 @.@ 6 % of all electric car registrations in 2011 . Plug @-@ in hybrid registrations totaled 266 units in 2011 , 241 Opel Amperas and 25 Chevrolet Volts , for a total of 2 @,@ 420 plug @-@ in electric vehicles registered in 2011 .
A total of 2 @,@ 956 all @-@ electric vehicles were registered in Germany during 2012 , a 37 @.@ 2 % increase over 2011 . When 901 registered plug @-@ in hybrids are accounted for , 2012 registrations climb to 3 @,@ 857 units , and sales of plug @-@ in electric car represented a 0 @.@ 12 % market share of new passenger vehicles sold in the country in 2012 . Most sales in the country were made by corporate and fleet customers and 1 @,@ 493 all @-@ electric vehicles were registered by the automobile industry , as demonstration or research vehicles . Registrations of plug @-@ in electric @-@ drive vehicles were led by the Opel Ampera extended @-@ range electric car with 828 units , followed by the Smart electric drive with 734 units . In addition , a total of 2 @,@ 413 Renault Twizys were sold during 2012 , making Germany the top selling European market for the electric quadricycle .
A total of 5 @,@ 042 plug @-@ in electric cars were registered in Germany in 2013 . Registrations were led by the Smart electric drive with 2 @,@ 146 units , followed by Renault Zoe with 1 @,@ 019 , the Nissan Leaf with 855 units , and the BMW i3 with 559 . During the first six months of 2014 the BMW i3 was the leader , with 1 @,@ 378 units registered , followed by the Volkswagen e @-@ Up ! with 884 and the Smart ED with 645 . Accounting for registrations of plug @-@ in electric cars between January 2010 and June 2014 , the leading model is the Smart electric drive with 3 @,@ 959 units registered , with a significant number in use by carsharing services , followed by the BMW i3 with 1 @,@ 937 units , the Renault Zoe with 1 @,@ 532 , and the Opel Ampera with 1 @,@ 450 units .
= = = = Canada = = = =
Cumulative sales of plug @-@ in electric cars in Canada passed the 20 @,@ 000 unit mark in May 2016 . The Chevrolet Volt , released in 2011 , is the all @-@ time top selling plug @-@ in electric vehicle in the country , with cumulative sales of 6 @,@ 387 units through May 2015 , representing over 30 % of all plug @-@ in cars sold in the country . Ranking second is the Tesla Model S with 4 @,@ 160 units sold through April 2016 , followed by the Nissan Leaf with 3 @,@ 692 units delivered as of May 2016 .
As of December 2015 , there were 18 @,@ 451 highway legal plug @-@ in electric cars registered in Canada , consisting of 10 @,@ 034 ( 54 % ) all @-@ electric cars and 8 @,@ 417 ( 46 % ) plug @-@ in hybrids . Until 2014 Canadian sales were evenly split between all @-@ electric cars ( 50 @.@ 8 ) % and plug @-@ in hybrids ( 49 @.@ 2 % ) . The Model S was the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in Canada in 2015 with 2 @,@ 010 units sold .
= = = Top selling PEV models = = =
= = = = All @-@ electric cars and vans = = = =
The world 's top selling highway @-@ capable all @-@ electric car ever is the Nissan Leaf with global sales of almost 220 @,@ 000 units by mid @-@ April 2016 . The top markets for Leaf sales is the United States with 93 @,@ 309 units delivered through April 2016 , followed by Japan with 64 @,@ 635 units sold through March 2016 , and Europe with over 55 @,@ 000 Leafs sold through March 2016 . The European market is led by Norway with 17 @,@ 199 new units registered up until April 2016 .
Ranking second is the all @-@ electric Tesla Model S , with global deliveries of about 120 @,@ 000 units through March 2016 . The United States is the leading market with about 71 @,@ 000 units sold through April 2016 . Norway is the Model S largest overseas market , with 10 @,@ 871 new units registered through April 2016 , followed by China with 5 @,@ 524 units registered through September 2015 . The world 's top selling all @-@ electric light utility vehicle is the Renault Kangoo Z.E. , with global sales of 21 @,@ 220 electric vans delivered through December 2015 .
The following table presents global sales of the top selling highway @-@ capable electric cars and light utility vehicles produced between 2008 and December 2015 . The table includes all @-@ electric passenger cars and utility vans with cumulative sales of about or over 25 @,@ 000 units since the introduction of the first modern production all @-@ electric car in 2008 , the Tesla Roadster .
= = = = Plug @-@ in hybrids = = = =
The Volt / Ampera family is the world 's best selling plug @-@ in hybrid and the third best selling plug @-@ in electric car after the Model S , with combined sales of over 110 @,@ 000 units worldwide through March 2016 , including about 10 @,@ 000 Opel / Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through the end of 2015 . As of April 2016 , sales are led by the United States with 94 @,@ 720 Volts delivered , followed by Canada with 6 @,@ 117 units sold . The Netherlands is the leading Ampera market with 4 @,@ 947 units registered as of December 2015 .
Ranking next is the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV with almost 102 @,@ 000 units sold worldwide as of March 2016 . Europe is the leading market with 65 @,@ 529 units sold , followed by Japan with 33 @,@ 730 units . European sales are led by the Netherlands with 24 @,@ 572 units registered , followed by the UK with 21 @,@ 053 units registered , both at the end of March 2016 , and Sweden with 4 @,@ 433 units sold through November 2015 .
Ranking third is the first generation Toyota Prius Plug @-@ in Hybrid with 75 @,@ 400 units sold worldwide through April 2016 . The United States is the market leader with 42 @,@ 320 units delivered through April 2016 . Japan ranks next with about 22 @,@ 100 units , followed by Europe with 10 @,@ 500 units , both , through April 2016 . The leading European market is the Netherlands with 4 @,@ 134 units registered as of 30 November 2015 . Production of the first generation Prius Plug @-@ in ended in June 2015 . The second generation Prius plug @-@ in hybrid , the Toyota Prius Prime , is expected to be released in the U.S. by the end of 2016 .
The following table presents cumulative sales through December 2015 of those plug @-@ in hybrid models that have sold about 10 @,@ 000 units since the introduction of the first modern production plug @-@ in hybrid vehicle in December 2008 , the BYD F3DM .
= = Books = =
David B. Sandalow , ed . ( 2009 ) . Plug @-@ In Electric Vehicles : What Role for Washington ? ( 1st. ed . ) . The Brookings Institution . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8157 @-@ 0305 @-@ 1 .
Mitchell , William J. ; Borroni @-@ Bird , Christopher ; Burns , Lawrence D. ( 2010 ) . Reinventing the Automobile : Personal Urban Mobility for the 21st Century ( 1st. ed . ) . The MIT Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 01382 @-@ 6 .
= Wonder World Tour ( Miley Cyrus ) =
The Wonder World Tour is the second concert tour by American recording artist Miley Cyrus . The tour was held to promote her second studio album Breakout ( 2008 ) and first extended play ( EP ) The Time of Our Lives ( 2009 ) . It began in September 2009 and concluded in December 29 , visiting cities in the United States and United Kingdom ; thus , the Wonder World Tour became Cyrus ' first world tour . It also became Cyrus ' first tour not to incorporate performances as Hannah Montana . Alternative band Metro Station served as opening act for all tour venues . It was sponsored by Wal @-@ Mart and promoted by AEG Live . All tickets from the Wonder World Tour were sold using paperless ticketing , in order to prevent ticket scalping similar to what had occurred during Cyrus ' previous tour . One dollar from each ticket sold was donated to the City of Hope National Medical Center , an organization devoted to the fight against cancer .
The Wonder World Tour has been described as part of Cyrus ' transitional period , with more elaborate and edgier characteristics . Each concert was divided into seven segments , each of which bared different themes , the subject of matter for the tour 's title . The show opened with Cyrus performing rock @-@ oriented songs . It also featured her and backup dancers being suspended above the stage with aerial rigging various times . At one point , she mounted a Harley @-@ Davidson motorcycle as it was elevated and made its path across the venue . Cyrus also rendered a tribute to the deceased singer Michael Jackson and performed two Hannah Montana @-@ credited songs as herself .
The tour received positive to mixed reception from critics . Some praised it and deemed it a spectacle , while others believed it lacked profundity and portrayal of Cyrus ' personality . The Wonder World Tour was commercially successful despite the financial recession that was present in 2009 . It was able to sell @-@ out all European dates in ten minutes and marks the largest attendance at The O2 Arena in London . During the first leg of the tour , one bus overturned several times on a highway . The accident resulted in the injury of one person and the death of another . The cause of the accident is yet to be specified , yet multiple theories for it exist . A filtered version of the Wonder World Tour was broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) on June 18 , 2010 and received a total of over 2 @.@ 6 million viewers . The full @-@ length concert film was released on the limited , deluxe edition of Cyrus ' third studio album Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) .
= = Background = =
Cyrus is a singer @-@ songwriter and actress who starred on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana as Miley Stewart , a girl with a secret double life as the popstar Hannah Montana . Through the television series , Cyrus developed fame as a teen idol and released music credited to Hannah Montana . Cyrus ' debut studio album , titled Meet Miley Cyrus , was released as the second disc of the Hannah Montana 2 / Meet Miley Cyrus ( 2007 ) double @-@ disc album . In order to promote the album , Cyrus embarked on her first tour , the Best of Both Worlds Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) , a North American tour where she performed both under character , as Hannah Montana , and as herself . With the release of Cyrus ' second studio album , Breakout ( 2008 ) , her first not be affiliated with the Hannah Montana franchise , and an extended play ( EP ) The Time of Our Lives ( 2009 ) , Cyrus decided to embark on tour again with the Wonder World Tour , however , without incorporating performances as Hannah Montana , a step which the media interpreted as furthering her distance from the Hannah Montana franchise .
The concert tour was announced alongside Cyrus ' joint apparel line with Max Azria on June 3 , 2009 , through various outlets , including Miley ' Twitter account , a press release , and MileyWorld , Cyrus ' official fan club . It was confirmed that the tour would be sponsored by American retailing company Wal @-@ Mart and promoted by AEG Live . It would expand throughout the United States , from September 14 , 2009 in Portland , Oregon to December 2 , 2009 in Miami , Florida , with a total of forty @-@ five dates . Alternative rock band Metro Station , where Cyrus ' older brother , Trace Cyrus , integrates in , was confirmed as the opening act for all dates . Two days later , a European leg , with nine dates in the United Kingdom , was announced , marking Cyrus ' first concerts to visit another continent . On June 16 , 2009 , two more dates were annexed , and one final date was annexed in October 2009 , in order to meet demand .
All tickets for the Wonder World Tour were sold exclusively through paperless ticket delivery , meaning that fans did not receive a physical concert ticket for their entry into the event . Ticket buyers were required to bring the credit card used to make the purchase and photo identification to the concert venue in order to gain entry . All groups were to enter the concert together , and ushers issued seat locator slips . The method of ticket sales was relatively new at the time , although Ticketmaster first experimented it with AC / DC 's Black Ice World Tour ( 2008 – 10 ) . However , it marked the first time for an arena tour to sell all tickets through paperless ticketing . This was done in response to the extensive ticket scalping that occurred during the Best of Both Worlds Tour and in order to give fans the opportunity to purchase good tickets at face value . Cyrus ' manager and president of Morey Management Group , Jason Morey , stated , " The focus was , ' How do we take all the information we gathered last time out and do a better job of it ? ' It was important to us to address the issue of demand . We thought that of every single option that was available out there , this was a really viable option , to go with the paperless ticketing . " As with the Best of Both Worlds Tour , one dollar from each ticket purchased was donated to the City of Hope National Medical Center , a center dedicated to the prevention , treatment and research for the cure of cancer .
= = Development = =
The tour was titled the Wonder World Tour because of its diversity in themes and styles . Cyrus believed the tour was good transition for solidifying a more rock music @-@ based career . She described the tour to be edgy and " more of a mature show " , with the target audience being teenagers relatively her age , which was sixteen at the time . However , performances that would please younger audiences were added to the setlist . It was conceptualized to be a more elaborate than Cyrus ' previous tour and to reflect Cyrus as an individual . The reason for this to occur was because Cyrus felt more confident as a vocalist to perform stunts and use props while singing . Also , more resources were available , for more companies were willing to invest in the tour . Ideas were suggested by different individuals and were tested during filmed rehearsals in order to decide which would make the final cut . " Each person has their own character and their own story . So , we 've added everyone 's kind of specialty into our show [ ... ] This is not just a concert , it is an absolute show " , Cyrus said . After having completed filming for The Last Song ( 2010 ) in Tybee Island , Georgia , Cyrus returned to Los Angeles for tour rehearsals at The Forum in mid @-@ August . Due to filming The Last Song , Cyrus was only able to rehearse for three weeks although the average rehearsal period for musicians is about three months .
Jammal Simms was hired as the tour 's director and main choreographer . Octavious Terry served as an assistant for directing , meanwhile Dondraico Johnson assisted choreography . They , along with twelve other members , composed the tour 's creative team . In total , the Wonder World Tour included 124 traveling workers , 19 truckloads of equipment , and 15 buses . The stage was quite different from that of the Best of Both Worlds Tour . It consisted of a rectangular main stage , which featured staircases that elevated the center of the stage , and a narrow runway , which connected the main stage to a B @-@ stage that ran the length of the main stage . Regarding the stage , Cyrus noted that it was " something not many people get to have . I 'm able to move around to each side so there 's no one person who feels like they don 't have the best seat . Every seat is the best seat . " Six LED multi @-@ screen video units were located throughout the stage ; the three largest were placed as the upstage wall , while the other three were hung by rigs above the stage . The center unit consisted of three screens that faced outward ; two others were hung right and left to the center unit , both were double faced toward the center of the venue at a 45 ° angle , while the backside faced the upper @-@ seat audience . The structure of the video panels was designed by Sims to ensure that all seats within the 270 ° angle at each venue received an equal view of the video screens . Video content and lighting were designed by Seán Burke ; the latter was provided by Production Resource Group ( PRG ) .
The tour used seven individual rigs for performers and props to become airborne . For dancers to be flown to the center of each upstage , a wench , which dropped 18 inches off the face of the panel , was placed in the rig . Cyrus ' flying required two wenches , one for a vertical lift and one for a horizontal move that coursed the audience and back to the stage . Four elevators , or trap doors , were located throughout the stage , some of which had the option of a 4 × 4 or an 8 × 8 foot opening . All of the fly rigs and elevators were built and operated by Show Group Production Services ( SGPS ) / Showrig . The challenge that presented the most difficulty for SGPS was time constraint , as there were only three weeks of rehearsal . Brian White , co @-@ owner of SGPS , explained ,
There wasn ’ t a lot of time , but the good news was that it was at the [ L.A. ] Forum , which gave us a lot of height to fly things around , and there was also a lot of room to lay stuff out on the floor . The other good thing was that our offices are only 10 minutes away . So if I had to send a welder down there to make some changes I could do it pretty fast . The biggest thing we had going for us was a great crew . We had some really good people out there . " [ ... ] I ’ d say that about 90 percent of what we built on Miley Cyrus fit the first time in rehearsal . The only reason we had to retro fit anything was because of last minute design changes that came about once everything was up and they could see it all .
Special effects and pyrotechnics were provided by Pyritz Pyrotechnics Group . Terry Ritz , founder of the organization , and his partner Steve Aleff had created various ideas based on the tour soundtrack that was provided to them by the Wonder World Tour 's personnel . They met with the tour 's choreographer , band manager , and lighting designer , asking them to bring their " hopes , wishes , and dreams . " Out of these meetings , the show was completed and a lighting crew , who monitored the stage with a four @-@ camera monitor system when cues were executed , was selected . The pyrotechnics for the show were described as more elegant and subtle , being composed of pink flames with accentuation of silver and white glitter . Because of the extensive automation executed throughout the concert , two personnel were in charge of running it . Neville Emerton ran the automation from under the stage , and Sean Conner ran all of the flying moves from a position at the front of each venue . Meanwhile , assistant stage manager Seth Posner called cues for each concert . " Normally , in a rock show you don ’ t need someone calling the show . In this one we had to take a more theatrical approach with someone calling cues every step of the way because there was so much going on at once between props and automation " , explained production manager Omar Abderrahman . One of the props that required much attention on the part of Posner was a car made to resemble a tractor , designed and built by effects designer and stage manager Scott " Stryker " Christensen . Because it came along late in the design process , the main elevator was not built to handle the weight of the car , though it was eventually reinforced to support the weight and movement of the car . The car was also modified ; it was made electric , instead of using a combustion engine , for fire @-@ safety and changed to turn around by adjusting its turning radius to automate steering with all four wheels . In order to translate the concert tour overseas to the United Kingdom , the Wonder World Tour paired with Sound Moves , a company that was already providing minor support for the North American leg of the tour .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The main show commenced with Cyrus emerging from the bottom of the stage inside a large , crystal @-@ like glacier . She wore a black leather hot pantsuit , a tank top , and a white fur vest with a silver sequined hood as she escaped the cocoon to perform the concert 's opening number , " Breakout " . Numerous backup dancers accompanied her and , towards the conclusion , she performed atop movable scaffolding . After removing the fur vest , Cyrus performed " Start All Over " atop the scaffolding and continued the remainder of the first segment of the show with " 7 Things " and " Kicking and Screaming " . Cyrus then executed the show 's second segment with a performance of " Bottom of the Ocean " , which featured an aquatic theme for the stage and Cyrus donning a silver , flowing evening gown that bared a bejeweled bodysuit underneath . The performance ended with Cyrus diving into the stage , succeeded by a simulation of her underwater on the video screens . Cyrus returned to the stage for the show 's third segment atop a tractor @-@ resembling car to perform " Fly on the Wall " . During the performance , Cyrus wore an extravagant white dress with a feathered skirt . Backup dancers were flown up into contact with panels in order to resemble a fly on a window ; meanwhile , Cyrus was flown across the arena . Once back in the stage , Cyrus and backup dancers performed a brief dance interlude of Michael Jackson 's " Thriller " ( 1984 ) . Replacing the feathered bottom with a tutu , Cyrus performed the Hannah Montana @-@ credited song " Let 's Get Crazy " and " Hoedown Throwdown " . The latter was followed by a video in which will.i.am of The Black Eyed Peas spoke about Cyrus , as she left the stage . When the video was completed , the dancers performed a remix of the Black Eyed Peas ' " Boom Boom Pow " ( 2009 ) .
The show 's fourth segment opened with " These Four Walls " , in which Cyrus wore a black high @-@ low dress . The song was performed in B @-@ stage with various acoustic musicians . The show proceeded with " When I Look at You " , a performance that featured the trailer for Cyrus ' film The Last Song ( 2010 ) and her performing with a grand piano . It concluded with " Obsessed " , which the singer performed atop a simple suspension bridge . She re @-@ entered the stage , clothed by a black tee , red cheetah @-@ patterned hot pants , and black boots , to perform the second Hannah Montana @-@ credited song " Spotlight " and , later , " G.N.O. ( Girl 's Night Out ) " , replacing the prior hot pants with black ones and adding a denim vest . She followed with a cover of Arrows ' " I Love Rock ' n ' Roll " , where Cyrus mounted a red Harley @-@ Davidson Dyna Fat Bob FXDF 2010 that was suspended above the stage and traveled in a semi @-@ oval path across the venue . Performances of " Party in the U.S.A. " , which made use of a luggage cart , and " Hovering " , which featured Cyrus ' older brother Trace Cyrus , rounded off the segment . The sixth segment of the show featured Cyrus performing " Simple Song " , in which she dressed in a long , white shirt and a black tuxedo , in order to simulate a music conductor . Midway through the performance , Cyrus stepped onto an elevator that rose eight feet from the stage . She exited the stage and returned for the final section . During the encore , Cyrus dressed in a white tank top and shorts , boots , and a metallic vest to perform " See You Again " , later removing the vest to conclude the concert with " The Climb " . Immediately after finishing , she exited through a passageway in the stage as fireworks were fired above .
= = Critical reception = =
Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times , in reference to Hannah Montana , commented , " Once again , make @-@ believe Miley was more compelling than the real thing . " Wood believed Cyrus possessed charisma , commenting that she portrayed superstar authority , but failed because she was unable or unwilling to " give her fans a deeper idea of who she is and what her music means . For all its eye @-@ popping detail , the concert offered nothing that viewers of her TV show or buyers of her records don 't already know about her . " Dave Paulson of The Tennessean stated , " Cyrus ' spectacle sets her apart from nearly every other A @-@ list act touring today . She 's not a renowned vocalist by any stretch , but her show 's choreography barely provides a moment for her to catch her breath , and she 's still able to deliver . " Michael Hann of the United Kingdom @-@ based Guardian was impressed by the concert , praising the setlist and deeming it enjoyable for both children and adults . He continued , " Good as the best songs are , though , they take a backseat to the staging [ ... ] The one misstep is when a trailer for her next movie is shown during a costume change . It 's a tacky moment and doesn 't reflect the attention to detail that makes the rest of it a laugh @-@ out @-@ loud delight . " Lael Loewenstein of Variety magazine said , " Cyrus knows how to deliver the goods without losing her core audience . " Loewenstein deemed the concert a mission accomplished because of inevitable hits and Cyrus ' charisma , drive , spunk , and a merely @-@ limited vocal range . Erik Ensrst of The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel praised the show , stating that it was " a pure visual spectacle " , but commented that producers forgot a place for Cyrus ' personality .
Jim Harrington of The Oakland Tribune described the show as a human embodiment of Britney Spears ' " I 'm Not a Girl , Not Yet a Woman " ( 2002 ) . He presumed that the tour was a conscious transition for fans who did not want Cyrus to separate herself from the Hannah Montana franchise . Kirsty Cameron of The Daily Telegraph wrote , " Despite her relatively young age , Cyrus showed her unfailing capability as performer . With the help of her back @-@ up dancers , Cyrus provided her audience with choreographed set pieces and a different spectacle for each song . " James Reed of The Boston Globe noted that the Wonder World Tour presented Cyrus as both a " PG @-@ rated tween pop star and an edgy rocker eager " . He stated that although she played both roles well , it was apparent that she was more at ease with the latter . Reed also felt the concert did little to display Cyrus ' personality and ability to engage with the audience . " We know she 's got impressive vocal chops , but now we need to feel what she 's trying to put across in her songs , something beyond the standard ' You guys are awesome ! ' banter . " Scott Iwasaki of Deseret News reviewed a concert in which Cyrus was ill . He mentioned that because of her illness , her voice went flat . Iwasaki also expressed his viewpoint that " if there [ were ] any worries that Miley Cyrus would become another Britney Spears train wreck , those worries were quelled during Tuesday night 's show . She kept the show family @-@ friendly and , although obviously sick , looked like she had a good time . " Marlin Levison of The Star Tribune believed the concert lacked much profundity until the last performance .
= = Commercial performance = =
The Wonder World Tour was commercially successful and represented stability in the touring industry , despite the financial recession . In North America , the tour sold out twenty @-@ nine out of forty @-@ five concert dates and grossed over US $ 45 @.@ 2 million . The tour was able to remain as one of the hottest tours in the United States during its expansion . The Wonder World Tour 's entire , ten @-@ date European leg sold out in only ten minutes . In order to meet demand , an eleventh date was added and scheduled for December 29 , 2009 . In December 2009 , the tour ranked atop Billboard 's Hot Tours , based on the tour 's European performances . For the month , box office grossed US $ 21 @.@ 9 million for eleven shows in four markets . The five concerts held at The O2 Arena in London produced ticket sales that topped $ 11 million ( £ 6 @.@ 8 million ) . On December 19 , 2009 , with an audience of 16 @,@ 196 , Cyrus broke the record for the largest attendance at The O2 Arena ; a record that surpassed the previously tied records by Beyoncé Knowles ' I Am ... Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) , Bon Jovi 's Lost Highway Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) , and Coldplay 's Viva la Vida Tour ( 2008 – 10 ) . In total , the tour grossed over $ 67 @.@ 1 million , $ 15 million which were earned by Cyrus .
= = Bus accident = =
On November 20 , 2009 , in its attempt to arrive at the destination of Greensboro , North Carolina , one of the buses for the Wonder World Tour overturned on a Virginian highway . The accident occurred around 8 : 15 A.M. in Dinwiddie County , about 40 miles south of Richmond , Virginia . The bus ran off the left side of Interstate 85 , struck an embankment , rolled onto its right side . An eye witness of the accident explained that the bus appeared to have drifted off the road for a fairly long stretch before tipping over . The bus had nine passengers aboard , including members of the lighting crew , though Cyrus was not on board during the incident . Most of the passengers on the bus suffered only minor injuries and escaped the crashed bus through the broken front windshield . One person , Assistant Stage Manager Martin Zilio , required medical attention and was hospitalized overnight . Zilio recovered from his injuries and was later able to return to work on the tour . One person , bus driver Bill " Uncle Bill " Douglas , a 53 @-@ year @-@ old of Austin , Texas , died at the scene of the accident .
In response to the accident , the Cyrus family released a statement via Cyrus ' official website ; it stated , " We are deeply saddened by the loss of Bill ' Uncle Bill ' Douglas . Members of our tour are like members of our family . Our thoughts and prayers go out to his family in the midst of this tragedy . He will truly be missed . " Omar Abderrahman , the tour 's production manager , said , " That was real tough . It 's always a tragedy to lose anyone . Uncle Bill was a great driver and a good friend . He ’ d done a lot of tours with me , and we ’ re all going to miss him . " Although the cause for the accident remains undefined , authorities confirmed the roads were wet from overnight rain . However , CBS News reported that speed and weather were not attributed as factors for the accident 's occurrence . Despite the incident , the tour 's following concert on November 22 , 2009 at the Greensboro Coliseum in Greensboro , North Carolina proceeded as scheduled . During the concert , Cyrus dedicated the performance of " The Climb " to Douglas as overhead screens displayed a video commemorating him .
= = Broadcast and recordings = =
The concerts held on December 13 , 14 , 19 , 20 , and 29 , 2009 at The O2 Arena in London were filmed . On May 26 , 2010 , it was announced that the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) would broadcast an hour @-@ long television special entitled Miley Cyrus : Live from London on June 18 , 2010 , as part of promotion for Cyrus ' third studio album Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) . The special was executively produced by Leticia " Tish " Cyrus , Cyrus ' mother , and Jason Morey , Cyrus ' manager . It was directed by Russell Thomas and produced by Jim Parsons . Miley Cyrus : Live from London was described by Cyrus ' official website with the following statement : " The program captures how Miley , who has grown up in the public eye , has grown as an artist and reveals her natural progression and sophistication . " The concert special was watched by over 2 @.@ 6 million viewers in the United States . Miley Cyrus : Live from London 's airing on ABC was a filtered version of the full @-@ length concert , which became available on the limited , deluxe edition of Can 't Be Tamed , released on June 21 , 2010 . The deluxe edition featured the audio CD , containing the album 's music , and a DVD , which contains nineteen live performances and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage with Cyrus . " We anticipate an overindexing , if you will , of those who buy the CD / DVD over just the music because it 's never been seen before " , stated Abbey Konowitch , general manager of Hollywood Records . The performances of " Fly on the Wall " and " Start All Over " were included in Cyrus ' second video album Can 't Be Tamed : Mini DVD ( 2010 ) , released only in the United Kingdom and Japan .
= = Set list = =
" Breakout "
" Start All Over "
" 7 Things "
" Kicking and Screaming "
" Bottom of the Ocean "
" Fly on the Wall "
" Thriller ( Dance interlude )
" Let 's Get Crazy "
" Hoedown Throwdown "
" Boom Boom Pow ( Dance interlude )
" These Four Walls "
" When I Look at You "
" Obsessed "
" Spotlight "
" G.N.O. ( Girl 's Night Out ) "
" I Love Rock ' n ' Roll "
" Party in the U.S.A. "
" Hovering " ¹
" Simple Song "
" See You Again "
" The Climb "
= = = Set list information = = =
¹ " Wake Up America " as performed at some shows .
= = Shows = =
= = Personnel = =
Source :
= Jon Huntsman presidential campaign , 2012 =
The Jon Huntsman presidential campaign of 2012 began in mid @-@ 2011 when Ambassador and former Governor of Utah Jon Huntsman , Jr. announced his candidacy for the Republican Party ( GOP ) nomination for President of the United States in the 2012 election . On May 3 , 2011 , Huntsman announced his intentions to file a political action committee with the Federal Election Commission ( named " H @-@ PAC " ) . Subsequently , Huntsman announced on June 14 , 2011 , he was running for president and made an official announcement in Liberty State Park one week later on June 21 .
Huntsman sought to establish himself as an anti @-@ negative candidate and take the " high road " . In his announcement , he also stated " I don 't think you need to run down someone 's reputation in order to run for the office of president . " Huntsman aggressively touted himself as a fiscal conservative , pledging considerable business and personal tax cuts as well as a foreign policy moderate , calling for a decrease in defense spending and withdrawal from Afghanistan , while increasing pressure on Iran and support for Israel .
Huntsman announced his withdrawal from the race on January 16 , 2012 , prior to the South Carolina primary and endorsed eventual nominee Mitt Romney .
= = Background = =
= = = Experience = = =
Huntsman served as Governor of Utah from January 2005 until August 2009 , but resigned during the first year of his second term to serve as United States Ambassador to China , a position to which he was appointed by Democratic President Barack Obama . Speculation of a Huntsman candidacy for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination began circulating in the media as early as 2008 and 2009 , while Huntsman was still unsure about his political future . In August 2010 , a group of political strategists with ties to Huntsman formed a political action committee now called " Horizon PAC " that had the resources to provide a framework for launching Huntsman 's campaign in the event he chose to run . The PAC was formed in part as an effort to draft Huntsman into seeking the GOP nomination .
On January 31 , 2011 , Huntsman submitted his formal resignation from his post as U.S. Ambassador to China . The resignation was to take effect April 30 , 2011 , and Huntsman indicated his plans to return to the United States by May 2011 . This move spurred further widespread speculation of Huntsman making a 2012 Republican presidential bid .
On May 3 , after having left his post as Ambassador and returned to the United States , Huntsman formed an official fundraising political action committee , building on the efforts of the previously established Horizon PAC . On May 18 , Huntsman opened his 2012 national campaign headquarters in Orlando , Florida .
= = = Political positions = = =
Huntsman has been described as " a conservative technocrat @-@ optimist with moderate positions who was willing to work substantively with President Barack Obama " by Huffington Post political reporter , Jason Linkins . As Governor , Huntsman listed economic development , health @-@ care reform , education , and energy security as his top priorities . Huntsman oversaw large tax cuts and advocated reorganizing the way that services were distributed so that the government would not become overwhelmed by the state 's fast growing population . Huntsman also proposed a plan to reform health @-@ care , mainly through the private sector , by using tax breaks and negotiation to keep prices down .
In a 2008 evaluation of state Governors ' fiscal policies , the libertarian Cato Institute praised Huntsman 's conservative tax policies , ranking him in a tie for fifth place on overall fiscal policy . He was particularly lauded for his efforts to cut taxes , where he received the highest score on tax policy of all 50 governors . The report specifically highlighted his reductions of the sales tax and simplification of the tax code .
Huntsman strongly supported civil unions for years but not same @-@ sex marriage ; and supported legislation as Governor that would have allowed civil unions for same @-@ sex couples in the state . In 2007 , in response to the problem of global warming , Huntsman signed the Western Climate Initiative , by which Utah joined with other governments in agreeing to pursue targets for reduced production of greenhouse gases . He also appeared in an advertisement sponsored by Environmental Defense , in which he said , " Now it 's time for Congress to act by capping greenhouse @-@ gas pollution . "
On foreign policy , Huntsman has repeatedly stated : " We need to continue working closely with China to convince North Korea to abandon its nuclear weapons program . " He has also named Taiwan , human rights , and Tibet among the " areas where we have differences with China " and vowed " robust engagement " on human rights .
On August 31 , Huntsman made a major policy announcement , calling for , amongst other things such as more aggressive action on completing free trade agreements , a tax policy modeled on the Simpson @-@ Bowles plan , specifically : elimination of the Alternative Minimum Tax , elimination of taxes on capital gains and dividends , elimination of all deductions and credits , in favor of significantly lower general rates , with brackets of 8 , 14 and 23 percent , and lowering the general corporate rate from 35 to 25 % .
= = Campaign details = =
In January 2011 , Newsweek published an article entitled " The Manchurian Candidate " which featured an interview with Huntsman . When asked whether he intended to run for president in 2012 , Huntsman declined to comment . The article generated significant speculation about a likely Huntsman 2012 presidential bid .
= = = Announcement = = =
Huntsman announced his campaign on June 21 , 2011 in Liberty State Park , with the Statue of Liberty visible behind him while delivering his speech . The location was chosen in homage to President Ronald Reagan , who launched his own presidential campaign from the same location . Referring to Reagan 's announcement , Huntsman remarked in his own speech , " He assured us we could ' make America great again , ' and under his leadership we did . I stand in his shadow as well as the shadow of this magnificent monument to our liberty . "
In the lead @-@ up to his official announcement , Huntsman gained attention for his campaign 's unconventional TV ads , produced by veteran GOP strategist Fred Davis III , featuring a lone motocross rider traveling through rugged terrain as music plays in the background , while facts about Huntsman appear on the screen . The ads were widely parodied , including by the Utah Democratic Party and Rick Santorum 's campaign .
A notable gaffe made by the Huntsman campaign in the moments before the announcement speech were misspelled press passes distributed to reporters on hand to cover the announcement which read " John Huntsman for President " , erroneously adding an extra " H " to Huntsman 's name . Aides reportedly scrambled in an effort to cease the distribution of the misspelled passes .
= = = Staff = = =
Susie Wiles , who ran Rick Scott 's successful 2010 gubernatorial campaign in Florida , worked first as executive director of H @-@ PAC and then as Huntsman 's campaign manager . Her appointment dovetailed with Huntsman 's strategic emphasis on winning the early Florida primary . She resigned on July 21 , 2011 , stating , " I signed up to get it started . It ’ s like a phase . This morning I said it ’ s time to move on . " She went on to explain that she had never intended to stay on with the campaign indefinitely , but instead had plans " to resume [ her ] life and get home . " Wiles stated her intention to continue to be a " friend and confidante of Huntsman . " Matt David , previously the campaign 's communications director , replaced Wiles as campaign manager .
The campaign hired Neil Ashdown , chief of staff to Huntsman when he was Governor of Utah and Ambassador to China , as deputy campaign manager . Conyers Davis , who worked with former California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and David Cameron 's Conservative Party was hired as campaign operations director . Matt David served as the campaign 's first communications director , before replacing Wiles as campaign manager , with Jake Suski as deputy communications director and Tim Miller serving as Huntsman 's spokesperson . Kris Anderson is leading research for the campaign , with Shawn Reinschmiedt and Dan Comstock 's M Street Insight doing research consulting work .
In June 2011 , C. Boyden Gray joined the Huntsman team as policy chair . Gray served as White House Counsel to President George H. W. Bush and EU Ambassador under George W. Bush . In early July 2011 , Mark McIntosh was appointed as the Huntsman campaign 's policy director . McIntosh had been working as counsel on energy and natural resource issues at Boyden Gray & Associates , and he previously served as Deputy General Counsel for the White House Council on Environmental Quality under President George W. Bush . Randy Schriver and Steve Bogden served as Huntsman 's respective chief foreign policy and economic advisors .
John Weaver served as Huntsman 's chief political strategist , with Fred Davis as a key media strategist in charge of developing Huntsman 's online web videos and branding efforts . James Richardson served as the campaign 's director of online communications .
= = = Fundraising = = =
A day after announcing his campaign for president , Huntsman raised $ 1 @.@ 2 million , and approximately $ 4 @.@ 1 million in the first weeks of his candidacy . Huntsman , who has a speculated net @-@ worth between $ 11 and $ 74 million , was reported to have contributed " less than half " of his campaign 's $ 4 @.@ 1 million haul . Before his entry into the race , Huntsman was adamant about avoiding self @-@ financing a campaign , stating " Unless you can raise it legitimately , you 're not going to win " . However , Huntsman stated he would contribute in order to " prime the pump " during a campaign visit in South Carolina . In September , Huntsman reportedly contributed $ 500 @,@ 000 to his campaign in order to make payroll . One of Huntsman 's greatest contributors was his father Jon Huntsman , Sr. , who donated around $ 2 million to his campaign .
With no obligation to do so due to his late entry into the race , the Huntsman Campaign agreed not to file FEC paperwork for the Second Quarter of 2011 ending on June 30 , 2011 as reported by the ABC .
= = 2011 developments = =
= = = Twitter remark and political positioning = = =
Huntsman gained media attention when he responded to Texas Governor Rick Perry 's entrance into the GOP primary by attacking Perry 's views on climate change and evolution through Twitter . Huntsman 's tweet was reportedly " re @-@ tweeted " over 3 @,@ 600 times – the most of any GOP presidential candidate . Although the tweet fed the impression that Huntsman was a moderate and provoked some backlash among strong conservatives , a few populist conservative commentators such as Erick Erickson declined to oppose Huntsman 's candidacy overall , with Erickson writing on December 27 that he " continue [ d ] to hope Perry surprises in Iowa and Huntsman surprises in New Hampshire " and stating on January 10 , 2012 , that he would rather have Huntsman " than Romney or Santorum " .
Huntsman was scheduled to speak at the Republican Leadership Conference held in New Orleans in June 2011 , but canceled . He received 25 % of the vote in the annual presidential straw @-@ poll , finishing second behind Ron Paul ( 41 % ) and ahead of Michele Bachmann ( 13 % ) .
In interviews following his apparent centrist attacks on Perry and Bachmann , Huntsman reiterated a " center right " position . On a This Week interview in August , Huntsman labeled himself a " center right candidate " for a " center right country " and criticized President Obama and his GOP opponents for representing " fringes " on the political spectrum . Huntsman was frequently described as " the media 's favorite Republican " , with a Florida Today columnist calling him " our man Huntsman " .
= = = August debate = = =
Huntsman participated in his first presidential debate on August 11 , 2011 , in Iowa . The debate was co @-@ sponsored by the Republican Party of Iowa , Fox News , and the Washington Examiner . Huntsman 's first question , directed by moderator Chris Wallace was :
You supported a stimulus package in 2009 . In fact , you said the Obama stimulus package was not big enough . As governor , you signed onto a regional cap @-@ and @-@ trade market . You endorsed civil unions for same @-@ sex couples . And you served as President Obama 's ambassador to China . Some people have suggested that maybe you 're running for president in the wrong party .
Huntsman responded by deflecting Wallace 's criticism and argued that his compromise was necessary and that his record as Governor of Utah represented a fiscally conservative position :
I 'm proud of my service to this country . If you love your country , you serve her . During a time of war , during a time of economic hardship , when asked to serve your country in a sensitive position where you can actually bring a background to help your nation , I 'm the kind of person who 's going to stand up and do it , and I 'll take that philosophy to my grave ... In terms of the stimulus you talked about , it was failed . And let me tell you what I talked about with respect to the stimulus . I talked about the need for more tax cuts in the stimulus ... We had done historic tax cuts . We created a flat tax in the state of Utah , exactly what needs to happen in this country . We got the economy moving . We became the number @-@ one job creator in this nation and the best managed state . That 's exactly what needs to happen in this nation . I am running on my record , and I am proud to run on my record .
= = = September to January = = =
In early September , Huntsman began shifting campaign resources from Florida to New Hampshire ; by moving staffers , Huntsman had the largest operational staff there at the time . The development came as the campaign reorganized New Hampshire operations , firing its campaign manager in charge of the state , Ethan Elion . Elion was replaced by Sarah Crawford Stewart , who had served as state @-@ director of Minnesota Governor Tim Pawlenty 's New Hampshire campaign before he suspended his bid after the Ames Straw Poll .
Huntsman received a major endorsement in late @-@ September 2011 from Tom Ridge , former Governor of Pennsylvania and Secretary of Homeland Security under George W. Bush . Ridge appeared with Huntsman at an event at Saint Anselm College in New Hampshire who called Huntsman " the only candidate with demonstrated success at the state , national and international levels . " After the endorsement and a series of campaign events in New Hampshire , a Suffolk University poll showed Huntsman in third place in New Hampshire with 10 % of likely voters , behind Mitt Romney ( 41 % ) and Ron Paul ( 14 % ) and ahead of Rick Perry , Michele Bachmann , Sarah Palin ( who had not yet declared an intention of running ) and Newt Gingrich among others . Huntsman made New Hampshire the focus of his campaign , and held over 100 campaign events there .
When the state of Nevada threatened to move up its nominating contest which would have interfered with the New Hampshire primary , Huntsman elected to " boycott " Nevada and skip a presidential debate held in Las Vegas on October 18 , 2011 , in protest .
In late 2011 , Huntsman was endorsed by several New Hampshire @-@ based newspapers . The Keene Sentinel and the Valley News , both endorsed Huntsman on December 18 over neighboring Governor and front @-@ runner in the state Mitt Romney . In addition , the Concord Monitor endorsed Huntsman on December 22 . Huntsman increased his presence in the state as the year closed , as the pro @-@ Huntsman " Our Destiny " PAC began to increase ad buys in the state A Boston Globe poll released in late December had Huntsman polling in double digits , drawing 11 % versus 17 % for Gingrich and Paul . All three nonetheless remained well back of Romney at 39 % support , however .
Although Huntsman emphasized his opposition to negative campaigning , he did run an ad attacking Ron Paul with Twilight Zone theme as background music , and implying that Paul 's views were outside the mainstream .
During the January 7 debate , Huntsman was attacked by Romney for serving as President Barack Obama 's Ambassador to China . In response , at the debate the following day , Huntsman responded : " I was criticized last night by Governor Romney for putting my country first , I just want to remind the people here in New Hampshire and throughout the United States that he criticized me while he was out raising money for serving my country in China , yes under a Democrat , like my two sons who are in the United States Navy . They ’ re not asking what the affiliation of the President is . I want to be clear ... I will always put my country first . I think that ’ s important " .
= = 2012 Caucuses and primaries = =
= = = Iowa = = =
Huntsman , who held no events in Iowa , finished seventh in the January 3 Iowa caucuses with 739 votes , or 0 @.@ 6 percent ; ahead of only withdrawn candidate Herman Cain and minor candidate Buddy Roemer . Huntsman reiterated a focus on the January 10 New Hampshire primary .
= = = New Hampshire = = =
Ahead of the New Hampshire primary , Huntsman received newspaper endorsements from The Citizen as well as the Boston Globe , the largest newspaper in neighboring Massachusetts , rival Romney 's home @-@ state . According to Politico reporter Jonathan Martin , Huntsman campaigned in a dual manner , with a style and manner suggesting moderation while his SuperPAC aired TV ads which depicted him as conservative .
It was in New Hampshire where Huntsman adopted his new " Country First " campaign slogan . The slogan was borrowed from John McCain 's 2008 campaign , though the context of the slogan was different . Huntsman , who , as Governor of Utah at the time , endorsed McCain over Mitt Romney in the 2008 Republican presidential primary , had hoped McCain would return the favor ; however , McCain endorsed Romney in a rally at Manchester 's Manchester Central High School on January 4 . Huntsman later characterized McCain 's endorsement of his main rival as a " petty betrayal " . He told McCain " I don 't care if you support Romney , that 's great – but just to have given me the dignity of waiting until after the New Hampshire primary . " McCain replied , " I didn 't mean to offend . I hope your family is well . "
By the weekend before the January 10 primary , polls showed Huntsman in strong competition with Ron Paul for a second place showing in New Hampshire , behind front @-@ runner Romney . A Pulse Opinion Research poll on January 4 showed Huntsman narrowly behind Paul 19 – 16 % , while an American Research Group poll on January 7 showed Huntsman edging Paul 17 – 16 % , though both remained well behind Romney .
Huntsman ultimately received 17 % of the vote in New Hampshire for a third @-@ place finish , although exit polls suggested he won just 10 % of Republicans in a primary that was not restricted to registered Republicans .
= = = South Carolina = = =
Huntsman stayed in the race after his 3rd @-@ place finish in New Hampshire , campaigning in South Carolina ahead of the January 21 primary , though he expressed that his expectations in the state were " very low " , and stated that his primary goal was to " stay relevant " in the race . Nonetheless , Huntsman received the endorsement of South Carolina 's largest newspaper , The State on January 15 .
= = Withdrawal = =
On January 15 , 2012 , it was announced that Huntsman would be withdrawing from the race the next day and endorsing Mitt Romney .
After dropping out , Huntsman still received votes due to him having ballot access to every state besides Arizona and Virginia , due to failure to collect enough signatures . At the end of the GOP primaries , Huntsman placed fifth out of the ten candidates , with a total of 83 @,@ 173 popular votes and 1 delegate at the Republican National Convention .
= = Endorsements = =
= Robin Olds =
Robin Olds ( July 14 , 1922 – June 14 , 2007 ) was an American fighter pilot and general officer in the U.S. Air Force . He was a " triple ace " , with a combined total of 16 victories in World War II and the Vietnam War . He retired in 1973 as a brigadier general .
The son of Army Air Forces Major General Robert Olds , educated at West Point , and the product of an upbringing in the early years of the U.S. Army Air Corps , Olds epitomized the youthful World War II fighter pilot . He remained in the service as it became the United States Air Force , despite often being at odds with its leadership , and was one of its pioneer jet pilots . Rising to the command of two fighter wings , Olds is regarded among aviation historians , and his peers , as the best wing commander of the Vietnam War , for both his air @-@ fighting skills , and his reputation as a combat leader .
Olds was promoted to brigadier general after returning from Vietnam but did not hold another major command . The remainder of his career was spent in non @-@ operational positions , as Commandant of Cadets at the United States Air Force Academy and as an official in the Air Force Inspector General 's Office . His inability to rise higher as a general officer is attributed to both his maverick views and his penchant for drinking .
Olds had a highly publicized career and life , including marriage to Hollywood actress Ella Raines . As a young | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
man he was also recognized for his athletic prowess in both high school and college , being named an All @-@ American as a lineman in college football . Olds expressed his philosophy regarding fighter pilots in the quote : " There are pilots and there are pilots ; with the good ones , it is inborn . You can 't teach it . If you are a fighter pilot , you have to be willing to take risks . "
= = Early life = =
Olds was born " Robert Oldys , Jr . " in Honolulu into an Army family and spent much of his boyhood in Hampton , Virginia , where he attended elementary and high school . His father was Captain ( later Major General ) Robert Oldys ( later Olds ) , an instructor pilot in France during World War I , former aide to Brigadier General Billy Mitchell from 1922 to 1925 , and a leading advocate of strategic bombing in the Air Corps . His mother , Eloise Wichman Nott Olds , died when Robin was four and he was raised by his father . Olds was the eldest of four brothers , followed by Stevan ( 1924 ) , Sterling ( 1935 ) , and Frederick ( 1936 ) .
Growing up primarily at Langley Field , Virginia , Olds virtually made daily contact with the small group of officers who would lead the US Army Air Forces in World War II ( one neighbor was Major Carl Spaatz , destined to become the first Chief of Staff of the USAF ) , and as a result was imbued with an unusually strong dedication to the air service , and conversely , with a low tolerance for officers who did not exhibit the same . On November 10 , 1925 , his father appeared as a witness on behalf of Billy Mitchell during Mitchell 's court @-@ martial in Washington , D.C .. He brought three @-@ year @-@ old Robin with him to court , dressed in an Air Service uniform , and posed with him for newspaper photographers before testifying .
Olds first flew at the age of eight , in an open cockpit biplane operated by his father . At the age of 12 , Olds made attending the U.S. Military Academy at West Point an objective to accomplish his goals of becoming an officer , a military aviator , and playing football .
His father was made commander of the pioneer B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress 2nd Bombardment Group at Langley Field on March 1 , 1937 , and promoted to lieutenant colonel on March 7 . Olds attended Hampton High School where he was elected president of his class three successive years , and played varsity high school football on a team that won the state championship of Virginia in 1937 . Olds was aggressive , even mean , as a player , and received offers to attend Virginia Military Institute and Dartmouth College on football scholarships .
Instead of entering college after graduating in 1939 , Olds enrolled at Millard Preparatory School in Washington , D.C. , a school established to prepare men for the entrance examinations to the military academies . When Germany invaded Poland , Olds attempted to join the Royal Canadian Air Force but was thwarted by his father 's refusal to approve his enlistment papers . Olds completed Millard Prep and applied for admission to the United States Military Academy at West Point . After he received a conditional commitment for nomination from Pennsylvania Congressman J. Buell Snyder , Olds moved to Uniontown , Pennsylvania , where he lived in the YMCA and supported himself working odd jobs . He passed the West Point entrance examination and was accepted into the Class of 1944 on June 1 , 1940 . He entered the academy a month later but after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , Olds was sent to the Spartan School of Aeronautics in Tulsa , Oklahoma , for flight training . This training ended a year later by Christmas 1942 . Olds returned to West Point , hoping to graduate early and see action in the war .
= = = West Point and football = = =
As a plebe , Olds played football on a freshman squad that began the season with three losses but finished 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 1 while the varsity won only one game in its second consecutive losing season . As a result , the new academy superintendent , Maj. Gen. Robert L. Eichelberger , replaced the head coach ( an Army officer ) with Earl " Red " Blaik , a 1920 graduate and head coach at Dartmouth , who had recruited Olds in 1939 .
Olds played on the varsity college football team in both 1941 and 1942 . At 6 foot 2 inches in height ( 1.88m ) and weighing 205 pounds ( 92 kg ) , he played tackle on both offense and defense , lettering both seasons . Army 's record in 1941 was 5 @-@ 3 @-@ 1 , with wins over The Citadel , VMI , Yale , Columbia , and West Virginia , a scoreless tie with Notre Dame , and losses to Harvard , Penn and Navy . The loss to the midshipmen was followed eight days later by the attack on Pearl Harbor .
In 1942 he was named by Collier 's Weekly as its " Lineman of the Year " and by Grantland Rice as " Player of the Year . " Olds was also selected as an All @-@ American as the cadets compiled a 6 @-@ 3 record , beating Lafayette College , Cornell , Columbia , Harvard , VMI , and Princeton , and falling to Notre Dame , Penn , and Navy . In the Army – Navy Game of 1942 , which was played at Annapolis instead of Philadelphia , Olds had both upper front teeth knocked out when he received a forearm blow to the mouth while making a tackle . Olds returned to the game and reportedly was cheered by the Navy Third and Fourth Classes , which were assigned as the Army cheering section when wartime travel restrictions prevented the Corps of Cadets from attending . In 1985 Olds was enshrined in the College Football Hall of Fame .
Olds developed ambivalent feelings about West Point , admiring its dedication to " Duty , Honor , Country " , but disturbed by the tendency of many tactical officers to distort the purpose of its Honor Code . In March 1943 , Olds was braced by an officer upon returning from leave in New York City , and compelled on penalty of an honor violation to admit he had consumed alcohol . The infraction reduced him in rank from cadet captain to cadet private , characterized by Olds in his memoirs as " only the second cadet in the history of West Point to earn that dubious honor . "
He walked punishment tours until the day of his graduation in June . The incident left its mark on Olds such that when he became Commandant of Cadets at the Air Force Academy , use of the Honor Code as an instrument for integrity rather than as a tool for petty enforcement of discipline became a point of emphasis in his administration . During his Academy years Olds also acquired a strong contempt for alumni networking , commonly called " ring knocking " , to the degree that he went out of his way to conceal his West Point background .
By an act of Congress on October 1 , 1942 , during Olds ' Second Class year , the academy began a three @-@ year curriculum for the duration of the war for cadets entering after July 1939 . Cadets applying to the Air Corps were classified as Air Cadets , with a modified curriculum that provided flying training but eliminated Military Topography and Graphics required for Ground Cadets . Olds ' class was given an abridged second class course of study until January 19 , 1943 , when it began an abridged first class course .
Olds completed primary training in the summer of 1942 at the Spartan School of Aviation in Tulsa , Oklahoma , and basic and advanced training at Stewart Field , New York . 208 cadets including Olds completed the course , while five classmates died in accidents . Olds received his pilot 's wings personally from Gen. Henry H. Arnold on May 30 , 1943 , and graduated on June 1 as a member of the Class of June 1943 , 194th in general merit of 514 graduates .
= = World War II fighter pilot = =
= = = P @-@ 38 Lightning missions = = =
Lieutenant Olds completed fighter pilot training with the 329th Fighter Group , an operational training unit based at Grand Central Air Terminal in Glendale , California . His initial twin @-@ engine training at Williams Field , Arizona , was in the Curtiss AT @-@ 9 , followed by transition fighter training to the Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning in its P @-@ 322 variant . After gunnery training at Matagorda , Texas in the first half of August 1943 , he was assigned to P @-@ 38 phase training at Muroc Army Air Field , California .
In early 1944 he became part of the cadre assigned to build up the newly activated 434th Fighter Squadron and its parent 479th Fighter Group , based at Lomita , California . Olds logged 650 hours of flying time during training , including 250 hours in the P @-@ 38 Lightning , as the 479th built its proficiency as a combat group . It departed the Los Angeles area on April 15 for Camp Kilmer , New Jersey , and shipped aboard the USS Argentina for Europe on May 3 . The 479th arrived in Scotland on May 14 , 1944 , and entrained for RAF Wattisham , England , where it arrived the next day .
The 479th began combat on May 26 , flying bomber escort missions and attacking transportation targets in occupied France in advance of the invasion of Normandy . Olds flew a new P @-@ 38J Lightning that he nicknamed Scat II . Olds ' crew chief , T / Sgt. Glen A. Wold , said that he showed an immediate interest in aircraft maintenance and learned emergency servicing under Wold . He also insisted his aircraft be waxed to reduce air resistance and helped his maintenance crew carry out their tasks . On July 24 Olds was promoted to captain and became a flight and later squadron leader . Following a low @-@ level bridge @-@ bombing mission to Montmirail , France , on August 14 , Olds shot down his first German aircraft , a pair of Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190s .
On an escort mission to Wismar on August 25 , his flight was on the far left of the group 's line abreast formation and encountered 40 @-@ 50 Messerschmitt Bf 109s near Wittenberge , flying north at the same 28 @,@ 000 ft ( 8 @,@ 500 m ) altitude in a loose formation of three large vees . Olds turned his flight left and began a ten @-@ minute pursuit in which they climbed to altitude above and behind the Germans . Over Bützow , undetected by the Germans , Olds and his wingman jettisoned their fuel drop tanks and attacked , although the second element of the flight had been unable to keep up during the climb .
Just as Olds began firing , both engines of his P @-@ 38 quit from fuel exhaustion ; in the excitement of the attack he had neglected to switch to his internal fuel tanks . He continued attacking in " dead @-@ stick mode " , hitting his target in the fuselage and shooting off part of its engine cowling . After fatally damaging the Bf 109 he dived away and restarted his engines . Despite battle damage to his own plane , including loss of a side window of its canopy , Olds shot down two during the dogfight and another on the way home to become the first ace of the 479th FG . His combat report for that date concluded :
Still in a shallow dive , I observed another P @-@ 38 and an Me 109 going round and round . It seemed that the 38 needed help so I started down . At about 4 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , the Jerry , still way out of my range , turned under me and slightly to the right . I rolled over on my back , following him and gave him an ineffective burst at long range . By this time I was traveling in excess of 500 mph ( 800 km / h ) . My left window blew out , scaring the hell out of me . I thought I had been hit by some of the ground fire I had observed in the vicinity . I regained control of the aircraft and pulled out above a wheat field . I tried to contact the flight to get myself recognized , but observed an Me 109 making a pass at me from about seven o 'clock high . I broke left as well as my plane could and the Jerry overshot . I straightened out and gave him a burst . He chandelled steeply to the left and I shot some more . He passed right over me and I slipped over in an Immelmann . As I straightened out at the top , I saw the pilot bail out .
He made eight claims while flying the P @-@ 38 ( five of which are sustained by the Air Force Historical Research Agency ) and was originally credited as the top @-@ scoring P @-@ 38 pilot of the European Theater of Operations .
= = = P @-@ 51 Mustang pilot = = =
The 479th FG converted to the P @-@ 51 Mustang in mid @-@ September . On his second transition flight , at the point of touchdown during landing , Olds learned a lesson in " false confidence " when the powerful torque of the single @-@ engined fighter forced him to ground loop after the Mustang veered off the runway . Olds shot down an Fw 190 in his new Scat IV on October 6 during a savage battle near Berlin in which he was nearly shot down by his own wingman . He completed his first combat tour on November 9 , 1944 , accruing 270 hours of combat time and six kills .
After returning to the United States for a two @-@ month leave , Olds began a full second tour at Wattisham on January 15 , 1945 . He was assigned duties as operations officer of the 434th Fighter squadron . Promoted to major on February 9 , 1945 , Olds claimed his seventh victory southeast of Magdeburg , Germany the same day , downing another Bf 109 . On February 14 , he claimed three victories , two Bf 109s and an Fw 190 , but one of the former was credited only as a " probable " .
His final World War II aerial kill occurred on April 7 , 1945 , when Olds in Scat VI led the 479th Fighter Group on a mission escorting B @-@ 24s bombing an ammunition dump in Lüneburg , Germany . The engagement marked the only combat appearance of Sonderkommando Elbe , a German Air Force Squadron formed to ram Allied bombers . South of Bremen , Olds noticed contrails popping up above a bank of cirrus clouds , of aircraft flying above and to the left of the bombers . For five minutes these bogeys paralleled the bomber stream while the 479th held station . Turning to investigate , Olds saw pairs of Me 262s turn towards and dive on the Liberators . After damaging one of the jets in a chase meant to lure the fighter escort away from the bombers , the Mustangs returned to the bomber stream . Olds observed a Bf 109 of Sonderkommando Elbe attack the bombers and shoot down a B @-@ 24 . Olds pursued the Bf 109 through the formation , and shot it down .
Olds achieved the bulk of his strafing credits the following week in attacks on Lübeck Blankensee and Tarnewitz airdromes on April 13 , and Reichersburg airfield in Austria on April 16 , when he destroyed six German planes on the ground . He later reflected on the hazards of such missions :
I was hit by flak as I was pulling out of a dive @-@ strafing pass on an airfield called Tarnewitz , up on the Baltic . Five P @-@ 51s made a pass on the airdrome that April day . I was the only one to return home ... When I tested the stall characteristics of my wounded bird over our home airfield , I found it quit flying at a little over 175 mph ( 282 km / h ) indicated and rolled violently into the dead wing ( note : the right flap had been blown away and two large holes knocked in the same wing ) . What to do ? Bailout seemed the logical response , but here 's where sentiment got in the way of reason . That airplane ( note : " Scat VI " ) had taken me through a lot and I was damned if I was going to give up on her ... why the bird and I survived the careening , bouncing and juttering ride down the length of the field , I guess I 'll never know .
Olds had not only risen in rank to field grade but was given command of his squadron on March 25 , less than two years out of West Point and at only 22 years of age . By the end of his combat service he was officially credited with 12 German planes shot down and 11 @.@ 5 others destroyed on the ground . Olds became an ace on both of his combat tours and was twice awarded the Silver Star , for the mission of August 25 and for the achievements of himself and his squadron during his combined tours .
= = Career highlights and assignments = =
Returning to the United States after the war , Olds was assigned at West Point as an assistant football coach for Red Blaik . Apparently resented by many on the staff for his rapid rise in rank and plethora of combat decorations , Olds transferred in February 1946 to the 412th Fighter Group at March Field , California , to fly the P @-@ 80 Shooting Star , which began a career @-@ long professional struggle with superiors he viewed as more promotion- than warrior @-@ minded .
In April 1946 , he and Lieutenant Colonel John C. " Pappy " Herbst formed what he believed was the Air Force 's first jet aerobatic demonstration team . In late May , the 412th was ordered to undertake PROJECT COMET , a nine @-@ city transcontinental mass formation flight . Olds and Herbst performed a two @-@ ship acro routine that thrilled the crowds at every stop , the highlight being a three @-@ day layover in Washington , D.C. In June , Olds was one of four pilots who participated in the first one @-@ day , dawn @-@ to @-@ dusk , transcontinental round trip jet flight from March Field to Washington , D.C.
The jet demonstration performances with Herbst ended tragically on July 4 , 1946 , when Herbst crashed at the Del Mar Racetrack after his aircraft stalled during an encore of their routine finale in which the P @-@ 80s did a loop while configured to land . Later that same year Olds took second place in the Thompson Trophy Race ( Jet Division ) of the Cleveland National Air Races at Brook Park , Ohio over the Labor Day weekend . In this first " closed course " jet race , six P @-@ 80s competed against each other on a three pylon course 30 miles in length .
Olds went to England under the U.S. Air Force / Royal Air Force Exchange Program in 1948 . Flying the Gloster Meteor jet fighter , he commanded No. 1 Squadron at Royal Air Force Station Tangmere between October 20 , 1948 and September 25 , 1949 , the first foreigner to command an RAF unit in peacetime . Following his exchange assignment , Olds returned to March AFB to become operations officer of the 94th Fighter Squadron of the 1st Fighter Group , flying F @-@ 86A Sabres , on November 15 , 1949 .
Olds was assigned to command the 71st Fighter Squadron , which was soon detached from the 1st FG to the Air Defense Command and based at the Greater Pittsburgh Airport in Pennsylvania . As a result , he missed service in the Korean War despite repeated applications for a combat assignment . Discouraged and at odds with the Air Force , in which he was seen as an iconoclast , Olds reportedly was in the process of resigning when he was talked out of it by a mentor , Maj Gen Frederic H. Smith , Jr . , who brought him to work at Eastern Air Defense Command headquarters at Stewart AFB .
Promoted to Lieutenant Colonel on February 20 , 1951 , and Colonel April 15 , 1953 , while just thirty years of age , Olds served unenthusiastically in several staff assignments until returning to flying in 1955 . At first on the command staff of the 86th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Wing at Landstuhl Air Base , Germany , Olds then commanded its Sabre @-@ equipped 86th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Group from October 8 , 1955 , to August 10 , 1956 . He then was made chief of the Weapons Proficiency Center at Wheelus Air Base , Libya , in charge of all fighter weapons training for the United States Air Forces Europe until July 1958 .
Olds had administrative and staff duty assignments at the Pentagon between 1958 and 1962 as the Deputy Chief , Air Defense Division , Headquarters USAF . In this assignment he prepared a number of papers , iconoclastic at the time , which soon became prophetic , including identifying the need for upgraded conventional munitions ( foretelling the " bomb shortage " of the Vietnam War ) , and the dearth of any serious tactical air training in conventional warfare . From November 1959 to March 1960 , his section worked intensely to develop a program reducing the entire structure of the ADC with the purpose of generating $ 6 @.@ 5 billion for classified funding to develop the SR @-@ 71 Blackbird . Following his Pentagon assignment , Olds attended the National War College , graduating in 1963 .
Olds next became commander of the 81st Tactical Fighter Wing at RAF Bentwaters , England , an F @-@ 101 Voodoo fighter @-@ bomber wing , on September 8 , 1963 . The 81st TFW was a major combat unit in United States Air Forces Europe , having both a tactical nuclear and conventional bombing role supporting NATO . Olds commanded the wing until July 26 , 1965 . As his Deputy Commander of Operations Olds brought with him Colonel Daniel " Chappie " James , Jr . , whom he had met during his Pentagon assignment and who would go on to become the first African @-@ American 4 @-@ star Air Force general . James and Olds worked closely together for a year as a command team and developed both a professional and social relationship which was later renewed in combat .
Olds formed a demonstration team for the F @-@ 101 using pilots of his wing , without command authorization , and performed at an Air Force open house at Bentwaters . He asserted that his superior at Third Air Force attempted to have him court @-@ martialed , but the commander of USAFE , General Gabriel P. Disosway , instead authorized his removal from command of the 81st TFW , cancellation of a recommended Legion of Merit award , and transfer to the headquarters of the Ninth Air Force at Shaw Air Force Base , South Carolina .
In September 1966 , Olds was tapped to command an F @-@ 4C Phantom wing in Southeast Asia . En route he arranged with the 4453rd Combat Crew Training Wing , Davis @-@ Monthan Air Force Base , Arizona , ( where Col. James was now Deputy Commander of Operations ) to be checked out in the Phantom , completing the 14 @-@ step syllabus in just five days . His instructor was Major William L. Kirk , the 4453rd CCTW 's Standardization and Evaluation officer , who had been one of Olds ' pilots at RAF Bentwaters , and who later commanded the United States Air Forces Europe as a full general . Kirk accompanied Olds for practice firing of AIM @-@ 7 Sparrow and AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder missiles on the Point Mugu missile range while Olds was en route to Travis Air Force Base for his charter flight overseas . Olds rewarded Kirk by granting him a transfer to his command in Thailand in March 1967 .
= = Vietnam = =
On September 30 , 1966 , Olds took command of the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing , based at Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base . A lack of aggressiveness and sense of purpose in the wing had led to the change in command ( Olds ' predecessor had flown only 12 missions during the 10 months the wing had been in combat ) . The 44 @-@ year @-@ old colonel also set the tone for his command stint by immediately placing himself on the flight schedule as a rookie pilot under officers junior to himself , then challenging them to train him properly because he would soon be leading them .
Olds ' vice commander was Col. Vermont Garrison , an ace in both World War II and Korea , and in December Olds brought in James to replace an ineffective deputy commander for operations , creating arguably the strongest and most effective tactical command triumvirate of the Vietnam War . The Olds @-@ James combination became popularly nicknamed " Blackman and Robin " . Olds took to the air war over North Vietnam in an F @-@ 4C Phantom he nicknamed " Scat XXVII " , in keeping with his previous combat aircraft that all carried the " Scat " name .
= = = MiG Killer = = =
After suggesting the idea to Seventh Air Force commander Major General William Momyer , himself a former commander of the 8th TFW , Olds was directed to plan a mission designed to draw the North Vietnamese Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 21s into an aerial trap , and " Operation Bolo " resulted .
In October 1966 , strike force F @-@ 105 Thunderchiefs were equipped with QRC @-@ 160 radar jamming pods whose effectiveness virtually ended their losses to surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles . As a result , SAM attacks shifted to the Phantoms , unprotected because of a shortage of pods . To protect the F @-@ 4s , rules of engagement that allowed the MiGCAP to escort the strike force in and out of the target area were revised in December to restrict MiGCAP penetration to the edge of SAM coverage . MiG interceptions increased as a result , primarily by MiG @-@ 21s using high speed hit @-@ and @-@ run tactics against bomb @-@ laden F @-@ 105 formations , and although only two bombers had been lost , the threat to the force was perceived as serious .
The Bolo plan reasoned that by equipping F @-@ 4s with jamming pods , using the call signs and communications codewords of the F @-@ 105 wings , and flying their flight profiles through northwest Vietnam , the F @-@ 4s could effectively simulate an F @-@ 105 bombing mission and entice the MiG @-@ 21s into intercepting not bomb @-@ laden Thunderchiefs , but Phantoms configured for air @-@ to @-@ air combat .
After an intensive planning , maintenance , and briefing period , the mission was scheduled for January 1 , 1967 . Poor weather caused a 24 @-@ hour delay , but even then , a solid overcast covered the North Vietnamese airbases at Phúc Yên , Gia Lam , Kép , and Cat Bai when the bogus strike force began arriving over the target area , five @-@ minute intervals separating the flights of F @-@ 4s . Leading the first flight , Olds overflew the primary MiG @-@ 21 base at Phúc Yên and was on a second pass when MiGs finally began popping up through the cloud base . Although at first seemingly random in nature , it quickly became apparent that the MiGs were ground @-@ controlled intercepts designed to place the supposed F @-@ 105s in a vise between enemies to their front and rear .
The F @-@ 4s and their crews , however , proved equal to the situation and claimed seven MiG @-@ 21s destroyed , almost half of the 16 then in service with the VPAF without loss to USAF aircraft . Olds himself shot down one of the seven , for which he and the other aircrew were awarded Silver Stars . Follow @-@ up interceptions over the next two days by MiGs against RF @-@ 4C reconnaissance aircraft led to a similar mission on a smaller scale on January 6 , with another two MiG @-@ 21s shot down . VPAF fighter activity diminished to almost nothing for 10 weeks afterwards , thereby accomplishing the main goal of Operation Bolo : to eliminate or diminish the threat of MiGs to the strike formations .
On May 4 , Olds destroyed another MiG @-@ 21 over Phúc Yên . Two weeks later , on May 20 , he destroyed two MiG @-@ 17s in what one of his pilots described as a " vengeful chase " after they shot down his wingman during a large dogfight , bringing his total to 16 confirmed kills ( 12 in World War II and four in Vietnam ) , making him a triple ace . Olds states that following the shoot down of his fourth MiG , he intentionally avoided shooting down a fifth , even though he had at least ten opportunities to do so , because he had learned in the middle of June that Seventh Air Force , at the direction of Secretary of the Air Force Harold Brown , would immediately relieve him of command to return to the United States as a publicity asset .
He was awarded a fourth Silver Star for leading a three @-@ aircraft low @-@ level bombing strike on March 30 , 1967 , and the Air Force Cross for an attack on the Paul Doumer Bridge in Hanoi on August 11 , one of five awarded to Air Force pilots for that mission . He flew his final combat mission over North Vietnam on September 23 , 1967 .
His 259 total combat missions included 107 in World War II and 152 in Southeast Asia , 105 of those over North Vietnam . Scat XXVII ( F @-@ 4C @-@ 24 @-@ MC 64 @-@ 0829 ) was retired from operational service and placed on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force , Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base , Ohio .
= = = Olds 's mustache = = =
Olds was known for the extravagantly waxed ( and decidedly non @-@ regulation ) handlebar moustache he sported in Vietnam . It was a common superstition among airmen to grow a " bulletproof mustache " , but Olds also used his as " a gesture of defiance . The kids on base loved it . Most everybody grew a mustache . " Olds started the mustache in the wake of the success of Operation Bolo and let it grow beyond regulation length because " It became the middle finger I couldn 't raise in the PR photographs . The mustache became my silent last word in the verbal battles ... with higher headquarters on rules , targets , and fighting the war . " Returning home , however , marked the end of this flamboyance . When he reported to his first interview with Air Force Chief of Staff General John P. McConnell , McConnell walked up to him , stuck a finger under his nose and said , " Take it off . " Olds replied , " Yes , sir . "
For his part , Olds was not upset with the order , recalling :
To tell the truth , I wasn 't all that fond of the damned thing by then , but it had become a symbol for the men of the 8th Wing . I knew McConnell understood . During his visits to Ubon over the past year he had never referred to my breach of military standards , just seemed rather amused at the variety of ' staches sported by many of the troops . ( It ) was the most direct order I had received in twenty @-@ four years of service .
The incident with the mustache is given credit as the impetus for a new Air Force tradition , " Mustache March " , in which aircrew , aircraft maintainers , and other airmen worldwide show solidarity by a symbolic , albeit good @-@ natured " protest " for one month against Air Force facial hair regulations .
= = = Dogfighting advocate = = =
" We weren 't allowed to dogfight . Very little attention was paid to strafing , dive @-@ bombing , rocketry , stuff like that . It was thought to be unnecessary . Yet every confrontation America faced in the Cold War years was a ' bombs and bullets ' situation , raging under an uneasy nuclear standoff . " The Vietnam War " proved the need to teach tactical warfare and have fighter pilots . It caught us unprepared because we weren 't allowed to learn it or practice it in training . "
Olds often lamented the lack of an internal gun in the F @-@ 4C he flew during his tour in Vietnam , but would not allow his fighters to be equipped with the gun pods then available . While he knew that he would be capable of effectively using them , he was also aware that none of his pilots were trained in the use of a gun or dogfighting . He also reasoned that the drag of the pod would both degrade the performance characteristics of the F @-@ 4 while not gaining it any advantage against the more maneuverable MiG @-@ 17s and MiG @-@ 21s , result in unnecessary losses strafing worthless targets , and reduce the number of bombs carried by the Phantoms , the delivery of which was the 8th 's primary mission .
The History Channel , in its series Dogfights , recreated Operation Bolo using a computer animation for an episode entitled " Air Ambush " , first telecast on November 10 , 2006 . Olds , then 84 years old , appeared as a commentator , and as background , dogfights he experienced as a P @-@ 38 pilot were also recreated .
= = Post @-@ Southeast Asia career = =
= = = Air Force Academy 1967 – 71 = = =
After relinquishing command of the 8th TFW on September 23 , 1967 , Olds reported for duty to the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs , Colorado , in December 1967 . He served as Commandant of Cadets for three years and sought to restore morale in the wake of a major cheating scandal . Olds was promoted to brigadier general on June 1 , 1968 , with seniority dating from May 28 .
= = = Director of Aerospace Safety = = =
In February 1971 he began his last duty assignment as director of aerospace safety in the Office of the Inspector General , Headquarters USAF , and after December 1971 as part of the Air Force Inspection and Safety Center , a newly activated separate operating agency located at Norton Air Force Base , California . Olds oversaw the creation of policies , standards , and procedures for Air Force accident prevention programs , and dealt with work safety education , workplace accident investigation and analysis , and safety inspections .
= = = 1971 inspector general tour and 1973 retirement = = =
Air Force Inspector General and Olds ' West Point classmate Lt Gen Louis L. Wilson , Jr . , sent Olds to Southeast Asia in the autumn of 1971 to determine the state of readiness of Air Force pilots . Olds toured USAF bases in Thailand ( flying several unauthorized combat missions in the process ) and brought back a blunt assessment . Air Force pilots , he reported to the Air Force Chief of Staff , Gen John D. Ryan ( a former SAC general and bomber pilot often at odds with the tactical fighter community ) , " ... couldn 't fight their way out of a wet paper bag , " because of a systemic lack of interest by the USAF in air @-@ to @-@ air combat training for fighter crews . He warned that losses would be severe in any resumption of aerial combat . Olds recalled that Ryan expressed surprise at this assessment and reflected his disagreement .
When Operation Linebacker began in May 1972 , American fighter jets returned to the offense in the skies over North Vietnam for the first time in nearly four years . Navy and Marine Corps fighters , reaping the benefits of their TOPGUN program , immediately enjoyed considerable success . In contrast by June , as Olds had predicted , the Air Force 's fighter community was struggling with a nearly 1 : 1 kill @-@ loss ratio . To the new Inspector General , Lt Gen Ernest C. Hardin , Jr . , Olds offered to take a voluntary reduction in rank to colonel so he could return to operational command and straighten out the situation . Olds decided to leave the Air Force when the offer was refused ( he was offered another inspection tour instead ) and he retired on June 1 , 1973 .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Robin Olds ' ribbons as they appeared at retirement .
From top , and from left to right : Command pilot .
Row 1 : Air Force Cross ; Air Force Distinguished Service Medal , one oak leaf cluster .
Row 2 : Silver Star , three oak leaf clusters ; Legion of Merit ; Distinguished Flying Cross , five oak leaf clusters .
Row 3 : Air Medal , with 39 oak leaf clusters .
Row 4 : Air Force Commendation Medal ; Presidential Unit Citation , with oak leaf cluster ; Outstanding Unit Award , with two oak leaf clusters ; American Defense Service Medal .
Row 5 : American Campaign Medal ; European @-@ African @-@ Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with six campaign stars ; World War II Victory Medal ; National Defense Service Medal , with second service star .
Row 6 : Vietnam Service Medal ; Air Force Longevity Service Award , with six oak leaf clusters ; Small Arms Expert Marksmanship Medal ; Légion d 'honneur .
Row 7 : Distinguished Flying Cross ( United Kingdom ) ; Croix de Guerre ( France ) , with star ; Vietnam Air Gallantry Cross with Gold Wings ; Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal .
Not shown :
Vietnam Air Force Distinguished Service Order , 2nd Class
Vietnam Air Force Meritorious Service Medal
= = = Air Force Cross citation = = =
Colonel Robin Olds
U.S. Air Force
Date Of Action : August 11 , 1967
The President of the United States of America , authorized by Title 10 , Section 8742 , United States Code , takes pleasure in presenting the Air Force Cross to Colonel Robin Olds ( AFSN : 0 @-@ 26046 ) , United States Air Force , for extraordinary heroism in military operations against an opposing armed force while serving as Strike Mission Commander in the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing , Ubon Royal Thai Air Base , Thailand , against the Paul Doumer Bridge , a major north @-@ south transportation link on Hanoi 's Red River in North Vietnam , on 11 August 1967 . On that date , Colonel Olds led his strike force of eight F @-@ 4C aircraft against a key railroad and highway bridge in North Vietnam . Despite intense , accurately directed fire , multiple surface @-@ to @-@ air missile attacks on his force , and continuous harassment by MiG fighters defending the target , Colonel Olds , with undaunted determination , indomitable courage , and professional skill , led his force through to help destroy this significant bridge . As a result the flow of war materials into this area was appreciably reduced . Through his extraordinary heroism , superb airmanship , and aggressiveness in the face of hostile forces , Colonel Olds reflected the highest credit upon himself and the United States Air Force .
= = Personal = =
Olds was briefly a stepbrother of author Gore Vidal after Olds ' father married for the fourth time in June 1942 , to Nina Gore Auchinloss . His father died of pneumonia on April 28 , 1943 , after hospitalization for constrictive pericarditis and Libman @-@ Sacks endocarditis , at the age of 46 , just prior to Olds ' graduation from West Point .
In 1946 , while based at March Field , Olds met Hollywood actress ( and " pin @-@ up girl " ) Ella Raines on a blind date in Palm Springs . They married in Beverly Hills on February 6 , 1947 , and had two daughters , Christina and Susan , and a son , Robert Ernest , who was stillborn in 1958 . Most of their 29 @-@ year marriage , marked by frequent extended separations and difficult homecomings , was turbulent because of a clash of lifestyles , particularly her refusal to ever live in government housing on base . Robin Olds and Ella Raines separated in 1975 and divorced in 1976 . Robin married Abigail Morgan Sellers Barnett in January 1978 , and they divorced after fifteen years of marriage .
In his retirement at Steamboat Springs , Colorado , Olds pursued his love of skiing and served on the city 's planning commission . He was active in public speaking , making 21 events as late in his life as 2005 and 13 in 2006 .
Olds ' fondness for alcohol was well known . John Darrell Sherwood , in his book Fast Movers : Jet Pilots and the Vietnam Experience , posits that Olds ' heavy drinking hurt his post @-@ Vietnam career . On July 12 , 2001 , Olds was arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol and resisting arrest near his home in Steamboat Springs . Olds , briefly hospitalized during the incident for facial cuts , pleaded guilty in return for charges of weaving and felony vehicular eluding being dropped . Olds was placed on one year probation , and ordered to pay almost $ 900 in fines and costs , attend an alcohol education course , and perform 72 hours of community service .
Days later , on July 21 , 2001 , Olds was enshrined at Dayton , Ohio , in the National Aviation Hall of Fame class of 2001 , along with test pilot Joseph H. Engle , Marine Corps ace Marion E. Carl , and Albert Lee Ueltschi . He became the only person enshrined in both the National Aviation Hall of Fame and the College Football Hall of Fame .
In March 2007 Olds was hospitalized in Colorado for complications of Stage 4 prostate cancer . On the evening of June 14 , 2007 , General Olds died from congestive heart failure in Steamboat Springs , Colorado . Olds was honored with a flyover and services at the United States Air Force Academy on June 30 , where his ashes are kept . General Olds is remembered as the Class Exemplar of the Academy Class of 2011 , which had begun Basic Cadet Training , the first step towards becoming Air Force officers , two days before Olds ' funeral .
= Indio Comahue Monument =
The Monumento al Indio Comahue ( Monument to the Comahue Indian ) is a monument located in Villa Regina , in the Argentine province of Río Negro . It was constructed to honor the native inhabitants of the Comahue Region . The monument was completed in time for the inaugural Comahue National Fair in 1964 .
Commissioned by the organizers of the fair , Bartolo Pasin and Rogelio Chimenti , it was designed by Miguel De Lisi and constructed in two months by local bricklayer Aldo Cardozo . Presently it is used as an overlook for its panoramic view . The monument is considered to be a symbol of the town , and as such it is depicted in the coat of arms .
= = History = =
The monument was erected to commemorate the native inhabitants of Comahue . It was constructed for the first Comahue National Fair , in 1964 . This was a 45 @-@ day event that aimed to highlight the economic potential of the Comahue Region , and at the same time commemorate the 40th anniversary of the founding of Villa Regina . Bartolo Pasin and Rogelio Chimenti , who organized the fair , proposed the construction to designer Miguel De Lisi , after seeing his work at the City Hotel in Mar del Plata .
= = = Construction = = =
De Lisi sent the drawings to the local construction team , led by Aldo Humberto Cardozo and Alberto Sartor . The monument had been originally planned to be 10 metres ( 33 ft ) tall , but Cardozo re @-@ scaled it to be nearly 11 metres ( 36 ft ) , and later also added a high base of 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) . The completed monument , now standing at almost 13 metres ( 42 @.@ 4 ft ) , depicts a native who is holding a long spear while watching the horizon .
Work started in July 1964 , with the structure being built of reinforced concrete . It had an iron skeleton made up of 4 inch pipes ( 100mm ) , which was reinforced with radial sections that were soldered every 50 centimetres ( 20 in ) . Later , the figure was filled from the feet to the hips with ceramic brick and concrete , with the top half finished using a layer of reinforced concrete . The monument was completed in two months with an estimated weight of 80 tons , and a height of 12 @.@ 90 metres ( 42 @.@ 3 ft ) . In its construction , five hundred bags of cement , 2 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 5 @,@ 500 lb ) of iron , 60 metres ( 200 ft ) of steel , and 80 square metres ( 860 sq ft ) of sand were used .
It was later painted by a local man , Carlos Basabe Cerdá . The job proved to be very difficult due to strong winds that blew the wooden planks off the scaffolding and into a nearby ditch . A construction team later tied on the planks , solving the problem . The painters first applied a primer coat , then linseed oil , varnish , and finally a coat of copper glitter . The monument was inaugurated during the opening of the Comahue National Fair on September 7 , 1964 .
= = The monument and Villa Regina = =
The structure is located on the northern hill of the town , which has an elevation of 70 to 80 metres ( 230 to 260 feet ) . The hill is mostly covered in bushes and can be accessed by two paths . Currently it is used as an overlook for its panoramic view of the town . It also serves to mark the finishing line for the annual trekking trail competition , Desafío al Indio Comahue .
Considered as the symbol of Villa Regina , the Indio Comahue is depicted in the city 's coat of arms . It was also depicted in the previous seal of the Río Negro Province , designed by the government of the Argentine Revolution . The seal was replaced in 2009 by the one that the overthrown government designed in 1966 , months before the coup d 'état . The Comahue National Fair was relaunched in 2004 , and is currently celebrated every two years .
= 2012 Football League Cup Final =
The 2012 Football League Cup Final was a football match between Cardiff City and Liverpool on 26 February 2012 at Wembley Stadium , London . It was the final match of the 2011 – 12 Football League Cup , the 52nd season of the Football League Cup , a football competition for the 92 teams in the Premier League and the Football League . Cardiff were appearing in their first final , while Liverpool were appearing in the final for the eleventh time ; they had previously won seven and lost three finals .
As Cardiff were in the Football League they played one more round than Liverpool who received a bye in the first round . Therefore , Cardiff progressed through six rounds to reach the final , whereas Liverpool progressed through five . Matches up to the semi @-@ final were contested on a one @-@ off basis with the exception of the semi @-@ finals which were contested over two @-@ legs , with a match at each team 's home ground . Both Liverpool and Cardiff 's matches were close affairs ; their biggest margins of victory was by two goals . Liverpool beat Manchester City to reach the final , whereas Cardiff progressed via a penalty shoot @-@ out against Crystal Palace .
Watched by a crowd of 89 @,@ 041 , Cardiff took the lead in the first half when Joe Mason scored . The score remained the same through half @-@ time until Liverpool equalised in the 60th minute , when Martin Škrtel scored . With the score 1 – 1 at full @-@ time , the match went to extra @-@ time as neither side were able to score a second goal . The first half of extra @-@ time was goalless , but three minutes into the second half Liverpool took the lead when Dirk Kuyt scored . However two minutes before the end of extra @-@ time Cardiff equalised to make the score 2 – 2 , courtesy of a goal from Ben Turner . With the score at 2 – 2 at the end of extra @-@ time the match went to a penalty shoot @-@ out . Despite missing their first two penalties , Liverpool won the shoot @-@ out 3 – 2 to win the League Cup for a record eighth time .
Liverpool 's manager Kenny Dalglish stated in the aftermath , that the victory would lead to more trophies . The club reached the 2012 FA Cup Final , but were beaten 2 – 1 by Chelsea . Their league form faltered after the victory and they finished the season in 8th place . Despite this , victory in the final ensured Liverpool had qualified for the 2012 – 13 UEFA Europa League . Cardiff manager Malky Mackay was proud of his team despite their defeat . They finished the season in 6th place in the 2011 – 12 Football League Championship , reaching the playoffs where they were beaten by West Ham United over two @-@ legs .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Cardiff City = = =
Cardiff entered the 2011 – 12 Football League Cup in the first round where they faced Oxford United . The match played at the Kassam Stadium saw Cardiff take the lead in the 10th minute when Craig Conway scored . Oxford equalised 20 minutes later courtesy of a Simon Clist goal . Neither side was able to score a winning goal during the remainder of the match , which went into extra @-@ time at 1 – 1 . Two goals from Peter Whittingham and Nathaniel Jarvis secured a 3 – 1 victory for Cardiff . Their opponents in the second round were Huddersfield Town . Two goals in the first 16 minutes courtesy of Gabor Gyepes and Jon Parkin gave Cardiff an early 2 – 0 lead , which they held until the 55th minute when Huddersfield reduced the deficit to 2 – 1 courtesy of a Jordan Rhodes goal . Daniel Ward equalised for Huddersfield in the 69th minute before Rhodes scored his second goal of the match to give Huddersfield a 3 – 2 lead in the 87th minute . Cardiff equalised two minutes into stoppage time when Don Cowie headed the ball in from close range . With the score at 3 – 3 after 90 minutes the match went to extra @-@ time . A goal each from Conway and Cowie gave Cardiff a 5 – 3 victory and progression to the third round .
Leciester City were the opponents in the third round . Cardiff playing at their home ground the Cardiff City Stadium took the lead in the 32nd minute when Cowie scored . Leicester equalised seven minutes later when Steve Howard scored from close range . Leicester then took the lead in the 65th minute courtesy of a Lloyd Dyer goal . Cardiff equalised when Rudy Gestede with nine minutes of the match remaining . The score remained 2 – 2 until full @-@ time and throughout extra @-@ time , which mean the match would be decided by a penalty shoot @-@ out . Cardiff won the shoot @-@ out 7 – 6 to progress to the fourth round .
Cardiff were drawn at home against Burnley in the fourth round . They won the match 1 – 0 courtesy of a Joe Mason goal in the first half . The result was the first time in the competition Cardiff 's match didn 't go into extra @-@ atime and it was the first they had reached the quarter @-@ finals of the League Cup since 1965 . Their opponents in the quarter @-@ finals were Blackburn Rovers . Two goals from Kenny Miller and Anthony Gerrard secured a 2 – 0 victory for Cardiff and their progression to the semi @-@ finals .
Crystal Palace were Cardiff 's opponents in the semi @-@ final which was played over two @-@ legs . The first leg was played at Palace 's home ground Selhurst Park . Cardiff started the match the better of the two sides but were unable to convert their chances . Palace took the lead in the 43rd minute when Anthony Gardner headed in Darren Ambrose 's cross . Neither side scored again and the match ended 1 – 0 . The second leg at the Cardiff City Stadium started well for Cardiff when they went ahead in the seventh minute after an own @-@ goal from Palace defender Gardner , which levelled the aggregate score at 1 – 1 . Palace were reduced to ten men in the second half when Paddy McCarthy was sent @-@ off . Despite their numerical advantage Cardiff were unable to a second goal during the 90 minutes and extra @-@ time and the tie went to a penalty shoot @-@ out . Cardiff goalkeeper Tom Heaton saved two penalties as Cardiff won the shoot @-@ out 3 – 1 to progress to their first League Cup final .
= = = Liverpool = = =
Liverpool entered the competition in the second round , as one of the twelve teams from the Premier League who were not involved in European competition during the season . They were drawn against Exeter City in the second round . The match , played at Exeter 's home ground , St James Park was won by Liverpool ; goals from Luis Suárez , Maxi Rodríguez and Andy Carroll helped the team win 3 – 1 .
Liverpool 's opponents in the third round were Brighton & Hove Albion . The match was played at Brighton 's home ground , the Falmer Stadium . Liverpool took the lead in the 7th minute when Craig Bellamy scored . Dirk Kuyt extended the lead in the second half , scoring in the 82nd minute . Brighton pulled a goal back courtesy of an Ashley Barnes penalty kick , but were unable to score an equaliser ; the match finished 2 – 1 to Liverpool .
Stoke City were Liverpool 's opponents in the fourth round . The match , held at Stoke 's home ground the Britannia Stadium saw Stoke take the lead towards the end of the first @-@ half when Kenwyne Jones scored . Liverpool equalised in the 54th minute courtesy of a goal from Suárez , and he scored the winner in the 84th minute to give Liverpool a 2 – 1 victory and a place in the fifth round . Liverpool were drawn against Chelsea in the subsequent round . At Stamford Bridge , Carroll missed a penalty in a goalless first half . Despite this Liverpool scored twice after the interval , courtesy of goals from Maxi and Martin Kelly . They won the match 2 – 0 to reach the semi @-@ finals .
Liverpool were drawn against Manchester City in the semi @-@ finals which were held over two @-@ legs . The first leg was at City 's home ground , the Etihad stadium . Liverpool won the match 1 – 0 , courtesy of a Steven Gerrard penalty . The second leg was held at Liverpool 's home ground Anfield . City took the lead in the first half when Nigel de Jong scored , ten minutes later Gerrard equalised when he scored a penalty . At half @-@ time , the score was 1 – 1 with Liverpool leading 2 – 1 on aggregate . City took the lead in the match when Edin Džeko scored in the 67th minute . The goal meant the aggregate score was 2 – 2 but City would progress to the final if the score remained the same due to the away goals rule . Liverpool needed to find an equaliser , and seven minutes after Džeko 's goal they did , when Bellamy scored . City tried to score an equaliser but to no avail , and the match finished 2 – 2 , with Liverpool progressing to the final courtesy of a 3 – 2 aggregate victory .
= = Match = =
= = = Background = = =
Cardiff were appearing in their first League Cup final ; they had previously reached the semi @-@ final of the competition in the 1965 – 66 season , when they were beaten by West Ham United 5 – 1 on aggregate . They were also the first team from outside the Premier League to reach the final since 2001 , when Birmingham City lost to Liverpool . Liverpool were appearing in their eleventh final ; they had won seven ( 1981 , 1982 , 1983 , 1984 , 1995 , 2001 , 2003 ) and lost three ( 1978 , 1987 , 2005 ) . The last meeting between the two teams was in the 2007 – 08 Football League Cup on 31 October 2007 , Liverpool won 2 – 1 to progress to the fifth round .
This was the fourth time in as many years that Cardiff City had played at Wembley Stadium . They played at the stadium twice during the 2007 – 08 FA Cup ; they beat Barnsley 1 – 0 in the semi @-@ final before losing 1 – 0 to Portsmouth in the final . Their last match at the stadium was the 2010 Championship play @-@ off Final against Blackpool , which they lost 3 – 2 . The final represented the first time Liverpool had visited the new Wembley Stadium ; their previous appearances in the final in 2001 , 2003 and 2005 had been played at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff while Wembley was being rebuilt . Their last visit to Wembley was in 1996 when they reached the final of the FA Cup , match they lost 1 – 0 to Manchester United at the old Wembley Stadium .
A week before the final Cardiff played Ipswich Town in the 2011 – 12 Football League Championship – it was their last match before the final , which they lost 3 – 0 . Cardiff had a few injury concerns ahead of the final . Captain Mark Hudson had a calf problem , while midfielder Stephen McPhail had missed Cardiff 's last four matches as he was suffering from Sjögren 's syndrome , an immune system disorder . Goalkeeper Heaton was also a doubt with a knock on his ankle , but he was considered likely to start the match . Cardiff manager Malky Mackay acknowledged that Liverpool went into the match as favourites , but he was confident his team could provide a shock : " Obviously we are underdogs but we have a chance in the final , Maybe only a one in 10 chance but that 's still a chance if you turn up motivated , fit and organised and I think I can promise that . "
Liverpool 's last match before the final was against Brighton & Hove Albion in the FA Cup , which they won 6 – 1 . Despite the margin of victory , Liverpool manager Kenny Dalglish was adamant that the result meant nothing in regards to the final : " Defeating Brighton has got us to the next round , but it doesn 't really help us in the Carling Cup , we 've got a cup final but we won 't get carried away . " Despite missing the match against Brighton , Dalglish was confident that Daniel Agger and Craig Bellamy would be fit for the final . Going into the match Liverpool had not won a trophy since they beat West Ham United in the 2006 FA Cup Final . Dalglish stated that victory : " means a lot to me , more importantly it means a lot to a lot of people who have had to endure a few years when we 've not been [ to Wembley ] . "
Both clubs received an allocation of approximately 31 @,@ 000 tickets . Cardiff fans would be housed in the East End of the stadium , while Liverpool fans were allocated the West End of the stadium . Ticket prices were increased from last year 's final , with the most expensive tickets costing £ 90 up £ 4 from the previous year . The least expensive tickets cost £ 40 , which was £ 2 more than last year . It was decided that before the match started national anthems would not be played . This decision was made to avoid spectators jeering the anthems , as happened during the 2008 FA Cup Final between Portsmouth and Cardiff .
= = = First @-@ half = = =
Cardiff set up in a 4 – 4 – 1 – 1 formation with Rudy Gestede in the striker position supported by Kenny Miller . Liverpool lined up in a 4 – 2 – 3 – 1 formation , with Andy Carroll starting as the lone striker , with Luis Suárez playing behind him and Jordan Henderson and Stewart Downing either side . Cardiff kicked @-@ off , but Liverpool had the first chance of the match . Steven Gerrard passed the ball to Stewart Downing on the left hand side of the pitch , he passed to Glen Johnson whose shot hit the crossbar , the ball rebounded to Gerrard , but he sent his shot over the Cardiff goal . Liverpool had the best of the opening minutes of the match , with Cardiff unable to keep possession of the ball . Liverpool had another chance in the sixth minute , Downing went past Cardiff defender Kevin McNaughton down the left of the pitch and crossed the ball into the penalty area , which was cleared for a corner kick . The resulting corner found Andy Carroll , but his header was deflected out for another corner which was caught by Cardiff goalkeeper Tom Heaton .
Cardiff began to exert themselves in the match and had their first chance in the 10th minute . Peter Whittingham and Aron Gunnarsson exchanged the ball before it was passed to Rudy Gestede who found Kenny Miller in the Liverpool penalty area , however his resulting shot went over the Liverpool goal . Carroll had a chance to score in the 19th minute but his header was saved by Heaton . Cardiff immediately went on the attack and scored the first goal of the match . Martin Škrtel 's clearance from McNaughton 's initial cross went back to the Cardiff player who passed to Miller , he passed the ball to Joe Mason who had run onto the pass from the right hand side of the pitch . His subsequent shot went through the legs of Liverpool goalkeeper Pepe Reina and into the Liverpool goal to give Cardiff a 1 – 0 lead . Liverpool responded by pushing men forward in an attempt to level the score . The first chance after Cardiff 's goal saw defender Daniel Agger advance from his own half towards the Cardiff goal but his shot from 30 yards ( 27 m ) was blocked and went out for a throw @-@ in . Liverpool had another chance from a similar distance a few minutes later but Carroll sent his shot over the crossbar . Liverpool had a penalty appeal turned down in the 32nd minute when Ben Turner was adjudged not to have handled the ball . Immediately afterwards Johnson 's cross was cleared by Mark Hudson , the ball fell to Charlie Adam who sent his shot just wide of the Cardiff goal . Just before half @-@ time Liverpool had a chance to equalise , but Agger 's header from Gerrard 's free @-@ kick was saved by Heaton .
= = = Second @-@ half = = =
Liverpool had the first attack of the half when they were awarded a free @-@ kick for foul on Jose Enrique . The subsequent free @-@ kick was cleared by Whittingham only as far as Henderson whose shot was wide of the Cardiff goal . Two minutes later Cardiff had a chance to extend their lead ; Whittingham went past Agger and passed to Don Cowie , who back heeled the ball to Miller , his subsequent shot went wide of the Liverpool goal . Henderson received the first yellow card of the match after his tackle on Mason was deemed to be too high . Cardiff had another chance in the 56th minute ; a Gunnarsson long throw was punched away by Reina , but the clearance fell to Hudson , who headed the ball into the Liverpool penalty area to Gestede , his subsequent header was blocked by the Liverpool goalkeeper . Liverpool made the first substitution of the match a minute later when Henderson was replaced by Craig Bellamy . Two minutes after the substitution Liverpool equalised . Downing took a corner kick , which was headed on by Carroll to Suarez whose header hit the post , it rebounded to Škrtel , his shot went into the Cardiff goal to level the match at 1 – 1 . Cardiff had the first chance after Liverpool 's goal , but Mason 's shot was saved by Reina .
The minutes after Škrtel 's goal saw Liverpool dominate but they were unable to score a second goal , despite a number of chances . Liverpool conceded a free @-@ kick 22 yards ( 20 m ) from their goal after Miller was fouled . Whittingham 's subsequent shot hit Liverpool players and went out for a Cardiff throw @-@ in . The resulting throw from Gunnarsson was flicked on by Gestede , but it was headed away by Liverpool . Minutes later Cardif had a chance to score , but Turner 's header from Cowie 's pass went wide of the Liverpool goal . Two minutes later Liverpool had another chance to score , but Charlie Adam 's shot was saved by Heaton . Liverpool made their second substitution of the match in the 87th minute when Jamie Carragher replaced Agger . Two minutes before the end of the match Cardiff had a chance to score . Liverpool conceded a free @-@ kick , which was passed to Miller , who was in space , but his went over the Liverpool goal . With the scores level at 1 – 1 , the match went into extra time after the referee brought an end to the 90 minutes of play .
= = = Extra time = = =
Before the start of extra time Cardiff made their first substitution of the match , goalscorer Mason was replaced by Filip Kiss . Liverpool had the first chance to score in extra time , but Suarez 's header was cleared off the line by Andrew Taylor . Cardiff appeared to be playing for a penalty shoot @-@ out , as they were positioning the majority of their team behind the ball and in front of their goal . Cardiff captain Hudson was replaced in the 98th minute by Anthony Gerrard after suffering from cramp . Liverpool had another chance in the 101st minute , when a pass by Gerrard was cleared for a corner kick by Taylor . The resulting corner was met by Carroll , but his header was wide of the Cardiff goal . Immediately after the attack Carroll was replaced by Dirk Kuyt . Just before the end of the first half of extra time Liverpool had another chance . Bellamy went past two men down the left hand side of the pitch before exchanging passes with Kuyt , however his subsequent shot went wide .
Just after the start of the second half of extra time Cardiff made their final substitution , replacing McNaughton with Darcy Blake . Two minutes later Kuyt made a run from deep in the Liverpool half , his initial shot was blocked , but the ball rebounded towards him . As the ball came back to him he shot again and the ball went past Heaton and into the Cardiff goal to give Liverpool a 2 – 1 lead . Cardiff were struggling after the goal with a number of their players suffering from cramp . Nevertheless , they had a chance in the 111th minute , when a Gunnarsson long throw was only half @-@ cleared by Liverpool , but they were unable to convert the chance . Towards the end of the half Cardiff began to exert more pressure on Liverpool . Turner , who had been moved into the striker position won a corner for Cardiff , which was punched away by Reina for a throw @-@ in . Cardiff won another from the throw , which found Kiss , whose shot was cleared off the line of the Liverpool goal by Kuyt for another corner . The subsequent corner was headed on by Gunnarsson to Turner , who beat Kuyt to the ball and put his shot past Reina into the Liverpool goal to level the score at 2 – 2 . Turner was shown a yellow card for removing his shirt during the celebration of the goal . Liverpool won a corner with a minute remaining but they were unable to score and the referee brought extra time to an end with the scores level , resulting in a penalty shoot @-@ out .
= = = Penalty shoot @-@ out = = =
Liverpool were the first team to take a penalty , but Gerrard 's effort was saved by Heaton . Cardiff 's first penalty was taken by Miller , but he also missed with his shot hitting the post . Adam took the next penalty for Liverpool , he also missed , placing his shot over the Cardiff goal . Cowie took the next penalty for Cardiff and scored to give them a 1 – 0 lead . Liverpool also scored with their next penalty courtesy of Kuyt to level the shoot @-@ outat 1 – 1 . Gestede was next for Cardiff , but his penalty hit the post . Liverpool took the lead in the shoot @-@ out when Downing converted his penalty . Whittingham was next for Cardiff and he scored to level the shoot @-@ out at 2 – 2 . Johnson took the next penalty for Liverpool and scored , to give Liverpool a 3 – 2 lead and leave Cardiff needing to score or Liverpool would win . The Cardiff was taken by Anthony Gerrard , but he missed his penalty , which meant Liverpool won the shoot @-@ out 3 – 2 and won their eighth League Cup .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post match = =
Liverpool 's victory meant they won the trophy for the eighth time , extending their record number of victories in the competition . Midfielder Stewart Downing was awarded the Alan Hardaker Trophy as the man of the match . Liverpool manager Kenny Dalglish was delighted to have won the League Cup and was adamant that the club would continue to win trophies : " Although we have won something today , that is not us finished , we don 't want to stop here . We want to keep going . We 've won it and we are going to really enjoy it . I know how much the players have enjoyed it and it gives you a wee flavour to come back and do it again . " The victory meant that Dalglish became the seventh manager to win all three major domestic trophies in English football . Goalscorer Dirk Kuyt was equally delighted to have won the competition : " We wanted this so desperately , this is why I came to Anfield . To get my first medal is great . " Meanwhile , captain Steven Gerrard had mixed emotions , due to his cousin Anthony Gerrard missing the deciding penalty : " One of Anthony or I was going to be sad , one was going to be celebrating . It happens . I 've got mixed emotions at the moment because I feel for Anthony and Cardiff . "
Cardiff manager Malky Mackay was proud of his players despite their defeat : " We wanted to come here and win today but the players have done the club proud , I think today we were playing against a top team and I think we have got a lot to be proud of . " Anthony Gerrard , who missed the decisive penalty took to Twitter to apologise to Cardiff fans stating that the miss would " ... haunt me for the rest of my days ! " Despite Gerrard 's apology , Cardiff goalkeeper Tom Heaton was adamant that none of the players should take the blame for the defeat : " There is definitely no blame attached to any of the lads who missed . They all had the strength of character to stand up and take a penalty in front of 90 @,@ 000 people and the world watching in a pressure situation . They should be credited and congratulated for taking them . Sadly , it wasn ’ t our day . ”
Liverpool 's first match after the final was against Arsenal , a match the club needed to win to stay in touch with the top four . Two goals from Robin van Persie , after Liverpool had scored in the first half meant that Liverpool lost 2 – 1 and were 10 points behind the team in 4th place , which would ensure qualification for the UEFA Champions League the following season . Liverpool 's league form continued to falter after the final ; they won four of their last thirteen matches and ended the season in eighth place . Despite their poor league form , Liverpool reached the final of the FA Cup against Chelsea . But they were unable to win a second trophy and lost 2 – 1 . Cardiff played West Ham United in their first match after the final , which they lost 2 – 0 . Despite the loss , they only needed to win one more in their remaining thirteen matches to finish in 6th place and qualify for the Championship playoffs . They faced third placed West Ham United , in the playoffs , which were contested over two @-@ legs , with one at each team 's home ground . Cardiff were unable to secure a second Wembley final , as West Ham United won 5 – 0 on aggregate .
= Wide Awake in Europe =
Wide Awake in Europe is a live extended play ( EP ) by rock band U2 . The release was created by the organizers of Record Store Day to bring customers into independent record shops for holiday shopping . A limited number of 5 @,@ 000 EPs were produced , and were released on Black Friday in 2010 , mostly to record shops in North America . The EP features three live tracks on a 12 @-@ inch vinyl record , taken from three different concerts during the U2 360 ° Tour in 2009 and 2010 . The EP comprises the songs " I 'll Go Crazy If I Don 't Go Crazy Tonight " , " Moment of Surrender " , and " Mercy " , the latter a previously unreleased track that was debuted on tour .
= = Background and release = =
The potential release of an EP was first announced by U2 bassist Adam Clayton in an August 2010 U2.com video , after stating that the band was not yet ready to release another album . In mid @-@ October , listings for the EP appeared on Amazon.com , with a release date of 22 November . Details of the release were officially announced by website SlicingUpEyeballs.com on 26 October with the track listing and release date information , along with details about its exclusive release to independent record stores , despite its listing on Amazon.com. U2.com officially announced the release on 16 November , and " Moment of Surrender " from the release was streamed on the website exclusively for the site 's subscribers , beginning the following the day . On the day of the EP 's release , U2.com streamed all three tracks for the site 's subscribers for a 48 @-@ hour period .
The EP was created by the creators of Record Store Day for an exclusive release as part of the " Back to Black Friday " program , along over 30 releases from other artists . The program 's objective was to draw customers to independent record shops on Black Friday and throughout the 2010 holiday shopping season , as opposed to big @-@ box stores and shopping malls . The EP was released by Interscope Records on 26 November 2010 , exclusively for independent record shops in the North America , with a select number of copies available in Europe . U2.com stated copies would be available in the United Kingdom and Ireland , although the London newspaper Daily Mail reported that it was only available at Tower Records in Dublin .
The release was limited to 5 @,@ 000 copies , all of which were individually numbered , although some pressings had higher numbers , as jackets damaged during the manufacturing process were destroyed and reprinted with newer numbers . An owner of a Milwaukee , Wisconsin store compared ordering the EP to a roulette , and said he " ordered 15 [ copies ] hoping to get 6 " . Twenty of the copies were given away in a December 2010 sweepstakes for U2.com site subscribers .
Pre @-@ orders for the EP were available from online retailer The Ideal Copy , but had sold out by the end of October , almost a month prior to the release . New Jersey @-@ based retailer Vintage Vinyl Records described the EP as an " Indie @-@ Exclusive Black Friday item " , and also sold pre @-@ orders online , but had ended pre @-@ orders early to ensure copies were available for Black Friday . On the day of its release , several record shops in the US reported Wide Awake in Europe as one of their best @-@ sellers . The EP was sold for around US $ 10 – 20 , but copies were selling on eBay the following day for $ 75 .
= = Content = =
The title and cover of the EP are references to U2 's 1985 EP Wide Awake in America . All the tracks were recorded by Alastair McMillan , and mixed by the EP 's producer , Declan Gaffney .
Side A of the record features " Mercy " , which was debuted during the U2 360 ° Tour in September 2010 . Previously , " Mercy " had leaked online as a track from the sessions for U2 's 2004 album How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb , but Wide Awake in Europe was the first official release of the song . The performance included on the EP is taken from band 's concert in Brussels during the month of its debut , and was the fourth @-@ ever live performance of the song .
Side B features performances of " I 'll Go Crazy If I Don 't Go Crazy Tonight " ( from Dublin in July 2009 ) and " Moment of Surrender " ( from Paris in September 2010 ) , both of which are from U2 's 2009 studio album , No Line on the Horizon . The EP 's live version of the " I 'll Go Crazy " live remix from Dublin was previously released on the 2009 U2.com member @-@ exclusive remix album , Artificial Horizon , and was remixed by Redanka and Dirty South . The track also features a clip of " Beshno Az Ney / Windfall " by Sussan Deyhim .
In a review published by Sputnikmusic two weeks after Wide Awake in Europe 's release , critic Irving Tan praised the EP , stating how " Mercy " was " the biggest treat to fans " , while the " I 'll Go Crazy " remix gives the EP a " party vibe " , and that " Moment of Surrender " " manages to be hopeful , glorious , and resplendent all at once " . Tan concluded by saying that the EP sends a message of the band 's " youthful defiance " and stated that he looks forward to U2 's fourth decade .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Bono , all music composed by U2 .
= = Personnel = =
Production – Declan Gaffney
Recording – Alastair McMillan
Mixing – Declan Gaffney , Russell Fawcus ( assistance on " I 'll Go Crazy If I Don 't Go Crazy Tonight " )
Mastering – Scott Sedillo at Bernie Grundman Mastering
Audio post production – Cheryl Engles at Partial Productions
Photography – Aaron Harris
Sleeve design – Shaughn McGrath at Amp Visual
= The Quest Begins =
The Quest Begins is the first novel in the Seekers series . It was written by Erin Hunter , which is a pseudonym used by authors Cherith Baldry , Kate Cary , Tui Sutherland and editor Victoria Holmes . The novel follows the adventures of four bears , Toklo , Kallik , Lusa and Ujurak . Each bear is stranded by themselves in the wild and must learn to survive . The declining environment of the bears is the main theme conveyed throughout the novel . Like the Warriors series also written by Erin Hunter , Seekers began as a request from HarperCollins who requested another animal story . The company and Victoria Holmes agreed to write about bears after discarding dogs , horses and dolphins . The novel was released in the US on 27 May 2008 and has also been released in the UK , Canada and translated into Russian . Critical reception was positive with reviewers praising the realistic behaviour of the bears .
= = Development and publication = =
= = = Conception = = =
The Quest Begins began as a request from HarperCollins who wanted Victoria Holmes , editor and creator of the Warriors series which followed the adventures of feral cats , to write another series about animals . The company suggested dogs to Holmes , but the idea was rejected since dogs behave very similarly to the cats in the Warriors series . Both horses and dolphins were suggested , but rejected due to their tendency to run away rather than fight and the slowness of battles underwater . Out of ideas , HarperCollins consulted with Holmes on what she wanted to write about . After a bit of thinking Holmes replied , " BEARS ! They live much more solitary lifestyles than cats , they are wild through and through with no history of domestication whatsoever ( performing bears don ’ t count ) , and they are much bigger animals , with a whole lot more potential for fighting " .
= = = Publication history = = =
The Quest Begins was first featured on the HarperCollin 's FirstLook Program in November 2007 . Readers who signed up for the program had a chance to read an early edition of this book , an Advanced Reader 's Copy , before it was published in stores . The Quest Begins was released in the US on 27 May 2008 . The book was also released as a paperback on 10 February 2009 and an e @-@ book on 6 October 2009 .
The books have also been released in the UK and Canada . Canada received the first book on 25 May 2008 . The first three books have also been translated into Russian .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel follows the adventure of four bears , Kallik ( a polar bear ) , Lusa ( a black bear ) , Toklo ( a brown bear ) and Ujurak ( a brown bear ) .
The novel first follows Kallik who lives with her mother and brother . However , they are separated on ice when a group of killer whales attacks them and Kallik must survive by herself . On her own , Kallik decides to go to a gathering place for polar bears that her mom told her about . At the gathering , Kallik asks other polar bears if they have seen her brother , but no one has . Alone , Kallik meets a female bear Nanuk who helps Kallik around the area . However , Nanuk is killed by a helicopter crash shipping her and Kallik back to the wild . Before she dies , Nanuk tells Kallik about a place where the ice never melts . Hearing this , Kallik sets off to this place .
Somewhere is the Rocky Mountains in southern Canada , Toklo 's mom is bringing Toklo and his sickly brother to a river to teach them how to catch salmon . However , in insanity , Toklo 's mom abandons Toklo after a mental break because his brother died . Now Toklo must survive on his own , just like Kallik . Wandering randomly , Toklo gets chased by human hunters and then meets a bear who is also getting chased by hunters . The bear gets injured , but they make it to safety and requests that Toklo to retrieve certain herbs , which he does . The bear turns into a human and later introduces himself as Ujurak . It is revealed that Ujurak is a Shapeshifter , to Toklo 's disbelief , before turning back into a bear . The two end up traveling together .
Lusa is a pampered black bear living in the Bear Bowl , a zoo in Canada . Despite knowing that the wilderness is harsh , Lusa has dreams about one day escaping and living outside . Her father , King , once lived in the wild and is strongly against Lusa 's idea . One day , Toklo 's mom is brought into the Bear Bowl . She talks with Lusa about how much she regretted abandoning her cubs , but that it was too late and that she couldn 't find them . Hearing this , Lusa decides to bring a message to Toklo about how sorry his mother is . Although Lusa succeeds in escaping , she realizes the dangers of the wild . At the end of the story , Ujurak and Toklo meet up with Lusa .
= = Style and themes = =
The novel is written in a similar style to the Warriors series . Holly Koelling from Booklist notes that " Despite the change in species , much will be familiar to readers . Alternating narratives tell the tales of three young bear cubs , who will be brought together in future installments " . Nancy Gilson from the Columbus Dispatch praised how easily the separate stories are handled and noticed how many chapters end on a cliffhanger .
The main theme addressed throughout the novel is decline of the environment and habitats of the bears . In the novel , Kallik watches her mother die by a pod of killer whales while Toklo is abandoned by his mother . Koelling realised how " Each tale touches on environmental issues " . Publishers Weekly noted how the " bears ' struggle to survive , along with Hunter 's environmental theme " . At the same time , older bears are " comforted by their belief in mythical bear spirits as they navigate the harsh realities of life in the wild " . Jennifer @-@ Lynn Draper from School Library Journal recognised that " The bears ' declining habitat is evident , and often throughout their journey the animals have to dodge cars and humans with guns " . Gilson noticed that every adventure " involves hunger , hardship and the loss of family that turns the young bears into solitary travelers " . Gilson also noted the environmental theme writing " This one offers prominent themes about the dangers of global warming and diminished wild places " .
= = Critical reception = =
The Quest Begins reached number 6 on Publishers Weekly 's Children 's Fiction Bestsellers during the week of 9 June 2008 . The novel was also chosen as number 9 on Al Roker 's Al 's Book Club on The Today Show .
Reception to the novel was positive and many reviewers praised the realistic setting and behaviours of the main characters . Koelling noted how the novel has a balance of cute anthropomorphic characterisation and also gives a realistic view of how hard it is for the bears to survive on their own . Koelling also recommended the novel to Warriors fans . Kirkus Reviews praised how " Hunter creates a richly sensuous world filled with cruelty , beauty , tenderness , savagery and just enough underlying legendary background to add mystery " , but felt that there is little advancement of the plot due to the time introducing and developing the characters . Still , the reviewer felt that the novel would appeal the animal fantasy lovers for the its extreme detail . Publishers Weekly found the novel written more loosely than the Warriors series , but still appealing to readers as they follow the bears survival . Draper praised the fast pace and how Erin Hunter " is apt at creating and sustaining the adrenaline @-@ charged mood of these youngsters on their own " . Matt Berman , writing for Half Moon Bay Review , praised the cliffhanger ending which would invite in more readers for the second novel , but felt that Warriors fans would be disappointed while " animal lovers will find this story ’ s mix of anthropomorphism and realism appealing , and Hunter may find an entirely new audience " .
= Ancient Egyptian literature =
Ancient Egyptian literature was written in the Egyptian language from ancient Egypt 's pharaonic period until the end of Roman domination . It represents the oldest corpus of Egyptian literature . Along with Sumerian literature , it is considered the world 's earliest literature .
Writing in ancient Egypt — both hieroglyphic and hieratic — first appeared in the late 4th millennium BC during the late phase of predynastic Egypt . By the Old Kingdom ( 26th century BC to 22nd century BC ) , literary works included funerary texts , epistles and letters , hymns and poems , and commemorative autobiographical texts recounting the careers of prominent administrative officials . It was not until the early Middle Kingdom ( 21st century BC to 17th century BC ) that a narrative Egyptian literature was created . This was a " media revolution " which , according to Richard B. Parkinson , was the result of the rise of an intellectual class of scribes , new cultural sensibilities about individuality , unprecedented levels of literacy , and mainstream access to written materials . However , it is possible that the overall literacy rate was less than one percent of the entire population . The creation of literature was thus an elite exercise , monopolized by a scribal class attached to government offices and the royal court of the ruling pharaoh . However , there is no full consensus among modern scholars concerning the dependence of ancient Egyptian literature on the sociopolitical order of the royal courts .
Middle Egyptian , the spoken language of the Middle Kingdom , became a classical language during the New Kingdom ( 16th century BC to 11th century BC ) , when the vernacular language known as Late Egyptian first appeared in writing . Scribes of the New Kingdom canonized and copied many literary texts written in Middle Egyptian , which remained the language used for oral readings of sacred hieroglyphic texts . Some genres of Middle Kingdom literature , such as " teachings " and fictional tales , remained popular in the New Kingdom , although the genre of prophetic texts was not revived until the Ptolemaic period ( 4th century BC to 1st century BC ) . Popular tales included the Story of Sinuhe and The Eloquent Peasant , while important teaching texts include the Instructions of Amenemhat and The Loyalist Teaching . By the New Kingdom period , the writing of commemorative graffiti on sacred temple and tomb walls flourished as a unique genre of literature , yet it employed formulaic phrases similar to other genres . The acknowledgment of rightful authorship remained important only in a few genres , while texts of the " teaching " genre were pseudonymous and falsely attributed to prominent historical figures .
Ancient Egyptian literature has been preserved on a wide variety of media . This includes papyrus scrolls and packets , limestone or ceramic ostraca , wooden writing boards , monumental stone edifices and coffins . Texts preserved and unearthed by modern archaeologists represent a small fraction of ancient Egyptian literary material . The area of the floodplain of the Nile is under @-@ represented because the moist environment is unsuitable for the preservation of papyri and ink inscriptions . On the other hand , hidden caches of literature , buried for thousands of years , have been discovered in settlements on the dry desert margins of Egyptian civilization .
= = Scripts , media , and languages = =
= = = Hieroglyphs , hieratic , and Demotic = = =
By the Early Dynastic Period in the late 4th millennium BC , Egyptian hieroglyphs and their cursive form hieratic were well @-@ established written scripts . Egyptian hieroglyphs are small artistic pictures of natural objects . For example , the hieroglyph for door @-@ bolt , pronounced se , produced the s sound ; when this hieroglyph was combined with another or multiple hieroglyphs , it produced a combination of sounds that could represent abstract concepts like sorrow , happiness , beauty , and evil . The Narmer Palette , dated c . 3100 BC during the last phase of Predynastic Egypt , combines the hieroglyphs for catfish and chisel to produce the name of King Narmer .
The Egyptians called their hieroglyphs " words of god " and reserved their use for exalted purposes , such as communicating with divinities and spirits of the dead through funerary texts . Each hieroglyphic word both represented a specific object and embodied the essence of that object , recognizing it as divinely made and belonging within the greater cosmos . Through acts of priestly ritual , like burning incense , the priest allowed spirits and deities to read the hieroglyphs decorating the surfaces of temples . In funerary texts beginning in and following the Twelfth dynasty , the Egyptians believed that disfiguring , and even omitting certain hieroglyphs , brought consequences , either good or bad , for a deceased tomb occupant whose spirit relied on the texts as a source of nourishment in the afterlife . Mutilating the hieroglyph of a venomous snake , or other dangerous animal , removed a potential threat . However , removing every instance of the hieroglyphs representing a deceased person 's name would deprive his or her soul of the ability to read the funerary texts and condemn that soul to an inanimate existence .
Hieratic is a simplified , cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs . Like hieroglyphs , hieratic was used in sacred and religious texts . By the 1st millennium BC , calligraphic hieratic became the script predominantly used in funerary papyri and temple rolls . Whereas the writing of hieroglyphs required the utmost precision and care , cursive hieratic could be written much more quickly and was therefore more practical for scribal record @-@ keeping . Its primary purpose was to serve as a shorthand script for non @-@ royal , non @-@ monumental , and less formal writings such as private letters , legal documents , poems , tax records , medical texts , mathematical treatises , and instructional guides . Hieratic could be written in two different styles ; one was more calligraphic and usually reserved for government records and literary manuscripts , the other was used for informal accounts and letters .
By the mid @-@ 1st millennium BC , hieroglyphs and hieratic were still used for royal , monumental , religious , and funerary writings , while a new , even more cursive script was used for informal , day @-@ to @-@ day writing : Demotic . The final script adopted by the ancient Egyptians was the Coptic alphabet , a revised version of the Greek alphabet . Coptic became the standard in the 4th century AD when Christianity became the state religion throughout the Roman Empire ; hieroglyphs were discarded as idolatrous images of a pagan tradition , unfit for writing the Biblical canon .
= = = Writing implements and materials = = =
Egyptian literature was produced on a variety of media . Along with the chisel , necessary for making inscriptions on stone , the chief writing tool of ancient Egypt was the reed pen , a reed fashioned into a stem with a bruised , brush @-@ like end . With pigments of carbon black and red ochre , the reed pen was used to write on scrolls of papyrus — a thin material made from beating together strips of pith from the Cyperus papyrus plant — as well as on small ceramic or limestone ostraca known as potsherds . It is thought that papyrus rolls were moderately expensive commercial items , since many are palimpsests , manuscripts that have their original contents erased to make room for new written works . This , alongside tearing off pieces of papyrus documents to make smaller letters , suggests that there were seasonal shortages caused by the limited growing season of Cyperus papyrus . It also explains the frequent use of ostraca and limestone flakes as writing media for shorter written works . In addition to stone , ceramic ostraca , and papyrus , writing media also included wood , ivory , and plaster .
By the Roman Period of Egypt , the traditional Egyptian reed pen had been replaced by the chief writing tool of the Greco @-@ Roman world : a shorter , thicker reed pen with a cut nib . Likewise , the original Egyptian pigments were discarded in favor of Greek lead @-@ based inks . The adoption of Greco @-@ Roman writing tools influenced Egyptian handwriting , as hieratic signs became more spaced , had rounder flourishes , and greater angular precision .
= = = Preservation of written material = = =
Underground Egyptian tombs built in the desert provide possibly the most protective environment for the preservation of papyrus documents . For example , there are many well @-@ preserved Book of the Dead funerary papyri placed in tombs to act as afterlife guides for the souls of the deceased tomb occupants . However , it was only customary during the late Middle Kingdom and first half of the New Kingdom to place non @-@ religious papyri in burial chambers . Thus , the majority of well @-@ preserved literary papyri are dated to this period .
Most settlements in ancient Egypt were situated on the alluvium of the Nile floodplain . This moist environment was unfavorable for long @-@ term preservation of papyrus documents . Archaeologists have discovered a larger quantity of papyrus documents in desert settlements on land elevated above the floodplain , and in settlements that lacked irrigation works , such as Elephantine , El @-@ Lahun , and El @-@ Hiba .
Writings on more permanent media have also been lost in several ways . Stones with inscriptions were frequently re @-@ used as building materials , and ceramic ostraca require a dry environment to ensure the preservation of the ink on their surfaces . Whereas papyrus rolls and packets were usually stored in boxes for safekeeping , ostraca were routinely discarded in waste pits ; one such pit was discovered by chance at the Ramesside @-@ era village of Deir el @-@ Medina , and has yielded the majority of known private letters on ostraca . Documents found at this site include letters , hymns , fictional narratives , recipes , business receipts , and wills and testaments . Penelope Wilson describes this archaeological find as the equivalent of sifting through a modern landfill or waste container . She notes that the inhabitants of Deir el @-@ Medina were incredibly literate by ancient Egyptian standards , and cautions that such finds only come " ... in rarefied circumstances and in particular conditions . "
John W. Tait stresses , " Egyptian material survives in a very uneven fashion ... the unevenness of survival comprises both time and space . " For instance , there is a dearth of written material from all periods from the Nile Delta but an abundance at western Thebes , dating from its heyday . He notes that while some texts were copied numerous times , others survive from a single copy ; for example , there is only one complete surviving copy of the Tale of the shipwrecked sailor from the Middle Kingdom . However , Tale of the shipwrecked sailor also appears in fragments of texts on ostraca from the New Kingdom . Many other literary works survive only in fragments or through incomplete copies of lost originals .
= = = Classical , Middle , Late , and Demotic Egyptian language = = =
Although writing first appeared during the very late 4th millennium BC , it was only used to convey short names and labels ; connected strings of text did not appear until about 2600 BC , at the beginning of the Old Kingdom . This development marked the beginning of the first known phase of the Egyptian language : Old Egyptian . Old Egyptian remained a spoken language until about 2100 BC , when , during the beginning of the Middle Kingdom , it evolved into Middle Egyptian . While Middle Egyptian was closely related to Old Egyptian , Late Egyptian was significantly different in grammatical structure . Late Egyptian possibly appeared as a vernacular language as early as 1600 BC , but was not used as a written language until c . 1300 BC during the Amarna Period of the New Kingdom . Late Egyptian evolved into Demotic by the 7th century BC , and although Demotic remained a spoken language until the 5th century AD , it was gradually replaced by Coptic beginning in the 1st century AD .
Hieratic was used alongside hieroglyphs for writing in Old and Middle Egyptian , becoming the dominant form of writing in Late Egyptian . By the New Kingdom and throughout the rest of ancient Egyptian history , Middle Egyptian became a classical language that was usually reserved for reading and writing in hieroglyphs . For the rest of ancient Egyptian history , Middle Egyptian remained the spoken language for more exalted forms of literature , such as historical records , commemorative autobiographies , hymns , and funerary spells . However , Middle Kingdom literature written in Middle Egyptian was also rewritten in hieratic during later periods .
= = Literary functions : social , religious and educational = =
Throughout ancient Egyptian history , reading and writing were the main requirements for serving in public office , although government officials were assisted in their day @-@ to @-@ day work by an elite , literate social group known as scribes . As evidenced by Papyrus Anastasi I of the Ramesside Period , scribes could even be expected , according to Wilson , " ... to organize the excavation of a lake and the building of a brick ramp , to establish the number of men needed to transport an obelisk and to arrange the provisioning of a military mission " . Besides government employment , scribal services in drafting letters , sales documents , and legal documents would have been frequently sought by illiterate people . Literate people are thought to have comprised only 1 % of the population , the remainder being illiterate farmers , herdsmen , artisans , and other laborers , as well as merchants who required the assistance of scribal secretaries . The privileged status of the scribe over illiterate manual laborers was the subject of a popular Ramesside Period instructional text , The Satire of the Trades , where lowly , undesirable occupations , for example , potter , fisherman , laundry man , and soldier , were mocked and the scribal profession praised . A similar demeaning attitude towards the illiterate is expressed in the Middle Kingdom Teaching of Khety , which is used to reinforce the scribes ' elevated position within the social hierarchy .
The scribal class was the social group responsible for maintaining , transmitting , and canonizing literary classics , and writing new compositions . Classic works , such as the Story of Sinuhe and Instructions of Amenemhat , were copied by schoolboys as pedagogical exercises in writing and to instill the required ethical and moral values that distinguished the scribal social class . Wisdom texts of the " teaching " genre represent the majority of pedagogical texts written on ostraca during the Middle Kingdom ; narrative tales , such as Sinuhe and King Neferkare and General Sasenet , were rarely copied for school exercises until the New Kingdom . William Kelly Simpson describes narrative tales such as Sinuhe and The shipwrecked sailor as " ... instructions or teachings in the guise of narratives " , since the main protagonists of such stories embodied the accepted virtues of the day , such as love of home or self @-@ reliance .
There are some known instances where those outside the scribal profession were literate and had access to classical literature . Menena , a draughtsman working at Deir el @-@ Medina during the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt , quoted passages from the Middle Kingdom narratives Eloquent Peasant and Tale of the shipwrecked sailor in an instructional letter reprimanding his disobedient son . Menena 's Ramesside contemporary Hori , the scribal author of the satirical letter in Papyrus Anastasi I , admonished his addressee for quoting the Instruction of Hardjedef in the unbecoming manner of a non @-@ scribal , semi @-@ educated person . Hans @-@ Werner Fischer @-@ Elfert further explains this perceived amateur affront to orthodox literature :
What may be revealed by Hori 's attack on the way in which some Ramesside scribes felt obliged to demonstrate their greater or lesser acquaintance with ancient literature is the conception that these venerable works were meant to be known in full and not to be misused as quarries for popular sayings mined deliberately from the past . The classics of the time were to be memorized completely and comprehended thoroughly before being cited .
There is scant but solid evidence in Egyptian literature and art for the practice of oral reading of texts to audiences . The oral performance word " to recite " ( šdj ) was usually associated with biographies , letters , and spells . Singing ( ḥsj ) was meant for praise songs , love songs , funerary laments , and certain spells . Discourses such as the Prophecy of Neferti suggest that compositions were meant for oral reading among elite gatherings . In the 1st millennium BC Demotic short story cycle centered on the deeds of Petiese , the stories begin with the phrase " The voice which is before Pharaoh " , which indicates that an oral speaker and audience was involved in the reading of the text . A fictional audience of high government officials and members of the royal court are mentioned in some texts , but a wider , non @-@ literate audience may have been involved . For example , a funerary stela of Senusret I ( r . 1971 – 1926 BC ) explicitly mentions people who will gather and listen to a scribe who " recites " the stela inscriptions out loud .
Literature also served religious purposes . Beginning with the Pyramid Texts of the Old Kingdom , works of funerary literature written on tomb walls , and later on coffins , and papyri placed within tombs , were designed to protect and nurture souls in their afterlife . This included the use of magical spells , incantations , and lyrical hymns . Copies of non @-@ funerary literary texts found in non @-@ royal tombs suggest that the dead could entertain themselves in the afterlife by reading these teaching texts and narrative tales . See also Egyptian influences in the Hebrew Bible .
Although the creation of literature was predominantly a male scribal pursuit , some works are thought to have been written by women . For example , several references to women writing letters and surviving private letters sent and received by women have been found . However , Edward F. Wente asserts that , even with explicit references to women reading letters , it is possible that women employed others to write documents .
= = Dating , setting , and authorship = =
Richard B. Parkinson and Ludwig D. Morenz write that ancient Egyptian literature — narrowly defined as belles @-@ lettres ( " beautiful writing " ) — was not recorded in written form until the early Twelfth dynasty of the Middle Kingdom . Old Kingdom texts served mainly to maintain the divine cults , preserve souls in the afterlife , and document accounts for practical uses in daily life . It was not until the Middle Kingdom that texts were written for the purpose of entertainment and intellectual curiosity . Parkinson and Morenz also speculate that written works of the Middle Kingdom were transcriptions of the oral literature of the Old Kingdom . It is known that some oral poetry was preserved in later writing ; for example , litter @-@ bearers ' songs were preserved as written verses in tomb inscriptions of the Old Kingdom .
Dating texts by methods of palaeography , the study of handwriting , is problematic because of differing styles of hieratic script . The use of orthography , the study of writing systems and symbol usage , is also problematic , since some texts ' authors may have copied the characteristic style of an older archetype . Fictional accounts were often set in remote historical settings , the use of contemporary settings in fiction being a relatively recent phenomenon . The style of a text provides little help in determining an exact date for its composition , as genre and authorial choice might be more concerned with the mood of a text than the era in which it was written . For example , authors of the Middle Kingdom could set fictional wisdom texts in the golden age of the Old Kingdom ( e.g. Kagemni , Ptahhotep , and the prologue of Neferti ) , or they could write fictional accounts placed in a chaotic age resembling more the problematic life of the First Intermediate Period ( e.g. Merykare and The Eloquent Peasant ) . Other fictional texts are set in illo tempore ( in an indeterminable era ) and usually contain timeless themes .
Parkinson writes that nearly all literary texts were pseudonymous , and frequently falsely attributed to well @-@ known male protagonists of earlier history , such as kings and viziers . Only the literary genres of " teaching " and " laments / discourses " contain works attributed to historical authors ; texts in genres such as " narrative tales " were never attributed to a well @-@ known historical person . Tait asserts that during the Classical Period of Egypt , " Egyptian scribes constructed their own view of the history of the role of scribes and of the ' authorship ' of texts " , but during the Late Period , this role was instead maintained by the religious elite attached to the temples .
There are a few exceptions to the rule of pseudonymity . The real authors of some Ramesside Period teaching texts were acknowledged , but these cases are rare , localized , and do not typify mainstream works . Those who wrote private and sometimes model letters were acknowledged as the original authors . Private letters could be used in courts of law as testimony , since a person 's unique handwriting could be identified as authentic . Private letters received or written by the pharaoh were sometimes inscribed in hieroglyphics on stone monuments to celebrate kingship , while kings ' decrees inscribed on stone stelas were often made public .
= = Literary genres and subjects = =
Modern Egyptologists categorize Egyptian texts into genres , for example " laments / discourses " and narrative tales . The only genre of literature named as such by the ancient Egyptians was the " teaching " or sebayt genre . Parkinson states that the titles of a work , its opening statement , or key words found in the body of text should be used as indicators of its particular genre . Only the genre of " narrative tales " employed prose , yet many of the works of that genre , as well as those of other genres , were written in verse . Most ancient Egyptian verses were written in couplet form , but sometimes triplets and quatrains were used .
= = = Instructions and teachings = = =
The " instructions " or " teaching " genre , as well as the genre of " reflective discourses " , can be grouped in the larger corpus of wisdom literature found in the ancient Near East . The genre is didactic in nature and is thought to have formed part of the Middle Kingdom scribal education syllabus . However , teaching texts often incorporate narrative elements that can instruct as well as entertain . Parkinson asserts that there is evidence that teaching texts were not created primarily for use in scribal education , but for ideological purposes . For example , Adolf Erman ( 1854 – 1937 ) writes that the fictional instruction given by Amenemhat I ( r . 1991 – 1962 BC ) to his sons " ... far exceeds the bounds of school philosophy , and there is nothing whatever to do with school in a great warning his children to be loyal to the king " . While narrative literature , embodied in works such as The Eloquent Peasant , emphasize the individual hero who challenges society and its accepted ideologies , the teaching texts instead stress the need to comply with society 's accepted dogmas .
Key words found in teaching texts include " to know " ( rh ) and " teach " ( sba.yt ) . These texts usually adopt the formulaic title structure of " the instruction of X made for Y " , where " X " can be represented by an authoritative figure ( such as a vizier or king ) providing moral guidance to his son ( s ) . It is sometimes difficult to determine how many fictional addressees are involved in these teachings , since some texts switch between singular and plural when referring to their audiences .
Examples of the " teaching " genre include the Maxims of Ptahhotep , Instructions of Kagemni , Teaching for King Merykare , Instructions of Amenemhat , Instruction of Hardjedef , Loyalist Teaching , and Instructions of Amenemope . Teaching texts that have survived from the Middle Kingdom were written on papyrus manuscripts . No educational ostraca from the Middle Kingdom have survived . The earliest schoolboy 's wooden writing board , with a copy of a teaching text ( i.e. Ptahhotep ) , dates to the Eighteenth dynasty . Ptahhotep and Kagemni are both found on the Prisse Papyrus , which was written during the Twelfth dynasty of the Middle Kingdom . The entire Loyalist Teaching survives only in manuscripts from the New Kingdom , although the entire first half is preserved on a Middle Kingdom biographical stone stela commemorating the Twelfth dynasty official Sehetepibre . Merykare , Amenemhat , and Hardjedef are genuine Middle Kingdom works , but only survive in later New Kingdom copies . Amenemope is a New Kingdom compilation .
= = = Narrative tales and stories = = =
The genre of " tales and stories " is probably the least represented genre from surviving literature of the Middle Kingdom and Middle Egyptian . In Late Egyptian literature , " tales and stories " comprise the majority of surviving literary works dated from the Ramesside Period of the New Kingdom into the Late Period . Major narrative works from the Middle Kingdom include the Tale of the Court of King Cheops , King Neferkare and General Sasenet , The Eloquent Peasant , Story of Sinuhe , and Tale of the shipwrecked sailor . The New Kingdom corpus of tales includes the Quarrel of Apepi and Seqenenre , Taking of Joppa , Tale of the doomed prince , Tale of Two Brothers , and the Report of Wenamun . Stories from the 1st millennium BC written in Demotic include the story of the Famine Stela ( set in the Old Kingdom , although written during the Ptolemaic dynasty ) and short story cycles of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods that transform well @-@ known historical figures such as Khaemweset ( Nineteenth Dynasty ) and Inaros ( First Persian Period ) into fictional , legendary heroes . This is contrasted with many stories written in Late Egyptian , whose authors frequently chose divinities as protagonists and mythological places as settings .
Parkinson defines tales as " ... non @-@ commemorative , non @-@ functional , fictional narratives " that usually employ the key word " narrate " ( sdd ) . He describes it as the most open @-@ ended genre , since the tales often incorporate elements of other literary genres . For example , Morenz describes the opening section of the foreign adventure tale Sinuhe as a " ... funerary self @-@ presentation " that parodies the typical autobiography found on commemorative funerary stelas . The autobiography is for a courier whose service began under Amenemhat I. Simpson states that the death of Amenemhat I in the report given by his son , coregent , and successor Senusret I ( r . 1971 – 1926 BC ) to the army in the beginning of Sinuhe is " ... excellent propaganda " . Morenz describes The shipwrecked sailor as an expeditionary report and a travel @-@ narrative myth . Simpson notes the literary device of the story within a story in The shipwrecked sailor may provide " ... the earliest examples of a narrative quarrying report " . With the setting of a magical desert island , and a character who is a talking snake , The shipwrecked sailor may also be classified as a fairy tale . While stories like Sinuhe , Taking of Joppa , and the Doomed prince contain fictional portrayals of Egyptians abroad , the Report of Wenamun is most likely based on a true account of an Egyptian who traveled to Byblos in Phoenicia to obtain cedar for shipbuilding during the reign of Ramesses XI .
Narrative tales and stories are most often found on papyri , but partial and sometimes complete texts are found on ostraca . For example , Sinuhe is found on five papyri composed during the Twelfth and Thirteenth dynasties . This text was later copied numerous times on ostraca during the Nineteenth and Twentieth dynasties , with one ostraca containing the complete text on both sides .
= = = Laments , discourses , dialogues , and prophecies = = =
The Middle Kingdom genre of " prophetic texts " , also known as " laments " , " discourses " , " dialogues " , and " apocalyptic literature " , include such works as the Admonitions of Ipuwer , Prophecy of Neferti , and Dispute between a man and his Ba . This genre had no known precedent in the Old Kingdom and no known original compositions were produced in the New Kingdom . However , works like Prophecy of Neferti were frequently copied during the Ramesside Period of the New Kingdom , when this Middle Kingdom genre was canonized but discontinued . Egyptian prophetic literature underwent a revival during the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty and Roman period of Egypt with works such as the Demotic Chronicle , Oracle of the Lamb , Oracle of the Potter , and two prophetic texts that focus on Nectanebo II ( r . 360 – 343 BC ) as a protagonist . Along with " teaching " texts , these reflective discourses ( key word mdt ) are grouped with the wisdom literature category of the ancient Near East .
In Middle Kingdom texts , connecting themes include a pessimistic outlook , descriptions of social and religious change , and great disorder throughout the land , taking the form of a syntactic " then @-@ now " verse formula . Although these texts are usually described as laments , Neferti digresses from this model , providing a positive solution to a problematic world . Although it survives only in later copies from the Eighteenth dynasty onward , Parkinson asserts that , due to obvious political content , Neferti was originally written during or shortly after the reign of Amenemhat I. Simpson calls it " ... a blatant political pamphlet designed to support the new regime " of the Twelfth dynasty founded by Amenemhat , who usurped the throne from the Mentuhotep line of the Eleventh dynasty . In the narrative discourse , Sneferu ( r . 2613 – 2589 BC ) of the Fourth dynasty summons to court the sage and lector priest Neferti . Neferti entertains the king with prophecies that the land will enter into a chaotic age , alluding to the First Intermediate Period , only to be restored to its former glory by a righteous king — Ameny — whom the ancient Egyptian would readily recognize as Amenemhat I. A similar model of a tumultuous world transformed into a golden age by a savior king was adopted for the Lamb and Potter , although for their audiences living under Roman domination , the savior was yet to come .
Although written during the Twelfth dynasty , Ipuwer only survives from a Nineteenth dynasty papyrus . However , A man and his Ba is found on an original Twelfth dynasty papyrus , Papyrus Berlin 3024 . These two texts resemble other discourses in style , tone , and subject matter , although they are unique in that the fictional audiences are given very active roles in the exchange of dialogue . In Ipuwer , a sage addresses an unnamed king and his attendants , describing the miserable state of the land , which he blames on the king 's inability to uphold royal virtues . This can be seen either as a warning to kings or as a legitimization of the current dynasty , contrasting it with the supposedly turbulent period that preceded it . In A man and his Ba , a man recounts for an audience a conversation with his ba ( a component of the Egyptian soul ) on whether to continue living in despair or to seek death as an escape from misery .
= = = Poems , songs , hymns , and afterlife texts = = =
The funerary stone slab stela was first produced during the early Old Kingdom . Usually found in mastaba tombs , they combined raised @-@ relief artwork with inscriptions bearing the name of the deceased , their official titles ( if any ) , and invocations .
Funerary poems were thought to preserve a monarch 's soul in death . The Pyramid Texts are the earliest surviving religious literature incorporating poetic verse . These texts do not appear in tombs or pyramids originating before the reign of Unas ( r . 2375 – 2345 BC ) , who had the Pyramid of Unas built at Saqqara . The Pyramid Texts are chiefly concerned with the function of preserving and nurturing the soul of the sovereign in the afterlife . This aim eventually included safeguarding both the sovereign and his subjects in the afterlife . A variety of textual traditions evolved from the original Pyramid Texts : the Coffin Texts of the Middle Kingdom , the so @-@ called Book of the Dead , Litany of Ra , and Amduat written on papyri from the New Kingdom until the end of ancient Egyptian civilization .
Poems were also written to celebrate kingship . For example , at the Precinct of Amun @-@ Re at Karnak , Thutmose III ( r . 1479 – 1425 BC ) of the Eighteenth dynasty erected a stela commemorating his military victories in which the gods bless Thutmose in poetic verse and ensure for him victories over his enemies . In addition to stone stelas , poems have been found on wooden writing boards used by schoolboys . Besides the glorification of kings , poems were written to honor various deities , and even the Nile .
Surviving hymns and songs from the Old Kingdom include the morning greeting hymns to the gods in their respective temples . A cycle of Middle @-@ Kingdom songs dedicated to Senusret III ( r . 1878 – 1839 BC ) have been discovered at El @-@ Lahun . Erman considers these to be secular songs used to greet the pharaoh at Memphis , while Simpson considers them to be religious in nature but affirms that the division between religious and secular songs is not very sharp . The Harper 's Song , the lyrics found on a tombstone of the Middle Kingdom and on Papyrus Harris 500 from the New Kingdom , was to be performed for dinner guests at formal banquets .
During the reign of Akhenaten ( r . 1353 – 1336 BC ) , the Great Hymn to the Aten — preserved in tombs of Amarna , including the tomb of Ay — was written to the Aten , the sun @-@ disk deity given exclusive patronage during his reign . Simpson compares this composition 's wording and sequence of ideas to those of Psalm 104 .
Only a single poetic hymn in the Demotic script has been preserved . However , there are many surviving examples of Late @-@ Period Egyptian hymns written in hieroglyphs on temple walls .
No Egyptian love song has been dated from before the New Kingdom , these being written in Late Egyptian , although it is speculated that they existed in previous times . Erman compares the love songs to the Song of Songs , citing the labels " sister " and " brother " that lovers used to address each other .
= = = Private letters , model letters , and epistles = = =
The ancient Egyptian model letters and epistles are grouped into a single literary genre . Papyrus rolls sealed with mud stamps were used for long @-@ distance letters , while ostraca were frequently used to write shorter , non @-@ confidential letters sent to recipients located nearby . Letters of royal or official correspondence , originally written in hieratic , were sometimes given the exalted status of being inscribed on stone in hieroglyphs . The various texts written by schoolboys on wooden writing boards include model letters . Private letters could be used as epistolary model letters for schoolboys to copy , including letters written by their teachers or their families . However , these models were rarely featured in educational manuscripts ; instead fictional letters found in numerous manuscripts were used . The common epistolary formula used in these model letters was " The official A. saith to the scribe B " .
The oldest @-@ known private letters on papyrus were found in a funerary temple dating to the reign of Djedkare @-@ Izezi ( r . 2414 – 2375 BC ) of the Fifth dynasty . More letters are dated to the Sixth dynasty , when the epistle subgenre began . The educational text Book of Kemit , dated to the Eleventh dynasty , contains a list of epistolary greetings and a narrative with an ending in letter form and suitable terminology for use in commemorative biographies . Other letters of the early Middle Kingdom have also been found to use epistolary formulas similar to the Book of Kemit . The Heqanakht papyri , written by a gentleman farmer , date to the Eleventh dynasty and represent some of the lengthiest private letters known to have been written in ancient Egypt .
During the late Middle Kingdom , greater standardization of the epistolary formula can be seen , for example in a series of model letters taken from dispatches sent to the Semna fortress of Nubia during the reign of Amenemhat III ( r . 1860 – 1814 BC ) . Epistles were also written during all three dynasties of the New Kingdom . While letters to the dead had been written since the Old Kingdom , the writing of petition letters in epistolary form to deities began in the Ramesside Period , becoming very popular during the Persian and Ptolemaic periods .
The epistolary Satirical Letter of Papyrus Anastasi I written during the Nineteenth dynasty was a pedagogical and didactic text copied on numerous ostraca by schoolboys . Wente describes the versatility of this epistle , which contained " ... proper greetings with wishes for this life and the next , the rhetoric composition , interpretation of aphorisms in wisdom literature , application of mathematics to engineering problems and the calculation of supplies for an army , and the geography of western Asia " . Moreover , Wente calls this a " ... polemical tractate " that counsels against the rote , mechanical learning of terms for places , professions , and things ; for example , it is not acceptable to know just the place names of western Asia , but also important details about its topography and routes . To enhance the teaching , the text employs sarcasm and irony .
= = = Biographical and autobiographical texts = = =
Catherine Parke , Professor Emerita of English and Women 's Studies at the University of Missouri in Columbia , Missouri , writes that the earliest " commemorative inscriptions " belong to ancient Egypt and date to the 3rd millennium BC . She writes : " In ancient Egypt the formulaic accounts of Pharaoh 's lives praised the continuity of dynastic power . Although typically written in the first person , these pronouncements are public , general testimonials , not personal utterances . " She adds that as in these ancient inscriptions , the human urge to " ... celebrate , commemorate , and immortalize , the impulse of life against death " , is the aim of biographies written today .
Olivier Perdu , a professor of Egyptology at the Collège de France , states that biographies did not exist in ancient Egypt , and that commemorative writing should be considered autobiographical . Edward L. Greenstein , Professor of Bible at the Tel Aviv University and Bar @-@ Ilan University , disagrees with Perdu 's terminology , stating that the ancient world produced no " autobiographies " in the modern sense , and these should be distinguished from ' autobiographical ' texts of the ancient world . However , both Perdu and Greenstein assert that autobiographies of the ancient Near East should not be equated with the modern concept of autobiography .
In her discussion of the Ecclesiastes of the Hebrew Bible , Jennifer Koosed , associate professor of Religion at Albright College , explains that there is no solid consensus among scholars as to whether true biographies or autobiographies existed in the ancient world . One of the major scholarly arguments against this theory is that the concept of individuality did not exist until the European Renaissance , prompting Koosed to write " ... thus autobiography is made a product of European civilization : Augustine begat Rosseau begat Henry Adams , and so on " . Koosed asserts that the use of first @-@ person " I " in ancient Egyptian commemorative funerary texts should not be taken literally since the supposed author is already dead . Funerary texts should be considered biographical instead of autobiographical . Koosed cautions that the term " biography " applied to such texts is problematic , since they also usually describe the deceased person 's experiences of journeying through the afterlife .
Beginning with the funerary stelas for officials of the late Third dynasty , small amounts of biographical detail were added next to the deceased men 's titles . However , it was not until the Sixth dynasty that narratives of the lives and careers of government officials were inscribed . Tomb biographies became more detailed during the Middle Kingdom , and included information about the deceased person 's family . The vast majority of autobiographical texts are dedicated to scribal bureaucrats , but during the New Kingdom some were dedicated to military officers and soldiers . Autobiographical texts of the Late Period place a greater stress upon seeking help from deities than acting righteously to succeed in life . Whereas earlier autobiographical texts exclusively dealt with celebrating successful lives , Late Period autobiographical texts include laments for premature death , similar to the epitaphs of ancient Greece .
= = = Decrees , chronicles , king lists , and histories = = =
Modern historians consider that some biographical — or autobiographical — texts are important historical documents . For example , the biographical stelas of military generals in tomb chapels built under Thutmose III provide much of the information known about the wars in Syria and Palestine . However , the annals of Thutmose III , carved into the walls of several monuments built during his reign , such as those at Karnak , also preserve information about these campaigns . The annals of Ramesses II ( r . 1279 – 1213 BC ) , recounting the Battle of Kadesh against the Hittites include , for the first time in Egyptian literature , a narrative epic poem , distinguished from all earlier poetry , which served to celebrate and instruct .
Other documents useful for investigating Egyptian history are ancient lists of kings found in terse chronicles , such as the Fifth dynasty Palermo stone . These documents legitimated the contemporary pharaoh 's claim to sovereignty . Throughout ancient Egyptian history , royal decrees recounted the deeds of ruling pharaohs . For example , the Nubian pharaoh Piye ( r . 752 – 721 BC ) , founder of the Twenty @-@ fifth dynasty , had a stela erected and written in classical Middle Egyptian that describes with unusual nuances and vivid imagery his successful military campaigns .
An Egyptian historian , known by his Greek name as Manetho ( c . 3rd century BC ) , was the first to compile a comprehensive history of Egypt . Manetho was active during the reign of Ptolemy II ( r . 283 – 246 BC ) and used The Histories by the Greek Herodotus ( c . 484 BC – c . 425 BC ) as his main source of inspiration for a history of Egypt written in Greek . However , the primary sources for Manetho 's work were the king list chronicles of previous Egyptian dynasties .
= = = Tomb and temple graffiti = = =
Fischer @-@ Elfert distinguishes ancient Egyptian graffiti writing as a literary genre . During the New Kingdom , scribes who traveled to ancient sites often left graffiti messages on the walls of sacred mortuary temples and pyramids , usually in commemoration of these structures . Modern scholars do not consider these scribes to have been mere tourists , but pilgrims visiting sacred sites where the extinct cult centers could be used for communicating with the gods . There is evidence from an educational ostracon found in the tomb of Senenmut ( TT71 ) that formulaic graffiti writing was practiced in scribal schools . In one graffiti message , left at the mortuary temple of Thutmose III at Deir el @-@ Bahri , a modified saying from The Maxims of Ptahhotep is incorporated into a prayer written on the temple wall . Scribes usually wrote their graffiti in separate clusters to distinguish their graffiti from others ' . This led to competition among scribes , who would sometimes denigrate the quality of graffiti inscribed by others , even ancestors from the scribal profession .
= = Legacy , translation and interpretation = =
After the Copts converted to Christianity in the first centuries AD , their Coptic Christian literature became separated from the pharaonic and Hellenistic literary traditions . Nevertheless , scholars speculate that ancient Egyptian literature , perhaps in oral form , influenced Greek and Arabic literature . Parallels are drawn between the Egyptian soldiers sneaking into Jaffa hidden in baskets to capture the city in the story Taking of Joppa and the Mycenaean Greeks sneaking into Troy inside the Trojan Horse . The Taking of Joppa has also been compared to the Arabic story of Ali Baba in One Thousand and One Nights . It has been conjectured that Sinbad the Sailor may have been inspired by the pharaonic Tale of the shipwrecked sailor . Some Egyptian literature was commented on by scholars of the ancient world . For example , the Jewish Roman historian Josephus ( 37 – c . 100 AD ) quoted and provided commentary on Manetho 's historical texts .
The most recently carved hieroglyphic inscription of ancient Egypt known today is found in a temple of Philae , dated precisely to 394 AD during the reign of Theodosius I ( r . 379 – 395 AD ) . In the 4th century AD , the Hellenized Egyptian Horapollo compiled a survey of almost two hundred Egyptian hieroglyphs and provided his interpretation of their meanings , although his understanding was limited and he was unaware of the phonetic uses of each hieroglyph . This survey was apparently lost until 1415 , when the Italian Cristoforo Buondelmonti acquired it at the island of Andros . Athanasius Kircher ( 1601 – 1680 ) was the first in Europe to realize that Coptic was a direct linguistic descendant of ancient Egyptian . In his Oedipus Aegyptiacus , he made the first concerted European effort to interpret the meaning of Egyptian hieroglyphs , albeit based on symbolic inferences .
It was not until 1799 , with the Napoleonic discovery of a trilingual ( i.e. hieroglyphic , Demotic , Greek ) stela inscription on the Rosetta Stone , that modern scholars were able to decipher ancient Egyptian literature . The first major effort to translate the hieroglyphs of the Rosetta Stone was made by Jean @-@ François Champollion ( 1790 – 1832 ) in 1822 . The earliest translation efforts of Egyptian literature during the 19th century were attempts to confirm Biblical events .
Before the 1970s , scholarly consensus was that ancient Egyptian literature — although sharing similarities with modern literary categories — was not an independent discourse , uninfluenced by the ancient sociopolitical order . However , from the 1970s onwards , a growing number of historians and literary scholars have questioned this theory . While scholars before the 1970s treated ancient Egyptian literary works as viable historical sources that accurately reflected the conditions of this ancient society , scholars now caution against this approach . Scholars are increasingly using a multifaceted hermeneutic approach to the study of individual literary works , in which not only the style and content , but also the cultural , social and historical context of the work are taken into account . Individual works can then be used as case studies for reconstructing the main features of ancient Egyptian literary discourse .
= Music of Barbados =
The music of Barbados includes distinctive national styles of folk and popular music , including elements of Western classical and religious music . The culture of Barbados is a syncretic mix of African and British elements , and the island 's music reflects this mix through song types and styles , instrumentation , dances , and aesthetic principles .
Barbadian folk traditions include the Landship movement , which is a satirical , informal organization based on the British navy , tea meetings , tuk bands and numerous traditional songs and dances . In modern Barbados , popular styles include calypso , spouge , contemporary folk and world music . Barbados is , along with Guadeloupe , Martinique , Trinidad , Cuba , Puerto Rico , and the Virgin Islands , one of the few centers for Caribbean jazz .
= = Characteristics and musical identity = =
Bajan culture is syncretic , and the island 's musical culture is perceived as a mixture of African and British musics , with certain unique elements that may derive from indigenous sources . Tension between African and British culture has long been a major element of Bajan history , and has included the banning of certain African @-@ derived practices and black Barbadian parodies of British traditions . Simple entertainment is the basis for most Barbadians ' participation in music and dance activities , though religious and other functional musics also occur . Barbadian folk culture declined in importance in the 20th century , but then rekindled in the 1970s , when many Barbadians became interested in their national culture and history . This change was heralded by the arrival of spouge , a popular national genre that reflects Barbadian heritage and African origins ; spouge helped kindle a resurgence in national pride , and became viewed as Barbados ' answer to the popular Caribbean genres reggae and calypso from Jamaica and Trinidad , respectively .
The religious music of the Barbadian Christian churches plays an important role in Barbadian musical identity , especially in urban areas . Many distinctive Barbadian musical and other cultural traditions derive from parodies of Anglican church hymns and British military drills . The British military performed drills to both provide security for the island 's population , as well as intimidate slaves . Modern Barbadian tea meetings , tuk bands , the Landship tradition and many folk songs come from slaves parodying the practices of white authorities . British @-@ Barbadians used music for cultural and intellectual enrichment and to feel a sense of kinship and connection with the British Isles through the maintenance of British musical forms . Plantation houses featured music as entertainment at balls , dances and other gatherings . For Afro @-@ Barbadians , drum , vocal and dance music was an integral part of everyday life , and songs and performance practices were created for normal , everyday events , as well as special celebrations like Whitsuntide , Christmas , Easter , Landship and Crop Over . These songs remain a part of Barbadian culture and form a rich folk repertoire .
Western classical music is the most socially accepted form of musical expression for Barbadians in Bridgetown , including a variety of vocal music , chamber and orchestral music , and piano and violin . Along with hymns , oratorios , cantatas and other religious music , chamber music of the Western tradition remains an important part of Barbadian music through an integral role in the services of the Anglican church .
= = History = =
Though inhabited prior to the 16th century , little is known about Barbadian music before the arrival of the Portuguese in 1536 and then the English in 1627 . The Portuguese left little influence , but English culture and music helped shape the island 's heritage . Irish and Scottish settlers emigrated in the 17th century , working in the tobacco industry , bringing still more new music to the island . The middle of the 17th century saw the decline of the tobacco industry and the rise of sugarcane , as well as the introduction of large numbers of African slaves . Brazilian exiles however , along with sugarcane introduced Samba to the island which featured a mixture of Latin music with African influences which soon developed into Soca @-@ Samba which is indigenous to Barbados . Modern Barbadian music is thus largely a combination of English and African elements , with Irish , Scottish , and modern American and Caribbean ( especially Jamaican ) influences as well .
By the 19th century , the Barbadian colonialists grew to fear slave revolts , and specifically , the use of music as a tool of communication and planning for revolution . As a result , the government passed laws to restrict musical activities among slaves . At the same time , American and other forms of imported music were brought to Barbados , while many important elements of modern Barbadian music , like tuk bands , also emerged . In the 20th century , many new styles were imported to Barbados , most influentially including jazz , ska , reggae , calypso and soca . Barbados became home to many performers of these new genres , especially soca and calypso , while the island also produced an indigenous style called spouge , which became an important symbol of Barbadian identity .
= = Folk music = =
Barbadian culture and music are mixtures of European and African elements , with minimal influence from the indigenous peoples of the island , about whom little is known . Significant numbers of Asian , specifically Chinese and Japanese , people have moved to Barbados , but their music is unstudied and has had little impact on Barbadian music .
The earliest reference to Afro @-@ Barbadian music may come from a description of a slave rebellion , in which the rebels were inspired to fight by music played on skin drums , conch trumpets and animal horns . Slavery continued , however , and the colonial and slaveowning authorities eventually outlawed musical instruments among slaves . By the end of the 17th century , a distinctly Barbadian folk culture developed , based around influences and instruments from Africa , Britain and other Caribbean islands .
Early Barbadian folk music , despite legal restrictions , was a major part of life among the island 's slave population . For the slaves , music was " essential for recreation and dancing and as a part of the life cycle for communication and religious meaning " . African musicians also provided the music for the white landowners ' private parties , while the slaves developed their own party music , culminating in the crop over festival , which began in 1688 . The earliest crop over festivals featured dancing and call @-@ and @-@ response singing accompanied by shak @-@ shak , banjo , bones and bottles containing varying amounts of water .
= = = Folk song = = =
Barbadian traditional folk songs are heavily influenced by the music of England . Many traditional songs concern events current at the time of their composition , such as the emancipation of the slaves of Barbados , and the coronations of Victoria , George V , and Elizabeth II ; this song tradition dates back to 1650 . The most influential Barbadian folk songs are associated with the island 's lower @-@ class laborers , who have held on to their folk heritage .
Some Barbadian songs and stories made their way back to England , most famously " Inckle the English Sailor " and " Yarico the Indian Maid " , which became English plays and an opera by George Coleman with music by Samuel Arnold , and first performed in London in 1787 .
Contemporary Barbadian folk songs , especially through the pioneering albums of author and singer @-@ songwriter Anthony Kellman , show a bold fusion of indigenous rhythms such as tuk and calypso with African , Latin , jazz , pop , and East Indian influences . Kellman 's songs such as " Mountain " ( from 2000 album " Wings of A Stranger " ) ; " King Jaja " and " My Dog , Your Dog " ( from 2005 album " Limestone " ) ; and " If You See My Girl " and " Tuk , Tabla , and Fedounoum " ( from 2009 album Blood Mates ) , exemplify his eclectic style . More than any of his contemporaries , Kellman , through his songs , poems , and novels , demonstrates what it means to be Barbadian through a hybrid mix of African and European cultural elements . ≤ [ 25 ]
= = = Dance = = =
Barbadian folk dances include a wide variety of styles , performed at Landship , holidays and other occasions . Dancers and other performers at the crop over festivals , for example , are popular and an iconic part of Barbadian culture , known for dancing in the costumes of sugarcane @-@ cutters . The Landship movement features song and dance meant to imitate the passage of a British navy ship through rough seas ; Landship and other occasions also feature African @-@ derived improvised and complexly @-@ rhythmic dances , and British hornpipes , jigs , maypole dances and Marches .
The Jean and Johnnie dance was an important part of Barbadian culture until it was banned in the 19th century . This was a popular fertility dance performed outdoors at plantation fairs and other festivals , and was functional in that it allowed women to show off to men , and more rarely , vice versa . The dance was eventually banned because the dance was associated with non @-@ Christian African traditions .
= = = Instrumentation = = =
The Barbadian folk tradition is home to a great variety of musical instruments , imported from Africa , Great Britain or other Caribbean islands . The most central instrument group in Barbadian culture is the percussion instruments . These include numerous drums , among them the pump and the tum tum , made from a hollowed @-@ out tree trunk , the side snare drum and a double @-@ headed bass drum of tuk bands . Folk musicians also use gongs made from tree trunks , bones , rook jaw , triangle , cymbals , bottles filled with water , and xylophones . Rattles are also widespread , and include the pan @-@ Antillean shak @-@ shak and the calabash , de shot and rattle . More recently imported folk percussion instruments include the conga and bongo from Puerto Rico , Dominican Republic and Cuba , and the tambourine .
String and wind instruments play an important role in Barbadian folk culture , especially the bow @-@ fiddle , banjo and acoustic guitar ; more modern groups also use an electric and bass guitar . The shukster is a distinctive instrument , made by stretching a guitar string between two sides of a house . Traditional Barbadian wind instruments are largely metal , but in their folk origins , were made out of locally found materials . Barbadian villagers burned fingerholes , for example , on bamboo tubes , made trumpets out of conch shells and pipes from pumpkin vines . Many modern groups use harmonica , accordion , alto and tenor saxophone , trumpet and trombone .
= = = Religious music = = =
Though Western classical and other musics play an important role in Anglican church services on Barbados , religion and folk music are closely intertwined in the everyday lives of most Barbadians . The basis for religious folk music is the Anglican hymn , a kind of praise song mostly sung on Sundays , a day when Christian Barbadians come together with family members to sing and praise God to ask for strength for the next week 's work .
Pentecostal music has become a part of Barbadian religious and musical traditions since the 1920s . Music plays a role in Pentecostal ceremonies , and is provided by emotional and improvised performances accompanied tambourines . In addition to the Anglican and Pentecostal traditions , Rastafarian music has spread to the island in more recent years , along with African American musical forms , especially gospel , and the Spiritual Baptist religion , which derives from the Trinidadian Shango cult that spread to Barbados in the 1960s . One of the more Internationally known religious | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
km ( 205 mi ) west of Réunion . Increased wind shear caused the system to weaken as it turned back to the west , dissipating over Madagascar on January 24 . On Réunion , the system dropped about 100 mm ( 4 in ) of rainfall , including a total of 50 mm ( 2 in ) falling in a 90 minute period in Cape Bernard .
On January 23 , a weak tropical low began affecting Mozambique for two days , causing flooding that killed six people . Although newspaper sources indicated that the system was a tropical storm , it remained unclassified by MFR .
Toward the end of January , a broad low persisted south of the Chagos archipelago , becoming a tropical disturbance on January 30 about 650 km ( 400 mi ) south of Diego Garcia . The convection gradually organized as the system moved to the south @-@ southwest , steered by a break in the ridge to the south caused by the remnants of Cyclone Charly . Initially the circulation was very broad , and due to its involvement with the monsoon , it resembled a monsoon depression . Early on February 1 , the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression while turning more to the south . Around that time , it passed about 500 km ( 310 mi ) east of Rodrigues . The system became extratropical on February 3 , after increased wind shear weakened the convection . The former depression intensified as an extratropical storm , attaining gale force winds while accelerating its forward motion due to an approaching trough . The system was no longer tracked after February 6 as it approached the polar latitudes .
On April 17 , a weak low exited from the coast of South Africa and moved southeastward over the warm waters of the southern Mozambique Channel . By April 19 , it had organized into a subtropical depression and produced gale force winds . The MFR did not classify the system , however , due to it being located from 33 – 35 ° S , which was outside of the agency 's area of warning responsibility at the time .
= = Storm names = =
A tropical disturbance is named when it reaches moderate tropical storm strength . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status west of 55 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status between 55 ° E and 90 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Mauritius assigns the appropriate name to the storm . A new annual list is used every year so no names are retired .
= = Contemporaneous seasons = =
List of Southern Hemisphere tropical cyclone seasons
Atlantic hurricane seasons : 2000 , 2001
Pacific hurricane seasons : 2000 , 2001
Pacific typhoon seasons : 2000 , 2001
North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons : 2000 , 2001
= Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801 =
Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801 was an international charter flight that , on 29 August 1996 at 10 : 22 : 23 Central European Summer Time , crashed in Operafjellet , Svalbard , Norway . All 141 people aboard the Tupolev Tu @-@ 154M were killed during the approach to Svalbard Airport , Longyear , making it the deadliest aviation accident ever in Norway . The accident was the result of a series of small navigational errors causing the aircraft to be 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) from the approach centerline at the time of impact . The accident was investigated by the Accident Investigation Board Norway with assistance from the Interstate Aviation Committee and became known as the Operafjell Accident ( Norwegian : Operafjell @-@ ulykken ) .
The Vnukovo Airlines aircraft , registration number RA @-@ 85621 , was chartered by Arktikugol , a Russian state owned coal mining company , to fly Russian and Ukrainian workers from Vnukovo International Airport in Moscow , Russia to Svalbard Airport , Longyear in Longyearbyen , Norway . The passengers all belonged to the Russian communities of Barentsburg and Pyramiden . The fatalities included 11 crew members and 130 passengers , of which 3 were children . The accident was a contributing cause for Arktikugol 's closure of Pyramiden two years later . After the accident , there were a series of lawsuits to determine the compensations to the victims ' families .
= = History = =
= = = Flight = = =
Flight 2801 was a chartered flight flown by Vnukovo Airlines on behalf of Arktikugol , which operated mines at the two company towns of Barentsburg and Pyramiden in Svalbard . The aircraft was a Tupolev Tu @-@ 154M , with registration RA @-@ 85621 , serial number 86A 742 and date of manufacture 14 January 1987 . The flight consisted of a crew of eleven , including a cockpit crew of four ( two aircraft pilots , one engineer and one navigator ) , a cabin crew of five and two technicians . The pilot in command ( PiC ) had previously landed at Svalbard Airport ; the first officer had not and was the piloting pilot .
On board were 130 passengers , of whom 3 were children , consisting of Arktikugol employees and their families . Waiting at the airport for the return flight were 120 other employees and their families . The aircraft left Vnukovo Airport at 04 : 44 Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC ) or 08 : 44 Moscow Summer Time . Estimated flight time was 3 hours and 30 minutes , and alternative airports were Murmansk Airport and Severomorsk @-@ 3 , both in Murmansk Oblast , Russia . The flight proceeded normally until descent , following the routing W 29 from Moscow to Padun ( west of Murmansk ) , before crossing to Bodø Flight Information Region over the Barents Sea cruising at FL 350 at an average airspeed of 500 kilometres per hour ( 310 mph ) . It then proceeded over Bjørnøya non @-@ directional beacon ( NDB ) , Isfjord NDB and Advent NDB .
The weather at the accident area was dominated by a low pressure trough , giving rain showers and wind from 15 to 30 knots ( 28 to 56 km / h ; 17 to 35 mph ) at 240 – 270 ° . Visibility exceeded 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) . Between 08 : 00 and 09 : 00 , a weak trough passed , reducing visibility to 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) and a cloud base at 400 to 450 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 to 1 @,@ 500 ft ) .
Svalbard Airport , Longyear , is the main airport serving the Svalbard archipelago . It is located on the south shore of Isfjord , with high terrain to the south , southeast and east . It has a single , 10 / 28 runway ( roughly east – west ) which is 2 @,@ 140 metres ( 7 @,@ 020 ft ) long . The airport has an elevation of 28 metres ( 92 ft ) above mean sea level ( MSL ) , and has an aerodrome flight information service ( AFIS ) , which is subordinate Bodø Air Traffic Control Center ( Bodø ATCC ) . The airport is regarded as uncontrolled and does not provide approach service . On that day , all aircraft had used Runway 28 , due to favorable wind conditions , climb @-@ up conditions and short distance from the terminal .
= = = Accident = = =
At 07 : 55 UTC ( 09 : 55 local Central European Summer Time , CEST ) , the crew requested clearance to start descent . Because of lack of communication with Bodø ATCC , this was not obtained . At 07 : 56 , information from Longyear AFIS was given that there was no conflicting traffic , allowing a descent to 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 6 @,@ 000 ft ) MSL . The crew tried to request use of Runway 10 , but this was , due to language problems , not understood as such by AFIS . Instead , Longyear communicated the actual weather and informed that Runway 28 was in use . An additional request for use of Runway 10 was again not understood , because of the misunderstanding of the term " runway in use " . Because of this , the crew decided to instead use Runway 28 .
The crew used Jeppesen charts dated 21 January 1994 . According to procedures , both horizontal situation indicators ( HSI ) were set to 283 ° , but the magnetic localizer course of 300 ° was not set . A global positioning system ( GPS ) was used as a back @-@ up . No requests were made for VHF direction finding . From 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 10 @,@ 000 ft ) MSL until impact , the flight was carried out in instrument meteorological conditions ( IMC ) and the flight controlled by automatic stabilization mode , with lateral navigation controlled by the navigator .
At 08 : 10 UTC , the aircraft reached 1 @,@ 524 metres ( 5 @,@ 000 ft ) MSL , which is the minimum altitude to Advent and the initial approach altitude . At 08 : 15 : 32 UTC , it reached Advent and entered a base turn , reaching a magnetic heading of 160 ° at 08 : 16 : 28 UTC . While the crew had adjusted for the wind drift , they did not attempt to intercept the magnetic course 155 ° outbound from Advent . During this turn , there was a malfunction in the electric trimming mechanism , which caused the piloting pilot to deactivate the aircraft flight control systems ' servogear in the pitch channel at 08 : 15 : 58 . This was again activated at 08 : 16 : 42 UTC .
At 08 : 17 : 08 UTC , the crew started the turn to bring the aircraft to 300 ° magnetic inbound , however , the lateral deviation from the outbound magnetic course was 155 ° , or 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) to the left . At 08 : 17 : 57 UTC , the navigator said " Ah , abeam eight miles 2801 inbound " , to which AFIS replied two seconds later " Correct " . This was the last radio communication between the crew and Longyear . At 08 : 18 : 30 UTC , the piloting pilot turned off the autopilot pitch channel . For the rest of the flight , the plane continued with autopilot only in roll .
Following the aircraft passing through the localizer centerline and having rolled out on 290 ° , there was a discussion among the crew if the turn had been made at the right time . The initial comment about this was made by the first officer at 08 : 19 : 06 UTC . This resulted in a roll out of the turn to final approach and corrective turn to magnetic heading 306 ° . At this time , the aircraft was 27 @.@ 4 nautical miles ( 50 @.@ 7 km ; 31 @.@ 5 mi ) from the airport and 2 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) right of the centerline at 1 @,@ 520 metres ( 5 @,@ 000 ft ) MSL with an airspeed of 330 kilometres per hour ( 210 mph ) . Instead of intercepting the centerline , the crew continued to track on the right side , nearly paralleling the localizer course .
At 08 : 20 : 17 UTC , the pilot in command ordered the aircraft turned to 291 ° , which adjusted for drift resulted in a course close to 300 ° . At this time , the aircraft had a lateral deviation from the approach centerline of 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) . The aircraft started descending at 08 : 20 : 24 UTC . A corrective turn was made at 08 : 21 : 13 UTC and completed 11 seconds later at magnetic heading 300 ° . At the time , the aircraft was descending 5 to 7 metres per second ( 16 to 23 ft / s ) . The aircraft started turning left at 08 : 22 : 05 UTC , and immediately entered an area of turbulence created by the surrounding mountains .
During initial approach , the radio altimeter warning had been activated several times , which indicated less than 750 metres ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) from the aircraft to the terrain . During final approach , the ground proximity warning system was activated nine seconds before impact , which lasted until impact . Six seconds before impact , the radio altimeter warning was activated . At 08 : 22 : 23 UTC ( 10 : 22 : 23 local CEST ) the aircraft collided with the top of Operafjellet at 907 metres ( 2 @,@ 976 ft ) elevation , located 14 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 8 mi ) from Svalbard Airport and 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) right of the approach centerline . The aircraft was destroyed and all occupants perished instantly . It is the single deadliest plane crash to have occurred on Norwegian soil .
= = = Recovery = = =
The Joint Rescue Coordination Centre of Northern Norway received a message about the crash at 10 : 30 CEST ( 8 : 30 UTC ) and the search and rescue service was immediately deployed . This included seven Norwegian aircraft that were in the area . The area had bad weather with a low cloud height , resulting in difficult searching conditions . The aircraft was found at 12 : 06 CEST at Operafjellet , 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) east of Svalbard Airport . Most of the aircraft was located on the mountain 's plateau , although some debris had slid down a vertical cliff and was scattered along the valley and partially covered by an avalanche . Rescue workers and medics from Longyearbyen Hospital arrived at 12 : 36 , and quickly established that there were no survivors .
The responsibility of the recovery was transferred to the Governor of Svalbard on 30 August , since there were no survivors . In addition , police personnel from the mainland were transferred to Svalbard to work with the investigation and recovery . The work was supplemented by local volunteers . Because of the bad weather , which included fog and snow , it was often impossible to transport workers to the plateau , and work therefore started in the valley .
Governor Ann @-@ Kristin Olsen traveled to Barentsburg on 30 August to inform the communities about the accident , and distributed ample written information in Russian about the then @-@ known details about the crash . Later in the day , a Russian aircraft arrived with Deputy Minister Aleksandr Petrovich of the Ministry of Emergency Situations along with a team of 11 rescue workers , and representatives from the Interstate Aviation Committee ( IAC ) , the Embassy of Ukraine in Moscow , the Federal Air Transport Agency and Vnukovo Airlines . In a meeting that evening , the Governor accepted Russia assistance , while it was confirmed by international agreement that the investigation would be led by the authorities in the country where the accident occurred , Norway . On 31 August , Minister of Justice Grete Faremo visited the Russian settlements as a representative from the Government of Norway .
The accident had a large impact on the community , with only 1 @,@ 600 people living in the two Russian settlements . The population in the communities do not speak Norwegian , and do not have a road connection to Longyearbyen . This made it difficult for the Governor to give accurate and detailed information . Issues were further complicated by erroneous reports in Russian media that there were five survivors . The Governor 's cabin in Barentsburg was manned during the aftermath , and bulletins were distributed with updated information in Russian . The accident was one of the triggers causing Aktikugol to abandon Pyramiden in 1998 .
= = Investigation = =
Agreements between Norwegian and Russian authorities were made on 31 August , where Norway resumed full responsibility for the recovery and investigation , but Russian help was accepted . To allow the Russian workers access from the morning of 1 September , the crew was allowed to fly in and establish a base camp , but no work was to be done until Norwegian supervisors arrived in the morning . However , two people were observed at the wreck at about 20 : 00 CEST , who were brought to the Governor 's offices for questioning . As they were both members of the Russian team , it was decided that the base would be disbanded .
There was still fog on the plateau on 1 September , but by 15 : 00 CEST it was possible to fly a team there by helicopter . Because the fog stayed , the team retained work until 03 : 00 CEST in the night . In the following days , the fog lifted , making work and transport easier . By 5 September , all bodies had been recovered and the work at the plateau could be terminated . The recovery in the valley was completed two days later . The accident resulted in about 40 journalists staying in Svalbard to cover the story . The Norwegian authority 's costs related to the investigation and other activities related to the accident were estimated at 30 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) .
All identification of people was performed in Tromsø , as a cooperation between Troms Police District , National Criminal Investigation Service and the University Hospital of North Norway . By 18 September , all people had been identified , and the bodies were transported to Russia and Ukraine on 20 September after a short memorial in Tromsøhallen . An autopsy was performed on all crew members , without finding any abnormalities .
The official responsibility for investigating the incident lay with the Air Accident Investigation Board / Norway ( AAIB / N ) , although the investigation and report was a close cooperation with the Interstate Aviation Committee and to a lesser extent , the Federal Air Transport Agency . AAIB / N had the primary responsibility for investigations at the crash site , cooperation with the Norwegian police and the Norwegian Civil Aviation Administration , and writing the report . IAC was responsible for handling the investigations in Russia , the reading of the cockpit voice recorder , the flight data recorder , the relationship with Vnukovo Airlines and a test flight . Both agencies agreed that English was to be the language of the final report ; English is one of the ICAO languages .
= = = Cause = = =
The official investigation concluded that the flight , regarded as a controlled flight into terrain , was caused by pilot errors and that there was no fault with the aircraft . Contributing factors causing the accident were lack of a procedure for offset localizer approach for setting approach course on the HSIs . Thus , both HSIs were set incorrectly , which along with the course deviation indicator hinted that the plane was being blown to the left and needed to adjust course to the right . Because he was in a stressed situation , the navigator set the GPS in the wrong mode . He also did not have sufficient time to recheck his work , allowing mistakes to happen , and his work was not monitored by the pilots . As the navigator was overworked , it was inappropriate for the first officer to transfer the responsibility of lateral control to him .
The AFIS air controller has a different role in Norway than in Russia , and the crew were not aware that they were being given information and advice , rather than orders . Communication with AFIS was left with the navigator , which is a breach of norms . Communication between air control and the crew was problematic , since the crew lacked sufficient English skills . The pilot in command had insufficient crew resource management . After the crew decided to carry out the approach to Runway 28 , a new approach briefing was not accomplished . The aircraft overshot the approach centerline when turning inbound , because they did not try to intercept the outbound track from Advent . The crew showed a lack of situational awareness following their uncertainty of the aircraft position in relation to LLZ 28 , caused by indications on the HSIs .
Situational awareness was also reduced because the pilots did not have a chart in front of them at all times . The crew was not aware that they could check the aircraft location in relation to the centerline with a VDF . The crew probably put too much emphasis on the indications displayed by the GPS . The aircraft descended into mountainous terrain without control over the lateral navigation . Despite uncertainty and disagreement in the group , the approach was not abandoned , as the aircraft should have climbed to a safe altitude while the problem was solved .
= = Aftermath = =
On 20 September , the surviving relatives of each decedent received 2 million Russian rubles about US $ 40 @,@ 000 for each person who died in the accident . Ukrainian relatives stated to Norwegian media that they had not received information about the cause and other issues surrounding the accident . At the time , Ukraine was experiencing very high unemployment , and Arktikugol offered wages many times what was then offered in mainland Ukraine . Many miners not only had to support their immediate family , but also relatives . Vnukovo Airlines stated on Ukrainian television that the relatives would receive US $ 20 @,@ 000 per deceased person . About a year after the accident , all relatives had been offered US $ 20 @,@ 000 , but about two @-@ thirds of them chose not to accept the amount , and instead started a process to sue the insurance company . Their lawyer , Gunnar Nerdrum , stated that according to both Norwegian and Russian law , they could demand at least US $ 140 @,@ 000 .
In February 1998 , the Norwegian Ministry of Justice stated that the relatives did not have a right to occupational injury compensation from the Norwegian National Insurance . Because of the Svalbard Treaty , the archipelago is an economic free zone and Arktikugol is exempt from paying social insurance , so its employees did not have a right to Norwegian benefits . Had this been the case , widows would have received about NOK 600 @,@ 000 per worker . By 1998 , a few of the relatives had accepted the US $ 20 @,@ 000 compensation , while the rest of them were planning to sue both the airline 's insurance company and Arktikugol . Among the issues in the case , which took place at Nord @-@ Troms District Court , was whether the accident was to be considered a working accident , and thus result in injury compensation from the mining company . In November , it was decided that the Ukrainians needed to make a guarantee for NOK 2 @.@ 5 million to run the case , which they could not afford . They therefore had no alternative than to accept the proposal from the insurance company . In June 1999 , the parties agreed on a settlement , where the compensation was not disclosed to the public . It was later disclosed that the settlement was about three times the initial offer from the insurance company . In 1999 , the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs established a scholarship to help children who lost a parent in the accident to take senior secondary and tertiary education .
= Alapalooza =
Alapalooza is the eighth studio album by " Weird Al " Yankovic , released in 1993 . By the completion of his previous album , Off the Deep End , Yankovic had already written all of the original songs that he planned to use on his next release . This new album , which would eventually be titled Alapalooza in reference to the music festival Lollapalooza , consisted of seven original songs and five parodies . It produced three parody singles : " Jurassic Park " , " Bedrock Anthem " , and " Achy Breaky Song " . " Jurassic Park " was a top five hit on the Canadian magazine The Record 's single chart .
Among the album 's original creations were " Talk Soup " , a tune originally intended to replace the theme song of the television show of the same name , and " Harvey the Wonder Hamster " , a oft @-@ requested jingle from one of Yankovic 's Al TV specials . A music video compilation , entitled Alapalooza : the Videos , was released the following year and contained four videos , only two of which were from its eponymous album . One of the videos , the one for " Jurassic Park " , was animated entirely in the style of claymation and received a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video at the 37th Grammy Awards , losing to " Love Is Strong " from The Rolling Stones .
Alapalooza met with average to negative reception upon its release , with some critics commenting that the album seemed hurried and out of touch with contemporary music . The video offering received a similarly lukewarm response . Nonetheless the album was certified " gold " in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America by the end of the year , peaking at number 46 on the Billboard 200 , and went " double platinum " in Canada .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Yankovic 's 1992 album Off the Deep End , his best @-@ selling album since 1984 's " Weird Al " Yankovic in 3 @-@ D , had revived his career and displayed his " credibility as an evolving artist " after the commercial failures of his 1986 work Polka Party ! and his feature film UHF . By the time production for Off the Deep End was nearing completion , Yankovic had already written all of the original songs that would be eventually included on Alapalooza . Fearing that his track " I Was Only Kidding " would be outdated by the time of his next album , he rearranged Off the Deep End to allow for the song to be released with the album , saving " Waffle King " for Alapalooza . Nevertheless , " Waffle King " was released as a B @-@ side to Off the Deep End 's " Smells Like Nirvana " single , " just in case there wasn 't going to be a next album . " He recorded all of the album 's original songs , except " Talk Soup " and " Harvey the Wonder Hamster " , by the end of 1992 and , in July 1993 , recorded all of Alapalooza 's remaining tracks , aside from " Livin ' In The Fridge " . Yankovic eventually decided to title his new album Alapalooza , a reference to the Lollapalooza music festival . The Yankovic dinosaur in the album 's booklet was designed by David Peters , who had worked previously with the singer on the " Dare to Be Stupid " video .
Alapalooza was released on October 5 , 1993 in the United States . Globally , some versions included a notice distinguishing it from the official Jurassic Park film soundtrack , as the two cover designs were similar . The Japanese edition contained a bonus track of Yankovic singing " Jurassic Park " in Japanese . A music video compilation for the album , entitled Alapalooza : the Videos , was released in February 1994 and contained four videos , only two of which ( Jurassic Park and Bedrock Anthem ) were from Alapalooza .
= = = Originals = = =
Alapalooza contains seven original songs among its twelve tracks , although " Young , Dumb & Ugly " and " Frank 's 2000 " TV " were meant to be stylistic parodies of AC / DC and the early work of R.E.M. , respectively . For the former , Yankovic wanted to parody the heavy metal music genre while at the same time avoiding a repetition of what had already been done by Spinal Tap . He ended up disliking the final product because he sang it " in a register that was really too high for [ his ] singing voice " . The latter was a song about consumerism and modern electronics that described the neighborhood 's envy of the eponymous character 's new television .
The song " Talk Soup " , which is about a man who desires to go on television to tell the world about his strange life , was originally commissioned as a new theme for the E ! Entertainment Television show of the same name . Although the producers approved the lyrics and enjoyed the final result , they decided against using it . " Waffle King " , the track that had been intended for Off the Deep End , was written as " a song about a guy who becomes incredibly famous for doing something kinda stupid , and then starts taking himself way too seriously " . Yankovic included " Harvey the Wonder Hamster " , a short tune from one of his Al TV appearances , after receiving numerous requests to include it on an album .
= = = Parodies = = =
Yankovic 's first single from Alapalooza was " Jurassic Park " , a parody of the Jimmy Webb song " MacArthur Park " that was first performed by Richard Harris in 1968 . After hearing " Lola " by The Kinks on the radio and recalling how much he had enjoyed his previous pairing of a contemporary film with a classic song ( 1985 's " Yoda " ) , Yankovic came up with the idea for a tune based around the recently released Jurassic Park film . He received permission from Webb , Jurassic Park author Michael Crichton , and director Steven Spielberg to produce the track . For the music video Yankovic collaborated with animators Mark Osborne and Scott Nordlund to produce a claymation feature that parodied scenes from the movie ; the song itself was a comedic retelling of the film 's plot interspersed with the gripes about his visit to the park . The music video was directed by Osborne and Nordlund , while Yankovic came up with the original concept and ideas for some of the shots ; Osborne said that the directors " came up with about half the ideas in collaboration " with Yankovic .
Having always wanted to write a tribute to The Flintstones , Yankovic next focused his energy on creating a song that he hoped would be current with the impending release of The Flintstones live action film in 1994 . In order to collect sound bites and animation and " re @-@ familiarize " himself with the characters , Yankovic watched over 100 episodes of the original show . A parody of both Red Hot Chili Peppers 's " Under the Bridge " and " Give It Away " , the resulting song was a comedic tribute to the program . It ended up becoming the second single released from Alapalooza . Yankovic directed the video for the single , which featured scenes of band members playing the song in Bedrock dressed as characters from the show . In the third and final single , " Achy Breaky Song " , a parody of Billy Ray Cyrus ' " Achy Breaky Heart " , Yankovic lists things he would rather experience than having to listen to the original track . The parody received radio play on country music stations in the United States . The proceeds from the track were donated to United Cerebral Palsy , as both Cyrus and Yankovic felt that the song was " a little bit [ ... ] mean @-@ spirited " .
" Livin ' in the Fridge " , a parody of Aerosmith 's " Livin ' on the Edge " that discusses leftovers that have grown sentient in the refrigerator , was the last song to be recorded for the album . With a deadline looming , Yankovic sent requests to several artists to do parodies of their songs and went with Aerosmith because they replied first . It was recorded a month after the rest of the tracks had been finalized and less than two months prior to the album 's release . The album includes a polka medley , a staple of Yankovic 's albums , called " Bohemian Polka " . Unlike previous medleys , which had featured portions of multiple songs , " Bohemian Polka " contains only one tune , Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " , and is a rearrangement of the entire song as a polka .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical response to Alapalooza ranged from average to negative . In The Rolling Stone Album Guide Alapalooza earned 2 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , which ranked it somewhere between " mediocre " and " good " . Anthony Violanti of The Buffalo News gave the album three stars out of five , claiming that " [ o ] nce again , Weird Al gets the last laugh on rock ' n ' roll " . Barry Weber of Allmusic , on the other hand , criticized the album for failing to engage contemporary musical trends and said it " sounds sloppy and mostly like a compilation of old B @-@ sides " . Christopher Thelen of The Daily Vault agreed , calling the album " rushed " and " an incredible disappointment " , and said it was one of the lows of Yankovic 's career . Thelen 's limited praise is directed at only two songs on the album : " Livin ' In The Fridge " and " Achy Breaky Song " , both of which he claimed " have [ their ] moments " . In reference to the album 's polka tune , Mark Jenkins of The Washington Post wrote that it " doesn 't sound all that different " from the original .
Entertainment Weekly felt that overall Alapalooza : the Videos was " amusing " , but referred to the claymation video for the " Jurassic Park " as " clever but toothless " . The magazine gave the collection an overall grade of " C " and argued that Yankovic 's parodies did not satirize the original material , but instead transposed new elements on top of them . The video for " Jurassic Park " was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video at the 37th Grammy Awards , but lost to the video for " Love Is Strong " by The Rolling Stones . Nonetheless , it received attention in animation festivals worldwide for its use of claymation effects .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Released in October 1993 , Alapalooza was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on December 23 , 1993 , representing sales of at least 500 @,@ 000 units . The video compilation , released on February 1 , 1994 , went gold in the United States on August 14 , 1995 , representing sales of at least 50 @,@ 000 units . In Canada the album went gold on November 16 , 1993 , platinum on January 31 , 1994 , and double platinum on February 12 , 1998 , representing sales of 50 @,@ 000 , 100 @,@ 000 , and 200 @,@ 000 units respectively . The album peaked at number 46 on the United States ' Billboard 200 chart on October 30 , 1993 , but produced no charting singles . In Canada , however , " Jurassic Park " was a top five hit on the The Record 's single chart .
= = Track listing = =
The following is adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
= HMS Cochrane ( 1905 ) =
HMS Cochrane was a Warrior @-@ class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . She served in the 2nd Cruiser Squadron during the First World War under Rear @-@ Admiral Herbert Heath , taking part in the Battle of Jutland in 1916 . She was based in Murmansk in mid @-@ 1918 during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . She became stranded in the River Mersey on 14 November 1918 and broke in two . The wreck was broken up in place by June 1919 .
= = Description = =
Cochrane displaced 13 @,@ 550 long tons ( 13 @,@ 770 t ) as built and 14 @,@ 500 long tons ( 14 @,@ 700 t ) fully loaded , with a length of 505 feet 4 inches ( 154 @.@ 0 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a draft of 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . She was powered by four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 23 @,@ 650 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 640 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 @.@ 3 knots ( 43 @.@ 2 km / h ; 26 @.@ 8 mph ) . The engines were powered by 19 Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers and six cylindrical boilers . The ship carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 050 long tons ( 2 @,@ 080 t ) of coal and an additional 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 7 @,@ 960 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 740 km ; 9 @,@ 160 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Her main armament consisted of six BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) Mark X guns in single Mk V turrets distributed in two centerline turrets ( one each fore and one aft ) and four turrets disposed in the corners about the funnels . Her secondary armament of four BL 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 191 mm ) Mark II or Mark V guns in single Mk II turrets was carried amidships , between the wing 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns . Twenty @-@ six Vickers QF 3 pounders were fitted , ten on turret roofs and eight each on the forward and aft superstructures . The last four ships of the Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class cruisers had a secondary armament of turreted 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns rather than the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns in open barbettes of the first two ships ; these latter four were sometimes referred to as the Warrior class . Because of the extra topweight of the turrets in comparison to their half @-@ sisters their stability was reduced which made them very good seaboats and steady gun platforms .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
A single Hotchkiss QF 6 @-@ pounder anti @-@ aircraft gun on a high @-@ angle Mark Ic mounting was mounted on the quarterdeck in 1915 . It had a maximum depression of 8 ° and a maximum elevation of 60 ° . The gun fired a 6 @-@ pound ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 765 ft / s ( 538 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 20 rounds per minute . They had a maximum ceiling of 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , but an effective range of only 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . It was replaced by a QF 3 inch 20 cwt guns on a high @-@ angle Mark II mount in 1916 . This gun had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . It fired a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ( 760 m / s ) at a rate of 12 – 14 rounds per minute . It had a maximum effective ceiling of 23 @,@ 500 ft ( 7 @,@ 200 m ) . A pair of Vickers QF 3 pounder on HA Mark III mountings were probably installed amidships during 1915 – 16 . They could elevate to + 80 ° and depress to -5 ° . This gun fired a 3 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 575 ft / s ( 785 m / s ) at a rate of 25 rounds per minute . They had a maximum ceiling of 15 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) , but an effective range of only 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) .
The guns on top of ' A ' and ' Y ' turrets were removed in 1915 – 16 . The aftermost 3 @-@ pounder guns on the superstructure were removed during 1917 as well as the guns on top of the forward 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch wing turrets . This reduced her total to twenty 3 @-@ pounder guns , excluding the AA guns . Some of these guns were landed at Murmansk while she was based there . Seventeen 3 @-@ pounders were on board when she was lost in 1919 , but it is unclear if that total includes the AA guns . Cochrane 's foremast was converted to a tripod mast to support the weight of a fire @-@ control director in 1917 , but the director was not actually fitted until August 1918 .
= = Service = =
Cochrane was laid down on 24 March 1904 and launched on 28 May 1905 at Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering , Govan , Scotland . The ship was commissioned with a nucleus crew on 18 February 1907 and cost £ 1 @,@ 193 @,@ 121 . She " joined the Nore Division of the Home Fleet on 6 March 1907 and shortly afterwards was brought into to full commission for service with the 5th Cruiser Squadron . On 1 April 1909 she recommissioned for service with the 2nd Cruiser Squadron with which she remained until September 1917 . " She escorted the Royal Yacht Medina in 1911 – 12 . Cochrane , accompanied by her sister Achilles and three other armoured cruisers were sent to reinforce the defences of the Shetland Islands on 2 August 1914 , days before the start of the First World War . She , and her squadron , were assigned to the Grand Fleet for most of the First World War . She took part in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , along with the cruisers Minotaur , Shannon , and Hampshire under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Heath . However , the ship remained unengaged throughout the battle , and did not fire her 9 @.@ 2 or 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns at all during the battle .
Cochrane was transferred to the North America and West Indies station in November 1917 , but rejoined the 2nd Cruiser Squadron early in 1918 . She was based in Murmansk between March and September 1918 during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . She ferried Soviet troops to Pechenga on 3 May to forestall an attempt by White Finns to seize the town . On 14 November 1918 she was stranded in the Mersey Estuary , while under the control of the pilot , and later broke in two , becoming a total loss . The wreck had been broken up in situ by June 1919 .
= French destroyer Jaguar =
The French destroyer Jaguar was a Chacal @-@ class destroyer ( contre @-@ torpilleur ) built for the French Navy during the 1920s . She spent most of her pre @-@ World War II career as a flagship for various destroyer units . The ship was assigned convoy escort duties in the Atlantic after the start of the World War II in September 1939 until she was badly damaged during a collision in January 1940 . Five months later , after her repairs were completed , she was committed to the English Channel after the Battle of France began in May 1940 . Jaguar was torpedoed by German E @-@ boats on 23 May and had to beach herself ; her wreck was written off as unrepairable .
= = Design and description = =
The Chacal @-@ class ships were designed to counter the large Italian Leone @-@ class destroyers . They had an overall length of 126 @.@ 8 meters ( 416 ft 0 in ) , a beam of 11 @.@ 1 meters ( 36 ft 5 in ) , and a draft of 4 @.@ 1 meters ( 13 ft 5 in ) . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 126 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 092 long tons ) at standard and 2 @,@ 980 – 3 @,@ 075 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 933 – 3 @,@ 026 long tons ) at deep load . They were powered by two geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by five du Temple boilers . The turbines were designed to produce 50 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 37 @,@ 000 kW ; 49 @,@ 000 shp ) , which would propel the ship at 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . During her sea trials on 18 May 1926 , Jaguar 's turbines provided 57 @,@ 850 metric horsepower ( 42 @,@ 550 kW ; 57 @,@ 060 shp ) and she reached 35 @.@ 27 knots ( 65 @.@ 32 km / h ; 40 @.@ 59 mph ) for a single hour . The ships carried 530 metric tons ( 522 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Their crew consisted of 10 officers and 187 crewmen in peacetime and 12 officers and 209 enlisted men in wartime . Jaguar was unique among the Chacals in being fitted to serve as a flagship and equipped to accommodate the admiral and his staff of four officers .
The main armament of the Chacal @-@ class ships consisted of five Canon de 130 mm modèle 1919 guns in single mounts , one superfiring pair fore and aft of the superstructure and the fifth gun abaft the aft funnel . The guns were numbered ' 1' to ' 5' from front to rear . Their anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two Canon de 75 mm modèle 1924 guns in single mounts positioned amidships . The ships carried two above @-@ water triple sets of 550 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . A pair of depth charge chutes were built into their stern ; these housed a total of twenty 200 @-@ kilogram ( 440 lb ) depth charges . They were also fitted with four depth @-@ charge throwers for which they carried a dozen 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) depth charges .
= = Construction and career = =
Jaguar , named after the eponymous feline , was ordered on 18 April 1922 from the Arsenal de Lorient . She was laid down on 24 August 1922 on No. 7 slipway , launched on 17 November 1923 , completed on 7 October 1926 and entered service on 19 November . Completion was delayed by problems with her propulsion machinery and late deliveries by sub @-@ contractors . Even before she was formally completed , she participated in a Baltic cruise in mid @-@ 1926 and visited Dakar , French West Africa in December . She made another port visit in April 1927 at Seville , Spain . The following month she was one of the ships that escorted Gaston Doumergue , President of France , across the English Channel during his state visit to Britain . Jaguar then accompanied the light cruiser Lamotte @-@ Picquet as she visited Dakar and Buenos Aires , Argentina between June and September . The ship became the flagship of the Group of Torpedo Boat Flotillas ( later redesignated as the 1st Torpedo Boat Flotilla ) of the 1st Squadron ( 1ere Escadre ) , based at Toulon , on 1 May 1928 . Two months later , she hosted Doumerge as he reviewed the fleet off Le Havre on 3 July .
Two years later , the ship participated in the naval review at Algiers on 10 May 1930 commemorating the centenary of the first French landing in Algeria on 13 June 1830 . The four depth charge throwers were removed in 1932 . About two years later , the 75 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by four twin mounts for 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machineguns . Jaguar became the flagship of the 2nd Torpedo Boat Flotilla of the 2nd Squadron ( 2e Escadre ) at Brest on 5 July 1935 . After completing their maneuvers , the combined Brest and Toulon squadrons , including Jaguar , were reviewed in the Baie de Douarnenez by the Naval Minister , François Piétri , on 27 June 1936 . The following year , the ship participated in the fleet review by the new Navy Minister , Alphonse Gasnier @-@ Duparc , off Brest on 27 May 1937 . The ship was relieved as flagship on 26 September , but temporarily resumed her former role from 1 March to 22 June 1939 while Bison was under repair after a collision .
When the war started in September 1939 , Jaguar belonged to the 2nd Large Destroyer Division ( 2e division de contre @-@ torpilleur ) ( DCT ) with her sisters Chacal and Léopard . Between October and December , the ship had two depth @-@ charge throwers reinstalled , No. 3 gun removed , and her depth charge stowage reduced to a dozen 200 kg and eight 100 kg depth charges to improve her stability . She was assigned to the Western Command ( Forces maritimes de l 'Ouest ) for convoy escort duties from October to January 1940 where she guarded convoys traveling between Gibraltar and Brest as well as Casablanca , French Morocco , and Le Verdon @-@ sur @-@ Mer . On the night of 16 / 17 January 1940 , Jaguar was accidentally rammed by the British destroyer Keppel . The collision killed one crewman aboard the French ship and Keppel 's bow penetrated all the way to Jaguar 's midline . The ship was able to reach Brest on 19 January to begin repairs that lasted until early May . She had a British Type 123 ASDIC installed in March and was fitted with degaussing equipment the following month .
After the beginning of the Battle of France on 10 May , the 2nd DCT was transferred to the English Channel to support British forces there . On 23 May , entering Dunkirk harbor with a demolition team aboard , Jaguar was struck by a torpedo fired by either the E @-@ boat S @-@ 21 or S @-@ 23 . The detonation killed 13 men and wounded 23 ; the ship had to be beached at Malo @-@ les @-@ Bains lest she sink , and was written off .
= The Boat Race 1841 =
The 5th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 14 April 1841 . It was the fourth of the University Boat Races , a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge , to be contested in London . The race was held between Westminster Bridge and Putney Bridge and was won by Cambridge , whose crew featured two pairs of brothers rowing , who defeated Oxford by a distance of 22 lengths in a time of 32 minutes and 30 seconds . The victory took the overall record in the event to 4 – 1 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and takes place on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race by three @-@ quarters of a length .
There was some disagreement over the day selected for the race , mainly in an attempt to coincide with a suitable tide . The Cambridge cox for the 1839 race , Thomas Selby Egan , along with Oxford 's R. G. Walls were umpires for the race along with referee Edmund Antrobus from St John 's College , Cambridge . Both universities rowed in boats constructed by Searle of Stangate ; the vessels were " justly and generally admired " , the only significant difference between them being that Oxford 's boat was carvel built while Cambridge 's was clinker built . The race took place on a five @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 2 km ) stretch of the Thames between Westminster Bridge and Putney Bridge . No arrangements had been made for the police to keep the course clear : according to Cambridge 's number seven George Denman " it was often ticklish work for the coxswains to decide whether to go ahead or astern of a train of barges catering across the river " . According to a report in The Morning Chronicle , " both crews ... have agreed that the match will be off if any of the steamers attempt to lead " .
Oxford arrived at the Thames fifteen days prior the race , and rowed the full course ; Cambridge started their practice runs four days later , often racing against a crew from the Cambridge Subscription Room ( who subsequently won the Grand Challenge Cup at the Henley Royal Regatta ) . George Denman suffered an injury during practice , struck " by a tremendous blow on the shoulder " which was all but cured by the application of " just one leech " . Oxford 's crew was not settled until three days before the race , when they competed against a crew from Leander Club .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 4 @.@ 625 lb ( 71 @.@ 8 kg ) , 0 @.@ 5 pounds ( 0 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their Dark Blue opposition . Cambridge 's crew contained three Blues : John Matthew Ridley , Francis Penrose and Charles Marsh Vialls , all of whom had rowed in the previous year 's race . Similarly , Oxford saw the return of four members with Boat Race experience : Jacob G. Mountain , E. Royds , G. Meynell and J. J. T. Somers @-@ Cocks . For the first time in the history of the race , two pairs of brothers rowed for Cambridge , the Crokers ( Joseph and William ) and the Denmans ( George and Lewis ) .
= = Race = =
Cambridge were considered favourites for the race , mainly as they had won the previous three races on the Thames . The Light Blues won the toss and elected to start at the first arch from the centre of Westminster Bridge on the Surrey side , Oxford from the next arch along . The race commenced at 6 : 10 p.m. , with the Light Blues making the better start , taking an early lead , and getting clear by Lambeth . A lead of at least two lengths by Vauxhall Bridge was extended to around six lengths by Battersea Bridge .
Cambridge won by 22 lengths in a time of 32 minutes 30 seconds . It was their fourth consecutive victory and took the overall record to 4 – 1 in their favour . Despite earlier fears , " the steamers were well managed , and offered no obstruction to the boats " .
= Polaris expedition =
The Polaris expedition ( 1871 ) was led by the American Charles Francis Hall , who intended it to be the first expedition to reach the North Pole . Sponsored by the United States government , it was one of the first serious attempts at the Pole , after that of British naval officer William Edward Parry , who in 1827 reached latitude 82 ° 45 ′ North . The expedition failed at its main objective , having been troubled throughout by insubordination , incompetence , and poor leadership .
Under Hall 's command , the Polaris departed from New York City in June 1871 . By October , the men were wintering on the shore of northern Greenland , making preparations for the trip to the Pole . Hall returned to the ship from an exploratory sledging journey , and promptly fell ill . Before he died , he accused members of the crew of poisoning him . An exhumation of his body in 1968 revealed that he had ingested a large quantity of arsenic in the last two weeks of his life .
The expedition 's notable achievement was reaching 82 ° 29'N latitude by ship , a record at the time . On the way southward , nineteen members of the expedition became separated from the ship and drifted on an ice floe for six months and 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) before being rescued . The damaged Polaris was run aground and wrecked near Etah , Greenland , in October 1872 . The remaining men were able to survive the winter , and were rescued the following summer . A naval board of inquiry investigated Hall 's death , but no charges were ever laid .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Origins = = =
In 1827 , William Edward Parry led a British Royal Navy expedition with the aim to be the first men to reach the North Pole . In the 50 years following Parry 's attempt , the Americans would mount three such expeditions : Elisha Kent Kane in 1853 – 55 , Isaac Israel Hayes in 1860 – 61 , and Charles Francis Hall with the Polaris in 1871 – 73 .
Hall had no special academic background or sailing experience ( he was a blacksmith , engraver , then owner of a Cincinnati newspaper ) , but he was a voracious reader with an obsession for the Arctic . After John Franklin 's 1845 expedition was lost , Hall 's focus was directed toward the Arctic . He was able to launch two expeditions in search of Franklin and his crew ; one in 1860 – 63 , and a second in 1864 – 69 . These experiences established him as a seasoned Arctic explorer , and gave him valuable contacts among the Inuit people . The renown he gained eventually allowed him to convince the United States government to fund his third expedition , an attempt on the North Pole .
= = = Finance and materiel = = =
In 1870 , a bill was introduced in the Senate called the Arctic Resolution , to fund an expedition to the North Pole . Hall , aided by the Secretary of the Navy George M. Robeson , successfully lobbied for , and received , a grant of $ 50 @,@ 000 from the U.S. Congress to command the expedition and began recruiting personnel in late 1870 . He secured the U.S. Navy tugboat Periwinkle , a 387 @-@ ton screw @-@ propelled steamer . At the Washington Navy Yard the ship was fitted as a fore topsail schooner , and renamed Polaris . She was prepared for Arctic service by the addition of solid oak timber all over her hull , and the bow was sheathed in iron . A new engine was added , and one of the boilers was retrofitted to burn seal or whale oil .
The ship was also outfitted with four whaleboats , 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) long and 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wide , and a flat @-@ bottomed scow . During his previous Arctic expeditions , Hall came to admire the Inuit umiak , and brought a similarly constructed collapsible boat which could hold 20 men . Food packed on board consisted of tinned ham , salted beef , bread and sailor 's biscuit . The men intended to supplement their diet with fresh muskox , seal and polar bear , in order to ward off scurvy .
= = Personnel = =
In the spring of 1871 , U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant had named Hall as overall commander of the expedition , and he was being referred to as Captain . Though Hall had abundant Arctic experience , he had no sailing experience , and so the title was purely honorary . In selecting the officers and seamen , Hall relied heavily on whalers with experience in the Arctic . This was markedly different from the polar expeditions of the British Admiralty , which tended to use naval officers and highly disciplined crews .
For his selection of sailing master , Hall first turned to Sidney O. Budington , then to George Tyson , who both initially declined due to prior whaling commitments . When those commitments fell through , Hall named Budington as sailing master and Tyson assistant navigator . Budington and Tyson had decades of experience between them captaining whaling vessels . In effect , the Polaris now had three captains , a fact which would weigh heavily on the fate of the expedition . Further complicating matters , in 1863 Budington and Hall had quarrelled because Budington had denied permission for Hall to bring his Inuit guides , Joseph Ebierbing and Tookoolito , with him on an expedition at a time when they were ill and in Budington 's care .
The rest of the officers and scientific staff were Americans ( first mate Hubbard Chester , second mate William Morton , and astronomer and chaplain R.W.D. Bryan ) and Germans ( chief scientist and surgeon Emil Bessels and meteorologist Frederick Meyer ) . The seamen were mostly German , as was chief engineer Emil Schumann . In addition to the 25 officers , crew , and scientific staff , Hall brought Inuit interpreter and hunter Ebierbing , his wife Tookoolito , and their child . A Greenlandic aboriginal named Hans Hendrik , his wife Merkut and three children also joined the expedition .
= = Expedition = =
= = = New York to Upernavik = = =
Even before leaving the Brooklyn Navy Yard on June 29 , 1871 , the expedition ran into personnel troubles . The cook , a seaman , a fireman , and assistant engineer Wilson deserted . The steward turned out to be a drunk , and was left in port .
The ship stopped in New London , Connecticut , to pick up a replacement assistant engineer , leaving on July 3 , 1871 . By the time the ship reached St. John 's , there was dissension among the officers and scientific staff . Bessels , backed up by Meyer , had openly rejected Hall 's command over the scientific staff . The dissension spread to the crew , which was divided along nationalist lines . In his diary , Assistant Navigator George Tyson wrote that by the time they reached Disko Island , Greenland , " ... expressions are freely made that Hall shall not get any credit from this expedition . Already some have made up their minds how far they will go and when they will get home again . " Hall asked Captain Davenport of the supply ship Congress to intervene . Davenport threatened to have Meyer shackled for insubordination and sent back to the United States , at which point all of the Germans threatened to quit . Hall and Davenport were forced to back down , however Davenport delivered a strongly worded speech on naval discipline to the crew .
In another open display of dissent , the ship 's boilers had been tampered with by one of the crew . The special blubber @-@ fired boilers had disappeared , apparently thrown overboard .
On Aug 18 , 1871 , the ship reached Upernavik on Greenland 's west coast , where they picked up the Inuit hunter and interpreter Hans Hendrik . The Polaris proceeded north through Smith Sound and Nares Strait , passing previous furthest north records ( by ship ) held by Elisha Kane and Isaac Hayes .
= = = Polar preparations and Hall 's death = = =
By Sept . 2 , 1871 , Polaris had reached her furthest north of 82 ° 29'N . Tension flared again as the three leading officers could not agree on whether to proceed further or not . Hall and Tyson wanted to press north , to cut down the distance they would have to travel to the Pole by dogsled . Budington did not want to further risk the ship , and walked out on the discussion . In the end , they sailed into Thank God Harbor ( now called Hall Bay ) on Sept . 10 , 1871 , and settled in for the winter on the shore of northern Greenland .
Within a few weeks , Hall was making preparations for a sledging trip with the aim of beating Sir William Parry 's furthest north record . Mistrust amongst the men in charge showed again when Hall told Tyson that " I cannot trust that man ( Captain Budington ) . I want you to go with me , but don 't know how to leave him alone with the ship . " There is some evidence that Budington may have been an alcoholic ; on at least three occasions he raided the ship 's stores , including the alcohol kept by the scientists for preservation of specimens . Hall had complained about Budington 's drunken behavior , and it fully came to light from the crew 's testimony at the inquest following the expedition . With Tyson watching over the ship , Hall took two sledges with first mate Chester , and the native guides Ebierbing and Hendrik , leaving on Oct 10 , 1871 . The day after leaving , Hall sent Hendrik back to the ship to retrieve a number of forgotten items . Hall also sent back a note to Bessels , reminding him to wind the chronometers at the right time every day . In his book Trial by Ice , Richard Parry postulated that such a note from the uneducated Hall must have rankled Bessels , who held a number of degrees from Stuttgart , Heidelberg , and Jena . It was another example of Hall 's micromanagement of the expedition . Before he left on the overland trip , Hall gave Budington a detailed list of instructions regarding how to manage the ship in his absence . This likely did not sit well with a sailing master with over 20 years of experience .
Upon their return on Oct 24 , 1871 , Hall suddenly fell ill after drinking a cup of coffee . His symptoms started with an upset stomach , then progressed to vomiting and delirium the following day . Hall accused several of the ship 's company , including Bessels , of having poisoned him . Following these accusations , he refused medical treatment from Bessels , and drank only liquids delivered directly by his Inuit friend Tookoolito . He seemed to improve for a few days , and was even able to go up on deck . Bessels had prevailed upon Bryan , the ship 's chaplain , to convince Hall to allow the doctor to see him . By November 4 , Hall relented , and Bessels resumed treatment . Shortly after , Hall 's condition began to deteriorate , and he suffered vomiting and delirium , and collapsed . Bessels diagnosed apoplexy , and Hall finally died on November 8 . He was taken ashore and given a formal burial .
= = = Attempt at North Pole = = =
According to the protocol provided by Navy Secretary George M. Robeson , command of the expedition was turned over to Budington , under whom discipline further devolved . The precious coal was being burned at a high rate : 6 @,@ 334 pounds ( 2 @,@ 873 kg ) in November , which was 1 @,@ 596 pounds ( 724 kg ) more than the previous month , and close to 8 @,@ 300 pounds ( 3 @,@ 800 kg ) in December . Budington was often seen to be drunk , but he was far from the only one to pilfer the alcohol stores ; according to testimony at the Inquiry , Tyson was also seen " drunk like old mischief " , and Schumann had gone so far as to make a duplicate of Budington 's key so that he could help himself to alcohol as well . Whatever the role of alcohol , it was clear that shipboard routine was breaking down ; as Tyson remarked , " There is so little regularity observed . There is no stated time for putting out lights ; the men are allowed to do as they please ; and , consequently , they often make nights hideous by their carousing , playing cards to all hours . " For purposes unknown , Budington chose to issue the ship 's supply of firearms to the crew .
There is some evidence of a morally questionable plan being formulated among the senior officers that winter . On Jan 1 , 1872 , Tyson wrote in his diary : " Last month such an astonishing proposition was made to me that I have never ceased thinking of it since ... It grew out of a discussion as to the feasibility of attempting to get farther north next summer . " And then on April 19 , 1872 : " Had a talk with Chester about the astounding proposition made to me in the winter . We agreed it was monstrous and must be prevented . Chester said he is determined , when he got home , to expose the matter . " Author Farley Mowat has suggested the officers were contemplating faking a journey to the Pole , or at least to a very high latitude .
Whatever the unmentioned plan was , an expedition to try for the Pole was dispatched on June 6 , 1872 . Chester led the expedition in a whaleboat , but this was crushed by the ice within a few miles of Polaris . Chester and his men hiked back to the ship , and persuaded Budington to give them the collapsible boat . With this , and Tyson piloting another whaleboat , the men set northward again . In the meantime , the Polaris had found open water , and was searching for a route south . Budington , not eager to spend another winter in the ice , sent Ebierbing north with orders for the Tyson and Chester : return to the ship at once . The men were forced to abandon both craft and walk 20 miles ( 32 km ) back to Polaris . Now three of the ship 's precious lifeboats were lost , and a fourth ( the small scow ) would be crushed by ice in July after being carelessly left out overnight . The expedition had failed in its main objective to reach the North Pole .
= = = Fate of Polaris and journeys home = = =
With the expedition 's main goal abandoned , Polaris turned south for home . In Smith Sound , west of the Humboldt Glacier , she ran aground on a shallow iceberg and could not be freed . On the night of October 15 , 1872 , with an iceberg threatening the ship , Schuman reported that water was coming in and the pumps could not keep up . Budington ordered cargo to be thrown onto the ice to buoy the ship . Men began throwing goods overboard , as Tyson put it , " with no care taken as to how or where these things were thrown " . Much of the jettisoned cargo was lost .
A number of the crew were out on the surrounding ice during the night when a break @-@ up of the pack occurred . When morning came , the group , consisting of Tyson , Meyer , six of the seamen , the cook , the steward , and all of the Inuit , found themselves stranded on an ice floe . The castaways could see the Polaris 8 to 10 miles ( 13 to 16 km ) away , but attempts to attract the ship 's attention with a large black cloth were futile . Resigned to the ice , the Inuit soon had igloo shelters built , and Tyson estimated that they had 1 @,@ 900 pounds ( 860 kg ) of food . They also had the ship 's two whaleboats , and two kayaks , although one kayak was soon lost during a breakup of the ice . Meyer reckoned that they were drifting on the Greenland side of the Davis Strait and would soon be within rowing distance of Disko . He was incorrect ; the men were actually on the Canadian side of the strait . The error caused the men to reject Tyson 's plans for conserving . The seamen soon broke up one of the whaleboats for firewood , making a safe escape to land very unlikely . One night in November , the men went on an eating binge , consuming a large quantity of the food stores . The group drifted on the ice floe for the next six months over 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) before being rescued off the coast of Newfoundland by the sealer Tigress on April 30 , 1873 . All probably would have perished had the group not included the skilled Inuit hunters Ebierbing and Hendrik , who were able to kill seal on a number of occasions . Despite this , scarcely a word was written about the Inuit in either the official reports of the expedition , or the press .
On October 16 , with the ship 's coal stores running low , Captain Budington decided to run the Polaris aground near Etah . Having lost much of their bedding , clothing , and food when it was haphazardly jettisoned from the ship on October 12 , the remaining 14 men were in poor condition to face another winter . They built a hut from lumber salvaged from the ship , and on October 24 , extinguished the ship 's boilers to conserve coal . The bilge pumps stopped for good , and the ship heeled over on her side , half out of water . Fortunately , the Etah Inuit helped the men survive the winter . After wintering ashore , the crew built two boats from salvaged wood from the ship , and on June 3 the crew sailed south . They were spotted and rescued in July by the whaler Ravenscraig , and returned home via Scotland .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Inquiry = = =
On June 5 , 1873 , a United States Navy board of inquiry began . At this time , the crew and Inuit families had been rescued from the ice floe , however the fate of Budington , Bessels , and the remainder of the crew was still unknown . The board consisted of Admiral Louis M. Goldsborough , Secretary of the Navy Robeson , Commodore Reynolds , Captain Henry W. Howgate of the Army , and Spencer F. Baird of the Academy of Sciences . Tyson was the first to appear for questioning , and related the friction between Hall , Budington , and Bessels , and Hall 's deathbed accusations of poisoning . The board also inquired about the whereabouts of Hall 's journals and records . Tyson responded that while Hall was delirious , he instructed Budington to burn some of the papers , and the rest had disappeared . Later , journals of other crew members were discovered at the site of the Polaris wreck , but these had the sections regarding Hall 's death cut out . Meyer testified to Budington 's drinking , saying that the sailing master was " drunk most always while we were going southward " . Steward John Herron testified that he had not made the coffee that Hall had suspected of being laced with poison ; he explained that the cook made the coffee , and that he had not kept track of how many people had touched the cup before it was brought to Hall .
After Budington and the remainder of the crew were rescued and returned to the United States , the board of inquiry continued . Budington attacked Tyson 's credibility , disputing Tyson 's claim that he had obstructed Hall 's efforts to sail the ship further north . He also disputed reports of his drinking , saying that he " [ made ] it a practice to drink but very little " . Bessels was questioned about Hall 's cause of death . Bessels stated that " My idea of the cause of the first attack is that he had been exposed to very low temperature during the time that he was on the sledge journey . He came back and entered a warm cabin without taking off his heavy fur clothing , and then took a warm cup of coffee . And anyone knows what the consequences of that might be . " Bessels testified that Hall was " taken by hemiplegia " , and his left arm and side were paralyzed , and that he had injected Hall with quinine to correct his elevated temperature before he died .
Faced with conflicting testimony , lack of official records and journals , and no body for an autopsy , no charges were laid in connection with Hall 's death . In the inquiry 's final report , the surgeons general of the Army and Navy wrote : " From the circumstances and symptoms detailed by him , and comparing them with the medical testimony of all the witnesses , we are conclusively of the opinion that Captain Hall died from natural causes , viz . , apoplexy ; and that the treatment of the case by Dr. Bessel [ sic ] was the best practicable under the circumstances . "
= = = Controversy = = =
There has been speculation as to why Budington and the men aboard the Polaris did not attempt a rescue of those stranded on the ice floe . Tyson was perplexed as to why the ship could not see them 8 miles ( 13 km ) distant , a group of men and supplies waving a dark colored flag in a sea of white . The day after the storm was clear and calm , and the men on the floe could see the ship was under both steam and sail . Aboard the ship , first mate Chester reported that he could see " provisions and stores " on a distant floe , however there were never any orders to retrieve the stores or search for the castaways .
Budington 's decision to beach the Polaris is equally controversial . Budington said that he " believed the propeller was smashed and the rudder broken " . The official report of the expedition states that the vessel should have been abandoned because " there was only coal enough to keep the fires alive for five days " . However , the same report states that the propeller and rudder were in fact discovered to be intact after the ship was run aground , and the ship 's boiler and sails were available . Even if she ran out of coal , the ship was perfectly able to travel under sail alone . In defense of Budington 's decision , when low tide exposed the ship 's hull , the men found that the stem had completely broken away at the six @-@ foot mark , taking iron sheeting and planking with it . Budington wrote in his journal that he " called the officer 's attention to it , who only wondered she had kept afloat so long " .
Regarding Hall 's fate , the official investigation that followed ruled the cause of death was apoplexy ( an early term for stroke ) . Some of Hall 's symptoms — partial paralysis , slurred speech , delirium — certainly fit that diagnosis . Indeed , the pains that Hall complained about down one side of his body , which he attributed to many years ' huddling in an igloo , may have been due to a previous minor stroke . However , in 1968 , Hall 's biographer Chauncey C. Loomis , a professor at Dartmouth College , made an expedition to Greenland to exhume Hall 's body . Because of the permafrost , Hall 's body , flag shroud , clothing and coffin were remarkably well @-@ preserved . Tests on tissue samples of bone , fingernails and hair showed that Hall had received large doses of arsenic in the last two weeks of his life . Arsenic poisoning appears consistent with the symptoms party members reported : stomach pains , vomiting , stupor , and mania . Arsenic can have a sweet taste , and Hall had complained that the coffee had tasted too sweet , and had burned his stomach . It also appears that at least three of the crew , Budington , Meyer , and Bessels , expressed relief at Hall 's death and said that the expedition would be better off without him . In his book The Arctic Grail , Pierre Berton suggests that it is possible that Hall accidentally dosed himself with the poison , as arsenic was common in medical kits of the time . But it is considered more probable that he was murdered by one of the other members of the expedition , possibly Bessels , who was in nearly constant attendance of Hall . No charges were ever filed .
= = Research resources = =
Scrapbooks on the Polaris Expedition held at the American Geographical Society Library , UW Milwaukee
= Ayumi Hamasaki =
Ayumi Hamasaki ( 浜崎 あゆみ , Hamasaki Ayumi , born October 2 , 1978 ) is a Japanese recording artist , lyricist , model , and actress . Hamasaki has achieved popularity in Japan and Asia by enforcing her position as an artist and not trying to be forced as a " product " , which was a common factor within the Japanese music culture and Avex Trax . Through her entire career , she has written all her lyrical content , produced her own music and has sometimes co @-@ composed her music , which is evident in her albums I Am ... , Rainbow and My Story .
Born and raised in Fukuoka , she moved to Tokyo at fourteen to pursue a career in entertainment . In 1998 , under the tutelage of Avex CEO Max Matsuura , Hamasaki released her debut single " Poker Face " and released her million @-@ selling record A Song for XX . The album debuted at the top of the Oricon charts and remained there for four weeks , establishing her popularity in Japan . Her next five albums accomplished over one million shipments in Japan , with her third effort Duty selling near three million units , becoming her best selling studio album . A Best , her first compilation album , is her best selling album , with more than four million copies sold in Japan . In 2008 , after her album Next Level was released , album and single sales declined due to ongoing competition with new upcoming artists . Throughout her career , Hamasaki has had all her albums within the top five position in Japan and has five million @-@ selling singles , including " Boys & Girls " , " A " , " Seasons " , " M " and " H " .
Also called " Ayu " by her fans , Hamasaki has been dubbed the " Empress of J @-@ pop " because of her popularity and widespread influence in Japan and throughout Asia . Hamasaki 's constantly changing image and tight control over her artistry has helped her popularity extend across Asia ; music and fashion trends she has started have spread regionally to China , Singapore and other countries across Southeast Asia . She has appeared in or lent her songs to many advertisements and television commercials . Though she originally supported the exploitation of her popularity for commercial purposes , she later reconsidered and eventually opposed her status as an Avex " product " .
Hamasaki has sold over 51 million records , making her one of the best @-@ selling artists in Japan . Hamasaki has several domestic record achievements for her singles , such as the most number @-@ one hits by a female artist ( 38 ) ; the most consecutive number @-@ one hits by a solo artist ( twenty @-@ five ) , and the most million @-@ sellers . From 1999 to 2010 , Hamasaki had at least one single each year topping the charts . Hamasaki is the first female recording artist to have eight studio albums since her debut to top the Oricon and the first artist to have a number @-@ one album for 13 consecutive years since her debut . Hamasaki 's second remix album , Super Eurobeat Presents Ayu @-@ ro Mix , is recognized as one of the best selling remix albums of all time and remains her only album to be recognized in a worldwide accreditation .
= = Life and music career = =
= = = Childhood and early endeavors = = =
Born in Fukuoka Prefecture , Hamasaki was raised as an only child by her mother and grandmother . Her father had left the family when she was three and never again came into contact with her . Hamasaki 's mother worked to support the family , so Hamasaki was primarily taken care of by her grandmother . She described herself as a " tomboy " when she was a teenager , and as a “ strange kid ” who “ liked to be alone ” .
At age seven , Hamasaki began modeling for local institutions , such as banks , in order to supplement the family 's income . She continued this career path by leaving her family at fourteen and moving to Tokyo as a model under SOS , a talent agency . Her modeling career did not last long ; SOS eventually deemed her too short for a model and transferred her to Sun Music , a musicians ' agency . Under the name of " Ayumi " , Hamasaki released a rap EP , Nothing from Nothing , on the Nippon Columbia label in 1995 . She was dismissed from the label when the album failed to chart on the Oricon . After this failure , Hamasaki took up acting and starred in B @-@ movies such as Ladys Ladys ! ! Sōcho Saigo no Hi and television dramas such as Miseinen , which were poorly received by the public . From August 1995 to March 1996 , Hamasaki also co @-@ hosted the SoundLink " magazine " Hōkago no Ōsama ( After @-@ school King ) for the Nintendo Satellaview once a week with Shigeru Izumiya . Growing dissatisfied with her job , Hamasaki quit acting and moved in with her mother , who had recently moved to Tokyo .
Hamasaki was initially a good student , earning good grades in junior high school . Eventually , she lost faith in the curriculum , thinking that the subjects taught were of no use to her . Her grades worsened as she refused to put her mind to her studies . While living in Tokyo , she attempted to further her studies at Horikoshi Gakuen , a high school for the arts , but dropped out in the first year . Hamasaki did not attend school or have a job , so she spent much of her time shopping at Shibuya boutiques and dancing at Velfarre , an Avex @-@ owned disco club .
At Velfarre , she was introduced to her future producer , Max Matsuura , through a friend . After hearing Hamasaki sing karaoke , Matsuura offered her a recording deal , but Hamasaki suspected ulterior motives and turned the offer down . He persisted and succeeded in recruiting her for the Avex label in the following year . Hamasaki started vocal training , but skipped most of her classes after finding her instructors to be too rigid and the classes dull . When she confessed this to Matsuura , he sent her to New York to train her vocals under another method . During her foreign sojourn , Hamasaki frequently corresponded with Matsuura and impressed him with her style of writing . On her return to Japan , he suggested that she try writing her own lyrics .
= = = 1998 – 99 : Musical beginnings , A Song for xx and Loveppears = = =
Hamasaki made her debut under Avex at 19 on April 8 , 1998 with the single " Poker Face " . It — and the following four singles — were not major hits , however each release was better than the last , thus gradually increasing her exposure and presence on the market . Hamasaki 's debut album , A Song for × × ( 1999 ) , was likewise " unassuming " : the tracks , composed by Yasuhiko Hoshino , Akio Togashi ( of Da Pump ) , and Mitsuru Igarashi ( of Every Little Thing ) , were " cautious " pop @-@ rock songs . However , Hamasaki 's lyrics , introspective observations about her feelings and experiences that focused on loneliness and individualism , resonated with the Japanese public . The songs gained Hamasaki a growing following , and the release of the album was a success : it topped the Oricon charts for five weeks and sold over a million copies . For her achievements , she earned a Japan Gold Disc Award for " Best New Artist of the Year " .
With Ayu @-@ mi @-@ x ( March 1999 ) , the first of a series of remix albums , Hamasaki began moving beyond the pop @-@ rock of A Song for × × and began to incorporate different styles including trance , dance , and orchestra . Hamasaki began to experiment with different musical styles in her singles as well , releasing dance tunes and ballads as well as remixes | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
on the singles which spanned reggae and house . The singles were milestones : Hamasaki earned her first number @-@ one single ( " Love : Destiny " ) and first million @-@ selling single ( " A " ) . Her second studio album , Loveppears ( November 1999 ) , not only topped the Oricon charts , it sold nearly 3 million copies . The album also showcased a change in Hamasaki 's lyrics . Though the lyrics of Loveppears still dealt with loneliness , many of them were written from a third @-@ person perspective . In support of Loveppears , she held her first tour , Ayumi Hamasaki Concert Tour 2000 A.
A Film for XX is the first video clip collection by Ayumi Hamasaki , it was released on September 15 , 1999 .
= = = 2000 – 02 : Duty , compilation releases , I Am ... and Rainbow = = =
From April to June 2000 , Hamasaki released the " Trilogy " , a series of singles consisting of " Vogue " , " Far Away " , and " Seasons " . The lyrics of these songs focused on hopelessness , a reflection of Hamasaki 's disappointment that she had not expressed herself thoroughly in any of her previous lyrics and a sense of shame of her public image . Likewise , many of the songs she wrote for her subsequent studio album , Duty ( September 2000 ) , involved feelings of loneliness , chaos , confusion , and the burden of her responsibilities . She described her feelings after the writing as " unnatural " and " nervous " . The musical style was darker as well ; in contrast with Loveppears , Duty was a rock @-@ influenced album with only one dance song , " Audience " . Duty resonated with fans : the " Trilogy " were " hit singles " ( " Seasons " was a million @-@ seller ) , and the album became Hamasaki 's best @-@ selling studio album . At the end of 2000 , Hamasaki held her first New Year countdown concert at the Yoyogi National Gymnasium .
In 2001 , Avex forced Hamasaki to release her first compilation album , A Best , on March 28 , putting the album in " competition " with Hikaru Utada 's second studio album , Distance . The " competition " between the two singers ( which both claimed was merely a creation of their record companies and the media ) was supposedly the reason for the success of the albums ; both sold over 5 million copies . In support of Duty and A Best , Hamasaki held a tour of Japan 's domes , making her one of few " top @-@ drawer " Japanese artists to hold a concert at the Tokyo Dome .
I Am ... ( January 2002 ) marked several milestones for Hamasaki . Hamasaki increased her control over her music by composing all of the songs on the album under the pseudonym " Crea " , of which the 2000 single " M " was the first . " Connected " ( November 2002 ) and " A Song Is Born " ( December 2001 ) were the exceptions . I Am ... also showed evolution in Hamasaki 's lyrical style : it was a retreat from the themes of " loneliness and confusion " of some of her earlier songs . Moved by the September 11 attacks , Hamasaki revised her vision of I Am ... , focusing on issues such as faith and world peace . " A Song Is Born " , in particular , was directly influenced by the events . The single , a duet with Keiko Yamada , was released as part of Avex 's non @-@ profit Song Nation project , which raised money for charity . She also dropped the planned cover and opted instead to be portrayed as a " peace muse " , explaining ,
I had a completely different idea for the cover at first . We 'd already reserved the space , decided the hair and makeup and everything . But after the incident , as is typical of me , I suddenly changed my mind . I knew it wasn 't the time for gaudiness , for elaborate sets and costumes . It sounds odd coming from me , but I realize what I say and how I look has a great impact .
The outlook inspired by the September 11 attacks extended beyond I Am .... In 2002 , Hamasaki held her first concert outside Japan , at the MTV Asia music awards ceremony in Singapore , a move interpreted as the beginning of a campaign prompted by a sluggish Japanese market . At the ceremony , she received the award for " Most Influential Japanese Singer in Asia " . In support of I Am ... , Hamasaki held two tours , Ayumi Hamasaki Arena Tour 2002 A and Ayumi Hamasaki Stadium Tour 2002 A. In November 2002 , as " Ayu " , she released her first European single , " Connected " , a trance song from I Am ... composed by DJ Ferry Corsten . It was released in Germany on the Drizzly label . Hamasaki continued to release singles ( all of them remixes of previously released songs ) in Germany on Drizzly until 2005 .
In April 2002 , Hamasaki released the single " Free & Easy " . In collaboration with the magazine Free & Easy , Hamasaki also released Hamasaki Republic , a photobook that was actually a special issue of Free & Easy , in conjunction with the single . " H " , Hamasaki 's next single , became the best @-@ selling single of 2002 . Hamasaki released her last single of 2002 , " Voyage " , on September 26 . In lieu of a regular @-@ length music video , the short film Tsuki ni Shizumu , starring Hamasaki , was created for " Voyage " and was released at a select theater in Shibuya . Hamasaki 's next studio album , Rainbow ( December 2002 ) was her first to use English lyrics . After performing at the 2002 MTV Asia music awards , Hamasaki felt that by writing only Japanese lyrics , she was not able to bring her " message " to other countries . Realizing that English was a " common global language " , she included English lyrics in three songs . The album was stylistically diverse ; Hamasaki included rock- and trip hop @-@ influenced tracks as well as " summery " , " up @-@ tempo " and " grand gothic " songs and experimented with new techniques such as gospel choruses and the yells of an audience . The lyrics were also varied : themes in the album included freedom , the struggles of women , and " a summer that ends in sadness " .
= = = 2003 – 06 : Decline in sales , My Story , ( Miss ) Understood and Secret = = =
In 2003 , Hamasaki released three singles , " & " , " Forgiveness " , and " No Way to Say " . To celebrate the release of her thirtieth single ( " Forgiveness " ) , Hamasaki held the A Museum concert at the Yoyogi National Gymnasium . Her mini @-@ album Memorial Address ( December 2003 ) was her first album to be released in CD + DVD format in addition to the regular CD @-@ only format , a decision that came from her increased interest in the direction of her music videos . Like her previous albums , Memorial Address topped the Oricon chart and sold over a million copies . Sales of Hamasaki 's singles began to wane . Although all three of the album 's singles topped the Oricon charts , " & " was Hamasaki 's last single to sell over 500 @,@ 000 copies .
By the end of her Arena Tour 2003 – 2004 , Hamasaki had grown dissatisfied with her position in Avex : she felt that the company was treating her as a product instead of a person . Along with her dissatisfaction over her last two studio albums ( which she thought had been rushed ) , this led her to begin work on My Story ( December 2004 ) early . In contrast with her previous albums , My Story had no set theme , nor did Hamasaki attempt to write " something good " or even " something that would give people hope " ; rather , she simply wrote freely and honestly . As a result , the album contained mostly autobiographical lyrics about her emotions and reminiscences of her career . She approached the composition of the music with the same freedom as the lyrics , with the album 's notable rock overtones expressing her liking for rock music . She was so pleased with the result that she declared My Story the first album she felt satisfied with . My Story and its singles , " Moments " , " Inspire " , and " Carols " , all topped the weekly Oricon charts ; moreover , with sales of over 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 units , My Story became Hamasaki 's last million @-@ selling studio album according to Oricon . From January to April 2005 , Hamasaki held the nationwide My Story arena tour , her first album @-@ based tour . Also in January , she began working with Lamoureux Orchestra to create My Story Classical , a classical version of My Story ; the album served as an " alter @-@ ego " of the mostly aggressive My Story . The orchestra also created a classical version of " A Song Is Born " , which was included on My Story Classical and which Hamasaki performed at the opening of the Expo 2005 .
( Miss ) understood ( January 2006 ) , Hamasaki 's seventh studio album , showed new musical directions . Wanting to sing a tune like those of the group Sweetbox , Hamasaki obtained the permission of Sweetbox composer Roberto " Geo " Rosan to use demo songs he had intended to use in Sweetbox 's upcoming album . She edited the songs to fit her personal vision , rewriting the lyrics and rearranging some of the songs . The result was more musically diverse than the previous album ; ( Miss ) understood included ballads , funk , dance @-@ pop , R & B , and rock songs . All of ( Miss ) understood 's singles reached the top of the Oricon ; " Bold & Delicious " became Hamasaki 's twenty @-@ fifth number @-@ one single , tying her with Seiko Matsuda for the record of most number @-@ one singles by a solo female artist . Though ( Miss ) understood also reached the top of the charts , Oricon stated that it sold fewer than a million copies — Hamasaki 's first studio album to do so . In support of the album , Hamasaki held the ( Miss ) understood arena tour , which spanned three months with thirty concerts , from Saitama on March 11 , 2006 to Yoyogi on June 11 , 2006 .
Hamasaki 's first single of 2006 , " Startin ' " , became Hamasaki 's twenty @-@ sixth number @-@ one single , setting a new record for most number @-@ one singles held by a solo female artist . The subsequent studio album , Secret , was released in November 2006 . " Secrets " was , appropriately , the theme of the album ; the album also explored strong female figures , love , and sadness ; songs depicted the artist 's struggles and were written to encourage women . Although Secret was originally intended to be a mini @-@ album , Hamasaki " began brimming with things to say " while producing the album and wrote five more songs . The album consisted mostly of rock songs and ballads ; to complement these , Hamasaki experimented with new vocal techniques . The album also topped the Oricon weekly charts , making Hamasaki the only artist to have eight consecutive number @-@ one studio albums . Her sales , however , continued to decline : according to both Oricon and the RIAJ , Secret failed to sell a million copies .
= = = 2007 – 08 : Compilation releases and Guilty = = =
On February 28 , 2007 , Hamasaki released A Best 2 , a pair of compilation albums containing songs from I Am ... to ( Miss ) understood . The two versions , White and Black , debuted at the first and second positions on the Oricon weekly charts , making Hamasaki the first female artist in thirty @-@ six years to hold the top two positions on any Oricon album chart . At the end of 2007 , the pair became Japan 's fifth and seventh best @-@ selling albums of the year respectively . In support of A Best 2 and Secret , Hamasaki held the four @-@ month @-@ long Tour of Secret from March to the end of June . It was her first international tour , and aside from Japan , she performed in Taipei , Shanghai , and Hong Kong . Her foreign fanbase highly anticipated the concerts , and tickets for the Taipei and Hong Kong performances sold out in less than three hours .
In July 2007 , Hamasaki released her first single in over a year , " Glitter / Fated " . A short film , Distance Love , was used as the music video for " Glitter " and " Fated " . The film , shot in Hong Kong , co @-@ starred Hong Kong actor Shawn Yue as Hamasaki 's romantic interest . " Glitter / Fated " and the following single " Talkin ' 2 Myself " reached the top of their respective charts , continuing Hamasaki 's streak of number @-@ one singles . In December , Hamasaki released her first digital @-@ only single , " Together When ... " , which topped the RIAJ 's monthly download chart . Unlike its predecessors , the writing of Hamasaki 's ninth studio album , Guilty ( January 2008 ) , was not an emotional experience for her , nor did it have a set theme . However , she said later that the album 's tracks appeared to tell a story . Most of the songs were dark ; the album had a notable rock tinge . It contained some upbeat dance tracks and ballads , though the latter also had rock overtones . Guilty peaked at the number @-@ two position on the weekly Oricon charts , making it Hamasaki 's first studio album not to reach the top and ended Hamasaki 's streak of 8 consecutive number @-@ one albums . Guilty was later released as a digital album in twenty @-@ six countries outside Japan , nineteen of them Western nations . That , along with Hamasaki 's decision to employ western DJs such as The Young Punx , Coldcut , Para One and Armand Van Helden for her 2008 remix albums Ayu @-@ mi @-@ x 6 : Gold and Ayu @-@ mi @-@ x 6 : Silver , has been interpreted as her first step into the global market .
In April 2008 , to commemorate her tenth anniversary in Avex , Hamasaki released the single " Mirrorcle World " ; it topped the Oricon , making Hamasaki the only female solo artist to have a number @-@ one single every year for ten consecutive years . Hamasaki also held her second tour of Asia , Asia Tour 2008 : 10th Anniversary , to celebrate her tenth anniversary . From April until June , she toured Japan , holding seventeen concerts . Taiwan , Hong Kong , and Shanghai were again the foreign stops after the domestic performances . On September 10 , 2008 , Hamasaki released A Complete : All Singles , a compilation album that includes the A @-@ sides of all her singles along with previously unreleased footage from her A @-@ nation concerts which is the 8th best selling album of 2008 .
= = = 2009 – 11 : Next Level , Rock n Roll Circus and Five = = =
Hamasaki 's next two singles , " Days / Green " ( December 2008 ) and " Rule / Sparkle " ( February 2009 ) , continued Hamasaki 's streak of number @-@ one singles . " Rule " is used as the international theme song for the film Dragonball Evolution . The subsequent studio album , Next Level , was released on March 25 , 2009 in several formats : CD , CD + DVD , 2CD + DVD and a two @-@ gigabyte USB flash drive . Sonically , Next Level was mainly an electronic dance album . Next Level reached the top of the Oricon charts , making Hamasaki the only artist to have a number @-@ one album every year for eleven years in a row since her debut . However , the album was only certified double platinum , making it Hamasaki 's lowest @-@ selling studio album to that date . On August 12 , 2009 , Hamasaki released her forty @-@ sixth single , " Sunrise / Sunset ( Love Is All ) " . " Sunrise ( Love Is All ) " , one of the A @-@ sides , is being used as the opening theme song for the Japanese television drama Dandy Daddy ? . The single reached the top of the weekly charts , making it her twenty @-@ first consecutive ( thirty @-@ third total ) number @-@ one single . " Sunrise / Sunset " is also her forty @-@ fourth single to enter the Top 10 , making Hamasaki the artist with the most Top 10 singles ever . Hamasaki 's third single of the year , " You Were ... / Ballad " , was released on December 29 , 2009 . Hamasaki 's eleventh studio album Rock ' n ' Roll Circus was released on April 14 , 2010 . Though the album contained a few " powerful and melodramatic gothic rock " tracks , it was mainly " pure and classic J @-@ pop " , with pop @-@ rock songs and ballads . The album topped the charts , making Hamasaki the first female solo artist in twenty years to have ten number @-@ one original studio albums . Hamasaki also began expanding her online presence , setting up accounts on MySpace , Ustream , and Twitter . In July , entertainment company Livespire announced that Hamasaki 's 2009 Next Level tour would be shown in 3D at Toho cinemas nationwide beginning on August 28 .
On July 14 , Hamasaki released her forty @-@ eighth single , " Moon / Blossom " . The single was released as the first of a three @-@ part project to celebrate her yet @-@ unreleased fiftieth single . The two other singles in the project ( her forty @-@ ninth and fiftieth singles respectively ) , " Crossroad " and " L " , were released within a week of each other , " Crossroad " on September 22 and " L " on September 29 . " Crossroad " was composed by Tetsuya Komuro and its coupling was her cover version of Komuro 's band TM Network 's 1988 song " Seven Days War " , which was her first cover of a male song . The three singles all topped the Oricon , becoming Hamasaki 's twenty @-@ third , twenty @-@ fourth and twenty @-@ fifth consecutive number @-@ one singles and setting a new record for the most consecutive number @-@ one singles by any female artist ( solo or group ) as well as by any solo artist . On December 22 , Hamasaki released her twelfth original studio album , Love Songs . On the same day , Naoya Urata of AAA released his debut solo single " Dream On " . The song , which featured Hamasaki , was written and produced by her as well , marking the first record she produced for another singer . Love Songs and " Dream On " both reached the top spots on their respective Oricon charts . Love Songs became Hamasaki 's fourth consecutive and seventeenth total number @-@ one album . The album also marked Hamasaki 's thirteenth consecutive year with a number @-@ one album , breaking her old record .
In February 2011 , it was announced that her arena tour of the year , Hotel Love Songs , would start in April . Shortly after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami hit , it was announced that the tour was rescheduled to start in late May and the tour was renamed to Power of Music . Deeply affected by the Tohoku Earthquake and tsunami devastation , Hamasaki decided to collaborate with fashion magazine , Vivi , with the sale of charity shirts and the profits going to help the victims in the devastation . On April 20 , 2011 , Hamasaki simultaneously released four new remix albums , Ayu @-@ mi @-@ x 7 : House , Acoustic Orchestra , Trance 4 , Ayu @-@ ro Mix 4 , and a Limited Complete Box Set , which were also released internationally on iTunes . On that same day , Hamasaki also released 2010 Rock ' n ' Roll Circus Tour and A 50 Singles : Live Selection which topped the weekly chart at No. 1 and No. 2 respectively . The simultaneous releases made Hamasaki the first artist ever to have 4 albums in Oricon 's top 10 and also the first artist to hold 2 top positions in the Oricon DVD chart . Their original release date of March 30 was postponed due to the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami and was pushed back to April 20 instead . On April 21 , 2011 , it was announced that she would perform in a @-@ nation 10th Anniversary for Life Charge & Go ! On May 4 , it was announced that she broke another record – the female artist with the highest DVD sales with 2 @,@ 313 @,@ 000 .
On August 31 , Hamasaki released her second mini album Five , her first since Memorial Address in 2003 . This is her first album to have no singles released . Five topped the Oricon Charts for 2 consecutive weeks , her first to do so since ( Miss ) understood . The lead song , " Progress " , was used as a theme song for the videogame , Tales of Xillia . The album also features collaborations , with singers Juno and Naoya Urata from AAA . This album managed to be certified Gold by RIAJ , making Hamasaki 's first album not to be certified Platinum . Complete Clip Box 1998 – 2011 , consisting all her music videos from her first single , " Poker Face " till her latest mini @-@ album , Five , was released on January 1 , 2012 . " How Beautiful You Are " will be the theme song for a drama Saigo Kara Nibanme no Koi , and also Hamasaki 's second digital single ( 55th single overall ) , which is released fully on February 8 . Hamasaki describe the song as a mid @-@ tempo ballad and a feeling of gratitude towards someone .
= = = 2012 – 13 : 15th anniversary , Love Again and compilation releases = = =
In 2012 , The International 3D Society announced the winners of its 2012 3D Creative Arts Awards with Hamasaki receiving an award for " Electronic Broadcast Media ( Television ) – Live Event " for her A3D ayumi hamasaki Arena Tour 2009 A ( Next Level ) tour . On March 21 , Hamasaki released her thirteenth studio album , Party Queen . The album peaked at number two on the Oricon charts , becoming her second studio album to do so after 2007 's Guilty . On August 6 , 2012 , Hamasaki released her sixth compilation album A Summer Best . It included two new songs which were digitally released for the promotion of the album : the TRF cover , Happening Here , and You & Me .
In September 2012 , it was announced that , to commemorate Hamasaki 's 15th anniversary in the music industry on April 8 , 2013 , she would be releasing new material for five consecutive months starting on the 8th day of November , 2012 , until the 8th of March , 2013 . The first releases were two mini albums , Love and Again , which were put on sale on the 8th of November and December , respectively . The third release for the 8th of January was her compilation album A Classical , which included classical arrangements of previously released songs . The fourth release was Hamasaki 's 14th studio album , Love Again , which compiled the songs included in the two previous mini albums . And finally the fifth was the DVD / Blu @-@ ray of her Arena Tour 2012 : Hotel Love Songs , released in March . In April 2013 Hamasaki began her 15th Anniversary Tour : A Best Live , which lasted for four months until the end of July . Its setlist was chosen by fans through online voting , and was later released as her first live album CD on September 18 . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray versions were released on October 30 , 2013 . On December 25 , 2013 , Hamasaki released " Feel the Love / Merry @-@ go @-@ round " , her first physical single in three years . " Feel the Love " was composed by Tetsuya Komuro and produced by Dj Hello Kitty , while " Merry @-@ go @-@ round " was produced by M @-@ Flo 's Taku Takahashi and features rapper Verbal . Both songs are heavily influenced by Western dance @-@ pop music .
= = = 2014 – 2015 : Colours , A One , Sixxxxxx = = =
In January 2014 , it was announced that a new song entitled " Pray " was chosen to be the theme song for the anime film Osamu Tezuka 's Budda 2 — Owarinaki Tabi , which premiered on February 8 , 2014 in Japan . The song was released digitally on January 27 , 2014 . Another new song , entitled " Hello New Me " , was presented as theme song for a new season of Fuji TV drama Zoku — Saigo Kara Nibanme no Koi. which started broadcasting in April , 2014 . The song was released digitally on May 14 , 2014 . From May 30 to July 6 , 2014 , Hamasaki held her Premium Showcase : Feel the love tour , on which she offered 11 concerts at 3 locations : Nagoya , Osaka and Tokyo . On this tour Hamasaki abandoned for the first time the traditional format of her previous concerts and presented a uninterrupted , shorter show , on which she also debuted as an aerial acrobat . Hamasaki 's fifteenth studio album , entitled Colours , was released on July 2 , 2014 . The album featured internationally renowned producers , such as RedOne , Rodney Jerkins , Armin van Buuren and Fedde le Grand , making the first time in Hamasaki 's career in which primarily Western producers were appointed to produce one of her studio albums . Colours peaked at number five on its first week on the Oricon charts , becoming Hamasaki 's first studio album to debut out of the Top 3 . However , it also marked a new record for her , as with this achievement she became the second artist in Japan 's history — after Yumi Matsutoya — to have 47 of her albums within the Top 10 of the charts . In September 2014 , Hamasaki released two recut singles from Colours : " Terminal " and " XOXO " on the PlugAir platform . The single was released under Machine Shop Records for the American release .
On October 18 , 2014 , Hamasaki performed as the closing act in the A @-@ Nation premium concert held at the Marina Bay Sands ’ MasterCard Theatres in Singapore . This was the second time performing in Singapore after her MTV Asia Awards performance 12 years ago . On November 2 , 2014 , Hamasaki announced through her official Facebook page that she had started recording new material composed by Tetsuya Komuro , Kunio Tago and Tetsuya Yukumi for a " winter ballad trilogy " single . On November 6 , 2014 , the title of the single was revealed to be " Zutto ... / Last Minute / Walk " , and its release date was set for December 24 , 2014 . On November 10 , 2014 , it was announced that Hamasaki would be collaborating in a tribute cover album for Hikaru Utada , entitled Utada Hikaru no Uta , to be released on December 9 , 2014 . For the album she contributed with a cover of Utada 's 1998 single " Movin ' on Without You " , which was arranged by the RedOne production team . The winter ballad trilogy single , " Zutto ... / Last Minute / Walk " , was released on December 24 , 2014 and peaked at number five on the Oricon charts . With this achievement , Hamasaki became the first solo artist in Japan 's history to have 50 singles within the Top 10 of the Oricon charts . As for artists in general , Hamasaki became the third artist with more Top ten singles since Oricon 's foundation in 1968 — being surpassed by groups Morning Musume and SMAP , with 57 and 53 Top ten singles respectively In December 2014 Hamasaki announced that she would be not attending the New Year show Kōhaku Uta Gassen for the first time in 15 years . She explained her decision stating that she wanted to lower her responsibilities and things she felt pressured to do , in order to focus on the projects she had for her career , mainly regarding her plans to expand her influence throughout Asia .
On February 15 , 2015 , Hamasaki made a surprise guest appearance during Singaporean singer JJ Lin 's concert in Taipei , Taiwan . They performed a duet version of Hamasaki 's 2000 single " Seasons " , and announced that JJ Lin would be producing a song for Hamasaki 's next studio album , A One . The album was released on April 8 , 2015 , including singles " Zutto ... " , " Last Minute " , " Walk " , Utada 's cover " Movin ' on Without You " , and JJ Lin @-@ produced song " The Gift " , for which a promotional music video was also made . Between April and July 2015 , Hamasaki embarked on her Arena Tour 2015 A Cirque de Minuit tour throughout Japan , which was planned as an expanded version of her previous Countdown Live concerts held in late 2014 . The tour consisted of a 34 @-@ song setlist show with a duration of 3 hours and 45 minutes , her longest concert held to date . At the final show of the aforementioned tour , Hamasaki announced that she would start another tour in September , this time exclusively for members of her official fan club , TeamAyu . The TA Limited Live Tour , Hamasaki 's first fan club exclusive tour in twelve years after 2003 , began on September 29 , 2015 and included a total of 16 concerts at 7 venues .
In April 2015 , a new song entitled " Step by Step " began to be broadcast as the theme song of NHK TV drama Bijo to Danshi , and was subsequently released as a digital single on July 1 . On August 5 , 2015 , Hamasaki released her sixth extended play , entitled Sixxxxxx . The mini album featured six new songs , including drama theme song " Step by Step " , and " Sayonara " , a new song featuring Taiwanese boyband SpeXial . " Sayonara " became # 1 on digital downloads charts in Taiwan , Hong Kong , Singapore and Malaysia , according to KK BOX , Asia ’ s largest digital distribution site . In addition , Hamasaki participated as one of the headliners of the A @-@ Nation Stadium Fes 2015 held on August 30 at the Ajinomoto Stadium , where she also performed a cover of Globe 's hit ballad song " Departures " , joined by Tetsuya Komuro and Naoya Urata onstage . She also recorded a cover of Globe 's " Many Classic Moments " , which was included in the group 's tribute album released on December 16 , 2015 . On December 23 , 2015 , Hamasaki released a winter @-@ themed concept album entitled Winter Diary : A7 Classical , which included songs from her previous two albums -A One and -Sixxxxxx- remixed with Classical arrangements , and also new song " Winter Diary " , which was produced by Tetsuya Komuro . Hamasaki promoted the album by starting an Instagram account that would be active for only a month until the end of January 2016 . She shared pictures of the music video shooting of " Winter Diary " recorded in Taiwan , and also the preparations for her 2015 @-@ 2016 countdown live concerts .
= = = 2016 : Made in Japan = = =
On her last Instagram post , Hamasaki confirmed that she has been working on her seventeenth studio album for 2016 . A 15th anniversary edition of Hamasaki 's 2001 greatest hits album A Best was released on March 28 , 2016 . In May 2016 , Hamasaki started her nationwide tour Arena Tour 2016 A : Made in Japan , which will be an expanded version of her 2015 @-@ 2016 Countdown Live Made in Tokyo . On May 11 , Hamasaki made a surprise release of her 17th studio album , entitled Made in Japan , through music streaming website AWA , where it reached 1 million legal streams after 5 days of release . The album is set to be released on physical formats on June 29 , 2016 .
= = Image and artistry = =
Time magazine has noted that Hamasaki lacked talents such as the dance moves of Namie Amuro , the " supermodel allure " of Hitomi , and the " vocal pyrotechnics " of Hikaru Utada . Her own fans even considered her high @-@ pitched voice screechy . However , her music is sometimes considered one of the major forces in shaping Japan 's current music trends ; this has been attributed to her constantly changing image as well as her self @-@ penned lyrics , though critics credit clever marketing strategies . Hamasaki is also noted for the visual aspects of her artistry : she is considered a fashion trendsetter , with her influence extending beyond Japan . The Guardian says that Hamasaki has " married accessible , mainstream hits with over @-@ the @-@ top costumes and high @-@ concept videos " . The widespread influence of her music and her constantly changing image has meant that Hamasaki has often been compared to Madonna .
Hamasaki 's lyrics and image have gained a following predominantly among the Generation X of Asia , mainly because of the " conflicting or inharmonious beauty " of her fashion and lyrics ; Hamasaki 's fashions combine Eastern and Western elements , and her songs , unlike those of many of her contemporaries , mostly all have English titles but contained no English lyrics ( until Rainbow ) . Music critic Tetsu Misaki believed that the juxtaposition of her fashionable appearance and her personal lyrics was one of her most important selling points . The popularity of her music extends beyond Japan ; she has a " sizable [ following ] across Asia " and is one of the few Japanese singers whose albums have sold over 10 @,@ 000 copies in Singapore . In 2002 , however , Hamasaki 's domestic sales began declining due to a sluggish Japanese market and increasing piracy in Japan . As a result , she began moving toward the Asian market in 2002 , performing at the 2002 MTV Asia awards in Singapore , at South Korea 's " Asia Song Festival " , and at a concert in Beijing to celebrate Sino @-@ Japanese relations . With her popularity declining ( due in part to the rising popularity of other singers ) , she made a foray into the Asian market , starting with her first tour of Asia in 2007 .
= = = Musical style = = =
Hamasaki 's lyrics , all her own , have resonated among her fans , who praise them as being honest and heartfelt and " expressing determination " ; in two surveys conducted by Oricon , respondents voted Hamasaki 's lyrics as their favorite aspect of her artistry . Steve McClure of The Japan Times noted that Hamasaki has " developed a reputation as a thoughtful , introspective lyricist " ; Barry Walters of The Village Voice comments that Hamasaki 's lyrics " pack unlikely insights . " Having " trouble voicing her thoughts " , Hamasaki uses her lyrics as an outlet ; she draws inspiration from her own ( and occasionally her friends ' ) experiences and emotions and tries to put them " honestly into words " . She has stated that honesty is essential to her lyrics , saying , " If I write when I 'm low , it will be a dark song , but I don 't care . I want to be honest with myself at all times . " This meant that she did not use English lyrics until her album Rainbow , as she felt that she could best express herself in Japanese . As with her musical style , the themes of her lyrics have varied . Her debut album A Song for × × dealt mostly with themes of " loneliness and confusion " , as did her second album Loveppears . Duty likewise expressed feelings of disappointment and confusion . Hamasaki began to take on a more global outlook with her following albums I Am ... and Rainbow , branching out to wider themes such as faith and peace . Music critic Tetsu Misaki noted a large change in her lyrics style between her debut album A Song for × × ( 1999 ) , which mostly dealt with personal problems , and her following albums Loveppears and Duty . Misaki believed Hamasaki had begun thinking about her influence on society more , and began writing songs with important messages she wanted to express to her listeners . This was signalled by her not using first person pronouns as much , and instead using the words bokura ( 僕ら , " we " ) and tsutaeru ( 伝える , " convey " ) more often . As Hamasaki matured , her lyrics began to express more confidence ; themes in her later albums included love and the struggles of women . With Guilty , Hamasaki began to compose her lyrics not only as an exposition of her personal feelings but as encouragements for her listeners , an outlook she applied in Next Level as well . In songs such as " Talkin ' 2 Myself " and " Mirrorcle World " , Hamasaki deals with the " awareness and fighting spirit of surviving in a high @-@ risk age " to encourage listeners ; in " Rollin ' " ( from Next Level ) , Hamasaki writes , " The age is rolling around / At the speed of heading toward the end / Beyond the border / Disappointment and hope fight with each other " . In addition to personal experiences and feelings , Hamasaki bases lyrics on sources such as historical events . The life of Joan of Arc was the inspiration for " Free & Easy " , while a story told to her by her friend about a saint named Mary served as the basis for " M " ; the September 11 attacks inspired " A Song Is Born " .
In addition to writing her own lyrics , Hamasaki has also involved herself in other aspects of production such as artistic direction . Though Max Matsuura is officially credited as the producer of her records , he said of Hamasaki , " Ayu is a very meticulous worker behind the scenes . A lot of the work she does by herself is more in the producer 's arena . I think really we should say ' Produced by [ A ] yumi [ H ] amasaki ' . " Until her single " M " , however , Hamasaki left the task of composing to her staff ; as she has explained , " I 'm not a professional ; I lack even basic knowledge about writing music . " However , she started to compose her own melodies after her staff had failed to compose a tune for " M " that appealed to her . Wanting to produce works faithful to her visions , Hamasaki took control of most aspects of her artistry . I Am ... is representative of this stage in Hamasaki 's career ; she directed the production of its songs , videos , and artwork . She began to compose less after I Am ... : whereas nearly all of I Am ... was her work , only nine of Rainbow 's fifteen tracks were composed by her . She was even less involved in the composition of subsequent albums , composing two tracks on Memorial Address , three on My Story , and one on ( Miss ) understood ; since Secret , none of the songs on her studio albums have listed her as a composer . With later albums , Hamasaki also began to delegate to her staff tasks she had once handled herself . Hamasaki cites Madonna , soul musicians Babyface and En Vogue , and rock bands Led Zeppelin and Deep Purple as her influences and states that she admires Michelle Branch , Kid Rock , Joan Osborne , Seiko Matsuda , Rie Miyazawa , and Keiko Yamada ; these diverse influences have led to the variety of her own music . Hamasaki began commissioning remixes of her songs early in her career , and this practice also influenced the diversity of her music . Found on many of her records , these remixes span different genres of electronic dance music including Eurobeat , house , and trance , as well as acoustic genres such as classical and traditional Chinese music . She has employed Western as well as Japanese musicians ; among those she has worked with are Above & Beyond , the Lamoureux Orchestra of France , and traditional Chinese music ensemble Princess China Music Orchestra . Hamasaki has released more than a hundred original songs ; through them , she has covered a wide range of musical styles , such as dance , metal , R & B , progressive rock , pop , and classical . She uses different instruments and techniques including piano , orchestra , gospel choirs , guitars , traditional Japanese strings , music boxes , and effects such as yells , claps , and scratching .
Hamasaki is often involved in the artistic direction of her music videos . They are often artistic productions through which Hamasaki tries to convey the meaning or feeling of their respective songs . The themes of the videos are varied ; she has made " sad and fragile " or " emotional " videos ( " Momentum " , " Endless Sorrow " ) , " refreshing " summer videos ( " Blue Bird " , " Fairyland " ) , surreal or " scary " videos ( " 1 Love " , " Marionette " ) , and humorous videos ( " Evolution " , " Angel 's Song " , " Beautiful Fighters " ) . Additionally , many of the videos contain short storylines , some of which use symbolism to convey their respective messages . The video of " Voyage " depicts Hamasaki as a woman in a mental hospital whose previous incarnation was a woman in feudal Japan who was sacrificed to the moon ; the video of " Endless Sorrow " features a young boy living in a society where speaking is forbidden by law . In the video for " Free & Easy " , Hamasaki portrayed a " twenty @-@ first @-@ century Joan of Arc " to convey her message " freedom cannot be easily obtained ; there is a price to pay for it " and to express her opposition to her marrying at the time ; the video for " Ourselves " featured masked people destroying " effigies of [ Hamasaki 's ] past " such as photographs and album covers to symbolize destruction and rebirth . Additionally , the videos of " Fairyland " , " My Name 's Women " , " Jewel " , " Green " , and " Virgin Road " are among the top twenty or so most expensive music videos , making Hamasaki the only non @-@ American artist to hold such a distinction . Hamasaki is also involved in the production and artistic direction of her live performances ; they , like her videos , are often lavish productions and use a variety of props , extravagant costumes , and choreographed dances . She has used large video screens , fireworks , simulated rain drops , trick stage floors , and suspended devices .
= = = Public image = = =
Hamasaki 's influence goes beyond music ; she is often considered a fashion icon and trend @-@ setter , a status attributed to her tight control over her image . Besides her frequent appearances in fashion magazines , such as Vivi , Popteen , and Cawaii ! , Hamasaki has often been lauded for her trendy choices in apparels and accessories ; Oricon has repeatedly named her the " Most Fashionable Female Artist " . Many aspects of Japan 's fashions — including clothing , hair , nails , and accessories — have in some way been influenced by her . As with her music , trends Hamasaki started have spread to Asian countries as Taiwan , China , and Singapore . Among the trends Hamasaki has started is hime @-@ kei ( a look inspired by the fashions of 18th century French aristocracy ) ; she has also heavily influenced the kogal subculture . Hamasaki 's constantly changing image is apparent not only in her fashion photo shoots and commercial endorsements but also in her record covers , an element she considers essential in conveying her message . She has portrayed herself as a vine @-@ clad " peace muse " or " Greek goddess " ( on her album I Am ... ) , as a " twenty @-@ first @-@ century Joan of Arc " ( for her single " Free & Easy " ) , and as a " funky Lolita " . Though Hamasaki has portrayed herself in earlier releases as a " girl next door " , she has adopted a more sexualized image since the release of Loveppears . The covers for records including Loveppears , I Am ... , Rainbow , and Party Queen feature Hamasaki in states of partial nudity , for which she has generated controversy . Hamasaki also garnered criticism after she modeled bra for lingerie manufacturer Wacoal , though most of the criticism alleged that Hamasaki was only trying to " play catch @-@ up " with Kumi Koda , who gained popularity for her overtly sexual image .
Hamasaki has accepted offers by numerous brands to endorse their products . Throughout her career under Avex , she has promoted products that ranged from electronics ( Tu @-@ Ka cell phones and Panasonic ) to various snack foods . Among the products she has advertised on television are the Honda Crea scooter , Kosé cosmetics , Mister Donut donuts , and Boss coffee . As well as serving as background music for television advertisements , some of Hamasaki 's songs have been used as themes for video games , television shows and motion pictures , such as Onimusha : Dawn of Dreams , InuYasha , Shinobi : Heart Under Blade and Tales of Xillia . Although Hamasaki initially supported the exploitation of her popularity for commercial purposes , saying that it was " necessary that [ she is ] viewed as a product " , she eventually opposed Avex 's decision to market her as a " product rather than a person " .
= = Other activities = =
= = = MTRLG = = =
Hamasaki launched her own fashion brand , MTRLG ( Material Girl ) , in 2001 ; the clothes were sold at MTRLG boutiques and at Mise S * clusive stores .
= = = Ayupan = = =
In 2002 , Hamasaki created Ayupan , a cartoon version of herself that appeared in a line of merchandise ( mainly figurines ) and in a 2003 cartoon . For her 2007 tour Tour of Secret , Hamasaki collaborated with Sanrio to create a line of merchandise , " Ayumi Hamasaki x Hello Kitty , " that features Ayupan and Hello Kitty together . The merchandise included cell phone straps and Lumix cameras decorated with a picture of Hello Kitty behind Hamasaki 's " A " logo ; the former product was a result of a collaboration with Sanrio and Japanese fashion brand Ash & Diamonds , the latter a collaboration with Sanrio and Panasonic .
= = = Ayu ready ? = = =
She briefly hosted her own television show , Ayuready ? ( October 2002 ) , on Fuji Television . The talk show , aired on Saturday nights from 11 : 30 to midnight , often featured her performing songs with guests , among whom were Goto Maki , Puffy , and Akina Nakamori . To promote the program ( and her album Rainbow ) , Hamasaki opened a restaurant , Rainbow House , on Shōnan Beach ; it was occasionally used in episodes of Ayuready ? . After less than two years , the last episode aired in March 2004 .
= = Philanthropy = =
In March 2011 , Hamasaki donated 30 million yen to relief efforts for the Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami . She also collaborated with fashion magazine ViVi to sell charity T @-@ shirts .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships = = =
On January 1 , 2011 , Hamasaki announced her upcoming marriage to Austrian actor and model Manuel Schwarz , whom Hamasaki met in August 2010 on the set of her music video for " Virgin Road " . On January 2 , her office announced that she and Schwarz had gotten married in the United States the day before . However , on January 16 , 2012 , Hamasaki announced on her website that she would be divorcing Schwarz . The reason for the divorce was that , initially , Hamasaki wanted to move in with Schwarz in United States but due to the earthquake and tsunami that hit her home country on March , 2011 , she began to have a strong desire not to leave Japan .
On December 13 , 2013 , it was announced on her official TeamAyu site that she had become engaged to an American medical student , Tyson Bodkin , 10 years her junior , whom she had been with since the spring of that year , adding " As my partner is an ordinary student , I would be very happy if you could watch over us quietly . "
On March 3 , 2014 , the singer announced on her fan club site " Team Ayu " that she was officially married to Bodkin . According to her agency , the couple already finished their marriage procedure in the United States near the end of February . On the 3rd , Hamasaki 's mother , as a deputy , submitted the marriage registration to Japan .
= = = Health = = =
In a January 8 , 2008 entry on her TeamAyu blog , Hamasaki announced that an inoperable condition , possibly tinnitus or Ménière 's disease , had caused complete deafness in her left ear . She disclosed that she had been diagnosed with the condition in 2006 and that the problem dated back to 2000 . Despite the setback , Hamasaki stated that she wished to continue singing , and that she would " not give up " on her fans and that " as a professional " , she wanted to " deliver the best performance for everyone " .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
A Song for × × ( 1999 )
Loveppears ( 1999 )
Duty ( 2000 )
I Am ... ( 2002 )
Rainbow ( 2002 )
My Story ( 2004 )
( Miss ) understood ( 2006 )
Secret ( 2006 )
Guilty ( 2008 )
Next Level ( 2009 )
Rock ' n ' Roll Circus ( 2010 )
Love Songs ( 2010 )
Party Queen ( 2012 )
Love Again ( 2013 )
Colours ( 2014 )
A One ( 2015 )
Made in Japan ( 2016 )
= = Concerts = =
= = = Concert tours = = =
= = = New Years countdown concerts = = =
= = Filmography = =
= HMCS Protecteur ( AOR 509 ) =
Her Majesty 's Canadian Ship ( HMCS ) Protecteur ( AOR 509 ) was the lead ship of the Protecteur @-@ class replenishment oilers in service with the Royal Canadian Navy . She was part of the Maritime Forces Pacific ( MARPAC ) , homeported at CFB Esquimalt , British Columbia . Built by Saint John Shipbuilding and Dry Docks in Saint John , New Brunswick , she was commissioned on 30 August 1969 . She was the first Canadian naval unit to carry the name Protecteur ; however , there have been several units , including a base , named HMCS Protector .
Mostly known for her humanitarian efforts , Protecteur had also served in times of war including Operation Friction and Operation Apollo in the Persian Gulf region , multi @-@ national naval exercises and as part of the INTERFET in East Timor . Operation Apollo was the largest deployment of the Royal Canadian Navy since the Korean War . In six months Protecteur logged over 50 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 93 @,@ 000 km ; 58 @,@ 000 mi ) , delivering over 150 @,@ 000 barrels ( ~ 20 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel and 390 pallets of dry goods to deployed coalition ships . Protecteur , as well as her sister ship Preserver , were scheduled to be paid off in 2017 , however damage due to an engine fire aboard the ship in 2014 forced Protecteur to be prematurely paid off . Protecteur was decommissioned at a farewell ceremony on 14 May 2015 .
= = Building Protecteur = =
Protecteur was the first Canadian naval unit to carry the name Protecteur ; however , there have been two Australian and seven British naval units named Protector . The name was also used for a Canadian base , named HMCS Protector .
= = = Construction = = =
First authorized in 1959 , HMCS Protecteur was constructed by Saint John Shipbuilding and Dry Docks in Saint John , New Brunswick starting on 17 October 1967 , was launched on 18 July 1968 , and was officially commissioned by the Royal Canadian Navy on 30 August 1969 .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Protecteur was one of two ships in the Protecteur @-@ class of replenishment oilers in service with the Royal Canadian Navy . The ship is 171 @.@ 9 metres ( 564 ft 0 in ) long and 23 @.@ 2 metres ( 76 ft 1 in ) wide , with a displacement between 8 @,@ 380 and 24 @,@ 700 tonnes ( 8 @,@ 248 and 24 @,@ 310 long tons ) depending on her load . Protecteur 's draught is 10 @.@ 1 m ( 33 ft 2 in ) , and she had been given an ice rating of three .
Two Babcock & Wilcox boilers feed a single General Electric steam turbine rated at 21 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 16 @,@ 000 kW ) that drives a single propeller , allowing the ship to reach a maximum speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . At 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , the range of Protecteur was limited to 4 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 600 kilometres ; 4 @,@ 700 miles ) , but her range could be extended to 7 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 900 km ; 8 @,@ 600 mi ) when only traveling at 11 @.@ 5 knots ( 21 @.@ 3 km / h ; 13 @.@ 2 mph ) .
Protecteur 's primary role was to deliver supplies to deployed ships . Fully loaded , Protecteur could store up to 14 @,@ 590 t ( 14 @,@ 360 long tons ) of fuel , 400 t ( 394 long tons ) of aviation fuel , 1 @,@ 048 t ( 1 @,@ 031 long tons ) of dry cargo , and 1 @,@ 250 t ( 1 @,@ 230 long tons ) of ammunition . Fuel could be transferred at a rate of 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 476 long tons ) per hour and 2 @,@ 500 lb ( 1 @,@ 100 kg ) of dry cargo per hour could be transferred all while traveling at her top speed .
= = = Armament = = =
Four BAE Systems Mark 36 SRBOC chaff launchers and an AN / SLQ @-@ 25 Nixie towed decoy were the ship 's primary defenses . When Protecteur was originally launched , she was fitted with a twin 3 " / 50 caliber gun mounted on her bow , however the 3 " guns were replaced with two 20 mm Phalanx CIWS mounts , one at the bow and one astern in August 1990 . The CIWS emplacements were part of the upgrades that Protecteur received before deploying to the Persian Gulf region .
Her former 3 " / 50 guns were temporarily fitted , together with two Bofors 40 mm guns , six 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) machine guns , as well as Blowpipe and Javelin MANPADs during the Gulf War . The CIWS mounts were retained after the war , but the Bofors and 76 mm gun were removed from Protecteur after returning from war .
Originally Protecteur was to be fitted with Mark 29 NATO Sea Sparrow . However , due to delays in procurement , the Sea Sparrow system was never installed . The Sikorsky CH @-@ 124 Sea King helicopters on board Protecteur also provided weapons support , carrying Mark 46 torpedoes and a 7 @.@ 62 mm machine gun .
= = = Crew = = =
Three hundred sixty five men and women served on Protecteur . There were 27 officers aboard ship and a total of 45 crew members who were part of the air detachment that flew three CH @-@ 124 Sea King helicopters off the back of the ship . In 1988 the crew of the Protecteur was officially desegregated , allowing both men and women to serve on board her . Protecteur was equipped with a small dental clinic , which provided dental care for the Royal Canadian Navy when deployed .
= = Service = =
The Polish yacht Gedania left Resolute Bay and went missing on 30 August 1975 . Gedania was a sailboat , and was only the second pleasure craft to attempt to traverse the Northwest Passage ; however they were turned back due to regulations regarding the passage . The sailboat was on a journey to circumnavigate the North and South American continents . The crew of Protecteur initiated a $ 400 thousand ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 75 million in 2016 ) search for the lost ship before it completed its journey .
In 1980 , while Protecteur was operating off the coast of Portugal , Commanding Officer Captain Larry Dzioba hoisted an Esso flag on the ship 's mast , joking that they were the " biggest floating gas station in the neighbourhood " . In 1981 , Protecteur served in CARIBOPS 81 off the coast of Puerto Rico , along with at least two Canadian destroyers . Protecteur and her CH @-@ 124 helicopters performed a nighttime rescue of the crew of a disabled Norwegian chemical tanker in June 1982 . The Norwegian crew was forced to abandon their ship after a fire had broken out . For the 75th anniversary of the Royal Canadian Navy , Protecteur hosted a dinner with the captains of 35 ships , including ships from Belgium , Brazil , Denmark , France , Great Britain , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Portugal , and the United States , as well as then Governor General Jeanne Sauvé and Prince Andrew .
In 1991 , Protecteur was part of the Canadian contingent sent to the Persian Gulf as part of Operation Desert Shield and later Operation Friction ( the Canadian name for its operations during the Gulf War ) . The ship , part of a three @-@ vessel force , the other two being the Iroquois @-@ class destroyer Athabaskan and the Restigouche @-@ class destroyer Terra Nova , saw extensive service in the Central Gulf . The ship was honoured with the Gulf and Kuwait Medal and the Arabian Sea award for her service in the war . In 1992 , Protecteur was sent to help after Hurricane Andrew in Florida , with tasks including repairing schools , community centres , and hospitals in the region . A small pool was built on the helipad of Protecteur providing some relief to hurricane ravaged Floridians . Homes , churches , and a senior centre were also repaired in the Bahamas . The homeport of Protecteur was changed from CFB Halifax to CFB Esquimalt after the hurricane relief efforts . The frigate Vancouver and Protecteur participated in the multi @-@ national RIMPAC 98 off the coast of Hawaii in June 1998 .
Protecteur was deployed to East Timor as part of the Australian @-@ led INTERFET peacekeeping taskforce from 23 October 1999 to 23 January 2000 . Crew from Protecteur helped reconstruct a police academy in Dili during their deployment in support of INTERFET . The Royal Canadian Mounted Police then used the newly reconstructed academy to set up a training school for the National Police of East Timor . Protecteur participated in Operation Apollo for six months , logging over 50 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 93 @,@ 000 km ; 58 @,@ 000 mi ) and delivering over 150 @,@ 000 barrels ( ~ 20 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel and 390 pallets of dry goods , returning to CFB Esquimalt in November 2002 . Operation Apollo was the largest Canadian deployment since the Korean War . Protecteur participated in RIMPAC again in 2004 , along with the Algonquin and Regina .
On 19 September 2011 , Protecteur departed from CFB Esquimalt for a two month deployment off southern California as part of the USS Abraham Lincoln carrier strike group . Protecteur joined the destroyer Algonquin and the frigate Ottawa in Fleet Week activities in San Diego , California , between 26 and 30 September 2011 . On 30 August 2013 , the ship was involved in a collision with Algonquin during towing exercises . There were no injuries to personnel , although Protecteur sustained damage to her bow . The damage was repaired in time for Protecteur to participate in a Task Group Exercise with the United States Navy in mid @-@ October 2013 .
On 20 February 2014 , Protecteur suffered an engine room fire and breakdown 340 nautical miles ( 630 km ; 390 mi ) northeast of Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . She was moving at limited speeds and the United States Navy Arleigh Burke @-@ class destroyer Michael Murphy , Ticonderoga @-@ class cruiser Chosin , and the Military Sealift Command @-@ operated Powhatan @-@ class fleet ocean tug Sioux were dispatched to assist . Chosin attempted to tow Protecteur , but the towing line broke . About 20 members of the ship 's crew were injured as a result of the fire , and her engines were badly damaged . After a preliminary assessment , it was decided that the vessel could not be repaired in Pearl Harbor . On 16 May Protecteur left Pearl Harbor under tow from the United States Military Sealift Command @-@ operated Safeguard @-@ class rescue and salvage ship Salvor for an expected three week journey to her home port of CFB Esquimalt . Protecteur was delivered to Esquimalt on 31 May 2014 .
= = Retirement and replacement = =
Protecteur was decommissioned at a farewell ceremony on 14 May 2015 . Plans for replacing Protecteur and her sister ship , Preserver , were first brought up in 2004 . Lack of spare parts for the ship 's boiler and the fact that she is a single @-@ skinned tanker were the main driving points to replacing Protecteur and Preserver .
It had been planned that the ship would have continued to operate until 2015 ; however , the Joint Support Ship Project would not have been completed until two years later , leaving a gap in the ability of the RCN to refuel and resupply her own ships while deployed . Following extensive damage as a result of a fire in February 2014 , Protecteur 's decommissioning was brought forward as repairs would have been " ... too expensive for the navy to consider " given that she was due to be retired in 2017 .
On 19 September 2014 , Vice @-@ Admiral Mark Norman of the Royal Canadian Navy announced the retirement of Protecteur , along with her sister ship HMCS Preserver and the Iroquois @-@ class destroyers HMCS Iroquois and HMCS Algonquin . The Royal Canadian Navy is looking at other options to fill the supply gap until the arrival of the two Queenston @-@ class auxiliary vessels in 2019 at the earliest . Protecteur , along with Algonquin , was sold for scrapping on 27 November 2015 to R.J. MacIsaac Ltd. of Antigonish , Nova Scotia . They will be towed to Nova Scotia where the work will be done at Liverpool .
In October 2015 , MS Asterix , a container ship , was acquired by Davie Shipyards to be converted into an auxiliary vessel , to be leased to the RCN as a temporary bridge between the Protecteur class until the Queenston class becomes available . However , no contract has yet been signed .
= Ipswich serial murders =
The Ipswich serial murders took place between 30 October and 10 December 2006 , during which time the bodies of five murdered women were discovered at different locations near Ipswich , Suffolk , England . All of the victims were women who had worked as prostitutes in the Ipswich area . Their bodies were discovered naked , but there were no signs of sexual assault . Two of the victims , Anneli Alderton and Paula Clennell , were confirmed to have been killed by asphyxiation . A cause of death for the other victims , Gemma Adams , Tania Nicol and Annette Nicholls , was not established .
Suffolk Police linked the killings and launched a murder investigation codenamed Operation Sumac . Due to the size of the investigation police officers were drafted from several other police forces . Two arrests were made in connection with the murders . The first suspect , who was never officially named by police , was released without charge . Forklift truck driver Steven Gerald James Wright , then aged 48 , was arrested on suspicion of murder on 19 December 2006 and charged with the murders of all five women on 21 December .
Wright was remanded in custody and his trial began on 14 January 2008 at Ipswich Crown Court . Wright pleaded not guilty to the charges , although he admitted having sex with all five victims and that he had been patronising prostitutes since the 1980s . DNA and fibre evidence was presented to the court that linked Wright to the victims . He was found guilty of all five murders on 21 February 2008 and was sentenced the following day to life imprisonment with a recommendation that he should never be released from prison .
The murders received a large amount of media attention , both nationally and internationally . The press often compared the murders to those committed by the Yorkshire Ripper , Peter Sutcliffe , who murdered 13 women and attacked seven others ( mostly prostitutes ) between 1975 and 1981 . There was some concern that the level of media coverage at the time could jeopardise a trial . The murders also sparked debates in the media over the laws surrounding prostitution .
= = Police investigation = =
The body of a young woman was discovered in the water of Belstead Brook at Thorpe 's Hill , near Hintlesham , by a member of the public on 2 December 2006 . The body , later identified as 25 @-@ year @-@ old Gemma Adams , had not been sexually assaulted . Six days later , on 8 December , the body of 19 @-@ year @-@ old Tania Nicol , a friend of Adams who had been missing since 30 October , was discovered in water at Copdock Mill just outside Ipswich . There was no evidence of sexual assault . On 10 December , a third victim , found by a member of the public in an area of woodland by the A14 road near Nacton , was later identified as 24 @-@ year @-@ old Anneli Alderton . According to a police statement , she had been asphyxiated and was about three months pregnant when she died .
In a press conference police warned all women to stay away from the red light district of Ipswich . On 12 December , Suffolk police announced that the bodies of two more women had been found . On 14 December , the police confirmed one of the bodies as 24 @-@ year @-@ old Paula Clennell . Clennell had disappeared on 10 December and was last seen in Ipswich . According to Suffolk Police , Clennell died from " compression of the throat " . On 15 December , the police confirmed that the other body was that of 29 @-@ year @-@ old Annette Nicholls , who disappeared on 5 December . The bodies of Clennell and Nicholls were found in Nacton near the Levington turn @-@ off of the A1156 , close to where Alderton was found . A member of the public had seen Clennell 's body twenty feet ( six metres ) from the main road and a police helicopter dispatched to the scene discovered the second body of Nicholls nearby .
Suffolk police linked the killings and launched a murder investigation , codenamed Operation Sumac . Chief Constable Alastair McWhirter acknowledged that Suffolk Constabulary would be reliant on external assistance due to the magnitude of the investigation . A senior investigator with the Metropolitan Police , Commander Dave Johnston , was reported to have been drafted into the murder inquiry team from Scotland Yard in London in an advisory capacity . The day @-@ to @-@ day investigation was conducted by Detective Chief Superintendent Stewart Gull .
During press conferences on 13 and 14 December , DCS Gull revealed that police believed the locations where the five bodies were found to have been ' deposition sites ' , not murder scenes , indicating that the victims were all killed elsewhere and transported to the locations where they were later found ; no comment was made on where the women may have been murdered . DCS Gull also revealed that some items of women 's clothing and accessories , including a handbag and jacket , had been recovered and were being forensically tested to establish whether they belonged to any of the murdered women .
During the course of the press briefings , DCS Gull stated that over 300 police officers were involved in the investigation , and some 400 – 450 calls were being received daily by detectives .
On 15 December , Suffolk Constabulary 's website revealed that a total of 7 @,@ 300 telephone calls had been made to police regarding the investigation , and that over 300 police staff and specialists were working on the cases , with support from at least 25 other police forces . As of 18 December , the number of officers involved in the investigation had increased to 650 including 350 officers from 40 other police forces who had assisted in the inquiry . The number of calls received regarding the case had also increased to around 10 @,@ 000 .
= = Victims = =
= = = Tania Nicol = = =
Tania Nicol , aged 19 , from Ipswich , the first of the victims to be reported missing , disappeared on 30 October and was reported missing by her mother 48 hours later . Her body was discovered on 8 December near Copdock Mill in a river by police divers ; there was no evidence of sexual assault and a post mortem could not establish a definite cause of death . Nicol attended Chantry High School but had left home at 16 to live in a hostel , where she began to use heroin . Nicol , the youngest of the five victims , worked as a prostitute to fund her addiction to heroin and cocaine . She had originally worked in massage parlours , using the alias of Chantelle in one , but was asked to leave on suspicion that she was using drugs . Her mother was unaware she was a prostitute , and thought she had been working in a bar or a hairdressers .
= = = Gemma Adams = = =
Gemma Rose Adams aged 25 , born in Kesgrave , last seen outside a BMW dealership on West End Road in Ipswich , where she had been living , disappeared on 15 November at about 01 @.@ 15 ( UTC ) . She was reported missing the same day by her partner , with whom she had been for ten years . Her body was found on 2 December , in a river at Hintlesham ; she was the first of the victims to be found . Adams was found naked , in a brook , but had not been sexually assaulted . Adams had been a popular child ; she came from a middle @-@ class family and had a love of animals . As a teenager she started taking hard drugs , becoming addicted to heroin . She had been working as a prostitute to cover the cost of her drug addiction , which had already led to her being dismissed from her job with an insurance firm . Her partner was at the time also a heroin user , and was aware she was working as a prostitute , although her family were not .
= = = Anneli Alderton = = =
Anneli Sarah Alderton , aged 24 , a mother of one who was also in the early stages of pregnancy , had been living in Colchester , Essex . Alderton disappeared on 3 December and was last seen on the 17 @.@ 53 train from Harwich to Manningtree . Alderton got off the train at Manningtree at 18 @.@ 15 before going on to Ipswich on another train , arriving at 18 @.@ 43 . Alderton 's body was found on 10 December near Nacton , in woodland in front of Amberfield School . Alderton had been asphyxiated and was found naked , and was posed in the cruciform position . Her pregnancy was also revealed by the autopsy and her family were first informed of it by police officers . Anneli moved to Cyprus with her mother in 1992 after her parents separated , and they returned to Ipswich in 1997 . Alderton attended Copleston High School and gained good grades in her exams . Alderton had been addicted to drugs since age 16 , shortly after her father 's death from lung cancer in 1998 .
= = = Annette Nicholls = = =
Annette Nicholls , aged 29 , a mother of one from Ipswich , was initially thought to have gone missing on 4 December , but at the trial it was revealed she was last seen in Ipswich town centre on 8 December . Her family reported her missing after they grew concerned at the news of the other murders . Nicholls ' body was found on 12 December near Levington , naked but not sexually assaulted , and also posed in the cruciform position ; a definite cause of death could not be established , but her breathing had been hampered . Nicholls , the oldest victim , had been a drug addict since the early 2000s , shortly after completing a beautician 's course at Suffolk College . Soon afterwards , she had started working as a prostitute to fund her addiction . After moving to a housing association home from her council house , Nicholls asked her mother to look after her son . She was thought to be staying with a man in Ipswich at the time of her death .
= = = Paula Clenell = = =
Paula Lucille Clennell , aged 24 , born in Northumberland and living in Ipswich , disappeared on 10 December in Ipswich at approximately 00 @.@ 20 . Clennell 's body was found on 12 December near Levington on the same day as Nicholls ' . Clennell was found naked but not sexually assaulted and a post mortem reported that she had been killed by a compression of her throat . Prior to her death , Clennell commented on the then recent murders in an interview with Anglia News , stating that despite them making her " a bit wary about getting into cars " she continued to work because " I need the money . " Clennell moved to East Anglia ten years before her death , following the break @-@ up of her parents ' marriage . Clennell had three children with her partner ; all had been taken into care and adopted due to her drug addiction . Clennell herself had spent some of her childhood in a referral unit , and it was shortly after being placed there that she started taking drugs .
= = Arrest of suspects = =
On 18 December 2006 , Suffolk Constabulary reported that they had arrested a 37 @-@ year @-@ old man on suspicion of murdering all five women . The man was arrested at 07 @.@ 20 at a house in Trimley St. Martin near Felixstowe , Suffolk . The detention of the suspect was extended by magistrates by a further period of 24 hours , to the maximum of 96 hours allowed under English law . On 19 December , at 05 @.@ 00 , police arrested a second suspect , a 48 @-@ year @-@ old , at a residence in Ipswich , on suspicion of committing murder . The following day , 20 December , police were granted a 36 @-@ hour extension to question the second suspect in detention . On 21 December , a joint statement was issued by DCS Gull and Michael Crimp , senior prosecutor for the Crown Prosecution Service in Suffolk , announcing that the second suspect identified as Steve Wright had been charged with the murder of all five women . Police said that the first suspect , who was not officially named , was released on police bail . Bail conditions were cancelled on 6 June 2007 for the first suspect , as no more inquiries concerning the case were planned involving this person .
= = Court appearances = =
Wright appeared before magistrates in Ipswich on 22 December 2006 and was remanded in custody . On 2 January 2007 , Wright appeared before Ipswich Crown Court and was remanded in custody to appear before a court on 1 May . At the 1 May appearance , Wright formally entered a plea of not guilty . In July 2007 , Wright appeared at a pre @-@ trial hearing in London where it was announced the trial would begin 14 January 2008 .
On 14 January 2008 , Wright appeared at Ipswich Crown Court ahead of his trial , which began on 16 January , with the prosecution opening their case . The court heard how the bodies of two of the victims , Anneli Alderton and Annette Nicholls , were deliberately posed in the cruciform position , with DNA evidence linking Steve Wright to three of the victims and fibre evidence also connecting him to the victims . The defence argued that Wright was a frequenter of prostitutes , and he had " full sex " with all of the victims , barring Tania Nichols , whom he " picked up " with the intention of sexual relations , but apparently changed his mind and dropped her off back in the red light district of Ipswich . This contradicted Wright 's earlier statement when stopped by police in the district in the early hours of the morning , when he gave the police the impression he was unaware he was in the red light district and that he was driving around because he could not sleep . Wright 's rented flat is located in the red light area .
On 21 January , jurors were taken to sites involved in the case . These included Wright 's rented house , which they viewed only from the outside , and the areas where the victims were found .
During the trial , the prosecutor , Peter Wright QC , suggested that Steve Wright may not have acted alone , as the remains of Anneli Alderton were found some distance from the road but with no evidence that her body had been dragged by one person .
= = = Jury = = =
The jury in the trial was the second group chosen for the task , as a member of the original jury had a health issue which would have been prohibitive for the trial . The jury consisted of nine men and three women . All potential jurors had to complete a questionnaire , which asked if the candidates knew any of the victims , witnesses , or the suspect . The judge told jurors that they should not do their own research or obtain information from the media on the case . When it came time to sum up the evidence in the case , Mr. Justice Gross asked the jury to put aside their emotions stating :
= = = Verdict = = =
On 21 February 2008 , after eight hours of deliberation , the jury returned a unanimous guilty verdict against Steve Wright on all five counts of murder . A murder conviction carries an automatic term of life imprisonment but the judge could decide if Wright would be awarded parole at any point . The prosecution QC argued that Wright should receive a whole life tariff and thus never be released from prison . Subsequently , on 22 February 2008 , Wright was sentenced to life imprisonment and Mr Justice Gross recommended that life should mean life , on the basis that the murders resulted from a " substantial degree of pre @-@ meditation and planning " .
After the verdict , relatives of the victims thanked the police for their efforts to solve the crime , while some expressed their feelings that life imprisonment was not enough ( even if Wright were to ultimately end his life behind bars ) , and that he should face the death penalty . Craig Bradshaw , brother @-@ in @-@ law of Paula Clenell , stated :
However , other family members seemed satisfied with the verdict . The father of Gemma Adams said :
Prime minister Gordon Brown praised the " professionalism and dedication " of the police and prosecutors involved in the case , whilst using it as an example of what he believed to be the importance of the national DNA database .
= = Steve Wright biography = =
Steve Gerald James Wright was born in the Norfolk village of Erpingham in April 1958 . Wright joined the Merchant Navy after leaving school . In 1978 , he married and had a son soon afterwards ; the couple later divorced . In 1987 he married another woman ; they separated in 1988 , and later divorced . He worked as a dock worker , a steward on the QE2 , a lorry driver , a barman , and , just prior to his arrest , a fork @-@ lift truck driver . He became a father again with another lover in 1992 . Wright built up large debts largely through gambling , and had recently been declared bankrupt . Wright had twice tried to commit suicide , firstly by carbon monoxide poisoning and then , in 2000 , by an overdose of pills . Wright met his last girlfriend , Pamela Wright ( the shared surname is a coincidence ) , in 2001 in Felixstowe , and they moved to the house in Ipswich together in 2004 . Wright had always admitted that he had used prostitutes , firstly whilst in the Merchant Navy , and continuously throughout his life .
Investigations into other crimes Wright might have committed continue , including the possibility of an involvement in the Suzy Lamplugh disappearance . However Metropolitan Police have stated that this is not a strong line of enquiry .
= = Media coverage = =
The murders have been likened to those by Peter Sutcliffe , the " Yorkshire Ripper " who was convicted of murdering 13 women ( and wounding seven others ) , mainly those who worked as prostitutes , over a period of five years from 1975 to 1980 in northern England ; and to " Jack the Ripper " , the infamous Victorian serial murderer who also targeted prostitutes .
As with previous serial killers dating back to Jack the Ripper , many sections of the media have attempted to coin a name for the presumed murderer , using the " Suffolk Strangler " , and other terms to refer to the case .
A reward was offered , first by local business Call Connection , who initially offered £ 25 @,@ 000 and later raised it to £ 50 @,@ 000 . Shortly after , the News of the World offered a £ 250 @,@ 000 reward for leads to a direct arrest and conviction of the murderer / murderers , bringing the total reward on offer to £ 300 @,@ 000 .
= = = Concerns about the media coverage = = =
On 21 December 2006 , the then Attorney General Lord Goldsmith issued guidance to the media after concerns were raised by Suffolk Constabulary about the coverage and potential prejudice of a future trial . Lord Goldsmith urged the media to show restraint in what they reported about the two suspects being held , for fear of prejudicing any possible trial . A senior prosecutor on the case , Michael Crimp , also expressed his concerns that media coverage could jeopardise the trial , stating :
= = = Coverage of related issues = = =
The murders refocused press attention on a number of controversial issues in British politics .
The first is that of prostitution in the United Kingdom . The murders have highlighted the vulnerability of prostitutes and the lack of action taken by the government , whether to be more punitive in the hope of reducing the numbers of prostitutes on the streets , to move towards legalised brothels and other measures to improve the safety of the women , or to target the demand for prostitution through prosecution of the clients , as is done in Sweden . The government has moved in the direction of tough " anti @-@ prostitution " laws which target the clients . The government had at one point considered allowing " mini brothels " , but abandoned this plan after fears that such establishments would bring pimps and drug dealers into residential areas . Instead , the laws became tougher : the Policing and Crime Act 2009 made it illegal to pay for sex with a prostitute who has been " subjected to force " and this is a strict liability offense ( clients can be prosecuted even if they did not know the prostitute was forced ) .
The second is that of drug use and whether it should be legalised or decriminalised , provided on prescription to registered addicts , or penalised more harshly . High numbers ( 95 % according to the Home Office ) of street prostitutes in the United Kingdom have a history of substance abuse , and prostitution is one means of funding addiction , known to have been used by all five of the victims .
= = Appeals = =
On 19 March 2008 , it was announced that Wright would be lodging an appeal against his five convictions for murder , as well as the trial judge 's recommendation that his life sentence should mean life . Amongst other things , Wright has claimed that the trial should not have been held in Ipswich , and that the evidence against him was not sufficient proof of his guilt , thus giving him grounds for an appeal . Wright was reported to have written to the court of appeal " All five women were stripped naked of clothing / jewellery / phones / bags and no evidence was found in my house or car . " Wright has also applied to receive a new solicitor .
The news of his planned appeal sparked outrage among those affected by his crimes , including Brian Adams , father of victim Gemma Adams , who remains convinced of Wright 's guilt and urged him to instead " come clean and stop wasting everyone 's time " . This first appeal was rejected in July 2008 .
On 15 July 2008 , it was announced that Steve Wright had renewed his appeal against convictions , and it would be considered by three judges in an open court hearing , the Royal Courts of Justice said . In February 2009 , it was reported that Wright had dropped this bid to appeal against the convictions , though some of his family hoped to convince the Criminal Cases Review Commission ( CCRC ) to take the case on .
On 3 December 2012 , Wright announced that he would be launching a third appeal against his conviction .
= = Dramatisations = =
The BBC Drama department commissioned a dramatisation of the murders and the investigation from screenwriter Stephen Butchard . The three @-@ part production , entitled Five Daughters , began filming in November 2009 , and was broadcast on BBC One from 25 – 27 April 2010 . Only a few days after the BBC 's announcement of the drama , Brian Clennell , the father of Paula Clennell , complained that it would portray the victims in " a bad light " . Wright 's brother David also complained that it would jeopardise any future retrial . Sarah Lancashire and Ian Hart led the cast .
A musical play , London Road , commissioned by the Royal National Theatre and written by Alecky Blythe and Adam Cork , is based on interviews with residents of the street in Ipswich where Steve Wright lived . A film adaptation of the play was released in the UK in 2015 .
The case was featured in an episode of the documentary series Real Crime .
= Arlen F. Gregorio =
Arlen F. Gregorio ( born September 11 , 1931 ) is an American attorney , politician and commercial mediator . He was a member of the California State Senate from 1970 to 1978 . As a Senator he chaired the Senate Health and Welfare Committee from 1979 to 1984 and was an elected member of the San Mateo County Board of Supervisors from 1979 to 1984 . After leaving politics in 1985 he began a career in mediation .
= = Early life and education = =
Gregorio was born in San Francisco on September 11 , 1931 to a family who has lived in California for four generations . He grew up in the Bernal Heights district until his family moved to Burlingame , California , where he attended Hoover School , Burlingame High School and the College of San Mateo . Gregorio served as a U.S. Naval Air Officer for three years in the 1950s receiving the China Service Medal for combat duty . He received his bachelor 's and law degrees from Stanford University in 1955 . He was an adjunct faculty member at Stanford University , Notre Dame University in Belmont , and College of San Mateo .
= = Career = =
Gregorio became a member of the California State Bar in 1955 . He was a partner in general law practice from 1958 to 1970 and held the position of Assistant City Attorney for San Bruno from 1962 to 1970 . He also chaired the San Mateo County Democratic Central Committee from 1964 to 1970 .
= = = Politics = = =
In 1970 , he was elected to represent San Mateo County in the California State Senate . According to fellow Senator Alan Robbins , Gregorio " refused special @-@ interest money " and " contributions over $ 100 " . During his two terms in the Senate ( 1970 - 1978 ) , Gregorio authored laws dealing with legislation and campaign finance reform , alcohol and drug abuse , the arts , environment , education and health . He was chairman of the Senate Health and Welfare Committee from 1973 to 1978 . Gregorio had a particular interest in reforming campaign financing and the political process in general . His political reforms included allowing the public to attend state budget conference committee meetings and to access legislator committee voting results .
In 1975 , Gregorio challenged then Governor Edmund G. Brown Jr. to a debate after the Governor vetoed his " alcohol tax bill . " In 1976 he created legislation that would give members of the public the " voting majority on most regulatory boards . " Gregorio lost his November 1978 Senate bid by a margin of only 90 votes after a vote recount . In 1979 , he won a special election to the San Mateo County Board of Supervisors and was re @-@ elected in 1980 , serving through 1984 . Gregorio 's last political race was in 1984 , when he left the Board of Supervisors to run again for the state Senate . In that political contest , Gregorio and his opponent , Becky Morgan , set a " new Senate campaign spending record " of $ 1 @.@ 6 million .
= = = Mediation = = =
After leaving politics , Gregorio began an attorney mediation practice in San Francisco in 1985 . He founded the non @-@ profit , Peninsula Conflict Resolution Center in San Mateo , California in 1986 . In 1989 , he created the first law partnership that focused exclusively on the mediation of civil trial matters . The firm is known as Gregorio , Haldeman & Rotman and is located in San Francisco .
= = Personal life = =
Gregorio learned the Transcendental Meditation technique after reading a Wall Street Journal article about it in 1971 . He appeared with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi , Clint Eastwood and others on an episode of the Merv Griffin show in 1975 .
He has three sons by his first marriage and began his second marriage in 1980 .
= German destroyer Z11 Bernd von Arnim =
Z11 Bernd von Arnim was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the late 1930s . At the beginning of World War II , the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast , but she was quickly transferred to the German Bight to lay minefields in German waters . In late 1939 the ship made one successful minelaying sortie off the English coast that claimed one British warship and seven merchant ships . During the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign , Bernd von Arnim fought the British destroyer Glowworm while transporting troops to the Narvik area in early April 1940 , but neither ship was damaged during the action . The ship fought in both naval Battles of Narvik several days later and had to be scuttled after she exhausted her ammunition .
= = Design and description = =
Bernd von Arnim had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 171 long tons ( 2 @,@ 206 t ) at standard load and 3 @,@ 190 long tons ( 3 @,@ 240 t ) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam was provided to the turbines by six high @-@ pressure Benson boilers with superheaters . Bernd von Arnim carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
Bernd von Arnim carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
lap seven . On lap nine , Michael McDowell made contact with David Gilliland 's left @-@ rear quarter panel between turns one and two ; Gilliland went up the track towards the outside wall , and collected Menard and Montoya , triggering the first caution of the race and the appearance of the pace car . Keselowski was also caught up in the wreckage and his car sustained minor damage . Most of the drivers , including Earnhardt , made pit stops for fuel . Earnhardt was required to make an additional pit stop after one of his pit crew went over the wall too soon , dropping him down the field .
The race was restarted on lap 14 , with Ambrose leading Denny Hamlin ( both of whom opted not to pit ) Almirola , Stewart and Jamie McMurray . Hamlin passed Ambrose to take the lead one lap later . Stewart , with aid from Burton , took over the lead from Hamlin one lap later . Hamlin reclaimed the lead on lap 17 and McDowell moved into second place . Hamlin continued to maintain his lead over the next four laps while McMurray battled with Stewart for second . McDowell had fallen to eighth by lap 21 , while Stewart continued in second by lap 25 . On the 28th lap , McMurray tried an overtake around the outside of Hamlin for the lead at turn three but could not complete the manoveure , causing him to drop to eighth two laps later . On lap 32 , the top five were Hamlin , Stewart , Harvick , Stenhouse and Ambrose . As the cars ran in single file , Edwards had dropped to 15th place one lap later . McDowell was told by his team to save fuel on lap 43 . Green flag pit stops began on lap 44 when Hamlin and Ambrose stopped for tyres and fuel , allowing Stewart to assume the lead with Kevin Harvick in second and Stenhouse in third . Eight laps later , after making a pit stop , Michael Waltrip lost control of his car on the backstraightaway after driving from the side of the track onto the race track , and crashed into the backstretch wall . The incident caused the second caution to be shown as every driver except Stewart , Harvick and Edwards stopped for fuel .
Stewart , Harvick and Edwards led at the lap 57 restart . Two laps later , Earnhardt and Edwards temporarily moved to the front of the field but Stewart retook the lead on the same lap . On the final lap , McMurray drove down from the top lane after exiting turn two , and went into Almirola in the middle lane , causing Almirola to make contact with Danica Patrick on the backstraightaway , sending her car spinning 180 degrees , and straight into the inside wall which she hit with her right @-@ hand side , sustaining heavy damage to her car . The crash caused the third and final caution of the race to be shown . Patrick was unhurt ; she was able to walk to an ambulance that took her to the in @-@ field medical center . The field was frozen in place , with the order of finish determined by where the drivers were when the caution began . This gave Stewart the victory ; Earnhardt finished second , and Ambrose finished third . Burton and Edwards completed the top five finishers . McDowell and Robby Gordon earned transfers to qualify for the Daytona 500 . The first race had a total of three cautions and eight lead changes among five different drivers .
= = = = Race 2 = = = =
Following the first Gatorade Duel , the Lead Category Manager at Harris Teeter , Steve Kravitz , gave the command for the drivers to start their engines . The weather conditions were similar to those encountered during the first Duel , abeit with a higher air temperature of 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) . During the pace laps , Kahne had to move to the rear of the field because he had switched to his backup car . He was joined by Clint Bowyer — whose qualifying time was disallowed because his car twice failed the post @-@ race inspection for height sticks , and Bill Elliott — who had switched his car 's engine . Biffle maintained his pole position advantage heading into the first turn , followed by Casey Mears . On lap three , Kenseth moved into the outside line to prepare for a race @-@ lead overtake and was helped by Johnson . Kenseth took over the lead on the following lap with Johnson in second ; Biffle was pushed down to third . By the twelfth lap , the top ten drivers were separated by one second as Joey Logano and Kyle Busch moved to the front two positions by lap 14 . Elliott Sadler nearly lost control of his car between the first and second turns on lap 16 but was able to continue . Kenseth tried to pass Kyle Busch on the outside of turn four on lap 17 , but Busch closed the door on Kenseth .
Kyle Busch moved into the lead on the 18th lap , while Logano moved down the field . After starting from 14th , Dave Blaney had moved up nine positions to fifth by lap 21 ; Logano had moved into third by the same lap . Biffle moved into the lead on lap 23 . Kenseth , who was drafting off teammate Biffle , encountered overheating problems and fell to ninth position . Biffle and Kyle Busch started to contest the lead through the fourth turn on lap 26 , and the pair traded the position over the following two laps . Biffle gained the lead position on the 29th lap . By lap 33 , Regan Smith and Sadler had moved into third and fourth positions respectively . Biffle had reported debris in turn two but officials could not locate it . Green flag pit stops began on lap 40 ; Kenseth , Logano and Kyle Busch made their pit stops on lap 42 while Biffle , Smith and Jimmie Johnson made pit stops on the following lap . After the pit stops had been completed , Biffle reclaimed the first position , while Smith moved into second and Johnson was in third . The top three drivers were followed by Sadler and Kenseth . Kyle Busch was drafting off Logano throughout lap 46 but suffered with engine problems , allowing Logano to pull away . By the 50th lap , the top five were Biffle , Smith , Johnson , Sadler and Kenseth .
Johnson went up the track on lap 52 , but regained control of his car . Six laps later , after the leaders ran single file , Kenseth received help from Johnson while running on the outside line to prepare for a race winning slingshot . Kenseth slid underneath teammate Biffle as they started the final lap , as Biffle attempted to block Kenseth . Kenseth maintained the lead and crossed the finish line on lap 60 to win the race , with Smith in second and Johnson third . Sadler and Biffle rounded out the top five finishers . Blaney and Nemechek earned the second pair of transfer spots to qualify for the Daytona 500 . Bayne , Tony Raines and David Stremme secured qualification for the Daytona 500 based on their lap times in the qualifier , with Terry Labonte using a champion 's provisional to qualify . The following six drivers failed to qualify for the Daytona 500 because they did not finish high enough in their respective Duels or turn a fast @-@ enough qualifying lap : Waltrip , Richardson , Bill Elliott , Mike Wallace , Kenny Wallace and J.J. Yeley . The second race had a total of five lead changes among four different drivers and no cautions were shown .
= = = Post @-@ race comments = = =
After the first race , Stewart drove to the victory lane ; the win earned him $ 55 @,@ 725 . He said , " The fact that we 've won 17 times here and not won on the right day is proof it 's good momentum , but it 's no guarantee obviously . It 's nice to come here , especially for Steve and I , being our first race together , to be able to come out and have two really good strong and solid races back @-@ to @-@ back is an awesome start for us . " Earnhardt felt that the race was " pretty good " and praised Stewart for his victory . He also said that he aimed to start the Daytona 500 without using a back @-@ up car . Ambrose was happy with his third @-@ place finish , " We learned a lot for Sunday , we got a good result . We are smiling right now but it was very close to being the other way around . " He also said he was hoping to carry on his good form into the Daytona 500 .
Waltrip , who failed to qualify for the Daytona 500 after crashing on lap 52 , said he felt he had let everyone down but was thankful his team and his sponsor Aaron 's had given him an opportunity to race in the Duels . Patrick , who was hit by Almirola on the final lap and crashed heavily into the wall , said , " It sucks [ to hit the wall like that ] . You just have to brace yourself . I guess in these situations , I just have to be glad that I 'm a small driver and that I 've got room . Kinda hug it in and let it rip . " She also said the crash was " a blessing in a big disguise " . Patrick , along with Gilliland , Montoya and Menard , were required to drive their backup cars for the Daytona 500 . After the wreck on lap nine , Gilliland cut his thumb on his helmet ; the thumb required one stitch but he was confident about driving his backup car . According to Menard , who was involved in the lap nine wreck , " Somebody turned ( David ) Gilliland ; I saw him get sideways underneath me . I was three lanes up and I tried to clear him and didn ’ t quite make it . ” It took 56 minutes and 34 seconds to complete the first race ; because it ended under caution , no margin of victory was recorded .
After winning the second race , Kenseth drove to the victory lane ; earning $ 56 @,@ 726 for the victory . Kenseth 's victory gave his team Roush Fenway Racing its first win in the Gatorade Duels . Kenseth said , " Jimmie Johnson gave me a huge push there and really worked nice for me the whole race . Without that push it never would 've got there . Greg lost his drafting partner . We were able to separate him and the # 78 [ Regan Smith ] and we had such a big run that Greg was kind of a sitting duck . " Smith , who finished second , stated , " It would have been nice to put the Furniture Row / CSX Play it Safe Chevrolet in Victory Lane , but no complaints . " , and , " It ’ s good to know that we have a car capable of running up front . " Johnson , who finished third , said , " It was an awesome race . We really had a shot to win that one . It was unfortunate there at the end that there were some lapped cars that were kind of mixed in with the leaders . It would have been nice if they would have let us race there ; at least from the white flag on . " It took 46 minutes and 23 seconds to complete the second race , and the margin of victory was 0 @.@ 209 seconds .
After the races , there was continued discussion about overheating engines in high temperatures . Harvick said the temperatures of around 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) had affected the racing , the grills were " too tight " and competitors chose to remain in a single @-@ file formation because of overheating . Smith said he believed there was no efficient method of tackling the problem . McMurray advocated the widening of the grille , saying , " it was a little hard to race because you got too hot " . One day after the second race , NASCAR announced that no further changes would be made .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying 1 and 2 = = =
= = = Race results 1 and 2 = = =
= Vainglory ( video game ) =
Vainglory is a multiplayer online battle arena ( MOBA ) video game by Super Evil Megacorp for iOS and Android . Designed for mobile platforms , it is a simplified version of the PC @-@ based genre wherein two opposing teams of three players fight to destroy the enemy base by controlling the path between the bases , which is lined by turrets and guarded by enemy minions . Off the path , players battle for control points that supply extra resources . The game was released for iOS on November 16 , 2014 , after being soft @-@ launched for over half a year . The Android version was released on July 2 , 2015 . The game 's development began in 2012 when Super Evil Megacorp was formed by a team of game development veterans to design and build a MOBA for tablet devices . The game was unveiled at Apple 's September 2014 iPhone 6 announcement event to demonstrate the platform 's Metal graphics API . The team sought to make a game that would entertain players for thousands of hours and encourage in @-@ person multiplayer experiences similar to that of a LAN party .
Vainglory received generally favorable reviews . Critics praised the game 's graphics , characters , and level design , but criticized its lack of team communication features . Reviewers disagreed on the game 's degree of accessibility to newcomers . The Guardian named Vainglory the " best " iOS game of 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
Vainglory is a multiplayer online battle arena ( MOBA ) game in the style of popular MOBAs League of Legends and Dota 2 but designed for smartphones and tablets . As standard for the genre , two opposing teams fight to reach and destroy the enemy 's base while defending their own in a tug of war for control of a path , the " lane " , which connects the bases . In Vainglory , teams have three players who each control an avatar , known as a " hero " , from their own device . Weaker computer @-@ controlled characters , called " minions " , spawn at team bases and follow the lane to the opposite team 's base , fighting enemies and turrets en route . Lining the lane are turret towers that repel the flow of minions and enemy heroes . The player 's objective is to destroy the enemy turrets and the " Vain Crystal " in the enemy team 's base . If a crystal is destroyed , the team who destroyed the crystal wins .
As of June 2016 , there are 25 hero options . The developers of the game continually add new heroes , each with different skills but balanced for fair play . For example , a hero may have high damage but poor mobility , or strong melee abilities but no ranged option . Players choose between three abilities that upgrade via a common technology tree . There is a set number of heroes that are free to play , with the free to play roster being refreshed every week . Players can also choose to permanently unlock any character for a certain amount of Glory . The game uses two in @-@ game currencies for in @-@ app purchases : one that can be earned through play , known as Glory , and one that can be purchased with money , known as Immensely Concentrated Evil ( ICE ) . Vainglory offers two main modes of in @-@ game communication : team emoticons and strategic pings .
= = Development = =
In February 2012 , game developer " veterans " from Rockstar , Riot , Blizzard , and Insomniac founded Super Evil Megacorp in San Mateo , California to make a multiplayer online battle arena ( MOBA ) game for tablet devices , and thus began development on their first game , Vainglory . Apple chose the game to demonstrate the graphics capabilities of their iPhone 6 and Metal graphics API at the iPhone 6 's announcement event . The game was soft @-@ launched for six months prior to this September 2014 event , and was released on November 16 , 2014 .
Kristian Segerstrale , the founder of Playfish and former head of EA Digital , joined Super Evil Megacorp as its COO . Segerstrale expected Vainglory to popularize the MOBA genre like " Halo did for first @-@ person shooters " . They wanted to make a game that could be played for hours and years , and that players " will organize their lives around " rather than something to pass spare time . The game is designed for tablets , which the company felt was the most fitting platform despite its lack of " core games " ( games that rewarded " teamwork and strategy " over thousands of hours of play ) . They told Polygon that tablets were " inherently social " , " less alienating to new players " , and " possibly the best space for multiplayer play " . Super Evil Megacorp CEO Bo Daly said he saw PC MOBA games as solitary experiences and thought tablets could make the experience better for groups as a reinvention of the LAN party , where players share a common gaming experience in the same shared physical space on separate devices . The company also intended for the game to become an eSport . European eSports tournament organizer Electronic Sports League announced the Vainglory Cup , a set of Vainglory competitions , to take place in June 2015 .
On March 5 , 2015 at the Game Developers Conference 2015 , it was announced by Super Evil Megacorp that Vainglory would be getting an Android port . After undergoing a closed beta , the game was fully released on July 2 , 2015 on the Google Play Store .
One of the most impressive features of Vainglory is its artwork , which is produced by a team directed by Carlo Arellano a.K.a. Chainsaw . Players are also invited to guide the development of Vainglory by interacting with the Developers through Livestreams on Twitch .
= = Reception = =
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers praised the game 's graphics , characters , and level design , but criticized its lack of team communication features . While IGN 's Mitch Dyer wrote the game was accessible to newcomers , Matt Thrower of Pocket Gamer felt otherwise . The Guardian named Vainglory the " best " iOS game of 2014 . The game was one of ten Apple Design Award recipients in 2015 .
Matt Thrower of Pocket Gamer noted how the PC @-@ based MOBA genre has had issues adapting its precise controls to the mobile platform , but that Vainglory trimmed features in the right areas . IGN 's Mitch Dyer wrote that the game was its own " scaled down , rather than scaled back " version of the MOBA genre , and not an attempt to " approximate " League of Legends and Dota 2 experiences for mobile devices . Dyer praised the game 's character and map detail , and wrote that all ten of the heroes had " fun " designs and were enjoyable to play . Thrower felt similarly about its graphics . Dyer praised the iPad controls , but felt " cramped " on the iPhone 6 Plus . TouchArcade 's Ford described the controls as " flawless " and felt that the game 's tutorial was among the best he had seen in iOS MOBAs . He added that he considered the game 's in @-@ app purchases " very fair " and not " pay @-@ to @-@ win " .
IGN 's Dyer reported his games to be about 20 minutes in length and noticed that they tended to snowball out of balance by the time the Kraken creature appears at the 15 @-@ minute mark ( Fixed Gold Bounties in 1 @.@ 12 to help balance this . ) Dyer added that the advantages of in @-@ person team communication made games feel " lopsided " . Pocket Gamer 's Thrower wrote that the game 's " depth " was in learning how to use the individual characters , and that beginners were subject to an " impenetrable learning curve " , especially without organized teams . Ford of TouchArcade said his only issue was with players leaving their play session while the game was still in action , but felt this was mitigated by the game 's " Karma " matchmaking system . Ford otherwise reported that Vainglory played well as a whole as " probably the best MOBA on iOS " .
= Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman =
Timothy Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman ( March 18 , 1845 – February 27 , 1863 ) was an American Union Army soldier of Native Hawaiian descent . Considered one of the " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " , he was among a group of more than one hundred documented Native Hawaiian and Hawaii @-@ born combatants who fought in the American Civil War while the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was still an independent nation .
Born and raised in Hilo , Hawaiʻi , he was the eldest son of Kinoʻoleoliliha , a Hawaiian high chiefess , and Benjamin Pitman , an American pioneer settler from Massachusetts . Through his father 's business success in the whaling and sugar and coffee plantation industries and his mother 's familial connections to the Hawaiian royal family , the Pitmans were quite prosperous and owned lands on the island of Hawaiʻi and in Honolulu . He and his older sister were educated in the mission schools in Hilo alongside other children of mixed Hawaiian descent . After the death of his mother in 1855 , his father remarried to the widow of a missionary , thus connecting the family to the American missionary community in Hawaiʻi . However , following the deaths of his first wife and later his second wife , his father decided to leave the islands and returned to Massachusetts with his family around 1860 . He continued his education in the public schools of Roxbury , where the Pitman family lived for a period of time .
Leaving school without his family 's knowledge , he made the decision to fight in the Civil War in August 1862 . Despite his mixed @-@ race ancestry , Pitman avoided the racial segregation imposed on other Native Hawaiian recruits of the time and enlisted in the 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry , a white regiment . He served as a private in the Union Army fighting in the Battle of Antietam and the Maryland Campaign . In his company , Private Robert G. Carter befriended the part @-@ Hawaiian soldier and wrote in later life of their common experience in the 22nd Massachusetts . Compiled decades afterward from old letters , Carter 's account described the details surrounding his final fate in the war . On the march to Fredericksburg , Pitman was separated from his regiment and captured by Confederate guerrilla forces . He was forced to march to Richmond and incarcerated in the Confederate Libby Prison , where he contracted " lung fever " from the harsh conditions of his imprisonment and died on February 27 , 1863 , a few months after his release on parole in a prisoner exchange . Modern historians consider Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman to be the only known Hawaiian or Pacific Islander to die as a prisoner of war in the Civil War .
For a period of time after the end of the war , the legacy and contributions of Pitman and other documented Hawaiian participants in the American Civil War were largely forgotten except in the private circles of descendants and historians . However , there has been a revival of interest in recent years in the Hawaiian community . In 2010 , these " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " were commemorated with a bronze plaque erected along the memorial pathway at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific in Honolulu .
= = Early life and family = =
Timothy Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman was born March 18 , 1845 , in Hilo , Hawaiʻi , the first son and second child of Benjamin Pitman and Kinoʻoleoliliha . Originally a native of Salem , Massachusetts , Pitman 's father was an early pioneer , businessman and sugar and coffee plantation owner on the island of Hawaiʻi , who profited greatly from the kingdom 's booming whaling industry in the early 1800s . On his father 's side , he was a great @-@ grandson of Joshua Pitman ( 1755 – 1822 ) , an English @-@ American carpenter on the ship Franklin under Captain Allen Hallett during the American Revolutionary War . On his mother 's side , Pitman was a descendant of Kameʻeiamoku , one of the royal twins ( with Kamanawa ) who advised Kamehameha I in his conquest of the Hawaiian Islands , and also of the early American or English sea captain Harold Cox , who lent his name to George " Cox " Kahekili Keʻeaumoku II , the Governor of Maui . Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman shared his Hawaiian name with his maternal grandfather Hoʻolulu , who , along with his brother Hoapili , helped conceal the bones of King Kamehameha I in a secret hiding place after his death . In the Hawaiian language , the name " Hoʻolulu " means " to be calm " , as a ship in a protected harbor . His siblings were Mary Ann Pitman Ailau ( 1838 – 1905 ) , Benjamin Keolaokalani Franklin Pitman ( 1852 – 1918 ) and half @-@ sister Maria Kinoʻole Pitman Morey ( 1858 – 1892 ) .
Because of his father 's success in business and his mother 's descent from Hawaiian royalty , the Pitman family was considered quite prosperous and were host to the royal family when they visited Hilo . Besides being one of the leading merchants in town , his father also served the government as district magistrate of Hilo . Henry 's mother , Kinoʻole , had inherited control over much of the lands in Hilo and Ōlaʻa from her own father , and King Kamehameha III had granted her use of the ahupuaʻa of Hilo after her marriage . During Henry 's early childhood , the family lived in the mansion that Benjamin Pitman had built in 1840 , in an area known as Niopola , one of the favored resort spots of ancient Hawaiian royalty . The residence also became known as the Spencer House after Pitman sold it to his business partner Captain Thomas Spencer . The property later became the site of the Hilo Hotel , built in 1888 and torn down in 1956 . In the 1850s the family moved to the capital of Honolulu where Benjamin Pitman took up banking and built a beautiful two @-@ story house that he named Waialeale ( " rippling water " ) at the corner of Alakea and Beretania Streets .
= = Education = =
While in Hawaiʻi , Pitman and his older sister Mary attended Mrs. Wetmore 's children 's school in Hilo . The school was located at the Wetmores ' residence on Church Street . Taught by Lucy Sheldon Taylor Wetmore , the wife of American missionary doctor and government physician Charles Hinckley Wetmore , the two elder Pitman children received their education in English rather than Hawaiian . This was unusual since Hawaiian was the official language of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi , and all other schools in Hilo were conducted in the Hawaiian language . Mrs. Wetmore taught the children reading , writing , spelling , arithmetic and singing , while also reinforcing the curriculum with a strong adherence to the principles of the Protestant faith . Like the Pitman siblings , many of their classmates were also of half @-@ Hawaiian ( hapa @-@ kanaka ) descent with a majority of them being Chinese @-@ Hawaiians ( hapa @-@ pake ) .
After the death of his mother Kinoʻole in 1855 , Pitman 's father remarried to Maria Louisa Walsworth Kinney , the widow of American missionary Rev. Henry Kinney . The Kinneys were part of the Twelfth Company of missionaries from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions to arrive in 1848 . The marriage aligned the Pitman children with the American missionary community . They were called " cousins " by the children of the missionaries and considered part of the extended missionary family of Hawaiʻi . This first stepmother died in 1858 after giving birth to their father 's fourth child , a daughter named Maria Kinoʻole ( 1858 – 1892 ) . The Pitman family returned to Massachusetts in 1860 where his father remarried to his third wife Martha Ball , giving his four children another stepmother . According to an 1887 biography written by Robert G. Carter , a private who would later serve in the same company as Pitman , he was neglected after his mother 's death by his father and stepmother , who " subjected [ him ] to neglect and treatment , that with his sensitive nature he could not bear " . He continued his education in the public schools of Roxbury , where the Pitman family lived for a period of time . The 1860 United States Census registered Pitman under his teacher Solomon Adams as residing and presumably being educated in Newton , also in the Boston area .
Growing into adolescence , he was said to strongly resemble his Hawaiian mother . Robert G. Carter gave a brief description of his appearance in wartime letters first published in 1897 :
[ A ] tall , slim boy , straight as an arrow . His face was a perfect oval , his hair was as black as a raven 's wing , and his eyes were large and of that peculiar soft , melting blackness , which excites pity when one is in distress . His skin was a clear , dark olive , bordering on the swarthy , and this , with his high cheek bones , would have led us to suppose that his nationality was different from our own , had we not known that his name was plain Henry P. There was an air of good breeding and refinement about him , that , with his small hands and feet , would have set us to thinking , had it not been that in our youth and intensely enthusiastic natures , we gave no thought to our comrades ' personal appearance . We can look back now and see the shy , reserved nature of the boy , the dark , melancholy eyes , the sad smile , the sensitive twitching of the lips .
= = American Civil War = =
After the outbreak of the American Civil War , the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi under King Kamehameha IV declared its neutrality on August 26 , 1861 . But many Native Hawaiians and Hawaiian @-@ born Americans ( mainly descendants of the American missionaries ) both abroad and in the islands volunteered and enlisted in the military regiments of various states in the Union and the Confederacy . Individual Native Hawaiians had been serving in the United States Navy and Army since the War of 1812 , and even more served during the American Civil War . Many Hawaiians sympathized with the Union because of Hawaiʻi 's ties to New England through its missionaries and the whaling industries , and the ideological opposition of many to the institution of slavery .
= = = Enlistment and service = = =
On August 14 , 1862 , Pitman left school without his family 's knowledge and volunteered to serve in the Union Army and fight in the American Civil War . He apparently never informed his family in advance about the choice to join the war because the news of his enlistment was reported back in Hawaiʻi 's American missionary community as " Henry Pitman has run away from home and gone [ to war ] . " Carter described Pitman 's rationale for enlisting : " In the midst of the clamor of war , when the very air vibrated with excitement , the wild enthusiasm of the crowds , and the inspiring sound of the drum , his Indian nature rose within him . His resolve was made . "
Pitman was a hapa @-@ haole , of part Hawaiian and part Caucasian descent . His father was white and his native @-@ born mother was also part Caucasian from her own mother , who was the daughter of Captain Cox and a Hawaiian chiefess . Despite his mixed @-@ race ancestry , Pitman avoided the racial segregation imposed on other Native Hawaiian volunteers in this period . Most Native Hawaiians who participated in the war were assigned to colored regiments , but Pitman 's fair skin color meant he was able to serve in a white unit , indicating that unit assignment may have been influenced by how dark Hawaiians appeared . Historians Bob Dye , James L. Haley and others claimed Pitman was placed in the colored regiments because of his mixed race , but regiment records indicate otherwise .
Pitman served as a private in the 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry , Company H. This regiment was also named the " Henry Wilson 's Regiment " after Col. Henry Wilson , who commanded the unit in 1861 . Col. William S. Tilton was the commander during Pitman 's brief term of service . The regiment was part of the V Corps of the Army of the Potomac under the command of Major General George B. McClellan . During this period , the regiment fought in the Second Battle of Bull Run and was involved in the Maryland Campaign fighting in the Battle of Antietam , the bloodiest single @-@ day battle in American history , and the Battle of Shepherdstown . His regiment was on the march to the Battle of Fredericksburg when Pitman was captured by Confederate troops .
= = = Imprisonment and death = = =
The most detailed account of Pitman 's final fate in the War came from Robert G. Carter . In November 1862 , Pitman was captured near Warrenton Junction on the march toward Fredericksburg , Virginia , during the weeks prior to the Battle of Fredericksburg . He had fallen behind the group because his feet had blistered and swollen due to the tightness of " a pair of thin , high @-@ heeled and narrow soled boots " he had purchased . One of his comrades temporarily stayed behind to care for him but later decided to move on with the rest of the camp for fear of disciplinary consequences of falling out without authority . He was urged to move on , but without much success . Pitman 's last words to his comrade were , " I will be in camp by night , good by . " His fellow soldiers never saw him again and considered him missing . Shortly after he was left , a band of Confederate guerrillas under Colonel John S. Mosby captured the weary and defenseless soldier without a struggle . The inscription on his tombstone differs slightly from Carter 's account , stating he was captured by J. E. B. Stuart 's cavalry instead .
After Pitman 's capture , he was marched to Richmond in a weak physical state . He was imprisoned in the Confederate Libby Prison and Belle Isle , which were notoriously harsh prisons . Pitman 's letters home described his place of incarceration as the " Pen " where " the filthy meat [ was ] thrown to them as if they were dogs " . The condition of his incarceration including the shortage of food , lack of sanitation , overcrowding and his physical weakness made him susceptible to virulent diseases present in the Confederate prisons . Carter described how the prisons " wore out the brave spirit " . During a prisoner exchange , Pitman was released by the Confederate Army at City Point , Virginia , on December 12 , 1862 , and then sent to Annapolis Parole Camp . Suffering from complications due to the conditions of his imprisonment , he contracted " lung fever " , which was perhaps pneumonia . Carter wrote later how his friend had " linger [ ed ] feebly a few weeks , like the flickering of an expiring flame , then quietly pass [ ed ] away to an eternal life " . Pitman died at Parole Camp on February 27 , 1863 , just weeks short of his eighteenth birthday . According to historians Anita Manning and Justin Vance , Pitman " has the unfortunate distinction of being the only known Hawaiian or Pacific Islander to die as a prisoner of war in the Civil War . "
Considering him missing , Pitman 's regiment did not discover his final fate until news of his funeral at Roxbury was received in the spring of the following year . His remains were returned to his family in Massachusetts after his death in Parole Camp . Benjamin Pitman , his father , had him buried in a family plot in Mount Auburn Cemetery . On one side of the Pitman family grave marker was placed the inscription :
Timothy Henry Pitman
Born at Hilo , Hawaii
Mar. 18 , 1845
Died at Camp Parole
Annapolis , MD , Feb 'y 27 , 1863
Aged 17 years 11 mos . 9 daysA member of Co . H , 22nd Regiment
Mass . Vols . , was with his Regiment in the
battles of South Mountain , Antietam and
Sharpsburg . Was taken prisoner by Stuart 's
cavalry on the march to Fredricksburg ;
Imprisoned in Libby Prison , paroled and
sent to Camp Parole , Annapolis , and died in
camp of pneumonia .
= = Legacy = =
After his death , the memory of Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman was honored by friends and family members back in Massachusetts and Hawaiʻi . During a return to Hawaiʻi in 1917 , his younger brother Benjamin Keolaokalani Franklin Pitman and his wife Almira Hollander Pitman , discovered a grandson of a nephew was named Kealiʻi i Kaua i Pakoma ( meaning " Chief that fought the Potomac " ) in honor of his deceased older brother . Similarly , Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman Beckley , the second son of his Hawaiian first cousin George Charles Moʻoheau Beckley , was also named after him . Shortly after his death , Pitman was eulogized back in Hawaiʻi by Martha Ann Chamberlain , Corresponding Secretary of the Hawaiian Mission Children 's Society :
Our cousin , Henry Pitman , the first of Hawaii 's sons to fall in the war , died at Annapolis Parole Camp , Feb. 27 , of lung fever , serving as a soldier in the Union army . His remains were deposited in Mt . Auburn Cemetery , near Boston , Mass . He died in a just cause . Let his memory be embalmed among our band .
After the war , the military service of Hawaiians , including Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman , were largely forgotten , disappearing from the collective memories of the American Civil War and the history of Hawaiʻi . However , in recent years , Hawaiian residents and historians and descendants of Hawaiian combatants in the conflict have insisted on the need to remember " our boys from Hawaii " . Renewed interest in the stories of these individuals and this particular period of Hawaiian @-@ American history have inspired efforts to preserve the memories of the Hawaiians who served in the war . On August 26 , 2010 , on the anniversary of the signing of the Hawaiian Neutrality Proclamation , a bronze plaque was erected along the memorial pathway at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific in Honolulu recognizing these " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " , the more than one hundred documented Hawaiians who served during the American Civil War for both the Union and the Confederacy . Pitman 's great @-@ grandniece Diane Kinoʻole o Liliha Pitman Spieler attended the ceremony . Pitman Spieler stated , " I 'm very proud of a young man of his age – he was quite young – who served in the Civil War for his family . "
In 2013 , Todd Ocvirk , Nanette Napoleon , Justin Vance , Anita Manning and others began the process of creating a historical documentary about the individual experiences and stories of Hawaii @-@ born soldiers and sailors of the American Civil War , including Pitman , Samuel C. Armstrong , Nathaniel Bright Emerson , James Wood Bush , J. R. Kealoha and many other unnamed combatants of both the Union and the Confederacy . In 2014 , Maui @-@ based author Wayne Moniz wrote a fictionalized story based on the lives and Civil War service of Hawaiian soldiers like Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman in his book Pukoko : A Hawaiian in the American Civil War . In 2015 , the sesquicentennial of the end of the war , the National Park Service released a publication titled Asians and Pacific Islanders and the Civil War about the service of the large number of combatants of Asian and Pacific Islander descent who fought during the war . The history of Hawaiʻi 's involvement and the biographies of Pitman , Bush , Kealoha and others were co @-@ written by historians Anita Manning and Justin Vance .
= 34 Montagu Square , Marylebone =
34 Montagu Square is the address of a London ground floor and basement flat once leased by Beatles member Ringo Starr during the mid @-@ 1960s . Its location is 1 @.@ 3 miles ( 2 @.@ 09 km ) from the Abbey Road Studios , where The Beatles recorded . Many well @-@ known people have lived at the address , including a British Member of Parliament , Richard @-@ Hanbury Gurney , and the daughter of the Marquess of Sligo , Lady Emily Charlotte Browne . The square was named after Elizabeth Montagu , who was highly regarded by London society in the late 18th century .
Paul McCartney recorded demo songs there , such as " I 'm Looking Through You " , and worked on various compositions , including " Eleanor Rigby " . With the help of Ian Sommerville he converted the flat to a studio for Apple Corps ' avant @-@ garde Zapple label , recording William S. Burroughs for spoken @-@ word Zapple albums . Jimi Hendrix and his manager , Chas Chandler , later lived there with their girlfriends . Whilst living there , Hendrix composed " The Wind Cries Mary " .
For three months , John Lennon and Yoko Ono rented the flat , taking a photograph that would become the cover of their Two Virgins album . After the police raided the flat looking for drugs , the landlord of the property sought an injunction against Starr to prevent it from being used for anything untoward or illegal . Starr sold the lease in February 1969 . In 2010 , Ono unveiled a blue marker plaque at the site , making it an English Heritage " building of historical interest " .
= = History and occupants = =
Joseph T. Parkinson designed and built the houses in Montagu Square as part of the Portman Estate , between 1810 and 1815 . It was named after the Yorkshire @-@ born Elizabeth Montagu : a social reformer , patron of the arts , salonist , literary critic , and writer . She had lived nearby , in Montagu House , Portman Square , until her death on 25 August 1800 . The square is an example of Regency terrace residential architecture that was popular in the 19th century , with a communal garden located in the centre ; surrounded by iron railings and padlocked so its use would be limited to residents . No. 34 was built as one of the square 's many tall buildings which were originally intended for use as whole family homes instead of apartments . A Victorian writer was especially caustic when talking about the architecture : " Montagu Square and Bryanston Square are twin deformities , [ which were built by ] economical modern builders ... [ to ] dispose of with profit to those who wish to live near the great " .
Richard @-@ Hanbury Gurney , a banker and M.P. for Norwich , lived at No. 34 in 1830 . He was the father of Hudson Gurney , who became an M.P. for Newtown , Isle of Wight in 1816 . In the book , A local index to the list of proprietors of East India stock , John White was cited as living there in 1848 , and according to the Royal Pharmaceutical Society 's journals , one Thomas Hopkins , a pharmacist , was living in the house in 1849 . Aged 86 , Lady Emily Charlotte Browne died at the address on 14 March 1916 . She was the 5th daughter of Peter Howe , the Marquess of Sligo , and of royal blood . The English model and actress , Chrissie Shrimpton ( Mick Jagger 's girlfriend from 1963 to 1966 ) , lived close to No. 34 in the 1960s .
= = = Starr 's lease = = =
Starr leased Flat 1 in 1965 , shortly before his marriage to Maureen Cox . It consisted of the ground floor and lower @-@ ground floor ( the cellar / basement in the original house ) , and entrance was gained by walking down the steps leading to the lower @-@ ground floor door , or the front door at ground level . The ground floor had an en @-@ suite bathroom ( with a pink bath sunk into the floor ) a bedroom and a sitting room . Downstairs was a kitchen , a bathroom and a bedroom / sitting room , which had its original fireplace . A resident of the square , Lord Mancroft , welcomed Starr , saying to a journalist , " We 're a very distinguished square , and I 'm sure we 'll welcome such a distinguished gentleman and his lady . "
The Swiss Embassy was , and is , located at the back of the house at 16 @-@ 18 Montagu Place , but in August 1965 , an embassy spokesperson complained that Beatles ' fans were defacing their back wall ( in Bryanston Mews ) , with messages meant for Starr : " Our back wall is now very unsightly and we shall have to redecorate . Our chauffeur , who is French and took part in the first World War , says the language some of these young people use is worse than anything he ever heard in the trenches " .
The Starrs lived there until Epstein 's accountant suggested that the group members should move to houses near his , in Esher . On 24 July 1965 , Starr bought Sunny Heights for £ 30 @,@ 000 ( $ 72 @,@ 000 ) , on South Road , St George 's Hill , but retained the lease on the flat . He rented the flat to The Fool , who were employed by Apple for various endeavours , such as painting the Apple Boutique in Baker Street , London , and designing psychedelic clothes for all four Beatles , as well as The Hollies , Marianne Faithfull , Procol Harum , Donovan , and Cream .
= = McCartney and Hendrix = =
McCartney rented the flat from Starr in 1965 , and asked Sommerville to install recording equipment ( including two Revox reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape machines ) ; planning to use it as a demo studio , and for recordings of spoken @-@ word albums . The house was not far from the Abbey Road studio where The Beatles recorded , and Jane Asher 's parents ' house at 57 Wimpole Street , London , where McCartney was living at the time . He recorded a demo version of " I 'm Looking Through You " at Montagu Square in late March 1965 , and worked on the composition of " Eleanor Rigby " . Sommerville moved into the flat , even though it was supposed to only be used as a studio , but defended the move by stating that he had to be " on call at all times " . Sommerville recorded Burroughs there , for Apple 's Zapple label offshoot , but discouraged other people who were interested , believing he was working for McCartney exclusively . During the time Sommerville was recording Burroughs , a friend of McCartney , Barry Miles , visited the apartment :
Ian [ Sommerville ] was in the strange position of playing host in Ringo 's expensive apartment , fixing everyone drinks , fussing about , cautioning everyone not to lean against the green watermarked silk wallpaper in the sitting room .
McCartney later gave up the flat , and it remained empty until Starr sub @-@ let it to Hendrix with Kathy Etchingham , and Chandler with Lotta Null , in December 1966 , for £ 30 ( $ 63 ) a month ( £ 265 @.@ 12 — $ 459 @.@ 48 today ) . Hendrix and Echingham lived on the lower @-@ ground floor , and Hendrix composed " The Wind Cries Mary " there , after an argument with Echingham about her cooking skills . For three months , between 1966 – 67 , Hendrix shared the apartment with Gordon Haskell , a bassist who played with the psychedelic band Les Fleur de Lys . Unfortunately , when Hendrix was under the effects of LSD , he threw whitewash over the walls , forcing Starr to evict him . Starr also lent the flat to other pop stars and friends over the next few years , when they needed a place to stay in London . Lennon 's mother @-@ in @-@ law , Lillian Powell , stayed at Montagu Square rather than at the Lennons ' home , Kenwood , in Weybridge , when she visited her daughter , Cynthia Lennon .
= = = Lennon and Ono = = =
When Lennon started a relationship with Ono in 1968 , his wife and son moved into the flat on 21 June 1968 , living there for three months , before returning to Kenwood , as Lennon and Ono preferred to live at Montagu Square , rather than in isolated Weybridge . The two lived in the Montagu Square flat for several months , as the White Album was being recorded . Visitors remembered that the flat was in a state of squalor , with dirty plates , cups , clothes , newspapers and magazines littering the floor , with the couple living on " a diet of champagne , caviar , and heroin " . Lennon and Ono 's experimental Two Virgins album had been recorded at Kenwood , but its notorious nude cover photos were taken at 34 Montagu Square . An Apple employee , Tony Bramwell , set up the camera so Lennon could take the photograph after Bramwell had left . Ono was pregnant during their stay , and they were also in the throes of heroin addiction .
At 11 : 30 am on 18 October 1968 , the flat was raided by Sgt. Norman Pilcher , of Scotland Yard 's Drugs Squad . In 1974 , Lennon remembered that Ono answered the front door as a female voice had said ( over the intercom ) , that there was a message from the Apple office . Ono opened the door and saw the female with five men , who were all dressed in plain @-@ clothes . She panicked and closed the door , thinking they were Beatles ' fans . Meanwhile , at the back window , another person was banging on the window and holding up a search warrant for Lennon to read . As Lennon was also panicking — not knowing at that point that they were all police officers — the raid consisted of seven police officers and two police dogs — he played for time and refused to open the window . Because of this , Pilcher later accused Lennon of obstruction of justice , which was a crime . Inside the flat , the police searched every room thoroughly , even though Lennon was supposed to accompany them whilst they did so , according to the law . Pilcher then summoned Lennon and pointed to a binocular case on a mantelpiece , asking him , " Is this yours ? " Lennon replied in the affirmative , and was then shown 219 grams of hashish , which was in the case .
Lennon :
Don Shorter [ a Daily Express reporter ] had told us , ' They 're coming to get you ' , three weeks before . So , believe me , I 'd cleaned the house out , because Jimi Hendrix had lived there in the apartment , and I 'm not stupid . I went through the whole damn house .
Both were arrested , with Lennon pleading guilty to hashish possession , absolving Ono , who miscarried not long after . Lennon was fined £ 150 ( $ 360 ) . Note : in November 1973 , Pilcher was arrested for conspiracy to pervert the course of justice after it was alleged he had committed perjury . He was convicted and sentenced to four years imprisonment . After the raid , the landlord sought an injunction against Starr on 19 February 1969 , forbidding anyone but Starr or his family to live there , and allowing no music or instruments to be played . Starr appealed , and a compromise was offered ; only Starr or a family member would live in the flat . To finally settle the case , Starr sold the lease on 28 February 1969 .
= = Legacy = =
A music label owner , Reynold D ’ Silva , bought the flat for £ 550 @,@ 000 in 2002 , beating a rival bid from Noel Gallagher . D ’ Silva considered opening it as a music museum , but decided to rent it instead , for £ 795 per week . Author Miles contended that 34 Montagu Square " clearly qualifies as a candidate for one of the blue marker plaques that the City of Westminster fixes to buildings of historical interest " . On Saturday 23 October 2010 , in front of 100 people , Ono unveiled a Blue Plaque at 34 Montagu Square : " John Lennon , 1940 – 1980 , Musician and songwriter , lived here in 1968 " . Beatles ' biographer , Hunter Davies , started the unveiling ceremony , with Rod Davis , from Lennon 's first group , The Quarrymen , in the gathering . Ono said :
I am very honoured to unveil this blue plaque and thank English Heritage for honouring John in this way . This particular flat has many memories for me and is a very interesting part of our history . In what would have been John 's 70th year , I am grateful to you all for commemorating John and this particular part of his London life , one which spawned so much of his great music and great art .
Davis also commented :
He [ Lennon ] would think it highly amusing that they 've put up a plaque here , considering what happened here . If only they 'd mentioned the drugs bust on the bottom of the plaque . Wherever he is , he would have a great chuckle about this one .
= Red rail =
The red rail ( Aphanapteryx bonasia ) is an extinct species of flightless rail . It was endemic to the Mascarene island of Mauritius , east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean . It had a close relative on Rodrigues island , the likewise extinct Rodrigues rail ( Erythromachus leguati ) , with which it is sometimes considered congeneric . Its relationship with other rails is unclear . Rails often evolve flightlessness when adapting to isolated islands , free of mammalian predators .
The red rail was a little larger than a chicken and had reddish , hairlike plumage , with dark legs and a long , curved beak . The wings were small , and its legs were slender for a bird of its size . It was similar to the Rodrigues rail , but was larger , and had proportionally shorter wings . It has been compared to a kiwi or a limpkin in appearance and behaviour . It is believed to have fed on invertebrates , and snail shells have been found with damage matching an attack by its beak . Human hunters took advantage of an attraction red rails had to red objects by using coloured cloth to lure the birds so that they could be beaten with sticks .
Until subfossil remains were discovered in the 1860s , scientists only knew the red rail from 17th century descriptions and illustrations . These were thought to represent several different species , which resulted in a large number of invalid junior synonyms . It has been suggested that all late 17th @-@ century accounts of the dodo actually referred to the red rail , after the former had become extinct . The last mention of a red rail sighting is from 1693 , and it is thought to have gone extinct around 1700 , due to predation by humans and introduced species .
= = Taxonomy = =
The red rail was long known only from a few contemporary descriptions referring to red " hens " and names otherwise used for grouse or partridges in Europe , as well as the sketches of the travellers Pieter van den Broecke and Sir Thomas Herbert from 1617 and 1634 . These were thought to depict separate species of birds by some authors , but were regarded as one by Hugh Edwin Strickland in 1848 . Hermann Schlegel thought Broecke 's sketch depicted a smaller dodo species from Mauritius , and that the Herbert sketch showed a dodo from Rodrigues , and named them Didus broecki and Didus herberti in 1854 . Jacob Hoefnagel 's 1610 painting , the 1601 sketch from the Gelderland ship 's journal , and Peter Mundy 's 1638 description and sketch later surfaced , but there was still uncertainty about the identity of the birds depicted .
In the 1860s , subfossil foot bones and a lower jaw were found along with remains of other Mauritian animals in the Mare aux Songes swamp , and were identified as belonging to a rail by Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards in 1866 . He also determined they belonged to the birds in the 17th century descriptions and illustrations . In 1869 , Milne @-@ Edwards combined the genus name of Aphanapteryx imperialis , which had been coined the previous year by Georg Ritter von Frauenfeld for the Hoefnagel painting , with the older specific name broecki . Due to nomenclatural priority , the genus name was later combined with the oldest species name bonasia , which was coined by Edmond de Sélys Longchamps in 1848 . Sélys Longchamps had originally named the genus Apterornis , wherein he also included the Réunion solitaire and the Réunion swamphen , but the name was preoccupied by Aptornis , a bird described by Richard Owen in 1844 . Aphanapteryx means " invisible @-@ wing " , but the meaning of bonasia is unclear . Some early accounts refer to red rails by the vernacular names for the hazel grouse , Tetrastes bonasia , so the name evidently originates there . The name itself perhaps refers to bonasus , meaning " bull " in Latin , or bonum and assum , meaning " good roast " . It has also been suggested to be a Latin form of the French word bonasse , meaning simple @-@ minded or good @-@ natured .
More fossils were later found by Theodore Sauzier , who had been commissioned to explore the " historical souvenirs " of Mauritius in 1889 . Around the end of the 19th century , a complete specimen was found by the barber Louis Etienne Thirioux , who also found important dodo remains .
= = = Evolution = = =
Apart from being a close relative of the Rodrigues rail , the relationships of the red rail are uncertain . The two are commonly kept as separate genera , Aphanapteryx and Erythromachus , but have also been united as species of Aphanapteryx at times . They were first generically synonymised by Edward Newton and Albert Günther in 1879 , due to skeletal similarities . Based on geographic location and the morphology of the nasal bones , it has been suggested that they were related to the genera Gallirallus , Dryolimnas , Atlantisia , and Rallus . Rails have reached many oceanic archipelagos , which has frequently led to speciation and evolution of flightlessness . The fact that the red rail lost much of its feather structure indicates it was isolated for a long time . These rails may be of Asian origin , like many other Mascarene birds .
= = Description = =
From the subfossil bones , illustrations and descriptions , it is known that the red rail was a flightless bird , somewhat larger than a chicken . Subfossil specimens range in size , which may indicate sexual dimorphism , as is common among rails . Its exact length is unknown , but the pelvis was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) in length , the femur was 69 – 71 mm ( 2 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) , the tibia was 98 – 115 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 5 in ) , the tarsometatarsus was 79 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) , and the humerus was 60 – 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) . Its plumage was reddish brown all over , and the feathers were fluffy and hairlike ; the tail was not visible in the living bird and the short wings likewise also nearly disappeared in the plumage . It had a long , slightly curved , brown bill , and some illustrations suggest it had a nape crest . It perhaps resembled a lightly built kiwi , and it has also been likened to a limpkin , both in appearance and behaviour .
The sternum and humerus were small , indicating that it had lost the power of flight . Its legs were long and slender for such a large bird , but the pelvis was compact and stout . It differed from the Rodrigues rail , its closest relative , in having a proportionately shorter humerus , a narrower and longer skull , and having shorter and higher nostrils . They differed considerably in plumage , based on early descriptions . The red rail was also larger , with somewhat smaller wings , but their leg proportions were similar . The pelvis and sacrum was also similar .
= = = Contemporary descriptions = = =
The English traveller Peter Mundy visited Mauritius in 1638 and described the red rail as follows :
A Mauritius henne , a Fowle as bigge as our English hennes , of a yellowish Wheaten Colour , of which we only got one . It hath a long , Crooked sharpe pointed bill . Feathered all over , butte on their wings they are soe Few and smalle that they cannot with them raise themselves From the ground . There is a pretty way of taking them with a red cap , but this of ours was taken with a stick . They bee very good Meat , and are also Cloven footed , soe that they can Neyther Fly nor Swymme .
The yellowish colouration instead of the red mentioned by other accounts has been used as argument for this referring to a distinct species , Kuina mundyi , but it has also been suggested it was due to the observed bird being a juvenile . Another English traveller , John Marshall , described the bird as follows in 1668 :
Here are also great plenty of Dodos or red hens which are larger a little than our English henns , have long beakes and no , or very little Tayles . Their fethers are like down , and their wings so little that it is not able to support their bodies ; but they have long leggs and will runn very fast , and that a man shall not catch them , they will turn so about in the trees . They are good meate when roasted , tasting something like a pig , and their skin like pig skin when roosted , being hard .
= = = Contemporary depictions = = =
Much information about the bird 's appearance comes from a painting attributed to Jacob Hoefnagel , based on a bird in the menagerie of Emperor Rudolph II around 1610 . It is the only coloured depiction of the species , showing the plumage as reddish brown , but it is unknown whether it was based on a stuffed or living specimen . The bird had most likely been brought alive to Europe , as it is unlikely that taxidermists were on board the visiting ships , and spirits were not yet used to preserve biological specimens . Most tropical specimens were preserved as dried heads and feet . It had probably lived in the emperor 's zoo for a while together with the other animals painted for the same series . The painting was discovered in the emperor 's collection and published in 1868 by Georg von Frauenfeld , along with a painting of a dodo from the same collection and artist . This specimen is thought to have been the only red rail that ever reached Europe .
The travel journal of the Dutch East India Company ship Gelderland ( 1601 – 1603 ) , rediscovered in the 1860s , contains good sketches of several now @-@ extinct Mauritian birds attributed to the artist Joris Laerle , including an unlabelled red rail . The bird appears to have been stunned or killed , and the sketch is the earliest record of the species , but was only rediscovered in the 1860s . The image was sketched with pencil and finished in ink , but details such as a deeper beak and the shoulder of the wing are only seen in the underlying sketch . In addition , there are three rather crude black @-@ and @-@ white sketches , but differences in them were enough for some authors to suggest that each image depicted a distinct species , leading to the creation of several scientific names which are now synonymous with Aphanapteryx bonasia .
There are also depictions of what appears to be a red rail in three of Roelant Savery 's paintings . In his famous Edwards ' Dodo painting from 1626 , a rail @-@ like bird is seen swallowing a frog behind the dodo , but this identification has been doubted , and it may instead show a bittern . A bird resembling a red rail is also figured in Jacopo Bassano 's painting Arca di Noè ( " Noah 's Ark " ) from c . 1570 . It has been pointed out that it is doubtful that a Mauritian bird could have reached Italy this early , but the attribution may be inaccurate , as Bassano had four artist sons who used the same name . A similar bird is also seen in Jan Brueghel the Elder 's Noah 's Ark painting .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Contemporary accounts are repetitive and do not shed much light on the bird 's life history . The shape of the beak indicates it could have captured reptiles and invertebrates . There were many endemic land snails on Mauritius , including the extinct Tropidophora carinata , and subfossil shells have been found with damage matching attacks from the beak of the red rail . No contemporary accounts were known to mention the red rail 's diet , until the 1660s report of Johannes Pretorius about his stay on Mauritius was published in 2015 , where he mentioned that the bird " scratches in the earth with its sharp claws like a fowl to find food such as worms under the fallen leaves . "
An anonymous Dutchman gave some description of behavioural traits in 1631 :
The soldiers [ red rails ] were very small in stature and slow of foot , so they could be caught easily by hand , their armour or gun was their mouth , which was sharp and pointed , and which they used instead of a dagger , were very naked and [ unrecognisable word ] , not hewing about like soldiers , run about in great disorder , now here , now there , not being true to each other at all .
While it was swift and could escape when chased , it was easily lured by waving a red cloth , which they approached to attack ; a similar behaviour was noted in its relative , the Rodrigues rail . The birds could then be picked up , and their cries when held would draw more individuals to the scene , as the birds , which had evolved in the absence of mammalian predators , were curious and not afraid of humans .
The English traveller Sir Thomas Herbert described its behaviour towards red cloth in 1634 :
The hens in eating taste like parched pigs , if you see a flocke of twelve or twenties , shew them a red cloth , and with their utmost silly fury they will altogether flie upon it , and if you strike downe one , the rest are as good as caught , not budging an iot till they be all destroyed .
Many other endemic species of Mauritius became extinct after the arrival of man heavily damaged the ecosystem , making it hard to reconstruct . Before humans arrived , Mauritius was entirely covered in forests , but very little remains today due to deforestation . The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . The red rail lived alongside other recently extinct Mauritian birds such as the dodo , the broad @-@ billed parrot , the Mascarene grey parakeet , the Mauritius blue pigeon , the Mauritius owl , the Mascarene coot , the Mauritian shelduck , the Mauritian duck , and the Mauritius night heron . Extinct Mauritian reptiles include the saddle @-@ backed Mauritius giant tortoise , the domed Mauritius giant tortoise , the Mauritian giant skink , and the Round Island burrowing boa . The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Mauritius and Réunion , but became extinct in both islands . Some plants , such as Casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid , have also become extinct .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Though Mauritius had previously been visited by Arab vessels in the Middle Ages and Portuguese ships between 1507 and 1513 , they did not settle on the island . The Dutch Empire acquired the island in 1598 , renaming it after Maurice of Nassau , and it was used from then on for the provisioning of trade vessels of the Dutch East India Company . To the sailors who visited Mauritius from 1598 and onwards , the fauna was mainly interesting from a culinary standpoint . The dodo was sometimes considered rather unpalatable , but the red rail was a very popular gamebird for the Dutch and French settlers . The reports dwell upon the varying ease with which the bird could be caught according to the hunting method and the fact that when roasted it was considered similar to pork .
Johann Christian Hoffmann , who was on Mauritius in the early 1670s , described a red rail hunt as follows :
... [ there is also ] a particular sort of bird known as toddaerschen which is the size of an ordinary hen . [ To catch them ] you take a small stick in the right hand and wrap the left hand in a red rag , showing this to the birds , which are generally in big flocks ; these stupid animals precipitate themselves almost without hesitation on the rag . I cannot truly say whether it is through hate or love of this colour . Once they are close enough , you can hit them with the stick , and then have only to pick them up . Once you have taken one and are holding it in your hand , all the others come running up as it [ sic ] to its aid and can be offered the same fate .
Hoffman 's account refers to the red rail by the German version of the Dutch name originally applied to the dodo , " dod @-@ aers " , and John Marshall used " red hen " interchangeably with " dodo " in 1668 . The ecologist Anthony Cheke has suggested that the name " dodo " was transferred to the red rail after the former had gone extinct , so that all post 1662 references to " dodos " refer to the rail instead . A 1681 account of a " dodo " , previously thought to have been the last , mentioned that the meat was " hard " , similar to the description of red hen meat . Errol Fuller has also cast the 1662 " dodo " sighting in doubt , as the reaction to distress cries of the birds mentioned matches what was described for the red rail . Milne @-@ Edwards suggested that early travellers may have confused young dodos with red rails .
230 years before Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution , the appearance of the red rail and the dodo led Peter Mundy to speculate :
Of these 2 sorts off fowl afforementionede , For oughtt wee yett know , Not any to bee Found out of this Iland , which lyeth aboutt 100 leagues From St. Lawrence . A question may bee demaunded how they should bee here and Not elcewhere , beeing soe Farer From other land and can Neither fly or swymme ; whither by Mixture off kindes producing straunge and Monstrous formes , or the Nature of the Climate , ayer and earth in alltring the First shapes in long tyme , or how .
= = = Extinction = = =
In addition to hunting pressure by humans , the fact that the red rail nested on the ground made it vulnerable to pigs and other introduced animals , which ate their eggs and young , probably contributing to its extinction . Feral cats , which are effective predators of ground @-@ inhabiting birds , increased in numbers around the 1680s . When François Leguat , who had become familiar with the Rodrigues rail in the preceding years , arrived on Mauritius in 1693 , he remarked that the red rail had already become rare . He was the last source to mention the bird , so it is assumed that it became extinct around 1700 .
= Sergeant Reckless =
Staff Sergeant Reckless , a decorated war horse who held official rank in the United States military , was a mare of Mongolian horse breeding . Out of a race horse dam , she was purchased in October 1952 for $ 250 from a Korean stableboy at the Seoul racetrack who needed money to buy an artificial leg for his sister . Reckless was bought by members of the United States Marine Corps and trained to be a pack horse for the Recoilless Rifle Platoon , Anti @-@ Tank Company , 5th Marine Regiment , 1st Marine Division . She quickly became part of the unit and was allowed to roam freely through camp , entering the Marines ' tents , where she would sleep on cold nights , and was known for her willingness to eat nearly anything , including scrambled eggs , beer , Coca @-@ Cola and , once , about $ 30 worth of poker chips .
She served in numerous combat actions during the Korean War , carrying supplies and ammunition , and was also used to evacuate wounded . Learning each supply route after only a couple of trips , she often traveled to deliver supplies to the troops on her own , without benefit of a handler . The highlight of her nine @-@ month military career came in late March 1953 during the Battle for Outpost Vegas when , in a single day , she made 51 solo trips to resupply multiple front line units . She was wounded in combat twice , given the battlefield rank of corporal in 1953 , and then a battlefield promotion to sergeant in 1954 , several months after the war ended . She also became the first horse in the Marine Corps known to have participated in an amphibious landing , and following the war was awarded two Purple Hearts , a Marine Corps Good Conduct Medal , was included in her unit 's Presidential Unit Citations from two countries , as well as other military honors .
Her wartime service record was featured in The Saturday Evening Post , and LIFE magazine recognized her as one of America 's 100 all @-@ time heroes . She was retired and brought to the United States after the war , where she made appearances on television and participated in the United States Marine Corps birthday ball . She was officially promoted to staff sergeant in 1959 by the Commandant of the Marine Corps . She gave birth to four foals in America and died in May 1968 . A plaque and photo were dedicated in her honor at the Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton stables and a statue of her was dedicated on July 26 , 2013 at the National Museum of the Marine Corps in Quantico , Virginia .
= = Origins = =
Sergeant Reckless was chestnut colored with a blaze and three white stockings . Her date of birth and parentage are unconfirmed , but she was estimated to be around three or four years old when she was purchased by members of the United States Marine Corps in October 1952 . She was sold to the Marines by her owner , a young Korean stableboy called Kim Huk Moon , though that was not his real name . The horse was originally named Ah Chim Hai in Korean , which translates to " Morning Flame " or " Flame @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Morning " , also reputed to be the name of her dam , a racehorse at the track in Seoul . Moon sold the horse , whom he had nicknamed " Flame , " to Lieutenant Eric Pedersen for $ 250 in order to buy a leg prosthesis for his sister , who had stepped on a land mine . The horse 's breeding was thought to be primarily Mongolian though she did have some features , particularly the shape of her head , that were similar to horses of Thoroughbred lineage . She was small , standing only 14 hands ( 56 inches , 142 cm ) and weighing 900 pounds ( 410 kg ) .
= = Military service = =
In October 1952 , Pedersen received permission from Colonel Eustace P. Smoak to purchase a horse for his platoon . Based in mountainous terrain , Pederson needed a pack animal capable of carrying up to nine of the heavy 24 @-@ pound shells needed to supply the recoilless rifles used by his unit , the Recoilless Rifle Platoon of the 5th Marine Regiment . The day after he received permission , on October 26 , 1952 , Pedersen , Sergeant Willard Berry , and Corporal Philip Carter drove a jeep with a trailer to the Seoul racetrack . Pedersen paid for the horse with his own money . Moon was reluctant to sell the horse , though he needed to , and cried when " Flame " departed . The Marines renamed her " Reckless " as a contraction of the name of the Recoilless rifle and a nod to the daredevil attitude associated with those who used the gun .
Her primary trainer and the person Reckless was closest to was platoon Gunnery Sergeant Joseph Latham . Private First Class Monroe Coleman was her primary caretaker . In addition to Pedersen , Latham , and Coleman , Lieutenant Bill Riley and Sergeant Elmer Lively were also involved with the training and care of Reckless . Pedersen had his wife ship a pack saddle from their home in California so Reckless could better fulfill her primary role as a pack animal . The recoilless rifle platoon had its own medical corpsman , Navy Hospitalman First Class George " Doc " Mitchell , who provided the majority of medical care for Reckless .
The Marines , especially Latham , taught Reckless battlefield survival skills such as how not to become entangled in barbed wire and to lie down when under fire . She learned to run for a bunker upon hearing the cry , " incoming ! " The platoon called it her " hoof training " and " hoof camp " . The horse was initially kept in a pasture near the encampment . Reckless had a gentle disposition and soon developed such a rapport with the troops that she was allowed to freely roam about the camp and entered tents at will , sometimes sleeping inside with the troops , and even lying down next to Latham 's warm tent stove on cold nights . She was fond of a wide variety of foodstuffs , entertaining the platoon by eating scrambled eggs and drinking Coca @-@ Cola and beer . Food could not be left unattended around her . She was known to eat bacon , buttered toast , chocolate bars , hard candy , shredded wheat , peanut butter sandwiches and mashed potatoes . However , Mitchell advised the platoon that she not be given more than two bottles of Coke a day . Her tastes were not confined to foodstuffs ; she once ate her horse blanket , and on another occasion ate $ 30 worth of Latham 's winning poker chips .
Reckless 's baptism under fire came at a place called Hedy 's Crotch , near the villages of Changdan and Kwakchan . Though loaded down with six recoilless rifle shells , she initially " went straight up " and all four feet left the ground the first time the recoilless rifle was fired . When she landed she started shaking , but Coleman , her handler , calmed her down . The second time the gun fired she merely snorted , and by the end of the mission that day appeared calm and was seen trying to eat a discarded helmet liner . She even appeared to take an interest in the operation of the weapon . When learning a new delivery route , Reckless would only need someone to lead her a few times . Afterwards she would make the trips on her own . There was a standing order not to ride Reckless , but in early December 1952 , someone violated that order and took Reckless on a ride that included a sprint through a minefield . She was not injured during the unauthorized ride .
Her most significant accomplishment came during the Battle of Panmunjom @-@ Vegas ( also known as the Battle of Outpost Vegas / Vegas Hill ) over the period March 26 – 28 , 1953 , when she made 51 solo trips in a single day , carrying a total of 386 recoilless rounds ( over 9 @,@ 000 pounds , carrying 4 to 8 24 @-@ pound shells on each trip ) covering over 35 miles that day . The whole Battle of Vegas lasted 3 days . She was wounded twice during the battle : once when she was hit by shrapnel over the left eye and another time on her left flank . For her accomplishments during the Battle of Vegas Hill , Reckless was promoted to corporal .
When not on the front lines , Reckless packed other items for the platoon , and was particularly useful for stringing telephone wire . Carrying reels of wire on her pack that were played out as she walked , she could string as much wire as twelve men on foot . She became the first horse in the Marine Corps known to have participated in an amphibious landing when the 5th moved from Camp Casey to Inchon , planning to participate in amphibious landings hundreds of miles south of Inchon . The commanding officer of the transport halted loading operations when he saw the platoon on the dock with Reckless . He refused to take her on board his clean ship , which had won an award for being the cleanest ship in the previous two years . However , once the Marines produced the loading plan the ship 's commanding officer had approved which specifically listed Reckless and her equipment , she was allowed on board . Once the ship was underway , she became sick , making a mess on the ship 's decks during the first part of the voyage . She could not be disembarked due to a storm , but soon became accustomed to the motion of the ship at sea and had no more problems . The 1st Marine Division was moved to a rest area soon after the move , and while there some platoon members posed with Reckless and a sign challenging the Thoroughbred Native Dancer to a race . They called their race the " Paddy Derby " and the field " Upsan Downs . " The conditions were : 1 @.@ 5 miles over paddies and hills , carrying 192 pounds of ammunition , and no riders . The Marines never received a reply . Native Dancer came in second in the Kentucky Derby , but went on to win the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes .
Randolph M. Pate , then the commander of the 1st Marine Division , gave Reckless a battlefield promotion from corporal to sergeant in a formal ceremony , complete with reviewing stand , on April 10 , 1954 , several months after the war ended . She was also given a red and gold blanket with insignia . Reckless was promoted again , to staff sergeant , on August 31 , 1959 , at Camp Pendleton , CA . This promotion was also awarded by Pate , who had by then advanced to Commandant of the Marine Corps . Pate personally presided over this promotion ceremony and she was honored with a 19 @-@ gun salute with a 1 @,@ 700 @-@ man parade of Marines from her wartime unit . She was an early example of an animal holding official rank in a branch of the United States military .
= = Retirement = =
For her exemplary service to the Marine Corps , Reckless was awarded two Purple Hearts ( for the wounds received during the Battle of Vegas ) , a Marine Corps Good Conduct Medal , a Presidential Unit Citation with bronze star , the National Defense Service Medal , a Korean Service Medal , the United Nations Korea Medal , a Navy Unit Commendation , and a Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation . She would wear these awards on her horse blanket , plus a French Fourragere that the 5th Marines earned in World War I.
An article in The Saturday Evening Post , published on April 17 , 1954 , while Reckless was still in Korea , resulted in a campaign by American supporters to get the Marines to bring her to the United States . An executive at Pacific Transport Lines , Stan Coppel , read the article and offered to let Reckless ride free on one of his company 's ships from Yokohama to San Francisco . Prior to her departure for America , a ceremony , including a band , for Reckless ' rotation to the United States was held during half time of a football game between the Marine Corps and Army . Reckless left Korea for Japan aboard a 1st Marine Aircraft Wing transport plane . She then sailed from Yokohama on October 22 aboard the SS Pacific Transport , due in San Francisco on November 5 , 1954 . A typhoon delayed the ship 's arrival until the evening of November 9 . Reckless and her caretakers stayed aboard until the next morning . Reckless got sick during the storm and was once knocked out of her stall onto the deck by the storm , which happened near the end of the trip .
Reckless 's entry into the United States was not without its challenges . The Customs Bureau was not much of a problem but the United States Department of Agriculture insisted a medical check and lab tests be completed before she disembarked from the ship once it reached San Francisco , which would make her late for the Marine banquet where she was to be the guest of honor . The Marines contacted Agriculture Department officials in Washington , D.C. who agreed to allow her off the ship after her blood was drawn for lab tests , with the understanding that if she had glanders or dourine , she would be destroyed or sent back to Japan . Many of the Marines who actually knew her were incensed at what they considered an affront to her honor when they learned that dourine was an equine sexually transmitted disease . The night before she arrived , she once again ate her blanket , but a new one with ribbons and insignia was made just in time for her disembarkment . She was led off the ship by Lieutenant Pedersen and set foot on American soil in San Francisco on November 10 , 1954 , coincidentally the birthday of the Marine Corps . For the Marine Corps Birthday Ball held that day , she rode an elevator , and then ate both cake and the flower decorations .
Reckless was kept by Pedersen 's family for a brief time before moving to a more permanent home with the 5th Marines , 1st Marine Division at Camp Pendleton . A second article about Reckless appeared in The Saturday Evening Post on October 22 , 1955 . These two articles and the book Reckless : Pride of the Marines ( 1955 ) were written by the commander of the 2nd Battalion , Lieutenant Colonel Andrew Geer , who kept notes about Reckless during the war . She made several public appearances , including Art Linkletter 's show House Party , but had to cancel an appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show due to the typhoon . Ed Sullivan had wanted her to appear on his November 7 show and was willing to pay the costs to get her there right after the scheduled , and delayed , November 5 arrival . Reckless never did appear on Sullivan 's show .
Reckless was well cared for and treated as a VIP during her time at Camp Pendleton . The Marine Corps was also careful not to allow her to be exploited by commercial interests . She produced four foals there : colts Fearless ( 1957 ) , Dauntless ( 1959 ) , and Chesty ( 1964 ) ; her last foal , a filly born circa 1965 – 1966 , died a month after birth and was unnamed . Her offspring Chesty was named after Chesty Puller , one of the few Marines ever allowed to ride Reckless . Puller was a Marine Corps lieutenant general and the most decorated United States Marine of all time . Reckless retired from active service with full military honors at Camp Pendleton on November 10 , 1960 . She was provided free quarters and feed in lieu of retirement pay , per Marine Corps documents .
Reckless developed arthritis in her back as she aged and injured herself on May 13 , 1968 , by falling into a barbed wire fence . She died under sedation while her wounds were being treated . At the time of her death , she was estimated to be 19 or 20 years old . There is a plaque and photo commemorating her at the Camp Pendleton stables . The first race at Aqueduct racetrack , New York , was designated " The Sgt Reckless " on November 10 , 1989 . In 1997 , Reckless was listed by LIFE magazine as one of America 's 100 all @-@ time heroes .
A statue by sculptor Jocelyn Russell of Reckless carrying ammunition shells and other combat equipment was unveiled on July 26 , 2013 , in Semper Fidelis Memorial Park at the National Museum of the Marine Corps , one day before the 60th anniversary of the Korean War . There is a lock of her tail hair in the base of the statue . The statue 's plaque includes a quote from Sergeant Harold Wadley , who served in battle alongside Sergeant Reckless : " The spirit of her loneliness and her loyalty , in spite of the danger , was something else to behold . Hurting . Determined . And alone . That 's the image I have imprinted in my head and heart forever . "
= = Awards and decorations = =
= Jaws : The Revenge =
Jaws : The Revenge ( also known as Jaws 4 : The Revenge or simply Jaws 4 ) is a 1987 American thriller film directed by Joseph Sargent . It is the third sequel to Steven Spielberg 's Jaws and the fourth and final installment in the Jaws franchise .
The film focuses on Ellen Brody ( Lorraine Gary ) and her convictions that a shark is seeking revenge on her family , particularly when a great white follows her to the Bahamas . Jaws : The Revenge was shot on location in New England and in the Bahamas , and completed on the Universal lot . Like the first two films , Martha 's Vineyard was the location of the fictional Amity Island for the opening scenes . Although preceded by Jaws 3 @-@ D , Revenge ignores plot elements introduced in that film .
Jaws : The Revenge received extremely negative reviews , with many critics considering it one of the worst films ever made . While the other three films in the series took around two years to produce , Jaws : The Revenge was made in less than nine months . According to associate producer and production manager Frank Baur during the sequel 's filming , " This ( Revenge ) will be the fastest I have ever seen a major film planned and executed in all of my 35 years as a production manager . " Panned on release , the film was nominated for seven Golden Raspberry Awards .
= = Plot = =
On Amity Island , Chief of Police Martin Brody ( Roy Scheider ) , the hero of two previous shark attacks , has died from a heart attack . His wife , Ellen ( Lorraine Gary ) , attributes it to the fear of sharks . She now lives with Brody 's younger son Sean ( Mitchell Anderson ) and his fiancée Tiffany ( Mary Smith ) . Sean works as a police deputy and is dispatched to clear a log from a buoy a few days before Christmas . A massive 28 @-@ foot great white shark attacks and kills him , sinking his boat in the process .
Ellen believes the shark intentionally targeted Sean with a vengeance . Brody 's older son Mike ( Lance Guest ) , his wife Carla ( Karen Young ) , and their 5 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Thea ( Judith Barsi ) come to Amity for the funeral and encourage her to come to the Bahamas with them . At the islands , Ellen meets carefree airplane pilot Hoagie ( Michael Caine ) . Mike , along with partners Jake ( Mario Van Peebles ) , William , and Clarence , works as a marine biologist studying snails .
A few days later , they encounter the same shark that attacked Sean . Jake is eager to do research on the shark , because great white sharks hardly come to the Bahamas as the water there is too warm , and sharks are misunderstood creatures , but Michael asks him not to mention the shark due to Ellen 's attempts to convince him to find a job on land . Ellen becomes so obsessive that she starts having nightmares of being attacked by a shark . Then she starts getting psychic feelings when the shark is near or attacks . She and the shark have a strange connection that is unexplained . Jake decides to attach a device to the shark that can track it through its heartbeat . Using chum to attract it , Jake stabs the device 's tracking pole into the side of the shark . The next day , Mike is chased by the shark and barely manages to escape unharmed .
Thea goes on an inflatable banana boat with her friend Margaret and her mother while Carla presents her new art sculpture . The shark goes for Thea but attacks and kills Margaret 's mother instead . Thea and Carla are traumatized following the attack . Ellen boards Jake 's boat to track down the shark , intending to kill it to save the rest of her family . After hearing about what happened , Mike confesses about the shark , infuriating Carla . Mike and Jake are flown by Hoagie to search for Ellen and find the shark in pursuit of their boat . During the search , Hoagie explains to Mike about Ellen 's belief that the shark that killed Sean is after her family . When they finally find her , Hoagie lands the plane on the water , ordering Mike and Jake to swim to the boat as the shark drags the plane and Hoagie underwater .
Fortunately , Hoagie escapes from the shark . Jake and Mike hastily put together an explosive powered by electrical impulses . They begin blasting the shark with the impulses , which begin to drive it mad ; it repeatedly jumps out of the water , roaring in pain . As Jake moves to the front of the boat , the shark lunges , giving it the chance to pull Jake under and maul him . He manages to get the explosive into the shark 's mouth before he is taken underwater .
Mike continues to blast the shark with the impulses , causing it to leap out of the water again , igniting the bomb as Ellen steers the sailboat towards the shark while thinking back to Sean 's demise , the shark 's attack on Thea , and when her husband killed the first shark . The broken bowsprit impales the shark , causing it to explode . The shark 's corpse then sinks to the bottom of the sea . Mike then hears Jake calling for help , seriously injured but alive and conscious , floating in the water . The four survive the harsh encounter and make it back to land . Hoagie then flies Ellen back to Amity Island .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Joseph Sargent produced and directed the film . He had worked with Lorraine Gary in 1973 's The Marcus @-@ Nelson Murders , for which he won his first Directors Guild of America Award . Indeed , Steven Spielberg cites this television film , that later spawned Kojak , as motivation for casting Gary as Ellen Brody in the original Jaws film , besides the fact she was the wife of the studio 's chief executive Sidney Sheinberg at that time . In regards to Revenge , Gary remarked in an interview : " I made a good deal on this film , but I didn 't make as good a deal as I would have if I weren 't married to Sid . "
In an interview with the Boston Herald , Sargent called Revenge " a ticking bomb waiting to go off . ... Sid Sheinberg ( president of MCA Inc . , parent company of Universal Pictures ) expects a miracle – and we 're going to make it happen . " Sargent got a call from Sheinberg in late September 1986 , asking him to direct the fourth Jaws movie with no script yet written . Said Sargent , " I didn 't have time to laugh because Sid explained he wanted to do a quality picture about human beings . When he told me , ' It 's your baby , you produce and direct , ' I accepted . " According to Sargent , Sheinberg " cut through all the slow lanes and got Jaws : The Revenge off and running . " In a 2006 interview , Sargent stated that the premise was born " out of a little bit of desperation to find something fresh to do with the shark . We thought that maybe if we take a mystical point of view , and go for a little bit of ... magic , we might be able to find something interesting enough to sit through . "
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for Jaws : The Revenge took place on location in New England and in the Bahamas , and completed on the Universal lot . Like the first two films of the series , Martha 's Vineyard was the location of the fictional Amity Island for the film 's opening scenes . Production commenced on February 2 , 1987 , by which time " snowstorms had blanketed " the island for almost a month , " providing a frosty backdrop for the opening scenes . " Because the sequel had to be ready for release by July of the same year and the mechanical shark had to be filmed in warmer temperatures , Martha 's Vineyard only makes a cameo appearance in Revenge .
In addition to the 124 cast and crew members , 250 local extras were also hired . The majority of the extras were used as members of the local high school band , chorus and dramatic society that can be seen as the Brodys walk through the town , and during Sean 's attack . A local gravestone maker produced 51 slabs for the mock graveyard used for Sean 's funeral .
The cast and crew moved to Nassau in the Bahamas on February 9 , beginning principal photography there the next day . Like the production of the first two films , they encountered many problems with varying weather conditions . The location did not offer the " perfect world " that the 38 @-@ day shoot required . Cover shots were filmed on shore and in interior sets . The film was shot in the Super 35 format .
= = = Special effects = = =
The special effects team , headed by Henry Millar , had arrived at South Beach , Nassau on January 12 , 1987 , almost a month before principal photography commenced there . In the official press release , Millar says that when he got involved " we didn 't even have a script ... but as the story developed and they started telling us all what they wanted ... I knew this wasn 't going to be like any other shark anyone had ever seen . "
The shark was to be launched from atop an 88 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) long platform , made from the trussed turret of a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) crane , and floated out into Clifton Bay . Seven sharks , or segments , were produced .
Two models were fully articulated , two were made for jumping , one for ramming , one was a half shark ( the top half ) and one was just a fin . The two fully articulated models each had 22 sectioned ribs and movable jaws covered by a flexible water @-@ based latex skin , measured 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) in length and weighed 2500 pounds . Each tooth was half @-@ a @-@ foot long and as sharp as it looked . All models were housed under cover ... in a secret location on the island .
The film company returned to Universal to finish shooting on April 2 . Principal photography was completed in Los Angeles on May 26 . Millar 's special effects team , however , remained in Nassau , completing second unit photography on June 4 .
= = = Underwater sequences = = =
Cinematographer John McPherson also supervised the underwater unit , which was headed by Pete Romano . Whereas underwater photography was normally filmed with an anamorphic lens , requiring overhead lighting , Romano filmed these " sequences with Zeiss , a 35 mm super @-@ speed lens , which allows the natural ambiance to come through on film . " Additional underwater photography was completed in a water tank , measuring 50 feet ( 15 m ) by 100 feet ( 30 m ) across , and 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) in depth , in Universal Studio 's Stage 27 . Also , a replica of Nassau 's Clifton Bay and its skyline was created on the man @-@ made Falls Lake on the studio backlot .
A television documentary , " Behind the Scenes with Jaws : The Revenge " , was broadcast in the U.S. on July 10 , 1987 . Twenty @-@ two minutes in length , it was written and directed by William Rus for Zaloom Mayfield Productions .
= = = Ending changes = = =
In the ending that was in the original theatrical version , Ellen rammed the shark with Mike 's boat , mortally wounding it . The shark then causes the boat to break apart with its death contortions , forcing the people on the boat to jump off to avoid going down with it . American audiences disapproved of this ending . A new ending was ordered shot for foreign distribution with the shark getting stabbed with the bow sprit and then exploding ; and with Jake being found wounded but alive . This version is what Universal used on home media releases .
According to Orange Coast , the magazine of Orange County , re @-@ shooting the ending prevented Michael Caine from collecting his Academy Award for Hannah and Her Sisters . Other sources claim that the reshot ending began filming only five days after the movie was released and was intended for the version released in Europe . One version can be seen on cable broadcasts , while the other version is featured on the home releases .
The ending left many filmgoers confused . In his scathing review of the film , Roger Ebert says that he cannot believe " that the director , Joseph Sargent , would film this final climactic scene so incompetently that there is not even an establishing shot , so we have to figure out what happened on the basis of empirical evidence . "
= = = Series continuity = = =
No reference is made to the character development or events depicted in Jaws 3 @-@ D. In its predecessor , Mike is an engineer for SeaWorld , whereas in Jaws : The Revenge he is a marine research scientist . Sean is not associated with the police force in Jaws 3 @-@ D , and there is no mention of their respective partners . One of the Universal press releases for Jaws : The Revenge omits Jaws 3 @-@ D by referring to Jaws : The Revenge as the " third film of the remarkable Jaws trilogy . " However , even though Revenge removes Jaws 3 @-@ D from series continuity , the underwater chase scene between Mike and the shark in Revenge was lifted from an early screenplay draft of Jaws 3 @-@ D. While Jaws 2 is presumably still part of series continuity , no specific events from that sequel are mentioned by the characters and none of the footage from Jaws 2 is used for flashbacks in Jaws : The Revenge .
= = = Casting = = =
Lorraine Gary portrayed Ellen Brody in the first two films . In a press release , Gary says Jaws : The Revenge ' is " also about relationships which ... makes it much more like the first Jaws . " This was Gary 's first film since appearing in Spielberg 's 1941 eight years earlier , as well as her final film role .
The press release proposes that the character " had much more depth and texture than either of the other films was able to explore . The promise of further developing this multi @-@ dimensional woman under the extraordinary circumstances ... intrigued Gary enough to lure her back to the screen after a lengthy hiatus . " Although the film was always going to be centered on Gary , Roy Scheider was offered a cameo . If he had accepted it , it was his Martin Brody character , rather than Sean Brody , who would have been killed by the shark at the film 's beginning .
Gary is the only principal cast member from the original film who returned , although Lee Fierro made a brief cameo as Mrs. Kintner ( the mother of a boy killed in Jaws ) , as did Fritzi Jane Courtney , who played Mrs. Taft , one of the Amity town council members in both Jaws and Jaws 2 . Cyprian R. Dube , who played Amity Selectman Mr. Posner in both Jaws and Jaws 2 , is upgraded to mayor following the death of Murray Hamilton , who played Larry Vaughan , the mayor in the first two Jaws films .
Gary states that one of the reasons she was attracted to the film was the idea of an on @-@ screen romance with Oscar winner Michael Caine . Caine had previously starred in another Peter Benchley @-@ adapted flop , The Island .
The first day we were to work together I was nervous as a school girl . We were shooting a Junkanoo Festival with noisy drums and hundreds of extras . But he never faltered in his concentration and he put me completely at ease . It was all so natural . He 's an extraordinary actor – and just a nice human being .
Caine had mixed feelings about both the production and the final version . He thinks that it was a first for him to be involved with someone his own age in a film . He compares the relationship between two middle @-@ aged people to the romance between two teenagers . Although disappointed not to be able to collect an Academy Award because of filming in the Bahamas , he was glad to be involved in the film . In the press release , he explains that " it is part of movie history ... the original was one of the great all @-@ time thrillers . I thought it might be nice to be mixed up with that . I liked the script very much . " However , Caine later claimed : " I have never seen it [ the film ] , but by all accounts it is terrible . However , I have seen the house that it built , and it is terrific ! " In his 1992 autobiography What 's it All About ? , he says that the film " will go down in my memory as the time when I won an Oscar , paid for a house and had a great holiday . Not bad for a flop movie . "
Lance Guest played Ellen 's eldest son Mike . Guest had dropped out of his sophomore year at UCLA ( 1981 ) to appear in another sequel to a horror classic ; Halloween II . Karen Young played his wife Carla . She commended the director 's emphasis upon characterization .
Mario Van Peebles played Jake , Michael 's colleague . His father , Melvin Van Peebles , has a cameo in the film as Nassau 's mayor . Mitchell Anderson appeared as Ellen 's youngest son , Sean . Lynn Whitfield played Louisa , and stunt performer Diane Hetfield was the victim of the banana boat attack .
= = Music and soundtrack = =
The score was composed and conducted by Michael Small , who had previously provided music for Klute , Marathon Man ( both of which featured Jaws star Roy Scheider ) and The Parallax View . John Williams ' original shark motif is integrated into the score , although Small removed the Orca theme . Soundtrack.net says that " Small 's score is generally tense , and he comes up with a few new themes of his own . "
The film also contained the songs " Nail it to the Wall " , performed by Stacy Lattisaw , and the 1986 hit " You Got It All " , performed by The Jets . Unlike the preceding entries in the series , the soundtrack was not released at the same time as the film , although Small appears to have mixed tracks for a release . However , it was given a promotional release in 2000 on Audio CD and Compact Cassette .
Reviews for the soundtrack album were more favorable than for the film . Indeed , writing for Film Score Monthly , AK Benjamin says that " on a CD , Small 's material fares better since it 's not accompanied by the film . " Dismissing the film as " engagingly unwatchable " , he says that " Small certainly gave Revenge a lot more than it deserved – and this a much better score than Deep Blue Sea ... whatever that means . " Benjamin portrays Small as ' knowing ' and his work as being superior to the film .
The hysterical coda tacked onto the end of " Revenge and Finale " is almost worth the price of the disc , as it no doubt sums up Small 's opinion of the film . It 's sad that the great Michael Small was delegated utter crap like Jaws the Revenge in the late ' 80s – and even worse that he never found his way back to the material that he deserves .
Upon Small 's death in 2003 , The Independent wrote that the " composer of some distinction ... had the indignity of working on one of the worst films of all time " . Like most reviews of the soundtrack , the article criticizes the film whilst saying " Small produced a fine score in the circumstances , as if anyone noticed . "
In 2015 , Intrada Records , which previously reissued Jaws 3 @-@ D on compact disc , released the complete score .
= = Novelization = =
The novelization was written by Hank Searls , who also adapted Jaws 2 . While Searls ' Jaws 2 novelization was based on an earlier draft of that film and was significantly different from the finished film , his Jaws : The Revenge novelization sticks fairly close to the final film , although it does contain some extra subplots . The novel contains a subplot in which Hoagie is a government agent and he transports laundered money . The only reference to this in the film is when Michael Brody asks " What do you do when you ’ re not flying people ? " to which Hoagie replies , " I deliver laundry . " In Searls ' novel , the character of Jake is ultimately killed by the shark ; Jake was originally supposed to die in the film , but the script was changed to allow him to survive .
The novelization suggests that the shark may be acting under the influence of a vengeful voodoo witch doctor ( who has a feud with the Brody family ) , and the shark 's apparent revenge has magical implications . Therefore , the witch doctor is the ' revenge ' and the shark is his tool . This also explains the strange psychic connection Ellen and the shark have with each other . The plot was deleted as it strayed too far away from the plot of the killer shark . However , at one point in the theatrical version , Michael Brody says , " Come on , sharks don ’ t commit murder . Tell me you don ’ t believe in that voodoo . "
Searls ' novelization presents a continuity that combines elements from Peter Benchley 's Jaws novel as well as the Jaws film series . The novelization makes a reference to Ellen Brody 's affair with Matt Hooper , a subplot that exists in Benchley 's novel but is entirely absent from the film adaptation .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Jaws : The Revenge received a 0 % score on Rotten Tomatoes based on 32 reviews with an average rating of 2 / 10 . The critical consensus reads , " Illogical , tension @-@ free and filled with cut @-@ rate special effects , Jaws 4 - The Revenge is a sorry chapter in a once @-@ proud franchise . " The film is one of the few films to have a 0 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes .
Gary did get nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actress for her performance , but also a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress . It was rated by Entertainment Weekly as one of " The 25 Worst Sequels Ever Made " . It was voted number 22 by readers of Empire magazine in their list of The 50 Worst Movies Ever .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film zero stars , writing in his review that it " is not simply a bad movie , but also a stupid and incompetent one . " He lists several elements that he finds unbelievable , including that Ellen is " haunted by flashbacks to events where she was not present . " Ebert joked that Caine could not attend the ceremony to accept his Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor earned for Hannah and Her Sisters because of his shooting commitments on this film , because he may not have wanted to return to the shoot if he had left it .
Many scenes are considered implausible , such as the shark swimming from a New York island to the Bahamas ( approx . 1 @,@ 250 miles ) in less than three days , or following Michael through an underwater labyrinth , as well as the implication of a creature seeking revenge . The Independent pointed out that " the film was riddled with inconsistencies [ and ] errors ( sharks cannot float or roar like lions ) " . The special effects were criticized , especially some frames of the shark being speared by the boat 's prow . Also , the mechanisms propelling the shark can be seen in some shots .
Within his otherwise lukewarm review , Derek Winnert ends with " the Bahamas backdrops are pretty and the shark looks as toothsome as ever . " Richard Scheib also praises the " beautiful above and below water photography " and the " realistic mechanical shark , " although he considers " the melodrama back on dry land ... a bore . " Critics commented upon the sepia @-@ toned flashbacks to the first film . A scene with Michael and Thea imitating each other is interspersed with shots from a similar scene in Jaws of Sean ( Jay Mello ) and Martin Brody . Similarly , the shark 's destruction contains footage of Martin Brody aiming at the compressed air tank , saying " Smile , you son of a ... , " The New York Times comments " nothing kills a sequel faster than reverence ... Joseph Sargent , the director , has turned this into a color @-@ by @-@ numbers version of Steven Spielberg 's original Jaws . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = = Legacy = = =
The increasing number of sequels in the Jaws series was spoofed in the 1989 film Back to the Future Part II ( which was produced by Steven Spielberg and featured Jaws 3 star Lea Thompson ) , when Marty McFly travels to the year 2015 and sees a theater showing Jaws 19 , ( fictionally directed by Max Spielberg ) with the tagline " This time it 's REALLY REALLY personal ! " . This alludes to the tagline of Jaws : The Revenge : " This time it 's personal . " After being " attacked " by a promotional volumetric image of the shark outside the theatre , Marty says " the shark still looks fake . " In celebration of " Back to the Future Day " in 2015 , Universal released a parody trailer for Jaws 19 , where the sequels after The Revenge would have included sharks in various environments , prequels , and even a love story titled Jaws 17 : Fifty Scales of Grey .
Comedian Richard Jeni performed a popular stand @-@ up routine based on the film .
The film is listed in Golden Raspberry Award founder John Wilson 's book The Official Razzie Movie Guide as one of The 100 Most Enjoyably Bad Movies Ever Made .
= = Home media = =
Jaws The Revenge was the first film of the series to be released on DVD . It was released on Region 1 as a ' vanilla ' disc by Goodtimes , featuring Spanish and French subtitles . The feature is presented in a non @-@ anamorphic 2 @.@ 35 : 1 widescreen transfer . The soundtrack was presented in Dolby Digital 4 @.@ 1 , with one reviewer saying that the " stereo separation is great with ocean waves swirling around you , the bubbles going by during the scuba scenes , and Hoagie 's airplane flying around behind you . " The same reviewer praised the image transfer of Mcpherson 's " extremely well photographed " cinematography . The film was re @-@ released on DVD by Universal on June 3 , 2003 in an anamorphic transfer . In 2015 Jaws : The Revenge was re @-@ released on DVD as part of a three movie multi @-@ pack along with Jaws 2 and Jaws 3 @-@ D.
Universal Studios Home Entertainment released Jaws : The Revenge on Blu @-@ ray on June 14 , 2016 . The bonus features on the disc are the film 's theatrical trailer and the original theatrical ending .
= Scene7 =
Scene7 is an American on @-@ demand rich media software company that provides document hosting and interactive publishing services such as online catalogs , targeted email , video , and image management . Several companies , mostly retailers , use the company 's services to showcase products on their websites and to allow customers to interact with the products . Scene7 's technology allows users to manipulate product images by zooming in and rotating products , simulating the inspection of merchandise in retail stores .
The company , founded as a division of Autodesk , created a room decoration computer software called Picture This Home in the mid @-@ 1990s . The division was sold to Broderbund in 1998 , then spun off as a company called GoodHome.com in June 1999 , receiving $ 30 million in venture capital . After GoodHome.com failed to become profitable , it was reorganized and renamed Scene7 . It formally launched on January 23 , 2001 and focused on helping companies prepare interactive advertisements for consumers . Scene7 was acquired by Adobe Systems on May 31 , 2007 for an undisclosed sum .
= = Profile = =
A subsidiary of Adobe Systems , Scene7 provides document hosting and interactive publishing services , typically charging clients $ 30 @,@ 000 to $ 50 @,@ 000 a year to convert catalog print files to interactive web pages . The company does most of its business in North America . Its primary competitors for dynamic imaging services and technology are RichFX and LiquidPixels . Scene7 products rely on several Adobe products , including Adobe Photoshop , Adobe InDesign , Adobe Flash , Adobe Illustrator , and Adobe Flex ; this relationship existed before Adobe purchased the company . Scene7 does not maintain any servers to host its services ; instead , it uses a " pay as you grow " program that only requires it to pay for the resources that it uses .
Scene7 's clients include the companies Sears , Lands ' End , Harrods , Macy 's , Office Depot , Levi Strauss & Co . , La @-@ Z @-@ Boy , and QVC . In 2001 , Scene7 agreed to develop home design and landscaping software for Individual Software for $ 50 million . High @-@ end casual clothing retailer Anthropologie has used Scene7 's services to create and deploy online catalogs for its e @-@ commerce website since November 9 , 2004 . The retailer implemented Scene7 's Dynamic Imaging service to let customers zoom in on products , similar to how merchandise is inspected in retail stores . The Harrods department store signed an agreement with Scene7 on June 24 , 2005 to use Scene7 's imaging and catalog system on the store 's website . This required Harrods to convert all its printed material to a digital format for Internet use .
= = History = =
= = = GoodHome.com ( mid @-@ 1990s to 2000 ) = = =
The company began as a development team that created software called Picture This Home in the mid @-@ 1990s for Autodesk in San Rafael , California . The program allowed people to virtually preview room decoration projects before any work began . Users could create virtual rooms , change walls and arrange furniture , and create photo @-@ realistic renderings of completed designs . Picture This Home was awarded the Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval . In 1998 , the software and its team of 40 developers were sold to Broderbund , which was owned by The Learning Company , a subsidiary of Mattel Inc . Broderbund eventually spun Picture This Home off as a company called GoodHome.com in June 1999 . The company received $ 30 million in venture capital from Hearst Interactive Media .
In September 1999 , GoodHome.com merged with Alexandria , Virginia @-@ based nHabit.com , a rival company , for an undisclosed sum . After the merger , GoodHome.com was assured that it would grow quickly ; the merger also added the Internet service provider America Online to GoodHome.com 's portfolio as a client . Ten weeks after forming a business plan , GoodHome.com officially launched on September 29 , 1999 with offices in San Rafael and New York City , New York , and Roger Horchow was assigned as its chairman . The company used the slogan " A beautiful home . It was never this easy , " and focused on selling furniture and other home items , spending $ 20 million on advertisements in its first year . Mack decided that the company should target women , since " women make 80 percent of decorating decisions . " The company built a home furnishings portal to compete with the websites Living.com and Furniture.com , which both went bankrupt in 2000 . In April 2000 , GoodHome.com 's monthly sales topped $ 1 million ; the company 's goal was to be profitable within two to three years .
One of the website 's biggest attractions was its virtual decorating service that let customers see how certain features such as the paint , upholstery fabric , rugs , and pillows would look before a purchase . When considering why this service was so popular , Mack noted that consumers usually feel more confident in a purchase when there are few unknowns . At the time , selling products over the Internet was not a popular concept outside the United States , but Mack was confident in expanding GoodHome.com 's portfolio to include foreign companies : " We 're already getting so many requests from companies about expanding our website abroad ... I see this happening quickly within the next few years . "
GoodHome.com encountered difficulties in running its business in 2000 , when several other companies that offered similar services launched . The increasing demand for online catalog services , considered a phenomenon , was dubbed the " hottest thing since sliced bread " by an analyst from technology research firm Forrester Research , which estimated that roughly $ 500 million was invested in home furnishing websites from 1999 to 2000 . It became difficult for consumers to decide which service provided better quality ; a business owner commented , " You can 't tell the difference in quality between something that 's $ 3 @,@ 000 and something that 's $ 10 @,@ 000 . " GoodHome.com , which had offered free shipping , phased out the feature on July 15 , 2000 , in favor of " heavily subsidized rates " . To compete with new companies , GoodHome.com also introduced new features such as a " floor planning " feature to allow website visitors build an electronic version of their rooms , then drag in furnishings to see how they fit .
= = = Reorganization ( 2001 to 2005 ) = = =
After spending several years operating at a loss , GoodHome.com reorganized under the name Scene7 , which formally launched in January 2001 , with $ 15 million raised from investors that included Hearst Interactive Media . The new company focused on helping companies prepare interactive advertisements for consumers . Mack , the Broderbund executive who had decided to spin off the company , reflected on the decision to reorganize and relaunch : " We got a year into [ the initial GoodHome scheme ] and the whole B2C ( business @-@ to @-@ consumer ) market tanked , and we realized we could not build a successful business as a portal [ ... ] But the whole time we kept having people approach us to license the technology [ to create virtual catalogs ] , and finally a light bulb went off when we realized we were sitting on top of a great technology we could sell . " Scene7 raised a round of financing on July 12 , 2001 that totaled $ 11 @.@ 3 million , which helped stabilize the company . The deal was led by venture capitalists from several firms , including Louis Bacon 's Moore Capital Management and Xcelera of the Cayman Islands , with cash investments from Cooley Godward and Perkins Coie . After the latest round of financing , Mack planned for Scene7 to have 15 clients and a burn rate , or negative cash flow , of less than $ 700 @,@ 000 a month , stating , " What we learned was to stick to your strategy , and don 't get nervous when the competition is adopting a strategy to spend their way to victory . " At the time , the company 's revenues were well below its peak of $ 1 million a month , but Mack intended to increase revenues past that point in a few months .
Scene7 moved from San Rafael to Hamilton Landing in Novato , California in September 2002 to accommodate more employees . On July 9 , 2003 , the company acquired all of the assets of workflow provider and advertising software company Engage for $ 1 @.@ 2 million and assumed its $ 650 @,@ 000 debt after Engage filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy . Engage was the parent company of both Cascade and MidSystems , which were two of the first companies that tried to automate prepress production for newspapers and large printers . On August 15 , 2003 , Scene7 acquired its top competitor , TrueSpectra of San Mateo , for an undisclosed amount of cash and stock . On June 15 , 2004 , Scene7 raised $ 7 @.@ 5 million in another round of financing , led by home shopping company QVC with some of Scene7 's existing investors . At the same time , Jeffrey Branman , President of Interactive Technology Partners at QVC , and David Rubenstein , co @-@ founder of the private equity firm The Carlyle Group , joined Scene7 's board of directors , which was composed of James Caccavo of Moore Capital , Andrew Wright of RealNetworks , and Mack .
Since the early 2000s , the company 's growth has been fueled by an increase in broadband Internet access , which loads virtual catalogs faster than dial @-@ up Internet access . When catalogs first appeared online in the late 1990s , the graphics took too long to load . After high @-@ speed Internet access became more popular , virtual catalogs quickly grew to become a popular feature of online stores . In addition to faster Internet connectivity , a study in 2000 noted that an online presence for brick and mortar businesses increased offline sales by an average of 27 % . Mack also pointed out that having more product information disseminated helps play a role in increasing sales : " We have the ability to provide consistent information ... One of the advantages of selling furniture online is the hyperscript ; you always have the original specifications on a product . "
= = = Acquisition ( 2007 @-@ 2008 ) = = =
Scene7 was acquired by Adobe Systems on May 31 , 2007 for an undisclosed sum . At that time , Scene7 had 80 employees , most of whom were transferred from Scene7 's former headquarters in Novato , California to Adobe 's offices in San Francisco , California . Mack joined Adobe as its vice president of Creative Solutions Services . Scene7 was added to Adobe 's product line as a hosted service to help boost Adobe 's overall services strategy , especially its software as a service efforts , and because Scene7 was a great fit due to its heavy usage of Adobe products .
Adobe plans to integrate Scene7 's products into Adobe LiveCycle , the company 's suite of server software products , at an unspecified time . The Scene7 brand will continue to be used , but it will " eventually be replaced with the Adobe brand " . Denmark @-@ based YaWah , a dynamic imaging software company , was acquired by Adobe on September 26 , 2008 to help expand Scene7 globally .
= Atheism =
Atheism is , in the broadest sense , the absence of belief in the existence of deities . Less broadly , atheism is the rejection of belief that any deities exist . In an even narrower sense , atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities . Atheism is contrasted with theism , which , in its most general form , is the belief that at least one deity exists .
The term atheism originated from the Greek ἄθεος ( atheos ) , meaning " without god ( s ) " , used as a pejorative term applied to those thought to reject the gods worshiped by the larger society . With the spread of freethought , skeptical inquiry , and subsequent increase in criticism of religion , application of the term narrowed in scope . The first individuals to identify themselves using the word atheist lived in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment . The French Revolution , noted for its " unprecedented atheism , " witnessed the first major political movement in history to advocate for the supremacy of human reason .
Arguments for atheism range from the philosophical to social and historical approaches . Rationales for not believing in deities include arguments that there is a lack of empirical evidence ; the problem of evil ; the argument from inconsistent revelations ; the rejection of concepts that cannot be falsified ; and the argument from nonbelief . Although some atheists have adopted secular philosophies ( eg. humanism and skepticism ) , there is no one ideology or set of behaviors to which all atheists adhere . Many atheists hold that atheism is a more parsimonious worldview than theism and therefore that the burden of proof lies not on the atheist to disprove the existence of God but on the theist to provide a rationale for theism .
Since conceptions of atheism vary , accurate estimations of current numbers of atheists are difficult . Several comprehensive global polls on the subject have been conducted by Gallup International : their 2015 poll featured over 64 @,@ 000 respondents and indicated that 11 % were " convinced atheists " whereas an earlier 2012 poll found that 13 % of respondents were " convinced atheists . " An older survey by the BBC , in 2004 , recorded atheists as comprising 8 % of the world 's population . Other older estimates have indicated that atheists comprise 2 % of the world 's population , while the irreligious add a further 12 % . According to these polls , Europe and East Asia are the regions with the highest rates of atheism . In 2015 , 61 % of people in China reported that they were atheists . The figures for a 2010 Eurobarometer survey in the European Union ( EU ) reported that 20 % of the EU population claimed not to believe in " any sort of spirit , God or life force " .
= = Definitions and distinctions = =
Writers disagree on how best to define and classify atheism , contesting what supernatural entities it applies to , whether it is a philosophic position in its own right or merely the absence of one , and whether it requires a conscious , explicit rejection . Atheism has been regarded as compatible with agnosticism , and has also been contrasted with it . A variety of categories have been used to distinguish the different forms of atheism .
= = = Range = = =
Some of the ambiguity and controversy involved in defining atheism arises from difficulty in reaching a consensus for the definitions of words like deity and god . The plurality of wildly different conceptions of God and deities leads to differing ideas regarding atheism 's applicability . The ancient Romans accused Christians of being atheists for not worshiping the pagan deities . Gradually , this view fell into disfavor as theism came to be understood as encompassing belief in any divinity .
With respect to the range of phenomena being rejected , atheism may counter anything from the existence of a deity , to the existence of any spiritual , supernatural , or transcendental concepts , such as those of Buddhism , Hinduism , Jainism , and Taoism .
= = = Implicit vs. explicit = = =
Definitions of atheism also vary in the degree of consideration a person must put to the idea of gods to be considered an atheist . Atheism has sometimes been defined to include the simple absence of belief that any deities exist . This broad definition would include newborns and other people who have not been exposed to theistic ideas . As far back as 1772 , Baron d 'Holbach said that " All children are born Atheists ; they have no idea of God . " Similarly , George H. Smith ( 1979 ) suggested that : " The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god . This category would also include the child with the conceptual capacity to grasp the issues involved , but who is still unaware of those issues . The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist . " Smith coined the term implicit atheism to refer to " the absence of theistic belief without a conscious rejection of it " and explicit atheism to refer to the more common definition of conscious disbelief . Ernest Nagel contradicts Smith 's definition of atheism as merely " absence of theism " , acknowledging only explicit atheism as true " atheism " .
= = = Positive vs. negative = = =
Philosophers such as Antony Flew and Michael Martin have contrasted positive ( strong / hard ) atheism with negative ( weak / soft ) atheism . Positive atheism is the explicit affirmation that gods do not exist . Negative atheism includes all other forms of non @-@ theism . According to this categorization , anyone who is not a theist is either a negative or a positive atheist . The terms weak and strong are relatively recent , while the terms negative and positive atheism are of older origin , having been used ( in slightly different ways ) in the philosophical literature and in Catholic apologetics . Under this demarcation of atheism , most agnostics qualify as negative atheists .
While Martin , for example , asserts that agnosticism entails negative atheism , many agnostics see their view as distinct from atheism , which they may consider no more justified than theism or requiring an equal conviction . The assertion of unattainability of knowledge for or against the existence of gods is sometimes seen as an indication that atheism requires a leap of faith . Common atheist responses to this argument include that unproven religious propositions deserve as much disbelief as all other unproven propositions , and that the unprovability of a god 's existence does not imply equal probability of either possibility . Scottish philosopher J. J. C. Smart even argues that " sometimes a person who is really an atheist may describe herself , even passionately , as an agnostic because of unreasonable generalised philosophical skepticism which would preclude us from saying that we know anything whatever , except perhaps the truths of mathematics and formal logic . " Consequently , some atheist authors such as Richard Dawkins prefer distinguishing theist , agnostic and atheist positions along a spectrum of theistic probability — the likelihood that each assigns to the statement " God exists " .
= = = Definition as impossible or impermanent = = =
Before the 18th century , the existence of God was so accepted in the western world that even the possibility of true atheism was questioned . This is called theistic innatism — the notion that all people believe in God from birth ; within this view was the connotation that atheists are simply in denial .
There is also a position claiming that atheists are quick to believe in God in times of crisis , that atheists make deathbed conversions , or that " there are no atheists in foxholes " . There have however been examples to the contrary , among them examples of literal " atheists in foxholes " .
Some atheists have doubted the very need for the term " atheism " . In his book Letter to a Christian Nation , Sam Harris wrote :
In fact , " atheism " is a term that should not even exist . No one ever needs to identify himself as a " non @-@ astrologer " or a " non @-@ alchemist " . We do not have words for people who doubt that Elvis is still alive or that aliens have traversed the galaxy only to molest ranchers and their cattle . Atheism is nothing more than the noises reasonable people make in the presence of unjustified religious beliefs .
= = Concepts = =
The broadest demarcation of atheistic rationale is between practical and theoretical atheism .
= = = Practical atheism = = =
In practical or pragmatic atheism , also known as apatheism , individuals live as if there are no gods and explain natural phenomena without reference to any deities . The existence of gods is not rejected , but may be designated unnecessary or useless ; gods neither provide purpose to life , nor influence everyday life , according to this view . A form of practical atheism with implications for the scientific community is methodological naturalism — the " tacit adoption or assumption of philosophical naturalism within scientific method with or without fully accepting or believing it . "
Practical atheism can take various forms :
Absence of religious motivation — belief in gods does not motivate moral action , religious action , or any other form of action ;
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Active exclusion of the problem of gods and religion from intellectual pursuit and practical action ;
Indifference — the absence of any interest in the problems of gods and religion ; or
Unawareness of the concept of a deity .
= = = Theoretical atheism = = =
= = = = Ontological arguments = = = =
Theoretical ( or theoric ) atheism explicitly posits arguments against the existence of gods , responding to common theistic arguments such as the argument from design or Pascal 's Wager . Theoretical atheism is mainly an ontology ; more precisely , a physical ontology .
= = = = Epistemological arguments = = = =
Epistemological atheism argues that people cannot know a God or determine the existence of a God . The foundation of epistemological atheism is agnosticism , which takes a variety of forms . In the philosophy of immanence , divinity is inseparable from the world itself , including a person 's mind , and each person 's consciousness is locked in the subject . According to this form of agnosticism , this limitation in perspective prevents any objective inference from belief in a god to assertions of its existence . The rationalistic agnosticism of Kant and the Enlightenment only accepts knowledge deduced with human rationality ; this form of atheism holds that gods are not discernible as a matter of principle , and therefore cannot be known to exist . Skepticism , based on the ideas of Hume , asserts that certainty about anything is impossible , so one can never know for sure whether or not a god exists . Hume , however , held that such unobservable metaphysical concepts should be rejected as " sophistry and illusion " . The allocation of agnosticism to atheism is disputed ; it can also be regarded as an independent , basic worldview .
Other arguments for atheism that can be classified as epistemological or ontological , including logical positivism and ignosticism , assert the meaninglessness or unintelligibility of basic terms such as " God " and statements such as " God is all @-@ powerful . " Theological noncognitivism holds that the statement " God exists " does not express a proposition , but is nonsensical or cognitively meaningless . It has been argued both ways as to whether such individuals can be classified into some form of atheism or agnosticism . Philosophers A. J. Ayer and Theodore M. Drange reject both categories , stating that both camps accept " God exists " as a proposition ; they instead place noncognitivism in its own category .
= = = = Metaphysical arguments = = = =
One author writes :
" Metaphysical atheism ... includes all doctrines that hold to metaphysical monism ( the homogeneity of reality ) . Metaphysical atheism may be either : a ) absolute — an explicit denial of God 's existence associated with materialistic monism ( all materialistic trends , both in ancient and modern times ) ; b ) relative — the implicit denial of God in all philosophies that , while they accept the existence of an absolute , conceive of the absolute as not possessing any of the attributes proper to God : transcendence , a personal character or unity . Relative atheism is associated with idealistic monism ( pantheism , panentheism , deism ) . "
= = = = Logical arguments = = = =
Logical atheism holds that the various conceptions of gods , such as the personal god of Christianity , are ascribed logically inconsistent qualities . Such atheists present deductive arguments against the existence of God , which assert the incompatibility between certain traits , such as perfection , creator @-@ status , immutability , omniscience , omnipresence , omnipotence , omnibenevolence , transcendence , personhood ( a personal being ) , nonphysicality , justice , and mercy .
Theodicean atheists believe that the world as they experience it cannot be reconciled with the qualities commonly ascribed to God and gods by theologians . They argue that an omniscient , omnipotent , and omnibenevolent God is not compatible with a world where there is evil and suffering , and where divine love is hidden from many people . A similar argument is attributed to Siddhartha Gautama , the founder of Buddhism .
= = = Reductionary accounts of religion = = =
Philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud have argued that God and other religious beliefs are human inventions , created to fulfill various psychological and emotional wants or needs . This is also a view of many Buddhists . Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels , influenced by the work of Feuerbach , argued that belief in God and religion are social functions , used by those in power to oppress the working class . According to Mikhail Bakunin , " the idea of God implies the abdication of human reason and justice ; it is the most decisive negation of human liberty , and necessarily ends in the enslavement of mankind , in theory and practice . " He reversed Voltaire 's famous aphorism that if God did not exist , it would be necessary to invent him , writing instead that " if God really existed , it would be necessary to abolish him . "
= = = Atheism within religions = = =
Atheism is acceptable within some religious and spiritual belief systems , including Hinduism , Jainism , Buddhism , Syntheism , Raëlism , and Neopagan movements such as Wicca . Āstika schools in Hinduism hold atheism to be a valid path to moksha , but extremely difficult , for the atheist can not expect any help from the divine on their journey . Jainism believes the universe is eternal and has no need for a creator deity , however Tirthankaras are revered that can transcend space and time and have more power than the god Indra . Secular Buddhism does not advocate belief in gods . Early Buddhism was atheistic as Gautama Buddha 's path involved no mention of gods . Later conceptions of Buddhism consider Buddha himself a god , suggest adherents can attain godhood , and revere Bodhisattvas and Eternal Buddha .
= = Atheistic philosophies = =
Axiological , or constructive , atheism rejects the existence of gods in favor of a " higher absolute " , such as humanity . This form of atheism favors humanity as the absolute source of ethics and values , and permits individuals to resolve moral problems without resorting to God . Marx and Freud used this argument to convey messages of liberation , full @-@ development , and unfettered happiness . One of the most common criticisms of atheism has been to the contrary — that denying the existence of a god leads to moral relativism , leaving one with no moral or ethical foundation , or renders life meaningless and miserable . Blaise Pascal argued this view in his Pensées .
French philosopher Jean @-@ Paul Sartre identified himself as a representative of an " atheist existentialism " concerned less with denying the existence of God than with establishing that " man needs ... to find himself again and to understand that nothing can save him from himself , not even a valid proof of the existence of God . " Sartre said a corollary of his atheism was that " if God does not exist , there is at least one being in whom existence precedes essence , a being who exists before he can be defined by any concept , and ... this being is man . " The practical consequence of this atheism was described by Sartre as meaning that there are no a priori rules or absolute values that can be invoked to govern human conduct , and that humans are " condemned " to invent these for themselves , making " man " absolutely " responsible for everything he does " .
= = Atheism , religion , and morality = =
= = = Association with world views and social behaviors = = =
Sociologist Phil Zuckerman analyzed previous social science research on secularity and non @-@ belief , and concluded that societal well @-@ being is positively correlated with irreligion . He found that there are much lower concentrations of atheism and secularity in poorer , less developed nations ( particularly in Africa and South America ) than in the richer industrialized democracies . His findings relating specifically to atheism in the US were that compared to religious people in the US , " atheists and secular people " are less nationalistic , prejudiced , antisemitic , racist , dogmatic , ethnocentric , closed @-@ minded , and authoritarian , and in US states with the highest percentages of atheists , the murder rate is lower than average . In the most religious states , the murder rate is higher than average .
= = = Atheism and irreligion = = =
People who self @-@ identify as atheists are often assumed to be irreligious , but some sects within major religions reject the existence of a personal , creator deity . In recent years , certain religious denominations have accumulated a number of openly atheistic followers , such as atheistic or humanistic Judaism and Christian atheists .
The strictest sense of positive atheism does not entail any specific beliefs outside of disbelief in any deity ; as such , atheists can hold any number of spiritual beliefs . For the same reason , atheists can hold a wide variety of ethical beliefs , ranging from the moral universalism of humanism , which holds that a moral code should be applied consistently to all humans , to moral nihilism , which holds that morality is meaningless .
Philosophers such as Slavoj Žižek , Alain de Botton , and Alexander Bard and Jan Söderqvist , have all argued that atheists should reclaim religion as an act of defiance against theism , precisely not to leave religion as an unwarranted monopoly to theists .
= = = Divine command vs. ethics = = =
According to Plato 's Euthyphro dilemma , the role of the gods in determining right from wrong is either unnecessary or arbitrary . The argument that morality must be derived from God , and cannot exist without a wise creator , has been a persistent feature of political if not so much philosophical debate . Moral precepts such as " murder is wrong " are seen as divine laws , requiring a divine lawmaker and judge . However , many atheists argue that treating morality legalistically involves a false analogy , and that morality does not depend on a lawmaker in the same way that laws do . Friedrich Nietzsche believed in a morality independent of theistic belief , and stated that morality based upon God " has truth only if God is truth — it stands or falls with faith in God . "
There exist normative ethical systems that do not require principles and rules to be given by a deity . Some include virtue ethics , social contract , Kantian ethics , utilitarianism , and Objectivism . Sam Harris has proposed that moral prescription ( ethical rule making ) is not just an issue to be explored by philosophy , but that we can meaningfully practice a science of morality . Any such scientific system must , nevertheless , respond to the criticism embodied in the naturalistic fallacy .
Philosophers Susan Neiman and Julian Baggini ( among others ) assert that behaving ethically only because of divine mandate is not true ethical behavior but merely blind obedience . Baggini argues that atheism is a superior basis for ethics , claiming that a moral basis external to religious imperatives is necessary to evaluate the morality of the imperatives themselves — to be able to discern , for example , that " thou shalt steal " is immoral even if one 's religion instructs it — and that atheists , therefore , have the advantage of being more inclined to make such evaluations . The contemporary British political philosopher Martin Cohen has offered the more historically telling example of Biblical injunctions in favour of torture and slavery as evidence of how religious injunctions follow political and social customs , rather than vice versa , but also noted that the same tendency seems to be true of supposedly dispassionate and objective philosophers . Cohen extends this argument in more detail in Political Philosophy from Plato to Mao , where he argues that the Qur 'an played a role in perpetuating social codes from the early 7th century despite changes in secular society .
= = = Criticism of religion = = =
Some prominent atheists — most recently Christopher Hitchens , Daniel Dennett , Sam Harris , and Richard Dawkins , and following such thinkers as Bertrand Russell , Robert G. Ingersoll , Voltaire , and novelist José Saramago — have criticized religions , citing harmful aspects of religious practices and doctrines .
The 19th @-@ century German political theorist and sociologist Karl Marx called religion " the sigh of the oppressed creature , the heart of a heartless world , and the soul of soulless conditions . It is the opium of the people " . He goes on to say , " The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness . To call on them to give up their illusions about their condition is to call on them to give up a condition that requires illusions . The criticism of religion is , therefore , in embryo , the criticism of that vale of tears of which religion is the halo . " Lenin said that " every religious idea and every idea of God is unutterable vileness ... of the most dangerous kind , ' contagion ' of the most abominable kind . Millions of sins , filthy deeds , acts of violence and physical contagions ... are far less dangerous than the subtle , spiritual idea of God decked out in the smartest ideological constumes ... " .
Sam Harris criticises Western religion 's reliance on divine authority as lending itself to authoritarianism and dogmatism . There is a correlation between religious fundamentalism and extrinsic religion ( when religion is held because it serves ulterior interests ) and authoritarianism , dogmatism , and prejudice . These arguments — combined with historical events that are argued to demonstrate the dangers of religion , such as the Crusades , inquisitions , witch trials , and terrorist attacks — have been used in response to claims of beneficial effects of belief in religion . Believers counter @-@ argue that some regimes that espouse atheism , such as the Soviet Union , have also been guilty of mass murder . In response to those claims , atheists such as Sam Harris and Richard Dawkins have stated that Stalin 's atrocities were influenced not by atheism but by dogmatic Marxism , and that while Stalin and Mao happened to be atheists , they did not do their deeds in the name of atheism .
= = Etymology = =
In early ancient Greek , the adjective átheos ( ἄθεος , from the privative ἀ- + θεός " god " ) meant " godless " . It was first used as a term of censure roughly meaning " ungodly " or " impious " . In the 5th century BCE , the word began to indicate more deliberate and active godlessness in the sense of " severing relations with the gods " or " denying the gods " . The term ἀσεβής ( asebēs ) then came to be applied against those who impiously denied or disrespected the local gods , even if they believed in other gods . Modern translations of classical texts sometimes render átheos as " atheistic " . As an abstract noun , there was also ἀθεότης ( atheotēs ) , " atheism " . Cicero transliterated the Greek word into the Latin átheos . The term found frequent use in the debate between early Christians and Hellenists , with each side attributing it , in the pejorative sense , to the other .
The term atheist ( from Fr. athée ) , in the sense of " one who ... denies the existence of God or gods " , predates atheism in English , being first found as early as 1566 , and again in 1571 . Atheist as a label of practical godlessness was used at least as early as 1577 . The term atheism was derived from the French athéisme , and appears in English about 1587 . An earlier work , from about 1534 , used the term atheonism . Related words emerged later : deist in 1621 , theist in 1662 , deism in 1675 , and theism in 1678 . At that time " deist " and " deism " already carried their modern meaning . The term theism came to be contrasted with deism .
Karen Armstrong writes that " During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries , the word ' atheist ' was still reserved exclusively for polemic ... The term ' atheist ' was an insult . Nobody would have dreamed of calling himself an atheist . "
Atheism was first used to describe a self @-@ avowed belief in late 18th @-@ century Europe , specifically denoting disbelief in the monotheistic Abrahamic god . In the 20th century , globalization contributed to the expansion of the term to refer to disbelief in all deities , though it remains common in Western society to describe atheism as simply " disbelief in God " .
= = History = =
While the earliest @-@ found usage of the term atheism is in 16th @-@ century France , ideas that would be recognized today as atheistic are documented from the Vedic period and the classical antiquity .
= = = Early Indic religion = = =
Atheistic schools are found in early Indian thought and have existed from the times of the historical Vedic religion . Among the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy , Samkhya , the oldest philosophical school of thought , does not accept God , and the early Mimamsa also rejected the notion of God . The thoroughly materialistic and anti @-@ theistic philosophical Cārvāka ( or Lokāyata ) school that originated in India around the 6th century BCE is probably the most explicitly atheistic school of philosophy in India , similar to the Greek Cyrenaic school . This branch of Indian philosophy is classified as heterodox due to its rejection of the authority of Vedas and hence is not considered part of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism , but it is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism . Chatterjee and Datta explain that our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary , based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools , and that it is not a living tradition :
" Though materialism in some form or other has always been present in India , and occasional references are found in the Vedas , the Buddhistic literature , the Epics , as well as in the later philosophical works we do not find any systematic work on materialism , nor any organized school of followers as the other philosophical schools possess . But almost every work of the other schools states , for refutation , the materialistic views . Our knowledge of Indian materialism is chiefly based on these . "
Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa . The rejection of a personal creator God is also seen in Jainism and Buddhism in India .
= = = Classical antiquity = = =
Western atheism has its roots in pre @-@ Socratic Greek philosophy , but did not emerge as a distinct world @-@ view until the late Enlightenment . The 5th @-@ century BCE Greek philosopher Diagoras is known as the " first atheist " , and is cited as such by Cicero in his De Natura Deorum . Atomists such as Democritus attempted to explain the world in a purely materialistic way , without reference to the spiritual or mystical . Critias viewed religion as a human invention used to frighten people into following moral order and Prodicus also appears to have made clear atheistic statements in his work . Philodemus reports that Prodicus believed that " the gods of popular belief do not exist nor do they know , but primitive man , [ out of admiration , deified ] the fruits of the earth and virtually everything that contributed to his existence " . Protagoras has sometimes been taken to be an atheist but rather espoused agnostic views , commenting that " Concerning the gods I am unable to discover whether they exist or not , or what they are like in form ; for there are many hindrances to knowledge , the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of human life . " In the 3rd @-@ century BCE the Greek philosophers Theodorus Cyrenaicus and Strato of Lampsacus did not believe in the existence of gods .
Socrates ( c . 470 – 399 BCE ) was associated in the Athenian public mind with the trends in pre @-@ Socratic philosophy towards naturalistic inquiry and the rejection of divine explanations for phenomena . Although such an interpretation misrepresents his thought he was portrayed in such a way in Aristophanes ' comic play Clouds and was later to be tried and executed for impiety and corrupting the young . At his trial Socrates is reported as vehemently denying that he was an atheist and contemporary scholarship provides little reason to doubt this claim .
Euhemerus ( c . 300 BCE ) published his view that the gods were only the deified rulers , conquerors and founders of the past , and that their cults and religions were in essence the continuation of vanished kingdoms and earlier political structures . Although not strictly an atheist , Euhemerus was later criticized for having " spread atheism over the whole inhabited earth by obliterating the gods " .
Also important in the history of atheism was Epicurus ( c . 300 BCE ) . Drawing on the ideas of Democritus and the Atomists , he espoused a materialistic philosophy according to which the universe was governed by the laws of chance without the need for divine intervention ( see scientific determinism ) . Although he stated that deities existed , he believed that they were uninterested in human existence . The aim of the Epicureans was to attain peace of mind and one important way of doing this was by exposing fear of divine wrath as irrational . The Epicureans also denied the existence of an afterlife and the need to fear divine punishment after death .
The Roman philosopher Sextus Empiricus held that one should suspend judgment about virtually all beliefs — a form of skepticism known as Pyrrhonism — that nothing was inherently evil , and that ataraxia ( " peace of mind " ) is attainable by withholding one 's judgment . His relatively large volume of surviving works had a lasting influence on later philosophers .
The meaning of " atheist " changed over the course of classical antiquity . The early Christians were labeled atheists by non @-@ Christians because of their disbelief in pagan gods . During the Roman Empire , Christians were executed for their rejection of the Roman gods in general and Emperor @-@ worship in particular . When Christianity became the state religion of Rome under Theodosius I in 381 , heresy became a punishable offense .
= = = Early Middle Ages to the Renaissance = = =
During the Early Middle Ages , the Islamic world underwent a Golden Age . With the associated advances in science and philosophy , Arab and Persian lands produced outspoken rationalists and atheists , including Muhammad al Warraq ( fl . 7th century ) , Ibn al @-@ Rawandi ( 827 – 911 ) , Al @-@ Razi ( 854 – 925 ) , and Al @-@ Maʿarri ( 973 – 1058 ) . Al @-@ Ma 'arri wrote and taught that religion itself was a " fable invented by the ancients " and that humans were " of two sorts : those with brains , but no religion , and those with religion , but no brains . " Despite being relatively prolific writers , nearly none of their writing survives to the modern day , most of what little remains being preserved through quotations and excerpts in later works by Muslim apologists attempting to refute them . Other prominent Golden Age scholars have been associated with rationalist thought and atheism as well , although the current intellectual atmosphere in the Islamic world , and the scant evidence that survives from the era , make this point a contentious one today .
In Europe , the espousal of atheistic views was rare during the Early Middle Ages and Middle Ages ( see Medieval Inquisition ) ; metaphysics and theology were the dominant interests pertaining to religion . There were , however , movements within this period that furthered heterodox conceptions of the Christian god , including differing views of the nature , transcendence , and knowability of God . Individuals and groups such as Johannes Scotus Eriugena , David of Dinant , Amalric of Bena , and the Brethren of the Free Spirit maintained Christian viewpoints with pantheistic tendencies . Nicholas of Cusa held to a form of fideism he called docta ignorantia ( " learned ignorance " ) , asserting that God is beyond human categorization , and thus our knowledge of him is limited to conjecture . William of Ockham inspired anti @-@ metaphysical tendencies with his nominalistic limitation of human knowledge to singular objects , and asserted that the divine essence could not be intuitively or rationally apprehended by human intellect . Followers of Ockham , such as John of Mirecourt and Nicholas of Autrecourt furthered this view . The resulting division between faith and reason influenced later radical and reformist theologians such as John Wycliffe , Jan Hus , and Martin Luther .
The Renaissance did much to expand the scope of free thought and skeptical inquiry . Individuals such as Leonardo da Vinci sought experimentation as a means of explanation , and opposed arguments from religious authority . Other critics of religion and the Church during this time included Niccolò Machiavelli , Bonaventure des Périers , Michel de Montaigne , and François Rabelais .
= = = Early modern period = = =
Historian Geoffrey Blainey wrote that the Reformation had paved the way for atheists by attacking the authority of the Catholic Church , which in turn " quietly inspired other thinkers to attack the authority of the new Protestant churches " . Deism gained influence in France , Prussia , and England . The philosopher Baruch Spinoza was " probably the first well known ' semi @-@ atheist ' to announce himself in a Christian land in the modern era " , according to Blainey . Spinoza believed that natural laws explained the workings of the universe . In 1661 he published his Short Treatise on God .
Criticism of Christianity became increasingly frequent in the 17th and 18th centuries , especially in France and England , where there appears to have been a religious malaise , according to contemporary sources . Some Protestant thinkers , such as Thomas Hobbes , espoused a materialist philosophy and skepticism toward supernatural occurrences , while Spinoza rejected divine providence in favour of a panentheistic naturalism . By the late 17th century , deism came to be openly espoused by intellectuals such as John Toland who coined the term " pantheist " .
The first known explicit atheist was the German critic of religion Matthias Knutzen in his three writings of 1674 . He was followed by two other explicit atheist writers , the Polish ex @-@ Jesuit philosopher Kazimierz Łyszczyński and in the 1720s by the French priest Jean Meslier . In the course of the 18th century , other openly atheistic thinkers followed , such as Baron d 'Holbach , Jacques @-@ André Naigeon , and other French materialists . John Locke in contrast , though an advocate of tolerance , urged authorities not to tolerate atheism , believing that the denial of God 's existence would undermine the social order and lead to chaos .
The philosopher David Hume developed a skeptical epistemology grounded in empiricism , and Immanuel Kant 's philosophy has strongly questioned the very possibility of a metaphysical knowledge . Both philosophers undermined the metaphysical basis of natural theology and criticized classical arguments for the existence of God .
Blainey notes that , although Voltaire is widely considered to have strongly contributed to atheistic thinking during the Revolution , he also considered fear of God to have discouraged further disorder , having said " If God did not exist , it would be necessary to invent him . " In Reflections on the Revolution in France ( 1790 ) , the philosopher Edmund Burke denounced atheism , writing of a " literary cabal " who had " some years ago formed something like a regular plan for the destruction of the Christian religion . This object they pursued with a degree of zeal which hitherto had been discovered only in the propagators of some system of piety ... These atheistical fathers have a bigotry of their own ... " . But , Burke asserted , " man is by his constitution a religious animal " and " atheism is against , not only our reason , but our instincts ; and ... it cannot prevail long " .
Baron d 'Holbach was a prominent figure in the French Enlightenment who is best known for his atheism and for his voluminous writings against religion , the most famous of them being The System of Nature ( 1770 ) but also Christianity Unveiled . One goal of the French Revolution was a restructuring and subordination of the clergy with respect to the state through the Civil Constitution of the Clergy . Attempts to enforce it led to anti @-@ clerical violence and the expulsion of many clergy from France , lasting until the Thermidorian Reaction . The radical Jacobins seized power in 1793 , ushering in the Reign of Terror . The Jacobins were deists and introduced the Cult of the Supreme Being as a new French state religion . Some atheists surrounding Jacques Hébert instead sought to establish a Cult of Reason , a form of atheistic pseudo @-@ religion with a goddess personifying reason . The Napoleonic era further institutionalized the secularization of French society .
In the latter half of the 19th century , atheism rose to prominence under the influence of rationalistic and freethinking philosophers . Many prominent German philosophers of this era denied the existence of deities and were critical of religion , including Ludwig Feuerbach , Arthur Schopenhauer , Max Stirner , Karl Marx , and Friedrich Nietzsche .
G.J. Holyoake was the last person ( 1842 ) imprisoned in Great Britain due to atheist beliefs . Stephen Law states that Holyoake " first coined the term ' secularism ' " .
= = = Since 1900 = = =
Atheism in the 20th century , particularly in the form of practical atheism , advanced in many societies . Atheistic thought found recognition in a wide variety of other , broader philosophies , such as existentialism , objectivism , secular humanism , nihilism , anarchism , logical positivism , Marxism , feminism , and the general scientific and rationalist movement .
In addition , state atheism emerged in Eastern Europe and Asia during that period , particularly in the Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin , and in Communist China under Mao Zedong . Atheist and anti @-@ religious policies in the Soviet Union included numerous legislative acts , the outlawing of religious instruction in the schools , and the emergence of the League of Militant Atheists . After Mao , the Chinese Communist Party remains an atheist organization , and regulates , but does not completely forbid , the practice of religion in mainland China .
While Geoffrey Blainey has written that " the most ruthless leaders in the Second World War were atheists and secularists who were intensely hostile to both Judaism and Christianity " , Richard Madsen has pointed out that Hitler and Stalin each opened and closed churches as a matter of political expedience , and Stalin softened his opposition to Christianity in order to improve public acceptance of his regime during the war . Blackford and Schüklenk have written that " the Soviet Union was undeniably an atheist state , and the same applies to Maoist China and Pol Pot 's fanatical Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia in the 1970s . That does not , however , show that the atrocities committed by these totalitarian dictatorships were the result of atheist beliefs , carried out in the name of atheism , or caused primarily by the atheistic aspects of the relevant forms of communism . "
Logical positivism and scientism paved the way for neopositivism , analytical philosophy , structuralism , and naturalism . Neopositivism and analytical philosophy discarded classical rationalism and metaphysics in favor of strict empiricism and epistemological nominalism . Proponents such as Bertrand Russell emphatically rejected belief in God . In his early work , Ludwig Wittgenstein attempted to separate metaphysical and supernatural language from rational discourse . A. J. Ayer asserted the unverifiability and meaninglessness of religious statements , citing his adherence to the empirical sciences . Relatedly the applied structuralism of Lévi @-@ Strauss sourced religious language to the human subconscious in denying its transcendental meaning . J. N. Findlay and J. J. C. Smart argued that the existence of God is not logically necessary . Naturalists and materialistic monists such as John Dewey considered the natural world to be the basis of everything , denying the existence of God or immortality .
= = = Other developments = = =
Other leaders like Periyar E. V. Ramasamy , a prominent atheist leader of India , fought against Hinduism and Brahmins for discriminating and dividing people in the name of caste and religion . This was highlighted in 1956 when he arranged for the erection of a statue depicting a Hindu god in a humble representation and made antitheistic statements .
Atheist Vashti McCollum was the plaintiff in a landmark 1948 Supreme Court case that struck down religious education in US public schools . Madalyn Murray O 'Hair was perhaps one of the most influential American atheists ; she brought forth the 1963 Supreme Court case Murray v. Curlett which banned compulsory prayer in public schools . In 1966 , Time magazine asked " Is God Dead ? " in response to the Death of God theological movement , citing the estimation that nearly half of all people in the world lived under an anti @-@ religious power , and millions more in Africa , Asia , and South America seemed to lack knowledge of the Christian view of theology . The Freedom From Religion Foundation was co @-@ founded by Anne Nicol Gaylor and her daughter , Annie Laurie Gaylor , in 1976 in the United States , and incorporated nationally in 1978 . It promotes the separation of church and state .
Since the fall of the Berlin Wall , the number of actively anti @-@ religious regimes has reduced considerably . In 2006 , Timothy Shah of the Pew Forum noted " a worldwide trend across all major religious groups , in which God @-@ based and faith @-@ based movements in general are experiencing increasing confidence and influence vis @-@ à @-@ vis secular movements and ideologies . " However , Gregory S. Paul and Phil Zuckerman consider this a myth and suggest that the actual situation is much more complex and nuanced .
A 2010 survey found that those identifying themselves as atheists or agnostics are on average more knowledgeable about religion than followers of major faiths . Nonbelievers scored better on questions about tenets central to Protestant and Catholic faiths . Only Mormon and Jewish faithful scored as well as atheists and agnostics .
In 2012 , the first " Women in Secularism " conference was held in Arlington , Virginia . Secular Woman was organized in 2012 as a national organization focused on nonreligious women . The atheist feminist movement has also become increasingly focused on fighting sexism and sexual harassment within the atheist movement itself . In August 2012 , Jennifer McCreight ( the organizer of Boobquake ) founded a movement within atheism known as Atheism Plus , or A + , that " applies skepticism to everything , including social issues like sexism , racism , politics , poverty , and crime " .
In 2013 the first atheist monument on American government property was unveiled at the Bradford County Courthouse in Florida : a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ pound granite bench and plinth inscribed with quotes by Thomas Jefferson , Benjamin Franklin , and Madalyn Murray O 'Hair .
= = = New Atheism = = =
New Atheism is the name given to a movement among some early @-@ 21st @-@ century atheist writers who have advocated the view that " religion should not simply be tolerated but should be countered , criticized , and exposed by rational argument wherever its influence arises . " The movement is commonly associated with Sam Harris , Daniel C. Dennett , Richard Dawkins , Victor J. Stenger , and Christopher Hitchens . Several best @-@ selling books by these authors , published between 2004 and 2007 , form the basis for much of the discussion of New Atheism .
These atheists generally seek to disassociate themselves from the mass political atheism that gained ascendency in various nations in the 20th century . In best selling books , the religiously motivated terrorist events of 9 / 11 and the partially successful attempts of the Discovery Institute to change the American science curriculum to include creationist ideas , together with support for those ideas from George W. Bush in 2005 , have been cited by authors such as Harris , Dennett , Dawkins , Stenger , and Hitchens as evidence of a need to move society towards atheism .
= = Demographics = =
It is difficult to quantify the number of atheists in the world . Respondents to religious @-@ belief polls may define " atheism " differently or draw different distinctions between atheism , non @-@ religious beliefs , and non @-@ theistic religious and spiritual beliefs . A Hindu atheist would declare oneself as a Hindu , although also being an atheist at the same time . A 2010 survey published in Encyclopædia Britannica found that the non @-@ religious made up about 9 @.@ 6 % of the world 's population , and atheists about 2 @.@ 0 % , with a very large majority based in Asia . This figure did not include those who follow atheistic religions , such as some Buddhists . The average annual change for atheism from 2000 to 2010 was − 0 @.@ 17 % . A broad figure estimates the number of atheists and agnostics on Earth at 1 @.@ 1 billion .
According to global studies done by Gallup International , 13 % of respondents were " convinced atheists " in 2012 and 11 % were " convinced atheists " in 2015 . As of 2012 , the top ten countries with people who viewed themselves as " convinced atheists " were China ( 47 % ) , Japan ( 31 % ) , the Czech Republic ( 30 % ) , France ( 29 % ) , South Korea ( 15 % ) , Germany ( 15 % ) , Netherlands ( 14 % ) , Austria ( 10 % ) , Iceland ( 10 % ) , Australia ( 10 % ) , and the Republic of Ireland ( 10 % )
= = = Europe = = =
According to the 2010 Eurobarometer Poll , the percentage of those polled who agreed with the statement " you don 't believe there is any sort of spirit , God or life force " varied from : France ( 40 % ) , Czech Republic ( 37 % ) , Sweden ( 34 % ) , Netherlands ( 30 % ) , and Estonia ( 29 % ) , down to Poland ( 5 % ) , Greece ( 4 % ) , Cyprus ( 3 % ) , Malta ( 2 % ) , and Romania ( 1 % ) , with the European Union as a whole at 20 % . In a 2012 Eurobarometer poll on discrimination in the European Union , 16 % of those polled considered themselves non believers / agnostics and 7 % considered themselves atheists .
According to a Pew Research Center survey in 2012 religiously unaffiliated ( including agnostics and atheists ) make up about 18 % of Europeans . According to the same survey , the religiously unaffiliated are the majority of the population only in two European countries : Czech Republic ( 75 % ) and Estonia ( 60 % ) . There are another four countries where the unaffiliated make up a majority of the population : North Korea ( 71 % ) , Japan ( 57 % ) , Hong Kong ( 56 % ) , and China ( 52 % ) .
= = = Australia = = =
According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics , 22 % of Australians have " no religion " , a category that includes atheists .
= = = United States = = =
In the US , there was a 1 % to 5 % increase in self @-@ reported atheism from 2005 to 2012 , and a larger drop in those who self @-@ identified as " religious " , down by 13 % , from 73 % to 60 % . According to the World Values Survey , 4 @.@ 4 % of Americans self @-@ identified as atheists in 2014 . However , the same survey showed that 11 @.@ 1 % of all respondents stated " no " when asked if they believed in God . In 1984 , these same figures were 1 @.@ 1 % and 2 @.@ 2 % , respectively . According to a 2015 report by the Pew Research Center , 3 @.@ 1 % of the US adult population identify as atheist , up from 1 @.@ 6 % in 2007 , and within the religiously unaffiliated ( or " no religion " ) demographic , atheists made up 13 @.@ 6 % . According to the 2015 General Sociological Survey the number of atheists and agnostics in the US has remained relatively flat in the past 23 years since in 1991 only 2 % identified as atheist and 4 % identified as agnostic and in 2014 only 3 % identified as atheists and 5 % identified as agnostics .
= = = Arab world = = =
In recent years , the profile of atheism has risen substantially in the Arab world . In major cities across the region , such as Cairo , atheists have been organizing in cafés and social media , despite regular crackdowns from authoritarian governments . A 2012 poll by Gallup International revealed that 5 % of Saudis considered themselves to be " convinced atheists . " However , very few young people in the Arab world have atheists in their circle of friends or acquaintances . According to one study , less than 1 % did in Morocco , Egypt , Saudia Arabia , or Jordan ; only 3 % to 7 % in the United Arab Emirates , Bahrain , Kuwait , and Palestine . When asked whether they have " seen or heard traces of atheism in [ their ] locality , community , and society " only about 3 % to 8 % responded yes in all the countries surveyed . The only exception was the UAE , with 51 % .
= = = Atheism , wealth , and education = = =
A study noted positive correlations between levels of education and secularism , including atheism , in America . According to evolutionary psychologist Nigel Barber , atheism blossoms in places where most people feel economically secure , particularly in the social democracies of Europe , as there is less uncertainty about the future with extensive social safety nets and better health care resulting in a greater quality of life and higher life expectancy . By contrast , in underdeveloped countries , there are virtually no atheists . In a 2008 study , researchers found intelligence to be negatively related to religious belief in Europe and the United States . In a sample of 137 countries , the correlation between national IQ and disbelief in God was found to be 0 @.@ 60 .
= Joust 2 : Survival of the Fittest =
Joust 2 : Survival of the Fittest is an arcade game developed by Williams Electronics and released in 1986 . It is a sequel to Williams ' 1982 game Joust . Like its predecessor , Joust 2 is a platform game that features two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) graphics . The player uses a button and joystick to control a knight riding a flying ostrich . The object is to progress through levels by defeating groups of enemy knights riding buzzards . Joust 2 features improved audio @-@ visuals and gameplay elements absent from the original .
The game uses more advanced hardware than the original Joust , allowing for the new elements . John Newcomer led development again , which began to create a conversion kit that allowed arcade owners to convert the cabinet into another game . Williams chose a vertically oriented screen for the kit as a result of the design 's popularity at the time . Released during the waning days of the golden age of arcade games , Joust 2 did not achieve the success that Joust reached . The game was later released on home consoles as part of arcade compilations .
= = Gameplay = =
Joust 2 is a platforming game like its predecessor , Joust , in which the player controls a yellow knight riding a flying ostrich from a third @-@ person perspective . The player navigates the protagonist around the game world , which consists of floating platforms , via two @-@ way joystick and a button . The joystick controls the horizontal direction that the knight travels , while pressing the button makes the ostrich flap its wings . The rate at which the player repeatedly presses the button causes the ostrich to fly upward , hover , or slowly descend . The objective is to defeat groups of enemy knights riding buzzards that populate each level , referred to as a wave . Upon completing a wave , a more challenging one will begin .
Players navigate the knight to collide with enemies . The elevation of an enemy in relation to the player 's knight determines the outcome of the collision . If the protagonist is higher than the enemy , the villain is defeated and vice versa . A collision of equal elevations results in the two knights bouncing off each other . Joust 2 introduced a transformation ability that morphs the player 's bird into a pegasus , which provides better offensive capabilities while on ground but poor flight capabilities . A second player can join the game . The two players can either cooperatively complete the waves or attack each other while competitively defeating enemies .
= = Development = =
Joust 2 was developed by Williams Electronics , with John Newcomer as the lead designer . The game features amplified monaural sound and raster graphics on a 19 @-@ inch color CRT monitor . Like other Williams arcade games , Joust 2 was programmed in assembly language . Williams ' video game department had shrunk following a decline in the video game industry . The company wanted to sell an arcade conversion kit for games that use a vertically oriented monitor , which had become popular at the time . Management felt that a sequel would improve the kit 's saleability . The company decided to release a sequel to either Robotron : 2084 or Joust , ultimately choosing the latter . Technology had progressed since the original 's release , providing more flexibility than before . As a result , Newcomer conceived new elements : additional characters , improved audio @-@ visuals , and new mechanics . To portray a progression of villains , the staff added a new enemy , Knight Lord . The developers added backgrounds to the levels , inspired by artwork by M. C. Escher , Newcomer 's favorite artist . Staff added a transform button to provide players with more variety and balance the gameplay .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Williams shipped around 1 @,@ 000 units of Joust 2 , significantly fewer than its predecessor . Brett Alan Weiss of Allgame and Mike Bevan of Retro Gamer attributed the poor numbers to an industry slump in the mid @-@ 1980s . Joust 2 arcade cabinets have since become fairly rare among collectors . Weiss negatively compared the game to its predecessor , calling Joust more popular and enjoyable . However , he commented that Joust 2 's graphics are more detailed and robust . In retrospect , Newcomer expressed dissatisfaction with the game 's design , specifically the monitor 's orientation . He commented that the gameplay works best with a horizontal orientation or with multi @-@ directional scrolling . The vertical orientation proved to be a hindrance for home conversion . The game saw fewer home releases than Joust . In 1997 , it was released as part of Arcade 's Greatest Hits : The Midway Collection 2 . Joust 2 was also included in the 2003 and 2012 multi @-@ platform compilations Midway Arcade Treasures and Midway Arcade Origins , respectively . It also appeared in 2016 's Lego Dimensions .
= Revolt of the Comuneros ( Paraguay ) =
The Revolt of the Comuneros ( Spanish : Revolución Comunera ) was a series of uprisings by settlers in Paraguay in the Viceroyalty of Peru against the Spanish authorities from 1721 – 1725 and 1730 – 1735 . The underlying cause of the unrest was strong anti @-@ Jesuit feelings among the Paraguayans and dislike for any governor seen as favoring the Jesuits . In the resumption of the revolt in 1730 , economic issues came to fore as well . The rebel organization split in its second phase , as the rural poor and the urban elite each formed their own factions with similar grievances against the Jesuits , but incompatible politics . Paraguay had an unusually strong tradition of self @-@ rule ; the colonists did not have a tradition of strict obedience to everything the Spanish Crown 's governor decreed . This independence helped push the revolt forward .
The beginnings of the revolt were quasi @-@ legal at first . José de Antequera y Castro ( 1690 – 1731 ) , a judge for the Real Audiencia of Charcas , was sent to Asunción in 1721 to examine charges of misconduct against pro @-@ Jesuit Governor Diego de los Reyes Balmaseda . Antequera concluded the charges were valid , forced Reyes into exile and later imprisoned him , and declared himself governor by the power of the Audencia in 1722 . Antequera also accused the Jesuits of various crimes , demanded that the mission Indians under their care be enslaved and distributed to the citizens of Paraguay , and expelled the Jesuits from their college in Asunción . All these actions had the support of the citizens of Asunción , and governors had been deposed and replaced before without the central government complaining . However , Viceroy of Peru Diego Morcillo , residing in Lima , did not approve of Antequera 's action and ordered Reyes ' restoration as governor . With the backing of the settlers , Antequera refused , citing the authority of the Audencia as superior to that of the Viceroy . The feud between Antequera and the Viceroyalty continued after Viceroy Morcillo was replaced by the Marquis of Castelfuerte as Viceroy of Peru . Antequera 's Paraguayan militia attacked and defeated an allied force of Jesuit mission Indians and Spanish colonial forces during the standoff . The battle tainted the legitimacy of Antequera 's claim of governorship , however , and a second force was sent by Castelfuerte against a movement now seen as clearly treasonous . Antequera resigned in 1725 and fled to Charcas , while order was seemingly restored in the province . Antequera was arrested , imprisoned for five years at Lima , and executed .
Paraguay was quiet for 5 years under interim governor Martín de Barúa , seen as friendly to the settlers and hostile to the Jesuits . When he was replaced by Ignacio de Soroeta , however , Paraguay refused its new governor . Fernando de Mómpo y Zayas had spread ideas among the populace that the power of the people - the común - was superior to that of the governor and even the King . The comuneros held new elections to the town council of Asunción , won the seats , and resumed self @-@ rule . A replacement governor sent in 1732 , Agustín de Ruyloba , was killed by the comuneros . However , the comunero movement split several times . The notables of Asunción , who had been happy to defy the colonial authorities when the town council was run by them , now feared the total breakdown of order , as the poorer Paraguayans started to loot the estates and property of any notable not thought to be sufficiently pro @-@ comunero . The inability of Asunción to trade with the rest of the Spanish Empire led to an economic crisis , as well . When colonial forces finally moved on Asunción , the divided comuneros scattered and fled , with most of the Asunción faction joining the government forces in a bid for clemency .
= = Background = =
= = = A tradition of self @-@ government = = =
Paraguay was one of the most loosely controlled parts of the Spanish Empire by the Crown , with a strong independent streak in its leadership . This partially stemmed from a quirk of history in 1537 . Shortly after the first settlements on the Rio de la Plata were made , Governor Pedro de Mendoza died . The crown subsequently issued a Royal Decree ( Cédula Real ) , which stated that if Mendoza had named a successor , that successor was confirmed as governor . However , if Mendoza had not named a successor - or the successor was dead - a replacement should be " peaceably elected . " An election was a unique privilege in Spain 's American colonies ; historian Adalberto López calls it " strange " as King Charles V was a ruthless centralizer who spent much of his reign curtailing the autonomy of Spain 's various holdings , especially since Paraguay was still thought to hold precious metals at the time . A further oddity is that the decree did not limit the use of election to a one @-@ time exigency . The citizens of Paraguay used the decree to elect a governor , and would use it many more times to not merely elect replacement governors , but also to depose disliked appointed governors . The decree of 1537 was used again in 1544 to justify a coup against Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca , who had reigned as governor for only two years . Cabeza de Vaca had attempted to control the settlers ' abuse of the native Indians , earning him the dislike of many of the colonists . He was arrested , a replacement governor was proclaimed , and he was sent back to Spain in chains with a number of likely false crimes accused of him . Some Paraguayan historians would later attempt to tie this 1544 coup to the Revolt of the Comuneros in Castile from 1520 – 1521 and call this the " First Revolt of the Comuneros of Paraguay . " While Cabeza de Vaca had been part of the royalist forces in that earlier struggle and had helped defeat the Castilian comuneros , it is unlikely that contemporary Paraguayans identified themselves with the Castilian comuneros , according to López . As the plotters hoped to attain legitimacy for their choice of governor in the eyes of the king , identifying themselves with despised rebels would have been counterproductive . Rather , the main contemporary references to the Paraguayans calling themselves comuneros come from sources friendly to Cabeza de Vaca seeking to discredit the coup in the eyes of the king .
Governors in office were more constrained than elsewhere in the Spanish Empire . Unpopular governors faced the threat of being removed through the application of the Decree of 1537 ; but even when such drastic measures were not used , the governor 's power was curtailed . The cabildo ( town council ) of Asunción was powerful , and governors often found it difficult for their edicts to be enforced or obeyed if they acted without consulting the cabildo and securing its consent . Spain contributed relatively little in the way of troops , officials , funds , or armaments to Paraguay , and after it was determined that the region was not in fact rich in precious metals or other resources , immigration slowed . However , the interior of South America was dangerous , with Portuguese @-@ aligned slavers and hostile Indian tribes to threaten the Paraguayans . Paraguay fended for itself with an armed militia . This also limited the governor 's influence , as it was the members of the cabildo who rallied the militia .
= = = The Jesuit missions = = =
In 1588 , the first missionaries from the Society of Jesus arrived in Asunción at the invitation of the settlers and the governor . They set to work at converting the Indians in the area . They also built a prominent church and college ; the college was the only educational institution of any importance in the province . The Jesuits gathered a large number of Indians under their care , where they were able to go about Christianizing them and introducing the Indians to elements of Spanish civilization . Most importantly , the Jesuits were able to offer Indians under their care a measure of protection against other whites . Indians on their mission would not be sold into slavery , tricked out of their goods , or have their women taken for extra wives . Over time , an entire " empire within an empire " was built up , and the Jesuits took on responsibilities far beyond religious education . In order to pay royal taxes for the Indians , the Jesuits ran an economy and sold goods at market . In order to defend against Portuguese slavers and hostile Indians , the Jesuits gathered armaments and trained in the arts of war . This arming was highly controversial and was opposed by the Paraguayan settlers , but the constant threat of Portuguese invasion meant the Spanish Crown gave its consent .
As time went on , relations between the settlers and the Jesuits soured . The native population of the Guaraní Indians , initially large compared to the number of Spanish settlers , decreased greatly . In part this was due to the abuse and overwork engendered by the encomienda system , a legal framework similar to slavery , and in part due to the Spanish laws that declared the offspring of Spaniards and their Guaraní wives to be Spaniards themselves and thus entitled to their own native slaves under encomienda . As immigration slowed , the province became heavily populated by Spanish @-@ Guaraní mestizo ( mixed blood ) descendants , who , due to the increasing unavailability of pure @-@ blood Guarani to claim as servants , became a new class of " poor whites . " Meanwhile , the Guaraní on the Jesuit missions were flourishing , and many Guaraní actively chose mission life over remaining independent or risking falling into the encomienda system . The result was a perceived " shortage " of cheap encomienda labor - a shortage that could be fixed if the Jesuit mission Indians were taken and impressed into the encomienda . Additionally , the Jesuit missions were an economic competitor to Paraguay 's settlers , as both 's major export was yerba mate used for the production of the caffeinated drink mate . The variety of yerba produced in the mission lands ( yerba caaminí ) was considered superior to the yerba harvested in the civil province ( yerba de palos ) , pushing down the Paraguayan 's margins even further . Since the mission lands were closed off to almost all Paraguayans , wild rumors about Jesuit activities within them found easy currency among the Paraguayans . Tales of hidden great treasures and secret lucrative mines worked by captive Indians were not uncommon .
By the early 1600s , the average Paraguayan despised the Jesuits . Some agitated for the government to take action against them , and at the very least the idea of extending further " privileges " was out of the question . A series of intrigues took place from 1640 @-@ 1650 with pro @-@ Jesuit governor Gregorio de Hinestrosa vying against the anti @-@ Jesuit Bishop Bernardino de Cárdenas , a Franciscan . Cárdenas was exiled to Corrientes , but upon the end of Hinestrosa 's governorship returned to Asunción . The new governor Diego de Escobar y Osorio attempted to remain neutral in the conflict between the Jesuits and the settlers who were now backed by the returned Cárdenas , and successfully avoided bloodshed for a time , but in 1649 Osorio died . The cabildo , seizing on the Decree of 1537 , promptly elected Cárdenas the new governor , and with his support expelled the Jesuits from their college in Asunción . They wrote in explanation of their actions that the Jesuits were destroying the province , and it was the " natural right " of people to defend themselves against aggression . Governor @-@ Bishop Cárdenas , in similar proto @-@ democratic language , said " the voice of the People is the voice of God . " The authorities were displeased , and the Jesuits , with the government 's permission , sent in an army of mission Indians to depose Cárdenas . Cárdenas and the Paraguayan militia decided to resist , and in a battle on October 5 , 1649 , the Jesuit army of roughly 700 Indians won a complete victory . The Paraguayans were scattered , Cárdenas and his closest supporters were arrested , and the citizens of Asunción were subjected to the humiliation of an occupying army of Indians patrolling their streets and enforcing the new governor 's rule . This wound never healed . By 1721 , hatred of the Jesuits was even more intense than it was in the early 1600s .
= = 1721 @-@ 1725 : Antequera 's contested governorship = =
In 1717 , Diego de los Reyes Balmaseda became governor of Paraguay . He purchased the position from the Spanish authorities , a practice that had spread at the time . Reyes was a merchant who had made his fortune trading exporting yerba mate from Paraguay and importing various cheap and needed manufactures back to Paraguay , so he was seen as qualified for the post by the Spanish Crown . Reyes was an open admirer of the Jesuits . Two of his wife 's uncles were members of the Jesuit order , and several of his most important advisors were Jesuits . His policies were also seen by the settlers as pro @-@ Jesuit . Reyes ' Jesuit advisors instigated him to order an attack on the Payaguá Indians of the Chaco despite a tenuous truce established three years earlier in 1717 ; all of the captured Payaguás were remitted to the Jesuits for conversion to Christianity and mission life . The settlers received none of the captives for the encomienda , although it had been the settler militia that risked their lives fighting the Payaguás and colonial trade and outlying farms would now be threatened by retaliatory Payaguá raids . The Payaguás , who lived in the Gran Chaco , were considerably less likely to threaten the Jesuits , with their missions farther to the east of the civil province of Paraguya . Reyes acquired a reputation for enriching himself using the powers of his office to control trade . Reyes also taxed important members of the Paraguayan elite to fund the construction of defensive fortifications . The end result was that Reyes was a deeply unpopular governor who found the majority of the cabildo of Asunción actively seeking his removal . In a bid to keep his position , Reyes accused his chief antagonists of treason and had them imprisoned . The notables of Asunción complained to the Real Audiencia of Charcas , accusing Reyes both of imprisoning the cabildo members without good cause , as well as general unlawful conduct as governor .
The Audiencia of Charcas took up the investigation of Reyes . The Audencias , the judicial system of colonial Spain , had a wide degree of latitude and independence from the viceroy . Charcas ( now known as Sucre ) was quite distant from the viceregal capital of Lima , amplifying the court 's power even further . In 1721 , the audiencia sent judge José de Antequera y Castro to Asunción to dispense justice as he saw fit . Antequera was a young rising star of the court , and even his fiercest critics wrote that he was likable , handsome , intelligent , and unusually well @-@ educated for the time . The Audiencia gave Antequera a sealed document to open if he found Reyes guilty . The Audiencia and Antequera ordered Reyes to release the council members he had imprisoned and that he not interfere in the investigation in any way . After interviewing the witnesses accusing Reyes of misdeeds , Antequera concluded that the evidence was so strong as to warrant the immediate arrest of Reyes in September 1721 . Antequera presented to the cabildo the sealed document he 'd been given by the Audiencia . The document gave Antequera the position of governor , which he took over the objections of Reyes ' remaining supporters . In April 1722 , Antequera officially found Reyes guilty and dismissed him as governor , although Reyes immediately escaped Asunción on the same day the sentence was handed down . Antequera proceeded to impound much of Reyes ' property and also order the arrest of many of Reyes ' friends and supporters , taking their property to be sold at public auction as well . With all these actions , Antequera earned the support and adulation of the majority of the province , though he was hated by those who had done well under Reyes . Antequera clinched his popularity by taking a stand against the hated Jesuits ; he endorsed settlers ' demands that the mission Indians be distributed to the encomienda , that secular ( paid by the Spanish government ) priests be put in charge of the Jesuit missions , and that a customs house be established to enforce limits on Jesuit exports of yerba mate . To historian James Saeger , Antequera comes across as mostly well @-@ meaning ; he sincerely believed imposing the civil authority upon the independent Jesuit missions would benefit the Empire .
It is quite possible that the matter would have ended with Antequera 's succession to Governor of Paraguay until a new royal governor was appointed for the province . However , friends of Reyes reached Lima , where they pleaded their case to the Viceregal court . With the support of the influential Jesuits , they convinced Viceroy of Peru Diego Morcillo that Reyes was the victim of a plot by jealous Paraguayans and an ambitious Antequera . Viceroy Morcillo conducted a stormy correspondence with the Audencia of Charcas , accusing them of having overstepped their authority and that giving the chief judge of the case against Reyes the power to succeed him as governor was illegal . On three separate occasions from 1721 @-@ 1723 he demanded the reinstatement of Reyes as governor . The Audencia responded that this was a judicial matter , and the Viceroy was the one overstepping his bounds . The Jesuits held a ceremony proclaiming the escaped Reyes as the legitimate governor . Reyes also went to Corrientes , where the authorities recognized his claim and began impounding carts & goods of traders who refused to support Reyes ' claim . Trade between Paraguay and the rest of the Spanish Empire was interrupted . The situation degenerated further after a group of men loyal to Antequera came to Corrientes and kidnapped Reyes in the night , dragging him back to Asunción - a highly illegal act in the eyes of the citizens of Corrientes and the Viceroy , as the government of Paraguay had no lawful power in Corrientes . Enraged , the Viceroy finally opted for military force , ordering Governor Zavala of Buenos Aires to prepare an army to march on Asunción to depose Antequera .
Antequera rallied the Paraguayan militia in response , while Zavala sent his lieutenant governor Baltasar García Ros to marshall both Jesuit mission Indians , his own troops from Buenos Aires , and reinforcements from Villa Rica . Zavala had hoped a peaceful resolution might still be possible , but García Ros was not well received by the Paraguayans . He had briefly served as interim governor of Paraguay from 1706 @-@ 1707 , and was known to be a great supporter of the Jesuits . He had worked with the Jesuit armies of mission Indians before in fighting the Portuguese , where the Jesuits gained his admiration with their support ; he had also allegedly ignored a royal award of 300 mission Indians to the settlers in the encomienda while interim governor to please the Jesuits . Meanwhile , in Asunción , the Jesuits were run out of their college by a mob of citizens , and given 3 hours to leave by the cabildo . The armies exchanged hostile letters , and it seemed briefly that a show of force might persuade the other side to back down . However , on August 25 , 1724 , the Paraguayans misinterpreted Indians celebrating the feast of St. Luis as preparations for a military attack . The Paraguayans attacked the dancing and parading Indians , and won a complete victory with the element of surprise . Hundreds of Indians were killed , all of the arms , ammunition , and papers were taken , and the royal army was forced into full retreat . A band of citizens of Villa Rica who arrived late as reinforcements surrendered immediately , and saw their leader executed . The victory came unexpectedly cheap , as well ; only five settlers were killed , and 20 wounded . 150 captured mission Indians were distributed to the settlers in encomienda servitude .
The Paraguayan 's victory was fleeting , however . The new Viceroy of Peru , the Marquis of Castelfuerte , was a dedicated supporter of absolutist monarchy who was not about to allow disobedience to the lawful authorities to linger and spread . The Audencia of Charcas was sent a final warning that continuing to meddle in the Paraguayan affair would not be tolerated ; perhaps frightened by both the new Viceroy 's connections in Spain as well as Antequera 's battle against the Spanish forces , the Audencia backed down and ceased to campaign on Antequera 's behalf . A second expedition was organized by Zavala personally , with more forces , while the bishop of Asunción , who had never supported Antequera , implored the cabildo in the strongest of terms to back down and accept Zavala without a fight . The stronger force made it clear that continuing to struggle would be fruitless . Zavala additionally guaranteed that the Jesuit mission Indians would not enter the civil territory this time if the settlers submitted peacefully . Zavala made no mention of retribution or arrests , as well . The cabildo decided to submit to Zavala ; Antequera fled to Charcas , where he was arrested .
= = 1725 @-@ 1730 : A temporary peace = =
Zavala pursued a conciliatory policy with the Paraguayan settlers , not wishing to aggravate the situation . Reprimands were handed down , but few fines , and no arrests , exiles , or executions . Members of the cabildo kept their posts . Ill and emaciated , former governor Reyes was quietly freed from more than a year in conditions that approached solitary confinement , but told that to avoid trouble it would be best if he never showed himself in the province again . Zavala left after only two months in Asunción , placing Martín de Barúa in charge as interim governor . Barúa would serve as governor until 1730 , as the first two replacement governors failed to arrive in Asunción ; one was arrested after he beat his wife , and the other died in transit in the Atlantic Ocean . Barúa proved sympathetic to the settlers and hostile to the Jesuits ; he sent letters to the Jesuits threatening to investigate claimed abuses of the mission Indians , and also wrote the Viceroy with similar concerns about the Jesuit missions . He assured the Viceroy that the Paraguayans were loyal servants of the Crown , and that the burden of defending Paraguay against hostile Indian raids would be lessened if the Jesuits were to share their mission Indians with the encomienda .
The main dispute of Barúa 's tenure was the return of the Jesuits to their college in Asunción . The Viceroy had ordered the Jesuits to be restored , but Zavala had not immediately complied for fear of re @-@ igniting the revolt , and Barúa and the settlers were actively hostile to the Jesuits ' return . Barúa procrastinated on implementing the Viceroy 's orders as letters were exchanged ; it was not until extremely blunt orders demanding the immediate reinstatement of the Jesuits with all the pomp and solemnity required for the occasion came that Barúa complied in 1728 . The antagonism continued , however . In 1730 , Governor Barúa and the Jesuits traded accusations of malfeasance on the Jesuit lands in reports sent to Madrid .
Barúa also invited the travelling orator Fernando de Mompó y Zayas to be one of his advisors in 1730 . Mompó 's origins are cloudy , but he was educated and quite possibly a lawyer . He had acquired a reputation as a troublemaker in Lima . Mompó was imprisoned there , possibly meeting Antequera in prison , but at some point either escaped or was exiled . He eventually made his way to Paraguay , where he spread his ideas about government and the role of the people , which were considered radical at the time . According to Mompó , the Paraguayans had been within their rights when they overthrew Reyes and defied García Ros ; political authority rested on the assent of the común , the community . The power of the people , Mompó said , was greater than even the King or the Pope .
= = 1730 @-@ 1735 : The comuneros = =
In late 1730 , news came to Paraguay that a third replacement governor was on the way , Ignacio de Soroeta . Rumors spread that Soroeta was a friend of the Jesuits and Reyes . Mompó rallied his followers , called the comuneros , and raised a force of 300 outside the city . A delegation of the comuneros sent to the cabildo demanded that the new governor be denied entry . Barúa demanded that the comuneros disband ; when they refused , he resigned his post in frustration . The comuneros demanded new elections of the cabildo , which , unsurprisingly , they won . Only those members who had accepted the rebel line were re @-@ elected , while the other cabildo members were replaced by comuneros . When Soroeta arrived , he was informed he was not wanted , and only allowed to stay in Asunción for four days under virtual house arrest . Convinced there was nothing to be done , Soroeta left ; Barúa and Bishop Palos of Asunción also left . The city was entirely under comunero control . Despite the new comunero influence on the cabildo , Mompó desired an even more radical shift . He apparently felt that he could not abolish the cabildo directly ; instead , he created his own parallel governmental structure , the Junta Gobernativa , whose members were elected by the people .
However , this was a step too far toward treason for some members of the cabildo whom Mompó had assumed would have been compliant . The new mayor of Asunción , José Luis Barreyro ( Bareiro ) , built his own power base in Asunción as the comuneros splintered and factionalized . Mompó 's faction of the comuneros controlled the rural areas , and Barreyro 's faction saw him as a threat . Barreyo arranged the quiet arrest of Mompó while he was alone and sent him to the Jesuits , from whom he eventually found his way to a jail in Buenos Aires . Mompó would soon escape prison again , but rather than return to Paraguay he fled to Brazil . Barreyro 's victory was short @-@ lived ; while Mompó 's faction of the comuneros were thrown into confusion for several months , they eventually rallied , and he found few Asunción militia members willing to fight against them . Barreyro and his supporters were forced to flee to the Jesuit missions , and the more radical comuneros once again ruled both Asunción and the rural areas .
News of the refusal of Governor Soroeta reached Lima , which doomed the defense of the imprisoned Antequera . Convinced that Antequera was behind the new uprising , the trial was accelerated , and Antequera was sentenced to death . The Franciscans , friendly to Antequera , organized a mob shouting for his pardon and blocked the way to the public execution site on July 5 , 1731 , so Antequera was shot instead on the way there . The execution of Antequera disheartened some of the leading citizens of Asunción , because not only was Antequera executed , but also one of his allies who had been considerably less involved , perhaps implying a forthcoming purge of any of Antequera 's supporters . Settler @-@ Jesuit relations now collapsed again . The Jesuits had rallied an Indian army , but not crossed the Tebicuary River to the settler lands , and had assured the settlers it was only for self @-@ defense . While the Jesuit college had been ignored in the earlier stages of the comunero affair , now the comuneros expelled the Jesuits from their Asunción college yet again . Enraged at this interference with the church , the Bishop of Asunción placed the province under the interdict and excommunicated the rebels for the sack of the Jesuits ' church , although this was temporarily lifted when a band of colonists were needed to fight the Payaguá Indians . The comunero army and the Jesuit army of Indians came close to clashing , but after a tense series of communications , both backed off and agreed to a truce .
The position of Governor of Paraguay still sat vacant . While the Viceroy of Peru selected a favored candidate whom he believed could restore order to the province , he was unknowingly pre @-@ empted by the King , who selected Agustín de Ruyloba to be the new Governor of Paraguay . While Ruyloba was given a force of 300 soldiers by Governor Zavala in Buenos Aires , he left it behind , choosing to believe the promises the Paraguayans sent of their loyalty to the King . He arrived in Asunción , was accepted by the cabildo as the new governor , and declared in a speech that the establishment of the Junta Gobernativa had been treason , and anyone attempting to revive it would be publicly executed . Ruyloba waited three weeks assessing the situation , then began to dispense the justice that the Viceroy had ordered . All elections to the cabildo since 1730 were declared invalid , and the cabildo and leadership of the militia was purged . Ruyloba also began preparations for the return of the Jesuits to their college in Asunción . This was acting far too confidently and fast for the citizens of Asunción ; Ruyloba 's thin support as governor collapsed , and the comuneros began to rally in the countryside again , with Ruyloba largely oblivious . When Ruyloba learnt about the comunero army , he rallied the Asunción militia to ride and meet it , but found his own army deserting him en masse , unwilling to fight their countrymen . Ruyloba met with the rebel leaders , and was advised to agree to at least some changes by the priest Arregui , known to be sympathetic to both sides . Ruyloba refused to make any concessions . For honor 's sake , Ruyloba still took the field with his pistol afterward , despite having almost his entire army desert , and was killed in a brief battle with the rebels .
The comuneros promptly rode to Asunción , reinstated the Junta , declared all of Ruyloba 's acts invalid , and looted the properties of Ruyloba 's supporters . They also elected the eighty @-@ year @-@ old Bishop Juan de Arregui of Buenos Aires as a figurehead governor . The government of Asunción split into three : the old official rulership structure headed by Arregui which was largely a rubber stamp , but provided a cloak of legitimacy ; the city leadership , dominated by the rich families which had avoided being looted for being insufficiently pro @-@ comunero ; and the countryside comuneros , who were the most influenced by Mompó 's philosophy of self @-@ governance . As far as the Asunción faction was concerned , the goal of the revolt had been achieved with Ruyloba 's death , and business as usual could resume with a hopefully more pliant governor . However , the poor rural comuneros were not finished with the revolt . The war became a war of the poor against the rich ; the ranches of the wealthy were raided , shipments of yerba mate were impounded , and cattle were stolen . The leaders of the countryside were considered illiterate political nonentities by the notables of Asunción , " rural barbarians " according to one account , who had could not be contained once unleashed . People who dared speak out against them , especially in the countryside , were killed . Commerce came to a standstill as both sides refused to allow trade ; the Junta would not allow anyone to leave without their permission on pain of death , and Zavala had blockaded the province . As the economic crisis deepened , the cabildo of Asunción not only completely broke with the Junta , but became prepared to fight it themselves , seeing them as having sunk to countryside bandits .
The expected colonial armed response was delayed due to a number of factors , most notably a famine and plague that struck the Jesuit missions which made mobilizing their army difficult . By 1735 , however , Zavala was ready to move in once more . While some comuneros rallied an army as a show of force , no battles were actually fought ; without the support of Asunción , and against an experienced campaigner with superior forces , the comunero armies melted and their soldiers tried to escape . Zavala 's army retook Asunción . Unlike his previous occupation of Asunción , this time Zavala sought to suppress any future revolt with sterner reprisals . Many of the ringleaders of the Asunción faction were arrested regardless despite their late support for the royal army ; there was a series of exiles and executions . All of the actions of the cabildo since the death of Ruyloba were declared null and void , as were any actions of the Junta . Zavala declared that since the Royal Decree of 1537 was not mentioned in the 1680 publishing of " Laws of the Kingdoms of the Indies " ( Recopilación de Leyes de las Indias ) , it was no longer valid and any attempt to elect a governor again would be treason . In October , the Jesuits were once again returned to their college in Asunción .
= = Later influence = =
While some of the ideologies of self @-@ government espoused by the comuneros seem to prefigure later democratic uprisings against Spanish colonial rule , especially among the rural branch of the revolt , historians Adalberto López and James Schofield Saeger caution that giving this apparent resemblance too much weight would be a mistake . According to Saegar , the revolt was much closer to traditions of the 16th and 17th centuries and " was principally a local uprising led by local vested interest groups and unrelated to the important changes in the Spanish empire beginning in the 18th century . " It had little in common with the Revolt of the Comuneros of New Granada or the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II that occurred in the 1780s . López agrees that the Revolt of the Comuneros was not a " true revolution " that aimed at fundamental change in Paraguay ; most of the Paraguayans saw themselves as loyal servants of the Crown and were not attempting to fundamentally change the political or economic structure of the province . Rather , they were attempting to assert control over the Jesuits , who were seen as undermining the province and exacerbating its poverty .
Paraguay remained poor and somewhat discontented after the revolt was suppressed . Higher taxes imposed later further squeezed the region 's export income , and the Jesuit missions continued to be a hated competitor driving down prices of the Paraguayan 's cash crop . Antequera became a folk hero and martyr . The new cabildo , attempting to suppress talk of him , unwisely ordered the public burning of all " dangerous " documents in the city archives in 1740 . A would @-@ be coup against the governor organized by some who had been friendly to the comuneros before was discovered in 1747 ; the plotters were arrested , convicted of treason , and executed .
The Jesuits , however , saw their previously solid support in the royal courts of Europe dry up in the middle of the 18th century for a number of reasons . The theocratic Jesuit missions which expected total obedience to the Fathers grated against the Enlightenment values which were gaining favor among intellectuals . Both the Jesuits and their enemies agreed that the Jesuits were wealthy and prosperous : according to their enemies , due to illegal theft of the best land and corruption ; according to the Jesuits , due to their own ability , intellect , and hard work . The Jesuits ' influence , money , and near @-@ monopoly on education helped spawn the backlash against them . The Jesuits had lost the support of the Portuguese government in 1750 after they opposed the 1750 treaty of Madrid which led to the Guaraní War ; they were expelled from the Portuguese Empire entirely in 1758 . The Jesuits next lost the support of Charles III of Spain after the Esquilache Riots , food riots in Madrid in 1766 . Charles III fled Madrid for a time , and his ministers convinced him that the riots had been masterminded by the Jesuits as part of a plot . The Jesuits were expelled from the Spanish Empire . In 1767 , they were expelled from their college in Asunción , to the elation of its citizens ; by the end of 1768 , the Jesuits had been expelled from the missions in Paraguay and replaced by secular administrators . The best lands in the former mission territories were quickly taken by white settlers ; the herds of cattle were impounded and dwindled ; and the mission Indians scattered and diminished . Within a short period of time , the Jesuit missions of Paraguay were but a memory .
The comuneros ' reputation was rehabilitated ; already folk heroes in the people 's eyes , the Spanish government softened its stance on the comuneros as well . A new inquiry in Madrid concluded that Antequera had been the victim of a Jesuit conspiracy . On April 1 , 1778 , King Charles III signed a document which declared Antequera had been a dedicated and loyal servant of the Crown , and provided pensions for some of his relatives . Both Lima and Asunción feature streets named after Antequera . A monument on a hill in Asunción honors Antequera and all those who fought and died in the Revolt of the Comuneros as precursors to Latin America 's liberation movements .
= Nikolai Tikhonov =
Nikolai Aleksandrovich Tikhonov ( Russian : Николай Александрович Тихонов ; Kharkiv , 14 May [ O.S. 1 May ] 1905 – Moscow , 1 June 1997 ) was a Soviet Russian @-@ Ukrainian statesman during the Cold War . He served as Chairman of the Council of Ministers from 1980 to 1985 , and as a First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers , literally First Vice Premier , from 1976 to 1980 . Tikhonov was responsible for the cultural and economic administration of the Soviet Union during the late era of stagnation . He was replaced as Chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1985 by Nikolai Ryzhkov . In the same year , he lost his seat in the Politburo ; however , he retained his seat in the Central Committee until 1989 .
He was born in the city of Kharkiv in 1905 to a Russian @-@ Ukrainian working @-@ class family ; he graduated in the 1920s and started working in the 1930s . Tikhonov began his political career in local industry , and worked his way up the hierarchy of Soviet industrial ministries . He was appointed deputy chairman of the Gosplan in 1963 . After Alexei Kosygin 's resignation Tikhonov was voted into office as Chairman of the Council of Ministers . In this position , he refrained from taking effective measures to reform the Soviet economy , a need which was strongly evidenced during the early – mid @-@ 1980s . He retired from active politics in 1989 as a pensioner . Tikhonov died on 1 June 1997 .
= = Early life and career = =
Tikhonov was born in the Ukrainian city of Kharkiv on 14 May [ O.S. 1 May ] 1905 to a Russian @-@ Ukrainian working @-@ class family ; he graduated from the St. Catherine Institute of Communications in 1924 . Tikhonov worked as an assistant engineer from 1924 to 1926 . Four years later , in 1930 , Tikhonov graduated as an engineer , earning a degree from the Dnipropetrovsk Metallurgical Institute . From 1930 to 1941 , Tikhonov worked as an engineer at the Lenin Metallurgical Plant in Dnipropetrovsk ; he was appointed as the plant 's Chief Engineer in January 1941 .
It was during his stay in Dnipropetrovsk that he met Leonid Brezhnev , a future leader of the Soviet Union . Tikhonov joined the All @-@ Union Communist Party ( bolsheviks ) in 1940 and by the end of the decade , had secured a job as a plant director . As a director , Tikhonov was able to show off his organisational skills ; under his leadership the plant became the first in the region to reopen a hospital , organising dining rooms and restoring social clubs for workers caught up in the aftermath of the Eastern Front . Tikhonov was quickly promoted , and started working for the Ministry of Ferrous Metallurgy in the 1950s . Between 1955 and 1960 Tikhonov became a Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Ferrous Metallurgy , a member ( and later chairman ) of the Scientific Council of the Council of Ministers , and finally , a deputy chairman of the State Planning Committee . At the 22nd Party Congress Tikhonov was elected to the Central Committee as a non @-@ voting member . At the 23rd party congress in 1966 , Tikhonov was elected a member of the Central Committee . Tikhonov was awarded the Hero of Socialist Labour award for his first time .
During his tenure as Deputy Premier Tikhonov was in charge of metallurgy and chemical industry ; his responsibilities did not change with his ascension to the post of First Deputy Premier . However , he did provide a general coordination for heavy industry . When Alexei Kosygin , the Premier , was on sick leave in 1976 Brezhnev took advantage of his illness by appointing Tikhonov to the office of First Deputy Premier . As First Deputy Premier , Tikhonov was able to reduce Kosygin to a standby figure . Tikhonov was , however , one of the few who got along with both Brezhnev and Kosygin , both of them liked his candor and honesty . In 1978 Tikhonov was elected a candidate member of the Politburo and was made a voting member of the Politburo in 1979 . Tikhonov was not informed of the decision to intervene in Afghanistan ; the reason being his bad relationship with Dmitriy Ustinov , the Minister of Defence at the time .
= = Premiership ( 1980 – 85 ) = =
= = = Appointment and the 26th Congress = = =
When Alexei Kosygin resigned in 1980 Tikhonov , at the age of 75 , was elected the new Chairman of the Council of Ministers . During his five @-@ year term as premier Tikhonov refrained from reforming the Soviet economy , despite all statistics from that time showing the economy was stagnating . Tikhonov presented the Eleventh Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1981 – 85 ) at the 26th Party Congress , and told the delegates that the state would allocate nine million rubles for mothers who were seeking parental leave . In his presentation to the congress , Tikhonov admitted that Soviet agriculture was not producing enough grain . Tikhonov called for an improvement in Soviet – US relations , but dismissed all speculations that the Soviet economy was in any sort of crisis . Despite this , Tikhonov admitted to economic " shortcomings " and acknowledged the ongoing " food problem " ; other topics for discussion were the need to save energy resources , boost labour productivity and to improve the quality of Soviet produced goods . Early in his term , in January 1981 , Tikhonov admitted that the government 's demographic policy was one of the weakest areas of his cabinet . In reality , however , he along with many others , were beginning to worry that not enough Russians were being born . The Era of Stagnation reduced the birth rate , and increased the death rate of the Russian population .
= = = Andropov and Chernenko = = =
Leonid Brezhnev awarded Tikhonov the Hero of Socialist Labour , after being advised to do so by Konstantin Chernenko . Upon Brezhnev 's death in 1982 , Tikhonov supported Chernenko 's candidacy for the General Secretaryship . Chernenko lost the vote , and Yuri Andropov became General Secretary . It has been suggested that Andropov had plans of replacing Tikhonov with Heydar Aliyev . Historian William A. Clark noted how Aliyev , a former head of the Azerbaijani KGB , was appointed to the First Deputy Premiership of the Council of Ministers without Tikhonov 's consent ; however , Andropov 's death in 1984 left Tikhonov secure in his office . Some Western analysts speculated that the appointment of Andrei Gromyko to the First Deputy Premiership , again without Tikhonov 's consent , was a sign that his position within the Soviet hierarchy was weakened . Tikhonov was on a state visit to Yugoslavia when Gromyko was appointed to the First Deputy Premiership .
With his health failing , Andropov used his spare times to write speeches to the Central Committee . In one of these speeches Andropov told the Central Committee that Mikhail Gorbachev , and not Chernenko , would succeed him upon his death . His speech was not read out to the Central Committee plenum because of an anti @-@ Gorbachev troika consisting of Chernenko , Dmitriy Ustinov and Tikhonov . During Andropov 's last days , Tikhonov presided over the Politburo sessions , headed the 1984 Soviet delegation to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance conference in East Berlin , conducted bilateral relations with the Eastern Bloc states , and hosted the Prime Minister of Finland when he visited the Soviet Union . In short , in @-@ between Andropov 's last days and Chernenko 's rise to power , Tikhonov was the dominant driving figure of the Soviet Union . However , Tikhonov peacefully stepped away , and supported Chernenko 's candidacy for General Secretary . When Chernenko died in 1985 , Tikhonov tried , but failed , to find a contender to Gorbachev 's candidacy to the General Secretaryship .
= = = Gorbachev and resignation = = =
Upon Gorbachev 's ascension to power , Tikhonov was elected chairman of the newly established Commission on Improvements of the Management System . The title of chairman was largely honorary , and its de facto head was its deputy chairman , Nikolai Ryzhkov . On 23 May 1985 Tikhonov presented his development plan for 1985 to 1990 , and up until 2000 , the plan was criticised by co @-@ workers , and Gorbachev told his colleagues that Tikhonov was " ill @-@ equipped " for the Premiership . Tikhonov forecast estimated growth of 20 – 22 percent growth in Soviet national income , an increase of 21 – 24 percent in industrial growth and doubling Soviet agriculture output by 2000 . As part of Gorbachev 's plan of removing , and replacing , the most conservative members of the Politburo , Tikhonov was compelled to retire . Ryzhkov succeeded Tikhonov in office on 27 September 1985 . His resignation was made official at a Central Committee plenum in September 1985 . It is noteworthy that by the time of his resignation , Tikhonov was the oldest member of the Soviet leadership . Tikhonov was active in Soviet politics , albeit in a much less prominent role , until 1989 when he lost his | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
seat in the Central Committee .
= = Later life and death = =
After his forced resignation from active politics in 1989 , Tikhonov wrote a letter to Mikhail Gorbachev which stated that he regretted supporting his election to the General Secretaryship . This view was strengthened when the Communist Party was banned in the Soviet Union . After his retirement , he lived the rest of his life in seclusion at his dacha . As one of his friends noted , he lived as " a hermit " and never showed himself in public and that his later life was very difficult as he had no children and because his wife had died . Prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union Tikhonov worked as a State Advisor to the Supreme Soviet . Tikhonov died on 1 June 1997 and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery .
According to Time magazine , Tikhonov was a " tried and tested yes man " who had very little experience in foreign and defence policy when he took over the Premiership from Alexei Kosygin . A bust dedicated to Tikhonov can be found in Kharkiv , his birthplace . Tikhonov , when compared to other Soviet premiers , has made little impact on post @-@ Soviet culture and his legacy is remembered by few today . During his lifetime Tikhonov was awarded several awards ; he was awarded nine Order of Lenins , two Order of the Red Banner of Labour , one Red Star , two Stalin Prizes and several medals and foreign awards .
= = Decorations and awards = =
Hero of Socialist Labour ( 1975 , 1982 )
Nine Orders of Lenin
Order of the October Revolution
Two Orders of the Red Banner
Order of the Red Star
Stalin Prize ;
1st class ( 1943 ) - a radical improvement of the production of pipes and mortar ammunition
3rd class ( 1951 ) - for the development and commercial production of seamless pipes of large diameter
Doctor of Technical Sciences ( 1961 )
= CQC @-@ 6 =
The CQC @-@ 6 ( Close Quarters Combat — Six ) or Viper Six is a handmade tactical folding knife with a tantō blade manufactured by knifemaker Ernest Emerson . Although initially reported as the sixth design in an evolution of fighting knives and the first model in the lineup of Emerson 's Specwar Custom Knives , Emerson later revealed that the knife was named for SEAL Team Six . It has a chisel @-@ ground blade of ATS @-@ 34 or 154CM stainless steel and a handle made of titanium and linen micarta . The CQC @-@ 6 is credited as the knife that popularized the concept of the tactical folding knife .
= = Specifications = =
The CQC @-@ 6 has a 3 5 / 16 " long blade . The handle is 4 5 / 8 " long making the knife close to 8 inches in length when opened . The butt @-@ end of the knife tapers to a point and features a hole for tying a lanyard .
The blade profile of most CQC @-@ 6 's is a Japanese chisel ground tantō with a single bevel or zero @-@ ground blade sharpened on only one side . Early models have a buffline similar to a hamon found on a Japanese Samurai Sword due to a leather buffing wheel used by Emerson to finish his blades . Unlike the typical Japanese chisel @-@ grind , Emerson 's grind is on the left @-@ side of the blade as opposed to the right @-@ side .
The handle material of the CQC @-@ 6 is composed of two titanium liners utilizing a Walker linerlock and a single or double detent as the locking mechanism , although one experimental model exists with a ratchet lock . Titanium bolsters make up the front half of the knife with the back half represented by linen micarta scales . The reasons for using titanium as a linerlock material were due to its memory characteristics and corrosion resistance . The screws in the handle , and pivot are traditional straight @-@ head screws to accommodate easy disassembly in the field with an improvised tool , if needed . Most models feature traction grooves for a more secure grip in a wet environment and a chamfered lockface . Early knives were made with black linen micarta and later models featured a proprietary green color made exclusively for Emerson . A pocket clip held in place by three screws allows the knife to be clipped to a pocket , web @-@ gear , or MOLLE .
= = History = =
In the mid @-@ 1980s , individual Navy SEALs from a West Coast team had been using personally purchased custom fixed @-@ blade knives made by Southern California knifemaker Phill Hartsfield . Hartsfield 's knives are hard ground from differentially heat @-@ treated A2 tool steel and are known for their distinctive chisel @-@ ground blades . More accurately , they are zero ground ; that is , the edge has no secondary bevel , minimizing drag when used for cutting purposes . Emerson had long been impressed by the cutting ability of the chisel @-@ ground edge and had asked Hartsfield 's permission to incorporate it into his own folding knives , which Hartsfield granted . When the SEALs asked Hartsfield to make them a folding knife , he informed them that he did not make folding knives and referred them to Emerson who manufactured folding knives utilizing the Walker linerlock .
According to the SEALs ' requirements , the knife had to be corrosion resistant , designed for easy cleaning in the field , durable enough to be used on a daily basis as a tool , and capable as a weapon should the need arise . Emerson 's folding chisel @-@ ground " tantō " became the sixth model in his Viper series and , while a handful of prototypes were referred to as " Viper 6 " , the model was soon named the " CQC @-@ 6 " ( CQC refers to " close @-@ quarters combat " ) and was chosen by the SEALs for use . Writer , David Steele , refers to the CQC @-@ 6 as the sixth model after five prototypes as opposed to the next in the evolution of the Viper line of knives . Emerson , himself , says the moniker " six " was used because the SEALs in question were members of SEAL Team Six .
Ownership of a CQC6 soon became something of a status symbol among members of various elite military units , including Navy SEALs , Army Special Forces , German GSG 9 , and British SAS . Because of this connection to the Special Warfare community , Emerson changed the name of his custom knife line to " Specwar Knives " , and in 1996 this new designation began appearing in the logo on his line of custom blades . It should be noted that the CQC @-@ 6 was not an officially issued item , but rather one that was privately purchased by the troops in question .
Richard Marcinko 's Rogue Warrior novels ( Red Cell , Green Team , Task Force Blue , Detachment Bravo , SEAL Force Alpha , Violence of Action and Holy Terror ) prominently feature the CQC @-@ 6 as a regularly carried piece of equipment . On page 175 of Task Force Blue , Marcinko remarks that his CQC6 was a " personal gift from Ernie Emerson , himself " . The popularity of Marcinko 's books helped fuel the popularity of the CQC @-@ 6 in particular and Tactical Folding Knives in general beyond the realm of Military and Law @-@ enforcement personnel .
= = Variants = =
While each CQC @-@ 6 is made by hand by Emerson , there are certain subtle variations between models of different years . The earliest examples feature the Emerson " half @-@ moon " logo , which is simply the name " EMERSON " arranged in an arc on the blade . This was replaced by the Specwar logo in 1996 which resembles the gunsight on the Stealth aircraft and the moniker " Emerson Specwar Knives " . The gunsight logo was briefly replaced by Emerson 's Diamond logo for a period of 1 year ( 2004 – 2005 ) , until the die to cut the logo was broken and Emerson resumed the Specwar log . In 2004 , Emerson incorporated his patented " Wave " opening device into the profile of the blade .
The blade finish has almost uniformly been Emerson 's trademark satin flats and matte edges . However , some models were made with a Black Tenifer coating . The steel was originally ATS @-@ 34 but was replaced by its American equivalent : 154 CM . Emerson has made " dress " versions with Damascus steel blades and Titanium blades with a bonded carbide edge .
Emerson has used exotic handle materials such as decorative hardwoods , abalone shell , and mother @-@ of @-@ pearl on these dress variants ; these models often feature polished hardware as opposed to the bead blasted bolsters on the tactical models . A few early models featured a titanium backspacer , replaced in later years by a backspacer made of G10 fiberglass . Some early CQC @-@ 6 's featured cutouts in the micarta handle slabs for a small pair of tweezers as found on the Swiss Army Knife .
In Japan there are strict laws regarding the manufacture and possession of tantō blades . In response to this , Emerson made a small batch of CQC @-@ 6 's with a more conventional blade @-@ grind for a Cutlery Show in Seki City . These knives featured the grind on the right @-@ side of the blade as opposed to the left .
Emerson makes a 10 % scaled @-@ up version of the CQC @-@ 6 known as the " Super Six " and a 10 % scaled @-@ down version retro @-@ named the " CQC @-@ 5 " . Like all of Emerson 's custom knives there is a 13 + year backlog and no new orders for knives are taken .
In November 2001 , Emerson made a one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind CQC @-@ 6 and auctioned it at the New York Custom Knife Show for the benefit of children whose parents had been killed on 9 / 11 / 2001 : 100 % of the proceeds went to this charity . This knife featured polished hardware , hand @-@ checkered micarta scales , and an engraved blade reading : " We shall strike a dagger deep into the heart of such evil " .
= = CQC @-@ 7 = =
In 1994 , the president of Benchmade Knives , Les DeAsis , approached Emerson to manufacture the CQC6 on a larger scale as a factory production model . Preferring to keep the CQC6 as a custom @-@ only knife , Emerson instead licensed a similar design of his , the CQC @-@ 7 . Even though it did not have the craftsmanship of a handmade piece of cutlery , it satisfied customers with their own version of Emerson 's work , at an affordable price and without the five @-@ year wait . Benchmade manufactured automatic versions of the CQC7 such as the BM9700 . Currently Pro @-@ Tech Knives of Santa Fe Springs , California manufactures an automatic version of the CQC @-@ 7 in collaboration with Emerson .
The CQC @-@ 7 is similar in size and blade profile to the CQC @-@ 6 with the main difference being a rear brake at the butt of the handle of the CQC @-@ 7 as opposed to the boattail shape of the CQC @-@ 6 . After the contract with Benchmade expired , Emerson began production of this model in his own factory , Emerson Knives , Inc . , in 1999 . The production version of the CQC7 is not a handmade knife and features no bolsters or micarta in the handle construction . The handle material on the production model is G @-@ 10 fiberglass and the edge of the blade has a secondary bevel . There is a larger and smaller version of this knife known as the " Super CQC @-@ 7 " and " Mini @-@ CQC @-@ 7 " , respectively and a version with a drop @-@ point blade as opposed to a tanto . An " all titanium " handled version with a framelock was made in 2005 known as the HD @-@ 7 to commemorate the tenth anniversary of this model . Emerson makes handmade versions of the CQC @-@ 7 with variations similar to the CQC @-@ 6 mentioned above .
In the Russian movie 12 a remake of the classic Twelve Angry Men , an " Emerson CQC7 " is revealed as the potential weapon used by a Chechen teen in the murder of his Russian foster @-@ parents . However , the knife shown in the movie is not a CQC7 or even an Emerson made knife .
In May 2013 , a non @-@ custom factory @-@ made Emerson CQC @-@ 7 knife carried by the Matt Bissonnette who served as point man on the mission to kill or capture Osama bin Laden was auctioned off for charity , netting over $ 35 @,@ 400 .
= Robert Dover ( equestrian ) =
Robert Benjamin Dover ( born June 7 , 1956 ) is an American equestrian who has had international success in the sport of dressage . Riding from the age of 13 , he began specializing in dressage at age 19 and competed in his first Olympics in 1984 . He competed in every summer Games between 1984 and 2004 , winning four team bronze medals . He also took a team bronze at the 1994 World Equestrian Games . Dover is the most honored dressage rider in the United States , and has been inducted to the United States Dressage Federation Hall of Fame . Outside of competition , Dover founded the Equestrian Aid Foundation in 1996 to assist others in the equestrian world , and hosted a TV show that searched for the next dressage star . From late 2009 to early 2011 , Dover served as the Technical / Coach Advisor for the Canadian national dressage team . In April 2013 , Dover was named Technical Advisor / Chef d 'Equipe for the US national dressage team .
= = Personal life = =
Dover , who is Jewish , was born in Chicago , Illinois to parents Herb and Jean Dover . He was given a horse for his Bar Mitzvah at 13 and was active in Pony Club , graduating at " A " level , the highest level . He decided to specialize in dressage when he was 19 . Dover attended the University of Georgia . He is openly gay , and his partner is fellow rider Robert Ross . Injuries , including a torn rotator cuff and pinched sciatic nerve , began to plague him in the late 1990s , causing major back pain and reducing his ability to ride .
= = Career = =
= = = Competition = = =
In 1984 , Dover competed in his first Olympic Games at the age of 28 . At the Los Angeles Games , he finished 17th individually , and the US team finished 6th . At the 1988 Seoul Olympics , he finished 13th , and the team tied for 6th place . In 1992 , at the Barcelona Games , Dover tied for 22nd place , while the American team took the bronze medal . At the 1996 Atlanta Games , the 2000 Sydney Olympics and the 2004 Athina Games the United States dressage team took the bronze medal each time , while Dover finished 25th , 23rd and 6th respectively . He was elected team captain in all six Olympics in which he competed . Of his Olympic experience , Dover says , " The medals themselves aren 't the important thing . My memories of the Games and of the entire Olympic experience are , to me , everything . "
In 1987 , Dover defeated Reiner Klimke , a six @-@ time Olympic gold medalist , at the German Aachen Grand Prix freestyle competition . In doing so , he became the first American in 27 years to win that event . In 1994 he was named the US Olympic Male Equestrian Athlete of the Year , and in 1995 awarded the Whitney Stone Cup , given by the United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) for excellence in international competition . Dover has been named the USEF Dressage Champion five times , and ridden seven times in the FEI World Cup Final . In 1994 , Dover rode with the United States dressage team at the World Equestrian Games , winning a team bronze . He was also amassed more than 100 Grand Prix victories . Overall , Dover has won more honors in dressage than any other rider from the United States . In 2009 , Dover announced his retirement from competitive riding , instead choosing to focus on teaching and philanthropy .
= = = Other = = =
Dover founded the Equestrian Aid Foundation in 1996 . The Foundation 's mission is to financially assist members of the equestrian community who have suffered a catastrophic accident , injury or illness . In 2002 , Dover was listed as one of the 50 most influential horsemen by Chronicle of the Horse magazine . In 2007 , " The Search for America 's Next Equestrian Star : Dressage " , a reality TV show created and promoted by Dover , aired on the Fox Reality Channel with five one @-@ hour episodes . The show followed a search for young , talented dressage riders , with the final five being allowed to train with Dover for one month before a winner was selected ; the winner became Dover 's assistant . In 2008 , Dover was inducted into the United States Dressage Federation Hall of Fame . Dover served on the USEF Dressage Committee for many years , and spent eight years on the US Olympic Committee Athlete Advisory Council .
In late 2009 , Dover was selected as a Technical / Coach Advisor for the Canadian dressage team , with a contract that extended through the 2010 World Equestrian Games in Lexington , Kentucky . After the Games , it was announced that Dover and the Canadian team had not been able to agree on contract renewal terms , but in late 2010 it was announced that Dover would remain as the interim trainer for the first quarter of 2011 . In March 2011 , German equestrian Markus Gribbe was hired , and Dover 's term as a Canadian coach came to an end . Dover is known for his coaching abilities , with some of the best dressage riders with top international titles to their credit coming from his stables . During his time as a trainer for Canada , he was no longer be eligible to train top riders with the USEF . In April 2013 , Dover was named Technical Advisor / Chef d 'Equipe of the US national dressage team . He is expected to remain in the position through the 2016 Summer Olympics . Dover is currently a rider and trainer at Stillpoint Farm in Florida .
= Richard M. Scrushy =
Richard Marin Scrushy ( born August 1952 in Selma , Alabama ) is an American businessman . He is the founder of HealthSouth Corporation , a global healthcare company based in Birmingham , Alabama .
In 2004 , following an investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , Scrushy had charges brought against him by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) . Scrushy was charged with 36 of the original 85 counts but was acquitted of all charges on June 28 , 2005 , after a jury trial in Birmingham .
Four months after his acquittal in Birmingham , Scrushy was indicted along with former Alabama Governor Don Siegelman on October 28 , 2005 , by a federal grand jury in Montgomery , Alabama . The indictment included 30 counts of money laundering , extortion , obstruction of justice , racketeering , and bribery . Although the new charges were filed a month before the previous trial ended , Scrushy 's attorneys accused prosecutors of filing charges as retaliation for Scrushy 's acquittal . Scrushy pleaded not guilty to all charges , but was convicted along with Siegelman in June 2006 .
On May 7 , 2009 , Scrushy was transferred from the Texas jail where he had been incarcerated and placed in the custody of the Shelby County Jail in Columbiana , Alabama . Scrushy was returned to Alabama in order to testify in a new civil trial in the Jefferson County Circuit Court brought against him by shareholders of HealthSouth who sought damages related to Scrushy 's trial and conviction . On June 18 , 2009 , Judge Allwin E. Horn ruled that Scrushy was responsible for HealthSouth ’ s fraud , and ordered him to pay $ 2 @.@ 87 billion . On July 25 , 2012 , Scrushy was released from federal custody .
= = Early life and background = =
Richard M. Scrushy was born in August 1952 in Selma , Alabama . The son of a middle class family , Scrushy 's father , Gerald Scrushy , worked as a cash register repairman and his mother , Grace Scrushy , worked as a nurse and respiratory therapist . At an early age , Scrushy taught himself to play the piano and guitar and was earning money doing odd jobs by the time he was 12 years old . Scrushy , who then went by his middle name Marin , attended school until he was 17 . He dropped out prior to graduating from Parrish High School and married .
Scrushy soon found himself living in a Selma trailer park and working manual labor jobs to support his family . After a run @-@ in with a boss , Scrushy quit his job hauling cement and decided to return to school . He earned his GED , and at his mother 's advice , began studying respiratory therapy at Wallace State Community College . After a year at Wallace State , Scrushy transferred to Jefferson State Community College and later entered the respiratory therapy program at the University of Alabama at Birmingham ( UAB ) . Upon graduating from UAB 's program , Scrushy was offered a position teaching at the university , where he was promoted to director during his two and a half year tenure . Scrushy divorced his wife , with whom he had two children , and took a position teaching at Wallace State Community College in Dothan , Alabama . While teaching at Wallace State , Scrushy met and married his second wife , Karen Brooks . The two had four children before they divorced in 1996 . In early June 1997 , Scrushy married Leslie Anne Jones in Jamaica , with guests such as Martha Stewart attending . The group met at the HealthSouth Hangar at the Birmingham International Airport and boarded a chartered Boeing 727 to Jamaica . Together Richard and Leslie have had three children .
= = Career and HealthSouth = =
In the late 1970s , following his time teaching at UAB and Wallace State Community College , Scrushy was offered a position with Lifemark Corporation , a Houston , Texas @-@ based health care company . Within a few years of being hired at Lifemark , Scrushy was running a 100 @-@ million @-@ dollar operation that included the pharmacy , physical rehabilitation , and hospital acquisition divisions . While working for Lifemark , Scrushy moved to St. Louis , Missouri , where he worked as the regional director of the respiratory therapy division . He then moved to Houston where he became the company 's chief operating officer .
Still working for Lifemark , Scrushy devised a plan for an outpatient diagnostics and rehabilitative health clinic chain . He presented the plan to Lifemark , but the company was unable to act on it due to a company merger that was already underway with American Medical International . Scrushy left Lifemark in 1983 and founded Amcare , Inc within a year . The new company opened its first facility in Little Rock , Arkansas and had initial capital between $ 50,000- $ 70 @,@ 000 . With the assistance of four partners from Amcare Inc. and a one million dollar investment by Citicorp Venture Capital , Scrushy took the quickly growing company and founded HealthSouth in 1984 . Two years after its founding , HealthSouth became a publicly traded company in 1986 . The next year , HealthSouth expanded into two new fields , worker ’ s compensation and sports medicine , allowing the company to double its earnings and obtain assets close to $ 100 million . By the early 1990s , the company had expanded even more , with facilities in each of the 50 U.S states and revenues in excess of $ 181 million .
Over the next decade , HealthSouth ’ s sports medicine programs received international attention by being linked to star athletes including Bo Jackson , who served as the president of HealthSouth 's Sports Medicine Council , Roger Clemens , Jack Nicklaus , Kyle Petty , Michael Jordan , Shaquille O 'Neal , and Lúcio Carlos Cajueiro Souza . At its height , HealthSouth employed more than 50 @,@ 000 physicians , was the " nation 's largest provider of outpatient surgery and rehabilitative and diagnostic healthcare services " , and had over 2 @,@ 000 facilities in the United States , Puerto Rico , Australia , and the United Kingdom . HealthSouth facilities worldwide saw more than 120 @,@ 000 patients daily , and with earnings around $ 106 million in 1997 , Scrushy was the third highest paid CEO in the United States .
= = Legal battles = =
Although HealthSouth grew tremendously throughout the 1990s , becoming the largest comprehensive rehabilitative services company in the United States , ethical and financial questions began to arise as early as 1989 . An internal auditor alleged that he was fired for drawing attention to HealthSouth 's financial problems and that he was pressured to meet certain earnings targets . Two years later , in 1991 , HealthSouth was accused by Medicare of illegally adding costs to reports for outpatient physical therapy and inpatient rehabilitation admissions at the corporation 's Bakersfield Rehabilitation Hospital . In 1998 , Medicare changed its funding arrangements in an attempt to reduce exploitation and payments by $ 100 billion . Scrushy insisted that the change would not affect HealthSouth 's bottom line but profits dropped by 93 percent by the end of the year . Around this same time , HealthSouth began facing additional accusations of fraud . An investigation by the insurance company Blue Cross Blue Shield of Alabama determined that HealthSouth had " improperly billed Medicare for therapy by students , interns , athletic trainers , and other unlicensed aides " .
Additional lawsuits alleged HealthSouth had committed widespread abuse of Medicare by " billing for services it never provided , delivering poor care , treating patients without a formal plan of care , and using unlicensed therapists " . In March 2003 , the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission filed a civil suit against Scrushy and HealthSouth alleging the company had falsified at least $ 2 @.@ 7 billion worth of profit between 1996 and 2002 . HealthSouth agreed to pay the United States government $ 325 million on December 30 , 2004 , in order to " settle allegations that the company defrauded Medicare and other federal healthcare programs " .
= = = Birmingham criminal trial = = =
On February 6 , 2003 , the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) announced that it had begun a criminal investigation relating to the " trading of shares of the HealthSouth Corporation " and possible securities law violations . A criminal complaint was filed by the FBI against HealthSouth 's Chief Financial Officer Weston Smith and Scrushy had civil charges brought against him by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) . Scrushy became the first CEO to be tried under the Sarbanes @-@ Oxley Act when he was indicted by the United States Department of Justice in United States of America v. Richard M. Scrushy on November 4 , 2003 .
The indictment included 85 counts of conspiracy , money laundering , securities fraud , and mail fraud but Scrushy was ultimately charged with just 36 counts . In the indictment , Scrushy was accused of using intimidation , threats , and cash payments to coerce top executives into committing fraud . These top executives called themselves " The Family " and referred to their creative accounting as " filling the gap " . The group attempted to hide the false earnings by illegally inflating balances of accounts such as fixed assets and estimated insurance reimbursements . Despite multiple chief executives testifying against Scrushy , the prosecutors were unable to produce any material evidence that Scrushy had been involved in the fraudulent accounting .
During the trial , Scrushy defended himself both inside and outside the courtroom . Scrushy was interviewed by Mike Wallace for a 60 Minutes segment called " Cooking The Books " , began hosting a Christian television show with his wife called Viewpoint , backed a city @-@ wide 40 day prayer movement referred to as " City , thou art loosed " , and joined the predominantly African American Guiding Light Church . These actions were seen as an attempt to sway potential jurors , since 70 percent of Birmingham 's population and 11 of the 18 jurors were African American . Following more than a month of deliberations , Scrushy was acquitted of all charges on June 28 , 2005 .
= = = Montgomery criminal trial = = =
On October 26 , 2005 , four months after his acquittal in Birmingham , Scrushy was indicted by a federal grand jury in Montgomery , Alabama . The indictment included 30 counts of money laundering , extortion , obstruction of justice , racketeering , and bribery of Alabama Governor Don Siegelman . Prosecutors claimed that Scrushy had agreed to pay over $ 500 @,@ 000 of Siegelman 's debt , which he accumulated during a failed attempt to bring a state lottery to Alabama , in exchange for a seat on the Certificates of Need Review Board . The board serves the state by reviewing hospitals and approving their construction . Although the new charges were filed a month before the previous trial ended , Scrushy 's attorney 's accused prosecutors of filing charges as retaliation for Scrushy 's acquittal . Scrushy and Siegleman pleaded not guilty to all charges , but they were both convicted following a trial that lasted approximately six weeks . Scrushy was convicted of bribery , conspiracy , and mail fraud , while Siegelman was convicted of bribery , conspiracy , mail fraud , and obstruction of justice .
While awaiting sentencing , on March 29 , 2007 , Scrushy 's probation officer filed a report claiming that Scrushy had violated the conditions of his bond by leaving Walt Disney World in Orlando , Florida and traveling to Palm Beach where he boarded a yacht and sailed to Miami . The probation officer suggested that Scrushy should be placed under house arrest and that he be required to wear an electronic monitoring device at all times . United States Magistrate Judge Charles Coody warned Scrushy that he " would not tolerate any future deviations from the requirements the court has placed on " him and ruled that Scrushy must wear a GPS tracking device anytime he travels outside of Alabama .
On June 28 , 2007 , Scrushy was sentenced to six years and ten months in a federal prison , ordered to pay $ 267 @,@ 000 in restitution to United Way of Alabama , three years probation , and a fine of $ 150 @,@ 000 . Scrushy is also expected to personally pay for his time in prison and perform 500 hours of community service . Siegelman was sentenced on the same day to seven years and four months in prison , restitution of $ 181 @,@ 325 to the state , three years probation , a $ 50 @,@ 000 fine , and 500 hours of community service upon his release . U.S. District Judge Mark Fuller would later rule , however , that Sieglman would not be required to pay the $ 181 @,@ 325 in restitution . The restitution was based on debts accumulated by the State of Alabama during a fraudulent warehouse deal , but Siegelman was acquitted on charges related to the deal . Upon sentencing , Scrushy and Siegelman were taken into custody and transported to a federal prison in Atlanta , Georgia , where they briefly shared a cell .
= = = Appeal = = =
Following the trial and conviction , Scrushy , Siegelman , and the prosecutors all indicated they would appeal . Scrushy and Seigelman vowed to appeal their convictions and sentences , while the prosecution announced its desire to appeal a judge 's decision to remove charges of perjury from Scrushy 's indictment . The prosecutors quickly dropped their appeal , and United States Attorney Alice Martin indicated they had reconsidered .
Awaiting appeal , Scrushy was briefly transported to a transfer site for inmates in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma before being sent to his permanent location at a low security federal prison in Beaumont , Texas . Scrushy filed a request with the 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals , asking to be released on appeal bond . The 11th US Circuit Court of Appeals rejected Scrushy 's request to be released on bond , citing an earlier ruling written by U.S. District Judge Mark Fuller . The ruling was issued while Scrushy was on bond awaiting sentencing , and deemed him a flight risk . Scrushy again filed for release in February and May 2008 but both requests were denied .
In March 2009 , a panel of three judges from the 11th U.S. Circuit Court upheld all charges against Scrushy and dismissed two of the seven charges against Siegelman . A further appeal for a full court review of the case was also denied by the 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals on May 15 , 2009 . Scrushy appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States . On June 29 , 2010 , the Court issued an order directing the appeals court to review the case in light of their ( Supreme Court 's ) ruling the previous week on the " honest services " fraud statute . On June 4 , 2012 the U.S. Supreme Court rejected his appeal , allowing his public corruption and bribery convictions to stand .
= = = Birmingham civil trial = = =
Scrushy was returned to Alabama on May 7 , 2009 , in order to testify in a new civil trial in a Birmingham court . Former HealthSouth investors sued him seeking recompense for money lost due to the fraud of which Scrushy was acquitted in 2005 . While opposing counsel claimed Scrushy was a " hands @-@ on manager who treated the company as a personal piggy bank , " Scrushy continued to assign blame to his subordinates and maintain that he did nothing wrong . Closing arguments were heard in the trial on May 27 , 2009 . On June 18 , 2009 , Judge Horn ordered Scrushy to pay $ 2 @.@ 87 billion in damages . Judge Horn stated , " Scrushy knew of and actively participated in the fraud " and referred to Scrushy as the " CEO of the fraud " . As expected , Scrushy appealed the judgment to the Alabama Supreme Court . On January 28 , 2011 , Scrushy lost his appeal of the civil verdict .
= = = Release = = =
According to the federal Bureau of Prisons website , the 59 @-@ year @-@ old Scrushy was moved in April 2012 from the federal prison in Beaumont , Texas into the supervision of the community corrections management field office in San Antonio , Texas . Following his move to a halfway house , he was moved to home confinement , and then , on July 25 , 2012 , Richard Scrushy was released from federal custody .
= Subject 13 =
" Subject 13 " is the 15th episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 58th episode overall . Inspired by fan reaction to the show 's previous flashback episode , " Peter " , " Subject 13 " occurs 25 years before the show 's current timeline , in 1985 a few months after " Peter " . The episode , with scenes set in both the prime and the parallel universe , explore Walter and Elizabeth Bishop 's attempts to return Peter to the parallel universe using the Cortexiphan @-@ induced abilities of young Olivia Dunham , while Walternate in the parallel universe struggles to deal with the kidnapping of his son .
Showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman , as well as consulting producer Akiva Goldsman wrote the episode , while producer Frederick E. O. Toye worked as the director . Guest actress Orla Brady returned to reprise the role of Elizabeth , while Chandler Canterbury , Karley Scott Collins , and Chris Bradford made their first guest appearances . On its initial broadcast in the United States on February 25 , 2011 , an estimated 4 @.@ 0 million viewers tuned in . Critical reception to the episode was overwhelmingly positive . It was ranked the third best episode of the entire series by Entertainment Weekly .
= = Plot = =
" Subject 13 " is set in 1985 , a few months after the events of " Peter " , during which Walter ( John Noble ) brought the parallel universe 's version of his son Peter into the prime one to cure him of a genetic disease . In the following months , Peter ( Chandler Canterbury ) doubts he is from the prime universe , and attempts to drown himself in Reiden Lake , believing it the way to his universe . Elizabeth ( Orla Brady ) , Walter 's wife , worries for the boy , and takes him with her to Jacksonville , Florida , where Walter is studying the effects of the nootropic drug on several children . Walter and Elizabeth agree they need to return Peter to the parallel universe for both the child 's sanity and to prevent that universe from discovering theirs .
In the parallel universe , Walternate 's ( Noble ) position as national security czar makes Peter 's disappearance a major news story . Walternate falls into a deep depression , unable to explain how his child has been kidnapped by someone that looked exactly like him . Elizabeth coaxes him out of his depression and he returns to Bishop Dynamic in Florida to continue his job .
One of Walter 's subjects is young Olivia Dunham ( Karley Scott Collins ) , aka " Subject 13 " . Walter suspects Olivia 's stepfather ( Chris Bradford ) is abusing her based on bruises she carries and frightening drawings in her sketchbook , but Olivia refuses to talk about it . One night , as Olivia is about to be struck by her stepfather , she temporarily finds herself in a different place ; the next day , she draws in her sketchbook a picture of what she saw in the other place : a zeppelin ( which are a common mode of transportation in the alternate universe ) . Walter realizes that Olivia crossed over to the parallel universe , and can be the means for returning Peter . Walter puts Olivia under several tests to try to coax her to cross over , eventually eliminating all emotions but fear as the triggering mechanism . He arranges a traumatic test for Olivia , but instead of crossing over , she exhibits pyrokinesis and sets the room afire . In the confusion of extinguishing the blaze , she disappears .
Peter , discovering a picture of white tulips in Olivia 's book , is able to find her nearby . After they introduce themselves , Olivia admits to being scared of going home to her stepfather . Peter tells her to trust Walter and to face her fear , and then returns her to the child care center , to everyone 's relief . As Olivia waits for her stepfather , she sketches a picture of her and Peter in her book . As her stepfather is about to arrive , Olivia decides she must tell Walter about him , and rushes to his office . Olivia , in tears , hands Walter the sketchbook , explaining about her stepfather 's abuse and that she knew she had crossed over to the parallel universe . She is interrupted by a sound from behind her : it is Walter . Olivia had temporarily entered the parallel universe and spoken to Walternate . Walter takes Olivia to her stepfather , but warns the man that he will be reported to social services if Olivia is harmed again .
Elizabeth and Peter return to Reiden Lake , and Peter eventually comes to call Elizabeth his mom , but Elizabeth becomes forlorn after she realizes the lie she has been maintaining for the last few months . The episode ends in the parallel universe , where Walternate has reviewed Olivia 's sketchbook , including her latest picture of her and Peter ; now aware of the parallel universe , Walternate gains new resolve to get his Peter back .
= = Production = =
" Subject 13 " was co @-@ written by co @-@ showrunners Jeff Pinkner , J. H. Wyman and consulting producer Akiva Goldsman , while former Fringe producer Frederick E. O. Toye directed . It was the first episode Toye directed since the first season . In an interview with TV Guide , Pinkner and Wyman revealed they had known Olivia and Peter met as children for a long time , but did not decide to show this to the audience until they wrote the episode . Wyman described Elizabeth Bishop 's successful lie at making Peter believe she is his real mother as " the beginning of the end for her , " as her character will ultimately commit suicide .
Olivia 's abusive stepfather , whom she non @-@ fatally shot when nine years old , makes his first appearance in " Subject 13 " . In early January 2011 , TVline 's Michael Ausiello exclusively reported that Fringe was casting for an actor to play the part . Several news sources later in early March noticed on the Internet Movie Database that actor Chris Bradford had been cast . The casting report later turned out to be true , as Bradford appeared in the episode . Chandler Canterbury appeared in the episode as a young Peter Bishop , a role previously played by Quinn Lord in the second season episode " Peter " . Karley Scott Collins also made a guest appearance as a younger version of Olivia Dunham .
Actor John Noble , who played two versions of a younger Walter in both " Peter " and " Subject 13 " , described the process it took to make him appear years younger in an interview with Digital Spy :
" Our makeup lady , particularly for the second flashback , worked out some terrific techniques to get the skin softer so it loses the wrinkles and so forth . This year we 've come up with some terrific technology . And [ I have ] a beautiful handmade wig which at that stage was the right length - should we go on further we 'd need to trim it back . We 've looked at it really carefully . As we become more efficient it 's generally about three or four hours in makeup " .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Subject 13 " , with the intention of having " students learn about adaptation and how the process helps organisms survive in their specific ecological environment . "
= = Cultural references = =
The show reuses the 1980s @-@ styled introduction sequence from " Peter " . One scene set in the prime universe is at a toy store and shows many vintage toys of that period , including toys from Ghostbusters , Battlestar Galactica , and G.I. Joe , as well as an Atari 2600 entertainment system . There , a boy can be seen playing the 1982 video game Joust . Before her stepfather strikes her , young Olivia is seen reading the book Winter 's Tale by Mark Helprin . Among the tests Walter puts Olivia through is the Project Christmas block test ( " The Indicator " ) from Alias , another television series created by Fringe executive producer J.J. Abrams . In the parallel universe , Walternate is credited with making the Star Wars program work , leading to his role as the national security czar . The episode also features a reference to the DC Comics character Green Lantern , dubbed Red Lantern in the parallel universe , as noted by Peter .
One of the other identified students at the daycare center is Nick Lane , whose adult character appears in the episodes " Bad Dreams " and " Over There " . In parallel with William Bell 's founding of the technology company Massive Dynamic in the prime universe , Walternate has founded Bishop Dynamic in the parallel universe , situated in Jacksonville . The field of white tulips revisits the theme of the episode " White Tulip " from Season 2 , where Walter believes that seeing a white tulip is a sign of God 's forgiveness of his actions . The video of Olivia setting fire to the lab , as well as the setting of the nursery school where the Cortexiphan experiments took place , are references to the second season episode " Jacksonville " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Subject 13 " first aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 25 , 2011 . It retained similar viewership from the previous week 's episode , " 6B " , with an estimated 4 @.@ 0 million viewers and a 1 @.@ 5 ratings share among those aged between 18 and 49 . In that demographic , " Subject 13 " helped Fox tie with CBS for first place , though Fox placed in fourth among total viewers . Time shifted viewing increased the episode 's ratings among adults by 53 percent to a 2 @.@ 3 ratings share .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received almost universal critical praise . Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times called it one of his favorite Fringe episodes due to the " incredible " opening , Brady and Noble 's " outstanding " performances , and the scene with Olivia unknowingly talking to Walternate . Like Hanson , Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly also praised the actors ' performances , and thought it was " one of the most moving and revelatory episodes in the series ' short history " . Though he felt the episode did not quite match up to " Peter " , Ramsey Isler from IGN rated " Subject 13 " an 8 @.@ 5 / 10 . He believed the opening to be " tense and surprising " and praised the child actors ' performances . Finally , he thought the scene in which Olivia accidentally encounters Walternate was a " brilliant plot twist that ties a lot of things together " .
CNN 's Henry Hanks wrote the episode " is reason enough to bring this series back for another season , " and praised Noble 's performance as Emmy @-@ worthy ; Hanks also loved the " genius " musical score written by composers Michael Giacchino and Chris Tilton . Noel Murray from The A.V. Club graded the episode with an A- , explaining that , like the other reviewers , he loved the opening sequence with Peter on the lake , the newest mythology details , as well as how Walternate discovered the prime universe . Murray also loved the " mood " of the episode , but had minor problems with the plot , as he thought it was now harder to believe Olivia , Peter , and Walter were strangers to each other in the first season . James Poniewozik of Time magazine concluded that the episode " was not the revelation that ' Peter ' was , though a phase @-@ shifting Olivia ’ s mistaking of Walternate for Walter was one of the series ’ most mindblowing moments ( and , again , a Lostian bit of disorienting sleight of hand ) . But it was again an effective detour in which Fringe reminded us that time has parallels just as space does , and that the past is emotionally overlaid on the present just as its Over There is overlaid on our world . "
TV.com staff highlighted " Subject 13 " as one of the best television episodes of the 2010 – 11 United States network television schedule . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " Subject 13 " the third best episode of the series , explaining " The nighttime scene between the two kids ( well played by Chandler Canterbury and Karley Scott Collins ) in the field of white tulips might be the most memorable scene in all of Fringe . ' Subject 13 ' is also one of the great parallel universe episodes , too , charting the shattering impact of Peter 's abduction on both sets of Walter and Elizabeth ( Orla Brady ) . ' Subject 13 ' was so essential , so emotionally wrenching . " IGN found the episode to be the fifth best of the series .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
At the 33rd Young Artist Awards , Chandler Canterbury received a nomination for Best Performance In a TV Series – Guest Starring Young Actor 11 @-@ 13 , but lost to Austin Michael Coleman of House M.D. and Baljodh Nagra of R.L. Stine 's The Haunting Hour .
= Indiana Territory =
The Territory of Indiana was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from July 4 , 1800 , until December 11 , 1816 , when the remaining southern portion of the territory was admitted to the Union as the state of Indiana .
The Indiana Territory was created by an Act of Congress and signed into law by President John Adams on May 7 , 1800 , effective on July 4 . It was the first new territory created from lands of the Northwest Territory , which had been organized in 1787 by the Northwest Ordinance . The territory originally contained approximately 259 @,@ 824 square miles ( 672 @,@ 940 km2 ) of land , but twice decreased in size as it was further subdivided into new territories ( Michigan Territory and Illinois Territory ) .
The territory was first governed by William Henry Harrison who oversaw the negotiation with the native inhabitants to open large parts of the territory to settlement . In 1810 a popularly elected government was established as the territory continued to grow in population and develop a very basic road network , government , and education system . At the outbreak of Tecumseh 's War , the territory was on the front line of battle and Harrison led a military force in the opening hostilities at the Battle of Tippecanoe , and then in the subsequent invasion of Canada during the War of 1812 . Thomas Posey was appointed to the vacant governorship , but the opposition party , led by Congressman Jonathan Jennings , had dominance in the territorial affairs for its remaining years and began pressing for statehood . In June 1816 , a constitutional convention was held and a state government was formed . The territory was dissolved on December 11 , 1816 , by an act of Congress granting statehood to Indiana .
= = Original boundaries = =
The original boundaries of the Indiana Territory included the area of the Northwest Territory west of a line running from the bank opposite the mouth of the Kentucky River northeast to Fort Recovery , and from there due northward along a line approximately 84 deg 45 min W longitude . The territory initially included most of present @-@ day Indiana and all of present @-@ day Illinois , and Wisconsin , as well as fragments of three other states : the part of Minnesota east of the Mississippi River , almost all of the Upper Peninsula of present @-@ day Michigan and the western half of the Lower Peninsula , and finally , a narrow strip of present @-@ day Ohio lying to the north and west of Fort Recovery . This latter parcel became part of the state of Ohio when it was admitted to the Union in 1803 . At the same time in 1803 , the southeast boundary shifted to the mouth of the Great Miami River from its former location at the point opposite the mouth of the Kentucky River . The eastern part of Michigan was added to the Indiana Territory at that time . The area of the Indiana Territory was reduced in 1805 by the creation of the Michigan Territory , and in 1809 by the creation of the Illinois Territory .
= = Government = =
= = = Governors = = =
= = = Legislature = = =
When the Indiana Territory was first created , no provision was allowed for the creation of popularly elected government . Congress granted the President power to appoint a General Court to serve as a legislative and judicial branch of the territorial government . The court consisted of five members , and the President delegated the task of choosing the members to the Governor of the territory . This remained the form of government until 1805 when Congress granted the territory the right to legalize slavery if they so choose . In doing so , they removed the court 's legislative powers , leaving it with only judicial authority , but still to be appointed by the President through the Governor . The formation of a new legislative council was approved and each county in the territory was granted the right to elect one representative to it . The council had the authority to pass laws , but they all had to be approved by the Governor before they could be enacted .
In 1809 , the makeup of the legislature was altered again by Congress to a bicameral body . A House of Representatives was created and the representation was apportioned by population . The House was then to choose ten candidates from whom the President , through the governor , would choose five to form a council which served as the upper house of the legislature . Thereafter , the structure of the legislature remained unchanged for the remainder of the territory 's existence .
= = = Congressional delegation = = =
The delegate from the Indiana Territory was elected at large in a territory @-@ wide election . The delegate attended Congress with the right to debate , submit legislation , and serve on committees , but was not permitted to vote on legislation .
= = = Other high officials = = =
The federal government paid the salaries of the governor , legislature , and judicial council , but did not provide funds for any additional governmental offices . At first , the territory had very limited revenue and could not afford to fund a large government . As the population increased , and revenues grew , so did the size and scope of the government with new offices being created at different times . The territory 's primary source of revenue was from the sale of federal lands ; the territory collected 3 % of the proceeds of each sale . Property tax and trading ventures with the Native American tribes also provided lesser revenues .
Secretary
Auditor
Treasurer
Attorney General
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The Northwest Territory was formed by the Congress of the Confederation on July 13 , 1787 , and included all land between the Appalachia and the Mississippi River , the Great Lakes and the Ohio River . This single territory became the states of Ohio , Michigan , Indiana , Illinois , Wisconsin , and eastern Minnesota . The Northwest Territory act had all the newly acquired territory surveyed according to The Land Ordinance of 1785 for future development by the United States . The act also provided an administration to oversee the territory .
At the time the territory was created , there were only three American settlements in what would later become the Indiana Territory , Vincennes , Kaskaskia and Clark 's Grant . The entire population was under five @-@ thousand Europeans . The Native American population was estimated to be near twenty @-@ thousand , but possibly as high as seventy @-@ five thousand .
In 1785 , the Northwest Indian War began . In an attempt to end the native rebellion , the Miami town of Kekionga was unsuccessfully attacked by General Josiah Harmar and Northwest Territory governor Arthur St. Clair . St. Clair 's Defeat is the worst defeat of the U.S. army by Native Americans in history . The defeat led to the appointment of General " Mad Anthony " Wayne who organized the Legion of the United States and defeated a Native American force at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 . In 1795 the Treaty of Greenville was signed , taking a slice of eastern Indiana for the United States . Fort Miamis at Kekionga was occupied by the United States , who rebuilt it as Fort Wayne . The powerful Miami nation would consider themselves allies with the United States after the treaty .
= = = Formation = = =
On July 4 , 1800 , the Indiana Territory was established out of Northwest Territory in preparation for Ohio 's statehood . The capital of the new territory was Vincennes , a former French trading post and one of the only white settlements in the vast territory . The name Indiana meant " Land of the Indians " , and referred to the fact that most of the area north of the Ohio River was still inhabited by Native Americans . ( South of the river , Kentucky had been a traditional hunting ground for the Northwestern and other tribes , and early American settlers in Kentucky referred to the north bank as the land of the Indians . ) In 1768 , several colonies purchased the Iroquois claim to the northwest and established the Indiana Land Company to hold that claim , the first recorded use of the word Indiana . The claim to the land was disputed by Virginia , and the company 's claim was extinguished in a 1798 United States Supreme Court case . Two years later , Congress used the name of the company and applied it to the new territory .
Indiana Territory began with just three counties : St. Clair ( part of present @-@ day Illinois , across the river from St Louis and south of the Illinois River ) , Randolph County ( part of present @-@ day Illinois , south of St. Clair county ) , and Knox ( present @-@ day Indiana , with parts of Illinois , Michigan and Wisconsin ) . There was also an area corresponding roughly to northern Illinois , much of Wisconsin , the northeastern corner of Minnesota , and the western part of Michigan 's upper peninsula that was unorganized .
The first Governor of the Territory was William Henry Harrison . Harrison County was named in his honor ; he gained national fame during his term as a hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe . He later became the ninth President of the United States . Harrison served as governor from May 13 , 1800 to December 28 , 1812 . Harrison did not arrive in the territory to begin governing until January 1801 . John Gibson , the Territorial Secretary , served as acting governor , from the creation of the territory until his arrival . The governor was assisted in governing the territory by a three @-@ member panel of judges , the General Court . The court served as both the highest legislative and judicial authority in the territory and its members were appointed by the governor .
As governor of a territory of the first stage ( as outlined in the Northwest Ordinance ) , Harrison had wide @-@ ranging powers in the new territory , including the authority to appoint all territorial officials as well as the territorial General Assembly , and the authority to divide the territory into districts . Harrison was eager to expand the territory , as his political fortunes were tied to Indiana 's rise to statehood . In 1803 President Thomas Jefferson granted Harrison authority to negotiate and conclude treaties with the Native American tribes in the territory . Harrison oversaw the creation of thirteen treaties , purchasing more than 60 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 240 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land from Native American leaders , including most present @-@ day southern Indiana .
The Treaty of Vincennes was the first treaty Harrison negotiated with his new power . In 1803 he invited the leaders on the local tribes to Vincennes where they signed a treaty recognizing American possession of the Vincennes tract . This area had been captured by George Rogers Clark in the American Revolutionary War from the French . The Treaty of Grouseland in 1805 further secured possession of all of south @-@ western Indiana . Tensions however grew on the frontier and neared the breaking the point after the contentious and disputed 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne , in which Harrison purchased more than 250 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ) of American Indian land in central Indiana and eastern Illinois .
The availability of new cheap land led to a rapid increase in the population of the territory , with thousands of new settlers entering the region every year . Large settlements began to spring up on the periphery of the territory around the Great Lakes , the Ohio River , the Wabash River , and the Mississippi River . Much of the interior , though , remained inhabited by the Native American tribes and was left unsettled .
= = = District of Louisiana = = =
From October 1 , 1804 until July 4 , 1805 , administrative powers of the [ D ] istrict of Louisiana were extended to the governor and judges of Indiana Territory as a temporary measure to govern the newly purchased lands . Under the terms of the act establishing the temporary government , the Governor and Judges of Indiana Territory were supposed to meet twice a year in a " at such place as will be most convenient to the inhabitants thereof in general " . Residents of the new district objected to many of the provisions of the new United States government , including their imposition of common law . Residents had previously lived under continental civil law .
The " district of Louisiana " encompassed all Louisiana Purchase lands north of the 33rd parallel , the present @-@ day border of the states of Arkansas and Louisiana . South of the parallel , the more densely populated " territory of Orleans " was separately administered , largely under civil law .
The [ D ] istrict of Louisiana was governed by Indiana Territory . One Kansas Territory source , recounting Kansas history up to 1855 , states that Kansas , as part of the district of Louisiana , was not only administered by but also " annexed to " Indiana Territory . Whether a temporary act can effect an annexation may depend on its actual duration , and most sources have declined to call Indiana Territory administration an annexation or even to use " annexed to " language . Less persuasively , maps generally fail to reflect the de jure common governance of Indiana Territory and the [ D ] istrict of Louisiana by way of , say , a common color scheme and / or a dotted border .
In any event , the [ D ] istrict of Louisiana soon became part of a separately administered [ T ] erritory of Louisiana , effective July 4 , 1805 .
One of the most notable events during this period was the Treaty of St. Louis in which the Sac and Fox tribes ceded northeastern Missouri , northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin to the United States . Resentments over this treaty were to cause the tribes to side with the British during the War of 1812 in raids along the Missouri , Ohio and Mississippi Rivers and was to spur the Black Hawk War in 1832 .
= = = Politics = = =
In 1803 , Harrison began to lobby Congress to repeal Article Six of the Northwest Ordinance , which prohibited slavery in the original Northwest Territory , in order permit slavery in the Indiana Territory . He claimed legalizing slavery was necessary to make the region more appealing to settlers and ultimately make the territory economically viable . That same year Harrison had indenturing legalized by the General Court . The territory was granted representation in the United States Congress in 1805 , and pro @-@ slavery Benjamin Parke became the territory 's first representative . Parke used his position to get Congress to support Harrison 's appeal . He was able pass legislation to have Article Six suspended for ten years , and the territories covered by the ordinance were granted the ability to legalize slavery . By the same act , Congress removed the General Court 's legislative power and created a legislative council to be elected by popular vote .
Harrison 's attempts caused a significant stir among the many Quakers who had settled in the eastern part of the territory ; they responded by forming an anti @-@ slavery party . In the 1805 election , Davis Floyd of Clark County was the only anti @-@ slavery representative elected to the council . Harrison 's measures to legalize slavery were blocked by the representatives from St. Clair County , who refused to authorize slavery unless Harrison supported their request for a separate territory , which Harrison opposed . In 1809 , the St. Clair County settlers petitioned Congress for the formation of a separate territory . Despite Harrison 's disapproval , the Illinois Territory was created . The same year , Congress granted the Indiana Territory the right to elect a House of Representatives . Harrison found himself at odds with the legislature when the anti @-@ slavery party came to power in that year 's election . They promptly rebuffed many of his plans for slavery and repealed the indenturing laws he had enacted in 1803 .
The capital of the territory remained in Vincennes for thirteen years . After the territory was reorganized in 1809 and the Illinois Territory was split off , Vincennes was then on the far west edge of the Indiana Territory . Due to this , the legislature made plans to move the capital to be more centralized with the population . Madison , Jeffersonville , and Corydon competed to become the new capital . Harrison favored Corydon , a town he had founded and named , and where he owned an estate . The new capitol building was finished in 1813 and the government quickly relocated to Corydon after the outbreak of the War of 1812 for fear of an attack on Vincennes .
= = = Tecumseh 's War = = =
An Indian resistance movement against U.S. expansion had been growing around the Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa ( The Prophet ) that became known as Tecumseh 's War . Tenskwatawa convinced the native tribes that they would be protected by the Great Spirit and no harm could befall them if they would rise up against the whites . He encouraged resistance by telling the tribes to only pay white traders half of what they owed , and to give up all the white man 's ways , including their clothing , whiskey , and guns . In 1810 , Tecumseh , with about 400 armed warriors , traveled to Vincennes where he confronted Harrison and demanded that the Treaty of Fort Wayne be rescinded . Although Harrison refused , the war party left peacefully , but Tecumseh was angry and threatened retaliation . After the meeting Tecumseh journeyed to meet with many of the tribes in the region , hoping to create a confederation with which to battle the Americans .
In 1811 , while Tecumseh was still away , Harrison was authorized by Secretary of War William Eustis to march against the nascent confederation , as a show of force . Harrison moved north with an army of more than one thousand men in an attempt to intimidate the Shawnee into making peace . The ploy failed , and the tribes launched a surprise attack on Harrison 's army early on the morning of November 6 . The ensuing battle became known as the Battle of Tippecanoe . Harrison ultimately won his famous victory at Prophetstown , next to the Wabash and Tippecanoe Rivers . Harrison was publicly hailed as a national hero , despite the fact that his troops had greatly outnumbered the Indian forces , and had suffered many more casualties . The battle earned Harrison national fame , and the nickname " Old Tippecanoe " . The victory opened up central Indiana to settlement and allowed settlers to safely venture beyond the southern periphery of the state .
= = = War of 1812 = = =
The war between Tecumseh and Harrison merged with the War of 1812 when the Indian Confederation allied with the British in Canada . In May 1812 , a meeting of all the tribal leaders in the region was held in the Miami village of Mississinewa hosted by Chief Little Turtle . Most of the tribes decided to remain neutral during the conflict and rejected Tecumseh 's plans of continued rebellion . Despite their rejection , Tecumseh continued to lead his dwindling army against the Americans , and moved farther north where he could be supported by the British army . His followers who remained behind continued raiding the countryside and engaged in the Siege of Fort Harrison , which was the United States ' first land victory during the war . John Gibson served as acting Governor during the War of 1812 while Harrison was leading the army . After Harrison was replaced in June 1812 , Gibson continued as acting @-@ governor until incoming governor Thomas Posey arrived in May 1813 .
Numerous other battles that occurred in the modern state of Indiana include the Siege of Fort Wayne , the Pigeon Roost Massacre and the Battle of the Mississinewa . Most of the Native Americans remained passive throughout the war , but there were many incidents between settlers and the tribes , leading to the deaths of hundreds in the territory . The Treaty of Ghent , signed in 1814 , ended the War and relieved American settlers from their fears of the nearby British and their Indian allies .
= = = Statehood = = =
In 1812 , Jonathan Jennings defeated Harrison 's chosen candidate and became the territory 's representative to Congress . Jennings used his position there to attempt to speed up Indiana 's path to statehood by immediately introducing legislation to grant Indiana statehood , even though the population of the entire territory was under 25 @,@ 000 . Jennings did this against the wishes of incoming governor Thomas Posey , and there was noted disagreement between the two men on the subject . No action was taken on the legislation at the time , though , because of the outbreak of the War of 1812 .
Thomas Posey was appointed territorial Governor on March 3 , 1813 , and served until the state 's first Governor was sworn into office on November 7 , 1816 . Posey , who was age sixty @-@ two and in poor health , had created a rift in the politics of the territory by refusing to reside in the capital of Corydon , instead living in Jeffersonville to be closer to his doctor . He further complicated matters by being a supporter of slavery , much to the chagrin of opponents like Jennings , Dennis Pennington , and others who dominated the Territorial Legislature , and who sought to use the bid for statehood to permanently end the possibility of slavery in the state .
In February 1815 , the United States House of Representatives began debate on granting Indiana Territory statehood . In early 1816 , the Territory approved a census and Pennington was named to be the census enumerator . The population of the territory was found to be 63 @,@ 897 , above the threshold required for statehood that was stated in the Northwest Ordinance . On May 13 , 1816 , the Enabling Act was passed and the state was granted permission to form a government subject to the approval of Congress . A constitutional convention met in 1816 in Corydon . The state 's first constitution was drawn up on June 10 , and elections were held in August to fill the offices of the new state government . In November of that year the constitution was approved by Congress and the territorial government was dissolved , ending the existence of the Indiana Territory and replacing it with the State of Indiana .
= = Commemoration = =
The Indiana Territory is celebrated at an annual event in Corydon centered on the territorial capitol building . The festival includes actors in period dress who reenact events and pretend to be some of the important settlers of early Indiana . Other commemorative festivals occur in Vincennes and Madison , and the history of the period is noted on historic markers and monuments across the former territory .
= Mary Margaret O 'Reilly =
Mary Margaret O 'Reilly ( October 14 , 1865 – December 6 , 1949 ) was an American civil servant who worked as the Assistant Director of the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1924 until 1938 . One of the United States ' highest @-@ ranking female civil servants of her time , she worked at the Mint for 34 years , during which she often served as acting director during the Mint Director 's absence .
O 'Reilly was born in Springfield , Massachusetts to an Irish immigrant family . Growing up in that state , she left school around the age of 14 to help support both her widowed mother and her siblings . Likely starting work in the local textile mills , she gained clerical training at night school before working as a clerk in Worcester for eighteen years . In 1904 , O 'Reilly gained a position at the Mint Bureau , resulting in a move to Washington , D.C. She rose rapidly in the bureau 's hierarchy – an unusual feat for a woman at that time – and was frequently called upon to testify before the United States Congress . As many of the Mint 's directors were political appointees who had little knowledge or interest in the bureau 's operations , the task of running the institution often fell to her . In 1924 she was officially appointed Assistant Director .
In 1933 , the Mint gained its first female Director , Nellie Tayloe Ross , and despite initial mistrust between her and O 'Reilly , they came to forge a strong bond . Although scheduled for mandatory retirement in 1935 , O 'Reilly was considered to be so indispensable to the bureau 's operations that U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt postponed this until 1938 . During her later years , O 'Reilly remained in Washington D.C. ; she no longer involved herself in Mint affairs , instead devoting much of her attention to Catholic charitable work .
= = Early life and career = =
Mary Margaret O 'Reilly was born in Springfield , Massachusetts , on October 14 , 1865 . Her parents , James A. and Joanna O 'Reilly , were immigrants from Ireland , and Mary was one of five children . The family lived in Springfield and nearby Chicopee , Massachusetts , where James O 'Reilly was a liquor wholesaler . He died after an illness in 1873 . As well as depriving the family of income , his death caused his family legal trouble : Austin O 'Reilly , a clerk in the now @-@ closed O 'Reilly business , tried to settle the estate by selling the remaining alcohol , but lacked a license to do so . Joanna O 'Reilly denied any knowledge of business affairs . Austin 's conviction for transporting liquor without a license was upheld by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court .
Mary left school after ninth grade , at or soon after age 14 , as her help was needed to support the family . She likely worked for one of the local textile mills , and attended night school to train as a clerk and stenographer . From 1885 to 1903 , she worked as a clerk , living in Worcester along with a brother , in a boarding house owned by their mother .
= = Mint career ( 1904 – 1938 ) = =
= = = Rise to prominence = = =
O 'Reilly was hired by the United States Bureau of the Mint as a Class D temporary clerk in 1904 , when she was 38 years old , older than most new employees . She served in the Washington , D.C. headquarters of the Bureau of the Mint , where Mint Director George E. Roberts was impressed by her business experience and competence . Initially having only temporary status , she was made a permanent employee in 1905 , and was promoted again that year to Clerk Class I at a salary of $ 1 @,@ 200 . When Margaret Kelly was commissioned Examiner of the Bureau of the Mint in 1911 , the ripple of promotions in her wake included O 'Reilly , who became adjuster of accounts . This made her in effect the chief clerk of the Mint Bureau , with responsibility for reviewing all contracts . According to Teva J. Scheer , biographer of Nellie Tayloe Ross ( O 'Reilly 's final Mint Director before retirement ) " it must have required an almost unprecedented combination of drive and intelligence for [ O 'Reilly ] to have climbed so far up through the organization in her male @-@ dominated work environment " .
During the 1910s , O 'Reilly continued to gain promotion , serving both as examiner and as computer of bullion . She was frequently called upon to testify before Congress . In 1915 , Robert W. Woolley was appointed Mint Director , and was likely O 'Reilly 's favorite of those who served in that position during her third of a century at the Mint . She often concluded memoranda with personal good wishes , and Woolley reciprocated . After Woolley resigned in August 1916 , O 'Reilly served as acting director for part of the time until Woolley 's successor Friedrich Johannes Hugo von Engelken took office the next month , though Adjuster of the Bureau of the Mint Fred H. Chafflin held the acting position for much of the interregnum .
= = = Assistant director = = =
Most directors of the Mint of the early 20th century were political appointees , lacking previous experience with the bureau . Von Engelken during his six @-@ month term as director in 1916 and 1917 left almost all supervision of the mints and assay offices to O 'Reilly . The Mint eliminated production of proof coins , popular among collectors , in 1916 . Although the suggestion that the bureau eliminate the special coins , on which it lost money , came from Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Adam M. Joyce , and was approved by von Engelken , O 'Reilly signed many of the letters to numismatists , and thus was blamed for the change in policy .
When von Engelken resigned in February 1917 , his successor was Raymond T. Baker , who foresaw that women would hold high government positions in increasing numbers , and gave O 'Reilly a more public role . Each year , Baker appeared before Congress to defend the bureau 's appropriation requests , and O 'Reilly sat behind him . In 1920 and 1921 , Baker tried to get Congress to formally designate O 'Reilly , who then held the title of executive clerk , as Assistant Director , but without success . After the Harding administration took office , Baker was replaced in 1922 by Frank E. Scobey , one of Harding 's Ohio Gang . The new director had little interest in Mint affairs , and O 'Reilly not only supervised the bureau 's operations , but was the chief witness before Congress in 1922 , defending both the appropriation request and the continuing drive to have herself designated Assistant Director . This time , Congress was more amenable , and she gained the title effective from 1924 .
In December 1921 , a public relations crisis over the design of the new Peace dollar had erupted while Baker was on a three @-@ day trip by train to the West Coast . Anthony de Francisci , designer of the coin , had included a broken sword on the reverse , which he intended as a sign of the end of war , but which many interpreted as a symbol of disgrace . Anger at such a design resonated in a country deeply sensitive about such matters due to World War I. With Baker unreachable , O 'Reilly realized the sword would have to be removed , and approached Treasury Undersecretary Seymour Parker Gilbert , who as acting secretary approved a revised design . The Mint 's Chief Engraver , George T. Morgan , skillfully removed the sword from the already @-@ prepared coinage hubs even before Baker cabled his own approval of the revised design he had not seen .
O 'Reilly ran most Mint operations under Scobey and his successor , Robert J. Grant . Although the Mint Bureau was very busy in the booming economy of the 1920s , numismatic historian Roger Burdette points out that there were flaws in operations — for example , Philadelphia Mint officials , instead of setting aside gold coins from each batch delivered for inspecting and testing by the annual Assay Commission , took all assay coins from a bag set aside at the start of the year , increasing the likelihood that nonstandard coins would go undetected . O 'Reilly did keep a close eye on coinage operations , warning the San Francisco Mint in November 1931 that it had produced fewer than 200 @,@ 000 nickels , a figure that if allowed to stand would have resulted in the issue being hoarded by collectors . She directed the mint to strike nothing but nickels for the remainder of the year , resulting in a total mintage for the 1931 – S of 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 , still the second @-@ lowest by date and mint mark in the Buffalo nickel series .
= = = Roosevelt administration and retirement = = =
When the Democratic Roosevelt administration took office in 1933 , O 'Reilly was serving as acting director following Grant 's resignation . President Franklin Roosevelt ( FDR ) appointed former Wyoming governor Nellie Tayloe Ross as Mint Director , the first woman to hold that position . By then , O 'Reilly was 67 years old , and appeared as a small , grandmotherly figure who was dubbed " the Sweetheart of the Treasury " — an appearance that hid her mental strength and determination . Ross 's personal secretary , Edness Wilkins , described the Assistant Director of the Mint as " ruthless " .
Ross and O 'Reilly had mutual suspicions to overcome . Ross , who had recently endured poor relations with Eleanor Roosevelt and others on FDR 's campaign , did not trust the career staff . O 'Reilly saw another political appointee with no experience at the Mint Bureau replacing Grant , who had been Denver Mint superintendent before his directorship . After a brief period , the two women came to appreciate each other 's merits .
Among the issues that the Mint Bureau had to face in 1933 and 1934 was the calling @-@ in of most gold coins . When the Treasury Department issued regulations allowing such coins to be surrendered at branches of the Federal Reserve Bank , O 'Reilly sent out a memorandum over her signature as acting director noting that the Fed had no facilities to accept any gold other than bars with a government stamp . At the time , the Mint Bureau was one of the lowest @-@ status branches of the Department of the Treasury , esteemed far less than the Secret Service and other law enforcement @-@ related agencies that fell under the Treasury Secretary . Burdette points out that the gold regulations showed a lack of basic Mint knowledge both by Roosevelt 's appointees and the holdover senior officials from the Hoover administration .
Ross and O 'Reilly soon came to the usual division of labor between the director and assistant : the director would handle public affairs and make policy decisions as needed , while the assistant dealt with the day @-@ to @-@ day business of the bureau . Ross undertook a heavy travel schedule , visiting Mint facilities , making speeches backing Roosevelt , and campaigning for Democratic candidates in Wyoming . This left O 'Reilly running the Washington office as acting director . The two women carried on a businesslike but warm correspondence during these times , with O 'Reilly writing to Ross ( who had embarked on a tour of the mints ) " I am so anxious to have your mind at ease about the office here [ in Washington ] that I have resorted to rather frequent telegrams . They are so much more direct and up to date than letters ... my love to you and every good wish for the success of your visits to our beloved mint institutions . " Scheer suggests that O 'Reilly would have found Ross 's reports from the field valuable ; they showed how the Mint recovered from the initial years of the Depression , when relatively few coins were produced , to the mid @-@ 1930s , when strong demand for coinage led the bureau to run the mints with two or even three shifts .
In 1935 , O 'Reilly reached the mandatory federal retirement age of 70 . Her knowledge of bureau affairs was so extensive , and was so badly needed , that she was exempted from mandatory retirement by special order of President Roosevelt , at the request of Ross , giving O 'Reilly an extra year in the Mint Service . Although Ross supported the extension , she could not be seen as unable to do her job without O 'Reilly 's assistance , and hired Frank Leland Howard of the University of Virginia , who had a background in accounting , as O 'Reilly 's prospective replacement . Roosevelt approved a similar extension in 1936 , a distinction considered so significant that Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau , Jr. hosted a luncheon in her honor . Roosevelt again extended her federal service by one year in late 1937 , though warning that he would not exempt her again . An attempt by Morgenthau to further extend her tenure was turned down by the president the next July , and she retired on October 29 , 1938 , to be replaced by Howard .
At O 'Reilly 's request , there was no ceremony to mark her retirement , though her fellow employees chipped in to buy her a diamond @-@ encrusted watch , which they persuaded her to accept . President Roosevelt and Secretary Morgenthau sent letters of appreciation for her service . The New York Times carried word of her retirement , but no interview , and a week later editorialized that " there is modernity here , too . An answer to America 's challenge to women . It points to what women want out of life , and what women can get and give . "
= = Retirement and death = =
After her retirement , O 'Reilly continued to live in her rooms at the Hay – Adams residence in Washington . She did not involve herself in Mint affairs ; though Morgenthau sent her a few letters , they did not mention business . O 'Reilly kept busy by organizing fundraising for Catholic charities . She was not interviewed when the Mint in 1944 investigated how several 1933 double eagles , never officially released , had come onto the market , an omission Burdette finds unusual .
O 'Reilly died on December 6 , 1949 in Washington . Her New York Times obituary recalled that when she had been granted the first extension by Roosevelt , reporters had sought to interview her , only to be met with the following statement :
I am deeply grateful to the President for his extreme kindness . Life without work does not remotely interest me . But do you have to print anything about me ?
= Big Bang =
The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large @-@ scale evolution . The model accounts for the fact that the universe expanded from a very high density and high temperature state , and offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of phenomena , including the abundance of light elements , the cosmic microwave background , large scale structure and Hubble 's Law . If the known laws of physics are extrapolated beyond where they have been verified , there is a singularity . Some estimates place this moment at approximately 13 @.@ 8 billion years ago , which is thus considered the age of the universe . After the initial expansion , the universe cooled sufficiently to allow the formation of subatomic particles , and later simple atoms . Giant clouds of these primordial elements later coalesced through gravity to form stars and galaxies .
Since Georges Lemaître first noted , in 1927 , that an expanding universe might be traced back in time to an originating single point , scientists have built on his idea of cosmic expansion . While the scientific community was once divided between supporters of two different expanding universe theories , the Big Bang and the Steady State theory , accumulated empirical evidence provides strong support for the former . In 1929 , from analysis of galactic redshifts , Edwin Hubble concluded that galaxies are drifting apart ; this is important observational evidence consistent with the hypothesis of an expanding universe . In 1965 the cosmic microwave background radiation was discovered , which was crucial evidence in favor of the Big Bang model , since that theory predicted the existence of background radiation throughout the universe before it was discovered . More recently , measurements of the redshifts of supernovae indicate that the expansion of the universe is accelerating , an observation attributed to dark energy 's existence . The known physical laws of nature can be used to calculate the characteristics of the universe in detail back in time to an initial state of extreme density and temperature .
= = Overview = =
American astronomer Edwin Hubble observed that the distances to faraway galaxies were strongly correlated with their redshifts . This was interpreted to mean that all distant galaxies and clusters are receding away from our vantage point with an apparent velocity proportional to their distance : that is , the farther they are , the faster they move away from us , regardless of direction . Assuming the Copernican principle ( that the Earth is not the center of the universe ) , the only remaining interpretation is that all observable regions of the universe are receding from all others . Since we know that the distance between galaxies increases today , it must mean that in the past galaxies were closer together . The continuous expansion of the universe implies that the universe was denser and hotter in the past .
Large particle accelerators can replicate the conditions that prevailed after the early moments of the universe , resulting in confirmation and refinement of the details of the Big Bang model . However , these accelerators can only probe so far into high energy regimes . Consequently , the state of the universe in the earliest instants of the Big Bang expansion is still poorly understood and an area of open investigation and speculation .
The first subatomic particles to be formed included protons , neutrons , and electrons . Though simple atomic nuclei formed within the first three minutes after the Big Bang , thousands of years passed before the first electrically neutral atoms formed . The majority of atoms produced by the Big Bang were hydrogen , along with helium and traces of lithium . Giant clouds of these primordial elements later coalesced through gravity to form stars and galaxies , and the heavier elements were synthesized either within stars or during supernovae .
The Big Bang theory offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed phenomena , including the abundance of light elements , the cosmic microwave background , large scale structure , and Hubble 's Law . The framework for the Big Bang model relies on Albert Einstein 's theory of general relativity and on simplifying assumptions such as homogeneity and isotropy of space . The governing equations were formulated by Alexander Friedmann , and similar solutions were worked on by Willem de Sitter . Since then , astrophysicists have incorporated observational and theoretical additions into the Big Bang model , and its parametrization as the Lambda @-@ CDM model serves as the framework for current investigations of theoretical cosmology . The Lambda @-@ CDM model is the standard model of Big Bang cosmology , the simplest model that provides a reasonably good account of various observations about the universe .
= = Timeline = =
= = = Singularity = = =
Extrapolation of the expansion of the universe backwards in time using general relativity yields an infinite density and temperature at a finite time in the past . This singularity signals the breakdown of general relativity and thus , all the laws of physics . How closely this can be extrapolated toward the singularity is debated — certainly no closer than the end of the Planck epoch . This singularity is sometimes called " the Big Bang " , but the term can also refer to the early hot , dense phase itself , which can be considered the " birth " of our universe . Based on measurements of the expansion using Type Ia supernovae and measurements of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background , the universe has an estimated age of 13 @.@ 799 ± 0 @.@ 021 billion years . The agreement of these three independent measurements strongly supports the ΛCDM model that describes in detail the contents of the universe .
= = = Inflation and baryogenesis = = =
The earliest phases of the Big Bang are subject to much speculation . In the most common models the universe was filled homogeneously and isotropically with a very high energy density and huge temperatures and pressures and was very rapidly expanding and cooling . Approximately 10 − 37 seconds into the expansion , a phase transition caused a cosmic inflation , during which the universe grew exponentially . After inflation stopped , the universe consisted of a quark – gluon plasma , as well as all other elementary particles . Temperatures were so high that the random motions of particles were at relativistic speeds , and particle – antiparticle pairs of all kinds were being continuously created and destroyed in collisions . At some point an unknown reaction called baryogenesis violated the conservation of baryon number , leading to a very small excess of quarks and leptons over antiquarks and antileptons — of the order of one part in 30 million . This resulted in the predominance of matter over antimatter in the present universe .
= = = Cooling = = =
The universe continued to decrease in density and fall in temperature , hence the typical energy of each particle was decreasing . Symmetry breaking phase transitions put the fundamental forces of physics and the parameters of elementary particles into their present form . After about 10 − 11 seconds , the picture becomes less speculative , since particle energies drop to values that can be attained in particle physics experiments . At about 10 − 6 seconds , quarks and gluons combined to form baryons such as protons and neutrons . The small excess of quarks over antiquarks led to a small excess of baryons over antibaryons . The temperature was now no longer high enough to create new proton – antiproton pairs ( similarly for neutrons – antineutrons ) , so a mass annihilation immediately followed , leaving just one in 1010 of the original protons and neutrons , and none of their antiparticles . A similar process happened at about 1 second for electrons and positrons . After these annihilations , the remaining protons , neutrons and electrons were no longer moving relativistically and the energy density of the universe was dominated by photons ( with a minor contribution from neutrinos ) .
A few minutes into the expansion , when the temperature was about a billion ( one thousand million ; 109 ; SI prefix giga- ) kelvin and the density was about that of air , neutrons combined with protons to form the universe 's deuterium and helium nuclei in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis . Most protons remained uncombined as hydrogen nuclei . As the universe cooled , the rest mass energy density of matter came to gravitationally dominate that of the photon radiation . After about 379 @,@ 000 years the electrons and nuclei combined into atoms ( mostly hydrogen ) ; hence the radiation decoupled from matter and continued through space largely unimpeded . This relic radiation is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation . The chemistry of life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang , 13 @.@ 8 billion years ago , during a habitable epoch when the universe was only 10 – 17 million years old .
= = = Structure formation = = =
Over a long period of time , the slightly denser regions of the nearly uniformly distributed matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser , forming gas clouds , stars , galaxies , and the other astronomical structures observable today . The details of this process depend on the amount and type of matter in the universe . The four possible types of matter are known as cold dark matter , warm dark matter , hot dark matter , and baryonic matter . The best measurements available ( from WMAP ) show that the data is well @-@ fit by a Lambda @-@ CDM model in which dark matter is assumed to be cold ( warm dark matter is ruled out by early reionization ) , and is estimated to make up about 23 % of the matter / energy of the universe , while baryonic matter makes up about 4 @.@ 6 % . In an " extended model " which includes hot dark matter in the form of neutrinos , then if the " physical baryon density " Ωbh2 is estimated at about 0 @.@ 023 ( this is different from the ' baryon density ' Ωb expressed as a fraction of the total matter / energy density , which as noted above is about 0 @.@ 046 ) , and the corresponding cold dark matter density Ωch2 is about 0 @.@ 11 , the corresponding neutrino density Ωvh2 is estimated to be less than 0 @.@ 0062 .
= = = Cosmic acceleration = = =
Independent lines of evidence from Type Ia supernovae and the CMB imply that the universe today is dominated by a mysterious form of energy known as dark energy , which apparently permeates all of space . The observations suggest 73 % of the total energy density of today 's universe is in this form . When the universe was very young , it was likely infused with dark energy , but with less space and everything closer together , gravity predominated , and it was slowly braking the expansion . But eventually , after numerous billion years of expansion , the growing abundance of dark energy caused the expansion of the universe to slowly begin to accelerate . Dark energy in its simplest formulation takes the form of the cosmological constant term in Einstein 's field equations of general relativity , but its composition and mechanism are unknown and , more generally , the details of its equation of state and relationship with the Standard Model of particle physics continue to be investigated both through observation and theoretically .
All of this cosmic evolution after the inflationary epoch can be rigorously described and modeled by the ΛCDM model of cosmology , which uses the independent frameworks of quantum mechanics and Einstein 's General Relativity . There is no well @-@ supported model describing the action prior to 10 − 15 seconds or so . Apparently a new unified theory of quantum gravitation is needed to break this barrier . Understanding this earliest of eras in the history of the universe is currently one of the greatest unsolved problems in physics .
= = Underlying assumptions = =
The Big Bang theory depends on two major assumptions : the universality of physical laws and the cosmological principle . The cosmological principle states that on large scales the universe is homogeneous and isotropic .
These ideas were initially taken as postulates , but today there are efforts to test each of them . For example , the first assumption has been tested by observations showing that largest possible deviation of the fine structure constant over much of the age of the universe is of order 10 − 5 . Also , general relativity has passed stringent tests on the scale of the Solar System and binary stars .
If the large @-@ scale universe appears isotropic as viewed from Earth , the cosmological principle can be derived from the simpler Copernican principle , which states that there is no preferred ( or special ) observer or vantage point . To this end , the cosmological principle has been confirmed to a level of 10 − 5 via observations of the CMB . The universe has been measured to be homogeneous on the largest scales at the 10 % level .
= = = Expansion of space = = =
General relativity describes spacetime by a metric , which determines the distances that separate nearby points . The points , which can be galaxies , stars , or other objects , themselves are specified using a coordinate chart or " grid " that is laid down over all spacetime . The cosmological principle implies that the metric should be homogeneous and isotropic on large scales , which uniquely singles out the Friedmann – Lemaître – Robertson – Walker metric ( FLRW metric ) . This metric contains a scale factor , which describes how the size of the universe changes with time . This enables a convenient choice of a coordinate system to be made , called comoving coordinates . In this coordinate system the grid expands along with the universe , and objects that are moving only because of the expansion of the universe remain at fixed points on the grid . While their coordinate distance ( comoving distance ) remains constant , the physical distance between two such comoving points expands proportionally with the scale factor of the universe .
The Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe . Instead , space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distance between two comoving points . In other words , the Big Bang is not an explosion in space , but rather an expansion of space . Because the FLRW metric assumes a uniform distribution of mass and energy , it applies to our universe only on large scales — local concentrations of matter such as our galaxy are gravitationally bound and as such do not experience the large @-@ scale expansion of space .
= = = Horizons = = =
An important feature of the Big Bang spacetime is the presence of horizons . Since the universe has a finite age , and light travels at a finite speed , there may be events in the past whose light has not had time to reach us . This places a limit or a past horizon on the most distant objects that can be observed . Conversely , because space is expanding , and more distant objects are receding ever more quickly , light emitted by us today may never " catch up " to very distant objects . This defines a future horizon , which limits the events in the future that we will be able to influence . The presence of either type of horizon depends on the details of the FLRW model that describes our universe . Our understanding of the universe back to very early times suggests that there is a past horizon , though in practice our view is also limited by the opacity of the universe at early times . So our view cannot extend further backward in time , though the horizon recedes in space . If the expansion of the universe continues to accelerate , there is a future horizon as well .
= = History = =
= = = Etymology = = =
English astronomer Fred Hoyle is credited with coining the term " Big Bang " during a 1949 BBC radio broadcast . It is popularly reported that Hoyle , who favored an alternative " steady state " cosmological model , intended this to be pejorative , but Hoyle explicitly denied this and said it was just a striking image meant to highlight the difference between the two models .
= = = Development = = =
The Big Bang theory developed from observations of the structure of the universe and from theoretical considerations . In 1912 Vesto Slipher measured the first Doppler shift of a " spiral nebula " ( spiral nebula is the obsolete term for spiral galaxies ) , and soon discovered that almost all such nebulae were receding from Earth . He did not grasp the cosmological implications of this fact , and indeed at the time it was highly controversial whether or not these nebulae were " island universes " outside our Milky Way . Ten years later , Alexander Friedmann , a Russian cosmologist and mathematician , derived the Friedmann equations from Albert Einstein 's equations of general relativity , showing that the universe might be expanding in contrast to the static universe model advocated by Einstein at that time . In 1924 Edwin Hubble 's measurement of the great distance to the nearest spiral nebulae showed that these systems were indeed other galaxies . Independently deriving Friedmann 's equations in 1927 , Georges Lemaître , a Belgian physicist and Roman Catholic priest , proposed that the inferred recession of the nebulae was due to the expansion of the universe .
In 1931 Lemaître went further and suggested that the evident expansion of the universe , if projected back in time , meant that the further in the past the smaller the universe was , until at some finite time in the past all the mass of the universe was concentrated into a single point , a " primeval atom " where and when the fabric of time and space came into existence .
Starting in 1924 , Hubble painstakingly developed a series of distance indicators , the forerunner of the cosmic distance ladder , using the 100 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory . This allowed him to estimate distances to galaxies whose redshifts had already been measured , mostly by Slipher . In 1929 Hubble discovered a correlation between distance and recession velocity — now known as Hubble 's law . Lemaître had already shown that this was expected , given the cosmological principle .
In the 1920s and 1930s almost every major cosmologist preferred an eternal steady state universe , and several complained that the beginning of time implied by the Big Bang imported religious concepts into physics ; this objection was later repeated by supporters of the steady state theory . This perception was enhanced by the fact that the originator of the Big Bang theory , Monsignor Georges Lemaître , was a Roman Catholic priest . Arthur Eddington agreed with Aristotle that the universe did not have a beginning in time , viz . , that matter is eternal . A beginning in time was " repugnant " to him . Lemaître , however , thought that
If the world has begun with a single quantum , the notions of space and time would altogether fail to have any meaning at the beginning ; they would only begin to have a sensible meaning when the original quantum had been divided into a sufficient number of quanta . If this suggestion is correct , the beginning of the world happened a little before the beginning of space and time .
During the 1930s other ideas were proposed as non @-@ standard cosmologies to explain Hubble 's observations , including the Milne model , the oscillatory universe ( originally suggested by Friedmann , but advocated by Albert Einstein and Richard Tolman ) and Fritz Zwicky 's tired light hypothesis .
After World War II , two distinct possibilities emerged . One was Fred Hoyle 's steady state model , whereby new matter would be created as the universe seemed to expand . In this model the universe is roughly the same at any point in time . The other was Lemaître 's Big Bang theory , advocated and developed by George Gamow , who introduced big bang nucleosynthesis ( BBN ) and whose associates , Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman , predicted the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ) . Ironically , it was Hoyle who coined the phrase that came to be applied to Lemaître 's theory , referring to it as " this big bang idea " during a BBC Radio broadcast in March 1949 . For a while , support was split between these two theories . Eventually , the observational evidence , most notably from radio source counts , began to favor Big Bang over Steady State . The discovery and confirmation of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1965 secured the Big Bang as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the universe . Much of the current work in cosmology includes understanding how galaxies form in the context of the Big Bang , understanding the physics of the universe at earlier and earlier times , and reconciling observations with the basic theory .
In 1968 and 1970 Roger Penrose , Stephen Hawking , and George F. R. Ellis published papers where they showed that mathematical singularities were an inevitable initial condition of general relativistic models of the Big Bang . Then , from the 1970s to the 1990s , cosmologists worked on characterizing the features of the Big Bang universe and resolving outstanding problems . In 1981 Alan Guth made a breakthrough in theoretical work on resolving certain outstanding theoretical problems in the Big Bang theory with the introduction of an epoch of rapid expansion in the early universe he called " inflation " . Meanwhile , during these decades , two questions in observational cosmology that generated much discussion and disagreement were over the precise values of the Hubble Constant and the matter @-@ density of the universe ( before the discovery of dark energy , thought to be the key predictor for the eventual fate of the universe ) . In the mid @-@ 1990s observations of certain globular clusters appeared to indicate that they were about 15 billion years old , which conflicted with most then @-@ current estimates of the age of the universe ( and indeed with the age measured today ) . This issue was later resolved when new computer simulations , which included the effects of mass loss due to stellar winds , indicated a much younger age for globular clusters . While there still remain some questions as to how accurately the ages of the clusters are measured , globular clusters are of interest to cosmology as some of the oldest objects in the universe .
Significant progress in Big Bang cosmology have been made since the late 1990s as a result of advances in telescope technology as well as the analysis of data from satellites such as COBE , the Hubble Space Telescope and WMAP . Cosmologists now have fairly precise and accurate measurements of many of the parameters of the Big Bang model , and have made the unexpected discovery that the expansion of the universe appears to be accelerating .
= = Observational evidence = =
The earliest and most direct observational evidence of the validity of the theory are the expansion of the universe according to Hubble 's law ( as indicated by the redshifts of galaxies ) , discovery and measurement of the cosmic microwave background and the relative abundances of light elements produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis . More recent evidence includes observations of galaxy formation and evolution , and the distribution of large @-@ scale cosmic structures , These are sometimes called the " four pillars " of the Big Bang theory .
Precise modern models of the Big Bang appeal to various exotic physical phenomena that have not been observed in terrestrial laboratory experiments or incorporated into the Standard Model of particle physics . Of these features , dark matter is currently subjected to the most active laboratory investigations . Remaining issues include the cuspy halo problem and the dwarf galaxy problem of cold dark matter . Dark energy is also an area of intense interest for scientists , but it is not clear whether direct detection of dark energy will be possible . Inflation and baryogenesis remain more speculative features of current Big Bang models . Viable , quantitative explanations for such phenomena are still being sought . These are currently unsolved problems in physics .
= = = Hubble 's law and the expansion of space = = =
Observations of distant galaxies and quasars show that these objects are redshifted — the light emitted from them has been shifted to longer wavelengths . This can be seen by taking a frequency spectrum of an object and matching the spectroscopic pattern of emission lines or absorption lines corresponding to atoms of the chemical elements interacting with the light . These redshifts are uniformly isotropic , distributed evenly among the observed objects in all directions . If the redshift is interpreted as a Doppler shift , the recessional velocity of the object can be calculated . For some galaxies , it is possible to estimate distances via the cosmic distance ladder . When the recessional velocities are plotted against these distances , a linear relationship known as Hubble 's law is observed :
v
= H0D ,
where
v is the recessional velocity of the galaxy or other distant object ,
D is the comoving distance to the object , and
H0 is Hubble 's constant , measured to be 70 @.@ 4 + 1 @.@ 3
− 1 @.@ 4 km / s / Mpc by the WMAP probe .
Hubble 's law has two possible explanations . Either we are at the center of an explosion of galaxies — which is untenable given the Copernican principle — or the universe is uniformly expanding everywhere . This universal expansion was predicted from general relativity by Alexander Friedmann in 1922 and Georges Lemaître in 1927 , well before Hubble made his 1929 analysis and observations , and it remains the cornerstone of the Big Bang theory as developed by Friedmann , Lemaître , Robertson , and Walker .
The theory requires the relation v =
HD to hold at all times , where D is the comoving distance , v is the recessional velocity , and v , H , and D vary as the universe expands ( hence we write H0 to denote the present @-@ day Hubble " constant " ) . For distances much smaller than the size of the observable universe , the Hubble redshift can be thought of as the Doppler shift corresponding to the recession velocity v. However , the redshift is not a true Doppler shift , but rather the result of the expansion of the universe between the time the light was emitted and the time that it was detected .
That space is undergoing metric expansion is shown by direct observational evidence of the Cosmological principle and the Copernican principle , which together with Hubble 's law have no other explanation . Astronomical redshifts are extremely isotropic and homogeneous , supporting the Cosmological principle that the universe looks the same in all directions , along with much other evidence . If the redshifts were the result of an explosion from a center distant from us , they would not be so similar in different directions .
Measurements of the effects of the cosmic microwave background radiation on the dynamics of distant astrophysical systems in 2000 proved the Copernican principle , that , on a cosmological scale , the Earth is not in a central position . Radiation from the Big Bang was demonstrably warmer at earlier times throughout the universe . Uniform cooling of the cosmic microwave background over billions of years is explainable only if the universe is experiencing a metric expansion , and excludes the possibility that we are near the unique center of an explosion .
= = = Cosmic microwave background radiation = = =
In 1965 Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson serendipitously discovered the cosmic background radiation , an omnidirectional signal in the microwave band . Their discovery provided substantial confirmation of the big @-@ bang predictions by Alpher , Herman and Gamow around 1950 . Through the 1970s the radiation was found to be approximately consistent with a black body spectrum in all directions ; this spectrum has been redshifted by the expansion of the universe , and today corresponds to approximately 2 @.@ 725 K. This tipped the balance of evidence in favor of the Big Bang model , and Penzias and Wilson were awarded a Nobel Prize in 1978 .
The surface of last scattering corresponding to emission of the CMB occurs shortly after recombination , the epoch when neutral hydrogen becomes stable . Prior to this , the universe comprised a hot dense photon @-@ baryon plasma sea where photons were quickly scattered from free charged particles . Peaking at around 372 ± 14 kyr , the mean free path for a photon becomes long enough to reach the present day and the universe becomes transparent .
In 1989 NASA launched the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite ( COBE ) which made two major advances : in 1990 , high @-@ precision spectrum measurements showed the CMB frequency spectrum is an almost perfect blackbody with no deviations at a level of 1 part in 104 , and measured a residual temperature of 2 @.@ 726 K ( more recent measurements have revised this figure down slightly to 2 @.@ 7255 K ) ; then in 1992 further COBE measurements discovered tiny fluctuations ( anisotropies ) in the CMB temperature across the sky , at a level of about one part in 105 . John C. Mather and George Smoot were awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physics for their leadership in these results . During the following decade , CMB anisotropies were further investigated by a large number of ground @-@ based and balloon experiments . In 2000 – 2001 several experiments , most notably BOOMERanG , found the shape of the universe to be spatially almost flat by measuring the typical angular size ( the size on the sky ) of the anisotropies .
In early 2003 the first results of the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( WMAP ) were released , yielding what were at the time the most accurate values for some of the cosmological parameters . The results disproved several specific cosmic inflation models , but are consistent with the inflation theory in general . The Planck space probe was launched in May 2009 . Other ground and balloon based cosmic microwave background experiments are ongoing .
= = = Abundance of primordial elements = = =
Using the Big Bang model it is possible to calculate the concentration of helium @-@ 4 , helium @-@ 3 , deuterium , and lithium @-@ 7 in the universe as ratios to the amount of ordinary hydrogen . The relative abundances depend on a single parameter , the ratio of photons to baryons . This value can be calculated independently from the detailed structure of CMB fluctuations . The ratios predicted ( by mass , not by number ) are about 0 @.@ 25 for 4He / H , about 10 − 3 for 2H / H , about 10 − 4 for 3He / H and about 10 − 9 for 7Li / H.
The measured abundances all agree at least roughly with those predicted from a single value of the baryon @-@ to @-@ photon ratio . The agreement is excellent for deuterium , close but formally discrepant for 4He , and off by a factor of two for 7Li ; in the latter two cases there are substantial systematic uncertainties . Nonetheless , the general consistency with abundances predicted by Big Bang nucleosynthesis is strong evidence for the Big Bang , as the theory is the only known explanation for the relative abundances of light elements , and it is virtually impossible to " tune " the Big Bang to produce much more or less than 20 – 30 % helium . Indeed , there is no obvious reason outside of the Big Bang that , for example , the young universe ( i.e. , before star formation , as determined by studying matter supposedly free of stellar nucleosynthesis products ) should have more helium than deuterium or more deuterium than 3He , and in constant ratios , too .
= = = Galactic evolution and distribution = = =
Detailed observations of the morphology and distribution of galaxies and quasars are in agreement with the current state of the Big Bang theory . A combination of observations and theory suggest that the first quasars and galaxies formed about a billion years after the Big Bang , and since then larger structures have been forming , such as galaxy clusters and superclusters . Populations of stars have been aging and evolving , so that distant galaxies ( which are observed as they were in the early universe ) appear very different from nearby galaxies ( observed in a more recent state ) . Moreover , galaxies that formed relatively recently appear markedly different from galaxies formed at similar distances but shortly after the Big Bang . These observations are strong arguments against the steady @-@ state model . Observations of star formation , galaxy and quasar distributions and larger structures agree well with Big Bang simulations of the formation of structure in the universe and are helping to complete details of the theory .
= = = Primordial gas clouds = = =
In 2011 astronomers found what they believe to be pristine clouds of primordial gas , by analyzing absorption lines in the spectra of distant quasars . Before this discovery , all other astronomical objects have been observed to contain heavy elements that are formed in stars . These two clouds of gas contain no elements heavier than hydrogen and deuterium . Since the clouds of gas have no heavy elements , they likely formed in the first few minutes after the Big Bang , during Big Bang nucleosynthesis .
= = = Other lines of evidence = = =
The age of the universe as estimated from the Hubble expansion and the CMB is now in good agreement with other estimates using the ages of the oldest stars , both as measured by applying the theory of stellar evolution to globular clusters and through radiometric dating of individual Population II stars .
The prediction that the CMB temperature was higher in the past has been experimentally supported by observations of very low temperature absorption lines in gas clouds at high redshift . This prediction also implies that the amplitude of the Sunyaev – Zel 'dovich effect in clusters of galaxies does not depend directly on redshift . Observations have found this to be roughly true , but this effect depends on cluster properties that do change with cosmic time , making precise measurements difficult .
On 17 March 2014 astronomers at the Harvard @-@ Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics announced the apparent detection of primordial gravitational waves , which , was shown to be due to galactic dust . On February 11 , 2016 , the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration teams announced that they had made first observation of gravitational waves , originating from a pair of merging black holes using the Advanced LIGO detectors .
= = = Future observations = = =
Future gravitational waves observatories might see primordial gravitational waves , relics of the early universe , up to less than a second of the Big Bang .
= = Problems and related issues in physics = =
As with any theory , a number of mysteries and problems have arisen as a result of the development of the Big Bang theory . Some of these mysteries and problems have been resolved while others are still outstanding . Proposed solutions to some of the problems in the Big Bang model have revealed new mysteries of their own . For example , the horizon problem , the magnetic monopole problem , and the flatness problem are most commonly resolved with inflationary theory , but the details of the inflationary universe are still left unresolved and many , including some founders of the theory , say it has been disproven . What follows are a list of the mysterious aspects of the Big Bang theory still under intense investigation by cosmologists and | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
242Cm , but also by electron capture to 242Pu ( 17 @.@ 3 % ) . Both 242Cm and 242Pu transform via nearly the same decay chain through 238Pu down to 234U .
Nearly all ( 99 @.@ 541 % ) of 242m1Am decays by internal conversion to 242Am and the remaining 0 @.@ 459 % by α @-@ decay to 238Np . The latter breaks down to 238Pu and then to 234U .
Americium @-@ 243 transforms by α @-@ emission into 239Np , which converts by β @-@ decay to 239Pu , and the 239Pu changes into 235U by emitting an α @-@ particle .
= = Applications = =
= = = Ionization @-@ type smoke detector = = =
Americium is the only synthetic element to have found its way into the household , where the most common type of smoke detector uses 241Am in the form of americium dioxide as its source of ionizing radiation . This isotope is preferred over 226Ra because it emits 5 times more alpha particles and relatively little harmful gamma radiation . Element collector Theodore Gray mentions in his book The Elements : A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe " You might think that a synthetic radioactive element that follows plutonium ( 94 ) — and has a significantly shorter half @-@ life — would be some kind of superbomb material , available only to scientists in secret laboratories . Perhaps a mad scientist is studying americium in a lair somewhere , but if you want some yourself you can simply walk into any neighborhood hardware store , supermarket , or Wal @-@ Mart and buy some , no questions asked . " He also adds " The reason is not that americium is fundamentally less dangerous than the elements around it . In fact , the commonly available isotope , 241Am , is significantly more radioactive than weapons @-@ grade plutonium , and at least as toxic . No , the difference is simply that there is a useful application for americium that requires only a very tiny amount , and for which a company was prepared to go through the effort required to carve out and get a regulatory exception . " The amount of americium in a typical new smoke detector is 1 microcurie ( 37 kBq ) or 0 @.@ 29 microgram . This amount declines slowly as the americium decays into neptunium @-@ 237 , a different transuranic element with a much longer half @-@ life ( about 2 @.@ 14 million years ) . With its half @-@ life of 432 @.@ 2 years , the americium in a smoke detector includes about 3 % neptunium after 19 years , and about 5 % after 32 years . The radiation passes through an ionization chamber , an air @-@ filled space between two electrodes , and permits a small , constant current between the electrodes . Any smoke that enters the chamber absorbs the alpha particles , which reduces the ionization and affects this current , triggering the alarm . Compared to the alternative optical smoke detector , the ionization smoke detector is cheaper and can detect particles which are too small to produce significant light scattering ; however , it is more prone to false alarms .
= = = Radionuclide = = =
As 241Am has a roughly similar half @-@ life to 238Pu ( 432 @.@ 2 years vs. 87 years ) , it has been proposed as an active element of radioisotope thermoelectric generators , for example in spacecraft . Although americium produces less heat and electricity – the power yield is 114 @.@ 7 mW / g for 241Am and 6 @.@ 31 mW / g for 243Am ( cf . 390 mW / g for 238Pu ) – and its radiation poses more threat to humans owing to neutron emission , the European Space Agency is considering using americium for its space probes .
Another proposed space @-@ related application of americium is a fuel for space ships with nuclear propulsion . It relies on the very high rate of nuclear fission of 242mAm , which can be maintained even in a micrometer @-@ thick foil . Small thickness avoids the problem of self @-@ absorption of emitted radiation . This problem is pertinent to uranium or plutonium rods , in which only surface layers provide alpha @-@ particles . The fission products of 242mAm can either directly propel the spaceship or they can heat up a thrusting gas ; they can also transfer their energy to a fluid and generate electricity through a magnetohydrodynamic generator .
One more proposal which utilizes the high nuclear fission rate of 242mAm is a nuclear battery . Its design relies not on the energy of the emitted by americium alpha particles , but on their charge , that is the americium acts as the self @-@ sustaining " cathode " . A single 3 @.@ 2 kg 242mAm charge of such battery could provide about 140 kW of power over a period of 80 days . With all the potential benefits , the current applications of 242mAm are as yet hindered by the scarcity and high price of this nuclear isomer .
= = = Neutron source = = =
The oxide of 241Am pressed with beryllium is an efficient neutron source . Here americium acts as the alpha source , and beryllium produces neutrons owing to its large cross @-@ section for the ( α , n ) nuclear reaction :
<formula>
<formula>
The most widespread use of 241AmBe neutron sources is a neutron probe – a device used to measure the quantity of water present in soil , as well as moisture / density for quality control in highway construction . 241Am neutron sources are also used in well logging applications , as well as in neutron radiography , tomography and other radiochemical investigations .
= = = Production of other elements = = =
Americium is a starting material for the production of other transuranic elements and transactinides – for example , 82 @.@ 7 % of 242Am decays to 242Cm and 17 @.@ 3 % to 242Pu . In the nuclear reactor , 242Am is also up @-@ converted by neutron capture to 243Am and 244Am , which transforms by β @-@ decay to 244Cm :
<formula>
Irradiation of 241Am by 12C or 22Ne ions yields the isotopes 247Es ( einsteinium ) or 260Db ( dubnium ) , respectively . Furthermore , the element berkelium ( 243Bk isotope ) had been first intentionally produced and identified by bombarding 241Am with alpha particles , in 1949 , by the same Berkeley group , using the same 60 @-@ inch cyclotron . Similarly , nobelium was produced at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research , Dubna , Russia , in 1965 in several reactions , one of which included irradiation of 243Am with 15N ions . Besides , one of the synthesis reactions for lawrencium , discovered by scientists at Berkeley and Dubna , included bombardment of 243Am with 18O .
= = = Spectrometer = = =
Americium @-@ 241 has been used as a portable source of both gamma rays and alpha particles for a number of medical and industrial uses . The 59 @.@ 5409 keV gamma ray emissions from 241Am in such sources can be used for indirect analysis of materials in radiography and X @-@ ray fluorescence spectroscopy , as well as for quality control in fixed nuclear density gauges and nuclear densometers . For example , the element has been employed to gauge glass thickness to help create flat glass . Americium @-@ 241 is also suitable for calibration of gamma @-@ ray spectrometers in the low @-@ energy range , since its spectrum consists of nearly a single peak and negligible Compton continuum ( at least three orders of magnitude lower intensity ) . Americium @-@ 241 gamma rays were also used to provide passive diagnosis of thyroid function . This medical application is however obsolete .
= = Health concerns = =
As a highly radioactive element , americium and its compounds must be handled only in an appropriate laboratory under special arrangements . Although most americium isotopes predominantly emit alpha particles which can be blocked by thin layers of common materials , many of the daughter products emit gamma @-@ rays and neutrons which have a long penetration depth .
If consumed , most of the americium is excreted within a few days , with only 0 @.@ 05 % absorbed in the blood , of which roughly 45 % goes to the liver and 45 % to the bones , and the remaining 10 % is excreted . The uptake to the liver depends on the individual and increases with age . In the bones , americium is first deposited over cortical and trabecular surfaces and slowly redistributes over the bone with time . The biological half @-@ life of 241Am is 50 years in the bones and 20 years in the liver , whereas in the gonads ( testicles and ovaries ) it remains permanently ; in all these organs , americium promotes formation of cancer cells as a result of its radioactivity .
Americium often enters landfills from discarded smoke detectors . The rules associated with the disposal of smoke detectors are relaxed in most jurisdictions . In 1994 , 17 @-@ year @-@ old David Hahn extracted the americium from about 100 smoke detectors in an attempt to build a breeder nuclear reactor . There have been a few cases of exposure to americium , the worst case being that of chemical operations technician Harold McCluskey , who at the age of 64 was exposed to 500 times the occupational standard for americium @-@ 241 as a result of an explosion in his lab . McCluskey died at the age of 75 of unrelated pre @-@ existing disease .
= Peter ( Fringe ) =
" Peter " is the 16th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 36th episode overall .
Considered a keystone episode of the series , " Peter " is a flashback episode , told as Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) reveals to Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) that his son Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) is really the Peter of the parallel universe . Walter explains the events that occurred in 1985 that led to this , and the impact it had on the parallel universe to be at war with the prime one .
The episode 's story was written by Akiva Goldsman , J. H. Wyman , Jeff Pinkner , and Josh Singer . Its teleplay was written by Pinkner , Wyman , and Singer . David Straiton directed the episode . It was guest star Orla Brady 's first appearance as Walter 's wife Elizabeth .
" Peter " first aired in the United States on April 1 , 2010 . An estimated 5 @.@ 8 million viewers watched the episode , giving it a 2 @.@ 2 rating share among those 18 – 49 . The episode received almost overwhelmingly positive reviews , with numerous critics considering it to be the best Fringe episode to date . Actor John Noble was lauded for his performance , and " Peter " topped many " best of television " lists for the year . It was ranked the best episode of the entire series by IGN and Den of Geek and the second best by Entertainment Weekly .
= = Plot = =
The introduction scene follows from " Jacksonville " , where Olivia ( Anna Torv ) has discovered , through her Cortexiphan @-@ induced abilities , that Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) is from the parallel universe , and Walter ( John Noble ) takes her aside to tell her how this came to pass , shown to the viewer in an extended flashback .
In 1985 , Walter and William Bell had theorized the existence of a parallel universe , and created a window @-@ like device to observe it . Though they use their observations for military benefits , Walter has a more personal interest in the parallel universe , to seek a cure for a genetic disease crippling his son Peter ( Quinn Lord ) . " Walternate " , Walter 's doppelganger in the other universe , is also seeking a similar cure , his Peter suffering from the same disease .
The prime universe 's Peter succumbs to his illness and dies , and Walter and his wife Elizabeth ( Orla Brady ) mourn their loss , supported by Walter and William 's friend , Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) and Walter 's lab assistant , Carla Warren ( Jenni Blong ) . Walter , through his window , shows Elizabeth the other Peter , and asserts they should be happy knowing another Peter exists . Later , Walter watches Walternate explore other cures . Walternate is distracted by the arrival of an Observer , September ( Michael Cerveris ) , and fails to see the telltale color change indicating a cure . Walter is able to recreate and stabilize Walternate 's cure , and then decides to use untested equipment to cross over to give the cure to Peter . Carla tries to stop Walter , knowing the technology could damage the fabric of space @-@ time , and contacts Nina for help . Separately , September informs his fellow Observers that he may have made a mistake and assures them he will correct it .
Walter sets up his equipment on the frozen ice of Reiden Lake , near a cabin where Elizabeth and Peter are staying ; Walter theorizes the frozen waters will buffer the effects of the crossing . Carla arrives with Nina , and both try to talk him out of it . When Walter realizes William is not with them , he takes this as an implicit sign of William 's consent to his plan , and activates the portal . Nina attempts to tackle Walter as he steps through , but instead part of her arm disappears in the portal as it closes ; Carla rushes her to the hospital .
In the parallel universe , Walter finds the cure vial shattered when Nina tackled him and he devises a new plan : to bring Peter back , administer a new batch of the cure , and return him . Meeting the parallel universe 's Elizabeth , he explains he is taking Peter back to the lab for some tests . As Walter walks Peter back across the lake to the portal , Peter realizes that Walter is not his real father . They cross through the portal safely , but the ice has weakened and both fall through , losing consciousness . Walter wakes to find September driving him and Peter back to Walter 's lab . September warns that " the boy must live " , and leaves Walter to drive the rest of the way . At the lab , as Peter receives the cure , Carla informs him that William will see to replacing Nina 's arm . Elizabeth arrives unannounced , and is overjoyed to see Peter , even though it is not her child . At that point , Walter realizes he will never be able to make himself return Peter to his proper universe--the pain of losing their child for the second time would be too great .
In the show 's conclusion in the present day , Walter tells Olivia that his crossing is what caused the crack between the two universes , including the Pattern on their side , and leading to the oncoming " storm " that William warned Olivia about .
= = Production = =
The episode 's teleplay was co @-@ written by supervising producer Josh Singer and co @-@ showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman , based on a story by Singer , Wyman , Pinkner , and consulting producer Akiva Goldsman . House M.D. veteran David Straiton served as episode director .
Fringe began casting for an actress to play Walter 's wife Elizabeth in November 2009 . In their report , they were looking for a woman roughly forty years old who was described as being " strong ( yet broken ) , intelligent , attractive , likable , lovely and extremely versatile " . In December 2009 , Entertainment Weekly announced Irish actress Orla Brady had been cast as Elizabeth Bishop , a possible recurring character . Some critics questioned the casting , as they considered Brady to be too young and were unsure if she would appear in the present or a flashback sequence .
" Peter " was set in 1985 , with a much younger Walter and Peter Bishop , and also features an appearance by Walter 's wife Elizabeth . Actor John Noble used material he had created since the airing of the pilot , which he explained was his sense of " what was this man like before he deteriorated . " The production crew tried different methods with the actor to create a younger Walter , such as changes to his hair , make @-@ up , and wardrobe ; they ultimately decided on using " tabs " to keep the wrinkles in his face back . He did not wear a wig , but the crew did add parts to the front and back . When asked what preparation went into playing a younger Walter , Noble explained :
" Quite a lot , but in the sense in my preparation to find the Walter that we all know now , I had to go back to him right at the beginning to see where he came from . So that process was started before the pilot really , what was this man like before he deteriorated , so I was able to revisit that . Physically , of course , what I had to do was capture the energy , to capture the physicality of the man , the vocal physicality of the man , this was my task . I was aided enormously by my hair and makeup and special effects people here in terms of getting the overall , and indeed wardrobe helped a lot as well . And then we , the shot up through these beautiful lenses that we got a different feel to the episode than we would now . All of those elements work together ... to create this version that you see in the episode . "
The episode was shot through special lenses to make it more reminiscent of the decade . At Peter 's funeral , actress Blair Brown wanted her character Nina Sharp to wear sunglasses , because she thought Nina would not share her emotions at the funeral . Unlike Noble , Brown wore a wig . The scenes at Reiden Lake were actually shot on a parking lot , and the crew placed a covering over it to simulate the cracks normally on a lake .
To reflect the episode 's setting in 1985 , the typical title credit sequence was redone using different music , the Asimov font for early computer type for the show 's logo , and terms that were " fringe science " at the time , such as " virtual reality , " " genetic engineering , " and " personal computing " . Pinkner later recalled , " One of our writers said off @-@ handedly that if we ’ re doing a show from 1985 , shouldn ’ t we do a credit sequence from 1985 , and literally , we pounced on it " . He and Wyman asked J. J. Abrams , who wrote the original credit sequence melody , to write a 1980s version ; Abrams was " very , very happy to do that , " according to Wyman .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox and Science Olympiad released a lesson plan for grade school children based upon the science depicted in " Peter " ; the lesson 's intention was for " students [ to ] learn about the challenges of effectively communicating scientific principles and concepts , especially via non @-@ verbal methods . "
= = Cultural references = =
In viewing the parallel universe through the window , Walter and others witness a zeppelin docking at the Empire State Building , which was originally part of the building 's purpose until it was shown to be impractical . In a scene that takes place in the parallel universe , the Observers are seen leaving a theater having watched Back to the Future starring Eric Stoltz ; in reality , Eric Stoltz was originally cast in the role of Marty after Michael J. Fox was unavailable , but after filming for several weeks , Stoltz was replaced by Fox .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its first broadcast , " Peter " was watched an estimated 5 @.@ 8 million viewers , achieving a 3 @.@ 6 share in all households and 2 @.@ 2 share of viewers between 18 and 49 . In a Thursday night that had rating slumps from all the network shows , " Peter " was down 15 percent from the previous episode " Jacksonville " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Peter " received widespread critical acclaim . As described by Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times , " ' Peter ' is exactly what Fringe needs to be " for the show to distinguish itself from others like The X @-@ Files , in that it teased hints of the episode 's reveal in earlier shows , and followed through by revealing the truth , leaving the viewer wanting to know even more . Ramsey Isler of IGN considered " Peter " " the most masterfully crafted episode Fringe has ever had " , praising the performance of Noble and Brady in delivering the emotion needed for the episode . Tim Grierson of New York Magazine also praised the emotional performance of John Noble , calling it his " showcase " and one where " he didn ’ t disappoint " . The A.V. Club 's Noel Murray considered the episode one of the best of 2010 up to that point , and that " the show came back with a sense of purpose and surety it ’ s rarely had , even at its best " .
Since its airing and continuation into Season 3 , " Peter " has been considered a keystone episode for the series . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly called " Peter " the episode " when Fringe crossed over from fitfully great to just plain great " , and continues to maintain that quality throughout 2010 . Time 's James Poniewozik ranked " Peter " as the 5th best television episode of 2010 , stating that it both " fleshed out its mythology " and " deepened the emotional backstory " , and further praised Noble 's acting in the episode . The A.V. Club ranked Fringe the 15th best show of 2010 , highlighting " Peter " as an episode that " finally dramatized the moment that changed [ Peter 's ] life , giving the series ’ overarching storyline a devastating emotional core , based in a father ’ s love instead of in theoretical concept " . The Futon Critic ranked " Peter " as the 9th best episode of 2010 , calling it a " series defining episode that not only rationalized what appeared to be the unforgiveable but also raised the stakes on everything we had come to expect from the show thus far " .
Similarly , BuddyTV rated it the seventh best episode of 2010 , praising it for " open [ ing ] the door to the show ’ s brilliant use of the alternate universe , " and calling Noble 's acting " one of the best performances on TV " . SFX ranked " Peter " among the twenty things they love about the series , calling it " the lynchpin episode on which all of Fringe rests . " Executive producers Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman , and co @-@ creator J. J. Abrams later said that " Peter " was one of their favorite episodes . In a 2013 list , Den of Geek ranked the episode as the best of the entire series .
As one result of the high praise and fan appreciation for " Peter " , a future episode , " Subject 13 " ( originally named " 6 Months Later " ) in Fringe 's third season aired on February 25 , 2011 . It returned to the events within " Peter " but told from the perspective of the parallel universe , including the impact of Peter 's abduction on both Walter and Elizabeth . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " Peter " the second best episode of the series , explaining that it " stands as a model for mythological storytelling that any sci @-@ fi / fantasy series would be wise to emulate . " In January 2013 , IGN ranked the episode as the best of the series :
The quintessential episode of Fringe lore , ' Peter ' gave us a flawless peek at the past , and the events that caused all this universe @-@ clashing mess in the first place . The episode was marked by a pitch @-@ perfect pace , excellent " youthenizing " special effects , and a story that plays your heartstrings like an expert bard plucking out a tearful tune on a lyre . This episode brought us so many answers to the major questions of the series ... This was Fringe at its best .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Writers J.H. Wyman , Jeff Pinkner , Josh Singer , and Akiva Goldsman submitted " Peter " for consideration in the Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series category at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards . At the 2011 Young Artist Awards , Quinn Lord received a nomination for Best Performance in a TV Series under the category " Guest Starring Young Actor Ten and Under " .
= Theory of Literature =
Theory of Literature is a book on literary scholarship by René Wellek , of the structuralist Prague school , and Austin Warren , a self @-@ described " old New Critic " . The two met at the University of Iowa in the late 1930s , and by 1940 had begun writing the book ; they wrote collaboratively , in a single voice over a period of three years . Its contents were based on their shared understandings of literature .
Originally consisting of twenty chapters – one was cut in later editions – Theory of Literature describes various aspects of literary theory , criticism , and history . After defining various aspects and relationships of literature in general , Wellek and Warren divide analysis of literature based on two approaches : extrinsic , relating to factors outside a work such as the author and society , and intrinsic , relating to factors within such as rhythm and meter . They stress the need to focus on the intrinsic elements of a work as the best way to truly understand it . In doing so they adapt the phenomenology used by Roman Ingarden .
Published by Harcourt , Brace , and Company in December 1948 , Theory of Literature received mixed reviews from the academic community . It was used to teach literary theory beginning soon after publication and remained in common use into the 1960s . Its success has been credited as introducing European literary scholarship into the US and crystallizing a movement towards intrinsic literary criticism . Theory of Literature saw three editions and has been translated into more than twenty languages .
= = Background = =
René Wellek ( 1903 – 1995 ) was an Austrian @-@ born scholar from the structuralist Prague school of linguistics , studying under Vilém Mathesius . Wellek had training in classical literature and was fluent in several European languages , both Romance and Slavic . His theoretical training included the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl , as used in Roman Ingarden 's work , and the psychologically influenced linguistics of Karl Bühler . After Nazi Germany occupied Prague in 1939 , Wellek fled London – where he had been teaching – for the United States , teaching at the University of Iowa under Norman Foerster .
There Wellek met Austin Warren ( 1899 – 1986 ) , an American literary scholar who considered himself an " old New Critic " . He had written extensively on literary criticism and was raised in , but later saw several limitations to , the New Humanist views promoted by Irving Babbitt and Paul Elmer More . Wellek and Warren were soon in agreement over several aspects of literature , and by 1940 they had begun considering collaboration on a book . Over the next several years they furthered their understandings of European and American literature theory through discussions with Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren , and extensive reading of contemporary European writings .
= = Writing = =
Owing to several academic commitments , work on Theory of Literature did not begin until 1945 , after Wellek and Warren received a stipend from the Rockefeller Foundation over a period of two summers . Wellek and Warren began dividing their responsibilities , at first evenly , but with more work done by Wellek as Warren dealt with the illness , and later loss , of his wife Eleanor in 1946 . During this period of writing Wellek transferred to Yale University ( 1946 ) and Warren to the University of Michigan ( 1948 ) , but collaboration continued .
The title , according to Wellek and Warren , was " more than ordinarily difficult " to choose . Some titles , such as Theory of Literature and Methodology of Literary Study , were dismissed as too cumbersome . However , in a 1950 review for The Antioch Review , the literary scholar Herbert S. Benjamin wrote that a better title would have been Theory of the Methodology of the Literary Study ; he considered the book lacking the theory implied by the chosen title .
The original publication of Theory of Literature consists of twenty chapters set in five sections based on thematic similarities ; one chapter and section was removed in later editions . Wellek contributed thirteen of the book 's chapters , while Warren wrote six ; the final chapter was written collaboratively . Although most of the chapters are credited as the work of one man , the two often copyedited and proofread each other 's work , at times inserting entire sentences or paragraphs . Each also suggested further references that the other could use in expanding his chapter .
In their writing Wellek and Warren attempted to present a single voice despite the dominance of individuals . Their success in presenting such a voice has been debated . Wellek later recalled that people often told him it was difficult to tell who had written which chapter without consulting the book 's introduction . However , the literary scholar C. J. van Rees of Tilburg University notes that Wellek 's influences are prevalent in chapters authored by Warren . Aldo Scaglione , in a review of the second edition , wrote that " one immediately senses the change of hand " between chapters by different authors .
= = Contents = =
= = = Section 1 : Definitions and Distinctions . = = =
The first section , entitled Definitions and Distinctions , consists of five chapters and details how Wellek and Warren define literature . This section also contrasts Wellek and Warren 's definition with those of others , such views of literature as everything in print and as only belles @-@ lettres ( accepted literary canon ) . They define literary scholarship as beyond the personal ( " super @-@ personal " ) and contrasted with the literary arts by its more scientific approach . Wellek and Warren suggest that neither a purely objective nor a purely subjective approach would be able to properly describe literature . They note that literary scholarship should not only examine what makes a work or author unique , but also its general characteristics that allow it to be compared to other works .
Wellek and Warren limit their definition of literature to pieces of " imaginative literature " , which can gain artistic merit from their coherence and complexity . The language in literary works is contrasted from scientific and other language by the use of connotative ( non @-@ literal ) language and expressive content . Studies of literature must be literary and systematic , treating literature as literature and not part of another field . Wellek and Warren discuss several proposed functions of literature , beginning with Horace 's proclamation that literature must be " sweet and useful " ( dulce et utile ; have a coalescing aesthetic and functional role ) , and extending to literature as a substitute for travel and experience , a vehicle for truth or persuasion , to relieve or incite emotion , or as something without a function . They ultimately describe the main function of literature as being loyal to its own nature .
They call for a systematic and integrated study of literature , uniting literary theory , which outlines the basic principles of literature ; criticism , which critiques individual works ; and history , which outlines the development of literature . Although these aspects have clear distinctions , they are in a dialectical relationship and should not be separated ; for example , a theory of literature is impossible without referring to works of literature . They reject Historicist approaches to literary history , which they find reduce literary history to " a series of discrete and hence finally incomprehensible fragments " and emphasize the author 's intent too greatly . Instead , Wellek and Warren argue that a work must be seen from the point of view of both its own period and all subsequent periods , as a work 's historical meaning is derived from " the history of its criticism by its many readers in many ages . " Criticism should not be limited to classical and medieval literature , but also include works by living authors .
Wellek and Warren describe the term comparative literature as " troublesome " , noting that it has been used for the study of oral literature , the study of the literatures in two or more countries , and the study of a " general " , " universal " , or " world " literature ; this last use , according to the authors , obviates issues present in the other understandings of the term . This understanding of literature as a totality can be used to trace the development of the art , unlimited by differences between languages . Within this comparative literature other supernational literatures , which may be based on language families and schools , are also apparent . There are also national literatures which , although possibly of the same language , will still have thematic differentiations . These are also worthy of study .
= = = Section 2 : Preliminary Operations = = =
This section consists of a single chapter regarding the treatment , classification , annotation , and other aspects of working with manuscripts and related documentation . Wellek and Warren describe tasks such as authenticating manuscripts and establishing an author and date as important ones without which " critical analysis and historical understanding would be hopelessly handicapped " ; however , these tasks should be preliminary to the " ultimate task of scholarship " , analysis , and not a goal in themselves . Wellek and Warren note the importance of identifying forgeries , a task which can be completed in numerous ways : paleography , bibliography , linguistics , and history may all be involved . These forgeries may spark further investigation and literary debates which can result in a better understanding of the period , the writer , or the writer 's oevre .
The authors identify two levels of operations when dealing with manuscripts : the assembly and preparation of the materials , and the establishment of aspects such as chronology and authorship . At the first level one must locate and identify materials to study , be they written , printed , or oral ; such a task may be difficult and depend on factors outside literature in its completion . Written and printed works must then be edited for readability ; this task , which requires " lucky guesswork " , entails deciphering illegible parts in the material , classifying it , and identifying possible changes made by scribes ( and thus bringing the material closer to its " author 's own " ) . Meanwhile , the second level may require greater initiative from the one studying a work ; it involves , among other things , selection of what should be published , how it is best arranged in a collection , the establishment of chronology and authorship through internal and external evidence , and the provision of proper annotation and commentary .
= = = Section 3 : The Extrinsic Approach to the Study of Literature = = =
The third section consists of five chapters discussing various elements extrinsic to works of literature , such as biography , psychology , social milieu , ideas , and other arts ; this is opposed to elements intrinsic to a work , which are explored in Section 4 . They write that research into extrinsic elements often results in an attempt to establish some causality between the extrinsic elements and a work . Although " [ n ] obody can deny that much light has been thrown on literature by a proper knowledge of the conditions under which it has been produced " , such studies " can never dispose of problems of description , analysis , and evaluation of an object such as a work of literary art . "
Wellek and Warren describe three views of a biographical approach , of which only one – the biographical aspects relating to the production of a work – can be of use ; this use , however , is limited . They reject the views that works accurately reflect the author 's life or that the author 's life must be understood in order to understand a particular work . According to Wellek and Warren , works may indeed reflect the author 's experiences , but they may also reflect an author 's hopes and dreams , or literary tradition and convention , and as such are " not a document for biography " . Likewise , an understanding of personal style ( what makes a work " Miltonic " , " Keatsian " , " Shakespearean " , or " Virgilian " ) does not rely on knowledge of the author 's life . They conclude that " it seems dangerous to ascribe to [ biography ] any real critical importance " , and that such approaches , if undertaken at all , should be done with a " sense " of the distinctions outlined above .
Wellek and Warren consider analysis of characters the only legitimate application of psychological analysis in literary study . Such an analysis , however , they find lacking on its own merits : individual characters do not fit psychological theories of the time they are written . Works which are true to certain psychological theories , meanwhile , are not necessarily better . Thus , they question the value of looking for psychological " truth " in how a work is presented . Additionally they outline and critique psychological theories that have been used to analyze authors and the creative process .
Wellek and Warren write that literature is ultimately a social institution as several aspects of it are created or influenced through social conventions and norms . They reject a more specific understanding of social realities in literature . An author , for example , is a social being , raised and shaped by society and is in a dialectic relationship with the audience : the audience provides recognition and an income , and the author shapes audiences ' tastes and behavior . Intrinsic elements of the work , and indeed the " realization of certain aesthetic values " , can reflect contemporary society and its attitudes . Literature does not , however , " correctly " reflect society or life , and may exhibit little connection . As such , " social truth " should not become an artistic value of its own right , and literature should not be thought of as a " substitute for sociology or politics " .
Wellek and Warren note arguments that literature is a form of philosophy or , alternatively , that it is devoid of such ideas . They reject extreme versions of these arguments . They write that " a knowledge of the history of philosophy and of general ideas " will be valuable for a researcher . However , they note that philosophical ideas may not have been consciously included in a work . Instead , they agree with the German scholar Rudolf Unger that " literature expresses a general attitude toward life , that poets usually answer , unsystematically , questions which are also themes of philosophy " , in a manner that differs over time . They outline attempts at classifying these ideas , including through Weltanschauung ( " world view " ) and Geistesgeschichte ( " time spirit " ) , before showing shortcomings in these systems . They then write that students of literature , an art which may ( but need not ) parallel philosophical development , should focus on how ideas enter the work . Wellek and Warren argue that a work does not necessarily become better with more philosophical content .
Wellek and Warren write that the relationship between literature and other forms of art , such as architecture , sculpture , music , or visual art , is " highly various and complex " . For example , literature may inspire the other art forms , or vice versa . A work of literature may also attempt to have the same effect as another art , through visualization , musicality , or other techniques . However , literature remains a separate art form , and effects found within are conveyed imperfectly . The emotions triggered by a work , or the intentions or theories behind it , will likewise not completely parallel those of another art form ; individual forms of art have also " evolved " differently . Instead , Wellek and Warren suggest that works of art , like literature , can only be truly understood by looking at the works of art themselves and not their extrinsic aspects . A comparison between literature and another art form , thus , is secondary to establishing " outlines of strictly literary evolution " .
= = = Section 4 : The Intrinsic Study of Literature = = =
This section , almost twice the size of the others , consists of eight chapters regarding various elements intrinsic to works of literature . Wellek and Warren write that starting an analysis from elements intrinsic to the work is " natural and sensible " , given that " only the works themselves justify all our interest " in extrinsic issues . They outline different definitions of literature , including as artifacts , sequences of sounds pronounced when reading , the experiences of the reader or author , or the " sum of all past and possible experiences " ( alternatively " the experience common to all the experiences " ) related to a work . All these understandings they find lacking . Instead they suggest that literature is a " potential cause of experiences " consisting of a system of stratified norms – implicit in the work – which can only be partially realized by the reader ; it is neither purely material , mental , nor ideal , nor is it static or bereft of value .
Wellek and Warren consider patterns of sound as inherent to the text ; these must be analyzed while keeping the meaning ( or general emotional tone ) in mind . They suggest two different aspects of sound systems : sounds in isolation , and sounds in relations with others . The sounds in isolation are used in a work establish a euphony or orchestration – a sound aesthetic which may be pleasing or harsh – while the relational aspect " may become the basis of rhythm and meter " . Regarding euphony , Wellek and Warren discuss issues of classification , rhyme , onomotopeia , and the " physiognomy " of sounds as part of orchestration . Of rhythm they explore varying definitions , applications , typology , and artistic value . They then discuss theories of meter and their shortcomings , noting that the metric foundation differs between languages and stressing that meaning should not be divorced from meter .
Language , meanwhile , they describe as " quite literally the material of the literary artist " ; although a work is influenced by language , the writer 's style , the use of communicative language , may influence language . Rather than use a work to study linguistic history , they recommend examining works through stylistics , which in literature they define as " the study of a work of art or a group of works which are to be described in terms of their aesthetic function and meaning " . Such studies can be done either as a search for a " total meaning " or a " sum of individual traits " . Ideally , such a study should " establish some unifying principle , some general aesthetic " in a work or genre , although some may be more difficult than others . As such , they reject stylistic studies which focus mainly on " peculiarities of style " or which are linked to extrinsic elements .
For other understandings of meaning , Wellek and Warren suggest a look at the sequence of image , metaphor , symbol , and myth , which they consider making up the " central poetic structure " of a work . In turns , they outline various historical definitions of the terms – which at times overlap – before writing that most of these theories have treated the sequence as " detachable parts of the works in which they appear . " This Wellek and Warren refuse , instead arguing that " the meaning and function of literature [ i ] s centrally present in metaphor and myth " . They show that the dominant form of figurative language shifts over time before overviewing two diverging typologies of metaphor , that of Henry W. Wells and Hermann Pongs . They finally discuss several aspects of " practical criticism " based on poetic language and its underlying assumptions . They reject approaches which attempt to understand the author through his or her words or which attempt to understand figurative language alone ; instead , it should be studied not in isolation but as " an element in the totality , the integrity , of the literary work " .
After reiterating their views of the relationship between reality and literature , Wellek and Warren write that narrative fiction takes place in its own " worlds " , consisting of five codeterminant elements : narrative structure , characters , setting , world @-@ view , and tone . The latter two are discussed in the following chapter . They define the narrative structure as built around a pattern of dialog and description , and various concepts related to narrative ; these include time within a work , narrative points of view and voices , major types , plot , devices , and pacing . This is followed by a discussion of characterization , involving modes , types , and typologies , then setting ( the environment in a work ) . This world can serve as a basis for analysis and judgment of a work . Although they focus on the " world " in narrative fiction , drama shares similar aspects .
Wellek and Warren consider genres as influencing " any critical and evaluative ... study " . All works of literature can be so classified , although the genres themselves are ( presumably ) not fixed . After outlining a brief history of the " ultimate " genres as understood by Aristotle ( poetry , prose , and drama ) , they show such an understanding as " scarcely promising of objective results " and overly prescriptive ; they also reject several alternative theories of genre . Instead , they suggest that genres should be understood descriptively , as based on the " outer form " ( meter , structure ) and the " inner form " ( attitude , tone , purpose ) , with the " outer form " emphasized . Wellek and Warren consider genres to be continually shifting , with good writers conforming to but ultimately expanding them .
According to Wellek and Warren , evaluation of literary work should be done based on the work 's own nature , divorced from an author 's practical or scientific intent . They reject evaluation based on extra @-@ literary content , writing instead that literature – like all fine art – will provide an " aesthetic experience " which can be judged . They note various criteria used to identify " good " literature , rejecting Russian formalism 's criterion of defamiliarization and similar understandings for one based on the diversity of materials amalgamated within a work . They reject a static hierarchy or generationalist understanding of literary greats . Instead , they suggest that every work 's rank changes when a new work is introduced and that values within are " really , or potentially , present in the art object " . They note a dialectic relationship between evaluating and critically analyzing literature . This ties genre theory to the history of literature .
Wellek and Warren – disapproving of contemporary histories of literature – opine that a history of literature is possible and should be based on elements intrinsic to works . Such a history should describe the development of " [ t ] he process of interpretation , criticism , and appreciation " or trace the development of works in small and large groups before tying it to universal literature . This " historical evolution " of related yet individual events they tie to " variable schemes of values " which must be " abstracted from history itself . " They suggest numerous ways in which this can be accomplished , including identifying the development of values , traits , forms , themes , and motifs . Periodization , they write , should not be based on chronological boundaries , but a " time section dominated by a system of literary norms , standards , and conventions , whose introduction , spread , diversification , integration , and disappearance can be traced " which must be extracted from history , with boundaries marked by both internal and external changes . They close the chapter by stating that existing methods are " clumsy " and that a new ideal and methods of literary history is necessary .
= = = Section 5 : The Academic Situation = = =
The final section of the book , removed in later editions , consists of a single chapter regarding the study of literature . Wellek and Warren bemoan that literary students are " offered no wider choice than between the ' historical method ' ... and dilettantism " , supporting instead a critically oriented literary scholarship . After finding faults with the literary scholarship in England , Germany , France , and Russia , Wellek and Warren suggest that the US is poised to start a new era in scholarship . They note that this opportunity may , however , be lost in a conflict between those advocating change and the inertia ( including persons defending the status quo ) in American literary studies and institutions .
Rather than maintain the system of having scholars specialized in certain time periods and authors , Wellek and Warren push for scholars who have mastered certain approaches and thought patterns , preferably those who are from a literary background . They also recommend " sharper distinction between the teacher and the scholar " , allowing some individuals to devote their careers to research and not teaching . They emphasize a need for fluency in several modern languages rather than an understanding of the classical ones ; this coincides with their urge to establish departments teaching comparative literature . They recommend the teaching of literary methods and theories in combination with periods and authors , with a retooling of the doctoral dissertation procedures .
= = Theoretical borrowings = =
Theory of Literature was influenced by Russian formalism , a school of thought which sought to examine literature ( or , more precisely , what formalist @-@ turned @-@ structuralist Roman Jakobson 's termed literariness ) as an autonomous body , and the American New Criticism , which likewise denied external influences . The book borrowed formalism 's concepts of an aesthetic function and dominance of different elements of language . Unlike Russian formalism , however , Wellek and Warren 's theory recognized the possibility of factors outside the work being studied , although Wellek and Warren continued to emphasize aspects within the work itself . Also unlike their forerunners , Wellek and Warren saw aesthetic value as not the defamiliarization of the mundane , but an interaction among the strata derived from Roman Ingarden 's work : the phonological ( sound ) level at the base , then semantic ( meaning ) , and the " world " created by literature . This last strata they divided into paradigms and " metaphysical qualities " , the level which a reader contemplates . They did not , however , accept Ingarden 's teachings as a whole , writing that Ingarden " analyze [ d ] the work of art without reference to values " , a system which they found untenable .
Wellek and Warren 's concept of aesthetics borrowed from the writings of Immanuel Kant , implying that a specific " aesthetic realm " was autonomous within the work and required a certain perspective to properly understand ; they emphasize this with a quote from the neo @-@ Kantian philosopher and literary critic Eliseo Vivas , that beauty is a " character of some things ... present only in the thing for those endowed with the capacity and the training through which alone it can be perceived " . Meanwhile , their depiction of a dynamic scale of values , as opposed to an anarchical one , is a reimagining of perspectivism , which Wellek and Warren define as " recogniz [ ing ] that there is one poetry , one literature , comparable in all ages , developing , changing , full of possibilities " . They explicitly denounce absolutism and relativism .
= = Publication = =
Theory of Literature was published by Harcourt , Brace , and Company in December 1948 , with a copyright notice dated 1942 , 1947 , and 1949 . Wellek notes that 1942 , often quoted as a year of publication in Europe , is in fact when his article " The Mode of Existence of a Literary Work of Art " was published in The Southern Review ; the article was reused as a chapter of Theory of Literature , leading to the inclusion of the year 1942 . Several other works by Wellek and Warren had been adapted for Theory of Literature .
Translations of Theory of Literature began soon after it was published ; by 2010 the work had been translated into more than twenty languages , including Spanish , Korean , Hebrew , and Hindi . Two new editions were issued , first in 1956 then in 1962 . These new editions included updated bibliographies and clarified points ; the last chapter , " Study of Literature in the Graduate School " , was removed beginning in the second edition as Wellek and Warren considered the reforms suggested within already accomplished in several places . By 1976 Wellek was of the opinion that the book required updating , but asked rhetorically " who can master the astonishing and bewildering literature on theory which since [ 1949 ] has been produced in many countries ? " and noted that he and Warren were busy with their own projects .
= = Reception = =
Academic reception of Theory of Literature was mixed . The philologist Helmut Hatzfeld , reviewing shortly after the book 's release , described Theory of Literature as " radical in its viewpoint , rich in ideas and bibliographical material , poised in its judgment of other approaches to literature " as well as a " landmark in literary studies . " Although Hatzfeld agreed with Wellek and Warren 's main points , he thought it lacking in references to theories and literature from the Romance languages and concrete interpretations . William Troy , writing in The Hudson Review , echoed the sentiment , stating that , although the book was " unusually difficult " to read , he felt " unqualified agreement with the main position " . He expected that the book would not succeed with " anyone ungifted from birth with some susceptibility to ... ' intrinsic ' elements " , a group which he believed comprised the majority of those teaching literature in the US . Seymour Betsky , writing in Scrutiny , praised the book 's summary and adjucation ; he wrote that it was " in its way impressive " , a " tour de force " which would " usher in a new era " . However , Betsky felt that the book lacked a " controlling purpose " and that it neglected to emphasize the need to differentiate between " the cheap commercial appeal and the genuine " literature .
Edward G. Ballard , reviewing for The Journal of Philosophy , found the treatment lacking , with major terms left undefined and much of the book providing synopses of other writers ' theories ; he conceded , however , that it convincingly showed that " the intellectual study of literature qua literature has just begun " . In The Kenyon Review , Vivas wrote that the book 's discussion of the relation between literary criticism and scholarship " leaves nothing to be desired " , providing a " well balanced " look at the major points ; he found that no other such work existed in English at the time . Vivas opined , however , that Wellek and Warren lacked a single , non @-@ contradictory theory to use as a base for their conclusions . Kemp Malone , reviewing for Linguistics , discussed three chapters on elements of literature related to linguistics . He considered these to provide " food for thought " for linguists and suggested that Wellek was well @-@ versed in linguistics for a professor of literature , despite misusing several terms common in the discipline .
Newton Arvin , writing in the Partisan Review , found Theory of Literature to excessively indulge in formalism and expressed concern that the idea of literary history may have " gone into the discard once and for all " . Benjamin found the book not something new , but a final assertion of the dominance of New Criticism in literary theory , a dominance which he considered untenable . Rather than emphasize theory , he found that Theory of Literature was " ninety @-@ nine parts a ' good offense ' against its slain and buried foes " with " exceptionally lucid and authoritative " discussions of literary problems . Scaglione opined that Theory of Literature 's plain , imprecise language had introduced numerous inconsistencies within its theoretical framework ; he also stated that the book led readers to believe they were approaching an understanding of literature without ever reaching the core essence of the subject .
Ingarden , who believed his theories the basis of Wellek and Warren 's arguments , considered himself inadequately credited and took offense with the attribution of his ideas to " pure phenomenologists " . He also stated that they had misrepresented his views . George Grabowicz , prefacing his translation of Ingarden 's The Literary Work of Art , suggested that Theory of Literature was " instrumental " in spreading Ingarden 's ideas .
= = Legacy = =
At the time of publication Wellek and Warren considered Theory of Literature unparalleled in English @-@ language publications , an attempt to unite literary theory , criticism , history , and scholarship . Although they noted a similarity to existing German and Russian works , the authors considered those earlier works " eclectic " and " doctrinaire " , respectively . Ballard writes that Theory of Literature was published during a time of increasing focus on the art of literature , rather than its underlying philosophy .
In an academic biography of Wellek , Michael Holquist of the University of Columbia writes that Theory of Literature established Wellek 's reputation as a literary scholar for the next three decades . The book proved to be Wellek 's only " book @-@ length scholarly manifesto " , a format which Holquist credits to Warren 's influence . Wellek 's other works were essays on literary theory and criticism which , even though bound in a single volume , did not provide a single coherent manifesto . Wellek would continue to use the theories contained in Theory of Literature into the late 1980s .
The book was used to teach literary theory at universities beginning not long after publication and remained dominant into the mid @-@ 1960s , at which time an increasingly heterogeneous academia questioned the universal value of literature ; literary theorist Terry Eagleton finds that , after the 1960s , " it was no longer possible to take for granted what what literature was , how to read it , or what social functions it might serve " . Steven Mailloux describes Theory of Literature as crystallizing an American movement towards intrinsic literary criticism , as dominated by New Criticism , while van Rees credits the book with popularizing a text @-@ oriented interpretation . Grabowicz writes that its importance for both American and general literary studies is " indisputable " . Writing in 1987 , Jeremy Hawthorn described the book as an " excellent introductory study " , despite extrinsic studies having become more dominant in literary criticism , while Holquist found that the book could still " be usefully invoked " in literary debates of the early 21st century . In an obituary of Wellek , Robert Thomas Jr. credited Theory of Literature with " introduc [ ing ] European scholarship to the United States " and establishing a framework for comparative literature studies in the United States .
The theoretical positions promulgated in Theory of Literature have generally been criticized by later writers . Van Rees , for example , considers Wellek and Warren 's distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic aspects of literature to be too sharply drawn , leading to the two aspects becoming binary opposites . Holquist notes that this distinction proceeds from a different understanding of literature . He writes that Wellek 's school of thought considered literature as a " unified subject " with definite boundaries which could be mastered , while more recent scholarship has rendered " [ t ] he very identity of literature as an object of study ... no longer clear . "
= HMS Valiant ( 1863 ) =
HMS Valiant was the second ship of the Hector @-@ class armoured frigates ordered by the Royal Navy in 1861 . Her builders went bankrupt shortly after she was laid down , which significantly delayed her completion . After being launched in 1863 , she waited a further five years to receive her guns due to supply issues . Upon being commissioned in 1868 the ship was assigned as the First Reserve guard ship for Southern Ireland , where she remained until she was decommissioned in 1885 . Valiant was hulked in 1897 as part of the stoker training school HMS Indus before becoming a storeship for kite balloons during the First World War . The ship was converted to a floating oil tank in 1926 and served in that role until sold for scrap in 1956 .
= = Design and description = =
The Hector @-@ class ironclads , like their immediate predecessors , the Defence class , were designed as smaller and cheaper versions of the Warrior @-@ class armoured frigates . They were modified versions of the Defence @-@ class ships with additional armour and more powerful engines .
Valiant was 280 feet 2 inches ( 85 @.@ 4 m ) long between perpendiculars . She had a beam of 56 feet 4 inches ( 17 @.@ 2 m ) and a draft of 26 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) . The ship was 300 long tons ( 300 t ) overweight and displaced 7 @,@ 000 long tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) . The hull was subdivided by watertight transverse bulkheads into 92 compartments and had a double bottom underneath the engine and boiler rooms . The ships of her class were designed with a very low centre of gravity and had a metacentric height of 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) . While handy in manoeuvring , they rolled quite badly .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Valiant had one 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting rod steam engine made by Maudslay Sons & Field driving a single 20 @-@ foot @-@ 2 @-@ inch ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) propeller . Six boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 25 psi ( 172 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) . The engine produced a total of 3 @,@ 560 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 650 kW ) . During sea trials on 18 September 1865 Valiant had a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 65 knots ( 23 @.@ 43 km / h ; 14 @.@ 56 mph ) . The ship carried 450 long tons ( 460 t ) of coal , enough to steam 800 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 500 km ; 920 mi ) at full speed .
The ship was barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 24 @,@ 500 square feet ( 2 @,@ 276 m2 ) . Her funnel was semi @-@ retractable to reduce wind resistance while under sail alone . She was designed to allow the ship 's propeller to be hoisted up into the stern of the ship to reduce drag while under sail , but the hoisting gear was never fitted .
= = = Armament = = =
The armament of the Hector @-@ class ships was intended to be 32 smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 68 @-@ pounder guns , 15 on each side on the main deck and one each fore and aft as chase guns on the upper deck . This was modified during construction to eight rifled 110 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns and twenty @-@ four 68 @-@ pounders . The breech @-@ loading guns were a new design from Armstrong and much was hoped for them . Firing tests carried out in September 1861 against an armoured target , however , proved that the 110 @-@ pounder was inferior to the 68 @-@ pounder smoothbore gun in armour penetration and repeated incidents of breech explosions during the Battles for Shimonoseki and the Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 – 64 caused the navy to withdraw the gun from service shortly afterwards .
Due to her extended construction time , Valiant never received the breech loaders , and was armed with sixteen 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) and two 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The two 8 @-@ inch guns were mounted on the quarterdeck where they could be fought in all weathers and four 7 @-@ inch guns were also fitted on the upper deck . The remaining twelve 7 @-@ inch guns were carried on the main deck . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre 8 @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 9 long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre 7 @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 pounds ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
= = = Armour = = =
The Hector @-@ class ships had a wrought iron waterline armour belt , 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick , that covered 216 feet ( 65 @.@ 8 m ) amidships and left the bow and stern unprotected . To protect against raking fire the belt was closed off by 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads at each end at lower deck level . The armour extended to 5 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) below the waterline . The main deck was protected by a strake of armour that ran the full length of the ship . Amidships , it was 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch thick for a length of 216 feet and tapered to a thickness of 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) to the ends of the ship . The armour was backed by 18 inches ( 460 mm ) of teak . The lack of armour at the stern meant that the steering gear was very vulnerable .
= = Service history = =
HMS Valiant was laid down 1 February 1861 by Westwood , Baillie in Cubitt Town . This company went bankrupt in November 1861 and was ultimately bought by Thames Ironworks , which delayed the ship 's launching until 14 October 1863 . In August 1865 , after Valiant had been towed to Portsmouth for fitting out , the ship was inspected by French officers during a port visit by ironclads of the French Navy . Production of the new muzzle @-@ loaded rifles was slow and ships already in commission had priority so Valiant was not commissioned until September 1868 , nearly five years after she was launched .
After Valiant was commissioned she became the First Reserve guard ship in Southern Ireland , where she remained until 1885 , an experience unique among the British ironclads , although she did have one break to have new boilers installed . From June to August 1878 the ship formed part of the Particular Service Squadron at the time of the Russian war scare during the Russo @-@ Turkish War , and sailed up the Dardanelles under the command of Admiral Hornby . On 20 July 1884 Valiant was accidentally rammed by the ironclad HMS Defence in Lough Swilly , damaging her hull and tearing off her boats , davits and fittings on one side of the ship . Valiant was paid off in 1885 , and saw no further front @-@ line service ; lying for thirteen years in a partially dismantled state at Devonport . In 1897 she was assigned to the HMS Indus stoker training establishment , briefly losing her name , before being renamed as Indus IV in 1904 . The ship was converted to a kite balloon storeship in 1915 , during World War I , and her name was changed to HMS Valiant III . She was offered for sale in 1922 , but there were no takers so that she was converted into a floating oil tank in 1926 and towed to Hamoaze , where she remained until 1956 . Valiant was sold in that year to Belgian ship breakers and towed to Bruges on 8 December 1956 .
= George Macaulay =
George Gibson Macaulay ( 7 December 1897 – 13 December 1940 ) was a professional English cricketer who played first @-@ class cricket for Yorkshire County Cricket Club between 1920 and 1935 . He played in eight Test matches for England from 1923 to 1933 , achieving the rare feat of taking a wicket with his first ball in Test cricket . One of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1924 , he took 1 @,@ 838 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 17 @.@ 64 including four hat @-@ tricks .
A leading member of the Yorkshire team which achieved a high level of success in the time he played , Macaulay was a volatile character who played aggressively . He left a job at a bank to become a professional cricketer , making his first @-@ class debut aged 23 as a fast bowler . Meeting limited success , he altered style to deliver off spin in addition to his pace bowling . This proved so effective that he was chosen to play for England in Test matches . However , his perceived poor attitude towards the game , and an unsuccessful match in the 1926 Ashes probably prevented him playing more Tests . His form slumped following injuries in the late 1920s , but a recovery in the early 1930s led to a recall by England , although he broke down in his second match back . Another injury in 1934 made cricket difficult for him and his first @-@ class career ended in 1935 , although he continued playing club cricket until the Second World War . A pilot officer in the Royal Air Force , he died of pneumonia on active service in the Second World War .
= = Early life = =
Macaulay was born in Thirsk on 7 December 1897 . His father was a well @-@ known local cricketer , as were his uncles . Macaulay was educated at Barnard Castle ; in later years , he took teams of famous cricketers to play annual matches against the school eleven . Upon leaving school , he worked as a bank clerk in Wakefield ; there , and in nearby Ossett , he played cricket and football . In the First World War , Macaulay served with the Royal Field Artillery ; afterwards he returned to work for the same bank as before , initially in London , then in Herne Bay , Kent , playing club cricket in his spare time .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Yorkshire debut = = =
In 1920 , Yorkshire needed to strengthen its bowling attack . Of the team 's previously successful bowlers , Major Booth had been killed in the war , Alonzo Drake had died soon afterwards from illness , and George Hirst was past his best . Although Wilfred Rhodes was able to ease the shortfall by resuming his career as a frontline spin bowler , Yorkshire needed new bowlers , particularly pacemen . Macaulay had been spotted playing club cricket by Sir Stanley Christopherson , a former Kent player . Subsequently , Harry Hayley , a 19th @-@ century Yorkshire cricketer , saw Macaulay in action and was sufficiently impressed to recommend him for a trial with the county . At the beginning of the 1920 season , Macaulay played in two warm @-@ up games for Yorkshire , taking six wickets for 52 runs in a one @-@ day game and four for 24 and two for 19 in a two @-@ day game . This was good enough to earn a first @-@ class debut on 15 May 1920 against Derbyshire in the County Championship , although he only took one wicket . Playing in the early part of the season , he took five wickets for 50 runs , his first five wicket haul , against Gloucestershire , followed by six for 47 against Worcestershire . He continued to play until the middle of June before dropping out of the team after an unsuccessful match against Surrey . In ten first @-@ class matches , he had taken 24 wickets at an average of 24 @.@ 35 , and managed a top score of just 15 with the bat . Wisden said he " had neither the pace nor the stamina required " , while it later said he tried to bowl at speeds beyond his capability . Even so , he decided to become a professional cricketer . Hirst and Rhodes persuaded him to reduce his pace and concentrate on bowling a good length while trying to spin the ball . He practised through the winter of 1920 – 21 to be ready for the next season .
Bowling a mixture of medium pace and his new style of off spin , Macaulay played 27 matches in 1921 . After taking wickets steadily at the start of the season , in his fourth game he took six wickets for ten runs as Warwickshire were bowled out for 72 . Four more wickets in the second innings gave Yorkshire a big victory and Macaulay had match figures of ten wickets for 65 runs , the first time he had taken ten wickets in a match . Macaulay then came to wider public attention by taking six wickets for three runs to bowl out Derbyshire for 23 runs . He later took ten wickets in the match against Surrey in a losing cause , and in total that season he took 101 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 17 @.@ 33 , placing him third in the Yorkshire bowling averages . With the bat , he scored 457 runs at an average of 22 @.@ 59 , surprising commentators with his ability . This included a maiden first @-@ class century against Nottinghamshire . His innings of 125 not out took Yorkshire from 211 for seven wickets when he came in to bat ( 228 for eight soon after ) to a total of 438 for nine declared , a lead of 264 ; Yorkshire went on to a comfortable win . His overall success in the season meant that his place in the team was secure .
Macaulay improved his bowling record in 1922 , taking more wickets at a lower average ( 133 wickets at an average of 14 @.@ 67 ) , and scoring another century . Helping Yorkshire to win the first of four County Championships in a row , Macaulay finished second to Rhodes in the team 's bowling averages . The first two matches of the season brought Macaulay figures of six for eight and five for 23 in a ten wicket win over Northamptonshire and six for 12 out of an opposition total of 78 in an innings win over Glamorgan . While he took only one wicket in the second innings , his first three innings had given him 17 wickets for 43 runs . He continued to pick up wickets , but his most significant performance came in June . In front of Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) members at Lord 's , he took five for 31 as Middlesex were bowled out for 138 . Those watching were impressed and he was selected for the Players against the Gentlemen at the same ground in July . He took three for 97 out of a total of 430 in one of the most important matches of the season . These performances earned his selection for the MCC tour to South Africa that winter , although there were concerns his fitness was insufficient . Statistically , Macaulay 's best performance came shortly afterwards against Gloucestershire ; he took seven for 47 and twelve wickets in the match . Macaulay also scored 486 runs at an average of 17 @.@ 35 .
= = = Test debut = = =
Macaulay played eight first @-@ class matches in South Africa in 1922 – 23 , taking 29 wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 37 . His best first @-@ class performances were six for 18 against Pretoria and eight wickets in the match against Transvaal , while he was effective in minor matches , taking five for 40 against East Rand and six for 19 against Zululand . After England lost the first Test match , which Wisden attributed to a weakness in bowling , Macaulay replaced Greville Stevens and made his Test match debut for England in the second Test . He took the wicket of George Hearne with his first ball . He was the fourth player to take a wicket with his maiden delivery in Test cricket . In total , he took two for 19 in the first innings . In the second innings , South Africa were comfortably placed with a score of 157 for one , but four wickets fell to Macaulay while 13 runs were scored . Macaulay ended the innings with five wickets for 64 . Wisden commented that he bowled very finely in this match . He hit the winning run , batting at number eleven , to seal a one @-@ wicket win for England . He played in the remaining three Tests , finishing with 16 wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 37 . England won the series 2 – 1 , but the Wisden correspondent for the tour was not impressed by the English performances , noting that no really effective bowlers had emerged .
With his health improved by the tour , Wisden reported that Macaulay was in excellent form for the whole of the 1923 season . His performances earned him selection as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year . The citation praised his stamina , spin and ability to bowl on all kinds of pitches but noted that he was easily discouraged and had a negative attitude if circumstances went against him . He achieved his highest season total of wickets to date , taking 166 at an average of 13 @.@ 84 , and came third in both the Yorkshire and national bowling averages . His best performance came in the first match of the season , when he took seven wickets for 13 against Glamorgan as they were dismissed for 63 . Later in the season , he took a hat @-@ trick against Warwickshire while claiming five for 42 . With the bat , Macaulay scored 463 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 52 . There were no international matches that season , but Macaulay was selected for The Rest in a Test trial against England in which he took just one wicket .
In 1924 , Macaulay further increased his total of wickets to 190 and lowered his bowling average to 13 @.@ 23 , placing him first in the national averages . His batting declined as he scored 395 runs at an average of 11 @.@ 96 . Although selected for another Test trial , Macaulay did not play in the series against the touring South African team until the third Test at Leeds , where he took one wicket in each South African innings , but was omitted from the final two Tests . Despite his success in the season , he was not chosen to tour Australia with the MCC that winter , even though Maurice Tate , the leading bowler on the tour , lacked support . Macaulay had been involved in controversy on the field in 1924 . At the time , the Yorkshire team were notorious for their aggressive attitude while fielding . In a match against Middlesex in 1924 at Sheffield , the hostility of the crowd provoked an MCC inquiry which found that Yorkshire bowler Abe Waddington had incited the spectators . Further incidents followed against Surrey . The editor of Wisden blamed Yorkshire 's poor discipline on a small group of approximately four players . Without naming Macaulay as one of them , he noted that Lord Hawke , the Yorkshire president , believed Macaulay should have been in the team to Australia , and that " it was entirely his own fault he was not chosen " . It is also possible that during a match at this time , Macaulay openly criticised the captaincy and bowling of Arthur Gilligan , the England captain .
Since 1923 , Macaulay had run a cricket outfitters in Leeds and Wakefield with his Yorkshire team @-@ mate Herbert Sutcliffe , borrowing £ 250 from his mother to help establish the business . During the winter of 1924 – 25 , the shop became a limited company and Macaulay one of its directors . According to Sutcliffe 's biographer Alan Hill , Macaulay quickly lost interest , and the partnership was dissolved a year later , but Sutcliffe made the lone venture a success . Macaulay received £ 900 from the outfitters upon his resignation .
= = = Mid @-@ 1920s career = = =
Macaulay 's most successful season in terms of wickets was 1925 , despite a very dry summer which produced a succession of good batting pitches . He took 211 wickets at an average of 15 @.@ 48 , coming top of the Yorkshire averages . Exactly 200 of his wickets were taken for Yorkshire — only Wilfred Rhodes and George Hirst had previously reached 200 wickets for Yorkshire , and only Bob Appleyard has done so since , as of 2013 . One of Macaulay 's highest profile performances in 1925 came for Yorkshire against Sussex , who were chasing 263 to win the game . Just after lunch on the final day , the score was 223 for three wickets . A possibly apocryphal story suggests that Macaulay drank champagne in the interval . He then delivered a spell of five wickets for eight runs in 33 balls to bowl out his opponents and finish with figures of seven for 67 . He then left the field exhausted . The cricket historian Mick Pope describes the match as a " lasting testimony to [ Macaulay 's ] belief that no cause was ever lost " . Macaulay was again selected for the Players against the Gentlemen at Lord 's , and took five wickets in the match . With the bat , Macaulay scored 621 runs at an average of 23 @.@ 88 , although he only passed fifty twice .
Yorkshire 's reign as County Champions ended in 1926 , the first season since 1921 when Yorkshire did not win the Championship . Wisden noted that the Yorkshire attack , with the exception of Rhodes , was less effective than previously . Macaulay bowled less overs and took fewer wickets at a higher bowling average ; his 134 wickets , at an average of 17 @.@ 78 , placed him second in the Yorkshire averages . Selected for a Test trial , he failed to take a wicket . Wisden described his performance as " lifeless " , while cricket writer Neville Cardus noted that he had " yet again ... fallen below his best away from the Yorkshire XI " . He was not chosen for the Gentlemen v Players match , never representing the Players again .
Macaulay was selected for the third Test against Australia at Headingley , possibly because Arthur Carr , the England captain , expected the pitch to favour spinners . The Australians were concerned that Macaulay represented a threat to their batting , but the match did not work out in Macaulay 's favour as a bowler ; having been dropped at the start of play , Charlie Macartney played what Wisden called one of the best innings of his career and vigorously attacked the England bowling , achieving the rare feat of scoring a century before the lunch interval . The Australian batsman had asked his captain if he could attack Macaulay in particular , and the Yorkshire bowler suffered as Macartney quickly dominated him . Macaulay eventually had Macartney caught after hitting a short ball in the air , but it was Macaulay 's only success in the innings . Macaulay conceded 123 runs in 32 overs as Australia scored 494 . When Macaulay came into bat from number ten in the batting order , England were 182 for eight wickets and facing defeat . He played an attacking innings of 76 , hitting ten fours , in a partnership of 108 with George Geary . This began an England recovery which helped the team to escape with a draw . Nevertheless , Macaulay did not play in the final two Tests of the series . Later in the season , he took fourteen wickets for 92 runs against Gloucestershire , including eight for 43 in the second innings . These were the best bowling figures of his career that he achieved in a match . Apart from his batting success in the Test match , Macaulay scored another two fifties and in the match against Somerset achieved a century .
= = = Decline = = =
Over the next four seasons , Yorkshire failed to win the Championship , although they never finished lower than fourth in the table . The team displayed an unaccustomed weakness in bowling , particularly after the death of Roy Kilner in 1928 . The effectiveness of the main bowlers was reduced by age and injury ; only Macaulay remained at something approaching his bowling peak . However , his performances worsened each year . His bowling figures in the 1927 season were similar to his achievements in 1926 , showing only a slight decline , but his total of wickets fell each season until 1930 .
In 1927 , Macaulay took 130 wickets at an average of 18 @.@ 26 . However , he suffered a foot injury in 1928 , and took time to recover his best form . His wicket tally fell to 120 and his average climbed to 24 @.@ 37 . His total of wickets decreased further to 102 in 1929 and his average remained above 20 . Hampered by another foot injury throughout 1930 , Macaulay failed to take 100 wickets for the first time since his debut season ; his average of 25 @.@ 12 was the highest of his career . In these seasons , he was only selected for one representative match , a Test trial in 1928 in which he failed to take a wicket . At the same time , his batting faded . In 1927 , Macaulay scored his highest run aggregate and passed fifty six times while hitting 678 runs at an average of 25 @.@ 11 . He improved his batting average in 1928 , accumulating 517 runs at 25 @.@ 85 with four more fifties . However , after 1928 , he never averaged more than 16 @.@ 26 with the bat and only scored two more fifties in his career , both in 1929 .
= = End of first @-@ class career = =
= = = Return to form = = =
From the 1931 season , Yorkshire once again dominated the County Championship , winning three consecutive trophies . A large part of the success was an increase in bowling strength . In 1931 , Macaulay slightly increased his haul of wickets from 91 to 97 , and his average dropped from 25 @.@ 12 to 15 @.@ 75 . This placed him third in the Yorkshire averages , behind Hedley Verity and Bill Bowes , who both took over 100 wickets and led a very strong bowling attack . That season , Macaulay was awarded a benefit match against Surrey which raised £ 1 @,@ 633 , worth approximately £ 82 @,@ 700 in 2008 . At the time , this was considered a poor reward for a Yorkshire cricketer . The following season , Macaulay took fewer wickets , managing 84 at an average of 19 @.@ 07 , which placed him fifth in the Yorkshire averages . He achieved his best bowling figures in first @-@ class cricket when he took eight for 21 against the Indian touring side . By now , Macaulay was a specialist spinner and had largely abandoned pace bowling ; Bill Bowes and Arthur Rhodes opened the Yorkshire bowling .
The 1933 season signalled a return to form for Macaulay . Wisden judged that he " recovered fully his length , spin and command over variations in pace " . He bowled more overs than anyone else in the team and passed 100 wickets for the first time since 1929 , the tenth and final time he did so , taking 148 wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 45 . Against Northamptonshire , he took seven for nine as the team was bowled out for 27 . He finished the match with thirteen for 34 . Against Lancashire , when his match figures were twelve for 49 , he took a hat @-@ trick in a sequence of four wickets in five balls ; he also took twelve wickets against Leicestershire . His form won a recall to the Test side after seven years . Not picked initially , a decision described by Wisden as unfair , he played in the first Test when E. W. Clark dropped out of the team before the match . Macaulay took one wicket in the first innings but had figures of four for 57 in the second innings to earn approval from Wisden . He was picked for the second Test but bowled only 14 overs before injuring his foot when fielding ; he was unable to take any further part in the game . He did not play in the third Test but was selected in festival game at Scarborough for the team selected from the MCC party which toured Australia in the previous winter . He played instead of an injured player , even though he did not take part in the tour . Macaulay ended second in the Yorkshire bowling averages . In its review of the season , Wisden stated that his form in the early part of the season would have placed his among the best cricketers in the world .
= = = Final seasons = = =
Macaulay 's final two seasons were affected by injury , as he was increasingly bothered by rheumatism . In the 1934 season , while trying to take a catch , he injured the finger he used to spin the ball . He did not appear for Yorkshire until June , but went on to take 55 wickets at an average of 23 @.@ 43 . The next season was his final one . He only played nine matches , taking 22 wickets at 20 @.@ 09 . At the end of the year , he retired from first @-@ class cricket and Yorkshire awarded him a special grant of £ 250 . Yorkshire did have a replacement in mind ; Frank Smailes was considered to be versatile enough in his bowling style to take Macaulay 's place , but it was not until Ellis Robinson secured a place in 1937 that a new specialist off @-@ spinner was found .
Macaulay ended his career with 1 @,@ 837 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 17 @.@ 65 . In eight Test matches , he took 24 of those wickets at an average of 27 @.@ 58 . In addition , he scored 6 @,@ 055 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 07 and held 373 catches . He took 100 wickets in a season ten times , a record only surpassed by four others for Yorkshire , while only three other Yorkshire bowlers have taken 200 wickets in a season . He also took four hat @-@ tricks .
= = = Post @-@ Yorkshire career = = =
Following his retirement , Macaulay initially attempted to market a patented rheumatic medicine , but the business quickly failed . He then established an athletic outfitting shop in Leeds . This business also was unsuccessful ; Macaulay blamed a lack of money and competition from other businesses . Consequently , he filed for bankruptcy in 1937 . Macaulay accused Yorkshire of worsening his situation by withholding most of his benefit money — of the total raised , he received only £ 530 . He believed that he was owed the balance , and continued his business under that assumption , but Yorkshire had invested the amount and he only received the interest . The matter arose in court , and when asked why he thought the money would be paid to him , Macaulay answered : " Because I had earned it " . He also rejected the accusation that he spent his time drinking in public houses , and another that he had neglected his two failed businesses . The Official Receiver found that Macaulay 's complaint against Yorkshire was without justification . Macaulay suggested that he should arrange for the invested money to be paid to his creditors in his will . Macaulay secured new employment , and a few days after the hearing it was announced that he would play professional cricket in Wales .
Macaulay played league cricket in Wales and Lancashire until the Second World War . During 1937 , he was the professional at Ebbw cricket club , and in 1938 and 1939 , he played in the Lancashire League as the professional for Todmorden , for whom he took nine wickets for 10 runs against Ramsbottom in the Worsley Cup final . Ramsbottom were bowled out for 47 to give Macaulay 's team a 26 @-@ run win .
When the Second World War began , Macaulay joined the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Volunteer Reserve in 1940 as a Pilot Officer , and was stationed at Church Fenton , close to Barkston Ash where he lived with his wife Edith . Later in the year , he was stationed in the Shetland Islands , where he was bothered by the cold . Six days after his 43rd birthday , he died of pneumonia at the Sullom Voe RAF station on 13 December 1940 . He was buried in Lerwick Cemetery on Shetland .
= = Style and personality = =
As a batsman , Macaulay was reasonably good and possibly better than his statistics would suggest . He was capable of batting well in a crisis but may have been prevented from honing his batting skills by the Yorkshire leadership who wished him to focus on bowling . He generally batted low down in the order after the all @-@ rounders in the team . Macaulay 's fielding was also very effective . He was excellent at close range to the batsmen , particularly from his own bowling .
As a bowler , Macaulay fulfilled two roles . At the start of an innings , when the ball was new and hard , he opened the bowling with medium @-@ fast deliveries that swung away from right @-@ handed batsmen . In this style , he was very accurate and bowled a variety of deliveries to unsettle his opponents . Cricket writer R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow considered him to be better than any similar bowler in the 1920s except Maurice Tate , the leading medium paced bowler in England . Macaulay could vary his pace from medium to fast depending on the needs of the match situation and the type of pitch . When the pitch was suitable for spinning the ball , he bowled medium @-@ paced off breaks . Wisden said that his spin made him more effective than other bowlers of his speed on a sticky wicket , a pitch which has been affected by rain , making it erratic and difficult to bat on . His obituary further stated : " Under suitable conditions for using the off @-@ break , batsmen seemed at his mercy . " This was because he could bowl deliveries which were almost impossible for batsmen to play without getting out , but at the same time it was very difficult to score runs against him . Robertson @-@ Glasgow wrote that " on a rain @-@ damaged pitch he was in his glory . " He would make small adjustments to the positions of his fielders or bowl from different sides of the wicket , often making gestures or facial expressions as he did so . Robertson @-@ Glasgow said that " only the best could survive the onslaught except by a miracle " , and described Macaulay as a great bowler . The cricket writer Jim Kilburn suggested that Macaulay was " a great cricketer . He was great not so much in mathematical accomplishment ... as in cricketing character . "
Macaulay 's bowling action was relaxed and effortless , being admired by his contemporaries . Kilburn wrote : " His run @-@ up was half @-@ shambling , his steps short and his shoulders swaying , but his feet were faultlessly placed and his aim was high at the instant of delivery " . However , critics and team @-@ mates more widely knew him as passionate , hostile and fiery when bowling . Kilburn said that batsmen were Macaulay 's " mortal enemies " . He knew many tricks to dismiss or unsettle them , including the tactic of bowling the ball straight at their head without pitching , which was usually considered dangerous and unfair . Kilburn observed that " should the batsman survive he would be rewarded with a glare of concentrated venom calculated to stagger any but the stoutest heart ... Every scrap of his heart and soul went into every ball he bowled . He never gave up and his persistence was invariably triumphant sooner or later " . The Yorkshire Post , after his death , observed : " Macaulay will always be remembered for the fierceness of his enthusiasm when there was a fighting chance of victory " .
Macaulay displayed a temper when matters went against him . Robertson @-@ Glasgow described him as an unusual man , " fiercely independent , witty , argumentative , swift to joy and anger . He had pleasure in cracking a convention or cursing an enemy ... A cricket @-@ bag came between him and his blazer hanging on a peg ; and he 'd kick it and tell it a truth or two , then laugh . " Bill Bowes described how , when he was bowling , he would glare and mutter under his breath ; he seemed to be " filled with a devilish energy " . He would make sharp or biting comments , particularly if a fielder made a mistake when he was bowling and although often amusing , it could at times hurt the recipients , and his anger made his team @-@ mates wary of him . Yet , he could also express appreciation when a skillful batsmen hit a good shot from his bowling ; the result was that his colleagues were never sure what to expect from him , even after playing with him for years . Herbert Sutcliffe said he could be charming when not playing , but his wit could be sharp . Robertson @-@ Glasgow nevertheless described him as " a glorious opponent ; a great cricketer ; and a companion in a thousand " .
= A Trick of the Tail =
A Trick of the Tail is the seventh studio album from the English progressive rock band Genesis . It was released in February 1976 on Charisma Records and was the first album to feature drummer Phil Collins as lead vocalist following the departure of Peter Gabriel . It was a critical and commercial success in the UK and U.S. , reaching No. 3 and No. 31 respectively .
Following Gabriel 's decision to leave the band , the remaining members wanted to carry on and show they could still write and record successful material . The group wrote and rehearsed new songs during mid @-@ 1975 , and listened to around 400 audition tapes for a replacement frontman . They entered Trident Studios in October with producer David Hentschel to record the album without a definitive idea of who was going to perform lead vocals . Eventually , Collins was persuaded to sing " Squonk " , and the performance was so strong , he sang lead on the rest of album .
Upon release , critics were impressed by the improved sound quality and the group 's ability to survive the loss of Gabriel without sacrificing the quality of the music . The group went out on tour with Collins as frontman and Bill Bruford as an additional drummer , and the resulting performances in the US raised Genesis ' profile there . The album has been reissued on CD several times , including a deluxe package with bonus tracks in 2007 .
= = Background = =
Founding member and lead singer Peter Gabriel decided to leave Genesis in late 1974 , midway through the tour for the album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway . The other members hoped he would reconsider , as they were still in debt and felt his departure could destroy the band 's future , but ultimately accepted that he would leave . The remaining members felt they still wanted to collaborate musically , and show journalists and critics they were primarily a song writing team that could still produce good music . Keyboardist Tony Banks had been close to Gabriel personally , and did not want the band to split up on top of seeing less of one of his best friends . He had written a number of songs for a possible solo project before deciding they should be used on the new Genesis album .
Following the end of the tour , guitarist Steve Hackett recorded a solo album , Voyage of the Acolyte with guitarist / bassist Mike Rutherford and drummer Phil Collins , feeling unsure that Genesis would survive . He reconvened with the remaining group members in July 1975 . Banks and Rutherford were particularly keen to write and record new material so that critics and fans would accept Gabriel 's departure . The group began rehearsals in a basement studio in Acton , and quickly wrote material they were happy with , but had not yet found a replacement lead singer . They placed an anonymous advertisement in the music paper Melody Maker for " a singer for a Genesis @-@ type group " , which received around 400 replies . Some applicants sent photographs of themselves in costume and wearing masks , as Gabriel had done on stage . A few weeks into rehearsals , Melody Maker managed to find out about Gabriel leaving the band , and their story made the front page of the 16 August issue , where journalist Chris Welch declared Genesis dead . The group spoke to the music papers to deny they were splitting up and explaining they had an album finished and waiting to be recorded .
= = Recording = =
Recording began in Trident Studios in October 1975 with producer David Hentschel . Hentschel had served as tape op and then engineer on earlier Genesis albums and Collins had become a fan of his album Startling Music , a re @-@ recording of Ringo Starr 's album Ringo on an ARP 2500 synthesizer . Collins thought the group could carry on as an instrumental act , but other group members felt that it would be boring without vocals . The group had still not decided on a replacement singer , so they decided to start recording backing tracks and audition singers as they went .
Some songs such as " Ripples ... " were written with the intention that Collins could sing them , similar to " More Fool Me " on Selling England by the Pound , but he did not want to take over as a permanent replacement , opting instead to teach potential lead singers the songs . The group still wanted a regular frontman for live performances , as they thought Collins would not be able to handle all the material , and it would be problematic trying to sing Gabriel 's vocal parts while drumming on tour . One of the auditionees , Mick Stickland , was invited into the studio to sing , but the backing tracks were in a key outside of his natural range and the band decided not to work with him . Having failed to produce a suitable vocalist , Collins reluctantly went in the studio to sing " Squonk " . His performance was well received by the band , and they decided that he should be their new lead vocalist . Hentschel stayed on as co @-@ producer for future Genesis albums up to 1980 's Duke .
= = Songs = =
The opening track , " Dance on a Volcano " was the first song written for the album . Rutherford felt in contrast to the material on The Lamb ... , it was easy to write , and was intended to show how Genesis would move forward . " Entangled " was mostly written by Hackett , with help from Banks . Rutherford recalled that Hackett " started writing verses which were very airy @-@ fairy and then he came down with a bang . " " Squonk " is based on the North American tale of the Squonk which , when captured , dissolves in a pool of tears . The song combines a main theme written by Rutherford against a middle section written by Banks , and was designed to sound like Led Zeppelin 's " Kashmir " .
" Robbery , Assault and Battery " was mostly written by Banks , in an attempt to capture some of the humorous lyrics that Gabriel had written for earlier albums . Collins sang the song in character , inspired by his earlier role as the Artful Dodger in Oliver ! before he became a professional musician . " Ripples ... " was a combination of a 12 @-@ string guitar piece composed by Rutherford and a piano @-@ led middle section written by Banks . The title track was inspired by Banks reading William Golding 's The Inheritors and described an alien visiting Earth and the reaction to it .
The closing song , " Los Endos " , was written by the whole band . Collins came up with the basic rhythmic structure , inspired by his work in side project Brand X and wanting to take the looser playing style into Genesis , while Banks and Hackett wrote the main themes , including reprises of " Dance on a Volcano " and " Squonk " . The opening piece was recorded for a completely different song , " It 's Yourself " , which was later released as a B @-@ side . The track became a live favourite , and continued to be played through to the 2007 Turn It On Again tour . In 2014 , Hackett added the song to the playlist of his extended Genesis Revisited II tour .
= = Reception = =
A Trick of the Tail had a positive reception from music critics , who were impressed that the group could not only survive the loss of Gabriel but still deliver a good album . The sound quality had improved from previous albums as a result of Hentschel 's production skills . The album reached No. 3 in the UK , remaining on the charts for 39 weeks , and No. 31 in the U.S. It was certified Gold in the UK by the British Phonographic Institute in June and in the US by the RIAA in March 1990 . The album remained in the UK charts for 39 weeks and recouped a significant amount of $ 400 @,@ 000 worth of debt they had accumulated by the time Gabriel left .
For the first time in their career , Genesis filmed promotional videos for their songs . The first to be filmed was the title track , which features the band playing to the song together around a piano , including composite shots of a miniature Collins hopping around on a piano and a guitar . The group also produced promotional films of " Ripples ... " and " Robbery , Assault and Battery " .
= = Tour = =
Even after the album had been completed , Collins was unhappy about leaving the drumkit to sing lead , and the band were unsure he would be comfortable as frontman on tour . The group decided to try anyway , and needed someone to drum while Collins was singing . Collins insisted on choosing the touring drummer himself , selecting Bill Bruford , who he had already worked with in Brand X. Collins continued to drum during instrumental sections .
The new line @-@ up rehearsed in Dallas for a North American tour , starting in London , Ontario . Collins was nervous about what to say to the audience between songs , so Rutherford and Hackett helped with some announcements . Unlike Gabriel 's theatrical approach , Collins developed a humorous rapport with the audience , and it was immediately successful . Audiences were happy for Collins to sing old material such as " Supper 's Ready " in concert as he had been recruited as frontman from within the group . The resulting tour raised Genesis ' profile in the U.S. , where they had been relatively unknown while Gabriel was in the band .
= = Track listing = =
This is the first Genesis album to credit songwriters individually , as opposed to the band as a whole .
= = = 2007 SACD / CD / DVD release = = =
A new version of A Trick of the Tail was released in the UK and Japan in 2007 as part of the Genesis 1976 – 1982 box set . This includes the entire album in remixed stereo , surround sound , and related video tracks . A further DVD release includes audio and video tracks , including an interview with the band , the promotional videos , and the film Genesis : In Concert , filmed during the 1976 tour promoting the album .
= = Personnel = =
Genesis
Mike Rutherford – 12 @-@ string guitar , bass , bass pedals
Tony Banks – pianos , synthesizers , organ , Mellotron , 12 @-@ string guitar , backing vocals
Phil Collins - drums , percussion , lead & backing vocals
Steve Hackett – electric guitar , 12 @-@ string guitars
Production
Genesis – production
David Hentschel – production , engineering
Nick " Haddock " Bradford – engineering
Tex and Jeff – equipment
Neal , John and Terry – liquid sustenance
Hipgnosis – sleeve design
Colin Elgie – sleeve design
Special thanks to Tony Smith , Alex Sim and Regis
Recorded at Trident Studios , London
= = Certifications = =
= James Graham ( British Army soldier ) =
James Graham ( 1791 – 1845 ) was an Irish non @-@ commissioned officer ( NCO ) in the British Army during the Napoleonic wars , recognised as the " bravest man in the army " . Serving in the Coldstream Guards , he was commended for his gallantry during the defence of Hougoumont , at Waterloo . Graham saved the life of an officer , and his own brother , and was among the small group responsible for closing the North Gate at Hougoumont after a French attack – an act which won the Duke of Wellington 's encomium . He was rewarded with a specially cast gallantry medal and an annuity . Graham continued to serve with distinction , and was credited with saving the life of Lord Frederick FitzClarence during the arrest of the Cato Street conspirators . After later serving in the 12th Royal Lancers , Graham was discharged in 1830 for ill health , and died at the Royal Hospital Kilmainham in 1845 .
= = Early life and service = =
James Graham was born in 1791 , in Clones , County Monaghan , Ireland . One of three brothers to serve in the British Army , Graham enlisted in the 2nd Battalion of the Coldstream Guards in 1813 , which was then stationed in England . Almost all soldiers at the time signed on for life in exchange for a " bounty " of £ 23 17s 6d , a large portion of which was absorbed by the cost of outfitting " necessities " . Graham was assigned to the battalion 's light company , and by 1815 had been made a corporal . It was not unusual for Irishmen to join English or Scottish regiments after the Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland . Most battalions during the Napoleonic wars had a proportion of Irish soldiers . The Coldstream Guards were a regiment of Foot Guards , a group of elite infantry regiments of the British Army . In background and natural attributes , recruits to the Foot Guards differed little from those recruited into other regiments , but they received superior training and were expected to maintain rigorous discipline . Wellington considered Guards NCOs to be among the best in the army .
= = The road to Waterloo = =
The United Kingdom and her Allies had been at war against Napoleon 's French Empire since 1803 , but by early 1814 Wellington 's army had fought its way through the Peninsula to France , and the eastern Allies were threatening France 's eastern borders . On 31 March 1814 , allied armies entered Paris , and Napoleon abdicated on 6 April . Within a month of Napoleon 's abdication , he had been exiled to Elba . It appeared that the war was over , and arrangements for the peace were discussed at the Congress of Vienna . But on 26 February 1815 , Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France , where he raised an army .
The Allies assembled another army and planned for a summer offensive . The combatant Coldstream companies had been garrisoned in Brussels and Ath , where they were joined by the 2nd Battalion 's remaining four companies in early 1815 . In preparation for the coming offensive , Graham 's battalion joined with the 2nd Battalion of the Scots Guards to form the 1st Division 's 2nd Brigade . Basing themselves in Belgium , the Allies formed two armies , with the Duke of Wellington commanding the Anglo @-@ Allies , and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher commanding the Prussians . Napoleon marched swiftly through France to meet them , and split his army to launch a two @-@ pronged attack . On 16 June 1815 , Napoleon himself led men against Blücher at Ligny , while Marshall Ney commanded an attack against Wellington 's forward army at the Battle of Quatre Bras .
Wellington had received news of Napoleon 's position on the night of 15 June , and issued orders to his army to hold the ground at Quatre Bras . Graham 's battalion , along with the rest of the 2nd Brigade , left Enghien , where they were quartered , at 3 a.m. on the morning of the 16th , for a twenty @-@ five mile march to Quatre Bras . They reached Quatre Bras at 4 p.m. , by which time the battle had been engaged for two hours . The Coldstream Guards immediately deployed into position to support the 1st Foot Guards , who were engaged with the enemy at Bossu Wood . Once the wood was cleared of French , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel James Macdonnell led the 2nd Brigade 's light companies ( including Graham 's ) in a counter @-@ attack against Jérôme Bonaparte 's Frenchmen , with other Guards companies in support . The various Guards battalions sustained heavy losses , but by 6 @.@ 30 p.m. Wellington 's position had strengthened . By 9 p.m. , Ney had withdrawn his men , and Wellington held the field . The French had lost 4 @,@ 000 men , the Allies 4 @,@ 800 .
Wellington held Quatre Bras , but the Prussians were not so successful at Ligny , and were forced to retreat . Hearing of Blücher 's defeat on the morning of 17 June , Wellington ordered his army to withdraw level with his ally ; they took position near the Belgian village of Waterloo . Graham 's company , and the Scots Guards ' light company , masked the retreat from the right , and did not leave Quatre Bras until mid @-@ afternoon .
The field at Waterloo was 5 @.@ 5 km wide , with two parallel ridges running west to east , creating a shallow valley 1 @.@ 4 km across . On the allied right lay the chateau of Hougoumont , a collection of walled farm buildings lying closer to the French line than the Allies ' line . Recognising its defensive importance , Wellington ordered Hanoverian and Nassau troops to occupy the farm . In allied hands , it would provide cover for flanking fire against any French assault of the main allied line ; in French hands , it would provide a bastion from which they could launch attacks . Since it defended the Nivelles road as well as the Allies ' right flank , Wellington ordered that it was to be held at all costs .
= = Hougoumont = =
The day 's battle began on 18 June 1815 at about 11 a.m. with a French attack on Hougoumont from the south @-@ west , led by Napoleon 's brother Jerome . The French gained control of much of the chateau 's park , but the Allies retained possession of the farmhouse and courtyard surrounds . Jerome continued his attempts to take the farmhouse throughout the day , making four or five assaults , most of which were repulsed by the defenders , who fired through loopholes , windows , and doorways . One assault at about 12 @.@ 30 p.m. breached the north gate , which had been left open to allow allied troop and supply movements . Sous @-@ Lieutenant Legro , of the French 1st Light Infantry , broke through the wooden doors with an axe , allowing French soldiers to flood the courtyard . Graham 's commanding officer , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel James Macdonnell , led his men through the melee in the courtyard to the gates , in an attempt to shut them against the pressing French . This was done with the help of three officers ( Captain Wyndham , Ensign Hervey , and Ensign Gooch ) , Corporal Graham , and a few other soldiers including Graham 's brother Joseph . James Graham was the one to slot the bar in place . Flagstones , carts , and debris were then piled against the gates to hold them secure . The Frenchmen trapped within the courtyard were all killed , apart from a young drummer @-@ boy .
Wellington monitored the action at Hougoumont until about 1 p.m. , by which time he was content enough with the position 's security to concentrate his own attention on the allied centre . With the chateau secure , the 3 @,@ 500 British and German troops in the vicinity were able to defend the strongpoint against an estimated 14 @,@ 500 French soldiers . About 8 @,@ 000 French soldiers died attacking Hougoumont over the day .
During the battle , Graham also saved the life of Captain Wyndham – one of those who had shut the gate – by shooting a sniper whose musket was trained on the officer . Mid @-@ afternoon , a fire broke out in one of the farm buildings following a bombardment of incendiary shells . Graham 's brother Joseph was lying wounded within , and Graham requested permission to fall out , so he might rescue his brother ; given permission , he retrieved his brother and returned to his post . Joseph Graham died of wounds five days later .
At 7 p.m. the defenders at Hougoumont were still resisting , despite the burning buildings and their own dwindling ammunition . Within a couple of hours , the action in the rest of the field had resulted in a victory for the Allies : the French were in retreat . Afterwards , Wellington declared that " the success of the battle turned upon closing the gates at Hougoumont . " It seems likely that if the gates had not been shut so quickly the men holding the perimeter at Hougoumont would have been killed . It was a costly defence : the Coldstream Guards lost 8 officers , with 300 casualties among the men . James Graham was promoted to sergeant for his bravery at Hougoumont , and received a special medal for gallantry .
= = " The bravest man at Waterloo " = =
Wellington 's respect for those who served in Hougoumont was well known . After the battle he wrote : " You may depend upon it , no troops could have held Hougoumont but the British , and only the best of them . " But among those " best soldiers " , Graham stood out as being exceptional . In August 1815 , John Norcross , the Rector of Framlingham , sought to make over the income from a freehold farm to the " most deserving soldier at Waterloo " ; he approached the Duke of Wellington , who nominated Graham . Graham received an annuity from the farm of £ 10 a year for two years until the vicar became bankrupt . Wellington 's Supplementary Dispatches ( Vol . 11 ) make mention of Graham :
[ He ] assisted Lieutenant @-@ colonel Macdonnell in closing the gates , which had been left open for the purpose of communication , and which the enemy were in the act of forcing . His brother , a corporal in the regiment , was lying wounded in a barn , which was on fire , and Graham removed him so as to be secure from the fire , and then returned to his duty . He had been 3 2 / 12 years in the regiment .
This honour is noted in his service record now held at the Public Record Office , with the words : " The most valorous NCO at the battle of Waterloo selected by the Duke of Wellington . "
The Reverend Norcross died in 1837 . It was reported in a number of books and newspapers in the years following that Norcross had recovered his fortunes enough to leave £ 500 in his will to " the bravest man in England " and that , once appealed to , Wellington again turned to the events in Hougoumont , selecting Colonel Macdonnell . Macdonnell apparently split the bequest with Graham , since they had shut the gate together . There remains some doubt concerning this second bequest . Graham 's entry in the Dictionary of National Biography records only the initial annuity , and states that " various apparently incorrect versions of the Norcross gift have been published . " Archibald Murray ( in 1862 ) made reference to " the alleged sum of £ 500 " given to Colonel Macdonnell and reported investigations made by a fellow researcher who could find no proof of this bequest ; Murray concluded that the reports arose from a misrepresentation of the original annuity . In his history of Waterloo , Colonel Siborne provided a full account of Graham 's action at Hougoumont and the later annuity , but made no reference to the second bequest , despite reporting Graham 's own death at Kilmainham Hospital . Siborne had personally interviewed Graham .
= = Later career = =
Graham continued to serve in the Coldstream Guards after Waterloo . The 2nd Battalion advanced on Paris with the army , remaining there until 1816 as part of the army of occupation , after which they were posted to Cambrai . In November 1818 they returned to England . While stationed in London in 1820 , a detachment of Guards were ordered to support the police with the arrest of the Cato Street conspirators , under the command of Captain FitzClarence ( later given the title Lord Frederick FitzClarence ) , one of the illegitimate sons of the Duke of Clarence . The arrest was not straightforward , and a scuffle ensued . The Naval and Military Gazette ( May 1845 ) identified Sergeant Graham as the man who saved FitzClarence 's life .
Graham was discharged from the Guards in 1821 , and enlisted in the 12th Royal Lancers as a private . When Graham joined the Lancers , they were stationed in Ireland , and returned to England in 1824 . In 1826 , two squadrons saw service in Portugal before returning to England . Graham was discharged for ill health – " an injured chest and worn out " – in July 1830 , and received a Chelsea pension .
James Graham died in 1845 , at the Royal Hospital , Kilmainham . He was buried with military honours . A memorial plaque was erected at the Hospital , and it was later transferred to St Tiernach 's Church , in Clones .
His obituary appeared in The Gentleman 's Magazine under the name " John Graham " :
23 April . At the Royal Hospital of Kilmainham , Sergeant John Graham , formerly in the light company of the 2nd battalion of Coldstream Guards , the individual selected by the Duke of Wellington as " the bravest of the brave " in the desperate combat at Waterloo , in order to profit by the generous offer of the Rev. Mr. Norcross , Rector of Framlingham , to confer a pension , during life , upon the soldier most distinguished in the brigade of guards on that glorious day . After the most minute inquiry , carried out by Sir John Byng 's directions , the laurel was awarded to an Irishman , John Graham , a native of Cloona [ sic ] , co . Monaghan .
= = Enduring legacy = =
James Graham 's exploits at Waterloo became much celebrated throughout Great Britain , and many accounts of the battle make reference to his actions , including a biography of Wellington , the memoirs of another sergeant , and Charles Dickens ' magazine Household Words . The shutting of the gate was portrayed by artist Robert Gibb in 1903 ; the painting is currently held by the National Museums of Scotland . A watercolour portrait of Sergeant Graham himself is held at the National Gallery of Ireland .
The actions of Graham and Macdonnell continue to be remembered as an iconic moment in the battle of Waterloo . In 1915 , cigarette manufacturers W.D. & H.O. Wills portrayed Graham and Macdonnell on one of the cigarette cards printed to commemorate the centenary of Waterloo . Since then , many authors of fiction concerning Waterloo have recreated the events at the gate , and even if they include their own fictional heroes they attribute the closing of the gate to Macdonnell and Graham .
The efforts of the Coldstream Guards at Waterloo , and Graham 's gallantry , remain celebrated by the Regiment . Every December the Sergeants ' Mess commemorate Graham 's bravery with a ceremonial game " Hanging the Brick " . The " Brick " – a stone from Hougoumont – is paraded through the barracks and hung up in the Sergeants ' Mess with all the honour due to regimental colours . Also retained by the Regiment are Graham 's Waterloo Medal and gallantry medal . In 2004 the Regiment named a new sergeants ' accommodation block after him , in Lille Barracks , Aldershot . A plaque on the building is inscribed with the words :
" In Memory of Sergeant James Graham WM , 2nd Battalion Coldstream Guards , " The Bravest Man in England " , Following His Actions in Closing The Gates at Hougoumont Farm , Waterloo , 18 June 1815 . "
= Hanky Panky ( Madonna song ) =
" Hanky Panky " is a song by American recording artist Madonna from her soundtrack album I 'm Breathless . It was released on June 30 , 1990 , by Sire Records as the album 's second and final single . Written and produced by Madonna and Patrick Leonard , the song was developed from a line in the parent film , Dick Tracy , talking about a woman who enjoys being spanked by her partner . Performed in an almost comical style , " Hanky Panky " is a jazz and swing song with a changing bassline and minor to major key @-@ shift in the chorus . It caused some controversy in Ireland because of its innuendo and racy lyrics , with women 's groups deeming them as harmful ; Madonna later clarified that the lyrics were intended as a joke .
The song garnered positive response from music critics , many of them highlighting its lyrical content . It was a moderate success , becoming a top @-@ ten hit in many countries including Australia , Ireland , Italy , the United Kingdom and the United States , while topping the chart in Finland . Madonna has performed the song on two of her concert tours ; on the 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour , and 14 years later on the Re @-@ Invention World Tour . The song has been covered by several tribute acts , and was also performed on the television series Ally McBeal ( 1997 ) .
= = Background and release = =
In 1990 , Madonna starred in the film Dick Tracy as Breathless Mahoney — a new role introduced for her — with Warren Beatty , her boyfriend at the time , playing the titular character . After the shooting for Dick Tracy was over , Madonna started working on the soundtrack . She had begun recording three songs by Stephen Sondheim for the film — " Sooner or Later " , " More " and " What Can You Lose " — which would be part of the album , but also had to write and develop new songs comparable in style to her previous releases . She produced the entire album , including the Sondheim songs . " I want people to think of me as a musical comedy actress . That 's what this album is about for me . It 's a stretch . Not just pop music , but songs that have a different feel to them , a theatrical feel " , she said at the time .
Madonna recruited producer Patrick Leonard and engineer Bill Bottrell to help her with the project . She and Leonard toiled to create music that would fit the style and production of the film , set in the days of the Untouchables law enforcement . " Hanky Panky " was written and produced by Madonna and Leonard and was released as the second and final single from I 'm Breathless on June 30 , 1990 . The cassette and the 7 " versions had " More " , another song from the album as its B @-@ side , while the 12 " releases had additional two remixes of the song by Kevin McGuilbert . Cover photograph for the single was done by Patrick Demarchelier with Jeri Heiden designing the sleeves .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Hanky Panky " was recorded within the three weeks time taken for the whole project . Personnel working on the song included Leonard on keyboards , Jeff Porcaro on drums , Guy Pratt on bass and Donna De Lory , Niki Haris and N 'Dea Davenport on background vocals . Lyrically , the song deals with sadomasochistic themes and is centered around a girl who celebrates the pleasures of a " good spanking " . It is performed in an almost comical style , and stemmed from a line in the film , where Breathless says to Tracy , " You don 't know whether to hit me or kiss me " . The track has a false introduction and starts slowly with piano , but changes after a few moments into a large jazz and swing song , with a changing bassline and minor to major key @-@ shift in the chorus . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , the song is set in common time , with a moderately slow groove tempo of 70 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of D minor , with Madonna 's vocals spanning from B ♭ 3 to D5 . The song has a basic sequence of Dm – C – Bm – A7sus in the beginning and changes to Dm – A – B ♭ 9 – A7 – Dm – C when the swing starts . During an interview with Rolling Stone , Madonna explained :
The spanking thing started because I believed that my character in Dick Tracy liked to get smacked around and that 's why she hung around with people like Al Pacino 's character . Warren [ Beatty ] asked me to write some songs , one of them , the Hanky Panky song , was about that . I say in the song ' Nothing like a good spanky ' , and in the middle I say , ' Ooh , my bottom hurts just thinking about it ' . When it came out everybody started asking , ' Do you like to get spanked | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
? ' and I said : ' Yeah . Yeah , I do ' .
The singer had to tone down some of the suggestive lyrics to please the officers at Disney , the producers of Dick Tracy , who were worried about their image . In Ireland , the song was subject to controversy after two women 's organizations accused Madonna of glorifying violence against women , specifically on the line " I 'll settle for the back of your hand " ; one of the groups , the National Women 's Council of Ireland , labelled the song " highly dangerous " while the other group , Ireland 's Women 's Aid , said the line was " extremely harmful " . Although initially approving of the idea of " getting spanked " — even admitting her fondness on The Arsenio Hall Show — Madonna later backed down from the theme of spanking , explaining that the lyrics were written as a joke and believed that it was instead her character Breathless Mahoney that liked to get spanked . She added that it should have been obvious that the song was humorous in nature , since Madonna believed her image was more of a dominant person who took charge , contrary to the song 's characterization .
= = Critical response = =
J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , commented that " the steamrolling ' Hanky Panky ' simply sounds like a silly innocent romp until you realize what she 's going on and on is about ( ' Warren 's favorite pastime ' ) ... being spanked ! " . The author also felt Madonna sang with " just a little too much authority " . Academic Georges Claude Guilbert , author of Madonna As Postmodern Myth , called it " a comic hymn to spanking " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic described it as a " double entendre @-@ laden hit " . Music critic Robert Christgau highlighted " Hanky Panky " as one of the best tracks on I 'm Breathless ; calling it a " fake period piece " but praising its " risqué s & m @-@ lite " sound as " all her " . Rolling Stone 's Mark Coleman wrote that the song , alongside " Cry Baby " and " I 'm Going Bananas " , was one of the " more @-@ legitimate sounding and confidently sung show tunes without a trace of disco " on the album . He also noted that " its titles alone are enough to conjure up visions of the elaborate production numbers on Madonna 's summer tour . " People magazine called it a " paean to kink " . Billboard 's Keith Caulfield referred to the song as a " goofy ( but catchy ! ) ditty about having a ' good spanky ' " .
Greg Sandow , from Entertainment Weekly , called it a " delightful challenge to censorship " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine felt it was a " cheeky " song , also writing that it touched on themes Madonna would go on to explore more explicitly later in the 1990s . Stephen Holden of The New York Times described it as a " big @-@ band blues [ song ] in which she endorses sexual spanking [ ... ] a calculated bid for outrage " . Ray Boren from The Deseret News described " Hanky Panky " as " naughty " , comparing it to the 1928 jazz song " Makin ' Whoopee " by Eddie Cantor . Dave Tianen from The Milwaukee Sentinel , while reviewing I 'm Breathless noted that " one aspect of Madonna remains constant even when you push her back in time . ' Hanky Panky ' is one of the few pop tunes to explore the erotic entertainment value in a good spanking . " Writing for The Pittsburgh Press , Peter B. King believed that the subject matter of " Hanky Panky " would surely receive " flank " , but defended Madonna saying that she had been singing about such topics for years by then . The Huffington Post ranked the song fifth on their list of " The 13 Most Underrated Madonna Songs " ; author Pandora Boxx hailed it as " a great fusion of ' 90s pop and vintage ' 30s " , but noted that " it 's ' scandalous ' subject matter ruffled too many feathers to make it a big hit " . A negative review came from Royal S. Brown , author of Film Musings : A Selected Anthology from Fanfare Magazine , who called it " ridiculous " .
= = Chart performance = =
Following its release , " Hanky Panky " was initially blacklisted at some radio stations when they faced objections from audiences about the lyrical content . Nevertheless , it debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 40 the week of June 30 , 1990 , as " Vogue " was descending from the top ten . The single quickly climbed up the chart , ultimately peaking at number ten the week of July 28 , 1990 . It was eventually certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on September 19 , 1990 , for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . Billboard ranked it at number 36 on their list of " Madonna 's 40 Biggest Hits " on the Hot 100 . In Canada , the song debuted at number 92 on the RPM Top Singles chart , and reached a peak of number 18 on the week of September 1 , 1990 . It was present for a total of 13 weeks on the chart .
In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 14 on the UK Singles Chart and after two weeks , reached its peak of number two the week of July 27 , 1990 ; spending a total of nine weeks within the top 100 of the chart . It was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on August 1 , 1990 , for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies . According to the Official Charts Company , the single has sold over 210 @,@ 000 copies as of October 2010 . In Australia , " Hanky Panky " debuted at number 18 on the ARIA Singles Chart the week of July 29 , 1990 , and peaked at number six four weeks later . It was ranked at number 45 on the ARIA year end chart . In New Zealand , the single debuted at number 23 on RIANZ Singles Chart and , after fluctuating for the next three weeks , reached a peak of number six , becoming Madonna 's 18th top @-@ ten single in the country . In the European nations , " Hanky Panky " reached the top @-@ ten of the charts in Ireland and Italy , as well as topping the charts in Finland . On the year @-@ end Italian charts , the song was ranked at number 38 . In other countries such as Austria , Belgium , Germany , Spain , Switzerland and the Netherlands , it managed to peak within the top 20 of the charts .
= = Live performances and covers = =
" Hanky Panky " was first performed on Madonna 's third concert tour , the Blond Ambition World Tour of 1990 . She performed the song dressed in a green and white striped vaudeville @-@ style corset , playing the part of a nightclub singer , standing in front of a microphone . Near the end of the performance , Madonna joked : " You all know the pleasures of a good spanking , don 't you ? [ ... ] When I hurt people , I feel better , you know what I mean ? " . Regarding the " shameless promotion " of Dick Tracy in this segment , author Lucy O 'Brien said that " along with her yen for artistic expression , Madonna has always had an eye on the bottom dollar ... [ But ] the Dick Tracy section is the least dynamic part of the show " . Two different performances were released on video , the first was included in Blond Ambition Japan Tour 90 , taped from the performance at Yokohama Stadium in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and the other once included on Blond Ambition World Tour Live , taped at the Stade de l 'Ouest in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 .
Fourteen years later , Madonna performed an energetic , showgirl themed version of " Hanky Panky " as part of her 2004 Re @-@ Invention World Tour . She appeared onstage dressed in a circus themed outfit , consisting of black hot pants and a bustier ; this ensemble resembled like a 1920s flapper in red and white stripes . Sean Piccoli , from the Sun @-@ Sentinel , praised Madonna 's ability to " summon the vampy humor of ' Hanky Panky ' — a Bette Midler moment if ever [ Madonna ] had one " . On May 2000 , the song was performed by actress Alicia Witt on the third season finale of the American television series Ally McBeal , titled " The Musical , Almost " . An Indie cover version by the band Killer Nannies In America , was included on the 2000 tribute album The Material Girl : A Tribute to Madonna . The Gary Tesca Orchestra included an instrumental version of the song on their album Who 's That Girl : The Madonna Story , Vol . 1 ( 2006 ) .
= = Track listings and formats = =
US cassette / 7 " single
" Hanky Panky " – 3 : 57
" More " – 4 : 56
AUS / US / EUR maxi @-@ single
" Hanky Panky " ( Bare Bones Single Mix ) – 3 : 57
" Hanky Panky " ( Bare Bottom 12 " Mix ) – 6 : 36
" More " – 4 : 56
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – writer , vocals , producer
Patrick Leonard – writer , producer , keyboards
Jeff Porcaro – drums
Guy Pratt – bass
Donna De Lory – background vocals
Niki Haris – background vocals
N 'Dea Davenport – background vocals
Kevin McGuilbert – remix and additional production
Patrick Demarchelier – cover photographer
Jeri Heiden – designer
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Tucker : The Man and His Dream =
Tucker : The Man and His Dream is a 1988 American biographical comedy @-@ drama film directed by Francis Ford Coppola and starring Jeff Bridges . The film recounts the story of Preston Tucker and his attempt to produce and market the 1948 Tucker Sedan , which was met with scandal between the " Big Three automobile manufacturers " and accusations of stock fraud from the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission . Joan Allen , Martin Landau , Elias Koteas , Frederic Forrest and Christian Slater appear in supporting roles .
In 1973 , Coppola began development of a film based on the life of Tucker , originally with Marlon Brando in the lead role . Starting in 1976 , Coppola planned Tucker to be both a musical and an experimental film with music and lyrics written by Leonard Bernstein , Betty Comden and Adolph Green . The project eventually collapsed when Coppola 's American Zoetrope experienced financial problems . Tucker was revived in 1986 when Coppola 's friend , George Lucas , joined as a producer .
The film received critical praise , but was a box office disappointment . Nonetheless , Tucker : The Man and His Dream produced a spike in prices of Tucker Sedans , as well as a renewed appreciation for Tucker and his automobiles .
= = Plot = =
Detroit engineer Preston Tucker ( Jeff Bridges ) has been interested in building cars since childhood . During World War II he designed an armored car for the military and made money building gun turrets for aircraft in a small shop next to his home in Ypsilanti , Michigan . Tucker is supported by his large , extended family , including wife Vera ( Joan Allen ) and eldest son Preston Jr ( Christian Slater ) .
As the war winds down , Tucker has a dream of finally building the " car of the future . " The " Tucker Torpedo " will feature revolutionary safety designs including disc brakes , seat belts , a pop out windshield , and head lights which swivel when you turn . Tucker hires young designer Alex Tremulis ( Elias Koteas ) to help with the design and enlists New York financier Abe Karatz ( Martin Landau ) , to arrange financial support . Raising the money through a stock issue , Tucker and Karatz acquire the enormous Dodge Chicago Plant to begin manufacturing . Abe hires Robert Bennington ( Dean Goodman ) to run the new Tucker Corporation on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis .
Launching " the car of tomorrow " in a spectacular way , the Tucker Corporation is met with enthusiasm from shareholders and the general public . However , the Tucker company board of directors , unsure of his ability to overcome the technical and financial obstacles ahead , send Tucker off on a publicity campaign , and attempt to take complete control of the company . While Tucker travels the country , Bennington and directors change the design of Tucker 's car to a more conventional design , eliminating the safety and engineering advances Tucker was advertising . At the same time , Tucker faces animosity from the Big Three and the authorities led by Michigan Senator Homer S. Ferguson ( Lloyd Bridges ) .
Tucker returns from his publicity tour and confronts Bennington , who curtly informs him that he no longer has any power in the company to make decisions , and the engine originally planned for the car is not viable . Tucker then receives a call from Howard Hughes ( Dean Stockwell ) , who sends a private plane to bring Tucker to his aircraft manufacturing site . Hughes advises Tucker to purchase Air Cooled Motors , which can supply both the steel Tucker needs , as well as a small , powerful helicopter engine that might replace Tucker 's original " 589 " power plant .
Faced with being unable to change Bennington 's design , Tucker modifies the new engine and installs it in a test Tucker in the secrecy of his backyard tool and die shop . This prototype proves successful in both durability and crash testing . However , Tucker is confronted with allegations of stock fraud . Ferguson 's investigation with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) , causes Karatz , once convicted of bank fraud , to resign , fearful that his criminal record will prejudice the hearings . Yellow journalism starts ruining Tucker 's public image even though the ultimate courtroom battle is resolved when he parades his entire production run of 50 Tucker Torpedoes , proving that he has reached production status .
After giving a speech to the jurors on how capitalism in the United States is harmed by efforts of large corporations against small entrepreneurs like himself , Tucker is acquitted on all charges . Nevertheless , his company falls into bankruptcy and Preston Tucker dies of lung cancer seven years later , never able to realize his dream of producing a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art automobile .
The film ends with all 50 Tucker Sedans being driven down the streets of downtown Chicago , admired by everyone as they pass .
= = Cast = =
= = Background = =
From childhood , Coppola envisioned a film about the Tucker automobile and while attending the UCLA School of Theater , Film and Television in the early 1960s , further refined a film concept based on the life of Preston Tucker . In June 1973 , during the filming of The Godfather Part II ( 1974 ) , Coppola announced his intention to start development at American Zoetrope as writer , producer and director . He had already approached Marlon Brando for the lead role . He then purchased the rights from the Tucker Estate in 1976 , and , in addition to Brando , discussed the leading role with Jack Nicholson and also considered Burt Reynolds . Taking inspiration from Citizen Kane ( 1941 ) , Kabuki theater and the work of Bertolt Brecht , Coppola initially planned to make Tucker as a " dark kind of musical . " He later said that the idea approximated the style of an experimental film , similar to Mishima : A Life in Four Chapters ( 1985 ) , which he produced .
The musical would have featured Tucker predominantly , but storylines would have interwoven Thomas Edison , Henry Ford , Harvey Samuel Firestone and Andrew Carnegie as supporting characters . Leonard Bernstein agreed to write the music , and Betty Comden and Adolph Green were hired to write the lyrics . They all spent a week at Coppola 's home in California , planning the musical which resulted in Bernstein writing one song . Coppola also approached Gene Kelly as a consultant for the dance choreography . However , financing for Tucker fell through when Coppola 's production company , American Zoetrope , filed for bankruptcy after the box office failures of One from the Heart ( 1982 ) and The Cotton Club ( 1984 ) . Coppola abandoned Tucker for the time being and went to work on Peggy Sue Got Married ( 1986 ) .
In 1986 , during the production of Captain EO ( 1986 ) , Coppola 's friend George Lucas encouraged him to revive development for Tucker , believing it to be " the best film Francis had ever been involved with . " In addition , Lucas agreed to serve as executive producer and offered the use of his filmmaking companies , Lucasfilm and Industrial Light & Magic . He also convinced Coppola to drop the musical idea in favor of doing a homage to the films of Frank Capra , especially Mr. Smith Goes to Washington ( 1939 ) . Coppola became interested in the American Dream aspect of the storyline , as well as post @-@ World War II capitalism and politics . At one point , Coppola approached Capra to produce the film with Lucas , however , Capra thought Tucker was a failure and Coppola dropped that plan .
Coppola originally intended to write the screenplay himself , but due to his commitment to the filming of Gardens of Stone ( 1987 ) , engaged Arnold Schulman who scripted Capra 's A Hole in the Head ( 1959 ) . Schulman eventually collaborated with David Seidler on the Tucker project . Subsequently , Coppola rewrote the Schulman and Seidler scripts , but an attempt to get a co @-@ writing credit on the film was overruled by the Writers Guild of America , as an arbitration committee determined Coppola did not contribute enough to the script to warrant an on @-@ screen writing credit . The filmmakers devised a $ 24 million production budget , but Universal Pictures , Walt Disney Pictures , TriStar Pictures and Paramount Pictures wanted Coppola and Lucas to lower it to $ 15 million . Distributors were also dubious about working with Lucas after the 1986 commercial and critical failures of both Labyrinth and Howard the Duck . Lucas decided to cover the $ 24 million budget himself , and pre @-@ production proceeded .
= = Production = =
Development and production for Tucker : The Man and His Dream included the involvement of Tucker 's children and grandchildren . Jeff Bridges was cast in the title role and , for research , studied Preston Tucker 's mannerisms and movements through home movies . Tucker 's descendants also granted Bridges the opportunity to sport the man 's black pearl ring and cuff links for his wardrobe . Preston 's son , John Tucker , said that Bridges has " got it all in the mannerisms and the look . My father was very positive , always thinking of what came next . Jeff captures that . " Martin Landau was enthusiastic about accepting the pivotal role of Abe Karatz as a means to avoid typecasting . The construct of family values played a crucial role in the Tuckers ' life and Coppola studiously selected Joan Allen for the part of Vera , Tucker 's devoted wife while Christian Slater and Elias Koteas fill in the other central roles of eldest son and Tucker 's friend and confederate , Alex Tremulis . Coppola 's family was undergoing a stressful time during the production and he dedicated the film to Gio , his eldest son , who died before filming began .
Principal photography started with first unit shooting on April 13 , 1987 in the Ford Motor Company Assembly Plant in Richmond , California , doubling for the Dodge Chicago Plant . The majority of outdoor filming took place in Marin County , California as well as various locations including Oakland , Novato , and San Francisco . Forty @-@ seven of the original 52 Tucker ' 48s still exist , and many are in excellent condition . Twenty @-@ one of the cars were borrowed from members of the Tucker Automobile Club of America and were extensively used as both " set dressing " and in starring roles . Three cars were used to film the crash scene , a " before " version , with a fiberglass body , the car used to do the actual rollover was a Studebaker modified to look like a Tucker ( this car is currently in a privately owned museum in Tallahassee , Florida ) , and an " after crash " version which was another fiberglass body fitted to a Ford LTD chassis . The production is notable as the first film to have audio mixing work done at Lucas 's Skywalker Ranch . Production wrapped on July 17 , 1987 , and in the following month , Lucas convinced Paramount Pictures to distribute the film and cover the majority of the budget . He was helped by the fact that the studio was courting Coppola to direct The Godfather Part III ( 1990 ) . Prior to final editing , the studio insisted on amplifying the title to Tucker : The Man and His Dream .
= = Historical accuracy = =
Coppola had a certain amount of personal affinity with the short @-@ lived legacy of Preston Tucker . His father , Carmine Coppola , had been one of the original investors in Tucker stock and purchased one of the cars off the production line . Coppola included the involvement of Preston Tucker 's children , grandchildren and members of the Tucker Estate during the development of Tucker in the late 1970s , as well as during filming in 1987 . Coppola and Lucas acknowledged that they purposely intended to portray Tucker in an entirely sympathetic way . Both filmmakers each owned two Tuckers , although Lucas eventually sold one of his cars in September 2005 for $ 385 @,@ 500 . The Tucker Automobile Club made up of a legion of Tucker owners and collectors pronounced in their trade journal , TACA , that the " basic theme of the movie is quite accurate ... " although " the film compresses time and often takes artistic license with facts in order to more effectively present the story . "
Anahid Nazarian , Coppola 's librarian , spoke of the historical inaccuracies . " Preston Tucker didn 't really have an assembly line ; there 's one in the film . He actually had five kids ; there are only four in the film . Our story takes place in one year ; the real story took place over four years . People who know the story will find a lot of what they call errors . I 'm sure I 'll be deluged with letters . " Nazarian 's research , collected over several years , consisted of books , some 350 articles , interviews with the Tucker family , hundreds of photographs , home movies and information from the Tucker Automobile Club of America who the production company considered important arbiters of the Tucker mystique . " We knew the facts , " she continued , " but to fit the spirit of the story in a film that is exciting and has characters you love and characters you hate - that made us change a lot of things . Things like the president of the Tucker Company was a good guy really , but we needed a villain , so we made him a villain . " Alex Tremulis who served as one of the historical consultants during production , is depicted as the chief car designer of the Tucker Torpedo rather than as the stylist , and the film ignores the involvement of designer Philip Egan .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Tucker : The Man and His Dream was released in the United States on August 12 , 1988 , earning $ 3 @,@ 709 @,@ 562 in its opening weekend in 720 theaters . The film eventually grossed $ 19 @.@ 65 million in US totals and was declared a box office bomb because it did not reimburse its $ 24 million production budget , despite positive reviews . Pocket Books published a novelization written by Robert Tine to coincide with the release of the film . Paramount Home Video released Tucker : The Man and His Dream on DVD in October 2000 , which included audio commentary by Coppola , the 1948 promotional film Tucker : The Man and the Car ( with optional commentary by Coppola ) , as well as a making @-@ of featurette , Under the Hood : Making Tucker .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reaction was mainly positive . Based on 37 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 84 % of the critics enjoyed the film with an average score of 7 @.@ 2 / 10 . By comparison Metacritic calculated an average score of 74 / 100 , based on 13 reviews . Richard Schickel of Time magazine praised the film for its exaggerated kitsch style . He also believed the role of Preston Tucker to be Jeff Bridges ' best performance . Janet Maslin from The New York Times agreed , writing that Coppola , known for his dark approach on his previous films , " found the directorial range to actually make a feel @-@ good movie . " In addition , Desson Thomson , writing in The Washington Post , called the film a " satisfying commercial breakthrough for Coppola , " and praised the cinematography of Vittorio Storaro , as well as the ubiquitous approach for Dean Stockwell 's cameo appearance as Howard Hughes . Roger Ebert gave a mixed review . " Preston Tucker lacks an ounce of common sense or any notion of the real odds against him . And since the movie never really deals with that - never really comes to grips with Tucker 's character - it begins as a saga but ends in whimsy . "
Although Coppola enjoyed his working relationship with Lucas , he commented in a July 1988 The New York Times interview with Robert Lindsey that " I think it 's a good movie - it 's eccentric , a little wacky , like the Tucker car - but it 's not the movie I would have made at the height of my power . " Coppola was able to stoically accept the critical and commercial reaction to Tucker : The Man and His Dream . " Every time in my career I tried to make , dare I say it , an art film , it never did well . "
Despite helming his " labor of love , " Coppola was insistent that Tucker : The Man and His Dream would be his last Hollywood project . He reiterated a long @-@ held dream of his own , embarking on a " period of amateurism and experimentation as a Hollywood dropout . " One of the unexpected benefits of the film 's release was a renewed interest in the Tucker automobile and a boost in the collector 's value of the Tucker 48 ; a recent auction of a low @-@ mileage example topped the $ 1 million mark .
= = Awards = =
At the 61st Academy Awards , Martin Landau was nominated for Best Supporting Actor , while production and set designers Dean Tavoularis and Armin Ganz ( Art Direction ) and Milena Canonero ( Costume Design ) were also nominated for their work . Landau did end up winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture , while Tavoularis won the BAFTA Award for Best Production Design . Casting directors Jane Jenkins and Janet Hirshenson received a nomination for Feature Film Casting- Drama by the Casting Society of America . The film was nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics . Music composer Joe Jackson received a Grammy Award nomination .
= Aggie Bonfire =
Aggie Bonfire was a long @-@ standing tradition at Texas A & M University as part of the college rivalry with the University of Texas at Austin . For 90 years , Texas A & M students — known as Aggies — built and burned a bonfire on campus each autumn . Known to the Aggie community simply as " Bonfire " , the annual autumn event symbolized Aggie students ' " burning desire to beat the hell outta t.u. " , a derogatory nickname for the University of Texas . The bonfire was traditionally lit around Thanksgiving in conjunction with festivities surrounding the annual college football game . Although early bonfires were little more than piles of trash , as time passed the annual event became more organized . Over the years the bonfire grew to an immense size , setting the world record in 1969 . In 1999 , the Bonfire collapsed during construction , killing twelve people , eleven students and one former student , and injuring twenty @-@ seven others . The accident led Texas A & M to declare a hiatus on an official Bonfire . However , since 2002 , a student @-@ sponsored coalition has constructed an annual unsanctioned , off @-@ campus " Student Bonfire " in the spirit of its predecessor .
= = Early years = =
The students of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas , known as Aggies , burned their first bonfire on November 18 , 1907 to congratulate the football team on a recent win . The first on @-@ campus Aggie Bonfire , a heap of trash and debris , was burned in 1909 to generate enthusiasm for a variety of sporting events . A decade later , the focus of the event narrowed to the annual rivalry game between Texas A & M and the University of Texas , held near Thanksgiving Day . Little information was recorded about the early Bonfires ; the 1921 Texas A & M yearbook mentioned the " final rally " of the students before the game against Texas , but did not refer to a bonfire . Six years later , the school yearbook published a photograph of the event .
Freshmen were expected to build the early Bonfires to help prove their worth . For almost two decades , the students constructed Bonfire from debris and wood acquired through various , sometimes illicit , means , including appropriating lumber intended for a dormitory in 1912 . In 1935 , a farmer reported that students carried off his entire barn as fuel for Bonfire . To prevent future incidents , the university made Bonfire a school @-@ sanctioned event . The following year , for the first time , the school provided axes , saws , and trucks for the students and pointed them toward a grove of dead trees on the edge of town .
During the 1940s , the school paper described Bonfire as " the greatest event of the football season " . The 1947 Corps handbook stated that " bonfire symbolizes two things : a burning desire to beat the team from the University of Texas , and the undying flame of love that every loyal Aggie carries in his heart for the school " ; this was often shortened to " the burning desire to beat the hell out of t.u. " The Bonfire design changed in 1942 . Universal Studios , filming the movie We 've Never Been Licked on the Texas A & M Campus , built a bonfire as a prop for the movie . Their structure used a design similar to a teepee , where all the logs rested against each other in a conical shape . The logs were placed at an angle between 23 and 30 degrees , giving it " a tremendous vertical and horizontal resistance " . This allowed Bonfire to grow from 25 feet ( 8 m ) tall to over 50 feet ( 20 m ) tall . Subsequent Aggies adopted the new idea , and the teepee design became standard for Bonfires for the next twenty @-@ five years .
Beginning in 1952 , the bonfires were constructed entirely from fresh @-@ cut logs . The event suffered its first fatality in 1955 , when a student was struck by a swerving car . The same year ( for unrelated reasons ) , Bonfire was moved from Simpson Drill Field in front of the Memorial Student Center to Duncan Field , near the dorms of the Corps of Cadets ( whose leaders oversaw construction ) . In 1957 , the structure collapsed two days before Bonfire was to be held , but students worked around @-@ the @-@ clock to rebuild it , and the bonfire burned as scheduled .
During this period , University of Texas students attempted several stunts , trying to light the stack early , but to no avail . In both 1933 and 1948 , students from UT rented an airplane and tried to drop fire bombs onto the stack . In one of these instances , the plane ran low on fuel , and was forced to land at Easterwood Airport in College Station — the wooden portions of the plane found themselves part of Bonfire that year . In 1956 , there was an unsuccessful attempt to plant explosives at the Bonfire site , and , in the late 1970s , a College Station police officer was fired after trying to ignite the bonfire several days ahead of schedule . Students spotted the officer before he could succeed and chased him across campus . In 1999 , a Longhorn fan hired someone to build a six @-@ foot model airplane designed to carry a bomb into the wood stack to ignite it prematurely . " He was actually in the process of building that plane when they had the tragedy at bonfire " , Mel Stekoll said . " At that point , we scrapped the plan . It would have been the next year that we planned to try it . "
= = Organizational change and expansion = =
In 1965 , membership in the Corps of Cadets became voluntary for students at Texas A & M. Before , Corps leaders directed construction of Bonfire . However , because the Corps had no authority over the " non @-@ regs " , or civilian students , a separate Bonfire leadership structure was instituted . The new leaders were designated with colored hard hats , or pots , with the overall leaders known as redpots .
The first Bonfire built with both Corps and non @-@ reg participation was in 1963 . The stack was scheduled to burn only days after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy . Out of respect , the students dismantled the stack . As Head Yell Leader Mike Marlowe explained , " It is the most we have and the least we can give . "
In the following years the structure became more elaborate , and in 1967 the flames could be seen 25 miles ( 40 km ) away . In 1969 , the stack of logs set the world record for the height of a bonfire at 109 ft 10 in ( 33 m ) tall . Out of concern for the safety of participants and the community , the university limited the size to 55 feet ( 17 m ) tall and 45 feet ( 14 m ) in diameter . As an added precaution , nearby campus buildings were equipped with rooftop sprinkler systems . Despite the new height restrictions , in the 1970s , the Guinness Book of Records listed Aggie Bonfire as the largest Bonfire in the world .
= = Design change = =
In 1978 , Bonfire shifted from its previous teepee design to a wedding cake style , in which upper stacks of logs were wedged on top of lower stacks . The structure was built around a fortified center pole , made from two telephone poles spliced together by cutting matching notches , approximately 10 feet ( 3 m ) long , and with 5 US gallons ( 19 L ) of glue . Four steel plates were bolted to the two poles , and a 3 ⁄ 8 inch ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) cable wrapped around the joint and secured to the pole with steel staples . Four perimeter poles were placed 150 feet ( 46 m ) away and ropes were stretched between the perimeter poles to center poles and tension placed on them to hold the center pole together . After the center pole was erected , logs were placed vertically around it in a multi @-@ tiered wedding cake design composed of thousands of logs . By 1984 , the logs were sloping only 14 degrees . The spiral arrangement of the logs was designed to make Bonfire collapse into itself in a twisting motion , thus protecting spectators . Although the tradition stated that if Bonfire burned through midnight then A & M would win the following day 's football game , the introduction of the wedding cake design drastically reduced the time it took for Bonfire to fall , sometimes burning for only 30 or 45 minutes .
Despite the complexity of the design , there were no formal written instructions or architectural blueprints for the construction of Bonfire . Knowledge on how to build the structure was passed verbally from one redpot to the next . By 1999 , the only written documentation on the building of Bonfire was the rough schematic printed on the back of the official Bonfire T @-@ shirt worn by participants from the freshman honors dormitory , Lechner .
While the Bonfires of the 1960s were constructed in five to ten days , working primarily in daylight , by the late 1970s , changes in the school led to a more elaborate and lengthy construction schedule . Construction began in late October with " Cut " , obtaining wood by cutting down trees with axes , which took several weekends . After Cut , students brought the logs to campus during " Load " , a process by which the logs were loaded by hand onto flatbed trucks and brought to campus . In early November , crews began " Stack " , a three @-@ week period in which the logs were wired together and Bonfire took shape . Near the end of stack , known as " Push " , students worked around the clock in rotating shifts . The first four of the six stacks were built with the efforts of all safety @-@ trained participants . The day before Bonfire was scheduled to burn , junior redpots would build the fifth stack , and then senior redpots would build the sixth .
During Cut , all logs were felled by hand , with students working in teams to chop down each tree with their axes . The manual labor ensured that participants were invested in each log that went into the Bonfire . Once the trees had fallen , brownpots , the " executive lumberjacks " , used chainsaws to cut limbs and prepare the logs .
To ensure safety during the Stack period , the organizers maintained a perimeter around the working area , and allowed only safety @-@ trained students through . Cranes , donated by local construction companies , assisted in getting logs onto the upper tiers , and volunteers from those companies were on @-@ hand at all times to offer advice . Emergency medical technicians were also required to be on site at all times and no more than 70 students at a time were allowed on the stack . Once the stack was finished , " an outhouse constructed by the freshmen of Texas A & M 's " Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band " and painted orange [ symbolizing a ] t.u. frat house " was bedecked with derogatory statements about rival University of Texas at Austin and then placed on top of the stack .
Although between two and five thousand students participated in the construction of Bonfire each year , most worked only part @-@ time , and many worked only one or two shifts . Student workers were organized by dormitories or Corps units , with a separate off @-@ campus student team . Many former students participated with teams they belonged to as students . Each team had assigned shifts , although individuals were not limited to working only the assigned shifts . Students working on Bonfire wore " grodes " — old T @-@ shirts , jeans , and boots . By tradition , grodes were either not washed until after Bonfire burned or not washed at all .
In 1983 , the city of College Station began manufacturing Austin city limits signs for students to place at the summit of the Bonfire so that students would stop stealing signs from Austin . The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band began building the outhouse , ending the tradition of stealing Bonfire 's components .
= = Controversy = =
Although women were allowed to serve coffee and provide first aid in the late 1960s , in 1974 they were officially banned from both Cut and Stack . The ban was partially rescinded in 1979 , when women were again allowed to participate in Cut , and completely rescinded in 1981 . Few women participated in the early years , as female volunteers were subject to verbal abuse from their male counterparts . In 1987 , two female photographers from the school yearbook alleged that male workers shouted obscenities and threw dirt on them as they tried to take pictures of the raising of the center pole . The redpots responded that women were always welcome to participate as long as they did their share of the work , and that the photographers were standing dangerously close to the stack . To find their own place in the Bonfire hierarchy , female students founded the all @-@ female Bonfire Reload Crew to provide refreshments to those working at Cut and Stack .
Injuries plagued the construction process . In 1981 , student Wiley Keith Jopling died after being run over by a tractor at the Cut site . At the 1985 Cut site , one student broke his hip , and , in 1989 , another student lost two fingers when logs crushed his hand . Fractures and amputations were rare , but many students suffered cuts , scrapes , or exposure to poison ivy . Hazing , including beatings with ax handles , was common .
The 1980s also saw increased alcohol consumption during the Bonfire ceremony . In 1988 , police issued 140 Minor in Possession ( of alcohol ) citations and arrested six people . The following year , the local police department brought a paddywagon to the site for the first time , as they anticipated mass arrests for alcohol violations . As many as 150 police officers were on duty during the Bonfire burning from the Texas A & M and College Station police departments and the Texas Alcoholic Beverage Commission .
In 1989 , the Campus Ministry Association , representing 17 religious denominations , unanimously approved a resolution asking the university to change Bonfire because of concerns about safety , participant academic performance , humanitarian considerations , and the environment . Shortly afterwards , the Faculty Senate 's Committee of the Whole approved a resolution asking for a panel to explore alternatives to Bonfire .
Although students protested Bonfire 's environmental impact since 1970 , no changes were made for decades . In 1990 , student Scott Hantman asked the Bonfire leadership to help him address the problem . The group solicited volunteers , and in the spring of 1991 , they planted 400 trees . The tradition , Aggie Replant , has been repeated annually . The Replant organization became independent of Bonfire in 1994 when it gained its own Student Government Committee .
= = Later years = =
After being held at the Duncan Intramural Fields on the south side of A & M 's campus for twenty @-@ seven years , in 1992 , Bonfire was relocated to the Polo Fields on the northeast corner of campus . This more isolated site , with a larger area for people to gather , made it a safer location . After heavy rains in 1994 , the partially completed Bonfire began to slowly lean to the side as the soil underneath shifted . Student officials had enough warning to clear the area and tear down the Bonfire one week before its scheduled burn date . Nine tractors , two bulldozers , and two forklifts dismantled the stack on October 26 , 1994 , which , at 70 % completed , stood 40 feet ( 12 m ) tall and 45 feet ( 14 m ) wide .
The 1999 collapse of Bonfire was witnessed by thousands of people around the world . The Texas A & M Department of Computer Science set up a camera aimed at the Bonfire site that took a picture every 10 minutes and posted it on the Internet . On the day of the collapse over 29 @,@ 000 visitors visited the web page , at a time when only 20 million people worldwide had Internet access .
Students and alumni flocked to the Polo Fields , working around the clock , to rebuild the Bonfire in time for the game . It was completed only hours before it was scheduled to burn . After the 1994 Bonfire was burned , two tons of lime were spread on the Polo Fields to stabilize the ground . This layer hardened to a consistency similar to concrete .
In 1996 a student , Greg White , died in a car accident on his way home from Cut . The student and several companions were riding in the bed of a pickup truck when the driver lost control and the truck rolled . Nine other students were injured .
In its later years , students building Bonfire used logs donated by local landowners who wanted their land cleared for construction or farming . Over 8000 logs were used each year in the late 1990s , taking about 5000 students a combined 125 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours to construct . After being doused in 700 lb ( 318 kg ) of jet fuel , applied by staff members at A & M 's Fire Training School , the Yell Leaders , Drum Majors , and Redpots then lit the stack with torches the night before the annual football game against the University of Texas when at home and two nights before the game when it was played in Austin .
This event was popular amongst current and former students and people traveled from all over the state and the nation to observe the burning of Bonfire . Hotel rooms within 65 miles ( 105 km ) of College Station were booked weeks or months in advance of the date Bonfire burned . Crowds ranged from 30 @,@ 000 to 70 @,@ 000 people , depending on the weather and the strength of the Aggie football team . The 1998 Bonfire was broadcast live on Fox Sports Southwest .
= = 1999 collapse = =
At approximately 2 : 42 a.m. on November 18 , 1999 , the 59 @-@ foot high stack , consisting of about 5000 logs , collapsed during construction . Of the 58 students and former students working on the stack , 12 were killed and 27 were injured . Immediately after the collapse , Emergency Medical Technicians and trained First Responders of the Texas A & M Emergency Care Team ( TAMECT ) , the student @-@ run , volunteer first @-@ responder service of Texas A & M University , who staffed every stage of construction of Bonfire , triaged patients and administered first aid . TAMECT medics radioed an alert to University Police and Texas A & M University EMS ( also a student @-@ run service ) , who dispatched all remaining university medics , and requested mutual aid from the surrounding EMS , Fire , and Police agencies . In addition to the mutual aid received from the College Station and Bryan , Texas EMS , Fire , and Police Departments , members of Texas Task Force 1 , the state 's elite emergency response team , arrived to assist the rescue efforts .
Rescue operations took over 24 hours ; the pace was hampered by the decision to remove many of the logs by hand for fear that using heavy equipment to remove them would cause further collapses , resulting in further injuries to those still trapped . Students , including the entire Texas A & M football team and many members of the university 's Corps of Cadets , rushed to the site to assist rescue workers with the manual removal of the logs . The Texas A & M civil engineering department was also called on to examine the site and help the workers determine the order in which the logs could be safely removed , and , at the request of the Texas Forest Service , Steely Lumber Company in Huntsville , Texas sent log @-@ moving equipment and operators . Bonfire survivor John Comstock was the last living person to be removed from the stack . He spent months in the hospital following amputation of his left leg and partial paralysis of his right side . Comstock returned to A & M in 2001 to finish his degree .
= = = Response = = =
Within minutes of the collapse , word of the accident spread among students and the community . Before sunrise , the accident was the subject of news reports around the world . Within hours , 50 satellite trucks were broadcasting from the Texas A & M campus . At noon , students held an impromptu prayer service in the center of campus , at Rudder Fountain . An official memorial service was held less than seventeen hours after the collapse . Over 16 @,@ 000 mourners , including then Texas Lieutenant Governor Rick Perry , packed Reed Arena to pay tribute to those who died and those who had spent all day trying to rescue the injured . At the end of the service , as A & M University President Ray Bowen presented roses to the families of the dead and injured students , the crowd spontaneously stood in silence , linking arms with those standing next to them , before quietly singing " Amazing Grace " . Only after all of the rescue workers and family members had left the facility did the audience depart .
On November 25 , 1999 , the date that Bonfire would have burned , Aggies instead held a vigil and remembrance ceremony . Over 40 @,@ 000 people lit candles and observed up to two hours of silence at the site of the collapse , before walking to Kyle Field for yell practice . At the stadium , fans spontaneously relit their candles as the Parsons Mounted Cavalry fired the Aggie cannon twelve times , once for each victim . Former President George H. W. Bush and his wife Barbara and Texas Governor George W. Bush and his wife Laura attended the remembrance ceremony .
The following day , the Aggies upset the Texas Longhorns , winning 20 – 16 in the annual rivalry game . The game began with a flyover of F @-@ 16 jets , all piloted by former A & M students , in the missing man formation . This flyover was donated by Senator Phil Gramm who , as an elected official , had the title of a fly @-@ over reserved for his death and asked that the fly @-@ over be given instead in the honor of the 12 Aggies that died . At halftime , the Texas Longhorn Band dedicated their performance to the students lost and injured in the collapse , and ended by playing Amazing Grace and Taps , then removing their white hats in a show of respect as they walked off the field . The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band also played a tribute to the fallen and , contrary to the usual tradition , marched off the field in a silent cadence . Aggie students , who normally sit only when the opposing band plays , stood throughout both performances and gave both standing ovations .
The Bonfire Memorial Commission collected the hundreds of thousands of items that were left by grieving visitors at the site of the collapse . At the Systems Building , Texas A & M leaders erected pictures of the deceased students . There , over a dozen seniors left behind their Aggie rings , permanently donating them to the students who did not live long enough to earn their own . Various organizations also established funds in memory of the victims and to help with expenses incurred because of the accident . In total , the funds received exceeded US $ 250 @,@ 000 .
= = = Cause , aftermath , and controversy = = =
A commission created by Texas A & M University discovered that a number of factors led to the Bonfire collapse , including " excessive internal stresses " on the logs and " inadequate containment strength " in the wiring used to tie the logs together . The wiring broke after logs from upper tiers were " wedged " into lower tiers .
Detractors further blamed the school for the accident , saying that , in the name of tradition , administrators turned a blind eye to an unsafe structure being constructed with minimal engineering and safety protocols . Before the collapse , some people expressed concerns about the safety of the Bonfire , citing the partial collapse that occurred in a previous Bonfire , the progressively shorter Bonfire burn times ( collapse of the stack after lighting ) which had dropped from several hours to less than 20 minutes , and numerous incidents involving alcohol or unsafe horseplay at the Bonfire site . One of the students killed in the 1999 Bonfire collapse was under the legal drinking age yet a toxicology test showed high blood @-@ alcohol levels ; however , lower readings in a second test and inconsistencies in the initial sampling and annotation methods led to questions about the accuracy of the original tests .
Parents of students injured or killed in the 1999 collapse filed lawsuits against Texas A & M officials , including President Ray Bowen , Vice President of Student Affairs J. Malon Southerland , the 1999 redpots , and the university . In one of the six lawsuits , plaintiffs alleged that A & M officials violated the Bonfire victims ' right of due process by placing those victims in a " state @-@ created danger " by not ensuring Bonfire 's structural integrity and by allowing unqualified students to work on the stack . The plaintiffs pointed to a $ 2 million liability policy the university obtained in 1996 and accidental death and dismemberment insurance policies that the university obtained for student workers as early as 1987 as proof that the administrators knew of the dangers of Bonfire . Texas A & M maintains that the insurance policies were actually purchased by an advisory committee to Bonfire and not the university . On May 21 , 2004 , Federal Judge Samuel B. Kent dismissed all claims against the Texas A & M officials . In 2005 , 36 of the 64 original defendants , including all of the redpots , settled their portion of the case for an estimated $ 4 @.@ 25 million , paid by their insurance companies . The 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals dismissed the remaining lawsuits against Texas A & M and its officials in April 2007 . In October 2007 , the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the appeals court ruling .
The Texas Board of Professional Engineers announced in 2000 that the Aggie Bonfire met the requirements to be considered a complex construction project that should be regulated by state engineering laws . If Bonfire is resumed by the university in its former state , it will have to be designed and overseen by a professional engineer .
For the next two years , the university pondered options for reinstating the tradition . Bowen formed a task force , which proposed a new design . The task force recommended that students be allowed to participate in building the Bonfire as long as they were monitored by professional construction experts . Current and former students debated whether the proposed division of labor could be considered a student project . The debate was rendered moot when the university discovered liability insurance for the revamped project would cost more than $ 2 million per year . In 2002 , Bowen announced that Bonfire was officially cancelled . Bowen 's successor Robert Gates upheld this decision , stating that a " change in the status quo regarding the future of Bonfire would be inappropriate while litigation is still on @-@ going " .
On October 28 , 2008 , Texas A & M settled the final lawsuit filed against them by the victims and their families . The university agreed to pay $ 2 @.@ 1 million and promised that if Bonfire returned to campus that " engineering oversight " would be provided . The final lawsuit , filed against two companies that provided crane operators and cranes for the bonfire , was settled in April 2014 .
= = Bonfire Memorial = =
A memorial was constructed on the university polo fields , the site of the accident . Construction began in October 2003 and was completed by November 2004 . On November 18 , 2004 , five years following the incident , the Bonfire Memorial was officially dedicated . The memorial is composed of three design elements :
Tradition Plaza – Marks the entrance to the memorial and reflects on Aggie traditions .
History Walk – Consists of 89 stones representing the 89 previous years of Bonfire . A gap in the timeline signifies the 1963 Bonfire , which did not burn due to the John F. Kennedy assassination . The three previous Bonfire @-@ related deaths are also memorialized on this time line .
Spirit Ring – The ring surrounds the site of the collapse and represents the spirit that brought the students together . Twelve portals are placed around the ring , oriented toward each student 's hometown . Twenty @-@ seven stones complete the ring , representing the 27 students injured in the collapse .
The memorial design has been recognized by several organizations as an outstanding architectural design and masonry accomplishment . The American Institute of Architects , San Antonio Chapter , recognized the memorial as a winner of the 2005 AIA San Antonio Design Award . The memorial also was recognized as a winner of the 2005 MCAA International Excellence in Masonry Awards .
To further honor the victims , in 2000 , the Aggie Replant Committee planted twelve live oak trees at the Polo Grounds .
= = Continuation : Student Bonfire = =
Shortly after the university officially cancelled Bonfire , students began planning an unofficial bonfire for November 2002 . Known as the " Unity Project " , it became the first unofficial Bonfire since the 1930s . This fire consisted of three piles of wood , with the center stack being 35 feet ( 11 m ) high . Despite a lack of official advertisement , over one thousand spectators attended .
The following year , the unofficial event was rebranded Student Bonfire . Now a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization , Student Bonfire has official bylaws and a Board of Directors comprising former students . The bylaws specify the design that must be used each year , and no changes have been permitted since the first burn in 2003 . This design , based on the recommendation of the 2002 university task force and approved by a structural engineer , results in a Bonfire less than half the size of those from the 1960s . In a departure from tradition , every log in the stack touches the ground . To maintain the traditional wedding @-@ cake design , the logs are cut to different heights , with the tallest set reaching 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) high . The lowered height eliminates the need for a spliced center pole . Instead , a single utility pole , sunk 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) into the ground , serves as the center pole . As in the pre @-@ 1999 versions of Bonfire , each log is tied to the log next to it with baling wire . To further fortify the structure , aircraft @-@ grade steel cable is wrapped around each tier . For added support , four 24 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) poles are spaced evenly around the stack and then bolted to the 45 @-@ foot ( 14 m ) center pole , each with a steel pipe . These poles are known as Windle @-@ sticks , after Levi Windle , a staunch supporter of Student Bonfire who died in an unrelated accident in 2003 .
The Board changed or eliminated many of the minor traditions that had proliferated during Aggie Bonfire , primarily for safety reasons . Alcohol is no longer permitted , and hazing has been banned . The Bonfire leadership structure has remained in place , although in 2014 only 10 of the 26 dorms were represented by Bonfire crews . Attendance for Student Bonfire ranges from 8 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 people and the event is held in Brazos County or one of the surrounding counties . The 2013 Student Bonfire attracted 12 @,@ 000 people , despite being postponed until January due to flooding .
= George Pickett =
George Edward Pickett ( January 16 , 1825 – July 30 , 1875 ) was a career United States Army officer who became a major general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War . He is best remembered for his participation in the futile and bloody Confederate offensive on the third day of the Battle of Gettysburg that bears his name , Pickett 's Charge .
Pickett graduated last out of 59 cadets in the West Point Class of 1846 . He served as a second lieutenant in the United States Army during the Mexican @-@ American War , and is noted for his service in the Battle of Chapultepec in September 1847 . After this , he served in the Washington Territory , and eventually reached the rank of captain . Pickett participated in the Pig War of 1859 . Near the beginning of the American Civil War , he enlisted in the Confederate Army , and he attained the rank of brigadier general in January 1862 . He commanded a brigade that saw heavy action during the Peninsula Campaign of 1862 . Pickett was wounded at the Battle of Gaines 's Mill on June 27 .
He did not return to command until September , following the Battle of Antietam , when he was given command of a division in the Right Wing of the Army of Northern Virginia , commanded by Major General James Longstreet , which became the I Corps that December . His division was lightly engaged at the Battle of Fredericksburg , and , along with most of Longstreet 's Corps , missed the Battle of Chancellorsville while participating in the Suffolk Campaign in 1863 . During the Gettysburg Campaign , his division was , much to Pickett 's frustration , the last to arrive on the field . However , it was one of three divisions under the command of General Longstreet to participate in a disastrous assault on Union positions on July 3 , the final day of the battle . The attack has been given the name " Pickett 's Charge " . In February 1864 , Pickett commanded the Confederate forces at the Battle of New Bern , and ordered the execution of 22 Confederate deserters found to be fighting amongst the U.S. troops . On April 1 , 1865 , he was defeated while in overall command of Confederate troops at the Battle of Five Forks .
Following the war , Pickett feared prosecution for his execution of deserters and temporarily fled to Canada . He returned to Virginia in 1866 , where he died at age 50 in 1875 . Legend says that after the war he remained bitter and dwelt extensively upon the loss of his men at Gettysburg .
= = Early life = =
George Edward Pickett was born in his grandfather 's shop in Richmond , Virginia on January 16 , 1825 . He was the first of the eight children of Robert and Mary Pickett , a prominent family of Old Virginia of English origins , and one of the " first families " of Virginia . He was the cousin of future Confederate general Henry Heth . He went to Springfield , Illinois , to study law , but at the age of 17 he was appointed to the United States Military Academy . Legend has it that Pickett 's West Point appointment was secured for him by Abraham Lincoln , but this is largely believed to be a story circulated by his widow following his death . Lincoln , as an Illinois state legislator , could not nominate candidates , although he did give the young man advice after he was accepted . Pickett was actually appointed by Illinois Congressman John T. Stuart , a friend of Pickett 's uncle and a law partner of Lincoln .
Pickett was popular as a cadet at West Point . He was mischievous and a player of pranks , " ... a man of ability , but belonging to a cadet set that appeared to have no ambition for class standing and wanted to do only enough study to secure their graduation . " At a time when often a third of the class left before graduation , Pickett persisted , working off his demerits and doing enough in his studies to graduate , ranking last out of the 59 surviving students in the Class of 1846 . It is a position held with some backhanded distinction , referred to today as the " goat " , both for its stubbornness and tenacity . Pickett 's cousin Henry Heth graduated last in the Class of 1847 .
= = United States Army Career = =
Pickett was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the U.S. 8th Infantry Regiment . He soon gained national recognition in the Mexican – American War when he carried the American colors over the parapet during the Battle of Chapultepec in September 1847 . Wounded at the base of the wall , Pickett 's friend and colleague Lieutenant James Longstreet handed him the colors . Pickett carried the flag over the wall and fought his way to the roof of the palace , unfurling it over the fortress and announcing its surrender . He received a brevet promotion to captain following this action .
In 1849 , while serving on the Texas frontier after the war , he was promoted to first lieutenant and then to captain in the 9th U.S. Infantry in 1855 . In 1853 , Pickett challenged a fellow junior officer , future Union general Winfield Scott Hancock , to a duel ; ( they had met only briefly when Hancock was passing through Texas ) . Hancock declined the duel , a response not unlikely as dueling had fallen out of favor at the time .
In January 1851 , Pickett married Sally Harrison Minge , the daughter of Dr. John Minge of Virginia , the great @-@ great @-@ grandniece of President William Henry Harrison , and the great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of Benjamin Harrison , a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence . Sally died during childbirth that November , at Fort Gates , Texas .
Pickett next served in the Washington Territory . In 1856 he commanded the construction of Fort Bellingham on Bellingham Bay , in what is today the city of Bellingham , Washington . He also built a frame home that year which still stands ; Pickett House is the oldest house in Bellingham and the oldest house on its original foundation in the Pacific Northwest . While posted to Fort Bellingham , Pickett married a Native American woman of the Haida tribe , Morning Mist , who gave birth to a son , James Tilton Pickett ( 1857 – 1889 ) ; Morning Mist died a few months later . " Jimmy " Pickett made a name for himself as a newspaper artist , before dying of tuberculosis at the age of 32 near Portland , Oregon .
In 1859 Pickett was dispatched in command of Company D , 9th U.S. Infantry , to garrison San Juan Island in response to discord that had arisen there between American farmers and the Hudson 's Bay Company . The confrontation was instigated when American farmer Lyman Cutler shot and killed a pig that had repeatedly broken into his garden . The pig belonged to the Hudson 's Bay Company , and though Cutler was prepared to pay a fair price for the pig , the Company was not satisfied , insisting he be brought before the British magistrate , thus initiating the territorial dispute that came to be known as the Pig War . In response to the U.S. forces , the British sent a force of three warships and 1000 men . The British commander demanded that Pickett and his men leave . Pickett declined , and the British officer returned to his frigate , threatening to land his own men . Pickett with his 68 men appeared to be fully prepared to oppose a British landing , ordering them into a line of battle near the beach . " Don 't be afraid of their big guns , " he told his men , " We 'll make a Bunker Hill of it . " Pickett 's presence and determination prevented the landing , the British being under orders to avoid armed conflict with United States forces , if possible . After initial tensions passed the crisis was averted , both sides being unwilling to go to war over a pig . President James Buchanan dispatched Brevet Lieutenant General Winfield Scott to negotiate a settlement between the parties .
= = Civil War = =
= = = Early assignments = = =
On April 19 , after the firing on Battle of Fort Sumter and President Lincoln 's call for 75 @,@ 000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion , Virginia joined four more Southern states in seceding from the Union . Native son Pickett journeyed from Oregon to serve his state . Arriving after the First Battle of Bull Run , he resigned his commission in the U.S. Army on June 25 , 1861 ; he had been holding a commission as a major in the Confederate States Army Artillery since March 16 . Within a month he was appointed colonel in command of the Rappahannock Line of the Department of Fredericksburg , under the command of Major General Theophilus H. Holmes . Holmes 's influence obtained a commission for Pickett as a brigadier general , dated January 14 , 1862 .
Pickett made a colorful general . He rode a sleek black charger named " Old Black , " and wore a small blue kepi @-@ style cap , with buffed gloves over the sleeves of an immaculately tailored uniform that had a double row of gold buttons on the coat , and shiny gold spurs on his highly polished boots . He held an elegant riding crop whether mounted or walking . His moustache drooped gracefully beyond the corners of his mouth and then turned upward at the ends . His hair was the talk of the Army : " long ringlets flowed loosely over his shoulders , trimmed and highly perfumed , his beard likewise was curling and giving up the scent of Araby . "
Pickett 's first combat command was during the Peninsula Campaign , leading a brigade that was nicknamed the Gamecocks ( the brigade would eventually be led by Richard B. Garnett in Pickett 's Charge ) . Pickett led his brigade ably in the battles of Williamsburg and Seven Pines , earning commendations from his superiors . At Gaines 's Mill he was shot off his horse while leading his brigade in its first assault . Pickett continued to move forward with his men for a while , leading his horse on foot . A second assault by Pickett 's brigade , led by Colonel Eppa Hunton , along with the brigade led by Cadmus Wilcox , broke the Union line . Pickett feared that he had taken a mortal blow to his shoulder , but the wound was initially assessed by others as minor . The shoulder wound turned out to be severe enough that , while not fatal , Pickett was out of action for the next three months , and his arm would remain stiff for at least a year .
When Pickett returned to the Army in September 1862 , following the Battle of Antietam , he was given command of a two @-@ brigade division in the corps commanded by his old colleague from Mexico , Major General Longstreet . Pickett was promoted to major general on October 10 . Shortly afterwards it was upgraded to five brigades , commanded by Generals Garnett , James Kemper , Lewis Armistead , Montgomery Dent Corse and Micah Jenkins . The division was only lightly engaged at the Battle of Fredericksburg in December . His division would not see serious combat until the Gettysburg Campaign the following summer . Longstreet and two of his divisions @-@ those commanded by Pickett and John Bell Hood @-@ were detached from Lee 's main army in April while participating in the Suffolk Campaign . They thus missed the Battle of Chancellorsville . The Suffolk Campaign was minor and inconclusive , while the Battle of Chancellorsville was an enormous Confederate victory .
Before the Gettysburg Campaign , Pickett fell in love with a Virginia teenager , LaSalle " Sallie " Corbell ( 1843 – 1931 ) , commuting back and forth from his duties in Suffolk to be with her . Although Sallie would later insist that she met him in 1852 ( at age 9 ) , she did not marry the 38 @-@ year @-@ old widower until November 13 , 1863 . The couple had two children , George Edward Pickett , Jr . ( born July 17 , 1864 ) and David Corbell Pickett ( born 1865 or 1866 ) . David died in late 1873 or January 1874 of measles .
= = = Gettysburg and Pickett 's Charge = = =
Pickett 's division arrived at the Battle of Gettysburg on the evening of the second day , July 2 , 1863 . It was reduced to 3 brigades present , Corse 's still being detached in Virginia and Jenkins ' transferred . It had been delayed by the assignment of guarding the Confederate lines of communication through Chambersburg , Pennsylvania . After two days of heavy fighting , General Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia , which had initially driven the Union Army of the Potomac to the high ground south of Gettysburg , had been unable to dislodge the Union soldiers from their position . Lee 's plan for July 3 called for a massive assault on the center of the Union lines on Cemetery Ridge , calculating that Meade had concentrated his forces to protect his flanks while leaving his center weak . Lee directed General Longstreet to assemble a force of three divisions for the attack — two divisions from the corps of Lieutenant General A.P. Hill , under the temporary command of J. Johnston Pettigrew and Major General Isaac R. Trimble , which had both seen action on July 1 , and Pickett 's fresh division from Longstreet 's own corps . The center was occupied by the Union II Corps , commanded by Major General Winfield S. Hancock . Longstreet was technically in command , not Pickett . Nevertheless , the attack became known as " Pickett 's Charge " . In addition , much of the mythology of the Charge arose from newspaper reports . As Pickett was the only major general from Virginia to participate in the charge , the Virginia newspapers both played up their native son 's role and made the assault a more " glamorous " event .
Following a two @-@ hour artillery barrage meant to soften up the Union defenses , the three divisions stepped off across open fields almost a mile from Cemetery Ridge . Pickett inspired his men by shouting , " Up , Men , and to your posts ! Don 't forget today that you are from Old Virginia . " Pickett 's division , with the brigades of Brigadier Generals Armistead , Garnett , and Kemper , was on the right flank of the assault . It received punishing artillery fire , and then volleys of massed musket fire as it approached its objective . Armistead 's brigade made the farthest progress through the Union lines . Armistead was mortally wounded , falling near " The Angle " , at what is now termed the " High Water Mark of the Confederacy " . Neither of the other two divisions made comparable progress across the fields ; Armistead 's success was not reinforced , and his men were quickly killed or captured .
Pickett 's Charge was a bloodbath . While the Union suffered 1 @,@ 500 casualties , the Confederates had over 6 @,@ 000 . Over 50 % of the men sent across the fields were killed or wounded . Pickett 's division alone , out of about 5 @,@ 500 men , lost 224 killed , 1 @,@ 140 wounded , and 1 @,@ 499 missing / captured . Pickett 's three brigade commanders and all thirteen of his regimental commanders were casualties . Kemper was wounded , Garnett killed , and Armistead mortally wounded . Trimble and Pettigrew were the most senior casualties of the entire Confederate assault , the former losing a leg and the latter wounded in the hand and later mortally wounded during the retreat to Virginia . Pickett has received some historical criticism for establishing his final position well to the rear of his troops , most likely at the Codori farm on the Emmitsburg Road . Thomas R. Friend , who served Pickett as a courier , defended Pickett by writing that he " went as far as any Major General , Commanding a division , ought to have gone , and farther . "
As soldiers straggled back to the Confederate lines along Seminary Ridge , Lee feared a Union counteroffensive and tried to rally his center , telling returning soldiers that the failure was " all my fault . " Pickett was inconsolable . When Lee told Pickett to rally his division for the defense , Pickett allegedly replied , " General Lee , I have no division . " Pickett 's official report for the battle has never been found . It is rumored that Lee rejected it for its bitter negativity and demanded that it be rewritten , and an updated version was never filed .
= = = North Carolina = = =
After the Battle of Gettysburg , Pickett commanded the Department of Southern Virginia and North Carolina . In February , Pickett was ordered to capture New Bern , North Carolina from Federal forces . The subsequent Battle of New Bern resulted in a Confederate defeat . Following the battle , Pickett ordered the execution of 22 Confederate deserters who were found to have joined the United States Army .
= = = Overland Campaign and Siege of Petersburg = = =
Pickett then served as a division commander in the Defenses of Richmond . After P.G.T. Beauregard bottled up Benjamin Butler in the Bermuda Hundred Campaign , Pickett 's division was detached in support of Robert E. Lee 's operation in the Overland Campaign , just before the Battle of Cold Harbor , in which Pickett 's division occupied the center of the defensive line , a place in which the main Union attack did not occur . His division participated in the Siege of Petersburg .
= = = Battle of Five Forks = = =
General Pickett had received orders from Robert E. Lee to , with the Cavalry divisions of Major Generals William Henry Fitzhugh Lee and Thomas L. Rosser , hold the vital railroad crossing at Five Forks at all costs . On April 1 , at the Battle of Five Forks , their troops were attacked by a combined force under Major General Philip Henry Sheridan , which consisted of the V Corps of the Army of the Potomac , commanded by Major General Gouverneur K. Warren , and the Cavalry Corps of the Army , commanded by Brigadier General Wesley Merritt . Pickett , W.H.L. Lee , and Rosser were located behind the lines of their troops at the time of the attack , enjoying a shad bake while failing to inform their subordinate officers of their location . Meanwhile , Warren 's troops overwhelmed their left flank , and the Cavalry troops pinned the Confederates down elsewhere . By the time the Confederate commanders realized the catastrophe , it was too late to prevent the defeat . The result of the battle helped lead to the eventual capture of Richmond and the surrender of Lee 's army .
= = = Relief controversy = = =
A controversy existed over whether or not Pickett was relieved of his command in the final days of the war . After the war , Lee 's Chief of Staff , Lieutenant Colonel Walter H. Taylor , wrote that following the Battle of Sayler 's Creek on April 6 , 1865 , he had issued orders for Lee relieving Major Generals Richard H. Anderson and Bushrod R. Johnson , whose forces had been lost in the battle and who thereby no longer had troops under their command . In fact , Anderson had returned to his home in South Carolina following the battle . In addition , Taylor recollected that he had issued an order relieving Pickett as well . Pickett 's division was still intact , though reduced in number to about the size of a brigade . No copies of these orders exist . Douglas Southall Freeman , a biographer of Lee , supported this assertion , writing in 1935 that at the same time Lee relieved Anderson of command , he took the same action regarding Pickett and Bushrod Johnson , but the order regarding Pickett apparently never reached him . As late as April 11 he signed himself , " Maj. Genl . Commdg . "
In contradiction to this assertion , in his 1870 book Pickett 's Men Walter Harrison reprinted an order from Lieutenant Colonel Taylor to Pickett dated April 10 , 1865 , in which Taylor addressed Pickett as " Maj Gen G E Picket [ sic ] , General Commanding " The order was a request for an account of the movements and actions of Pickett 's Division from the time of the Battle of Five Forks on April 1 to the surrender at Appomattox on April 9 . In the report Pickett submitted he said :
The second day after the battle referred to ( Five Forks ) not being able to find General Anderson 's headquarters , I reported to Lieut . Gen. Longstreet , and continued to receive orders from him until the army was paroled and disbursed . "
Pickett 's official report to Taylor was signed " G.E. Pickett , Major @-@ Gen. , Commd 'g . " This is April 11 report mentioned by Freeman above . Thus in Pickett 's official report to Taylor he speaks of commanding his men and interacting with his superior officer right up until the surrender at Appomattox . Taylor attempted to explain the apparent contradiction by telling Fitzhugh Lee that he addressed his request in the manner he did because Pickett was not dismissed from the Army , and for the period in question Pickett was initially in command . This explanation , however , leaves unanswered the question of how Taylor expected Pickett to answer for the period of time Pickett purportedly was not in command . The explanation does not explain Pickett 's report which covered the entire period , nor the fact that Pickett signed the report as the acting commander , nor did it explain Longstreet 's interactions with Pickett over this period of time . Furthermore , there is no record of Taylor requesting reports from any other officers dismissed from the service on the movements of their former troops , nor of his referring to such officers in a manner which would connote active command .
The medical officer of Pickett 's division , Dr. M. G. Elzey , was with Pickett at the time of these events . Years later when an elderly Colonel John Mosby raised this issue in 1911 , Elzey wrote a letter to the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch in answer to Mosby :
I was General Pickett 's personal medical advisor , and continued to be such until the time of his death . We rode together a greater part of the way during the retreat of our army from Petersburg to Appomattox . We escaped together from the battlefield at Sailor 's Creek and were constantly together until we reached Appomattox . I repeat it , therefore , with all confidence , that I am a competent witness to the fact that he was never under arrest , but remained in command of his Division until the last scene at Appomattox .
M. G. Elzey
In Longstreet 's final report , he makes no mention of any other officer being in charge of the unit . In point of fact his final report makes no mention of Pickett or his division . Pickett commanded the men remaining in his division and reported to Longstreet . These men surrendered with Pickett at Appomattox . Regarding Pickett and his division , no source can be produced which asserts anything otherwise .
= = = Appomattox = = =
On April 9 Pickett commanded his remaining troops in the Battle of Appomattox Courthouse , forming up in the final battle line of the Army of Northern Virginia . He surrendered with Lee 's army and was paroled at Appomattox Court House on April 9 , 1865 .
A legend told by Pickett 's widow stated that when the Union Army marched into Richmond , she received a surprise visitor . He acted graciously and inquired whether he had found the Pickett house . Abraham Lincoln himself had come to determine the fate of an old acquaintance before the wars , and Sallie , astonished , admitted she was his wife and held out her infant for the president to cradle . Lincoln historian Gerald J. Prokopowicz has called this story a " fantasy " .
= = Postbellum life = =
Fearing prosecution for his execution of 22 deserters following the Battle of New Bern , which was then under investigation , Pickett fled with his wife and son to Canada . He remained out of the country for a year until hearing that , at the recommendation of Ulysses S. Grant , the investigation had ended . Pickett returned to the United States with his family in 1866 to work as an insurance agent and farmer in Norfolk , Virginia .
On June 23 , 1874 House Resolution 3086 , an " act to remove the political disabilities of George E. Pickett of Virginia " , was passed by the U.S. Congress . Pickett was granted a full pardon , about a year before his death .
Pickett lamented his men , lost in great number at Gettysburg . Late in his life , Colonel John Singleton Mosby , who had served under General J.E.B. Stuart , was present when Lee and Pickett met briefly after the war . He claimed their interaction was cold and reserved . Others present at the meeting refuted this , stating Lee only acted in his usual reserved and gentlemanly fashion . Pickett , Mosby said , complained bitterly after this meeting , saying to Mosby : " That man destroyed my division . " Mosby allegedly replied " Yes , but he made you immortal . " Most historians find the encounter as Mosby interpreted it unlikely . Asked by reporters why Pickett 's Charge failed , Pickett frequently replied : " I 've always thought the Yankees had something to do with it . "
George E. Pickett died in Norfolk , Virginia , on July 30 , 1875 . The cause of death was a liver abscess , although whether it was amoebic or bacterial is not clear . He was initially interred in Cedar Grove Cemetery in Norfolk . His remains were disinterred on October 23 and he was buried in Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond , Virginia on October 24 , 1875 . More than 40 @,@ 000 people lined the funeral route while another 5 @,@ 000 marched in the funeral procession . A memorial to Pickett was erected over his grave site and dedicated on October 5 , 1888 . The memorial was not , however , placed directly above Pickett 's burial site , and the exact location of his remains is not clear .
LaSalle Corbell Pickett died on March 22 , 1931 , having outlived her husband by more than 55 years . Initially , Hollywood Cemetery declined to allow her to be buried next to her husband . Pickett 's grandson , Lieutenant George E. Pickett III , threatened to have his grandfather disinterred and moved to Arlington National Cemetery where both grandparents could be buried side @-@ by @-@ side . Hollywood Cemetery quickly agreed to permit LaSalle 's interment at Hollywood , but this did not immediately occur for reasons which are not clear , and LaSalle was cremated and buried at Abbey Mausoleum in Arlington County , Virginia . Originally a mausoleum for the wealthy , it went bankrupt in 1968 . The structure fell into disrepair , and it was vandalized many times and several graves desecrated . In early 1998 , the Military Order of the Stars and Bars and United Daughters of the Confederacy worked together to pay for LaSalle 's disinterment and reburial in front of the George E. Pickett Memorial in Hollywood Cemetery . LaSalle Pickett was buried on Saturday , March 21 , 1998 . She was the first woman interred in the Confederate military burial section .
= = Legacy = =
Decades after Pickett 's death , his widow LaSalle ( also known as " Sallie " and " Mother " ) became a well @-@ known writer and speaker on " her Soldier , " eventually leading to the creation of an idealized Pickett who was the perfect Southern gentleman and soldier . Much controversy attends LaSalle Pickett 's lionizing of her husband . LaSalle was the author of Pickett and His Men , a history of her husband 's military campaigns , which was published in 1899 . She published two other books in her deceased husband 's name , The Heart of a Soldier , As Revealed in the Intimate Letters of Gen 'l George E. Pickett ( published in 1913 ) and Soldier of the South : General Pickett 's War Letters to His Wife ( 1928 ) . These two writings have been described as " unreliable works that were fictionalized by Pickett 's wife . " As a result , General Pickett has become a figure partially obscured by " Lost Cause " mythology . Pickett today is widely perceived as being a tragic hero of sorts — a flamboyant officer who wanted to lead his troops into a glorious battle , but always missed the opportunity until the disastrous charge at Gettysburg .
Historian John C. Waugh wrote of Pickett , " An excellent brigade commander , he never proved he could handle a division . " He quotes George B. McClellan , the Union general , as saying : " Perhaps there is no doubt that he was the best infantry soldier developed on either side during the Civil War . "
Pickett 's grave is marked by a memorial in Hollywood Cemetery , which was placed there in 1888 . A monument to Pickett also stands in the American Camp on San Juan Island , Washington , erected by the Washington University Historical Society on October 21 , 1904 .
Fort Pickett in Blackstone , Virginia , is named in his honor . It was completed in 1942 and served as an active U.S. Army training facility in World War II and is currently occupied by the Virginia National Guard .
= = In popular media = =
Actor Stephen Lang portrayed George Pickett in the 1993 film Gettysburg . Billy Campbell portrayed Pickett in the 2003 prequel Gods and Generals .
Pickett also appeared in two episodes of the 1985 mini @-@ series North and South , depicting his cadet years at West Point , at which time he was a friend of George Hazard and Orry Main , the two main fictional characters of the series .
= Hurricane Fred ( 2015 ) =
Hurricane Fred was the first hurricane to move through the Cape Verde Islands since 1892 . The second hurricane and sixth named storm of the 2015 Atlantic hurricane season , Fred originated from a well @-@ defined tropical wave over West Africa in late August . Once offshore , the wave moved northwestward within a favorable tropospheric environment and strengthened into a tropical storm on August 30 . The next day , Fred further grew to a Category 1 hurricane with peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) as it approached Cape Verde . After passing Boa Vista and moving away from Santo Antão , it entered a phase of steady weakening , dropping below hurricane status by September 1 . Fred then turned to the west @-@ northwest and endured increasingly hostile wind shear , but maintained its status as a tropical cyclone despite repeated forecasts of dissipation . It fluctuated between a minimal tropical storm and tropical depression through September 4 – 5 before curving sharply to the north . By September 6 , Fred 's circulation pattern had diminished considerably , and it dissipated later that day .
At the threat of the hurricane , all of Cape Verde was placed under a hurricane warning for the first time in history . Gale @-@ force winds battered much of the Barlavento region through August 31 , downing numerous trees and utility poles . On the easternmost islands of Boa Vista and Sal , Fred leveled roofs and left several villages without power and phone services for several days . About 70 percent of the houses in Povoação Velha were damaged to some degree . Throughout the northern islands , rainstorms damaged homes and roads , and São Nicolau lost large amounts of its crop and livestock . Monetary losses exceeded $ 1 @.@ 1 million ( 2015 USD ) across Cape Verde , though the rain 's overall impact on the agriculture was positive . Swells from the hurricane produced violent seas along West African shores , destroying fishing villages and submerging large swaths of residential area in Senegal . Between the coasts of West Africa and Cape Verde , maritime incidents related to Fred resulted in nine deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
Early on August 28 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring a tropical wave — an elongated area of low air pressure — inland over West Africa . Traced by widespread cloudiness , the wave tracked toward the open Atlantic throughout the remainder of the day . A broad cyclonic rotation began to develop within the lower atmosphere on August 29 , near the Guinea coastline . The disturbance veered toward the northwest and emerged offshore near Conakry around 18 : 00 UTC that day . By then , the NHC predicted a favorable environment for tropical cyclone development within the next 48 hours . Heavy thunderstorms thrived overnight , and consolidated near a well @-@ defined low @-@ pressure center . On the morning of August 30 , satellite images and scatterometer data confirmed that a tropical depression had formed about 300 mi ( 480 km ) west @-@ northwest of Conakry , with wind speeds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) .
Although tropical cyclones in the extreme eastern Atlantic are normally propelled westward by high pressure from a subtropical ridge , this depression moved toward the northwest , along a breach in the ridge caused by another disturbance . Its cyclonic structure steadily improved : a sharply curved rainband tightened around the center , resembling the precursor to an eye . At 06 : 00 UTC on August 30 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Fred about 390 mi ( 625 km ) east @-@ southeast of Praia , Cape Verde — one of the four easternmost locations for a tropical storm since modern record @-@ keeping began in 1851 . Intensification trends continued at a steady pace while Fred trekked through a region with ample tropical moisture , light upper winds , and above @-@ average sea surface temperatures ; the storm developed a thick , circular central dense overcast with good outflow , and the eye feature became well established at all levels of the circulation . Based on a combination of these characteristics and satellite estimates of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds , Fred was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane at 00 : 00 UTC on August 31 . Then centered 120 mi ( 195 km ) east @-@ southeast of Praia , Cape Verde , it was the easternmost tropical cyclone ever to attain hurricane status in the tropical Atlantic .
A compact cyclone , Fred quickly reached its peak intensity with a minimum central pressure of 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 12 inHg ) and 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) winds . Through the rest of August 31 , the hurricane traversed the Barlavento Islands of Cape Verde . The eye barely skirted the southern coast of Boa Vista around 12 : 00 UTC , decreasing in definition over the next 12 hours as it passed north of São Nicolau and then north @-@ northeast of Santo Antão . On September 1 , drier air and increasing wind shear aloft dispersed the inner convection , which caused Fred to weaken to a tropical storm . Rebuilding high pressure to the north over the eastern Atlantic turned the weakening storm slightly toward the west @-@ northwest over considerably cooler waters . Through much of September 1 – 4 , convection was limited to intermittent flare @-@ ups , with the associated thunderstorms continuously blown away from the center by the strong upper winds . Despite the adverse environment and its lack of stable convection , Fred retained a robust spiral of low @-@ level clouds and gales during this period , defying the NHC 's repeated forecasts of its dissipation .
Around 12 : 00 UTC , September 4 , a waning wind circulation prompted the NHC to downgrade Fred to a tropical depression ; though its winds briefly reincreased to tropical storm force the next day , it continued as a depression with minimal convection throughout the remainder of its existence . Concurrently , a deep @-@ altitude disturbance a few hundred miles east of Bermuda began to erode the southern edge of the high @-@ pressure ridge that Fred had circumnavigated for most of its journey . This changed the steering pattern in the region , turning the depression abruptly to the north on September 6 . Over the following hours , Fred became increasingly indistinguishable as a result of its progressively worsening surroundings . It officially lost its status as a tropical cyclone at 18 : 00 UTC , degenerating into a trough , about 1 @,@ 210 mi ( 1 @,@ 945 km ) southwest of the Azores . The remnants were absorbed into a frontal boundary shortly thereafter .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Cape Verde = = =
A tropical storm warning was issued for Cape Verde upon the storm 's formation , as well as a hurricane watch in light of forecasts for further development . When Fred showed definitive signs of strengthening , the alerts were replaced by a hurricane warning , marking the first occasion of a hurricane @-@ level threat in the nation 's recorded history . On the morning of August 31 , TACV Cabo Verde Airlines suspended its flights from the capital of Praia to Dakar ; all operations at the airports of Boa Vista , Sal and São Vicente were halted soon after squally conditions across the islands . Officials ordered shipping interests on all islands to remain in port and to secure their vessels . A national music festival was canceled in Porto Novo , on the northernmost island of Santo Antão .
As it traversed the easternmost Cape Verde Islands on the afternoon of August 31 , Fred brought strong winds and thunderstorms to Boa Vista that uprooted trees , damaged roofs and plaster , and knocked out power to most of the population . Cellphone service from a local carrier went down due to a toppled transmission tower in Sal Rei . Two inhabitants were taken to hospital when their home partially collapsed , but they remained in good condition . Floods affected low @-@ lying areas of Rabil and cut off the main road to surrounding towns , hampering mobilization efforts . The southern village of Povoação Velha bore the brunt of the storm ; about 70 percent of the houses experienced some degree of damage , from broken tiles and windows to crumbled walls , with repair costs of 3 million escudos ( 2015 value ; $ 30 @,@ 000 in USD ) . A compromised infrastructure left the village without power and telephone services for at least five days . Throughout Boa Vista , Fred led to losses of 76 million escudos ( U $ 770 @,@ 000 ) , an estimated 50 million ( US $ 500 @,@ 000 ) occurring in the private sector .
Similar effects were felt in parts of the other eastern islands . Along the southern shore of Sal , Fred 's storm surge sunk or stranded dozens of vessels and destroyed an important tourist pier in Santa Maria . Hotels , restaurants , and other beach facilities were flooded , and roads in the town became impassable . High winds leveled the roof of a sport center at a gymnasium , which had initially been set up as a storm shelter to about 100 citizens . Elsewhere on the island , the hurricane knocked out power to homes in Palmeira , and caused minor structural damage to Sal International Airport . At the height of the storm , flooding forced nearly 130 people living in the impoverished outskirts of Terra Boa and Espargos to relocate to shelters . On the island of Santiago , the most significant impact was due to heavy rainfall peaking at 6 @.@ 3 inches ( 160 mm ) . The rains filled a large dam in São Salvador do Mundo to maximum capacity , which prompted residents from adjacent areas to evacuate . In São Miguel , floods and fallen trees obstructed traffic and caused 2 million escudos ( US $ 20 @,@ 000 ) in damage .
Fred produced gusts and downpours across the northern Barlavento Islands , with a maximum 7 @.@ 9 in ( 200 mm ) of rainfall recorded on São Nicolau . Many old trees were uprooted across that island , and several villages lost power . The storm damaged 70 homes in Ribeira Brava , the main town , leaving several families homeless . Local farmers suffered great losses following the destruction of greenhouses and a farm . Strong winds in Cabeçalinho downed power poles and wrecked the roof of a church . In Carriçal , heavy rainfall and flooding ruined fruit and hydroponic crops , as well as damaging roads and homes . Much of the island 's livestock was lost in the storm . Damage to homes and the agriculture — in particular banana and sugarcane — on São Nicolau totaled 30 million escudos ( US $ 305 @,@ 000 ) , although considerable disruptions in the infrastructure due to broken roads and telecommunication antennae were unaccounted for . On the neighboring islands of São Vicente and Santo Antão , impact from the storm was mostly limited to power outages , floods , and damaged crops . About 35 people in Porto Novo , on the latter island , were moved to secure locations . Flooding there isolated two neighborhoods and destroyed carrot , cabbage , and tomato plantations . On São Vicente , roads were closed in and around Laginha , and a few people suffered minor injuries when a tree fell on their car .
Throughout Cape Verde , the hurricane displaced more than 50 families and caused 108 million escudos ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) in damage , largely to the agricultural and private sectors of the Barlavento region . Although there were no casualties onshore , two fishermen navigating through the storm were presumed dead after never returning to port in Boa Vista . Nonetheless , rainfall from Fred had a generally positive effect on the larger @-@ scale agriculture of the islands , refilling many rivers and dams and irrigating drought @-@ stricken farmland across the Sotavento region .
= = = West Africa = = =
Swells from Fred reached stretches of West African coastline , producing high surf as far north as Senegal . Along the shores of Dakar , rough seas devastated fishing districts and harbor towns , stranding boats and damaging roads and bridges . About 200 houses were demolished in the district of Hann , many of which experienced total wall collapse . In the suburb of Rufisque , the waves overtopped dams , entered homes and cemeteries , and destroyed a mosque . Outside the capital , several villages were completely isolated from their surroundings . Victims across the affected region received over 100 tons ( 220 @,@ 000 lbs ) of rice and 12 million CFA francs ( US $ 20 @,@ 000 ) in relief funds .
Farther south , in Guinea @-@ Bissau , a storm surge flooded roads and low @-@ lying establishments such as offices and military barracks . Vast amounts of cropland in the Tombali Region were submerged by sea water , resulting in great losses of rice . Offshore , waves as high as 23 ft ( 7 m ) capsized a fishing boat with a crew of 19 ; 12 were rescued shortly , though the remaining seven disappeared at sea and were presumed dead .
= Lake Vostok =
Lake Vostok ( Russian : Озеро Восток , Ozero Vostok , lit . " Lake East " ) is the largest of Antarctica 's almost 400 known subglacial lakes . Lake Vostok is located at the southern Pole of Cold , beneath Russia 's Vostok Station under the surface of the central East Antarctic Ice Sheet , which is at 3 @,@ 488 m ( 11 @,@ 444 ft ) above mean sea level . The surface of this fresh water lake is approximately 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 100 ft ) under the surface of the ice , which places it at approximately 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) below sea level .
Measuring 250 km ( 160 mi ) long by 50 km ( 30 mi ) wide at its widest point , and covering an area of 12 @,@ 500 km2 ( 4 @,@ 830 sq mi ) and an average depth of 432 m ( 1 @,@ 417 ft ) , it has an estimated volume of 5 @,@ 400 km3 ( 1 @,@ 300 cu mi ) . The lake is divided into two deep basins by a ridge . The liquid water over the ridge is about 200 m ( 700 ft ) , compared to roughly 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) deep in the northern basin and 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) deep in the southern .
The lake is named after Vostok Station , which in turn is named after the Vostok ( Восток ) , a sloop @-@ of @-@ war ship , which means " East " in Russian . The existence of a subglacial lake in the Vostok region was first suggested by Russian geographer Andrey Kapitsa based on seismic soundings made during the Soviet Antarctic Expeditions in 1959 and 1964 to measure the thickness of the ice sheet . The continued research by Russian and British scientists led by 1993 to the final confirmation of the existence of the lake by J.P. Ridley using ERS @-@ 1 laser altimetry .
The overlying ice provides a continuous paleoclimatic record of 400 @,@ 000 years , although the lake water itself may have been isolated for 15 to 25 million years . On 5 February 2012 , a team of Russian scientists completed the longest ever ice core of 3 @,@ 768 m ( 12 @,@ 400 ft ) and pierced the ice shield to the surface of the lake .
The first core of freshly frozen lake ice was obtained on 10 January 2013 at a depth of 3 @,@ 406 m ( 11 @,@ 175 ft ) . However , as soon as the ice was pierced , water from the underlying lake gushed up the borehole , mixing it with the Freon and kerosene used to keep the borehole from freezing . A new " clean " borehole was drilled and an allegedly pristine water sample was obtained in January 2015 . The Russian team plans to eventually lower a probe into the lake to collect water samples and sediments from the bottom . It is hypothesized that unusual forms of life could be found in the lake 's liquid layer , a fossil water reserve . Lake Vostok contains an environment sealed off below the ice for millions of years , in conditions which could resemble those of the ice @-@ covered ocean of Jupiter 's moon Europa , and Saturn 's moon Enceladus .
= = Discovery = =
Russian scientist Peter Kropotkin first proposed the idea of fresh water under Antarctic ice sheets at the end of the 19th century . He theorized that the tremendous pressure exerted by the cumulative mass of thousands of vertical meters of ice could increase the temperature at the lowest portions of the ice sheet to the point where the ice would melt . Kropotkin 's theory was further developed by Russian glaciologist I.A. Zotikov , who wrote his Ph.D. thesis on this subject in 1967 .
Russian geographer Andrey Kapitsa used seismic soundings in the region of Vostok Station made during the Soviet Antarctic Expedition in 1959 and 1964 to measure the thickness of the ice sheet . Kapitsa was the first to suggest the existence of a subglacial lake in the region , and the subsequent research confirmed his hypothesis .
When British scientists in Antarctica performed airborne ice @-@ penetrating radar surveys in the early 1970s , they detected unusual radar readings at the site which suggested the presence of a liquid freshwater lake below the ice . In 1991 , Jeff Ridley , a remote sensing specialist with the Mullard Space Science Laboratory at University College London , directed the ERS @-@ 1 satellite to turn its high @-@ frequency array toward the center of the Antarctic ice cap . The data from ERS @-@ 1 confirmed the findings from the 1973 British surveys , but these new data were not published in the Journal of Glaciology until 1993 . Space @-@ based radar revealed that this subglacial body of fresh water is one of the largest lakes in the world , and one of some 140 subglacial lakes in Antarctica . Russian and British scientists delineated the lake in 1996 by integrating a variety of data , including airborne ice @-@ penetrating radar imaging observations and space @-@ based radar altimetry . It has been confirmed that the lake contains large amounts of liquid water under the more than 3 @-@ kilometer ( 2 mi ) thick ice cap . The lake has at least 22 cavities of liquid water , averaging 10 kilometers ( 6 mi ) each .
The lake is named after Vostok Station , which in turn is named after the Vostok ( Восток ) , the 900 ton sloop @-@ of @-@ war ship sailed by one of the discoverers of Antarctica , Russian explorer Admiral Fabian von Bellingshausen . The word Bосток means " East " in Russian , and the name of the station and the lake also reflects the fact that they are located in East Antarctica .
In 2005 an island was found in the central part of the lake . Then , in January 2006 , the discovery of two nearby smaller lakes under the ice cap was published ; they are named 90 Degrees East and Sovetskaya . It is suspected that these Antarctic subglacial lakes may be connected by a network of subglacial rivers . Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling glaciologists propose that many of the subglacial lakes of Antarctica are at least temporarily interconnected . Because of varying water pressure in individual lakes , large subsurface rivers may suddenly form and then force large amounts of water through the solid ice .
= = Geological history = =
Africa separated from Antarctica around 160 million years ago , followed by the Indian subcontinent , in the early Cretaceous ( about 125 million years ago ) . About 66 million years ago , Antarctica ( then connected to Australia ) still had a tropical to subtropical climate , complete with marsupial fauna and an extensive temperate rainforest .
The Lake Vostok basin is a small ( 50 km / 30 mi wide ) tectonic feature within the overall setting of a several hundred kilometer wide continental collision zone between the Gamburtsev Mountain Range , a subglacial mountain range and the Dome C region . The lake water is cradled on a bed of sediments 70 meters ( 230 ft ) thick , offering the possibility that they contain a unique record of the climate and life in Antarctica before the ice cap formed .
= = Traits = =
The lake water is estimated to have been sealed off under the thick ice sheet about 15 million years ago . Initially , it was thought that the same water had made up the lake since the time of its formation , giving a residence time in the order of one million years . Later research by Robin Bell and Michael Studinger from the Lamont – Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University suggested that the water of the lake is continually freezing and being carried away by the motion of the Antarctic ice sheet , while being replaced by water melting from other parts of the ice sheet in these high pressure conditions . This resulted in an estimate that the entire volume of the lake is replaced every 13 @,@ 300 years — its effective mean residence time .
The coldest temperature ever observed on Earth , − 89 ° C ( − 128 ° F ) , was recorded at Vostok Station on 21 July 1983 . The average water temperature is calculated to be around − 3 ° C ( 27 ° F ) ; it remains liquid below the normal freezing point because of high pressure from the weight of the ice above it . Geothermal heat from the Earth 's interior may warm the bottom of the lake , while the ice sheet itself insulates the lake from cold temperatures on the surface .
Lake Vostok is an oligotrophic extreme environment , one that is expected to be supersaturated with nitrogen and oxygen , measuring 2 @.@ 5 litres ( 0 @.@ 088 cu ft ) of nitrogen and oxygen per 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of water , that is 50 times higher than those typically found in ordinary freshwater lakes on Earth 's surface . The sheer weight and pressure around 345 bars ( 5 @,@ 000 psi ) of the continental ice cap on top of Lake Vostok is estimated to contribute to the high gas concentration .
Besides dissolving in the water , oxygen and other gases are trapped in a type of structure called a clathrate . In clathrate structures , gases are enclosed in an icy cage and look like packed snow . These structures form at the high @-@ pressure depths of Lake Vostok and would become unstable if brought to the surface .
In April 2005 , German , Russian , and Japanese researchers found that the lake has tides . Depending on the position of the Sun and the Moon , the surface of the lake rises about 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) . The lake is under complete darkness , under 355 bar ( 5 @,@ 150 psi ) of pressure , and expected to be rich in oxygen , so there is speculation that any organisms inhabiting the lake could have evolved in a manner unique to this environment . There is a 1 microtesla magnetic anomaly on the east coast of the lake , spanning 105 by 75 km ( 65 by 47 mi ) . Researchers hypothesize that the anomaly may be caused by a thinning of Earth 's crust in that location .
Living Hydrogenophilus thermoluteolus micro @-@ organisms have been found in Lake Vostok 's deep ice core drillings ; they are an extant surface @-@ dwelling species . This suggests the presence of a deep biosphere utilizing a geothermal system of the bedrock encircling the subglacial lake . There is optimism that microbial life in the lake may be possible despite high pressure , constant cold , low nutrient input , potentially high oxygen concentration and an absence of sunlight . Jupiter 's moon Europa and Saturn 's moon Enceladus may also harbor lakes or oceans below a thick crust of ice . Any confirmation of life in Lake Vostok could strengthen the prospect for the presence of life on icy moons .
= = Research = =
Researchers working at Vostok Station produced one of the world 's longest ice cores in 1998 . A joint Russian , French , and United States team drilled and analyzed the core , which is 3 @,@ 623 m ( 11 @,@ 886 ft ) long . Ice samples from cores drilled close to the top of the lake have been assessed to be as old as 420 @,@ 000 years . The assumption is that the lake has been sealed from the surface since the ice sheet formed , 15 million years ago . Drilling of the core was deliberately halted roughly 100 m ( 300 ft ) above the suspected boundary between the ice sheet and the liquid waters of the lake . This was to prevent contamination of the lake with the 60 ton column of Freon and kerosene used to prevent the borehole from collapsing and freezing over .
From this core , specifically from ice that is thought to have formed from lake water freezing onto the base of the ice sheet , extremophile microbes were found , suggesting that the lake water supports life . Scientists suggested that the lake could possess a unique habitat for ancient bacteria with an isolated microbial gene pool containing characteristics developed perhaps 500 @,@ 000 years ago .
In January 2011 , the head of the Russian Antarctic Expedition , Valery Lukin , announced that his team had only 50 m ( 200 ft ) of ice left to drill in order to reach the water . The researchers then switched to a new thermal drill head with a " clean " silicone oil fluid to drill the rest of the way . Instead of drilling all the way into the water , they said they would stop just above it when a sensor on the thermal drill detected free water . At that point , the drill was to be stopped and extracted from the bore hole . Removal of the drill would lower the pressure beneath it , drawing water into the hole to be left to freeze , creating a plug of ice in the bottom of the hole . Drilling stopped on 5 February 2011 at a depth of 3 @,@ 720 m ( 12 @,@ 200 ft ) so that the research team could make it off the ice before the beginning of the Antarctic winter season . The drilling team left by aircraft on 6 February 2011 .
By plan , the following summer , the team was to drill down again to take a sample of that ice and analyze it . The Russians resumed drilling into the lake in January 2012 and reached the upper surface of the water on 6 February 2012 . The researchers allowed the rushing lake water to freeze within the bore hole and months later , they collected ice core samples of this newly formed ice and sent to the Laboratory for Glaciology and Environmental Geophysics in Grenoble , France , for analysis .
= = = Biology results = = =
= = = = United Kingdom and United States = = = =
Scientists first reported evidence of microbes in the accretion ice in 1999 . Since then , a different team led by Scott O. Rogers has been identifying a variety of bacteria and fungi from accretion ice ( not from the subglacial water layer ) collected during U.S. drilling projects in the 1990s . According to him , this indicates that the lake below the ice is not sterile but contains a unique ecosystem . Then Scott Rogers published in July 2013 that his team performed nucleic acid ( DNA and RNA ) sequencing and the results allowed deduction of the metabolic pathways represented in the accretion ice and , by extension , in the lake . The team found 3 @,@ 507 unique gene sequences , and approximately 94 % of the sequences were from bacteria and 6 % were from Eukarya . Taxonomic classifications ( to genus and / or species ) or identification were possible for 1 @,@ 623 of the sequences . In general , the taxa were similar to organisms previously described from lakes , brackish water , marine environments , soil , glaciers , ice , lake sediments , deep @-@ sea sediments , deep @-@ sea thermal vents , animals and plants . Sequences from aerobic , anaerobic , psychrophilic , thermophilic , halophilic , alkaliphilic , acidophilic , desiccation @-@ resistant , autotrophic , and heterotrophic organisms were present , including a number from multicellular eukaryotes .
However , microbiologist David Pearce of the University of Northumbria in Newcastle , UK , stated that the DNA could simply be contamination from the drilling process , and not representative of Lake Vostok itself . The old ice cores were drilled in the 1990s to look for evidence of past climates buried in the ice , rather than for life , so the drilling equipment was not sterilized . Also Sergey Bulat , a Lake Vostok expert at the Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute in Gatchina , Russia , doubts that any of the cells or DNA fragments in the samples would belong to organisms that might actually exist in the lake . He says that it is very probable that the samples are heavily contaminated with tissue and microbes from the outside world .
= = = = Russia and France = = = =
Russian and French scientists have been carrying out molecular DNA studies of the water from Lake Vostok that was frozen in the borehole , by constructing numerous DNA libraries , which are collections of fragments of DNA that allow scientists to identify which species of bacteria may belong to . Samples taken from the lake so far contain about one part of kerosene per 1000 of water , and they are contaminated with bacteria previously present in the drill bit and the kerosene drilling fluid . So far , the scientists have been able to identify 255 contaminant species , but also have found an unknown bacterium when they initially drilled down to the lake 's surface in 2012 , with no matches in any international databases , and they hope it may be a unique inhabitant of Lake Vostok . However , Vladimar Korolev , the laboratory head of the study at the same institution , said that the bacteria could in principle be a contaminant that use kerosene — the antifreeze used during drilling — as an energy source .
Critics from the scientific community state that no valuable information can be obtained until they can test clean samples of lake water , uncontaminated by drilling fluid . Regardless of the contamination issues , in May 2013 the drilling facility at the Russian Vostok Antarctic station was declared a historic monument as " the result of the recognition of the achievements of the Russian research of Antarctica by the international scientific community , and of the unique operations on opening the subglacial Lake Vostok performed by Russian scientists on February 5 , 2012 . "
In January 2015 , the Russian press stated that Russian scientists have made a new " clean " borehole into Lake Vostok using a special 50 kg probe that collected about 1 liter of water not adulterated by the antifreezing fluid . It was predicted that the water would rise 30 – 40 m in the bottom part of the borehole , but in fact the water rose from the lake to a height of more than 500 m . In October of that same year , the work was suspended for that southern summer because of insufficient funding by the federal Russian government .
= = = Contamination due to drilling = = =
The drilling project has been opposed by some environmental groups and scientists who have argued that hot @-@ water drilling would have a more limited environmental impact . The main concern is that the lake could become contaminated with the antifreeze that the Russians used to keep the bore hole from refreezing . Scientists of the United States National Research Council have taken the position that it should be assumed that microbial life exists in Lake Vostok and that after such a long isolation , any life forms in the lake require strict protection from contamination .
The original drilling technique employed by the Russians involved the use of Freon and kerosene to lubricate the borehole and prevent it from collapsing and freezing over ; 60 short tons ( 54 t ) of these chemicals have been used thus far on the ice above Lake Vostok . Other countries , particularly the United States and Britain , have failed to persuade the Russians not to pierce to the lake until cleaner technologies such as hot @-@ water drilling are available . Though the Russians claim to have improved their operations , they continue to use the same borehole , which has already been contaminated with kerosene . According to the head of Russian Antarctic Expeditions , Valery Lukin , new equipment was developed by researchers at the St. Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute that would ensure the lake remains uncontaminated upon intrusion . Lukin has repeatedly reassured other signatory nations to the Antarctic Treaty System that the drilling will not affect the lake , arguing that on breakthrough , water will rush up the borehole , freeze , and seal the other fluids out .
Some environmentalist groups remain unconvinced by these arguments . The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition has argued that this manner of drilling is a profoundly misguided step which endangers Lake Vostok and other subglacial lakes in Antarctica ( which some scientists are convinced are inter @-@ linked with Lake Vostok ) . The coalition has asserted that " it would be far preferable to join with other countries to penetrate a smaller and more isolated lake before re @-@ examining whether penetration of Lake Vostok is environmentally defensible . If we are wise , the Lake will be allowed to reveal its secrets in due course . "
However , Lukin claims that hot @-@ water drilling is much more dangerous for the microbiotic fauna , as it would ' boil ' the living species , plus disturb the entire structure of water layers of the lake . Additionally , hot @-@ water drilling would have required more power than the Russian expedition could have generated at their remote camp .
= Get Sexy =
" Get Sexy " is a song by English girl group Sugababes , taken from their seventh studio album , Sweet 7 ( 2010 ) . It was written by Fred Fairbrass , Richard Fairbrass , Rob Manzoli , Philip Lawrence , Ari Levine , Bruno Mars and produced by the latter three under their stage name The Smeezingtons . The song was released on 30 August 2009 as the album 's lead single . Musically , " Get Sexy " is an uptempo electropop song with influences of dance and techno . The song features an interpolation of Right Said Fred 's " I 'm Too Sexy " . It is the last single to feature founding member Keisha Buchanan .
" Get Sexy " received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics ; some reviewers criticised its lack of originality , while others praised its production and lyrics . The song peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart and number three on the Irish Singles Chart . It also charted on the singles charts in Australia , Austria , Belgium , the Czech Republic , Germany , Slovakia , Sweden and Turkey . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Emil Nava and features the group 's members in a house of mirrors , a bird cage and a room covered in graffiti .
The song was featured in the titles of the first series of Serbia 's Next Top Model .
= = Background and release = =
In April 2009 , Sugababes travelled to the United States to work on their seventh studio album , Sweet 7 . They signed a contract with Jay Z 's record label , Roc Nation , resulting in working with high @-@ profile produceers . " Get Sexy " , which was selected as the album 's lead single , was written by Fred Fairbrass , Richard Fairbrass , Rob Manzoli , Philip Lawrence , Ari Levine , Bruno Mars and produced by the latter three under their stage name The Smeezingtons . Working with The Smeezingtons was described by group member Amelle Berrabah as an " amazing " and " great opportunity " . Berrabah also stated in an interview with Bang Showbiz that the song " doesn 't sound like anything we have ever done before " . On 6 July 2009 , Sugababes announced the release date of " Get Sexy " as 31 August 2009 . The song premiered on BBC Radio 1 on 7 July 2009 in a show presented by Scott Mills . In an interview for Digital Spy , Buchanan said that the response to the song was great , saying : " From the beginning there 's been a real buzz about the track . It 's had a great response from so many people , even if they say , ' Forget about the rest of them , this one I love ' . " Later , on 27 September 2013 , Keisha Buchanan said of the Bruno Mars penned song that , " I just didn 't feel like that was a representation of who we were as a band but we didn 't , at that point , have a lot of say . " However , " It was amazing working with Bruno , and we 'd love to work with him in this line @-@ up "
" Get Sexy " was digitally released on 30 August 2009 , while the CD single was made available the following day . During the single release interval between the release of " Get Sexy " and " About a Girl " , Buchanan controversially left the group . As a result of the group line @-@ up change , " Get Sexy " was re @-@ recorded along with a number of other tracks to feature the vocals of new member Jade Ewen and the removal of the vocals by ex @-@ member Buchanan for the release of Sweet 7 in 2010 .
= = Composition = =
" Get Sexy " is an uptempo electropop song , with dance , techno and R & B influences . David Balls and Nick Levine of Digital Spy described it as an " electro @-@ R & B club banger " . The song has a length of three minutes and 14 seconds . The song was composed in the key of E minor , with a beat set in common time and a tempo moving at 124 beats per minute . " Get Sexy " makes use of techno synthesizers that are present immediately before the song 's chorus , which has been described as " siren @-@ peaked " . Balls also called the song a " slamming dance anthem " .
" Get Sexy " features an interpolation of Right Said Fred 's song " I 'm Too Sexy " , which was composed by Christopher Fairbrass , Richard Fairbrass , and Robert Manzoli . It samples the trademark lyric , " I 'm too sexy for my shirt , too sexy for my shirt , so sexy it hurts " , but replaces " for my shirt " with " in this club " . According to Digital Spy , in an interview with Teletext , Buchanan revealed that inspiration for the song came " by accident " , saying : " The producers were messing around going , ' I 'm too sexy for the studio ' . We were like , ' That sounds cool ' , and [ the producer ] said , ' You remember that Right Said Fred song ? ' We were like , ' Do you think we can do it ? ' By accident it came together . " Balls and Levine compared the song to " Boom Boom Pow " by Black Eyed Peas .
= = Critical reception = =
" Get Sexy " garnered mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian described the song as a " grinding , fiercely catchy R & B number " . David Balls of Digital Spy gave the song a four out of five star rating , saying : " ' Get Sexy ' is a dancefloor stomper that nestles somewhere between ' Boom Boom Pow ' and ' Bonkers ' in its blend of electropop , techno and R & B sounds . It may not be massively original , nor an instant classic to rival ' About You Now ' or ' Push the Button ' , but with a Right Said Fred @-@ sampling hook , a thundering chorus and plenty of attitude – most noticeably from Amelle – it returns Sugababes right to the forefront of the pop landscape . ' Popjustice positively reviewed " Get Sexy " , saying " ' Get Sexy ' is a punchy , explosive pop single which while not being quite as adventurous as it thinks it could never be described as a pedestrian " . Fraser McAlpine of BBC gave the single a mainly negative review , calling it a " mess " which has " not bothered to make it rhyme " in the way the original , ' I 'm Too Sexy ' did . McAlpine went on to say : " the ' shut up and watch me walk ' bit is pilfered from the Ting Tings . [ ... ] [ Amelle 's ' silly boys ' bit – which is brilliant , by the way – may have more than a passing acquaintance with ' My Humps ' . [ ... ] the chorus is desperate for someone to scream ' will.i.am drop the beat now ' .
= = Chart performance = =
During the first week of its release , " Get Sexy " was ahead of its nearest competitor , " Run This Town " , by Jay @-@ Z featuring Rihanna and Kanye West , at number one . Eventually , " Get Sexy " debuted at number two on the UK Singles Chart , selling 55 @,@ 707 copies in its first week of release . The song spent 9 weeks inside the UK Singles Chart . " Get Sexy " has sold 165 @,@ 000 copies in the UK , making it their eighth best @-@ selling single in that country . The single debuted and peaked at number three on the Irish Singles Chart , becoming the band 's highest charting single in Ireland since " About You Now " . It remained on the chart in the country for seven weeks .
" Get Sexy " peaked at number 42 on the singles chart in Sweden , becoming the group 's first single since " About You Now " to chart in the country . The song peaked at number 41 on the German Singles Chart and number 72 on the Austrian Singles Chart . It also charted on the singles charts in the Czech Republic and Slovakia , both at number 48 . The song also impacted the charts in Belgium , peaking at numbers 21 and 37 on the Flanders and Wallonia charts , respectively . " Get Sexy " also became the group 's first single since " About You Now " to chart in Australia when it debuted at number 76 on the Australian Singles Chart . The following week , it rose to its peak of number 75 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Get Sexy " was directed by Emil Nava and choreographed by LaVelle Smith . Nava has also directed the music video for Tinchy Stryder 's number one UK single " Never Leave You " , which features Berrabah . " Get Sexy " ' s music video premiered on 1 August 2009 on More4 . The video features Berrabah in a bird cage , Buchanan posing on a couch and Heidi Range in a house of mirrors shot at by intense light beams . During the chorus , all three members are seen standing together with chains around their waists and arms , tying them together . The video ends with the Sugababes in a room covered in graffiti . Popjustice praised the video , saying that it " seems to feature Sugababes 3 @.@ 0 as ' the full package ' , and makes sense of this lineup , for the first time . This is a good thing . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Sweet 7 .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Operation Pedestal =
Operation Pedestal ( referenced in Italian sources as the Battaglia di Mezzo Agosto ) was a British operation to get desperately needed supplies to the island of Malta in August 1942 , during the Second World War . Malta was the base from which surface ships , submarines and aircraft attacked Axis convoys carrying supplies to the Italian and German armies in North Africa . From 1940 to 1942 , Malta was under siege , blockaded by Axis air and naval forces . To sustain Malta , the United Kingdom had to get convoys through at all costs . Despite serious losses , just enough supplies were delivered for Malta to continue resistance , although it ceased to be an effective offensive base for much of 1942 . The most crucial supply was fuel delivered by the SS Ohio , an American @-@ built tanker with a British crew . The operation officially started on 3 August 1942 and the convoy sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar on the night of 9 / 10 August .
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convoy is also known as the Battle of Mid @-@ August in Italy and as the Konvoj ta ' Santa Marija in Malta ; the arrival of the last ships of the convoy on 15 August 1942 , coincided with the Feast of the Assumption ( Santa Marija ) . The name Santa Marija Convoy or Sta Marija Convoy is still used and the day 's public holiday and celebrations , in part , honour the arrival of the convoy . The attempt to run fifty ships past bombers , E @-@ boats , minefields and submarines has gone down in military history as one of the most important British strategic victories of the Second World War . More than 500 Merchant and Royal Navy sailors and airmen were killed and only five of the 14 merchant ships reached Grand Harbour . The arrival of the remains of the convoy did not break the siege , which continued until the Allied reconquest of Egypt and Libya . The Second Battle of El Alamein ( 23 October – 11 November ) and Operation Torch ( 8 – 16 November ) in the western Mediterranean , transformed the strategic situation and enabled land @-@ based aircraft to escort merchant ships to the island .
= = Background = =
= = = Allied operations = = =
The Allies waged the Western Desert Campaign ( 1940 – 43 ) in North Africa , against the Axis forces of Italy aided by Germany , that had sent the Deutsches Afrika Korps and substantial Luftwaffe detachments to the Mediterranean in late 1940 . Up to the end of the year , 21 ships with 160 @,@ 000 long tons ( 160 @,@ 000 t ) of cargo had reached Malta without loss and a reserve of seven months ' supplies had been accumulated . Three convoy operations to Malta in 1941 lost only one merchant ship . From January 1941 to August 1942 , 46 ships had delivered 320 @,@ 000 long tons ( 330 @,@ 000 t ) but 23 ships had been sunk and modern , efficient , merchant ships , naval and air forces had been diverted from other routes for long periods ; 31 supply runs by submarines had been conducted . Reinforcements for Malta , included 19 costly and dangerous aircraft carrier ferry operations to deliver fighters . From August 1940 to the end of August 1942 , 670 Hurricane and Spitfire fighters had been flown off carriers in the western Mediterranean . Many of these used Malta as a staging post and then continued to North Africa and the Desert Air Force .
Malta was also a base for air , sea and submarine operations against Axis supply lines and from 1 June and 31 October 1941 , British forces sank about 220 @,@ 000 long tons ( 220 @,@ 000 t ) of Axis shipping on the African convoy routes , 94 @,@ 000 long tons ( 96 @,@ 000 t ) by the navy and 115 @,@ 000 long tons ( 117 @,@ 000 t ) by the RAF and Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) . Loaded ships sailing to Africa accounted for 90 percent of the ships sunk and Malta @-@ based squadrons were responsible for about 75 percent of those ships sunk by aircraft . Military operations from Malta and using the island as a staging post , led to Axis air campaigns against the island in 1941 and 1942 . By late July , the 80 fighters on the island averaged wastage of 17 per week ; the remaining aviation fuel was only sufficient for the fighters , making it impractical to send more bombers and torpedo @-@ bombers for offensive operations .
= = = Malta , 1942 = = =
Operation Harpoon from Gibraltar and Operation Vigorous from Alexandria ( 12 – 15 / 16 June ) were costly failures . Only two merchantmen from Harpoon reached the island , as the Vigorous convoy was forced to turn back and many merchantmen , including the only tanker in Harpoon and several convoy escorts were sunk . By August , the fortnightly ( two @-@ weekly ) ration on Malta for one person was 14 ounces ( 400 g ) sugar , 7 ounces ( 200 g ) fats , 10 @.@ 5 ounces ( 300 g ) bread and 14 ounces ( 400 g ) of corned beef . An adult male worker had a daily intake of 1 @,@ 690 calories and women and children received 1 @,@ 500 calories . In August a mass slaughter of livestock began on the island to reduce the need for fodder imports and to convert grazing land for crop growing ; the meat was supplied to the public through Victory Kitchens .
Malta would be forced to surrender if fuel , food and ammunition were not delivered before September and Air Vice @-@ Marshal Keith Park , the local air commander since July , warned that there remained only a few weeks ' supply of aviation fuel . The Admiralty had the fast minelayer HMS Welshman converted to carry fuel and submarines were pressed into service , to run supplies of aviation fuel , anti @-@ aircraft ammunition and torpedoes through the blockade , to keep the remaining aircraft operational . The First Lord of the Admiralty A. V. Alexander and Admiral of the Fleet Dudley Pound , the First Sea Lord ( professional head of the Royal Navy ) , concurred with Churchill that the loss of Malta would be
... a disaster of [ the ] first magnitude to the British Empire , and probably [ would be ] fatal in the long run to the defence of the Nile Valley .
and prepared a new convoy operation from Gibraltar , with an unprecedented number of escorts , using ships taken from the Far East and from the Home Fleet , that had vessels to spare since Arctic convoys had been suspended , following the disaster to Convoy PQ 17 .
= = = Axis command = = =
The Axis command structure in the Mediterranean was centralized at the top and fragmented at the lower levels . Mussolini had monopolised authority over Italian armed forces in 1933 , by taking the offices of Minister of War , Minister of the Navy and Minister of the Air Force . Feldmarschall Albert Kesselring of the Luftwaffe commanded the German ground forces in the theatre as Oberbefehlshaber Süd ( OB Süd ) but had no authority over Axis operations in North Africa or the organization of convoys to Libya . Fliegerkorps II and Fliegerkorps X were subordinate to the normal chain of command of the Luftwaffe . Since November 1941 , Kesselring had some influence over the conduct of the German naval operations in the Mediterranean , as nominal commander of Naval Command Italy ( Marinekommando Italien ) but this was subordinate to the Kriegsmarine chain of command . German service rivalries obstructed co @-@ operation and there was little unity of effort between German and the Italian forces in the Mediterranean . Kesselring had the authority only to coordinate plans for combined operations by German and Italian forces and some influence on the use of the Regia Aeronautica for the protection of convoys to North Africa . The Italian Navy resisted all German attempts to integrate its operations , ships in different squadrons never trained together and Supermarina constantly overruled lower @-@ level commanders .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Allied plans = = =
= = = = Operation Pedestal = = = =
Admiralty planning for Operation Pedestal began in late July 1942 , under the direction of Vice @-@ Admiral Neville Syfret , Rear Admirals Lumley Lyster and Harold Burrough and the Naval Staff . Syfret transferred to HMS Nelson on 27 July when Nelson and HMS Rodney returned to Scapa Flow from Freetown , West Africa . Syfret convened a conference on 29 July , for Flag and Commanding Officers of the naval forces for Pedestal at Scapa , to consider the orders for the operation . Several smaller operations were also planned , to be carried out concurrently with Pedestal . The convoy comprised 14 merchant vessels , the most important being SS Ohio , the only large , fast tanker available , an American ship loaned to the British , with a British crew . As insurance against the loss of Ohio and its 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 000 t ) of oil , the other ships were to carry fuel in drums . The convoy was to be protected by two battleships , three aircraft carriers , seven cruisers , 32 destroyers and seven submarines , the largest escort force yet .
The combined group was named Force F , the convoy and escorts from Britain to the rendezvous became Force P , the aircraft carriers Victorious , Argus and escorts were named Force M on the voyage to the meeting point . The aircraft carrier Eagle and its escort from Gibraltar to the rendezvous became Force J , the carrier Indomitable and its escorts from Freetown were Force K ; during Operation Berserk , all the carriers and escorts became Force G , Force R was made up of the fleet refuelling vessels RFA Brown Ranger , RFA Dingledale , escorted by four corvettes and an ocean @-@ going tug , RFA Abbeydale a Dale @-@ class oiler and escorts were named Force W also for Operation Berserk , Force X formed the close escort to Malta , Force Z was made up of the heavy ships of Force F , that were to turn back to Gibraltar and Force Y was to conduct Operation Ascendant , a run from Malta to Gibraltar , by the two ships that had reached the island during Operation Harpoon and escorts , as Pedestal entered the Mediterranean .
Embarked on Victorious were 809 Squadron and 884 Squadron FAA with 16 Fairey Fulmars and 885 Squadron with six Sea Hurricanes ; on Indomitable , 806 Squadron had ten Grumman Martlets , 800 Squadron and 880 Squadron had 24 Sea Hurricanes , 827 Squadron and 831 Squadron had 14 Fairey Albacores . On Eagle were 801 Squadron and 813 Squadron with 16 Sea Hurricanes . Based on Malta were five Baltimores , six PRU Spitfires and five Wellington Mk VIII reconnaissance aircraft . Reinforcements were sent temporarily from Egypt , raising the maximum number of operational aircraft to 100 Spitfires , 36 Beaufighters , 30 Beauforts , 3 Wellingtons , 2 Liberators , 2 Baltimores and three FAA Albacores and Swordfish .
The convoy was given the bogus title WS.5.21.S ( genuine Winston 's Specials were convoys from Britain to Suez via the Cape of Good Hope ) . After the usual convoy conference , just before sailing , Burrough met with the Convoy Commodore , A. G. Venables and the masters of the merchant ships on board his flagship , HMS Nigeria to brief them . A similar meeting was held with radio operators of the merchantmen , to explain fleet communications and procedures . Envelopes marked " Not to be opened until 08 : 00 hours August 10 " were handed to the ships ' masters , containing personal messages signed by the First Lord of the Admiralty wishing the masters " God Speed " . The convoy sailed from the River Clyde on the night of 2 / 3 August , escorted by HMS Nigeria , HMS Kenya and destroyers , to rendezvous with the other escorts the following morning .
= = = = Operation Bellows = = = =
Shortly before the departure from Scapa , the Admiralty decided that Furious should carry out Operation Bellows , to reinforce Malta ( known informally as a Club Run ) with Spitfires at the same time as Operation Pedestal . The departure of Furious was delayed by technical difficulties caused by the flight deck , that sloped upwards to a point amidships . A Spitfire made a practice take @-@ off , with wooden wedges in the flaps to ensure a 25 ° angle and Furious steaming at 30 knots ( 35 mph ) , into a 10 @-@ knot ( 12 mph ) wind . The Spitfire was thrown into the air by the rise on the flight deck , bounced onto the forward slope , fell off the front near stalling speed and narrowly avoided ditching . An immediate request was made to the Air Ministry for Constant @-@ speed propellers and two days later , a Spitfire with the new propeller took off easily , leaving 38 aircraft still on board to be flown to Malta . In company with HMS Manchester , she joined Nelson and the convoy three days before the start of Operation Pedestal .
= = = = Operations Berserk and Ascendant = = = =
On 31 July , Nelson , Rodney , HMS Victorious , HMS Argus , HMS Sirius and destroyers sailed from Scapa to rendezvous with HMS Eagle and HMS Charybdis from Gibraltar and HMS Indomitable and HMS Phoebe , from Freetown , for Operation Berserk . The operation took place between the Azores and Gibraltar from 6 – 9 August and included exercises with the merchant ships in anti @-@ aircraft gunnery , emergency turns and in changing cruising formations , communicating with signal flags and short range wireless telegraphy ( W / T ) . The risk to security in breaking W / T silence during the exercises , was accepted by Allied planners and according to Cunningham , the convoy attained an efficiency in manoeuvring " comparable to that of a fleet unit . " The aircraft of the force performed dummy air attacks in the afternoon of 8 August , to exercise radar reporting , the fighter direction organisation and to give anti @-@ aircraft gun crews aircraft recognition practice , followed by a fly past . In Operation Ascendant , Troilus and Orari , the two merchant ships that had survived the Harpoon fiasco in June , were to sail from Malta for Gibraltar , with a screen of two destroyers ( Force Y ) on the night of the first day of Operation Pedestal . Force Y was to be disguised and show Italian deck markings and sortie from Malta , to 30 nmi ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) to the south of Lampedusa , then sail past Kelibia on Cap Bon , keeping close to the Tunisian coast as far as the Galita Channel and from there make for Gibraltar . ( Force Y left Malta about 20 : 30 on 10 August , reached Cap Bon the next day and arrived at Gibraltar at about 10 : 00 on 14 August . )
= = = Axis plans = = =
The Germans and Italians planned separately and although they co @-@ operated to an extent , their forces operated independently in the operation against the convoy ; Fliegerkorps II in Sicily co @-@ ordinated plans with the local Regia Aeronautica commanders but conducted its attacks separately . Supermarina the Italian Navy headquarters , considered four contingencies , that the Allies would use their naval strength to protect a convoy , that a sortie would be made by the main Allied battle fleet to provoke the Italians to react , to use a powerful covering force for a convoy to force a passage to the north of Pantelleria instead of turning westward at the entrance to Skerki Bank or to use aircraft @-@ carriers for attacks on Sardinian airfields to ease the passage of a convoy . The Regia Aeronautica had 328 aircraft ( 90 torpedo @-@ bombers , 62 bombers , 25 dive @-@ bombers and 151 fighters ) and the Luftwaffe 456 aircraft ( 328 dive @-@ bombers , 32 high @-@ level bombers and 96 fighters ) . Most Luftwaffe torpedo @-@ bombers had been sent to Norway in June and did not return in time for the operation . About 20 Ju @-@ 88s from Fliegerkorps X Air Corps on Crete arrived at Sicily on 11 August , were ready for operations the next morning and another 8 Ju @-@ 88s arrived from Crete the same day , after completing convoy escort duties in the Aegean .
The Regia Marina had four battleships , three heavy and ten light cruisers , 21 destroyers , 28 torpedo boats and 64 submarines but most of the capital ships were non @-@ operational , for lack of fuel and air cover . The navy had received only 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel in June , equivalent to 20 percent of fuel consumption by convoys and the Italian battleships had to refuel the smaller vessels . Because of the acute fuel @-@ shortage , Mussolini suggested to Hitler that a Malta convoy should be opposed only by submarines and land @-@ based aircraft . Supermarina managed to prepare the 3rd Cruiser Division with three eight @-@ inch cruisers ( Gorizia , Bolzano and Trieste ) and seven destroyers , along with the 7th Cruiser Division with three six @-@ inch cruisers ( Eugenio di Savoia , Raimondo Montecuccoli and Muzio Attendolo ) and five destroyers plus 18 submarines , 19 torpedo boats ( six Ms and 13 Mas ) ; the Germans had three U @-@ boats and four S @-@ boats . The Axis air forces lacked the fighters to escort surface ships , bombers and torpedo bombers and Mussolini preferred to use the fighters as bomber escorts and as cover for surface forces . Kesselring rejected the Italian request to provide air cover for the Italian fleet , because the Luftwaffe did not have enough fighters for bomber and ship escorts .
Kesselring doubted that the Italian heavy cruisers could succeed even with air cover and used the lack of fuel as a pretext but Admiral Eberhard Weichold , the German naval attaché in Rome , wanted the Luftwaffe to give air cover for Italian ships . Marshal Ugo Cavallero , Chief of the General Staff ( Capo di Stato Maggiore Generale ) , also wanted Italian surface forces to participate in the operation but Supermarina did not want its big ships to operate without air cover . Axis tactics were similar to those used against Operation Harpoon in June ; a joint special air reconnaissance of the western Mediterranean by Axis aircraft on 11 and 12 August and Axis aircraft in Sicily and Sardinia , Italian submarines and German U @-@ boats , Axis torpedo boats and minefields would be used as successive barriers . The four barriers were to cause the convoy to disperse and be vulnerable to a force of cruisers and destroyers . Twenty @-@ two torpedo @-@ bombers , about 125 dive @-@ bombers all with fighter escorts and 40 high @-@ level bombers , were to be used in a synchronized attack . Priority was given to the destruction of aircraft carriers , to prevent them from intervening when Italian surface forces closed in on the remnants of the convoy . The Axis navies had 19 submarines available in the western Mediterranean and nine boats were to be stationed north of Algeria between longitudes 01 ° 40 ' E and 02 ° 40 ' E and ten submarines were to wait between Fratelli Rocks and the northern entrance to the Skerki Bank , some arrayed north @-@ west of Cap Bon , to operate in co @-@ operation with aircraft . An Italian submarine was to patrol west of Malta , one off Navarino ( Greece ) and three more about 87 nautical miles ( 100 mi ) west @-@ south @-@ west of Crete .
From June 1940 to April 1942 , the Regia Marina laid about 2 @,@ 320 mines between Cap Granitola at the south @-@ west end of Sicily and Pantelleria , 1 @,@ 020 mines between Pantelleria and Ras el Mustafa , Tunisia , 6 @,@ 880 mines between the Aegadian Islands and Cap Bon and 1 @,@ 040 mines between Bizerte and Keith Rock . The Italians also intended to lay a temporary minefield off Cap Bon on the night of 11 / 12 August , just before the convoy passed through . On the night of 12 / 13 August , 13 Mas and six Ms torpedo boats and four S @-@ boats were to lie in wait south of Marettimo ( one of the Aegades ) and off Cap Bon , then later off Pantelleria . The 3rd Cruiser Division and the 7th Cruiser Division would be about 100 nmi ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) north of Pantelleria during the afternoon of 12 August and then sail on an interception course south of Pantelleria through the night , to attack the remains of the convoy and its close escort just before dawn . It was assumed that at this time , Axis aircraft could provide fighter cover against the larger number of British aircraft from Malta . An Allied convoy from Egypt would be attacked by the 8th Cruiser Division based at Navarino in Greece , because of a lack of readiness , the division was ordered on 12 August , into the Ionian Sea to support the 3rd Cruiser Division .
= = = Axis preparations = = =
Axis planners lacked information about Allied plans but had fair knowledge of the Allied order of battle and the movement of Allied forces inside the Mediterranean from the reports of Abwehr agents near Gibraltar , the Spanish enclave of Ceuta ( opposite the Strait of Gibraltar ) and from reconnaissance aircraft and submarines . Reports from the Abwehr on 5 August , convinced Kesselring that the Allies were preparing a big operation to supply Malta from the west , in conjunction with a simultaneous attack on Mersa Matruh in Egypt . Allied bomber aircraft on Malta were expected to attack Italian naval forces as Malta fighters covered the passage of a convoy through the Sicilian Narrows . The Germans also considered a threat to Crete when the convoy had reached Malta and Kesselring ordered increased readiness of Luftwaffe units in Sicily and Crete , ordering the transfer of aircraft from Crete to Sardinia and Sicily .
Fliegerkorps II reduced operations to increase serviceability and prepared facilities at Elmas in Sardinia for reinforcements from Fliegerkorps X in the eastern Mediterranean and Kesselring began discussions with the Regia Aeronautica , for employment of the German and Italian forces in the forthcoming operation . The Allies learned through Enigma that the Luftwaffe had supply difficulties in Sardinia , preventing the movement there of long @-@ range bombers and of fighter operations to the extent intended and that the Luftwaffe had sent 40 – 45 long @-@ range bombers and six twin @-@ engined fighters from the eastern Mediterranean ; Fliegerführer Afrika was forced to divert aircraft for convoy escorts in the Tobruk area . On the morning of 8 August , a report erroneously indicated that an Argus @-@ class carrier and four destroyers had sailed into Gibraltar and Abwehr agents reported much shipping in the Strait of Gibraltar on the night of 8 / 9 August . By 10 August , 220 Luftwaffe aircraft were on Sicily along with 300 aircraft of the Regia Aeronautica and another 150 Italian aircraft assembled on Sardinia . As soon as it was clear that a convoy was sailing eastwards , 20 long @-@ range bombers from Crete and ten torpedo @-@ bombers from the training school at Grosseto were to be transferred to Sardinia . In Sicily , 15 dive @-@ bomber crews resting from operations were alerted and six Bf 110 long @-@ range fighters were sent from Africa , bringing the total to 701 aircraft .
= = Battle = =
= = = 9 / 10 August = = =
Force R left Gibraltar on 9 August , ready to meet the convoy at a rendezvous south of Majorca and Force F made an uneventful passage of the Straits in dense fog , during the night of 9 / 10 August . Fishing boats and one merchant vessel were passed at close quarters but due to the moonless night and the fog , Syfret thought it improbable that the force had been sighted from the shore . Abwehr agents near Gibraltar and Ceuta had sighted the convoy and the British decrypted their Enigma messages , learning how well @-@ informed the Axis were and their plans to defeat the convoy . At about 08 : 00 on 10 August , German reconnaissance aircraft detected the convoy and at 12 : 45 reported that the convoy was about 70 north of Algiers .
At 17 : 00 a French aircraft reported two aircraft carriers , two battleships , two cruisers , fourteen destroyers and twelve merchant vessels about 50 nmi ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) north of Oran . Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft reported at 19 : 00 that a convoy of two battleships , two carriers , two cruisers , fourteen destroyers and twelve merchantmen was on an easterly course , 55 nmi ( 102 km ; 63 mi ) north @-@ north @-@ east of Oran . By the afternoon of 10 August , Kesselring and Supermarina were aware that a convoy of forty to fifty ships , including possibly two carriers and nineteen freighters , was in the western Mediterranean , sailing on an easterly course at a speed of 13 – 14 nmi ( 24 – 26 km ; 15 – 16 mi ) . The convoy was expected to be south of Majorca by 06 : 00 on 11 August and south of Sardinia by the same time on 12 August . Fliegerkorps II in the western Mediterranean was alerted and Fligerkorps X was ordered to reconnoitre the eastern Mediterranean beyond the 25 ° E line of latitude after dawn on 11 August .
= = = 11 August = = =
Despite Axis submarines , three cruisers and twenty @-@ six destroyers refuelled from the tankers Dingledale and Brown Ranger of Force R by dawn . ( Previous Malta convoys had refuelled at Malta but now the island had no oil to spare . ) The convoy was south of the Balearic Islands on course for Cap Bon at daybreak and at about 06 : 20 , a U @-@ boat sighted the convoy . At 08 : 15 a Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft reported that the convoy was 95 nmi ( 176 km ; 109 mi ) north @-@ west of Algiers ; fifteen minutes later , a Ju @-@ 88 began to shadow the convoy at 20 @,@ 000 – 24 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 – 7 @,@ 300 m ) and continued throughout the day . At noon , the convoy was about 75 nmi ( 139 km ; 86 mi ) south of Majorca , sailing due east on a zigzag course . Furious conducted Operation Bellows between 12 : 30 and 15 : 15 , flying off 38 Spitfires for the 555 – 584 nmi ( 1 @,@ 028 – 1 @,@ 082 km ; 639 – 672 mi ) journey to Malta and then turned round with her escorts for Gibraltar ( 37 of the aircraft reached Malta ) . During the evening , HMS Wolverine one of the destroyers escorting Furious , rammed and sank the Italian submarine Dagabur .
Enigma decrypts showed that at 11 : 55 , the light cruisers Eugenio di Savoia , Raimondo Montecuccoli , Muzio Attendolo of the 7th Cruiser Division at Cagliari had been ordered by Supermarina to be at two hours ' notice from 18 : 00 and that with the heavy cruisers Gorizia , Bolzano and Trieste of the 3rd Cruiser Division at Messina , had been informed at 13 : 00 that Italian submarines were operating north of Bizerte . Three Axis submarines were seen departing Cagliari at 20 : 45 and the British learned that at 18 : 00 the 7th Cruiser Division with 17 destroyers , had sailed east and that 3rd Cruiser Division had departed from Messina and Naples . Allied intelligence also learned that Panzerarmee Afrika in Egypt believed that the convoy was a threat to Tobruk . Kesselring thought that a landing on the North African coast might be attempted and next day issued an order of the day , that landings would influence operations in Africa and must be prevented . Luftgau Afrika ( Air District Africa ) expected a landing at Tripoli on 13 or 14 August .
At 13 : 15 , the aircraft carrier Eagle was hit by four torpedoes from U @-@ 73 ( Kapitänleutnant Helmut Rosenbaum ) and sank eight minutes later , 70 nmi ( 130 km ; 81 mi ) south of Cape Salinas and 80 nmi ( 150 km ; 92 mi ) north of Algiers . About 900 of the 1 @,@ 160 crew were rescued by the destroyers but 200 men and all the aircraft were lost , about 25 percent of the fighter strength of the convoy . The Luftwaffe attacked just after sunset at 20 : 56 , when the convoy was about 200 nmi ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) from Sardinia , with 36 Ju @-@ 88 and He @-@ 111 bombers and torpedo bombers , that evaded the British fighters in the dusk . The aircraft scored no hits and the fleet anti @-@ aircraft gunners claimed three attackers destroyed . During the night the Axis airfields in Sardinia were attacked by B @-@ 24 Liberators and Beaufighters , which set a hangar on fire and destroyed several aircraft .
= = = = Night , 11 / 12 August = = = =
On the night of 11 / 12 August , the Italian 7th and 3rd Cruiser divisions and 17 destroyers , sailed from Cagliari , Messina and Naples to engage the British convoy . The RAF at the Malta Operations Room sent orders in plain language to a Wellington bomber that dropped flares and sent messages in clear , supposedly guiding a fictitious B @-@ 24 Liberator force , to bluff the Italian ships away from the convoy . ( Supermarina ( Italian Naval Headquarters ) had actually cancelled the operation before the British signals were received , because of a lack of air cover . ) At 00 : 20 , the British discovered from Enigma that Italian intelligence had sighted four British cruisers and ten destroyers and thought that part of the convoy might be proceeding to the eastern Mediterranean . Enigma also revealed operation orders from Fliegerkorps II to the fighters of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 ) at Elmas in Sardinia , to expect a convoy the Sicilian Narrows early on 12 August . Fliegerkorps II was to co @-@ operate with the Regia Aeronautica in Sicily and Sardinia , flying in waves with fighter escorts against the convoy .
British intelligence concluded that the convoy and its huge escort force had caused the Axis commanders to be apprehensive of a landing anywhere along the North African coast or on Crete . Axis precautionary measures had been taken on the assumption that if Crete was the target , landings would occur before 14 August . Defensive measures were also taken in the Benghazi – Tripoli area of Libya , where a squadron of Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters and the long @-@ range bombers based at Derna were alerted to move to Benghazi or Tripoli , supported by Ju @-@ 52 transport aircraft . Panzerarmee Afrika prepared detachments to repel landings and moved forces to the Sollum – Mersa Matruh area , to defend the coast east of Tobruk . At 07 : 00 , all ship movements from North Africa to Italy and the Aegean were suspended and by late afternoon , the British knew that the Luftwaffe anticipated a landing at Tripoli on 13 or 14 August . Fighter and dive @-@ bomber reinforcements were sent from Sicily and Enigma intercepted a message from Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring , the commander in chief of the Luftwaffe , ordering that the Luftwaffe
... will operate with no other thought in mind than the destruction of the British convoy ... The destruction of this convoy is of decisive importance .
and that the attacks were to be directed against the British aircraft carriers and merchantmen .
= = = 12 August = = =
= = = = Morning = = = =
Axis aircraft resumed shadowing at 05 : 00 and Indomitable launched Martlets at 06 : 00 to shoot down two shadowing aircraft . The carriers then launched Sea Hurricanes for air cover . At 09 : 15 when the convoy was about 130 nmi ( 240 km ; 150 mi ) south @-@ south @-@ west of Sardina , 19 Junkers Ju 88s dive @-@ bombers attacked and eight were shot down by anti @-@ aircraft fire and fighters for the loss of one FAA fighter . The biggest attack came at noon , when a combined attack by about 80 torpedo bombers , dive bombers and fighter @-@ bombers used a mixture of weapons , including new Motobomba pattern @-@ running torpedoes . Ten Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.79 bombers carrying Motobomba torpedoes were followed by German fighter @-@ bombers to disorganise the convoy before the main force of torpedo bombers attacked five minutes later .
= = = = Afternoon = = = =
The attack was not synchronised as intended and lasted from 12 : 15 to 14 : 45 , the main force being intercepted by FAA Martlets and Sea Hurricanes and forced to drop their torpedoes at long range ; the merchant ships implemented the evasive manoeuvres practised in Operation Berserk and were not hit . Two Re.2001G / Vs modified to carry a 640 kg ( 1 @,@ 410 lb ) bomb each and escorted by Re.2001s , joined Sea Hurricanes on their landing approach to Victorious and were not recognised by the anti @-@ aircraft gunners ; one bomb struck the flight deck but broke apart and the other missed . A force of dive bombers hit Deucalion and forced it out of the convoy , escorted by HMS Bramham . Enigma decrypts showed the British that at 18 : 30 on 12 August , an S @-@ boat flotilla was due to sail at 16 : 00 from Porto Empedocle in Sicily for Cap Bon , to operate in the area until about 04 : 30 on 13 August . At 21 : 45 , a Fliegerkorps II assessment revealed that the Axis thought that there were 51 ships in the western Mediterranean , including two carriers , two battleships , seven cruisers and twenty destroyers . The Germans mistakenly thought that a US Yorktown @-@ class aircraft carrier was present but correctly identified Rodney and Nelson . The convoy was thought to consist of 13 freighters of 105 @,@ 000 long tons ( 107 @,@ 000 t ) , protected by 10 – 16 fighters and plenty of anti @-@ aircraft guns .
During the afternoon , there were many submarine alarms and the convoy was approached by Italian submarine Cobalto and Emo . Emo was depth charged and prevented from attacking and HMS Ithuriel rammed and sank Cobalto ; Ithuriel was badly damaged and had to return to Gibraltar . The Italian submarine Brin was driven off by destroyers and a Sunderland flying boat attacked and damaged the Giada off Algiers and a later attack by another flying boat caused more damage . Giada shot down the Sunderland before heading for shelter to the Spanish port of Valencia ( where she remained until the 14 August ) . Between 18 : 00 and 18 : 50 , the convoy was attacked by about 40 Ju @-@ 88s and Ju @-@ 87s , co @-@ ordinated with about twenty CANT Z.1007 torpedo @-@ bombers . A SM.79 drone and a CANT Z.1007bis guide aircraft , escorted by five FIAT G.50 fighters , attacked the convoy . The pilot of the SM.79 pointed the aircraft towards the ships and parachuted , for the Z.1007bis crew to guide the bomb by radio . The radio failed and the SM 79 drone flew on until it ran out of fuel and crashed into Mount Khenchela on the Algerian mainland .
Foresight had to be scuttled after a torpedo detonation on the stern sent crewmen flying spread @-@ eagled through the air and Junkers Ju 87s wrecked the flight deck of Indomitable with three bomb hits along with two or three near misses , leaving Victorious the last operational carrier . Several fighters on Victorious were ditched to make room and Indomitable was able to maintain a speed 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 8 mph ) ; a torpedo bomber hit the destroyer Foresight , which was later sunk by the British . Syfret intended Force Z to turn west upon reaching the Skerki Bank at 19 : 15 but ordered the turn at 18 : 55 , because the Axis air attacks caused a twenty @-@ minute delay , the turn not being noticed by the Axis until 20 : 30 . Because of the number of aircraft in the attacks up to 18 : 50 , Syfret thought that there could be no more before dark and that the danger at the Skeri Bank would come from torpedo boats in the night and aircraft after dawn , not Axis submarines .
At 18 : 55 , Burrough with the close escort of Force X continued towards Malta with the merchant ships as Force R cruised in the western Mediterranean in case it was needed , until ordered to return to Gibraltar ( arriving in the morning of 16 August ) . An hour later , to pass through the Skerki Channel , the convoy manoeuvred from four to two columns , Nigeria , HMS Cairo and SS Ohio were torpedoed by the Italian submarine Axum . Destroyers were still with the damaged ships and when long @-@ range Beaufighter aircraft arrived and were fired on by the convoy gunners . Ashanti and HMS Penn laid a smokescreen to cover the light western horizon but the merchantman Empire Hope was hit by a dive @-@ bomber and sunk . The Axis air forces had flown 180 – 220 escorted bomber sorties during the day and the Germans believed that they had damaged an aircraft carrier , a cruiser , a destroyer and a large merchant ship .
The captain of Kenya described the state of the convoy as " chaotic " and there are several versions of events . At about 21 : 00 Italian submarine Alagi reported that it had sunk the merchant ship Empire Hope and damaged the cruiser Kenya . While Kenya turned to avoid a torpedo , Bronzo reported that it had sunk Deucalion . Clan Ferguson was torpedoed and was later destroyed by an ammunition detonation and Brisbane Star was hit in the bows ( possibly by Alagi ) but kept going . At 21 : 30 , Tenente di Vascello Sergio Puccini of the Alagi noted that
... from 180 degrees around to 140 degrees we could see a continuous line of flame from the burning , sinking ships ... A burning ship blows up .
The torpedoing of HMS Nigeria and Cairo , the diversion of HMS Ashanti to become Burrough 's new flagship and the detachment of four Hunt @-@ class destroyers to stand by the damaged cruisers , temporarily deprived Force X of its commander , the two columns of their leaders , lost the convoy nearly half its escort and its two Fighter Direction ships . On hearing that Nigeria and Cairo had been torpedoed , Syfret ordered Force Z to send back HMS Charybdis , HMS Eskimo and HMS Somali to reinforce Force X. Nigeria and the other damaged ships turned back to Gibraltar , escorted by HMS Wilton and HMS Bicester .
= = = 13 August = = =
= = = = Operation MG 3 = = = =
In the eastern Mediterranean , the British Operation MG 3 decoy had begun when convoy MW12 with three freighters had sailed from Port Said after dusk on 10 August , escorted by two cruisers , ten destroyers and two escorts . One merchant ship escorted by two cruisers and three destroyers left Haifa at 03 : 00 the next day . The two forces had rendezvoused early on 11 August and sailed west to the longitude of Alexandria , then turned back . German aircraft had spotted the movements and early on 12 August , Kesselring informed Fliegerkorps X that four merchant vessels , six cruisers and an unknown number of destroyers were at 33 ° 40 ' N , 28 ° 34 ' E , sailing north @-@ east at 12 knots ( 14 mph ) . Kesselring thought that the convoy was a British wireless @-@ telegraphy spoof but might also be a supply convoy for Malta . Fliegerkorps X was ordered to reconnoitre all of the eastern Mediterranean on the morning of 12 August . During the night of 12 / 13 August , British cruisers and destroyers had bombarded the port of Rhodes and during the day , the RAF attacked Maritsa airfield on Rhodes and a British submarine landed commandos at Simeto south of Catania on the east coast of Sicily , to sabotage electricity pylons . The Italian 8th Cruiser Division remained at port and the Germans detached one destroyer to reinforce the Italians ; local traffic along the North African coast and shipping traffic between Italy and Greece was suspended but MG 3 failed to divert Axis attention from Operation Pedestal .
= = = = Night , 12 / 13 August = = = =
Around midnight , the convoy passed south of Zembra Island towards Kelibia on Cap Bon , to avoid the minefields between Africa and Sicily around midnight , still out of formation . Three minesweeping destroyers sailed ahead , followed by the cruisers Kenya , Manchester and two freighters . Charybdis and the destroyers Eskimo and Somali from Force Z were still some hours behind and Ashanti was steaming fast to overhaul the main body . Three destroyers remained with nine of the merchantmen and Bramham was en route after Deucalion had been sunk . The main part of the convoy was attacked at 00 : 40 by eight Italian and seven German torpedo @-@ boats , which made fifteen attacks ; the long line of merchant ships and the reduced number of escort ships providing an easy target . At 01 : 20 off Cap Bon , Manchester was hit by a torpedo from either MS @-@ 16 or MS @-@ 22 , that wrecked three of its four propeller shafts and left the ship listing , stopped in the water . Power was restored , 156 men were taken on board HMS Pathfinder and at 05 : 00 , the captain ordered that the Manchester be scuttled and the remaining crew to make for the Tunisian coast .
Between 03 : 15 and 04 : 30 about 15 nmi ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) off Kelibia , the torpedo boats hit and sank Wairangi , Almeria Lykes ( US ) , Santa Elisa ( US ) and Glenorchy , as they took a short cut to catch up with the convoy . Rochester Castle was torpedoed but escaped at 13 knots ( 15 mph ) and caught up with the main body by 05 : 30 , by when Charybdis , Eskimo and Somali had arrived , increasing the escort to two cruisers and seven destroyers escorting Rochester Castle , Waimarama and Melbourne Star . Ohio and its destroyer were slowly closing the distance and further back were Port Chalmers and two destroyers . Dorset was sailing independently and Brisbane Star lurked near the Tunisian coast , ready to make a run for Malta after dark . Dawn brought an end to the torpedo boat attacks and at 07 : 30 , Burrough sent Eskimo and Somali back to help Manchester but they arrived too late , took on survivors who had not reached the shore and made for Gibraltar .
= = = = Morning = = = =
An attack by the Italian cruisers appeared imminent , after air reconnaissance had sighted them the previous evening , heading south about 80 nmi ( 150 km ; 92 mi ) from the west end of Sicily , on course to reach the convoy at dawn . At 01 : 30 the cruisers had turned east and run along the north coast of Sicily ; British aircraft from Malta had conducted a ruse to decoy the cruisers but the main attacking force on Malta was held back , in case the Italian battleships sailed from Taranto . Some of the Italian cruisers were ordered to return to port and the rest were sent through the Straits of Messina to join the 8th Cruiser Division against the decoy convoy in the eastern Mediterranean . The cruisers were attacked by the British submarines HMS Safari and Unbroken and Unbroken torpedoed the Bolzano in the oil tank and the ship was run aground ; the light cruiser Muzio Attendolo was hit forward and 60 ft ( 18 m ) of her bow was blown off .
At 07 : 00 the convoy was about 120 nmi ( 220 km ; 140 mi ) from Malta and twelve Junkers Ju 88s attacked at 08 : 00 despite Beaufighters and Spitfires overhead . Waimarama was hit and disintegrated , the aviation fuel on deck burst into flame and HMS Ledbury passed through the fires , rescuing 27 survivors of the ship 's complement of 107 men . The wreckage of Waimarama showered flaming debris on Melbourne Star and several of her crew abandoned ship prematurely , some of whom were later rescued by Ledbury . At 10 : 50 , Ohio was disabled by several near @-@ misses from Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers and one crashed onto the deck ; Rochester Castle was torpedoed and set ablaze but kept going and Dorset was hit and stopped . The crew of Port Chalmers found a torpedo caught in the starboard paravane ( a minesweeping device ) but it exploded harmlessly ; two destroyers were left behind with the disabled ships and another air attack at 11 : 50 had no effect . The main body of the convoy , with Port Chalmers , Melbourne Star and Rochester Castle sailed on and when it was within 80 nmi ( 150 km ; 92 mi ) of Malta , further air attacks were prevented by 407 Spitfire sorties from the island .
= = = = Afternoon = = = =
The remnants of the convoy steamed on to meet the 17th Minesweeper Flotilla of the Malta Escort Force at 14 : 30 and Force X turned for Gibraltar , the convoy reaching Grand Harbour in Valletta at 16 : 30 , where Operation Ceres , the immediate unloading of the ships began . Another aerial attack at dusk hit Ohio and Dorset was sunk . Penn tried to tow Ohio but the tanker was listing and snapped the tow line . During another attack , Ohio broke its keel when a bomb hit the same area as a previous torpedo hit . The crew , led by Captain D. W. Mason , temporarily abandoned the ship , as Italian torpedo bombers attacked . Brisbane Star evaded a U @-@ boat and managed to steam at 5 – 9 nautical miles ( 9 @.@ 3 – 16 @.@ 7 km ; 5 @.@ 8 – 10 @.@ 4 mi ) despite the damage to its bows . While off Tunisia , Brisbane Star was boarded by the Sousse harbour master who tried to impound the vessel , until persuaded to relent and let the ship sail on after dark .
= = = 14 – 15 August = = =
Brisbane Star arrived at Valetta Harbour with Spitfires circling overhead , during the afternoon of 14 August . Ohio was surrounded by ships to nurse the tanker to Grand Harbour and several American volunteers from Santa Eliza , manned anti @-@ aircraft guns on Ohio during the tow . The weight of the tanker kept breaking the tow lines , while constant air attacks were made by 20 bombers that destroyed the rudder , made a hole in her stern and brought the decks awash . The tanker was towed in by the destroyers Ledbury and Penn lashed on either side , with the minesweeper HMS Rye acting as a stabilizer at the stern . More air attacks disrupted the towing formation , until it was re @-@ established with Bramham replacing Ledbury for the remainder of the journey . Ohio was towed into Grand Harbour at 09 : 30 on 15 August , to cheering crowds and a band playing Rule Britannia . The crowd fell silent as the ships entered harbour , men removed their hats , women crossed themselves and a bugle sounded Still . The tanker discharged oil into two tankers and water was pumped in at the same time , to reduce the chance of structural failure . Ohio settled on the bottom just as the last of the fuel was emptied .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Analysis = = =
German reports on 17 August , stated that all the tankers in the recent Mediterranean convoy had been sunk and none of the transports had reached their destination ( assumed to be Egypt ) . In August , with Malta still besieged , 35 percent of Axis convoy shipping to North Africa was lost . The Allies had lost 13 vessels sunk , including nine merchantmen , one aircraft carrier ( Eagle ) , two cruisers ( Manchester and Cairo ) and a destroyer ( Foresight ) but the Royal Navy and the Merchant Navy had saved Malta . The arrival of about 32 @,@ 000 short tons ( 29 @,@ 000 t ) of general cargo , together with petrol , oil fuel , kerosene and diesel fuel , was enough to give the island about ten more weeks supply beyond the few weeks that the existing stocks could maintain . Later that year , Weichold summed up the German navy 's analysis ,
.... To the continental observer , the British losses seemed to represent a big victory for the Axis , but in reality the facts were quite different , since it had not been possible to prevent a British force , among which were five merchant vessels , from reaching Valetta .... Thanks to these new supplies Malta was now capable of fighting for several weeks , or , at a pinch , for several months . The main issue , the danger of air attack on the supply route to North Africa , remained . To achieve this objective no price was too high , and from this point of view the British operation , in spite of all the losses , was not a defeat , but a strategical failure of the first order by the Axis , the repercussions of which will one day be felt ...
Royal Navy gunners and Fleet Air Arm fighters shot down 42 of about 330 Axis aircraft that flew against the convoy . In 1994 , Sadkovich wrote that Operation Pedestal was a tactical disaster for the British , of a magnitude comparable to the German attack on Convoy PQ @-@ 17 . In 2002 , Giorgerini wrote that the operation was an Italian success , the Italian submarines had adopted more offensive tactics and sank a cruiser and two merchantmen , damaged two cruisers and the Ohio . For the British and the other Allies , Operation Pedestal was a strategic victory , raising the morale of the people and garrison of Malta , averting famine and an inevitable surrender . In September and October , Malta was supplied by submarines ( Otus , Rorqual on the Magic Carpet run and Clyde had sailed during the operation with ammunition , aviation fuel and torpedoes ) . Submarines Parthian , Clyde , Traveller and Thrasher made more Magic Carpet runs and the fast minelayer Welshman made a dash from Gibraltar with 300 long tons ( 300 t ) of food .
= = = Casualties = = =
In 1956 , Playfair wrote that the Fleet Air Arm lost 13 aircraft in action and 16 when Eagle was sunk , the RAF lost 5 aircraft and 35 Axis aircraft were shot down , including losses over Malta . In 1957 , Santoro wrote that the Regia Aeronautica lost 24 aircraft ( excluding those lost in British raids on Sardinian airfields and the radio @-@ controlled SM 79 bomber ) and that the Germans lost 24 aircraft , plus an unknown number of reconnaissance aircraft operating against the convoy . In 2003 Malcolm listed 160 men killed on Eagle , 132 on Manchester , 52 on Nigeria , 50 on Indomitable , 24 on Cairo , 5 on Foresight , 3 on Kenya . Merchant Navy casualties were 83 on Waimarama , 18 on Clan Ferguson , 7 on Glenorchy , 5 on Melbourne Star , 4 on Santa Elisa , 1 on Deucalion , 1 on Ohio and 1 on Brisbane Star . In 2010 , Vego wrote that about 350 men had been killed , Ohio never sailed again and the British lost one carrier ( Eagle ) , two cruisers ( Manchester and Cairo ) and the destroyer Foresight . One carrier ( Indomitable ) , two cruisers ( Nigeria and Kenya ) and three destroyers were damaged and under repair for some time and the Fleet Air Arm lost thirteen aircraft on operations and sixteen Sea Hurricanes when Eagle was sunk . The Allies could not risk such losses again and another large convoy to Malta was not attempted until November 1942 , when the re @-@ capture of airfields in Egypt and Libya after the Second Battle of El Alamein made it much easier to provide land @-@ based air cover . Two Italian cruisers ( Bolzano and Muzio Attendolo ) were damaged and not operational for the rest of the war , the Italian submarines Cobalto and Dagabur were sunk , Giada was damaged and 42 Axis aircraft were shot down .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
From 16 to 18 August , HMS Furious made another Club Run from Gibraltar and dispatched 29 Spitfires to Malta in Operation Baritone . In September , with Malta supplied , Allied forces sank 100 @,@ 000 long tons ( 100 @,@ 000 t ) of Axis shipping , including 24 @,@ 000 long tons ( 24 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel destined for Rommel , leaving the Axis forces in Egypt consuming supplies faster than receipts , contributing to tactical paralysis during the Second Battle of El Alamein ( 23 October – 11 November ) and Operation Torch ( 8 – 16 November ) . Submarines and Bristol Beaufort torpedo @-@ bombers escorted by Bristol Beaufighters , regularly attacked Axis supply ships , known to the Allies through Ultra intercepts from Bletchley Park . An attempt to run a disguised merchant ship to Malta early in November failed and then Operation Stoneage ( 17 – 21 November ) , a convoy of four merchant ships from Alexandria , arrived undamaged ( the light cruiser Arethusa was torpedoed with 155 men killed and had to be towed back to port ) . Force K was re @-@ established at Malta and in Operation Portcullis ( 1 – 5 December ) , five ships were dispatched and arrived safely . Chariot manned torpedoes began to operate from Malta that month and from late December to January 1943 , four convoys , Quadrangle A , B , C and D , with pairs of merchantmen each , delivered 200 @,@ 000 long tons ( 200 @,@ 000 t ) of stores without loss and empty ships were retrieved from the island .
= = Commemoration = =
In recognition of their fortitude during the siege and air attacks during all of the Mediterranean campaign , Malta was awarded the George Cross in the months immediately preceding this operation . Vice @-@ Admiral Syfret was appointed as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath for his " bravery and dauntless resolution in fighting an important convoy through to Malta in the face of relentless attacks by day and night from enemy submarines , aircraft , and surface forces . " The master of the tanker Ohio , Dudley Mason , was awarded the George Cross for showing " skill and courage of the highest order and it was due to his determination that , in spite of the most persistent enemy opposition , the vessel , with her valuable cargo , eventually reached Malta and was safely berthed . " Several other officers , crew members and commanders of both the Royal and Merchant Navies , including the commander of HMS Ledbury , Roger Hill , received military awards ranging from the Distinguished Service Order and Conspicuous Gallantry Medal to Mentioned in Despatches , for the bravery and intrepidity shown in ferrying the merchantmen to Malta . The Merchant Marine Distinguished Service Medal was awarded to Junior Third Officer Frederick August Larsen , Jr. and to Cadet @-@ Midshipman , U.S. Merchant Marine Academy , Francis A. Dales for " Heroism beyond the call of duty " . Operation Pedestal was the subject of a 1953 black and white British film , Malta Story , that interspersed archive footage of the SS Ohio with scripted studio scenes .
= = Order of battle = =
= Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes =
Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes is the second solo album by Thom Yorke of the English alternative rock band Radiohead , released on 26 September 2014 . It was produced by Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich , with artwork by Radiohead artist Stanley Donwood . The album blends Yorke 's vocals and piano playing with electronic beats and textures .
Yorke first released Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes independently via a paid @-@ for BitTorrent bundle . He and Godrich expressed their wish to find " an effective way of handing some control of internet commerce back to people who are creating the work " . The album was downloaded over a million times within six days of release , and became the most @-@ downloaded legal torrent of 2014 ; by February 2015 , it had been downloaded over 4 @.@ 5 million times .
A vinyl edition was also sold from the official site , and in August 2015 a CD edition was released in Japan by Hostess Entertainment . On 26 December 2014 , Yorke released Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes on the online music shop Bandcamp alongside a new song , " Youwouldn 'tlikemewhenI 'mangry " . The album received generally positive reviews and Rolling Stone named it one of the best of 2014 .
= = Background = =
In 2007 , Radiohead released their album In Rainbows independently as a pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want download . Matt Mason , chief content officer at BitTorrent Inc , said the release was the " gold standard for how to do something direct @-@ to @-@ fan on the internet " , and began talks with Radiohead 's managers about the future of online music distribution . Radiohead singer Yorke and Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich had expressed concern about how the internet has affected the music business , and accused the music streaming service Spotify of not compensating new artists fairly . In 2013 , Godrich stated : " [ Streaming ] cannot work as a way of supporting new artists ' work . Spotify and the like either have to address that fact and change the model for new releases or else all new music producers should be bold and vote with their feet . " Mason told The Guardian that Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes was " born out of these conversations we had on how the internet should work for artists : the vision we both share , which is that at present we don 't have a sustainable business model for artists on the internet . "
In 2013 , Yorke contributed music to The UK Gold , a documentary about tax avoidance in the UK ; the soundtrack includes an early version of the Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes track " A Brain in a Bottle " . The following year , elements of Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes were used in the soundtrack for the second version of the Polyfauna app , released on 1 September 2014 , before the album 's announcement . The app , for Android and iOS phones , is an " experimental collaboration " between Radiohead and the British digital arts studio Universal Everything . Later that month , Yorke posted a photo of an unidentified vinyl record on Tumblr , prompting media speculation about a new album release .
= = Release = =
Yorke and producer Nigel Godrich announced Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes on 26 September 2014 . It was released the same day via the peer @-@ to @-@ peer file sharing protocol BitTorrent using BitTorrent Inc 's " bundles " initiative , whereby creators distribute their work in packaged torrent files . It was the first album to use BitTorrent 's " pay @-@ gate " feature ; customers pay US $ 6 ( £ 3 @.@ 69 ) to download the Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes torrent bundle containing eight MP3 files , cover artwork by Stanley Donwood , and a music video for " A Brain in a Bottle " featuring Yorke in boxing gloves . Users can also download a free torrent bundle containing only the " Brain in a Bottle " MP3 and video , or order a " deluxe " vinyl edition of the album packaged in a bespoke antistatic bag .
In a press release announcing the album , Yorke and Godrich wrote :
= = = Other formats = = =
On 26 December 2014 , Yorke released Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes in MP3 and FLAC formats for £ 3 @.@ 86 on the online music shop Bandcamp . He also released a free new song , " Youwouldn 'tlikemewhenI 'mangry " , which Godrich described as a " complimentary addendum " to the album . On 30 June 2015 , the album was made available to stream with the launch of Apple Music , Apple 's streaming service . In August 2015 , a CD version was released in Japan by Hostess Entertainment .
= = Music = =
Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes blends Yorke 's vocals and piano playing with electronic beats and textures . Critics described it as " eerie " and " neurotic " , with " a quiet , restrained sense of dread " . The AV Club likened its music to the Radiohead tracks " Like Spinning Plates " ( from 2001 's Amnesiac ) and " The Gloaming " ( 2003 's Hail to the Thief ) .
The opening track , " A Brain in a Bottle " , combines Yorke 's falsetto with a stuttering beat and " old @-@ school " oscillator effects . Radiohead bassist Colin Greenwood is credited for beat programming on " Guess Again ! " , which features " decaying " piano and " crunchy " backbeats . " Interference " is a minimal " mumbled love song " with " chilly " synth pads . Slant Magazine described " The Mother Lode " as melodic and dubstep @-@ inspired , with an " intoxicating " house beat . The album 's second half features a ten @-@ minute ambient suite led by the " percussive " looping track " There is No Ice ( For My Drink ) " . Rolling Stone described the final track , " Nose Grows Some " , as a " dread @-@ soaked hymn of emotional defeat " , likening it to Radiohead finales such as " Motion Picture Soundtrack " from Kid A ( 2000 ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial = = =
Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes was downloaded over 100 @,@ 000 times in the first 24 hours of release and over a million times in its first six days . Excluding internet piracy , it was the most torrented album of 2014 . By February 2015 , it had been downloaded over 4 @.@ 5 million times . These figures include downloads of the free torrent bundle containing only the " Brain in a Bottle " MP3 and music video ; sales figures for the full album bundle have not been released .
Stereogum and Gigaom estimated that Yorke may have made $ 20 million from the release , more than he would likely have made through a traditional album release . Stereogum wrote that " this sort of album @-@ release strategy only works for artists who are already astronomically famous , but salute Thom Yorke for figuring out ways to keep stacking cash while keeping his artistic autonomy . " However , Billboard argued that , assuming the ratio of people who paid for the full album was comparable to subscription numbers of Spotify and Pandora Radio , earnings between $ 1 and 6 million were more likely : " not bad showing for a self @-@ released , direct @-@ to @-@ fan album that allowed Yorke to circumvent major download stores and gather customer information — but it 's no Hollywood starring role , either . "
In November 2015 , asked if the BitTorrent release had been a success , Yorke said : " No , not exactly . But I wanted it to be an experiment ... I wanted to show that , in theory , today one could follow the entire chain of record production , from start to finish , on his own . But in practice it is very different . We cannot be burdened with all of the responsibilities of the record label . But I 'm glad I did it , for having tried to . "
= = = Critical = = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes has an average score of 72 based on 29 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine described the album as " deliberately underwhelming , an old @-@ fashioned grower that doesn 't startle upon first listen but rather slowly unfolds ... instead of wallowing in alienation , Yorke has found comfort within it on Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes and the difference is palpable . " Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone wrote that Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes " demands deep listening " and praised " Nose Grows Some " as the strongest track . Slant Magazine critic Franklin Jones wrote : " This is paranoia with a soul , and occasionally a heart ... Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes maintains the trademark elements of a Thom Yorke release while injecting subtle moments of fresh invention . " Barry Nicholson of the NME wrote : " It 's hardly love at first listen … Yet across repeat plays , the album 's charms begin to unfurl . " Rolling Stone ranked the album number 30 in its list of the best albums of 2014 .
The A.V. Club gave the album a positive review , but wrote : " Flashes of brilliance aside , the result sounds an awful lot like something Yorke dashed off to pass the time before delving into the new Radiohead album . " Mark Beaumont of The Guardian called it " deviously understated " , but found that its unconventional release was " more impactful than the product . " Larry Fitzmaurice of Pitchfork wrote : " There 's precious little to grab on to in terms of melody and feeling , and you won 't find yourself humming along to anything here . That said , certain elements of Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes , if given the right amount of attention , can be enjoyable to luxuriate in . " Chris Barton of the Los Angeles Times found the album too similar to Yorke 's previous solo album The Eraser ( 2006 ) and his work with Atoms for Peace , writing that " it ’ s just a bit disappointing that Yorke 's path seems short on new directions . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Thom Yorke except " Guess Again ! " by Thom Yorke and Colin Greenwood .
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from the Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes vinyl packaging .
Stanley Donwood – artwork
Nigel Godrich – production and editing
Colin Greenwood – beat programming on " Guess Again ! "
Bob Ludwig – mastering
Thom Yorke – artwork ( credited as " Tchocky " ) , music and vocals
= = Chart positions = =
= El Celler de Can Roca =
El Celler de Can Roca is a restaurant in Girona , Catalonia , Spain which was opened in 1986 by the Roca brothers , Joan , Josep and Jordi . It was first located next to their parent 's restaurant Can Roca , but moved to its current purpose built building in 2007 . It has been received warmly by critics , and holds three Michelin stars . In 2013 , it was named the best restaurant in the world by the magazine Restaurant , after having been ranked second in 2011 and 2012 . In 2014 , it was named second best restaurant in the world . In 2015 , it was once again named the best restaurant in the world by the magazine Restaurant .
= = Style and Cuisine = =
The cuisine served by the restaurant is traditional Catalan , but with twists to the extent that the Michelin Guide describes it as " creative " . The restaurant has a large wine cellar with some 60 @,@ 000 bottles . Dishes served include those based on perfumes , and with unusual presentations such as caramelised olives served on a bonsai tree .
= = Description = =
El Celler de Can Roca was founded in 1986 by the Roca brothers next to their family 's main restaurant Can Roca which had been open on the site since 1967 . The oldest brother , Joan Roca is the head chef ; Josep Roca , the middle brother , is the sommelier , and the youngest brother , Jordi Roca , is in charge of desserts . Because of their work at the restaurant , the brothers have appeared at Harvard University in the United States as part of the Science and Cooking program .
= = Modernism = =
In late 2007 the restaurant moved to a modern building custom @-@ built for the restaurant about 100 meters from the prior location , with the original location still being used for staff meals . The new layout features wooden floors , with simply dressed tables . On each table sits three stones to signify the three Roca brothers , while the tableware is Rosenthal china . The enlarged kitchen in the new location includes space for thirty chefs to work and also features Joan Roca 's open plan office , so that he can keep an eye on the chefs even while he is doing more administrative tasks . At least one of the three brothers is present for every service . There is a capacity for 45 diners .
= = Media = =
El Celler de Can Roca appeared on the UK television series MasterChef : The Professionals on 13 December 2011 . The three finalists in the competition were asked to cook their own creations for the three Roca brothers , as well as cooking six of the restaurant 's signature dishes for a group of invited guests . Mark Birchall , the 2009 winner of the Roux Scholarship elected to work at El Celler de Can Roca as part of his prize . Birchall was head chef of L 'Enclume in Cartmel , England , under chef @-@ patron Simon Rogan . This resulted in the restaurant appearing on the featured chef series of British chef networking website " The Staff Canteen " .
= = = Menu = = =
The restaurant primarily uses local ingredients from the Catalan area . Simple flavour combinations are combined with molecular gastronomy techniques and unusual presentations of food , including caramelised olives which are presented on a bonsai tree . The Michelin Guide describes the type of cuisine produced by El Celler de Can Roca simply as " creative " , while Edward Owen of The Times said it was a " fusion of traditional dishes with surrealist touches " . Techniques include the freezing of calamari with liquid nitrogen and then blended in order to be piped and baked into a cracker .
When diners first arrive , they are given a selection of small bites from a section of the kitchen called " El Món " , who only produce small snack portions for the guests . They typically demonstrate flavours from around the world and come in sets of five . These introduce the diner to the unusual techniques and presentations of the restaurants . For example , a small ball of frozen spiced fish stock coated in cocoa butter represents Thailand , while the set comes on a purpose @-@ built wooden holder . While there are typical fine dining ingredients including in the menu such as lobster and foie gras , due to the Catalan influence on the menu , ingredients such as pigeon , hake and pig 's trotters also appear . Fish dishes include a crayfish velouté , accompanied by spring onions with cocoa and mint .
They have created some dishes and desserts based on perfumes such as Calvin Klein 's Eternity , Carolina Herrera , Lancôme and Bulgari . This has resulted in a perfume being released by the restaurant itself , called Nuvol de Ilimona . It was based on a dessert served at the restaurant called Lemon Distillation , and was developed to spray as a mist over the diners as they ate the dish . The wine list is split into separate lists for red and white , and is delivered on a trolley to each table .
= = Reception = =
El Celler de Can Roca has been praised by fellow chefs , with Michel Roux describing it as " one of the top restaurants in Europe " , and Michel Roux , Jr. stating that it was his favourite restaurant . Nicholas Lander reviewed the restaurant for the Financial Times in 2008 and also praised the veal tartare , but was impressed by the main of kid goat , and the dessert of sheep 's milk ice cream .
Jonathan Gold of the Wall Street Journal wrote of the presentation of the caramelised olives , describing it as " delectable and unforgettable " . In September 2011 , it was included in a list of the top ten places to eat by Tony Turnbull , The Times food editor . Critic A. A. Gill compared the restaurant to former restaurant El Bulli saying that it wasn 't a direct replacement and was an " outstanding kitchen , and part of the great confident wave of new Spanish food that is complex , technically exhausting , aware of the landscape , history and politics " . The comparison is commonly made , with El Celler de Can Roca often being referred to as the successor to El Bulli which was once ranked as the number one restaurant in the world .
The restaurant was awarded its first Michelin star in 1995 , its second in 2002 and was awarded three star status in 2009 . It remains at that level of accolade as of the 2013 Michelin Guide . El Celler de Can Roca has been listed in The World 's 50 Best Restaurants by Restaurant magazine since 2006 when it was ranked 21st . In 2009 it was ranked fifth and was awarded the prize for being the highest climbing restaurant on the list . In 2010 , it rose one place to fourth and in 2011 , 2012 and 2014 , it was ranked in second place behind Danish New Nordic cuisine restaurant Noma , with fellow Spanish restaurant Mugaritz in third place . On 29 April 2013 the restaurant was named the best in the world . In The Daily Meal 's inaugural list of the best 101 restaurants in Europe in 2012 , El Celler de Can Roca was ranked twelfth . During the same year , it was named as restaurant of the year by The Sunday Telegraph .
= 2012 Delhi gang rape =
The 2012 Delhi gang rape case involved a rape and fatal assault that occurred on 16 December 2012 in Munirka , a neighbourhood in South Delhi . The incident took place when a 23 @-@ year @-@ old female physiotherapy intern , Jyoti Singh was beaten , gang raped , and tortured in a private bus in which she was traveling with her friend , Awindra Pratap Pandey . There were six others in the bus , including the driver , all of whom raped the woman and beat her friend . Thirteen days after the assault , she was transferred to a hospital in Singapore for emergency treatment , but died from her injuries two days later . The incident generated widespread national and international coverage and was widely condemned , both in India and abroad . Subsequently , public protests against the state and central governments for failing to provide adequate security for women took place in New Delhi , where thousands of protesters clashed with security forces . Similar protests took place in major cities throughout the country . Because India does not allow the press to publicise a rape victim 's name , the victim has become widely known as Nirbhaya , meaning " fearless " , and her life and death have come to symbolise women 's struggle to end rape and the long @-@ held practice of blaming the victim rather than the perpetrator .
All the accused were arrested and charged with sexual assault and murder . One of the accused , Ram Singh , died in police custody from possible suicide on 11 March 2013 in the Tihar Jail . According to some published reports , the police say Ram Singh hanged himself , but defense lawyers and his family suspect he was murdered . The rest of the accused went on trial in a fast @-@ track court ; the prosecution finished presenting its evidence on 8 July 2013 . The juvenile was convicted of rape and murder and given the maximum sentence of three years ' imprisonment in a reform facility . On 10 September 2013 , the four remaining adult defendants were found guilty of rape and murder and three days later were sentenced to death by hanging . On 13 March 2014 , Delhi High Court in the death reference case and hearing appeals against the conviction by the lower Court , upheld the guilty verdict and the death sentences .
As a result of the protests , in December 2012 , a judicial committee was set up to study and take public suggestions for the best ways to amend laws to provide quicker investigation and prosecution of sex offenders . After considering about 80 @,@ 000 suggestions , the committee submitted a report which indicated that failures on the part of the government and police were the root cause behind crimes against women . In 2013 , the Criminal Law ( Amendment ) Ordinance , 2013 was promulgated by President Pranab Mukherjee , several new laws were passed , and six new fast @-@ track courts were created to hear rape cases . Critics argue that the legal system remains slow to hear and prosecute rape cases , but most agree that the case has resulted in a tremendous increase in the public discussion of crimes against women and statistics show that there has been an improvement in the number of women willing to file a crime report . However , in December 2014 , the two @-@ year anniversary of the attack , the girl 's father called the promises of reform unmet and said that he felt regret in that he had not been able to bring justice for his daughter and other women like her . A BBC documentary titled India 's Daughter based on the attack was broadcast in the UK on 4 March 2015 .
= = Incident = =
The victims , a 23 @-@ year @-@ old woman , Jyoti Singh , and her friend , Awindra Pratap Pandey , were returning home on the night of 16 December 2012 after watching the film Life of Pi in Saket , South Delhi . They boarded an off @-@ duty charter bus at Munirka for Dwarka that was being driven by joyriders at about 9 : 30 pm ( IST ) . There were only six others on the bus , including the driver . One of the men , a minor , had called for passengers telling them that the bus was going towards their destination . Pandey became suspicious when the bus deviated from its normal route and its doors were shut . When he objected , the group of six men already on board , including the driver , taunted the couple , asking what they were doing alone at such a late hour .
During the argument , a scuffle ensued between Pandey and the group of men . He was beaten , gagged and knocked unconscious with an iron rod . The men then dragged Jyoti to the rear of the bus , beating her with the rod and raping her while the bus driver continued to drive . Medical reports later said that she suffered serious injuries to her abdomen , intestines and genitals due to the assault , and doctors said that the damage indicated that a blunt object ( suspected to be the iron rod ) may have been used for penetration . That rod was later described by police as being a rusted , L @-@ shaped implement of the type used as a wheel jack handle .
According to police reports Jyoti attempted to fight off her assailants , biting three of the attackers and leaving bite marks on the accused men . After the beatings and rape ended , the attackers threw both victims from the moving bus . Then the bus driver allegedly tried to drive the bus over Jyoti , but she was pulled aside by her male friend . One of the perpetrators later cleaned the vehicle to remove evidence . Police impounded it the next day .
The partially clothed victims were found on the road by a passerby at around 11 pm ( IST ) . The passerby called the Delhi Police , who took the couple to Safdarjung Hospital , where Jyoti was given emergency treatment and placed on mechanical ventilation . She was found with injury marks , including numerous bite marks , all over her body . According to reports , one of the accused men admitted to having seen a rope @-@ like object , assumed to be her intestines , being pulled out of the woman by the other assailants on the bus . Two blood @-@ stained metal rods were retrieved from the bus and medical staff confirmed that " it was penetration by this that caused massive damage to her genitals , uterus and intestines " .
= = Victims = =
Jyoti Singh was born and raised in Delhi while her parents were from a small village in the Ballia district of Uttar Pradesh . Her father sold his ancestral land to educate her , and worked double shifts to continue to pay for her schooling . In an interview he related that as a youth he had dreamed of becoming a school teacher , but at that time education was not considered important and girls were not even sent to school . " Attitudes are changing back home now , but when I left 30 years ago , I vowed never deny my children so sending them to school was fulfilling my desire for knowledge . " He said that he put his daughter 's education above that of even his two sons . " It never entered our hearts to ever discriminate . How could I be happy if my son is happy and my daughter isn 't ? And it was impossible to refuse a little girl who loved going to school . "
In compliance with Indian law , the real name of the victim was initially not released to the media , so pseudonyms were used for her by various media houses instead , including Jagruti ( " awareness " ) , Jyoti ( " flame " ) , Amanat ( " treasure " ) , Nirbhaya ( " fearless one " ) , Damini ( " lightning " , after the 1993 Hindi film ) and Delhi braveheart .
Awindra Pratap Pandey , the man who was attacked , is a software engineer from Gorakhpur , Uttar Pradesh , who lives in Ber Sarai , New Delhi ; he suffered broken limbs but survived .
Delhi police registered a criminal case against the editor of a Delhi @-@ based tabloid , Mail Today , for disclosing the female victim 's identity , as such disclosure is an offence under section 228 ( A ) of Indian Penal Code . Shashi Tharoor , then a union minister , suggested that if the parents had no objection , her identity could be made public , with a view to showing respect for her courageous response by naming future laws after her , but Tharoor 's remark created controversy . Speaking to a British press reporter on 5 January , the victim 's father was quoted as saying , " We want the world to know her real name . My daughter didn 't do anything wrong , she died while protecting herself . I am proud of her . Revealing her name will give courage to other women who have survived these attacks . They will find strength from my daughter . " Indian law forbids revealing the name of a rape victim unless the family agrees to it and , following the news article which published the father 's reported quote and the victim 's name , some news outlets in India , Germany , Australia , and the United States also revealed her name . However , the following day Zee News quoted the father as saying , " I have only said we won 't have any objection if the government uses my daughter 's name for a new law for crime against women that is more stringent and better framed than the existing one . " During a protest against the juvenile convict 's release on December 16 , 2015 , the victim 's mother said that the victim 's name was Jyoti Singh and she was not ashamed of disclosing her name .
= = Medical treatment and death = =
On 19 December 2012 , Jyoti underwent her fifth surgery , removing most of her remaining intestine . Doctors reported that she was in " stable but critical " condition . On 21 December , the government appointed a committee of physicians to ensure she received the best medical care . By 25 December , she remained intubated , on life support and in critical condition . Doctors stated that she was running a fever of 102 to 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) and that internal bleeding due to sepsis , a severe blood infection that can lead to organ failure , was somewhat controlled . It was reported that she was " stable , conscious and meaningfully communicative " .
At a cabinet meeting chaired by Manmohan Singh on 26 December , the decision was made to fly her to Mount Elizabeth Hospital in Singapore for further care . Mount Elizabeth is a multi @-@ organ transplant specialty hospital . Some doctors criticised the decision as political , questioning the need to transfer an intensive care unit ( ICU ) patient for organ transplants that were not scheduled for weeks or even months later . Government sources indicate that the Chief Minister of Delhi , Sheila Dikshit , was personally behind the decision . Hours earlier , Union Minister P. Chidambaram had stated that Jyoti was not in a condition to be moved . An anonymous source quoted by The Sunday Guardian stated that the decision to move her was taken " when it was already clear that she would not survive the next 48 hours " .
During the six @-@ hour flight by air @-@ ambulance to Singapore on 27 December , Jyoti suddenly went into a " near collapse " , which a later report described as a cardiac arrest . The doctors on the flight created an arterial line to stabilise her , but she had been without pulse and blood pressure for nearly three minutes and never regained consciousness in Singapore .
On 28 December , at 11 am ( IST ) , her condition was extremely critical . The chief executive officer of the Mount Elizabeth Hospital said that the girl suffered brain damage , pneumonia , and abdominal infection , and that she was " fighting for her life . " Her condition continued to deteriorate , and she died at 4 : 45 am on 29 December , Singapore Standard Time ( 2 : 15 am , 29 December , IST ; 8 : 45 pm , 28 December , UTC ) . Her body was cremated on 30 December in Delhi under high police security . The Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) , the country 's main opposition party , criticised the high security levels , stating that they were reminiscent of the Emergency Era , during which civil liberties were suspended .
= = Arrests = =
Police found and arrested some suspects within 24 hours of the crime . From recordings made by a highway CCTV vehicle , a description of the bus , a white charter bus with a name written on it , was broadcast . Other operators identified it as being contracted by a South Delhi private school . They then traced it and found its driver , Ram Singh . Police obtained sketches of the assailants with the help of the male victim , and used a cell phone stolen from the two victims to find one of the assailants .
Six men were arrested in connection with the incident . They included Ram Singh , the bus driver , and his brother , Mukesh Singh , who were both arrested in Rajasthan . Ram and Mukesh Singh lived in Ravidas camp , a slum in South Delhi . Vinay Sharma , an assistant gym instructor , and Pawan Gupta , a fruit seller , were both arrested in Delhi . A seventeen @-@ year @-@ old juvenile from Badayun , Uttar Pradesh , was arrested at the Anand Vihar terminal in Delhi . The juvenile had only met the others that day . Akshay Thakur , who had come to Delhi seeking employment , was arrested in Aurangabad .
According to reports , the group had been eating and drinking together and " having a party " earlier in the day . Although the charter bus which Ram Singh drove on weekdays was not permitted to pick up public passengers or even to operate in Delhi because of its tinted windows , they decided to take it out " to have some fun " . A few hours before committing the gang rape , the attackers had robbed a carpenter . The carpenter was 35 @-@ years old Ram Adhar who boarded the bus which was being driven by Mukesh Singh . The juvenile convict had lured him into the bus saying it was going to Nehru Place . He was then beaten up , robbed of his cellphone and ₹ 1500 in cash . After robbing him , the group dumped him at the IIT Flyover . Ram reported about the group in the bus robbing him to three police constables Kailash , Ashok and Sandeep who were passing nearby . They however refused to take action saying that the crime scene wasn 't under their purview as they were from the Hauz Khas police station and he will have to report the incident to the Vasant Vihar police station .
Shortly after the attacks , Gupta said he accepted his guilt and should be hanged . Mukesh Singh , who was placed in Tihar Jail after his arrest , was assaulted by other inmates and was kept in solitary confinement for his own protection .
Ram Singh was presented before the Metropolitan Magistrate on 18 December 2012 . He refused to participate in an identification process . Investigation revealed a history of frequent drinking that resulted in " blinding rage " , " bad temper " , and quarrels with employers , that had led friends to call him " mental " . On 11 March , Ram Singh was discovered hanging from a ventilator shaft in his cell at about 5 : 45 am . Authorities said it was unclear whether it was a suicide or a murder .
= = Trial = =
The male victim , Awindra Pratap Pandey , testified in court on 19 December 2012 . Pandey recorded his statement with a sub @-@ divisional magistrate at the Safdarjung Hospital on 21 December , in the presence of the Deputy Commissioner of police .
On 21 December , the government promised to file the charge sheet quickly and seek the maximum penalty of life imprisonment for the perpetrators . Following public outrage and a demand for a speedy trial and prosecution , on 24 December , the police promised to file the charge sheet within one week . The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Home Affairs met on 27 December to discuss the issue , and Union Home Secretary R. K. Singh and Delhi Police Commissioner Neeraj Kumar were summoned to appear . The Delhi High Court approved the creation of five fast @-@ track courts to try rape and sexual assault cases . The first of the five approved fast @-@ track courts was inaugurated on 2 January 2013 by Altamas Kabir , Chief Justice of India , in Saket court complex of South Delhi .
On 21 December , the Delhi High Court reprimanded the Delhi police for being " evasive " in a probe status report providing details of officers on patrol duty in the area covered by the bus route . A further court hearing on the matter was scheduled for 9 January 2013 . The following day , the Delhi Police initiated action against three Hauz Khas police station personnel for alleged inaction of an alleged robbery committed against the carpenter by the occupants of the bus in which the gang rape and assault occurred . On 24 December , two Assistant Commissioners of Police were suspended for failing to prevent the gang rape incident .
= = = Juvenile defendant = = =
The juvenile defendant whose name according to some reports was Mohammed Afroz , was declared as 17 years and six months old on the day of the crime by the Juvenile Justice Board ( JJB ) , which relied on his birth certificate and school documents . The JJB rejected a police request for a bone ossification ( age determination ) test for a positive documentation of his age .
On 28 January 2013 , the JJB determined that he would not be tried as an adult . A petition moved by Janata Party president Subramanian Swamy seeking the prosecution of the minor as an adult because of the extremely violent nature of his alleged crime was rejected by the JJB . The minor was tried separately in a juvenile court .
A verdict in the case was scheduled to be announced on 25 July , but was deferred until 5 August and then deferred again to 19 August . On 31 August , he was convicted of rape and murder under the Juvenile Justice Act and given the maximum sentence of three years ' imprisonment in a reform facility , inclusive of the eight months he spent in remand during the trial . The juvenile was released on 20 December 2015 .
= = = Adult defendants = = =
Five days after Jyoti 's death , on 3 January 2013 , the police filed charges against the five adult men for rape , murder , kidnapping , destruction of evidence , and the attempted murder of the woman 's male companion . Senior lawyer Dayan Krishnan was appointed as the special public prosecutor . Mukesh Singh , Vinay Sharma , Akshay Thakur and Pawan Gupta denied the charges . Some of the men had confessed earlier , however their lawyers said that their clients had been tortured and that their confessions had been coerced .
On 10 January , one of their lawyers , Manohar Lal Sharma , said in a media interview that the victims were responsible for the assault because they should not have been using public transportation and , as an unmarried couple , they should not have been on the streets at night . He went on to say : " Until today I have not seen a single incident or example of rape with a respected lady . Even an underworld don would not like to touch a girl with respect . " He also called the male victim " wholly responsible " for the incident because he " failed in his duty to protect the woman " .
The Delhi police filed a charge sheet against the defendants on March 13 in the robbery of Ram Adhar .
The four surviving adult defendants went on trial in a fast @-@ track court . The prosecution presented evidence including witness statements , the victim 's statement , fingerprints , DNA testing , and dental modelling . It completed its case on 8 July .
= = = = Conviction and sentencing = = = =
On 10 September 2013 , the four adult defendants were found guilty of rape , murder , unnatural offences and destruction of evidence . All four men faced the death penalty , and demonstrators outside the courthouse called for the hanging of the defendants . The victim 's father also called for the defendants to be hanged , stating , " We will get complete closure only if all the accused are wiped off from the face of the earth . " Lawyers for three of the four stated that their clients intended to appeal the verdict . The four men were sentenced on 13 September to death by hanging . Judge Yogesh Khanna rejected pleas for a lesser sentence saying the case has " shocked the collective conscience of India " , and that " courts cannot turn a blind eye to such crimes " . The victim 's family was present for the sentencing and her mother expressed satisfaction over the verdict saying , " We were waiting with bated breath , now we are relieved . I thank the people of my country and the media . " After the verdict was delivered , the people waiting outside the courtroom applauded .
On 13 March 2014 , the Delhi High Court found all the defendants guilty of rape , murder , unnatural offences and destruction of evidence . With the verdict , the High Court confirmed death sentence for all four men convicted in September 2013 . The court noted that the crime , which stirred widespread protests over sexual crimes against women in the country , fell into the judicial system 's " rarest of rare category " that allows capital punishment . The lawyers of the four men said they will appeal to the Supreme Court .
On 15 March 2014 , the Supreme Court of India stayed the execution of two of the four convicts , Mukesh Singh and Gupta to allow them to make their appeal against their conviction on 31 March . This was further extended by the court to the second week of July . On 2 June , the two other convicts , Sharma and Thakur also asked the Supreme Court to stay their execution to allow them to make an appeal of their convictions . On 14 July , their execution was also stayed by Supreme Court . As of December 2014 , two years following the attack , the Supreme Court has not yet handed down their decision . On 27 August 2015 , Vinay , Akshay , Mukesh and Pawan were convicted of robbing Ram Adhar and were later sentenced to 10 @-@ years imprisonment .
= = Public protests = =
= = = After the incident = = =
Public protests took place in New Delhi on 21 December 2012 at India Gate and Raisina Hill , the latter being the location of both the Parliament of India and Rashtrapati Bhavan , the official residence of the President of India . Thousands of protesters clashed with police and battled Rapid Action Force units . Demonstrators were baton charged , shot with water cannon and tear gas shells , and arrested .
Similar protests occurred throughout the country . More than 600 women belonging to various organisations demonstrated in Bangalore . Thousands of people silently marched in Kolkata . Protests occurred online as well on the social networking sites Facebook and WhatsApp , with users replacing their profile images with a black dot symbol . Tens of thousands signed an online petition protesting the incident .
Yoga guru Baba Ramdev and former Army chief General Vijay Kumar Singh were among the demonstrators who clashed with Delhi Police at Jantar Mantar . On 24 December , activist Rajesh Gangwar started a hunger strike , saying about the accused men , " If my death shakes the system and gets them hanged , I am ready to die " . Gangwar ended his fast after 14 days , saying , " My fight to demand a strict law against rape will be continued in the future ... I have dedicated myself for this cause " .
Seven metro rail stations in New Delhi were closed on 22 December to discourage protesters from gathering at Raisina Hill . On 24 December , police blocked roads leading to India Gate and Raisina Hill to prevent possible mass protests , and closed nine metro stations , affecting thousands of transit patrons . News reporters were not allowed to reach India Gate and Raisina Hill . In addition to CrPC section 144 , which disallows assembly of groups larger than five , curfew was imposed near the presidential residence . The Hindustan Times accused police of using excessive force against the protestors , reporting that 375 tear gas canisters were used at India Gate and elsewhere in Delhi to disperse the crowds . An article in First Post criticised the Indian government as well , saying that they failed to act positively or give credible assurances to the protesters and instead used police force , lathi @-@ charging , pushing the media out of the scene , and shutting down metro rail stations .
Police stated that peaceful protests had been " hijacked " by hooligans and political activists .
During one protest , a police constable named Subhash Tomar collapsed and later died in hospital . Two witnesses claimed that Tomar collapsed without being hit by any protesters , while a third disputed this . Hospital doctors and the post @-@ mortem gave contradictory reports : he died due to cardiac arrest , but it is not known if the heart attack was caused by blunt @-@ force injuries that he suffered to his chest and neck . Some experts state that his chest injuries may have been a side effect of the administration of CPR . The Delhi Police arrested 8 young men and charged them with Tomar 's murder and rioting at India Gate . Later in March 2013 , the police admitted in the High Court they had no evidence against the eight and gave them a clean chit . The youths said the move by the commissioner of police to charge them with murder had been " irresponsible " .
= = = After the victim 's death = = =
After Jyoti Singh 's death on 29 December 2012 , protests were staged all over India , including Kolkata , Chennai , Bengaluru , Hyderabad , Kochi , Thiruvananthapuram , Mumbai and Visakhapatnam . Many of the mourners carried candles and wore black dress ; some pasted black cloth across their mouths .
The following day a large number of people staged protests near Jantar Mantar , New Delhi . There were minor clashes between some groups of protesters and the police ; the police then removed some protesters from the area . One group of protesters also observed a one @-@ day hunger strike at Jantar Mantar . All roads leading to India Gate were closed by police and areas where protesters had gathered during the previous week were out of bounds to the public . Some of the protesters drew graffiti and slogans on papers spread on the road , condemning the incident and demanding stricter laws and speedy judgement . The BJP renewed its demand for a special parliament session to discuss the case and to adopt stricter laws on crime against women .
New Year 's celebrations were scaled down to a large extent , with the Indian armed forces and some clubs and hotels in Delhi cancelling their New Year parties .
The Indian protests also sparked protests across south Asia , including marches and rallies in Nepal , Sri Lanka , Pakistan and Bangladesh . In Nepal , hundreds of demonstrators in Kathmandu called for legal reforms and an overhaul of attitudes to women . In Bangladesh the human rights group Ain o Salish Kendra ( ASK ) said the protests in Delhi had given fresh impetus to protests against sexual violence . According to an ASK spokesperson , " although previous demonstrations on similar issues were largely dominated by women , men were now protesting too . The protests had also drawn people from a broad range of society . "
In Paris , people participated in a march to the Indian embassy where a petition was handed over asking for action to make India safer for women .
An author for the South Asia Analysis Group explained the protests as expressions of middle @-@ class angst arising out of a collapse of a social contract between them and the liberal state . New Delhi has the highest number of sex crimes among India 's major cities . Police figures show a rape reported on average every 18 hours ; reported rape cases rose by nearly 17 percent between 2007 and 2011 . Only one of 706 rape cases filed in Delhi in 2012 ended in conviction . Between 16 December and 4 January , 501 calls for harassment and 64 calls for rape were recorded by the Delhi Police , but only four were followed up by inquiries . The regional programme director for U.N. Women South Asia said , " There are rape cases in almost all cities and rural areas , where the victim dies immediately because of the brutality of the crime ... This time , it was like , ' Wake up . ' "
= = Reactions = =
Members of the Indian parliament demanded severe punishment for the perpetrators . The then Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha , Sushma Swaraj , stated : " The rapists should be hanged " . Sonia Gandhi visited the Safdarjang Hospital and met doctors on duty in the anaesthesia and surgery departments for an update on the woman 's health . Bahujan Samaj Party chief , Mayawati , said that proper investigation was required , and that " action should be so strict that no one should dare to act in such a manner again " . Actress and member of the Rajya Sabha , Jaya Bachchan said that she was " terribly disturbed " over the incident , and felt " ashamed " sitting in the House , feeling " helpless " for " not being able to do anything " . Meira Kumar , Speaker of the Lok Sabha , told reporters a " new law should be brought in and must get passed to ensure the safety of women . " She went on to say : " The laws at present are not enough , we need stricter laws . "
Sheila Dikshit , who at that time was the Chief Minister of Delhi , said that she did not have the courage to meet the victim and described Delhi as a " rape capital " in interviews . She said that senior police officials should be held accountable for the failure to take adequate measures to stop such incidents and called for " immediate setting up of fast @-@ track courts to try rape cases and to get justice in a time @-@ bound manner " . The three constables who had refused to take action upon Ram Adhar 's complaint of robbery were suspended for deriliction of duty .
On 24 December 2012 , in his first official reaction after the incident , Prime Minister Manmohan Singh appealed for calm , stressing that " violence will serve no purpose " . In a televised address , he assured that all possible efforts would be made to ensure the safety of women in India . Singh expressed empathy , saying : " As a father of three daughters I feel as strongly about the incident as each one of you " . As a tribute to Nirbhaya , the prime minister cancelled all his official events to celebrate the new year . The Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh , Akhilesh Yadav , announced a package of financial assistance ₹ 2 million ( US $ 30 @,@ 000 ) and a government job to Pandey 's family .
Speaking out against the protesters , President Pranab Mukherjee 's son Abhijit Mukherjee argued that the women protesters did not appear to him to be students , saying , " What 's basically happening in Delhi is a lot like Egypt or elsewhere , where there 's something called the Pink Revolution , which has very little connection with ground realities . In India , staging candle @-@ lit marches , going to discothèques ... I can see many beautiful women among them – highly dented @-@ painted ... [ but ] I have grave doubts whether they 're students ... " The remark was widely condemned as sexist . His sister Sharmistha said that she and their father the president both disapproved . Then Maharashtra Chief Minister Prithviraj Chavan also expressed disapproval . Abhijit quickly withdrew his comment and apologised . Spiritual guru Asaram Bapu also provoked extensive criticism from the public by saying that the victim was also to blame for her own assault because she could have stopped the attack if she had " chanted God 's name and fallen at the feet of the attackers " . In 2014 , Finance minister Arun Jaitley commented that " ' one small incident of rape in Delhi ' advertised world @-@ over is enough to cost us billions of dollars in terms of lower tourism " .
= = = International = = =
The American embassy released a statement on 29 December 2012 , offering their condolences to Nirbhaya 's family and stated " we also recommit ourselves to changing attitudes and ending all forms of gender @-@ based violence , which plagues every country in the world " . Nirbhaya was posthumously awarded one of the 2013 International Women of Courage Awards of the US State Department . The citation stated that " for millions of Indian women , her personal ordeal , perseverance to fight for justice , and her family 's continued bravery is helping to lift the stigma and vulnerability that drive violence against women . "
UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon stated , " Violence against women must never be accepted , never excused , never tolerated . Every girl and woman has the right to be respected , valued and protected " . UN Women called on the Government of India and the Government of Delhi " to do everything in their power to take up radical reforms , ensure justice and reach out with robust public services to make women 's lives more safe and secure " .
In the wake of remarks against India in Western media , Jessica Valenti , writing in The Nation , argued that such rapes are also common in the United States , but US commentators exhibit a double standard in denying or minimising their systemic nature while simultaneously attacking India for an alleged rape culture . Author and activist Eve Ensler , who organised One Billion Rising , a global campaign to end violence against women and girls , said that the gang rape and murder was a turning point in India and around the world . Ensler said that she had travelled to India at the time of the rape and murder and that after
having worked every day of my life for the last 15 years on sexual violence , I have never seen anything like that , where sexual violence broke through the consciousness and was on the front page , nine articles in every paper every day , in the centre of every discourse , in the centre of the college students ' discussions , in the centre of any restaurant you went in . And I think what 's happened in India , India is really leading the way for the world . It 's really broken through . They are actually fast @-@ tracking laws . They are looking at sexual education . They are looking at the bases of patriarchy and masculinity and how all that leads to sexual violence .
= = Results of protests = =
In view of the widespread protests , governments at the centre and various states announced several steps to ensure the safety of women . The Government of Karnataka announced the launch of a 24 / 7 dedicated helpline ( 1091 ) to be operated by the state police to register sexual abuse complaints from women . It also is checking the possibility of setting up fast @-@ track courts to dispose of pending cases pertaining to crimes against women . The Government of Tamil Nadu also announced a 13 @-@ point action plan to ensure safety of women in Tamil Nadu and said that incidents of sexual assault would be treated as a grave crime , and probes would be entrusted to top police officials . The chief minister also said that daily hearings would be conducted in all sexual abuse cases in the state for speedy trials at specially constituted fast @-@ track courts , and women prosecutors would be appointed as government counsels . The Jammu and Kashmir government also announced plans to change the state 's laws against sexual offences and gender crimes . The Government of Himachal Pradesh decided to set up state and district @-@ level committees to review progress of all cases of crimes against women .
= = = Justice Verma Committee and changes in law = = =
On 22 December 2012 , a judicial committee headed by J. S. Verma , a former Chief Justice of India and one of India 's most highly regarded Chief Justices and eminent jurists , was appointed by the Central government to submit a report within 30 days to suggest amendments to criminal law to sternly deal with sexual assault cases . The committee urged the public in general and particularly eminent jurists , legal professionals , NGOs , women 's groups and civil society to share " their views , knowledge and experience suggesting possible amendments in the criminal and other relevant laws to provide for quicker investigation , prosecution and trial , and also enhanced punishment for criminals accused of committing sexual assault of an extreme nature against women . " . The Committee held its first meeting on 26 December 2012 ; it had received more than 6000 emails with suggestions by then . The Justice Verma Committee report was submitted after 29 days , after considering 80 @,@ 000 suggestions received during the period . The report indicated that failures on the part of the government and police were the root cause behind crimes against women . Suggestions in the report included the need to review the Armed Forces ( Special Powers ) Act , 1958 ( AFSPA ) in conflict areas , and setting the maximum punishment for rape as life imprisonment rather than the death penalty . The committee did not favour lowering the age of a juvenile from 18 to 16 .
On 26 December 2012 , a Commission of Inquiry headed by former Delhi High Court judge Usha Mehra was set up to identify lapses , determine responsibility in relation to the incident , and suggest measures to make Delhi and the wider National Capital Region safer for women . On 1 January 2013 , a task force headed by the Union Home Secretary was established to look into women 's safety issues in Delhi and review the functioning of the city police force on a regular basis .
On 3 February 2013 , the Criminal Law ( Amendment ) Ordinance , 2013 was promulgated by President Pranab Mukherjee . It provides for amendment of the Indian Penal Code , Indian Evidence Act , and Code of Criminal Procedure , 1973 , on laws related to sexual offences . The ordinance provides for the death penalty in cases of rape . According to Minister of Law and Justice Ashwani Kumar , 90 percent of the suggestions given by the Verma Committee Report were incorporated into the Ordinance . However , critics state that many key suggestions of the commission have been ignored , including the criminalisation of marital rape and trying military personnel accused of sexual offences under criminal law .
In a December 2013 interview , Nirbhaya 's parents , Badri Nath Singh and Asha Devi , said they were trying to get the juvenile law changed in such crimes as the rape and murder of their daughter . They petitioned the Supreme Court to try the juvenile , just short of 18 when he committed the crime , in a criminal court instead of a Juvenile Justice court .
In a March 2015 interview with The Tribune , Women and Child Development Minister Maneka Gandhi said that Government is going ahead with a law treating juveniles as adults in grave crimes .
On 22 December 2015 , Rajya Sabha passed the Juvenile Justice Bill , which proposed that the accused who are above 16 years of age will be treated as an adult in the court of law .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Anniversary memorials = = =
On 16 December 2013 , the anniversary of the attack , activists held memorials throughout New Delhi in memory of the victim widely known as Nirbhaya , meaning " fearless " . Members of women 's organisations lit candles in her memory and protested against exploitation of women . University students and others organised a candlelight march at the bus stand in South Delhi where Nirbhaya and her friend , Pandey , boarded the bus in which the rape and beatings took place . At a commemorative prayer meeting political leaders resolved to increase efforts to improve women 's security . Speaking with the victim 's mother , former chief minister Sheila Dikshit said that Delhi 's society and the various authorities will work together to build a permanent legacy to her daughter : " ... whatever you will want in her memory , we will try to fulfill . And we will try with a conviction that such an incident is not repeated with anybody else in the future " . The victim 's parents spoke at a memorial saying that they were proud of the courage that their daughter showed , which they believe " has spurred more women to speak out instead of hiding the crimes committed against them " .
In December 2014 , the two @-@ year anniversary of the attack , referring to a woman who was raped in an Uber cab , the parents remarked to the press that not much had changed : " Nothing in India has changed since December 16 , 2012 . All promises and statements made by our leaders and ministers have turned out to be shallow . Our suffering gives them their moment in limelight . My daughter asks me what I have done to get her justice . She asks what am I doing so that many more like her get justice and I wake up to realise how helpless and trivial I am ... "
" Nirbhaya Chetna Diwas " , a public event organised by women 's and citizens groups , candle light vigils , prayer meetings , and other events were held on 16 December 2015 at the Jantar Mantar to pay homage to Jyoti on the third anniversary of her death . In what was called " a brave homage to her daughter " , Jyoti 's mother , Asha Devi , said , " My daughter 's name was Jyoti Singh and I am not ashamed to name her . Those who commit heinous crimes like rape , their heads should hang | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
= Rape cases = = =
= = = Other related cases = = =
Bwizamani Singh - a journalist shot by law enforcement as he covered the protests in Manipur
= Boden Fortress =
Boden Fortress ( Swedish : Bodens fästning ) is a modern fortress consisting of several major and minor forts and fortifications surrounding the city of Boden , Norrbotten , in northern Sweden . The fortress was originally intended to stop or delay attacks from the east or coastal assaults , which at the time of construction meant Russian attacks launched from Finland . It was primarily the expansion of the railway net in Norrland , which in turn was a consequence of the rising importance of the northern iron ore fields , that led to the increased strategic value of northern Sweden and the construction of the fortress . Although the main forts were finished in 1908 , many of the supporting fortifications were not completed until the start of the First World War . Improvements were also continuously made during , and between , both World Wars .
Boden Fortress is made up of five primary self @-@ supporting forts excavated out of the bedrock in five of the mountains surrounding Boden : Degerberget , Mjösjöberget , Gammelängsberget , Södra Åberget and Rödberget . Eight fortified secondary artillery positions were constructed between the forts to give flanking support and to cover areas not in range of the main forts ' artillery . In addition , 40 bunkers for infantry , along with dugouts and other fortifications , were built to cover even more terrain . During the Second World War anti @-@ tank gun emplacements and additional bunkers and shelters were built , and tens of kilometres of dragon 's teeth were placed around the fortress and the city itself . Owing to the end of the Cold War and the reduction of the threat from the Soviet Union , Boden Fortress became less important to the defence of Sweden , and began to be decommissioned . The last fort of the complex was decommissioned on 31 December 1998 , and is now used as a tourist attraction . All five forts as well as some of the supporting structures have been declared historic buildings , to be preserved for the future , by the Swedish government .
= = Background = =
= = = Central and peripheral defence = = =
The two dominating theories of how to use fortifications in the operational perspective during the 18th and 19th century were the central fortress system ( centrala fästningssystemet ) and the peripheral fortress system ( perifera fästningssystemet ) , the latter also called the cordon system . The two systems were also known as central defence and peripheral defence . The peripheral defence theory was based on building smaller fortifications in advance positions to meet the enemy at an early stage , while the central defence theory was meant to weaken the enemy step by step in minor skirmishes and ambushes carried out by forces supplied and supported by central fortresses not located in the front line . In short , one theory advocated many minor fortifications built to directly engage the enemy , while the other advocated only a few major fortifications built not to directly engage the enemy , but to support the troops that engaged the enemy .
In the beginning of the 19th century the peripheral system — at least in Sweden — was deemed unmodern , due to the extremely long border and coastline of the country , which required a lot of personnel to maintain and support , leading to high costs and a neglectance of the more mobile armed forces . The peripheral system was also meant to contain the enemy to a specific area , the coast and borders , but as time went and new tactics were taken into practice , the thin line of fortifications would be easily penetrated by the enemy forces , and when the enemy had advanced through the peripheral line , there would not be enough troops in the hinterland to stop the attacker . The central fortress system was better adjusted to defence in depth , it was not until the enemy attack had reached its culminating point that full counter @-@ attacks would be launched . The central defence had also proven effective in the Seven Years ' War — used by Frederick II of Prussia — and in Napoleon 's Invasion of Russia — used by the Russians . Carl von Clausewitz , in his military treatise On War , even mentioned Sweden 's good conditions for this kind of war of attrition :
The fourth principle , the Assistance of the Theatre of War , is naturally an advantage on the side of the defensive . [ ... ] the army on the defensive continues to keep up its connection with everything , that is , it enjoys the support of its fortresses , is not weakened in any way , and is near to its sources of supply . [ ... ] The campaign of 1812 , gives as it were in a magnifying glass a very clear illustration of the effect of the means specified under principles 3 and 4 . [ ... ] It is true that with the exception of Sweden there is no country in Europe which is situated like Russia , but the efficient principle is always the same , the only distinction being in the greater or less degree of its strength .
= = = Fortification of Sweden = = =
Sweden had just lost one third of its population , as Russia had conquered the eastern part and created the Grand Duchy of Finland out of it during the Finnish War in 1808 – 1809 . Shortly after , in 1814 , the west flank had been secured by the personal union with Norway , and after the Napoleonic Wars , the former main enemy of Sweden in the south , Denmark , was no longer any threat . The only threat left was Russia , which now stood just across the border in the north , and had possession of the Åland Islands less than 150 km from the Swedish capital Stockholm . The Swedish Navy was considered superior to the Russian in the Gulf of Bothnia , so a seaborne invasion against the coast of Norrland was not likely . And even though the Russians had invaded northern Sweden via Finland in the previous war , the general opinion was that in case of a new war , their main attack would be conducted towards Stockholm and southern Sweden .
This opinion led to the thought of finding a good rear defence area where the Estates and the Swedish government could move if the capital was in danger . This in turn naturally strengthened the central defence theory . The core land ( kärnlandet ) would be the place from where the main part of the field army would conduct its operations , supported by a few fortresses . The area between the two large lakes of Vänern and Vättern was the choice for this core land , with approximately the same border as Skaraborg County . Sweden above the province of Dalarna was not even considered to be included in this strategy . The realisation of the middle Sweden central defence system was finally made 5 February 1819 when King Charles XIV John decided that one main fortress , the central fortress , and two smaller " operational fortresses " were to be built . The central fortress became Karlsborg Fortress at Karlsborg , while the two operational fortresses meant to be located at either end of Vättern never were built due to lack of funds .
While Norrland was not supposed to be included in this main central defence strategy , studies on how to defend this major part of the country were still conducted . However , northern Sweden was generally considered of very limited military interest and unsuitable for larger military operations due to the bad state of most of the roads , the large uninhabited areas , the large rivers and the very limited economical gain that the lands provided . The first of these studies , laid down by the Fortification Committee of 1819 ( 1819 års befästningskommitté ) — which was largely influenced by the committee 's secretary Johan Peter Lefrén — led to nothing more than the opinion that the large rivers up north — especially the Ångerman River — would benefit the defence and that no major fortifications were to be built . In another study from 1824 , colonel — and much later Swedish Minister for War — Gustaf Oscar Peyron suggested that it would be better to fortify positions just south of Boden — along the more northern Lule River — for example at Sävast or Avan . However no major changes were made , partially due to the limited military interest , but also because of the large amounts of money that was spent on building Karlsborg Fortress and modernizing other older fortifications in southern Sweden .
= = = Railroads speed up planning = = =
It was not until fifteen years later , when yet another committee — the Coastal Fortification Committee of 1839 ( 1839 års kustbefästningskommitté ) — studied the defence of Norrland , that the Swedish Armed Forces started to focus a bit more on the northern provinces . This study however mainly presented plans for middle Norrland , and the provinces of Medelpad , Ångermanland and Jämtland . Those provinces had a more significant role as it was there that the main roads of Sweden started to intersect with the road network of Norway , which at the time was allied with Sweden . The road network north of this area consisted of the large coastal road — the only major north – south road — from Haparanda and all the way through Norrland down to Gävle . All the other major roads exclusively ran southeast – northwest — following the run of the large rivers — before ending in wilderness and thus did not provide any route further west into Norway and on to the Atlantic coast . The plans to strengthen Norrland by building a central fortress either on Frösön outside Östersund , or closer to the coast at Borgsjö outside Ånge , once again fell flat due to lack of money and lower priority compared to fortifications in southern Sweden .
By the 1860s , the first Swedish railway main lines ( stambanor ) were completed in the southern part of the country , and by 1881 the Northern Main Line had reached Ånge . This , and the opening of the railway line connecting Sundsvall – Östersund – Trondheim ( the Central and Meråker Lines ) a year later strengthened the plans for a defensive line in the middlemost provinces of Norrland . At the same time , on the other side of the Bothnian Gulf , the Finnish main railway to Oulu had almost been completed , and would soon be of great use for the Russians to transport military personnel and supplies towards the Swedish border in case of war . Combined with the planned Luleå – Boden – Gällivare – Kiruna – Narvik railway stretch ( the Iron Ore and Ofoten Lines ) , this would pose a great opportunity for the Russians to fulfill their latent wish to seize control of northern Scandinavia and the Atlantic ports on the Norwegian coast . At least according to some officers — both Swedish and Norwegian — which in the second half of the 1880s noticed the increased strategic importance of northern Scandinavia and Lapland as an effect of the construction of the railway lines in the area . This was also noticed by the Riksdag member Johan Erik Nyström from Norrbotten 's electoral district who — worried about the railway to Oulu — put forward a motion about strengthening the Upper Norrland defence in 1885 . The length of the railway lines started to affect strategic planning , and in some cases military decisions influenced the planning of new railway lines .
Even though the northernmost stretch of the Main Line Through Upper Norrland had long been planned , it was not until 1887 and the victory of the Lantmanna Party 's protectionist wing in that year 's election that the financial means — from increased trade tariff income — and the political will allowed the completion of the railway through Överluleå , which Boden was sometimes called . The " slumbering resources and the rapid expansion " in Upper Norrland were two reasons to build a railway to the sparsely populated area ; another factor that had a big part in the decision to complete the main line was the government 's takeover of the Luleå – Gällivare line , which had previously been in the hands of an English company . The stretch was very lucrative , as it considerably eased the transport of iron ore from the ore fields around Kiruna and Gällivare down to the coast for further transport by boat . Another English company had in the 1860s tried to construct a combination of a railway and a canal — the English Canal — for the stretch , but went bankrupt before their plans were completed . The company contracted for the new railway line experienced similar economic difficulties and the Swedish state decided to buy the nearly completed line to finish it in 1891 .
The decision to complete the railway through to Boden sparked interest in Norrbotten among the members of the Swedish General Staff , and the chief , Axel Rappe , conducted a survey trip to the region in 1887 . His report mentioned the changed strategic options due to the railway lines on both sides of the Gulf and a need for some kind of fortification in Boden , but he also toned down the earlier thoughts on the Russian interest in the Luleå – Narvik line . Rappe 's report directly affected the future stretch of the railway line in Norrbotten . His recommendations , largely based on his and the General Staff 's military planning , not to build the line along the coast , or build it all the way to the Swedish @-@ Finnish border at Haparanda were later followed . The subsequent report completed in 1890 by the Neutrality Committee of 1888 ( 1888 års neutralitetskommitté ) — with Axel Rappe as one of its members — suggested that a credible neutrality required an increased defence of the north @-@ eastern border and proposed a budget of 1 @.@ 3 million Swedish kronor , corresponding in today 's money to around US $ 11 million ( as of 2011 ) , for the construction of permanent fortifications in Boden .
= = Reason and decision = =
= = = Why Boden ? = = =
The following year , in 1891 , Rappe wrote a memorandum that explained in more detail the budget , which suddenly had risen to 4 @.@ 5 million kronor , and would finance the construction of two strongholds at Paglaberget and Åberget with a total of six long cannon , ten howitzers and eight quick @-@ firing cannon , all in armoured turrets , along with machine guns and bunkers , barracks and supply depots . The plan included a reserve battalion of 1 @,@ 000 men , an artillery battalion of 600 men , an engineer company of 120 men , and supply and depot personnel . Axel Rappe 's large study on the permanent fortifications of Sweden — a mandate given to him in 1882 — was published in 1892 and cemented the view that a central fortress was needed in Boden to support and supply troops gathering between the Lule River and the eastern border , alongside the strengthening of the coastal defences at Stockholm , Gothenburg and Karlskrona .
Although Rappe did not completely rule out the possibility of a German or British attack on southern Sweden if the opportunity arose , he felt that Russia was the most realistic threat . There were only two plausible scenarios for war with Russia : either Sweden would become involved in a war between Germany and Russia which would feature southern and central Sweden as the battleground — and Rappe made no attempt to hide which country the General Staff wanted Sweden to side with in that case — or Russia would make a limited attack on Norrbotten to reach northern Norway and the Atlantic , an attack that Rappe earlier said was not very likely . Rappe had played down the strategic importance of the Ofoten and Iron Ore Lines and played up the importance of the main railway line to Boden , which was under discussion at that time , to speed up its completion . The railway to Boden was nearly finished by 1892 , negating the need for Rappe to play that political game any longer . A railway line to Boden was of utmost need to be able to bring up troops to Lule River — the main line of defence — and a future fortress there .
During the following years a fierce debate raged between the supporters of the army on one side and the navy on the other . The proposed expansion of Swedish fortifications nationwide , which in turn would see less money spent on the fleet , upset many naval proponents , amongst them Wilhelm Dyrssen — later Minister for Defence — and Fredrik von Otter — later Admiral and Prime Minister of Sweden . They argued that the theory of central defence would leave large swathes of Swedish land in the hands of the enemy , and instead suggested smaller fortifications at the border , along with a strengthened navy . The debate was inconclusive and a request for 500 @,@ 000 kronor to initiate construction of the fortress was not accepted by the government . Instead , they wanted a committee to further investigate all Swedish fortifications and possible new constructions of such . Thus the Fortification Committee of 1897 ( 1897 års fästningskommitté ) was formed . The committee , led by chairman Jesper Crusebjörn , discussed and examined the defence of Norrland thoroughly , and also travelled to Boden where they climbed most of the heights and mountains that were considered for the fortifications . The selection of Boden as the most suitable place for the fortification , according to the committee 's final report published 25 July 1898 , had numerous reasons :
The main rail line through Norrland crossed Lule River there .
The intersection of the main line and the Luleå – Narvik line was located there .
The most important road intersection in Norrbotten was located there .
The most suitable river crossing sites over Lule River were located there .
The distance to the coast was long enough to prevent a surprise attack by a naval landing force .
The topography of the area was suitable for a modern fortress .
= = = Final decision = = =
The report calculated the costs at 8 @.@ 7 million kronor which corresponds in today 's money to around $ 70 million ( as of 2011 ) , spent over a total construction schedule of one four @-@ year period and two three @-@ year periods . The cost was still considerably lower than that of many of the recently built or modernised fortifications on the continent ; Belgium had spent the equivalent of 62 million kronor on the fortified positions of Liège and Namur along the Meuse while Romania had spent 63 million kronor to strengthen the defence of Bucharest and 16 million kronor on fortifications along the Siret River . In 1899 , Rappe proposed to the Riksdag — in line with the plans of the Fortification Committee — that construction of already existing fortificatory works in Sweden would commence , while the question on Boden would be postponed to the next year . The plan gained support from the first chamber but not from the second chamber , but when put to a joint vote of both chambers , the proposition passed . Even though the result did not really mean anything concrete for the possible construction in Boden , it was considered a great success for that question as well . During the last years of the century , the Riksdag 's general attitude towards the army became more positive , most likely due to the increased Russification of Finland , increased tension in the Union between Sweden and Norway , and rumors that the Russian sawfilers that worked in Sweden also worked for the Okhrana , the secret Russian police .
Despite this progress , Axel Rappe left as Minister for War in 1899 , due to setbacks on other issues . He was replaced by Jesper Crusebjörn , who inherited the Boden fortification project . Crusebjörn followed in the footsteps of Rappe — described as " the spiritual father of Boden Fortress " thanks to his efforts — as he proposed , in accordance with the Committee 's plan , that the Riksdag should allocate an initial sum of 560 @,@ 000 kronor which would be used to initiate construction of Boden Fortress . Crusebjörn also maintained the belief of his predecessor , and of the committee in which he was chairman , that Boden Fortress when completed should act as the operational base for all troops attached for the defence of Norrbotten , that it should serve as a supply fortress for troops stationed between it and the front line , and that it also should serve as a blocking fortress in case of a Russian surprise attack . The 1897 committee also had set the goal to have Boden Fortress in a finished state when the Haparanda Line found its way through to the border against Finland .
The result of the votes — held 7 May 1900 , a date which can be seen as the birth of the fortress — in the first and second chambers were the same as the previous year . The first chamber was overwhelmingly for the proposal with the result 108 – 16 , but the proponents feared a defeat in the second chamber . During the debate both the Prime Minister of Sweden Erik Gustaf Boström and Jesper Crusebjörn threatened to resign from their posts if the proposal was not accepted , to exert pressure on the second chamber . Boström expressed the following that day :
For believe me gentlemen , I consider this question so important that in the same moment I get the definite answer that it is not embraced by the Swedish Riksdag , I will no longer stay in this place .
Even after this , the second chamber voted against the proposal , with a vote count of 73 – 130 . Neither Boström nor Crusebjörn resigned , since after further discussion and voting it was decided that the matter should be settled by a joint vote . The first chamber voted in favor , 125 – 14 , while the second chamber voted against , 87 – 135 , with a total outcome of 212 – 149 in favour of constructing Boden Fortress and allocating the funds needed to start construction . Funding for the purchase of the land that the fortifications were to be built on had largely been provided several years in advance by two voluntary organisations . The Organisation for the Fortified Defence of Upper Norrland ( Föreningen för Övre Norrlands fasta försvar ) and the Swedish Women 's Organisation ( Svenska Qvinnoföreningen ) had collected 71 @,@ 000 kronor out of the 131 @,@ 000 kronor needed for land purchase .
= = Construction = =
= = = Initial work = = =
The main inspiration for the design — in which the forts are blasted into the mountains rather than constructed on top of them — came from Vaberget Fortress near Karlsborg Fortress . Vaberget Fortress was built in the 1890s and its southern fort was the first fort in the world that fully used the protection provided by the bedrock itself by having all of its functions embedded in the mountain . Vaberget Fortress served as a prototype for Boden Fortress and many more future fortifications in Sweden , including the late 20th century fixed army and coastal artillery batteries that gave the Swedish Fortifications Agency world renown . Preparatory work was started in 1900 and consisted of a diverse number of tasks , ranging from purchase of beds for the construction workers , construction of a new loading site for the railway , building roads to the various construction sites and clearing the land of those sites . The plan for the Fortifications at Boden ( Befästningarna vid Boden ) — which was the term used until the First World War when the present name Boden Fortress came into widespread use — was largely based on the proposal laid forward by the Fortification Committee of 1897 , with only minor modifications .
Even before any construction work had started the cost of the forts had been estimated to exceed the previous calculations by fifty percent . In December 1901 , only few months after the first blasting work that had been done at Gammelängsberget in July 1901 , the cost for the four forts northeast of the river was expected to be sixty @-@ five percent more expensive than the initial calculation . The blueprints of the forts at Degerberget , Gammelängsberget and Södra Åberget were the first to be confirmed , which happened on 11 May 1901 . The fort at Mjösjöberget followed suit on 3 April 1902 and the last fort to get a confirmed blueprint was the fort at Rödberget , on 19 May 1903 . The last proposed fort , at Paglaberget , was deleted from the plans in 1906 — along with the batteries at Fällberget and Slumpberget as well as the fortifications at Avan and Svartbyträsket — before any work on the fort had started , due to the proposal of the new Fortification Committee of 1905 , which was formed following the reports of the large rise in costs . On 9 February 1906 , the current Minister for War Lars Tingsten calculated the total cost to end at 19 @,@ 220 @,@ 000 kronor , more than twice the cost reported by the 1897 committee .
All work on the large masses of bedrock was conducted by hand , without any help of powered machines , as the first power station in Boden was not constructed until almost ten years later in 1909 . The first work that was done at the site was to create a large ditch , 9 – 12 metres ( 30 – 39 ft ) wide and with a depth of 6 metres ( 20 ft ) or more , that would surround the core of the fort . Creating patrol trenches and placements for the turrets on the top of the forts was also work done early on . The teams of workers would first bore down in the bedrock using pinch bars and sledgehammers , then use black powder to blast the rock into manageable pieces which could be transported away from the site , using wheelbarrows , horse @-@ drawn carriages and in some cases Decauville railways . When the ditch , or parts of it , had been completed , work started on the inner part of the fort by boring horizontally from the bottom of the ditch into the mountain itself . This work was a lot harder — the cost for each cubic metre of blasted tunnel was five times the cost of a cubic metre of blasted ditch — both due to the confined space in the tunnels and the risk of damaging the bedrock . The use of black powder instead of dynamite reduced the risk of bedrock damage , but it also increased the time needed to complete the tunnels . All in all , the amount of bedrock bored , blasted , loaded and transported away from the forts has been estimated to be around 300 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) .
= = = Finishing touches = = =
When the ditches and tunnels were finished , concrete works started , including flooring , construction of joist systems in forts with second floors , staircases , partition walls and counterscarp galleries . Water wells were bored to a depth of up to 200 metres ( 660 ft ) to guarantee water supply , since the forts were supposed to be self @-@ supporting . However , the most demanding part of the project was the construction , transport and installation of the armoured turrets and the armament itself . Two companies had been previously contracted for the construction of other fortifications in Sweden , Swedish AB Bofors @-@ Gullspång and French Compagnie des Forges de Châtillon , offers from both companies existed already in 1901 , but it was not until after tests conducted in December 1902 that the Swedish company was contracted and given royal approval on 26 May 1903 . The order was for the 8 @.@ 4 cm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) and 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) pieces that was to be mounted on the first three forts . The following two forts at Rödberget and Mjösjöberget were to have 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) pieces , an order Bofors would get as well , but due to the time factor a few of those were actually delivered by the French company .
The cost of a single armoured turret for a 12 cm piece was almost 100 @,@ 000 kronor — around $ 800 @,@ 000 ( as of 2011 ) in today 's money — and it could weigh as much as 100 tonnes ( 220 @,@ 000 lb ) . It was delivered in parts to simplify transport , but the heaviest part still had a weight of 26 tonnes ( 57 @,@ 000 lb ) . The parts were delivered by rail up to Boden and unloaded with the help of gantry cranes . As the roads of the time could not handle the weight during summer , transport had to wait until winter when the frost had hardened the ground . The turret parts were lifted onto sleighs drawn by 16 – 30 horses depending on the situation . The toughest stretch , up the mountain , was handled with the help of block and tackle , the ditch was crossed on temporarily built sturdy wooden bridges and the mounting of the turret was finished with cranes . A major part of the mounts for the turrets were completed by the end of 1905 , despite the harsh winter working conditions , with temperatures falling below − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) at times . The peak workforce amounted to around 900 men , but their numbers fluctuated , with the lowest number of active workers during the winter months . The first artillery test firing was conducted on 15 January 1907 when the guns at Gammelängsberget fired their first rounds , and all five forts " were in a defensible state " by 1908 .
= = = Other fortificatory works = = =
Apart from the forts , the garrison itself was heavily expanded during the initial construction years and became the largest garrison in Sweden , taking an exceptional position in Swedish military history of the 20th century ; even at the start of the 21st century , Boden was the largest garrison city in the Swedish Army . Still , no other fortifications than the forts themselves were finished by 1908 , and work now started to fill the holes in between them . It was realised that prepared positions were needed for the mobile batteries , and apart from those , three larger battery positions ( sometimes called fästen , strongholds ) were also constructed at Leåkersberget , Norra Åberget and Svedjeberget . These works were started in 1911 and were finished during the First World War . The last of the three strongholds was positioned in the mountain itself with embrasures in the mountain side , and Leåkersberget had parts of the battery position inside the mountain , but the gun emplacements outside — the other positions were concrete fortifications above the ground , some inside a bunker and others behind a parapet .
The main fortifications for infantry consisted of 44 concrete bunkers , 23 dugouts and 26 fortified observation posts . The concrete bunkers ( infanteriskansar , redoubts ) were long and narrow . The longest , Abramsskansen , was 155 metres ( 509 ft ) long and had room for 160 men and four machine guns , but most had room for less than 80 men — usually a rifle platoon reinforced with a machine gun section and an anti @-@ tank section . Due to their length , their curved shapes following the mountain sides , and other characteristics , the bunkers were popularly referred to as " sausages " ( korvar ) . The construction of these started in 1911 . Many officers still considered the fortress to have inadequate and too few fortifications for the infantry , and one officer compared the fortress to " a shoe , which is too large for the foot . " One million kronor was allocated in 1915 to fix that problem , and many minor fortifications were built during the First World War .
Blockhouses were also built by the railway bridge at Trångforsen and the road bridge Hedenbron ( built from 1911 to 1912 ) , located just 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) southeast of the Trångforsen bridge . The later was built to accommodate easier access to Rödberget Fort and the military training area on the southwestern shore of Lule River and was at the time of completion the longest single span road bridge in Sweden .
Both internal and external communication systems as well as means of reconnaissance were needed , both directed by the commandant located in the headquarters building . The building — finished in 1910 — had three floors , the upper two functioned as home and workplace for the commandant and the chief of staff , while the ground floor had extra thick walls and functioned as the command post for the fortress . A large field telephone network was built , connecting all forts with the headquarters . Liaison with higher commands was at first maintained by regular post , telegraph and telephone . The fortress ' radio station was finished by 1914 , originally for the Swedish Navy , and was located south of Degerberget on a bog now known as the " Radio Mire " ( Radiomyren ) . The first Swedish radio broadcasts were sent from this building . The fortress also had homing pigeons for sending messages . At the end of the Second World War , around 280 such pigeons were stationed in Boden . The pigeons were part of the balloon department whose main task was to operate the balloon of the garrison . For this , the Balloon Hangar with inner measurements of 35 × 10 × 10 metres ( 115 × 33 × 33 ft ) was built near the radio station . More than fifty men were attached to the department , of whom two could follow the balloon up to its maximum height of 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , limited by the length of the wire connecting it to the ground . The hydrogen @-@ filled balloon itself was of German make and measured 27 metres ( 89 ft ) in length , had a diameter of around 7 metres ( 23 ft ) and a total volume of 750 cubic metres ( 26 @,@ 000 cu ft ) .
= = In operation = =
= = = Two World Wars = = =
Most parts of the fortress were finished during the First World War , and many minor works were started and completed during the course of the war . Even though Sweden remained neutral during the First and Second World War , the start and outcome of both had large impact on the fortress . Finland 's independence during the First World War created a buffer state between Sweden and Imperial Russia 's successor state , the Soviet Union , which radically changed the strategic value of northern Sweden , put the usefulness of Boden Fortress into question . Only the most basic needs were satisfied during the interwar period ; even apparent needs — based on the experiences from the war — such as better air defence and fortifications to halt or temporarily impede attacks by armoured forces were neglected . Thanks to local commanders , construction of new fortifications and improvements to already existing ones were done with the help of garrisoned troops . Engineer companies built new shelters and trenches as training , and the telephone network was improved and completed by the garrisoned telegraph company . This cut the cost drastically as the only expenditure was the needed material .
Only a few necessary projects were funded , including an underground headquarters bunker , improvement of the garrison hospital and new training areas . It was not until the increased tension in Europe following Adolf Hitler 's rise to power , Benito Mussolini 's March on Rome and the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War that focus once again was put on military readiness and prepared fortifications . Improvements were made to fortifications in many parts of Sweden during the last years of the 1930s following the German annexation of Austria and occupation of Czechoslovakia . In Boden , this included building underground storage rooms for ammunition and food , replenishing already existing stocks , increasing protection for other important supply functions — such as the waterworks — as well as further military planning and also preparations for destruction of — for an advancing enemy — important bridges and roads .
When the Second World War broke out , only limited resources where allotted to the defence of Northern Sweden , but following the Soviet attack on Finland a few months later and the German Operation Weserübung against Norway and Denmark the next year , major work on improving and extending the defensive lives was commenced . Bunkers , bomb shelters , gun emplacements — particularly for anti @-@ tank guns — were built by the units that had been mobilised and stationed in the vicinity of Boden . The Finnish experiences gained from meeting superior armoured forces during the Winter War were adopted in Sweden , and triple rows of large stones or blocks of reinforced concrete , dragon 's teeth , soon formed a continuous line — defended by anti @-@ tank guns in concrete bunkers and machine @-@ gun nests — around the fortress and city . As the war continued and advances in most fields of warfare were made , Boden Fortress was continually improved to meet new or increased threats such as air , armoured or gas attacks . The command , supply and intelligence services were improved as well .
As Sweden has remained neutral since 1816 , Boden Fortress was never put to the test . Nonetheless , there are a few indications on how Boden , the garrison , the fortress and its crew would have come through a wartime attack . Already in 1904 , Lars Tingsten — commander of Norrbotten Regiment , later Minister for War and first commander of Boden Fortress — expressed worries over the low number of soldiers that were planned to garrison the town . The 1892 army war plans had two infantry battalions stationed in the area , and allowed for three or four more to be transferred there , while Tingsten reported that the battalions should number at least 24 and perhaps even 33 . The lack of personnel , and even more the lack of organisation , was shown when the fortress was tested against a coup de main during a military exercise in April 1913 . Led by its commander Bror Munck , the cavalry regiment Crown Prince 's Hussar Regiment managed to seize control of the railway station , the railway bridge , the ordnance depot , the electric works and the waterworks in the matter of a day . When the unit reached the headquarters building , Tingsten , now commandant of the fortress , saw his earlier worries come true . Despite this , the wartime infantry garrison was no more than four battalions in 1937 . But as the Second World War came to its end , the fortress had been given a new role . From 1943 on it was no longer meant to stand on its own against a besieging enemy , and instead became only one piece in a larger network of fortifications . The wartime strength was never more than 12 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 men , while calculations talked about at least 25 @,@ 000 men , up to 40 @,@ 000 men , were needed to withstand a siege .
= = = Espionage = = =
Strict secrecy surrounded the fortress for a very long time , and there were several attempts made by foreign powers to gain knowledge of various kinds of information . One early possible attempt at espionage were the Russian sawfilers who travelled through Sweden , mostly in Norrland during the last years of the 19th century and the years leading up to World War I. A large part of the Swedish population believed that the sawfilers , no more than 300 in total in Sweden , were spies hired by the Okhrana , the Russian secret police . Some sources are of the belief that the sawfilers were never sent out on specific missions but instead acted as unknowing spies , only having contact with the Okhrana who interrogated them regarding their experiences when they returned to Russia . Other sources claim that at least some of the sawfilers that the Okhrana found most useful were educated in the art of espionage , and were in fact given specific missions , as well as being paid 300 rouble per season for their work . Another form of this kind of legal espionage is believed to have been conducted by the German Wandervogel movement during the late interwar period .
The first known attempt of purposeful espionage against the fortress was conducted in 1913 – 14 . A former lieutenant in the Danish coastal artillery , A. B. Fredrikssen , was enlisted in Copenhagen by the Russian military attaché in Stockholm , colonel Assanovitch . Fredrikssen was sent to Boden with the task to explore the fortress and its surroundings . He and his wife stayed at a boarding house in the city , and had regular correspondence with his employer who stayed in Copenhagen . It was also the correspondence that exposed the attempt , which was not very successful in terms of information gained by the Russians . They had better luck in late 1914 with two brothers named Hiukka , who both served with one of the artillery regiments in Boden , Norrland Artillery Regiment . They were discovered due to their extravagant living , and it was found out that one of the brothers — despite his employment in the army — had Finnish @-@ Russian citizenship . They had provided intelligence to Russia , but the full extent of the affair was never disclosed . A minor case of German espionage was exposed during the Second World War . The first permanently stationed German officer in Luleå , a Hauptmann Schultz , was caught photographing parts of the fortifications and was deported . It is probable that his espionage was not ordered from any higher command but was an act on own initiative .
Two extensive espionage cases in Sweden during the Cold War involved Boden Fortress , both exposed in 1951 . The Enbom case involved Fritiof Enbom , a former worker at the Swedish State Railways in Boden , and later the local editor for the communist newspaper Norrskensflamman . He was exposed by his own careless talk — often under the influence of alcohol — to the owners of the house in Stockholm where he had lodged since he moved there from Boden . The family told the Swedish Security Service after the Christmas holidays of 1951 , and Enbom was arrested on 16 February 1952 . During interrogation , he confessed that he — from February 1943 to April 1951 — had met with Soviet employers around 25 times . Enbom had provided a large variety of intelligence , most of it from public sources , but also secrets , of which the armament of one of the forts in the fortress was one of the pieces of information that concerned Boden Fortress and nearby fortifications . He was sentenced to lifetime hard labour , but was released after ten years . The other case involved Ernst Hilding Andersson , who was arrested on 21 September 1951 . He had carried out seven missions for the Soviets and had provided them primarily with information regarding the Swedish Navy , but also information on the fortifications along the Norrland coast , and an initiated report about Boden Fortress and the airforce unit located in Boden and Luleå , Norrbottens flygbaskår . Andersson was , like Fritjof Enbom , sentenced to hard labour for life .
= = End and aftermath = =
= = = Cold War and decommission = = =
The fortress was gradually modernised in the decades following the Second World War , including newer main artillery for some of the forts and newer secondary artillery for all forts as well as other improvements . But the development of new weapons and the evolution of warfare during the Cold War gradually decreased the importance of the fortifications . Weapons such as cruise missiles and smart bombs made large static fortifications such as Boden Fortress obsolete when they demonstrated their worth during the Gulf War in 1991 . Mjösjöberget Fort had been decommissioned and removed from the wartime organisation twelve years earlier in 1979 , and less than ten years after the Gulf War and the collapse of the Soviet Union , the four other forts followed suit . The last shot was fired from Rödberget on 14 : 11 local time on 31 December 1997 , and exactly one year later , on 31 December 1998 , that last fort was decommissioned after 90 years in service .
All five forts and three battery positions — Leåkersberget , Norra Åberget and Södra Slumpberget — were declared historic buildings in the summer of 1998 and are to be preserved for the future . The balloon hangar , the only of its kind in Sweden , was declared a historic building three years later in 2001 . Two forts , Rödberget and Södra Åberget , are held in operation , and the former is used as a tourist attraction with guided tours , and there is also a possibility for companies to hold smaller conferences inside the fort . Over 10 @,@ 000 visitors were expected to visit Rödberget Fort in 2002 , averaging 300 a day during the summer . Boden Fortress is also still one of the salute batteries of Sweden , which fire a 21 @-@ gun salute at special occasions such as the National holiday of Sweden and birthdays of some members of the Swedish Royal Family . The fortress was made a salute battery on 2 June 1931 , but since the forts have been decommissioned , the salute is now fired with four cannon located at Kvarnängen in central Boden .
= = = Myths and impact = = =
Due to the strict security surrounding the garrison , many rumors circulated during the fortress ' lifetime . Some were later dismissed as myths or as disinformation , but others were confirmed . One common rumor was that the artillery of the main forts had a range of fire that made it possible to shoot at the important Luleå harbour more than 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) away , but in reality , the maximum range of the farthest shooting pieces was less than half of that . Another widespread myth was that all the forts were connected to each other with a complex system of tunnels beneath the city . One rumor , on the other hand , has been confirmed , that the forts were used as storage for a large part of the Swedish gold reserve . Around a third of the total Swedish gold holdings of 280 tonnes ( 9 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ozt ) was kept in Degerberget Fort from 1941 — transported there disguised as boxes of ammunition — until the last ingots were brought from the fort by six armoured cars in 1982 as the fort no longer was to have around @-@ the @-@ clock surveillance .
The total construction cost of Boden Fortress — somewhere around 20 million kronor at the time — would correspond to almost 1 billion kronor ( as of 2011 ) according to the consumer price index which the government agency Statistics Sweden uses . Despite this , the cost has been claimed to correspond to 4 billion kronor of today , and it has also been claimed that the project was more expensive than the JAS 39 Gripen project , which cost 106 billion kronor in total , each aircraft costing between 300 and 500 million kronor depending on what to include in the calculation . No matter what the actual cost was , opinions on Boden Fortress differ markedly , from being called a boastful project and the " JAS project of the turn of the century " to one of the reasons that kept Sweden out of two World Wars . The fortress also had a psychological aspect , in that its mere existence kept a firm grip of peoples ' minds — essentially functioning as a morale booster — during times when Sweden was in the shadow of war .
= = Forts = =
= = = Degerberget = = =
Degerberget Fort ( Degerbergsfortet ) was planned and constructed on Degerberget Mountain , north of Boden and west of the lake Buddbyträsket , between 1900 and 1908 . It was the only fort in the northern fort group as defined in the 1914 defensive plans for Boden Fortress . The main artillery consisted of four 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) kanon m / 99 , backed up by another four 8 @.@ 4 cm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) kanon m / 94 @-@ 04 which were replaced by 8 @.@ 4 cm kanon m / 47 in the early 1950s . Surrounded by a caponier ditch on all sides , the fort area also features one observation post , two searchlight sites and two larger bunkers . Part of the Swedish gold reserve was kept here from 1941 to 1982 . Degerberget Fort was decommissioned in 1992 together with Gammelängsberget Fort .
= = = Mjösjöberget = = =
Mjösjöberget Fort ( Mjösjöfortet ) was planned and constructed between 1900 and 1908 . A part of the eastern fort group together with Gammelängsberget Fort , it was situated on Mjösjöberget Mountain to the east of Boden . As Rödberget Fort it was fitted with the 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) fästningshaubits m / 06 as main artillery , together with the standard secondary 8 @.@ 4 cm cannon and tertiary 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) caponier cannon . Since Rödberget Fort was refitted with new main artillery in the 1970s , Mjösjöberget Fort is the only to still feature 15 cm main artillery as it was decommissioned in 1979 , some 20 years earlier than the other forts . Like the other two forts northeast of Boden , it is surrounded on all sides by a ditch . The fort also has a large bunker and two searchlight sites close by .
= = = Gammelängsberget = = =
Planned and constructed between 1900 and 1908 , Gammelängsberget Fort ( Gammelängsfortet ) situated on Gammelängsberget Mountain east of Boden was the first of the five forts to be finished and the first to fire any guns when a test firing was conducted in 1907 . It was part of the eastern fort group — together with the close by Mjösjöberget Fort — in the 1914 defensive plans . Just as on the other forts , the original secondary guns , 8 @.@ 4 cm kanon m / 94 @-@ 04 , were replaced by 8 @.@ 4 cm kanon m / 47 between 1950 and 1952 . The main artillery , 12 cm kanon m / 99 , and the caponier artillery , 57 mm kaponjärkanon m / 07 , served with the fort until it was closed down in 1992 . Gammelängsberget Fort is surrounded by a caponier ditch on all sides , and a large concrete bunker is located in proximity of the fort .
= = = Södra Åberget = = =
The only fort not to feature four distinct sides , Södra Åberget Fort ( Södra Åbergsfortet ) instead features the triangular design that was originally planned for all the forts , and the southwestern side is formed by the mountain scarp rather than a caponier ditch . The fort — planned and constructed on Södra Åberget Mountain south of Boden between 1902 and 1908 — was together with Rödberget Fort part of the southern fort group . Södra Åberget Fort had the standard armament in the form of 12 cm kanon m / 99 , 8 @.@ 4 cm kanon m / 94 @-@ 04 and 57 mm kaponjärkanon m / 07 . The 8 @.@ 4 cm artillery was modernised between 1950 and 1952 . Just like the neighbour Rödberget Fort on the other side of Lule River , Södra Åberget Fort has four bunkers , two observation posts and two searchlight sites in its surroundings .
= = = Rödberget = = =
Perhaps the best known of the five forts , Rödberget Fort ( Rödbergsfortet ) , situated on Rödberget Mountain southwest of Boden , was the last in line for construction , which started in 1903 . The fort was finished in 1908 and originally featured four 15 cm fästningshaubits m / 06 which in 1976 were replaced by four 12 cm kanon m / 24 taken from scrapped Swedish Navy destroyers . At the same time , another two 12 cm cannon were fitted on a newly constructed small satellite fortification to the north of the fort . Rödberget Fort was part of the southern fort group together with Södra Åberget Fort on the other side of Lule River . These two forts — unlike the other forts — do not have a caponier ditch on all sides , as the western side of Rödberget Fort is protected by the natural scarp of the mountain . The surroundings feature four large bunkers , two observation posts and two searchlight sites . Today , Rödberget Fort is the only larger fortification of Boden Fortress that is open to the public .
= = Commandants = =
During the first years in existence , the position was simply titled Commandant in Boden ( Kommendant i Boden ) , but from 1928 on , the officer in charge was Commandant in Boden Fortress ( Kommendant i Bodens fästning ) , and later on had additional commands connected to the position :
= = In media = =
Boden Fortress is mentioned in Tage Danielsson 's Sagan om Karl @-@ Bertil Jonssons Julafton ; the story was made into a short film in 1975 and has been shown on Swedish television every Christmas Eve since that year . Karl @-@ Bertil Jonsson , the young boy of the story , works extra at the post office where he steals Christmas gifts addressed to rich people and instead gives them to the poor , Robin Hood @-@ style . One of all the gifts he steals is a matchstick picture ( tändstickstavla ) of the fortress . When telling the intended receiver of the gift , senior administrative officer H. K. Bergdahl , what he had done Bergdahl answers " Thank you , my lad , for saving us from Boden Fortress ! "
The fortress also plays a part in Operation Garbo , a three @-@ volume novel written by Harry Winter , a pseudonym for an undisclosed number of people . The techno @-@ thriller novel is about a Soviet invasion of Sweden , and while Boden Fortress is not a main part of the story , one chapter in the first volume briefly mentions Södra Åberget Fort , and two chapters in the second volume are devoted to events at and around the forts , Södra Åberget and Mjösjöberget Forts are mentioned by name while Rödberget Fort is described more in detail .
A 30 @-@ minute episode of the Swedish public broadcaster SVT 's series Hemliga svenska rum ( " Secret Swedish spaces " ) covered Boden Fortress and its secrets , lesser known facts and myths . The programme brought up the use of Degerberget Fort as storage for the gold reserve and other pieces of information from 100 years of Swedish military history about " one of Sweden 's most peculiar and perhaps mightiest constructions " .
= = = Reference notes = = =
= Jeff Hardy =
Jeffrey Nero " Jeff " Hardy ( born August 31 , 1977 ) is a professional wrestler , singer @-@ songwriter , painter and musician currently signed to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . He is best known for his work with World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment ( WWF / E ) .
Before gaining prominence in WWE , Hardy performed for the Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts ( OMEGA ) , a promotion he ran with his brother Matt . After being signed by WWE , the brothers worked as jobbers , before gaining notoriety in the tag team division , partly due to their participation in Tables , Ladders , and Chairs matches . With the addition of Lita , the team became known as Team Xtreme and continued to rise in popularity . As a tag team wrestler , Hardy is an eight @-@ time world tag team champion ( six World Tag Team Championships , one WCW Tag Team Championship , and one TNA World Tag Team Championship ) – all with his brother Matt .
As a singles wrestler , Hardy is a six @-@ time world champion , having held the TNA World Heavyweight Championship three times , the WWE Championship once and WWE 's World Heavyweight Championship twice . Within WWE , he also held the Intercontinental Championship four times , the Light Heavyweight and European Championships once each and the Hardcore Championship three times , making him the eighteenth Triple Crown Champion and the tenth Grand Slam Champion in company history . Between WWE and TNA , Hardy has won 23 total championships .
Hardy is involved in motocross , music , painting , and other artistic endeavors . He is currently a member of the band Peroxwhy ? gen , with whom he has released two studio albums .
= = Early life = =
Jeff Hardy is the son of Gilbert and Ruby Moore Hardy , and the younger brother of Matt Hardy . Their mother died of brain cancer in 1986 , when Hardy was nine . He developed an interest in motocross aged 12 and got his first bike , a Yamaha YZ @-@ 80 , at age 13 . He had his first race when he was in ninth grade . Hardy played baseball as a child , but had to stop after he crashed during a motocross race , injuring his arm . He also played football during high school as a fullback and linebacker . He briefly competed in amateur wrestling in high school . He had to stop playing football in high school , after he was ordered to pick between professional wrestling and football , and he chose wrestling . Hardy 's favorite subjects in school were U.S. history and art , which he did for extra credit .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early Career ( 1991 − 1994 ) = = =
Hardy , along with his brother Matt and friends , started their own federation , the Trampoline Wrestling Federation ( TWF ) and mimicked the moves they saw on television . Later on , the TWF went under several different names , eventually being integrated into a county fair in North Carolina . The brothers and their friends then began to work for other independent companies . They drove all over the East Coast of the United States , working for companies such as ACW and other small promotions .
= = = World Wrestling Federation = = =
= = = = Enhancement Talent ( 1994 − 1997 ) = = = =
Hardy cites Sting , The Ultimate Warrior , and Shawn Michaels as his childhood inspirations to wrestle . He started on World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) television as a jobber — a wrestler who consistently loses to make his opponents look stronger . His first WWF match was against Razor Ramon on May 23 , 1994 in Youngstown , Ohio , with Randy Savage mentioning on commentary , " Welcome to the big time " . His ringname that night , Keith Davis , was the name of Razor 's scheduled jobber , who backed out on short notice . Gary Sabaugh , who had brought Hardy in a group along with Davis , suggested him to agent Tony Garea , who agreed after Hardy claimed he was 18 ( he was in fact , only 16 ) . The next day , he wrestled under his real name against The 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid , and the match aired on the June 25 episode of Superstars . He occasionally wrestled as a jobber as late as 1997 ( including a match against Rob Van Dam during the ECW " invasion " storyline that had Hardy billed as being from Virginia instead of Cameron , North Carolina ) before beginning his first major run in 1998 .
= = = OMEGA Championship Wrestling ( 1997 − 1998 ) = = =
Before arriving in the WWF , Matt formed his own wrestling promotion , the Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts ( OMEGA ) with Thomas Simpson . The promotion was a more successful version of the original TWF and included talent such as both Hardy brothers , Shannon Moore , Gregory Helms , Joey Matthews , and Steve Corino , among others . In OMEGA , each of the brothers portrayed several different characters ; Hardy portrayed such characters as Willow the Wisp , Iceman , Mean Jimmy Jack Tomkins , and The Masked Mountain . While there , Hardy held the New Frontier Championship as a singles competitor and the Tag Team Championship with Matt . The promotion folded in April 1998 when they signed contracts with the WWF .
= = = Return to WWF / E = = =
= = = = The Hardy Boyz ( 1998 – 2002 ) = = = =
The Hardy brothers eventually caught the eyes of the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . After being signed to a contract in 1998 , they were trained by Dory Funk Jr. in his Funkin ' Dojo with other notable wrestlers such as Kurt Angle , Christian , Test , and A @-@ Train . When the team was finally brought up to WWF television , after months of " jobbing " and live events , they formed the acrobatic tag team called the Hardy Boyz . While feuding with The Brood in mid @-@ 1999 , they added Michael Hayes as their manager . On July 5 , they won their first WWF Tag Team Championship by defeating the Acolytes , but lost it back to them a month later . After the dissolution of the Brood , the Hardys joined forces with Gangrel as The New Brood and feuded with Edge and Christian . This stable did not last long , however , and on October 17 , 1999 at No Mercy , the Hardy Boyz won the managerial services of Terri Runnels in the finals of the Terri Invitational Tournament in the WWF 's first ever tag team ladder match against Edge and Christian . They competed in the first two TLC ( Tables , Ladders and Chairs ) matches ever , both against Edge and Christian and The Dudley Boyz .
In 2000 , the Hardy Boyz found a new manager in their real @-@ life friend Lita . Together , the three became known as " Team Xtreme " . They continued their feud with Edge and Christian throughout 2000 , defeating them for the WWF Tag Team Championship on two occasions . At SummerSlam , the Hardy Boyz competed in the first ever Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match ( TLC match ) , for the Tag Team Championship against the Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian , but were unsuccessful .
Hardy gained attention for his high risk stunts in the TLC matches , making a name for himself as one of the most seemingly reckless and unorthodox WWF performers of his time . In 2001 , Hardy received a push as a singles competitor , and he held the Intercontinental ( defeating Triple H ) , Light Heavyweight ( defeating Jerry Lynn ) and Hardcore Championships ( defeating Mike Awesome and Van Dam on two separate occasions ) . At the end of 2001 , the Hardys began a storyline in which they began to fight , which led to Matt demanding a match at Vengeance , with Lita as the special guest referee . After Jeff Hardy beat Matt by pinfall at Vengeance , while Matt 's foot was on the ropes , Hardy and Lita began feuding against Matt . In the middle of the feud , however , Hardy faced The Undertaker in a Hardcore Championship match and lost . After the match , The Undertaker was scripted to attack both Hardy and Lita , injuring them . On the next episode of SmackDown ! , The Undertaker attacked Matt as well , also injuring him , in storyline . The Hardys and Lita were not seen again until the Royal Rumble , because WWE did not have another storyline for their characters . The Hardys later came back as a team , and there was never any mention of their previous storyline split .
In early April 2002 , the Hardy Boyz began a feud with Brock Lesnar after Lesnar gave Matt an F @-@ 5 on the steel entrance ramp , which led to an angered Hardy seeking revenge on Lesnar . At Backlash , Hardy faced @-@ off against Lesnar in Lesnar 's first televised match . Lesnar dominated Hardy and won the match by knockout . Lesnar and the Hardys continued to feud over the next few weeks , with the Hardys coming out victorious only once by disqualification . At Judgment Day , Lesnar gained the upper hand on the Hardy Boyz before tagging his partner , Paul Heyman , in to claim the win for the team . In July 2002 , Hardy won his third Hardcore Championship by defeating Bradshaw .
= = = = Singles competition and departure ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = = =
After years in the tag team division , Hardy took on The Undertaker in a ladder match for the Undisputed WWE Championship . Hardy came up short in the intense match , but earned The Undertaker 's respect when he displayed courage by attempting to rise to his feet after the bout and challenge The Undertaker to continue . Hardy competed for singles titles on several occasions and defeated William Regal for the European Championship . Hardy was defeated a few weeks later by Rob Van Dam in a ladder match to unify the European Championship and the Intercontinental Championship , and the European Championship was retired . Finally , the Hardy Boyz split apart , as Hardy continued to pursue his singles ambitions on Raw and his brother , Matt left Raw for his own singles pursuits signing with Stephanie McMahon 's SmackDown ! brand . On Raw , Hardy would compete in WWE 's Hardcore division until the title 's unification with the Intercontinental Championship .
In late 2002 , Hardy had been teaming with Rob Van Dam and Bubba Ray Dudley . He along with Bubba Ray and Spike Dudley defeated 3 @-@ Minute Warning at Survivor Series in a six @-@ man tag team elimination tables match .
In January 2003 , Hardy briefly turned into a heel ( villain ) after he attacked Van Dam and Shawn Michaels . It ended a month later when he saved Stacy Keibler from an attack by then @-@ villain , Christian . In February , he had a brief program with Michaels , which saw the two team up . Then , in storyline , Hardy began dating Trish Stratus after saving her from Steven Richards and Victoria in March . Hardy and Stratus had a brief on @-@ screen relationship that saw the duo talking backstage and teaming together in matches . Hardy competed in his final match ( his first departure ) against The Rock and lost . Hardy , however , was released from WWE on April 22 , 2003 . The reasons given for the release were Hardy 's erratic behavior , drug use , refusal to go to rehab , deteriorating ring performance , as well as constant tardiness and no @-@ showing events . Hardy also cites " burn out " and the need for time off as reasons for leaving WWE .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2003 ) = = =
Hardy made his first wrestling appearance after being released from WWE at an OMEGA show , on May 24 . Using his old gimmick , " Willow the Wisp " , Hardy challenged Krazy K for the OMEGA Cruiserweight Championship , but lost the match .
= = = Ring of Honor ( 2003 ) = = =
Hardy performed with the Ring of Honor ( ROH ) promotion on one occasion . Hardy appeared at ROH 's 2003 show , Death Before Dishonor , under his " Willow the Wisp " gimmick , wearing a mask and trench coat . Hardy was quickly unmasked and lost his jacket , wearing attire similar to that he wore in WWE . Hardy was booed and heckled before , during , and after the match by the ROH audience , who chanted " We want Matt ! " and " You got fired ! " during his match with Joey Matthews and Krazy K , which Hardy won . Hardy then took a whole year off of wrestling to concentrate on motocross and finish his motocross track .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = =
Hardy debuted in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) on June 23 , 2004 , at the Second Anniversary Show , in a match against A.J. Styles , for the TNA X Division Championship . He also debuted his new entrance theme " Modest " , a song performed by Hardy himself , and a new nickname , " The Charismatic Enigma " . The match ended in a no contest when Kid Kash and Dallas interfered . Hardy returned to TNA on July 21 and was awarded a shot at the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . Hardy challenged for the title on September 8 , losing to NWA World Heavyweight Champion Jeff Jarrett . In October 2004 , he won a tournament , earning a shot at the NWA World Heavyweight Championship on November 7 at Victory Road , TNA 's first monthly pay @-@ per @-@ view . Hardy was defeated by Jarrett once again in a ladder match at Victory Road following interference from Kevin Nash and Scott Hall .
One month later at Turning Point , Hardy , Styles and Randy Savage defeated Jarrett , Hall and Nash ( collectively known as the Kings of Wrestling ) . Hardy went on to defeat Hall in a singles match , substituting for Héctor Garza at Final Resolution on January 16 , 2005 .
At Against All Odds in February 2005 , Hardy lost to Abyss in a " Full Metal Mayhem " match for the number one contendership to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . Hardy returned the favor by defeating Abyss in a Falls Count Anywhere match at Destination X in March . On March 15 , 2005 , Hardy teamed with Shocker defeating David Young and Lex Lovett . Hardy then went on to feud with Raven , Hardy defeated Raven in a Six sides of steel match at Lockdown in April . Hardy was suspended from TNA after no @-@ showing his " Clockwork Orange House of Fun " rematch with Raven at Hard Justice on May 15 , allegedly due to travel difficulties . Hardy 's suspension was lifted on August 5 , and he returned at Sacrifice approximately a week later , attacking Jeff Jarrett .
He wrestled his first TNA match in four months at Unbreakable on September 11 , losing to Bobby Roode following interference from Jarrett . Throughout October 2005 , Hardy became embroiled in a feud with Abyss , Rhino and Sabu . The four way feud culminated in a Monster 's Ball match at Bound for Glory on October 23 , which Rhino won after delivering a second rope Rhino Driver to Hardy . In the course of the match , Hardy delivered a Swanton Bomb to Abyss from a height of approximately 22 ft 0 in ( 6 @.@ 71 m ) . Later that night , Hardy competed in a ten @-@ man battle royal for the number one contendership to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship , which Rhino also won . At Genesis in November , Hardy lost to Monty Brown in another number one contender match .
Hardy was scheduled to wrestle on the pre @-@ show of Turning Point in December 2005 , but once again no @-@ showed the event , again citing traveling problems . Hardy was suspended as a result and did not appear on TNA television again . In March , April , and May 2006 , Hardy appeared on several live events promoted by TNA in conjunction with Dave Hebner and the United Wrestling Federation . Hardy was later released from his TNA contract in June 2006 .
= = = Second return to WWE = = =
= = = = The Hardys reunion ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
On August 4 , 2006 , WWE announced that Hardy had re @-@ signed with the company . In the following weeks , vignettes aired hyping his return on the August 21 episode of Raw . On the day of his return , Hardy received a push and defeated then @-@ WWE Champion Edge by disqualification when Lita pulled Edge out of the ring . After failing to capture the Intercontinental Championship from Johnny Nitro over the next few weeks , including at Unforgiven , Hardy finally defeated Nitro to win his second Intercontinental Championship on the October 2 episode of Raw . On the November 6 episode of Raw , Hardy lost the Intercontinental Championship back to Nitro , after Nitro hit him with the Intercontinental Championship title belt . One week later , Hardy regained it on the November 13 episode of Raw , with a crucifix pin . This marked Hardy 's third reign as Intercontinental Champion .
On the November 21 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , Hardy teamed with his brother , Matt , for the first time in almost five years to defeat The Full Blooded Italians . At Survivor Series , they both were a part of Team D @-@ Generation X , which gained the victory over Team Rated @-@ RKO with a clean sweep . The brothers then received their first opportunity since Hardy 's return to win a tag team championship at Armageddon . They competed in a four @-@ team ladder match for the WWE Tag Team Championship , but they came up short in their attempt . In the course of the match , however , they inadvertently legitimately injured Joey Mercury 's face .
With Hardy still feuding with Johnny Nitro and the other members of MNM into 2007 , he was challenged once again by Nitro at New Year 's Revolution in a steel cage match for the Intercontinental Championship . Hardy once again defeated Nitro . Hardy then teamed with Matt to defeat MNM at both the Royal Rumble and No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ views . The next night on Raw , February 19 , Hardy was defeated for the Intercontinental Championship by Umaga . In April 2007 , Hardy competed in the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 23 . During the match , Matt threw Edge onto a ladder and encouraged Hardy , who was close to the winning briefcase , to finish him off . Hardy then leaped off the 20 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) ladder , drove Edge through the ladder with a leg drop , seemingly injuring both Edge and himself . The two were unable to continue the match and were removed from ringside on stretchers .
The next night on Raw , April 2 , the Hardys competed in a 10 @-@ team battle royal for the World Tag Team Championship . They won the titles from then WWE Champion John Cena and Shawn Michaels by last eliminating Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch . They then began a feud with Cade and Murdoch , with the Hardys retaining the Championship in their first title defense against them at Backlash and again at Judgment Day . The Hardys , however , dropped the titles to Cade and Murdoch on June 4 on Raw . The Hardys earned a rematch at Vengeance : Night of Champions but were defeated .
= = = = Championship reigns and pursuits ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = = =
In the midst of feuding with Umaga , who defeated Hardy at The Great American Bash to retain the Intercontinental Championship in late July , Hardy was abruptly taken off WWE programming . He posted on his own website and in the forums of TheHardyShow.com that it was time off to heal , stemming from a bad fall taken in a match against Mr. Kennedy on the July 23 episode of Raw . He made his return on the August 27 episode of Raw beating Kennedy by disqualification after Umaga interfered . The following week , on September 3 , Hardy successfully captured his fourth Intercontinental Championship by defeating Umaga for the title .
This was the start of a push for Hardy , and at Survivor Series , Hardy and Triple H were the last two standing to win the traditional elimination match . Hardy began an on and off tag team with Triple H , which eventually led to a respectful feud between the two . The rivalry continued at Armageddon , when Hardy defeated Triple H to become the number one contender for the WWE Championship . In the weeks leading up to the Royal Rumble , Hardy and Randy Orton engaged in a personal feud , which began when Orton kicked Hardy 's brother , Matt , in the head in the storyline . Hardy , in retaliation , performed a Swanton Bomb on Orton from the top of the Raw set and seemed to have all the momentum after coming out on top in their encounters . Hardy , however , lost the title match at the Royal Rumble , but was named as one of six men to compete in an Elimination Chamber match at No Way Out , where he survived to the final two before being eliminated by the eventual winner , Triple H.
During the March 3 episode of Raw , Hardy appeared on Chris Jericho 's " Highlight Reel " segment as a special guest , but ended up attacking Jericho . This led to an Intercontinental title match on the following Raw where Hardy dropped the title to Jericho . Off @-@ screen , Hardy dropped the title after he was suspended for sixty days , as of March 11 , for his second violation of the company 's Substance Abuse and Drug Testing Policy . Hardy was also removed from the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXIV in which he was booked to win after the suspension was announced . Hardy returned on the May 12 episode of Raw , defeating Umaga . This reignited the rivalry between the two , and they met in a Falls Count Anywhere match at One Night Stand , which Hardy won .
On June 23 , 2008 , Hardy was drafted from the Raw brand to the SmackDown brand , as a part of the 2008 WWE draft . Hardy made his SmackDown debut on the July 4 episode , defeating John Morrison . Hardy participated in the WWE Championship Scramble match at Unforgiven and also challenged for the Championship at No Mercy and Cyber Sunday , but failed to win each time . He was originally scheduled to be in the WWE Championship match at Survivor Series , but , in storyline , was found unconscious in his hotel , allowing the returning Edge to replace him in the match and win the title . At Armageddon in December 2008 , Hardy defeated the defending champion Edge and Triple H in a triple threat match to capture the WWE Championship , his first world championship .
In January 2009 , Hardy 's next storyline led to his involvement in scripted accidents , including a hit @-@ and @-@ run automobile accident and an accident involving his ring entrance pyrotechnics . At the 2009 Royal Rumble , Hardy lost his WWE Championship to Edge after Hardy 's brother , Matt , interfered on Edge 's behalf and hit Hardy with a steel chair . The buildup to this feud involved Matt implying that he was responsible for all of Hardy 's accidents over the past few months , and at WrestleMania XXV , Matt defeated Jeff in an Extreme Rules match . In a rematch at Backlash , however , Hardy defeated Matt in an " I Quit " match .
= = = = Feud with CM Punk and departure ( 2009 ) = = = =
At Extreme Rules , Hardy defeated Edge to win the World Heavyweight Championship in a ladder match . Immediately after the match , CM Punk cashed in his second Money in the Bank briefcase , which gave him a guaranteed world championship match at any time he wanted , and defeated Hardy to win the championship . Hardy received his rematch at The Bash , and won the match via disqualification after Punk kicked the ref in the back of the head while feigning an eye injury with Punk still retaining the title . At Night of Champions , however , Hardy won the championship for the second time , by defeating Punk . At the SummerSlam pay @-@ per @-@ view in August , Hardy lost the title back to Punk in a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match . On the August 28 episode of SmackDown , Punk Beat Jeff Hardy in a steel cage rematch for the World Heavyweight Championship , resulting in Hardy leaving WWE , in storyline , per the pre @-@ match stipulation . This storyline was put in place to allow Hardy to leave WWE to heal his injuries , including a neck injury . Hardy also had two herniated discs in his lower back and was suffering from restless legs syndrome .
= = = Return to TNA = = =
= = = = Immortal ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = = =
On TNA 's first live Monday episode of Impact ! on January 4 , 2010 , Hardy made his return to TNA , along with Shannon Moore . He was attacked by Homicide after emerging from the crowd , but hit Homicide with a steel chair and performed the Twist of Fate on the Impact ! Zone ramp . He later appeared in backstage segments throughout the evening . The following day , it was reported that Hardy had signed a new contract with TNA . Hardy would make his next appearance for the company on the March 8 episode of Impact ! , saving D 'Angelo Dinero , Abyss and Hulk Hogan from A.J. Styles , Ric Flair and Desmond Wolfe . The following week , Hardy defeated then TNA World Heavyweight Champion A.J. Styles in a non @-@ title match .
On the April 5 episode of Impact ! , Hardy was introduced as a member of Team Hogan for the annual Lethal Lockdown match , where they would face Team Flair . One week later , however , Hardy was injured when James Storm spewed a volatile liquid against a flame from his lighter , forming a fireball that singed most of Hardy 's face . At Lockdown , Team Hogan ( Hardy , Abyss , Jeff Jarrett and Rob Van Dam ) defeated Team Flair ( Sting , Desmond Wolfe , Robert Roode and James Storm ) . At Sacrifice , Hardy defeated Mr. Anderson . After the event , Anderson turned face and eventually managed to convince the skeptical Hardy that he really had changed , after which the two went on to form a tag team . At Slammiversary VIII , Hardy and Anderson , now known as Enigmatic Assholes , defeated Beer Money , Inc . ( Robert Roode and James Storm ) in a tag team match .
On the August 19 episode of Impact ! , the TNA World Heavyweight Championship was vacated after Rob Van Dam was injured by The Monster Abyss and Hardy was entered into an eight @-@ man tournament for the championship , defeating Rob Terry in his first round match . At the semi @-@ finals at No Surrender , Hardy first wrestled Kurt Angle to a twenty @-@ minute time @-@ limit draw , after which Eric Bischoff ordered a five @-@ minute period of extra time . After that and a second five @-@ minute extra time period also ended in draws , it was ruled that Angle was unable to continue and the match ended in a no contest . After wrestling a draw on the September 16 episode of Impact ! , it was announced that both Hardy and Angle would advance to the finals at Bound for Glory , where they would compete with Mr. Anderson in a three – way match .
At Bound for Glory , Hardy turned heel with Hulk Hogan and Eric Bischoff and with their help defeated Angle and Anderson to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for the first time . They were then joined by Jeff Jarrett and Abyss , revealing the group that Abyss had been referring to as " they " for several months . On the following episode of Impact ! , the stable was named Immortal , as it formed an alliance with Ric Flair 's Fortune . Meanwhile , Hardy debuted a new dark character , using cryptic messages as he explained the reasons behind his turn . At Turning Point , Hardy retained his title in a defense against Matt Morgan , a replacement for Mr. Anderson , who was sidelined after suffering a concussion during an attack by Hardy . On the following episode of Impact ! , Hogan presented Hardy with a new design of the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , which he dubbed the TNA Immortal Championship . At Final Resolution in December , Hardy successfully defended the championship in a rematch against Morgan after incapacitating the special guest referee Mr. Anderson and having a replacement referee count the pinfall . On January 4 , 2011 , Hardy made his debut for New Japan Pro Wrestling ( NJPW ) at Wrestle Kingdom V in Tokyo Dome , where he successfully defended the TNA World Heavyweight Championship against Tetsuya Naito .
On January 9 at Genesis , Hardy 's brother , Matt , made his TNA debut as a surprise member of Immortal and defeated Rob Van Dam to prevent him from receiving a match at Hardy 's championship . That same night , Hardy gave Anderson a match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , immediately following Anderson 's victory in a number one contender 's match . Despite Matt , Flair , and Bischoff interfering in an attempt to help Hardy , Anderson defeated Hardy for the championship . On the January 13 episode of Impact ! , the Hardy Boyz reunited and defeated Anderson and Van Dam in a tag team match , following interference from Beer Money , Inc . On the February 3 episode of Impact ! , Hardy received his rematch for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . The rest of Immortal interfered in the match , but were stopped by Fortune , which led to Anderson retaining the championship . On February 13 at Against All Odds , Hardy defeated Anderson in a ladder match to regain the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . Hardy held the championship for less than two weeks , defending it once against Rob Van Dam , before losing it to the returning Sting on February 24 , at the tapings of the March 3 episode of Impact ! . On March 13 at Victory Road , Hardy received a rematch for the title under No Disqualification rules , but was defeated in ninety seconds . TNA had made the decision to cut the match short after deeming that Hardy was too intoxicated to wrestle . The following day it was reported that TNA had sent Hardy home from the week 's Impact ! tapings . On the March 17 episode of Impact ! , Immortal severed their ties with Hardy .
= = = = Road To Redemption ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = = =
On August 23 , 2011 , TNA announced that Hardy would be making his return to the promotion at the Impact Wrestling tapings on August 25 in Huntsville , Alabama . The return would take place only five days after Matt Hardy was released from his TNA contract . In his return , which was taped for the September 8 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy spoke to the audience , acknowledging that he had hit rock bottom at Victory Road in March , before asking the fans for " one more shot " . Hardy wrestled his first match in six months on September 15 at a live event in York , Pennsylvania , defeating Jeff Jarrett . Hardy then began feuding with his former stable Immortal , attacking Eric Bischoff on the October 6 episode of Impact Wrestling and engaging in brawls with Jeff Jarrett at Bound for Glory and on the October 20 episode of Impact Wrestling . Hardy wrestled his first televised match since his return on the October 27 episode of Impact Wrestling , defeating Immortal member Bully Ray . On November 13 at Turning Point , Hardy defeated Jeff Jarrett three times , first in six seconds , the second in six minutes , and the third in ten seconds . On December 11 at Final Resolution , Hardy defeated Jarrett in a steel cage match to become the number one contender to the TNA World Heavyweight Championship .
On January 8 , 2012 , at Genesis , Hardy defeated TNA World Heavyweight Champion Bobby Roode via disqualification ; as a result , the title remained with Roode . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , a rematch between Hardy and Roode ended in a no contest , following interference from Bully Ray . The following week , Hardy was entered into a number one contender 's match against James Storm , which ended in a no contest following interference from Ray and Roode . On February 12 at Against All Odds , Hardy was unable to capture the TNA World Heavyweight Championship from Roode in a four @-@ way match , which also included Bully Ray and James Storm . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy lost his shot at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , following interference from the returning Kurt Angle . On March 18 at Victory Road , Hardy was defeated by Angle in a singles match . On April 15 at Lockdown , Hardy defeated Angle in a rematch , contested inside a steel cage . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy and Mr. Anderson were defeated by Rob Van Dam in a three @-@ way number one contender 's match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . During the first " Open Fight Night " the following week , Hardy teamed up with Anderson to unsuccessfully challenge Magnus and Samoa Joe for the TNA World Tag Team Championship . On May 13 at Sacrifice , Hardy was defeated by Anderson in a singles match . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated Anderson in a rematch . On the live May 31 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy won a fan voting to become the number one contender to the TNA Television Championship . However , his title match with Devon ended in a no contest , following interference from Robbie E and Robbie T. On June 10 at Slammiversary , Hardy was defeated by Mr. Anderson in a three @-@ way number one contender 's match , also involving Rob Van Dam .
On the June 14 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy entered the 2012 Bound for Glory Series , taking part in the opening gauntlet match , from which he was the first man eliminated by Bully Ray . Hardy wrestled his final group stage match of the tournament on the September 6 episode of Impact Wrestling , defeating Samoa Joe via submission , thus finishing fourth and advancing to the semi @-@ finals . Three days later at No Surrender , Hardy defeated Joe in a rematch to advance to the finals of the tournament . Before the finals took place , Hardy suffered a storyline injury after taking part in a brawl between the TNA locker room and the Aces & Eights stable . Despite the injury , Hardy defeated Bully Ray in the finals to win the 2012 Bound for Glory Series and become the number one contender to the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated Ray in a rematch to reaffirm his status as the number one contender .
On October 14 at Bound for Glory , Hardy defeated Austin Aries to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for the third time , and , according to TNA , completing his " road to redemption " following the events of March 2011 . Hardy made his first televised title defense on the October 25 episode of Impact Wrestling , defeating Kurt Angle to retain his title . On November 11 at Turning Point , Hardy defeated Austin Aries in a ladder match to retain the World Heavyweight Championship . On the December 6 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy was attacked by the Aces & Eights who were revealed to be paid off by his number one contender Bobby Roode . Three days later at Final Resolution , Hardy defeated Roode to retain the World Heavyweight Championship , after which , both men were attacked by the Aces & Eights . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Aces & Eights member Devon revealed Austin Aries as the man who outpaid Roode for the Aces & Eights to interfere in their match , which led to Hardy issuing Aries a title challenge . The following week , Hardy was successful in retaining his title against Aries , following interference from Bobby Roode . The rivalry culminated in a three @-@ way elimination match on January 13 , 2013 , at Genesis , where Hardy defeated both Aries and Roode to retain the World Heavyweight Championship . On the January 24 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy successfully defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Christopher Daniels . Afterwards , Hardy was jumped by a masked member of Aces & Eights who then injured Hardy 's left leg with a ball @-@ peen hammer . This was done to write Hardy out of the tapings in the United Kingdom , as the UK would not allow him to make appearances due to his criminal convictions . Hardy made his in @-@ ring return on the February 28 episode of Impact Wrestling , teaming with his new number one contender Bully Ray to defeat Bad Influence ( Christopher Daniels and Kazarian ) . On March 10 at Lockdown , Hardy lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Ray in a steel cage match , following interference from the Aces & Eights , ending his reign at 147 days . On the March 21 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated Kurt Angle , Magnus , and Samoa Joe in a four @-@ way match to become number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship . Hardy received his title opportunity on the April 11 episode of Impact Wrestling , but was again defeated by Bully Ray in a Full Metal Mayhem match .
Hardy returned to TNA on June 2 at Slammiversary XI , teaming with Magnus and Samoa Joe in a winning effort against Aces & Eights ( Garett Bischoff , Mr. Anderson , and Wes Brisco ) . As a result of previously winning the Bound for Glory Series , Hardy and Bobby Roode were entered into the 2013 Bound for Glory Series on the June 13 episode of Impact Wrestling . The following week , Hardy defeated Roode in his first BFG series match via pinfall to earn seven points in the tournament . Hardy 's participation in the Bound for Glory series ended on the September 5 episode of Impact Wrestling , when he was eliminated from a twenty @-@ point battle royal by Kazarian .
On the September 19 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated X Division Champion Manik in a non @-@ title match . On the October 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy teamed with Manik defeating Kenny King and Chris Sabin which led to the announcement of the Ultimate X match for the X Division Championship at Bound for Glory . On October 20 , 2013 at Bound for Glory , Hardy debuted a new theme song and competed in his first Ultimate X match for the TNA X Division Championship but was unsuccessful as Chris Sabin won the match after an interference from Velvet Sky .
On November 7 , Hardy did battle with Sabin to determine who would qualify to the quarter @-@ finals of the TNA World Title tournament in a Full Metal Mayhem Match . Hardy defeated Sabin after leaping over the top of a ladder . Hardy made it to the finals of the World Title Tournament and was close to winning his fourth TNA World Heavyweight Championship , but was defeated by Magnus due to the interference of Rockstar Spud . The following week on Impact , Jeff Hardy teamed up with Sting to face The BroMans , Ethan Carter III and Rockstar Spud . Hardy made a leave of absence due to dispute with the management . On February 11 , TNA investor MVP made a phone call to Jeff Hardy and announced that Hardy would return at the Lockdown pay @-@ per @-@ view .
= = = = Willow ( 2014 ) = = = =
In mid @-@ February 2014 strange vignettes began airing advertising Hardy 's return to TNA under his OMEGA character , Willow . He made his TNA return at Lockdown , in the Lethal Lockdown match as part of Team MVP . He then appeared on the following episode of Impact Wrestling , facing Rockstar Spud . In the following weeks , he would continue to feud with Spud and Ethan Carter III , leading to a tag @-@ team match between them ( with Kurt Angle as Willow 's partner ) at Sacrifice on April 27 . Willow and Angle would go on to win that match . On May 1 , Willow defeated James Storm by disqualification when Storm shoved the referee and as Storm made his way up the ramp , Mr. Anderson appeared and hit Storm with the Mic check . On May 8 , Willow 's match against Magnus ended in a DQ when Bram interfered and handcuffed Willow to the bottom rope and started to hit him with a metal turnbuckle . On May 15 , Willow defeated both Magnus and Bram in a two on One handicap match . On the May 22 episode of Impact , Willow defeated Magnus in a Falls Count Anywhere match . On the June 5 episode of Impact , Willow won his match against Bram by DQ when Magnus came to the ring and attacked him with a Steel Pry Bar .
= = = = The Hardys reunion ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = = =
On the July 10 episode of Impact Wrestling , Director of Wrestling Operations Kurt Angle asked Willow to bring Jeff Hardy back for a 20 @-@ man over the top rope battle royal later that night . Hardy competed in the match as himself and won , earning a match with Lashley for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship the following week , which Hardy lost .
On the July 24 Impact Wrestling , Hardy told the audience that we had not seen the last of Willow and then brought out Matt Hardy , his brother , to reform The Hardys . The Wolves joined them in the ring and challenged them to a match for the TNA World Tag Team Championship at Impact Wrestling : Destination X , which the Hardys agreed to . At Destination X , the Hardys lost against the Wolves , but shook hands after the match . On October 22 , 2014 , The Hardys entered a number one contenders tournament for the TNA World Tag Team Championships defeating The BroMans ( Jessie Godderz and DJ Z ) in the first round of the tournament . On October 29 , episode of Impact Wrestling , The Hardys defeated Team Dixie ( EC3 and Tyrus ) in the semifinals to advance to the finals of the tournament where they defeated Samoa Joe and Low Ki to become number one contenders for the TNA World Tag Team Championship . On the January 7 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy along with his brother Matt were at ringside for The Wolves vs. James Storm and Abyss ; during the match , The Great Sanada and Manik attempted to interfere in the match , but then ended up receiving a Side Effect from Matt Hardy , and a Twist of Fate from Jeff Hardy . Despite that , it distracted Eddie Edwards , who then received a Last Call super kick from Storm . At the Lockdown episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy suffered a minor concussion which was set as a storyline injury when he fell on the door of the cage ; James Storm hit Hardy off the door onto the steel steps below with a cowbell . The falling off the cage spot was covered in mainstream media such as USA Today and TMZ .
Hardy returned after TNA United Kingdom tour . In March , The Hardys participated in a tournament for the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship . On March 16 , 2015 , The Hardys won an Ultimate X match for the belts for the first time as a team and individually . On May 8 , 2015 , the Hardys were forced to vacate the TNA World Tag Team Championship due to Jeff suffering a broken leg in a legitimate dirt bike accident .
Hardy returned from injury on the July 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , making an announcement that his brother , Matt , would face TNA World Heavyweight Champion Ethan Carter III in a Full Metal Mayhem match , in which Matt was unsuccessful . After a brief hiatus , Hardy returned on the August 26 episode of Impact Wrestling , where he and Matt made an agreement that if Matt would his second match against Carter for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , then Jeff would become his personal assistant . Matt was unsuccessful , and Jeff was forced to be Carter 's assistant . On the September 21 episode of Impact Wrestling , after refusing to hit Spud , then hitting Carter with a Twist of Fate , Hardy quit as Carter 's personal assistant , therefore also ( storyline ) quitting TNA . On the September 30 episode of Impact Wrestling , TNA President Dixie Carter announced that Hardy would be the special guest referee in the three @-@ way dance TNA World Heavyweight Championship match between Carter , his brother Matt , and Drew Galloway at Bound for Glory . At the event , Hardy turned on Carter by hitting him with a steel chair with Matt hitting the Twist of Fate , thus giving Matt his first TNA World Heavyweight Championship .
Hardy made an appearance on January 5 , 2016 episode of Impact Wrestling on its live Pop TV debut backstage and ringside to support his brother Matt in the semi @-@ finals and finals of the TNA World Title Series , which Matt had later lost .
= = = = Feud with Matt Hardy ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
On the January 12 , 2016 , episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy made his official in @-@ ring return in a segment that involved Ethan Carter III denying Hardy an opportunity at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , instead bringing out Shynron to face Hardy , won the match . On the January 26 , episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy issued a challenge to his brother Matt for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , as the match was set to begin he was attacked by Eric Young and Bram . Hardy was later piledriven through a table by Young and sent to a hospital . On January 26 , 2016 , it was announced that Jeff Hardy had re @-@ signed a new contract with TNA Wrestling , which will go on for the rest of the year . Jeff Hardy made his return on March 15 , confronting Eric Young in a winning effort in a match to determine the third challenger for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship in the main @-@ event of the show which included Matt Hardy And EC3 , but lost it after interference from Eric Young along with Bram . On the next week 's Impact , Jeff won a gauntlet match after last eliminating his brother , Matt , to determine the number one contender to the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . Jeff faced TNA World Champion Drew Galloway in a losing effort on the March 29 edition of Impact . On the next Impact , Jeff defeated Eric Young in a steel cage match , after hitting the Swanton Bomb onto Young from the top of the cage .
At the April 12 tapings , Jeff confronted his brother Matt , after Matt declared that Jeff was not worthy of the Hardy name . Matt would then challenge Jeff to an I Quit match to take place on the next week 's Impact while Jeff demanded a Full Metal Mayhem match . In the main event , Jeff Hardy and Drew Galloway would face Matt Hardy and Tyrus in a tag team match with the stipulation that the winning Hardy would receive their match type on the next week 's Impact . Hardy and Galloway went on to lose the match after Jeff received a Twist of Fate from Matt and , as per match stipulations , on the next week 's Impact , Jeff would face Matt in an I Quit match , which resulted in a no contest after neither man could continue following Jeff hitting a Swanton Bomb from a 30 foot high stairwell in the Impact Zone . A week later , Hardy began pursuing the TNA World Heavyweight Championship and was put into a Four Way match to determine a number one contender , which was won by Lashley . On the May 10 episode of Impact , Hardy was James Storm 's tag team partner in a rematch for the TNA World Tag Team Championships against Decay in a losing effort after an imposter Willow distracted Hardy . This would give Abyss the advantage to Black Hole Slam Hardy and pick up the victory . After the match , Jeff searched backstage for the imposter Willow and would end up being attacked by three different people dressed as Willow . On the May 17 Slammiversary edition of Impact , Hardy would face one of the imposter Willows in a winning effort , to ultimately be attacked by another Willow while trying to unmask the one he had just defeated . Both imposter Willows would then bring out the leader of the imposter Willows , who would be revealed to be a vengeful Matt Hardy . Matt would later attack Jeff while he was going for a Swanton Bomb on Mike Bennett . On the May 24 episode of Impact , Jeff won a 2 @-@ on @-@ 1 Handicap Ladder match to secure a Full Metal Mayhem match against Matt at Slammiversary . At the event , Jeff defeated Matt . Matt then challenged Jeff to one final match on the July 5th episode of IMPACT Wrestling , set at the Hardy household , where the loser was banned from using the Hardy name . That match , " The Final Deletion , " was won by " Broken " Matt Hardy , forcing Jeff to drop the Hardy name .
= = Other media = =
Hardy appeared on the February 7 , 1999 episode of That ' 70s Show entitled " That Wrestling Show " , along with Matt , as an uncredited wrestler . Hardy and Matt also appeared on Tough Enough in early 2001 , talking to and wrestling the contestants . He appeared on the February 25 , 2002 episode of Fear Factor competing against five other World Wrestling Federation wrestlers . He was eliminated in the first round . Hardy also appears on The Hardy Show , an internet web show which features the Hardys , Shannon Moore and many of their friends . In September 2009 , Hardy signed a deal with Fox 21 studios to appear in a reality television show .
In 2001 , Hardy , Matt and Lita appeared in Rolling Stone magazine 's 2001 Sports Hall of Fame issue . In 2003 , Hardy and Matt , with the help of Michael Krugman , wrote and published their autobiography The Hardy Boyz : Exist 2 Inspire .
As part of WWE , Hardy has appeared in several of their DVDs , including The Hardy Boyz : Leap of Faith ( 2001 ) and The Ladder Match ( 2007 ) . He is also featured in the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling release Enigma : The Best of Jeff Hardy ( 2005 ) and Pro Wrestling 's Ultimate Insiders : Hardy Boys – From the Backyard to the Big Time ( 2005 ) . On April 29 , 2008 , WWE released " Twist of Fate : The Matt and Jeff Hardy Story " . The DVD features footage of the brothers in OMEGA and WWE , and also briefly mentions Hardy 's first run with TNA . In December 2009 , WWE released a DVD about Hardy entitled Jeff Hardy : My Life , My Rules .
= = Artistic pursuits = =
Hardy has an eclectic set of interests outside of wrestling . He calls his artistic side " The Imag @-@ I @-@ Nation " . At one stage , Hardy constructed a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) statue of an " aluminummy " named " Neroameee " out of tin foil outside of his recording studio ( a spray painted trailer ) . On another occasion , he created an artificial volcano in his front yard , which he then jumped over on his motocross dirtbike . On another occasion Hardy created a large sculpture of his brother Matt 's hand signal " V1 " , which was seen on " The Hardy Show " , an Internet web show which features both the Hardys , Shannon Moore and many of their friends . Hardy is also an artist and poet .
Hardy taught himself how to play guitar and later purchased a drum kit . In 2003 , Hardy formed a band , Peroxwhy ? gen , with members of the band Burnside 6 and Moore , who later left . He also converted a trailer into a recording studio . Their first album ( marketed as a Jeff Hardy solo album ) Plurality of Worlds was released through TNA Music on November 7 , 2013 . Peroxwhy ? Gen released their second album Within the Cygnus Rift on July 27 , 2015 .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
Jeff Hardy
Similar Creatures - EP ( 2012 )
Plurality of Worlds ( 2013 )
PeroxWhy ? Gen
Within The Cygnus Rift ( 2015 )
= = Personal life = =
He has a tattoo of roots that starts on his head , behind his ear , and finishes at his hand . He also has a few other signature designed tattoos , one of which , a dragon , he hid from his father . It was also the first tattoo he got in 1998 . He later got tattoos of the Chinese symbols for " Peace " and " Health " , as well as tattoos of fire and a wave . Hardy regards his tattoos as his " artistic impulses " . Hardy is very good friends with Shannon Moore , whom he has known since around 1987 . He is also good friends with Marty Garner , Jason Arhndt and John Morrison . He regards Vanilla Ice as a big influence on him , and he was even nicknamed " Ice " by Scott Hall .
Hardy met his girlfriend Beth Britt in 1999 , shortly after the Hardy Boyz had won the WWF Tag Team Championship for the first time . Hardy and his brother Matt went to a club in Southern Pines , North Carolina , where Hardy met her . On March 15 , 2008 , it was reported that Hardy 's house had burned to the ground in a fire . Hardy and his girlfriend were not home at the time , but his dog , Jack , was killed in the fire . It is believed that the fire was started by faulty electrical wiring . In October 2008 , Hardy was building a new home in the same area , which was expected to be completed by early 2009 . In August 2010 , Hardy announced that Britt was pregnant with the couple 's first child , a daughter named Ruby Claire , who was born on October 19 , 2010 . The pair 's second child , a daughter , Nera Quinn Hardy , was born on December 31 , 2015 . Hardy married Britt on March 9 , 2011 .
On September 17 , 2008 , Hardy was involved in an incident at the Nashville International Airport 's Southwest gate . A Southwest Airline employee reported that Hardy appeared to be intoxicated and therefore , he was not allowed to board the flight . He was not , however , arrested as he was said to be " calm " and " co @-@ operative " , and he made other arrangements to get home .
On September 11 , 2009 Hardy was arrested on charges of trafficking in controlled prescription pills and possession of anabolic steroids , after a search of his house yielded 262 Vicodin prescription pills , 180 Soma prescription pills , 555 milliliters of anabolic steroids , a residual amount of powder cocaine , and drug paraphernalia . Over a year later , the district attorney announced that Hardy would plead guilty to the charges . On September 8 , 2011 , Hardy was sentenced to ten days in jail , 30 months of probation and a fine of $ 100 @,@ 000 . Hardy served his jail sentence from October 3 to 13 , 2011 .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Swanton Bomb / The Swanton ( High @-@ angle senton bomb )
Twist of Fate ( WWE / TNA ) / Twist of Hate ( TNA ) ( Front facelock dropped into either a cutter ( WWE / TNA ) or a stunner ( TNA ) - usually used as a signature move
Signature moves
450 ° splash – 1999 – 2000
Baseball slide
Diving clothesline , sometimes from the barricade
Double leg drop to an opponent 's midsection
Handspring Stinger splash
Hardyac Arrest ( Rope @-@ aided corner dropkick )
Mule kick
One @-@ man Poetry in Motion
Plancha
Positions himself at the top rope or on another ladder and then performs a diving leg drop or a splash after leapfrogging over the ladder
Reverse Twist of Fate ( Inverted facelock neckbreaker slam ) – rarely used
Sitout inverted suplex slam
Sitout jawbreaker
Slingshot Arabian press – 1999 – 2003
Spine Line ( Arm trap cloverleaf ) – OMEGA ; used as a regular move in TNA / WWE
Split leg pin
Standing somersault leg drop
Whisper in the Wind ( Turnbuckle climb into a rebounded corkscrew senton to a standing opponent )
Managers
Gangrel
Lita
Michael Hayes
Terri
Trish Stratus
Nicknames
The Anti @-@ Christ of Professional Wrestling ( TNA )
The Artist ( TNA )
" The Best Wrestler on Planet Earth " ( TNA )
The Charismatic / Extreme Enigma ( WWE / TNA )
The Legend Thriller ( WWE )
The Rainbow @-@ Haired Warrior ( WWE )
" Brother Nero " ( TNA , coined by Matt Hardy )
Entrance themes
OMEGA Championship Wrestling
" Dead And Bloated " by Stone Temple Pilots ( 1997 – 1998 )
World Wrestling Entertainment
" Loaded " by Zack Tempest ( 1999 – 2003 , 2006 – 2008 , 2009 , 2013 – 2015 ; WWE / independent circuit ; used while teaming with his brother Matt )
" No More Words " by Endeverafter ( May 12 , 2008 – August 28 , 2009 )
Ring of Honor
" Tourniquet " by Marilyn Manson ( 2003 )
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
" Modest " by PeroxWhy ? Gen ( 2004 – 2006 )
" Modest " ( 2010 Remix ) by PeroxWhy ? Gen ( 2010 , 2011 )
" Another Me " by Jeff Hardy and Dale Oliver ( 2010 – 2011 )
" Immortal Theme " by Dale Oliver ( 2010 – 2011 ; used as a member of Immortal )
" Resurrected " by Jeff Hardy and Dale Oliver ( 2011 – 2012 )
" Similar Creatures " by PeroxWhy ? Gen and Dale Oliver ( 2012 – 2013 )
" Time & Fate " by Jeff Hardy and Dale Oliver ( October 20 , 2013 – November 21 , 2013 ; July 10 , 2014 – February 1 , 2015 )
" Willow 's Way " by Jeff Hardy and Dale Oliver ( March 9 , 2014 – July 10 , 2014 ; used as Willow )
" Reptillian " by PeroxWhy ? Gen and Dale Oliver ( July 31 , 2014 – September 25 , 2014 ; with Creatures Intro , October 2 , 2014 – September 23 , 2015 ; used as a member of The Hardys )
" Placate " by PeroxWhy ? Gen ( October 4 , 2015 – June 28 , 2016 )
" Obsolete " ( Acapella loop ) by PeroxWhy ? Gen ( July 21 , 2016 – present )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
National Championship Wrestling
NCW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 4 times )
New Dimension Wrestling
NDW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NDW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
New Frontier Wrestling Association
NFWA Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
North East Wrestling
NEW Junior Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA 2000
NWA 2000 Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
OMEGA Championship Wrestling
OMEGA New Frontiers Championship ( 1 time )
OMEGA Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
OMEGA Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Comeback of the Year ( 2007 , 2012 )
Match of the Year ( 2000 ) with Matt Hardy vs. The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian in a Triangle Ladder match at WrestleMania 2000
Match of the Year ( 2001 ) with Matt Hardy vs. The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian in a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match at WrestleMania X @-@ Seven
Most Popular Wrestler of the Year ( 2008 , 2009 )
Tag Team of the Year ( 2000 ) with Matt Hardy
Ranked # 7 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2013
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
TNA World Heavyweight Championship ( 3 times )
TNA World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
NWA World Heavyweight Championship # 1 Contender Tournament ( 2004 )
Bound for Glory Series ( 2012 )
TNA World Cup of Wrestling ( 2015 ) – with Gunner , Davey Richards , Rockstar Spud , Crazzy Steve and Gail Kim
TNA World Cup of Wrestling ( 2016 ) – with Eddie Edwards , Jessie Godderz , Robbie E and Jade
TNA World Tag Team Championship # 1 Contender Tournament ( 2014 ) – with Matt Hardy
Universal Wrestling Association
UWA World Middleweight Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment
WWE Championship ( 1 time )
World Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )
WWF / E Intercontinental Championship ( 4 times )
WWF / E Hardcore Championship ( 3 times )
WWF Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWE European Championship ( 1 time )
World Tag Team Championship ( 6 times ) – with Matt Hardy
WCW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
Eighteenth Triple Crown Champion
Tenth Grand Slam Champion
Slammy Awards ( 2 times )
Extreme Moment of the Year ( 2008 , 2009 ) giving Randy Orton a Swanton Bomb from the top of the Raw set , jumping from a ladder onto CM Punk through the Spanish announce table at SummerSlam
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Flying Wrestler ( 2000 )
Feud of the Year ( 2009 ) vs. CM Punk
Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 2011 ) vs. Sting at Victory Road
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
= Wagiman language =
Wagiman ( also spelled Wageman , Wakiman , Wogeman , Wakaman ) is a near @-@ extinct indigenous Australian language spoken by fewer than 10 people in and around Pine Creek , in the Katherine Region of the Northern Territory .
The Wagiman language is notable within linguistics for its complex system of verbal morphology , which remains under @-@ investigated , its possession of a cross @-@ linguistically rare part of speech called a coverb , its complex predicates and for its ability to productively verbalise coverbs .
Wagiman is expected to become extinct within the first half of the century , as the youngest generation of Wagiman people speak no Wagiman at all , and understand very little .
= = Language and speakers = =
Wagiman is a language isolate . It was once assumed to be a member of the adjacent Gunwinyguan family that stretches from Arnhem Land , throughout Kakadu National Park and South to Katherine ; however , there was considerable debate about the status of Wagiman within the Gun | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
of speech that takes prefixes and are therefore the only possible part of speech for which word @-@ initial and word @-@ medial environmental effects can be observed .
The verb ra @-@ ndi ' throw ' , for instance , surfaces as la @-@ ndi when inflected for third @-@ person singular subjects ( he / she / it ) , which are realised by invisible , or null morphemes. but as nga @-@ ra @-@ ndi when inflected for a first @-@ person singular subject ( I ) . When preceded by a syllable with a coda , the ' r ' similarly moves to ' l ' , as in ngan @-@ la @-@ ndi ' he / she / it threw you ' . In short , the retroflex approximant ' r ' [ ɻ ] is only realised as ' r ' when it occurs between two vowels . Elsewhere , it becomes a lateral approximant ' l ' .
= = = = = Heterorganic clusters = = = = =
Consonant clusters across syllable boundaries do not assimilate for place in Wagiman as they do in many other languages . This means that a nasal in a syllable coda will not move to the position of the following syllable onset for ease of enunciation . In English and most other Indo @-@ European languages , this movement occurs regularly , such that the prefix -in , for example , changes to -im when it precedes either a p , a b or an m .
in + possible → impossible
in + balance → imbalance
in + material → immaterial
Wagiman does not do this . A nasal in a coda retains its position regardless of the following consonant :
manyngardal ' tongue ' [ maɲŋaɖaɫ ]
binkan ' bream ' ( fish spec . ) [ bɪnɡan ]
ngan @-@ bu @-@ ni ' s / he hit me ' [ ŋanbʊnɪ ]
If Wagiman constrained against heterorganic clusters and assimilated them for place , as English does , these words would surface as [ maŋŋaɖaɫ ] , [ bɪŋɡan ] , and [ ŋambʊnɪ ] .
= = = = = Vowel harmony = = = = =
High vowels assimilate in height to following mid vowels across syllable boundaries . That is , [ ɪ ] will become [ ɛ ] , and [ ʊ ] will become [ ɔ ] , when the following syllable contains a mid vowel ; either [ ɛ ] or [ ɔ ] .
mi- ( 2sg.IMP ) and -ge ( ' put ' ) , becomes mege ' you go and put it ' .
mu- ( 2pl.IMP ) and -yobe ( ' stay ' ) , becomes moyobe ' you lot stay ' .
Wagiman vowel harmony and other aspects of Wagiman phonotactics require further investigation . It is not known , for instance , whether vowel harmony equally affects unstressed syllables .
= = = Syntax = = =
Wagiman is a prefixing language , which , in the context of typology of Australian languages , may refer to its genealogical classification as well as its syntactic properties . Wagiman , along with other Gunwinyguan languages , inflects verbs for person and number of the subject obligatorily , and optionally for the object . In this respect Wagiman displays characteristics of a head @-@ marking language . However , Wagiman also behaves as a dependent @-@ marking language , in that nominals are case marked as to their grammatical or semantic roles , such as ergative ( the subject of a transitive clause ) or absolutive ( the object of a transitive clause or the subject of an intransitive clause ) .
= = = = Morphology = = = =
Wagiman is a morphologically rich language and each part of speech has its own set of associated bound morphemes , some of which are obligatory , while others are optional .
= = = = = Verbs = = = = =
The verbal prefix contains information about the person and number of the subject , sometimes also the person and number of the object , as well as obligatory information about the tense of the clause . Furthermore , a verbal suffix conveys further information regarding tense and aspect . While only a small number of tense and aspect affixes exist , the interplay between those in the verbal prefix and in the suffix , can generate more highly specified temporal and aspectual clauses .
Further to these affixes , verbs may be marked for the number of the subject , be it dual or plural , and also for clusivity ; whether the listener is included in the described event ( inclusive ) or is excluded from the event ( exclusive ) .
Verb morphology in Wagiman is highly irregular . Of the small inventory of inflecting verbs , many have their own unique tense suffixes , while other tense suffixes are common to several verbs , and while some rudimentary verb classes can be identified - stance verbs always take the past tense suffix -nginy / ŋɪɲ / , for instance - the tense suffixes must be learned for each individual verb .
The prefixes on the other hand , are regular for each verb , although the complete paradigm of verb prefixes is highly complex . They encode three variables : person , number and tense , and are not segmentable ; one prefix cannot be separated into the three parts . Ngani- for example , encodes second @-@ person singular agent ( ' you ' ) , first @-@ person singular patient / undergoer ( ' me ' ) as well as past tense .
ngani @-@ bu @-@ ng
2sgA.1sgO.PST @-@ hit @-@ PRF
'you hit me ' .
= = = = = Nominals = = = = =
Nominal morphology is significantly less complex than that of the verb . There are a number of case suffixes , denoting ergative , absolutive , dative , allative , locative , ablative , semblative , temporal , instrumental and so on .
Apart from the grammatical cases , ergative and absolutive , which are necessary to construct meaningful sentences , an entire range of semantic cases occur with very high frequency , even when their meaning can be expressed without using case . In the following examples , the former , in which no case is used , is far less common than the latter :
wuji nga @-@ nga @-@ gondo @-@ n garradin
NEG IRR @-@ 1sg @-@ have @-@ PRS money
'I don 't have any money'
garrad @-@ nehen nga @-@ yu
money @-@ PRIV 1sg.PRS @-@ be
'I am without money ' or ' I am penniless'
There are also some bound particles , which appear to function in much the same syntactic manner as cases , but which are not considered ' case ' , for theoretical reasons . -Binyju / bɪɲɟʊ / ' only ' is one of these nominal particles , as in :
gubiji @-@ binyju bula @-@ ndi
bone @-@ only 3sg.leave @-@ PST
's / he left only the bones ' .
Nominals are also marked for number with a suffix that adjoins directly to the root , inside the case suffix . -giwu ' two ' , for example , would attach to the nominal root before the case , as in :
lamarra @-@ giwu @-@ yi nganba @-@ badi @-@ na
dog @-@ two @-@ ERG 3plA.1sgO @-@ bite @-@ PST
'the two dogs bit me ' .
As cases cannot be stacked in Wagiman , these number suffixes cannot be called case suffixes , whereas the nominal suffixes discussed above ( such as -binyju ' only ' ) , show the same syntactic distribution - they occur in the same place - and therefore may be analysed as cases themselves .
= = = = = Coverbs = = = = =
Coverbs also have their own set of inflectional morphemes , such as aspect , but may also take semantic case suffixes ( all those listed above except for ergative and absolutive ) . For instance , a coverb may take the dative case to convey intention , or purpose , as in :
liri @-@ ma @-@ gu
swim @-@ ASP @-@ DAT
'for swimming ' .
Coverbs are categorially differentiated from nominals though , in that a nominal may not take the aspectual suffixes that a coverb obligatorily takes .
The morpheme that is glossed as aspect in the above example , referred to in the literature as the -ma suffix , denotes aspectual unmarkedness . Its absence signifies perfective aspect , and it may be further suffixed with -yan , producing -ma @-@ yan , to denote continuous or imperfective aspect .
The -ma suffix exhibits regular allomorphy ; it assimilates in place and manner of articulation to any preceding obstruent or nasal , but not to any preceding lateral , rhotic or approximant . That is , it remains -ma following vowels , or following the consonants [ r ] , [ l ] , [ w ] and [ j ] , but when it follows [ p ] , for instance , it assimilates in manner and place , and becomes / -pa / , as in dup @-@ pa ' sit ' .
liri + ma → liri @-@ ma
wal + ma → wal @-@ ma
bey + ma → bey @-@ ma
yorony + ma → yorony @-@ nya
datj + ma → datj @-@ ja
The inclusion of the glottal stop in certain words , is ineffective to the surface realisation of the -ma suffix ; it will change , or remain unchanged , according to whichever segment precedes the glottal stop , as in :
wunh + ma → wunh @-@ na
gayh + ma → gayh @-@ ma
Cross @-@ linguistically , the @-@ ma suffix may be related to a coverbial suffix in Jaminjung , a language in which coverb roots occur without any aspect markers , but are then suffixed with -mayan , which marks continuous aspect . This coverb suffix bears a striking resemblance to the sum of the Wagiman -ma suffix and the continuous aspect suffix -yan , which always occur in tandem on coverbs . Together , -ma and -yan perform the same semantic function as Jaminjung -mayan . Precisely what the relationship holds between these suffixes ; whether one language borrowed from the other , or whether each language inherited them from earlier languages , is not at all clear .
= = = = Reduplication = = = =
Further to derivational and inflectional morphemes , Wagiman coverbs and nominals often undergo reduplication , whereby a part , or often the entirety of the root , is repeated . Reduplication can convey a multitude of meanings . When coverbs are reduplicated , the resulting derived coverb may involve added meaning components such as iterativity , duration or habituality .
dabulp @-@ pa ga @-@ ya nu @-@ naw @-@ ma
smoke @-@ ASP 3sg.PRS.go lots
's / he smokes lots'
dabuldabulp ga @-@ ya
smoke.RDP 3sg.PRS.go
's / he smokes all the time'
When nominals are derived by reduplication , the added meaning is usually one of plurality . However , since both a dual and a plural nominal suffix exist , -giwu and -guju respectively , nominal reduplication is rare .
= = = = Complex predicates = = = =
A complex predicate is the combination of more than one element , more than one individual word , to convey the information involved in a single event . For instance , the event swim is conveyed in Wagiman using a combination of a verb ya- ' go ' and a coverb liri @-@ ma ' swimming ' . There is no verb in Wagiman that , on its own , conveys the event of swimming .
Bipartite verbal compounds such as these are not peculiar to any language in particular . They are in fact very common , and may even occur in every language , albeit with varying frequency . English has a number of complex predicates , include go sightseeing , have breakfast and take ( a ) bath . The event described by go sightseeing is unable to be described using a single verb sightsee ; inflections like sightsaw and sightseen are ungrammatical . An event like take ( a ) bath , however , may be described by a single verb bathe , but it arguably has a slightly different meaning . Take ( a ) bath , in any case , is far more common .
= = = = Verbalisation = = = =
Wagiman is differentiated from other Australian languages in that it has a regular and productive process of verbalisation , whereby coverbs can become verbs and act as the independent head of a clause . Despite being fully productive , meaning that all coverbs may undergo verbalisation , in practice only a handful of coverbs are commonly verbalised . The process appears to be unique to Wagiman within Australian languages .
Verbalisation involves re @-@ analysing the entire coverb - including its suffix -ma , which serves merely to indicate that it is unmarked for aspect - as a verb root , and then to apply the usual obligatory verbal inflection affixes for person , number and tense . As there is no discrete morpheme that serves as a ' verbaliser ' , the process is one of conversion .
= The Garden of Words =
The Garden of Words ( Japanese : 言の葉の庭 , Hepburn : Kotonoha no Niwa ) is a 2013 Japanese anime drama film written , directed and edited by Makoto Shinkai , animated by CoMix Wave Films and distributed by Toho . It stars Miyu Irino and Kana Hanazawa , and featured music by Daisuke Kashiwa instead of Tenmon , who had composed the music for many of Shinkai 's previous films . The theme song , " Rain " , was originally written and performed by Senri Oe in 1988 , but was remade for the film and was sung by Motohiro Hata . It was adapted to a manga with illustrations by Midori Motohashi and later novelized by Shinkai , both in the same year as the film .
The film focuses on Takao Akizuki , an aspiring 15 @-@ year @-@ old shoemaker , and Yukari Yukino , a mysterious 27 @-@ year @-@ old woman he keeps meeting at Shinjuku Gyoen National Garden on rainy mornings . While Takao is skipping his morning class to design shoes , Yukino is avoiding work due to personal problems in her professional life . Yukino tells Takao nothing about herself , including her name , while Takao opens up to her , sharing his passion for shoes by offering to make a pair for her . When Takao learns Yukino 's identity , emotions come to a head as both learn that they have been teaching each other " how to walk " . Shinkai wrote the story as a tale of " lonely sadness " , based on the meaning of the traditional Japanese word for " love " , and uses shoes as a metaphor for life . The story 's motifs include rain , Man 'yōshū poetry , and the Japanese garden . The age difference between the two main characters and their character traits demonstrate how awkwardly and disjointedly people mature , where even adults sometimes feel no more mature than teenagers , according to Shinkai .
The Garden of Words premiered at the Gold Coast Film Festival in Australia on April 28 , 2013 and had its general release on May 31 , 2013 in Japan . For the Japanese premiere , the film was screened with an animated short called Dareka no Manazashi ( だれかのまなざし , lit . Someone 's Gaze ) , also directed by Shinkai . The Garden of Words had an unusual release schedule since it was released digitally on iTunes the same day as the Japanese theatrical premier , and its DVD and Blu @-@ ray were released while the film was still in theaters , on June 21 . The film has been licensed by Sentai Filmworks in North America , Anime Limited in the UK , and Madman Entertainment in Australia . The film performed well in theaters for an extended period of time and was hosted at many local and international film events . It ranked highly on iTunes Store during 2013 and was selected as the Year 's Best Animation in iTunes ' Best of 2013 . It won the 2013 Kobe Theatrical Film Award and awards at the Fantasia International Film Festival and the Stuttgart Festival of Animated Film . Online reviews were generally favorable with universal praise of the art , though opinions were mixed regarding the story 's length , plot and emotional climax .
= = Plot = =
The Garden of Words is considered a romance and drama film . It opens at the start of the rainy season in Tokyo with Takao Akizuki ( 秋月 孝雄 , Akizuki Takao ) , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old student and aspiring shoemaker , opting to skip his first class and sketch shoe designs in the garden at Shinjuku Gyoen . There he encounters Yukari Yukino ( 雪野 百香里 , Yukino Yukari ) , a 27 @-@ year @-@ old woman who is skipping work and enjoying beer and chocolate . When she notices the school crest on his uniform , Yukino bids him farewell with a tanka ( a form of Japanese poetry ) , leaving Takao puzzled as to its origin and meaning . The two continue to encounter each other and socialize in the park on rainy mornings , but never formally introduce themselves . After Yukino expresses an interest in Takao 's shoemaking , he decides to make a pair of shoes in her size . With the end of the rainy season , Takao stops visiting the park and focuses on his work .
Following summer break , Takao returns to school and spots Yukino . His friends inform him that she is a literature teacher and that she had been the target of gossip and bullying . Out of kindness and to avoid further confrontation , Yukino opted to avoid work and retreat to the park , hoping she would learn to overcome her fears and be able to " walk " again . However , Yukino quits her job and leaves the school . That afternoon , Takao meets Yukino at the park and greets her by reciting the 2,514th poem from the Man 'yōshū Japanese poetry collection , the correct response to her tanka , which he found in a classic Japanese literature textbook . After getting soaked by a sudden thunderstorm , both head to Yukino 's apartment and spend the afternoon together . When Takao confesses his love following dinner , Yukino is visibly moved , but then reminds him that she is a teacher and tells him that she is moving back to her home town on Shikoku . After Takao abruptly excuses himself , Yukino realizes her mistake and runs after him , finding him in the stairwell . Still upset , Takao angrily takes back what he had said and criticizes her for being so secretive and never opening up to him . Yukino embraces him and the two cry while she explains that their time together in the park had saved her .
The credits show Takao barely passing his final exams , but still working towards his goals , while Yukino moves back to Shikoku and resumes her teaching career . In a post @-@ credits scene , Takao revisits the park that winter , reads a letter from Yukino , places her finished shoes on the bench and then vows that he will find her after he has made progress with his career .
In the manga illustrated by Midori Motohashi , scenes were either added or slightly modified from the anime version . For example , after the conclusion of the rainy season , Takao was unable to visit the park during the only rainy morning that summer because he had scheduled to visit the footwear college he wanted to attend , disappointing Yukino who had hoped to see him in the park . Also , at the conclusion of the story , Yukino is seen wearing the shoes Takao had made for her .
= = Characters = =
Takao Akizuki ( 秋月 孝雄 , Akizuki Takao )
Takao Akizuki is a mature , hard @-@ working 15 @-@ year @-@ old first year high school student who hopes to become a shoemaker . On rainy mornings , he skips school to design shoes in the park . He is voiced by Miyu Irino in Japanese and Patrick Poole in English . In a scene depicting his childhood , he is voiced by Wataru Sekine in Japanese and Blake Shepard in English .
Yukari Yukino ( 雪野 百香里 ( " 雪野 由香里 " in the manga ) , Yukino Yukari )
Yukari Yukino is the mysterious 27 @-@ year @-@ old woman Takao meets in the park on rainy mornings . Takao later learns that she is a teacher at his high school , and that she , too , is skipping , but due to bullying by his upperclassmen . She is voiced by Kana Hanazawa in Japanese and Maggie Flecknoe in English .
Takao 's mother
Takao 's 47 @-@ year @-@ old mother is divorced from Takao 's father , and is focused more on her love life than her family life . She is voiced by Fumi Hirano in Japanese and Shelley Calene @-@ Black in English .
Takao 's brother
Takao 's 26 @-@ year @-@ old brother , who leaves home to live with his girlfriend , dismisses Takao 's shoe @-@ making as a whimsical . He is voiced by Takeshi Maeda in Japanese and Crash Buist in English .
Brother 's girlfriend
Takao 's brother 's 24 @-@ year @-@ old girlfriend is friendly with Takao and fascinated by his shoe @-@ making . She is voiced by Yuka Terasaki in Japanese and Brittney Karbowski in English .
Matsumoto ( 松本 )
Matsumoto is Takao 's classmate and friend , as well as Satō 's boyfriend . He is voiced by Suguru Inoue in Japanese and Mike Yager in English .
Satō ( 佐藤 )
Satō is a second year student in Takao 's high school and friend . She is voiced by Megumi Han in Japanese and Alison Sumrall in English .
Aizawa ( 相沢 )
Always surrounded by her friends , Aizawa is a third year student in Takao 's high school and the source of Yukino 's problems at school . She is voiced by Mikako Komatsu in Japanese and Hilary Haag in English .
= = Production = =
The Garden of Words was directed by Makoto Shinkai , who also wrote the original story and screenplay . He was responsible for the storyboards , animation composite , key animation , and editing . According to Shinkai , his numerous roles in the production of his works is due to the small size of the company , and in this film , it allowed him to tailor many elements of the film to more accurately portray his ideas .
The animated film was produced by Shinkai Creative , CoMix Wave Films , and the producer was Noritaka Kawaguchi . Kenichi Tsuchiya was the animation director and was responsible for character design , while Hiroshi Takiguchi was the art director . Planning for the film began in the spring of 2012 and was announced on December 24 of that year . The Japanese release was initially slated for the first half of 2013 . Production took only six months , starting with location scouting by Shinkai around Shinjuku . Production officially started after he had created storyboards based on the photos he took .
Shinkai was approached in early 2013 about adapting the material into a manga , which was then done by Midori Motohashi . In April , Shinkai stated that he was not contributing to the adaptation , leaving the work entirely to the manga artist . However , he did express interest in seeing the finished product .
= = = Inspirations , motifs , and metaphors = = =
According to Shinkai 's announcement of the film early during its production , The Garden of Words was his first attempt at making a love story using the traditional Japanese meaning of " love " . During the era of the Man 'yōshū , the native Japanese words today known as yamato kotoba ( 大和言葉 , lit . " Japanese words " ) were starting to be written using kanji , and the word for " love " , koi ( today written 恋 ) was written as 孤悲 , or " lonely sadness " . As noted by Shinkai , a more modern concept of " romance " , represented by ren 'ai ( 恋愛 ) , came about by Western influence . The Garden of Words emphasizes the original meaning of koi — a " longing for someone in solitude " — but in a modern setting . Loneliness is the central element of the film , according to Shinkai . In an interview , he said the he created the film with the hope of cheering up people who feel lonely or incomplete in their social relations . However , he made a point that " this movie doesn 't treat loneliness as something that must be fixed . "
Although the story 's central theme is loneliness , it uses shoes and rain as motifs , along with Man 'yōshū poetry and the Japanese garden in which it is set . Although rain is typically seen as sad and gloomy , in The Garden of Words it makes the world more vivid and protects the two main characters from the reality of their lives and the limitations imposed by society . Shinkai also noted a parallel between love and rain — that neither can be controlled or stopped .
According to Shinkai , shoes were a metaphor for life as Yukino learned to walk again , while Takao 's shoe @-@ making typified their relationship . Similarly , Yukino 's choice of food and beverages — initially beer and chocolate , due to a stress @-@ induced taste disorder — was a metaphor for her emotional health .
In many of Shinkai 's films , sad endings resulting from misunderstandings and unrequited feelings are common . According to Shinkai , his stories are intended to encourage teenagers as they learn to cope with these commonplace experiences . In an interview , he admitted that he had been accustomed to being turned down by women , and felt that his stories were encouraging because his characters continue to try , despite being unsuccessful at love . The Garden of Words also illustrated how people do not mature as linearly or elegantly as we often assume . Shinkai himself could relate with Yukino in not feeling as smart or mature at age 27 , stating , " We 're all still just children at age 27 , " a point that voice actress Kana Hanazawa also agreed with .
The original idea for The Garden of Words came from Shinkai 's desire to capture the beauty of the daily scenery in modern Tokyo and showcase it in a film . Having lived for ten years in Shinjuku , he selected it as the location of the film and set about taking thousands of photos , upon which he created his storyboards . Wanting to share the peace and harmony of his favorite locations in Japan with the hope that it would encourage people to visit , Shinkai modeled the garden in the film to match Shinjuku Gyoen National Garden in Tokyo . Following the earthquake in March 2011 , he was worried that it could be destroyed and wanted to preserve it in an animated film .
= = = Animation = = =
Like other Japanese anime , The Garden of Words was created using a combination of hand @-@ drawn animation , rotoscoping and computer animation ( CGI ) , with the latter facilitating the realistic appearance of the film 's rain sequences . Shinkai made half of the film 's backgrounds by using his photographs as a base and then drawing over the top with Adobe Photoshop , while the other half were fictional settings created with traditional animation and computer graphics . As with his other films , the backgrounds are vivid and meticulously drawn scenery while the characters are drawn with less detail , though they are still convincing and realistic .
For the rainy scenes at the park , the color palette was toned down , and pale green shading was used to match the gloomy , rainy weather , thereby increasing the detail and defining the characters . Matching the tones to the background and lighting helped highlight the characters ' faces . According to Shinkai , a novel coloring method was chosen from other coloring methods following careful testing . The method involved integrating the coloring for each character with the background , a " new innovation of sorts " that mimics the refraction of light on the skin as seen in nature . This was accomplished by coloring the outline of the character , including the lines drawn for the separation of lit and shadowed surfaces , and then incorporating the background color onto the surface . Shinkai felt that this coloring method made the anime stand out from others .
= = = Character design and casting = = =
Shinkai originally envisioned Takao as a boy who wants to help people , but also felt that he should have a passion for making something , since creative work can be rewarding and fulfilling . On a list he made of potential crafts , he picked out the word " shoes " . After testing it out with his initial plans for the story , he found that it worked out , and in hindsight , he realized that shoemakers also assist people with walking .
When first presenting the original story to the rest of his team , Shinkai learned that Yukino had unintentionally come across as selfish . To remedy this , he gave her character nervous traits and personality flaws , such as letting her emotions spill over during mildly upsetting events . Shinkai later realized that some of these personality quirks and temporary professional challenges seen in Yukino were present in a former girlfriend , for whom he had written his short film She and Her Cat . In addition to making Yukino 's character more convincing , these character flaws also made it more difficult to plan since she had to be both flawed and attractive to a young boy . One aspect of her character that Shinkai focused on was her appearance . He felt that she had to be dressed in nice clothes , and particularly nice shoes . In order to balance realism with fashion , he researched shoemaking , worked with a clothing coordinator and stylist , and held weekly fashion meetings with his staff .
One of the " complicated realistic elements " of Yukino 's character was her sense of purity that only her voice could convey . Though it took days of listening to the audition tapes , Shinkai finally chose Kana Hanazawa , who had a very low natural voice , despite typically playing the roles of high @-@ pitched younger girls . One of the things that impressed Shinkai about Hanazawa 's voice was her ability to cover such a broad range of expression .
It was the final scene of the film that made Shinkai glad he had cast Hanazawa . He knew that when Yukino cried , it had to be something impressive in order to emphasize an intense release of emotion . According to Shinkai , music alone could not produce the needed effect , and Hanazawa performed perfectly and without instruction . In an interview , he said , " I believe that Ms. Hanazawa 's acting on that crying scene alone completes the film . " This final scene , which was recorded perfectly on the first take , played a pivotal role in the casting decision for Takao 's character . Though many Japanese voice actors could portray a naïve 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy , Shinkai immediately recognized that only Miyu Irino could produce the intense emotion needed for the closing scene . Irino had also played Shun and Shin in Shinkai 's Children Who Chase Lost Voices .
In regards to the English dub , Shinkai did not feel that he could judge the quality of the voice acting since he could not speak English natively . He felt that it was good due to the feedback he had received and because he could feel the emotion in the characters ' voices . However , he noted that the experience would be different for viewers and that the final judgment could only be made by English @-@ speaking audiences .
= = = Length = = =
The Garden of Words is short , lasting approximately 46 minutes in length , a trend also seen among Shinkai 's earlier works . Although he had stated in an interview with Anime News Network that he does like making shorter films , Shinkai noted that he did not originally plan for the film to be played in theaters . Instead , he intended for people to casually view the film on tablets , computers , and in home theaters . A target length was never specified from the outset , instead the relationship between Takao and Yukino was emphasized , although it was known from early in the production that the film would be short .
Shinkai acknowledged that it is difficult to sell 46 @-@ minute films in theaters ; however , many individuals in the industry had requested to show the film in theaters and conventions . During an interview at Anime Expo 2013 , a representative from Toho , the film 's distribution company , emphasized that the quality of the story and the reputation of its director played a key role in the decision to bring it to theaters .
= = = Music = = =
In Shinkai 's previous films , the music was produced by Tenmon ; however , The Garden of Words features music by Daisuke Kashiwa . Kashiwa had been a fan of Shinkai 's 5 Centimeters Per Second and had sent him several of his albums . Shinkai listened to these albums while writing the screenplay and then elected to base the film 's music off of the songs from one of the albums . In an interview , Shinkai said that the music was primarily responsible for making the movie seem " unlike other anime " .
The theme song , " Rain " , was written and composed by Senri Oe , and was originally a popular Japanese song in 1988 . Shinkai enjoyed listening to Oe 's song regularly while attending university , and since one of the film 's themes was rain , it was the first song that came to mind while he worked on the production . He particularly liked the song because its lyrics reflected daily life , much like the film . The song was remade for the film in 2013 , and sung by Motohiro Hata . Shinkai met Hata on several occasions and noted a similarity between Hata 's passion as an artisan and that of the character Takao . Shinkai also felt that Hata 's voice was perfect because to him it carried an " underlying loneliness " and " sounded a little like an anxious young man " .
= = Themes = =
Two common themes among Shinkai 's films , including The Garden of Words , are subtle romances and lingering emotions . However , this film 's focus on " lonely sadness " ( koi ) was interpreted in a couple of ways . According to Cynthia Webb of The Jakarta Post , the loneliness is seen at the end of the film , when Takao learns to cope with Yukino 's move to Shikoku . Luke Carroll at Anime News Network felt the end of the rainy season and the resulting separation created the sense of koi .
Kaze of Beneath The Tangles , however , disagreed with these interpretations of koi and the notion that the story was a " bittersweet romance " or " another love story " , and instead felt that the theme was unrecognized . Focusing instead on the human need for companionship and understanding , Kaze noted that both Takao and Yukino lacked meaningful connections with their peers and friends , a view shared by reviewer Bradly Storm at Hardcore Gamer . Together through their conversations — in their " garden of words " — they found companionship : Takao finding someone he can share his passion with , and Yukino finding someone who treats her as a person . However , because of the age difference , this discovery varied between the characters . For Yukino , an older and more experienced individual , her hopeless feelings of lonely sadness disappeared when she learned she could connect with Takao , a revelation that she saw as her salvation . For Takao , a boy with an unsupportive family and friends who seemed more like acquaintances , he did not realize his lack of companionship until he discovered it with Yukino , a new feeling he mistook for romantic love but only realized its true nature after she had moved away . According to Kaze , " romantic love could potentially bloom from such feelings , but that is not what the story is about " . Instead , the love they shared was more basic , making the age difference immaterial . At the end of film , both characters maintained their friendship through letters , but otherwise began growing as people by moving on with their lives and presumably finding new relationships with other people . The hope was that one day they could reunite and renew their companionship " without needing to cling to each other " . However , neither could " learn to walk again " if they continued to isolate themselves from the rest of the world and take shelter with each other in the garden at Shinjuku Gyoen .
Another one of the themes discussed by the film 's reviewers was rain or water . According to Cynthia Webb , the rain represented " unfulfilled longing " , while Bradly Storm saw water as a third main character to the story , acting to both bring Takao and Yukino together and to symbolize the renewal of life . Kaze felt that the rain symbolized their lonely states , though also acknowledging Shinkai 's statement that the rain symbolized uncontrollable love . Following the reasoning that rain symbolized their lonely states , Kaze noted that the tanka had not only romantic intentions , but was also a " simple plea " by Yukino for someone to stay with her , even when she 's no longer lonely , and not just out of pity .
= = Media = =
= = = Anime = = =
The anime film was announced in Japan on December 24 , 2012 , with the release scheduled for the first half of 2013 and news updates available on its Facebook page . On February 20 , 2013 , the film 's production company , CoMix Wave Films , released a trailer with subtitles in multiple languages on YouTube and announced that it would be released in Japan on May 31 , 2013 .
In early April , it was announced that the world premiere of the film would be held at Gold Coast Film Festival ( GCFF ) in Broadbeach , Queensland , Australia . Scheduled for the end of the festival at 4 : 00 PM on April 28 , 2013 , the film was part of the ' Cool Japan ' Gold Coast lineup and included a guest appearance and discussion with Shinkai . The film 's premiere was hosted in Australia as a way of showing appreciation to Australians for their support . According to the GCFF 's director , the film sold out in advance and was relocated to a larger theater . Despite feeling nervous about the world premiere , Shinkai provided a discussion of the film and asked everyone to not share the plot and story until after the Japanese release the following month . Shinkai was scheduled for an hour @-@ long movie poster signing , but ended up staying two and a half hours to accommodate the high turnout .
Following the world premiere , but ahead of the Japanese premiere on May 31 , the first five minutes of the film were previewed on TV Tokyo and NTV on May 12 . On May 22 , it was announced on Shinkai 's official Twitter account that the film would play in Japan , Hong Kong , and Taiwan at the same time and that the film would be available on iTunes on the day of the release . Additionally , the Japanese premiere would include a screening of Shinkai 's short film , Dareka no Manazashi , which was released earlier that same year . By October , it was reported that many theaters in Japan had extended screening of the film .
The official English language premiere of The Garden of Words was next shown in the United States at the Los Angeles Convention Center on July 6 and 7 as part of Anime Expo 2013 . Sentai Filmworks hosted the film , and Shinkai was the Special Guest of Honor for the expo . The Canadian premiere was held at Montreal 's 2013 Fantasia International Film Festival , where the film was screened on July 22 and 25 . The film then returned to Australia when it screened alongside Ghost in the Shell : Arise at Madman Entertainment 's Reel Anime 2013 .
The Garden of Words was shown in Moscow on September 27 , 2013 , after which Shinkai made an appearance to answer questions . He also attended the UK premiere , which took place during Scotland Loves Anime 2013 in mid @-@ October , where it was played in conjunction with Shinkai 's earlier work , The Place Promised in Our Early Days . By late February 2014 , the film had been shown in 11 countries . In 2014 , it was showcased at Amsterdam 's Imagine Film Festival in mid @-@ April , at the Stuttgart Festival of Animated Film in late @-@ April , with Dareka no Manazashi on May 21 in Italian theaters as part of the Nexo Anime project , and at the Japan Film Festival of San Francisco ( JFFSF ) in late @-@ July .
= = = = DVD , Blu @-@ ray , and digital = = = =
The film was released in digital format on iTunes on the same day as the theatrical release , which was very unusual for a film . Furthermore , the DVD and Blu @-@ ray were made available while the film was still playing in theaters . With the Japanese premiere on May 31 , the DVD and Blu @-@ ray editions were released in Japan less than a month later , on June 21 . The DVD came with a 16 @-@ page booklet and approximately 30 minutes bonus features , including a short version of some interviews with Shinkai and the cast . The Blu @-@ ray had similar features , except it contained 90 minutes of bonus features , including a long version of the interviews .
On April 24 , 2013 , the video distribution company Section23 and the licensing company Sentai Filmworks announced their acquisition of the license and plans to release a digital version and the North American bilingual DVD and Blu @-@ ray later in the year . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray were both were released on August 6 , 2013 . The Blu @-@ ray used 1080p AVC ( Advanced Video Coding ) with an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 78 : 1 Widescreen and audio encoded with the lossless DTS @-@ HD Master Audio codec . Its packaging did not include inserts or a reversible cover .
The DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases for the UK were licensed by Anime Limited , which was announced on October 18 , 2013 . During the 2013 Lucca Comics & Games convention , the Italian publisher Dynit announced that it had acquired the rights to distribute the film . Australian distributor Madman Entertainment released the DVD on February 19 , 2014 . The French publishing company Kazé released a German and Japanese dubbed DVD on March 28 , 2014 , which also included the short film Dareka no Manazashi .
= = = Manga and novel = = =
A manga adaptation of the story with art by Midori Motohashi was serialized in the June to December 2013 issues of the monthly seinen manga magazine Afternoon . It was bundled into a single volume released by Kodansha on November 22 , 2013 . In February 2014 , North American publisher Vertical announced at the Katsucon anime convention that it had licensed Motohashi 's manga ; the English translation was released on October 28 , 2014 .
With editing by Media Factory , Shinkai himself created a novelization of the story , which drew many responses on Twitter following serialization . It was released in monthly installments in the September 2013 to April 2014 issues of Da Vinci magazine . The full novel , which contained new scenes not present in the film or serialized novel chapters , was published by Kadokawa Shoten on April 11 , 2014 @,@
= = Reception = =
Like many of Shinkai 's other films , The Garden of Words was considered most appropriate for teenage and adult audiences due to its more intense and personal mood . The film performed strongly at the box office , with many theaters offering extended screenings . Because of its theatrical success , the film has been considered Shinkai 's biggest hit . Shinkai considered it one of his best films , and reviews of the story in each media form were equally favorable . The digital version ranked 7th on the iTunes store for Western and Japanese films by the end of 2013 . In the year following its initial release , it continued to be a popular at local and international film events . The news and review site , ICv2 , listed the DVD under " The Best of 2013 : Anime " .
= = = Reviews = = =
At Anime News Network , Luke Carroll praised the film , calling it a " visual treat " , but was disappointed in the short length and found Shinkai 's new coloring method to be distracting . Jon Hayward was impressed by the " almost photo realistic " quality of the scenery , particularly in Shinjuku Gyoen . The Managing Editor , Bamboo Dong , described it as " beautifully designed and tenderly animated , it is nature eye candy at its finest . " She was impressed by the film 's unrushed yet thorough story despite its short length and praised both the music and art . In particular , she noted the beauty of the light reflections , rain scenes , and camera angles .
At UK Anime Network , Andy Hanley gave it a score of 10 / 10 , calling it " visually beautiful with a touching story to match " . He praised the natural progression of their relationship , despite the age gap , and enjoyed the emotional climax of the film . Hanley felt that The Garden of Words had a " tighter focus " than Children Who Chase Lost Voices and a better ending than 5 Centimeters Per Second , concluding it was Shinkai 's best work yet . Dan Rhodes called the film " a real return to form for Makoto Shinkai " following Children Who Chase Lost Voices , which he felt had been an attempt by Shinkai to live up to the common expectation of being the " next Hayao Miyazaki . " He praised the film for its beauty , romance , pacing , and subtlety . Although he felt that the film 's ending was an improvement over the ending to 5 Centimeters Per Second , he described it as rushed and overly emotional . However , he was very critical of the English dub , which he felt adversely affected both content and mood .
Bradly Storm at Hardcore Gamer gave it a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , describing it as " painfully intimate and touchingly sentimental " and " the single most beautiful animated film ever created " . Despite the film 's length , Storm was impressed that Shinkai was able to connect his audience with his characters faster and more effectively than full @-@ length films . He worried that some viewers might miss the subtle message of the film and view it as a " by @-@ the @-@ books love story that can feel cliche or even trite " . Curtis Stone of Geekenstein gave it a 5 out of 5 and rated it # 1 in his top five list of anime for 2013 . He praised not only the art and music , but especially the voice acting , which he felt was perfect for the final scene . Lindsay Nelson at Midnight Eye compared the film to Whisper of the Heart by Studio Ghibli for its poetic use of " seemingly bland and uninteresting locations " . She was impressed with both the sound and art , and particularly the sweeping view of the Docomo tower with the sunset in the background . However , she criticized it for its " tearfully over @-@ the @-@ top climax " , " treacly " pop theme song , and lack of reflective silence .
Andrew Hamlin at Northwest Asian Weekly gave it a 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , applauding its poetic use of nature while criticizing the film 's brevity . Trung Rwo at Twitch Film also praised the artwork and felt the film displayed " honest and fresh emotions " . He described it as " clean and cute , a little bit cheesy " due to the highly emotional ending . Sam at Otaku 's Study gave the film an A- , describing it as an " immersive love story " and complimenting the Japanese voice acting and music . Allen Moody of T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews praised the artwork and claimed it overshadowed the film 's flaws , which he felt were its short length and underdeveloped story . Chris Beveridge at The Fandom Post praised the artwork , but felt that the story was weak , noting the simplicity of the plot , the abrupt ending , and the awkwardness of the age difference between the two main characters . Amy Wong , the editor at Yam , called it " a story of solitude and heartache that comes before love . " She praised the animation as its best feature , but also enjoyed its pace , though she saw the climax as overblown . Akumetsu at Anime e Manga thought the film could have been a masterpiece , but felt the plot was too straightforward , the film was too short , and the conclusion came too dramatically .
Chris Beveridge at The Fandom Post reviewed the Blu @-@ ray release , noting that the dialogue was " clean and clear " throughout the entire playback and described the high definition video as something worth showing off . He also felt the disc included a fair amount of extras given the quick release . Matt Hinrichs at DVD Talk felt the video made a clean transfer from digital to Blu @-@ ray , the atmospheric sound effects were " carefully crafted " , and that the dialog in the center channel was clear . Dan Rhodes at UK Anime Network gave the DVD by Anime Limited a 9 out of 10 , calling it a " barebones release " , though praising its reversible insert .
= = = Awards and other recognition = = =
Not only did the iTunes Store staff recommend The Garden of Words , it was selected as the Year 's Best Animation in iTunes ' Best of 2013 . In addition to the high acclaim on iTunes , The Garden of Words won the 2013 Kobe Theatrical Film Award . At the 2013 Fantasia International Film Festival , it shared the Satoshi Kon Award for Achievement in Animation with Berserk : Golden Age Arc III – Descent while winning the Audience Award for Best Animation Feature . At the 2014 Stuttgart Festival of Animated Film , it won the AniMovie Award for feature films .
Storyboards , original art , and other material from The Garden of Words were exhibited between June 28 and October 19 , 2014 at the Ooka Makoto Kotoba Museum in Mishima , Shizuoka Prefecture . The museum , run by Z @-@ Kai Co . , also featured Shinkai 's commercial Cross Road ( made for Z @-@ Kai Co . ) , along with She and Her Cat and 5 Centimeters Per Second . In addition to the display materials and film viewings for each of the works , a replica of the shoes designed by Takao was also on display .
= = = Media cited = = =
Anonymous . " Man 'yōshū " . Japanese Text Initiative ( in Japanese ) . University of Virginia Library . Archived from the original on November 18 , 2014 . Retrieved November 11 , 2014 .
The Garden of Words ( Blu @-@ ray ) ( in Japanese and English ) . Sentai Filmworks . 2013 . ASIN B00CJ7Y19I .
Ryang , S. ( 2006 ) . Love in Modern Japan : Its Estrangement from Self , Sex and Society . Routledge . Retrieved May 5 , 2015 .
Shinkai , M. ( 2013 ) . The Garden of Words . Illustrated by M. Motohashi . Vertical . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 939130 @-@ 83 @-@ 9 . Retrieved May 5 , 2015 .
Shinkai , M. ( 2014 ) . 言の葉の庭 [ The Garden of Words ] ( in Japanese ) . Kadokawa . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 04 @-@ 066399 @-@ 9 . Retrieved May 5 , 2015 .
Shinkai , M. ; Hanazawa , Kana ; Irino , Miyu ( 2013 ) . " Director and Cast Interview ( long ver . ) " . The Garden of Words ( Blu @-@ ray ) ( in Japanese and English ) . Sentai Filmworks . ASIN B00CJ7Y19I .
" The Works of Makoto Shinkai " . The Garden of Words ( Blu @-@ ray ) ( in Japanese and English ) . Sentai Filmworks . 2013 . ASIN B00CJ7Y19I .
= Polio vaccine =
Polio vaccines are vaccines used to prevent poliomyelitis ( polio ) . One type uses inactivated poliovirus and is given by injection ( IPV ) , while the other type uses weakened poliovirus and is given by mouth ( OPV ) . The World Health Organization recommends all children be vaccinated against polio . The two vaccines have eliminated polio from most of the world , and reduced the number of cases each year from an estimated 350 @,@ 000 in 1988 to 359 in 2014 .
The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe . Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection . Oral polio vaccines result in vaccine @-@ associated paralytic poliomyelitis in about three per million doses . Both are generally safe to give during pregnancy and in those who have HIV / AIDS but are otherwise well .
The first polio vaccine was the inactivated polio vaccine . It was developed by Jonas Salk and came into use in 1955 . The oral polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin and came into commercial use in 1961 . They are on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines , the most important medication needed in a basic health system . The wholesale cost in the developing world is about 0 @.@ 25 USD per dose for the oral form as of 2014 . In the United States it costs between 25 and 50 USD for the inactivated form .
= = Medical uses = =
Interruption of person @-@ to @-@ person transmission of the virus by vaccination is important in the global polio eradication , since there is no long term carrier state for poliovirus in individuals with normal immune function , polio viruses have no non @-@ primate reservoir in nature , and survival of the virus in the environment for an extended period of time appears to be remote .
= = = Inactivated = = =
When the current formulation of IPV is used , 90 % or more of individuals develop protective antibody to all three serotypes of polio virus after two doses of inactivated polio vaccine ( IPV ) , and at least 99 % are immune to polio virus following three doses . The duration of immunity induced by IPV is not known with certainty , although a complete series is thought to provide protection for many years .
= = = Attenuated = = =
OPV also proved to be superior in administration , eliminating the need for sterile syringes and making the vaccine more suitable for mass vaccination campaigns . OPV also provided longer lasting immunity than the Salk vaccine .
One dose of OPV produces immunity to all three poliovirus serotypes in approximately 50 % of recipients . Three doses of live @-@ attenuated OPV produce protective antibodies to all three poliovirus types in more than 95 % of recipients . OPV produces excellent immunity in the intestine , the primary site of wild poliovirus entry , which helps prevent infection with wild virus in areas where the virus is endemic . The live virus used in the vaccine is shed in the stool and can be spread to others within a community . The live virus also has stringent requirements for transport and storage , which are a problem in some hot or remote areas . As with other live @-@ virus vaccines , immunity initiated by OPV is probably lifelong .
The trivalent ( against wild type 1 , 2 and 3 ) OPV has been used and nearly eradicated polio infection worldwide . Spearheaded by The Global Polio Eradication Initiative , 155 countries switched to use the bivalent ( against wild type 1 and 3 ) between 17 April and 1 May 2016 . The bivalent OPV is at least 30 % more effective than the trivalent one .
= = = Schedule = = =
The World Health Organization recommends three or four doses starting at two months of age . It can be begun earlier but then additional doses are needed .
= = Side effects = =
The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe . Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection . Oral polio vaccine results in vaccine @-@ associated paralytic poliomyelitis in about three per million doses . They are generally safe to give during pregnancy and in those who have HIV / AIDS but are otherwise well .
= = = Vaccine @-@ induced polio = = =
A potential , but rare , adverse effect of the oral polio vaccine ( OPV ) is its known ability to recombine to a form that may cause neurological infection and cause paralysis . Clinical disease , including paralysis , caused by vaccine @-@ derived poliovirus ( VDPV ) is indistinguishable from that caused by wild polioviruses . This is believed to be a rare event , but outbreaks of vaccine @-@ associated paralytic poliomyelitis ( VAPP ) , caused by a circulating vaccine @-@ derived poliovirus ( cVDPV ) , have been reported , and tend to occur in areas of low coverage by OPV , presumably because the OPV is itself protective against the related outbreak strain .
= = = Contamination concerns = = =
In 1960 , it was determined that the rhesus monkey kidney cells used to prepare the poliovirus vaccines were infected with the SV40 virus ( Simian Virus @-@ 40 ) . SV40 was also discovered in 1960 and is a naturally occurring virus that infects monkeys . In 1961 , SV40 was found to cause tumors in rodents . More recently , the virus was found in certain forms of cancer in humans , for instance brain and bone tumors , pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma , and some types of non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphoma . However , it has not been determined that SV40 causes these cancers .
SV40 was found to be present in stocks of the injected form of the polio vaccine ( IPV ) in use between 1955 and 1963 . It is not found in the OPV form . Over 98 million Americans received one or more doses of polio vaccine between 1955 and 1963 when a proportion of vaccine was contaminated with SV40 ; it has been estimated that 10 – 30 million Americans may have received a dose of vaccine contaminated with SV40 . Later analysis suggested that vaccines produced by the former Soviet bloc countries until 1980 , and used in the USSR , China , Japan , and several African countries , may have been contaminated ; meaning hundreds of millions more may have been exposed to SV40 .
In 1998 , the National Cancer Institute undertook a large study , using cancer case information from the Institute 's SEER database . The published findings from the study revealed that there was no increased incidence of cancer in persons who may have received vaccine containing SV40 . Another large study in Sweden examined cancer rates of 700 @,@ 000 individuals who had received potentially contaminated polio vaccine as late as 1957 ; the study again revealed no increased cancer incidence between persons who received polio vaccines containing SV40 and those who did not . The question of whether SV40 causes cancer in humans remains controversial however , and the development of improved assays for detection of SV40 in human tissues will be needed to resolve the controversy .
During the race to develop an oral polio vaccine several large scale human trials were undertaken . By 1958 , the National Institutes of Health had determined that OPV produced using the Sabin strains were the safest . Between 1957 and 1960 , however , Hilary Koprowski continued to administer his vaccine around the world . In Africa , the vaccines were administered to roughly one million people in the Belgian territories , now the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Rwanda and Burundi . The results of these human trials have been controversial , and unfounded accusations in the 1990s arose that the vaccine had created the conditions necessary for transmission of SIV from chimpanzees to humans , causing HIV / AIDS . These hypotheses have , however , been conclusively refuted . By 2004 , cases of poliomyelitis in Africa had been reduced to just a small number of isolated regions in the western portion of the continent , with sporadic cases elsewhere . However , recent local opposition to vaccination campaigns has evolved , often relating to fears that the vaccine might induce sterility . The disease has since resurged in Nigeria and in several other African nations , which epidemiologists believe is due to refusals by certain local populations to allow their children to receive the polio vaccine .
= = Manufacture = =
= = = Inactivated = = =
The Salk vaccine , or inactivated poliovirus vaccine ( IPV ) , is based on three wild , virulent reference strains , Mahoney ( type 1 poliovirus ) , MEF @-@ 1 ( type 2 poliovirus ) , and Saukett ( type 3 poliovirus ) , grown in a type of monkey kidney tissue culture ( Vero cell line ) , which are then inactivated with formalin . The injected Salk vaccine confers IgG @-@ mediated immunity in the bloodstream , which prevents polio infection from progressing to viremia and protects the motor neurons , thus eliminating the risk of bulbar polio and post @-@ polio syndrome .
In the United States , vaccine is administered along with the diphtheria , tetanus , and acellular pertussis vaccines ( DTaP ) and a pediatric dose of hepatitis B vaccine . In the UK , IPV is combined with tetanus , diphtheria , pertussis , and Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccines .
= = = Attenuated = = =
Oral polio vaccine ( OPV ) is an attenuated vaccine , produced by the passage of the virus through non @-@ human cells at a sub @-@ physiological temperature , which produces spontaneous mutations in the viral genome . Oral polio vaccines were developed by several groups , one of which was led by Albert Sabin . Other groups , led by Hilary Koprowski and H.R. Cox , developed their own attenuated vaccine strains . In 1958 , the National Institutes of Health created a special committee on live polio vaccines . The various vaccines were carefully evaluated for their ability to induce immunity to polio , while retaining a low incidence of neuropathogenicity in monkeys . Large @-@ scale clinical trials performed in the Soviet Union in late 1950s to early 1960s by Mikhail Chumakov and his colleagues demonstrated safety and high efficacy of the vaccine . Based on these results , the Sabin strains were chosen for worldwide distribution . There are 57 nucleotide substitutions which distinguish the attenuated Sabin 1 strain from its virulent parent ( the Mahoney serotype ) , two nucleotide substitutions attenuate the Sabin 2 strain , and 10 substitutions are involved in attenuating the Sabin 3 strain . The primary attenuating factor common to all three Sabin vaccines is a mutation located in the virus 's internal ribosome entry site ( IRES ) which alters stem @-@ loop structures , and reduces the ability of poliovirus to translate its RNA template within the host cell . The attenuated poliovirus in the Sabin vaccine replicates very efficiently in the gut , the primary site of infection and replication , but is unable to replicate efficiently within nervous system tissue . In 1961 , type 1 and 2 monovalent oral poliovirus vaccine ( MOPV ) was licensed , and in 1962 , type 3 MOPV was licensed . In 1963 , trivalent OPV ( TOPV ) was licensed , and became the vaccine of choice in the United States and most other countries of the world , largely replacing the inactivated polio vaccine . A second wave of mass immunizations led to a further dramatic decline in the number of polio cases . Between 1962 and 1965 about 100 million Americans ( roughly 56 % of the population at that time ) received the Sabin vaccine . The result was a substantial reduction in the number of poliomyelitis cases , even from the much reduced levels following the introduction of the Salk vaccine .
OPV is usually provided in vials containing 10 – 20 doses of vaccine . A single dose of oral polio vaccine ( usually two drops ) contains 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 infectious units of Sabin 1 ( effective against PV1 ) , 100 @,@ 000 infectious units of the Sabin 2 strain , and 600 @,@ 000 infectious units of Sabin 3 . The vaccine contains small traces of antibiotics — neomycin and streptomycin — but does not contain preservatives .
= = History = =
In generic sense , vaccination works by priming the immune system with an ' immunogen ' . Stimulating immune response , via use of an infectious agent , is known as immunization . The development of immunity to polio efficiently blocks person @-@ to @-@ person transmission of wild poliovirus , thereby protecting both individual vaccine recipients and the wider community .
The development of two polio vaccines led to the first modern mass inoculations . The last cases of paralytic poliomyelitis caused by endemic transmission of wild virus in the United States occurred in 1979 , with an outbreak among the Amish in several Midwest states .
= = = 1936 = = =
In 1936 , Maurice Brodie , a research assistant at New York University , attempted to produce a formaldehyde @-@ killed polio vaccine from ground @-@ up monkey spinal cords . His initial attempts were hampered by the difficulty of obtaining enough virus . Brodie first tested the vaccine on himself and several of his assistants . He then gave the vaccine to three thousand children . Many of these children developed allergic reactions , but none developed immunity to polio . Philadelphia pathologist John Kolmer also claimed to have developed a vaccine that same year , but it too produced no immunity and was blamed for causing cases of paralytic polio , nine of them fatal .
= = = 1948 = = =
A breakthrough came in 1948 when a research group headed by John Enders at the Children 's Hospital Boston successfully cultivated the poliovirus in human tissue in the laboratory . This group had recently successfully grown mumps in cell culture . In March 1948 Thomas H. Weller was attempting to grow varicella virus in embryonic lung tissue . He had inoculated the planned number of tubes when he noticed that there were a few unused tubes . He retrieved a sample of mouse brain infected with polio virus and added it to the remaining test tubes , on the off chance that the virus might grow . The varicella cultures failed to grow but the polio cultures were successful . This development greatly facilitated vaccine research and ultimately allowed for the development of vaccines against polio . Enders and his colleagues , Thomas H. Weller and Frederick C. Robbins , were recognized in 1954 for their labors with a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Other important advances that led to the development of polio vaccines were : the identification of three poliovirus serotypes ( Poliovirus type 1 — PV1 , or Mahoney ; PV2 , Lansing ; and PV3 , Leon ) ; the finding that prior to paralysis , the virus must be present in the blood ; and the demonstration that administration of antibodies in the form of gamma globulin protects against paralytic polio .
= = = 1952 – 1953 = = =
The U.S. experienced an outbreak of 58 @,@ 000 and 35 @,@ 000 polio cases , respectively , up from a typical number of some 20 @,@ 000 a year . Amid this U.S. polio epidemic , millions of dollars were invested in finding and marketing a polio vaccine by commercial interests , including Lederle Laboratories in New York under the direction of H. R. Cox . Also working at Lederle was Polish @-@ born virologist and immunologist Hilary Koprowski , who claims to have created the first successful polio vaccine , in 1950 . His vaccine , however , being a live attenuated virus taken orally , was still in the research stage and would not be ready for use until five years after Jonas Salk 's polio vaccine ( a dead @-@ virus injectable vaccine ) had reached the market . Koprowski 's attenuated vaccine was prepared by successive passages through the brains of Swiss albino mice . By the seventh passage , the vaccine strains could no longer infect nervous tissue or cause paralysis . After one to three further passages on rats , the vaccine was deemed safe for human use . On 27 February 1950 , Koprowski 's live , attenuated vaccine was tested for the first time on an 8 @-@ year @-@ old boy living at Letchworth Village , an institution for the physically and mentally disabled located in New York . After the child suffered no side effects , Koprowski enlarged his experiment to include 19 other children .
= = = Jonas Salk = = =
The first effective polio vaccine was developed in 1952 by Jonas Salk and a team at the University of Pittsburgh that included Julius Youngner , Byron Bennett , L. James Lewis , and Lorraine Friedman , but it required years of subsequent testing . To encourage patience , Salk went on CBS radio to report a successful test on a small group of adults and children on 26 March 1953 ; two days later the results were published in JAMA . Beginning 23 February 1954 , the vaccine was tested at Arsenal Elementary School and the Watson Home for Children in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . Salk 's vaccine was then used in a test called the Francis Field Trial , led by Thomas Francis ; the largest medical experiment in history . The test began with some 4 @,@ 000 children at Franklin Sherman Elementary School in McLean , Virginia , and would eventually involve 1 @.@ 8 million children , in 44 states from Maine to California . By the conclusion of the study , roughly 440 @,@ 000 received one or more injections of the vaccine , about 210 @,@ 000 children received a placebo , consisting of harmless culture media , and 1 @.@ 2 million children received no vaccination and served as a control group , who would then be observed to see if any contracted polio . The results of the field trial were announced 12 April 1955 ( the tenth anniversary of the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt , whose paralysis was generally believed to have been caused by polio ) . The Salk vaccine had been 60 – 70 % effective against PV1 ( poliovirus type 1 ) , over 90 % effective against PV2 and PV3 , and 94 % effective against the development of bulbar polio . Soon after Salk 's vaccine was licensed in 1955 , children 's vaccination campaigns were launched . In the U.S , following a mass immunization campaign promoted by the March of Dimes , the annual number of polio cases fell from 35 @,@ 000 in 1953 to 5 @,@ 600 by 1957 . By 1961 only 161 cases were recorded in the United States .
= = = 1987 = = =
An enhanced @-@ potency IPV ( inactivated polio vaccine ) was licensed in the United States in November 1987 , and is currently the vaccine of choice in the United States . The first dose of polio vaccine is given shortly after birth , usually between 1 and 2 months of age , a second dose is given at 4 months of age . The timing of the third dose depends on the vaccine formulation but should be given between 6 and 18 months of age . A booster vaccination is given at 4 to 6 years of age , for a total of four doses at or before school entry . In some countries , a fifth vaccination is given during adolescence . Routine vaccination of adults ( 18 years of age and older ) in developed countries is neither necessary nor recommended because most adults are already immune and have a very small risk of exposure to wild poliovirus in their home countries . In 2002 , a pentavalent ( five @-@ component ) combination vaccine ( called Pediarix ) containing IPV was approved for use in the United States .
= = = 1988 = = =
A global effort to eradicate polio , led by the World Health Organization , UNICEF , and The Rotary Foundation , began in 1988 and has relied largely on the oral polio vaccine developed by Albert Sabin and Mikhail Chumakov ( Sabin @-@ Chumakov vaccine ) .
= = = Post @-@ 1990 = = =
Polio was eliminated in the Americas by 1994 . The disease was officially eliminated in 36 Western Pacific countries , including China and Australia in 2000 . Europe was declared polio @-@ free in 2002 . Since January 2011 , there were no reported cases of the disease in India , and hence in February 2012 , the country was taken off the WHO list of polio endemic countries . If there are no cases of polio in the country for two more years , it will be declared as a polio @-@ free country . As of 2016 , polio remains actively spreading in only two countries : Pakistan , and Afghanistan . Although poliovirus transmission has been interrupted in much of the world , transmission of wild poliovirus does continue and creates an ongoing risk for the importation of wild poliovirus into previously polio @-@ free regions . If importations of poliovirus occur , outbreaks of poliomyelitis may develop , especially in areas with low vaccination coverage and poor sanitation . As a result , high levels of vaccination coverage must be maintained . In November 2013 , the World Health Organization announced a polio outbreak in Syria . In response , the Armenian government put out a notice asking Syrian Armenians under age 15 to get the polio vaccine . As of 2014 , polio virus has spread out to ten countries mainly in Africa , Asia and the Middle East with Pakistan , Syria and Cameroon advising vaccinations to outbound travelers . In 2015 , the World Health Organization announced a deal with the Taliban to encourage them to distribute the vaccine in areas they control .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Cost = = =
The wholesale cost is about 0 @.@ 25 USD per dose for the oral form as of 2014 . The inactivated vaccine is available to GAVI @-@ supported countries for as little as EUR 0 @.@ 75 per dose ( approximately USD 1 @.@ 00 per dose at current exchange rates ) in ten @-@ dose vials .
In the United States it costs between 25 and 50 USD for the inactivated form .
= = = Misconceptions = = =
A widespread misconception has arisen in Pakistan that polio vaccine contained Haram ingredients and could cause impotence and infertility in male children , leading some less @-@ educated parents not to have their children vaccinated . This belief is most prevalent in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and the FATA region , where people are likely to be influenced by conservative teachings . There also have been attacks on polio vaccination teams . This is hampering international efforts to eradicate polio in Pakistan and globally since the virus can be carried by travelers .
= Raid on Unadilla and Onaquaga =
The Raid on Unadilla and Onaquaga was a series of military operations by Continental Army forces and New York militia against the Iroquois towns of Unadilla and Onaquaga in what is now upstate New York . In early October 1778 , more than 250 men under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William Butler of the 4th Pennsylvania Regiment descended on the two towns ( which had been abandoned because of their advance ) and destroyed them , razing most of the buildings and taking or destroying provisions . The raid was executed in retaliation for a series of raids on frontier communities led by Mohawk chief Joseph Brant and British @-@ supported Loyalists during the spring and summer of 1778 . Unadilla was located in what is now the Village of Unadilla , Town of Unadilla , Otsego County , and Onaquaga was located in what is now the Town of Windsor , Broome County .
= = Background = =
With the failure of British General John Burgoyne 's campaign to the Hudson after the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777 , the American Revolutionary War in upstate New York became a frontier war . British leaders in the Province of Quebec supported Loyalist and Native American partisan fighters with supplies and armaments . During the winter of 1777 – 78 Mohawk leader Joseph Brant and other British @-@ allied Indians developed plans to attack frontier settlements in New York and Pennsylvania . In February 1778 Brant established a base of operations at Onaquaga ( present @-@ day Windsor , New York ) . He recruited a mix of Iroquois and Loyalists estimated to number between two and three hundred by the time he began his campaign in May . One of his objectives was to acquire provisions for his forces and those of John Butler , who was planning operations in the Susquehanna River valley . Brant began his campaign in late May with a raid on Cobleskill , and raided other frontier communities throughout the summer .
The frontier settlers ' response to the raids was generally with impotence . The local militia were supported by some Continental Army regiments stationed in the area , but these forces generally could not muster in time to catch the raiders before they disappeared . New York Governor George Clinton and militia commander Abraham Ten Broeck considered operations against the principal bases in the Iroquois territory used by the raiders , Onaquaga and Unadilla , early in the campaign , but it was not until an attack by Brant on the settlement of German Flatts ( present @-@ day Herkimer ) on September 17 that an expedition was organized .
In response to calls from Governor Clinton , General George Washington authorized the use of Continental Army forces , assigning the operation to Lieutenant Colonel William Butler ( no relation to the Loyalist Butlers ) of the 4th Pennsylvania Regiment . On September 20 Butler sent scouts to investigate conditions at the two towns . They returned with reports that Unadilla had a population of 300 and Onaquaga 400 .
= = Expedition = =
On October 2 Butler led a force of 267 men ( 214 Continentals and 53 state militia ) from Fort Schoharie up the Schoharie valley toward the two villages . Late in the day on October 6 the force reached the Unadilla area . Butler sent scouting parties out to take prisoners from outlying farms . As the force cautiously advanced toward the town , one of the scouts returned with a prisoner who reported that the community had been abandoned , with most of the inhabitants fleeing to Onaquaga . Butler detached some of his men to destroy the town while he marched with the rest toward Onaquaga . They reached the town late on October 8 , and found it abandoned also , apparently in great haste .
Butler and his men spent the next two days destroying the towns . Butler described Unadilla as " the finest Indian town I ever saw ; on the both sides of the River there was about 40 good houses , Square logs , Shingles & stone Chimneys , good Floors , glass windows & c . " All the homes were burned , as was the town 's saw and grist mill , which was the only one in the area . Butler reported taking 49 horses and 52 head of cattle , and destroyed 4 @,@ 000 bushels of grain . Operations were complicated by heavy rains that raised the water levels of the Susquehanna ; Butler 's men had to build rafts to cross some of the river 's tributaries to reach parts of the town . By October 16 the expedition returned to Schoharie .
= = Aftermath = =
While the raid was taking place , Brant and his force had been raiding frontier settlements in the upper Delaware River valley . The Indians in his force were especially upset at the destruction of the two towns , a sentiment echoed by Seneca warriors who joined with Brant in the ruins of Unadilla a few days later . This anger contributed to the severity of the actions when a joint British @-@ Seneca @-@ Mohawk force attacked Cherry Valley , and were reported to massacre 30 noncombatants .
The severity of the frontier war in 1778 led to calls by the Continental Congress for a response . In 1779 General Washington organized a major Continental Army expedition into the Iroquois lands . Led by Generals John Sullivan and James Clinton , the Sullivan Expedition destroyed villages and crops , driving most of the British @-@ supporting Iroquois out of their lands . Despite its apparent success , the frontier war continued with renewed vigor in the following years .
= Salford , Greater Manchester =
Salford ( / ˈsɒlfərd / ) is a town lying at the heart of the City of Salford , a metropolitan borough of Greater Manchester , in North West England . Salford is sited in a meander of the River Irwell , which forms in part its boundary with the city of Manchester to the east . The Salford wards of Broughton and Kersal are on the other side of the river . Together with its neighbouring towns to the west , Salford forms the local government district of the City of Salford , which is administered from Swinton . The former County Borough of Salford , which included Broughton , Pendleton and Kersal , was granted honorific city status in 1926 ; it has a resident population of 103 @,@ 886 and occupies an area of 8 @.@ 1 square miles ( 21 km2 ) . The wider City of Salford district has a population of 219 @,@ 200 .
Historically in Lancashire , Salford 's early history is marked by its status as a Royal caput and the judicial seat of the ancient hundred of Salfordshire , to which it lent its name . It was granted a charter by Ranulf de Blondeville , 6th Earl of Chester , in about 1230 , making Salford a free borough . During the early stages of its growth , Salford was of greater cultural and commercial importance than its neighbour Manchester , although most contemporary sources agree that since the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries that position has been reversed .
Salford became a major factory town and inland port during the 18th and 19th centuries . Cotton and silk spinning and weaving in local mills attracted an influx of families and provided Salford with a strong economy . Salford Docks was a principal dockyard of the Manchester Ship Canal . By the end of the 19th century Salford had an enlarged working class community and suffered from chronic overpopulation . Industrial activities declined during the 20th century however , causing a local economic depression . Salford subsequently became one of contrasts , with regenerated inner @-@ city areas like Salford Quays next to some of the most socially deprived and violent areas in England .
Salford has become a centre of higher education , home to the University of Salford , and has seen several firsts , including the world 's first unconditionally free public library , and the first street in the world to be lit by gas , Chapel Street in 1806 . Salford 's MediaCityUK became the headquarters of CBBC and BBC Sport in 2011 .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The name of Salford derives from the Old English word Sealhford , meaning a ford by the willow trees . It referred to the willows ( Latin : salix ) or sallows that grew alongside the banks of the River Irwell . The ford was about where Victoria Bridge is today . Willow trees are still found in Lower Broughton . Salford appears in the pipe roll of 1169 as " Sauford " and in the Lancashire Inquisitions of 1226 as " Sainford " .
= = = Early history = = =
The earliest known evidence of human activity in what is now Salford is provided by the Neolithic flint arrow @-@ heads and workings discovered on Kersal Moor and the River Irwell , suggesting that the area was inhabited 7 – 10 @,@ 000 years ago . The raw material for such tools was scarce and unsuitable for working , and as a result they are not of the quality found elsewhere . Other finds include a neolithic axe @-@ hammer found near Mode Wheel , during the excavation of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1890 , and a Bronze Age cremation urn during the construction of a road on the Broughton Hall estate in 1873 .
The Brigantes were the major Celtic tribe in what is now Northern England . With a stronghold at the sandstone outcrop on which Manchester Cathedral now stands , opposite Salford 's original centre , their territory extended across the fertile lowland by the River Irwell that is now Salford and Stretford . Following the Roman conquest of Britain , General Agricola ordered the construction of a Roman fort named Mamucium ( Manchester ) to protect the routes to Deva Victrix ( Chester ) and Eboracum ( York ) from the Brigantes . The fort was completed in AD 79 , and for over 300 years the Pax Romana brought peace to the area . Both the main Roman road to the north , from Mamucium to Ribchester , and a second road to the west , ran through what is now Salford , but few Roman artefacts have been found in the area . The withdrawal of the Romans in AD 410 left the inhabitants at the mercy of the Saxons . The Danes later conquered the area and absorbed what was left of the Brigantes . Angles settled in the region during the Early Middle Ages and gave the locality the name Sealhford , meaning " ford by the willows " . According to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Sealhford was part of the Kingdom of Northumbria until it was conquered in 923 by Edward the Elder .
Following the emergence of the united Kingdom of England , Salford became a caput or central manor within a broad rural area in part held by the Kings of England , including Edward the Confessor . The area between the rivers Mersey and Ribble was divided into six smaller districts , referred to as " wapentakes " , or hundreds . The south east district became known as the Hundred of Salford , a division of land administered from Salford for military and judicial purposes . It contained nine large parishes , smaller parts of two others , and the township of Aspull in the parish of Wigan .
After the defeat of the Harold II during the Norman conquest of England , William I granted the Hundred of Salford to Roger the Poitevin , and in the Domesday Book of 1086 the Hundred of Salford was recorded as covering an area of 350 square miles ( 906 km2 ) with a population of 35 @,@ 000 . Poitevin created the subordinate Manor of Manchester out of the hundred , which has since in local government been separate from Salford . Poitevin forfeited the manor in 1102 when he was defeated in a failed rebellion attempt against Henry I. In around 1115 , for their support during the rebellion , Henry I placed the Hundred of Salford under the control of the Earldom of Lancaster , and it is from this exchange that the Hundred of Salford became a royal manor . The Lord of the Manor was either the English monarch , or a feudal land owner who administered the manor for the king . During the reign of Henry II the Royal Manor of Salford passed to Ranulf de Gernon , 4th Earl of Chester .
Salford began to emerge as a small town early in the 13th century . In 1228 , Henry III granted the caput of Salford the right to hold a market and an annual fair . The fairs were important to the town ; a 17th @-@ century order forced each burgess – a freeman of the borough – to attend , but the fairs were abolished during the 19th century . The Earls of Chester aided the development of the caput , and in 1230 Ranulf de Blondeville , 6th Earl of Chester made Salford a burgage , or free borough . The charter gave its burgesses certain commercial rights , privileges and advantages over traders living outside Salford ; one of the 26 clauses of the charter stated that no one could work in the Hundred of Salford unless they also lived in the borough . Salford 's status as a burgage encouraged an influx of distinguished families , and by the Late Middle Ages Salford was " rich in its manor houses " , with over 30 within a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 km ) radius of Ordsall . These included Ordsall Hall ( owned by the Radclyffe family ) and Broughton Hall , owned by the Earls of Derby .
During the Civil War of 1640 – 49 , Salford supported the Royalist cause , in contrast to Manchester just across the Irwell which declared in favour of the Parliamentarians . Royalist forces mounted a siege of Manchester across what is now the site of Victoria Bridge , which although short @-@ lived , " did little to improve relations between the two towns " . A century later , in 1745 , Salford was staunchly in support of Bonnie Prince Charlie , in his attempt to seize the Throne of England . He entered the town at the head of his army and was blessed by the Reverend John Clayton before leaving " in high spirits " to march on London ; he returned to Salford in defeat just nine days later .
= = = Industrial Revolution = = =
Salford has a history of textile processing that pre @-@ dates the Industrial Revolution , and as an old town had been developing for about 700 years . Before the introduction of cotton there was a considerable trade in woollen goods and fustians . Other cottage industries prevalent at this time included clogging , cobbling , weaving and brewing . The changes to textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution had a profound effect on both on population and urbanisation , as well as the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of Salford .
The well @-@ established textile processing and trading infrastructure , and the ready supply of water from the River Irwell and its tributaries , attracted entrepreneurs who built cotton mills along the banks of the river in Pendleton and Ordsall . Although Salford followed a similar pattern of industrial development to Manchester , most businesses preferred to build their premises on the Manchester side of the Irwell , and consequently Salford did not develop as a commercial centre in the same way as its neighbour . Many of these earlier mills had been based on Arkwright @-@ type designs . These relied on strong falls of water , but Salford is on a meander of the Irwell with only a slight gradient and thus mills tended to be built upstream , at Kersal and Pendleton . With the introduction of the steam engine in the late 18th century however , merchants began to construct mills closer to the centres of Salford and Manchester , where supplies of labour and coal were more readily available ( the first steam @-@ powered mill was built in Manchester in 1780 ) . | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
33 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rack and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 38 shortly after the war began .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Fame had her rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun while under repair in mid @-@ 1940 . After running aground in October , she was converted into an escort destroyer . ' A ' gun was replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar and stowage for a total of 70 depth charges meant that ' Y ' gun had to be removed to compensate for the weight . A Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was fitted and a Type 271 target indication radar was installed above the bridge , replacing the director @-@ control tower and rangefinder . The ship also received a HF / DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast . Her short @-@ range AA armament was augmented by two 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon guns on the wings of the ship 's bridge and another pair were added on the quarterdeck . By June 1943 , the .50 @-@ calibre machine guns had been replaced by a pair of Oerlikons , ' A ' gun was reinstalled , and the Hedgehog mounted there was converted to a split installation . Later , her single mounts on the bridge wings were probably replaced by twin mounts .
= = Construction and career = =
Fame was ordered on 17 March 1933 from Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company , although her hull was sub @-@ contracted to Vickers Armstrongs . She was laid down at their Walker , Newcastle upon Tyne shipyard on 5 July , launched on 28 June 1934 , the same day as her sister ship , HMS Firedrake , and completed on 26 April 1935 . The ship cost 244 @,@ 216 pounds , excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament . Fame was initially assigned to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla ( DF ) of the Home Fleet , although she had to have her ammunition hoists modified at Devonport Royal Dockyard from 23 July to 28 August . The ship was then sent to reinforce the Mediterranean Fleet during the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War . Fame was refitted at Devonport from 20 July to 10 November 1936 before she began to enforce the arms embargo imposed on both sides in the Spanish Civil War by the Non @-@ Intervention Committee until January 1937 . She visited Aarhus , Denmark in July before returning to Spanish waters in August – September . The ship then returned home and spent the next two years with the 6th DF . The 6th DF was renumbered the 8th Destroyer Flotilla in April 1939 , five months before the start of World War II . Fame remained assigned to it until July 1940 , escorting the larger ships of the fleet .
In the Norwegian Campaign , she supported the Allied landings on 12 – 13 May at Bjerkvik during the Battle of Narvik . She continued to provide fire support during the battle for the rest of the month . During the nights of 30 and 31 May , the ship helped to evacuate troops from Bodø to Harstad and Borkenes to await further evacuation . Fame was one of the ships that escorted the troop ships evacuating the troops from the Narvik area on 7 and 8 June .
While searching for the damaged submarine Shark on 6 July , she was badly damaged by bomb splinters and was under repair until 10 October . A week later , she ran aground , together with the destroyer Ashanti , on the Northumberland coast while escorting the battleship King George V. The ship was severely damaged and could not be refloated until 1 December . Fame received temporary repairs at Sunderland before she was towed to Chatham Royal Dockyard on 2 February 1941 . Heavily overworked , the dockyard took nearly 18 months to repair the ship , although the decision to convert her into an escort destroyer during this time contributed to the time required .
In September 1942 , Fame finished her repairs and she was assigned to Escort Group B6 with her captain , Commander R. Heathcote , as the Group 's senior officer . Her first Atlantic convoy action was with SC 104 , a major convoy battle that saw the loss of 8 ships , with 2 warships damaged , and 2 U @-@ boats destroyed , with 2 more damaged and forced to retire . Fame 's ASDIC located German submarine U @-@ 353 on 16 October and a shallow @-@ set pattern of 10 depth charges forced her to the surface where she was rammed and sunk by Fame . The impact badly damaged the destroyer and she was forced to leave the convoy for repairs after rescuing 39 survivors . Her repairs were completed in December , and , while escorting Convoy ON 155 , was dispatched to the aid of Convoy ON 154 , which was under heavy attack . Heathcote was ordered to take command of the escort after the commander of Escort Group C1 collapsed from exhaustion after a five @-@ day battle , during which ON 154 had lost 14 ships for one U @-@ boat destroyed .
In February 1943 , Escort Group B6 was escorting Convoy ONS 165 , which lost two ships for two U @-@ boats destroyed . Fame sank one of these , U @-@ 69 , on 17 February . Fame was reassigned to patrol duty in the South @-@ Western Approaches in May 1944 as part of the Normandy landings and became the senior ship of the 14th Escort Group . During this time , Fame participated in the sinking of U @-@ 767 , together with the destroyers Inconstant and Havelock on 18 June . The following month , Fame was transferred to the west coast of Scotland , continuing there until the end of the war .
= = = Post war = = =
Fame began a refit at Leith in May 1945 that lasted until August . Unlike most of the prewar destroyers , she remained on active duty and was assigned to the Rosyth Escort Force until October when she was transferred to the Londonderry Training Flotilla . A month later , Fame became the senior officer 's ship for the 3rd Flotilla at Londonderry Port . The ship was reduced to reserve in May 1947 , but was reactivated a year later and refitted in June 1948 . Together with the destroyer Hotspur , she was sold on 4 February 1949 to the Dominican Republic for £ 190 @,@ 000 for both ships , plus an additional £ 40 @,@ 000 to refit each ship . By this time the ship carried a Type 291 air @-@ warning radar and an American SG @-@ 1 surface @-@ search radar . She was armed with three 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns , four 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) Bofors light AA guns , one quadruple 21 @-@ inch torpedo mount , four depth charge throwers and two rails for 70 depth charges . Fame was renamed Generalisimo , but , after the death of Rafael Trujillo , the ship was renamed Sanchez in 1962 . The ship was scrapped in 1968 .
= Indiana Governor 's Residence =
The Indiana Governor 's Residence is the official home of the family of the Governor of Indiana and is located in Indianapolis , Indiana . In use since 1973 , it is the sixth official residence of Indiana 's governors .
= = Current residence = =
The Indiana Governor 's Residence is located in the historic district surrounding North Meridian Street in Indianapolis , Indiana . It sits on an estate of 6 @.@ 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 6 ha ) at 4750 North Meridian Street . Designed by Scott Wadley , with the firm of Rabush and Hunter serving as architects , the English Tudor home was built in 1928 . It was acquired by the state of Indiana in 1973 from attorney C. Severin Buschman for US $ 242 @,@ 000 . The home was then renovated for approximately $ 800 @,@ 000 , including $ 125 @,@ 000 in funds from a Lilly Endowment grant . Renovation included the installation of air conditioning and modern wiring .
Approximately 10 @,@ 500 sq ft ( 980 m2 ) , with twenty @-@ three rooms , eleven of them bathrooms , it is considered a typical size for an English Tudor home and resembles many of the other homes in the neighborhood that were built in the same time period . Although the appearance is similar to the other homes , it is structurally unique because its support and foundation are made of concrete , whereas typical Tudor homes are entirely wooden . The home 's lower floor is open to the public and tours are offered regularly to visitors . The rooms available for viewing include the foyer , a library , the formal living room , formal and informal dining room , a sun porch , a kitchen , a butler 's pantry , and event space . The second floor is reserved for the first family as a living area and is off limits to the public . The home receives approximately 10 @,@ 000 visitors annually .
= = Previous governors ' residences = =
Before Indiana became a state , the Indiana Territory had two governors . William Henry Harrison , the first governor , built a plantation @-@ style home in Vincennes , and named it Grouseland for its many birds . Built in 1804 , it was one of the first brick buildings in the territory . The home is still preserved and is a National Historic Landmark . Thomas Posey , the territory 's second governor , had a home built in Corydon , but lived there only briefly before moving to Jeffersonville where he rented a room in a boarding house . The Posey House is preserved as part of a National Historic District .
There have been six official residences of Indiana 's governors since Indiana became a state , but only five were actually inhabited by the first family . There were four other unofficial residences that governors also lived in while no other accommodations were available . The first residence of a state governor was in Corydon on a small hill overlooking the first statehouse ; Governor Jonathan Jennings and his wife Anne lived in it from 1816 until 1822 . The home was visited by United States Presidents Andrew Jackson and James Monroe . The building is no longer standing but a new home has been built upon its original foundation and uses its cellar as a basement . Governor William Hendricks also lived in Corydon at Governor Hendricks Headquarters , an unofficial residence purchased by Hendricks from Davis Floyd and located on the same block as Jennings ' home . Floyd had built the home for himself , but lost it after the Panic of 1819 . Hendricks lived there during his term as governor , from 1822 – 1825 , and later sold it .
The second official residence for the state 's governor was built in the center of Indianapolis where the Indiana Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Monument now stands . It was designed by Alexander Ralston , who also laid out most of the city . The mansion cost $ 6 @,@ 500 and was completed in 1827 during the term of Governor James B. Ray . Ray 's wife refused to live in the home because of its lack of privacy ; it was never used by a governor . It was inhabited by Indiana Chief Justice Isaac Blackford from around 1830 until the 1850s . It was demolished in the 1870s .
Without an acceptable home for the governor , the state purchased the house of Dr. John H. Sanders to serve as a residence for the Governor in 1837 . The location , on the corner of Market and Illinois Streets in Indianapolis , proved to be damp and unhealthy because of the wetland conditions of the area during that time . Governor James Whitcomb blamed the conditions for his wife 's death . The home was abandoned in 1861 during the term of Oliver Morton , who briefly lived in the house but refused to stay . The house was sold during his term and eventually destroyed .
The governors remained without an official residence until 1919 when the state purchased a home located at 101 East 27th St. , Indianapolis , for $ 65 @,@ 000 and furnished it for an additional $ 20 @,@ 000 . It was built by Henry Kahn in 1908 and had the design of an English country house . The home had a Gothic interior with high , beamed ceilings and luxurious Wilton carpeting . After a brief renovation , the home was inhabited by the governor starting in 1919 and remained so until 1945 . The building was sold by the state to the Marott Hotel , which intended to turn it into a clubhouse , but eventually demolished it in 1962 to clear land for a parking lot .
The fifth home for the governor was purchased in 1945 and located at 4343 N. Meridian St. The home was built in 1924 by Harry Lane , an auditor for the Indianapolis Stockyards . Three stories high with slated roofs and 12 rooms , it was famed for its golden bathroom fixtures and its high gilt @-@ tipped iron fence . It was purchased from his widow for $ 72 @,@ 000 . It served as residence for the governor from 1945 until the present mansion was purchased in 1973 . The home was sold at an auction in 1973 to Robert L. Dawson , who in turn sold it to Dr. John C. Klein in 1978 .
After the building was auctioned , there was a brief period while the current residence was in renovation . During that period , governors Edgar Whitcomb and Otis Bowen took up residence in Riley Towers located at 650 N. Alabama St. The state leased the penthouse for their residence at a cost of $ 1 @,@ 150 per month .
= = Gallery = =
= = Governor 's Residence Commission = =
The governor 's residence is maintained by a trust managed by the Governor 's Residence Commission and is part of the Indiana Public Building Foundation located at 4750 N. Meridian St. , Indianapolis . The commission was authorized in 1975 , charged with overseeing the renovation and maintenance of the home as well as event planning . In 2008 , the commission 's members included Linda Goad , Sara Barclay , David Collins , Jim Baker , Mike Bosway , Judy Warren , and Shannon Rezek . The commission is partly funded by private donations . The members are appointed by the Governor and serve at term lengths of his choosing . The commission meets monthly and officially reports to the Office of First Lady . The commission serves without pay , but is reimbursed for expenses .
= Smokers v Non @-@ Smokers =
Two first @-@ class cricket matches billed as " Smokers v Non @-@ Smokers " were played during the 1880s . Featuring players from Australia and England , each match occurred during a tour of one of those countries by the other 's national team . The first match was won by the Non @-@ Smokers , while in the second , which was drawn , the Non @-@ Smokers scored a then @-@ record 803 runs in the first innings .
The first match was played at the end of the Australian tour of England in 1884 , and was held at Lord 's in aid of the Cricketers ' Fund Friendly Society . Eight of the tourists took part ; four on each side . The Non @-@ Smokers batted first , and then forced their opponents to follow on , aided by a strong batting performance from George Bonnor . The Smokers , batting twice , only finished thirteen runs ahead , a total which was chased down without the need for the scheduled third day of the contest .
In the second match , held in Australia two and a half years later , the contest once again featured a combination of Australian and English players . Aided by a Arthur Shrewsbury double century , the Non @-@ Smokers set a new record for the highest innings in first @-@ class cricket , accumulating 803 runs . As in the original match , the Smokers had to follow on , and when the match finished as a draw they were still almost 500 runs behind .
= = First match , 1884 = =
The Australia national cricket team toured England in 1884 , playing an itinerary of 32 matches , including three designated as Tests . At the end of the tour , an additional fixture was arranged by V. E. Walker , who went on to become president of both the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) and Middlesex County Cricket Club . The match , which was described in The South Australian Advertiser as being " novel and interesting " , combined Australian and English players into two teams ; those who smoked and those who did not . The match was played to raise money for the Cricketers ' Fund Friendly Society , in which it was considered very successful , raising in excess of £ 561 . Walker also wanted the British public to have an opportunity to see members of the Australian touring party play against each other , to which end Alick Bannerman , George Bonnor , Billy Murdoch and Tup Scott represented the Non @-@ Smokers , while George Giffen , Percy McDonnell , Eugene Palmer and Frederick Spofforth played for the Smokers . The reporter from The South Australian Advertiser judged that the Smokers had the stronger batsmen , while the Non @-@ Smokers had the better bowlers .
Lord Harris captained the Smokers , and called the toss wrong ; the captain of the Non @-@ Smokers , W. G. Grace , opted for his side to bat first . The Smokers team amused the crowd by walking out to field smoking cigarettes . The first three wickets fell for the addition of 38 runs ; Grace scored 10 , Murdoch got 4 and Bannerman had 22 , bringing together Bonnor and Dick Barlow . The pair added 152 runs together , with the Lancashire professional Barlow playing a supporting role to the Australian Bonnor . The latter scored 124 runs , and according to Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , he batted against Spofforth " with such astonishing freedom . " Bonnor hit a six and 16 fours during his innings , which was the only score over 50 in the match . Barlow continued to bat carefully , but was eventually dismissed for 39 by the left @-@ arm spinner Edmund Peate , who claimed six of the final seven wickets to finish with figures of six for 30 , and end the Non @-@ Smokers innings on 250 .
The Smokers began their innings late on the first day . By that stage , the pitch had deteriorated and light was poor , making batting more difficult . By the end of the day 's play forty minutes later , they had lost four wickets and only scored 25 runs . They fared better the following morning , but only three batsmen reached double figures — Billy Gunn , 18 , Monty Bowden , 29 , and Charles Clarke , 20 not out — as they were bowled out for 111 just before the lunch break . W. G. Grace was the pick of the bowlers , taking five wickets for 29 runs . A first @-@ innings deficit of 139 runs meant that the Smokers were forced to follow on .
Beginning their second innings after lunch , there was a little improvement for the Smokers , though six of the team were dismissed without reaching double figures . Gunn top @-@ scored for his side , remaining 43 not out at the end of the innings , while Charles Thornton and George Giffen both scored quickly , making 27 and 15 respectively . Despite these scores , the Smokers only reached 152 , leaving the Non @-@ Smokers needing 14 runs to win the match . Grace collected three further wickets in this second innings , but he was bettered by Barlow , who took five for 24 . Although the match was past half past five in the evening with poor light , the decision was made that the match should not continue into the following day , and so the Non @-@ Smokers came out to bat and hit the runs they required , reaching the total shortly after six o 'clock . The match was played at Lord 's in good weather on both days , and was well attended on the first day , with between six and seven thousand spectators at the ground .
= = Second match , 1887 = =
Two and a half years later , another first @-@ class contest with the same title was held at East Melbourne Cricket Ground in Australia . The game was played as the penultimate match of the English tour of Australia in 1886 – 87 , led by Alfred Shaw . Once again the two teams contained a mix of Australian and English players , including three who had taken part in the previous match ; Barlow and Palmer each appeared for the same team as previously , but Gunn , who had played for the Smokers in 1884 , switched teams and was on the side of the Non @-@ Smokers in 1887 . The touring side had been due to face a " Combined Australia " team , but as such a team would be missing those players from New South Wales , it was decided to split the teams as in 1884 . The match was sponsored by four companies , with prizes of 500 cigars each for the best batsman and bowler for the Smokers , 250 cigars for the best aggregate batting score for the Smokers , another 250 cigars for the best individual score from either side , and 200 cigars for the best bowling for the Non @-@ Smokers .
The match began in similar fashion to the earlier contest ; the Non @-@ Smokers won the toss , and their captain Arthur Shrewsbury chose to bat first . The Smokers , led by the Australian Harry Boyle , walked onto the pitch smoking cigars . Despite the strong bowling attack boasted by the Smokers , which included Johnny Briggs and George Lohmann , the Non @-@ Smokers took advantage of a good batting wicket and accrued 196 runs before the first wicket fell , that of William Bruce for 131 . Billy Bates was dismissed shortly thereafter for four , bringing in Billy Gunn . Shrewsbury and Gunn batted together for the rest of the day , and the following morning , building a partnership of 310 runs ; Shrewsbury was eventually caught off the bowling of Briggs for 236 , while Gunn was bowled by Boyle for 150 . Fifties from Richard Houston , Harry Musgrove and Jack Worrall in the middle @-@ order boosted the score to 803 , a new record for the highest innings total in first @-@ class cricket . The previous record , 775 runs , had also been set in Australia , by New South Wales . The score fell some way short of the highest innings score in any cricket , which was believed to have been the 920 scored by Orleans Club against Rickling Green in 1882 . The score has since been surpassed over twenty times .
The Smokers began their response on the third morning of the match , and after losing Maurice Read for 30 , Eugene Palmer and Briggs put together a partnership of 160 , but both were dismissed before the close of play that day , Palmer for 113 and Briggs for 86 . Nevertheless , with the score at 302 for three , it was considered likely that the match would end in a draw . The following morning , wickets fell rapidly ; Bates finished the innings with figures of six for 73 , and the Smokers , who were all out for 356 , were asked to follow on . Briggs recorded a second fifty in the match , but otherwise no player made a significant impact , and the game pestered towards the expected draw . The last ball of the match resulted in a situation described by Gerald Brodribb as " most unusual " . William Scotton faced the final delivery of the contest . Eager to claim the ball as a souvenir of the high @-@ scoring match , he defended the delivery and picked the ball up . The fielders — who also wanted the souvenir — appealed , and Scotton was ruled out , having handled the ball . The match was drawn , with the Smokers still trailing by 491 runs .
= Masked shrike =
The masked shrike ( Lanius nubicus ) is a bird in the shrike family , Laniidae . It breeds in southeastern Europe and at the eastern end of the Mediterranean , with a separate population in eastern Iraq and western Iran . It is migratory , wintering mainly in northeast Africa . Although it is a short @-@ range migrant , vagrants have occurred widely elsewhere , including northern and western Europe . It is the smallest member of its genus , long @-@ tailed and with a hooked bill . The male has mainly black upperparts , with white on its crown , forehead and supercilium and large white patches on the shoulders and wings . The throat , neck sides and underparts are white , with orange flanks and breast . The female is a duller version of the male , with brownish black upperparts and a grey or buff tone to the shoulders and underparts . The juvenile has grey @-@ brown upperparts with a paler forehead and barring from the head to rump , barred off @-@ white underparts and brown wings аpart from the white primary patches . The species ' calls are short and grating , but the song has melodic warbler @-@ like components .
The masked shrike 's preferred habitat is open woodland with bushes and some large trees . It is less conspicuous than its relatives , avoiding very open country and often perching in less exposed locations . The nest is a neat cup built in a tree by both adults , and the clutch is normally 4 – 6 eggs , which are incubated by the female for 14 – 16 days until hatching . The chicks are fed by both parents until they fledge 18 – 20 days later , and remain dependent on the adults for about 3 – 4 weeks after leaving the nest . The masked shrike eats mainly large insects , occasionally small vertebrates ; it sometimes impales its prey on thorns or barbed wire . Populations are decreasing in parts of the European range , but not rapidly enough to raise serious conservation concerns , and the species is therefore classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern .
= = Taxonomy = =
The shrikes are a family of slender , long @-@ tailed passerines , most of its members being in the genus Lanius , the typical shrikes . They are short @-@ necked birds with rounded wings and a hooked tip to the bill . Most occur in open habitats . The affiliations of the masked shrike with other members of the genus are uncertain ; the " brown " shrikes ( brown , red @-@ backed and isabelline shrikes ) and tropical species like the Somali fiscal have both been suggested as possible relatives . The masked shrike has no subspecies .
The masked shrike was described by German explorer and naturalist Martin Lichtenstein in 1823 under its current scientific name . Lanius is the Latin for a butcher , and comes from the shrikes ' habit of impaling prey , reminiscent of a butcher hanging carcasses , and nubicus means " Nubian " ( from northeast Africa ) . The bird was independently described by Dutch zoologist Coenraad Temminck in 1824 as Lanius personatus , from the Latin personatus " masked " , referring , as does the English name , to the bird 's appearance , but the older name takes precedence . A later synonym from 1844 was L. leucometopon from the Greek leukos , " white " , and metopon , " forehead " , describing a feature of the distinctive head pattern . " Shrike " , first recorded in 1545 , derives from the shrill cries given by this family , and the traditional common name " butcher @-@ bird " again refers to the characteristic prey storage , and has been in use since at least 1668 .
= = Description = =
The masked shrike is the smallest of its genus , a slender bird which usually weighs 20 – 23 g ( 0 @.@ 71 – 0 @.@ 81 oz ) , measuring 17 – 18 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 – 7 @.@ 3 in ) long with a 24 – 26 @.@ 5 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 – 10 @.@ 4 in ) wingspan . It has a long tail and relatively small bill , on each side of which is a tomial tooth ; the upper mandible bears a triangular ridge which fits a corresponding notch in the lower mandible . This adaptation is otherwise only found in falcons .
The male has mainly black upperparts , a white crown , forehead and supercilium . There are large white patches on the shoulders and primaries , and the outermost tail feathers are also white . The throat , neck sides and underparts are white , with orange on the flanks and breast . The iris is brown , the bill is black and the legs are dark brown or black . The female is a duller version of the male , with brownish @-@ black upperparts and a grey or buff tinge to the white shoulder patches and underparts . The juvenile has grey @-@ brown upperparts with darker bars from the head to rump , a paler grey forehead , barred off @-@ white underparts and brown wings with white primary patches .
Masked shrikes are most similar in appearance to woodchat shrikes , but are smaller , more slender and longer @-@ tailed . Adults of the two species are easily distinguished , since the masked shrike has white on its head and a dark rump , whereas the woodchat shrike has a black crown , rusty nape and white rump . Juveniles are more similar , but the masked shrike has a longer tail , paler face , and grey back and rump , whereas the woodchat shrike has a sandy back and pale grey rump .
Juveniles moult their head , body and some wing feathers a few weeks after fledging , and adults have a complete moult after breeding . In both cases , if the process is not complete by the time of migration it is suspended and completed on the wintering grounds .
= = = Voice = = =
The masked shrike gives the harsh calls typical of this family , with repeated tsr , tzr or shek notes and some whistles , and when alarmed produces a rattling krrrr . The bill may be snapped when the bird is agitated . The song , up to a minute long , is soft for a shrike , with chattering sounds interspersed with rich warbles . It resembles the songs of Hippolais species , particularly the olive @-@ tree warbler . On rare occasions , males may sing in flight .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The masked shrike breeds in the Balkans , northeast Greece and some of the Greek islands , Turkey , Cyprus and from Syria south to Israel . It also nests in eastern Iraq and western Iran . The range in the east is uncertain , and may include Afghanistan and northern Saudi Arabia . It is migratory , wintering south of the Sahara , mainly in Chad , Sudan and Ethiopia . Smaller numbers are found west to eastern Mali and Nigeria , and in northern Kenya and southern Saudi Arabia . Most birds leave the breeding areas in late August and September , and return north in February and March .
This species is seen in Egypt , Jordan and Israel much more often in spring than autumn , suggesting that the southern movement may be concentrated further east . Birds will hold small territories on about 0 @.@ 5 hectares ( 1 @.@ 2 acres ) on migration , and , unlike other shrikes , may congregate in significant numbers . More than 100 have been seen in one locality in Israel , with five in a single bush . This shrike has occurred as a vagrant in Algeria , Finland , Kenya , Libya , Spain , Sweden , Mauritania and Turkmenistan . At least three individuals have been documented in Great Britain , and two individuals in Armenia .
The masked shrike 's preferred habitat is open woodland with bushes and some large trees . Unlike its relatives , it avoids very open , lightly vegetated country . Orchards and other cultivated land with suitable old trees or large hedges are also used by this species . It is normally found in more wooded areas than sympatric shrikes . It occurs in lowlands and in hills up to 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . In some areas breeding occurs at greater altitudes , up to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . It may occur in gardens and resorts on migration , and in winter again prefers open country with thorny bushes and large trees like acacia or introduced eucalyptus .
= = Behaviour = =
The masked shrike is a solitary species except when on migration . It maintains a breeding territory of 2 – 5 ha ( 5 – 12 acres ) and is also territorial on the wintering grounds , defending an area of about 3 ha ( 7 acres ) . Although unafraid of humans , it is aggressive to its own species and other birds which infringe on its territory . Most other shrikes use high , exposed branches throughout the year , but the masked shrike only uses conspicuous locations at the start of the breeding season , otherwise choosing lower , more sheltered spots . It perches upright , frequently cocking its tail , and has an easy , agile flight . A masked shrike has been recorded as feigning injury when trapped , only to return to normal when the threat receded .
= = = Breeding = = =
Male masked shrikes sing from perches in their territories from early April , sometimes chasing or competing vocally with neighbouring males . The male 's courtship display , usually accompanied by singing , starts with the bird perching erect and shivering its wings on an exposed perch , and is followed by the shrike stepping down its branch and bowing , either on the move or while temporarily halted . The male may also give a fluttering , zigzagging flight display . The female is sometimes fed by her mate while she crouches with spread wings and gives begging calls . Elements of the display are shared with other shrikes , but stepping @-@ down and bowing on the move appear to be confined to this species .
The nest , built by both sexes , is a small , neat cup of rootlets , stems and twigs , lined with wool or hair , and adorned with lichen externally . It is constructed in a tree 1 @.@ 5 – 10 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 32 @.@ 8 ft ) above the ground and averages 170 mm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) wide and 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deep , with the cup 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) across and a 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) in depth . Eggs are laid from April to June , mainly in May in the lowlands and about a month later in the mountains . Replacement clutches are laid in June or July if the nest fails , and second broods appear to be common in at least some areas . The first nest is destroyed by the pair to provide material for a replacement breeding attempt . The eggs average 20 mm × 16 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in × 0 @.@ 63 in ) in size and are variable in colour , with a background of grey , cream or yellow , diffuse grey blotches , and a ring of brown markings . The normal clutch is 4 – 6 eggs , which are incubated by the female for 14 – 16 days until hatching . The altricial downy chicks are fed by both parents until they fledge 18 – 20 days later . They are dependent on the adults for about 3 – 4 weeks after leaving the nest . The masked shrike breeds in its first year , but its average life span is unknown .
Vertebrate predators of young birds include cats and crows . This species may also be infected by parasites , such as an eyeworm , a tick , Hyalomma marginatum , and at least two species of Haemoproteus blood parasites .
= = = Feeding = = =
Like its relatives , the masked shrike hunts from a perch , typically 3 – 8 m ( 10 – 26 ft ) high , although usually in less exposed locations than those favoured by most other shrikes . Prey is usually taken from the ground , but occasionally picked off foliage or caught in the air with an agile flycatcher @-@ like flight . The kill may be impaled on thorns or barbed wire as a " larder " for immediate or later consumption . Because passerines have relatively weak legs , impalement holds the corpse while it is dismembered . It was once thought that this behaviour was shown mainly by male shrikes in the breeding season , but this is not the case . Masked shrikes of both sexes are known to impale in winter and on migration . Individual birds may be very tame , following a gardener or feeding close to an observer .
The masked shrike feeds mainly on large insects , although other arthropods and small vertebrates are also caught . Shrikes fatten up before migration , but to a lesser extent than other passerines because they can feed on the way , sometimes taking other tired migrants . Despite its relatively small size , the masked shrike has been recorded as killing species such as lesser whitethroat and little swift . Vertebrates are killed by bill blows to the back of the head , and the tomial teeth are then used to separate the neck bones .
= = Status = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) estimates the European population of the masked shrike to be between 105 @,@ 000 – 300 @,@ 000 individuals , suggesting a global total of 142 @,@ 000 – 600 @,@ 000 birds . Although the population appears to be declining , the decrease is not rapid enough to trigger the IUCN vulnerability criteria . The large numbers and extensive breeding range of about 353 @,@ 000 km2 ( 136 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , mean that this shrike is classified by the IUCN as being of least concern .
Numbers have declined in recent decades in Europe , although Bulgaria , Greece and Cyprus still have several thousand breeding pairs . Turkey is a stronghold with up to 90 @,@ 000 pairs . The species is declining in Greece and Turkey because of habitat loss , and a large decrease in Israel is thought to be due to pesticides . In Somalia this bird is now rare . Migrating birds are shot in the countries around the eastern Mediterranean , despite legal protection in most countries , and there is some persecution of breeding birds in Greece and Syria , where this species is considered to be unlucky . There are indications that this shrike is adapting to plantations instead of natural woodlands , which could help populations in the longer term .
= = = Vocalisations = = =
Alarm call at Xeno @-@ canto
Song at Xeno @-@ canto
= = = Further information = = =
Lanius nubicus in the Flickr : Field Guide Birds of the World
Lanius nubicus on Avibase
= Space Science Fiction Magazine =
Space Science Fiction Magazine was a US science fiction magazine published by Republic Features Syndicate , Inc. as part of a package of radio shows and related genre magazines . Two issues appeared , both in 1957 . It published short stories by well @-@ known writers , including Arthur C. Clarke and Jack Vance , but it was not successful , and the magazine ceased publication late in 1957 .
= = Publication history and bibliographic data = =
Science fiction was one of the staple genres of American pulp magazine publishing , beginning in 1926 with Amazing Stories . A brief boom in the late 1930s was cut short by World War II , but the field expanded again in the late 1940s . By 1957 the boom had reached its height ; 24 science fiction magazines published at least one issue that year . One of the most prominent of these magazines , Galaxy Science Fiction , had a successful association with two radio shows , Dimension X and X Minus One . This sparked imitators , and during 1956 Lyle Kenyon Engel of Republic Features Syndicate put together a package of two radio shows and four magazines . The shows were American Agent , a spy drama , and The Frightened , to be narrated by Boris Karloff . The magazine package included a spy magazine and a horror magazine to tie in with the radio shows , and two additional titles : Private Investigator Detective Magazine and Space Science Fiction Magazine . Private Investigator 's first issue was published in 1956 , but problems with the radio schedules delayed the launch of the other magazines until 1957 .
Space SF 's first issue was dated Spring 1957 , although its masthead indicated that it would be a bimonthly . It was published by Republic Features Syndicate , Inc . , of New York , and edited by Michael Avallone , who was not credited on the masthead . The second issue was dated August 1957 ; this proved to be the final issue , as shortly thereafter Republic Features Syndicate went out of business . The liquidation of American News Company earlier that year , a major distributor , had led to the extinction of many magazines , as they had to scramble to find new distributors , but it is not known if Space SF was one of the victims .
Both issues were digest @-@ sized , with 132 pages , and were priced at 35 cents . The issues were numbered as a single volume with two issues .
= = Contents = =
Engel obtained stories from moderately well @-@ known science fiction names for both issues , including John Jakes , Mack Reynolds , Jack Vance , and Raymond F. Jones , but many of the stories were " barrel @-@ scrapings " from the Scott Meredith Literary Agency , in the words of one historian ; most had already been rejected at the other active science fiction markets . Space SF also published Arthur C. Clarke 's " Critical Mass " , one of the popular " White Hart " stories . It had already appeared in a 1949 edition of a British magazine , Lilliput , but Clarke revised it for this publication . Overall , in the words of Mike Ashley , " ... [ it ] carried stories by noted sf writers , [ but ] they read like rejects from better magazines , and there was nothing of lasting value " . Ashley comments that the best story was Jakes 's " The Devil Spins a Sun @-@ Dream " , which was atmospheric if poorly plotted ; the protagonist , a human prospector on Mars , finds a fabulous city , but an ancient booby @-@ trap destroys it before his eyes .
Almost every story was illustrated , with Bruce Minney as artist . Both issues ' covers were by Tom Ryan . There were no editorials , review columns , or any other contents other than fiction , and advertisements , all of which were for radio shows , including American Agent and The Frightened .
= 2007 Pacific hurricane season =
The 2007 Pacific hurricane season was a below @-@ average Pacific hurricane season , featuring one major hurricane . The season officially started on May 15 in the eastern Pacific and on June 1 in the central Pacific , and ended on November 30 ; these dates conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the region . The first tropical cyclone of the season , Alvin , developed on May 27 , while the final system of the year , Kiko , dissipated on October 23 . Due to unusually strong wind shear , activity fell short of the long @-@ term average , with a total of 11 named storms , 4 hurricanes , and 1 major hurricane . At the time , 2007 featured the second @-@ lowest value of the Accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) index since reliable records began in 1971 . Two tropical cyclones – Cosme and Flossie – crossed into the central Pacific basin during the year , activity below the average of 4 to 5 systems .
Impact during the season was relatively minimal . In early June , Tropical Storm Barbara moved ashore just northwest of the Mexico – Guatemala border , causing $ 55 million ( 2007 USD ) in damage and 4 deaths . In late July , Cosme passed south of the island of Hawaii as a weakening tropical depression ; light rain and increased surf resulted . A few days later , Dalila passed offshore the coastline of southwestern Mexico , killing 11 and causing minimal damage . Hurricane Flossie followed a similar track to Cosme in mid @-@ August , producing gusty winds and light precipitation in Hawaii . Hurricane Henriette in early September produced torrential rainfall in southwestern Mexico , killing 6 and causing $ 25 million in damage . Baja California received moderate rains from Hurricane Ivo in mid @-@ September , though no damage nor fatalities were reported . In mid @-@ October , Tropical Storm Kiko passed just offshore the coastline of southwestern Mexico . Though no deaths were reported on the Mexico mainland , the storm capsized a ship with 30 people on board , 15 of whom were recovered dead , and 9 of whom were reported missing . Overall , the season ended with $ 80 million in damage and 49 deaths .
= = Seasonal summary = =
= = = Preseason forecast = = =
On May 21 , 2007 , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Central Pacific Hurricane Center released its outlook for the 2007 Central Pacific hurricane season , predicting a total of 2 – 3 tropical cyclones to form or cross into the basin ; in a typical season , 4 – 5 systems cross or form in the Central Pacific . A day later , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Climate Prediction Center released its seasonal prediction for the 2007 East Pacific hurricane season , predicting a total of 11 – 16 named storms , 6 – 9 hurricanes , and 2 – 4 major hurricanes . Below @-@ average activity was expected as a result of either ENSO @-@ Neutral or La Niña conditions , as well as the continuation of the reduction in activity beginning in 1995 .
= = = Seasonal activity = = =
Tropical cyclone activity totaled to 11 named storms , 4 hurricanes , and 1 major hurricane within the 2007 Pacific hurricane season ; all three of these values fall below the 1971 – 2006 long @-@ term average of 15 named storms , 9 hurricanes , and 4 major hurricanes . The main contributing factor to below @-@ average activity was much above @-@ average wind shear across the Pacific basin . Overall energy output was reflected with an Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) index of 52 units , well below the 1981 – 2010 average of 113 @.@ 3 units , and at the time the second @-@ lowest value observed since reliable records began in 1971 . In May 2007 , two tropical storms – Alvin and Barbara – developed , marking at the time the third such instance of more than one tropical storm developing within the month since official records began in 1949 . In June 2007 , only one tropical depression developed in the East Pacific basin , making 2007 one of only four years in which a tropical storm did not form in the month . By the following month , in terms of ACE , 2007 was considered the third quietest year @-@ to @-@ date since the satellite era began in 1966 ; in September , the season fell to the second quietest year @-@ to @-@ date . Below @-@ average activity continued for the remainder of the year .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Alvin = = =
The genesis of Alvin can be attributed to a tropical wave that crossed Dakar , Africa on May 9 . The wave remained poorly organized as it moved across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea through mid @-@ May . On May 20 , the disturbance crossed Central America and emerged into the eastern Pacific Ocean , where convection — shower and thunderstorm activity — gradually began to increase over the well @-@ defined center ; this led to the formation of a tropical depression by 0000 UTC on May 27 , approximately 345 mi ( 555 km ) south of the southern tip of Baja California . Following designation , the depression was slow to organize as a result of moderate easterly shear ; by 0000 UTC on May 29 , however , the system had gained enough organization to be considered a tropical storm . After attaining its peak intensity with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1003 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 62 inHg ) , increasingly stable air and higher wind shear caused Alvin to begin a weakening trend . At 0600 UTC on May 30 , it weakened to a tropical depression , and by 0000 UTC on June 1 , Alvin degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low . The remnant low continued generally westward until dissipation six days later .
= = = Tropical Storm Barbara = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on May 14 . After emerging into the eastern Pacific on May 25 , the system acquired enough organization to be considered a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on May 29 , about 115 mi ( 185 km ) south @-@ southeast of Puerto Escondido , Oaxaca . Within an environment of weak steering currents , the storm became better organized as evidenced by an improving satellite appearance , with the formation of a curved band in the southeast quadrant . At 1200 UTC on May 30 , the depression was upgraded to a tropical storm ; by 0000 UTC on June 1 , however , increased northerly wind shear caused Barbara to weaken back to a tropical depression . After re @-@ intensifying into a tropical storm for a second time six hours later , Barbara attained its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1000 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) at 1800 UTC . Drifting northeast , the storm maintained this intensity until landfall just northwest of the Mexico @-@ Guatemala border at 1300 UTC on June 2 . Rapid weakening ensued thereafter , with the system weakening to a tropical depression at 1800 UTC . The low @-@ level circulation dissipated six hours later , marking the dissipation of Barbara .
Heavy rainfall exceeding 4 in ( 100 mm ) caused many rivers to swell . An unspecified island was separated from the Mexico mainland after the bridge connecting the two was washed away , stranding dozens of families . In El Salvador , significant flooding killed four people . Gusts peaked at 58 mph ( 85 km / h ) at an automated weather station in Puerto Madero , Chiapas . Across the affected regions , these winds caused damage limited to house roofs and trees . Barbara caused severe crop damage totaling to 200 million pesos ( 2007 MXN ; $ 55 million ) . About a hundred residents were forced to evacuate after the storm destroyed a dozen palm huts in Guatemala .
= = = Tropical Depression Three @-@ E = = =
On May 24 , a tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa . The wave entered the eastern Pacific around June 6 and shower and thunderstorm activity began to increase shortly thereafter . A broad area of low pressure formed a few hundred miles south of Acapulco , Mexico two days later . Following satellite evidence of a well @-@ defined circulation and organized convective activity , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the disturbance to a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on June 11 . After attaining winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1004 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 65 inHg ) , the depression began to traverse cooler waters and much more stable air . This caused all associated convection to fade away , and the depression degenerated to a non @-@ convective remnant low at 0000 UTC on June 13 . The remnant low continued northwest until dissipation by 0600 UTC on June 15 .
= = = Tropical Depression Four @-@ E = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on June 23 . It reached the eastern Pacific on July 3 , where associated convection began to increase three days later . Continued slow development occurred thereafter , and following satellite trends , the disturbance was upgraded to Tropical Depression Four @-@ E at 1800 UTC on July 9 . Tracking westward , the depression began to move across waters too cool to support a tropical cyclone and into an environment of moderate shear . The low @-@ level circulation became ill @-@ defined and exposed , leading to degeneration to a remnant low at 0600 UTC on July 11 about 910 mi ( 1465 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico . The low continued northwest until dissipation at 0000 UTC the following day .
= = = Tropical Depression Five @-@ E = = =
On June 21 , a tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa . It entered the eastern Pacific on July 10 , and shower and thunderstorm activity began to increase a day later as a result . Tracking westward , the wave gradually became better organized ; by 1200 UTC on July 14 , the disturbance acquired enough organization to be upgraded to a tropical depression . Within an environment of moderate wind shear , the low @-@ level center quickly became poorly defined as convection dissipated . Turning west @-@ northwest on July 15 , the depression entered cooler waters and an increasingly stable airmass , causing the system to degenerate into a remnant low by 0000 UTC the following day . The remnant low dissipated a few hours later .
= = = Hurricane Cosme = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on June 27 and tracked westward to reach the eastern Pacific on July 8 . There , the system steadily gained organization and was declared a tropical depression by 1200 UTC on July 14 . Moving slowly northwest , a low wind shear and warm sea surface temperature environment allowed the system to strengthen to a tropical storm at 1800 UTC on July 15 . Following the development of a curved convection band and appearance of an eye on satellite , Cosme was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane at 1800 UTC the next day ; it is at this time that the system attained its peak with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 987 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 15 inHg ) . Cosme tracked over ever cooler waters beginning at that time , causing the system to weaken quickly back to tropical storm strength . It turned west as a result of an intensifying ridge of high pressure to its north while continuing to deteriorate in organization . At 1800 UTC on July 18 , Cosme weakened to a tropical depression after crossing into the central Pacific , and by 1800 UTC on July 22 , no longer sustained enough organization to be considered a tropical cyclone . The remnant low continued generally westward until dissipation early on July 25 .
Cosme was initially forecast to pass over Hawaii at tropical storm strength . Instead , a strong ridge of high pressure kept the system well south of the island . Outer rainbands produced several inches of rainfall , leading to minor flooding while simultaneously alleviating drought conditions . Winds gusts briefly reached tropical storm strength , though no damage was reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Dalila = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the eastern Pacific on July 17 . Tracking west @-@ northwest , the system acquired enough organization to be upgraded to a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on July 22 , while positioned 460 mi ( 740 km ) south of Manzanillo , Mexico . Following formation , moderate northeasterly shear inhibited significant development , causing the system to remain a tropical depression for 48 hours . A mid @-@ level ridge over Mexico caused the system to turn northwest as shear began to decrease ; at 0000 UTC on July 24 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dalila . After attaining its peak intensity with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 995 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 39 inHg ) a day later , the storm tracked over progressively cool waters , causing it to weaken . At 0600 UTC on July 27 , Dalila weakened to a tropical storm , and by 1800 UTC , the system no longer retained enough organization to be considered a tropical cyclone . The remnant low tracked west , southwest , and eventually south prior to dissipation at 1200 UTC on July 30 .
Though the center of the storm remained offshore , outer rainbands led to heavy rainfall that triggered substantial flooding . In Michoacán , Dalila flooded ten municipalities with at least 15 in ( 380 mm ) of precipitation , destroying dozens of wooden structures . Heavy rains in Jalisco killed eleven , many of whom occurred in automobile crashes . Flood waters covered numerous roads , causing many accidents , while approximately 50 homes were damaged . Rough seas and heavy rain affected Baja California Sur , though no damage or fatalities were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Erick = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on July 16 . Tracking westward , intermittent bursts of deep convection occurred as it crossed the Leeward Islands on July 22 , but associated activity remained disorganized . The wave crossed Central America three days later , emerging into the eastern Pacific Ocean shortly thereafter . On July 28 , a broad area of low pressure formed along the wave axis ; easterly shear , however , prevented thunderstorms from developing over the center . Convective activity increased by July 31 , leading to the formation of a tropical depression at 1200 UTC that day . Despite the unfavorable environment , satellite intensity estimates increased to tropical storm intensity , prompting the National Hurricane Center to upgrade the depression to such . After attained a peak intensity with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1004 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 65 inHg ) at 0600 UTC on August 1 , continued wind shear caused Erick to weaken to a tropical depression . The low @-@ level center became lost organization as it became elongated northeast to southwest on August 2 , leading to degeneration into a tropical wave by 0600 UTC . The remnants of the system dissipated six hours later .
= = = Hurricane Flossie = = =
An ill @-@ defined tropical wave entered the eastern Pacific on August 1 and steadily organized to attain tropical depression intensity eight days later . Within an environment of light shear , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Flossie at 0000 UTC on August 9 and continued to organize to attain Category 1 hurricane intensity by 1200 UTC the following day as an eye became apparent on satellite . Continuing westward and crossing into the central Pacific basin , the system began a period of rapid intensification that brought it to its peak intensity with winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 949 mb ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 03 inHg ) at 0000 UTC on September 12 , while positioned roughly 980 mi ( 1575 km ) east @-@ southeast of the Big Island . Increased wind shear the next day caused Flossie to begin a slow weakening trend thereafter ; at 1200 UTC on September 14 , the system weakened to a Category 2 hurricane , and by 0600 UTC on September 15 , the cyclone was barely a Category 1 hurricane . Six hours later , it weakened to a tropical storm as the low @-@ level center became exposed on satellite . Flossie weakened to a tropical depression early on September 16 and dissipated by 1800 UTC .
In preparation for the cyclone , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch for the Big Island . A tropical storm warning was subsequently issued for the same location , The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) sent 20 transportation , public works , and health experts to the region . Many schools were closed , including the University of Hawaii at Hilo and Hawaii Community College ; as a result , an estimated 26 @,@ 000 college students were sent home . As a weakening cyclone , Flossie produced light precipitation on the island of Hawaii . Large waves impacted south @-@ facing beaches while the maximum sustained wind observed reached 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) at South Point . No fatalities were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Gil = = =
A vigorous tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on August 16 . Characterized with abundant deep convection , the wave remained organization until it interacted with an upper @-@ level trough across the eastern Caribbean Sea a few days later . On August 26 , the wave split in two , with the northern portion leading the formation of a weak low in the Bay of Campeche and the southern portion continuing westward into the eastern Pacific . After the formation of deep convection over the center and associated convective bands , the disturbance was upgraded to a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on August 29 . Though the circulation remained positioned on the northeast side of most thunderstorm activity , satellite intensity estimates supported tropical storm strength and it was upgraded to such accordingly . At 1200 UTC on August 30 , Gil attained its peak intensity with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1001 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 56 inHg ) . Shortly thereafter , increasing wind shear and decreasing sea surface temperatures caused the system to steadily weaken ; at 0000 UTC on September 1 , the system deteriorated into a tropical depression , and by 1800 UTC the following afternoon , the system no longer displayed enough organization to be considered a cyclone . The remnant low continued westward and dissipated twelve hours later .
Heavy rainfall was reported throughout the state of Sinaloa . A total of 26 neighborhoods were flooded with up to 4 @.@ 9 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of water in the town of Culiacán , while a 14 @-@ year @-@ old boy was swept away by a swollen river .
= = = Hurricane Henriette = = =
A poorly organized tropical wave moved into the eastern Pacific on August 29 and quickly developed into a tropical depression by 0600 UTC the following day . Within an environment of low wind shear , the depression intensified into a tropical storm , acquiring the name Henriette , at 1200 UTC on August 31 . Moving west @-@ northwest around a ridge positioned over inland Mexico , the center passed narrowly offshore after producing squally weather along the coastline . The system moved westward while continuing to intensify , becoming a Category 1 hurricane at 0600 UTC on September 4 and subsequently attaining its peak intensity with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 972 mb ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 71 inHg ) six hours later . An approaching upper @-@ level trough caused Henriette to turn northwest later that day , moving it ashore near San Jose del Cabo , Mexico at 2100 UTC as a minimal hurricane . After crossing Baja California Sur , Henriette weakened to a tropical storm and made a second landfall near Guaymas , Mexico . The system moved inland and quickly weakened , dissipating by 1200 UTC on September 6 .
The hardest hit city by Henriette was Acapulco , where heavy rains led to rockslides and mudslides that killed six . In Sonora , the hurricane damaged thousands of structures and killed four , two of whom off the coast . Farther northwest , a woman died while attempting to surf waves off the coast of Baja California Sur . Heavy rains stranded many cars while causing rivers to overflow , flooding communities . Damage totaled to $ 275 million ( 2007 MXN ; $ 25 million ) .
= = = Hurricane Ivo = = =
A tropical wave moved off the western coast of Africa on September 1 and continued westward until reaching the eastern Pacific fifteen days later . A broad area of low pressure formed along the wave axis on September 16 as convective activity organized , and by 0600 UTC on September 18 , the system acquired enough organization to be declared a tropical depression . Convective bands began to form near the center a few hours later , leading to an improved satellite presentation overall . Tracking west @-@ northwestward as a result of the mid @-@ level ridge , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Ivo at 0000 UTC on September 19 . Turning northwest , a well @-@ defined eye became visible on satellite , prompting the NHC to upgrade the system to a Category 1 hurricane 24 hours later . With an area of deep convection near the center , the hurricane attained its peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 984 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 06 inHg ) at 0000 UTC on September 21 . Westerly flow associated with a large upper @-@ level low began to undercut the outflow of Ivo , and it weakened to a tropical storm by the afternoon hours . The convective pattern rapidly deteriorated due to southeasterly wind shear , and despite a brief burst of convection , the storm was downgraded to a tropical depression to the west @-@ southwest of the southern tip of Baja California at 0000 UTC on September 23 . Associated deep convection dissipated later that day as Ivo turned eastward , and the system degenerated into a remnant low accordingly . The remnant low dissipated two days later as it continued in the same direction .
Initially , some forecasts predicted the storm would strike the Baja California Peninsula as a tropical storm ; a tropical storm watch was briefly issued from Sante Fe to Cabo San Lucas accordingly . Over 100 shelters were opened in the municipalities of Los Cabos , La Paz and Comondú , respectively . In all , Ivo contributed to heavy rainfall across Baja California Sur ; however , damage was not reported .
= = = Tropical Depression Thirteen @-@ E = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on August 27 and reached the eastern Pacific on September 7 . Tracking westward , little development occurred until September 18 , when associated shower and thunderstorm activity began to increase . Following visible satellite trends , the National Hurricane Center deemed the disturbance organized enough to be declared a tropical depression at 0600 UTC on September 19 , while located about 1 @,@ 200 mi ( 1930 km ) west @-@ southwest of the southern tip of Baja California . In an environment of cool ocean temperatures and stable air , the depression failed to organize as it turned west @-@ northwest . Associated deep convection dissipated , leading to degeneration into a remnant low by 0000 UTC on September 20 . Performing a slow counter @-@ clockwise loop , the remnant low dissipated five days later .
= = = Tropical Storm Juliette = = =
The formation of Tropical Storm Juliette can be traced back to a tropical wave that emerged off the western coast of Africa on September 12 . After interacting with a secondary wave over the central Atlantic a few days later , it entered the eastern Caribbean , becoming steadily better defined . Convective activity was enhanced as the wave passed into the West Caribbean on September 22 and it moved inland over Central American shortly thereafter . A broad area of low pressure formed along the wave axis on September 27 and convection steadily increased ; around 0000 UTC on September 19 , the system acquired enough organization to be declared a tropical depression . Twelve hours later , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Juliette . Turning northwest as a result of an upper @-@ level trough , the system attained its peak with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 997 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 44 inHg ) at 1200 UTC on September 30 . Strong wind shear began to affect the storm thereafter , causing it to steadily weaken to tropical depression strength by 0000 UTC on October 2 . Twelve hours later , the system degenerated into a remnant low . The low meandered several hundred miles off the coast of Baja California before degenerating into a trough on October 5 .
= = = Tropical Storm Kiko = = =
A tropical wave exited the coast of Africa and moved westward across the Atlantic before entering the eastern Pacific on October 8 . Despite strong easterly wind shear , the system acquired enough organization to be deemed a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on October 15 . Within a broad cyclonic gyre , the system moved erratically , first drifting south then east @-@ northeast and eventually northwest . Early on October 16 , the system briefly intensified into a tropical storm as a convective band wrapped around the circulation , but continued strong shear caused associated convection to dissipate and the system weakened to a tropical depression by 1800 UTC . After intensifying back to a tropical storm the following day , a brief reprieve in harsh upper @-@ level winds allowed Kiko to reach its peak intensity with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 991 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 27 inHg ) . An increase in southerly shear and entrance into a more stable airmass caused the system to weaken to a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on October 23 ; the system degenerated into a remnant low 24 hours later . The remnant low tracked west before turning north and eventually dissipated early on October 27 .
Beginning early on October 18 , Kiko was forecast to strike Mexico at tropical storm intensity and cyclone advisories were issued accordingly . However , a building mid @-@ level ridge of high pressure over inland Mexico was then forecast to cause the center of circulation to pass just offshore . Though no damage was reported in association with the cyclone , rough seas created by Kiko capsized a ship with thirty people on @-@ board ; two were found still alive , fifteen bodies were recovered , and nine were reported missing .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for tropical storms that formed in the northeast Pacific Ocean in 2007 . There were no names retired during this year ; thus , the same list was used again in the 2013 season . This is the same list used in 2001 with the exception of Alvin , which replaced Adolph . For this reason , the name Alvin was used for the first time this year . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = Season effects = =
The following table lists all of the storms that have formed in the 2007 Pacific hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) ( in parentheses ) , damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all of the damage figures are in 2007 USD .
= Vengeance ( 2006 ) =
Vengeance ( 2006 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on June 25 , 2006 , at the Charlotte Bobcats Arena in Charlotte , North Carolina . It was the sixth annual Vengeance event . Eight professional wrestling matches were featured on the event 's card . The buildup to the matches and the scenarios that took place before , during , and after the event were planned by WWE 's script writers . The event starred wrestlers from the Raw brand : a storyline expansion of the promotion where employees are assigned to a wrestling brand under the WWE banner .
The card featured eight televised matches , including two main events which resulted in Rob Van Dam defeating Edge to retain the WWE Championship and D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) ( Triple H and Shawn Michaels ) defeating Spirit Squad ( Kenny , Johnny , Mitch , Nicky , and Mikey ) in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 Handicap match . One bout was featured on the undercard . In which John Cena defeated Sabu in an Extreme lumberjack match , which featured superstars from the Raw and ECW brands at ringside .
Vengeance grossed over $ 400 @,@ 000 in ticket sales from an attendance of 6 @,@ 800 and received 320 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , which helped WWE increase its pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue by $ 21 @.@ 6 million compared to the previous year . When the event was released on DVD , it reached the number one position on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart . The professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer website rated the entire event a 6 @.@ 5 out 10 stars , higher than the 2005 event rating of 6 out 10 .
= = Background = =
The event featured eight professional wrestling matches with different wrestlers involved in pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots and storylines . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or fan favorites as they followed a series of tension @-@ building events , which culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches . All wrestlers belonged to the Raw brand – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a different program , the other two being SmackDown ! and ECW .
The main rivalry heading into Vengeance was between WWE Champion and ECW World Champion Rob Van Dam who defending the WWE Championship against Edge in a singles match . The buildup to the match began on the television premiere of ECW on Sci Fi , in which Van Dam was awarded the ECW World Heavyweight Championship ( which later become simply known as ECW World Championship ) by Paul Heyman , thus making Van Dam a double champion , by holding both the ECW and WWE Championships . Van Dam 's celebration was then interrupted by Edge and his girlfriend Lita . Edge , who was number one contender for the title , informed Van Dam that they both had a lot in common , referring to them being both Money in the Bank winners and successfully becoming WWE Champions . Edge concluded with giving Van Dam some kind words , in which afterwards he performed a Spear on Van Dam . On the June 19 episode of Raw , in retaliation Van Dam attacked Edge , moments after winning a match against Ric Flair . On June 20 episode of ECW , Rob Van Dam and Kurt Angle defeated Edge and Randy Orton in a tag team match when Van Dam pinned Edge after Five Star Frog Splash .
Another predominant rivalry scripted into Vengeance was between D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) Triple H and Shawn Michaels versus the Spirit Squad ( Kenny , Johnny , Mitch , Nicky , and Mikey ) in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 Handicap match consisting of one team of wrestlers facing off against a team of wrestlers with numerical superiority such as five against two . The buildup to the match began after Backlash , Raw 's previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event , where The McMahons ( Vince and Shane ) defeated Michaels and " God " in a tag team match , with help from the Spirit Squad in a no disqualification match , a match where neither wrestler can be disqualified , allowing for weapons and outside interference . Throughout the weeks on Raw , Michaels got revenge on both Vince McMahon and the Spirit Squad , until the May 22 episode of Raw , where the Spirit Squad were scripted to injure Michaels ' left knee . Then , by orders of McMahon , Triple H was to " break Michaels ' skull " , with a sledgehammer . Triple H failed to do what McMahon ordered and instead attacked the Spirit Squad , thus turning into a fan favorite . Two weeks later , McMahon booked Triple H in a gauntlet match , consisting of two wrestlers beginning the match , and replacing whenever one is eliminated , with the last person standing being named the winner , against the Spirit Squad . In the match , Kenny grabbed a steel chair and inserted the chair on Triple H 's left knee , similar to what the group did to Michaels . Mitch , who was the only member not participating in the match , was thrown out from the backstage curtain by Michaels . Following this , he joined Triple H in the ring as they began to beat down the four members of the group . This saw Michaels and Triple H reform D @-@ Generation X since their teased reunion in 2002 . That same night , McMahon scheduled the Spirit Squad and D @-@ Generation X in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap tag team match . On the June 19 episode of Raw , DX marked their return , when the duo humiliated the Spirit Squad as DX dumped green slime onto the group and embarrassed the team afterwards , by beating them .
One of the featured matches was between John Cena versus Sabu in an Extreme lumberjack match , a standard match with the exception that the ring is surrounded by a group of wrestlers not directly involved in it and competed under hardcore rules . On the television debut of ECW on Sci Fi on June 13 , a brawl broke out between Rob Van Dam and Edge . Edge , who stormed through the ECW crowd , was attacked by Cena , who cost Cena the WWE Championship at ECW 's One Night Stand , and written into the storyline , sought revenge against Edge . Following the attack , Cena went to ringside where he knocked ECW Representative Paul Heyman unconscious , after Heyman awarded the pinfall win to Van Dam at One Night Stand . Following the attack , Heyman announced that all ECW superstars would be at Raw the following week . The following week on Raw , Heyman appeared alongside ECW superstar , Balls Mahoney , who was booked to face Cena in a singles match . The match was won by Cena after he made Mahoney submit . After the match , Cena was attacked by ECW superstar Sabu , who in the premiere of ECW on Sci Fi won a 10 @-@ man Extreme Battle Royal , a multi @-@ competitor match type in which wrestlers are eliminated until one is left and declared winner , where the winner would face Cena at Vengeance in a singles match . Sabu assaulted Cena in which he performed a leg drop on Cena , diving onto him and putting Cena through the Raw announcers ' table . The following night on an episode of ECW on Sci Fi , Cena showed up in the ECW locker room , where he challenged Sabu to an Extreme lumberjack match , for which Sabu accepted .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Val Venis defeated Rob Conway in a dark match .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first televised match was a standard wrestling match between Randy Orton and Kurt Angle . In the early stages both competitors took the advantage over one another . Angle controlled most of the match , as Orton tried to avoid Angle 's assaults . Angle tried to perform a suplex on Orton off the ring apron , but did not perform the move . This was followed by Angle performing a belly to back suplex on Orton on the outside ring floor . Mid @-@ way in the match , Orton attempted to perform an RKO by jumping and grabbing Angle 's head to drive it over his shoulders , but he countered by pushing Orton to the turnbuckle . Orton took the padding off the turnbuckle , leaving it exposed . Following this , Angle began performing a series of belly to back waist lock suplexes on Orton . Angle then applied the ankle lock hold . Orton , however , flipped over and sent Angle face @-@ first into the exposed turnbuckle . As he turned around , Orton performed the RKO , and covered Angle to gain the pinfall victory .
The next match was between Umaga and Eugene . Before the match got underway , Eugene invited Jim Duggan , Doink the Clown , and Kamala down to ringside . Umaga , who stood at 6 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) and weighed 350 pounds ( 160 kg ) , used his body size to his advantage as he squashed , or easily and quickly performed moves on , Eugene . The match concluded with Umaga performing the Samoan Spike , a high speed thumb thrust to the throat of Eugene . Umaga pinned Eugene to win the match . After the match , Umaga attacked Jim Duggan and Doink the Clown .
The next match that followed was a Two out of three falls match , a match where not one , but two , decisions have to be won by a wrestler before the match is officially over , between Mick Foley and Ric Flair . Foley gained the advantage after he bended Flair forward and hooked each arm behind Flair 's back , tucked his head under one of Foley 's arms , and then fell back to pull Flair down flat on his face . Foley then began to taunt Flair and took out Mr. Socko , a dirty sock puppet , dressed like Flair . Foley controlled most of the match , until he attempted to apply the figure four leglock , a signature move of Flair 's , but Flair countered it with an inside cradle over Foley to win the first fall . The second match began , frustrated in losing the first match , Foley grabbed a trash can from under the ring and brought it to the ring to hit Flair with it . But , Flair avoided being hit , as he tripped Foley to apply the figure four leglock . The result of the match , saw Foley get disqualified when he hit Flair with the trash can . The referee awarded the win to Flair . After the match , Foley attacked Flair with a barb @-@ wired bat , leaving Flair busted open .
The fourth match was a standard match involving three wrestlers , termed as a Triple Threat match , for the WWE Intercontinental Championship , in which champion Shelton Benjamin defended the title against Carlito and Johnny Nitro . The match began with Carlito performing a springboard moonsault from the ring apron hitting both Nitro and Benjamin in the process . A spot in the match saw Carlito set up Nitro in a Tree of Woe , a move in which a wrestler suspends his opponent upside down on a turnbuckle , with the opponent 's back being up against it , Carlito stood on the turnbuckle , in which Benjamin followed by jumping up with Carlito . Nitro lifted Benjamin on his shoulders and threw him down , while Benjamin dropped Carlito , making both men hit the mat . Later in the match , Carlito performed a backcracker on Benjamin . Nitro , who was thrown out of the ring , returned and removed Carlito from making the cover on Benjamin . He instead covered Benjamin for the pinfall victory , thus becoming the new Intercontinental champion .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The first main match was for the WWE Championship , in which champion Rob Van Dam defended the title against Edge accompanied with Lita . In the beginning of the match , Edge performed a sunset flip powerbomb on Van Dam outside the ring . Van Dam , however , managed to execute a crossbody on Edge inside the ring , resulting in the two landing on the outside of the ring floor . Both men took the upper hand in the match , until Van Dam was scripted to knock the referee unconscious . Edge took advantage , as Lita gave him the title . Edge tried to hit Van Dam with the title , but Van Dam dodged the hit as he performed a spinning kick on the title , resulting in hitting Edge 's face . Edge , however , got the advantage as he attempted to perform a shoulder block takedown on Van Dam , while Lita propped a chair on a ring corner . Edge went for the shoulder block takedown , but Van Dam moved out of the way , resulting in Edge to crash head @-@ first onto the chair . Capitalizing on the situation , Van Dam then performed a body splash from the top turnbuckle on Edge , which he followed with a cover and a pinfall , thus retaining the WWE Championship .
The sixth match was a singles match between Kane versus Impostor Kane . The match began with Impostor Kane executing a sidewalk slam on Kane , a move in which a wrestler stands side @-@ to @-@ side and slightly behind with the opponent , and reaches around the opponent 's torso with his near arm across the opponent 's chest and under both arms and places the other arm under the victim 's legs . The Impostor tried to grab and lift Kane by the throat and slam him down into the mat , termed as a chokeslam , but Kane countered with driving Impostor Kane 's head onto the wrestling mat . The match concluded with Impostor Kane performing a chokeslam on Kane and pinning him for the pinfall victory .
The seventh match was the Extreme lumberjack match between Sabu and John Cena . Before the match began , the ECW and Raw superstars made their way to ringside to take their place as lumberjacks . The match quickly began with Cena throwing Sabu out of the ring onto the Raw lumberjacks , in which they assaulted Sabu and threw him back in the ring . Sabu would later get the upper hand and throw Cena out onto the ECW lumberjacks , at ringside . Throughout the match , Sabu took the advantage over Cena as he performed a somersault leg drop , driving a steel chair onto Cena 's face . Cena got the upper hand when he was able to counter a flying crossbody attempt by Sabu . Mid @-@ way in the match , the ECW and Raw lumberjacks started brawling at ringside . At ringside , the ECW lumberjacks began their assault on Cena , after he was hit with a steel chair by Sabu . They laid his head on a table , in which Sabu attempted to perform a high @-@ flying maneuver . The Raw superstars , however , gave Cena the upper hand to hit Sabu with a kendo stick in mid @-@ air . Back in the ring , Cena lifted Sabu over his shoulders and threw him down on a table that was at ringside to execute the FU . Following this , Sabu was thrown back into the ring where Cena applied the STFU , a move in which the wrestler wraps his arm around the neck of the opponent in a sleeper hold instead of pulling back on the head of the opponent , in which Sabu submitted to and giving Cena the win .
The last match on the card was the five @-@ on @-@ two handicap match between D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) versus the Spirit Squad . During the beginning of the match , Michaels quickly took control of Mitch , before tagging in Triple H. Johnny was tagged in the match , after encouragement from his team , to face off against Triple H. The match was then controlled by the Spirit Squad , after Johnny performed an enzuigiri on Michaels . Nicky , who was tagged in , distracted the referee , allowing the other squad members to pull Michaels out of the ring and hit Michaels with a steel chair . Back in the ring , the assault continued , as each member took the upper hand over him . Michaels came back after countering a double team maneuver and drove both Nicky and Mikey 's heads to the mat . Michaels then tagged Triple H into the match . The match concluded with Triple H performing a Pedigree and Michaels performed Sweet Chin Music . Both Triple H and Michaels got the pinfall victory respectively over the Spirit Squad . After the match , the three remaining members tried to attack DX , but were unsuccessful in doing so .
= = Aftermath = =
On the July 3 episode of Raw , a triple threat match was booked between Rob Van Dam , Edge , and John Cena for the WWE title , after Van Dam made the stipulation . Edge , as part of scripted events , defeated both Van Dam and Cena to become the new WWE champion , after pinning Van Dam . The following night on ECW on Sci Fi , Van Dam lost the ECW title to The Big Show , after the Big Show received assistance from Paul Heyman , who declined to make the three @-@ count for Van Dam , but instead gave the pinfall to the Big Show . Later on WWE 's official website , it was announced that Heyman suspended Van Dam for 30 days without giving a reason . This angle was written after WWE suspended Van Dam for his recent drug possession arrest .
The following month at Saturday Night 's Main Event , a title match was scheduled between Edge and Cena . Cena won the match by disqualification , after Lita interfered on behalf of Edge . A singles match was booked between Edge and Cena for the WWE title at Summerslam , with the stipulation that if Edge disqualified himself , he would have lost the WWE title . At SummerSlam , Edge retained the title after he hit Cena with a pair of brass knuckles , this occurred when the referee was not looking .
In a July episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event , DX defeated the Spirit Squad in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 Elimination match . The McMahons ( Vince and Shane ) continued their feud with DX , as they became frustrated with DX 's antics . McMahon scheduled a tag team match , where he would team up with Shane to take on DX at SummerSlam in August . Before the match got underway at SummerSlam , the Spirit Squad , Mr. Kennedy , William Regal , Finlay , and The Big Show all interfered on behalf of the McMahons . DX , however , won the match .
= = = Reception = = =
The Charlotte Bobcats Arena usually can accommodate 20 @,@ 000 , but the capacity was reduced for the event . This event grossed over $ 400 @,@ 000 from an approximate attendance of 6 @,@ 800 – the maximum allowed . It also received 320 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . Vengeance helped WWE earn $ 21 @.@ 6 million in revenue from pay @-@ per @-@ view events versus $ 19 @.@ 9 million the previous year , which was later confirmed by Linda McMahon , the CEO of WWE , on August 31 , 2006 in a quarterly result . The event received positive reviews . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the event 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The rating was higher than the Vengeance 2005 event which was rated 6 out 10 . The WWE title , Intercontinental title , and 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap match were all rated an 8 out of 10 . Additionally , the singles match between Kane and Impostor Kane was rated a 3 out 10 .
The event was released on DVD on July 25 , 2006 . The DVD was distributed by the label Sony Music Entertainment . The DVD ranked number one on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreational sports during the week of August 19 , 2006 , although falling thereafter . It remained in the chart for three months , until the week of November 4 , 2006 , when it ranked 17th .
= = Results = =
= Red @-@ headed myzomela =
The red @-@ headed myzomela or red @-@ headed honeyeater ( Myzomela erythrocephala ) is a passerine bird of the honeyeater family , Meliphagidae , found in Australia , Indonesia , and Papua New Guinea . Three subspecies are recognised , with the nominate race M. erythrocephala erythrocephala distributed around the tropical coastline of Australia .
At 12 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) , it is a small honeyeater with a short tail and relatively long down @-@ curved bill . It is sexually dimorphic and the male has a glossy red head and brown upperparts and paler grey @-@ brown underparts while the female has predominantly grey @-@ brown plumage . Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical mangrove forests . It is very active when feeding in the tree canopy , darting from flower to flower and sallying for insects . It calls constantly as it feeds . While little has been documented on the red @-@ headed myzomela ’ s breeding behaviour , it is recorded as building a small cup @-@ shaped nest in the mangroves and laying two or three oval , white eggs with small red blotches .
The red @-@ headed myzomela is widely distributed across the northern coastlines of Australia , though it is not abundant within this range . While the IUCN lists one sub @-@ species as being near threatened , as a whole the widespread range means that its conservation is of least concern .
= = Taxonomy = =
Myzomela erythrocephala was first described by John Gould in 1840 , from specimens located in King Sound , north Western Australia . As well as the nominate race M. erythrocephala erythrocephala , two additional subspecies are recognised : M. erythrocephala infuscata named by William Alexander Forbes in 1879 , and M. erythrocephala dammermani described by Friederich Wilhelm Sieber in 1928 . Some taxonomic authorities recognize M. erythrocephala dammermani as a separate species , the Sumba myzomela ( Myzomela dammermani ) .
It is a member of the genus Myzomela which includes two other Australian species , the scarlet myzomela of eastern Australia , and the dusky myzomela of northern Australia . It belongs to the honeyeater family Meliphagidae . A 2004 genetic study of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA of honeyeaters found it to be the next closest relative to a smaller group consisting of the scarlet and cardinal myzomelas , although only five of the thirty members of the genus Myzomela were analysed . Molecular analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes ) , Acanthizidae ( Australian warblers , scrubwrens , thornbills , etc . ) , and the Maluridae ( Australian fairy @-@ wrens ) in a large Meliphagoidea superfamily . Because the red @-@ headed honeyeater occurs on many offshore islands and appears to be an effective water @-@ crosser , it has been hypothesised that north @-@ western Australia was the primary centre of origin for the Myzomela erythrocephala subspecies .
The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek words myzo " to suckle " and meli " honey " , and refers to the bird 's nectivorous habits , while erythrocephala is from the Greek erythros " red " and a combining form of the Greek kephale " head " . Other common names are mangrove red @-@ headed honeyeater , mangrove redhead , and blood bird .
= = Description = =
The red @-@ headed myzomela is a distinctive small honeyeater with a compact body , short tail and relatively long down @-@ curved bill . It averages 12 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) , with a wingspan of 17 – 19 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 7 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) and a weight of 8 grams ( 0 @.@ 28 oz ) . The birds exhibit sexual dimorphism , with males being slightly larger and much more brightly coloured than the females .
The adult male has a dark red head , neck , lower back and rump ; the red is glossy , reflecting bright light . The rest of the upper body is a blackish @-@ brown , and the upper breast and under @-@ body a light brownish @-@ grey . The bill is black or blackish @-@ brown , and there is a distinct black loral stripe that extends to become a narrow eye ring . The adult female 's head and neck are grey @-@ brown with a pink @-@ red tint to the forehead and chin . The rest of the female 's upper body is grey @-@ brown with darker shades on the wings and lighter shades on the breast and under @-@ body . One study suggested a connection between the female 's bill colour and breeding status , with birds that had a horn @-@ coloured ( grey ) bill also having well @-@ developed brood patches . Juveniles are similar to females though with an obvious pale yellow edge to the lower mandible . It seems that males keep their juvenile plumage for up to three months , and take a similar period to come into full colour . The subspecies are similar in appearance to the nominate race however M. e. dammermani is slightly smaller than the other subspecies and has darker upper parts and a broad black pectoral band and M. e. infuscata has red extending from the rump onto the back .
The red @-@ headed myzomela has a range of contact calls and songs that are primarily metallic or scratchy . Its song is an abrupt tchwip @-@ tchwip @-@ tchwip @-@ tchwip with a slightly softer swip @-@ swip @-@ swip @-@ swip contact call and a scolding charrk @-@ charrk .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The red @-@ headed myzomela in Australia is distributed across the tropical coastlines of Western Australia , the Northern Territory and Queensland . It inhabits coastal areas of the Kimberley and various offshore islands in Western Australia , and is similarly distributed in the Northern Territory , including Melville Island and the Sir Edward Pellew Group of Islands . It is widespread around the coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria and Cape York Peninsula . M. e. dammermani is found on the island of Sumba in the eastern Indonesian Lesser Sunda Islands , and M. e. infuscata at scattered sites in West Papua and in south Papua New Guinea .
Although the red @-@ headed myzomela is widely distributed , it is not abundant within its range . The largest recorded population was 5 @.@ 5 birds per hectare or 2 @.@ 2 per acre at Palmerston in the Northern Territory . The peak abundance of the species in the mangroves around Darwin Harbour during the mid @-@ dry and early wet season coincided with the production of young and the flowering of Ceriops australis .
The species ' movements are poorly understood , variously described as resident , nomadic or migratory . Population numbers have been reported as fluctuating in some areas with local movements possibly related to the flowering of preferred mangrove and Melaleuca food trees , and there is some indication that the birds can travel more widely . A single bird was recaptured after being banded nearly five years earlier , 27 kilometres ( 17 mi ) from the original banding site , and the species ' occupation of a large number of offshore islands suggests that the red @-@ headed honeyeater is effective at crossing distances over water .
The red @-@ headed myzomela mostly inhabits mangroves in monsoonal coastal areas , especially thickets of Rhizophora , Bruguiera and Avicennia bordering islands or in river deltas , but it often also occurs in paperbark thickets fringing the mangroves such as those of the cajeput ( Melaleuca leucadendra ) . It is a mangrove specialist , an adaptation that probably occurred as northern Australia became more arid and the bird populations became dependent on mangroves as other types of forest disappeared . The mangroves provide nectar and insects as well as shelter and nesting sites , and they supply the majority of the species ' needs for most of the year .
In Australia , mangrove vegetation forms a narrow discontinuous strip along thousands of kilometres of coastline , accommodating birds specialized for the habitat . Eighty Mile Beach in Western Australia has no mangroves and no fringing Melaleuca forests , reducing its potential for successful colonization by nectarivores , and it marks the southern limit of the red @-@ headed myzomela in Western Australia .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Feeding = = =
The red @-@ headed myzomela is arboreal , feeding at flowers and among the outer foliage in the crowns of mangroves and other flowering trees . It is very active when feeding , darting from flower to flower and sallying for insects . It probes flowers for nectar with its long curved bill , catches insects on the wing and gleans insects from leaves . It predominately feeds on mangrove species , and in north western Australia is the major pollinator of Bruguiera exaristata , however it also feeds in paperbarks and other coastal forests and has been recorded feeding in cultivated bottlebrush and Grevillea in Darwin gardens .
= = = Social behaviour = = =
While the social organisation of the red @-@ headed honeyeater is relatively unknown , it is reported as being usually solitary or found in pairs , though it has been described as forming loose associations with brown honeyeaters , and other mangrove @-@ feeding birds such as the northern fantail and yellow white @-@ eye . It is an inquisitive bird , and readily responds to pishing coming close to the caller to investigate the source of the sound and to warn off the intruder . It calls throughout the day when feeding , and males sing from exposed branches in the upper canopy of the food trees .
The red @-@ headed myzomela actively defends food trees , engaging in aggressive bill @-@ wiping both in response to a threat and after chasing intruders from a tree . It is very antagonistic even towards its own species ; the males fight by grappling in mid @-@ air and falling close to the ground before disengaging . It constantly chases brown honeyeaters through the canopy , though it has not been observed in grappling fights with other species .
= = = Breeding = = =
There are few scientific reports on the breeding behaviour of the red @-@ headed myzomela , and little detail is available on the breeding season . A study of populations in the west Kimberley reported that the birds hold territories through much of the dry season and then disperse . The nest is built in the foliage of the mangroves , suspended by a rim from a small horizontal fork about 6 – 10 metres ( 20 – 33 ft ) above the ground or water . The nest is small and cup @-@ shaped , and built from small pieces of bark , leaves , plant fibre and sometimes seaweed , bound together with spider web and lined with finer material . It is , on average , 5 @.@ 4 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter and 3 @.@ 7 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) deep .
Measuring 16 by 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 63 by 0 @.@ 47 in ) , the eggs are oval , smooth and lustreless white , with small spots or blotches of red on the larger end . Clutch size is reported to be two or three eggs . While there is no reliable information on incubation and feeding , it is believed that both parents are active in caring for the young .
= = Conservation status = =
M. e. erythrocephala is listed as being of least concern by the IUCN , because the population is widespread , however Myzomela erythrocephala infuscata is listed as near threatened . The Australian population of this subspecies is confined to three small islands with a combined area of about 100 square kilometres ( 39 sq mi ) . There is no immediate threat to the red @-@ headed myzomela except the risk posed to low islands by rising sea levels , however it has been recommended that community @-@ based ecotourism on the tropical coast be promoted , as it could lead to monitoring of sub @-@ populations and habitat by visiting birdwatchers and local rangers .
= F.E.A.R. =
F.E.A.R. First Encounter Assault Recon is a survival horror first @-@ person shooter developed by Monolith Productions and published by Sierra Entertainment . It was released on October 17 , 2005 , for Microsoft Windows , and ported by Day 1 Studios to the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . Timegate Studios has released two expansion packs , F.E.A.R. Extraction Point in October 2006 , and F.E.A.R. Perseus Mandate in November 2007 . A direct sequel titled F.E.A.R. 2 : Project Origin , was released in February 2009 , and a second sequel , F.3.A.R. , was released in June 2011 , though it was developed by Day 1 Studios ( now known as Wargaming Chicago @-@ Baltimore ) , not by Monolith Productions .
The game 's story revolves around a supernatural phenomenon , which F.E.A.R. — a fictional special forces team — is called to contain . The player assumes the role of F.E.A.R. ' s Point Man , who possesses superhuman reflexes , and must uncover the secrets of a paranormal menace in the form of a little girl .
F.E.A.R. was well received by critics , scoring 89 % on Game Rankings , and The New York Times calling it " as thrilling and involving as Half @-@ Life . " A " Director 's Edition " DVD version of the game was also released . The DVD included a " Making of " documentary , a director 's commentary , a short live @-@ action prequel and the exclusive first episode of the promotional P.A.N.I.C.S. machinima . A related Dark Horse comic book was also packaged with the DVD . Along with the Director 's Edition , F.E.A.R. Gold Edition was released . Gold Edition included the Director 's Edition and Extraction Point . F.E.A.R. Platinum Edition features the original game and two expansion packs .
= = Gameplay = =
F.E.A.R. simulates combat from a first person perspective . The protagonist 's body is fully present , allowing the player to see his or her character 's torso and feet while looking down . Within scripted sequences , when rising from a lying position or fast @-@ roping from a helicopter for example , or climbing ladders , the hands and legs of the protagonist can be seen performing the relevant actions .
A prominent gameplay element is " reflex time " , which slows down the game world while still allowing the player to aim and react at normal speeds . This effect is used to simulate the character 's superhuman reflexes . Reflex time is represented by stylized visual effects , such as bullets in flight that cause air distortion or interact with the game 's particle effects . F.E.A.R. lead designer Craig Hubbard stated that Monolith Productions ' primary goal was " to make combat as intense as the tea house shootout at the beginning of John Woo 's Hard @-@ Boiled . " He continued on to say that " defeat [ ing ] ... enemies ... with style " was crucial to this goal and that reflex time plays a large role in " mak [ ing ] the player feel like they are an action movie hero . "
The game contains weapons based on non @-@ fictional firearms , such as pistols , assault rifles , and submachine guns , as well as entirely fictional armaments like particle beam weapons . Each firearm differs in terms of ammunition type , accuracy , range , fire rate , damage , and bulkiness . The latter characteristic is crucial , as more powerful / specialized weapons tend to be more cumbersome and slow the player 's maneuvers . Unlike other games of the genre where lighter / smaller weapons tend to be useless , F.E.A.R. does not scale guns on a curve , so any firearm is potentially deadly in most situations . Monolith Productions stated that it aimed for " ... a balanced arsenal where each weapon serves a specific function " , rather than " ... just going with a bunch of real @-@ world submachine guns and assault rifles . " F.E.A.R. ' s heads @-@ up display crosshair 's size dynamically shows where shots will fall based on movement , aim , and the weapon in use . The player may carry only three firearms at a time ; thus , strategy is required when using and selecting weapons .
Compared to other shooters where melee is usually a last resort , F.E.A.R. ' s melee is a viable instant @-@ kill alternative for taking down enemies . The stocks of all firearms can be used in close combat . Lighter weapons , while being less powerful , allow the player to move around more quickly , increasing their chances of melee . Movement speed is maximized if a player holsters their weapon , which also allows them to engage in hand @-@ to @-@ hand attacks with maneuvers including punches , kicks , and slides .
F.E.A.R. ' s artificial intelligence allows computer @-@ controlled characters a large degree of action . Enemies can duck to travel under crawlspaces , jump through windows , vault over railings , climb ladders , and push over large objects to create cover . Various opponents may act as a team , taking back routes to surprise the player , using suppressive fire or taking cover if under fire . The game 's artificial intelligence is often cited as being highly advanced , using an architecture known as Goal Oriented Action Planning ( GOAP ) and its efficiency helped the game win GameSpot 's " 2005 Best AI Award " , and earn the # 2 ranking on AIGameDev 's " Most Influential AI Games " .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
F.E.A.R. ' s multiplayer component includes mainstay gameplay modes , such as deathmatch , team deathmatch , capture the flag , and last man standing . " Control " and " Conquer All " gametypes were later added through a patch . Some gametypes in F.E.A.R. ' s multiplayer use the " reflex time " effect : SlowMo deathmatch , SlowMo team deathmatch , and SlowMo capture the flag . Only one player can use / carry the reflex power @-@ up ; when fully charged they can activate it and give themselves ( and the rest of their team if applicable ) a speed advantage over opposing players . However , the one carrying the power @-@ up will have a bluish glow , and they will show up on a foe 's HUD .
On August 17 , 2006 , F.E.A.R. ' s multiplayer component was retitled F.E.A.R. Combat and made available for free download . Downloaders of F.E.A.R. Combat and owners of F.E.A.R. ' s retail edition may play together online . On December 19 , 2012 Gamespy Industries announced the end of its Gamespy Open Program , which ended F.E.A.R. Combat 's online multiplayer functionality .
The PC version of the game uses the PunkBuster program to prevent cheating . However , in December 2007 , Even Balance discontinued PunkBuster support for F.E.A.R. in favor of the second expansion , F.E.A.R. Perseus Mandate . While PunkBuster @-@ enabled servers will still check for and protect against known cheats , the program will no longer automatically update . Because of this , many players with an outdated version of PunkBuster are unable to play in PunkBuster @-@ enabled servers without being automatically kicked from the game .
The Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions , just like the PC edition , only have online multiplayer . There is no split @-@ screen local play .
= = Atmosphere = =
A core element of F.E.A.R. is its horror theme , which is heavily inspired by Japanese horror . The design team attempted to keep " [ the ] psychology of the encounter " in the player 's mind at all times , in order to " get under [ the player 's ] skin " , as opposed to the " in your face ' monsters jumping out of closets ' approach " . Lead designer Craig Hubbard stated in an interview that " horror is extremely fragile ... you can kill it by spelling things out too clearly and you can undermine it with too much ambiguity " . He remarked that he attempted to strike a balance with the narrative elements of F.E.A.R. , to give players " enough clues so that [ they ] can form [ their ] own theories about what 's going on , but ideally [ they will ] be left with some uncertainty " . Lead level designer John Mulkey stated , " Creating expectation and then messing with that expectation is extremely important , predictability ruins a scary mood " .
The main source of the game 's horror is Alma , a ghostly little girl . Craig Hubbard remarked that " a guy in a mask chasing co @-@ eds with a meat cleaver can be scary , but on some level you 're thinking to yourself you could probably kick his ass if you got the drop on him ... but when a spooky little girl takes out an entire Delta Force squad , how are you supposed to deal with that ? " While Alma has been compared to the character Samara from The Ring , Craig Hubbard stated that she " ... was born out of a tradition of eerie , faceless female ghosts ... " and not " ... as an answer to any specific movie character . " Hubbard acknowledged that Alma " ... admittedly bears some visual resemblance to the ghosts in Dark Water or Séance " , but " ... creepy little girls have been freaking [ him ] out since The Shining . " Developers Dave Matthews and Nathan Hendrickson say the name ' Alma ' comes from the character Alma Mobley in Peter Straub 's novel Ghost Story .
F.E.A.R. ' s audio was designed in the style of Japanese horror films , with the sound engineers using inexpensive equipment to create sound effects , using methods including dragging metal across different surfaces and recording pump sounds . Monolith Productions commented , " The sound designers had to be concerned with avoiding predictability " , since " [ l ] isteners are smart ... they will recognize your formula quickly and then you won 't be able to scare them anymore . " Silence is present in order to " ... allow players to fill in the space , which lets their imagination create their own personal horror " .
Monolith Productions composed F.E.A.R. ' s music in reaction to scenes , instead of " ... creating a formula that would consistently produce music throughout the game " . The design team called F.E.A.R. ' s music structure " ... more cerebral and tailored to each individual event " , and continued that " ... sometimes the music is used to ratchet up the tension to toy with players ... [ it ] will build to a terrifying crescendo before cutting off without a corresponding event , only to later have the silence shattered by Alma , when players least expect it . "
F.E.A.R. ' s horror theme was praised by critics . Game Informer claimed that " ... the frequent spooky head trips that Monolith has so skillfully woven together make an experience that demands to be played . " IGN opined that " ... the environment has been so well @-@ crafted to keep you edgy and watchful ... [ that ] playing the game for a few hours straight can get a little draining . " GameSpot reacted similarly , calling F.E.A.R. ' s horror " ... exceedingly effective " , and agreeing that it " ... can leave you a bit emotionally exhausted after a while . "
= = Plot = =
= = = Story = = =
The game begins with a man named Paxton Fettel taking command of a battalion of telepathically controlled clone supersoldiers , seizing control of Armacham Technology Corporation ( ATC ) headquarters , and killing all its occupants .
The player then takes control of the Point Man , working for an organization known as F.E.A.R. ( First Encounter Assault Recon ) , attending a briefing held by Commissioner Rowdy Betters , in the company of his F.E.A.R. team @-@ mates Spen Jankowski and Jin Sun @-@ Kwon . The team 's mission is to eliminate Fettel , operating in conjunction with Delta Force .
Fettel is located by means of a satellite tracking device and hunted by F.E.A.R. and Delta Force over several locations . While the villain evades capture by the special forces , the player witnesses unexplained , and occasionally life @-@ threatening , paranormal phenomena , including hallucinations that frequently afflict him , all of which are centered on a red @-@ dressed little girl named Alma . Laptops found in the course of the mission , remotely hacked by Commissioner Betters , provide details regarding the background story ; the player learns how Fettel was raised to become a telepathic military commander , that he is the son of Alma , who is described as being a powerful psychic as part of Project Origin , . The files mention something called a " Synchronicity Event " , in which Alma telepathically linked with Fettel when he was ten years old , despite her being in a coma , and which is said to have resulted in several deaths . The files also mention the existence of another child of Alma , who was born before Fettel .
All clues lead F.E.A.R. to believe Fettel is being controlled by Alma , who was locked in the Origin facility when ATC closed down the project owing to the danger the woman posed ; Fettel is searching for that same facility to free his mother . The player takes the Point Man to the abandoned structure , fighting back both the clone soldiers and ATC guards , who have received orders to cover up the whole affair . When the protagonist comes to finally face Fettel , he is drawn into a hallucination where the player learns how the Point Man is Alma 's first son and is thereafter enabled to kill Fettel himself .
Alma is nonetheless freed when her storage chamber is opened by ATC researcher and leader of Project Origin , Harlan Wade , who felt guilty over the company 's treatment of Alma and who was actually her father . The player is then called to sabotage the structure 's reactor , running a gauntlet against Alma 's ghosts before the whole location explodes . In the aftermath of the detonation , a Delta Force Black Hawk helicopter extracts the Point Man from the rubble , rescuing him . While the player and the survivors of the F.E.A.R. team survey the results of the explosion from the helicopter , Jin wonders what happened to Alma . Just then , the helicopter loses power , and Alma is seen pulling herself up into the cabin : the destruction of the Origin facility has not stopped her quest to get closer to her son .
After the game 's credits , the player can listen to a phone call between a mysterious senator and ATC president Aristide , which offers some further explanation : the woman considers the project under control and deems the " first prototype " ( presumably a reference to the Point Man ) a success .
= = = Characters and organizations = = =
During the course of the game , the player interacts with a number of different characters from various organizations . Some of them are allies , such as the F.E.A.R. and Delta Force team members , while others are hostile , such as Fettel 's soldiers and some ATC personnel . The player 's character never speaks , and instead participates in one @-@ sided discussions with other characters . On occasion , the Point Man is required to hand a communicator to other characters , allowing them to speak over the F.E.A.R. team radio . No artificial intelligence @-@ controlled characters fight alongside the player in F.E.A.R. , except for some sequences in the expansions Extraction Point and Perseus Mandate .
= = Development = =
F.E.A.R. was announced at an E3 2004 pre @-@ show , though its existence as an untitled project was revealed prior to this announcement . The game 's first trailer later premiered at E3 2004 and was well received by critics . During the E3 2004 showing , F.E.A.R. ' s lead designer , Craig Hubbard , stated that the game " ... evolved out of a concept we started developing right after Shogo that we 've been dying to work on . " Monolith Productions ' director of technology , Kevin Stephens , later elaborated that this concept was " ... to make an action movie in a first @-@ person shooter , where you really feel like an action star . " To this effect , the team focused on immersing the player , using elements like a silent , nameless protagonist with an unknown background , and allowing the player to see the protagonist 's body when looking down or sideways .
During 2005 , F.E.A.R. made playable appearances at Consumer Electronics Show , Game Developers Conference and E3 , all of which were well received . Its showing at E3 garnered it the Game Critics Award for " Best Action Game " . After the release of a single @-@ player demo , Vivendi allowed gaming journalists to play through the first four levels of the game , which received even more positive reaction than before . F.E.A.R. eventually released on October 18 , 2005 . Alongside the basic CD @-@ ROM edition , a " Director 's Cut " DVD version of F.E.A.R. was released with a number of extra features . A Dark Horse Entertainment comic book and a series of live action vignettes help clarify a number of plot elements depicted in the game , while the " Making of F.E.A.R. " and " Developers ' commentary " documentaries offer several insights and trivia into the game 's development through interviews with employees of Monolith Productions and Vivendi . Also included is the exclusive first episode of the F.E.A.R. machinima , P.A.N.I.C.S. , created by " Rooster Teeth Productions " .
Over the course of the " Developer 's roundtable commentary " , producer Chris Hewitt reveals , " We had a whole level in the game where we had this car chase sequence [ ... ] we spent about two months on that thing .... " " [ B ] ut the car chase sequence didn 't work the way we hoped it would " , adds designer Craig Hubbard , commenting on the choice to remove that level from the game . Hewitt also comments that , " Actually we started off with two villains , and [ Fettel ] was one of them until we merged them together .... " Craig Hubbard also remarks that " ... his jacket actually used to belong to another villain we had in the game named Conrad Krieg , whom we combined with Fettel pretty literally . "
= = = Engine technology = = =
F.E.A.R. is the first game developed using the newest iteration of Monolith 's Lithtech engine . Codenamed " Jupiter EX " , the F.E.A.R. engine is driven by a DirectX 9 renderer and has seen major advancements from its direct precursor , " Jupiter " . The new engine includes both Havok physics and the Havok " Vehicle Kit " , which adds support for common vehicle behavior . The latter feature goes mostly unused in F.E.A.R. , as no vehicles appear outside of scripted sequences .
Graphically , F.E.A.R. uses normal mapping and parallax mapping to give textures a more realistic appearance ; the latter is used to give the appearance of depth to flat bullet hole sprites on walls . Volumetric lighting and lightmapping are included with the addition of a per @-@ pixel lighting model , allowing complex lighting effects to be developed . Vertex , pixel and high @-@ level shaders , including a host of additional special effects , are also featured in Jupiter EX .
= = Reception = =
Prior to release , F.E.A.R. generated large amounts of hype from computer game journalists . Upon release , F.E.A.R. received critical acclaim , with Computer Gaming World calling it " ... one of the year 's top single @-@ player shooters ... " and PC Gamer regarding it as " ... the first game to convincingly channel the kinetic exhilaration of ' John Woo violence ' in the FPS format . "
IGN claimed that " Monolith forges new shooter territory with some truly freaky elements , challenge , fun , and beauty . " GameSpy praised the game 's plot , later awarding it their " Best Story " Game of the Year award . The New York Times thought differently , stating " I was never quite clear on what was going on in the game . I knew my goal — track down a psychic , escort a corporate executive 's daughter out of danger — but I didn 't ever care who these people were nor did I understand their motives . " The game has also received criticism for its system requirements , which called for an extremely powerful PC for its time . The Xbox 360 port has also received positive reviews , almost as favorable as the PC version . The multiplayer and instant @-@ action mode were praised for better gameplay , but the control scheme was negatively viewed . Reviews have also stated that it lacked bonus features , despite the new mission included in the game . GameSpot gave the game 8 @.@ 6 @.@ while IGN rated it 9 @.@ 1
The PlayStation 3 port received less favorable reviews than the other two versions , but still had positive reviews overall . It contained a different longer bonus mission than the one included in the Xbox 360 port , but the chief complaints of the negative reviewers were downgraded graphics and long loading times . GameSpot has given the port a 7 @.@ 1 , making it the third lowest rating of the F.E.A.R. franchise in GameSpot .
= = Later developments = =
Monolith Productions announced a sequel to F.E.A.R. , which is titled F.E.A.R. 2 : Project Origin after Monolith and Warner Bros. regained the rights to the F.E.A.R. name . Prior to September 2008 , the sequel was not to be titled F.E.A.R. 2 due to Vivendi 's ownership of the F.E.A.R. name . The game was instead to be called Project Origin , which is a name derived from a contest to name the sequel . The sequel remains in the game 's existing universe , retaining the original storyline and characters , but centering on a different character . Monolith Productions published the game with Warner Brothers Interactive Entertainment , which purchased the studio in 2004 while development of F.E.A.R. was under way , after which Vivendi Universal was dropped as publisher . Vivendi Universal published the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 ports of the original game , developed by Day 1 Studios .
An expansion pack titled F.E.A.R. Extraction Point was released by TimeGate Studios on October 24 , 2006 . The second expansion pack , F.E.A.R. Perseus Mandate , also from TimeGate Studios , was released in November 2007 . F.E.A.R. Files was released simultaneously for the Xbox 360 , consisting of both Extraction Point and Perseus Mandate .
= = P.A.N.I.C.S. = =
In 2005 , Rooster Teeth Productions created P.A.N.I.C.S. or PANICS , an acronym for People Acting Normal In Crazy @-@ Ass Situations , is a comic science fiction series based on F.E.A.R. The series was produced primarily by using the machinima technique of synchronizing video footage from video games to pre @-@ recorded dialogue and other audio . The series was produced at the request of Monolith Productions as a part of a tie @-@ in with the Director 's Edition of the F.E.A.R. , which the Rooster Teeth team used to produce the series . The mini @-@ series consists of five episodes . Four of these have been released on the Rooster Teeth website , and one — episode 0 , a prequel — originally shipped exclusively with the F.E.A.R. Director 's Edition DVD . It is also included with the game 's digital release on GOG.com.
The story centers on a newcomer to Bravo Team , a special military group formed to battle supernatural enemies . As the series begins , Bravo Team has been sent into a military facility at night to investigate the reports of paranormal activity from within . This is a parody of the main scenario used in F.E.A.R.
= SM U @-@ 31 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 31 or U @-@ XXXI was a U @-@ 27 class U @-@ boat or submarine for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . U @-@ 31 , built by the Hungarian firm of Ganz Danubius at Fiume , was launched in March 1917 and commissioned in April .
U @-@ 31 had a single hull and was just over 121 feet ( 37 m ) in length . She displaced nearly 265 metric tons ( 261 long tons ) when surfaced and over 300 metric tons ( 295 long tons ) when submerged . Her two diesel engines moved her at up to 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) on the surface , while her twin electric motors propelled her at up to 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ; 8 @.@ 6 mph ) while underwater . She was armed with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry a load of up to four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and a machine gun .
In October 1917 , U @-@ 31 sank while in port at Porto Bergudi and was out of service through April 1918 while she was raised and repaired . During her service career , U @-@ 31 sank two ships and damaged one warship , sending a combined tonnage of 4 @,@ 088 GRT to the bottom . U @-@ 31 was at Cattaro at war 's end and was awarded to France as war reparation in 1920 , towed to Bizerta and scrapped there .
= = Design and construction = =
Austria @-@ Hungary 's U @-@ boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U @-@ 10 class from Germany , by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U @-@ 14 , and by building four submarines of the U @-@ 20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class .
After these steps alleviated their most urgent needs , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the German Type UB II design for its newest submarines in mid 1915 . The Germans were reluctant to allocate any of their wartime resources to Austro @-@ Hungarian construction , but were willing to sell plans for up to six of the UB II boats to be constructed under license in Austria @-@ Hungary . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy agreed to the proposal and purchased the plans from AG Weser of Bremen .
U @-@ 31 displaced 264 metric tons ( 260 long tons ) surfaced and 301 metric tons ( 296 long tons ) submerged . She had a single hull with saddle tanks , and was 121 feet 1 inch ( 36 @.@ 91 m ) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches ( 4 @.@ 37 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 71 m ) . For propulsion , she had two shafts , twin diesel engines of 270 bhp ( 200 kW ) for surface running , and twin electric motors of 280 shp ( 210 kW ) for submerged travel . She was capable of 9 knots ( 16 @.@ 7 km / h ) while surfaced and 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 31 in Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 , the German UB II boats , upon which the U @-@ 27 class was based , had a range of over 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) surfaced , and 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ) submerged . U @-@ 27 @-@ class boats were designed for a crew of 23 – 24 .
U @-@ 31 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry a complement of four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm / 26 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
After intricate political negotiations to allocate production of the class between Austrian and Hungarian firms , U @-@ 27 was ordered from Ganz Danubius on 12 October 1915 . She was laid down on 4 July 1916 at Fiume and launched on 20 March 1917 .
= = Service career = =
After undergoing trials at Fiume during March , U @-@ 31 made a training voyage to Brioni in April . On 24 April 1917 , SM U @-@ 31 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Franz Nejebsy . Nejebsy , a 32 @-@ year @-@ old native of Teplitz @-@ Schönau , Bohemia ( present @-@ day Czech Republic ) , had previously served two stints as commander of U @-@ 1 . U @-@ 31 departed from Pola on 29 May to patrol along the Adriatic coast of Italy and returned on 5 June . U @-@ 31 departed for a patrol in the Mediterranean on 19 June . After a problem with a pump required a stop at Brioni , the U @-@ boat continued on . Nejebsy launched a torpedo attack on an armed yacht west of Strovathi on 25 June , but the torpedoes missed their mark . U @-@ 31 ended her patrol at Cattaro after ventilation problems kept the temperature in the engine room from falling below 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) .
After a month of repairs at Cattaro , U @-@ 31 headed out on another patrol on 6 August . On each of the next two days the U @-@ boat had to crash dive to avoid bombing attacks by French airplanes , the second day 's attack damaging the boat slightly . On 10 August , Nejebsy and U @-@ 31 scored their first kill with the sinking of am Italian cargo ship . The 4 @,@ 021 @-@ ton Lealta was carrying ammunition from Syracuse to Malta when U @-@ 31 intercepted her in the Ionian Sea east of Malta . An escorting destroyer dropped a pattern of ten depth charges over U @-@ 31 . The following day , Nejebsy was maneuvering U @-@ 31 into position to attack a convoy when the U @-@ boat was rammed from behind by a destroyer . U @-@ 31 's periscope was hit and twisted by the impact , forcing Nejebsy to end his attack and U @-@ 31 's patrol . On the way back to Cattaro , U @-@ 31 was attacked by an aircraft in the Straits of Otranto , but reached the safety of the port on 15 August .
U @-@ 31 was assigned to patrol the Austro @-@ Hungarian and Albanian coasts over the next six weeks . She headed to Fiume via Spalato on 16 October , reaching there three days later . On 26 October U @-@ 31 sank from an unknown cause in the harbor at Porto Bergudi . When raised from her resting depth of 8 metres ( 26 ft ) the next day , one crewman was found alive inside the boat . U @-@ 31 was taken first to the Danubius shipyard at nearby Fiume , and , later , on to Pola for repairs and trials .
In January , while U @-@ 31 's repairs were still ongoing , Nejebsy was reassigned , leaving the U @-@ boat without a commander for the next three months . On 11 March Linienschiffsleutnant Hermann Rigele was transferred from the helm of U @-@ 20 to assume command of U @-@ 31 . Rigele , who had been born in Sarajevo , was 26 years old and had also been in command of U @-@ 17 and , before that , U @-@ 10 at age 25 . Rigele and U @-@ 31 departed Pola on 30 April for a three @-@ day cruise to Cattaro via Sebenico . On 20 May , the boat left Cattaro for a Mediterranean patrol , but had to turn back with leaks after a day .
In June , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy planned an assault on the Otranto Barrage , similar to a May 1917 action that evolved into the Battle of Otranto Straits . U @-@ 31 was deployed from Cattaro on 9 June in advance of the attack . One of the seven separate groups participating in the attack — dreadnoughts Tegetthoff and Szent István — came under attack from Italian MAS torpedo boats in the early morning hours of 10 June . Szent István was hit and sank just after 06 : 00 , and the entire operation was called off . U @-@ 31 returned to Cattaro on 12 June .
On 16 June , Rigele and U @-@ 31 again set out for a Mediterranean patrol , but had to immediately return with clutch problems . Two days later , the U @-@ boat set out again for the Mediterranean . The next day , 19 June , Rigele had to take the boat to a depth of 40 metres ( 130 ft ) to avoid a depth charge attack . On 7 July , Rigele stopped the Italian sailing vessel Giuseppino Padre and , using explosive charges , sank the 67 @-@ ton ship . U @-@ 31 ended her patrol at Cattaro on 10 July . Over the next two months , the submarine operated in the Adriatic out of Cattaro and Pola , patrolling off Durazzo and the Albanian coast .
After the Armistice with Bulgaria on 29 September ended Bulgaria 's participation in the war , Durazzo gained importance to the remaining Central Powers as the main port for supplying their forces fighting in the Balkans . Anticipating this , the Allies put together a force to bombard Durazzo . While the second echelon of the attacking force got into position to shell the town , U @-@ 31 and sister boat U @-@ 29 , both patrolling off Durazzo , maneuvered to attack . Although U @-@ 29 was blocked by screening ships and experienced a heavy depth charge attack , U @-@ 31 was able to get in position to launch torpedoes at the British cruiser Weymouth . One of them hit its mark and blew the stern off of Weymouth , killing four sailors in the process . The other British cruisers involved in the attack took the damaged Weymouth under tow and departed . United States Navy submarine chasers were involved in the depth charge attacks on U @-@ 29 and U @-@ 31 and erroneously claimed that they had sunk both of the submarines . U @- | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
also affects Finland and Russia . The industry emits into the atmosphere annually about 200 @,@ 000 tonnes of fly @-@ ash , including heavy metals , carbonates , alkaline oxides ( mainly calcium oxide ( CaO ) ) , and harmful organic substances ( including PAHs ) . About 30 % of the fly @-@ ash is CaO , a portion of which is neutralised by atmospheric CO2 . Alkaline fly ash has raised the pH value of lake and bog water . This has caused the invasion of eutrophic plants in the area of the oil shale industry , leading to the degradation of those waterbodies . Another source of air pollution is the dust that arises during deposition of oil shale ash and semi @-@ coke .
According to a 2001 study , the concentration of particulate matter in the fly @-@ ash is 39 @.@ 7 mg per cubic metre . The most hazardous particles are those with a diameter of less than 2 @.@ 5 micrometres ( 9 @.@ 8 × 10 − 5 in ) ; these particles are associated with an increase in cardiovascular mortality and in the number of premature deaths in Estonia .
The combustion of oil shale releases more CO2 into the atmosphere than any other primary fuel . Generating 1 MWh of electricity in modern oil shale @-@ fired boilers creates 0 @.@ 9 – 1 tonnes of CO2 . Therefore , oil shale industry is the chief source – more than 70 % – of greenhouse gas emissions in Estonia . Due to the oil shale @-@ based electricity generation , Estonia 's has the second highest greenhouse gas emissions relative to GDP among the OECD and the fifth highest emissions per capita among the IEA countries . The whole energy sector of Estonia emitted the CO2 equivalent 17 million tonnes of greenhouse gases in 2012 . In order to reduce the country 's CO2 emissions and to meet the emissions reduction targets , use of oil shale in electricity generation needs to be scaled down . CO2 emissions in Estonia could be reduced by two @-@ thirds if oil shale would be used for production of lighter oil products instead of burning it for electricity generation . It could be achieved by raising taxes on oil shale use and harmonizing tax rates of fossil fuels according to the CO2 emission content .
= = = Mitigation = = =
Various efforts have reduced the industry 's environmental impact . Fluidised bed combustion generates fewer NOx , SO
2 , and fly @-@ ash emissions , including PAHs , than the earlier technologies that burned pulverised oil shale . Reclamation and reforestation of exhausted mining areas has been carried out since the 1970s . In 2010 – 2013 , a € 38 million project was implemented for the environmentally safe closing of 86 hectares ( 210 acres ) of semi @-@ coke and ash heaps . In accordance with a European Union waste framework directive , the heaps were covered with waterproof material , new topsoil , and sod . In Kiviõli , a 90 @-@ metre ( 300 ft ) semi @-@ coke heap , the highest artificial hill in the Baltic countries , was converted into a ski centre . The former Aidu open @-@ pit mine was converted into a rowing course . A part of the former Sirgala open pit mine has been used as a military training area .
There is no recent research about monetary valuation of health damage and environmental impacts caused by the oil shale industry . An oil shale sector health impact survey will be carried out in 2015 .
= Modern Life Is Rubbish =
Modern Life Is Rubbish is the second studio album by the English alternative rock band Blur , released in May 1993 . Although their debut album Leisure ( 1991 ) had been commercially successful , Blur faced a severe media backlash soon after its release , and fell out of public favour . After the group returned from an unsuccessful tour of the United States , poorly received live performances and the rising popularity of rival band Suede further diminished Blur 's status in the UK .
Under threat of being dropped by Food Records , for their next album Blur underwent an image makeover championed by frontman Damon Albarn . The band incorporated influences from traditional British guitar pop groups such as the Kinks and the Small Faces , and the resulting sound was melodic and lushly produced , featuring brass , woodwind and backing vocalists . Albarn 's lyrics on Modern Life Is Rubbish use " poignant humour and Ray Davies characterisation to investigate the dreams , traditions and prejudices of suburban England " , according to writer David Cavanagh .
Modern Life Is Rubbish was a moderate chart success in the UK ; the album peaked at number 15 , while the singles taken from the album charted in the Top 30 . Applauded by the music press , the album 's Anglocentric rhetoric rejuvenated the group 's fortunes after their post @-@ Leisure slump . Modern Life Is Rubbish is regarded as one of the defining releases of the Britpop scene , and its chart @-@ topping follow @-@ ups — Parklife and The Great Escape — saw Blur emerge as one of Britain 's leading pop acts .
= = Background = =
Blur 's baggy @-@ inspired debut album Leisure ( 1991 ) was a UK Top 10 @-@ charting record that , according to the NME , made the band the " acceptable pretty face of a whole clump of bands that have emerged since the whole Manchester thing started to run out of steam " . However , as the baggy scene soon began to fade , Blur were — according to The Guardian — " [ s ] wiftly exposed as bogus trend @-@ hoppers , [ and ] they duly caught the wrath of the Madchester backlash " . Further , following their fall from public favour , the group found that they were £ 60 @,@ 000 in debt , mainly due to mismanagement . Blur hired new manager Chris Morrison and , to recoup losses , were sent by their record label Food to the United States as part of the Rollercoaster tour . To coincide with the start of the tour , Blur released the " Popscene " single ; the new release showcased a significant change in musical direction , as Blur traded their shoegaze @-@ derived sound for one influenced by 60s British guitar pop . However , the single failed to break into the UK top 30 which further diminished Blur 's profile in the UK .
The 44 @-@ date tour of the United States left Blur in " complete disarray " , according to writer David Cavanagh . Dismayed by American audiences ' infatuation with grunge and the lacklustre response to their music , the group frequently drank , and members often broke into fist @-@ fights with one another . Homesick , the tour " instilled in the band a contempt for everything American " , Cavanagh later wrote ; frontman Damon Albarn , who " started to miss really simple things [ about England ] " , listened to a tape of the English pop group the Kinks throughout the tour . Upon their return to England , the group discovered that the attention of the music press had shifted to Suede . The newcomers ' success displeased Blur who , in Cavanagh 's words , " were inclined to feel that every record Suede sold was an affront to human decency " . After many poor live shows , which Blur members often performed while drunk — in particular one at a 1992 gig that featured a well @-@ received performance by Suede on the same bill — Blur were in danger of being dropped by Food .
= = Recording = =
" Suede and America fuelled my desire to prove to everyone that Blur were worth it " , Albarn told Mojo in 2000 , " There was nothing more important in my life . " Albarn felt the popularity American grunge music was enjoying in Britain at the time would soon run out of steam , and argued that Blur would embody a renaissance of classic British pop on their next album . Although the singer felt Blur had finally found their musical identity , not everybody was convinced with Albarn 's new British @-@ centric manifesto . Food Records owner David Balfe , in particular , strongly disagreed , and got into fierce arguments with Albarn over the proposed change in Blur 's image . After the still @-@ sceptical Balfe finally relented , Food warily gave Blur the go @-@ ahead to work on their second album with Albarn 's first choice of producer , Andy Partridge of XTC . Blur and Partridge began work at The Church , a studio in Crouch End owned by keyboardist Dave Stewart . However , the pairing didn 't work out . Bassist Alex James described the sessions as a " disaster " ; he added that " as it was all being put together , they were all good parts , but it just wasn 't ... sexy " . The band successfully recorded four songs , but they were wary about working in the same conditions again .
Blur resumed work on their second album due to a chance meeting with producer Stephen Street , who had previously worked with the band on their 1991 single " There 's No Other Way " . With Street now producing the album , Blur recorded a mix of material spanning both the period immediately after the release of Leisure and their 1992 tour . While the band members were pleased with the recording session results , Balfe , after hearing the songs , told the band they were committing artistic suicide . Although dejected by his response , Blur gave Food the completed album in December 1992 . However , the label told the group that the album was unfit for release and at the very least they should add a few more potential singles . Albarn complied , and on Christmas Day wrote the song " For Tomorrow " . Although " For Tomorrow " sated Food 's concerns , Blur 's American label SBK voiced discontent upon hearing the finished tapes of the album . To appease SBK the band recorded " Chemical World " , which Blur thought would increase Rubbish 's American appeal . However , Blur flatly refused SBK 's demand of re @-@ recording the album with American producer Butch Vig , who was popular at the time for his work with Nirvana .
= = Music and lyrical themes = =
Modern Life Is Rubbish 's sound is highly influenced by the traditional guitar pop of British bands such as the Kinks , the Jam , the Small Faces and the Who . The album 's songs explore a number of styles — punk rock ( " Advert " ) , neo @-@ psychedelia ( " Chemical World " ) , and vaudeville music @-@ hall ( " Sunday Sunday " ) . Opening track " For Tomorrow " is , according to NME , " quintessential Blur . Damon , perennially bored , never stops singing , and Graham [ Coxon ] supplie [ s ] his usual immaculate guitar accompaniment " . While " Oily Water " harked back to the baggy sound of Leisure , NME described " Intermission " as " a pub piano knees @-@ up that rinky @-@ dinks along then gets frazzled in guitars and speeded @-@ up drums " . Most of the songs on the album are melodic and lushly produced , often supplemented by a brass section , string arrangements and backing vocals . To offer contrast to the classicist songwriting , Allmusic noted that " Coxon 's guitar tears each song open , either with unpredictable melodic lines or layers of translucent , hypnotic effects , and his work creates great tension with Alex James ' kinetic bass " .
Deriving from " the biting humor of Ray Davies and the bitterness of Paul Weller " , Albarn 's lyrics on Modern Life Is Rubbish are a social commentary and satire on contemporary suburban English life . While Rubbish celebrates modern British life , it also takes a cynical look at middle @-@ class existence . The overt Anglo @-@ centricism of the album was also retaliation against American popular culture ; James later explained , " it was f * * * ing scary how American everything 's becoming ... so the whole thing was a f * * * ing big two fingers up to America " . NME summarised the theme of the " thinly @-@ veiled concept album " as a " London odyssey crammed full of strange commuters , peeping Thomases and lost dreams ; of opening the windows and breathing in petrol ... It 's the Village Green Preservation Society come home to find a car park in its place " .
= = Packaging = =
The album 's title derives from stenciled graffiti painted along Bayswater Road in London , created by an anarchist group . For Albarn , the phrase reflected the " rubbish " of the past that accumulated over time , stifling creativity . Albarn told journalist John Harris in 1993 that he thought the phrase was " the most significant comment on popular culture since ' Anarchy in the UK ' " . Due to Blur 's disdain for America at the time , the album 's working title was Britain Versus America .
The painting of the steam locomotive Mallard on the album cover was a stock image that Stylorouge — Blur 's design consultants — obtained from a photo library in Halifax . According to Design Week magazine , the painting " evoked the feel of a Just William schoolboy 's pre @-@ war Britain " . Inside the packaging , there is an oil @-@ on @-@ canvas of the band dressed as mop @-@ top skinheads in a tube train . The album 's lyric sheets also feature the songs ' chord progressions , hand @-@ written by guitar player Graham Coxon . While Albarn explained that it was an attempt to " [ let ] people to know that , old @-@ fashioned as it might seem , we write songs " , Total Guitar magazine attributed the inclusion of the chords to Coxon 's " keen [ ness ] to demystify guitar playing " .
= = Release and reception = =
To promote Modern Life Is Rubbish , Food released " For Tomorrow " as the album 's lead single in the UK in April 1993 . The single , which showcased Blur 's new sound and attitude , performed moderately well in the charts , reaching number 28 . A few weeks later in May 1993 , Modern Life was released . The announcement of the album 's release included a press photo that featured the phrase " British Image 1 " spraypainted behind Blur members ( who were dressed in a mixture of mod and skinhead attire ) and a Mastiff . At the time , such imagery was viewed as nationalistic and racially insensitive by the British music press ; to quiet concerns , Blur subsequently released the " British Image 2 " photo , which was " a camp restaging of a pre @-@ war aristocratic tea party " . The album peaked at number 15 on the UK Album Chart . In the next few months Food further issued two UK Top 30 @-@ charting singles — " Chemical World " and " Sunday Sunday " — to support the record ; however , Modern Life only managed to sell around 40 @,@ 000 copies at the time . Nonetheless , the mood within the Blur camp was positive , as the band felt they had accomplished something ; bassist Alex James told writer David Cavanagh in 2000 , " Modern Life Is Rubbish was a successful record because it achieved what we set out to achieve . I thought everything was shit except us " .
Modern Life Is Rubbish was released in the United States by Blur 's American record label SBK in December 1993 — seven months after the album 's UK release . This delay was because SBK 's alternative @-@ music department had closed down ; Blur manager Chris Morrison later quipped , " When I asked [ SBK ] why , they said it was because the girl had left . " Despite fears that Modern Life 's overt Englishness would be lost on the American market , SBK insisted on marketing the album to MOR stations and aimed for Top 40 airplay . The label largely ignored Morrison 's arguments that Blur 's best chance of exposure in America would be to court college radio @-@ stations . SBK 's strategy was to list the album at a developing @-@ artist price ( around three dollars less than standard ) , send the band on an intensive tour in 1994 and to target modern rock airplay with debut single " Chemical World " . The record company believed this would help expand on the base audience who bought Leisure , and eventually open Blur to Top 40 radio . Further , to lessen the anglocentric feel of the record , SBK added additional songs to the track @-@ listing — including " Popscene " . The plan fared rather poorly , as Modern Life barely had any impact in the US ; the album didn 't chart on the US Billboard 200 and sold only 19 @,@ 000 copies , a sharp decline compared to the 87 @,@ 000 units that Leisure shifted .
Modern Life Is Rubbish was well received by the British music press . NME reviewer Paul Moody was mostly enthusiastic about the record and rated it seven out of ten . While he felt the album had " enough faults to give a surveyor nightmares " , he was impressed that , unlike their peers , " Blur [ had ] thrown on their old clothes and stormed into No Man 's Land with all guns blazing " . Moody also praised the improvement in Albarn 's lyrics , which had hitherto " [ made ] Eurovision Song Contest entries seem like great works of poetry " . Q 's David Roberts , in a favourable four ( out of five ) star review , called Modern Life " an energised , infectious romp around contemporary little England , by way of an exuberant trawl through a highly @-@ coloured patchwork of its pop past " . Roberts placed Coxon as the leading contender for " the vacant crown of [ Smiths guitarist ] Johnny Marr " . American publications also spoke favourably of Modern Life . Writing for the Chicago Tribune , rock critic Greg Kot felt the album was a vast improvement over Leisure , which he found " highly derivative " of the Madchester genre . " Nothing on [ Leisure ] prepares the listener for the adventurousness of ' Modern Life is Rubbish , ' " he wrote , going on to describe the album as " a swirling , intoxicating song cycle that enriches superior popcraft with wiggy studio experiments . " St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch writer Paul Hampel commended Blur for having " taken a bold step [ with Modern Life ] – backward " , and pointed to their attempt at " a communion with past masters of smart , satirical Brit pop " . He concluded his positive review of the album by calling it a " series of pleasant surprises [ that ] offers numerous signs that great things are to come from Blur " .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
In August 1993 , Blur set off on the Sugary Tea tour of the UK to promote Modern Life Is Rubbish . Named after a lyric in " Chemical World " , the tour was a success , as Blur reclaimed some of their popularity . A key performance was at that year 's Reading Festival which , according to David Cavanagh , was " brilliant " . On the tour , Blur performed a number of songs that would end up on the group 's follow @-@ up album , Parklife ( 1994 ) .
Parklife saw Blur expanding upon the themes and sounds they had first explored on Modern Life Is Rubbish ; the NME described it as " ' Modern Life Is Rubbish 's ' older brother – bigger , bolder , narkier and funnier " . Parklife debuted at number one on the UK charts , and helped Blur emerge as one of Britain 's most popular acts . As Jim Shelley wrote in The Guardian , " a year after Blur were dismissed as too mannered , too retrograde and too English , Parklife was embraced for exactly the same reasons " . Modern Life Is Rubbish and Parklife , along with The Great Escape ( 1995 ) , formed what would be later referred to as the " Life " trilogy of Blur albums revolving around British themes .
Modern Life Is Rubbish remains highly regarded by critics , and is seen as one of the early , defining releases of Britpop , a genre that would dominate British pop music in the mid @-@ 1990s . Writing for The Guardian , John Harris called the album " one of the 1990s ' most influential records " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic felt that " Modern Life Is Rubbish established Blur as the heir to the archly British pop of the Kinks , the Small Faces , and the Jam " and that it " ushered in a new era of British pop " . Mark Redfern wrote in Under the Radar magazine that following Modern Life Is Rubbish , " [ a ] whole wave of Britpop bands followed in [ Blur 's ] footsteps , and for a while , it was cool to be British again " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Damon Albarn , Graham Coxon , Alex James and Dave Rowntree .
" For Tomorrow " – 4 : 18
" Advert " – 3 : 43
" Colin Zeal " – 3 : 14
" Pressure on Julian " – 3 : 30
" Star Shaped " – 3 : 25
" Blue Jeans " – 3 : 53
" Chemical World " – 4 : 02
" Intermission " – 2 : 27
" Sunday Sunday " – 2 : 36
" Oily Water " – 4 : 59
" Miss America " – 5 : 34
" Villa Rosie " – 3 : 54
" Coping " – 3 : 23
" Turn It Up " – 3 : 21
" Resigned " – 5 : 13
" Commercial Break " – 0 : 56
= = = American release = = =
The American release of Modern Life Is Rubbish features an altered track listing . Blur 's American label SBK Records preferred the group 's original demo of " Chemical World " , and included it on the album instead of the Stephen Street @-@ produced version . According to Select magazine , this " defeated the object of recording a heavy rock song in the first place " . SBK inserted " Popscene " in between " Turn It Up " and " Resigned " ; Blur had refused to include " Popscene " on the British version of Modern Life , disappointed by the public reaction to the song when it was released as a single . " We thought , If you didn ’ t fucking want it in the first place , " Graham Coxon explained to Select , " you ’ re not going to get it now " . The American version also features several tracks with a few seconds of silence ( tracks 18 to 67 on the CD ) , followed by two " For Tomorrow " B @-@ sides ( " When the Cows Come Home " and " Peach " ) as hidden tracks 68 and 69 .
= = Personnel = =
Damon Albarn – vocals , piano , keyboards
Graham Coxon – guitar , backing vocals
Alex James – bass guitar
Dave Rowntree – drums
Stephen Street – producer ( except " Sunday Sunday " and " Villa Rosie " )
Steve Lovell – producer ( " Sunday Sunday " and " Villa Rosie " )
Simon Weinstock – mixer ( " Sunday Sunday " and " Villa Rosie " )
John Smith – engineer ; co @-@ producer ( " Intermission " , " Commercial Break " , " Miss America " , " Resigned " )
Blur – producer ( " Oily Water " ) , co @-@ producer ( " Intermission " , " Commercial Break " , " Miss America " , " Resigned " )
Kick Horns – brass ( " Sunday Sunday " )
Kate St John – oboe ( " Star Shaped " )
= Hemorrhoid =
Hemorrhoids , also spelled haemorrhoids , are vascular structures in the anal canal . In their normal state , they are cushions that help with stool control . They become a disease when swollen or inflamed ; the unqualified term " hemorrhoid " is often used to mean the disease . The signs and symptoms of hemorrhoids depend on the type present . Internal hemorrhoids usually present with painless , bright red rectal bleeding when defecating . External hemorrhoids often result in pain and swelling in the area of the anus . If bleeding occurs it is usually darker . Symptoms frequently get better after a few days . A skin tag may remain after the healing of an external hemorrhoid .
While the exact cause of hemorrhoids remains unknown , a number of factors which increase pressure in the abdomen are believed to be involved . This may include constipation , diarrhea , and sitting on the toilet for a long time . Hemorrhoids are also more common during pregnancy . Diagnosis is made by looking at the area . Many people incorrectly refer to any symptom occurring around the anal area as " hemorrhoids " and serious causes of the symptoms should be ruled out . Colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy is reasonable to confirm the diagnosis and rule out more serious causes .
No specific treatment is often needed . Initial measures consists of increasing fiber intake , drinking fluids to maintain hydration , NSAIDs to help with pain , and rest . Medicated creams applied to the area are poorly supported by evidence . A number of minor procedures may be performed if symptoms are severe or do not improve with conservative management . Surgery is reserved for those who fail to improve following these measures .
Half to two thirds of people have problems with hemorrhoids at some point in their lives . Males and females are affected about equally commonly . Hemorrhoids affect people most often between 45 and 65 years of age . It is more common among the wealthy . Outcomes are usually good . The first known mention of the disease is from a 1700 BC Egyptian papyrus .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
In about 40 % of people with pathological hemorrhoids there are no significant symptoms . Internal and external hemorrhoids may present differently ; however , many people may have a combination of the two . Bleeding enough to cause anemia is rare , and life @-@ threatening bleeding is even more uncommon . Many people feel embarrassed when facing the problem and often seek medical care only when the case is advanced .
= = = External = = =
If not thrombosed , external hemorrhoids may cause few problems . However , when thrombosed , hemorrhoids may be very painful . Nevertheless , this pain typically resolves in two to three days . The swelling may , however , take a few weeks to disappear . A skin tag may remain after healing . If hemorrhoids are large and cause issues with hygiene , they may produce irritation of the surrounding skin , and thus itchiness around the anus .
= = = Internal = = =
Internal hemorrhoids usually present with painless , bright red rectal bleeding during or following a bowel movement . The blood typically covers the stool ( a condition known as hematochezia ) , is on the toilet paper , or drips into the toilet bowl . The stool itself is usually normally coloured . Other symptoms may include mucous discharge , a perianal mass if they prolapse through the anus , itchiness , and fecal incontinence . Internal hemorrhoids are usually only painful if they become thrombosed or necrotic .
= = Causes = =
The exact cause of symptomatic hemorrhoids is unknown . A number of factors are believed to play a role , including irregular bowel habits ( constipation or diarrhea ) , lack of exercise , nutritional factors ( low @-@ fiber diets ) , increased intra @-@ abdominal pressure ( prolonged straining , ascites , an intra @-@ abdominal mass , or pregnancy ) , genetics , an absence of valves within the hemorrhoidal veins , and aging . Other factors believed to increase risk include obesity , prolonged sitting , a chronic cough , and pelvic floor dysfunction . Evidence for these associations , however , is poor .
During pregnancy , pressure from the fetus on the abdomen and hormonal changes cause the hemorrhoidal vessels to enlarge . The birth of the baby also leads to increased intra @-@ abdominal pressures . Pregnant women rarely need surgical treatment , as symptoms usually resolve after delivery .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Hemorrhoid cushions are a part of normal human anatomy and become a pathological disease only when they experience abnormal changes . There are three main cushions present in the normal anal canal . These are located classically at left lateral , right anterior , and right posterior positions . They are composed of neither arteries nor veins , but blood vessels called sinusoids , connective tissue , and smooth muscle . Sinusoids do not have muscle tissue in their walls , as veins do . This set of blood vessels is known as the hemorrhoidal plexus .
Hemorrhoid cushions are important for continence . They contribute to 15 – 20 % of anal closure pressure at rest and protect the internal and external anal sphincter muscles during the passage of stool . When a person bears down , the intra @-@ abdominal pressure grows , and hemorrhoid cushions increase in size helping to maintain anal closure . Hemorrhoid symptoms are believed to result when these vascular structures slide downwards or when venous pressure is excessively increased . Increased internal and external anal sphincter pressure may also be involved in hemorrhoid symptoms . Two types of hemorrhoids occur : internals from the superior hemorrhoidal plexus and externals from the inferior hemorrhoidal plexus . The dentate line divides the two regions .
= = Diagnosis = =
Hemorrhoids are typically diagnosed by physical examination . A visual examination of the anus and surrounding area may diagnose external or prolapsed hemorrhoids . A rectal exam may be performed to detect possible rectal tumors , polyps , an enlarged prostate , or abscesses . This examination may not be possible without appropriate sedation because of pain , although most internal hemorrhoids are not associated with pain . Visual confirmation of internal hemorrhoids may require anoscopy , insertion of a hollow tube device with a light attached at one end . The two types of hemorrhoids are external and internal . These are differentiated by their position with respect to the dentate line . Some persons may concurrently have symptomatic versions of both . If pain is present , the condition is more likely to be an anal fissure or an external hemorrhoid rather than an internal hemorrhoid .
= = = Internal = = =
Internal hemorrhoids originate above the dentate line . They are covered by columnar epithelium , which lacks pain receptors . They were classified in 1985 into four grades based on the degree of prolapse :
Grade I : No prolapse , just prominent blood vessels
Grade II : Prolapse upon bearing down , but spontaneous reduction
Grade III : Prolapse upon bearing down requiring manual reduction
Grade IV : Prolapse with inability to be manually reduced .
= = = External = = =
External hemorrhoids occur below the dentate or pectinate line . They are covered proximally by anoderm and distally by skin , both of which are sensitive to pain and temperature .
= = = Differential = = =
Many anorectal problems , including fissures , fistulae , abscesses , colorectal cancer , rectal varices , and itching have similar symptoms and may be incorrectly referred to as hemorrhoids . Rectal bleeding may also occur owing to colorectal cancer , colitis including inflammatory bowel disease , diverticular disease , and angiodysplasia . If anemia is present , other potential causes should be considered .
Other conditions that produce an anal mass include skin tags , anal warts , rectal prolapse , polyps , and enlarged anal papillae . Anorectal varices due to increased portal hypertension ( blood pressure in the portal venous system ) may present similar to hemorrhoids but are a different condition . Portal hypertension does not increase the risk of hemorrhoids .
= = Prevention = =
A number of preventative measures are recommended , including avoiding straining while attempting to defecate , avoiding constipation and diarrhea either by eating a high @-@ fiber diet and drinking plenty of fluid or by taking fiber supplements , and getting sufficient exercise . Spending less time attempting to defecate , avoiding reading while on the toilet , and losing weight for overweight persons and avoiding heavy lifting are also recommended .
= = Management = =
= = = Conservative = = =
Conservative treatment typically consists of foods rich in dietary fiber , intake of oral fluids to maintain hydration , nonsteroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drugs , sitz baths , and rest . Increased fiber intake has been shown to improve outcomes and may be achieved by dietary alterations or the consumption of fiber supplements . Evidence for benefits from sitz baths during any point in treatment , however , is lacking . If they are used , they should be limited to 15 minutes at a time .
While many topical agents and suppositories are available for the treatment of hemorrhoids , little evidence supports their use . Steroid @-@ containing agents should not be used for more than 14 days , as they may cause thinning of the skin . Most agents include a combination of active ingredients . These may include a barrier cream such as petroleum jelly or zinc oxide , an analgesic agent such as lidocaine , and a vasoconstrictor such as epinephrine . Some contain Balsam of Peru to which certain people may be allergic .
Flavonoids are of questionable benefit , with potential side effects . Symptoms usually resolve following pregnancy ; thus active treatment is often delayed until after delivery .
= = = Procedures = = =
A number of office @-@ based procedures may be performed . While generally safe , rare serious side effects such as perianal sepsis may occur .
Rubber band ligation is typically recommended as the first @-@ line treatment in those with grade 1 to 3 disease . It is a procedure in which elastic bands are applied onto an internal hemorrhoid at least 1 cm above the dentate line to cut off its blood supply . Within 5 – 7 days , the withered hemorrhoid falls off . If the band is placed too close to the dentate line , intense pain results immediately afterwards . Cure rate has been found to be about 87 % with a complication rate of up to 3 % .
Sclerotherapy involves the injection of a sclerosing agent , such as phenol , into the hemorrhoid . This causes the vein walls to collapse and the hemorrhoids to shrivel up . The success rate four years after treatment is about 70 % .
A number of cauterization methods have been shown to be effective for hemorrhoids , but are usually only used when other methods fail . This procedure can be done using electrocautery , infrared radiation , laser surgery , or cryosurgery . Infrared cauterization may be an option for grade 1 or 2 disease . In those with grade 3 or 4 disease , reoccurrence rates are high .
= = = Surgery = = =
A number of surgical techniques may be used if conservative management and simple procedures fail . All surgical treatments are associated with some degree of complications including bleeding , infection , anal strictures and urinary retention , due to the close proximity of the rectum to the nerves that supply the bladder . Also , a small risk of fecal incontinence occurs , particularly of liquid , with rates reported between 0 % and 28 % . Mucosal ectropion is another condition which may occur after hemorrhoidectomy ( often together with anal stenosis ) . This is where the anal mucosa becomes everted from the anus , similar to a very mild form of rectal prolapse .
Excisional hemorrhoidectomy is a surgical excision of the hemorrhoid used primarily only in severe cases . It is associated with significant postoperative pain and usually requires 2 – 4 weeks for recovery . However , the long @-@ term benefit is greater in those with grade 3 hemorrhoids as compared to rubber band ligation . It is the recommended treatment in those with a thrombosed external hemorrhoid if carried out within 24 – 72 hours . Glyceryl trinitrate ointment after the procedure helps both with pain and healing .
Doppler @-@ guided , transanal hemorrhoidal dearterialization is a minimally invasive treatment using an ultrasound doppler to accurately locate the arterial blood inflow . These arteries are then " tied off " and the prolapsed tissue is sutured back to its normal position . It has a slightly higher recurrence rate , but fewer complications compared to a hemorrhoidectomy .
Stapled hemorrhoidectomy , also known as stapled hemorrhoidopexy , involves the removal of much of the abnormally enlarged hemorrhoidal tissue , followed by a repositioning of the remaining hemorrhoidal tissue back to its normal anatomical position . It is generally less painful and is associated with faster healing compared to complete removal of hemorrhoids . However , the chance of symptomatic hemorrhoids returning is greater than for conventional hemorroidectomy , so it is typically only recommended for grade 2 or 3 disease .
= = Epidemiology = =
It is difficult to determine how common hemorrhoids are as many people with the condition do not see a healthcare provider . However , symptomatic hemorrhoids are thought to affect at least 50 % of the US population at some time during their lives , and around 5 % of the population is affected at any given time . Both sexes experience about the same incidence of the condition , with rates peaking between 45 and 65 years . They are more common in Caucasians and those of higher socioeconomic status .
Long @-@ term outcomes are generally good , though some people may have recurrent symptomatic episodes . Only a small proportion of persons end up needing surgery .
= = History = =
The first known mention of this disease is from a 1700 BC Egyptian papyrus , which advises : “ ... Thou shouldest give a recipe , an ointment of great protection ; acacia leaves , ground , titurated and cooked together . Smear a strip of fine linen there @-@ with and place in the anus , that he recovers immediately . " In 460 BC , the Hippocratic corpus discusses a treatment similar to modern rubber band ligation : “ And hemorrhoids in like manner you may treat by transfixing them with a needle and tying them with very thick and woolen thread , for application , and do not forment until they drop off , and always leave one behind ; and when the patient recovers , let him be put on a course of Hellebore . ” Hemorrhoids may have been described in the Bible , with earlier English translations using the now @-@ obsolete spelling " emerods " .
Celsus ( 25 BC – AD 14 ) described ligation and excision procedures , and discussed the possible complications . Galen advocated severing the connection of the arteries to veins , claiming it reduced both pain and the spread of gangrene . The Susruta Samhita ( fourth – fifth century AD ) is similar to the words of Hippocrates , but emphasizes wound cleanliness . In the 13th century , European surgeons such as Lanfranc of Milan , Guy de Chauliac , Henri de Mondeville , and John of Ardene made great progress and development of the surgical techniques .
In medieval times , hemorrhoids were also known as Saint Fiacre 's curse after a sixth @-@ century saint who developed them following tilling the soil . The first use of the word " hemorrhoid " in English occurs in 1398 , derived from the Old French " emorroides " , from Latin hæmorrhoida , in turn from the Greek αἱμορροΐς ( haimorrhois ) , " liable to discharge blood " , from αἷμα ( haima ) , " blood " and ῥόος ( rhoos ) , " stream , flow , current " , itself from ῥέω ( rheo ) , " to flow , to stream " .
= = Notable cases = =
Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame baseball player George Brett was removed from a game in the 1980 World Series due to hemorrhoid pain . After undergoing minor surgery , Brett returned to play in the next game , quipping " ... my problems are all behind me . " Brett underwent further hemorrhoid surgery the following spring . Conservative political commentator Glenn Beck underwent surgery for hemorrhoids , subsequently describing his unpleasant experience in a widely viewed 2008 YouTube video . Former U.S. President Jimmy Carter had surgery for hemorrhoids in 1984 . Cricketers Matthew Hayden and Viv Richards also had the condition .
= Frank Tarr =
Francis Nathaniel Tarr ( 14 August 1887 – 18 July 1915 ) was an English international rugby union player . He played centre for the Leicester Tigers and , between 1909 and 1913 , won four caps for England , scoring two tries . He also earned three Blues while reading law at Oxford .
He later became a solicitor in Leicester before volunteering for overseas service during the First World War . He was killed in July 1915 near Ypres on the Western Front , after being hit by a shell splinter while serving as a lieutenant in the 1 / 4th Battalion , Leicestershire Regiment . Tarr was one of 27 former England internationals killed in the war .
= = Early life = =
Born on 14 August 1887 at Ironville , near Belper , Derbyshire , Frank Tarr was the only son of Frederick and Emma Tarr . His father was a coal merchant . He was educated at Stoneygate School , Leicester , where he began playing rugby , before moving up to Uppingham School in 1902 , where he was Captain of Games and played three @-@ quarter in the rugby team for two years , encountering a future Oxford and England team @-@ mate Ronald Poulton @-@ Palmer playing for Rugby School . From 1906 to 1910 he read law at University College , Oxford .
= = Rugby career = =
In his first season at Oxford , Tarr played for the ' A ' team , which also included another future England player Anthony Henniker @-@ Gotley . He was later selected for the senior team and gained three Blues from 1907 to 1909 . He won his first Blue in the 1907 Varsity Match on 10 December , alongside Henry Vassall . Cambridge , with some notable international players on the team , were the clear favourites on the day . After they won the toss and elected to kick off with the wind behind them , the majority of the first 40 minutes was played in Oxford 's half , much of it in their 25 . Yet Cambridge failed to break through Oxford 's defence , chiefly that of the centres Vassall and Tarr . Just before half time , with a scrum deep in Oxford 's half , Rupert Williamson fed George Cunningham . The ball came to Tarr , who drew his opposite man , K. G. Macleod , and timed his pass to Vassall so that he , in turn , drew the Cambridge left wing near the half @-@ way line and put H. Martin to run in a try from there . Oxford went on to win 16 – 0 .
With Oxford having won the Varsity Match in 1906 and again in 1907 , Harold Hodges , the Oxford captain , was inclined to keep the winning three @-@ quarter line for 1908 , including the centre combination of Vassall and Tarr . One of that year 's freshers was Tennant Sloan , a capped Scottish centre , who chose to try out for full @-@ back , realising that he was unlikely to be picked ahead of either of the incumbent centres . Vassall and Tarr had excellent ball handling skills , were quick around the field and fine decision makers ; Tarr was also a formidable tackler . Ronnie Poulton played several games for Oxford ahead of the Varsity Match but it was clear that Hodges preferred the Vassall @-@ Tarr pairing and Poulton only played when Vassall was injured , as he did in the 20 – 0 defeat of Richmond RFC . On 12 December , the 1908 Varsity Match resulted in a hard fought 5 – 5 draw , the Cambridge pack having improved considerably since the previous year . As it turned out , Vassall 's persistent ankle injury rendered him useless just five minutes into the game . The Times noted Tarr 's performance saying : " FN Tarr , at left centre three @-@ quarter , gave a magnificent display of defensive play . "
Tarr earned his first England cap on 9 January 1909 against the touring Australians at Rectory Field , Blackheath . His opportunity came up with both Vassall and John Birkett injured . Also earning their first caps that day were Edgar Mobbs on the right wing and Alex Ashcroft , of Cambridge University , at fly @-@ half . England took an early lead , when Tarr put Mobbs in for a try in the opening stages . That try has been described by his contemporary , rugby journalist and author E. H. D. Sewell , as being " one of the very best ever scored , being perfect in execution from the moment Tarr first received the ball to the moment Mobbs touched it down for a try . " However , Australia took control of the game to win 9 – 3 .
Tarr was selected to play Wales the following week in Cardiff . Although England played better than expected , Wales were favourites to win and beat the visitors 8 – 0 . Two weeks later , on 30 January , England played France with a half @-@ back combination of Frank Hutchinson , earning his first cap , and Williamson ; Poulton making his debut at centre alongside Tarr ; and Mobbs and Tom Simpson on the wings . France was not yet part of what was to become the Five Nations tournament ( now the Six Nations ) and was a relatively easy side to play . England won the game comfortably 22 – 0 , with Tarr scoring two tries , one through good interplay with Mobbs and the other , a fine individual run . Despite the tries , Tarr was dropped from the England squad .
For the 1909 Varsity Match , Cunningham announced his choice of Poulton at a meeting on 2 December which Vassall was unable to attend . Cunningham sent him a letter by hand informing him of the decision . When the note returned undelivered , Cunningham hesitated , at which point Tarr offered to give up his own place for Poulton but Cunningham stuck to his initial selection . The game was played on 11 December , with Oxford at the start having the worse of it until one moment turned the game around : after the Oxford forwards got the ball back , Gotley , at scrum @-@ half , sent the ball to Cunningham , who passed on to Tarr and he to his fellow centre Colin Gilray . He fed the ball to Poulton on the left wing still inside the Oxford half . Poulton then broke through the defence to score under the posts . With Oxford eight points ahead at the end of the first quarter , Tarr was forced off the field after breaking his collarbone making a tackle , and missed much of what was described by referee F.C. Potter @-@ Irwin as " the fastest and most spectacular Varsity Match he had ever witnessed " . Oxford beat Cambridge 23 – 3 , Poulton scoring five tries .
After graduating a Bachelor of Arts , Tarr was articled to the solicitors firm of Owston , Dickinson , Simpson , and Bigg in Leicester , and also joined the Leicester Tigers , then as now considered one of the strongest clubs in the country . He scored 72 points in 94 appearances . In 1913 , having been dropped by England four years earlier , he was surprised to be called up again to play Scotland on 15 March at Twickenham . Tarr was not at his best and it was to be his last international appearance . England , meanwhile , only managed a 3 – 0 victory , but it was enough to regain the Calcutta Cup and earn its first Grand Slam .
Although Tarr spent the majority of his rugby career with Oxford and Leicester , he is recorded as representing club teams Headingly and Richmond F.C. and also Midland Counties .
= = = International appearances = = =
= = Military record and death = =
While at Oxford , Tarr had served in the Officers ' Training Corps , reaching the rank of cadet sergeant . In 1911 , he joined the Territorial Force , serving with the 1 / 4th Battalion , Leicestershire Regiment , as a second lieutenant . In 1913 , he was promoted to lieutenant and when war was declared the following year , Tarr enlisted almost immediately , becoming the regiment machine @-@ gun officer . His battalion was deployed to the Western Front with the 46th ( North Midland ) Division and landed at le Havre , France , on 3 March 1915 . Following the Second Battle of Ypres , the battalion 's dugouts were located between Lake Zillebeke and the Ypres – Comines railway line south @-@ east of Ypres , Belgium . On the afternoon of 18 July 1915 , Tarr , who was the acting adjutant of his battalion and whose name had been put forward for promotion to captain , had gone to the dugouts of the 5th Battalion , Lincolnshire Regiment , towards Zillebeke , to liaise with the adjutant . While the Germans were shelling the position , Tarr put his head out to tell some men to remain under cover when a splinter from a shell struck him in the face , killing him . If it had struck any other part of his body , he would have survived .
Tarr was buried in the Railway Dugouts Burial Ground that night , not far from where he was killed . Captain John Milne , in Footprints of the 1 / 4th Leicestershire Regiment , described Tarr as
" ... the most attractive personality in the battalion , young , good @-@ looking , full of charm , with an eye that always had a twinkle in it , a born leader , yet the kindest person possible , a Rugger international , the idol of the machine @-@ gun section , which he commanded before he became adjutant . Everybody was heartbroken , for everybody would miss him they would not look upon his like again .... "
Tarr was one of 27 England rugby players killed in the First World War . There are memorials to him on the family headstone in Welford Road Cemetery , at Uppingham School , University College , Oxford , the Oxford University rugby club and the Richmond Athletic Ground .
= Miscellaneous solo piano compositions ( Rachmaninoff ) =
The composer Sergei Rachmaninoff produced a number of solo piano pieces that were either lost , unpublished , or not assigned an opus number . While often disregarded in the concert repertoire , they are nevertheless part of his oeuvre . He composed sixteen such pieces , and all others are lost . Ten of these pieces were composed before he completed his Piano Concerto No. 1 , his first opus , and the rest interspersed throughout his later life . In these casual works , he draws upon the influence of other composers , including Frédéric Chopin and Pyotr Tchaikovsky . The more substantial works , the Three Nocturnes and Four Pieces , are sets of well @-@ thought out pieces that are his first attempts at cohesive structure among multiple pieces . Oriental Sketch and Prelude in D minor , two pieces he composed very late in his life , are short works that exemplify his style as a mature composer . Whether completed as a child or adult , these pieces cover a wide spectrum of forms while maintaining his characteristic Russian style .
= = Works = =
In the autumn of 1885 , the twelve @-@ year @-@ old Rachmaninoff entered the home of Nikolai Zverev to receive private piano instruction and at the end of May 1886 , Zverev took his students to Crimea , where Rachmaninoff continued his studies , hoping to gain entrance to Anton Arensky 's harmony class at the Moscow Conservatory . It was during this time that Rachmaninoff created his first composition , a two @-@ page Étude in F @-@ sharp major ( the manuscript is now lost ) . After admission to the class , he produced more exercises , the earliest of which is a Lento in D minor ; it is the only surviving piece of ten he is said to have composed .
Now beginning to compose independently , Rachmaninoff 's next project was a group he titled Three Nocturnes , and is regarded as his first serious attempt at writing for the piano . The first nocturne , in F @-@ sharp minor , was written 14 @-@ 21 November 1887 , and has three parts : a beginning and an end in andante cantabile and a central section in allegro . The slower andantes are gentle sections , influenced by Pyotr Tchaikovsky , while the allegro is unnatural and stiff and unusually fast for a nocturne . The second piece , in F major , followed on 22 @-@ 25 November , also contains a slower portion coupled with a quick section . No. 3 , in C minor , took more than a month to compose , dated from 3 December 1886 to 12 January 1887 . With a chordal texture spread over the entire keyboard , it is reminiscent of the music of Robert Schumann . The nocturnes were published posthumously in Moscow in 1949 , but were not assigned an opus number .
The Four Pieces of 1887 are perhaps Rachmaninoff 's first comprehensive works . Each has a clear aim and method to attain it , and all unfold with a fluency significantly more advanced than that shown in the previous nocturnes . The opening Romance , in F @-@ sharp minor , harks back to Frédéric Chopin 's tenderness . The E @-@ flat minor Prelude is an unremarkable but well @-@ thought out piece . The third , a Mélodie in E major , is modestly expressive , but the Gavotte in D major is , although repetitive , the most energetic and vigorous piece . These were published posthumously in Moscow in 1948 , without an opus number .
In 1890 , after vacationing at Ivanovka , his family 's summer residence , Rachmaninoff wrote a letter to Natalia Skalon , a family friend in Moscow , reporting that he had to write a fugue for Arensky 's class , " an unpleasant circumstance however you look at it . " It turned out to resemble a canon more than a fugue , however , and was published in 1949 as Canon in E minor . Although written as an assignment , the piece conveys the impression not of an academic contrapuntal exercise but rather of a vivid outburst . The texture and harmony show enough advancement over his earlier Four Pieces to indicate that he had been sensible not to publish them as his opus 1 .
In 1891 , Rachmaninoff composed his Piano Concerto No. 1 ( which became his first official opus ) and afterwards in July , a small piece , Prelude in F major , which he revised later to include the cello . It was at this time , in 1892 , that the Morceaux de fantaisie were composed . In 1891 Rachmaninoff also composed his Suite in D minor for orchestra , considered lost until the manuscript was found in 2002 , leading to the discovery that a previously @-@ unattributed composition for piano is a reduction for solo piano of this Suite . The suite is in four movements : Lento : Allegro moderato in D minor , Lento in B minor , Menuetto in F @-@ sharp major , and Allegro in D major .
He spent much of the next few years writing some of his orchestral pieces , including The Rock ( 1893 ) and Caprice Bohémien ( 1895 ) . His return to pianistic work in early 1896 was marked by his contribution to Four Improvisations , a collaboration with Anton Arensky , Alexander Glazunov , and Sergei Taneyev . After the Six Moments Musicaux were completed in 1896 , Rachmaninoff composed a single Morceau de Fantaisie in G minor on 11 January 1899 . He subtitled it " Delmo " , however what this means is unknown . It is two pages long and features an emphatic , if not brief , climax . He also produced a Fughetta in F major in February of that year , which is also short and has clean counterpoint . He composed most of his published works in this period , starting with the Chopin Variations .
After the nine Études @-@ Tableaux , Op. 39 , Rachmaninoff composed several minor works in 1917 . The Oriental Sketch is a fast @-@ paced piece littered with sixteenth note figures . The piece was not intended to be associated with the Orient ; the title was given by the publisher . The Prelude in D minor , a dark piece with thick and fast moving chords that repeatedly descend into low register , is a manifestation of his unhappiness with the October Revolution . The manuscript survived and was first published in 1973 . His penultimate piano composition ( only his Corelli Variations came later ) was a one @-@ page piece entitled Fragments , a brief nostalgic piece from his final days in Moscow . It was first published in the magazine , The Etude , in 1919 .
In 2003 , while researching Rachmaninoff material at the Library of Congress , the Australian pianist Scott Davie discovered a two @-@ page sketch of a previously unknown Rachmaninoff piano piece in D minor . While he was able to make a pencil copy , it wasn 't until later he realized that the sketch was complete . Davie was given permission to make use of the piece by the composer 's great @-@ granddaughter , Natalie Wanamaker Javier , while attending the 2006 International Rachmaninoff Conference in Amsterdam . The piece was recorded and released by ABC Classics on his Pictures from an Exhibition CD . Since then the piece has also been recorded by Vladimir Ashkenazy and released by Decca .
= Han campaigns against Minyue =
The Han campaigns against Minyue were three Han Dynasty military campaigns dispatched against the Minyue state . The first campaign was in response to Minyue 's invasion of Eastern Ou in 138 BC . In 135 BC , a second campaign was sent to intervene in a war between Minyue and Nanyue . After the campaign , Minyue was split into Minyue , ruled by a Han proxy king , and Dongyue . Dongyue was defeated in a third military campaign in 111 BC and the former Minyue territory was annexed by the Han Dynasty .
= = Background = =
The Qin Dynasty 's military incursions in the south of what is now China began a period of expansion that continued under the next dynasty , the Han . After the fall of the Qin , Minyue was established in 202 BC , and Eastern Ou in 192 BC , with the support of the Han . They were rewarded with greater autonomy in return for their contributions to the revolt against the Qin . The local rulers of the Minyue region had also sided with Liu Bang 's Han instead of Xiang Yu 's Chu during the Chu – Han Contention , a civil war that ensued during the collapse of the Qin .
Minyue was created by carving out the former Qin province of Minzhong , with Dongye as the capital , into a new kingdom ruled by Zou Wuzhu . A decade later , Zou Yao was granted control over Donghai , popularly referred to as Eastern Ou after the name of the kingdom 's capital . The title was bestowed with a declaration by the Han emperor that " Zou Yan , the chief of Min , achieved great merit and his people supported the Han cause " . The Han historian Sima Qian claims both rulers were descendants of Goujian , the 5th century BC ruler of Yue . The family had lost their status as rulers during the Qin 's wars of unification , when they were demoted to local chieftains .
= = Han – Minyue wars = =
= = = Initial military intervention = = =
In 138 BC , Minyue invaded the Eastern Ou , prompting Eastern Ou to request the intervention of Han forces . The Han court was divided over offering military support . The campaign was opposed by the Han commander @-@ in @-@ chief Tian Fen , who argued that warfare between the Yue tribes occurred frequently and the affairs of Yue were not the responsibility of the Han government . The concept of Chinese centrality among nations persuaded the court to dispatch an army . In accordance with Chinese political philosophy , the ruler or Son of Heaven held a mandate that obligated the emperor to help smaller countries in need . Otherwise , as the Han official Zhuang Zhu phrased it , " how could we treat the myriad kingdoms as our children ? "
A Han naval force led by Zhuang Zhu departed from Shaoxing in northern Zhejiang towards Minyue . The Minyue surrendered before the arrival of the Han troops , and withdrew from Eastern Ou . There were plans to move the residents of Eastern Ou to the area between the Huai River and Yangtze River , following a request by the king of Eastern Ou .
= = = Second intervention = = =
In 135 BC , war broke out when Minyue invaded Nanyue . Zhao Mo , the king of Nanyue , asked for and received the military assistance of the Han . In 180 BC , Zhao had offered to submit as a vassal and the Han agreed , a decision that was partly based on Zhao 's ancestral roots in northern China . An army led by the generals Wang Hui and Han Anguo was ordered to invade Minyue . The campaign was cut short by palace infighting in the Minyue court . Panicked at news of an invasion , the younger brother of the Minyue king Zou Ying , Zou Yushan , conspired with the royal court to depose Ying . Yushan killed his brother with a spear , decapitated the corpse , and sent the head to Wang . The Han forces withdrew soon after .
Zhao Mo was grateful for the speed of the intervention against Minyue . The Han official Zhuang Zhu was dispatched to meet with the Nanyue emperor , who expressed his gratitude . Zhao sent his son , the prince Zhao Yingqi , to the Han capital at Chang 'an , where he was to work for the Emperor . In the aftermath of the campaign , Minyue had split into a dual monarchy , Minyue and Dongyue . Minyue was controlled by the Han through a proxy ruler , while Dongyue was independently ruled by Zou Yushan , the brother who deposed the former king during the invasion .
Zou Cou was selected to fill the role of Han proxy ruler because he was the only member of the Minyue royal family who refused to take part in the war against Nanyue . However , his efforts to exert control over the people of Minyue were not successful . The subjects of the kingdom pledged their loyalty to Zou Yushan instead . Yushan declared himself king of Minyue without the consent of the Emperor Wu , the Han ruler . The emperor was informed of Yushan 's actions , and recognized him as king of Dongyue instead of ordering a second invasion . Emperor Wu considered it a reward to Yushan for killing Zou Ying and ending the war . The assassination had prevented the Han from wasting any more resources on the conflict . Dongyue had an uneasy relationship with the Han . In 112 BC , Han officials were killed in a military engagement with Dongyue .
= = = Third campaign and conquest = = =
As Han troops returned from the Han – Nanyue War in 111 BC , the Han government debated annexing Dongyue . Dongyue , under King Zou Yushan , had agreed to assist the Han campaign against Nanyue , but the Dongyue army never reached Nanyue . Yushan blamed the delay on the weather . The proposal to annex Dongyue was suggested by General Yang Pu , but was dismissed by Emperor Wu . The naval force arrived home without having attacked Dongyue . Zou caught wind of Yang 's request , and responded by revolting against the Han . Han forces were led by General Han Yue , General Yang Pu , commander Wang Wenshu , and two marquises of Yue ancestry . The army crushed the rebellion and captured Dongyue in the last months of 111 BC , placing the former Minyue territory under Han rule .
Historical records report that Minyue and Dongyue were emptied of people , and that its residents were deported to the territories between the Huai River and the Yangtze River . The alleged population transfer was a resumption of a policy that had been planned since 138 BC . The Han government considered the mountainous region difficult to control and was wary of trusting its residents . Modern historians doubt the event happened . The deportation of an entire kingdom is implausible , and nothing has been found to verify a migration of Han settlers to the Minyue region around the year 1 , something that would have occurred had the area been abandoned while under Han control . There was only one town of Han settlers , Dongye , in Minyue . Dongye was built where the Min River meets the sea , around the time of Emperor Wu 's reign . It is more likely that the assimilation of Minyue into the culture of the Han empire happened later in the dynasty .
= = Historical significance = =
From one settlement in year 1 , the Han Dynasty 's involvement in the Minyue region grew into several counties . There were many Chinese counties in the area by the 4th century . The Minyue had been culturally assimilated by the time the Han Dynasty collapsed , and China was undergoing a transition to the Three Kingdoms period of Cao Wei , Shu Han , and Eastern Wu . Political upheaval in the north , such as Wang Mang 's usurpation , had caused Han migrants to resettle in the south . The Han Dynasty 's military expansion widened its commercial ties . The empire 's conquest of Minyue and Nanyue meant it now neighbored kingdoms in Southeast Asia . Trade with the Han and subsequent dynasties had an impact on Southeast Asia , where goods have been found made in styles resembling that of the Chinese . Maritime trade linked China with Rome , India , and the Middle East .
= Non @-@ constituency Member of Parliament =
A Non @-@ constituency Member of Parliament ( NCMP ) is a member of a Singaporean opposition political party who , according to the Constitution and Parliamentary Elections Act , is declared to have been elected a Member of the Parliament of Singapore despite having lost in a general election by virtue of having been one of the best performing losers . NCMPs enjoy most of the privileges of ordinary Members of Parliament . They are , however , not allowed to vote on several types of bills such as bills to amend the Constitution and motions of no confidence in the Government . An election candidate who has been offered an NCMP seat may decline to take it up .
The NCMP scheme was introduced in 1984 , and was a significant modification of the traditional Westminster system of government . Since the ruling People 's Action Party had won all parliamentary seats in the four general elections since independence , Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew argued that the NCMP scheme would ensure that opposition voices would be heard in Parliament . According to him , this would be beneficial to Singapore as it would give the younger generation of Singaporeans a chance to see what an opposition can or cannot do . When the first constitutional amendment was made to initiate the NCMP scheme , between three and six NCMPs were allowed in Parliament . The Constitution was amended again in 2010 to allow for a maximum of nine NCMPs in Parliament .
Since its inception , the scheme has been widely criticised . It has been considered undemocratic as it allows candidates who do not have the mandate of the people to air their views in Parliament . Furthermore , members of the opposition have criticized the scheme for creating an unequal playing field in a general election by enabling the ruling People 's Action Party ( PAP ) to argue that the electorate need not vote for opposition candidates as there will already be some opposition representation in Parliament . Despite this critique , several opposition politicians have accepted NCMP seats , including Lee Siew @-@ Choh , J. B. Jeyaretnam , Steve Chia and Sylvia Lim . NCMPs have raised notable points in Parliament with regards to various public policy issues such as criminal procedure , education , health and social welfare .
The 2011 general election brought three NCMPs into Parliament : Lina Loh ( the wife of Chiam See Tong , the former MP for Potong Pasir Single Member Constituency ) of the Singapore People 's Party , and Gerald Giam and Yee Jenn Jong of the Workers ' Party of Singapore . The general election of 2015 brought in three different NCMPs into Parliament : Dennis Tan , Leon Perera and Daniel Goh . A NCMP seat was offered to former MP for Punggol East , Lee Li Lian but she declined and the seat was eventually accepted by Associate Professor Daniel Goh .
= = Position of Non @-@ constituency Members of Parliament = =
A Non @-@ constituency Member of Parliament ( " NCMP " ) is a candidate of an opposition political party who , despite having lost in a general election , is declared elected as a Member of the Parliament of Singapore ( " MP " ) by virtue of provisions in the Constitution and the Parliamentary Elections Act enabling the unsuccessful candidates who have performed the best to be accorded the status . The MP is so called because he or she does not represent any constituency ( or electoral division ) in Parliament .
The NCMP scheme was introduced on 22 August 1984 by the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( Amendment ) Act 1984 and the Parliamentary Elections ( Amendment ) Act 1984 . Under Article 39 ( 1 ) ( b ) of the Constitution which was introduced by the constitutional amendment Act , the maximum number of NCMPs was set at six . However , the actual number that could be declared elected at any general election was fixed at three , less the total number of Opposition MPs elected to Parliament . The President , acting on the advice of the Cabinet , could order that between four and six NCMPs be declared elected for the purpose of a particular general election . Such an order ceased to have effect at the next dissolution of Parliament . On 1 July 2010 , the need for a presidential order to increase the number of NCMPs was removed . Instead , the maximum number of NCMPs in Parliament was increased from six to nine , and the actual number that would be declared elected following a general election would be nine less the number of opposition MPs elected to Parliament .
= = = Becoming an NCMP = = =
NCMPs have been called the " best losers " of each general election . As NCMPs are declared elected from candidates who fail to win at general elections , they are subject to the same qualifying criteria as elected MPs :
They must be Singapore citizens aged 21 or above .
Their names must appear in a current register of electors .
They must have been residents of Singapore for at least ten years .
They must be able to speak , read and write in at least one of the four official languages ( English , Malay , Mandarin and Tamil ) .
They must not be disqualified under Article 45 of the Constitution .
The Constitution and the Parliamentary Elections Act provide for a minimum of nine opposition representatives in Parliament . After the polling results for a general election have been released , the opposition candidates receiving the highest percentage of votes in their electoral divisions but not elected into Parliament will be offered NCMP seats . However , this is subject to several conditions . There must be less than nine opposition members voted into Parliament , and the candidate must have garnered at least 15 % of the total number of votes polled at the election in the electoral division he or she contested in . In addition , there can be no more than two NCMPs from one Group Representation Constituency ( " GRC " ) and no more than one NCMP from an electoral division that is not a GRC .
If the number of opposition candidates elected is less than nine , losing opposition candidates who have the highest percentage of votes during the election will be declared elected as NCMPs to make up the minimum number of opposition MPs . Hence , the number of NCMP seats offered is nine minus the number of elected opposition MPs .
In the event that a group of candidates contesting in a GRC is offered an NCMP seat , the group must decide within seven days the person or persons to be declared elected as NCMPs and notify the returning officer . Once an NCMP has been declared elected , he or she must take an oath of allegiance to Singapore and to " preserve , protect and defend the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore " . If this is not done at the first or second sitting of Parliament during its first session after the general election , Parliament may by resolution declare that the NCMP 's seat has become vacant and that it will be filled by the next succeeding eligible candidate at the general elections , the candidates having priority based on the percentage of votes polled by them .
Opposition members who qualify to become NCMPs are allowed to reject their seats in Parliament . During the 2011 general election , several opposition leaders stated that they would not want to accept NCMP seats . Among them was Low Thia Kiang , the Secretary @-@ General of the Workers ' Party of Singapore ( " WP " ) .
= = = Parliamentary role = = =
NCMPs enjoy the same rights as MPs . They are allowed to engage in debate in Parliament and give their points of view . They are also allowed to vote on all issues with the exception of the following :
Amendments to the Constitution .
Any motion pertaining to a bill to amend a supply bill , supplementary supply bill or final supply bill . ( These are bills authorizing the Government to expend public money . )
Any motion pertaining to a Bill to amend a money bill .
A motion of no confidence in the Government .
Removal of the President from office .
= = Reasons for the NCMP scheme = =
During the Second Reading of the NCMP bill , the Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew presented to Parliament three main justifications for the NCMP scheme . First , he said that having a minimum number of opposition members in Parliament through the NCMP scheme would provide younger People 's Action Party ( " PAP " ) MPs with sparring partners to " sharpen their debating skills " . Secondly , the presence of opposition members in Parliament would educate the younger generation of voters about the role of a constitutional opposition and the limits of what it can do . He said this was especially important because the younger generation who had not lived and witnessed the conflicts within Parliament in the 1950s and 1960s " harbour [ ed ] myths about the role of an Opposition " and " had no idea how destructive an Opposition could be " . Thirdly , the presence of non @-@ PAP MPs in Parliament would act as a check and balance against any governmental impropriety . According to Lee , " some non @-@ PAP MPs will ensure that every suspicion , every rumour of misconduct , will be reported to the non @-@ PAP MPs " . The readiness of non @-@ PAP members to bring forth any allegation of misfeasance , or corruption , or nepotism would " dispel suspicions of cover @-@ ups of alleged wrongdoings " .
More importantly , the NCMP scheme was introduced to " ensure the representation in Parliament of a minimum number of Members from a political party or parties not forming the Government " . The PAP possessed " unbroken hegemony " in Parliament from 1968 until 1981 when J. B. Jeyaretnam won a seat in the Anson by @-@ election . As a result of his sole opposition presence in the Parliament , he could not initiate a meaningful debate in Parliament , being unable to find another MP to second his motions . The fact that there was absolutely no opposition representation in Parliament in the four general elections before 1984 ( as indicated in the table below ) added to the impetus for the inception of the scheme .
= = Criticisms = =
The NCMP scheme has been the subject of criticism , both within the PAP and among opposition MPs and Nominated Members of Parliament ( NMPs ) . During parliamentary debates in April 2010 on increasing the number of NCMPs from six to nine , several MPs expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of legitimacy and anti @-@ democratic nature of the NCMP concept . For instance , PAP MP Alvin Yeo expressed doubts as to whether the NCMP scheme had served to raise the level of debate in Parliament , while NMP Calvin Cheng said :
[ P ] eople who are proposed to be NCMPs are politicians who stood for an election and lost . Sir , they lost . They lost . I do not know how much more emphatic I can be about this . These are politicians who have stood on certain political platforms , for certain political issues and the majority of the electorate have considered these issues , these politicians and have rejected them at the polls . To then allow them into Parliament flies in the face of the logic of a democratic election at best and , at worst , is a slap in the face to the people who have voted against them .
The opposition has , from the introduction of the NCMP scheme , decried it as a " sham " and a " toothless " office . Opposition member J. B. Jeyaratnam questioned whether it was " a trick or a ploy " by the ruling party to maintain its dominance in Parliament . It has been argued that the system has placed the opposition at a disadvantage at general elections for a number of reasons . For one , there are restrictions on NCMPs as to what they can or cannot vote on in Parliament . Thus , it has been suggested that the presence of NCMPs in Parliament " does not seem to extend beyond the decorative and the provision of debating foils for the younger PAP generation unexposed to the gladiatorial quality of parliamentary debate " . Moreover , the effectiveness of the NCMP scheme is limited by the perception that the NCMP is obliged to be adversarial by virtue of being party to the opposition . This is so even if privately the Member can apprehend the benefits of a Government proposal . Finally , the NCMP scheme has been criticized as a ploy to discourage voters from voting in opposition MPs because of the guarantee of at least a number of NCMP seats . This inhibits the natural growth of an elected opposition voice in Parliament as the electorate 's motivation to vote in an opposition Member into Parliament is conceivably diluted by the assurance that a default mechanism exists for the " best losers " .
Opposition MP Low Thia Khiang has cited an NCMP 's lack of " muscle and real grassroot [ s ] grounding " as a reason for his refusal to take up an NCMP seat . NCMPs do not represent any constituency and are thus denied of opportunities to expand their influence .
During the 2010 debates , Sylvia Lim , then the sole NCMP in Parliament , commented that having NCMPs " make [ s ] a bad situation better , but increasing NCMPs is not the solution towards a more robust political system " . She identified an NCMP 's lack of any official capacity to represent the people or write letters on their behalf as a drawback of the scheme . Moreover , an NCMP has no physical base to organize activities or dialogues with the people . In her view , it would be better for politics in Singapore if the NCMP scheme was regarded merely as a " stop @-@ gap measure " to deal with the lack of alternative voices in Parliament as a result of the ruling party 's alleged abuse of the GRC system and gerrymandering .
In 2011 during a live television forum , Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong refuted claims that NCMPs were not a " real opposition " by stating that the PAP had introduced and expanded the scheme " because it acknowledged both the desire among Singaporeans for alternative voices and the need for an opposition to represent the diverse views in society " . He noted that NCMPs were free to debate issues in Parliament , and that the scheme provided opposition politicians with an opportunity to " establish themselves and strengthen their positions in subsequent general elections " .
= = List of NCMPs taking up seats in Parliament = =
In the 1984 general election , the first held after the NCMP scheme was introduced , as the opposition MPs J. B. Jeyaretnam of the WP and Chiam See Tong of the Singapore Democratic Party were elected to Parliament , the single NCMP seat available was allocated to the WP 's M. D. P. Nair . However , the WP decided that its defeated candidates should not take up NCMP seats . Jeyaretnam , the WP 's Secretary @-@ General , said that the " real object " behind the scheme was to persuade the electorate to return the PAP to all the seats in Parliament , which was " the antithesis of what Parliament is " . The NCMP seat was then allocated to Tan Chee Kien of the Singapore United Front , but his party also decided to reject the seat . This was regarded as a " resignation " , and the NCMP seat was thus not filled .
The first NCMP to take up a seat in Parliament , Dr. Lee Siew @-@ Choh of the WP , did so following the 1988 general election at which Chiam See Tong was the only opposition MP elected . The WP 's Lee and Francis Seow were declared elected as NCMPs on 16 December 1988 . However , on 9 January 1989 the Speaker of Parliament Tan Soo Khoon announced that Seow had lost his seat with effect from 17 December 1988 under Article 45 of the Constitution after he was convicted and fined for tax evasion . In the general election that followed in 1991 , no NCMP seats were offered because four opposition members were successful in their respective electoral divisions , and thus the number of opposition MPs exceeded the three allotted NCMP seats .
In the 1997 general election , one NCMP seat was offered to , and accepted by , J. B. Jeyaratnam . He was declared elected with effect from 14 January 1997 . Subsequently , with effect from 23 July 2001 , Jeyaretnam fell into bankruptcy due to an unpaid debt and thus lost his seat in Parliament . The general election that year saw one NCMP seat occupied by Steve Chia of the Singapore Democratic Alliance .
In the 2006 general election , Sylvia Lim , Chairman of the Workers ' Party , garnered 43 @.@ 9 % of the votes in Aljunied GRC , making her the " best loser " of the election . She was subsequently declared elected as the next NCMP in Parliament on 12 May 2006 .
Following the increase in the number of NCMP seats in Parliament to nine in 2010 , since the Workers ' Party garnered six seats at the 2011 general election , three NCMP seats were offered . They were taken up by Lina Loh from the Singapore People 's Party who contested in Potong Pasir Single Member Constituency ( SMC ) , and Yee Jenn Jong and Gerald Giam of the Workers ' Party who contested in Joo Chiat SMC and East Coast GRC respectively .
= = Notable issues raised by NCMPs = =
NCMPs have raised and debated in Parliament a wide range of issues . What follows are some of the more notable issues mentioned .
= = = Steve Chia = = =
In November 2002 , NCMP Steve Chia supported a motion by the Minister for Education stating that " this House ... ( 1 ) supports the new JC [ junior college ] curriculum which will better develop thinking , communication and other process skills and engage students in greater breadth of learning ; and ( 2 ) endorses greater diversity and opening of new pathways in JC / Upper Secondary education to cater to the different strengths and interests of students . " He suggested that there should be a focus on " creative spontaneity " , expressing the view that the education system in 2002 was one that focused on churning out a production line of workers , managers and instruction takers . Given that Singapore had reached the standards of a First World economy , Singapore should focus on instilling an inquisitive spirit within students , to encourage students to ask questions . He placed most emphasis on the importance of ensuring that the focus of education should be character building , stating : " It will be failure of our education system if we are to train our best and brightest with our best resources only to be told that they are going to be the quitters of our society ; or that they lack the compassion for the weak and the down ; or that they behave in a snobbish class of their own ; or behave condescendingly to their peers and followers ; or that the elites only care about their own self @-@ interests . "
In 2003 , Chia mooted the idea that Singaporeans should be able to borrow from their own Central Provident Fund ( CPF ) savings to tide over periods of financial difficulty . His rationale was that if individuals could borrow from their own CPF accounts to buy depreciating property and money @-@ losing stocks , there was no reason why they should not be allowed to do so to pay for bills . Dr. Ong Seh Hong , MP for Aljunied GRC , opposed the view , stating that it was important and for the good of Singapore that Singaporeans were independent individuals who could assume the risks and successes of their investments and be self @-@ sufficient .
With the advent of the Integrated Resorts , which are casino @-@ based vacation resorts , in 2005 Chia expressed concern in Parliament over whether the Government had systems and institutions in place to lessen their negative impact such as problem gambling and the spectre of people gambling away family assets .
= = = Sylvia Lim = = =
Sylvia Lim was an NCMP from 2006 till Parliament was dissolved in 2011 for the general election held that year , at which she was elected as one of the MPs for Aljunied GRC . While she was an NCMP , Parliament debated the Human Organ Transplant ( Amendment ) Bill 2009 which would permit an organ donor to receive a reasonable amount of payment as a reimbursement for medical checks , insurance and other medical expenses , and loss of income . Lim spoke of her worry that the bill might lead to a backdoor organ trading and profiteering .
In 2010 , Lim mooted the idea that the proportion of each Primary 1 cohort that would be seeking a university education should be increased beyond the 30 % by 2015 that the Government was planning . She noted that in Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development countries in 2006 about 37 % of each age cohort received a degree @-@ level education , and that a sizeable number of Singaporean students who failed to gain entry into local universities had done well in reputable universities overseas . She also suggested giving concessionary fares to disabled individuals who make up 2 % of the adult population under 60 years .
Lim expressed concerns about a proposed constitutional amendment introduced in April 2010 that would allow magistrates to hear what are called " first mentions " through video conferencing . A first mention is a hearing that must be held within 48 hours of a person 's arrest . She felt it failed to adequately assure accused people that they were allowed to complain to magistrates about injuries they had sustained or acts of misfeasance against them by the authorities . In response , Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Home Affairs Wong Kan Seng assured MPs that processes would be in place to ensure that accused people are treated fairly . For example , during a video conference , an accused person will be alone in a room with no police officer , and will be able to see what is happening in the entire courtroom . Secondly , the screen that will be used by the judge is large enough to enable him or her to clearly see whether the accused is under duress . Finally , accused people who have been mistreated can either complain to the police or to the judge when they are later present in court .
The following month , during parliamentary debates on major revisions to the Criminal Procedure Code , Lim suggested there was a need to improve pre @-@ trial disclosure procedures and | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ersfield , were Derby County . Derby had two chances to score in the first half , but both were missed . A Manchester City counter @-@ attack produced the opening goal , when Brook crossed and Toseland headed in . By midway through the second half Manchester City led by three goals . The second was scored by Tilson , a follow @-@ up after an initial saved shot . McMullan scored the third after dribbling through the Derby defence . Derby mounted a late comeback . A goal by Howard Fabian reduced the deficit to two , and Sammy Crooks added a late second for Derby , but it was too late to affect the result of the match , which ended 3 – 2 .
= = Build @-@ up = =
Everton had contested the final on four previous occasions . They beat Newcastle United 1 – 0 to win the Cup in 1906 , but were defeated in the 1893 , 1897 and 1907 finals . The 1933 final was Manchester City 's third . Both their previous finals were against Bolton Wanderers . Manchester City won by a goal to nil in 1904 , and lost by the same scoreline in 1926 . Both teams had performed well in the previous season . Manchester City reached the semi @-@ finals of the 1932 FA Cup ; Everton were reigning league champions . The clubs had never previously met in cup competition . The league matches between the two earlier in the season each finished as a win for the home team . At the time of the final , Everton 's league position was tenth , and Manchester City 's sixteenth . Newspapers did not declare a clear favourite for the win . Everton were viewed as having the more skilful players , particularly their forwards , whereas Manchester City were seen as having greater strength and determination .
Everton spent the week before the match in the spa town of Buxton , and travelled to Dorking on the eve of the match . Manchester City spent the week in Bushey . Everton 's James Dunn received treatment on a thigh injury in the ten days preceding the game , but was anticipated to be fit enough to play . Manchester City 's main injury worry was Fred Tilson , who was troubled by a leg injury . Dunn was passed fit well before the game , allowing Everton to field the same line @-@ up that played in four of their five previous cup ties .
Ten miles ( 16 km ) of barbed wire was used to secure Wembley Stadium against unauthorised entry . The pre @-@ match entertainment was music by the Band of the Irish Guards , and communal singing backed by the band of the Royal Horse Guards . Inclement weather prevented the attendance of King George V. Instead the guest of honour was the Duke of York . Other guests present included Baron Wigram , Admiral Sir Lionel Halsey , Austrian envoy Baron von Franckenstein and the West Indies cricket team .
The Manchester City line @-@ up contained two survivors from the 1926 team , Sam Cowan and Jimmy McMullan . The only Everton player with cup final experience was Tommy Johnson , who also played for Manchester City in the 1926 final . He represented the Manchester club between 1919 and 1930 , and at the time of the 1933 final was Manchester City 's all @-@ time highest goalscorer .
Both teams usually wore blue , causing a colour clash . The competition rules required both teams to wear alternative colours . For the first time in a cup final , the players wore numbered shirts . Everton were numbered 1 – 11 , and Manchester City 12 – 22 . Everton goalkeeper Sagar wore 1 , with the forwards bearing the higher numbers . Manchester City were the reverse . Forward Brook wore 12 , through to goalkeeper Langford who wore 22 .
= = Match = =
Each team played the formation typical of the era : two full @-@ backs , three half @-@ backs and five forwards . With Tilson absent from the Manchester City line @-@ up , Alec Herd moved across to Tilson 's usual centre @-@ forward position , and Bobby Marshall was selected at inside @-@ right .
Manchester City had the first attack of the match , but it came to nothing . Soon Everton began to dominate the match , with Dean frequently involved in the attacking play . Several Everton attacks came on their left flank . Stein caused Manchester City right @-@ back Sid Cann problems , and Cann was forced to concede a corner kick on several occasions . Just after the half @-@ hour Everton had their first shot on target , when Stein 's effort was saved by Langford . Another chance quickly arrived . Stein 's cross passed in front of goal , but Dean was unable to connect with the ball . Two minutes later Manchester City goalkeeper Langford attempted to catch a cross from Britton , but dropped the ball under pressure from Dean . The ball fell into the path of Stein , who put the ball into the empty net to give Everton the lead . At half @-@ time Everton led 1 – 0 .
Everton continued to control the game in the second half . Manchester City took shots from long range , but none required Sagar to make a save . Seven minutes into the second half , Langford again failed to catch a Britton cross , and Dean charged to the net . Dean , ball and goalkeeper all landed in the goal , making the score 2 – 0 . Manchester City then made a few fruitless attacks . As was the case throughout the game , the Everton defence outplayed the Manchester City forwards . The Manchester Guardian singled out Warney Cresswell for particular praise , describing his performance as " an almost perfect display " . Ten minutes from time a Dunn header from a corner made the score 3 – 0 to Everton . Just before the end Everton 's Johnson had a chance to make it 4 – 0 , but the referee blew his whistle for full @-@ time before Johnson could take his shot .
= = Match details = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Everton captain Dixie Dean led his team to the Royal Box and received the cup from the Duke of York . Everton returned to Liverpool on the Monday evening , and paraded the city in the same horse @-@ drawn carriage used in the celebrations of their previous cup win in 1906 . The players attended a reception at the town hall , where large crowds greeted them . After the reception the cup was taken to Goodison Park for public viewing .
Newsreels of the final featured post @-@ match toasts by the two captains . First Dixie Dean , raising his glass , said " Here 's to Lancashire , and may the cup stay in Lancashire . If Everton don 't win it , may another Lancashire club win it . " Cowan replied " I hope the next Lancashire club that wins it is Manchester City , my club " . The following year 's final made the captains ' remarks look perceptive . Cowan and his Manchester City team returned , and beat Portsmouth 2 – 1 to win the 1934 cup . Both Manchester City and Everton also went on to win the league championship later in the decade ; Manchester City in 1937 , and Everton in 1939 .
= Arbiter ( Halo ) =
In the Halo science fiction universe , the Arbiter is a ceremonial , religious , and political rank bestowed upon alien Covenant Elites . In the 2004 video game Halo 2 , the rank is given to a disgraced commander as a way to atone for his failures . Although the Arbiter is intended to die serving the Covenant leadership , the High Prophets , he survives his missions and the Prophets ' subsequent betrayal of his kind . When he learns that the Prophets ' plans would doom all sentient life in the galaxy to extinction , the Arbiter allies with the Covenant 's enemies — humanity — and stops the ringworld Halo from being activated . The Arbiter is a playable character in Halo 2 and its 2007 sequel Halo 3 ; a different Arbiter appears in the 2009 real @-@ time strategy game Halo Wars , which takes place 20 years before the events of the main trilogy .
The appearance of the Arbiter in Halo 2 and the change in perspective from the main human protagonist Master Chief to a former enemy was a plot twist Halo developer Bungie kept highly secret . The character 's name was changed from " Dervish " after concerns that the name reinforced a perceived United States @-@ versus @-@ Islam allegory in the game 's plot . Award @-@ winning actor Keith David lends his voice to the character in Halo 2 , 3 and 5 , while David Sobolov voices the Arbiter of Halo Wars .
The Arbiter has appeared in three series of action figures and other collectibles and marketing in addition to appearances in the games . Bungie intended the sudden point of view switch to a member of the Covenant as a plot twist that no one would have seen coming , but the character in particular and the humanization of the Covenant in general was not evenly received by critics and fans . Computer and Video Games derided the Arbiter 's missions as " crap bits " in Halo 2 . Conversely , IGN lamented the loss of the Arbiter 's story in Halo 3 and missed the added dimension the character provided to the story .
= = Character design = =
The Arbiter in the video games Halo 2 ( 2004 ) and Halo 3 ( 2007 ) is voiced by Keith David , a New York actor . David noted that he enjoys voicing complicated characters who have a past . To make an impact with voice acting , he says , is difficult — " it 's either good acting or it 's bad acting " . David is not a frequent video game player , but stated that he has become more known for his work as the Arbiter than for his film and other voice roles .
The Arbiter changed very little during development , as the overall appearance of the alien Covenant Elites had been designed and developed for the previous game , 2001 's Halo : Combat Evolved . The only substantial difference between the Arbiter and other Elites is ceremonial armor seen in early concept sketches and which appeared in the final design . During Halo 2 's early developmental stages the character 's name was " Dervish " , a name from the Sufi sect of Islam . Out of context , Microsoft Game Studios ' " geocultural review " consultants found nothing wrong with the name . However , as Tom Edwards , a consultant who worked with Microsoft during the review noted , " within the game 's context this Islamic @-@ related name of ' Dervish ' set up a potentially problematic allegory related to Halo 2 's plot — the [ United States ] -like forces ( Master Chief / Sarge ) versus Islam ( the religious Covenant , which already had a ' Prophet of Truth ' which is one title for Muhammad ) . Since this incident was not long after the September 11 attacks , sensitivity to the name remained high , and the character 's name was changed to the " Arbiter " .
In an interview with MTV , Halo developer Bungie 's former content manager Frank O 'Connor said that the inclusion of the Arbiter as a playable character in Halo 2 was supposed to be a " secret on the scale of a Shyamalan plot twist " and explains that Bungie was able to keep the public uninformed about this until the game 's release , to the point that O 'Connor never even considered including it on the weekly development updates posted at Bungie 's webpage . O 'Connor also stated that Bungie " had some other things that were secrets within secrets " and claimed that there was material related to the Arbiter that was kept secret during the development of Halo 3 because " There is an aspect of the Arbiter 's character that is still secret to this day and will remain so for a good reason . " Story director Joseph Staten said that the purpose of introducing the Arbiter was " to offer another , compelling point of view on a war where telling friend from foe wasn 't always clear @-@ cut . We knew we had a trilogy on our hands , so we were looking past the shock of playing as the enemy [ to the events of Halo 3 ] " .
= = Major appearances = =
= = = Halo 2 = = =
Presented in Halo 2 , the rank of " Arbiter " is bestowed upon a Covenant Elite by the Covenant leadership — the High Prophets — during a time of " extraordinary crisis " . The Arbiter acts as the " Blade of the Prophets " , undertaking highly dangerous missions to preserve the Covenant . It is expected that these soldiers will die in the course of their duties . Although it was originally a rank of great honor , it later became a rank assigned to disgraced or shamed Elites that nevertheless possessed great martial skill , both as a means to have them serve the Covenant , and as a convenient means of disposal after their assigned suicidal missions .
The Arbiter in the Halo trilogy , Thel ' Vadamee , was previously a Supreme Commander in the Covenant fleet , having commanded the ships that follow the human vessel Pillar of Autumn to the ringworld Halo during the events of Halo : Combat Evolved . A Prophet orders the Autumn not to be destroyed outright , lest the ring be damaged ; this hesitance allows the humans to land on the ring , coordinate a resistance , and ultimately destroy the ring to stop the spread of the parasitic Flood . In the aftermath of the incident ( depicted in Halo : First Strike ) , the commander also loses a Covenant ship to UNSC forces , resulting in the annihilation of a Covenant invasion force heading for Earth . As Halo 2 begins , the Covenant High Council brands the Commander a heretic for letting the ringworld — which the Covenant consider a sacred relic — be destroyed . He is stripped of his rank and branded . Though his public execution is soon to follow , he is spared by the High Prophets ; the Hierarchs give the disgraced Commander a chance to lead troops once again by becoming the Arbiter .
The Arbiter 's first mission is to silence a renegade Elite who has been preaching that the Prophets have lied to the Covenant . The Arbiter is then sent to retrieve the " Sacred Icon " from the library on the newly discovered Delta Halo , in order to activate the ring and bring about the Great Journey , the Covenant 's concept of salvation . Though he retrieves the Icon , the Arbiter is betrayed by the Chieftain of the Brutes , Tartarus ; Tartarus reveals that the Prophets have given him and his race carte blanche to massacre the Elites and replace them in the Covenant caste system . Though the Arbiter is believed dead , he is rescued — along with his nemesis , the human soldier Master Chief — by the parasitic Flood intelligence Gravemind . Gravemind reveals that the Great Journey actually spells doom for all sentient life , and sends him to stop Tartarus from activating the ring . In the process of stopping the Brute , the Arbiter and his Elites forge an alliance with the humans Miranda Keyes and Avery Johnson , and the Arbiter slays Tartarus with help from Johnson , halting the firing of the ring . The unexpected shutdown of Halo triggers a standby sequence , which the Arbiter learns has made all the Halo installations ready to fire remotely from a place known as the Ark .
= = = Halo 3 = = =
While the Arbiter remains a playable character in Halo 3 during cooperative gameplay ( the second player in a game lobby controls him ) , the game 's story never switches to the point of view of the Arbiter , as in Halo 2 . For much of Halo 3 , the Arbiter assists human forces in their fight against hostile Covenant forces alongside John @-@ 117 . After the Flood arrive on Earth , the Arbiter persuades Rtas ' Vadum not to glass the entire planet to quell the infestation . Along with a group of humans and Elites , the Arbiter follows the Prophet of Truth 's forces through a slipspace portal to the Ark , where he kills the Prophet . The Master Chief decides to activate the Halo under construction at the Ark to destroy the local Flood while sparing the galaxy at large ; the Arbiter helps to retrieve the artificial intelligence Cortana so that the installation can be fired . During the escape , the ship he and the Master Chief are on split in two ; while the Master Chief is presumed lost , the Arbiter crashes safely to Earth . After attending a ceremony honoring the dead , the Arbiter and the rest of the Elites leave for their homeworld .
= = = Halo Wars = = =
Taking place 20 years before the events of Halo : Combat Evolved , Ensemble Studio 's Halo Wars features a different Arbiter from the character seen in the trilogy . Lead designer David Pottinger described Ensemble 's Arbiter as a " mean guy . He 's Darth Vader times ten . " The characterization stemmed from a desire to make the Covenant more basically " evil " in order to provide a good guy @-@ bad guy conflict . Parts of the Arbiter 's backstory before the game 's events are explained in a tie @-@ in graphic novel , Halo Wars : Genesis . The Elite , Ripa ' Moramee , was given the rank after he fought and lost a campaign against his own clan .
= = = Halo 5 : Guardians = = =
Arbiter Thel ' Vadam , voiced by Keith David , narrates and appears in a trailer for Halo : The Master Chief Collection , first shown at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014 . The trailer acts as a prelude to Halo 5 : Guardians , in which Thel ' Vadam and his forces ( Swords of Sangheilios ) are locked in a bloody civil war with Covenant loyalists that reside on the home planet Sangheilios . During the game , the Arbiter meets with Spartan Jameson Locke who asks the Arbiter about his views on the Master Chief . The Arbiter tells him that even when the Master Chief was his enemy , he maintained a measure of respect for him and over time came to call the Master Chief has ally and even his friend . Before the Spartans leave , the Arbiter sends his greetings with them for the Master Chief in such a way that shocks the team as no Elite has ever greeted a human in such a way before .
= = = Other appearances = = =
An Arbiter appears as a playable character in Killer Instinct : Season Three , voiced by Ray Chase . He uses several weapons from the Halo series in combat , and fights in the Arena of Judgment , a stage set in the midst of a battle on Sangheilios . According to franchise development director Frank O 'Connor , this character is an " amalgam " of historical characters .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
Following the release of Halo 2 , Joyride Studios released an Arbiter action figure . This particular model was reviewed by Armchair Empire 's Aaron Simmer as a " great translation of the source material into plastic " . Simmer described the figure 's dimensions were in proportion with other figures released by the studio , and praised the level of detail in the armor and weapons , but found fault with the neck articulation and design . Other aspects mentioned were its compatibility with the Master Chief 's action figure and its durability . Several models of the Arbiter are featured in the Halo ActionClix collectible game , produced as promotional material prior to the release of Halo 3 . McFarlane Toys was given the task of developing a Halo 3 line of action figures , and a sculpt of the Arbiter was released in the second series of figures after the game 's release in July 2008 . A large @-@ scale , non @-@ articulated Arbiter figure was produced by McFarlane as part of the " Legendary Collection " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The reception of the Arbiter as a playable character in Halo 2 was mixed ; O 'Connor described the Arbiter as the most controversial character Bungie had ever created . The character was described as a " brilliant stroke of a game design " because it provided an unexpected story line but also offered the player new options by allowing stealth gameplay . Several publications enjoyed the added dimension to the Covenant by having the Arbiter as a playable character .
Alternatively , publications like GameSpot thought that while the Arbiter and Covenant side added " newfound complexity to the story " , it distracted the player from Earth 's fate ; a panel of Halo 2 reviewers argued that though the decision to humanize the Covenant by the introduction of the Arbiter was welcome , the execution in @-@ game was lacking . The missions where the player controls the Arbiter were described as " anything but easy " and occasionally " boring " , due to the lack of human weapons to balance the gameplay . A review performed by Computer and Video Games described the time that the player controls the character as " [ those ] crap bits when you play as an alien Arbiter " and listed this as one of Halo 2 's flaws . Reviewer Jarno Kokko said that while he did not personally dislike playing as the character , the idea of " people disliking the concept of playing on the other side in a game that is supposed to be the ' Master Chief blows up some alien scum ' show " was a plausible complaint . Among some fans , the character was reviled .
The reception of the Arbiter 's elimination as a main playable character in Halo 3 was similarly mixed . Hilary Goldstein of IGN decided the change took away the " intriguing side @-@ story of the Arbiter and his Elites " , in the process reducing the character 's role to that of " a dude with a weird mandible and a cool sword " . Likewise , Steve West of Cinemablend.com stated that the one important event in the game for the Arbiter would be lost on anyone for whom Halo 3 was their first game in the series . IGN 's reviewer took issue with the poor artificial intelligence ( AI ) of allies in the game , and singled out the Arbiter in particular ; " The Arbiter makes me question why the Elites were ever feared in the original Halo , " Hilary Goldstein said . Describing the AI of the character , Goldstein felt players could " enjoy watching your supposed equal getting shot in the face repeatedly and generally making himself utterly useless . What is the point of sticking you with an AI compatriot if all he 's good at is respawning ? " The New York Times ' Charles Herold found that in comparison to Halo 2 , where the character played a central role , the Arbiter in Halo 3 was " extraneous " . On the opposite end of the spectrum were reviewers like G4tv , who argued that the Arbiter was more likeable , not to mention more useful , as an AI sidekick instead of the main player . In a list of the top alien characters in video games , MSNBC placed the Arbiter at the number two ranking .
Halo Wars 's cinematics and voice acting were widely lauded , although one reviewer wrote that the characters were stereotypical and unlikeable . Dakota Grabowski of PlanetXbox360 considered the Arbiter the most confusing character in the game 's story . Conversely , GamePro listed the Arbiter as one of the five best things about the game , saying that while it was a different character than the Arbiter seen in Halo 2 and Halo 3 , he was " like an alien Jack Bauer amped up on drugs " .
Despite the resistance to the character , Bungie staff defended the character 's introduction . " I 'd much rather experiment and do something surprising , and not have everybody appreciate it , than just turn the crank and do another alien war movie with a space marine , " said Halo 2 design lead Jaime Griesemer . Community lead Brian Jarrard attributed some of the fan backlash to a discord between the game 's marketing and the actual gameplay . " I think , even more so than playing as the Arbiter , the thing that people were disappointed with and angry about is that they were promised this experience , through the marketing , of being really backs against the wall , Earth 's under siege , we 're going to do all we can to save our home planet ... In reality , the game only had two missions that actually did that . " Referring to Halo 2 's cliffhanger ending , Griesemer said , " I think if we 'd been able to finish that last couple of missions and get you properly back on Earth , a lot of the reaction would have been placated . "
= Invasion ( Grey 's Anatomy ) =
" Invasion " is the fifth episode of the sixth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and the show 's 107th episode overall . It was written by Mark Wilding and directed by Tony Phelan . The episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States on October 15 , 2009 . In the episode , the physicians of Seattle Grace Hospital must learn to co @-@ operate with new Mercy West residents , who do not act in a kind manner to them . Other storylines include Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) ' s father returning to the hospital to condemn her homosexuality , and Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) putting her career into jeopardy after administering the wrong treatment to a patient .
The episode was Heigl 's last appearance before her five @-@ episode hiatus to film a movie . It is set in a fictional hospital in Seattle , Washington . Héctor Elizondo returned as a guest star , while Jesse Williams , Sarah Drew , Robert Baker , and Nora Zehetner made their first appearances . " Invasion " received generally positive reviews , with critics praising Drew 's , Jessica Capshaw 's , Ellen Pompeo 's , and Sandra Oh 's performances . Upon its initial airing , the episode was viewed by 13 @.@ 79 million Americans , garnered a 5 @.@ 0 / 13 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic and ranked third for the night in terms of viewership .
= = Plot = =
The hospital receives several surgical residents from Mercy West as they enter Seattle Grace , a repercussion of the recent merger . Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) is recovering from her liver transplantation surgery , after donating a portion of it to her father . In the residents ' lounge , Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) tries to explain to Mercy West resident Dr. Reed Adamson ( Nora Zehetner ) that she should not use a certain locker , due to it formerly belonging to the deceased Dr. George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) . Adamson ignores her wishes , and uses the locker , leading Stevens to threatening to fight her . Shortly thereafter , Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) and Dr. Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) are working in the emergency room , when Dr. Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) embarrasses Yang by taking Mercy West resident Dr. Jackson Avery ( Jesse Williams ) ' side in a disagreement . Despite her mindset that all Mercy West residents would act in the manner of Adamson , Stevens develops a friendship with Dr. Charles Percy ( Robert Baker ) . After months of the two not speaking , Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) ' s father , Carlos ( Héctor Elizondo ) , shows up to the hospital with a priest , trying to condemn Torres for her concurrence in homosexuality .
Under the supervision of Dr. Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) , Lexie works with Mercy West resident Dr. April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) on a burglar , and the two get in several disagreements , leading Lexie to steal her diary . Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) and Adamson continuously argue over the course of treatment for a patient , leading the patient 's daughter to yell at them in disbelief . Angry about the revelation that Percy ( who later aplogized saying that they can be friends outside the hospital , but not inside ) was using her , Stevens accidentally administers the wrong dialysis to a patient , making her an unviable candidate for the kidney transplant she was scheduled to receive . After arguing over surgical cases for the entirety of the day , Yang comes to the realization that she needs a cardiothoracic surgeon to work at the hospital . After being mistreated by Kepner , Lexie begins to mock her about what is written in her diary , thus ruining her emotionally , but subsequently apologizes . Dr. Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) , Torres ' girlfriend , talks to Carlos , and convinces him to accept his daughter 's sexuality . Having found out about Stevens ' mistake , Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) reprimands her reports her to the chief of surgery Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) . Webber asks Stevens to come into her office , and he fires her from the staff , noting that Hunt , Shepherd , and Karev had concerns with her coming back to work so early . Stevens departs , writing Karev a Dear John letter , causing him to cry in front of Meredith and Yang .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Mark Wilding and directed by Tony Phelan . Jenny Barak edited the episode 's music and Donald Lee Harris served as production designer . Eric Dane ( Dr. Mark Sloan ) was absent from the episode . Featured music included The Myrmidon 's " Clap " , Traildriver 's " I Want You Now " , and Greg Laswell 's remake of " Your Ghost " . " Invasion " was the last episode Heigl appeared in , before her five @-@ episode hiatus to film the romantic comedy Life As We Know It .
Wilding called the guest stars " a blast to work with " . He deemed the theme of the episode " invasion " , adding that all the character 's lives were being invaded . In the episode , Stevens makes a mistake , following a disagreement with Percy . Wilding commented that Stevens was originally seeking friendship with Percy , because he reminded her of O 'Malley . At the conclusion of the episode , Torres ultimately reunites with her father Carlos . Wilding offered his insight on this and the overall episode :
" Shonda came up with the idea of Mr. Torres showing up with the family priest . I immediately said YES because anytime I can see Hector Elizondo on my TV screen , I 'm all for it . In the scene where he 's quoting the Bible at Callie , he really is afraid he 's going to lose her . He 's desperate , yanking out those index cards like her very life depends on it . It was Hector 's idea to use the cards . He didn 't think his character would know that stuff of the top of his head , which is how I originally wrote it . And he was right . And it worked beautifully . And that final scene when he and Callie are outside the hospital and he 's asking her if she 'll still get married , still have kids … I really , really liked that scene . And I really , really liked their whole story . All told , I thought the episode came out pretty well . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcasting = = =
" Invasion " was first broadcast on October 15 , 2009 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company . The episode was viewed by a total of 13 @.@ 79 million Americans , down 0 @.@ 34 % from the previous episode " Tainted Obligation " , which garnered 14 @.@ 13 million viewers . In terms of viewership , " Invasion " ranked third for the night , just behind CBS 's juggernauts CSI and The Mentalist . The episode did not win in viewership , but its 5 @.@ 0 / 13 Nielsen rating ranked first in its 9 : 00 Eastern time @-@ slot and the entire night , for both the rating and share percentages of the key 18 – 49 demographic , beating out CSI , The Mentalist , Private Practice , and The Office . Although its rating won for the night , it was a decrease from the previous episode , which garnered a 5 @.@ 4 / 14 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received positive reviews among television critics . The Los Angeles Times ' Carina MacKenzie 's review of the episode was largely positive , though she called it " immature " of the episode 's writers to have the characters in constant battle with one another , and deemed the Mercy West resident 's orange scrubs unnecessary . MacKenzie highly praised the characterization of Kepner , in addition to Capshaw 's performance , commenting : " Jessica Capshaw has an incredible ability to take even the most melodramatic of Grey 's [ Anatomy ] speeches and deliver them with a subtlety and an honesty that makes them come off as sincere instead of overwrought . " MacKenzie concluded that Karev , Yang , and Meredith had appropriate reactions to Stevens ' departure .
Michael Pascua of The Huffington Post praised the scene in which Yang broke down to Meredith , noting the exceptional chemistry between them . Pascua was positive of the storyline between Torres , Carlos , and Robbins , writing that it was nice to see an emphasis on the gay storyline . Adam Bryant of TV Guide wrote that Baker 's character " seems like the only decent guy in the bunch " , though PopSugar asserted that Williams ' character " proves to be most likable of the new doctors " .
= Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock =
Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock ( initially referred to as Guitar Hero 6 or Guitar Hero VI ) is a music video game developed by Neversoft and published by Activision . It was the sixth main entry in the Guitar Hero series , and was released in September 2010 for PlayStation 3 , Wii ( ported by Vicarious Visions ) , and Xbox 360 . Similar to previous entries in the franchise , it is geared towards playing in a four @-@ person band experience , including lead and bass guitar , drums , and vocals . The game is available as a standalone title , allowing players to use existing compatible instrument controllers , and as a bundle that provides these controllers .
Warriors of Rock shares core gameplay elements with its predecessors , but introduced a new story mode in which the player must recruit eight characters — each with a unique ability that modifies the mechanics of the game — to help defeat an antagonist known as " The Beast " . The storyline also incorporated Rush 's seven @-@ part " 2112 " , as well as " Sudden Death " , a new song performed by Megadeth to serve as its culmination . Warriors of Rock carried over core gameplay and multiplayer functionality introduced by Guitar Hero 5 , including per @-@ song bonus challenges , and the ability to use power @-@ ups from the story mode in standard gameplay .
Warriors of Rock received mixed reviews from gaming journalists : while critics felt that Warriors of Rock would appeal best to long @-@ time fans of the Guitar Hero franchise , some felt that the overall soundtrack was weaker than that of past installments due to its lack of focus and use of lesser @-@ known songs and artists . The game 's " Quest Mode " was met with a similarly mixed reaction , with some critics considering it a notable change over the career modes of previous Guitar Hero games and praising certain highlights , such as the " 2112 " segment , but criticizing the pacing of the storyline and how its songs were organized .
Sales of Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock were weaker than those of Guitar Hero 5 , with combined sales of the game and DJ Hero 2 through the end of 2010 being 63 % lower than the sales of Guitar Hero 5 , DJ Hero and Band Hero through the end of 2009 . Initial shipments of Warriors of Rock were also bundled with a copy of Soundgarden 's compilation album Telephantasm ; based on its distribution with copies of the game , Telephantasm became the first album to receive a Platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America based on distribution alongside a video game . As a result of the underwhelming sales , also credited to the oversaturation of the music game market , the Guitar Hero franchise was ultimately shuttered until the 2015 unveiling of a reboot , Guitar Hero Live .
= = Gameplay = =
As with previous games in the series , Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock is a rhythm game , allowing up to four people play in a band on vocals , lead and bass / rhythm guitar , and drums , to use special instrument controllers to simulate the playing of rock music . In general , the goal for each player is to match scrolling note gems that correspond to that instrument 's part in the given song to score points ; the guitar and bass player must hold down the appropriate colored buttons on the controller and then use the strum bar as the notes pass over a marked zone ; the drummer must strike the matching drum pads on the controller when the notes pass , and the vocalist must match the relative pitch of the song 's lyrics as guided by phrase markers . Successfully striking notes earns points and boosts the player 's performance meter ; missing notes will cause this meter to drop . When playing by one 's self , if the performance meter should empty , the song will end and require the player to restart it ; when playing in a band , the remaining band members must play well enough for a limited time to " revive " a player that has fallen out due to an empty performance meter , or else the whole band will fail the song . Prior to the start of a song , each player can select one of five difficulty levels : Beginner , Easy , Medium , Hard , and Expert , with a sixth difficulty of Expert + available to some songs on the drums which introduces a double bass pedal . Harder difficulties have characters with high note densities and more difficult playing techniques ; each player can select their own difficulty to play .
For guitar and bass players , the players are given the opportunity to play single notes or chords , both as single notes or sustained , during which the players must continue to hold down the fret button ( s ) for the extent of the sustain . Some charts provide the ability to hold down one sustained note via its fret button while strumming additional notes . Warriors of Rock also provides simulated hammer @-@ ons and pull @-@ offs , where , after striking one note , specifically marked notes can be played by fingering the correct buttons but without strumming . There are also note portions of some songs where notes appear semi @-@ transparent relative to normal notes ; these notes , introduced in Guitar Hero World Tour , can be played simply by tapping the correct buttons on the controller without strumming or using a touch @-@ sensitive " slider bar " below the fret buttons , if the player is using a World Tour controller . Bass players can play open chords by strumming without holding any fret buttons . Warriors of Rock introduces sustained open chords for bass players , although unlike other sustainable notes , does not require you to hold down the button required to execute the note initially . Drum players , when using velocity @-@ sensitive drum kits , may be presented with both ghosted notes or notes with a shield icon over them ; these represents drum notes that should be struck softer or harder than normal , respectively , to score more points . Drum players can also attach a second bass drum pedal , necessary for certain songs in the " Expert + " difficulty .
If the player successfully matches a number of consecutive notes correctly , they boost their individual scoring multiplier up to a maximum 4x value ; missing a note will reset to the multiplier back to 1x . Throughout each song 's respective charts for the instruments are special highlighted phrases ; completing all the notes in this phrase , and for guitar / bass players , using the whammy bar on marked sustained notes , fills part of a Star Power meter . When this meter is at least half full , the player can activate Star Power by performing special actions on their controllers : either tilting the guitar controller upward briefly or pressing the Star Power activation button for guitar and bass ; striking two pads simultaneously on the drums ; and either double tapping the microphone or pressing one of the buttons on the game console 's regular controllers for vocals . When Star Power is activated , the overall band scoring multiplier is increased for a limited time until the Star Power meter is drained . After completing a song , the band is awarded a number of stars based on the overall score ; in normal modes for Warriors of Rock , up to six stars can be earned ; the final being achievable only through zero misses and zero extra strums .
A major addition in Warriors of Rock is the use of special powers that come from special " warrior " forms of pre @-@ defined characters that are unlocked through the game 's Quest mode . These powers alter certain aspects of the core gameplay ; one character allows for the Star Power multiplier to boost up to six times instead of just double , while another earns the player a star for maintaining a scoring multiplier above a certain target for a length of time . When these powers are active , the players can earn well beyond five stars on a score either due to higher scoring opportunities or stars rewarded by the power , with a maximum of 40 stars available for each song .
= = = Game modes = = =
As with previous iterations of Guitar Hero , Warriors of Rock provides a career mode called " Quest Mode " that progresses through each of the on @-@ disc songs . Quest Mode is centered on a story @-@ telling element narrated by Gene Simmons , where the player must help save the Demigod of Rock from a mechanized creature called the Beast . To do this , the player must recruit eight characters for the battle against the Beast , each of whom have a unique power that affects gameplay . To recruit a character , the player must perform a number of songs that represent that character 's musical genre within a stylistic venue ; for example , the first character , the mohawk @-@ wearing Johnny Napalm , has a number of punk songs available , and uses the now @-@ defunct CBGB Club in New York City as his venue . After the player earns a minimum number of stars for that character , that character is transformed into a " warrior " , boosting their unique power , and is recruited into the player 's band .
Mid @-@ way through the Quest , the players will encounter the legendary ax @-@ guitar that belongs to the Demigod ; this section is highlighted by playing through the full seven @-@ part " 2112 " by Rush . Rush 's members , Geddy Lee , Neil Peart , and Alex Lifeson , narrate this section based on the story outlined in the liner notes of the 2112 album . The " 2112 " section also takes place in special venues inspired by the " 2112 " song , including the cave where the ax @-@ guitar is found , and one highlighting the iconic Starman image . After recruiting all eight characters , the player must divide the characters into two bands to " fight " against the Beast as to earn a maximum number of stars from each band 's combined powers in order to power the ax @-@ guitar and allow the Demigod to finish the Beast himself . This last battle is set to a new song , " Sudden Death " by Megadeth ( which would later appear in their album Thirteen , released the following year ) and written by their front @-@ man Dave Mustaine specifically for the conclusion of the game , and contains portions that he believed were " the most difficult parts " he has written in his life . When the player has completed the battle with the Beast , they have the opportunity to return to the previous venues , now with all eight powers active simultaneously , and attempt to achieve 40 @-@ star performances for each song in the game , as well as a comparatively difficult set of songs with the Demigod himself .
Video game journalists have noted thematic similarities between the story details of Warriors of Rock and Brütal Legend , an action video game with a world based on heavy metal , developed by Tim Schafer and Double Fine Productions which Activision , at one point , would have published but later dropped the rights . Project lead Brian Bright commented that their inspiration for the game 's story was the covers of metal albums , the same material that led to the world of Brütal Legend .
In the game 's Quickplay + mode , players can play any song on @-@ disc or from their downloadable content library . Each song has 13 different achievements to be completed . Twelve are similar to the Challenges introduced in Guitar Hero 5 , such as getting a high score , maintain a long note streak , or accumulating an amount of Star Power , and each has 3 levels ( gold , platinum , and diamond ) that translate to 1 to 3 additional stars once reached . If the player has unlocked the Warrior character powers in the Quest mode , they can enable these powers to try to get up to a maximum of 20 stars ( 21 for successfully completing the song without missing a note or hitting notes that aren 't there ) on each song for the thirteenth challenge . As the player earns stars in this mode , they will advance in rank and gain additional unlockable features such as alternate outfits or guitars and additional venue selections . Party mode introduced in Guitar Hero 5 is also available , where the game will automatically play songs like a jukebox , and allow for players to drop @-@ in or drop @-@ out at any time . The competitive modes introduced in Guitar Hero 5 are also carried over into Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock , and are expanded to include band @-@ vs @-@ band variants .
The Wii version improves the " Roadie " game version introduced in Guitar Hero 5 . In this mode , up to four additional players with their own Nintendo DS wirelessly connected to the Wii ( the " Roadies " ) can assist the other players using instrument controllers . The Roadies can create setlists from the DS , or engage in gameplay through " spells " that improve the performance of the player they are assigned to . Alternatively , in Roadie Battle mode , the Roadies can attempt to distract another player while at the same time removing the distractions placed on their player by another Roadie . Warriors of Rock includes an improved version of a song creation tool , allowing players to share their songs using the online " GHTunes " services . Improvements include the ability to lay down note tracks directly while playing one of the instrument controllers and a larger number of guitar , bass , and drum samples to use . The player can use the built @-@ on GH Studio to create their own music , save for vocals , to share with others on the GH Tracks service , either by laying down tracks one note at a time , or by jamming along to a pre @-@ defined beat . Players can create their own customized rocker to use in Quickplay + or online modes through the character creator , or use either the regular form or the Warrior version of the eight on @-@ disc characters .
= = = Characters = = =
There are no caricatures of real @-@ life musicians in the game due to ongoing legal issues with the likenesses of musician celebrities in Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero . As such , only eight fictional guitarists are featured in the game ; more specifically , four men and four women . Each one has a special power that helps the player improve their score . In Quest Mode , the characters must obtain a certain number of " power stars " in order to transform into their warrior state , whereupon their power is upgraded into a " + " state which either boosts the effect or adds bonus effects .
= = = = Johnny Napalm = = = =
Johnny Napalm 's power is called " Speed Freak . " The effects of this power keep the multiplier at a minimum of double points . Additionally , maintaining a multiplier of triple points or higher will earn the player up to 2 power stars . Once Johnny has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into his warrior form , a hobgoblin , his power is upgraded to " Speed Freak + . " With this upgrade , the multiplier increases after hitting 5 notes in a row rather than 10 . Additionally , the amount of power stars that the player can earn by maintaining a multiplier of triple points or higher is increased to 5 .
= = = = Echo Tesla = = = =
Echo Tesla 's power is called " Star Power Generator . " The effects of this power fill the star power gauge by 5 % after hitting 10 notes in a row . Once Echo has obtained the necessary amount of power stars and has transformed into her warrior form , a cyborg , her power is upgraded to " Star Power Generator + . " With this upgrade , hitting 10 notes in a row fills the star power gauge by 10 % rather than 5 % .
= = = = Judy Nails = = = =
Judy Nails ' power is called " Crowd Hyper . " With it , the rock meter starts in the green section rather than the yellow section . Also , hitting notes while the rock meter is at the maximum , or " overflowing " the rock meter , will grant the player up to 2 power stars . Once Judy has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into her warrior form , a demon , her power is upgraded to " Crowd Hyper + . " With this upgrade , the rock meter starts at the maximum , and overflowing the rock meter now grants up to 5 power stars .
= = = = Austin Tejas = = = =
Austin Tejas ' power is called " Star Power Amplifier . " With it , successfully completing a star power sequence fills the star power gauge by 50 % rather than 25 % , allowing the player to use star power instantly . Once Austin has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into his warrior form , a headless horseman , his power is upgraded to " Star Power Amplifier + . " With this upgrade , successfully completing a star power sequence fills the star power gauge to the maximum .
= = = = Pandora = = = =
Pandora 's power is called " Star Power Nova . " With it , star power triples the player 's multiplier rather than doubling it . Once Pandora has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into her warrior form , an elf , her power is upgraded to " Star Power Nova + . " With this upgrade , star power now sextuples the player 's multiplier .
= = = = Lars Ümlaüt = = = =
Lars Ümlaüt 's power is called " Multiplier Extender . " The effects of this power increase the multiplier 's maximum from quadruple points to quintuple points . Once Lars has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into his warrior form , a half human , half boar hybrid , his power is upgraded to " Multiplier Extender + . " With this upgrade , the multiplier 's maximum increases from quintuple points to sextuple points .
= = = = Casey Lynch = = = =
Casey Lynch 's power is called " Streak Guardian . " With this power , the player 's note streak is protected by a shield that keeps the player 's note streak from resetting should they miss a note ; the shield refills quickly . Additionally , maintaining high note streaks will grant the player up to 2 power stars . Once Casey has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into her warrior form , a half human , half snake hybrid , her power is upgraded to " Streak Guardian + . " With this upgrade , the player is given 2 shields rather than 1 , and maintaining high note streaks grants up to 5 power stars .
= = = = Axel Steel = = = =
Axel Steel 's power is called " Resurrector . " With this power , the player can earn up to 2 ankhs that will revive the player with the rock meter in the yellow section should they fail the song . Additionally , any ankhs left over after the song is complete are converted into 1 power star each . Once Axel has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into his warrior form , a mummy , his power is upgraded to " Resurrector + . " With this upgrade , the maximum number of ankhs the player can earn is increased to 5 .
= = = = The Demigod of Rock = = = =
Once the player has defeated " the Beast , " the player unlocks the Demigod of Rock as a playable character . The Demigod of Rock 's power is called " All Powerful . " This power uses all 8 of the warriors ' powers at once .
= = Development = =
After weak sales in 2009 of several titles in the Guitar Hero series , Activision proceeded to make several changes with their internal development teams . The company dissolved RedOctane , bringing in some of the staff directly into Activision . Activision further shuttered Neversoft 's Guitar Hero division , pending the completion of Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock , with further development in the series to be created by some former Neversoft members and Vicarious Visions . Brian Bright , former Neversoft member and current project lead , noted that part of the poor sales of Guitar Hero in 2009 was a result of a loss of focus with Guitar Hero 5 , stating that " we were trying to please everyone out there and I think in the end you end up not pleasing any one person a lot " . With Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock , Bright wanted to bring the game back to please the fans of the earlier Guitar Hero games , specifically the highly successful Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock . To that end , the team developed a soundtrack " more focused on rock ' n ' roll " than the variety of genres within Guitar Hero 5 . The songs are more guitar @-@ centric , as proven to be the most popular instrument choice based on Guitar Hero 5 . Bright noted they used player statistics from previous games to shape Warriors of Rock ; for example , according to Bright , within a month of release , 40 % of the players of Guitar Hero 5 were playing on Expert mode , and felt this was the audience they needed to cater to . Bright also stated that the aim of Warriors of Rock was to create a game with " its own identity " from both previous Guitar Hero titles and other rhythm games ; " Rather than go head @-@ to @-@ head with our own games and our competitors , we decided we wanted to make something different . "
Part of creating the new identity for Warriors of Rock was by creating the game 's Quest mode . Activision contacted Gene Simmons , who initially thought the company was asking for a KISS song to be included in the game . Instead , when Simmons learned they wanted him to be the narrator and the voice of the Demigod , he became very interested in the project feeling that the Demigod character had elements of his own stage personality in it . Activision also approached the members of Rush for inclusion of " 2112 " , and the group provided inspiration and feedback on the Rush @-@ themed venues that " 2112 " is played in within the game . The developers also approached Dave Mustaine of Megadeth to write the music for the game 's final boss battle . The Quest mode also gave Activision the opportunity to explore the characters that have been in the series since its inception but otherwise only used as player avatar . The developers were able to expand on these existing designs and gave each one a unique venue and setlist throughout the campaign .
A new guitar controller was developed for the game to help with " shredding " and an art style to match the changes made in the game 's visuals . The guitar hardware has been significantly redesigned to locate most of the base electronics and wireless controls into the main fretboard of the unit , containing the colored fret buttons , strum and whammy bar , and other controls for interacting with the game console . As such , this allows the body of the guitar to be swappable with custom designs , allowing players to personalize the control to their wishes ; one design will be exclusive to those that pre @-@ order the game through GameStop . The new guitar controller remains backwards compatible with previous games . Within North America , the new drum kit is also sold individually or in bundles with Warriors of Rock . The kit had previously been packed with Band Hero in the United Kingdom and with the Wii version of Band Hero in North America , but otherwise was not sold separately . The drum kit is MIDI @-@ enabled with a detachable " drum brain " allowing other drum kits to be used instead with the game , while the game 's kit can be used with any MIDI @-@ capable music editing system . The music video for Soundgarden 's " Black Rain " , is animated by Titmouse , Inc . , the same studio that performs the in @-@ game animations for Guitar Hero as well as Metalocalypse , and includes images of a young man playing Guitar Hero using the new guitar controller introduced in Warriors of Rock .
A demo for the game was released on Xbox Live on September 7 , 2010 , and features four songs : " Children of the Grave " by Black Sabbath , " No Way Back " by Foo Fighters , " Ghost " by Slash featuring Ian Astbury , and " Bloodlines " by Dethklok . On release , some players reported getting faulty discs , which Activision stated they will replace .
= = Soundtrack = =
There are 93 songs on disc for Warriors of Rock . According to Bright , all the songs have been selected to fit within a narrow set of music genres , " punk , alternative rock , and classic rock " , to avoid dilution of the game 's focus . Bright noted that " there 's still range and still a lot of variety in this game " to avoid alienating long @-@ time fans of the series in general . The developers also looked at various song structures and considered if they would be fun to play ; Bright said that a good song for the game " would have a memorable riff but not feel repetitive " and " would be a good amount of chord changes and , ideally , a fun guitar solo to add to the challenge " . Two songs , Alice Cooper 's " No More Mr. Nice Guy " and The Runaways ' " Cherry Bomb " , have been specifically re @-@ recorded for use in Warriors of Rock . Megadeth 's " Sudden Death " was specifically written as the final song within Warriors of Rock 's setlist ; its polyrhythms and difficult passes make it one of the toughest songs to beat . " Sudden Death " was nominated , but did not win , for " Best Metal Performance " for the 53rd Grammy Awards ; this , along with the song " Baba Yetu " from Civilization IV and " Video Games Live " , represents the first time a song composed for a video game has earned a Grammy nomination , with " Baba Yetu " continuing to win its award .
Warriors of Rock supported additional songs through downloadable content that players can purchase on their respective console storefronts . All previous downloadable content that worked with Guitar Hero 5 , including previous content from Guitar Hero World Tour , Guitar Hero : Smash Hits , and Band Hero , will work in Warriors of Rock . More than 500 tracks were available to players at launch . In addition , 39 songs from Guitar Hero : Metallica were importable into Warriors of Rock upon the game 's release . In February 2011 , Activision decided to shutter their Guitar Hero development , and initially stated that no further downloadable content will be forthcoming . Due to " continued support " from their fanbase , Activision has since decided it will continue to release downloadable content for Warriors of Rock through at least March and April 2011 with packs that were in the works prior to the closure of Guitar Hero .
Initial shipments of the game were also bundled with a copy of the Soundgarden compilation album Telephantasm ; its new song " Black Rain " was included among the playable songs included on Warriors of Rock , while the remaining eleven tracks on the album were made available as downloadable content . Because of the album 's inclusion with over one million shipped copies of Warriors of Rock , the Recording Industry Association of America certified Telephantasm as a platinum record ; it is considered the first time such a distinction has been made based on " non @-@ returnable units from a music label to a gaming company " according to Soundgarden 's promotional group .
= = Reception = =
Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock received mixed to positive reviews from gaming critics . Most critics acknowledged that Warriors of Rock was an attempt to distance itself from its competitor , the Rock Band series , and a return to the Guitar Hero series ' roots . However , in the attempt to redefine the series , some critics thought Warriors of Rock failed to recapture the experience of playing the earlier Guitar Hero games . Arthur Gies of IGN felt the game was " aimless " , leaving him to question " why Warriors of Rock is here " . Tyler Cocke of 1UP.com commented that Warriors of Rock " seems to have forgotten that music games are supposed to be all about having a good time " . Ben Kurchera of Ars Technica considered that Warriors of Rock keeps the series " treading water " and lacks " any real upward movement " , and may have been a step back with how relaxed the game 's timing windows have become compared to early Guitar Hero games . Others note that the game can be enjoyable , but only to those that are fans of the series , and is not well @-@ suited to new or casual players . G4 's Abbie Heppe found the game " does an exceptional job of catering to the hardcore audience " but warns the casual fan that may not enjoy the setlist to simply " move along " . Matt Helgeson of Game Informer postulated if Guitar Hero may have jumped the shark with the " often stupid and frequently silly " gameplay and visuals , but was still entertained in playing through the game .
Quest mode , considered the game 's largest change , has mixed reception . The use of " 2112 " as a centerpiece in the Quest mode was praised by critics ; Johnny Minkley of Eurogamer said that the concept is " pitch @-@ perfect " for Warriors of Rock and was " a clever and enjoyable break from the typically rigid career structure " . Cocke noted that the " 2112 " section feels like " nice fanservice " and its length and complexity would not be fun for players uninterested in Rush , while Helgeson felt that the " awkward recitation " by the band members were unnecessary . Other aspects of Quest mode were found to be less enjoyable . Gene Simmons 's voice @-@ over narration was found " stilted and awkward " . While the story carried similar heavy metal themes as Brutal Legend , very few of the songs within the game are from that genre ; to Cocke , this felt " like a desperate attempt to gain credibility with too many crowds , but it ends up spreading itself too thin " . The Globe and Mail 's Chad Sapieha felt that the Quest mode " simply disguised [ the series ' ] aging career mode " , with the characters ' powers being " hardly satisfying " and only a means to " artificially inflate one 's score " . After the player has completed the " 2112 " setpiece , the rest of the Quest mode was disappointing ; Minkley compared the second half of this mode as a " disengaging slog to level up the remaining four characters " . Gies felt the " rigid and often frustrating " Quest mode led to playing the songs in an order that was " all over the place in terms of tone , difficulty , and most importantly , fun " . Some reviewers felt the improved Quickplay + mode to be the highlight of the game ; Heppe noted that the mode " probably seems too basic to be the star of the game , but it really shines " while Minkley considered that it " offer [ ed ] a far stronger reason to replay than the embryonic Quest Mode manages " . Gies ' review of the Wii version noted that the Roadie Battles mode exclusive to the Wii version was enjoyable and " helps the Wii version of the game to stand tall " to the high @-@ definition console version .
Reviewers found the soundtrack to lack the focus that Activision claims it has , and that the series may have exhausted a number of good guitar songs in its previous iterations . Gies stated that the game soundtrack " may be the most uneven collection in any of the main Guitar Hero titles " , citing problems with " a surplus of tracks that seem out of place " , " too many songs that are just boring to play " , and " a number of synth heavy songs that are nevertheless shoehorned " into the game . Official Xbox Magazine UK stated that the setlist " feels at times uninspired , incongruous and uninteresting " . Helgeson felt the setlist was " a mixed bag " , with a strong and balanced set of songs in the early tiers of Quest mode , while the latter , more difficult songs were " terrible and felt like a chore " to complete . Roger Hargreaves of The Metro commented that " with so many of the more iconic rock songs having already been used in previous Guitar Hero and Rock Band games developers are forced to use ever more obscure songs and / or acts " . Heppe also considered the lack of iconic song , noting the setlist " seems like the same bands we always see in [ Guitar Hero ] , just their 3rd tier hits " . On the other hand , USA Today 's Mike Snider claimed that the game 's soundtrack " gave [ him ] a reason to blast music on [ his ] stereo " , and besides providing well @-@ known songs and bands , introduced him to new bands .
Initial sales of Warriors of Rock were below estimates . NPD Group reported 86 @,@ 000 units sold in the United States across all platforms for the last five days of September during which it was available . This figure fell below the initial sales of the previous games , such as 1 @.@ 5 million and 500 @,@ 000 units in first @-@ week sales for Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock and Guitar Hero World Tour , respectively . Combined sales in North America of Warriors of Rock and DJ Hero 2 were below one million in 2010 , 63 % below the total sales of Guitar Hero 5 , DJ Hero , and Band Hero in 2009 . Weak sales of Warriors of Rock , in part , led to Activision shuttering its Guitar Hero business unit in February 2011 and cancelling a planned 2011 sequel . As a result of the closure , no further downloadable content was created following the February 2011 packs .
= Tom Pryce =
Thomas Maldwyn Pryce ( 11 June 1949 – 5 March 1977 ) was a British racing driver from Wales , famous for winning the Brands Hatch Race of Champions , a non @-@ championship Formula One race , in 1975 and for the circumstances surrounding his death . Pryce is the only Welsh driver to have won a Formula One race and is also the only Welshman to lead a Formula One World Championship Grand Prix : two laps of the 1975 British Grand Prix .
Pryce started his career in Formula One with the small Token team , making his only start for them at the 1974 Belgian Grand Prix . Shortly after an impressive performance at the Formula Three support race for the 1974 Monaco Grand Prix , Pryce joined the Shadow team and scored his first points in Germany in only his fourth race . Pryce later claimed two podium finishes , his first in Austria in 1975 and the second in Brazil a year later . Pryce was considered by his team as a great wet @-@ weather driver . During the practice session for the 1977 South African Grand Prix , run in wet conditions , Pryce was faster than everyone , including world champion drivers Niki Lauda and James Hunt . During the race , he collided at high speed with a safety marshal , Frederik Jansen van Vuuren , and both men were killed . A memorial to Pryce was unveiled in 2009 in his home town of Ruthin .
= = Personal and early life = =
Tom Pryce was born on 11 June 1949 in Ruthin , Denbighshire , to Jack and Gwyneth Pryce . Jack had served in the Royal Air Force as a tail @-@ gunner on a Lancaster bomber before joining the local police force . Gwyneth was a district nurse . Pryce 's older brother , David , died at the age of three leaving Tom an only child for much of the time he was growing up , although his parents did foster a young girl called Sandra for a while . Pryce , known to his friends as Mald , attended Nantglyn Catholic Primary School , Denbighshire . The family later moved to Towyn , Denbighire , due to Jack 's job .
Pryce took an interest in cars while driving a baker 's van at the age of 10 , before informing his parents that he wanted to be a racing driver . During an interview with Alan Henry in 1975 , he stated that he had wanted to become a pilot , but thought he was not intelligent enough . Like many future Formula One drivers , Pryce had a childhood racing hero . In his case it was Lotus 's Scottish driver Jim Clark . Pryce 's mother recalled that he was very upset when Clark died at the Hockenheimring in April 1968 . His father noted that " he was very upset when Jochen Rindt was killed , too " . After he left school at 16 , Pryce 's mother insisted that he take an apprenticeship as a tractor mechanic at Llandrillo Technical College , giving him " something to fall back on " , as she put it , if his career as a racing driver was unsuccessful .
In 1975 Pryce married Fenella , more commonly known as Nella , whom he met at a disco in Otford , Kent in 1973 . Following the death of her husband , Nella went on to run an antiques store in Fulham , London with Janet Brise , the widow of Tony Brise , who died in a plane crash in 1975 with fellow racing driver , Graham Hill and later moved to France .
= = Helmet design = =
Tom Pryce 's helmet design was , in comparison to later drivers ' , simple and restrained . His helmet was plain white all over until 1970 . At that year 's race at Castle Combe , his father asked Pryce to make his helmet stand out more so that he could easily identify him in a pack of cars . Pryce added five black vertical lines to his helmet , placed just above his visor . From that time the only change to this design was the addition of a Welsh flag to the side of his helmet in 1974 .
= = Career = =
= = = Pre @-@ Formula One = = =
= = = = 1969 – 1971 : Early years = = = =
Pryce 's first steps into motor racing came at the Mallory Park circuit in Leicestershire when he was 20 . Pryce was put through his paces by Trevor Taylor , an ex @-@ Team Lotus driver and old team mate of Pryce 's childhood hero Clark . He later became a star in the Formula 5000 series . From there , Pryce went on to compete in the Daily Express Crusader Championship , a series run by Motor Racing Stables for racing school pupils using Lotus 51 Formula Ford cars . Races alternated between the Brands Hatch and Silverstone circuits ; Pryce made his début at the former . " The races were £ 35 a time . But I sold my Mini and my parents offered all the help and encouragement I could wish for " Pryce recalled to Alan Henry .
The prize for the overall winner of the series was a Formula Ford Lola T200 worth £ 1 @,@ 500 . The series was decided at the last round , held at Silverstone , the day before the 1970 Formula One International Trophy . Pryce qualified on the third row for the race , which was held in rain . Jack Pryce remembered that his son was rubbing his hands in delight : " he always loved racing in the rain " . The early part of the race was led by a driver called Chris Smith but then heavy rain started and Pryce was able to catch up with Smith and overtake him before winning by a comfortable margin . He was given his Lola by Sir Max Aitken .
Pryce took his new car to Brands Hatch , where he was allowed to house it in one of the old stables at the bottom of the paddock . Pryce soon abandoned his farming career and moved to a guest house in West Kingsdown , near the Brands Hatch circuit . Pryce continued to make a name for himself during 1971 , entering a new twin @-@ seater Sportscar category called Formula F100 , which he won with what was described by motorsports author David Tremayne as " embarrassing ease " . He then moved up to Formula Super Vee , driving the then @-@ choice Royale RP9 , for Team Rumsey Investments , and soon made his Formula Three début for the same manufacturer at Brands Hatch .
= = = = 1972 – 73 : Lower formulae = = = =
In that race at Brands Hatch , Pryce took an unfancied Royale RP11 to first place in the Formula Three support race for the 1972 Formula One Race of Champions against many established Formula Three drivers such as Roger Williamson , Jochen Mass and James Hunt . So large was Pryce 's advantage at the end of the race , many of the other teams voiced an opinion that Pryce 's car had run the race underweight ; it turned out that the circuit 's weighbridge certificate had expired and everyone 's cars had been underweight . Pryce retired from the leading group in the following two rounds at Oulton Park and Zandvoort , and then during practice for the support race of the 1972 Monaco Grand Prix his car came to a stop at Casino Square after a wire had come loose . He had exited his car to correct the problem when Peter Lamplough lost control of his car and struck the Royale RP11 . Pryce was knocked into a shop window and broke a leg .
The Welshman was back in action two weeks after his incident in Monaco . Pryce also ran in the Formula SuperVee series , winning the series by a comfortable margin , " I won just about every race I went in for " Pryce recalled . A run with Royale 's Formula Atlantic works team was also in store for Pryce during 1972 , where he took pole position for the final three rounds of the championship and won the final round at Brands Hatch .
He continued racing in Formula Atlantic in 1973 , winning three races . Royale soon had plans to enter Formula Two , such was the Welshman 's talent . The ambition to run in the Formula Two championship was planned to be financially fuelled by a Liechtenstein driver , Manfred Schurti . These plans only resulted in one of Royale 's F2 cars being built before the project was scrapped and Bob King , the head of Royale , left the company .
Following an invitation to test one of his cars , Pryce found himself racing in the Formula Two series with Ron Dennis 's Rondel Racing outfit . His best result for the team came at the Norisring where he was leading the race until a brake failure meant he had to give up first place to team mate Tim Schenken . At the end of 1973 , Pryce won the Grovewood award for his efforts during the year . Jack Pryce recalled that his son did not want to win the award , as he thought it was " a jinx on a driver 's career " .
= = = Formula One = = =
= = = = 1974 : Token = = = =
At the age of 25 , Pryce graduated to Formula One , the highest category of circuit racing defined by the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , motorsport 's world governing body , joining the newly formed Token Racing team . The team was created by Tony Vlassopulos and Ken Grob after the original Token team closed down in 1973 due to a lack of financial backing which had led to the end of the previous Rondel Racing outfit . Pryce was given the seat thanks to his backing from Titan Properties , and what David Tremayne described as " evident promise " . Pryce made his début for the team at the BRDC International Trophy , a non @-@ championship Formula One event held at Silverstone , but lack of an airbox and an engine cover , along with his shortage of experience in the car , made him the slowest driver of the 16 competitors during qualifying : 26 seconds slower than James Hunt 's Hesketh in pole position . The Welshman retired 15 laps into the race with a gear linkage problem . Pryce 's World Championship début came at the 1974 Belgian Grand Prix , where he qualified in 20th place , 3 seconds slower than the fastest time set by Clay Regazzoni . Once again , he failed to finish , completing 66 laps before retiring after a collision with Jody Scheckter 's Tyrrell .
Pryce was refused entry to the 1974 Monaco Formula One Grand Prix , as he was deemed " inexperienced " . Instead , he took part in the supporting Formula Three race , driving for Ippokampos Racing , in a March 743 , which he won by 20 @.@ 8 seconds .
= = = = 1974 – 77 : Shadow = = = =
1974
Following his impressive drive in Monaco , and a short spell in Formula Two , Pryce was signed by Shadow as replacement for Brian Redman , who had in turn replaced Peter Revson . Pryce made his début for the team in the 1974 Dutch Grand Prix . He qualified in 11th position , less than 0 @.@ 4 seconds slower than his team mate , Jean @-@ Pierre Jarier , who was in his second full season of Formula One competition . Pryce retired on the first lap of the race after a collision with James Hunt at the first corner broke his Shadow DN3 's rear suspension . Pryce qualified third in his second Grand Prix for the team , in France , 0 @.@ 32 seconds slower than Niki Lauda 's pole position time but nearly half a second quicker than Jarier . Once again , Pryce 's race ended at the first corner , when minor contact with Carlos Reutemann 's Brabham deflected Pryce 's Shadow into the path of James Hunt . The second collision between the two British drivers in as many races eliminated them both . Later in the season , Pryce received 100 bottles of champagne for finishing fastest in the practice session for the British Grand Prix at Brands Hatch . He went on to qualify on the fourth row of the starting grid .
Pryce scored the first point of his career in the 1974 German Grand Prix at the challenging Nürburgring circuit . After finishing 6th from 11th on the grid , he then qualified in 16th for the next Grand Prix in Austria , but spun off on lap 22 , ending his race . He qualified in 22nd place for the Italian Grand Prix , and finished 12 places higher . His season ended miserably , with an engine failure in Canada , and the Shadow severely off the pace in Watkins Glen . At the end of the season Pryce was equal 18th in the Drivers ' Championship with Graham Hill and Vittorio Brambilla .
1975
At the start of the 1975 season , Pryce 's future was subject to much speculation . Rumour linked him with a drive at Lotus , the team run by Colin Chapman , who had been keeping an eye on Pryce 's progress throughout 1973 and 1974 . At the time , Lotus was experiencing financial difficulties and reports suggested that Shadow and Lotus would swap Pryce and Swede Ronnie Peterson . The trade was viewed as a good acquisition for both teams , as Pryce was considered a driver of the same ability as Peterson , but would cost Lotus less , while Peterson could attract sponsorship to the relatively new Shadow team . The deal never materialised , although Shadow team manager Alan Rees claims that it came very close to being completed .
Pryce 's Shadow team mate , Jean @-@ Pierre Jarier , out @-@ qualified him in the early part of the 1975 season , as the French driver had the new Shadow DN5 car , while Pryce was in the older DN3 . It was not until the third round , the South African Grand Prix , that Pryce was able to use a DN5 . The team 's fourth race of the season was the non @-@ championship Race of Champions held at Brands Hatch . Pryce qualified on pole position and , following a poor start , passed Peterson and Jacky Ickx before closing an eight @-@ second gap to race leader Jody Scheckter , whose engine failed while Pryce harried him , letting Pryce through to become the first Welshman to win a Formula One race . Pryce showed other signs of promise during the season , most notably in Monaco and Silverstone where he qualified on the front row of the grid , the latter being in pole position . Pryce also achieved his first World Championship podium finish , in extremely wet conditions at the Austrian Grand Prix and finished in the points four more times . The highest of those came in Germany where he finished fourth , despite the fact that while he was running second behind Carlos Reutemann fuel had been leaking into the cockpit of his DN5 during the final laps around the very long Nürburgring , reportedly " searing his skin and almost blinding him with fumes " . The Welshman later received the Prix Rouge et Blanc Jo Siffert award , named after the Swiss Formula One driver , for this achievement .
At the end of December 1975 , Pryce and Dave Richards , future head of the Prodrive motorsports engineering company , entered a Lancia Stratos in the Tour of Epynt , a rally event contested by many established rallying names . Pryce needed little persuasion to team up for the one @-@ off event on home soil with Richards , both of whom were from Ruthin . Pryce crashed into a bridge 10 miles ( 16 km ) into the first stage , but still competed in the afternoon stages after his car was rebuilt .
1976
Once the 1976 Formula One World Championship season got under way Pryce instantly added a second podium finish to his tally , at the first round in Brazil . This came at the expense of continuing team mate Jarier , who was caught out by oil on the track from James Hunt 's McLaren . Both Shadows enjoyed reasonable competitiveness during the next two races at Kyalami and Long Beach . Changes in car regulations , meaning that teams had to lower their airboxes and mount the cars ' rear wings further forward , along with revised Goodyear tyres , meant the Shadow DN5B lost much of its competitiveness ; Pryce still achieved a second points scoring finish of the season in Britain . The new Shadow DN8 was not introduced until the twelfth round at Zandvoort , where Pryce qualified the new car in third , and finished the race only one place lower in fourth : it was the last points scoring finish of his career . The Welshman finished his last full season 12th in the Drivers ' Championship with 10 points , 59 points behind World Champion James Hunt .
1977
Jarier left Shadow before the start of the 1977 Formula One season , for ATS , and was replaced by Italian Renzo Zorzi . Zorzi was later rated by Jackie Oliver , part of the managerial team at Shadow , as " the worst driver we [ the Shadow team ] ever had " . The new signing brought in sponsorship from Italy , easing Shadow 's financial position . Pryce started the first race of the year in Argentina in ninth place and stayed with the leading group until a gear linkage failure on the 45th lap of the 52 lap race . Following a long pit stop to fix the fault , he was not classified . Pryce qualified 12th for the second round in Brazil , but on lap 34 retired from the race , while running in second place , as the result of an engine failure .
= = Death = =
Tom Pryce began his final race weekend , the 1977 South African Grand Prix at Kyalami , by setting the fastest time in the Wednesday practice session , held in wet weather . Pryce posted a time of 1 minute 31 @.@ 57 seconds with the next best , the eventual 1977 World Champion Niki Lauda , a full second slower . The weather dried up prior to the Thursday session , and he slipped back down the grid to fifteenth place , almost two seconds slower than James Hunt 's pole position time .
Pryce made a poor start to the Grand Prix in his DN8 and by the end of the first lap was in last place . Pryce started to climb back up the field during the next couple of laps , overtaking Brett Lunger and team mate Renzo Zorzi on lap two , and Alex Ribeiro and Boy Hayje the following lap . By lap 18 Pryce had moved from 22nd to 13th place .
On lap 22 , Zorzi pulled off to the left side of the main straight , just after the brow of a hill and a bridge over the track . He was having problems with his fuel metering unit , and fuel was pumping directly onto the engine , which then caught fire . Zorzi did not immediately get out of his car as he could not disconnect the oxygen pipe from his helmet .
The situation caused two marshals from the pit wall on the opposite side of the track to intervene . The first marshal to cross the track was a 25 @-@ year @-@ old panel beater named William ( Bill ) . The second was 19 @-@ year @-@ old Frederik " Frikkie " Jansen van Vuuren , who was carrying a 40 @-@ pound ( 18 kg ) fire extinguisher . George Witt , the chief pit marshal for the race , said that the policy of the circuit was that in cases of fire , two marshals must attend and a further two act as back @-@ up in case the first pair 's extinguishers were not effective enough . Witt also recalled that both marshals crossed the track without prior permission . The former narrowly made it across the track , but the latter did not . As the two men started to run across the track , the cars driven by Hans @-@ Joachim Stuck and Pryce came over the brow of a rise in the track .
Pryce was directly behind Stuck 's car along the main straight , Stuck saw Jansen van Vuuren and moved to the right to avoid both marshals , missing Bill by what Tremayne calls " millimetres " . From his position Pryce could not see Jansen van Vuuren and was unable to react as quickly as Stuck had done . He struck the teenage marshal at approximately 270 km / h ( 170 mph ) . Jansen van Vuuren was thrown into the air and landed in front of Zorzi and Bill . He died on impact , and his body was badly mutilated by Pryce 's car . The fire extinguisher he had been carrying smashed into Pryce 's head , before striking the Shadow 's roll hoop . The force of the impact was such that the extinguisher was thrown up and over the adjacent grandstand . It landed in the car park to the rear of the stand , where it hit a parked car and jammed its door shut .
The impact with the fire extinguisher wrenched Pryce 's helmet upward sharply . Death was almost certainly instantaneous . Pryce 's Shadow DN8 , now with its driver dead at the wheel , continued at speed down the main straight towards the first corner , called Crowthorne . The car left the track to the right , scraping the metal barriers , hitting an entrance for emergency vehicles , and veering back onto the track . It then hit Jacques Laffite 's Ligier , sending both Pryce and Laffite head @-@ on into the barriers . Jansen van Vuuren 's injuries were so extensive that , initially , his body was identified only after the race director had summoned all of the race marshals and he was not among them .
The eventual race winner was Austrian Niki Lauda , his first win since his near fatal accident during the 1976 German Grand Prix . At first he announced it was the greatest victory of his career , but when told on the victory podium of Pryce 's death , he said that " there was no joy after that " .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Pryce 's death , and its horrific nature , were met with great grief from all those who knew him during his career , especially his wife Nella , his parents Jack and Gwyneth and the Shadow team . His body was buried at St Bartholomew 's Church in Otford , near Sevenoaks , Kent , the same church where he and Nella were married two years earlier .
Pryce 's performances in a Formula One car earned him much respect amongst the F1 paddock . David Tremayne named his son after the Welshman . The Tom Pryce Award , also known as the Tom Pryce Trophy , was instigated , and is given annually to Welsh personalities who have made an outstanding contribution to motoring or transport .
During its re @-@ design the Anglesey Circuit in North Wales named the Tom Pryce Straight after a request from Ruthin Town Council . A trust was established in 2006 to create a memorial to Pryce in Ruthin . A local artist was commissioned by Ruthin Town Council in 2008 to design an 8 @-@ by @-@ 4 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 by 1 @.@ 2 m ) plaque and in February 2009 , an auction of Formula One pit passes to fund its manufacture was announced . The memorial was unveiled on 11 June 2009 , on what would have been Pryce 's 60th birthday .
= = Complete Formula One World Championship results = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position )
= 2000 German Grand Prix =
The 2000 German Grand Prix ( formally the LXII Großer Mobil 1 Preis von Deutschland ) was a Formula One motor race held on 30 July 2000 at the Hockenheimring near Hockenheim , Germany . It was the eleventh round of the 2000 Formula One season and the 62nd German Grand Prix . The 45 @-@ lap race was won by Ferrari driver Rubens Barrichello after starting from 18th position . Mika Häkkinen finished second for the McLaren team with teammate David Coulthard third .
Coulthard started from pole position alongside Michael Schumacher . Coulthard 's teammate Häkkinen began from third . At the first corner Michael Schumacher moved to the left and Giancarlo Fisichella collided with him and both drivers retired . Häkkinen took the lead of the race which he held until an intruder penetrated circuit limits on lap 25 causing drivers to make pit stops under safety car conditions . Barrichello , meanwhile , had gained thirteen positions to run fifth until the first safety car period . Häkkinen retook the lead after Coulthard pitted on lap 27 . Barrichello stayed out on dry slick tyres , taking the lead which he held to clinch the first victory of his Formula One career .
Barrichello 's victory was considered popular amongst the Formula One paddock as it came after a setback during his career . The race result meant Häkkinen and Coulthard were tied for second place but the points advantage to Michael Schumacher was reduced to two points . Barrichello remained a further eight points behind the McLaren drivers . In the Constructors ' Championship McLaren reduced Ferrari 's lead to four points , who were 80 points ahead of Williams with six races of the season remaining . The track intruder , named as 47 @-@ year @-@ old Frenchman Robert Sehli , later apologised for his actions .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by eleven teams , each of two drivers . The teams , also known as constructors were , McLaren , Ferrari , Jordan , Jaguar , Williams , Benetton , Prost , Sauber , Arrows , Minardi and BAR . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought four different tyre types to the race : two dry compounds , the soft and the medium , and two wet @-@ weather compounds , the intermediate and full wet .
Going into the race , Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher led the Drivers ' Championship with 56 points , ahead of David Coulthard on 50 points and Mika Häkkinen on 48 points . Rubens Barrichello was fourth with 36 points whilst Giancarlo Fisichella was fifth with 18 points . In the Constructors ' Championship Ferrari were leading with 92 points , McLaren and Williams with 88 points and 19 points were second and third respectively , whilst Benetton with 18 points and BAR with 12 points contended with fourth place . Ferrari and McLaren had so far dominated the championship winning ten out of the ten previous races . Championship competitors Barrichello and Fisichella had each gained second @-@ place finishes , whilst Ralf Schumacher and Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen had achieved third place podium finishes .
Following the Austrian Grand Prix on 16 July , the teams conducted testing sessions at three circuits from July 18 – 21 to prepare for the Grand Prix . McLaren , Benetton , Jordan , Jaguar , Sauber and BAR went to Silverstone over three days . Olivier Panis , McLaren 's test driver , set the fastest time on the first day of testing . Jaguar test driver Luciano Burti crashed at Stowe corner where his car 's suspension , front and rear wings , and sidepod were damaged . The resulting incident caused a brief halt to testing and Jaguar shipped a spare car for the next day 's testing . Panis remained fastest on the second day . Trulli damaged his suspension and rear wing , resulting in repairs which limited his team 's testing time . Burti suffered another incident when he lost his right rear wheel . Fisichella topped the third and final day 's running . Ferrari test driver Luca Badoer spent four days at the Fiorano Circuit where he concentrated on testing engine and aerodynamic development whilst Michael Schumacher did practice starts and component testing on the fourth day .
Jaguar 's Eddie Irvine was passed fit in the days leading up to the race . He arrived at the previous race ill with a suspected bout of appendicitis and withdrew at the end of the Friday practice sessions . He was replaced by Burti . Irvine later travelled to a hospital in London where he was diagnosed with a swollen intestine . Irvine said he felt ready to race again : " I 'm looking forward to Hockenheim . I have been keeping tabs on the team 's Silverstone test this week and we 're all encouraged by what has been achieved . "
Jordan 's new car , the EJ10B , was also introduced that weekend ; the team had used their primary 2000 car , the EJ10 , for the previous ten races . Originally due to be introduced at the previous race in Austria , the car was required to undergo Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) safety tests on its bodywork and Jordan wanted to develop more spare parts for the EJ10B , delaying the car 's race début .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Four practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — two on Friday , and two on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted an hour . The third and final practice sessions were held on Saturday morning and lasted 45 minutes . The Friday sessions were held in dry and cloudy conditions , becoming damp during the day , resulting in the track surface becoming slippery . Michael Schumacher set the first session 's fastest time with a lap of 1 : 43 @.@ 532 , almost six @-@ tenths of a second faster than Häkkinen . Barrichello was just off Häkkinen 's pace with Coulthard setting the fourth fastest time . Frentzen and BAR driver Ricardo Zonta followed in fifth and sixth positions respectively . Fisichella , Mika Salo , Ralf Schumacher and Herbert completed the top ten fastest drivers in the session . Williams driver Jenson Button crashed into the pit lane at the end of the barriers and lost his front wing . In the second practice session , Michael Schumacher did not manage to improve his lap time but was still quickest . Frentzen was running quicker and was second fastest . The two McLaren drivers were running slower — Häkkinen in third and Coulthard fifth – although both drivers were undertaking race set @-@ up and brake performance testing . They were separated by Barrichello . Trulli was sixth fastest , ahead of Zonta . Villeneuve , Fisichella and Salo followed in the top ten .
The Saturday morning sessions were held in damp weather conditions with intermittent rain . Häkkinen set the third session 's fastest time , a 1 : 44 @.@ 144 , one @-@ tenth of a second quicker than Pedro de la Rosa . Coulthard was third fastest , ahead of Frentzen and Salo . Trulli , Barrichello , Michael Schumacher , Villeneuve and Fisichella rounded out the top ten fastest drivers . In the final practice session , Häkkinen set the fastest time of the day , a 1 : 41 @.@ 658 ; Coulthard finished with the third @-@ fastest time . The Ferrari drivers were again quick — Michael Schumacher in second and Barrichello in fourth . Frentzen slipped to fifth , with Fisichella sixth fastest and was happy with his car 's feel . Button was seventh fastest , in front of Salo . Villeneuve and Trulli completed the top ten ahead of qualifying . Fisichella 's car suffered an engine failure in the closing seconds of the session and a crash by Michael Schumacher after the session concluded meant that the German was forced to use his team 's spare car for qualifying .
Saturday 's afternoon qualifying session lasted for an hour . Each driver was limited to twelve laps , with the grid order decided by the drivers ' fastest laps . During this session , the 107 % rule was in effect , which necessitated each driver set a time within 107 % of the quickest lap to qualify for the race . The session was held in damp weather conditions with intermittent rain . The air temperature ranged between 19 – 20 ° C ( 66 – 68 ° F ) with the track temperature between 20 – 26 ° C ( 68 – 79 ° F ) . Coulthard achieved his second pole position of the season , his first at the Hockenheimring , with a time of 1 : 45 @.@ 697 . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Michael Schumacher who was 1 @.@ 3 seconds slower than Coulthard . Fisichella qualified third , though he was happy with his performance despite using his team 's T @-@ car after suffering a spin on his first run . He was later fined $ 5 @,@ 000 for not placing his car at the pit @-@ lane weighbridge . Häkkinen qualified fourth , three hundredths of a second slower than Fisichella . Häkkinen later admitted that he was cautious about going off the race track due to the weather conditions. de la Rosa qualified fifth giving Arrows their best qualifying performance of the season . Trulli and Wurz were satisfied with their sixth and seventh place qualifying positions . Herbert in the quicker of the two Jaguars took eighth . Villeneuve secured ninth using his team 's spare car after spinning on track which disrupted Frentzen 's running . Irvine rounded out the top ten . Verstappen had problems starting his engine , resulting in a lack of qualifying laps but managed to clinch eleventh . Zonta qualified twelfth having used a new engine and could not set a faster lap time after being blocked by Jean Alesi . He was ahead of Alesi 's teammate Nick Heidfeld . Ralf Schumacher qualified in 14th , quicker than teammate Button in 16th . They were separated by Salo . Frentzen spent the majority of qualifying 107 % outside of the pole sitters time but took 17th ; his first quick time was disallowed after cutting the chicane to set a faster lap and to run in clean air . Barrichello used his teammate 's car after his developed oil @-@ leak issues and qualified 18th . Sauber 's Pedro Diniz took 19th , in front of Alesi in 20th . The Minardi drivers qualified at the back of the grid ; Gastón Mazzacane in 21st and Marc Gené in 22nd .
= = = Race = = =
The drivers took to the track at 09 : 30 CEST ( GMT + 2 ) for a 30 @-@ minute warm @-@ up session . David Coulthard maintained his good performance from qualifying by setting the fastest time , a 1 : 44 @.@ 065 ; Häkkinen was second in the other McLaren car. de la Rosa and Michael Schumacher completed the top four . The session was disrupted by incidents as Coulthard and de la Rosa struck the barriers — both incidents required marshals to collect debris — whilst Villeneuve and Verstappen collided going into the circuit 's first chicane .
The race started at 14 : 00 local time . The conditions for the start of the race was dry , but became damp and wet as the race progressed . The air temperature was 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) and the track temperature ranged from 21 – 25 ° C ( 70 – 77 ° F ) . During the parade lap Button 's engine did not start and he was forced to start from the back of the grid . Häkkinen acclerated faster than teammate Coulthard and Michael Schumacher off the line , getting ahead of both drivers going into the first corner . Michael Schumacher moved to his left with Fisichella hitting him from behind and both drivers went off into the turn 1 barriers . Barrichello made the best start in the field , moving from 18th to 10th place at the end of the first lap . At the completition of the first lap , Häkkinen led from Coulthard , Trulli , de la Rosa , Irvine , Herbert , Verstappen , Villeneuve , Zonta , Barrichello , Ralf Schumacher , Wurz , Heidfeld , Salo , Diniz , Frentzen , Gené , Alesi , Button and Mazzacane .
Häkkinen began to maintain his lead from teammate Coulthard . On lap two Herbert moved into fifth position after Irvine dropped to seventh place when Verstappen overtook him . Further down the field Barrichello continued to gain positions when he passed both BAR drivers for eighth . The McLaren drivers managed to maintain a gap to Trulli who set the fastest lap of the race , 1 : 46 @.@ 321 . Irvine lost a further position to Barrichello on lap three , as Frentzen claimed 14th from Diniz . On lap four , Frentzen made up a further position by passing Heidfeld for 13th . On the same lap Verstappen locked up his tyres to avoid a collision with Herbert . This allowed Barrichello to pass Verstappen for sixth position in the run up to the Clark chicane on lap five . Herbert lost fifth position to Barrichello on lap six with Frentzen continuing to move up the field by passing Ralf Schumacher and Wurz for eleventh . Barrichello began setting consecutive fastest laps as he closed the gap to de la Rosa . Zonta lost 10th position when he was passed by Frentzen on lap seven . On the next lap , Verstappen suffered a worrying moment when half of his engine cover was shed from its chassis . Frentzen managed to gain a further four positions in the next four laps .
Further down , Ralf Schumacher took Zonta for eleventh place and Diniz passed teammate Salo for 14th position . Barrichello caught de la Rosa by lap twelve and passed him to take fourth and started to come under pressure from Frentzen . Herbert pulled over to the side of the track with gearbox problems on lap 13 . Barrichello passed Trulli for third position at the second corner two laps later . Barrichello became the first driver to make a pit stop by coming in on lap 17 . Frentzen made his pit stop one lap later and re @-@ joined in sixth place . By lap 20 , Häkkinen had a lead of 1 @.@ 4 seconds over Coulthard , who in turn was almost 22 seconds ahead of Trulli. de la Rosa was a further 2 @.@ 1 seconds behind the Jordan driver , and was being caught by Barrichello in fifth who set a new fastest lap , a 1 : 44 @.@ 300 . Villeneuve overtook Irvine to claim eighth place on lap 22 .
On lap 25 , a man appeared beside the barriers of the circuit on the straight heading towards turn 2 . He ran across the track to avoid being caught by marshals . The incident prompted the deployment of the safety car . Teams immediately brought their drivers into the pit lane to take advantage of the scenario with Trulli and de la Rosa the first to make pit stops . McLaren called in Häkkinen to the pit lane on lap 27 and Coulthard remained out on worn tyres . The Scot pitted on the following lap and emerged in sixth place . On the same lap , the man was caught and escorted off the circuit . Racing resumed on lap 29 when the safety car pulled into the pit lane . Trulli immediately came under pressure from Barrichello and withstood the Brazilian 's attempts to pass him . Ralf Schumacher spun at turn 3 on lap thirty and Verstappen was forced wide in avoidance . Later on Alesi collided with Diniz and struck the barriers , having lost his car 's two left wheels . The safety car was once again deployed as carbon fibre was scattered across the grass .
The safety car was withdrawn at the end of lap 31 and the race got underway again with Häkkinen in the lead . Wurz , meanwhile , immediately pulled off the circuit with a gearbox failure with Salo almost colliding with the Benetton . Light rain began to fall on lap 33 . Button pitted on the following lap and his Williams pit crew changed his dry tyres to wets . Gené became the race 's seventh retirement with a failed engine . All drivers , apart from Barrichello , Coulthard , Frentzen and Zonta , pitted for wet tyres . Villeneuve spun after minor contact with teammate Zonta but managed to continue . Trulli was issued with a 10 second stop @-@ go penalty on lap 37 because he was caught overtaking Barrichello under yellow flags . He took the penalty immediately and rejoined in 11th . Zonta was also issued with a penalty but spun into the tyre wall at turn 12 and retired . Coulthard became the final driver to have pitted on the 38th lap and rejoined in fifth . Button then passed de la Rosa for sixth place .
At the completition of lap 39 , with the pit stops completed , the running order was Barrichello , Häkkinen , Frentzen , Salo , Coulthard , Button , de la Rosa , Verstappen , Ralf Schumacher , Villeneuve , Trulli , Heidfeld , Mazzacane and Irvine . Frentzen retired with a gearbox failure on lap 40 as Coulthard moved into third after passing Salo . Heidfeld became the final retirement of the race with an alternator failure on lap 40 . Three laps later Button caught Salo and overtook him to clinch fourth position . It began to rain more heavily by lap 44 whilst Barrichello opened a gap to 11 @.@ 5 seconds , and won the race after 45 laps to secure the first victory of his Formula One career in a time of 1 ' 25 : 34 @.@ 418 , at an average speed of 133 @.@ 807 miles per hour ( 215 @.@ 341 km / h ) . Häkkinen finished second in his McLaren 7 @.@ 4 seconds behind Barrichello , with teammate Coulthard third . Button clinched his best result of the 2000 season with fourth , ahead of Salo in fifth and de la Rosa rounded out the points @-@ scoring positions in sixth . Ralf Schumacher , Villeneuve , Trulli , Irvine and Mazzacane filled the next five positions , with Heidfeld the last of the classified runners despite his alternator failure .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and in the subsequent press conference . Barrichello 's maiden Formula One victory was very popular amongst spectators and team personnel , because it came after a set back earlier in his career , not least a serious accident during practice for the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix that left him unconscious . Barrichello dedicated his victory to fellow Brazilian and three @-@ time World Champion Ayrton Senna who had helped him during the early phase of his career . He also revealed that it was his decision to stay out on dry tyres as he believed he would have an advantage on the straights and the chicanes , although he flat @-@ spotted a tyre in the closing stages of the Grand Prix which reduced his visibility . Häkkinen said that he felt " in control " during the first phase of the event , although he admitted that he was conservative on the wet tyres and could have secured victory on dry tyres . Coulthard revealed that he utilised tactics performed by Michael Schumacher at the start after he sought clarification on the rules regarding such manoeuvres . He additionally commented that he was unable to talk to his team via radio in the forest sections which caused him to stay out for an additional lap when Häkkinen pitted .
Button was delighted with his then career best finish of fourth position and praised his team for the timing to the switch to wet @-@ weather tyres . Salo described his race as " hard " because of him opting to have a high downforce set @-@ up meaning he was slower than his rivals on the straights . Additionally he revealed that towards the end of the race , he did not have oil in his engine with temperatures continuously rising. de la Rosa scored points for the second time in the season , having taken fifth at the European Grand Prix. de la Rosa thought that the Grand Prix was " strange " though he was happy with the effort of his team . Michael Schumacher , who retired on the first lap , after Fisichella collided with him , accused the Benetton driver of causing the incident . " I am out of the race not because of David ( Coulthard ) but because of Fisichella . " he said . Fisichella however said that he was maintaining his racing line and believed that drivers should choose their preferred racing line before he described his Grand Prix as a " waste " .
The majority of media attention , however , was focussed on the intruder who penetrated the circuit 's barriers on lap 25 . He was revealed to be man named Robert Sehli , a 47 year old from France who worked for Mercedes @-@ Benz in a production factory at Le Mans . He also had three children . Sehli informed the press that he was protesting against his dismissal from his job after 22 years on health grounds . Additional information revealed that he planned to protest 15 seconds before the start of the formation lap but was prevented by marshals who dragged him off the circuit . Sehli had attempted to organise something similar at the French Grand Prix before the FIA Photographers ' Delegate stopped him in the pit lane 10 laps before the race ended . He was released on a $ 945 ( DM 2 @,@ 000 ) bail the Monday after the German Grand Prix . Retired Formula One driver Hans @-@ Joachim Stuck said that Sehli had " succeeded in avenging himself on Mercedes . " Ferrari technical director Ross Brawn said that Sehli 's actions were " very , very dangerous " and that similar intrusions " should never be allowed to happen again . " However the Vice @-@ President of Mercedes @-@ Benz Motorsport Norbert Haug criticised the police 's approach towards Sehli calling it a " scandal " . The Hockenheimring track owners Hockenheimring GmbH announced that it filed a trepassing charge on Sehli . He was later awarded compensation from Mercedes @-@ Benz and apologised for the track invasion . On December 16 Sehli won a court case against Mercedes @-@ Benz who were ordered to pay F91,000 for " dismissing him without any conclusive reasons " . He was however fined £ 600 by Hockenheimring GmbH for breaching circuit limits .
The race result meant that Michael Schumacher 's lead in the World Drivers ' Championship was reduced to two points . Häkkinen 's second finish place finish resulted in him moving into second place , tied on points with teammate Coulthard . Both drivers were eight points ahead of race winner Barrichello . Despite not finishing Fisichella maintained fifth place with 18 points . In the Constructors ' Championship McLaren 's strong result reduced Ferrari 's lead to four points . Williams , with 22 points , increased the gap to their rivals Benetton to four points , whilst BAR maintained fifth place on 12 points , with six races of the season remaining .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Lakselv Airport , Banak =
Lakselv Airport , Banak ( Norwegian : Lakselv lufthavn , Banak ; IATA : LKL , ICAO : ENNA ) is an international airport located at Banak , 1 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 9 mi ) north of Lakselv , in the municipality of Porsanger , Finnmark county , Norway . Co @-@ located with the military Station Group Banak , the airport is owned and operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor . The airport is also branded as North Cape Airport , although the North Cape is 180 kilometers ( 110 mi ) away . The runway is 2 @,@ 788 meters ( 9 @,@ 147 ft ) long and aligned nearly north – south . The airport is served by Widerøe with flights to Tromsø and Alta , and seasonally by Norwegian Air Shuttle to Oslo , in addition to international charter services . The airport had 71 @,@ 763 passengers in 2012 . In addition to serving Porsanger , the airport 's catchment area includes Karasjok and Lebesby .
The airfield was constructed with triangular runways in 1938 . It was taken over by the Luftwaffe in 1940 , who expanded it and laid down two wooden runways . It was taken over by the NoRAF in 1945 , but abandoned in 1952 . It opened in 1963 and was largely funded by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) . Scandinavian Airlines operated out of the airport to the other primary airports in Finnmark and to Tromsø and Oslo . The runway was extended in 1968 . From 1990 , flights were taken over by SAS Commuter and the direct flights to Oslo were halted . From the mid @-@ 1990s there have been occasional charter flights out of Banak . Widerøe took over SAS ' services in 2002 .
= = History = =
= = = First airport = = =
An airport at Lakselv was first proposed out of military considerations . Despite a Norwegian neutrality policy , there was a fear that Norway could be occupied by foreign powers to take advantage of the country 's strategic position . The military therefore wanted to construct airfields throughout the country to increase the air force 's mobility . Especially Finnmark was regarded as a key location , given the increased Soviet militarization on the Kola Peninsula . Increased military funding was granted from 1937 , and the following year , a triangular runway was built at Banak .
During the German occupation of Norway during World War II , Banak was taken over by the Luftwaffe . They were planning an attack on the Soviet Union from Finnmark and decided to designate Banak as their main air base in Northern Norway . By September 1940 , the main runway was extended to 1 @,@ 000 by 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 280 by 660 ft ) with a wooden surface . In addition , three hangars were built , allowing the air base to house bombers . The main function of the air station was to attack the Arctic convoys . By 1943 there were two parallel runways , both 1 @,@ 800 meters ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) long . The air station was blasted in October 1944 during Operation Nordlicht , the German retreat from Finnmark .
The Royal Norwegian Air Force took control over the airfield in 1945 and started reconstruction . In 1945 , the air force operated scheduled flights from Bardufoss Air Station via Banak to Kirkenes Airport , Høybuktmoen ; at Bardufoss a corresponding flight was offered to Oslo . The service lasted only the one season . Later the runway was used to serve air ambulances . During the late 1940s , part of the wooden runway was removed and used for other construction projects .
Interest in Banak rose with the Czechoslovak coup d 'état of 1948 and fears of Soviet intervention in Norway . Finnmark , located on the Norway – Soviet Union border , became of particular interest for the military . Although specific plans were articulated , no construction was carried out . Norway 's entry into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) in 1949 had a dramatic effect on the military strategy and Banak . Norwegian authorities and NATO regarded Finnmark as a tripwire — it was to be sacrificed and delay attacking forces in case of a Soviet invasion . The airfield was closed in 1952 , but the runway remained , with a short section of an unmaintained wooden runway and otherwise consisting of a grass strip . It was occasionally used by small aircraft .
= = = Re @-@ establishment = = =
Interest from military leaders for an airport at Banak returned in 1955 . For the air force the main concern was that they could not reach the eastern @-@ most parts of Norway from Bodø Main Air Station . This resulted in several Soviet infringements of Norwegian air space . Alternative locations were considered , such as Kautokeino , were there had been built a radar . NATO supported a reconstruction of Banak , partially raised by increased focus on flanking maneuver strategies , and also to serve as a part of the nuclear program . NATO was ready to provide funding in 1957 , but by the Norwegian authorities wanted to delay its construction , citing lack of personnel to man the station and that it would not be usable in times of war . The government decided in 1957 to not allow nuclear warheads to be stored in Norway during peacetime , thus eliminating NATO 's strategic need for Banak . The airport was therefore removed from the investment program .
By 1959 the United States was concerned that the militarization of the Kola Peninsula would become the prime point of a Soviet attack on North America . A new discussion about location arose , with Alta and Kautokeino as the main alternatives . Banak was estimated to cost 4 @.@ 9 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) , NOK 2 @.@ 8 million less than Alta , had better instrument landing and weather conditions and allowed a longer runway . The main advantage of Alta was that it would be better suited for civilian traffic . The government and Parliament approved construction of Banak in 1959 on condition that it receive NATO funding . Construction was estimated at NOK 8 @.@ 9 million , which would include a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ meter ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) runway , but lack of funding meant the airport would not meet all of NATO 's air base standards . The project was approved by NATO on 1 June 1960 and by Parliament on 5 August .
Construction was carried out simultaneously at Banak , Alta Airport and Kirkenes Airport , Høybuktmoen , which combined would give Finnmark three primary airports . All three airports opened on 4 May 1963 , while Tromsø Airport opened the following year . Services were at first operated by Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) . At first the airline used 56 @-@ passenger Convair CV @-@ 440 Metropolitan aircraft , which flew flights south to Oslo in combination with flights to Alta and Kirkenes — from 1964 also to Tromsø . The general route scheme of flying multi @-@ legged flights from Oslo to Finnmark would remain until 1990 .
= = = Operational history = = =
To allow increased military use of the air station , the airport received an upgrade in 1967 and 1968 costing NOK 17 @.@ 8 million . This included an extension of the runway with 600 meters ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) , a taxiway and various military hangars and structures . Following the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 , Norway decided to further strengthen the Finnmark defenses , which among many measures included a further extension of the runway at Banak . From 7 April 1969 , SAS introduced the 85 @-@ passenger Douglas DC @-@ 9 @-@ 21 jetliner on the Finnmark service ; the last Metropolitan flew on 1 April 1970 . The 330 Squadron , which operates the Westland Sea King search and rescue helicopters , was established at Banak Air Station in 1973 . SAS ' traffic increased throughout the 1970s , resulting in SAS gradually increasing | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
@-@ fashioned clothes , they would cease to be scary .
= = Reception = =
" Welcome to the Hellmouth " first aired in the United States on March 10 , 1997 on The WB . On the original airing of this episode , The WB provided a teaser advertisement briefing the history of past Slayers . It revealed horrific events in towns that were halted when a particular woman arrived . This promotional teaser does not appear in syndication or on DVD . " Welcome to the Hellmouth " earned a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 4 , meaning that roughly 3 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the episode . It was the 100th most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending March 16 .
The episode received largely positive reviews from critics . Noel Murray of The A.V. Club wrote that the episode was " a good introduction to the show , establishing the characters and the premise quickly and cleanly , before ending on a cliffhanger " . Murray , however , did note that it contained a " dialogue that sounds more faux @-@ clever than actually clever " and that there was " an overall flatness to the action / horror sequences " that would continue until the second season . John Levesque , writing for the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , called the fledgling series " witty , intelligent and thoroughly entertaining " and dubbed it " the best thing I 've seen on The WB " . He praised the acting of Sarah Michelle Gellar , noting that she " plays Buffy to perfection " . Phil Kloer of The Atlanta Journal and the Atlanta Constitution called the show a " kicky little mix of camp comedy , high school hi @-@ jinks and monsters " and likened its plot to the Fox sci @-@ fi series The X @-@ Files and the Nickelodeon horror @-@ themed anthology series Are You Afraid of the Dark ? . He ultimately gave the episode a B. Nikki Stafford , in her book Bite Me ! , called the first episode " excellent " and complimented the strengths of the main cast as well as the show 's unique approach . She contrasted it with the earlier movie , noting that " the movie version [ ... ] was like Clueless , but near the end suddenly tried to be a serious film . The television show carries comedy , action , and drama simultaneously and features a far superior ensemble cast . "
= Parineeta ( 2005 film ) =
Parineeta ( The Married Woman ) is a 2005 Indian musical romantic drama film adaptation of the 1914 Bengali novella , Parineeta by Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay . Directed by debutant Pradeep Sarkar , it was based upon a screenplay by the film 's producer , Vidhu Vinod Chopra . The film featured Vidya Balan ( In her Bollywood Debut ) , Saif Ali Khan and Sanjay Dutt in the lead roles . Raima Sen plays the supporting role of Lolita 's chirpy cousin . Sabyasachi Chakrabarty plays the pivotal role of Shekhar 's father . Diya Mirza , with a cameo appearance as Shekhar 's fiancé and Rekha , with a cameo performance of a night club ( Moulin Rouge ) singer , are other notable performances .
Parineeta primarily revolves around the lead characters , Lolita and Shekhar . Since childhood , Shekhar and Lolita have been friends and slowly this friendship blossoms into love . A series of misunderstandings surface and they are separated with the conniving schemes of Shekhar 's father . The plot deepens with the arrival of Girish , who supports Lolita 's family . Eventually , Shekhar 's love defies his father 's greed and he seeks Lolita .
The film has several notable allusions to the Indian literature and cinema . Despite the pre @-@ release inhibitions , it received critical acclaim . It won the Filmfare Awards apart from several prominent awards . The director went on to win the National Award for Best First Film . Parineeta was showcased at prominent international film festivals .
= = Plot = =
The story takes place in Kolkata . As the credits roll , scenes from erstwhile Calcutta are displayed along with the narrator 's ( Amitabh Bachchan ) introduction of the era . The narration focuses on the night of the marriage of Shekhar and Gayatri Tantiya , a rich industrialist 's daughter . The audience is introduced to Naveen Roy as Shekhar 's father while we see Shekhar grooming himself for the occasion . While he is doing so , images of Lolita calling him by his name flash through his mind . Downstairs , musical celebrations begin as Shekhar meets Vasundhara , a widow from his neighbourhood , who is thankful to her son @-@ in @-@ law , Girish ( Sanjay Dutt ) , for supporting their family after the death of her husband , Gurcharan . Lolita , who is present there , playfully confronts Shekhar as to why he is being indifferent to her . Shekhar admonishes her for speaking so in spite of being married .
An angry Shekhar comes back home to play a favourite tune from the past on his piano . The flashback shows a young Shekhar playing Rabindranath Tagore ’ s tune on his piano while young Lolita and Koel are around . Lolita , with her parents having died in a car accident , lives with Gurcharan ’ s family . Koel is her cousin whereas Charu is her neighbour . As this scene flashes across Shekhar ’ s mind , he sings a song full of sadness and loss . As time flies , they grow up to become close friends . The rebellious and musically inclined Shekhar spends his days playing the music of Rabindranath Tagore or Elvis Presley and composing his own songs with Lolita rather than becoming part of his shrewd father 's business . Part of this rebellion involves resistance to meeting Gayatri Tantiya , the beautiful but devious daughter of a wealthy industrialist , whom his father would like Shekhar to marry . Meanwhile , Girish , a steel tycoon from London , makes a dramatic entry into Charu ’ s house . Girish seems smitten by Lolita while Koel is by Girish . Shekhar is visibly jealous of Lolita ’ s close friendship with Girish .
One day , a shocked Lolita , who is employed at the Roy ’ s office , remembers a hotel project from Gurcharan ’ s ancestral haveli ( palatial house ) . On an earlier occasion , Gurcharan had borrowed money from Naveen Roy after putting his haveli on mortgage . She understands that if the money is not repaid in a few months , Naveen Roy would take over the property . She immediately thinks of asking Shekhar for monetary help . Unforeseen circumstances prevent this , and Girish , upon realising this , alleviates their problem by making Gurcharan his business partner . Gurcharan repays the debt and the turn of events prompts Shekhar to think why Lolita chose to ask Girish for money instead of him . On one auspicious night , Shekhar and Lolita exchange garlands and consummate their " marriage " unbeknownst to anyone else .
While Shekhar is off to Darjeeling on a business trip , Naveen Roy violently thunders at Lolita about the loss of his hotel project , embarrassing and humiliating her . Roy gets a wall built between his and Gurcharan ’ s house symbolising the end of their association . Gurcharan , unable to digest this , suffers a heart attack . Upon Shekhar ’ s return , Roy informs him of the ill @-@ health of his mother and Gurcharan and viciously adds a note of Lolita and Girish ’ s marriage . Shekhar is disgusted to hear of the marriage and in his anger he scowls at Lolita , humiliating her like his father . Meanwhile , Girish assists Gurcharan 's family and takes them to London for the heart treatment . Misunderstandings follow and upon the family ’ s return from London , Shekhar assumes that Girish and Lolita are married and agrees to marry Gayatri . The film returns to the night of Shekhar ’ s marriage when Girish hands him the ownership papers of Gurcharan ’ s haveli . He shocks Shekhar by telling him that he got married to Koel because Lolita denied his marriage proposal . As a conclusion , Shekhar confronts his father and symbolically breaks down the wall separating the two families . He then brings Lolita to his home as his bride much to the delight of his mother .
= = Main cast = =
Vidya Balan as Lolita . A woman of dignity with unflinching love for Shekhar . A lovely singer , who resigned to the circumstances , upholding her respect when she faces insult .
Saif Ali Khan as Shekhar Roy . Shows a balance of love for Lolita and jealousy towards Girish . He is a passionate musician . Towards the end has utter hatred for himself for transforming into such a cold and bitter person .
Sanjay Dutt as Girish . Simple and straightforward character who plays Lolita 's moral support with warmth and compassion .
Raima Sen as Koel . Lolita 's playful , mischievous and cheerful cousin who 's lively , peppy and lives through every moment .
Diya Mirza as Gayatri . Short but a devious character who longs for Shekhar with her charm and beauty .
Sabyasachi Chakrabarty as Naveen Roy . Cold at heart , a shrewd and a conniving businessman who even places human values and relationships below his greed for money .
Surinder Kaur as Rajeshwari . The mother of Shekhar who scornfully watches how badly her husband treats the neighbours and gets ill .
Tina Dutta as Teenage Lolita .
Supriya Shukla as Sunita .
Ninad Kamat as Ajit .
Rekha in a special appearance in song " Kaisi Paheli Zindagaani " .
George Baker as Sir William Eckhart .
= = Production = =
= = = The key elements = = =
Before Parineeta , Pradeep Sarkar was a well @-@ known personality in the area of advertisements . With 17 years in mainstream advertising and 7 years of advertisement film @-@ making and commercial cinema , he completed about 1000 commercials and 15 music videos . Vidhu Vinod Chopra , the producer , took notice of his music videos and contacted Sarkar to direct some of the music videos of the film Mission Kashmir ( 2000 ) . After carving a niche in filming music videos , Sarkar gave the thought of filming Parineeta to Chopra . There began the making of the film .
About the film 's comparison with the novel , Chopra said in an interview that , as compared to its 1953 namesake film by Bimal Roy , the story was based in the year 1962 . He said that it took them one and a half years to script the film , with them adding new characters and emphasising under @-@ represented characters from the novel . In a separate interview , Chopra admitted that he was actively involved with the screenplay because the film was an adaptation of the novel . When speaking about cinematic adaptation , Chopra gave due credit to Sarkar , and Natarajan Subramaniam ( the film 's cinematographer ) , for providing the vintage visuals . Saif Ali Khan once said that the film was initially attempted to be made in a contemporary way . When the film 's crew did not find the depiction appealing , the filming began with the 60s look .
Chopra once cited an interesting anecdote about his belief in Sarkar 's film @-@ making abilities . He said that he never personally signed the cheques for the film 's expenditure . He transferred money into Sarkar 's bank account and the cheques were eventually signed by Sarkar and his spouse .
= = = Casting = = =
Chopra said in an interview that Saif Ali Khan and Vidya Balan were not the first choices for the lead roles in Parineeta . In fact Abhishek Bachchan was being cast as Shekhar and Saif Ali Khan as Girish . However Abhishek walked out of the project and Saif readily was accepted as a replacement . This fact was corroborated by Saif in an interview when he said that even though Sarkar had faith in his abilities , Chopra was not too keen on having him .
The choice of Vidya Balan came with Sarkar 's prior work experience with her in three music videos . Chopra said that Vidya was screen @-@ tested for six months and only then they were sure of her acting abilities . Saif once said that he was not convinced of Vidya 's abilities , since Parineeta was to be her first film . He instead hoped to work with established actresses like Aishwarya Rai or Rani Mukherjee . However , after seeing Vidya portray the character of Lalita , he was thoroughly appreciative of her performance . Getting an opportunity to debut with big names from the industry along with a lovely character to portray made Vidya accept the role of Lalita .
The choice of Sanjay Dutt was because of his versatility , said Chopra in an interview . He also said that the affable nature of Sanjay was a plus during film making .
Diya Mirza liked the script so well that she chose to play the role of the devious Gayatri in spite of it being a short role . Raima Sen had a similar story with her want to work with the duo of Chopra and Sarkar . The cameo of the veteran actress , Rekha was purely out of her interest in the song , " Kaisi Paheli Zindgani " .
= = = Filming and music = = =
Since Sarkar knew the city of Kolkata very well , the film was primarily shot there . While most of the film was made in Kolkata , a small portion was shot in Darjeeling .
To re @-@ create the 60s era , lot of efforts were made by the producers . For instance , Chopra said that it cost them money and difficulty to procure the green coloured car which was driven by Shekhar in the film . Chopra confirmed the authenticity of the piano used in the song " Piyu Bole " , and of the toy train used in the song " Kasto Mazza " . About the look of the characters , Mirza said that the 60s look was well captured by the make @-@ up artist , Vidyadar . The song " Kaisi Paheli Zindagani " was based on the tune to Louis Armstrong 's " A Kiss to Build a Dream on " .
Critics had high expectations from Parineeta 's music because of the award @-@ winning music that was provided in some of Chopra 's previous films , such as ( 1942 : A Love Story ( 1993 ) and Mission Kashmir ( 2000 ) ) . Shantanu Moitra , Parineeta 's music director composed hundreds of tunes before six of them got finalised after a year 's effort . After finalising the soundtrack , Chopra was appreciative of the musician 's abilities when he said that Moitra has the potential to become another R. D. Burman , a yesteryear Bollywood music director .
= = Cultural and cinematic allusions = =
Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay , the author of Parineeta , was a contemporary of Rabindranath Tagore ; both authors documented Bengali life and social issues at the turn of the century . The 2005 cinematic version of Parineeta pays homage to this relationship by referencing Satyajit Ray 's film Charulata , which itself is based upon Tagore 's noted novella , Nashtanir . Lalita ( Parineeta ) is dressed to resemble Nashtanir / Charulata ' s Charu ( Madhabi Mukherjee ) , particularly during the song " Soona Man Ka Aangan " , which incorporates Tagore 's song " Phoole Phoole Dhole Dhole . " In both Parineeta and Charulata , " Phoole Phoole Dhole Dhole " is sung while Lalita and Charu are each on a swing . The film continues the above connection by placing Saif Ali Khan on the same train used in the film Aradhana which featured his mother , Sharmila Tagore .
This film was the third one to bear resemblance to the novella , the other two being its 1953 namesake film and the 1976 film , Sankoch .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box @-@ office and ratings = = =
Parineeta notched up Rs . 506 million in India at the end of 2005 . Its overseas success was notable as well with gross collections of Rs . 36 million in the United Kingdom , Rs . 35 million in North America , and Rs 15 million in the rest of the overseas .
= = = Reviews , critiques and controversies = = =
Before its release on 10 June 2005 , one preview wondered how the film would fare at the box office . Citing comparisons with the 1953 version , the preview suggested that debutant director , Sarkar 's inexperience in film @-@ making , the probable inability of debutant actress , Balan to portray Lalita 's character appropriately , suitable 1960s depiction by contemporary actors and musician , Shantanu Moitra 's until then unimpressive soundtracks , could be impediments to a successful adaptation .
Post @-@ release , the same critic said " Vidhu Vinod Chopra 's " Parineeta " – a remake of an old classic of the same name ... ( had ) the love story ( which ) was received well by the younger generation and it went on to become the biggest hit of the year . " It was generally well @-@ received by the critics , with one of them terming the film as " ... a beautiful story , beautifully told . It approximates what most of us expect , and increasingly yearn for , in vain , our cinematic experience . " A reviewer from About.com said that it is " contemporary retelling of ... ( an ) engaging and timeless tale rich with human emotion and universal drama " . The reviewer appreciates the film in most of the nuances of film making saying that this is " enhanced by a brilliant musical score , and accentuated by superb performances by Sanjay Dutt , Saif Ali Khan , Raima Sen , Diya Mirza and debutante Vidya Balan in the lead role of Lalita " . 3000 copies of the novella were sold within weeks of the film 's release , owing to the film 's good reception .
Derek Elley from Variety said " A character @-@ driven meller that 's a treat for the eyes , with performances to match , " Parineeta " is high @-@ end Bollywood near its best " . He also says that , " though the climax is still emotionally powerful , it comes over as overcooked . " A mixed review from Mid @-@ Day says " Pradeep Sarkar weaves the story like magic , especially in the first half ... excelling in the detailing ... the vintage look of the film ( that stood out ) with authentic costumes , props and the roads of Kolkata " . However , the review criticised the film 's climax terming it as amateur , thereby diluting the whole film 's impact . Another such review came from The Hindu which begins by saying " A simple enough story , but Sarkar tells it well , with some great shots of Shekhar and Lalita together . " The review eventually says " Except for the end ... where it is too much to bear . "
The issue of piracy cropped up when a news article published in The Indian Express exposed the dark side of the film market . Hardly into weeks of the film 's release , CDs were being sold at as low as Rs . 40 . Another blemish was that Soumitra Dasgupta , a writer and close associate of Sarkar alleged that the film 's story had a striking resemblance to his parallel work on the novella .
= = Screenings = =
In 2005 , Parineeta 's cast got a red carpet walk when it was the " World Premiere Film " at the International Indian Film Awards ( IIFA ) weekend in Amsterdam . Owing to this European premiere , Sarkar said that the film had a great opening in the American and English box @-@ offices . The film was on the UK Top Ten films for four consecutive weeks .
The film was chosen among 15 debut works for the 2006 Berlin Film Festival . It received enthusiastic reception from the audience as it ran to packed houses to the Chopra 's surprise . Expecting an audience of about 100 Westerners , a critic visiting the festival was surprised to see the cinema hall full and people jostling for seats even on the steps .
At the 24th Annual Minneapolis @-@ St. Paul International Film Festival held in April 2006 , Parineeta was the only Indian mainstream cinema to feature among 135 films from 40 countries .
In 2006 , the film featured in the Palm Springs International Film Festival , 24th San Francisco International Asian American Film Festival , Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles , Helsinki Film Festival and the International Film Festival of Marrakech .
= = Awards = =
Apart from winning the National Award for the Best First Film Director , Parineeta won five Filmfare Awards . Best Art Direction to Keshto Mondal , Tanushree Sarkar and Pradeep Sarkar , Best Choreography to Howard Rosemayer , Best Debut to Vidya Balan , RD Burman Award to Shantanu Moitra and Best Sound Recording to Bishwadeep Chatterjee . It was also nominated for an additional nine awards , for the categories Best Film and Best Director , three for actors portraying Lalita , Shekhar and Girish and four nominations for the soundtrack .
The film also won a prominent awards in the form of two Star Screen Awards , three Zee Cine Awards among a notable awards . Apart from these , the film was nominated for an eclectic mix of awards .
2006 Filmfare Awards
Best Debut ( Female ) – Vidya Balan
Best Choreography – Howard Rosemeyer
Best Sound – Bishwadeep Chatterjee
Best Art Director – Pradeep Sarkar , Tanushree Sarkar
R D Burman Award – Shantanu Moitra
2006 Zee Cine Awards
Best Dialogue – Rekha Nigam , Vidhu Vinod Chopra
Best Costume Design – Subarna Ray Chadhuri
2006 Screen Awards
Best Playback Singer ( Female ) – Shreya Ghosal
Best Debut ( Female ) – Vidya Balan
2006 IIFA Awards
Best Screenplay – Vidhu Vinod Chopra & Pradeep Sarkar
Best Art Direction – Pradeep Sarkar , Tanushree Sarkar
Best Sound Recording – Bishwadeep Chatterjee
Best Costume Designing – Subarna Ray Chadhuri
Best Makeup – Vidyadhar Bhatte
= = DVD = =
The first version of the DVD version of Parineeta was released by UTV Motion Pictures on 30 October 2006 . It has subtitle options in English , Arabic , Spanish , German , Italian , Malay , and French . An additional disc includes interviews with the actors and a behind the scenes look at the making of the film . It is available in 16 : 9 Anamorphic widescreen , Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 Surround , progressive 24 FPS , widescreen and NTSC format .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack to Parineeta was released by Tips Music in April 2005 to positive reviews .
= Japanese aircraft carrier Amagi =
Amagi ( 天城 ) was a Unryū @-@ class aircraft carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II . Named after Mount Amagi , and completed late in the war , she never embarked her complement of aircraft and spent the war in Japanese waters . The ship capsized in July 1945 after being hit multiple times during airstrikes by American carrier aircraft at Kure Naval Base . Amagi was refloated in 1946 and scrapped later that year .
= = Design and description = =
The last purpose @-@ built Japanese carrier construction during World War II was a group of vessels based on an improved Hiryū design , but with individual units differing in detail reflecting the changing circumstances as the conflict in the Pacific approached its conclusion . Amagi was ordered , under the provisional name of # 5001 , as part of the Kai @-@ Maru 5 Program of 1942 . This was a massive naval construction program intended to replace losses suffered at the Battle of Midway and focused on aircraft and aircraft carriers . The ship was one of 16 Unryū @-@ class aircraft carriers planned , although only three were completed before the end of the war .
Amagi had a length of 227 @.@ 35 meters ( 745 ft 11 in ) overall . She had a beam of 22 meters ( 72 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 73 meters ( 28 ft 8 in ) . She displaced 20 @,@ 450 metric tons ( 20 @,@ 130 long tons ) . Her crew consisted of 1 @,@ 595 officers and men .
The Unryū @-@ class carriers used the same turbines and boilers as used in the heavy cruiser Suzuya . These consisted of four geared steam turbine sets with a total of 152 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 113 @,@ 000 kW ) driving four shafts using steam provided by eight Kampon Type B water @-@ tube boilers . The ship had a designed speed of 34 knots ( 63 km / h ; 39 mph ) . Amagi carried 3 @,@ 670 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 610 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . She had two funnels on the starboard side , each angled below the horizontal . They were fitted with a water @-@ cooling system to reduce the turbulence caused by hot exhaust gases .
= = = Flight deck arrangements = = =
Amagi 's flight deck was 216 @.@ 9 meters ( 711 ft 7 in ) long and had a maximum width of 27 meters ( 88 ft 7 in ) . A small island was mounted well forward on the starboard side and contained the ship 's bridge and air operations control center . It was fitted with a small tripod mast that mounted one of the ship 's radar antennas . The ship was designed with two superimposed hangars that were served by two aircraft elevators , each 14 by 14 meters ( 46 by 46 ft ) ; the center elevator as used in Hiryū was deleted to simplify construction and reduce stress in the hull . The elevators had a maximum capacity of 7 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 15 @,@ 000 lb ) and took 19 seconds to go from the lower hangar to the flight deck . Amagi was fitted with hydraulically operated Type 3 arresting gear with nine cables . She also mounted three Type 3 crash barricades . No aircraft catapult was fitted . The ship mounted a retractable crane on the starboard side of the flight deck , just aft of the rear elevator . Amagi carried 397 @,@ 340 liters ( 87 @,@ 400 imp gal ; 104 @,@ 970 U.S. gal ) of aviation gasoline for her aircraft .
The ship 's air group was originally intended to consist of 12 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , plus three in storage , 27 Aichi D3A Val dive bombers , plus three in reserve , and 18 Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bombers plus two in crates . Amagi 's hangars could not accommodate so many aircraft so eleven planes were planned to be permanently carried on the flight deck . In 1943 the air group was revised to consist of 18 Mitsubishi A7M " Sam " fighters ( + 2 in storage ) , 27 Yokosuka D4Y " Judy " dive bombers and six Nakajima C6N " Myrt " reconnaissance aircraft . Of these , the C6Ns were intended to be carried on the flight deck . When the ship commissioned in 1944 , neither the A7M nor the C6Ns were yet in service , so the air group was reconfigured to consist of 27 Zeros , 12 D4Ys , three of which were to be the reconnaissance version , and nine Nakajima B6N " Jill " torpedo bombers . By this time , however , the shortage of carrier @-@ qualified aircrew was such that they were ordered to operate from shore bases and Amagi never embarked her air group .
= = = Armor , armament and sensors = = =
Amagi 's waterline armored belt was 46 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) thick over her machinery spaces and 140 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) over her magazines . Her deck armor above the machinery was 25 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick , but the armor above the magazines was 56 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) thick .
The ship 's primary armament consisted of a dozen 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 cm Type 89 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in twin mounts on sponsons on the ship 's sides . Amagi was initially equipped with 16 triple 25 mm Type 96 and three single AA gun mounts , most on sponsons along the sides of the hull . By the end of the war , the ship mounted 22 triple and 23 single mounts . These guns were supplemented by six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) 28 @-@ round AA rocket launchers . For defense against submarines , the carrier was fitted with six depth charge throwers and carried between six and ten depth charges for them .
Two Type 94 high @-@ angle fire @-@ control directors , one on each side of the ship , were fitted to control the Type 89 guns . Each director mounted a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 14 ft 9 in ) rangefinder . Six Type 95 directors controlled the 25 mm guns and the rocket launchers . Early warning was provided by two Type 2 , Mark 2 , Model 1 air search radars . One of these was mounted on the top of the island while the other retracted into the port side of the flight deck , between the two elevators . In addition , Amagi had two smaller Type 3 , Mark 1 , Model 3 air search radars , one mounted on the tripod mast on the island and the other on the aft starboard retractable radio mast .
= = Service = =
Amagi 's keel was laid down by Mitsubishi in Nagasaki , on 1 October 1942 . She was launched on 15 October 1943 and completed on 10 August 1944 . The ship was transferred among a number of ports on the Inland Sea until she arrived in Kure in February 1945 and was ordered to be camouflaged . Her intended air group , Air Group 601 , was committed to the Battle of Iwo Jima about that same time . Amagi was briefly refitted from 10 to 24 February . On 19 March , the ship was attacked by aircraft from Task Force 58 and lightly damaged by one bomb that struck the edge of the flight deck . On 13 April , the ship was permanently moored at an island in Kure harbor and extensively camouflaged .
This did not prevent the aircraft from Task Force 38 from locating and attacking the ship on 24 July . She was hit twice and near @-@ missed multiple times . A 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb detonated near the rear funnel , severely damaging it , but doing little other damage aside from blowing a small hole in the starboard hull . A 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 910 kg ) bomb penetrated the flight deck and detonated in the upper hangar , between the elevators . The explosion blew a 50 @-@ meter ( 160 ft ) section of a hangar wall overboard and the walls of the upper hangar deck were bulged and perforated multiple times . The flight deck between the elevators was bulged up and buckled for a length of 200 feet ( 61 @.@ 0 m ) and the forward elevator was dropped to the bottom of its shaft . It also blew a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) hole in the upper hangar deck . Fragments from the explosion penetrated into the bowels of the ship , penetrating bulkheads and decks below . Fragments from near @-@ misses penetrated the sides of the port hull and caused the forward bomb magazine , two boiler rooms , and the aft port engine room to flood .
The captain ordered the ship abandoned later in the day , and the carrier was still afloat in the evening , albeit with a slight list to port and down by the bow . Over the next couple of days , more compartments in the ship flooded and she settled on the bottom of the harbor . Another attack on 28 July hit her several more times and the resulting damage from those hits and more near @-@ misses to port caused the ship to list further to port . This gradually increased through the next day until Amagi capsized at 10 : 00 on the morning of 29 July with part of her flight deck falling overboard . The losses among the ship 's crew are unknown , but were supposedly light .
The ship was stricken from the Navy List on 30 November and salvage work began on 5 December . The holes in the ship 's hull had to be sealed to pump the water out and decrease her draft . The remains of her flight deck and upper hangar could not be made watertight and were removed using dynamite . Pontoons were used to right the ship and she was refloated on 31 July 1946 . The salvage job was conducted by the Hitachi Zosen facility in Kure and they scrapped the ship afterward . The job was completed by 12 December 1947 .
= Finn M. W. Caspersen =
Finn Michael Westby Caspersen , Sr. ( October 27 , 1941 – September 7 , 2009 ) was an American financier and philanthropist . A graduate of Brown University and Harvard Law School , he followed his father , Olaus Caspersen , a Norwegian immigrant to the United States , as chairman and chief executive of Beneficial Corporation , one of the largest consumer finance companies in the United States . After an $ 8 @.@ 6 billion acquisition of Beneficial by Household International in 1998 , Caspersen ran Knickerbocker Management , a private financial firm overseeing the assets of trusts and foundations .
As a philanthropist , Caspersen donated tens of millions of dollars to the Peddie School , Brown , Harvard , and Drew University , while overseeing the Hodson Trust that benefitted four institutions in Maryland . He described education as his " particular love " and regarded it as " an investment in the future — an investment in human capital . " Buildings and endowed professorships have been named in his honor . Caspersen 's philanthropy extended to rowing and equestrian sports , and service to the United States Equestrian Team Foundation , Princeton National Rowing Association , and the National Rowing Foundation .
Caspersen was an influential donor to Republican candidates at both state and national level . In the 1980s , he was a major supporter of former New Jersey governor Thomas Kean . He served as a town commissioner in Jupiter Island , Florida , an exclusive upper @-@ class enclave , for four years , resigning a few weeks before his suicide in September 2009 .
News reports linked Caspersen with financial problems and accusations of alleged large @-@ scale tax evasion that were discovered in the course of federal investigations into offshore tax shelters managed by financial firms UBS and LGT Bank , and used by wealthy American clients . Near the end of his life , Caspersen was subjected to an IRS audit with a possible focus on alleged offshore accounts . An attorney for Caspersen ’ s estate claimed that in 2013 the IRS effectively exonerated Caspersen posthumously — with no penalties or fines for offshore accounts or anything else .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Finn Michael Westby Caspersen was born on October 27 , 1941 in New York City . He was one of two sons of Olaus Westby Caspersen ( 1896 – 1971 ) , a Norwegian immigrant , and Freda Resika ( 1909 – 1991 ) , an American @-@ born Eastern European Jew thought to be of Russian or Polish descent . Olaus 's widowed mother and siblings had emigrated to the United States earlier , leaving Olaus in Norway to complete his education . Olaus came to the United States in 1912 at age 16 , settling in Weehawken , New Jersey .
Finn Caspersen 's mother , Freda , was a non @-@ practicing Jew , and his father thought that his sons needed a religious upbringing . Finn attended a congregational church near the family home in his youth . He later reflected that " being Protestant was important . There was a kind of anti @-@ Catholicism in the family . " The family moved to homes in Andover , New Jersey , and Venice , Florida . Caspersen frequently visited Norway as a child , vacationing there during summers after 1947 .
Caspersen attended private schools until the ninth grade . He attended the Peddie School , a private preparatory school in Hightstown , New Jersey , and was graduated in 1959 . Caspersen received a Bachelor of Arts ( B.A. ) degree from Brown University in 1963 and a law degree ( LL.B. ) from Harvard Law School in 1966 .
= = = Business career = = =
In 1972 , Caspersen joined the legal department at Beneficial Corporation , a large American consumer finance firm . Four years later , he was named the firm 's chief executive officer . Beneficial had been established in 1914 in Elizabeth , New Jersey , by Clarence Hodson . Caspersen 's father , Olaus , joined Beneficial in 1920 and served as Hodson 's secretary for several years . In 1929 , Hodson and Caspersen reorganized the firm as Beneficial Finance Corporation and transformed it into one of the largest consumer loan providers in the United States . Freda Caspersen was one of the company 's directors .
Under the younger Caspersen 's leadership , Beneficial expanded into credit finance and offered credit cards through its People 's Bank and Trust subsidiary . It purchased Parliament Leasing in 1977 , and First Texas Financial Corp. , a savings and loan firm , in 1978 . In 1977 , Beneficial entered the reinsurance business through subsidiaries , but these endeavors led to significant financial losses in the 1980s . Beneficial later downsized its reinsurance holdings and restructured to emphasize its second mortgage business . According to Charles " Sandy " Hance , former senior vice president and general counsel of Beneficial , Caspersen was a " pioneer in second mortgages , which later evolved into home equity loans " , and that he " saw this trend developing at a very early stage " .
Caspersen purchased Harbour Island in Tampa , Florida , from a Beneficial subsidiary in 1979 , and in 1983 began to re @-@ develop the island into an upscale residential and commercial development similar to the Inner Harbor in Baltimore , Maryland . Beneficial purchased the 177 @-@ acre man @-@ made island , formerly known as Seddon Island . Before it was developed , local newspapers described the Harbour Island as " an industrial wasteland inhabited by wild pigs " and the only structures as rusted railroad tracks and an unused phosphate facility . When the first phases were complete , the island opened with events hosted by former U.S. president Gerald Ford . After seven years of dwindling business , Beneficial converted the development into office space , and renamed it Knights Point in 1995 .
Caspersen ran Beneficial for 22 years before its 1998 acquisition by Household International for $ 8 @.@ 6 billion . At the time of the acquisition , Beneficial had 25 @,@ 000 employees and operated 1 @,@ 650 branch offices throughout the United States . Caspersen was paid $ 24 million in severance and other payments . His next business endeavor was Knickerbocker Management , which he founded in 1998 with a few partners . Knickerbocker , a private investment firm that oversaw approximately $ 1 billion in assets of trusts and foundations , had offices in Gladstone , New Jersey and Hobe Sound , Florida .
= = = Political activities = = =
Caspersen became an influential donor to state and federal Republican party candidates , including former New Jersey governors Thomas Kean and Christine Todd Whitman , and Kean 's son Thomas Kean Jr . , a state senator and candidate for United States Senator . Caspersen was a major supporter of Kean 's two campaigns for governor in 1981 and 1985 . When Kean was inaugurated in 1982 , Caspersen , an avid equestrian , dressed in period costume and drove the incoming governor and his wife , as well as outgoing governor Brendan Byrne , to an inauguration party in a four @-@ horse carriage . One writer described the scene as " something out of ' a Currier & Ives print ' " . In 1998 , Whitman appointed Caspersen to chair a 15 @-@ member advisory panel to recommend future development for Ellis Island , and to a public @-@ private partnership to foster business in the state . According to Vanity Fair contributor William D. Cohan , left @-@ wing magazine Mother Jones found that " Caspersen and his wife donated $ 602 @,@ 250 to political campaigns , making them the eighth @-@ largest political donors in the U.S. " during the 2000 election cycle .
In 2005 , Caspersen sought a seat on the town commission in Jupiter Island , Florida ; his platform focused on conservation , limiting development , and burying utility cables . He served a four @-@ year term , and ran unopposed for re @-@ election in 2009 . He surprised his fellow commission members and neighbors by suddenly resigning on August 4 , 2009 , claiming that he anticipated moving from the community .
= = = Personal life = = =
In 1967 , Caspersen married Barbara Warden Morris , the daughter of Samuel Wheeler Morris , Jr . ( 1918 – 1995 ) and Eleanor May Jones ( 1919 – 2011 ) , one of Philadelphia 's socially prominent Main Line families . They were married for 42 years . Caspersen met his wife when she was an undergraduate student at Wellesley College . She later obtained a masters and doctoral degree from Drew University , submitting a masters thesis on Henry David Thoreau 's Walden , and a doctoral dissertation on the works of Willa Cather . For several years , Barbara Caspersen has served on the university 's board of trustees and currently serves in an emeritus capacity . The Caspersens had two homes in New Jersey — in Andover and Bernardsville in areas described as " in New Jersey horse country " , a 6 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot waterfront estate Westerly , Rhode Island , and a residence in Jupiter Island , Florida . The couple had four sons , Finn M. W. Caspersen Jr . , Erik M. W. Caspersen , Samuel M. W. Caspersen , and Andrew W. W. Caspersen . All four of his sons were graduated from Harvard Law School . Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning journalist and Harvard alumnus Daniel Golden , in a book criticizing the role of privilege and wealth at elite colleges , attributed their admission to the prestigious law school to their father 's generosity . Caspersen served as an officer in the United States Coast Guard . He was a member of the Knickerbocker Club , an exclusive , upper @-@ class , men @-@ only social club on New York City 's Upper East Side .
Caspersen was a talented equestrian in carriage driving , winning three national championships and representing the United States at three world championships . In 1985 , he won the four @-@ in @-@ hand carriage driving competition at the Royal Windsor Horse Show in the United Kingdom and later was an honorary lifetime officer of the show . According to Sports Illustrated , Caspersen , described as " portly and patrician , tall and splendidly erect , with a lot of beef in his jowls " recalled being asked by Queen Elizabeth II at the awards ceremony about his role in driving his team of Holsteiners : " I told her it was to lower the carriage 's center of gravity , ... She looked at my midriff and said I was well suited for the job . "
He was the father of Andrew Caspersen and three other sons .
= = = Death and aftermath = = =
Finn Caspersen died on September 7 , 2009 in the Shelter Harbor community of Westerly , Rhode Island , from an apparent gunshot wound to the head . The cause of death was ruled a suicide . A blued @-@ steel .38 @-@ calibre , five @-@ shot Smith & Wesson revolver belonging to Caspersen was found near his body . According to law enforcement sources investigating the suicide , Caspersen left a note stating that he " was tired , diminished and in constant pain , and that he did not want to be a burden to his loving family " .
Caspersen had been battling kidney cancer before his death , and reportedly pursued regular chemotherapy treatment . Several sources described his health as deteriorating and the cancer severe . Others indicated that his medical condition led to depression , describing an uncertainty that left him " sort of horrified about his medical outcome " . Bernard Davidoff , an internist from New Jersey apparently familiar with Caspersen 's medical care , advised police that Caspersen " suffered from severe depression and was taking antidepressant meds , heart meds , liver meds , kidney meds and diabetes meds " . It was also reported that medical issues and chemotherapy treatments " had severely hobbled him in recent years " .
A memorial service held on September 15 , 2009 at St. Peter 's Episcopal Church in Morristown , New Jersey , was attended by 900 friends and relatives . Caspersen was eulogized by former New Jersey governor and Drew University president Thomas Kean .
In the weeks after his death , reports emerged that Caspersen had listed his Westerly , Rhode Island , home for sale for $ 10 @.@ 9 million , was facing financial and legal difficulties . Caspersen had begun to step back from various philanthropic efforts and institutional boards at Harvard , Peddie , and the Hodson Trust . Eight days after his death in 2009 , a New York Times article cited an anonymous source , to report that Caspersen was being investigated by the Internal Revenue Service and was suspected of owing as much as $ 100 million in back taxes and fines , and facing possible imprisonment . The New York Times article reported that Caspersen was caught up in a broader federal investigation into tax havens and offshore bank accounts used by wealthy Americans to avoid paying taxes in Switzerland and Liechtenstein . It was reported that his name was turned over to federal investigators by Swiss banking giant UBS earlier in the year , and in connection to Liechtenstein Global Trust ( LGT ) , a private bank controlled by Liechtenstein ’ s royal family .
In 2015 an attorney for Caspersen ’ s estate stated Caspersen ’ s tax returns for 2005 @-@ 2008 had been audited , in an investigation that did not conclude until 2013 . The attorney , Denis Conlon , stated that the net result of the four @-@ year audit was a $ 7 @,@ 000 refund from the government for overpayment in one year , $ 14 @,@ 000 of additional tax due for another year ( in which Caspersen had over $ 2 @.@ 7 million of income ) , no refunds or additional taxes dues for the other two years , and no fines or penalties imposed for alleged offshore accounts or other conduct .
= = Philanthropy = =
= = = Equestrian and rowing = = =
Caspersen served as a board member , president , and chairman of the United States Equestrian Team from 1982 to 2002 . He was considered " the man who put American combined driving on the international map " . During his 20 @-@ year tenure , American riders and drivers earned 71 medals , including 25 gold , in the Olympics , World Championships , and Pan American Games . Caspersen helped the U.S. Equestrian Team establish a permanent home at Hamilton Farm , the former estate of U.S. Treasury Secretary Nicholas F. Brady in Bedminster , New Jersey . The Hamilton Farm property was owned by Beneficial and was located next to the corporation 's headquarters . Beneficial deeded the property to the team at Caspersen 's urging .
Caspersen supported rowing , and was involved with the Princeton National Rowing Association ( PNRA ) and Princeton International Regatta Association ( PIRA ) . In 1998 , he provided funding to build a boathouse to benefit the rowing programs of Peddie and the nearby Lawrenceville School on the north shore of Mercer Lake in West Windsor , New Jersey . Located at the Mercer Lake Race Course — site of the 1988 , 1992 , 2004 and 2008 United States Olympic Rowing Team Trials — the facility is used for training , racing , camps , clinics and administration by Peddie , Lawrenceville , the Hun School , high schools in Mercer County , New Jersey , USRowing , the US National Team , and the Mercer Junior Rowing Club , as well as PNRA and PIRA .
= = = Education = = =
Throughout his life , Caspersen was closely involved with the management of several universities and schools , serving on the directing boards of the Peddie School , Brown , and the Dean 's Advisory Board at Harvard Law School . In a 2008 interview , he stated that he believed education was " investment in the future — an investment in human capital . I 've been active in a range of other things , but education 's always been my particular love " .
Caspersen endowed two professorships at Harvard Law School — the Beneficial Professorship of Law , and the Finn M.W. Caspersen and Household International Professorship of Law . In 2003 , he was chairman of Harvard Law School 's capital campaign , which he helped jump @-@ start by pledging $ 30 million — the largest single donation in the school 's history . The campaign ultimately raised $ 476 @,@ 475 @,@ 707 . The law school honored Caspersen by naming a special collections room in its Library after him . In April 2012 , Harvard dedicated part of a 250 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot multipurpose construction project , which housed student organizations , journals , and social activities , to Caspersen , calling it the Caspersen Student Center . Critics attacked Harvard 's decision to name the facilities after Caspersen after his alleged tax evasion was made public .
Barbara Caspersen has served as trustee ( currently as an emeritus trustee ) of Drew University and as both chairwoman and vice @-@ chairwoman of the liberal arts college 's board . In 1999 , the Caspersens provided a $ 5 million gift for expanding graduate education programs at Drew . In honor of their service to the university , Drew renamed its graduate school as the Caspersen School of Graduate Studies . The university 's Rose Memorial Library houses a collection of books , manuscripts , artifacts and papers of Nebraska @-@ born author Willa Cather ( 1873 – 1947 ) assembled from items given by several donors — including significant contributions by Caspersen and his wife . It is regarded as one of the best collection of Cather 's papers assembled in the United States .
Caspersen donated funds to build a four @-@ level annex , named in honor of his parents , to Brown University 's historic John Carter Brown Library , dedicated in 1991 . Caspersen also served as a trustee of the Peddie School starting in 1970 , and as the board 's chairman starting in 1976 . In 1998 , he and philanthropist Walter H. Annenberg each donated $ 10 million to the school . The Caspersen Campus Center , which opened in 1996 , and Caspersen History House , dedicated in 2006 , were named in his honor .
From 1976 until a few weeks before his death , Caspersen ran the Hodson Trust , established by Beneficial founder Clarence Hodson to award grants to four colleges in Maryland : Hood College , The Johns Hopkins University , St. John ’ s College , and Washington College . Under the first 25 years of Caspersen 's stewardship , the trust donated over $ 118 million to the four institutions . Caspersen was awarded honorary degrees for his service to education ; Washington College conferred an honorary Doctor of Humanities degree in 1981 and Hood College awarded Caspersen with an honorary Doctor of Laws degree in 1983 .
= Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors =
Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors is a visual novel adventure game developed by Chunsoft . It was released in Japan in 2009 and in North America in 2010 for the Nintendo DS , with an iOS version following in 2013 in Japan and 2014 in the rest of the world . The game is the first installment in the Zero Escape series , and is the predecessor to the 2012 game Zero Escape : Virtue 's Last Reward .
The story follows Junpei , a college student who is abducted along with eight other people and forced to play the " Nonary Game , " which puts its participants in a life @-@ or @-@ death situation , to escape from a sinking cruise liner . The gameplay alternates between two types of sections : Escape sections , where the player completes puzzles in escape @-@ the @-@ room scenarios ; and Novel sections , where the player reads the game 's narrative and makes decisions that influence the story , making it branch into six different endings . The whole plot is not revealed in just one playthrough ; the player has to reach the one " true " ending to get all the information .
Development of the game began after Uchikoshi joined Chunsoft to write a visual novel for them that could reach a wider audience ; Uchikoshi suggested adding puzzle elements that are integrated with the game 's story . The inspiration for the story was the question of where inspiration comes from ; while researching it , Uchikoshi came across the biochemist Rupert Sheldrake 's theories , which became the main theme of the game . The music was composed by Shinji Hosoe , while the characters were designed by Kinu Nishimura . The localization was handled by Aksys Games ; they worked by the philosophy of keeping true to the spirit of the original Japanese version , opting for natural @-@ sounding English rather than following the original 's exact wording .
Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors was positively received , with reviewers praising the story , writing and puzzles , but criticizing the game 's tone and how the player is required to re @-@ do the puzzles every time they play through the game . Reception of the game 's presentation was mixed . The Japanese release was a commercial failure , while the game sold better than expected for the genre in the United States .
= = Gameplay = =
Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors is a visual novel adventure game in which the player assumes the role of a man named Junpei . The gameplay is divided into two types of sections : Novel and Escape . In the Novel sections , the player progresses through the storyline and converses with non @-@ playable characters . These sections require little interaction from the player as they are spent reading the text that appears on the screen , which represents either dialogue between the various characters or the inner thoughts of Junpei . During Novel sections , the player will sometimes be presented with decision options that affect the course of the game . The decisions made result in one of six branching storylines , each with a unique ending . The whole plot is not revealed in just one playthrough ; the player needs to reach the " true " ending to get all the information behind the mystery . To reach this ending , the player needs to reach one specific ending beforehand . Some of the endings contain hints to how to reach further endings .
In between Novel sections are sixteen different Escape sections , which occur when the player finds themselves in a room from which they need to find the means of escape . These are presented from a first @-@ person perspective , with the player being able to move between different pre @-@ determined positions in each room . To escape , the player is tasked with finding various items and solving puzzles , reminiscent of escape @-@ the @-@ room games . At some points , the player may need to combine objects with each other to create the necessary tool to complete a puzzle . The puzzles include various brain teasers , such as baccarat and magic squares . An in @-@ game calculator is provided for math @-@ related problems , and the player can ask characters for hints if they find an Escape room too difficult . All Escape sections are self @-@ contained , with all items required to solve the puzzles being available within that section ; items are not carried over between Escape sections . After finishing an Escape section , it becomes available to replay from the game 's main menu .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters and setting = = =
Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors features nine main characters , who are forced to participate in the Nonary Game by an unknown person named Zero . The characters adopt code names to protect their identities due to the stakes of the Nonary Game . The player @-@ controlled Junpei is joined by June , a nervous girl and an old friend of Junpei whom he knows as Akane ; Lotus , a self @-@ serving woman with unknown skills ; Seven , a large and muscular man ; Santa , a punk with a negative attitude ; Ace , an older and wiser man ; Snake , a blind man with a princely demeanor ; Clover , a girl prone to mood swings ; and the 9th Man , a fidgety individual .
The events of the game occur within a cruise ship , though all of the external doors and windows have been sealed , and many of the internal doors are locked . The game 's nine characters learn that they have been kidnapped and brought to the ship to play the Nonary Game , with the challenge to find the door marked with a " 9 " within nine hours before the ship sinks . To do this , they are forced to work in separate teams to make their way through the ship and solve puzzles to find this door . This is set in part by special locks on numbered doors that are based on digital roots ; each player has an bracelet with a different digit on it , and only groups of three to five with the total of their bracelet 's number with the same digital root as marked on the door can pass through .
= = = Story = = =
At the start of the game , Junpei wakes up in a cabin inside a cruise liner , wearing a bracelet displaying the number " 5 " . He escapes the room , and encounters eight people , including June . Zero announces over a loudspeaker that all nine are participants in the Nonary Game . Zero explains the rules , and states each carry an explosive in their stomach that will go off if they try to bypass the digital root door locks . The 9th Man still goes through a door by himself , and is killed . Fearing what harm might come to them , the group adopts code names , and splits up to explore the ship . The player has the option to select which group that Junpei travels with , which affects the story ; several choices lead to Junpei 's death . Through various choices , Junpei learns of a previous Nonary Game and the connections of the other characters through that , as well as studies about morphic resonance and stories of the Egyptian priestess Alice , who is frozen in ice @-@ 9 .
In one ending , Junpei learns that Zero was a participant of the first Nonary Game , and set up the second Nonary Game as revenge towards Ace . The surviving players confront Ace and learn he had manipulated the 9th Man to violate the rules and get himself killed in order to both cover his identity and gain access to the 9th Man 's bracelet . As they find the door with the 9 , Akane becomes weak . Santa watches over her while the others enter the door , leading to an incinerator , where Ace grabs Lotus and holds her at gunpoint . Discovering the incinerator is about to activate , Snake tackles Ace , and Lotus and Seven pull Junpei out of the incinerator before it goes off , consuming Snake and Ace . Junpei returns to Akane , finding her nearly dead . Zero says over the loudspeakers that the game 's loser has been determined ; Junpei acts defiant , but Zero clarifies that he is referring to himself . Junpei investigates a nearby room , and returns to find Akane and Santa have disappeared , after which he is knocked out by a gas grenade .
After this ending , the player can access the " true ending " , in which Junpei learns that the previous Nonary Game was run by Cradle Pharmaceutical , who kidnapped nine pairs of siblings and separated them onto the ocean @-@ bound Gigantic and a mock @-@ up in Building Q in the Nevada desert , to explore morphic fields ; the research anticipated that the stress of the game would activate the fields between siblings , allowing solutions solved by one to be sent via these fields to their counterpart at the other location . This research was to help Ace , the Cradle Pharmaceutical CEO , cure his prosopagnosia . The first Nonary Game went awry : Akane and her brother Santa had been placed at the same location instead of being separated , and Seven had discovered the kidnappings and rescued the children from the ship . Ace had grabbed Akane before they could escape , and forced her into the incinerator room where she faced a sudoku puzzle that she could not solve , and apparently died .
Junpei and the others reach the incinerator ; Akane disappears and Santa escapes with Ace hostage , trapping the others inside . It is then revealed that the portion of the game 's narrative portrayed on the bottom DS screen is presented from Akane 's point of view during the first Nonary Game . Through morphic fields , she connected to Junpei during the second Nonary Game , witnessing several possible futures and passing that information to Junpei to help him survive . Junpei then faces the same sudoku puzzle Akane did , and relays the solution back to Akane in the past , allowing her to escape with Seven and the other children . Junpei realizes that Akane was Zero and , with assistance from Santa , had recreated the game and all the events she had witnessed in order to ensure her survival . As they escape they discover that the game had taken place in Building Q the entire time , and that Akane and Santa have fled , leaving behind a car with Ace restrained in the trunk . In the game 's epilogue , they drive away hoping to catch up to them and , shortly after , pick up a hitchhiker whom Junpei recognizes as Alice .
= = Development = =
Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors was developed by Chunsoft and directed by Kotaro Uchikoshi . Chunsoft had made successful visual novels in the past , but wanted to create a new type of visual novel that could be received by a wider audience ; they contacted Uchikoshi and asked him to write visual novels for them . He came up with the idea to include puzzles that are integrated within the story , and need to be solved in order for the player to make progress .
The inspiration for the story was the question " where do mankind 's inspirations come from ? " ; Uchikoshi researched it , and found the British biochemist Rupert Sheldrake 's theories of morphogenetic fields , which became the main theme of the game . The theory is similar to telepathy , which answers the question of how organisms are able to simultaneously communicate ideas to each other , without physical or social interaction . Uchikoshi used the theory to develop the concept of esper characters , which are able to either transmit or receive information from another individual . Because of the vital role of the number 9 in the plot , each of the characters was based off one of the nine personality types from the Enneagram of Personality . Another source of inspiration was the visual novel Banshee 's Last Cry , which , like Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors , begins with putting the characters in a state of discomfort .
Uchikoshi started writing the script by working on the ending first . From there , he would continue to work backwards , in order to not get confused when writing the plot . The game 's setting , with characters who are trapped and try to escape , was meant to embody two of humanity 's instinctive desires : the unconscious desire to return to one 's mother 's womb and shut oneself away , and the desire to escape and overcome one 's current condition . This was a theme Uchikoshi had used before , when writing the visual novel Ever 17 : The Out of Infinity . Among scrapped story elements were the use of hands as a major part of the story ; in the final stages of production , Uchikoshi 's higher @-@ ups did not accept this focus , forcing him to re @-@ write the story . The characters were originally supposed to be handcuffed to each other as they try to escape , but the idea was scrapped as it was seen as overused , with appearances in games such as Mahou Shoujo Riska .
The Escape sequences were created to appeal to players ' instinctive desires : Uchikoshi wanted them to feel the instinctive pleasure that he described as " I found it ! " . For the puzzles , he would consider the details within the story , and the props and gimmicks found in the game ; after deciding on them , they were integrated with the puzzles . He also used puzzle websites as reference . He did not design the puzzles himself , instead leaving the puzzle direction to other staff , while checking it multiple times .
= = Release = =
Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors was originally released in Japan by Spike on December 10 , 2009 , for the Nintendo DS . An American release followed on November 16 , 2010 . In the United States , a replica of the in @-@ game bracelets was included with pre @-@ orders at GameStop ; due to low pre @-@ orders , Aksys made these available on their website 's shop , both separately and bundled with the game . Upon release , Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors became the eleventh Nintendo DS game to be rated M by the ESRB . Coinciding with the release of the game 's sequel , Zero Escape : Virtue 's Last Reward , Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors got a reprint titled Zero Escape : Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors , with new box art featuring the Zero Escape brand . The game 's soundtrack was published by Super Sweep on December 23 , 2009 . A novelization of the game , titled Kyokugen Dasshutsu 9 Jikan 9 Nin 9 no Tobira Arutana , was written by Kenji Kuroda and released by Kodansha in two volumes in 2010 : Ue and Shita .
An iOS version of the game , 999 : The Novel , was developed by Spike Chunsoft as the second entry in their Smart Sound Novel series . It was released in Japan on May 29 , 2013 , and worldwide in English on March 17 , 2014 . This version lacks the Escape sections of the Nintendo DS version , and features high resolution graphics and an added flowchart that helps players keep track of which narrative paths they have experienced ; additionally , dialogue is presented through speech bubbles . In 2016 , Spike Chunsoft announced that they would port the game to other platforms , with added voice acting .
= = = Localization = = =
The North American localization of the game was done by Aksys Games ; Chunsoft was introduced to them by Spike when looking for a company that could publish the game in North America . When Aksys evaluated the game , many at the company did not believe in it and turned it down ; as many of the people who evaluate games at Aksys do not speak Japanese , it was difficult for them to determine whether a game was good or not . In the end they decided to localize it , which was considered a big risk for the company .
The localization was done by the philosophy of keeping true to the spirit of the original Japanese , making dialogue sound like what a native speaker of English would say instead of strictly adhering the original 's exact wording . The localization editor , Ben Bateman , did this by looking at the writing from a wider view , line by line or scene by scene rather than word by word or sentence by sentence , and thinking about how to convey the same ideas in English . Most parts of the game that include a joke in the localization also have a joke in the Japanese version , but a different one ; Bateman did however try to make similar types of jokes , with similar contents and ideas . The game 's use of Japanese language puns led to problems , as many of them relied on Japanese dialects to function ; for these , Bateman replaced them with new puns in English . He was given mostly free rein in what he could change or add , as long as it did not disrupt the plot .
During the localization , Bateman had to keep track of the numerous plot points throughout the game , as the script had not been written in chronological order due to the numerous endings . Localizing the game took roughly two months . Another big challenge was getting the localization done in time : Nobara Nakayama , the game 's translator , worked on it for 30 days , and the editing process took two months . Because of this , Bateman had to do most of the work " on the fly " . Nakayama had started playing the game prior to starting work on the localization , but did not finish playing it until she was more than halfway through translating it ; after learning that the plot hinged on a Japanese pun , they had to halt the localization , discuss it with Uchikoshi , come up with a solution , and go through the whole game to make sure that it still made sense .
= = Reception = =
Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors holds a score of 82 / 100 at the review aggregator Metacritic , indicating generally favorable reviews . It was a commercial failure in Japan , with 27 @,@ 762 copies sold in 2009 and an additional 11 @,@ 891 in 2010 , reaching a total of 39 @,@ 653 copies sold . Meanwhile , American sales were described as being strong ; according to Uchikoshi , this was a surprise , as the visual novel genre was seen as being particular to Japan and unlikely to be accepted overseas .
The writing and narrative were well received by critics , with Andy Goergen of Nintendo World Report labeling it as " a strong argument for video games as a new medium of storytelling " . Reviewers at Famitsu called the story enigmatic and thrilling . Carolyn Petit at GameSpot felt that the lengthy Novel sections amplified the fear and tension throughout the game , while Heidi Kemps of GamesRadar compared them to " high @-@ quality thriller novels " . Jason Schreier of Wired criticized the prose for being inconsistent , but said that the use of the narrator was clever and unusual . Susan Arendt at The Escapist called the story multi @-@ layered and horrifying . Zach Kaplan at Nintendo Life liked the dialogue , but found the third @-@ person narration to be dull and slow , with out @-@ of @-@ place or clichéd metaphors and similes . Both Chris Schilling at Eurogamer and Lucas M. Thomas at IGN felt that the urgency portrayed in the game 's story sometimes was at odds with the tone or timing of the dialogue , such as lengthy conversations while trapped inside a freezer , or lighthearted dialogue and jokes . Thomas called the premise gripping , and said that the mythology , conspiracies and character backgrounds were engrossing . Tony Ponce at Destructoid said that the characters initially seemed like a " stock anime cast " , but that the player discovers more complexity in them after moving past first impressions . Kaplan felt that each character was well developed , fleshed out and unique , and could pass for real people .
A Famitsu writer said that they enjoyed solving puzzles , and that it gave them a sense of accomplishment ; similarly , Goergen , Petit , Schilling and Arendt called the puzzles satisfying to solve . Goergen found some puzzles to be cleverly done , but said that some were esoteric . Ponce and Petit liked that the puzzles never became " pixel hunts " , and how everything is visible as long as the player looks carefully ; because of this and the lack of red herrings , time limits and dead ends , Ponce found it to be better than other escape @-@ the @-@ room games . He applauded the large amount of content , saying that even someone only buying the game for the puzzles would be satisfied . Schilling and Thomas appreciated the puzzles , but found some solutions and hints to be too obvious or explanatory . Kemps found the puzzles excellently done and challenging , but disliked how difficult it was to reach the true ending . Kemps and Schreier appreciated how the puzzles felt logical , while they , along with Thomas and Arendt , criticized how the player has to re @-@ do puzzle sequences upon subsequent playthroughs . Goergen , Schreier , Thomas and Arendt all appreciated the fast @-@ forward function , as it made repeated playthroughs more bearable , but Thomas felt that it didn 't go far enough in speeding up the process .
Goergen found the sound design unmemorable , saying that the music does not add much and that players would be likely to mute the game after hearing the " beeping " sound effect used for dialogue for too long . Meanwhile , Ponce and Petit liked it : Ponce called the score " masterful " and said that it " gets under your skin at the right moments " , while Petit said that she appreciated the sound , which she called atmospheric and " [ sending ] shivers up your spine " . She was unimpressed with the environments , but said that they were clear and easy to look at . She liked the character portraits , calling them expressive and , paired with the dialogue , enough to make the player not care about the lack of voice acting . Ponce , too , felt that the game did not need voice acting . He felt that the way the game favored textual narration over animated cutscenes made it more immersive , allowing the player to imagine the scenes . Goergen said that the graphics were well done , but that they did not do much for the atmosphere . Kaplan called the presentation " awesome " , saying that it looked great and that the artwork stood on its own despite the simplicity of the animations , and that the soundtrack was " fantastic " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The game has won some awards : IGN awarded it the Best Story of 2010 award ; RPGFan gave it their award for Best Graphic Adventure of 2010 on a handheld system ; and Destructoid awarded it their Editor 's Choice Award . Bob Mackey at 1UP.com featured Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors on a list of " must @-@ play " Nintendo DS visual novels , citing its story , themes and " zany narrative experimentation " , and Jason Schreier at Kotaku included it on a list of " must @-@ play " visual novels worth playing even for people who do not like anime tropes . RPGFan included it on a list of " 30 Essential RPGs of 2010 @-@ 2015 " , calling it " one of the most engaging and thoughtful narratives [ they ] had ever seen in a video game . "
= = Sequels = =
Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors is the first game in the Zero Escape series , and was originally intended to be a stand @-@ alone game . The development for the sequel began after the first game got positive reviews . Zero Escape : Virtue 's Last Reward , the successor to Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors , was announced in August 2011 . Developed by Chunsoft for the Nintendo 3DS and PlayStation Vita , the game was first released on February 16 , 2012 in Japan , and later that year in North America and Europe . Virtue 's Last Reward also follows a group of nine people , and focuses on game theory , specifically the prisoner 's dilemma . Zero Time Dilemma is set between the events of the previous two games , in a facility intended to test the logistics of a Mars colony and the psychology of the people living within it , and has morality as its main theme .
= Omarska camp =
The Omarska camp was a death camp run by Bosnian Serb forces in the mining town of Omarska , near Prijedor in northern Bosnia and Herzegovina , set up for Bosniak and Croat men and women during the Prijedor massacre . Functioning in the first months of the Bosnian War in 1992 , it was one of 677 alleged detention centers and camps set up throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war . While nominally an " investigation center " or " assembly point " for members of the Bosniak and Croatian population , Human Rights Watch classified Omarska as a concentration camp .
The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia , located in The Hague , has found several individuals guilty of crimes against humanity perpetrated at Omarska . Murder , torture , rape , and abuse of prisoners was common . Around 6 @,@ 000 Bosniaks and Croats were held in appalling conditions at the camp for about five months in the spring and summer of 1992 , including 37 women . Hundreds died of starvation , punishment beatings and ill @-@ treatment .
= = Overview = =
Omarska was a predominantly Serb village in northwestern Bosnia , near the town of Prijedor . The camp in the village existed from about 25 May to about 21 August 1992 , when the Bosnian Serb military and police unlawfully segregated , detained and confined some of more than 7 @,@ 000 Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats captured in the ethnic cleansing of Prijedor . Bosnian Serb authorities termed it an " investigation center " and the detainees were accused of alleged paramilitary activities .
By the end of 1992 , the war would result in the death or forced departure of most of the Bosniak and Croat population of Prijedor municipality . About 7 @,@ 000 people went missing from a population of 25 @,@ 000 , and there are 145 mass graves and hundreds of individual graves in the extended region . There is conflicting information about how many people were killed at Omarska . According to survivors , usually about 30 and sometimes as many as 150 men were singled @-@ out and killed in the camp every night . The U.S. State Department and other governments believe that , at a minimum , hundreds of detainees , whose identities are known and unknown , did not survive ; many others were killed during the evacuation of the camps in the Prijedor area .
= = Prijedor massacre = =
A declaration on the takeover of Prijedor by Serb forces was prepared by Serbian Democratic Party ( SDS ) politicians and was repeatedly read out on Radio Prijedor the day after the takeover . Four @-@ hundred Bosnian Serb policemen were assigned to participate in the takeover , the objective of which was to seize the functions of the president of the municipality , the vice @-@ president of the municipality , the director of the post office , the chief of the police , etc . On the night of the 29 / 30 April 1992 , the takeover of power took place . Serb employees of the public security station and reserve police gathered in Cirkin Polje , part of the town of Prijedor . The people there were given the task of taking over power in the municipality and were broadly divided into five groups . Each group of about twenty had a leader and each was ordered to gain control of certain buildings . One group was responsible for the Assembly building , one for the main police building , one for the courts , one for the bank and the last for the post @-@ office . The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) concluded that the takeover by the Serb politicians was an illegal coup d 'état , which was planned and coordinated long in advance with the ultimate aim of creating a pure Serbian municipality . These plans were never hidden and they were implemented in a coordinated action by the Serb police , army and politicians . One of the leading figures was Milomir Stakić , who came to play the dominant role in the political life of the municipality .
= = Camp = =
In May 1992 , intensive shelling and infantry attacks on Bosniak areas in the municipality caused the Bosniak survivors to flee their homes . The majority of them surrendered or were captured by Serb forces . As the Serb forces rounded up the Bosniak and Croat residents , they forced them to march in columns bound for one or another of the prison camps that the Serb authorities had established in the municipality . On about 25 May 1992 , about three weeks after the Serbs took control of the municipal government , and two days after the start of large scale military attacks on Bosniak population centers , Serb forces began taking prisoners to the Omarska camp . During the next several weeks , the Serbs continued to round up Bosniaks and Croats from Kozarac near Prijedor , and other places in the municipality and send them to the camps . Many Bosniak and Croat intellectuals and politicians were sent to Omarska . While virtually all of the prisoners were male , there were also 37 women detained in the camp , who served food and cleaned the walls of the torture rooms , and were repeatedly raped in the canteen ; bodies of five of them have been exhumed .
The Omarska mines complex was located about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from Prijedor . The first detainees were taken to the camp at some point between 26 and 30 May . The camp buildings were almost completely full and some of the detainees had to be held in the area between the two main buildings . That area was lit up by specially installed spot @-@ lights after the detainees arrived . Female detainees were held separately in the administrative building . According to the wartime documents of Serb authorities , there were a total of 3 @,@ 334 persons held in the camp from 27 May to 16 August 1992 ; 3 @,@ 197 were Bosniaks , 125 were Croats .
Within the area of the Omarska mining complex that was used for the camp , the camp authorities generally confined the prisoners in three different buildings : the administration building , where interrogations and killings took place ; the crammed hangar building ; the " white house " , where the inmates were tortured ; and on a cement courtyard area between the buildings known as the " pista " , an L @-@ shaped strip of concrete land in between , also a scene of torture and mass killings . There was another small building , known as the " red house " , where prisoners were sometimes taken in order to be summarily executed . With the arrival of the first detainees , permanent guard posts and anti @-@ personnel landmines were set up around the camp . The conditions in the camp were horrible . In the building known as the " white house " , the rooms were crowded with 45 people in a room no larger than 20 square metres ( 220 sq ft ) . The faces of the detainees were distorted and bloodstained and the walls were covered with blood . From the beginning , the detainees were beaten with fists , rifle butts and wooden and metal sticks . The guards mostly hit the heart and kidneys whenever they decided to beat someone to death . In the " garage " , between 150 and 160 people were " packed like sardines " and the heat was unbearable . For the first few days , the detainees were not allowed out and were given only a jerry can of water and some bread . Men would suffocate during the night and their bodies would be taken out the following morning . The room behind the restaurant was known as " Mujo ’ s Room " . The dimensions of this room were about 12 m × 15 m ( 39 ft × 49 ft ) and the average number of people detained there was 500 , most of whom were Bosniaks . The women in the camp slept in the interrogations rooms , which they would have to clean each day as the rooms were covered in blood and pieces of skin and hair . In the camp one could hear the moaning and wailing of people who were being beaten .
The detainees at Omarska had one meal a day . The food was usually spoiled and the process of getting the food , eating and returning the plate usually lasted around three minutes . Meals were often accompanied by beatings . The toilets were blocked and there was human waste everywhere . British journalist Ed Vulliamy testified that when he visited the camp , the detainees were in very poor physical condition . He witnessed them eating a bowl of soup and some bread and said that he had the impression they had not eaten in a long time ; they appeared terrified . According to Vulliamy , the detainees drank water from a river that was polluted with industrial waste and many suffered from constipation or dysentery . No criminal report was ever filed against persons detained in the Omarska camp , nor were the detainees apprised of any concrete charges against them . Apparently , there was no legitimate reason justifying these people ’ s detention .
Murder , torture , rape , and abuse of prisoners was common . Detainees were kept in inhumane conditions and an atmosphere of extreme psychological and physical violence pervaded the camp . The camp guards and frequent visitors who came to the camps used all types of weapons and instruments to beat and otherwise physically abuse the detainees . In particular , Bosnian Muslim and Bosnian Croat political and civic leaders , intellectuals , the wealthy , and other non @-@ Serbs who were considered " extremists " or to have resisted the Bosnian Serbs were especially subjected to beatings and mistreatment which often resulted in death .
In addition , the Omarska and Keraterm camps also operated in a manner designed to discriminate and subjugate the non @-@ Serbs by inhumane acts and cruel treatment . These acts included the brutal living conditions imposed on the prisoners . There was a deliberate policy of overcrowding and lack of basic necessities of life , including inadequate food , polluted water , insufficient or non @-@ existent medical care and unhygienic and cramped conditions . The prisoners all suffered serious psychological and physical deterioration and were in a state of constant fear . Inmates were usually killed by shooting , beating or by the cutting of throats ; however , in one incident , prisoners were incinerated on a pyre of burning tires . The corpses were then transferred onto trucks by other inmates or using bulldozers . There were instances where prisoners were brought to dig the graves and did not return . The ICTY Trial Chamber in the Stakić case found on the basis of the evidence presented at trial , that " over 100 " prisoners were killed at the camp in late July 1992 . About 200 people from Hambarine brought to the camp in July 1992 were held in the building known as the " white House " . In the early hours of 17 July , gunshots were heard that continued until dawn . Corpses were seen in front of the " white house " and camp guards were seen shooting rounds of ammunition into the bodies . A witness testified that " everyone was given an extra bullet that was shot in their heads " . About 180 bodies in total were loaded onto a truck and taken away .
The camp was closed immediately after a visit by foreign journalists in early August . On 6 or 7 August 1992 , the detainees at Omarska were divided into groups and transported in buses to different destinations . About 1 @,@ 500 people were transported on twenty buses .
= = = Death toll = = =
As part of the ethnic cleansing operations , the Omarska , Keraterm , Manjača , and Trnopolje camps helped the Crisis Committee of the Serbian District of Prijedor to reduce the non @-@ Serb population of Prijedor from more than 50 @,@ 000 in 1992 to little more than 3 @,@ 000 in 1995 , and even fewer subsequently . Precise calculations about the number who actually died in these camps are difficult to make . Newsweek reporter Roy Gutman claimed that US State Department officials , along with representatives of other Western governments , told him that 4 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 people , the vast majority of them non @-@ Serbs , perished at Omarska . Journalist Bill Berkeley puts the death toll at 2 @,@ 000 . A member of the United Nations ( UN ) Commission of Experts testified during the trial of Duško Tadić at the ICTY that their number was in the thousands , but she could not be precise , despite the fact that Serbian officials confirmed there were no large scale releases of prisoners sent there . A member of the Crisis Committee , Simo Drljača , who served as chief of police for Prijedor , has stated that there were 6 @,@ 000 " informative conversations " ( meaning interrogations ) in Omarska , Keraterm and Trnopolje , and that 1 @,@ 503 non @-@ Serbs were transferred from those three camps to Manjača , leaving 4 @,@ 497 unaccounted for according to Human Rights Watch . According to the Association of Camp Detainess of Prijedor 1992 , between May and August 1992 , around 6 @,@ 000 prisoners passed through Omarska , 700 of whom were killed .
= = International reaction = =
In early August 1992 , Vulliamy , Independent Television News ( ITN ) reporter Penny Marshall , and Channel 4 News reporter Ian Williams gained access to the Omarska camp . Their reporting served as one of the catalysts of a UN effort to investigate war crimes committed in the conflict . The camp was closed less than a month after its exposure caused international uproar .
= = = 1997 – 2000 controversy = = =
Between 1997 and 2000 , there was academic and media controversy regarding the events that took place in Omarska and Trnopolje in 1992 , due to claims of false reporting and " lies " . These allegations , promoted by the state @-@ controlled Radio Television of Serbia ( RTS ) and the British Living Marxism ( LM ) paper , prompted the ITN network to accuse the LM of libel ; ITN won the case in 2000 , effectively forcing the paper to close down .
= = Trials = =
The Republika Srpska officials responsible for running the camp have since been indicted and found guilty of crimes against humanity and war crimes .
Commanders of the camp , Miroslav Kvočka , Dragoljub Prcač , Milojica Kos , and Mlađo Radić , and a local taxi driver , Zoran Žigić were all found guilty of crimes against humanity . Kvočka , Prcač , Kos and Radić were sentenced to five , six , seven and 20 years respectively ; Žigić was given the longest term of 25 years .
Željko Mejakić was found guilty of crimes against humanity ( murder , imprisonment , torture , sexual violence , persecution , and other inhumane acts ) . He was the de facto commander of Omarska and perpetrated one instance of mistreatment . It was found that he was part of a joint criminal enterprise with the intent of promoting mistreatment and persecution of detainees in the camp . He was sentenced to 21 years of imprisonment .
Momčilo Gruban was found guilty of crimes against humanity ( murder , imprisonment , torture , sexual violence , persecution , and other inhumane acts ) . He had command responsibility for crimes committed at the camp and acted as part of a joint criminal enterprise . He was sentenced to 11 years imprisonment .
Duško Knežević was found guilty of crimes against humanity ( murder , torture , sexual violence , persecution , and other inhumane acts ) . He was found to have been directly involved in the crimes carried out in the Omarska and Keraterm camps . He was also found guilty under the theory of joint criminal enterprise for furthering the Omarska and Keraterm camps ’ systems of mistreatment and persecution of detainees . He was sentenced to 31 years imprisonment .
On 26 February 2007 , the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) presented its judgment in the Bosnian Genocide Case , in which it had examined atrocities committed in detention camps , including Omarska , in relation to Article II ( b ) of the Genocide Convention . The Court stated in its judgment :
Having carefully examined the evidence presented before it , and taken note of that presented to the ICTY , the Court considers that it has been established by fully conclusive evidence that members of the protected group were systematically victims of massive mistreatment , beatings , rape and torture causing serious bodily and mental harm during the conflict and , in particular , in the detention camps . The requirements of the material element , as defined by Article II ( b ) of the Convention are thus fulfilled . The Court finds , however , on the basis of evidence before it , that it has not been conclusively established that those atrocities , although they too may amount to war crimes and crimes against humanity , were committed with the specific intent ( dolus specialis ) to destroy the protected group , in whole or in part , required for a finding that genocide has been perpetrated .
= = Exhumations = =
In 2004 , a mass grave located a few hundred meters from the Omarska site was unearthed containing the remains of 456 persons from the camp . " There is no doubt whatsoever that there are hundreds of bodies as yet unfound within the mine of Omarska and its vicinity " said Amor Mašović , president of the Bosnian government 's Commission for Tracing Missing Persons . The International Commission on Missing Persons ( ICMP ) has been active in advocating the exhumation and identification of their bodies from mass graves around the area ; with their help , a number of victims have been identified through DNA testing .
= = Memorial controversy = =
The Mittal Steel company purchased the Omarska mining complex and planned to resume extraction of iron ore from the site . Mittal Steel announced in Banja Luka on 1 December 2005 that the company would build and finance a memorial in the ' White House ' but the project was later abandoned . Many Bosnian Serbs believe there should not be a memorial , while many Bosniaks believe that construction should be postponed until all the victims are found and only if the entire mine — which is in use — be allocated for the memorial site .
By the time of the 20th anniversary of the camp 's closure proposals for a physical memorial to the camp 's existence had made no progress . ArcelorMittal said that it was prepared to meet the former inmates ' demands but the local authorities were ultimately responsible for granting permission . The Republika Srpska authorities considered that allowing camp survivors free access to the site and the construction of a memorial as originally agreed by ArcelorMittal would undermine reconciliation . " Prijedor 92 " president Mirsad Duratović , stated that the campaign for a memorial would continue .
In July 2012 , ahead of the start of the 2012 London Olympic Games , survivors of the camp laid claim to the ArcelorMittal Orbit tower , the tallest structure in Britain , located in the Olympic Park beside the Olympic stadium , as the ' Omarska Memorial in Exile ' . The survivors allege that the Orbit is " tragically intertwined with the history of war crimes in Bosnia , as the bones of victims are mixed in with the iron ore " . ArcelorMittal denied that material from Omarska had been used in the Orbit 's construction . The company said that sensitive issues relating to the mine could not be addressed by ArcelorMittal on its own . Campaigners urged ArcelorMittal as the world 's largest steel producer to use its considerable influence to oppose the local politics of denial and play an active role in healing fractured communities that have made the company 's success possible . Susan Schuppli of the Centre for Research Architecture at Goldsmiths ' College in London , observed that ArcelorMittal insistence on " not taking sides " in an area where persecution and injustice continued was not neutrality but taking a political position by default .
= Monsters ( 2010 film ) =
Monsters is a 2010 British science fiction monster film written and directed by Gareth Edwards in his feature film directorial debut . Edwards also served as the cinematographer , production designer , and visual effects artist . Monsters takes place years after a NASA probe crash in Mexico which led to the sudden appearance of giant tentacled monsters . It follows Andrew Kaulder ( played by Scoot McNairy ) , an American photojournalist tasked with escorting his employer 's daughter Samantha Wynden ( played by Whitney Able ) back to the U.S. by crossing through Mexico 's " Infected Zone " where the creatures reside .
Edwards conceived the idea for the film after seeing fishermen attempt to bring a creature in with a net , and imagining a monster inside . He pitched the idea to Vertigo Films , who suggested he watch In Search of a Midnight Kiss , a low @-@ budget film starring Scoot McNairy . Edwards cast McNairy and Whitney Able in the lead roles . Principal photography lasted three weeks and had a production crew of six people . Filming took place in five countries , and many locations were used without permission . Most of the extras were people who were at these locations during filming and were persuaded to act in it ; all of their dialogue was improvised , and Edwards provided outlines of the primary plot points .
Monsters premiered at South by Southwest on 13 March 2010 . Hours later , Magnet Releasing acquired the rights to distribute it in North America . It had a limited release there , beginning on 29 October 2010 , followed by a theatrical release in the United Kingdom on 3 December 2010 . The film received generally positive reviews and was a box office success , grossing US $ 4 @.@ 2 million against a budget of less than $ 500 @,@ 000 . Monsters : Dark Continent , a sequel , was released in the UK on 1 May 2015 .
= = Plot = =
After a NASA deep @-@ space probe ( sent to verify the existence of extraterrestrial life within the solar system ) crash lands in Mexico , extraterrestrial life forms spread throughout the Mexico – United States border region , leading to the quarantine of the northern half of Mexico . U.S. and Mexican troops battle to contain the creatures , and a wall stretching along the American border ostensibly keeps the U.S. protected .
American photojournalist Andrew Kaulder ( Scoot McNairy ) receives a call from his employer , who tasks Andrew with finding his daughter , Samantha Wynden ( Whitney Able ) , and escorting her back to the U.S. Andrew locates Samantha in a Mexican hospital and the pair board a train , until learning the tracks ahead have been damaged . They discover that if they do not leave the country within a few days , sea and air travel will be blocked for six months . Andrew and Samantha decide to hitchhike their way to the coast .
Andrew buys Samantha an expensive ferry ticket for the next morning . After enjoying the local nightlife together , Andrew has sex with a local girl who steals their passports . Unable to board the ferry , Samantha is forced to barter her engagement ring for passage through the quarantine zone .
They travel by riverboat until being transferred to a group of armed escorts who are to lead them overland to the Mexico – US border . The convoy is attacked by the creatures . Andrew and Samantha escape , but none of the guards survive . Continuing on , they discover the bodies of dead travellers and bond at the top of an ancient pyramid in sight of the US border wall . By the time they reach the border , the creatures have broken through . They travel through a ghost town in Texas , find an abandoned gas station with power and call the army for help .
While waiting for help to arrive , they make phone calls to their respective families . A lone creature silently approaches the station . Hiding , Samantha observes several tentacles exploring the inside of the store , seemingly soaking up a television 's light . Samantha quickly unplugs the television and the creature loses interest . Another creature appears , and they communicate with one another and mate via light impulses . The creatures leave as the military arrives . Samantha and Andrew kiss before they are rushed into different vehicles . The chronological ending takes place at the beginning of the film , filmed in green night vision sight , when the military rescue team is attacked by a single creature .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
While attending university in 1996 , Edwards made a short monster movie set in suburbia . He initially wanted to expand on that idea , but after the release of War of the Worlds , he believed it was " not going to be special anymore " . Considering that the film would have to be low @-@ budget , Edwards decided to embrace the found footage style of The Blair Witch Project , and mix that element with his original concept . After learning about Cloverfield 's similar premise , he abandoned this idea and moved on to a concept where a " war [ is ] going on somewhere on the other side of the world , and no one cares " .
Edwards conceived the film while watching some fishermen struggling to haul in their net and imagining a monster inside of it . He had the idea to make a monster movie set " years after most other monster movies end , when people aren 't running and screaming , but life is going on " and " where a giant , dead sea monster is considered completely normal " .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Edwards pitched his idea to Vertigo Films , where producer James Richardson asked him to watch In Search of a Midnight Kiss for an example of low @-@ budget filmmaking . It starred Scoot McNairy and had been made for $ 15 @,@ 000 . Edwards was impressed by McNairy but wanted a real couple to portray the lead characters . McNairy sent Edwards a picture of his then @-@ girlfriend , actress Whitney Able , who Edwards initially thought was " too good @-@ looking " . He changed his mind after meeting them and cast them both .
= = = Filming = = =
The film was written and directed by Gareth Edwards , while Allan Niblo and James Richardson of Vertigo Films served as producers . Edwards did not storyboard or script the film , but wrote a treatment of the story and outlines that detailed specifics points that needed to be hit in dialogue . The filming equipment cost approximately $ 15 @,@ 000 , and the production budget came in " way under " $ 500 @,@ 000 . The film was able to be made on such a low budget largely due to the production using consumer grade prosumer level equipment instead of professional paraphernalia . For instance , the film was shot using digital video cameras rather than the more expensive 35mm film and was edited on a laptop computer . Many of the locations in the film were used without permission , and most of the extras were people who were already at the locations . As the extras were non @-@ actors who were persuaded to be in the film , their actions were improvised .
The film was shot in Belize , Mexico , Guatemala , Costa Rica , and the United States over three weeks . For about 90 % of the principal photography , the crew consisted of seven people transported in one van : Edwards , Able , McNairy , sound operator Ian Maclagan , line producer Jim Spencer , Mexican fixer Verity Oswin , and a driver .
= = = Editing and effects = = =
Every night after shooting , editor Colin Goudie and his assistant Justin Hall would download the footage so the memory sticks could be cleared and ready for the next day . While new footage was being captured , the previously filmed footage was edited at the production team 's hotel . After filming concluded , the crew had over 100 hours of footage . The original cut was over four hours long but was trimmed to 94 minutes after eight months of editing . Edwards originally had the ending of the film both at the beginning and the end . He and the film 's producers disagreed about the placement , so he decided to put the chronological ending of the film at the beginning and end the film immediately after Andrew and Samantha kiss .
Edwards created the visual effects himself using off @-@ the @-@ shelf Adobe software , ZBrush , and Autodesk 3ds Max . He had five months to create all 250 visual effects shots , a process he undertook in his bedroom . He produced two shots a day until he reached the first creature shot , when " suddenly two months went by and [ he ] still hadn 't finished a single creature shot " ; Edwards stated that the creatures ' visual effects were the most challenging element of production . Due to time constraints , the sound effects had to be produced before the visual effects .
= = Release = =
Monsters premiered at the South by Southwest Film Festival on 13 March 2010 . In May , the film was screened at the Cannes Film Market . It also screened as part of the 64th Edinburgh International Film Festival on 18 June 2010 , and screened twice at the Los Angeles Film Festival on 23 and 26 June . The film was first released in Russia on 30 September 2010 . Monsters later released in the United States on 29 October , in Canada on 5 November , and the United Kingdom on 3 December . In the weeks leading up to the UK release , a marketing campaign using social network Foursquare was announced . Vue Entertainment and Cineworld Cinemas set up ' infected locations ' which gave users access to exclusive Monsters content and the chance to win random on @-@ the @-@ spot prizes .
= = = Box office = = =
Hours after the film 's screening at South by Southwest , Magnet Releasing acquired the distribution rights in the United States . Tom Quinn , an executive at Magnet , stated that they " were blown away by Monsters " and were " thrilled to bring his vision to American audiences . " Shortly after , D Films acquired the rights to distribute the film in Canada . Monsters was released in 19 countries between September 2010 and December 2011 . It grossed $ 4 @.@ 2 million from worldwide ticket sales , earning over $ 1 million in the United Kingdom and Russia and over $ 100 @,@ 000 in Mexico , France , the United States , Australia , Germany , Spain , Poland , and Turkey .
= = = = United Kingdom = = = =
The film was released in the United Kingdom on 3 December 2010 . On its opening weekend , Monsters grossed $ 550 @,@ 110 in 164 theatres , averaging $ 3 @,@ 354 per theatre . The following weekend , the film dropped to 153 and grossed $ 244 @,@ 607 , a 55 @.@ 5 % decrease , averaging $ 1 @,@ 599 . Over its three subsequent weekends , the film grossed $ 99 @,@ 891 . The film concluded its five @-@ week run on 2 January 2011 ; the gross was $ 1 @,@ 442 @,@ 633 .
= = = = North America = = = =
The film was released in North America on 29 October 2010 . On its opening weekend , Monsters grossed $ 20 @,@ 508 in three theatres , for an average of $ 6 @,@ 836 per theatre . The following weekend , the film screened in 13 theatres and grossed an additional $ 28 @,@ 590 . In its third weekend , the film expanded to 25 theatres and grossed $ 48 @,@ 680 , averaging $ 1 @,@ 947 per theatre . Over its six subsequent weekends , the film grossed an additional $ 60 @,@ 141 . On 26 December 2010 , the film concluded its nine @-@ week run with a gross of $ 237 @,@ 301 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Monsters received generally positive reviews from critics . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 72 % approval rating and an average rating of 7 @.@ 1 / 10 based on 147 reviews . The site 's consensus states : " It doesn 't quite live up to its intriguing premise , but Monsters is a surprising blend of alien @-@ invasion tropes , political themes , and relationship drama . " On Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 based on reviews from critics , the film has a score of 63 based on 26 reviews , which is considered to be " generally favorable reviews " .
Roger Ebert awarded the film three and a half out of four stars , praising its focus on " characters , relationships , fear and mostly unseen menace " rather than its visual effects , as well as the acting . He also commended Edwards for " evoking ... awe and beauty " and for the creature designs . Peter Bradshaw , writing for The Guardian , gave it four stars out of five , described the film as a " terrifically exciting sci @-@ fi movie " and concluded that Edwards " channels the upriver nightmares of [ Werner ] Herzog and [ Francis Ford ] Coppola , with a strong streak of Spielbergian wonder at the sight of two aliens apparently dancing " . Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune was critical of the performances but praised the film 's " considerable , crafty virtues " , its premise , and its ending . Jeanette Catsoulis of The New York Times called the film " wondrously atmospheric " and " effortlessly compel [ ling ] " , and praised Edwards ' " beautiful , otherworldly " visual effects . Dan Jolin of Empire echoed the comparison to Herzog , opining that the film " exhibits the lyrical surrealism of [ his ] jungle excursions " . He also praised the visual effects , Edwards ' cinematography , and the " simmering " chemistry between McNairy and Able , concluding that the film was " both shoestring and sci @-@ fi filmmaking at its best " . Michael Rechtshaffen of the Associated Press praised Edwards for " add [ ing ] original touches to the genre " and for his production design . He criticized the " tentative " and " alienating " performances of McNairy and Able , but stated that " the overall picture still impresses " . Jennie Punter of The Globe and Mail disagreed , comparing the lead actors ' chemistry to Ethan Hawke and Julie Delpy in Before Sunrise and praising the pacing . Clark Collis of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B + , also praising the performances of McNairy and Able and commending Edwards ' work .
Conversely , Ty Burr of the Boston Globe gave the film a mixed review , granting it two and a half stars out of five . Though he praised the score , he stated that it is " more fascinating for its ambitions than for what it accomplishes " and criticized the main characters for being " too shallow " and unengaging . Robert Abele of the Los Angeles Times criticized the " weak plot , forgettable dialogue and sloppy politics " and called the lead characters " empty @-@ headed blanks " . Amy Biancolli of the San Francisco Chronicle called McNairy and Able a " semi @-@ interesting " pair , but disliked the lack of monsters in the film , the dialogue , and the familiarity of the story . Michael O 'Sullivan of The Washington Post called the film " a less @-@ than @-@ compelling relationship drama " , criticizing it for being unoriginal and predictable , and that hiding the monsters made them less frightening .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 13th British Independent Film Awards , Monsters was nominated in six categories including Best Picture , Best Director for Edwards , and Best Actor for McNairy . The film won for Best Director , Best Technical Achievement , and Best Achievement in Production . At the 64th British Academy Film Awards , Edwards was nominated for Outstanding Debut by a British Director , but lost to Chris Morris for Four Lions . It won Best Independent Movie at the 2011 Scream Awards , and was nominated for Best Science Fiction Movie . The film also won Best International Film at the 37th Saturn Awards . The National Board of Review named the film one of the top ten independent films of 2010 , and it placed third on Moviefone 's Top 10 Sci @-@ Fi Movies of 2010 list .
= = Sequel = =
A sequel , Monsters : Dark Continent , started filming in March 2013 in Jordan and Detroit , with Tom Green directing and Jay Basu writing . Gareth Edwards and Scoot McNairy served as executive producers . Johnny Harris , Sam Keeley , and Joe Dempsie starred in the film . Originally scheduled to be released on 28 November 2014 , the film 's release date was then moved to 27 February 2015 , and was eventually released by Vertigo on 1 May 2015 . In contrast to Monsters , Monsters : Dark Continent was not well received by critics , with a 18 % score on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes based on 34 reviews .
= James Ferguson , Lord Pitfour =
James Ferguson , Lord Pitfour ( 1700 – 25 June 1777 ) was a Scottish advocate and second Laird of Pitfour , a large estate in Buchan . His flourishing law practice was sited opposite Parliament House in Edinburgh . He became Dean of the Faculty of Advocates in 1722 and was elevated to the bench , becoming Lord Pitfour , in 1764 . Pitfour was described as one of the greatest lawyers in the country . However , by the time he became a judge he was past his prime intellectually and thus did not make as much of an impact in that role . A Jacobite sympathiser , he is best known for his defence of rebels standing trial at Carlisle after the Jacobite risings .
Ferguson inherited the Pitfour estate on the death of his father , James Ferguson , 1st Laird of Pitfour . He purchased additional lands and expanded the estate , which became known as " the Blenheim of the North " . A staunch Episcopalian , he had a private Qualified Chapel built on the estate . He also established a small village and arranged for plantations of Douglas firs near the mansion house .
= = Ancestry and early life = =
Ferguson was born at Pitfour in 1700 shortly after his father , also named James , had purchased the estate . Ferguson 's father was the first Laird of Pitfour and previously had the honorific James Fergusson of Badifurrow . His mother was Ann Stuart . In 1733 Ferguson married Anne Murray ( 1708 – 1793 ) , a sister of Patrick Murray , 5th Lord Elibank and James Murray , a British army officer who became Governor of Quebec . They had three sons . The eldest , James ( 1736 – 1820 ) , became a politician ; Patrick ( 1744 – 1780 ) invented the Ferguson rifle , a breech @-@ loading flintlock weapon ; and the youngest , George ( 1 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
748 – 1820 ) , became Lieutenant Governor of Tobago in 1779 . Ferguson also had three daughters : Ann , Elizabeth and Jane .
In his memoirs , John Ramsay of Ochtertyre described the first Laird was as " having been an adventurer in the South Sea " and that he " would have been a ruined man , but for his son 's exertions . " Wilson @-@ Smith interprets this to mean the first Laird had lost a great deal of money investing in the South Sea Company , but the expansive lands he procured generated sufficient revenue to continue payments on the debts until the situation was later fully remedied via the financial acumen of his son , Lord Pitfour .
= = Career = =
Ferguson studied at the Marischal College in Aberdeen from 1711 – 1715 . He then studied law at Edinburgh University before completing his education at Groningen and Utrecht . He became a member of the Faculty of Advocates on his return to Edinburgh in early 1722 . He was appointed as Vice @-@ Dean of the Faculty of Advocates in January 1759 and became Dean when Robert Dundas was elevated to Lord President of the Court of Session in June 1760 .
In 1764 the Earl of Mansfield successfully petitioned George III to allow Ferguson to be promoted to fill the vacant position of judge sitting in the Court of Session . Ferguson became a Senator of the College of Justice in June 1764 . This entitled him to thereafter be addressed as " Lord Pitfour " .
The law practice was at one point based in a substantial seven @-@ storey tenement house purchased by Ferguson at 333 High Street , Edinburgh , opposite Parliament House . The law practice occupied the four upper floors of the building ; shops were on the lower level . Pitfour 's legal services were in great demand and he was able to charge twice the fees of his associates .
His law practice had many influential clients , including Lord Braco and the sons of Lord Fraser of Lovat . Pitfour was one of 15 advocates acting in a case raised by Alexander Fraser against Lord Fraser claiming the liferents to the Lovat estates . Eventually a compromise was reached ; Lovat retained the liferents and Fraser gained a monetary sum instead . As the negotiations had taken many hours of legal deliberation over a three @-@ year period , the case proved very profitable for Pitfour .
Ferguson was a Jacobite . The records of the Spalding Club include a soldier 's letter which indicates it is likely Ferguson was willing to offer refuge to Jacobites who participated in the Battle of Culloden . Jacobite rebels captured from throughout Scotland were taken to stand trial at Carlisle Castle in 1746 . Ferguson and fellow advocate Alexander Lockhart argued in their defence . Prosecutors showed little mercy , calling for the rebels to be executed by hanging . Since the prosecution assumed anyone dressed in tartan was guilty , Ferguson and Lockhart had their servants dress in tartan and appear along with the other defendants . They called each other to the stand to testify as to the whereabouts of the servants and proved that , despite their tartan dress , the defendants could not have taken part in the rebellion . Many were found guilty , but the trick succeeded , as some of the accused were acquitted , including the Laird of Dunfallandy , a kinsman of Ferguson .
The 1773 papers of George III contain details of Pitfour accompanying Lord Justice Clerk Thomas Miller on the Northern Circuit from the end of April until 20 May . Among the cases heard were the trial of a servant accused of murdering another servant on Skye , and the case of Edward Shaw McIntosh , a Borlum gentleman of rank who together with his brother and some of their servants was accused of several instances of housebreaking which had escalated to murder and highway robbery . Some of the gang was caught , but McIntosh remained an outlaw .
Lord Pitfour was widely admired and often dined with fellow lawyer and biographer James Boswell , who declared Pitfour to be one of the greatest Scottish lawyers . This was endorsed by the diarist John Ramsay of Ochtertyre ( 1736 – 1814 ) , who remarked that Pitfour was one of a small number of barristers who he found satisfying hear speak . Pitfour practised law in Edinburgh at the height of the Scottish Enlightenment and was a member of The Poker Club .
Lord Pitfour is described as being good humoured but of a " somewhat awkward manner " and small in stature . His voice was shrill and he had poor eyesight . He was shrewd , kind and sympathetic , which put him at odds with some of his colleagues on the bench . Serving at the same time as Lord Braxfield , who had a reputation for handing down severe sentences , Pitfour was viewed as indecisive and too lenient . His desire to be fair and reach compromise had stood him in good stead as an advocate , but as a judge , these characteristics drew criticism from his contemporaries . Lord Kames was critical of him , maintaining that Pitfour did not want anyone to be hanged . Writing in 2008 , local historian Alex Buchan speculated that Pitfour 's hard life travelling around Scotland took too much of a toll on him , leading to a rapid decline in his health and ability . At 64 years of age at his appointment as a judge , he was likely too old to be effective .
= = Pitfour = =
Ferguson inherited the expansive Pitfour estate on the death of his father , the first Laird , in 1734 . The second Laird expanded the estate and continued the work that developed it into one of the largest and most lavish estates in Scotland . The estate was described by Charles McKean as " the Blenheim of Buchan " but it has also been referred to as " the Blenheim of the North " and " the Ascot of the North " . The village of Fetterangus was established by Pitfour just over a mile north of the mansion house in 1752 .
In 1766 , Lord Pitfour paid £ 15 @,@ 000 to add further land to the estate . The land had been forfeited to the crown and subsequently purchased by the York Buildings Company after George II instigated an attainder against George Keith , the final Earl Marischal , who was pardoned in 1761 . After the Earl Marischal returned to favour and the York Buildings Company suffered financial difficulties , he bought the land back for £ 31 @,@ 000 at an auction , to the delight of friends and others present . He displayed little interest in the property and sold it to Lord Pitfour . Furtive negotiations had taken place between Pitfour and the Earl Marischal to conclude the transaction , as the Earl Marischal did not want the details publicly known , fearing reproaches from his friends . The land , adjacent to the Pitfour property , incorporated St Fergus and Inverugie Castle , the former seat of the Earls Marischal . The 8 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 km2 ) was predominantly peat bogs , woods and uncultivated land . The addition of this extensive property made Pitfour the largest estate in the area , stretching over 30 @,@ 000 acres ( 120 km2 ) from Buchanhaven in Peterhead and along the course of the River Ugie to Maud . Pitfour had handled the Earl Marischal 's complex legal requirements over a lengthy period , but the purchase of the land led to ill feeling and insinuations against Pitfour of underhand dealing from other landowners . He never regained popularity in the area and subsequently spent less time at the estate .
Pitfour , an Episcopalian , had a small Qualified Chapel built on the estate at Waulkmill in 1766 . This large plain building could accommodate up to 500 parishioners . Saplinbrae , a house that was initially used as a coaching inn after its construction on Pitfour 's instruction in 1756 , was used as the minister 's manse . Douglas firs were planted near Saplinbrae and Deer Abbey from seed sent from Canada by Pitfour 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , General James Murray .
= = Death and legacy = =
Lord Pitfour suffered from poor health in his later years , and he resigned from the judiciary in 1776 . Correspondence between Pitfour 's two brothers @-@ in @-@ law , Lord Elibank and General Murray , shortly after Pitfour died describes how " he had in a manner lost his senses " . After his death at Gilmerton in June 1777 , he was buried in a vault he had purchased two years previously in Greyfriars Kirkyard , Edinburgh . Lord Pitfour was succeeded by his eldest son , James .
= American Arts Commemorative Series medallions =
American Arts Commemorative Series medallions are a series of ten gold bullion medallions that were produced by the United States Mint from 1980 to 1984 . They were sold to compete with the South African Krugerrand and other bullion coins .
The series was proposed by North Carolina senator Jesse Helms after the United States Department of the Treasury began selling portions of the national stockpile of gold . Iowa Representative Jim Leach suggested that the medallions depict notable American artists . President Jimmy Carter signed the bill containing the authorizing legislation into law on November 10 , 1978 , despite objections from Treasury officials .
The medallions were initially sold through mail order ; purchasers were required to obtain the day 's price by telephone before ordering . Later , the Mint sold them through telemarketing . Mintage ceased after the ten different medallions approved by Congress were produced . All were struck at the West Point Bullion Depository . The series sold poorly , prompting critics to blame the involved process by which they were first marketed , and the fact that they were medallions rather than coins .
= = Background = =
On April 19 , 1978 , the United States Treasury Department announced that a portion of the national gold stockpile was to be auctioned through the General Services Administration ( GSA ) beginning on May 23 , 1978 , in the form of 400 troy ounces ( 12 kg ) bars . According to the Treasury , the sales were intended to " [ reduce ] the U.S. trade deficit , either by increasing the exports of gold or by reducing the imports of this commodity " , and to " further the U.S. desire to continue progress toward the elimination of the international monetary role of gold . " For reasons of bookkeeping , an entire bar was set as the minimum purchase , which placed the gold outside of the reach of most Americans . North Carolina senator Jesse Helms was critical of the plan , saying that he was " opposed to the sale of U.S. gold to foreign and international banks and gold dealers " and that medallions should be " produced in small size , suitable for sale to average citizens . " On the day of the Treasury announcement , Helms introduced the Gold Medallion Act of 1978 . The stated intent was to provide average consumers with affordable , small @-@ sized gold bullion to compete with the South African Krugerrand and other world bullion coins , which were becoming increasingly popular with American investors . 1 @.@ 6 million troy ounces ( 50 @,@ 000 kg ) ounces of gold had been imported into the United States in the form of Krugerrands in 1977 alone . In a hearing on August 25 , 1978 , before the United States Senate Committee on Banking , Housing , and Urban Affairs , Helms said :
In the first year after enactment the bill would require that the first 1 @.@ 5 million ounces of gold sold be made into medallions . Under the stepped @-@ up rate of gold sales , that is only two months worth of gold . The amount is about equal to last year 's importation of foreign bullion coins , mostly Krugerrands from South Africa .
Helms went on to describe the characteristics of the proposed medallions , stating :
The one @-@ ounce medallion would have on one side the head of the statue of Freedom atop the Capitol , and it would be marked with the words , " One ounce fine gold , " and the word " freedom . " The reverse of the piece would be the Great Seal of the United States and the words " United States of America , " and the year in which it was produced . The half @-@ ounce medallion would have on one side some representation of the rights of individuals and the words " Human Rights , " and " One @-@ half ounce fine gold . " The reverse would be similar to the back side of the " Freedom " medallion , with the Great Seal .
Support for the medallions grew in Congress , prompting the introdiction of more legislation . Iowa representative Jim Leach proposed that the series feature designs honoring American artists . During the Committee on Banking , Housing and Urban Affairs hearing , Leach outlined the reasons for his proposal . He noted that the House Subcommittee on Historic Preservation received many suggestions of individuals worthy to appear on the dollar coin that had previously been proposed . Leach felt that a dollar coin was not a suitable way to commemorate the individuals , as it was impossible to honor such a large group on a coin whose design was likely to remain unchanged for a long period of time . He also noted that all United States coinage until then had depicted individuals whose principal contributions had been in government and politics rather than the arts . Leach described the specifics of his proposal , stating :
I am suggesting in H.R. 13567 that we honor 10 individuals who have been distinguished contributors to the arts — music , painting , writing , architecture and the theatre . Other fields might well be chosen , or other people than I have selected within the field of arts ; but the point I want to emphasize is this : while our coinage is and should be devoted to honoring those who have contributed to our political heritage , medals offer us an opportunity to honor those who have contributed to our cultural development , our economic achievements , our technological expertise , and other accomplishments which reflect the wide dimensions of our democratic society .
The subjects designated were painter Grant Wood , contralto singer Marian Anderson , authors Mark Twain and Willa Cather , musician Louis Armstrong , architect Frank Lloyd Wright , poet Robert Frost , sculptor Alexander Calder , actress Helen Hayes and author John Steinbeck .
Though the program received widespread support in Congress , Treasury officials opposed it . In a letter , Treasury secretary W. Michael Blumenthal wrote , " I do not believe the U.S. Government should permit the erroneous impression to be created that it cannot or will not take the necessary steps to combat inflation and that the public therefore needs to buy gold as a hedge against inflation . " Blumenthal also believed that if the government were to sanction the striking of gold medallions , the public would believe that the Treasury was actively encouraging investment in gold . Despite these objections , the bill was attached to the bank omnibus bill , which President Jimmy Carter signed into law on November 10 , 1978 .
= = Production and sale = =
The Treasury lacked money to put the medallions into production , so an appropriations bill was passed giving the department the necessary funding . The GSA was tasked with determining how best to market the new issues . The GSA proposed several sales plans , including the distribution of the medallions to a network of banks for sale to the public . This was rejected in favor of requiring purchasers to make a telephone call to learn the price of the medallions on the day of purchase , after which the purchaser was to go to a post office the same day to make payment . According to the legislation , the issues were to be " sold to the general public at a competitive price equal to the free market value of the gold contained therein plus the cost of manufacture , including labor , materials , dies , use of machinery , and overhead expenses including marketing costs . "
Production began in 1980 . Struck at the West Point Bullion Depository , the medallions contained 90 % gold , and were issued in two sizes : one containing one troy ounce ( 31 g ) of gold and one containing one half @-@ ounce ( 16 g ) of the metal . The first struck were those honoring Grant Wood on the one ounce medallion and Marian Anderson on the half @-@ ounce piece . Both were designed by United States Mint Chief Engraver Frank Gasparro . Sales were poor , and in September 1980 , the Mint announced that a private firm , commodity traders J. Aron and Company , would market the medallions . The new plan involved selling the medallions through a network of bullion dealers , banks , brokerage houses and coin dealers , a system similar to that South Africa used to distribute the Krugerrand in the US . In 1981 , the second year of production , the composition of the medallions was changed ; although the 90 % gold purity was retained , the balance was altered to include silver , which was added to change their appearance . That year 's medallions depicted Mark Twain and Willa Cather . These were designed by Matthew Poloso and Sherl Winter , respectively . These first four medallions bore no notation of their metallic content or country of origin . This was done to distinguish them from federal coinage . Beginning in 1982 , this information and small , toothlike designs , known as " denticles " , were added along the inner rim of the medallions , and reeding was added to the edge . That year 's issues depicted Louis Armstrong , as designed by John Mercanti , and Frank Lloyd Wright , designed by Edgar Steever . The following year 's medallions depicted Robert Frost and Alexander Calder . The former was designed by P. Fowler , while the latter was by Michael Iacocca . The final year of production saw the mintage of medallions with designs by John Mercanti honoring Helen Hayes and John Steinbeck . The Mint terminated the contract with J. Aron and Company in 1984 , opting instead to sell the medallions through a telemarketing program . In 1985 , Mint director Donna Pope announced that the medallions would be sold in another telemarketing operation in sets of five of either one each of the one ounce medallions or one each of the half @-@ ounce pieces , beginning in September of that year and ending on December 31 , or sooner if all sets sold .
= = Reception = =
In October 1980 , Luis Vigdor , assistant vice @-@ president for bullion and numismatic operations of Manfra , Tordella & Brookes , then one of the largest coin firms in the country , compared the medallions and the efforts to market them unfavorably to the South African Krugerrand . According to Vigdor , they were difficult to market due to their lack of notation of weight , fineness and country of origin . He also criticized the marketing , asserting that people were unlikely to buy gold at the post office , and that the medallions were advertised poorly . Vigdor contrasted the medallions ' marketing program with the widespread success of the Krugerrand and the vigorous attempts to market them around the world . Commenting on the poor sale of the medallions , assistant director of marketing for the Mint Francis Frere said in 1984 : " it just hasn 't worked . They 're not selling . We 've made a strong effort , but it 's not working . "
On February 12 , 1982 , following the poor sales of the medallions , the United States Gold Commission recommended the minting of a gold coin . Donald Regan , Secretary of the Treasury and chairman of the commission , later told reporters that a gold coin could be easier to sell than medallions , because the suggested coins " could be redeemable in dollars " . The Mint issued gold coins for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles and for the centennial of the Statue of Liberty in 1986 . Both issues were successful , and the Liberty piece sold out on advance sales . As the public was receptive to the gold coins , and President Ronald Reagan had banned the importation of Krugerrands in 1985 over South Africa 's apartheid policy , Congress authorized the American Gold Eagle gold bullion coin , which entered production as legal tender in 1986 .
= = Designs and sales figures = =
= Orchha Fort complex =
The Orchha Fort complex , which houses a large number of ancient monuments consisting of the fort , palaces , temple and other edifices , is located in the Orchha town in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh . The fort and other structures within it were built by the Bundela Rajputs starting from early 16th century by King Rudra Pratap Singh of the Orchha State and others who followed him .
The fort complex , which is accessed from an arched causeway , leads to a large gateway . This is followed by a large quadrangular open yard surrounded by palaces . These are Raja Mahal or Raja Mandir , Sheesh Mahal , Jahangir Mahal , a temple , gardens and pavilions . The battlements of the fort have ornamentation . Notable architectural features in the fort complex are projected balconies , open flat areas and decorated latticed windows .
= = Location = =
The fort complex is located in the Tikamgarh district of Madhya Pradesh in the erstwhile state of Orchha . The fort complex is within an island formed by the confluence of the Betwa River and Jamni River in Orchha town . Approach to the complex from the eastern part of the market in the town is through a multiple arched bridge with 14 arches built in granite stones .
Orchha town is approximately 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) away from Tikamgarh town , which is the district headquarters of the district of the same name . Jhansi town is 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) away . Orchha is a railway station of the Central Railway on the Jhansi @-@ Manikpur section .
= = History = =
The fort was built following the founding of the Orchha State in 1501 AD by Rudra Pratap Singh ( r . 1501 – 1531 ) , a Bundela rajput . The palaces and temples within the fort complex were built over a period of time by successive Maharajas of the Orchha State . Of these , the Raja Mandir or Raja Mahal was built by Madhukar Shah who ruled from 1554 to 1591 . Jahangir Mahal and Sawan Bhadon Mahal were built during the reign of Vir Singh Deo ( r . 1605 – 1627 ) . The features of " pepper pots and domes " seen in the fort complex are believed to have inspired Lutyens in the architecture of the structures which he built in New Delhi .
= = Monuments = =
The fort complex , accessed from an arched causeway , leads to a large gateway followed by a large quadrangular open space which is surrounded by palaces such as Raja Mahal or Raja Mandir , Sheesh Mahal , Jahangir Mahal , a temple , gardens and pavilions . The fort walls have battlements , which have ornamentation . Notable architectural features seen in the fort complex consist of projected balconies , open flat areas and decorated latticed windows .
= = = Raja Mahal = = =
The Raja Mahal ( King ’ s Palace ) , where the kings and the queens had resided till it was abandoned in 1783 , was built in the early part of 16th century . Its exterior is simple without any embellishments but the interior chambers of the palace are elaborately royal in its architectural design , decorated with murals of social and religious themes of gods , mythical animals and people . In the upper floor of the palace there are traces of mirrors in the ceilings and walls . Its windows , arcaded passages and layout plan are designed in such a way that the " sunlight and shadow create areas of different moods and temperatures throughout the day " . The interior walls of the Mahal have murals of Lord Vishnu . The Mahal has several secret passages .
A part of this Mahal was converted into a temple and named Rama Raja Temple in honour of the god Rama . There is legend associated with naming it as a temple . According to a local legend , the temple was built following Rani Ganeshkuwari , the queen getting a " dream visitation " by Lord Rama directing her to build a temple for Him ; while Madhukar Shah was a devotee of Krishna , his wife 's dedication was to Rama . Following this a new temple known as the Chaturbuj Temple was approved to be built , and the queen went to Ayodhya to obtain an image of Lord Rama that was to be enshrined in her new temple . When she came back from Ayodhya with the image of Rama , initially she kept the idol in her palace as the Chaturbuj Temple was still under construction . She was , however , unaware of an injunction that the image to be deified in a temple could not be kept in a palace . Once the temple construction was completed and the idol of the lord had to be moved for installation at the Chatrubhuj Temple , it refused to be shifted from the palace . Hence , instead of the Chaturbhuj Temple , the Rama 's idol remained in the palace where as the Chaturbhuj Temple remained without an idol in its sanctum . As Rama was worshipped in the palace , part of the palace was converted into the Rama Raja Temple ; it is the only shrine in the country where Rama is worshipped as a King . The temple is guarded by a police force and the deity , Lord Rama , is considered as the king and is given a gun salute of honour every day .
= = = Sheesh Mahal = = =
Sheesh Mahal is flanked on either side by the Raja Mahal and the Jahangir Mahal . This has royal accommodation , which was built for king Udait Singh . It has now been converted into a hotel . The interior of this edifice consists of a huge impressive hall with high ceiling , which is the dining hall . Its recent colour scheme renovations are an eyesore . But staying in two of its royal suites on the upper floor , which provide scenic views of the town , gives the guest a feeling of royalty .
= = = Jahangir Mahal = = =
Jahangir Mahal is a palace that was exclusively built by Bir Singh Deo in 1605 to humor the Mughal emperor Jahangir who was a guest of the Maharaja for one night only . The palace is built in four levels with elegant architectural features of both Muslim and Rajput architecture . Its layout is a symmetrical square built in the inner courtyard of the fort and has eight large domes . It has a plethora of rooms with arcaded openings , projecting platforms and windows with lattice design work . The roof above top floor of this Mahal is accessed through a steep stairway . It provides picture perfect views of the temples and the Betwa River outside the fort complex . The palace also houses a small archaeological museum .
The entrance gate from this palace , which was earlier the main gate and which has carved ornamentation , leads to the royal baths and then to an elegant small dwelling unit built within a garden in typical Mughal architectural style ; this had been built exclusively for Rai Parveen , the female escort of the Raja Indramani ( 1672 – 76 ) ; her large @-@ size portrait in a revealing and seductive attire adorns hall in this Mahal . She was a poet and musician . The building is a double storied structure built with bricks , rising to the height of the trees in the well tended garden called Anand Mahal . The garden is laid out with octagonal flower beds and has good network of water supply . There are niches in the Mahal which permit natural light to the main hall and smaller rooms .
It is said that Emperor Akbar ( r . 1556 – 1605 ) who was enamored by Parveen 's beauty had taken her to his palace in Agra to be his courtesan . But Parveen , who wanted to get out of the situation , composed a gazal or a couplet which stated her status as an already used woman not fit for an emperor , which enabled her to get release from Akbar 's court and return to Orchha .
= = = Phool Bagh = = =
Phool Bagh is an elegantly laid out garden in the fort complex which has a line of water fountains that terminates in a " palace @-@ pavilion " which has eight pillars . Below this garden is an underground structure which was used by the royalty as a cool summer retreat . This cooling system consists of water ventilation system that is linked to an underground palace with " Chandan Katora " , which is in the shape of a bowl from where fountains of droplets trickle through the roof creating rainfall .
= Cyclone Gretelle =
Tropical Cyclone Gretelle was a deadly storm that struck southeastern Madagascar in January 1997 . The seventh named storm of the 1996 – 97 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season , Gretelle developed within the intertropical convergence zone on January 19 , and gradually intensified while moving southwestward . On January 22 , the storm intensified to tropical cyclone status while passing northwest of Réunion ; there , Gretelle produced strong wind gusts and heavy rainfall in mountainous regions . Subsequently , the cyclone strengthened to reach peak 10 – minute sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . On January 24 , Gretelle made landfall near Farafangana , the first in the region in 41 years . The cyclone weakened while crossing Madagascar , but restrengthened slightly in the Mozambique Channel . Gretelle meandered off the coast of Mozambique , bringing gusty winds that downed trees , but caused little damage . An approaching trough turned the cyclone to the southeast , and Gretelle dissipated on January 31 to the south @-@ southwest of Madagascar .
Damage from Cyclone Gretelle was heaviest near where it made landfall in Madagascar . In several villages , over 90 % of the buildings were destroyed , leaving about 80 @,@ 000 people homeless . Wind gusts at Farafangan reached 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) , which knocked trees onto roads and wrecked about 138 @,@ 000 tons of crops . Heavy rainfall and high waves flooded coastal regions , in some areas up to 16 m ( 52 ft ) deep . Overall damage was estimated at around $ 50 million , and there 152 deaths . After the storm , there was a coordinated international relief effort to provide food and money to Madagascar .
= = Meteorological history = =
The intertropical convergence zone spawned a tropical disturbance on January 19 , developing a circulation just west of St. Brandon . That day , the Météo @-@ France on Réunion ( MFR ) classified the system as a tropical disturbance , and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring the system as a low @-@ pressure area a day prior . The system intensified into Tropical Storm Gretelle late on January 20 , by which time the JTWC gave it the designation Tropical Cyclone 20S . Due to a large ridge centered near Île Amsterdam , the storm tracked generally southwestward toward the Mascarene Islands . Early on January 22 , the JTWC upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , and later that day , the MFR upgraded Gretelle to tropical cyclone status , or with 10 – minute sustained winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) .
Shortly after attaining tropical cyclone status , Gretelle made its closest point of approach to Réunion late on January 22 , passing about 300 km ( 190 mi ) northwest of the island . Subsequently , the cyclone developed a small eye , and the MFR estimated peak 10 – minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) at 0000 UTC on January 23 . Meanwhile , the JTWC estimated Gretelle continued to intensify to a 1 – minute sustained wind peak of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) at 0600 UTC on January 24 , equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . Later that day , the cyclone made landfall on southeastern Madagascar near Farafangana near peak intensity . Reports from the United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs considered Gretelle the first cyclone to strike the region in 41 years . Gretelle rapidly weakened over land , emerging into the Mozambique Channel as a tropical depression on January 25 . Continuing to the southwest , the depression re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm on January 27 .
After becoming a tropical storm again , Gretelle slowed in the Mozambique Channel . A cold front bypassed the storm to the south , and a building ridge behind it turned Gretelle to a west @-@ northwest drift . Although it approached southeastern Africa on January 28 , an advancing trough turned the storm to the southeast . The next day , the JTWC briefly re @-@ upgraded Gretelle to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , and on January 30 , the MFO estimated a secondary 10 – minute wind peak of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Accelerating to the south @-@ southeast , Gretelle dissipated on January 31 well to the south @-@ southwest of Madagascar .
= = Impact = =
While passing north of Réunion , Gretelle dropped heavy rainfall in the eastern and western portions of the island . Over 48 hours , rainfall totaled nearly 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) at Commerson Crater , while Mafate recorded over 600 mm ( 24 in ) . Gretelle produced gusts of about 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) in portions of Réunion . Late in its duration , the cyclone produced heavy rainfall but left minimal damage in Mozambique , estimated at $ 50 @,@ 000 . Winds of over 55 km / h ( 34 km / h ) knocked over trees and caused power outages in Gaza and Maputo provinces . Officials in South Africa issued rain and wind warnings for the northeast coast .
In Madagascar , Gretelle produced wind gusts of over 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) at Vangaindrano near where it moved ashore , and over 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) at Farafangana . The storm also dropped heavy rainfall , although peak totals were unknown due to the meteorological station in Farafangana being destroyed . Heavy rainfall and high waves left heavy damage near the coast , washing away several boats and causing rivers to overflow . Floods in some areas reached 16 m ( 52 ft ) deep . Where Gretelle made landfall , most buildings were damaged or destroyed excluding those made of concrete , leaving about 80 @,@ 000 people homeless . Among the wrecked buildings included a hospital and a prison . About 95 % of homes in Vondrozo were wrecked , and in Farafangana , 90 % of government buildings were destroyed . In both southern Midongy and Vangaindrano , nearly every building was destroyed . Gretelle damaged or destroyed 1 @,@ 538 homes in Manakara .
Reports from the Red Cross indicated that Gretelle was the severest in the region " in living memory " , with many people surviving the high tides and winds by " clinging to trees " . The storm also damaged water stations , power lines , and thousands of hectares of crops , including food reserves . The World Food Programme estimated that Gretelle destroyed 7 @,@ 000 tons of rice , 123 @,@ 500 tons of cassava , and 8 @,@ 000 tons of cash crops , mostly to coffee . About 40 @,@ 000 people were isolated for weeks after the storm in Befotaka and Midongy Sud , with many roads blocked by fallen trees . Overall , about 200 people were killed or left missing in Madagascar , with 152 confirmed fatalities by two weeks after the storm , 82 of whom in Vangaindrano . The International Disaster Database later listed 140 as the total fatalities related to Gretelle . Damage from the storm was estimated at $ 50 million .
= = Aftermath = =
After heavy damage from Cyclone Bonita in 1996 , the government of Madagascar initiated a disaster response system that was used during Gretelle ; there was quick response but efforts were hampered by damaged infrastructure and disrupted transportation . The storm had cut communications in some areas , but by January 29 , or five days after landfall , telephone service was restored to Manakara . Following the storm , the Madagascar government coordinated the distribution of emergency rice rations and other relief items . On January 27 , the government launched a fundraiser on television that raised over ₣ 130 million ( FMG , $ 30 @,@ 000 USD ) . The southern portion of the country was declared a disaster area . A plane of relief supplies flew from the capital Antananarivo to Manakara along the southeast coast , where trucks distributed the items to the affected areas . A radio station based out of the country criticized the slow pace of relief , citing the lack of available boats after many were destroyed . In addition , there were reports that government aid was being stolen by looters .
In the weeks after the storm , the hardest hit residents faced food shortages and lacked access to clean water , in an area already facing ongoing food shortages . In response , the World Food Programme and other agencies of the United Nations created a program to feed about 350 @,@ 000 people in the region over three months , providing about 5 @,@ 900 tons of food . In the months after the storm , roads were repaired , including the link from Vangaindrano to Midongy . Farmers grew additional beans and potatoes to compensate for the damaged crops , while the quick distribution of food prevented significant malnutrition . In the subsequent years , about 40 % of the forest at Manombo that regrew following Gretelle was of foreign nature , which threatened the original plants in the region .
Due to the scale of the cyclone damage , the government issued an international appeal for assistance . As a result , the United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs provided a grant of $ 30 @,@ 000 . UNICEF provided about $ 48 @,@ 000 to secure drug kits for children impacted by the cyclone . The Red Cross of Seychelles donated about one tonne of clothing and 20 tonnes of tuna , and the Red Cross of Réunion sent drugs to Madagascar . The government of France also sent a crew from Réunion to Madagascar to assist in the aftermath , as well as a plane to airdrop the aid . The governments of Germany , Japan , France , the United Kingdom each donated about $ 100 @,@ 000 to Madagascar , while the United States provided about $ 25 @,@ 000 and 500 tons of food . The government of Japan also sent 2 @,@ 040 blankets and 10 tents . By February 18 , the total contributions by the international community reached about $ 3 million .
= Ayu Tsukimiya =
Ayu Tsukimiya ( 月宮 あゆ , Tsukimiya Ayu ) is a fictional character and the main heroine in Key 's adult visual novel Kanon , followed closely by Nayuki Minase who is the only Kanon heroine to appear with Ayu on three of the official game covers released by Key . Ayu was created by Naoki Hisaya who wrote her scenario for the visual novel , and designed by Itaru Hinoue . Hisaya commented on how he thought Ayu was the one character in Kanon that he felt he grasped the best , but noted it was very difficult to write her character due to Ayu being primarily energetic . After Hinoue drew wings on Ayu 's backpack , Hisaya suggested that they remove them due to spoiler reasons , and while Hinoue went along with it at the time , the wings were later included once again .
Yuichi Aizawa , the protagonist of Kanon , meets a lively seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Ayu on the day after he moves to the city depicted in the game . As the story progresses , Yuichi discovers that she is trying to find something she lost , but she cannot remember what it is ; Yuichi tries to help her in her search , but with no initial success . One of her most defining characteristics is the repeated utterance of her catch phrase " ugū " ( うぐぅ ) which she mutters as an expression of various negative emotions such as frustration , anger , and fear . Her favorite food is taiyaki , and she is seen eating the confection many times throughout Kanon .
The main focus of both Kanon anime is Ayu , who has also appeared in all of Kanon 's adaptations , and has been incorporated into numerous dōjin games . Ayu makes a cameo appearance in the second episode of the Air anime series along with Nayuki , and Makoto Sawatari from Kanon . Her voice actresses are Yui Horie in the Japanese versions of the visual novel and anime , and Brittney Karbowski in the English version of Kyoto Animation 's Kanon anime , who also voiced Ayu during her cameo in Air . A leitmotif named " Hidamari no Machi " ( 日溜りの街 , lit . " A Sunny City " ) is associated with Ayu which is played in Kanon numerous times during scenes which involve her , and is also used in a similar fashion throughout Kyoto Animation 's Kanon anime . In a review by Anime News Network , Ayu is described as a character that " persists on a degree of earnest cuteness that will endear her to some viewers . "
= = Creation and conception = =
Naoki Hisaya , who wrote Ayu 's story , commented in an interview that the night before he was to present the beginning of a Kanon scenario , he suddenly remembered wanting to write for some time about a ghost girl who waits for the protagonist to come back to her . He said that he wanted to write this no matter what and quickly drew up an outline for the premise of Ayu 's scenario . At the time , Ayu 's premise was the start of the entire Kanon story , though it was still very vague . Eventually , Hisaya was able to form her story into the style of a romance visual novel , and in the process the characters in the story started to multiply . Hisaya said that Ayu was the one character in Kanon that he felt he grasped the best , but noted it was very difficult to write her character due to Ayu being primarily energetic . Hisaya said that he is much better at writing about quiet characters , so Ayu gave him a lot of trouble . Hisaya noted that Ayu 's frequent use of " ugū " was not decided from the beginning , and that it merely turned out that way during the natural writing process .
Ayu 's character designer , Itaru Hinoue , commented in an interview that she put a lot of effort into Ayu 's design , and Ayu was her favorite character to create among the Kanon characters . Hinoue was able to design Ayu any way she wanted , and by all means she wanted Ayu to wear her large tan duffle coat , and be depicted as a strong character . Hinoue said that she was very particular about Ayu 's attire , but not about everything . At the time she was formulating the character design , many festivals were going on in Osaka , Japan where Key is located . When Hinoue had a chance to attend , there were many people around wearing angel wings as part of the festival , and because she thought they looked cute , she later chose to draw them onto Ayu as well . Hinoue later read Ayu 's finished scenario and became aware of an unintentional form of foreshadowing on her part due to wing imagery factoring into Ayu 's story . Shortly after , Hisaya suggested to Hinoue , " Since they seem to have become a spoiler , let 's lose the wings . " The wings were thus removed , but before long they were attached again . While Hinoue had originally chosen the colors for the hair and eyes of the characters herself , these were later discussed by the development team and altered accordingly , though Ayu , Mai , and Nayuki did not change much . It came to the point where Hinoue had to constantly go back and forth between her intentions and what was later decided by consensus .
= = Characteristics = =
Ayu is a strange and mysterious seventeen @-@ year @-@ old girl , the same age as Yuichi , though due to her short stature at 154 cm ( 5 ' 1 " ) and comparatively low body weight at 41 kg ( 90 lbs ) , she is perceived initially by Yuichi to be much younger ; in fact , Ayu is the shortest and least heavy character introduced in Kanon . Ayu 's three sizes are 80 cm - 52 cm - 79 cm ( 31 " - 20 " - 31 " ) , and are the closest to Shiori 's despite Shiori being one year younger . When first introduced , Ayu is seen wearing a large tan duffle coat over a sweater and shorts , despite the cold winter weather , and is the only Kanon character seen to regularly don mittens . On her feet , she wears brown argyle socks and snow boots . She is immediately recognizable by the red Alice band in her short brown hair , and a small backpack she wears which has two attached wings on either side . In later appearances , she is sometimes seen without her coat or mittens . As a child of ten , Ayu is depicted wearing a pink sweater , a short skirt , and a large white bow in her hair , which is grown @-@ out slightly longer than when Ayu is seventeen .
Since childhood , Ayu has referred to herself with the masculine pronoun boku ( 僕 ) — Japanese for " I " , a rare occurrence among females . Ayu is notorious for her catch phrase , " ugū " ( うぐぅ ) , which she mutters as an expression of various negative emotions such as frustration , anger , and fear . Her favorite food is taiyaki , and she is seen eating the confection many times throughout Kanon . Ayu comes off as somewhat strange , such as initially tackling Yuichi and yelling his name whenever she would spot him . These tackling fits eventually diminish in severity to simple taps on the back as time goes on or even simply calling out his name when appearing seemingly out of nowhere behind him . She can be clumsy at times , and is prone to tripping . Ayu tends to be naïve about common things , such as not knowing what a mobile phone is , but enjoys learning about new things . Yuichi quickly discovers how terrified Ayu will become at even the mere mention of ghosts or demons . When put into an uncomfortable situation , such as having to walk alone at night , she is noticeably jumpy and is prone to screaming . She is left @-@ handed .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Visual novel = = =
Ayu Tsukimiya is introduced as girl running from a taiyaki salesmen when she collides with Yuichi Aizawa , the protagonist of Kanon , in the shopping district . Yuichi and Ayu become fast friends after she meets him several more times in the shopping district , and Ayu helps him remember that they first met and became friends during Yuichi 's last stay in the city seven years previous . A focus in Ayu 's storyline is that she is constantly searching for something she has lost , but she does not even remember what it is , which troubles her greatly . Yuichi plays an active role in helping her try to find the item with no initial success . Shortly after Yuichi and Ayu become involved in an intimate relationship , Ayu remembers what happened in the past and disappears without a trace .
Seven years before the onset of the story , Yuichi first met Ayu in almost exactly the same place as where they collided at the beginning of Kanon . Ayu was crying at the time due to the recent death of her mother , and in an effort to make her feel better , Yuichi bought her taiyaki , which in turn became her favorite food . They met up several more times over the winter school break , and one day Yuichi obtained a small angel doll from a claw vending machine and gave it to Ayu . Yuichi stipulated that he would grant any three wishes she wished on the doll within his limited power . Her first wish was for Yuichi to never forget her . Yuichi took Ayu into the nearby forest to a clearing with a large tree in its center . There , Ayu made her second wish that they could go to school together . Due to this , they decided to make this tree their own private " school " with special stipulations such as no homework or tests , and taiyaki is served for lunch everyday . Afterwards , Ayu decided to bury the doll in a jar near the forest . On the last day of winter break , while Yuichi and Ayu were attending their " school " , Ayu was sitting up in the tree when a strong gust of wind came and knocked her out of it , causing her to land on her head and fall unconscious . This accident is what caused the young Yuichi to suppress his memories of his childhood .
After Yuichi remembers what happened in the past , he assumes Ayu died , which causes him to become depressed . During this time , Yuichi remembers the doll that Ayu buried , and gathers his friends to go find it . Once he finds and repairs it , he goes to the now cut @-@ down tree in the forest clearing until Ayu appears again . They have a tearful reunion where Yuichi reminds her of the angel doll , and that she still has one more wish left . Ayu suggests that she might wish for Yuichi to not remember her at all , and move on . After they embrace , Ayu simply vanishes again . Yuichi later discovers that Ayu did not die , and had been in the hospital for seven years in a coma , making her an ikiryō . Ayu miraculously wakes up from her coma and the two are shown out in town about to go back to Yuichi 's house .
= = = Other Kanon media = = =
Ayu has appeared in other media adaptations based on the Kanon visual novel which includes light novels , drama CDs , manga , and anime . Of the five light novels written for Kanon , Ayu is the main focus of the final installment entitled Hidamari no Machi ( 日溜りの街 ) . Two of the fifteen drama CDs released had Ayu as a main focus , and Ayu appears in the five anthology drama CDs . In the first official Kanon manga , Ayu 's story is made the main focus , and her story is the only one of the five heroines to go into detail and reveal the latter portions of her story . Conversely , in the second manga version , Ayu is only the main focus of the final chapter , but is given the second highest number of pages in the manga behind Nayuki . Ayu has also appeared in Kanon 's numerous manga anthologies .
In 2002 , Toei Animation produced the first Kanon anime and featured character design by Yōichi Ōnishi who based the designs on Itaru Hinoue 's original concept . In 2006 , Kyoto Animation produced a new rendition of the Kanon anime with updated visuals and a more detailed story ; character design was headed by Kazumi Ikeda who also worked off of Hinoue 's original artwork from the visual novel . In both anime , Ayu is given the focus as the main heroine , and Yuichi ends up falling in love with her in both versions as well .
= = = Outside Kanon = = =
Ayu has appeared in many works outside of Kanon , as well as being cited as being extremely popular and recognized in both Japan and the west . Ayu especially " has had more appearances outside of the original Kanon than any other anime or H @-@ game character ever . " Ayu has appeared in countless dōjin games such as Glove on Fight and Eternal Fighter Zero . In the anime adaptation of Air , another of Key 's visual novels , Ayu makes a cameo appearance in episode two along with Nayuki Minase and Makoto Sawatari as regular girls who talk with Yukito Kunisaki briefly .
As reported in the Kanon Visual Fan Book for the visual novel , Key had once planned to release a social simulation game with the tentative title Angel Maker ( エンジェルメーカー , Enjeru Mēkā ) featuring Ayu , as she appears at ten years old , as the game 's sole heroine . The game was expected to be released on June 30 , 2000 , though Key never mentioned the game again . Other games announced at the time which involved Ayu as the main focus were an action game named Ayu Ayu Panic ( あゆあゆパニック , Ayu Ayu Panikku ) , a role @-@ playing video game called Taiyaki Quest ( タイヤキクエスト , Taiyaki Kuesuto ) , and a quiz game entitled Quiz de Ugū ( クエズでうぐぅ , Kuezu de Ugū ) .
= = Musical theme = =
A leitmotif named " Hidamari no Machi " ( 日溜りの街 , lit . " A Sunny City " ) is associated with Ayu and is played in Kanon numerous times during scenes which involve her ; it is also used in a similar fashion throughout Kyoto Animation 's Kanon anime adaptation . It is first heard during Ayu 's first appearance in both the visual novel and the aforementioned anime version . The theme is composed by Shinji Orito , one of Key 's signature composers , and is the longest of Kanon 's five leitmotifs on the Kanon Original Soundtrack at 3 : 04 minutes . A remix version by Magome Togoshi appeared on the Kanon soundtracks Anemoscope and Recollections . " Hidamari no Machi " was composed in common time in the E @-@ flat major key , and moves at 126 beats per minute . The theme was composed on a synthesizer which primarily used a piano as a base , along with violin , vibraphone , and percussion accompaniment throughout the piece . Orito commented on the song in the Kanon Original Soundtrack booklet where he remarked , " This is probably the song I like most out of all the theme songs ... I think the percussion is really good . "
= = Cultural impact = =
Megatokyo , a webcomic that takes much of its inspiration from Kanon , references Ayu . First , in strip 67 " Saving Points " , Ayu is shown eating taiyaki . This is , in fact , a reference to a Kanon dōjinshi called Quarter Iceshop , as stated by Megatokyo 's artist Fred Gallagher in his commentary during the publication of volume one of his webcomic , as well as the " rants " accompanying the strip itself . Also , in strip 224 " packing away " , Gallagher draws himself wearing Ayu 's backpack and mentioning her catchphrase " ugū " , as well as stating that the backpack was the " official winged backpack from Kanon . "
Ayu has been parodied in several anime . Episode eight of Magical Shopping Arcade Abenobashi parodies Kanon and other adult games . In it , Ayu 's Japanese voice actress Yui Horie plays a girl that is modeled after Ayu , and references taiyaki and " ugū " near the end . In episode four of Lucky Star , Konata gives a tardy excuse to her teacher Nanako , stating that she was late because there was a girl running away from a taiyaki seller ; after listening to the excuse , Nanako utters " ugū " out of frustration . Another parody in Lucky Star is that when Kagami scolds Konata in episode 13 when she complains about her winter break being occupied by homework , Ayu 's backpack appears behind Konata , and she utters " ugū " . In Mission @-@ E , a character greatly inspired by Ayu appears on a manga cover near the middle of episode 11 . In My Bride Is a Mermaid , Sun eats a taiyaki and says " ugū " in episode two , and Gōzaburō crushes a taiyaki and says " ugū " in episode 20 .
In a review by Anime News Network of the first anime DVD volume of Kyoto Animation 's Kanon anime , Ayu is described as a character that " persists on a degree of earnest cuteness that will endear her to some viewers . " In the same review , Ayu 's winged backpack is cited as possibly being a " little overkill " in regards to the moe attributes of the series . Newtype USA stated in an article on Kanon that , " Ayu beams brightly with joy as she munches on her favorite fish @-@ shaped crepe , looking so adorable you almost wanna pinch her . "
= = = Merchandise = = =
Four figurines of Ayu were produced by different manufacturers in 2007 . The earliest was released on January 29 by Movic which also came with a chibi version of Ayu dressed in a Santa Claus outfit . The next was released on July 2 by Russian Blue , and the third followed a month later on August 6 by Kotobukiya which was in fact a reproduction of a model previously released . The fourth figurine was released on October 19 by Max Factory , and was the most expensive of the four . An official " ugū " audio CD was coupled with the 127 @-@ page Kanon Visual Memories art book for Kyoto Animation 's Kanon anime adaptation released on June 24 , 2007 by Ichijinsha . The CD contains eighty @-@ six variations of Ayu 's iconic catch phrase featured in the anime , and is voiced by Yui Horie . The CD spans ten minutes , though most of the duration is silent due to each " ugū " lasting less than two seconds on each track , resulting in about one @-@ third of the CD as rendered blank .
= Variation of Trusts Act 1958 =
The Variation of Trusts Act 1958 ( c 62 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that governs the courts ' ability to vary the terms of trust documents . Prior to the 1950s , the courts were willing to approve " compromise " agreements as to what terms meant , not only when they were disputed but also for the benefit of certain parties , such as minors . In 1954 , the House of Lords decided in Chapman v Chapman that this would no longer be permitted , creating a gap between the rights of trusts under the Settled Land Act 1925 ( which could be altered if there was a flaw ) and those trusts that were not ( which were affected by the Chapman decision ) . As a result , following a report by the Law Reform Committee , Petre Crowder introduced the Variation of Trusts Bill to Parliament , where it was given the Royal Assent on 23 July 1958 , and came into force as the Variation of Trusts Act 1958 .
The Act gave the courts near @-@ unlimited discretion to approve " compromise " agreements , for the benefit of infants or other incapable individuals , for individuals who may become beneficiaries , or for unborn beneficiaries . The courts are also able to approve agreements for individuals who may be beneficiaries under protective trusts , with no requirement that the alterations be for their benefit . The courts have interpreted the Act 's scope fairly widely , stating that almost any " variation " is acceptable , and that " benefit " may mean not just a financial benefit , but also a social or moral one . Despite initial fears that it would allow tax planners another way to hide funds and create a back @-@ and @-@ forth fight between the Chancery Division and Parliament , the Act was met with general approval . The ability of the courts to alter trustees ' investment powers under the Act was criticised as slow and expensive , and as a result this is now covered by the Trustee Investments Act 1961 .
= = Background = =
Prior to the 1950s , the courts commonly accepted that they could approve a " compromise " agreement where there was a dispute over the precise meaning of words in a trust document . In some cases , the courts used this to rearrange trusts for the benefit of certain parties ( such as minors ) where there was no real dispute . In 1954 however , the House of Lords decided in Chapman v Chapman [ 1954 ] AC 429 that this power was reserved for a genuine dispute . This decision caused frustration : where previously all trusts could be varied , either through the court 's ability to create a " compromise " agreement or the rights granted to trusts which came under the Settled Land Act 1925 , Chapman limited this right to those created under the 1925 Act . In January 1957 the Lord Chancellor asked the Law Reform Committee " to consider whether any alteration is desirable in the powers of the court to sanction a variation in the trusts of a settlement in the interests of beneficiaries under disability and unborn persons , with particular reference to the decision in Chapman v. Chapman " , and a report was presented to Parliament in November of that year . A draft bill was drawn up and introduced by Petre Crowder , the Member of Parliament for Ruislip @-@ Northwood ; it received its second reading in the House of Lords on 12 June 1958 , and was given the Royal Assent on 23 July 1958 .
= = Act = =
The Act gives the courts almost unlimited power to exercise their jurisdiction to form " compromise " agreements , with Section 1 ( 1 ) allowing them to approve " any arrangement ... varying or revoking all or any of the trusts or enlarging the powers of the trustees of managing or administering any of the property subject to the trusts " . This power can be exercised for people in one of four categories : beneficiaries who are incapable of assenting to the change ( infants or those who are otherwise incapable ) ; individuals who may " be entitled " to be beneficiaries in the future , but who are not at present ; unborn beneficiaries ; or people who may be beneficiaries under protective trusts . The first three classes may only have a " compromise " agreement if the alterations are for their benefit , while potential beneficiaries under protective trusts have no such limit . The courts have chosen to interpret " benefit " widely , increasing their powers to alter trusts ; in Re Holt 's Settlement [ 1968 ] 1 All ER 470 , Megarry J said that " the word benefit is ... plainly not confined to financial benefit , but may extend to social or moral benefit " . Under Section 1 ( 3 ) , the Act does not apply to trusts created by an Act of Parliament . The wide scope of the act was quantified in Re Steed 's Will Trusts , where the Court of Appeal ruled that the word " arrangement " was " deliberately used in the widest possible senses so as to cover any proposal which any person may put forward for varying or revoking the trusts " , essentially allowing the courts the right to make any alteration whatsoever . Despite this , the Court of Appeal noted in Re T 's Settlement Trusts [ 1964 ] Ch 158 that the court would not permit a compromise agreement where it not only varied the terms of the trust but constituted the creation of an entirely new one .
There is the question as to what to do with proposed " compromise " agreements where it is not certain that a benefit will ensue . In this situation , the courts have sometimes agreed to take the chance , as in Re Holt 's Settlement ; on other occasions , as in Re Cohen 's Settlement Trusts [ 1965 ] 3 All ER 139 , they have found that if the claimant , a member of a class of beneficiaries , applies and cannot benefit ( although other members of the class can ) , the court is obliged to refuse the request . It is debatable as to whether the intentions of the testator should be taken into account ; in Re Steed 's Will Trusts [ 1960 ] 1 All ER the courts refused to alter a trust document , partially due to the testator 's wishes ; in Re Remnant 's Settlement Trusts [ 1970 ] 2 All ER 554 , however , the court took the opposite view .
While some critics feared that granting the courts unlimited jurisdiction would create " a most undignified game of chess between the Chancery Division and the legislature " , and that it allowed tax planners another way to hide funds , the Act received general approval at the time . It was later criticised as expensive and slow in regards to allowing trustees the right to alter their investment powers , and this part of the Act was later superseded by the Trustee Investments Act 1961 . The second class of beneficiaries covered in Section 1 ( 1 ) caused problems for the courts ; since it only allows the court to alter a trust document where a person " may be entitled " , nothing can be done once this entitlement is confirmed .
= Samuel Conway =
Samuel Charles Conway ( born June 4 , 1965 in Bryn Mawr , Pennsylvania ) is an American researcher in the pharmaceutical , biomedical and agrochemical fields of organic chemistry . He holds a Ph.D. in chemistry from Dartmouth College .
Outside the scientific community , Conway is better known as Uncle Kage / ˈkɑːɡeɪ / and is chairman and chief organizer of Anthrocon , the largest furry convention in the world . He is a published author , and has acted as a volunteer emergency coordinator , entertainer , and auctioneer .
= = Academic and scientific activities = =
A graduate of Ursinus College , Pennsylvania in 1986 , Conway subsequently studied at the Burke Chemical Laboratories of Dartmouth College , New Hampshire , where he obtained his Ph.D. in 1991 . His thesis concerned the attempted generation of indolyne ( an aromatic compound related to indole ) .
After college , Conway took a postdoctoral appointment in Chicago , later working as a contractor for the Food and Drug Administration , a researcher for Bionetics , a medicinal chemist for Avid Therapeutics ( March 1995 – August 1997 ) and researcher for Message Pharmaceuticals ( August 1997 – April 1999 ) . He spent two years in organ distribution at the National Disease Research Interchange , and was subsequently employed by crop protection company Cerexagri as a regulatory chemist from May 2001 to June 2007 , when he became a principal chemist for West Pharmaceutical Services . As of July 2013 , he was working for a group near Raleigh , North Carolina .
Conway has authored eleven professional publications and two patents . One patent covers compounds intended to treat hepatitis B in synergy with lamivudine ; another relates to recyclable packaging material . His work has been published in Heterocycles , Synthetic Communications , Organic Preparations and Procedures International , Water Research , Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry , Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy , Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters and Current Organic Chemistry .
= = Fandom activities = =
Conway was introduced to furry fandom at Noreascon 3 ( the 1989 Worldcon ) , and has been involved in fan activities from the early 1990s to the present day .
= = = Convention chairman = = =
Conway became the chairman of Anthrocon in 1999 , after his invitation as a guest of honor in 1998 . Under his leadership , Anthrocon was incorporated and moved to Philadelphia . The convention 's attendance grew from 842 to 2 @,@ 489 over the period from 1999 to 2006 , necessitating a further move to Pittsburgh ; 3 @,@ 390 attended in 2008 . Conway is the public face of Anthrocon , responsible for public relations , negotiating hotel contracts , managing finances , damage control and other activities before , during and after the convention . He also talks to fans about presenting furry fandom to the public .
= = = = Media dealings = = = =
Conway dissuades members of the fandom , and Anthrocon membership in particular , from responding to the mass media and news media , due in part to sensationalist coverage like the 2001 Vanity Fair article in which he was quoted . In 2003 he said his standard response to the media was : " Anthrocon is a private event held on private property . Its membership is not interested in being the subject of your documentary . "
However , Conway relaxed this stance with Anthrocon 's move to Pittsburgh in 2006 . While no television , magazine or tabloid representatives were present , several newspapers were invited to attend , and did , including the Pittsburgh Tribune @-@ Review , the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette , and the Pittsburgh City Paper , which printed both a preview and an extensive review . When local television station KDKA @-@ TV showed up , Conway gave a short television interview outside the convention hotel . In November 2006 he gave a radio interview to Dublin 's 98FM . Anthrocon still retains tight control over media access , not only to the convention grounds but to the membership , and has official policy that forbids unmonitored dealings with unauthorized members of the media .
= = = Storyteller = = =
Conway styles himself " Furrydom 's Storyteller " , making annual appearances at Anthrocon in what has come to be known as Uncle Kage 's Story Hour . The entertainment typically consists of four or five extended personal anecdotes . His stage name resulted from his first storytelling experience at ConFurence in 1994 , and derives from his fandom name Kagemushi Goro ( Shadow Bug Goro ) , a reference to Kagemusha .
Conway is regularly invited to tell his stories at other fan conventions , including I @-@ CON , Eurofurence , ConClave , and Camp Feral ! . Gross sales from recordings of his Story Hours were over US $ 2600 in 2004 ; no profit was realized , as the intention was to increase membership and awareness of Anthrocon .
= = = Auctioneer = = =
Conway 's first auction was at Albany Anthrocon 1997 . Since then , he has presided over auctions which have raised over US $ 66 @,@ 000 for a variety of local wildlife charities at Anthrocon alone . He has performed similar services at other fan conventions , including Midwest FurFest . Conway says his techniques are influenced by Phil Foglio and Joe Mayhew ; they include humor and appeals to pity , novelty and scarcity .
= = = Author = = =
While known within the fandom for his spoken storytelling , Conway is also the author of several short stories published in various works by Sofawolf Press .
In May 1998 , Conway was invited to write a story based on his interest in birds of prey , particularly the Red @-@ tailed Hawk . The result was " Tweaked in the Head " , published December 1999 in Flights of Fantasy . He next contributed to the first issue of HistoriMorphs , a fanzine mixing historical fiction with interaction between humans and anthropomorphic animals . " The Secret of Wollknäul " took place in Nazi Germany at the end of World War II , and was published in June 2001 . He went on to write " The Good Bird of Nanking " and " It Takes A Fox " for subsequent issues of the series .
For Anthrolations # 5 — a magazine of dramatic fiction — Conway submitted " Six " , a previously @-@ written work " based on a true story " involving wildlife rehabilitation from his days as a Red Cross volunteer . The story , illustrated by Synnabar , was nominated for " Best Anthropomorphic Short Story " in the 2002 Ursa Major Awards . Also nominated that year was Breaking the Ice : Stories from New Tibet , a collection set in and around a subarctic mining colony ; Conway 's contribution , " Dead End " , features a bartending vulture who provides an introduction to the harsh , dystopic world .
= = = Charity Work = = =
In 2012 , Conway learned that Fernando 's , a local restaurant , was going to be closing down due to financial trouble . Fernando 's had welcomed Anthrocon guests and furries since Anthrocon moved to Pittsburgh . After putting word out on Twitter and YouTube , over $ 21 @,@ 000 was raised in donations to keep the restaurant in business .
= = Other activities = =
While in college , Conway was a member of the Ursinius Meistersingers vocal music group , and the performing arts honor society Pi Nu Epsilon . He became a volunteer for the American Red Cross Disaster Service in 1989 , but quit in 1998 due to his perception of high @-@ level corruption in the organization . He was an Emergency Management Coordinator while residing in Malvern , Pennsylvania .
In March 1990 , Conway became an experimental bone marrow donor for Mark Stevenson , a 4 @-@ year @-@ old with Hunter syndrome . The operation – the first of its kind involving an unrelated donor – was a success , allowing Mark to live to 24 . Conway became an active volunteer for the National Marrow Donor Program , claiming to have helped add over 500 entries to their donor registry .
Since May 1996 , Conway has participated in the MadSci Network , a free questions @-@ and @-@ answers resource organized by the medical school of Washington University in St. Louis . While most active in the period 1997 – 2000 , he remains a member as of 2009 .
= Hurricane Gordon ( 1994 ) =
Hurricane Gordon was a long @-@ lived and catastrophic late @-@ season hurricane of the 1994 Atlantic hurricane season . The twelfth and final tropical cyclone of the season , Gordon formed in the southwestern Caribbean on November 8 . Without strengthening , the storm made landfall on Nicaragua . Later on November 10 , the storm began to strengthen as it tracked further from land , and it quickly strengthened into Tropical Storm Gordon , the seventh named storm that season . Gordon also made landfalls in Jamaica and Cuba while a minimal tropical storm . It entered the southwestern Atlantic while resembling a subtropical cyclone . By the time it entered the Gulf of Mexico , it was fully tropical again . Tropical Storm Gordon later crossed the Florida Keys , and turning to the northeast it made landfall in Fort Myers , Florida . Gordon strengthened after it re @-@ entered the Atlantic Ocean , becoming a hurricane on November 17 . It briefly threatened North Carolina while turning to the northwest , although it turned to the south and weakened . Gordon deteriorated into a tropical depression and struck Florida again at that intensity on November 20 . It turned to the north and dissipated the next day over South Carolina .
Gordon first caused flooding in northern Costa Rica that destroyed 700 houses and caused $ 30 million in damage . There were six deaths in the country and an additional two deaths in neighboring Panama . Upon affecting Jamaica , the storm was responsible $ 11 @.@ 8 million in damage and four deaths . Damage was heaviest in Haiti , after a prolonged southwesterly flow dropped 14 in ( 360 mm ) of rainfall in a 24 ‑ hour period . The rains resulted in extensive mudslides and flooding that disrupted transportation and damaged 10 @,@ 800 houses , with another 3 @,@ 500 destroyed . There were 1 @,@ 122 deaths in the country , partially due to deforested hills , and damage was estimated at $ 50 million . In neighboring Dominican Republic , there were five additional deaths , as well as flooding near its capital . In Cuba , Gordon caused $ 100 million in damage , and 5 @,@ 906 houses were damaged or destroyed . Due to large @-@ scale evacuations , there were only two deaths in the country . In Florida , the storm caused $ 400 million in damage ( 1994 USD , $ 639 million 2016 USD ) , much of it agricultural , and there were eleven deaths , eight of them direct . Gordon later affected North Carolina with high waves , causing beach erosion and destroying five houses . Overall damage was $ 594 million due to Gordon ( 1994 USD , $ 948 million 2016 USD ) .
International governments and agencies through the United Nations sent relief supplies and monetary assistance to Haiti , following Gordon 's devastating impact there . American soldiers were already stationed in the country to restore ousted Jean @-@ Bertrand Aristide to presidency . The troops helped in rescues and worked to restore a damaged road between Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and Jacmel . Despite the damage , the name was not retired .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Gordon were from a tropical wave in the southwestern Caribbean Sea , which developed a circulation north of Panama early on November 6 . It gradually organized , becoming Tropical Depression Twelve on November 8 offshore eastern Nicaragua . Proximity to land prevented strengthening , and early on November 10 it made landfall near Puerto Cabezas , Nicaragua . Shortly thereafter , an upper @-@ level trough turned the depression to the northeast , and late on November 10 it intensified into Tropical Storm Gordon after reaching open waters . The circulation of the cyclone was initially very broad , covering much of the western Caribbean Sea , and wind shear prevented significant strengthening . Early on November 13 , Gordon struck Jamaica near Kingston as a minimal tropical storm , and later that day made landfall near Guantánamo Bay , Cuba . Around the time of Gordon crossing Jamaica , an upper @-@ level trough spawned a low @-@ level disturbance over the central Bahamas . From surface synoptic reports , the National Hurricane Center estimates Tropical Storm Gordon rapidly crossed Cuba and became the dominant system between Cuba and the Bahamas , but other meteorologists believe Gordon dissipated and that a second cyclone became the dominant system . The resultant storm north of Cuba became much larger , spreading rain across much of Florida .
A ridge to the north turned Gordon to the west @-@ northwest , and by November 14 the cloud pattern resembled that of a subtropical cyclone , with little convection near and the strongest winds well @-@ removed from the center . The storm paralleled the northern coast of Cuba and gradually developed convection near the center . On November 15 , the broad center crossed the Florida Keys near Key West . An approaching trough turned Gordon to the northeast , bringing it ashore near Fort Myers , Florida on November 16 with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Tropical Storm Gordon crossed the Florida peninsula in about nine hours , emerging into the Atlantic Ocean near Vero Beach . As it reached the Gulf Stream , a small but intense area of convection developed over the center , and after the Hurricane Hunters reported flight @-@ level winds in excess of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) , Gordon attained hurricane status late on November 17 about 245 miles ( 345 km ) southeast of Cape Fear , North Carolina . Shortly thereafter , it reached peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , and the trough that had turned the hurricane to the north was replaced by a ridge . Gordon turned abruptly northwestward , and was briefly expected to cross the Outer Banks as a minimal hurricane . The hurricane turned to the south and south @-@ southeast , weakening into a tropical storm due to stronger shear and drier air . On November 19 , the storm turned to the southwest and later to the west . Gordon weakened into a tropical depression before striking Florida again near Cape Canaveral on November 20 . It later turned to the north and dissipated over South Carolina on November 21 .
= = Preparations = =
When Gordon was approaching Jamaica on November 12 , a tropical storm watch , and later warning , was issued for the island . The same day , a tropical storm warning was issued for southeastern Cuba from Camagüey to Guantanamo . On November 13 , a tropical storm warning was issued for the southwest peninsula of Haiti , and later that day the same warning was issued for the Bahamas . Due to the storm , 65 @,@ 000 people evacuated to safer locations in Cuba . Schools were closed in New Providence and Grand Bahama due to the storm , and Nassau International Airport was briefly shut down . A flight between Havana and Miami was canceled . In Cuba , officials forced 36 @,@ 518 people to evacuate their homes , and workers also moved 68 @,@ 780 livestock .
After Gordon emerged into the Atlantic north of Cuba , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning for southern Florida from Jupiter to the Dry Tortugas , and later extended it to Boca Grande up along the west coast ; this was extended to Bayport on the west coast and to Titusville on the east coast while the storm was approaching the Florida Keys . When Gordon attained hurricane status and turned suddenly to the northwest , a hurricane warning was issued from Bogue Banks to the North Carolina / Virginia border . Florida governor Lawton Chiles activated the state 's Emergency Operations Center . In the Florida Keys , state parks were closed , which forced some campers to leave , and all schools were closed . On the mainland , University of Miami and Miami Dade College were also closed . Space Shuttle Atlantis was forced to land at Edwards Air Force Base in California instead of Kennedy Space Center . The storm caused flights to be canceled or delayed at Miami International Airport , and nearly all flights were canceled to and from the Florida Keys . Hundreds of people evacuated to shelters in five counties in east @-@ central Florida . In North Carolina , officials suggested people in low @-@ lying areas to go to higher ground , but they did not issue evacuation orders .
= = Impact = =
Although Gordon was a tropical storm for most of its existence , it caused enormous damage and loss of life . The United Nations estimated death toll in Haiti was 1 @,@ 122 . Six deaths were reported in Costa Rica , five in the Dominican Republic , two in Jamaica , two in Cuba , and eight in Florida . Property damage to the United States was estimated at $ 400 million ( 1994 USD , $ 639 million 2016 USD ) . Property damage statistics for the other affected areas are not available , but were reportedly severe in both Haiti and Cuba . The high death toll from Gordon made it the deadliest Atlantic hurricane since Hurricane David in 1979 , which killed thousands in the Dominican Republic .
= = = Central America = = =
The first location affected by Gordon was Central America , when it briefly moved over northeastern Nicaragua as a tropical depression . Severe localized flooding occurred in Nicaragua , Panama , and most significantly Costa Rica . There , several days of heavy rainfall damaged about 180 mi ( 300 km ) of roads and bridges , mostly in rural areas . In Upala in the northern portion of the country , the rains damaged beans and rice crops . More than 700 homes were destroyed , leaving about 4 @,@ 000 people homeless . Nationwide , the system killed six people and caused $ 30 million in damage . In Panama , the floods killed two people .
= = = Jamaica = = =
While passing south of Jamaica , Gordon dropped heavy rainfall , which caused flooding in six parishes , mostly in Clarendon and Saint Catherine . The rains caused flooding and mudslides that blocked roads . Gordon left $ 11 @.@ 8 million in damage , mostly in Clarendon . About half of the overall damage was related to roads , and an additional quarter was due to crop damage . There were four deaths and two injuries in the country . Two of the deaths were drownings .
= = = Hispaniola = = =
The broad circulation of Gordon produced a persistent southerly flow across Hispaniola , causing orographic lift in mountainous regions . This caused a prolonged period of heavy rainfall , reaching 14 in ( 360 mm ) in Les Cayes in a 24 ‑ hour period , and over 9 in ( 230 mm ) in the same duration in the capital city , Port @-@ au @-@ Prince . In Jacmel , Gordon dropped 13 in ( 330 mm ) in about 12 hours . The rains resulted in flooding and landslides across the country . There was knee @-@ deep flooding in the shantytown of Cité Soleil , and in Jacmel , the rains increased levels along three rivers . There , the storm washed out the road connecting with Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , and three bridges were destroyed . In Jacmel , 725 houses were destroyed , forcing 1 @,@ 500 people to stay at shelters . Gordon left portions of southeastern Haiti without water access . About 10 @,@ 800 houses were damaged to some degree , and an additional 3 @,@ 500 homes were destroyed . About 1 @.@ 5 million people were directly affected in the country , mostly near Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and in the southern portion , and more than 89 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . In Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , about 20 @,@ 000 homes were flooded , and the bridge connecting the city with northern Haiti was also flooded . Overall damage in the country was estimated at $ 50 million .
The floods and mudslides killed many people in Haiti , although the exact total will likely never be known . On November 19 , officials reported 531 deaths , and by two days later the total was potentially as high as 2 @,@ 000 . On November 24 , the death toll reached 824 , and the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs reported on December 21 that Gordon killed 1 @,@ 122 people in the country . Most of the deaths occurred in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Jacmel , and Léogâne . Damage was heavier in Haiti than elsewhere along Gordon 's track due to poor infrastructure consisting of shacks on flood @-@ prone denuded hills . The country suffers large death tolls from many hurricanes , caused in part by human activity . Large @-@ scale deforestation left Haiti with about 1 @.@ 4 % of its forests as of 2004 , leaving denuded mountain slopes that allows rainwater to wash down unimpeded . The lack of tree cover contributed to the devastating floods that caused most of Gordon 's deaths .
In neighboring Dominican Republic , Gordon caused flooding and landslides that disrupted travel and communications to the interior portions of the country . Several slums around Santo Domingo flooded . The storm killed five people in the country .
= = = Cuba and Bahamas = = =
Shortly after moving over Jamaica , Gordon crossed over eastern Cuba . At Guantanamo Bay Naval Base , a station recorded 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) sustained winds , with gusts to 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) during a microburst . The winds were not representative of the storm , and Gordon 's landfall intensity was estimated at around 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . The storm caused widespread power outages and forced several roads to close . Damage was heaviest in Guantánamo Province , where 9 mi ( 17 km ) of seawalls and two aqueducts were destroyed . The storm damaged or destroyed 43 bridges , damaged 1 @,@ 106 mi ( 1 @,@ 779 km ) of roads , and wrecked 16 @.@ 5 mi ( 26 @.@ 5 km ) of rail lines . About 3 mi ( 5 km ) of underground electrical cables were damaged . There was heavy agricultural damage in southeastern Cuba , estimated at about $ 45 million . Gordon damaged 7 @,@ 482 acres ( 3 @,@ 028 hectares ) of sugar cane fields and damaged or destroyed about 5 @.@ 5 million banana trees . About 100 @,@ 000 sacks of coffee were wrecked , amounting to $ 3 @.@ 5 million in damage , and 50 @,@ 000 litres of milk were ruined . While Gordon was paralleling northern Cuba , it produced high seas that caused flooding , including in Havana . Nationwide , the storm damaged 5 @,@ 750 houses and destroyed 156 others . The cost of damage and reconstruction of homes and roads was $ 47 @.@ 4 million , and there was an additional $ 9 @.@ 5 million in damage to public buildings . Gordon killed two people in the country , which was kept to a minimum due to evacuations , and damage totaled $ 102 million . Two people were injured at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base . The flooding from Gordon followed two other similarly damaging events in the preceding year .
Gordon also affected the nearby Bahamas , producing 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) sustained winds at Kemps Bay , Andros .
= = = Florida = = =
In the Florida Keys , wind gusts up to 49 mph ( 79 km / h ) caused minor damage to trees and motor homes . Intense rainbands caused flooding in low @-@ lying and poorly @-@ draining areas , mostly in the upper Florida Keys . High tides closed portions of U.S. 1 . In the Tampa Bay area , outer rainbands downed power lines and trees , one of which fell onto a car .
While Gordon was moving across southern Florida , Virginia Key reported sustained winds of 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) , which was the highest in the state . Gusts reached 83 mph ( 134 km / h ) at a location in southern Dade County . Similar to the Caribbean , the storm dropped heavy rainfall in southern Florida , with widespread areas reporting over 6 in ( 150 mm ) in the eastern portion of the state . Rainfall peaked at 16 @.@ 1 in ( 410 mm ) in Coopertown . High waves from Gordon severely eroded beaches along the state 's eastern coastline , and damaged coral and artificial reef systems . Waves flooded coastal roads up to 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) deep in Miami Beach , and also damaged seawalls . Near Fort Lauderdale , the storm washed a 508 ft ( 154 m ) cargo ship aground less than 150 ft ( 45 m ) from the beach . Several other boats sank or were beached , which prompted 37 rescues . One woman was rescued after being swept 3 @,@ 000 ft ( 910 m ) off a fishing pier in Boynton Beach . Gordon spawned six tornadoes in the state , of which two did no damage and two caused minor damage . A tornado in Lake Worth damaged 39 homes and two businesses . The most damaging tornado was an F2 in southern Brevard County , which originated as a waterspout and moved onshore near Barefoot Bay . It moved through a mobile home community , destroying 62 homes and damaging 227 others to some extent ; damage from the tornado was estimated at $ 10 million . The same tornado injured 40 people , causing six to be hospitalized , and killed an elderly man who died due to head trauma .
Across Florida , Gordon 's winds damaged power lines and knocked down trees and traffic signals ; about 425 @,@ 000 people lost power due to the storm . The rains caused flooding in Dade and Collier counties , which damaged $ 275 million worth of crops , mostly to vegetables and sugar cane . In some locations , the crop damage was worse than during Hurricane Andrew in 1992 , due to fewer crops being planted when Andrew struck the state . Along Elliott Key , Gordon damaged the coral reef system to a greater extent than Andrew . Inland flooding damaged buildings due to fast @-@ rising water and roof collapses . In Volusia County , floods entered 1 @,@ 236 buildings , causing $ 26 million in damage . Flooding caused dozens of roads to close , some of which were washed out . In the Everglades , flooding killed several deer . Statewide , two people drowned in separate instances after driving into flooded areas . Three people drowned along beaches , including one man who died in a rip current while attempting to rescue his son . In Hillsboro Inlet , two people drowned after their boat was overturned by high waves . Throughout Florida , Gordon directly killed eight people , and injured 43 people . There were also three indirect deaths ; two were from traffic accidents , and one was related to a heart attack after a person pushed a stalled car in a flooded road . Statewide damage was estimated at $ 400 million ( 1994 USD , $ 639 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Remainder of United States = = =
After affecting Florida , Gordon produced rainfall along much of the eastern United States , extending as far north as New Jersey . In North Carolina , rainfall peaked at 4 @.@ 96 in ( 126 mm ) in New Holland , and in Virginia the highest rainfall total was 5 @.@ 25 in ( 133 mm ) near Norfolk . Sustained winds in the Hatteras , North Carolina area peaked at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) in Buxton . Just offshore at Diamond Shoal Light , a station reported 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) . The hurricane produced tides of 2 @.@ 7 ft ( 0 @.@ 82 m ) above normal in Frisco .
High waves and tides resulted in significant beach erosion along the Outer Banks . The waves closed several portions of North Carolina Highway 12 for up to four days , and also closed a portion of U.S. Route 70 in eastern Carteret County . Heavy dune damage occurred on Ocracoke Island . North of Hatteras Village , the high waves washed out 225 ft ( 69 m ) of dunes , and portions of the Outer Banks between Hatteras and Frisco were flooded up to 2 @.@ 5 ft ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) deep . The effects were similar to that of the 1991 Perfect Storm , although damage was lighter during Gordon . The hurricane destroyed five homes in Kitty Hawk , which were condemned after being previously damaged by Hurricane Emily in 1993 . Also in Kitty Hawk , the storm damaged 52 houses and 2 businesses . In Rodanthe , two homes sustained water damage . The cost of the storm in the state was estimated at $ 314 @,@ 000 . Effects further south in North Carolina were lesser , although serious beach erosion was reported .
Offshore , a family of four required rescue from the Coast Guard after their boat began filling with water in the midst of 17 ft ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) surf . A 49 ft ( 15 m ) sailboat was disabled about 115 mi ( 185 km ) offshore Norfolk , Virginia , and the crew of three were also rescued by the Coast Guard . The sailboat was sailing from Bermuda to Oxford , Maryland , but was halted after the engine failed , the anchor was ripped off , and the mainstay was torn . The interaction between Gordon and a ridge over New England produced coastal flooding in eastern Virginia . Tides reached 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal in Virginia Beach , which washed away 100 ft ( 30 m ) of a fishing pier . The high tides caused road damage and minor housing damage .
= = Aftermath and lack of retirement = =
In Costa Rica , President José María Figueres declared a state of emergency due to flooding in that country . He sought $ 15 million in aid from the Inter @-@ American Development Bank . The country 's government handled relief efforts through its Red Cross and federal and non @-@ governmental organizations . The government of Cuba issued an appeal to the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs for financial assistance ; as a result , the agency provided $ 30 @,@ 000 , and the United Nations Development Programme provided $ 50 @,@ 000 . The government of Luxembourg sent $ 37 @,@ 000 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, were omitted due to storyline constraints .
Lana Tisdel 's potential involvement in the rape and murder of Brandon Teena was also highlighted . Various people involved in the case , particularly Brandon 's family , have alleged that Tisdel was somehow involved with the murders , or had at least set them up in an act of vengeance . Perhaps the most notable admission about Tisdel 's motives came from Tom Nissen , who infamously confessed that Tisdel was present at the time of the murders in the car and had even tried knocking on the door of the farmhouse where Brandon , Lambert and DeVine were staying . When nobody answered the door , Nissen alleges that Lotter broke in while Tisdel waited in the vehicle while the murders were carried out . Tisdel denied this and a lack of evidence meant that it could not be vigorously pursued in the proceeding court case — the residing judge considered most of Nissen 's claims as nothing more than hearsay . Not only did Tisdel vehemently deny any involvement in Brandon 's murder , she denied ever being present at Lisa Lambert 's farmhouse on the night Brandon was murdered . Unlike Tisdel 's own evidence and the admissions presented in court , Boys Don 't Cry took the liberty of placing Tisdel at the crime scene , albeit without any intention of setting Brandon up .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The film won a variety of awards , most of which went to Swank for her performance . Swank won a Best Actress Oscar while Sevigny received a nomination in the category of Best Supporting Actress . From the Hollywood Foreign Press , the film received two Golden Globe nominations in the same two categories ( Best Actress , Best Supporting Actress ) for Swank and Sevigny , winning Best Actress . Swank and Sevigny both received Best Actress Awards from the New York Film Critics Circle , the Chicago Film Critics Association Awards and an Independent Spirit Award . The film won three awards at the Boston Society of Film Critics Awards ; Best Actress ( Swank ) , Best Supporting Actress ( Sevigny ) and Best Director ( Peirce ) . Swank and Sevigny won Satellite Awards for their performances , and the film was nominated in two categories ; Best Picture ( Drama ) and Best Director . It was named one of the best films of the year by the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures .
The family of Brandon Teena criticized Swank for her repeated use of the male gender pronoun " he " in her Oscar acceptance speech . Teena 's mother JoAnn Brandon said her child 's transgenderism was a defense mechanism that was developed in response to childhood sexual abuse , rather than being an expression of Teena 's gendered sense of self . She said , " She pretended she was a man so no other man could touch her " . Despite the criticism , Kevin Okeefe , writing for Out , defended Swank 's acceptance speech ; he said , " Swank deserves a place in the great acceptance speech canon for being bold , not only as an actress , but as an award winner " .
= = = Rating and home media = = =
Boys Don 't Cry garnered significant attention for its graphic rape scene . The film was initially assigned an NC @-@ 17 rating from the MPAA ; the content was toned down for the U.S. release , where it was rated R. Peirce was interviewed for a 2005 documentary titled This Film Is Not Yet Rated , which discussed the film 's problems with the MPAA , particularly the censoring of the sex scenes . The portrayal of a double rape caused significant problems with the MPAA and had to be trimmed to avoid the NC @-@ 17 rating . Both the Australian and European version are more explicit , particularly the first rape . Peirce was angry because the MPAA wanted the sex scene between Brandon and Lana removed but was satisfied with the level of brutality in the murder scene .
Boys Don 't Cry was first released on home video by Fox Searchlight Pictures in September 2000 apart of a " Premiere Series " , preceded by a DVD release in April 2000 in the United States and Canada . The DVD 's special features included a commentary by Kimberly Peirce and a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurette containing interviews with Peirce , Swank and Sevigny ; there was also a theatrical trailer and three television trailers . This same edition was re @-@ released in 2009 with different cover art . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray on February 16 , 2011 , by 20th Century Fox Entertainment in conjunction with Fox Pathé Europa .
= These Days : Live in Concert =
These Days : Live in Concert is a live album by Australian alternative rock band Powderfinger , released as a CD on 6 September 2004 , and as a two disc DVD on 4 October 2004 .
The album consists of songs performed by Powderfinger in concerts at Sydney Entertainment Centre , and Fox Studios in Sydney . Most of the songs performed are from Powderfinger 's prior studio album ; Vulture Street . These Days : Live in Concert earned a mixed response from reviewers ; some enjoyed the energy and flair of the live performances , while others disliked the lack of dynamism .
= = Production = =
These Days : Live in Concert disc one was directed by Gregor Jordan , who the band had first encountered when he requested they write " These Days " for his film Two Hands . Bernard Fanning also worked with Jordan on the film Ned Kelly in 2003 . The band chose Jordan because they did not want to present These Days : Live in Concert as " just straight @-@ up live concert footage " , but instead wanted to present it from a different angle . Jordan agreed , and believed that the band being a successful rock group from Brisbane was an interesting angle to work from .
Disc one of These Days : Live in Concert was recorded by Powderfinger during sellout performances at Sydney Entertainment Centre , and featured live performances of 14 songs , including nine singles . The footage on the disc was shot over two nights . Disc two " low key " was directed by Bernie Zelvis of Channel V , and was recorded at Sydney 's Fox Studios . The disc contained mostly acoustic performances by the band , and included a cover of " Inner City Blues " by Rodriguez .
The band 's live performances at large venues such as the Sydney Entertainment Centre was criticised by some fans , as the band had previously stated they disliked playing to large crowds . Drummer Jon Coghill said he was not bothered by the comments , as the band ( other than guitarist Ian Haug ) generally did not take much note of such critique .
= = Release and response = =
These Days : Live in Concert was released as a CD on 6 September 2004 , through the record label Universal Music Australia . Only 40 @,@ 000 copies of the CD were initially created . Meanwhile , the DVD version was released on 4 October 2004 . " Stumblin ' " , the first and only single from the album , was released on 6 June 2004 , but failed to chart .
These Days : Live in Concert entered the ARIA charts at # 2 19 September 2004 , and spent a total of 8 weeks in the chart , exiting on 7 November 2004 . The CD version was certified " Gold " by ARIA , while the DVD version was certified " Double Platinum " in the same year .
These Days : Live in Concert received a mixed response from reviewers . Sputnikmusic reviewer James Bishop approved of the album , giving it a score of 4 / 5 , and summarising " Powderfinger deliver a live show that 's as entertaining as it is surprising " . Bishop praised numerous performances on disc one , calling " Rockin ' Rocks " " a great introduction to their arena spectacular " , describing the almost instrument @-@ free performance of " These Days " as " one of the most heart @-@ wrenching moments they ’ ve ever recorded " , and calling " Thrilloilogy " " the quintessential live Powderfinger track " . Bishop also enjoyed disc two , lauding the acoustic performances of " Sunsets " and " Love Your Way " , and describing b @-@ side " Rita " as " an absolute hit as usual " .
Jeff Crawford , of Adelaide newspaper The Messenger disagreed with Bishop , giving the album three stars , and stating " Gregor Jordan 's concert film makes the most of Powderfinger 's strengths but can 't disguise their lack of dynamism , while the interviews are hardly insightful " . He called Fanning 's solo on " These Days " the highlight of the album .
= = Personnel = =
= = Track listing = =
= Huangshan =
Huangshan ( Chinese : 黄山 ) , is a mountain range in southern Anhui province in eastern China . Vegetation on the range is thickest below 1 @,@ 100 meters ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) , with trees growing up to the treeline at 1 @,@ 800 meters ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) .
The area is well known for its scenery , sunsets , peculiarly @-@ shaped granite peaks , Huangshan pine trees , hot springs , winter snow , and views of the clouds from above . Huangshan is a frequent subject of traditional Chinese paintings and literature , as well as modern photography . It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site , and one of China 's major tourist destinations . Huangshan is also the famous place for Chinese teas of high quality , such as Huangshan Maofeng , Keemun Black , and Blooming Tea .
= = Physical description = =
Huangshan is known for its sunrises , pine trees , " strangely jutting granite peaks " , hot springs , winter snow , and views of clouds touching the mountainsides for more than 200 days out of the year .
The Huangshan mountain range has many peaks , some more than 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 250 feet ) high . The three tallest and best @-@ known peaks are Lotus Peak ( Lian Hua Feng , 1 @,@ 864 m ) , Bright Summit Peak ( Guang Ming Ding , 1 @,@ 840 m ) , and Celestial Peak ( Tian Du Feng , literally Capital of Heaven Peak , 1 @,@ 829 m ) . The World Heritage Site covers a core area of 154 square kilometres and a buffer zone of 142 square kilometres . The mountains were formed in the Mesozoic , approximately 100 million years ago , when an ancient sea disappeared due to uplift . Later , in the Quaternary Period , the landscape was shaped by the influence of glaciers .
The vegetation of the area varies with elevation . Mesic forests cover the landscape below 1 @,@ 100 meters . Deciduous forest stretches from 1 @,@ 100 meters up to the tree line at 1 @,@ 800 meters . Above that point , the vegetation consists of alpine grasslands . The area has diverse flora , where one @-@ third of China 's bryophyte families and more than half of its fern families are represented . The Huangshan pine ( Pinus hwangshanensis ) is named after Huangshan and is considered an example of vigor because the trees thrive by growing straight out of the rocks . Many of the pine trees in the area are more than a hundred years old and have been given their own names ( such as the Ying Ke Pine , or Welcoming @-@ Guests Pine , which is thought to be more than 1500 years old ) . The pines vary greatly in shape and size , with the most crooked of the trees being considered the most attractive . Furthermore , Huangshan 's moist climate facilitates the growing of tea leaves , and the mountain has been called " one of China 's premier green tea @-@ growing mountains . Mao feng cha ( " Fur Peak Tea " ) , a well @-@ known local variety of green tea , takes its name from the downy tips of tea leaves found in the Huangshan area .
The mountaintops often offer views of the clouds from above , known as the Sea of Clouds ( Chinese : 云海 ; pinyin : yúnhǎi ) or " Huangshan Sea " because of the cloud 's resemblance to an ocean , and many vistas are known by names such as " North Sea " or " South Sea . " One writer remarked on the view of the clouds from Huangshan as follows :
To enjoy the magnificence of a mountain , you have to look upwards in most cases . To enjoy Mount Huangshan , however , you 've got to look downward .
The area also is host to notable light effects , such as the renowned sunrises . Watching the sunrise is considered a " mandatory " part of visiting the area . A phenomenon known as Buddha 's Light ( Chinese : 佛光 ; pinyin : fóguāng ) is also well @-@ known and , on average , Buddha 's Light only appears a couple of times per month . In addition , Huangshan has multiple hot springs , most of them located at the foot of the Purple Cloud Peak . The water stays at 42 ° C all year , and has a high concentration of carbonates . The waters are said to help prevent skin , joint , and nerve illness .
= = History = =
Huangshan was formed approximately 100 million years ago and gained its unique rock formations in the Quaternary Glaciation .
During the Qin Dynasty , Huangshan was known as Yishan ( Mount Yi ) . In 747 AD , its name was changed to Huangshan ( Mount Huang ) by imperial decree ; the name is commonly thought to have been coined in honor of Huang Di ( the Yellow Emperor ) , a legendary Chinese emperor , and the mythological ancestor of the Han Chinese . One legend states that Huangshan was the location from which the Yellow Emperor ascended to Heaven . Another legend states that the Yellow Emperor " cultivated moral character and refined Pills of Immortality in the mountains , and in so doing gave the mountains his name . The first use of this name " Huangshan " often is attributed to Chinese poet Li Bai . Huangshan was fairly inaccessible and little @-@ known in ancient times , but its change of name in 747 AD seems to have brought the area more attention ; from then on , the area was visited frequently and many temples were built there .
Huangshan is known for its stone steps , carved into the side of the mountain , of which there may be more than 60 @,@ 000 throughout the area . The date at which work on the steps began is unknown , but they have been said to be more than 1 @,@ 500 years old .
Over the years , many scenic spots and physical features on the mountain have been named ; many of the names have narratives behind them . For example , one legend tells of a man who did not believe the tales of Huangshan 's beauty and went to the mountains to see them ; almost immediately , he was converted to the same view . One of the peaks he is said to have visited was named Shixin ( 始信 ) , roughly meaning " start to believe . "
In 1982 , Huangshan was declared a " site of scenic beauty and historic interest " by the State Council of the People 's Republic of China . It was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1990 for its scenery and for its role as a habitat for rare and threatened species .
In 2002 , Huangshan was named the " sister mountain " of Jungfrau in the Swiss Alps .
= = Artistic and scientific inspirations = =
Much of Huangshan 's reputation derives from its significance in Chinese arts and literature . In addition to inspiring poets such as Li Bai , Huangshan and the scenery therein has been the frequent subject of poetry and artwork , especially Chinese ink painting and , more recently , photography . Overall , from the Tang Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty , more than 20 @,@ 000 poems were written about Huangshan , and a school of painting named after it . The mountains also have appeared in modern works . James Cameron , director of the 2009 film Avatar , cited Huangshan as one of his influences in designing the fictional world of that film .
The area also has been a location for scientific research because of its diversity of flora and wildlife . In the early part of the twentieth century , the geology and vegetation of Huangshan were the subjects of multiple studies by both Chinese and foreign scientists . The mountain is still a subject of research . For example , in the late twentieth century a team of researchers used the area for a field study of Tibetan macaques , a local species of monkey .
= = Tourism = =
Having at least 140 sections open to visitors , Huangshan is a major tourist destination in China . The city changed its name to Huangshan in 1987 in order to promote Huangshan tourism . In 2007 , for instance , more than 1 @.@ 5 million tourists visited the mountain . The foot of the mountain is linked by rail and by air to Shanghai , and also is accessible from cities such as Hangzhou and Wuhu .
As of 1990 , there were more than 50 kilometers of footpaths providing access to scenic areas for visitors and staffers of the facilities . Today there are also cable cars that tourists may use to ride directly from the base to one of the summits . Throughout the area there are hotels and guest houses that accommodate overnight visitors , many of whom hike up the mountains , spend the night at one of the peaks to view the sunrise , and then descend by a different route the next day . The area is classified as a AAAAA scenic area by the China National Tourism Administration .
The hotels , restaurants , and other facilities at the top of the mountain are serviced and kept stocked by porters who carry resources up the mountain on foot , hanging their cargo from long poles balanced over their shoulders or backs .
= = Climate = =
Huangshan has an oceanic climate ( Cfb ) according to the Köppen climate classification . Its elevation makes it colder and wetter than the rest of Anhui .
= = Image gallery = =
= M21 Mortar Motor Carriage =
The M21 Mortar Motor Carriage ( MMC ) was a self @-@ propelled artillery mount on a half @-@ track chassis used by the United States Army during World War II . It was equipped with an 81 mm M1 mortar and an air @-@ cooled M2 Browning machine gun . It was produced by the White Motor Company in 1944 . Only 110 examples were produced .
It mainly served on the Western Front in Normandy , and Southern France , and then later in the Ardennes during the Battle of the Bulge . It was deemed to have been outclassed in 1945 when the 81 mm M1 mortar was found to have insufficient power to provide effective artillery support .
= = Specifications = =
The specifications for the M21 are similar to the specifications for the M3 Half @-@ track . The vehicle was 20 ft 9 in ( 6 @.@ 32 m ) long , 6 ft 5 in ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) wide , and 7 ft 5 in ( 2 @.@ 26 m ) high with a wheelbase of 135 @.@ 5 in ( 3 @.@ 44 m ) . The suspension for the front wheels were leaf springs and track 's suspension used a vertical volute spring . Powered by a White 160AX , 128 hp ( 95 kW ) , 386 in3 ( 6 @,@ 330 cc ) , 6 @-@ cylinder petrol engine with a compression ratio of 6 @.@ 3 : 1 , the M21 could reach up to 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) on a road . The fuel capacity was 60 US gal ( 230 l ) and the vehicle had a range of 150 mi ( 240 km ) . It had a power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of 15 @.@ 8 hp / ton with the vehicle weighing nine tons .
= = Design = =
The M21 had a different layout from the early M4 and M4A1 MMC , as it was the replacement of the M4 . The major difference , was that the M21 and the M4 were based on different half @-@ tracks ( the M4 was based on the M2 Half @-@ track while the M21 was based on the M3 Half @-@ track ) . The major difference was the location and direction of the mortar ( the M4 's mortar was rear @-@ facing and was near the back , while the M21 's mortar was front @-@ facing and was closer to the front ) .
The mortar was able to traverse 30 ° either side and elevate from 40 to 80 ° . If required , it could be de @-@ mounted from the vehicle and fired from the ground . In addition , there was a pedestal mount at the rear for a .50 cal ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 heavy machine gun .
= = Development = =
The M4 was developed to meet the need for a specialized mortar carrier based on the M2 Half Track Car , which the M21 soon replaced . The initial M4 was designed to carry a mortar . In emergencies , the mortar could be fired from the vehicle . The improved M4A1 had a reinforced floor so that the mortar could be fired from the vehicle , but the mounting faced to the rear and lacked traverse . This caused problems when the troops who operated the mortar mounted the vehicle , so the US 2nd Armored Division relocated the mortars so that they could fire from the front .
The Ordnance Department followed suit and a new 81 mm MMC , the T19 MMC , was created , which was based on the M3 Half @-@ track . The T19 went through its developmental trials , which were completed in July 1943 , and the vehicle was later standardized as the M21 MMC . Unlike the M4 mortar carriage , which was based on the M2 Half Track Car , the M21 was based on the M3 Half @-@ track with a longer and roomier rear .
= = Service history = =
The M21 served on the Western Front , seeing action in Normandy and in southern France , before later being used during the Battle of the Bulge , the Battle of Belgium , Operation Market Garden , and the invasion of Germany from the west . The M21 served with the US 3rd , 1st , and 7th Armies during the campaign in France , and the 2nd Armored Division , which developed it . In addition , 57 examples were leased to Free French forces . By 1945 , it was declared obsolete , due to the insufficient power of the 81 mm mortar as an artillery piece .
= = = Usage = = =
Standard US tank and armored infantry battalions had a mortar platoon equipped with either M21s or the older M4 MMCs . The M21 was used mainly to illuminate targets at night or provide indirect fire support to the infantry . The usage was uncommon because the White Motor Company was only able to produce 110 M21s in 1944 .
= Choor Singh =
Choor Singh Sidhu ( 19 January 1911 – 31 March 2009 ) , known professionally as Choor Singh , was a judge of the Supreme Court of Singapore and , particularly after his retirement from the bench , a philanthropist and writer of books about Sikhism . Born to a family of modest means in Punjab , India , he came to Singapore at four years of age . He completed his secondary education in the top class at Raffles Institution in 1929 , then worked as a clerk in a law firm before becoming a civil servant in the Official Assignee 's office .
Encouraged by the Assistant Official Assignee , James Walter Davy Ambrose ( who was later appointed a High Court Judge ) , to study law , Choor Singh enrolled as an external student at the University of London , passing the matriculation examination and intermediate LL.B. examination . In 1948 he was appointed a coroner , and the following year was elevated to the post of magistrate , becoming the first Indian to hold such a position in colonial Malaya . Following law studies at Gray 's Inn on a government scholarship , he became a Barrister @-@ at @-@ Law in 1955 . He was appointed a district judge in 1960 and a judge of the Supreme Court in 1963 . Especially noted for his criminal judgments , Singh was the first Singapore judge to impose the death penalty on a woman .
Following his retirement in 1980 , Choor Singh continued his close involvement in Indian and Sikh affairs . One of the young Sikhs who founded the Singapore Khalsa Association in 1931 , he served as its patron and honorary chairman of its board of trustees . He also contributed to educational charities and causes , both Sikh and non @-@ Sikh , and wrote several books on Sikhism . In 1994 , the Sikh community bestowed on him its highest honour by inviting him to lay the foundation stone for the new Gurdwara Sahib building at the Gurdwara Khalsa Dharmak Sabha at 18 Niven Road .
= = Childhood , education and early career = =
Choor Singh Sidhu was born in Kotteh , Punjab , in India , on 19 January 1911 . He came to Singapore at the age of four years with his mother and sister to join his father , who was already employed there as a night watchman in a godown near Boat Quay by the Singapore River . He attended Pearl 's Hill Primary School and Outram Road School , at various stages walking 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) to school , sleeping along a five foot way , bathing at a roadside pump and studying at night under a street lamp . He completed his secondary education and took the Senior Cambridge examination at Raffles Institution in the top class in 1929 . There , he was a classmate of David Marshall , the first Chief Minister of Singapore ; they became good friends . Initially unemployed between 1930 and 1934 due to the Great Depression , he subsequently worked for three years as a clerk in the law firm of Mallal & Namazie for a monthly salary of 20 Straits dollars . Thereafter , he joined the Government Clerical Services for 60 Straits dollars a month and was posted to the Official Assignee 's office , which was in charge of administering the estates of bankrupt persons .
The Assistant Official Assignee , James Walter Davy Ambrose ( later a High Court Judge ) , advised Choor Singh to study law . Singh read law books in his leisure time and began saving money to study law in England . This proved to be unnecessary ; following a change in the rules , he was able to enrol as an external student at the University of London and passed the matriculation examination and , in 1948 , the intermediate LL.B. examination . However , he could not be called to the Bar as a barrister as he did not have time to keep the required dining terms . On 20 May 1948 , he was appointed a coroner . In December 1949 , Singh was elevated to the post of magistrate , becoming the first Indian to hold such a position in colonial Malaya . He continued his law studies at Gray 's Inn , and in 1953 was granted leave on a government scholarship to dine at Gray 's Inn . After making four trips in two years , he became a Barrister @-@ at @-@ Law in 1955 . In 1958 , he was appointed a member of the Appeal Tribunal under the Preservation of Public Security Ordinance .
Choor Singh was one of the founding members of the Sri Guru Nanak Sat Sang Sabha ( the Congregation of Sri Guru Nanak 's Company ) , registered on 26 June 1953 . The Gurdwara Sri Guru Nanak Satsang Sabha in Katong was built for this congregation in 1969 .
= = Judicial career = =
On 11 July 1960 , Choor Singh became a district judge . In that year , he also published a book called Gaming in Malaya on the Common Gaming Houses Ordinances of the Federation of Malaya and Singapore . On 28 August 1963 , he was appointed a judge of the Supreme Court .
During Singh 's 17 @-@ year career on the bench , 105 of his judgments were reported in the law reports . Particularly noted for his criminal judgments , he was known as " the Hanging Judge " for handing down a large number of capital sentences . He was the first judge in Singapore to impose the death penalty on a woman , Mimi Wong , a cabaret singer who murdered her Japanese lover 's wife in 1970 . In a 1996 interview with The Straits Times , he said : " I 'm satisfied that I 've made no mistake and that I 've done my duty according to the law . " All the five judgments he wrote as a member of the Court of Criminal Appeal were upheld by the Privy Council , then Singapore 's highest appellate court .
In an oral history interview , Singh said that one of the murder trials that he had presided over , the " Body in the Box " case , led to the abolition of jury trials in Singapore criminal cases . Following the trial of a young man , Freddy Tan , for the murder of his friend whose decomposed body was found stuffed into a box , Singh agreed with the jury to convict Tan of culpable homicide not amounting to murder and sentence him to life imprisonment . However , he later learnt that in the jury room a bullying Dutch juror had wanted to impose the death penalty , but because the other jurors disliked his attitude they voted to impose a lower verdict on Tan . The father of the deceased felt an injustice had been done and went to see the Prime Minister , Lee Kuan Yew . Lee then sent for Singh , and Singh informed him of what had happened with the jurors . Lee asked Singh , " Well what do you think . Shall I abolish the jury ? " Singh replied that if he had tried Tan without a jury , he would have convicted him of murder without hesitation . Following a public inquiry , jury trials were abolished for all criminal cases in 1969 .
Between 1967 and 1979 , Singh was also Commissioner of the Land Acquisition Appeals Board . In 1972 , in the case of Gian Singh & Co . Ltd. v. Banque de L 'Indochine , Singh wrote a dissenting opinion – uncommon in Singapore – when sitting in the Court of Appeal with Chief Justice Wee Chong Jin and Justice Tan Ah Tah . An honorary member of the Law Society of Singapore , he retired as a judge on 30 November 1980 .
= = Later years = =
Impatient with nothing to do following his retirement , for about four and a half years from 1981 Choor Singh acted as a personal consultant for Tan Chin Tuan , the Chairman of the Oversea @-@ Chinese Banking Corporation ( OCBC ) , and other companies in the OCBC group such as Great Eastern Life and Overseas Assurance Corporation . For many years , Singh was chairman of both the Probation Committee which supervises the work of probation officers , and the Detention Board , and vice @-@ president of the National Kidney Foundation Singapore . He was also a member of the Presidential Council for Minority Rights and the Disciplinary Committee for advocates and solicitors .
Choor Singh participated as the chairman of a disciplinary committee set up to investigate complaints against a lawyer named Kalpanath Singh in 1989 . After making a report at the end of proceedings where cause of sufficient gravity for disciplinary action against Kalpanath Singh was found , Choor Singh was made the respondent to a motion for an order of certiorari filed by Kalpanath Singh in the High Court , where serious allegations that Choor Singh had shown bias against him in that he had :
threatened or warned a material witness before that witness had given evidence ;
He had indicated he had made his mind up about the veracity of the witness before that witness had given evidence , and before submissions had been made by counsel on behalf of the applicant at the hearing by the disciplinary committee ; and
questioned a material witness about his veracity and motives as a witness other than during the hearing and in the presence of the applicant and his counsel .
It was found that Choor Singh had two private contacts with a material witness in the course of the disciplinary proceedings , even though it is a well @-@ established rule that a decision @-@ maker should not have contact with any party to the proceedings or any of his witnesses in the absence of the other party or his counsel . The High Court found that there was no actual bias , but there was evidence on which reasonable people might believe that Choor Singh might or could not bring an unprejudiced mind to the disciplinary inquiry . The key finding was that the two private contacts with the material witness gave an appearance of a real likelihood of bias . On this basis , the High Court gave the order and quashed the finding of the disciplinary committee . The case was reported as Re Singh Kalpanath ( 1992 ) .
A keen cricketer when younger , Singh learned to play golf and took up gardening . He also continued his close involvement with Indian and Sikh affairs . One of the young Sikhs who founded the Singapore Khalsa Association in 1931 , and having been its president in the 1960s , he served as its patron and honorary chairman of the board of trustees . He was also a patron of the Singapore Indian Association and a trustee of the Sikh Welfare Council , He also wrote several books on Sikhism , including Bhai Maharaj Singh : Saint @-@ soldier of the Sikh Faith ( 1991 ; later edition , 1999 ) , The Sikh Gurus ( 1991 ) , Understanding Sikhism ( 1994 ; later edition , 2001 ) and Who is a Sikh ? ( 2004 ) . Associate Professor Dr. Kirpal Singh , a writer and literary editor with the Singapore Management University , penned in the foreword to the 2001 edition of Understanding Sikhism that Singh had managed " to ' engage ' the reader through the strategy of writing simply , honestly and without any pretense " .
Placing great importance on learning , Singh contributed to Sikh educational charities and other educational causes . He was a trustee of the Singapore Sikh Education Foundation that was inaugurated in 1990 to teach Punjabi to children , and a life member of the Singapore Indian Education Trust which provides financial assistance to Singaporean Indians for their education . As Chairman of the Sikh Advisory Board , he persuaded the Government to allow the use of government school buildings for the teaching of the Punjabi language . Classes were conducted by the Sri Guru Nanak Satsang Sabha at two schools on Saturday mornings , and were attended by about 400 Sikh children .
On 18 January 1999 , to celebrate his 88th birthday the next day , Singh donated S $ 25 @,@ 000 to the National Institute of Education . About $ 15 @,@ 000 was used to establish the Justice Choor Singh Gold Medal , which is awarded to the best student teacher in education studies with a distinction in practicum in the final examination for the Postgraduate Diploma in Education ( Primary or Secondary ) programme . The remaining $ 10 @,@ 000 went towards funding a research project on the Sikh community 's contributions to education . In 2001 , he donated $ 140 @,@ 000 to the Singapore Management University 's Centre for Cross @-@ Cultural Studies .
The Sikh community bestowed its highest honour on Singh on 14 August 1994 by inviting him to lay the foundation stone for the new Gurdwara Sahib building at the Gurdwara Khalsa Dharmak Sabha at 18 Niven Road . In August 1996 , the Deputy Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong presented him with one of the inaugural Sikh Community Service Awards awarded by the Singapore Khalsa Association in recognition of his contributions to the community .
For two years before his death , Singh had found it difficult to walk . He died in his bed on 31 March 2009 aged 98 . Pre @-@ deceased by his wife , Bhagwan Kaur , in 2004 , he left behind two sons , Duleep Singh Sidhu and Dr. Daljeet Singh Sidhu , and a daughter , Manjeet Kaur Sidhu . The following self @-@ written epitaph was published in his obituary notice in The Straits Times on 1 April 2009 :
I came here by His grace
After toiling in many lower lives .
I have done my duty to my State ,
To my community and my Faith .
I leave now as ordained by my fate ,
To meet Him and sit at His Lotus feet .
= = Works = =
Gaming in Malaya : A Commentary on the Common Gaming Houses Ordinance , 1953 , of the Federation of Malaya , and the Common Gaming Houses Ordinance , Cap . 114 , of the State of Singapore , Singapore : Malayan Law Journal , 1960 , OCLC 207497 .
Bhai Maharaj Singh : Saint @-@ soldier of the Sikh Faith , Singapore : Central Sikh Gurdwara Board , 1991 . A later edition was published as Bhai Maharaj Singh : Saint @-@ soldier Martyr of the Sikh Faith , Singapore : Central Sikh Gurdwara Board , 1999 , OCLC 226181044 .
The Sikh Gurus , Singapore : Sri Guru Nanak Sat Sang Sabha , 1991 , OCLC 226154224 .
Understanding Sikhism : The Gospel of the Gurus , Singapore : Central Sikh Gurdwara Board , 1994 , OCLC 226156539 . A later edition was published as Sikhs and Sikhisms : Understanding Sikhism ( the Gospel of the Gurus ) : A Precise Account of the Religious History of the Sikhs , their Political Heritage and their Aspirations for the Future , Singapore : Central Sikh Gurdwara Board ( reproduced on the website of the Sikh Missionary Society UK ) , 2001 , OCLC 52630397 , archived from the original on 29 February 2008 .
Amar Shaheed Sant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale : Martyr of the Sikh Faith , Harpenden , Hertfordshire : European Institute of Sikh Studies , 1997 , OCLC 42716478 .
Memoirs of Mr Justice Choor Singh of The Supreme Court of Singapore , Singapore : [ Family of Choor Singh ] , 2003 , OCLC 226062753 .
Who is a Sikh ? : And other Essays on Several other Non @-@ Sikh Punjabi Religious Societies other than Hindus and Muslim , Singapore : [ Choor Singh Sidhu ] , 2004 , OCLC 308905793 .
= Rumination syndrome =
Rumination syndrome , or Merycism , is an under @-@ diagnosed chronic motility disorder characterized by effortless regurgitation of most meals following consumption , due to the involuntary contraction of the muscles around the abdomen . There is no retching , nausea , heartburn , odour , or abdominal pain associated with the regurgitation , as there is with typical vomiting . The disorder has been historically documented as affecting only infants , young children , and people with cognitive disabilities ( the prevalence is as high as 10 % in institutionalized patients with various mental disabilities ) . Today it is being diagnosed in increasing numbers of otherwise healthy adolescents and adults , though there is a lack of awareness of the condition by doctors , patients and the general public .
Rumination syndrome presents itself in a variety of ways , with especially high contrast existing between the presentation of the typical adult sufferer without a mental disability and the presentation of an infant and / or mentally impaired sufferer . Like related gastrointestinal disorders , rumination can adversely affect normal functioning and the social lives of individuals . It has been linked with depression .
Little comprehensive data regarding rumination syndrome in otherwise healthy individuals exists because most sufferers are private about their illness and are often misdiagnosed due to the number of symptoms and the clinical similarities between rumination syndrome and other disorders of the stomach and esophagus , such as gastroparesis and bulimia nervosa . These symptoms include the acid @-@ induced erosion of the esophagus and enamel , halitosis , malnutrition , severe weight loss and an unquenchable appetite . Individuals may begin regurgitating within a minute following ingestion , and the full cycle of ingestion and regurgitation can mimic the binging and purging of bulimia .
Diagnosis of rumination syndrome is non @-@ invasive and based on a history of the individual . Treatment is promising , with upwards of 85 % of individuals responding positively to treatment , including infants and the mentally handicapped .
= = Classification = =
Rumination syndrome is a condition which affects the functioning of the stomach and esophagus , also known as a functional gastroduodenal disorder . In patients that have a history of eating disorders , Rumination syndrome is grouped alongside eating disorders such as bulimia and pica , which are themselves grouped under non @-@ psychotic mental disorder . In most healthy adolescents and adults who have no mental disability , Rumination syndrome is considered a motility disorder instead of an eating disorder , because the patients tend to have had no control over its occurrence and have had no history of eating disorders .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
While the number and severity of symptoms varies among individuals , repetitive regurgitation of undigested food ( known as rumination ) after the start of a meal is always present . In some individuals , the regurgitation is small , occurring over a long period of time following ingestion , and can be rechewed and swallowed . In others , the amount can be bilious and short lasting , and must be expelled . While some only experience symptoms following some meals , most experience episodes following any ingestion , from a single bite to a massive feast . However , some long @-@ term patients will find a select couple of food or drink items that do not trigger a response .
Unlike typical vomiting , the regurgitation is typically described as effortless and unforced . There is seldom nausea preceding the expulsion , and the undigested food lacks the bitter taste and odour of stomach acid and bile .
Symptoms can begin to manifest at any point from the ingestion of the meal to 120 minutes thereafter . However , the more common range is between 30 seconds to 1 hour after the completion of a meal . Symptoms tend to cease when the ruminated contents become acidic .
Abdominal pain ( 38 @.@ 1 % ) , lack of fecal production or constipation ( 21 @.@ 1 % ) , nausea ( 17 @.@ 0 % ) , diarrhea ( 8 @.@ 2 % ) , bloating ( 4 @.@ 1 % ) , and dental decay ( 3 @.@ 4 % ) are also described as common symptoms in day @-@ to @-@ day life . These symptoms are not necessarily prevalent during regurgitation episodes , and can happen at any time . Weight loss is often observed ( 42 @.@ 2 % ) at an average loss of 9 @.@ 6 kilograms , and is more common in cases where the disorder has gone undiagnosed for a longer period of time , though this may be expected of the nutrition deficiencies that often accompany the disorder as a consequence of its symptoms . Depression has also been linked with rumination syndrome , though the effects of it on rumination syndrome are unknown .
Acid erosion of the teeth can be a feature of rumination , as can halitosis ( bad breath ) .
= = Causes = =
The cause of rumination syndrome is unknown . However , studies have drawn a correlation between hypothesized causes and the history of patients with the disorder . In infants and the cognitively impaired , the disease has normally been attributed to over @-@ stimulation and under @-@ stimulation from parents and caregivers , causing the individual to seek self @-@ gratification and self @-@ stimulus due to the lack or abundance of external stimuli . The disorder has also commonly been attributed to a bout of illness , a period of stress in the individual 's recent past , and to changes in medication .
In adults and adolescents , hypothesized causes generally fall into one of either category : habit @-@ induced , and trauma @-@ induced . Habit @-@ induced individuals generally have a history of bulimia nervosa or of intentional regurgitation ( magicians and professional regurgitators , for example ) , which though initially self @-@ induced , forms a subconscious habit that can continue to manifest itself outside the control of the affected individual . Trauma @-@ induced individuals describe an emotional or physical injury ( such as recent surgery , psychological distress , concussions , deaths in the family , etc . ) , which preceded the onset of rumination , often by several months .
= = Diagnosis = =
Rumination syndrome is diagnosed based on a complete history of the individual . Costly and invasive studies such as gastroduodenal manometry and esophageal Ph testing are unnecessary and will often aid in misdiagnosis . Based on typical observed features , several criteria have been suggested for diagnosing rumination syndrome . The primary symptom , the regurgitation of recently ingested food , must be consistent , occurring for at least six weeks of the past twelve months . The regurgitation must begin within 30 minutes of the completion of a meal . Patients may either chew the regurgitated matter or expel it . The symptoms must stop within 90 minutes , or when the regurgitated matter becomes acidic . The symptoms must not be the result of a mechanical obstruction , and should not respond to the standard treatment for gastroesophageal reflux disease .
In adults , the diagnosis is supported by the absence of classical or structural diseases of the gastrointestinal system . Supportive criteria include a regurgitant that does not taste sour or acidic , is generally odourless , is effortless , or at most preceded by a belching sensation , that there is no retching preceding the regurgitation , and that the act is not associated with nausea or heartburn .
Patients visit an average of five physicians over 2 @.@ 75 years before being correctly diagnosed with rumination syndrome .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
Rumination syndrome in adults is a complicated disorder whose symptoms can mimic those of several other gastroesophogeal disorders and diseases . Bulimia nervosa and gastroparesis are especially prevalent among the misdiagnoses of rumination .
Bulimia nervosa , among adults and especially adolescents , is by far the most common misdiagnosis patients will hear during their experiences with rumination syndrome . This is due to the similarities in symptoms to an outside observer — " vomiting " following food intake — which , in long @-@ term patients , may include ingesting copious amounts to offset malnutrition , and a lack of willingness to expose their condition and its symptoms . While it has been suggested that there is a connection between rumination and bulimia , unlike bulimia , rumination is not self @-@ inflicted . Adults and adolescents with rumination syndrome are generally well aware of their gradually increasing malnutrition , but are unable to control the reflex . In contrast , those with bulimia intentionally induce vomiting , and seldom re @-@ swallow food .
Gastroparesis is another common misdiagnosis . Like rumination syndrome , patients with gastroparesis often bring up food following the ingestion of a meal . Unlike rumination , gastroparesis causes vomiting ( in contrast to regurgitation ) of food , which is not being digested further , from the stomach . This vomiting occurs several hours after a meal is ingested , preceded by nausea and retching , and has the bitter or sour taste typical of vomit .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Rumination syndrome is a poorly understood disorder , and a number of theories have speculated the mechanisms that cause the regurgitation , which is a unique symptom to this disorder . While no theory has gained a consensus , some are more notable and widely published than others .
The most widely documented mechanism is that the ingestion of food causes gastric distention , which is followed by abdominal compression and the simultaneous relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter ( LES ) . This creates a common cavity between the stomach and the oropharynx that allows the partially digested material to return to the mouth . There are several offered explanations for the sudden relaxation of the LES . Among these explanations is that it is a learned voluntary relaxation , which is common in those with or having had bulimia . While this relaxation may be voluntary , the overall process of rumination is still generally involuntary . Relaxation due to intra @-@ abdominal pressure is another proposed explanation , which would make abdominal compression the primary mechanism . The third is an adaptation of the belch reflex , which is the most commonly described mechanism . The swallowing of air immediately prior to regurgitation causes the activation of the belching reflex that triggers the relaxation of the LES . Patients often describe a feeling similar to the onset of a belch preceding rumination .
= = Treatment and prognosis = =
There is presently no known cure for rumination . Proton pump inhibitors and other medications have been used to little or no effect . Treatment is different for infants and the mentally handicapped than for adults and adolescents of normal intelligence . For adults and adolescents , Biofeedback and relaxation techniques , to be practice after eating or whenever regurgitation occurs , has proven to be most effective . Among infants and the mentally handicapped , behavioral and mild aversive training has been shown to cause improvement in most cases . Aversive training involves associating the ruminating behavior with negative results , and rewarding good behavior and eating . Placing a sour or bitter taste on the tongue when the individual begins the movements or breathing patterns typical of his or her ruminating behavior is the generally accepted method for aversive training , although some older studies advocate the use of pinching . In patients of normal intelligence , rumination is not an intentional behavior and is habitually reversed using diaphragmatic breathing to counter the urge to regurgitate . Alongside reassurance , explanation and habit reversal , patients are shown how to breathe using their diaphragms prior to and during the normal rumination period . A similar breathing pattern can be used to prevent normal vomiting . Breathing in this method works by physically preventing the abdominal contractions required to expel stomach contents .
Supportive therapy and diaphragmatic breathing has shown to cause improvement in 56 % of cases , and total cessation of symptoms in an additional 30 % in one study of 54 adolescent patients who were followed up 10 months after initial treatments . Patients who successfully use the technique often notice an immediate change in health for the better . Individuals who have had bulimia or who intentionally induced vomiting in the past have a reduced chance for improvement due to the reinforced behavior . The technique is not used with infants or young children due to the complex timing and concentration required for it to be successful . Most infants grow out of the disorder within a year or with aversive training .
= = Epidemiology = =
Rumination disorder was initially documented as affecting newborns , infants , children and individuals with mental and functional disabilities ( the cognitively handicapped ) . It has since been recognized to occur in both males and females of all ages and cognitive abilities .
Among the latter , it is described with almost equal prevalence among infants ( 6 – 10 % of the population ) and institutionalized adults ( 8 – 10 % ) . In infants , it typically occurs within the first 3 – 12 months of age .
The occurrence of rumination syndrome within the general population has not been defined . Rumination is sometimes described as rare , but has also been described as not rare , but rather rarely recognized . The disorder has a female predominance . The typical age of adolescent onset is 12 @.@ 9 , give or take 0 @.@ 4 years ( ± ) , with males affected sooner than females ( 11 @.@ 0 ± 0 @.@ 8 for males versus 13 @.@ 8 ± 0 @.@ 5 for females ) .
There is little evidence concerning the impact of hereditary influence in rumination syndrome . However , case reports involving entire families with rumination exist .
= = History = =
The term rumination is derived from the Latin word ruminare , which means to chew the cud . First described in ancient times , and mentioned in the writings of Aristotle , rumination syndrome was clinically documented in 1618 by Italian anatomist Fabricus ab Aquapendende , who wrote of the symptoms in a patient of his .
Among the earliest cases of rumination was that of a physician in the nineteenth century , Charles @-@ Édouard Brown @-@ Séquard , who acquired the condition as the result of experiments upon himself . As a way of evaluating and testing the acid response of the stomach to various foods , the doctor would swallow sponges tied to a string , then intentionally regurgitate them to analyze the contents . As a result of these experiments , the doctor eventually regurgitated his meals habitually by reflex .
Numerous case reports exist from before the twentieth century , but were influenced greatly by the methods and thinking used in that time . By the early twentieth century , it was becoming increasingly evident that rumination presented itself in a variety of ways in response to a variety of conditions . Although still considered a disorder of infancy and cognitive disability at that time , the difference in presentation between infants and adults was well established .
Studies of rumination in otherwise healthy adults became decreasingly rare starting in the 1900s , and the majority of published reports analyzing the syndrome in mentally healthy patients appeared thereafter . At first , adult rumination was described and treated as a benign condition . It is now described as otherwise . While the base of patients to examine has gradually increased as more and more people come forward with their symptoms , awareness of the condition by the medical community and the general public is still limited .
= = In other animals = =
The chewing of cud by animals such as cows , goats , and giraffes is considered normal behavior . These animals are known as ruminants . Such behavior , though termed rumination , is not related to human rumination syndrome , but is ordinary . Involuntary rumination , similar to what is seen in humans , has been described in gorillas and other primates .
= Lactarius argillaceifolius =
Lactarius argillaceifolius is a species of fungus in the Russulaceae family . The mushrooms produced by the fungus have convex to flattened drab lilac @-@ colored caps that are up to 18 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) wide . The cream @-@ colored gills are closely spaced together and extend slightly down the length of the stem , which is up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) long by 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick . The mushroom produces an off @-@ white latex when injured that stains the mushroom tissue brownish .
The species is found in eastern North America , with a range extending from Canada to northeastern Mexico . It has also been found in pine plantations in Brazil , where it is probably an introduced species . Lactarius trivialis is a European counterpart that is similar in appearance . In addition to its distribution , it can be distinguished from L. argillaceifolius by differences in preferred habitat and color differences in the gills , cap , and latex . The L. argillaceifolius variety megacarpus , a larger form with caps up to 27 cm ( 11 in ) wide , occurs under coast live oak and tanoak in the Pacific Coast states and Baja California . Variety dissimilis , described on the basis of a single specimen from South Carolina , differs from the main form in the microscopic structure of the cap cuticle .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
The species was first described by American mycologists Lexemuel Ray Hesler and Alexander H. Smith in their 1979 monograph on the North American species of Lactarius . The type specimen — collected by Smith from Oak Grove , Livingston County , Michigan , in July 1972 — is housed at the University of Michigan Herbarium . Hesler and Smith simultaneously published the varieties dissimilis and megacarpus , collected from South Carolina and California , respectively . The variety megacarpus is commonly known as the " vulgar milkcap " .
Smith and Hesler classified L. argillaceifolius in subgenus Tristes , in stirps Argillaceifolius . This grouping of related species , which includes L. fumaecolor , is characterized by the gelatinous cuticle of the stem .
= = Description = =
The cap is 4 – 18 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) wide , and initially convex to broadly convex before flattening out with a depressed center . The cap margin is curved inward , and often remains that way into maturity . The cap surface is covered with fine soft hairs when young , but later becomes smooth ; it is slimy and sticky when wet . The color of the cap ranges from lilac @-@ brown when young , fading to lilac @-@ tan or pale lilac @-@ gray and eventually to pale tan or pinkish @-@ buff at the center . The gills are attached to slightly decurrent ( extending somewhat down the length of the stem ) , broad , and packed together closely . They are cream @-@ colored when young , and later develop pinkish tones near the margin . In maturity , they become flushed with brownish @-@ orange . The color stains buff to olive @-@ brown to dark brown when bruised .
The stem is 6 – 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) long by 1 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick , and nearly equal in width throughout or tapering downward . Its surface may be slimy or dry , depending on the moisture in the environment . It is whitish , but in age becomes spotted with brownish stains . The flesh is firm , and white to buff . Its odor is not distinctive , while its taste is mild or slowly becomes slightly acrid . The latex is creamy @-@ white on initial exposure , and stains the gills grayish @-@ brown to dark brown or olive @-@ brown ; its taste is mild or slowly becomes slightly acrid . Older fruit bodies tend to have less abundant and weaker @-@ tasting latex . The spore print is pinkish @-@ buff . The edibility of L. argillaceifolius is unknown . The cap surface will turn yellow to orange when a drop of dilute potassium hydroxide is applied .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are roughly spherical to broadly elliptical , and measure 7 – 11 by 7 – 8 µm . They are ornamented with warts and ridges that sometimes form a partial reticulum ( a pattern of interconnected ridges ) , with prominences up to 1 µm high . The spore are hyaline ( translucent ) and amyloid , meaning that they will absorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The cap cuticle of young specimens is made of a tissue type known an ixotrichoderm , which contains gelatinized hyphae of different lengths arranged in roughly parallel fashion . As the mushroom matures , the cap cuticle gradually becomes an ixolattice — characterized by branching , entangled , gelatinous hyphae . The basidia ( the spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , and measure 45 – 52 by 9 – 10 @.@ 5 µm . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are abundant , and relatively long — between 60 – 140 µm long by 6 – 14 µm thick . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) measure 32 – 67 by 6 – 9 µm .
= = = Varieties = = =
Lactarius argillaceifolius var. dissimilis , a variety reported from South Carolina , is nearly identical in appearance , but it has white latex that tastes bitter then acrid . The structure of the cap cuticle differs from the nominate variety in that it has dextrinoid ( staining yellowish or reddish brown with Meltzer 's reagent ) incrustations on the hyphae . The variety megacarpus has a larger cap ( up to 27 cm ( 11 in ) wide with flesh that is up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick ) , and white and unchanging latex with an acrid taste . Its stem measures 16 to 20 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) long by 4 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide near the top . Microscopically , the spores of var. megacarpus are more reticulate than the nominate variety .
= = = Similar species = = =
Lactarius trivialis is a European species that is similar in appearance to L. argillaceifolius , and they are often confused for each other . L. trivialis can be distinguished by gills that stain brown when exposed to the latex , and a preference for growing in conifer- and birch @-@ rich boreal and subalpine forests . Variety megacarpus may be confused with L. pallescens , a smaller paler @-@ colored species with latex that stains gills lilac rather than brown .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Like all Lactarius species , L. argillaceifolius is mycorrhizal . The fruit bodies of Lactarius argillaceifolius grow scattered or in groups on the ground under hardwoods , especially oak , from July to October . It is often one of the first mycorrhizal mushrooms to fruit in forests dominated by oak and hickory . The fruit bodies are slow to develop and are long @-@ lasting . The species is found from eastern Canada south to Florida , and west to Minnesota and Texas . It is common in northeast Mexico . The mushroom has also been reported from southern Brazil ( state of Santa Catarina ) growing in association with pine ( Pinus elliottii ) plantations , where it has probably been introduced with pine seedlings brought by settlers . L. argillaceifolius var. megacarpus has been collected from Baja California , California , Oregon , and Washington , where it grows in association with coast live oak and tanoak .
= Jeffrey Pollack =
For the film director and television producer , see Jeff Pollack .
For the music and media consultant , see Jeff Pollack .
Jeffrey Pollack ( born circa 1965 ) is a sports business consultant and former Commissioner of the World Series of Poker . He was educated at Northwestern University , The Graduate School of Political Management and the University of Massachusetts Amherst . Pollack later completed the Advanced Management Program at Harvard University . After a brief career in politics , Pollack moved into the industry of sports business where he ’ s held executive roles with the NBA , NASCAR , and the World Series of Poker ( WSOP ) .
Pollack was listed on the first of Sports Business Journal 's " 40 Under 40 " and twice to The Sporting News 100 . He has also won two Emmy Awards . Pollack is married , and resides in both Los Angeles and Las Vegas . His half @-@ brother is Gary Bettman , the Commissioner of the National Hockey League .
In 2011 , Pollack launched Federated Sports + Gaming ( FS + G ) and the Epic Poker League , where he served as Executive Chairman . Within a year , FS + G had filed bankruptcy .
In early 2015 , Pollack was hired as special advisor to the San Diego Chargers .
= = Education and Early career = =
Pollack received his undergraduate degree in journalism from Northwestern University , in addition to two master 's degrees . The first master 's was from The Graduate School of Political Management and his second was in sports management from the University of Massachusetts Amherst . Pollack subsequently completed the Advanced Management Program at Harvard University .
Initially , Pollack ’ s career led into politics . A summer internship with the American Jewish Congress prompted a one @-@ year role with the AJC . He worked as a lobbyist on legislation that would permit religious headwear for active military personal in noncombat settings . Pollack then relocated to Los Angeles to work for Winner & Associates , a leading political public relations firm . He was assigned to consult the Major Baseball League during the labor strife in the early @-@ 1990s . The inception of Pollack ’ s career in sports business occurred in 1992 when he realized — while flying from LA to New York — that there was a niche to fill in the industry .
In February 1994 , at the age of 29 , Pollack founded The Sports Business Daily . It was the first daily trade publication for the sports industry . Pollack modelled the concept for the Sports Business Daily on the political daily The Hotline . Its primary goal was to “ cover the coverage , ” or aggregate and organize daily news that was related to business of sports Doug Bailey , The Hotline 's founder , was Jeffrey Pollack 's partner in this venture . Pollack later noted that Bailey ’ s influence was “ absolutely critical ” to the initial success of The Daily . The Sports Business Daily originally occupied 3 rooms in the same building and initially hired The Hotline 's Stephen Bilafer as the Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief . Fellow editor Chuck Todd followed Bilafer in the move from The Hotline to The Daily . Bilafer would go on to note that it would have been a “ deal breaker ” had Todd not been permitted to join him at the SBD . After assembling a small editorial , marketing and sales team , The Sports Business Daily launched on September 12 , 1994 amidst the “ perfect storm of business and sports stories . ” With Pollack as its president and publisher , The Sports Business Daily garnered a strong reputation among to decision @-@ makers in the industry . When the time The Sports Business Daily was sold in 1996 , it was a " recognized leader in sports industry news and is relied upon by top sports , entertainment , financial , and media executives worldwide . " At the time of the sale , The Sports Business Daily provided the content for ESPN 's SportsZone " Industry Insider . "
Pollack 's career with the NBA began when he was hired as a communications consultant for the NBA during its collective bargaining arrangement . Pollack consulted with NBA commissioner David Stern and helped design the relaunch strategy after the NBA lockout in the 1998 – 99 season . As a result of these activities , Pollack was hired as the Vice President of Marketing & Corporate Communications for the NBA . He remained with the league until 2000 .
After a brief stint with a sports website , which Pollack once termed his “ reverse MBA , ” he was hired as the Managing Director of Broadcasting and New Media for NASCAR Digital Entertainment . NASCAR had recently consolidated its media rights and the brand reoriented the way it presented itself to consumer product and global media companies . Pollack helped develop NASCAR 's television partnerships with Fox , FX , NBC and TNT and it was under his guidance that NASCAR grew into a major sporting event . At the time , it rose to the “ second @-@ most @-@ watched sprots franchcise on cable TV , behind football . " Pollack also encouraged NASCAR to use advanced media and technologies . One of his central innovations was to create an immersive experience for viewers at home . He helped developed the cable TV program , NASCAR iN Car , which involved mounting cameras that could capture the race from inside the cars . [ 15 ] Pollack won two Emmy Awards , as a result : the Primetime Emmy for Outstanding Achievement in Interactive Television Programming and a Sports Emmy for Outstanding Innovative Technical Achievement . He was also the first to receive the Billboard Digital Entertainment Award for the best interactive television programming .
= = World Series of Poker = =
In 2005 , Harrah 's Casino hired Pollack as its Vice President of Marketing . While he was officially responsible for Harrah ’ s sports ventures , which included boxing and motor sports , Pollack stated that , " My top priority is to grow the popularity of the World Series of Poker … It is already the No. 1 brand in poker , but we 're going to make it even stronger through world @-@ class media partnerships , strategic marketing alliances and superior customer service . " By most accounts , he succeeded doing just this . Pollack introduced a range of changes into the WSOP ’ s media relations , player relations , tournament structure and schedule , and expanded into international markets .
His first responsibility with Harrah 's was the 2005 World Series of Poker . Poker players ' first impression of him centered on the 2005 Tournament of Champions ( ToC ) . The ToC was hyped as a $ 2 @.@ 5 million freeroll for which players had to qualify . In 2005 , the ToC was sponsored by Pepsi , who was about to start an advertising campaign involving Doyle Brunson , Johnny Chan , and Phil Hellmuth . Pepsi insisted that its three spokesmen take part in the ToC and the WSOP consented . The other players objected that three corporate exemptions were granted at the last moment . Pollack was heavily criticized , but addressed the criticism head on and ensured that a similar misstep would never occur .
= = = WSOP Changes = = =
On January 13 , 2006 he was promoted to Commissioner of the WSOP . One of his first actions as the commissioner was to work towards avoiding the criticism of the ToC . Pollack started meeting with a group of professional poker players in a monthly council . While the council did not have formal decision @-@ making authority , Pollack stated in 2009 that “ we haven ’ t made a meaningful decision about event schedules , structures , rules , et cetera , since 2006 without the input of the Players Advisory Council . ”
Pollack believed that the success of the WSOP was not determined based upon the number of participants every year , but rather upon the players ' experiences . For example , in 2007 the WSOP flattened its award structure . The cash awards were distributed more evenly so that people who went out earlier earned more money , while those who made it to the final table won less .
In an effort to reduce complaints about marked cards , the WSOP entered into a partnership with United States Playing Card Company ( USPC ) . USPC introduced a new " Poker Peek " cards as the official card of the WSOP . New decks were introduced every day at every table . In 2006 , Copag provided playing cards that became creased as the events endured , resulting in cards that were essentially marked .
The training of WSOP dealers was also heavily criticized in past tournaments . In an effort to forestall this criticism , the WSOP began intensive training for dealers as early as March 2007 for over 300 dealers . The training included staff and supervisory training . Part of the reason for this additional training was to prevent a repeat of the " extra chips " that materialized during 2006 's main event . During the 2006 main event , the tournament finished with more chips than normal chip upgrading would have led to . Another effort to reduce that risk was the introduction of special chips exclusively for the main event .
In 2008 , Pollack revised the tournament ’ s schedule and introduced a four @-@ month break after the finalists had been determined in July . The hiatus was intended to help build suspense and allow the finalists to promote themselves as “ poker ambassadors ” before play resumed in November . The final two days of play were edited down to a two @-@ hour show and broadcast on ESPN .
Pollack also led the tournament ’ s international expansion with WSOP Europe . The first tournament was held in London and hosted by London Clubs International at three casinos : the Fifty , Leicester Square and the Sportsman . Pollack insisted , “ The World Series of Poker Europe will have a unique identity , style and flair , but will remain true to the 38 @-@ year tradition and heritage of the WSOP . ” The WSOPE remained in England from 2007 @-@ 2010 , was hosted in France from 2010 @-@ 2013 and is expected to be hosted in Berlin in 2015 .
= = = Marketing = = =
Pollack is known for his aggressive marketing . He ’ s noted on several occasions that he ’ s taken the strategies of the major sports brands , i.e. NASCAR , the NBA , and the NFL , and extracted the best practices to grow the WSOP . He has asserted , moreover , that “ [ s ] ports marketing fundamentally is about the selling of hope . Fans have the hope of their favorite team trading for the right player , drafting the right player , winning a game , winning the season , winning the world championship . ” And furthermore that , “ [ t ] he World Series of Poker offers a brand of hope that is infinitely more accessible ” insofar as anyone can enter the tournament and have a chance to play at the final table .
After becoming the Commissioner of the WSOP , he negotiated partnerships with ESPN , Sirius radio , Glu Mobile , Bluff Media , AOL , and Betfair . He also arranged sponsorships with Miller Brewing Company , Planters and Hershey ’ s . In 2006 , Card Player Media provided hand @-@ by @-@ hand reporting , streamed player interviews , gave player recaps and displayed real @-@ time chip count on its website . Once Pollack was asked if professional poker players would start wearing uniforms covered with ads , similar to NASCAR . He responded , " That is not out of the realm of possibility . As long as they stick to the guidelines , players will be allowed to seek endorsement deals and advertise as they wish . "
Pollack believed that the strength in the WSOP lies in its tradition and legacy . He wanted to do more to honor the WSOP 's past champions , " I want to bring our past , our history , and our DNA along for the ride . "
= = = Reception By Players = = =
Pollack was generally received well by the players , although he did have dissenters . Daniel Negreanu was impressed with his first meeting with Pollack , noting that professional poker is " a unique situation , as with the NBA players are being paid , while the poker players actually put up their own money . " However , by 2012 , Negreanu had changed his opinion of Pollack , crediting WSOP Vice President Ty Stewart and others for the event 's growth and popularity .
On the other hand , Pollack ’ s emphasis on the player ’ s experience along with his effectiveness in growing the WSOP cast him in a good light . This can be seen most clearly through the extent of support he received when he announced his resignation as commissioner . One commentator declared , “ the news hit the poker world … like a ton of bricks , ” and that his tenure in the role “ may be unmatched . ” Well @-@ known players like Phil Hellmuth , Peter Eastgate and Barry Goldstein expressed their esteem for Pollack .
= = = Resignation = = =
On November 13 , 2009 , Pollack announced on his Twitter feed that he was resigning as Commissioner . In a separate statement , he commented , “ Everything I set out to accomplish in 2005 , I think I have accomplished . The World Series of Poker is bigger than ever before . The brand is in a strong position and the player experience is better than it 's ever been . ” Pollock did not elaborate on any subsequent career opportunities , but said , " I 'm going to take a moment to pause and reflect , then will think things through and make some decisions , "
= = Epic Poker League = =
In January 2011 , Pollack and Annie Duke announced the launch of Federated Sports + Gaming ( FS + G ) , the parent company for the Epic Poker League . Duke served as the league ’ s commissioner . The EPL was designed to showcase the best players in the world and elevate them to the status of leading figures akin to icons in other sports . There was to be 200 players admitted and ranked by a system “ driven by mathematics and proven historic achievement . ” Pollack stated , “ I ’ ve long believed that the top professional poker players create enormous value for the industry and are skilled in a way that is worthy of star treatment , ” and moreover that , “ [ o ] ur new league will celebrate poker professionals like never before and provide a tournament experience at the Palms that is first @-@ class at every turn . ” The first season of the EPL was slated to include four “ rake @-@ free ” $ 20 @,@ 000 Main Events , in addition to a $ 1 million Championship Event . The EPL had negotiated 20 hours of television programming . Seven of which were to be aired on CBS and the remaining 13 on Discovery Communications ’ Velocity network .
From early on , industry insiders questioned the company 's business model . By February 2012 , after only holding three events , FS + G had filed bankruptcy , generating just over $ 38 @,@ 000 in revenue and accumulating up to $ 7 million in debt .
= = Advisor to the Chargers = =
In early 2015 , the San Diego Chargers hired Pollack as a special advisor to the team ’ s Chair and President Dean Spanos . Pollack will serve to consult the team on both future revenue growth and the development of a new stadium . Pollock aided Chargers Special Council Mark Fabiani in the hiring and identifying of Manica , the architects tasked with designing a stadium in Carson , California .
= Marvel One @-@ Shots =
Marvel One @-@ Shots are a series of direct @-@ to @-@ video short films produced by Marvel Studios , set within the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) , released from 2011 to 2014 . They are included as special features in the MCU films ' Blu @-@ ray and digital distribution releases , but are not included in the DVD releases . Each of the films , which range from 4 to 14 minutes , are designed to be a self @-@ contained story that provides more backstory for characters or events introduced in the films . Two of the shorts have been the inspiration for television series set in the MCU .
The Consultant ( 2011 ) and A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor 's Hammer ( 2011 ) star Clark Gregg as Agent Phil Coulson , and offer up self @-@ contained stories about a day in the life of a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent . Item 47 ( 2012 ) stars Lizzy Caplan and Jesse Bradford as a down @-@ on @-@ their @-@ luck couple who find a discarded Chitauri gun after the events of Marvel 's The Avengers . Agent Carter ( 2013 ) stars Hayley Atwell as Peggy Carter after the events of Captain America : The First Avenger , while All Hail the King ( 2014 ) stars Ben Kingsley as Trevor Slattery after the events of Iron Man 3 .
= = Development = =
In August 2011 , Marvel announced that a couple of short films , designed to be self @-@ contained stories , would be released direct @-@ to @-@ video . Co @-@ producer Brad Winderbaum said " It 's a fun way to experiment with new characters and ideas , but more importantly it 's a way for us to expand the Marvel Cinematic Universe and tell stories that live outside the plot of our features . " The first two films were made in conjunction with The Ebeling Group and were directed by Leythum and written by Eric Pearson . Winderbaum added that the name of the shorts program was derived from the label used by Marvel Comics for their one @-@ shot comics .
Marvel Studios co @-@ president Louis D ’ Esposito later stated that Marvel was considering the idea of introducing established characters who may not yet be ready to carry their own feature films in future One @-@ Shots , stating , " There ’ s always a potential to introduce a character . We have 8 @,@ 000 of them , and they can ’ t all be at the same level . So maybe there are some that are not so popular , and we introduce them [ with a short ] – and they take off . I could see that happening . " When asked whether a Marvel superhero would ever appear in a One @-@ Shot , D 'Esposito replied that " We would love to , but it ’ s difficult because there ’ s a cost to that . If Iron Man is flying around doing something , that [ is ] very costly . And first of all , what ’ s the story ? Is it important that that superhero is in the story ? "
During the Agent Carter panel at the 2013 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , D 'Esposito stated that bringing the shorts to theaters , to appear before features , was being considered . In May 2014 , it was revealed that a One @-@ Shot would not be released with Captain America : The Winter Soldier 's home media , and in October 2014 , it was revealed that Guardians of the Galaxy 's home media release would not include one either . Guardians of the Galaxy director James Gunn stated that a One @-@ Shot was not included with the film due to lack of space on the disc .
= = Films = =
= = = The Consultant ( 2011 ) = = =
Set after the events of Iron Man 2 and The Incredible Hulk , Phil Coulson informs Jasper Sitwell that the World Security Council wishes Emil Blonsky released from prison to join the Avengers Initiative . They see him as a war hero and blame the devastation in New York City on Bruce Banner . The Council orders them to send an agent to ask General Thaddeus " Thunderbolt " Ross to release Blonsky into S.H.I.E.L.D. custody . As Nick Fury does not want to release Blonsky , the two agents decide to send a patsy to sabotage the meeting . At Sitwell 's urging , Coulson reluctantly sends " The Consultant " : Tony Stark . As partially depicted in the post @-@ credits scene of The Incredible Hulk , a disgraced Ross sits drinking in a bar , when he is approached by Stark , who annoys Ross so much that he tries to have Stark removed from the bar . In reply , Stark buys the bar and has it scheduled for demolition . The next day , Coulson informs Sitwell that their plan worked , and that Blonsky will remain in prison .
At the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con , Marvel announced that The Consultant would appear exclusively on the Thor Blu @-@ ray release on September 13 , 2011 . It was directed by Leythum and written by Eric Pearson , with music by Paul Oakenfold . Clark Gregg and Maximiliano Hernández return to portray Agent Phil Coulson and Agent Jasper Sitwell , respectively , from the films . They are joined via archive footage by Robert Downey , Jr. as Tony Stark / The Consultant , William Hurt as General Thaddeus " Thunderbolt " Ross and Tim Roth as Emil Blonsky in his Abomination form . Co @-@ producer Brian Winderbaum said the producers " wanted to paint a picture of S.H.I.E.L.D. pulling the strings and being responsible for some of the events seen in the films . What better character to represent this idea than Agent Coulson , the first S.H.I.E.L.D. agent we were introduced to in the first Iron Man film ? " Gregg said he was told about the short film program in the same phone call that warned him Coulson would die in The Avengers . The actor noticed that the One @-@ Shots could then provide more information on Coulson , to " build the audience 's relationship [ with ] him " before his impactful death . The Consultant was written after A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor 's Hammer , due to the latter taking up 80 % of the budget Marvel reserved for the two shorts , leaving a remaining budget " for two guys talking " . To help with this , Pearson included Sitwell in the short , who had a minor role in Thor , and had him and Coulson " brainstorming a way to deal with this red tape bureaucratic politics of the Avengers Initiative " .
= = = A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor 's Hammer ( 2011 ) = = =
Set before the events of Thor , Phil Coulson stops at a gas station on his way to Albuquerque , New Mexico . While Coulson shops for snacks in the back of the station , two robbers enter and demand the money from the register . When the robbers ask whose car is outside , Coulson reveals himself , surrenders his keys , and offers to surrender his pistol as well . As he is about to turn over the gun , Coulson distracts the robbers and subdues both men in seconds . He then nonchalantly pays for his snacks while subtly advising the clerk not to mention his involvement to the police and leaves the station .
A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor 's Hammer was included on the Captain America : The First Avenger Blu @-@ ray release on October 25 , 2011 . It was directed by Leythum and written by Eric Pearson , with music by Paul Oakenfold . The short stars Clark Gregg reprising his role as Agent Phil Coulson . The short served to showcase Coulson as " more than just an annoying bureaucrat " of S.H.I.E.L.D.
= = = Item 47 ( 2012 ) = = =
Bennie and Claire , a down @-@ on @-@ their @-@ luck couple , find a discarded Chitauri gun ( " Item 47 " ) left over from the attack on New York City in The Avengers . The couple use it to rob a few banks , drawing the attention of S.H.I.E.L.D. , which assigns agents Sitwell and Blake to retrieve the weapon and " neutralize " the couple . Agent Sitwell tracks the couple down to a motel room that gets wrecked in the subsequent confrontation , and the stolen money gets destroyed . Instead of killing the couple , Sitwell invites them to join S.H.I.E.L.D. , with Bennie assigned to the R & D ' think @-@ tank ' to reverse engineer the Chitauri technology , and Claire becoming Blake 's assistant .
Item 47 was released on The Avengers Blu @-@ ray on September 25 , 2012 . The film stars Jesse Bradford and Lizzy Caplan as Bennie and Claire , respectively . The film also sees the return of Agent Sitwell , played by Maximiliano Hernández , and introduced Agent Blake , portrayed by Titus Welliver . It was directed by Marvel Studios co @-@ president Louis D ’ Esposito , written by Eric Pearson , and music by Christopher Lennertz . The short film , which was filmed over four days , has a runtime of 12 minutes , longer than the previous films , which were no longer than 4 minutes . Pearson and D 'Esposito had the idea for the short after watching The Avengers and thinking , " New York is a mess . There must be weapons everywhere " . Item 47 helped inspire the MCU television series Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.
= = = Agent Carter ( 2013 ) = = =
One year after the events of Captain America : The First Avenger , Agent Peggy Carter , now a member of the Strategic Scientific Reserve , is stuck compiling data instead of working field cases . One night while alone in the office , the case line rings , informing Carter of the location of the mysterious Zodiac . She goes to the location , and is able to retrieve the serum single @-@ handedly . The next day , her boss , Agent Flynn , reprimands her for not going through the proper procedures to complete the mission . Carter explains that the mission was time @-@ sensitive , but Flynn is unmoved , dismissing the indignant Carter as an " old flame " of Captain America 's who was given her current job out of pity for her bereavement . The case line rings again , this time with Howard Stark on the other end , who tells Flynn to inform Carter that she will co @-@ head the newly created S.H.I.E.L.D. In a mid @-@ credit scene , Dum Dum Dugan is seen poolside with Stark , marveling at two women wearing the newly created bikinis .
Agent Carter , released on the Iron Man 3 Blu @-@ ray release on September 24 , 2013 , as well as part of the digital download release on September 3 , 2013 , was seen as a good way of bridging that film with the then upcoming Captain America : The Winter Soldier . It had previously been considered to be released on other home media releases as well . It sees Hayley Atwell reprise her role as Peggy Carter , along with Dominic Cooper , Neal McDonough , and Chris Evans reprising their roles as Howard Stark , Timothy " Dum Dum " Dugan , and Steve Rogers / Captain America , respectively , the latter via archive footage . The short film introduces Bradley Whitford as Agent Flynn and Shane Black as the Disembodied Voice . It was directed by Louis D ’ Esposito and written by Eric Pearson . The short was filmed over five days , and reused visual effects shots of 1940s New York from Captain America : The First Avenger to save money . Christopher Lennertz collaborated with D 'Esposito again on the short , composing music for it . He also composes the music for the MCU television series Marvel 's Agent Carter , which is directly related to the short .
= = = All Hail the King ( 2014 ) = = =
Trevor Slattery , having been captured at the end of Iron Man 3 , is now being held in Seagate Prison . At the prison , he is living luxuriously , having his own personal " butler " , Herman , as well as other inmates who act as his fan club and protection from other inmates . Looking on at the attention Slattery receives in the cafeteria , is Justin Hammer , who wonders what makes him so special . Slattery has been talking with a documentary filmmaker , Jackson Norriss , to chronicle the events of the Mandarin situation seen in Iron Man 3 . Norriss , trying to learn more about Slattery personally , recounts his past from his first casting as a child as well as starring in a failed CBS pilot . Norriss eventually informs Slattery that his portrayal has angered some people , including the actual Ten Rings terrorist group , which Slattery did not know existed . Norriss tells him the history of the Mandarin and the terrorist group , before revealing that he is actually a member of the group . The real reason for Norriss interviewing Slattery is to break him out of prison so he can meet the actual Mandarin . Hearing this , Slattery still has no idea of the full ramifications of his posing as the Mandarin .
In October 2013 , Ben Kingsley said he was working on a secret project with Marvel involving " many members of the crew that were involved in Iron Man 3 , " later revealed to be the short All Hail the King , which was released on the digital download release of Thor : The Dark World on February 4 , 2014 , and on February 25 , 2014 for the Blu @-@ ray release . The film stars : Ben Kingsley as Trevor Slattery , reprising his role from Iron Man 3 ; Scoot McNairy as Jackson Norriss , a member of the Ten Rings terrorist organization posing as a documentary filmmaker ; Lester Speight as Herman ; and Sam Rockwell as Justin Hammer , reprising his role from Iron Man 2 . The short is written and directed by Drew Pearce , the co @-@ screenwriter of Iron Man 3 , and was filmed in Los Angeles . Pearce and producer Stephen Broussard had the idea for the short during the production of Iron Man 3 , to provide " a fresh take " on the Mandarin character . Music for the short was composed by Brian Tyler , with the Caged Heat scenes composed by 1980s TV @-@ music icon Mike Post .
= = Cast and characters = =
List indicator ( s )
A dark grey cell indicates the character was not in the film .
A ^ T indicates the character reappears in a television series .
A V indicates a voice @-@ only role
An A indicates the actor or actress appears via archived footage from previous films .
= = Collection = =
All of the Marvel One @-@ Shots were included on the bonus @-@ disc of the " Marvel Cinematic Universe : Phase Two Collection " box set , which includes all of the Phase Two films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . The One @-@ Shots feature audio commentary , with Gregg providing it for The Consultant and A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor 's Hammer ; D 'Esposito , Hernandez , Welliver and Bradford on Item 47 , D 'Esposito and Atwell for Agent Carter ; and Pearce and Kingsley with All Hail the King . The collection was released on December 8 , 2015 .
= = Reception = =
Cindy White of IGN called The Consultant " intriguing " and said , " The snappy dialogue seems to fit right in with what we expect from a Joss Whedon @-@ ized Avengers movie . " Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net said , " Considering a third of this is a rehash of an old bonus scene and the other 2 / 3 is Coulson sitting and having a chat , this is a pretty big disappointment . "
R.L. Shaffer of IGN called A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor 's Hammer " fun " . Zachary Scheer of Cinema Blend said , " The short is as hackneyed as that title . It 's about four minutes of Coulson being a badass , if the definition of ' badass ' is performing needless slow @-@ motion action stunts and then pausing to consider something normal people would consider – like which donuts to buy . "
Andre Dellamorte of Collider called Item 47 " silly " . William Bibbiani of Crave Online said , " The short is largely a success : [ Maximiliano ] Hernandez , [ Jesse ] Bradford and [ Lizzy ] Caplan are all in fine form although , [ Titus ] Welliver seems saddled with a little awkward dialogue , particularly in regards to Coulson , which doesn ’ t entirely sell . " Spencer Terry of Superhero Hype ! said , " [ Item 47 ] is easily the best one they 've done , and I think that can be attributed to its length seeing as it 's three times longer than the other One @-@ Shots . With a longer run time , the short film doesn 't have to rush to show us everything that it wants to - we get a clear understanding of both the S.H.I.E.L.D. perspective of the events and the robbers ' point of view . "
Andy Hunsaker of Crave Online said , " Agent Carter is a fun treat which could lead the way for some female @-@ led Marvel films and , if nothing else , it gives its title character the send @-@ off she deserves . " Scott Collura of IGN said , " Atwell 's Carter is the big @-@ screen female superhero we 've all been waiting for . She kicks so much ass in this short story with such aplomb , using not just brawn but also brains , and it 's all very clever and fun . " Rosie Fletcher of Total Film said , " Atwell makes a perfect femme fatale @-@ come @-@ special agent , and this ' 40s noir @-@ style short looks great and packs some euphoric action moments . "
IGN 's Cliff Wheatley gave All Hail the King a 9 @.@ 4 out of 10 . He said that it 's " a return to the loveable personality of the hapless Trevor and a step forward for the larger Marvel Cinematic Universe . It has its twists that should satisfy both lovers and haters of Trevor Slattery . But it ’ s the approach that Pearce takes with the material , from the kung @-@ fu movie style credit sequences to the light @-@ hearted tone that takes a sudden and jarring turn . Kingsley once again shines in the role of Slattery , aloof and ignorant , but more than happy to slide back into Mandarin mode if it will please his adoring fans . Pearce does go for some of the same jokes from Iron Man 3 in a sort of referential way , but it ’ s nothing too damaging . " Andrew Wheeler of Comics Alliance criticized the way homosexuality was presented in the short , given it was Marvel Studio 's first attempt to bring LGBT concepts into the MCU .
= = Potential projects = =
In July 2013 , D ’ Esposito said he had considered making stand @-@ alone shorts for several characters , including Loki , a young Nick Fury , Black Panther , Ms. Marvel , and Black Widow . Regarding Loki , D ’ Esposito said " Being on Asgard is very difficult for us to do in a short . It ’ s just impossible for us cost wise . The short would be 30 seconds , and it ’ s over . One shot of Loki on Asgard . " On Fury and Black Panther , he remarked " It ’ s very complicated to do : who plays those characters ? And designing the costume , getting it going … We tried . We were there in development , and we tried , but they were very difficult for all the reasons I gave . And we don ’ t want to do something that ’ s half baked because it ’ s not good for us and it ’ s not good for our fans . " In February 2014 , Pearce mentioned other shorts that he had written that never came to fruition , including ones based on Sin and Crossbones , Jessica Jones , and Damage Control .
In May 2015 , Marvel Studios head Kevin Feige stated that there were " no active plans for the One @-@ Shots to return " , but added that the studio was not opposed to continuing the series , and there was already " a backlog of ideas " for potential One @-@ Shots . In September 2015 , Feige provided further comments on the return of the One @-@ Shots saying , " The universe is big , and we 're moving up to three [ feature films ] a year this year . I don 't know how much beyond that we can go ... [ So ] we do talk about [ making more One @-@ Shots ] a lot ... It 's just about finding the time and the place . "
= 2016 Russian Grand Prix =
The 2016 Russian Grand Prix ( formally known as the 2016 Formula 1 Russian Grand Prix ; Russian : Гран @-@ при России 2016 года ) was a Formula One motor race that took place on 1 May 2016 . The race , contested over fifty @-@ three laps , was held at the Sochi Autodrom . It was the fourth round of the 2016 season and marked the fifth running of the Russian Grand Prix , the third time as a round of the Formula One World Championship since the series inception in 1950 . Nico Rosberg of Mercedes came into the race leading the championship ahead of his teammate Lewis Hamilton , who was the defending race winner .
Nico Rosberg won the race from pole position , ahead of his teammate Lewis Hamilton , with Kimi Räikkönen completing the podium for Ferrari . While Rosberg extended his winning streak to seven consecutive Grands Prix , Sebastian Vettel retired from the race on the first lap , after contact with Red Bull 's Daniil Kvyat . With the maximum number of 100 points from the first four races of the season , Rosberg left Russia with a 43 @-@ point lead to Hamilton . By securing pole position , winning the race , setting the fastest lap and leading every lap , Nico Rosberg achieved the first grand slam of his career .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Going into the fourth Grand Prix weekend of the season , Nico Rosberg and his team Mercedes were leading the Drivers ' and Constructors ' championships respectively . Rosberg was 36 points ahead of his teammate Lewis Hamilton , having taken 75 out of 75 available points from the first three races of the season . Daniel Ricciardo followed in third place , three points behind Hamilton . In the Constructors ' standings , Mercedes headed the field with 114 points , 53 points ahead of Ferrari and 57 points clear of Red Bull . This was the third time since the Russian Grand Prix debuted in Formula One in 2014 that the race was held as part of the World Championship . Two early editions of the race were held in 1913 and 1914 .
Red Bull Racing used the first practice session to test the " aeroscreen " , a form of cockpit protection developed in response to fatal accidents of the drivers such as Jules Bianchi , Justin Wilson and Henry Surtees , who were struck on the head by flying debris . The aeroscreen was developed as an alternative to the " halo " device trialled by Ferrari during pre @-@ season testing . The device was fitted to Daniel Ricciardo 's car and he completed a single installation lap to assess it before it was removed for the remainder of the session . Ricciardo was satisfied with the device , saying : " Where we have the structure in place is pretty much where the mirrors are so I wouldn ’ t say it hindered any more than we are now in terms of visibility . Peripheral vision was fine as well . "
Sole tyre supplier Pirelli brought the medium , soft and supersoft tyres to the event , continuing the trend established in the Australian , Bahrain and Chinese Grands Prix . Per the regulations of the 2016 season , every driver needs to set aside one set each of the two softest compounds for the race and one set of the ultrasofts for Q3 ( should they advance ) . The drivers have freedom of what other compounds they choose for the remaining ten out of thirteen sets .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2016 season , two ninety @-@ minute practice sessions were held on Friday and another one @-@ hour session was held before qualifying on Saturday . In the first session on Friday morning , Nico Rosberg was fastest for Mercedes with a time of 1 : 38 @.@ 127 , more than seven @-@ tenths of a second ahead of his teammate Lewis Hamilton . Both set their fastest times on the super @-@ soft tyre compound , while Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen at Ferrari opted for the harder soft compound , slotting in third and fourth fastest respectively . Several drivers had problems with spinning or running wide , either in turn two or between turns 15 and 16 . Among the drivers caught out were Hamilton , Vettel , Jolyon Palmer and Jenson Button . Two reserve drivers made an appearance during the first free practice session . Sergey Sirotkin drove for Renault , taking the place of Kevin Magnussen , making his second appearance in a Formula One car , after driving for Sauber during free practice at the 2014 Russian Grand Prix . Alfonso Celis Jr. replaced Nico Hülkenberg at Force India during the first practice session . Sirotkin ended the session ahead of his teammate Palmer , while Celis finished last , more than three seconds behind teammate Sergio Pérez .
Lewis Hamilton topped the timesheets in second practice on Friday afternoon with a time of 1 : 37 @.@ 583 , using the super @-@ soft compound . Earlier in the session , he had suffered a spin in turn four that flat @-@ spotted his tyres and sent him back to the pitlane . Rosberg managed only third fastest as the Mercedes drivers were split by Sebastian Vettel , even though the latter suffered from electrical problems that lost him track time . Rosberg in turn was unable to improve on his time set on the soft @-@ compound tyre due to his super @-@ soft run being compromised by yellow flags shown after a spin by Romain Grosjean . Behind the top three , Kimi Räikkönen was again fourth , ahead of Daniel Ricciardo and Valtteri Bottas . Slowest of the session was Sauber 's Marcus Ericsson , with the two Manor drivers Rio Haryanto and Pascal Wehrlein slotting in ahead of him . Wehrlein reported a loss of power after crossing the chequered flag at the end of the session .
In third practice on Saturday morning , Hamilton narrowly beat Rosberg to the fastest time , lapping just 0 @.@ 068 seconds faster than his teammate . All drivers used the super @-@ soft tyre compound to set their fastest lap times , with the two Ferraris of Vettel and Räikkönen third and fourth ahead of the Williams pair of Felipe Massa and Valtteri Bottas . Vettel had spent most of the session testing his car with a heavier fuel load in preparation for the race that would see him start with a five @-@ place grid penalty for a change of the gearbox . He completed the highest number of laps with 28 , ahead of Daniel Ricciardo , who was 11th fastest . At the back end , the Saubers of Ericsson and Nasr were slowest , behind both Manor cars .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with six drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . During the first part of qualifying ( Q1 ) , Lewis Hamilton set the fastest time , a new fastest lap of the track ever at 1 : 36 @.@ 006 . However , he also came under investigation of the stewards as he failed to obliged the rules set for turn 2 , rejoining the track earlier than allowed after running wide . After being summoned to the stewards at the end of qualifying , he walked away with a reprimand , but was not penalised . Behind Rosberg in second place , the two Ferraris of Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen were third and fourth respectively . At the tail end of the field , three pairs of cars were eliminated : both Sauber , Manor and Renault drivers missed Q2 .
In the second part , Nico Rosberg was fastest , half a second faster than teammate Hamilton , and 1 @.@ 7 seconds clear of the pole position lap time from the year before . Both McLarens had shown promising pace , but nevertheless dropped out of contention in 12th and 14th , while Daniil Kvyat was the last driver to secure a place in Q3 , demoting Carlos Sainz , Jr. to 11th . Kvyat 's Red Bull teammate Daniel Ricciardo also progressed , albeit suffering a failure of his wing mirror , which hung off the side of his vehicle during his last timed lap . Eliminated at the back were both Haas drivers , along Nico Hülkenberg , who was unable to follow his teammate Pérez into Q3 and qualified 13th .
As Q3 started , it became apparent that Lewis Hamilton would be unable to take part , suffering from a hybrid system failure in the turbo charger , the same problem that had plagued him in China two weeks earlier . Nico Rosberg went on to secure pole position , even though his last timed lap was compromised by a tyre lockup into turn 13 . Sebastian Vettel was closest to Rosberg , but a five @-@ place grid penalty meant that he would start the race from seventh on the grid , moving Valtteri Bottas into the first row . Kimi Räikkönen was fourth fastest , ahead of Massa , Ricciardo , Pérez , Kvyat and Verstappen . After qualifying , Mercedes decided to switch Hamilton 's car back to his spare power unit , which had been rebuilt following its failure at the Chinese Grand Prix , thereby avoiding a grid penalty , which they would have incurred if a new power unit would have been installed . Williams were satisfied with their pace in qualifying , praising the advances they made in slow @-@ corner speed .
= = = Race = = =
At the start , several drivers made contact with one another into turn two . Sebastian Vettel was hit in the rear by Daniil Kvyat there and during turn three , the latter of which caused him to crash into the barrier and retire from the competition . Further back , Nico Hülkenberg was hit by Esteban Gutiérrez and collected Rio Haryanto , forcing both Hülkenberg and Haryanto into retirement as well . As the safety car came out to allow for the cars and debris to be cleared from the track , several cars headed to the pit lane to repair damage , among them Daniel Ricciardo , Daniil Kvyat and Sergio Pérez . The order at the restart on lap four was : Rosberg , Räikkönen , Bottas , Massa and Hamilton , who had stayed clear of the incidents to move up to fifth . On the restart , Bottas moved ahead of Räikkönen , while Hamilton made a successful move on Massa into fourth . Kvyat 's early pit stop left him in 15th at that point , and he soon served a ten @-@ second stop @-@ and @-@ go penalty for his contacts with Vettel , dropping him to last . Meanwhile , Hamilton overtook Räikkönen to move into third on lap seven . Felipe Nasr came into the pits on lap 12 to replace a slow puncture on his tyres . The order at the front remained the same until Bottas became the first front runner to pit for fresh tyres on lap 17 . Hamilton followed suit one lap later , but still emerged behind Bottas , overtaking him into turn two another lap later . On lap 20 , Räikkönen pitted as well , coming back out behind Hamilton , but ahead of Bottas . All the while , Rosberg led comfortably ahead of Max Verstappen , who made his first stop on lap 23 and dropped back .
While racing for position on lap 23 , Sainz forced Jolyon Palmer off the track in turn two and was later handed a ten @-@ second time penalty for the incident . Four laps later , Pascal Wehrlein tried to overtake Felipe Nasr for 16th , but was unsuccessful and in turn lost a position to Kvyat . His teammate Ricciardo overtook Kevin Magnussen for eighth on lap 29 , but lost the position again and was in turn passed by Romain Grosjean . As Nico Rosberg started to lap backmarkers on lap 31 , the gap to second @-@ placed Hamilton started to come down , with his advantage dropping from more than eleven seconds to a little more than seven seconds by lap 36 . Meanwhile , Verstappen was forced to retire due to power unit failure on lap 34 , while running in sixth place . As Hamilton was told by his pit crew that he suffered from a water pressure problem , his gap to Rosberg started to increase again , staying at 13 seconds by lap 41 . Wehrlein pitted for new tyres on the same lap , but problems with his stop forced him stationary for almost a minute , resulting in him moving into last place on the road .
On lap 47 , Massa pitted for new tyres from fifth place , retaining his position ahead of Fernando Alonso . All the while , Räikkönen was able to close the gap to Hamilton ahead of him to eight seconds on lap 49 . On the next lap , Button passed Sainz for tenth and Ricciardo moved ahead of Palmer for 12th another lap later . Rosberg crossed the line to take his seventh consecutive victory , a feat to that point only achieved by Alberto Ascari , Michael Schumacher and Sebastian Vettel . Lewis Hamilton and Kimi Räikkönen rounded up the podium ahead of the two Williams drivers , Valtteri Bottas and Felipe Massa . Rosberg recorded the first Grand Slam of his career , meaning he won the race , recorded the fastest lap , achieved pole position and led every lap . He was the 24th driver in history to achieve the feat .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The first lap collision between Kvyat and Vettel that put the latter out of the race was a major talking point afterwards . The two had already been embroiled in an argument after the previous Grand Prix in China , when Vettel felt that Kvyat had caused a collision between the two Ferrari drivers . This time around , Vettel reacted to his retirement with what The Telegraph described as " one of the most explosive outbursts heard over team radio for years " . He later demanded an apology from Kvyat , as did Red Bull teammate Ricciardo , who felt that Kvyat , who pushed Vettel into him , had ruined his race as well . Red Bull announced that they would summon Kvyat to talks about the incident , calling their race a " disaster " , with Helmut Marko , the team 's young driver coordinator , calling him " over @-@ motivated " . Kvyat received three penalty points on his licence as a result of the incident . He himself said after the race : " I apologise to everyone who is involved and I will learn from it . I think we have to speak . It is easy now to attack me and I guess everyone will , but I am OK with that . " On 5 May , Red Bull announced that they had relegated Kvyat back to their junior squad , Toro Rosso , for the remainder of the season , switching him with 18 @-@ year old Max Verstappen . Red Bull 's team principal Christian Horner explained the driver swap with Verstappen 's talent , also stressing that the move to Red Bull would tie him to the team for the foreseeable future .
Following multiple collision shortly after the start , Jenson Button pressed for changes to be made to turn two of the Sochi Autodrom , saying : " The bollard at turn two is the problem at the start because people are trying to fight through turns two and three . I think that needs some looking at . " Apart from Kvyat , two more drivers received penalty points to their licences . Two points each were given to Carlos Sainz , Jr . , who was deemed to have forced Jolyon Palmer off the track and Esteban Gutiérrez , who collided with Nico Hülkenberg at the start .
As a result of the race , Nico Rosberg cemented his position at the top of the Drivers ' Championship , having taken the maximum number of 100 points available from the first four rounds . Lewis Hamilton followed in second with 57 points , while Kimi Räikkönen moved up to third with 43 points . Vettel 's retirement dropped him to fifth in the standings , behind Daniel Ricciardo . In the Constructors ' standings , Mercedes increased their points tally to 157 , now 81 points clear of second @-@ placed Ferrari . Red Bull 's poor performance saw their advantage over fourth placed Williams reduced to just six points .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes
^ 1 — Sebastian Vettel received a five place grid penalty for an unscheduled gearbox change .
= = = Race = = =
= = = Standings after the race = = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Nirvana ( band ) =
Nirvana was an American rock band formed by singer and guitarist Kurt Cobain and bassist Krist Novoselic in Aberdeen , Washington , in 1987 . Nirvana went through a succession of drummers , the longest @-@ lasting being Dave Grohl , who joined the band in 1990 . Despite releasing only three full @-@ length studio albums in their seven @-@ year career , Nirvana has come to be regarded as one of the most influential and important rock bands of the modern era . Though the band dissolved in 1994 , their music continues to maintain a popular following and to inspire and influence modern rock and roll culture .
In the late 1980s , Nirvana established itself as part of the Seattle grunge scene , releasing its first album , Bleach , for the independent record label Sub Pop in 1989 . The band eventually came to develop a sound that relied on dynamic contrasts , often between quiet verses and loud , heavy choruses . After signing to major label DGC Records , Nirvana found unexpected success with " Smells Like Teen Spirit " , the first single from the band 's second album Nevermind ( 1991 ) . Nirvana 's sudden success widely popularized alternative rock as a whole , and the band 's frontman Cobain found himself referred to in the media as the " spokesman of a generation " , with Nirvana being considered the " flagship band " of Generation X. In response , Nirvana 's third studio album , In Utero ( 1993 ) , released to critical acclaim , featured an abrasive , less mainstream sound and challenged the group 's audience .
Nirvana 's active career ended following the death of Kurt Cobain in 1994 , but various posthumous releases have been issued since , overseen by Novoselic , Grohl , and Cobain 's widow Courtney Love . Since its debut , the band has sold over 25 million records in the United States alone , and over 75 million records worldwide , making them one of the best @-@ selling bands of all time . Nirvana was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2014 , in its first year of eligibility .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years = = =
Cobain and Novoselic met while attending Aberdeen High , although they never connected , according to Cobain . The pair eventually became friends while frequenting the practice space of the Melvins . Cobain wanted to form a band with Novoselic , but Novoselic did not respond to his requests , which included giving him a demo tape of his project Fecal Matter . Three years after the two first met , Novoselic notified Cobain that he had finally listened to the Fecal Matter demo Cobain had given him and suggested they start a group . The pair recruited Bob McFadden on drums , but after a month the project fell apart . In early 1987 , Cobain and Novoselic recruited drummer Aaron Burckhard . The three practiced material from Cobain 's Fecal Matter tape but started writing new material soon after forming .
During its initial months , the band went through a series of names , starting with Skid Row and including Pen Cap Chew , Bliss , and Ted Ed Fred . The group finally settled on Nirvana , which Cobain said was chosen because " I wanted a name that was kind of beautiful or nice and pretty instead of a mean , raunchy punk name like the Angry Samoans . " With Novoselic and Cobain having moved to Tacoma and Olympia , Washington , respectively , the two temporarily lost contact with Burckhard . The pair instead practiced with Dale Crover of the Melvins , and Nirvana recorded its first demos in January 1988 . In early 1988 , Crover moved to San Francisco but recommended Dave Foster to the band as his replacement on drums . Foster 's tenure with Nirvana lasted only a few months ; during a stint in jail , he was replaced by a returning Burckhard , who himself didn 't stay with the band after telling Cobain he was too hungover to practice one day . Cobain and Novoselic put an ad in Seattle music publication The Rocket seeking a replacement drummer , which only yielded unsatisfactory responses . Meanwhile , a mutual friend introduced them to Chad Channing , and the three musicians agreed to jam together . Channing continued to jam with Cobain and Novoselic , although the drummer noted , " They never actually said ' okay , you 're in , ' " and Channing played his first show with the group that May .
= = = Early releases = = =
Nirvana released its first single , a cover of " Love Buzz " , in November 1988 on the Seattle independent record label Sub Pop . They did their first ever interview with John Robb in Sounds who also made the release single of the week . The following month , the band began recording its debut album , Bleach , with local producer Jack Endino . Bleach was highly influenced by the heavy dirge @-@ rock of the Melvins and Mudhoney , 1980s punk rock , and the 1970s heavy metal of Black Sabbath . Novoselic said in a 2001 interview with Rolling Stone that the band had played a tape in their van while on tour that had an album by The Smithereens on one side and an album by the extreme metal band Celtic Frost on the other , and noted that the combination probably played an influence as well . The money for the recording sessions for Bleach , listed as $ 606 @.@ 17 on the album sleeve , was supplied by Jason Everman , who was subsequently brought into the band as the second guitarist . Though Everman did not actually play on the album , he received a credit on Bleach because , according to Novoselic , they " wanted to make him feel more at home in the band " . Just prior to the album 's release , Nirvana insisted on signing an extended contract with Sub Pop , making the band the first to do so with the label .
Following the release of Bleach in June 1989 , Nirvana embarked on its first national tour , and the album became a favorite of college radio stations . Due to increasing differences between Everman and the rest of the band over the course of the tour , Nirvana canceled the last few dates and drove back to Washington . No one told Everman he was fired at the time , while Everman later said that he actually quit the group . Although Sub Pop did not promote Bleach as much as other releases , it was a steady seller , and had initial sales of 40 @,@ 000 copies . However , Cobain was upset by the label 's lack of promotion and distribution for the album . In late 1989 , the band recorded the Blew EP with producer Steve Fisk .
In a late 1989 interview with John Robb in Sounds , Cobain noted that the band 's music was changing . He said , " The early songs were really angry ... But as time goes on the songs are getting poppier and poppier as I get happier and happier . The songs are now about conflicts in relationships , emotional things with other human beings " . In April 1990 , the band began working with producer Butch Vig at Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin on recordings for the follow @-@ up to Bleach . During the sessions , Cobain and Novoselic became disenchanted with Channing 's drumming , and Channing expressed frustration at not being actively involved in songwriting . As bootlegs of Nirvana 's demos with Vig began to circulate in the music industry and draw attention from major labels , Channing left the band . That July , the band recorded the single " Sliver " with Mudhoney drummer Dan Peters . Nirvana asked Dale Crover to fill in on drums for a seven @-@ date American West Coast tour with Sonic Youth that August .
In September 1990 , Buzz Osborne of the Melvins introduced the band to Dave Grohl , who was looking for a new band following the sudden break @-@ up of Washington , D.C. , hardcore punks Scream . A few days after arriving in Seattle , Novoselic and Cobain auditioned Grohl , with Novoselic later stating , " We knew in two minutes that he was the right drummer " . " I remember being in the same room with them and thinking , ' What ? That 's Nirvana ? Are you kidding ? ' " , Grohl told Q. " Because on their record cover they looked like psycho lumberjacks ... I was like , ' What , that little dude and that big motherfucker ? You 're kidding me ' . I laughed . I was like , ' No way ' " .
= = = Mainstream success = = =
Disenchanted with Sub Pop and with the Smart Studios sessions generating interest , Nirvana decided to look for a deal with a major record label since no indie label could buy the group out of its contract . Following repeated recommendations by Sonic Youth 's Kim Gordon , Nirvana signed to DGC Records in 1990 . The band subsequently began recording its first major label album , Nevermind . The group was offered a number of producers to choose from , but ultimately held out for Butch Vig . Rather than recording at Vig 's Madison studio as they had in 1990 , production shifted to Sound City Studios in Van Nuys , Los Angeles , California . For two months , the band worked through a variety of songs in its catalog . Some of the songs , such as " In Bloom " and " Breed " , had been in Nirvana 's repertoire for years , while others , including " On a Plain " and " Stay Away " , lacked finished lyrics until midway through the recording process . After the recording sessions were completed , Vig and the band set out to mix the album . However , the recording sessions had run behind schedule and the resulting mixes were deemed unsatisfactory . Slayer mixer Andy Wallace was brought in to create the final mix . After the album 's release , members of Nirvana expressed dissatisfaction with the polished sound the mixer had given Nevermind . In January 1992 the band played two songs from Nevermind on Saturday Night Live , " Smells Like Teen Spirit " and " Territorial Pissings " .
Initially , DGC Records was hoping to sell 250 @,@ 000 copies of Nevermind , which was the same level they had achieved with Sonic Youth 's Goo . However , the album 's first single " Smells Like Teen Spirit " quickly gained momentum , thanks in part to significant airplay of the song 's music video on MTV . As it toured Europe during late 1991 , the band found that its shows were dangerously oversold , that television crews were becoming a constant presence onstage , and that " Smells Like Teen Spirit " was almost omnipresent on radio and music television . By Christmas 1991 , Nevermind was selling 400 @,@ 000 copies a week in the US . In January 1992 , the album displaced Michael Jackson 's Dangerous at number one on the Billboard album charts , and also topped the charts in numerous other countries . The month Nevermind reached number one , Billboard proclaimed , " Nirvana is that rare band that has everything : critical acclaim , industry respect , pop radio appeal , and a rock @-@ solid college / alternative base " . The album would eventually sell over seven million copies in the United States , and over 30 million worldwide .
Citing exhaustion , Nirvana decided not to undertake another American tour in support of Nevermind , instead opting to make only a handful of performances later that year . In March 1992 , Cobain sought to reorganize the group 's songwriting royalties ( which to this point had been split equally ) so that they were more representative of the fact that he wrote the majority of the music . Grohl and Novoselic did not object to Cobain 's request , but when the frontman asked for the agreement to be retroactive to the release of Nevermind , the disagreements between the two sides came close to breaking up the band . After a week of tension , Cobain ended up receiving a retroactive share of 75 percent of the royalties , and bad feelings about the situation remained within the group afterward . Amid rumors that the band was disbanding due to Cobain 's health , Nirvana headlined the closing night of England 's 1992 Reading Festival , where Cobain personally programmed the performance lineup . Nirvana 's performance at Reading is often regarded by the press as one of the most memorable of the group 's career . A few days later , Nirvana performed at the MTV Video Music Awards where , despite the network 's refusal to let the band play the new song " Rape Me " during the broadcast , Cobain strummed and sang the first few bars of the song before breaking into " Lithium " . At the ceremony , the band received awards for the Best Alternative Video and Best New Artist categories .
DGC had hoped to have a new Nirvana album by the band ready for a late 1992 holiday season release ; since work on it proceeded slowly , the label released the compilation album Incesticide in December 1992 . A joint venture between DGC and Sub Pop , Incesticide collected various rare Nirvana recordings and was intended to provide the material for a better price and at better quality than was available via bootleg copies . As Nevermind had been out for 15 months and had yielded a fourth single in " In Bloom " by that point , Geffen / DGC opted not to heavily promote Incesticide , which was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America the following February .
= = = In Utero , final months , and Cobain 's death = = =
In February 1993 , Nirvana released " Puss " / " Oh , the Guilt " , a split single with The Jesus Lizard , on the independent label Touch & Go . Meanwhile , the group chose Steve Albini , who had a reputation as a principled and opinionated individual in the American indie music scene , to record its third album . While there was speculation that the band chose Albini to record the album due to his underground credentials , Cobain insisted that Albini 's sound was simply the one he had always wanted Nirvana to have : a " natural " recording without layers of studio trickery . Nirvana traveled to Pachyderm Studio in Cannon Falls , Minnesota , in that February to record the album . The sessions with Albini were productive and notably quick , and the album was recorded and mixed in two weeks for a cost of $ 25 @,@ 000 .
Several weeks after the completion of the recording sessions , stories ran in the Chicago Tribune and Newsweek that quoted sources claiming DGC considered the album " unreleasable " . As a result , fans began to believe that the band 's creative vision might be compromised by their label . While the stories about DGC shelving the album were untrue , the band actually was unhappy with certain aspects of Albini 's mixes . Specifically , they thought the bass levels were too low , and Cobain felt that " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " and " All Apologies " did not sound " perfect " . Longtime R.E.M. producer Scott Litt was called in to help remix those two songs , with Cobain adding additional instrumentation and backing vocals .
In Utero debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart in September 1993 . Time 's Christopher John Farley wrote in his review of the album , " Despite the fears of some alternative @-@ music fans , Nirvana hasn 't gone mainstream , though this potent new album may once again force the mainstream to go Nirvana . " In Utero went on to sell over 3 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States . That October , Nirvana embarked on its first tour of the United States in two years with support from Half Japanese and The Breeders . For the tour , the band added Pat Smear of the punk rock band Germs as a second guitarist . In November 1993 , Nirvana recorded a performance for the television program MTV Unplugged . Augmented by Smear and cellist Lori Goldston , the band sought to veer from the typical approach to the show , opting to stay away from playing its most recognizable songs . Instead , Nirvana performed several covers , and invited Cris and Curt Kirkwood of the Meat Puppets to join the group for renditions of three of their songs . Also in November 1993 , the band made its second appearance on Saturday Night Live , where they played " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " and " Rape Me . "
In early 1994 , the band embarked on a European tour . Nirvana 's final concert took place in Munich , Germany , on March 1 . In Rome , on the morning of March 4 , Cobain 's wife , Courtney Love , found Cobain unconscious in their hotel room and he was rushed to the hospital . A doctor from the hospital told a press conference that Cobain had reacted to a combination of prescription Rohypnol and alcohol . The rest of the tour was canceled . In the ensuing weeks , Cobain 's heroin addiction resurfaced . An intervention was organized , and Cobain was convinced to admit himself into drug rehabilitation . After less than a week in rehabilitation , Cobain climbed over the wall of the facility and took a plane back to Seattle . A week later , on Friday , April 8 , 1994 , Cobain was found dead of a self @-@ inflicted shotgun wound to the head at his Seattle home .
= = = Aftermath and posthumous releases = = =
In August 1994 , DGC announced that a double album titled Verse Chorus Verse featuring live material from throughout the group 's career on one CD and its MTV Unplugged performance on another was due for release that November . However , Novoselic and Grohl found assembling the live material so soon after Cobain 's death to be too emotionally overwhelming . Grohl founded the Foo Fighters , and Novoselic turned his attention to political activism . With the career @-@ spanning live portion postponed , MTV Unplugged in New York debuted at number one on the Billboard charts upon release in November 1994 . A few weeks later the group 's first full @-@ length video , Live ! Tonight ! Sold Out ! ! , was released . The following year , MTV Unplugged in New York earned Nirvana a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album . In 1996 , DGC finally issued a Nirvana live album , From the Muddy Banks of the Wishkah , which became the third Nirvana release in a row to debut at the top of the Billboard album chart .
In 1997 , Novoselic , Grohl , and Courtney Love formed the limited liability company Nirvana LLC to oversee all Nirvana @-@ related projects . A 45 @-@ track box set of Nirvana rarities was scheduled for release in October 2001 . However , shortly before the release date , Love filed a suit to dissolve Nirvana LLC , and an injunction was issued preventing the release of any new Nirvana material until the case was resolved . Love contended that Cobain was the band , that Grohl and Novoselic were sidemen , and that she signed the partnership agreement originally under bad advice . Grohl and Novoselic countersued , asking the court to remove Love from the partnership and to replace her with another representative of Cobain 's estate .
The day before the case was set to go to trial in October 2002 , Love , Novoselic , and Grohl announced that they had reached a settlement . The settlement paved the way for the release of the compilation album Nirvana , which featured the previously unreleased track " You Know You 're Right " , the last song Nirvana recorded before Cobain 's death . Nirvana was released later that month , debuting at number three on the Billboard album chart . The box set , With the Lights Out , was finally released in November 2004 . The release contained a vast array of early Cobain demos , rough rehearsal recordings , and live tracks recorded throughout the band 's history . Sliver : The Best of the Box , which culled 19 tracks from the box set in addition to featuring three previously unreleased tracks , was released in late 2005 .
In April 2006 , Love announced that she had arranged to sell 25 percent of her stake in the Nirvana song catalog in a deal estimated at $ 50 million . The share of Nirvana 's publishing was purchased by Primary Wave Music , which was founded by Larry Mestel , a former CEO of Virgin Records . In an accompanying statement , Love sought to assure Nirvana 's fanbase that the music would not simply be licensed to the highest bidder , noting , " We are going to remain very tasteful and true to the spirit of Nirvana while taking the music to places it has never been before . " Further releases have since been made . This includes the DVD releases of Live ! Tonight ! Sold Out ! ! in 2006 , and the full , uncut version of MTV Unplugged in New York in 2007 . The band 's performance at the 1992 Reading Festival was released on both CD and DVD as Live at Reading in November 2009 . That month , Sub Pop released a 20th anniversary deluxe edition of Bleach , and DGC released a number of 20th anniversary deluxe @-@ edition packages of both Nevermind in September 2011 , and In Utero in September 2013 .
In 2012 , Grohl , Novoselic , and Smear joined Paul McCartney at 12 @-@ 12 @-@ 12 : The Concert for Sandy Relief . The performance featured the premiere of a new song written by the four musicians entitled " Cut Me Some Slack " . A studio recording was released on the soundtrack to Sound City , a film by Grohl . On July 19 , 2013 , they would once again play with McCartney during the encore of his Safeco Field " Out There " concert in Seattle , the first time Nirvana members played together in their hometown in over 15 years .
In 2014 , Nirvana was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ; the members inducted were Cobain , Novoselic , and Grohl . At the induction ceremony , Novoselic , Grohl and Smear performed a four @-@ song set with guest vocalists Joan Jett , Kim Gordon , St. Vincent , and Lorde . Novoselic , Grohl , and Smear then performed a full show at Brooklyn 's St. Vitus Bar with Jett , Gordon , St. Vincent , J Mascis , and John McCauley as guest vocalists . At the ceremony , Grohl thanked Burckhard , Crover , Peters and Channing for their time in Nirvana . Everman was also invited and attended the ceremony .
At Clive Davis ' annual pre @-@ Grammy party in 2016 , the surviving members of Nirvana once again reunited to perform the David Bowie song " The Man Who Sold the World " that they 'd covered on their Unplugged album . Beck joined the band to play acoustic guitar and handle lead vocals .
= = Musical style = =
Cobain described the sound of Nirvana when it first started as " a Gang of Four and Scratch Acid ripoff " . Later when Nirvana recorded Bleach , Cobain felt he had to fit the expectations of the Sub Pop grunge sound to build a fanbase , and hence suppressed his arty and pop songwriting traits while crafting the record in favor of a more rocking sound . Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad argued , " Ironically , it was the restrictions of the Sub Pop sound that helped the band find its musical identity " . Azerrad stated that by acknowledging that its members had grown up listening to Black Sabbath and Aerosmith , the band was able to move on from its derivative early sound .
Nirvana used dynamic shifts that went from quiet to loud . Cobain had sought to mix heavy and pop musical sounds ; he commented , " I wanted to be totally Led Zeppelin in a way and then be totally extreme punk rock and then do real wimpy pop songs " . When Cobain heard the Pixies ' 1988 album Surfer Rosa after recording Bleach , he felt it had the sound he wanted to achieve but until then was too intimidated to try . The Pixies ' subsequent popularity encouraged Cobain to follow his instincts as a songwriter . Like the Pixies , Nirvana moved between " spare bass @-@ and @-@ drum grooves and shrill bursts of screaming guitar and vocals " . Near the end of his life , Cobain noted the band had become bored by the formula , finding it limited , but he expressed doubts that the band was skilled enough to try other dynamics .
Cobain 's rhythm guitar style , which relied on power chords , low @-@ note riffs , and a loose left @-@ handed technique , featured the key components to the band ’ s songs . Cobain would often initially play a song 's verse riff in a clean tone , then double it with distorted guitars when he repeated the part . In some songs the guitar would be absent from the verses entirely to allow the drums and bass guitar to support the vocals , or it would only play sparse melodies like the two @-@ note pattern used in " Smells Like Teen Spirit " . Cobain rarely played standard guitar solos , opting to play slight variations of the song 's melody as single note lines . Cobain 's solos were mostly blues @-@ based and discordant , which music writer Jon Chappell described as " almost an iconoclastic parody of the traditional instrumental break " , a quality typified by the note @-@ for @-@ note replication of the lead melody in " Smells Like Teen Spirit " and the atonal solo for " Breed " . When asked about their musical education , the band states that they had no formal musical training . In fact , Cobain says : " I have no concept of knowing how to be a musician at all what @-@ so @-@ ever ... I couldn 't even pass Guitar 101 " .
Grohl 's drumming " took Nirvana 's sound to a new level of intensity " . Azerrad stated that Grohl 's " powerful drumming propelled the band to a whole new plane , visually as well as musically " , noting , " Although Dave is a merciless basher , his parts are also distinctly musical — it wouldn 't be difficult to figure out what song he was playing even without the rest of the music " .
From 1992 , Cobain and Novoselic would tune their guitars to E flat for studio and live performances ( up until then , their live tunings were to concert pitch ) . Cobain noted , " We play so hard we can 't tune our guitars fast enough . " The band made a habit of destroying its equipment after shows . Novoselic said he and Cobain created the " shtick " in order to get off of the stage sooner . Cobain stated it began as an expression of his frustration with Chad Channing making mistakes and dropping out entirely during performances .
= = = Songwriting and lyrics = = =
Everett True said in 1989 , " Nirvana songs treat the banal and pedestrian with a unique slant " . Cobain came up with the basic components of each song ( usually writing them on an acoustic guitar ) , as well as the singing style and the lyrics . He emphasized that Novoselic and Grohl " have a big part in deciding on how long a song should be and how many parts it should have . So I don 't like to be considered the sole songwriter " . When asked which part of the songs he would write first , Cobain responded , " I don ’ t know . I really don 't know . I guess I start with the verse and then go into the chorus " .
Cobain usually wrote lyrics for songs minutes before recording them . Cobain said , " When I write a song the lyrics are the least important subject . I can go through two or three different subjects in a song and the title can mean absolutely nothing at all " . Cobain told Spin in 1993 that he " didn 't give a flying fuck " what the lyrics on Bleach were about , figuring " Let 's just scream some negative lyrics and as long as they 're not sexist and don 't get too embarrassing it 'll be okay " , while the lyrics to Nevermind were taken from two years of poetry he had accumulated , which he cut up and chose lines he preferred from . In comparison , Cobain stated that the lyrics to In Utero were " more focused , they 're almost built on themes " . Cobain didn 't write necessarily in a linear fashion , instead relying on juxtapositions of contradictory images to convey emotions and ideas . Often in his lyrics , Cobain would present an idea then reject it ; the songwriter explained , " I 'm such a nihilistic jerk half the time and other times I 'm so vulnerable and sincere [ .. The songs are ] like a mixture of both of them . That 's how most people my age are " .
= = Legacy = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that prior to Nirvana , " alternative music was consigned to specialty sections of record stores , and major labels considered it to be , at the very most , a tax write @-@ off " . Following the release of Nevermind , " nothing was ever quite the same , for better and for worse " . The success of Nevermind not only popularized grunge , but also established " the cultural and commercial viability of alternative rock in general " . While other alternative bands had hits before , Nirvana " broke down the doors forever " , according to Erlewine . Erlewine further stated that Nirvana 's breakthrough " didn 't eliminate the underground " , but rather " just gave it more exposure " . In 1992 , Jon Pareles of The New York Times reported that Nirvana 's breakthrough had made others in the alternative scene impatient for achieving similar success , noting , " Suddenly , all bets are off . No one has the inside track on which of dozens , perhaps hundreds , of ornery , obstreperous , unkempt bands might next appeal to the mall @-@ walking millions " . Record company executives offered large advances and record deals to bands , and previous strategies of building audiences for alternative rock groups had been replaced by the opportunity to achieve mainstream popularity quickly .
Erlewine stated that Nirvana 's breakthrough " popularized so @-@ called ' Generation X ' and ' slacker ' culture " . Immediately following Cobain 's death , numerous headlines referred to Nirvana 's frontman as " the voice of a generation " , although he had rejected such labeling during his lifetime . Reflecting on Cobain 's death over ten years later , MSNBC 's Eric Olsen wrote , " In the intervening decade , Cobain , a small , frail but handsome man in life , has become an abstract Generation X icon , viewed by many as the ' last real rock star ' [ ... ] a messiah and martyr whose every utterance has been plundered and parsed " .
= = Awards and accolades = =
Since its breakup , Nirvana has continued to receive acclaim , and is regularly considered one of the greatest music artists of all time . In 2003 , Nirvana was selected as one of the inductees of the Mojo Hall of Fame 100 . The band also received a nomination for induction in the | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
following the Treaty of Versailles increased as his textile business went bankrupt in 1929 due to insufficient capital .
Gröning states that his childhood was one of " discipline , obedience and authority " . Gröning was fascinated by military uniforms , and one of his earliest memories is of looking at photos of his grandfather , who served in an elite regiment of the Duchy of Brunswick , on his horse and playing his trumpet . He joined the Scharnhorst , the Stahlhelm 's youth organisation as a small boy in the 1930s , and later the Hitler Youth when the Nazis came to power in 1933 . Influenced by his family 's values , he felt that Nazism was advantageous to Germany and believed that the Nazis " were the people who wanted the best for Germany and who did something about it . " He participated in the burning of books written by Jews and other authors that the Nazis considered degenerate in the belief that he was helping Germany free itself from an alien culture , and considered that National Socialism was having a positive effect on the economy , pointing to lower unemployment .
Gröning left school with high marks and began a traineeship as a bank clerk when he was 17 , but war was declared shortly after he started employment and eight of the twenty clerks present were immediately conscripted into the army . This allowed the remaining trainees to further their banking careers in a relatively short amount of time ; however , despite these opportunities , Gröning and his colleagues were inspired by Germany 's quick victories in France and Poland and wanted to contribute .
= = SS career = =
Gröning wanted to join an elite army unit and set his sights on joining the Waffen @-@ SS . Without his father 's knowledge , he did so in 1940 at a hotel where the SS was recruiting . Gröning says his father was disappointed to learn this when he came home after having joined .
Gröning describes himself as a " desk person " and was content with his role in SS salary administration , which granted him both the administrative and military aspects he wanted from a career .
= = = Auschwitz = = =
= = = = Arrival = = = =
Gröning worked as a bookkeeper for a year until 1942 , when the SS ordered that desk jobs would be reserved for injured veterans , and that fit members in administrative roles were to be subjected to more challenging duties . Gröning and about 22 of his colleagues travelled to Berlin where they reported to one of the SS economic offices . They were then given a lecture by several high @-@ ranking officers who reminded them of the oath of loyalty they took , which they could prove by doing a difficult task . The task was top secret – Gröning and his comrades had to sign a declaration that they would not disclose it to family or friends , or people not in their unit . Once this had concluded , they were split into smaller groups and taken to various Berlin stations where they boarded a train in the direction of Katowice with orders to report to the commandant of Auschwitz , a place Gröning had not heard of before .
Upon arrival at the main camp , they were given provisional bunks in the SS barracks , warmly greeted by fellow SS men and provided with food . Gröning was surprised at the myriad food items available in addition to basic SS rations . The new arrivals were curious about what function Auschwitz served . They were told that they should find out for themselves because Auschwitz was a special kind of concentration camp . Immediately someone opened the door and shouted " Transport ! " , causing three or four people to leave the room .
The next day , Gröning and the other arrivals reported to the central SS administrative building and were asked about their background before the war . One of the officers said Gröning 's bank clerk skills would be useful , and took him to barracks where the prisoners ' money was kept . Gröning was told that when prisoners were registered into the camp , their money was stored here and later returned to them when they left .
It became clear that Auschwitz was not a normal internment camp with above average SS rations , but that it served an additional function . Gröning was informed that money taken from interned Jews was not actually returned to them . When he inquired further , his colleagues confirmed that the Jews were being systematically exterminated and that this had included the transport of prisoners who had arrived the previous night .
= = = = Tasks = = = =
Gröning 's responsibilities included sorting and counting the multitude of currencies taken from arriving deportees , sending it to Berlin , and guarding the belongings of arrivals until they were sorted . He said he was astonished to learn of the extermination process , but later accepted his part in it , stating that his work became " routine " after several months .
His bureaucratic job did not shield him completely from physical acts of the extermination process : as early as his first day , Gröning saw children hidden on the train and people unable to walk that had remained among the rubbish and debris after the selection process had been completed , being shot . Gröning also heard :
... a baby crying . The child was lying on the ramp , wrapped in rags . A mother had left it behind , perhaps because she knew that women with infants were sent to the gas chambers immediately . I saw another SS soldier grab the baby by the legs . The crying had bothered him . He smashed the baby 's head against the iron side of a truck until it was silent .
After witnessing this , Gröning claims he went to his boss and told him that he could not work at Auschwitz any more , stating that if the extermination of the Jews is necessary , " then at least it should be done within a certain framework " . Gröning claims that his superior officer denied this request citing a document he had signed before being posted , forcing him to continue his work .
One night towards the end of 1942 , Gröning and his comrades in their SS barracks on the outskirts of Birkenau were awakened by an alarm . They were told that a number of Jews who were being taken to the gas chambers had escaped and hidden in the woods . They were ordered to take pistols and search the woods . When his group arrived at the extermination area of the camp they saw a farmhouse , in front of which were SS men and the bodies of seven or eight prisoners who had been caught and shot . The SS men told Gröning and his comrades that they could go home but they decided to hang around in the shadows of the woods .
They watched as an SS man put on a gas mask and emptied a tin of Zyklon B into a hatch in the cottage wall . Gröning said the humming noise from inside " turned to screaming " for a minute , then to silence . A comrade later showed him the bodies being burnt in a pit . A Kapo there told him details of the burning , such as how gases developed in the body and made the burning corpses move .
Gröning claims that this disrupted the relative tranquility his job gave him and he claims he yet again complained to his superior . His boss , an SS @-@ Untersturmführer , listened but reminded him of the pledge that he and his comrades made . Gröning thus returned to work . He has declared that he manipulated his life at Auschwitz so as to avoid witnessing the camp 's most unpalatable aspects .
= = After Auschwitz = =
= = = Great Britain = = =
Gröning 's application to transfer to a unit on the front @-@ line was successful , and in 1944 he joined an SS unit fighting in the Ardennes . He was wounded and sent to a field hospital before rejoining his unit , which eventually surrendered to the British on 10 June 1945 , on his birthday .
He realised that declaring " involvement in the concentration camp of Auschwitz would have a negative response " , and so tried not to draw attention to it , putting on the form given to him by the British that he worked for the SS @-@ Wirtschafts @-@ Verwaltungshauptamt instead . He did this because " the victor 's always right " , and that things happened at Auschwitz which " did not always comply with human rights " .
Gröning and the rest of his SS colleagues were imprisoned in an old Nazi concentration camp . He was later sent to Britain as a forced labourer in 1946 where he had a " very comfortable life " . He ate good food and earned money , and travelled through the Midlands and Scotland giving concerts for four months , singing German hymns and traditional English folk songs to appreciative British audiences .
= = = Return to Germany = = =
Gröning was released and returned to Germany in 1947 or 1948 . Upon being reunited with his wife , he said : " Girl , do both of us a favour : don 't ask . " He was unable to regain his job at the bank due to having been a member of the SS , so he got a job at a glass factory , working his way up to a management position . He became head of personnel , and was made an honorary judge of industrial tribunal cases .
Upon return to Germany , Gröning lived with his father @-@ in @-@ law . At the dinner table , they once made " a silly remark about Auschwitz " , implying that he was a " potential or real murderer , " which Gröning said enraged him , banging his fist on the table , demanding : " This word and this connection are never , ever , to be mentioned again in my presence , otherwise I 'll move out ! " Gröning said that this request was respected .
= = = = Views on Holocaust denial = = = =
Gröning led a normal middle @-@ class life after the war . A keen stamp collector , he was once at his local philately club 's annual meeting , more than 40 years after the war , when he fell into a conversation about politics with the man next to him . The man told him it was " terrible " that Holocaust denial was illegal in Germany , and went on to tell Gröning how so many bodies could not have been burnt , and that the volume of gas that was supposed to have been used would have killed all living things in the vicinity .
Gröning said little in response to these statements , replying only : " I know a little more about that , we should discuss it some time . " The man recommended a pamphlet by Holocaust denier Thies Christophersen . Gröning obtained a copy and mailed it to Christophersen , having written his own commentary on it , which included the words :
" I saw everything , " he writes . " The gas chambers , the cremations , the selection process . One and a half million Jews were murdered in Auschwitz . I was there . "
Gröning then began receiving phone calls and letters from strangers who tried to tell him Auschwitz was not actually a place for exterminating human beings in gas chambers .
It became apparent that his comments condemning Holocaust denial had been printed in a neo @-@ Nazi magazine , and that most of the anonymous calls and letters were , " From people who tried to prove that what I had seen with my own eyes , what I had experienced in Auschwitz was a big , big mistake , a big hallucination on my part because it hadn 't happened . "
As a result of such comments , Gröning decided to speak openly about his experiences , and publicly denounce people who maintain the events he witnessed never happened . He says his message to Holocaust deniers is :
I have seen the crematoria , I have seen the burning pits and I want you to believe me that these atrocities happened . I was there .
He also wrote memoirs for his family , consisting of 87 pages .
= = Contemporary comments = =
Gröning does not consider himself guilty of any crime , due to the fact that he was in no way directly involved in the killing . He describes his part in the extermination machine as an involuntary " small cog in the gears " , which gave him involuntary guilt in turn . Citing his summons to testify against a member of the SS accused of murdering prisoners at Auschwitz , he also says he is innocent in the eyes of the law , pointing to the fact that he spoke as a witness and not as a defendant .
In the book and DVD set titled Auschwitz : The Nazis and ' The Final Solution ' , author Laurence Rees indicates that although Gröning had requested to leave Auschwitz after he witnessed the killing , his objection was only on the basis of its practical implementation , and not on the general militaristic principle of the mass extermination of enemies . Gröning said that he thought at the time that it was justified due to all the Nazi propaganda he had been subjected to , in that Germany 's enemies were being destroyed , which to him made the tools of their destruction ( such as gas chambers ) of no particular significance . Because of this , he says his feelings about seeing people and knowing that they had hours to live before being gassed were " very ambiguous " . He explains that children were murdered because , while the children themselves were not the enemy , the danger was the blood within them , in that they could grow up to become dangerous Jews . Rees points to Gröning 's ultra @-@ nationalist upbringing as indication of how he was able to justify the extermination of helpless children . Gröning says that the horrors in the gas chambers did eventually dawn on him when he heard the screams .
Rees writes that Gröning describes his time at Auschwitz as if he were talking about another Oskar Gröning at Auschwitz — and as a result , the post @-@ war Gröning speaks more candidly about his time there by segregating the Gröning that contributed to the running of a death camp from the modern Gröning that condemns Nazi ideology .
Gröning says that the screams of those in the gas chambers have never left him , and he has never returned to Auschwitz because of his shame . He says he feels guilt towards the Jewish people , and for being part of the organisation that committed crimes against them , despite " not having been one of the perpetrators myself " . He asks for forgiveness from God and from the Jewish people .
= = Criminal charges and trial = =
In September 2014 , it was reported that Gröning had been charged by state prosecutors with having been an accessory to murder for his role at Auschwitz receiving and processing prisoners and their personal belongings . The indictment stated that Gröning economically advanced Nazi Germany and aided the systematic killing of 300 @,@ 000 of the 425 @,@ 000 Hungarian Jews who were deported to Auschwitz by 137 railway transports during the summer of 1944 . Gröning 's prosecution has been reported to be a part of Germany ’ s final effort to bring the last Nazi war @-@ crimes suspects to justice . State prosecutors managed to charge the defendant on a legal precedent set in 2011 by the conviction of the former Sobibor extermination camp guard John Demjanjuk by a court in Munich .
The trial commenced on 20 April 2015 at Lüneburg Regional Court ( Landgericht ) . In an opening statement , Gröning asked for forgiveness for his mainly clerical role at Auschwitz in the summer of 1944 , by saying : " For me there 's no question that I share moral guilt , " the 93 @-@ year @-@ old told the judges , acknowledging that he knew about the gassing of Jews and other prisoners . " I ask for forgiveness . I share morally in the guilt but whether I am guilty under criminal law , you will have to decide " .
During the trial several of the 60 ' co @-@ claimants ' gave evidence . Eva Mozes Kor who was 10 years old when she arrived at Auschwitz , testified that she and her twin sister were used for the cruel medical experiments conducted by Josef Mengele and that she had lost her parents and older sisters in Auschwitz . Kor conversed with and embraced the defendant after giving evidence , while other holocaust survivors in the courtroom protested against this gesture . Another witness , Max Eisen who was 15 years old at the time of entry into Auschwitz , described the brutality of the extermination part of the camp , including extracting gold teeth from dead victims . On 12 May 2015 , Susan Pollack , an 84 @-@ year @-@ old Briton , gave evidence how she was taken from Hungary to Auschwitz and Bergen @-@ Belsen ; describing the living conditions encountered at Auschwitz , she said : " I was in a barrack with about 800 other girls ... we were losing weight , we weren ’ t able to use our minds anymore " . On the same day , Ivor Perl , an 83 @-@ year @-@ old Briton who was born in Hungary into a religious Jewish family , also gave evidence ; Perl testified that he was 12 years old when he arrived at Auschwitz and that he and his brother lost his parents and seven siblings in the Holocaust . " In July , Irene Weiss , an 84 @-@ year @-@ old survivor from the United States , testified that her family was torn apart on arrival at Auschwitz in May 1944 , during the mass deportation of Hungarian Jews and that she had lost both her parents , four siblings and 13 cousins at Auschwitz .
= = = Verdict and sentence = = =
On 15 July 2015 he was found guilty of being an accessory to the murder of at least 300 @,@ 000 Jews . Reacting to the sentence , Auschwitz survivor Eva Mozes Kor said that she was " disappointed " adding : " They are trying to teach a lesson that if you commit such a crime , you will be punished . But I do not think the court has acted properly in sentencing him to four years in jail . It is too late for that kind of sentence ... My preference would have been to sentence him to community service by speaking out against neo @-@ Nazis . I would like the court to prove to me , a survivor , how four years in jail will benefit anybody . " Gröning 's defence lawyer , Hans Holtermann , was quoted as saying that he would review the verdict before deciding whether to appeal . Any appeal was required to be lodged within one week .
= Adentro =
Adentro is the tenth studio album by Guatemalan singer @-@ songwriter Ricardo Arjona , released on December 6 , 2005 , by Sony Music Entertainment . Recorded in the United States and Mexico , the album was produced by Arjona himself , as well as Dan Warner and Lee Levin under their stage name Los Gringos , and Puerto Rican singer @-@ songwriter Tommy Torres . The album marks the first collaboration between Arjona and the latter , who would subsequently become a regular contributor in following albums by the singer .
Arjona experimented with prominent Latin sounds for Adentro , such as Mexican and Tejano music on " Mojado " ; as well as some Colombian and bachata elements on " Adiós Melancolía " . Adentro was named " Arjona 's most personal album " , and his performance style was classified as " confident " , with a " relevant @-@ as @-@ ever lyricism . " It was named best Latin Pop Album for 2007 at the 49th Grammy Awards in Los Angeles .
Adentro became Arjona 's fifth consecutive album to reach the top ten on the US Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , peaking at number three . On the Latin Pop Albums chart , it attained a peak of number two . Adentro was certified two times Platinum in Mexico , five times Platinum in Argentina and two times Platinum ( Latin ) in the United States . As of February 2006 , the album has sold more than one million copies worldwide .
Five singles were released from the album . American lead single , " Acompañame A Estar Solo " , became Arjona 's fifth number @-@ one single on the US Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart , and reached number seven on the Latin Songs chart . Mexican lead single " Mojado " , featuring Mexican band Intocable , became a moderate success , as well as second American single " Pingüinos En La Cama " , which single version features Spanish singer Chenoa . " A Ti " followed as the fourth single , peaking at number three on the Latin Pop Songs chart . " De Vez En Mes " was released as the fifth and final single from the album . To promote the album , Arjona embarked on a world tour , the Adentro Tour .
= = Recording and composition = =
This was the first time Arjona collaborated with Tommy Torres . In an interview with Billboard magazine , the singer commented that he first " tested " Torres by sending him the " hookiest and darkest tracks " on the album , " Acompañame A Estar Solo " and " Iluso " . Torres said that he " went all out on the first demo , hiring a full band that included a string orchestra " , which grabbed the attention of Arjona . Arjona further commented that Adentro was " a very representative and tremendously complete album , " adding that " having different producers made it rich in possibilities . "
Evan Gutierrez from AllMusic considered the record 's instrumentation , performance , and overall sonic palette to be " minimalist " and " unassuming " . Arjona experimented with prominent Latin sounds for Adentro , such as Mexican and Tejano music on " Mojado " , a duet with Mexican band Intocable about immigration . Ricky Muñoz , the vocalist of the group , said that the group met Arjona in Monterrey , and that they were in contact with Arjona through Carlos Cabral , one of Adentro 's producers , who had also worked with them formerly . Muñoz additionally reflected : " We admire Arjona . We liked the song and then we recorded it [ with him ] . It is very cool that he invited us [ as featured artists ] . " " Adiós Melancolía " is mainly composed as a bachata song with Colombian influences . " No Te Cambio Por Nada " is intermittently rock @-@ dabbled . The lyrics of " De Vez En Mes " pertain to a woman 's menstruation .
= = Promotion = =
In 2006 , Arjona commenced the first leg of his world tour , named the Adentro Tour , to promote the album . The tour resumed in 2007 for a second leg , in which he visited more countries . Approximately two million people attended his concerts throughout his world tour . The tour officially closed in front of more than 100 @,@ 00 people during the International Fair on 14 September 2007 , in the mainland city of Barquisimeto , Venezuela . In the United States , the tour had an attendance of 134 @,@ 000 people , and grossed $ 8 @.@ 2 million . Arjona founded the Fundación Adentro , a charity organization which provides music and singing education for poor children in Guatemala , in July 2008 . Arjona commented that the main objective of the organization " isn 't becoming an important foundation internationally , but to help child reach their dreams . " The organization 's development originated in 2005 , prior to the release of Adentro , from which the foundation received its name . Its headquarters are located in Mexico City .
" Acompañame A Estar Solo " was released as the lead single from Adentro in October 2005 . The song became his fifth chart @-@ topper on the US Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart , reaching its peak in the week of 7 January 2006 . It accumulated three consecutive weeks atop the cart . It reached number seven on the Latin Songs chart , becoming his twelfth top ten single on that chart . " Pingüinos En La Cama " was released as the second single in January 2007 . Spanish singer Chenoa is featured as a guest artist on the single version of the song . On the Latin Songs chart , it peaked at number 44 . The song was more successful on the Latin Pop Songs chart , reaching number 19 . " Mojado " was released as the lead single in Mexico , while served as the third single in other music markets . It was the first time Arjoan released two lead singles from an album , as it was recommended by his label . It peaked at number 34 on the Latin Songs chart , and number 30 on the Latin Pop Songs chart . " A Ti " was released as the fourth single of the album in March 2006 . The song was more successful than its two predecessors , peaking at number 14 on the Latin Songs chart , and number three on the Latin Pop Songs chart . " A Ti " was later included on Arjona 's compilation album Quién Dijo Ayer , as a duet with Italian singer Eros Ramazzoti . Arjona released " De Vez En Mes " as the fifth and final single from the album .
= = Commercial performance = =
Adentro became Arjona 's third studio album to debut inside the top five of the US Billboard Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums charts , at numbers three and two , respectively . It equaled the peak position of Santo Pecado ( 2002 ) on the Latin Albums chart , and bested that album 's peak on the Latin Pop Albums chart . Adentro also peaked at number 46 on the Top Heatseekers chart , and debuted at number 126 on the Billboard 200 , besting the previous record held by Galería Caribe ( 2000 ) , which peaked at number 136 , among Arjona 's albums . The album received a double platinum certification ( Latin ) by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies . In Mexico , Adentro debuted at number one , and was subsequently certified double platinum by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) , signifying shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies . In Argentina , it was certified five times platinum by Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers ( CAPIF ) for sales exceeding 200 @,@ 000 copies in that country . It became Arjona 's third album to do so , after Santo Pecado and Historias ( 1994 ) . As of February 2006 , Adentro has sold more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies worldwide .
= = Critical reception = =
The album received critical acclaim . AllMusic writer Evan Gutierrez gave it four stars out of five , lauded its " stripped , natural production value , " Arjona 's " confident " vocal performance , its " relevant @-@ as @-@ ever " lyricism , and the record 's sonic palette as brilliantly variant . Gutierrez further opined that the album pleases both Arjona 's fans and " the execs at Norte . " Leila Cobo of Billboard dubbed it lyrically " Arjona 's most personal album " , favored its rock elements , and praised its cohesiveness . Cobo concluded : " It is hard to be touching , relevant and musically compelling all at once , but Arjona pulls it off . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Chart performance = =
= Battle of Agua Dulce =
The Battle of Agua Dulce Creek was a skirmish during the Texas Revolution between Mexican troops and rebellious immigrants to the Mexican province of Texas , known as Texians . As part of the Goliad Campaign to retake the Texas Gulf Coast , Mexican troops ambushed a group of Texians on March 2 , 1836 . The skirmish began approximately 26 miles ( 42 km ) south of San Patricio , in territory belonging to the Mexican state of Tamaulipas .
When Mexico transitioned to a centralized government in 1835 , supporters of federalism took up arms . Colonists in Texas , primarily immigrants from the United States , revolted in October 1835 and by the end of the year had expelled all Mexican troops from their province . With hostilities temporarily suspended , Frank W. Johnson , the commander of the volunteer army in Texas , and James Grant gathered volunteers for a planned invasion of the Mexican port town of Matamoros . In late February 1836 , Johnson and half of the volunteers drove a herd of horses to San Patricio , while Grant took the remaining men to gather more horses and to attempt contact with federalist sympathizers near Matamoros .
Unknown to the Texians , on February 18 , Mexican General José de Urrea led a large contingent of troops from Matamoros into Texas to neutralize the rebels gathered along the coast . His troops easily defeated Johnson 's small force on February 26 . Several days later , informants revealed Grant 's location , and on the morning of March 2 , Urrea sent 150 troops to ambush the rebels . After a brief battle , the main body of the Texian and Tejano troops were defeated . Grant and two others escaped the battle and were pursued for 7 miles ( 11 km ) . Grant was killed , as were 11 men under his command . Six Texians were taken prisoner ; contrary to Santa Anna 's orders , Urrea did not execute them , but instead sent them to a jail in Matamoros . An additional six Texians escaped ; five of them later died in the Goliad massacre .
= = Background = =
Under President Antonio López de Santa Anna , the Mexican government began to shift away from a federalist model to a more centralized government . His increasingly dictatorial policies , including the revocation of the Constitution of 1824 in early 1835 , incited federalists throughout the nation to revolt . The Mexican Army quickly put down revolts throughout the country 's interior , including a brutal suppression of militias in Oaxaca and Zacatecas . Unrest continued in the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas . The area that bordered the United States , known as Texas , was populated primarily by English @-@ speaking settlers , known as Texians . In October , the Texians took up arms in what became known as the Texas Revolution . The following month , Texians declared themselves part of a Mexican state independent from Coahuila and created a provisional state government based on the principles of the Constitution of 1824 . By the end of the year , all Mexican troops had been expelled from Texas .
Leading federalists in Mexico advocated a plan to attack centralist troops in Matamoros , a major Mexican port . Members of the General Council , the interim Texas governing body , were enamored with the idea of a Matamoros Expedition . They hoped it would inspire other federalist states to revolt and keep the bored Texian troops from deserting the army . Most importantly , it would move the war zone outside Texas . The Council officially approved the plan on December 25 , and on December 30 Frank W. Johnson , the commander of the volunteer army , and his aide James Grant took the bulk of the army and almost all of the supplies to Goliad to prepare for the expedition . Historian Stuart Reid posits that Grant was a British secret agent and that his efforts were an unofficial scheme to advance British interests in the region . Britain did not welcome the idea of an independent Texas , and the invasion of Matamoros was a way to tie Texas more tightly to Mexico .
Determined to quash the rebellion , Santa Anna began assembling a large force to restore order . In late December , at Santa Anna 's behest , the Mexican Congress passed the Tornel Decree , declaring that any foreigners fighting against Mexican troops " will be deemed pirates and dealt with as such , being citizens of no nation presently at war with the Republic and fighting under no recognized flag . " In the early nineteenth century , captured pirates were executed immediately . The resolution thus gave the Mexican Army permission to take no prisoners in the war against the Texians . Santa Anna personally led the bulk of his troops inland to San Antonio de Béxar , and ordered General José de Urrea to lead 550 troops along the Atascocita Road toward Goliad . Urrea 's efforts to quell the rebellion along the Texas Gulf Coast have become known as the Goliad Campaign .
= = Prelude = =
The Texas provisional government had named Sam Houston the commander of a new regular army in Texas , but without authority over the volunteers who reported to Johnson . The provisional governor , Henry Smith , opposed the Matamoros Expedition and ordered Houston to find a way to disband it . In a rousing speech to the volunteers , Houston dissuaded the bulk of the men from continuing their mission . Many left the army . Others joined the troops stationed under Houston 's second @-@ in @-@ command , James Fannin , at Presidio La Bahía in Goliad . By the end of January 1836 , only 70 men remained with Johnson and Grant . Most of these volunteers were Americans or Europeans who had arrived in Texas after fighting had commenced .
Urrea reached Matamoros on January 31 . A committed federalist himself , he soon convinced other federalists in the area that the Texians ' ultimate goal was secession and their attempt to spark a federalist revolt in Matamoros was just a method of diverting attention from themselves . Meanwhile , Mexican double agents continued to assure Johnson and Grant that they would be able to take Matamoros easily . Urrea 's force crossed into Texas on February 18 .
Despite hearing rumors that the Mexican Army was approaching , Grant and Johnson chose to take their men south of the Nueces River , into territory belonging to the state of Tamaulipas , to search for horses to buy , steal , or otherwise gather . About February 21 , Johnson and a small group began herding approximately 100 horses back into Texas . The rest of the men remained with Grant , ostensibly to look for more horses . In actuality , he was attempting to rendezvous with his allies near Matamoros to determine whether federalists were still willing to rise up against the Mexican Army .
Mexican troops arrived in San Patricio in the early hours of February 26 . After a fifteen @-@ minute battle , Johnson 's men were defeated ; six Texians , including Johnson , escaped , and the remainder were killed or captured . While Urrea waited for reinforcements before beginning his march towards Goliad , his advance party searched for Grant and the remaining Texians . Unaware of Johnson 's fate , on February 27 Grant and his party began their march northward to San Patricio , driving a herd of several hundred horses he had purchased . The men camped along San Fernando Creek on March 1 . Local ranchers welcomed them , but that night sent a messenger to Urrea with Grant 's location and plans .
= = Battle = =
Mexican troops marched overnight towards El Puerto de los Cuates de Agua Dulce , a well @-@ known crossing point on Agua Dulce Creek . Approximately 26 miles ( 42 km ) south of San Patricio , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Banquete , and just north of modern @-@ day Kingsville , Mexican soldiers took cover in two groves of trees . Urrea had approximately 150 troops , including 80 dragoons .
Grant 's company comprised about 53 men , including a large contingent of Tejanos ( Mexican @-@ born residents of Texas ) under the command of Plácido Benavides . The men were in good spirits and rode at an easy pace towards San Patricio . Grant , Benavides , and Ruben Brown rode 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) ahead of the main body of Texians and saw no signs of Mexican soldiers .
Between 10 and 11 am , as the bulk of the Texians reached the trees , the Mexican cavalry attacked . Taken completely unaware , many of the Texians were shot before they were able to raise their guns . As they tried to flee , dragoons chased them down and lanced them off their horses . Five Texians dismounted and made a run for a small village nearby , hoping to gain cover so they could use their rifles . Urrea sent the infantry after them . Two of those Texians were captured and the rest escaped .
Grant , Benavides , and Brown turned back to join the other Texians . Once in the battle , Brown dismounted , either to reload his rifle or because his horse was killed . Seeing that the battle was lost , Grant pulled Brown onto another horse , and the two of them and Benavides turned to flee . Mexican cavalry attempted to stop them ; Grant shot one officer and he and Benavides then galloped past that officer 's horse . At this point , the herd stampeded , forcing the Mexican cavalry aside . The three Texians followed the horses . Mexican soldiers promptly gave chase . According to Brown 's later recollection , both his and Grant 's horses were wounded as Mexican soldiers fired after them .
The three Texians ran for 6 – 7 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 – 11 @.@ 3 km ) , occasionally firing their pistols to force Mexican dragoons to stay back . Mexican soldiers yelled that the men would be spared if they surrendered , but none of the Texians believed them . Benavides had the strongest mount , and Grant ordered him to go ahead to warn Fannin that the Mexican Army was close to Goliad . Grant and Brown were surrounded and forced to stop . Grant killed a Mexican soldier who drove a lance through Brown 's arm . Between ten and twelve Mexican soldiers then surrounded Grant , and he died after being pierced multiple times . Historian Stuart Reid theorizes that Mexican soldiers were eager to ensure Grant did not survive the battle . Grant could identify federalist sympathizers in Matamoros and the surrounding areas , and his knowledge potentially put Urrea and some of his federalist @-@ sympathizing troops at risk .
Brown threw his empty pistol at one Mexican officer , then grabbed the lance from the man Grant had shot and used it to defend himself . After soldiers lassoed him , Brown surrendered and was taken captive . Brown was then brought back to the site of the ambush . He recalled that one severely injured Texian , Joseph Carpenter , was lying in the dirt , begging for his life . Brown then saw a Mexican soldier shoot him .
= = Aftermath = =
Although Urrea reported that 42 Texians were killed , early 20th century historians generally only list 12 Texians as killed . Tejano involvement in the revolution had been notably absent from textbooks until the 1970s , so it is likely that historians were not including the Tejanos under Benavides . Six Texians were taken prisoner . In defiance of the Tornel Decree , Urrea spared those who surrendered and sent them to a prison in Matamoros . Reports indicated that Urrea offered clemency after the intervention of Francita Alavez , the mistress of one of Urrea 's soldiers . Six Texians escaped . Five of these joined Fannin 's garrison at Goliad and were later killed in the Goliad massacre . No reports of Mexican losses have been found , although at least one Mexican soldier is thought to have died . After the battle , Mexican soldiers rounded up the horses that the Texians had been herding and kept them . The battle marked the end of the Matamoros Expedition . Although it occurred on the same day that Texas declared independence , Grant and his men did not know that they were fighting for the new Republic of Texas .
According to historian Stephen Hardin , this battle proved that the Texians did not fight well on open prairies . News of the battle reached Fannin on March 4 . Urrea 's imminent arrival worried Fannin , who feared that Santa Anna would lead his troops from San Antonio de Béxar towards Goliad , essentially trapping Fannin and his men between the two branches of the Mexican Army . Fannin wrote to the Acting Governor , James Robinson , " I am a better judge of my military abilities than others , and if I am qualified to command an Army , I have not found it out . " The acting Texas government nonetheless left Fannin in charge of the fort at Goliad , instructing him to determine whether it was best to retreat or make a stand . Fannin delayed making a decision , finally choosing to leave Goliad on March 19 . Urrea 's troops trapped Fannin 's men on an open prairie . The Texians surrendered after the Battle of Coleto and most , including Colonel Fannin , were executed a week later in the Goliad massacre .
= Königsberg @-@ class cruiser ( 1915 ) =
The Königsberg class of light cruisers was a group of four ships commissioned into Germany 's Imperial Navy shortly before the end of World War I. The class comprised Königsberg , Karlsruhe , Emden , and Nürnberg , all of which were named after light cruisers lost earlier in the war . The ships were an incremental improvement over the preceding Wiesbaden @-@ class cruisers , and were armed with a main battery of eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns and had a designed speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Königsberg and Nürnberg saw action at the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight , where Königsberg was hit by a shell from the battlecruiser Repulse . Three of the four ships were to participate in a climactic fleet operation to attack the British Grand Fleet in the final days of the war , but revolts in the fleet forced the cancellation of the plan . Karlsruhe , Emden , and Nürnberg were interned at Scapa Flow after the end of the war , and were scuttled on 21 June 1919 , though only Karlsruhe was successfully sunk . The other two ships were beached by British sailors and ceded to the Allies . Königsberg was transferred to the French Navy as a war prize and commissioned as Metz ; she served with the French Navy until the 1930s , when she was broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
The design for the Königsberg was prepared in 1913 . The design was an incremental improvement over the previous Wiesbaden class , with a larger hull and greater displacement , but with the same armament , speed , and armor protection . By 1916 , thirteen German light cruisers had been lost in the course of World War I ; after they were commissioned , the ships of the Königsberg class took the names of four of these lost cruisers .
Königsberg was ordered as Ersatz Gazelle and laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1914 . She was launched on 18 December 1915 and commissioned eight months later on 12 August 1916 . Emden , ordered as Ersatz Nymphe , followed her sister at AG Weser , also in 1914 . She was launched on 1 February 1916 and commissioned into the fleet on 16 December 1916 . Karlsruhe was ordered as Ersatz Niobe and laid down in 1915 at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel . Launching ceremonies took place on 31 January 1916 , and after fitting @-@ out work was completed , she was commissioned on 15 November 1916 . The last ship of the class , Nürnberg , was laid down as Ersatz Thetis at the Howaldtswerke shipyard in Kiel in 1915 . She was launched on 14 April 1916 and commissioned on 15 February 1917 .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the class were 145 @.@ 8 meters ( 478 ft ) long at the waterline and 151 @.@ 4 m ( 497 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 14 @.@ 2 m ( 47 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 96 m ( 19 @.@ 6 ft ) forward and 6 @.@ 32 m ( 20 @.@ 7 ft ) aft . The ships had a designed displacement of 5 @,@ 440 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 350 long tons ; 6 @,@ 000 short tons ) , and at full combat load , they displaced 7 @,@ 125 t ( 7 @,@ 012 long tons ; 7 @,@ 854 short tons ) . Their hulls were built with longitudinal steel frames . The hulls were divided into eighteen watertight compartments and incorporated a double bottom that extended for forty @-@ five percent of the length of the keel . The ships had a complement of 17 officers and 458 enlisted men . They carried several smaller vessels , including one picket boat , one barge , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies . The German Navy regarded the ships as good sea boats , having gentle motion . The ships were highly maneuverable and had a tight turning radius , and but lost speed going into a turn . In hard turns , they lost up to sixty percent speed . The ships were stern @-@ heavy .
The propulsion systems for Königsberg , Emden , and Nürnberg consisted of two steam turbines , while Karlsruhe was outfitted with two sets of high @-@ pressure geared turbines . The turbines for all four ships were powered by ten coal @-@ fired boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers . The turbines drove a pair of three @-@ bladed screws , which were 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) in diameter . The engines were rated at 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) for a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . On trials , Königsberg reached 45 @,@ 900 shp ( 34 @,@ 200 kW ) and a top speed of 27 @.@ 8 knots ( 51 @.@ 5 km / h ; 32 @.@ 0 mph ) , while Karlsruhe made 55 @,@ 700 shp ( 41 @,@ 500 kW ) and 27 @.@ 7 knots ( 51 @.@ 3 km / h ; 31 @.@ 9 mph ) . Emden reached 50 @,@ 216 shp ( 37 @,@ 446 kW ) and 27 @.@ 7 kn ; Nürnberg 's trials figures are not recorded . The trials were conducted in shallow water due to the war ; in deep water , the ships would have exceeded 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) .
Coal storage was 350 t ( 340 long tons ; 390 short tons ) as designed , though up to 1 @,@ 340 t ( 1 @,@ 320 long tons ; 1 @,@ 480 short tons ) could be carried . Fuel oil was initially 150 t ( 150 long tons ; 170 short tons ) , and could be similarly increased to 500 t ( 490 long tons ; 550 short tons ) . At a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , the ships could steam for approximately 4 @,@ 850 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 980 km ; 5 @,@ 580 mi ) . At a higher speed of 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , the range fell considerably , to 1 @,@ 200 nmi ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) . Electrical power was provided by two turbo generators and one diesel generator , with a total output of 300 kilowatts at 220 volts . Steering was controlled by a single , large rudder .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ship was armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , four were located amidships , two on either side , and two were arranged in a super firing pair aft . These guns fired a 45 @.@ 3 @-@ kilogram ( 100 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 840 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 040 rounds of ammunition , for 130 shells per gun . The ships also carried two 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted on the centerline astern of the funnels . These guns fired a 10 kg ( 22 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 750 to 770 m / s ( 2 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ) . She was also equipped with four 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes , two in deck @-@ mounted swivel launchers and two submerged in the ships ' hulls . The ships were also outfitted to carry up to 200 mines .
The Cöln class ships were protected by an armored belt composed of Krupp cemented steel . It was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships and 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) forward . The stern was not protected by armor . The armored deck was 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick in the stern , 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick amidships , and 60 mm thick forward . Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck and belt armor . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 20 mm thick roof . The main battery guns were protected with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick gun shields . A 20 mm thick deck and 30 mm thick side armor protected the mine hold .
= = Service history = =
On 17 November 1917 , Königsberg and Nürnberg saw action at the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight . Along with two other cruisers from the II Scouting Group and the dreadnought battleships Kaiser and Kaiserin , Königsberg and Nürnberg escorted minesweepers clearing paths in minefields laid by the British . During the engagement , the battlecruiser HMS Repulse scored a hit on Königsberg , which did minimal damage but started a serious fire . The British broke off the attack when the German battleships arrived on the scene , after which the Germans also withdrew . All four ships participated in Operation Albion , an amphibious operation against the islands in the Gulf of Riga . Emden served as the flagship for the Leader of Torpedoboats , while the other three ships were assigned to the II Scouting Group .
In October 1918 , three of the ships and the rest of the II Scouting Group were to lead a final attack on the British navy . Königsberg Cöln , Dresden , and Pillau were to attack merchant shipping in the Thames estuary while Karlsruhe , Nürnberg , and Graudenz were to bombard targets in Flanders , to draw out the British Grand Fleet . Großadmiral Reinhard Scheer , the commander in chief of the fleet , intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to secure a better bargaining position for Germany , whatever the cost to the fleet . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . When informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated , " I no longer have a navy . "
Following the Armistice that ended the fighting , Königsberg took Rear Admiral Hugo Meurer to Scapa Flow to negotiate with Admiral David Beatty , the commander of the Grand Fleet , for the place of internment of the German fleet . The accepted arrangement was for the High Seas Fleet to meet the combined Allied fleet in the North Sea and proceed to the Firth of Forth before transferring to Scapa Flow , where they would be interned . Most of the High Seas Fleet 's ships , including Karlsruhe , Emden , and Nürnberg , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter . Königsberg instead remained in Germany .
The unruly crew of Friedrich der Grosse , the fleet flagship , forced Reuter to transfer to Emden , where a Sailors ' Council cooperated with the ship 's captain to run the ship . The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships .
Karlsruhe sank at 15 : 50 ; the rights to salvaging the ship were sold in 1962 . She has not been raised for scrapping , however . Emden was boarded by British sailors who beached her before she could be completely sunk . After being refloated , she was ceded to France and used as a test ship for explosives before being broken up in 1926 . Nürnberg was also beached by British sailors . She was eventually sunk off the Isle of Wight as a gunnery target . Königsberg was meanwhile stricken from the naval register on 20 July 1920 and ceded to France . She was renamed Metz and served with the French Navy until 1933 . She was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1936 .
= Thomas Pennant =
Thomas Pennant ( 14 June OS 1726 – 16 December 1798 ) was a Welsh naturalist , traveller , writer and antiquarian . He was born and lived his whole life at his family estate , Downing Hall near Whitford , Flintshire in Wales .
As a naturalist he had a great curiosity , observing the geography , geology , plants , animals , birds , reptiles , amphibians and fish around him and recording what he saw and heard about . He wrote acclaimed books including British Zoology , the History of Quadrupeds , Arctic Zoology and Indian Zoology although he never travelled further afield than continental Europe . He knew and maintained correspondence with many of the scientific figures of his day . His books influenced the writings of Samuel Johnson . As an antiquarian , he amassed a considerable collection of art and other works , largely selected for their scientific interest . Many of these works are now housed at the National Library of Wales .
As a traveller he visited Scotland and many other parts of Britain and wrote about them . Many of his travels took him to places that were little known to the British public and the travelogues he produced , accompanied by painted and engraved colour plates , were much appreciated . Each tour started at his home and related in detail the route , the scenery , the habits and activities of the people he met , their customs and superstitions and the wildlife he saw or heard about . He travelled on horseback accompanied by his servant , Moses Griffiths , who sketched the things they encountered , later to work these up into illustrations for the books . He was an amiable man with a large circle of friends and was still busily following his interests into his sixties . He enjoyed good health throughout his life and died at Downing at the age of seventy two .
= = Family background = =
The Pennants were a family of Welsh gentry from the parish of Whitford , Flintshire , who had built up a modest estate at Bychton by the seventeenth century . In 1724 Thomas ' father , David Pennant , inherited the neighbouring Downing estate from a cousin , considerably augmenting the family 's fortune . Downing Hall , where Thomas was born in the ' yellow room ' , became the main Pennant residence . This house had been built in 1600 and the front and main entrance were set back between two forward facing wings . By the time the Pennants moved there it was in a state of disrepair and many alterations were set in hand . It had a number of fine rooms including a well @-@ stocked library and a smoking room " most antiquely furnished with ancient carvings , and the horns of all the European beasts of chase " . The grounds were also very overgrown and much effort was put into their improvement and the creation of paths , vistas and pleasure gardens .
Pennant received his early education at Wrexham Grammar School , before moving to Thomas Croft 's school in Fulham in 1740 . At the age of twelve , Pennant later recalled , he had been inspired with a passion for natural history through being presented with Francis Willughby 's Ornithology . In 1744 he entered Queen 's College , Oxford , later moving to Oriel College . Like many students from a wealthy background , he left Oxford without taking a degree , although in 1771 his work as a zoologist was recognised with an honorary degree .
Pennant married Elizabeth Falconer , the daughter of Lieutenant James Falconer of the Royal Navy , in 1759 and they had a son , David Pennant , born in 1763 . Pennant 's wife died the following year and fourteen years later he married Ann Mostyn , daughter of Sir Thomas Mostyn of Mostyn , Flintshire .
= = Interests = =
A visit to Cornwall in 1746 – 1747 , where he met the antiquary and naturalist William Borlase , awakened an interest in minerals and fossils which formed his main scientific study during the 1750s . In 1750 , his account of an earthquake at Downing was inserted in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , where there also appeared in 1756 a paper on several coralloid bodies he had collected at Coalbrookdale , Shropshire . More practically , Pennant used his geological knowledge to open a lead mine , which helped to finance improvements at Downing after he had inherited the estate in 1763 .
In 1754 , he was elected a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries but by 1760 he was happily married and resigned his fellowship because " my circumstances at that time were very narrow , my worthy father being alive , and I vainly thought my happiness would have been permanent , and that I never should have been called again from my retirement to amuse myself in town , or to be of use to the society . " When his financial circumstances later improved , he became a patron and collector . He amassed a considerable collection of works of art , many of which had been commissioned and which were selected for their scientific interest rather than their connoisseur value . He had several works by Nicholas Pocock representing topographical landforms , mostly in Wales , and others by the artist Peter Paillou , probably commissioned , representing different climate types . His portrait by Thomas Gainsborough shows him as a country gentleman . Also included in the " Pennant Collection " , housed at the National Library of Wales , are many watercolours by Moses Griffiths and John Ingleby , and some drawings by Pennant himself .
The artist Moses Griffiths , a native of Bryncroes in the Llŷn Peninsula , provided illustrations to most of Pennant 's books . He was employed full @-@ time by Pennant and accommodated at Downing . Many of these paintings are included in the Pennant Collection held by the National Museum of Wales . Another artist whom Pennant employed on an occasional basis was John Ingleby of Halkin . He mostly supplied town scenes and vignettes .
= = Scientific work and publications = =
= = = Early works = = =
Pennant 's first publications were scientific papers on the earthquake he had experienced , other geological subjects and palaeontology . One of these so impressed Carl Linnaeus , that in 1757 , he put Pennant 's name forward and he was duly elected a member of the Royal Swedish Society of Sciences . Pennant felt very honoured by this and continued to correspond with Linnaeus throughout his life .
Observing that naturalists in other European countries were producing volumes describing the animals found in their territories , Pennant started , in 1761 , a similar work about Britain , to be called British Zoology . This was a comprehensive book with 132 folio plates in colour . It was published in 1766 and 1767 in four volumes as quarto editions , and further small editions followed . The illustrations were so expensive to produce that he made little money from the publication , and when there was a profit , he gave it to charity . For example , the bookseller Benjamin White , brother of the naturalist Gilbert White , received permission , on payment of £ 100 , to publish an octavo edition , and the money thus raised was donated to the Welsh Charity School . Further appendix volumes were added later and the text , largely written from personal observations , was translated into Latin and German .
The book took several years to write and during that time , Pennant was struck by personal tragedy when his wife died . Soon afterwards , in February 1765 and apparently as a reaction , he set out on a journey to the continent of Europe , starting in France where he met other naturalists and scientists including the Comte de Buffon , Voltaire , who he described as a " wicked wit " , Haller and Pallas , and they continued to correspond to their mutual advantage . He later complained that the Comte used several of his communications on animals in his Histoire Naturelle without properly attributing them to Pennant . His meeting with Pallas was significant , because it led Pennant to write his Synopsis of Quadrupeds . He and Pallas found each other 's company particularly congenial , and both were great admirers of the English naturalist John Ray . The intention was that Pallas would write the book but , having written an outline of what he planned , he got called away by the Empress Catherine the Great to her court at St Petersburg . At her request he led a " philosophical expedition " into her distant territories that lasted six years , so Pennant took over the project .
In 1767 Pennant was elected a fellow of the Royal Society . About this time he met the much @-@ travelled Sir Joseph Banks and visited him at his home in Lincolnshire . Banks presented him with the skin of a new species of penguin recently brought back from the Falkland Islands . Pennant wrote an account of this bird , the king penguin ( Aptenodytes patagonicus ) , and all the other known species of penguin which was published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society .
= = = Tours in Scotland = = =
While work on the Synopsis of Quadrupeds was still in progress , Pennant decided on a journey to Scotland , a relatively unexplored country and not previously visited by a naturalist . He set out in June 1769 and kept a journal and made sketches as he travelled . He visited the Farne Islands off the Northumberland coast on the way and was much impressed by the breeding seabird colonies . He entered Scotland via Berwick @-@ on @-@ Tweed and proceeded via Edinburgh and up the east coast , continuing through Perth , Aberdeen and Inverness . His return journey south took him through Fort William , Glen Awe , Inverary and Glasgow . He was unimpressed by the climate but was interested in all he saw and made enquiries about the local economy . He described in detail the scenery around Loch Ness . He enthused over the Arctic char , a fish new to him but did not mention a monster in the lake . He observed red deer , black grouse , white hares and ptarmigan . He saw the capercaillie in the forests of Glenmoriston and Strathglass and mentioned the pine grosbeak , the only occasion on which it has been recorded from Scotland . He enquired into the fisheries and commerce of the different places he passed through and visited the great houses , reporting on the antiquities he found there . He finished his journey by visiting Edinburgh again and travelling through Moffat , Gretna and Carlisle on his way back to Wales , having taken about three months on his travels . On his return home , Pennant wrote an account of his tour in Scotland which met with some acclaim and which may have been responsible for an increase in the number of English people visiting the country .
In 1771 his Synopsis of Quadrupeds was published ; a second edition was expanded into a History of Quadrupeds . At the end of that same year , 1771 , he published A Tour in Scotland in 1769 . This proved so popular that he decided to undertake another journey and in the summer of 1772 , set out from Chester with two companions , the Rev. John Lightfoot , a naturalist , and Rev. J. Stewart , a Scotsman knowledgeable in the customs of the country . They travelled through the Lake District , Carlisle , Eskdale , which Pennant much admired , Dumfries and Glasgow . In passing , he was fascinated by the account of the inundation of the surrounding farmland by a bursting out of the Solway Moss peatbog . The party set sail in a ninety @-@ ton cutter from Greenock to explore the outer isles . They first visited Bute and Arran and then continued to Ailsa Craig . Pennant was interested in the birds , frogs and molluscs and considered their distribution . The boat then rounded the Mull of Kintyre and continued to Gigha . They would have continued to Islay but were becalmed . During this enforced idleness , the ever @-@ industrious Pennant started on his ancient history of the Hebrides . When the wind picked up they continued to Jura .
Here , as elsewhere , they were hospitably welcomed , lent horses to explore the island and shown the principal sights and the improvements that had been made . Pennant records the scenery , customs and superstitions of the inhabitants with many an anecdote . They later reached Islay where Pennant found geese nesting on the moors , a more southerly nesting site for geese than had previously been recorded . Their journey next took them to Colonsay , Iona and Canna and eventually to Mull and Skye . A projected journey to Staffa was prevented by adverse weather . Returning to the mainland , the party paid off their boat and attempted to travel northwards to the most northerly tip of Scotland . In this they were thwarted and had to retrace their route , having met bogs , hazardous rocks and country that even their " shoeless little steeds " had difficulty in negotiating . They returned to Skye for a while before parting company , Pennant continuing his tour while his companions returned to England , Lightfoot carrying with him most of the material he would later use when writing his Flora Scotica . Pennant visited Inverary , Dunkeld , Perth and Montrose . In the latter , he was surprised to learn that sixty or seventy thousand lobsters were caught and sent to London each year . He then travelled via Edinburgh , through Roxboroughshire and beside the River Tweed to cross the border at Birgham . Once in England he travelled rapidly home to Downing .
= = = Later works = = =
Pennant 's next publication , in 1774 , was his account of the second journey to Scotland . This was in two volumes with the second appearing in 1776 . These works include so much detail of the countryside , its economy , natural history and the customs of the inhabitants that they are still of interest today by way of comparison with the very different state of things now . While these volumes were in preparation , he started some new projects . In 1773 he returned to Cumberland , Westmorland and Yorkshire to visit the parts of them that he had missed previously . As with all his tours , he travelled on horseback , keeping his daily journal and accompanied by Moses Griffith who made copious sketches on the way . Pennant seems to have been an unpretentious man of simple tastes , who was welcomed into the homes of strangers wherever he went . He also made tours in Northamptonshire and the Isle of Man . Whenever he travelled to London he took a slightly different route , again recording what he saw and did and on the basis of these details , some years later he wrote his Journey from Chester to London . On one of these journeys , the church he visited at Buckingham in the morning collapsed into ruins that evening .
Over the next few years , Pennant made various excursions in North Wales . As with his other tours , he started from Downing . Almost one hundred pages in the first volume that he subsequently wrote were about the ancient city of Chester . His emphasis in these books was on history and the antiquities he saw , rather than on natural history . He was interested in Owain Glendower and his struggle with Henry IV for supremacy in Wales . The first volume of Tour in Wales was published in 1778 but covered a limited area of the country . In an attempt to remedy this , it was followed by a Journey to Snowdon ( part one in 1781 and part two in 1783 ) , and these later jointly became the second volume of his Tour . Although these also concentrated on the history of the places visited , they provided some information on the zoology and botany , in the later case with the assistance of Reverend Lightfoot . Pennant includes tales of the strongwoman and harpist Marged ferch Ifan although its not clear if he met her . Pennant mentions tales of the beaver 's presence on the River Conwy with a deep stretch being known as " Llyn yr afangc " ( Beaver 's pool ) . He also records herons nesting at the top of the cliffs at St Orme 's Head above the noisy gulls , razorbills , guillemots and cormorants which had their own nesting zones further down .
Pennant 's interests ranged widely . In 1781 , he had a paper published in the Philosophical Transactions on the origins of the turkey , arguing that it was a North American bird and not an Old World species . Another paper , published at the instigation of Sir Joseph Banks , was on earthquakes , several of which he had experienced in Flintshire . In the same year he was made an honorary member of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland and in 1783 , he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences , and separately , a member of the Swedish Royal Physiographic Society in Lund .
In 1782 , Pennant published his Journey from Chester to London . He had then intended to write a " Zoology of North America " but as he explained in the " Advertisement " , since he felt mortified by the loss of British control over America , this was changed to Arctic Zoology . The book was published , with illustrations by Peter Brown , in 1785 – 1787 . The first volume was on quadrupeds and the second on birds . Compilation of the latter was assisted by an expedition Sir Joseph Banks had made to Newfoundland in 1786 . The work was translated into German and French , and part of it into Swedish . The volumes were much acclaimed and Pennant was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society . In 1787 , a supplementary volume was published which included extra information on the reptiles and fishes of North America .
Pennant is rarely thought of as a poet , but in 1782 he was moved to write an " elegant little poem " , Ode to Indifference , as he explains " on account of a Lady speaking in praise of Indifference " . In it he " wittily constructs an erotic lyric from the invocation to John Milton 's L 'Allegro . " It includes the lines
Fly , Indifference , hated maid ,
Seek Spitsbergen 's horrid shade ,
...
Teach the sweet coquette to know
Heart of ice in breast of snow ;
In 1790 he published his Account of London , which went through a large number of editions . It was written in the style of his previous works and contained information on things of historical interest in the parts of the capital to which his wanderings led him . By this stage of his life he preferred to make tours in his imagination rather than in reality and he published a second edition of his Indian Zoology . He also conceived the idea of publishing a work on a global scale and set to work on the first two volumes of what was planned to be a fourteen volume series . Each country was to have maps and sketches , colour plates and an account of the country 's production with notes on its natural history . All this was to be gleaned from the writing of others who had seen these places themselves . The first two volumes appeared early in 1798 and covered most of India and Ceylon . Volumes three and four included the parts of India east of the Ganges , Malaysia , Japan and China but before these were published he suffered a gradual decline in health and vigour and died at Downing , in December 1798 . These two volumes were edited and published posthumously by his son , David , as were also several other short papers and an autobiographical work , The literary life of the late Thomas Pennant , Esq . By himself ..
= = Correspondents = =
Pennant met and corresponded widely over many years with other naturalists . This gave him privileged access to manuscripts and specimens , and his writings sometimes provide information about otherwise lost discoveries . For example , he visited the botanist Joseph Banks in September 1771 on his return from Captain James Cook 's four @-@ year voyage of exploration ; Banks appears to have passed his bird specimens on to Pennant . Pennant 's manuscripts describe the birds that Banks saw on the voyage ; and when he read John Latham 's A General Synopsis of Birds ( 1781 – 1785 ) , Pennant saw that Latham had omitted some of the land birds from Eastern Australia that Banks had collected , and wrote to Latham to fill in the gaps . The naturalist Peter Simon Pallas asked Banks to inform Pennant of " the unhappy fate of Captn . Cook " , and in December 1779 he wrote to Pennant himself , telling the story .
Letters to Pennant from the parson @-@ naturalist Gilbert White form the first part of White 's 1789 book , The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne . It is almost certain that the men were introduced by Gilbert 's brother Benjamin White , Pennant 's publisher ; Gilbert seized on the opportunity to correspond , as a way of overcoming the intellectual isolation of Selborne in the absence of suitable learned societies at which he could read papers and share ideas . He knew that Pennant , with little skill or inclination as a field naturalist , was gathering observations to publish in his books ; he quickly determined that he would make his own use of the correspondence , and kept copies of every letter he sent to Pennant . White was more careful than Pennant , and was sometimes critical ; for example , in 1769 he objected that the goatsucker did not only make its sound while flying as Pennant asserted , so it was wrong to suppose that the noise must be made by the air beating against its " vastly extended mouth " . Pennant accepted White 's criticisms graciously . Unfortunately Pennant 's letters to White have been lost : White 's Natural History begins with 44 of White 's letters to Pennant , of which the first nine were never posted ; the remaining 35 letters are dated between 4 August 1767 and 30 November 1780 , covering topics as varied as whether swallows hibernate or migrate ( letter 10 ) , ring ousels ( letter 20 ) , whether peacock trains are really tails ( letter 35 ) , and thunderstorms ( letter 44 ) .
= = Works by Pennant = =
A Tour in Scotland 1769 . John Monk , 1771 .
A Synopsis of Quadrupeds . John Monk , 1771 .
A Tour in Scotland , and Voyage to the Hebrides 1772 . John Monk , 1774 .
Genera of Birds . Balfour and Smellie , 1773 .
British Zoology . Benjamin White , 1776 – 1777 .
A Tour in Wales . H.D. Symonds , 1778 & 1781 .
A History of Quadrupeds . John Monk , 1781 .
Free Thoughts on the Militia Laws . Benjamin White , 1781 .
The Journey to Snowdon . Henry Hughs , 1781 .
The Journey from Chester to London . Benjamin White , 1782 .
Arctic Zoology . Henry Hughs , 1784 – 1787 .
Of the Patagonians . George Allan ( private press ) , 1788 .
Of London . Robert Faulder , 1790 .
Indian Zoology . Robert Faulder , 1790 .
A Letter to a member of parliament : On Mail @-@ Coaches . R. Faulder , 1792 .
The Literary Life of the Late Thomas Pennant . Benjamin and J. White , 1793 .
The History of the Parishes of Whiteford and Holywell . Benjamin and J. White , 1796 .
The View of Hindoostan . Henry Hughs , 1798 – 1800 .
Western Hindoostan . Henry Hughs , 1798 .
The View of India extra Gangem , China , and Japan . L. Hansard , 1800 .
The View of the Malayan Isles , New Holland , and the Spicy Isles . John White , 1800 .
A Journey from London to the Isle of Wight . E. Harding , 1801 .
From Dover to the Isle of Wight . Wilson , 1801 .
A Tour from Downing to Alston @-@ Moor . E. Harding , 1801 .
A Tour from Alston @-@ Moor to Harrowgate , and Brimham Crags . J. Scott , 1804 .
= = Reception = =
Pennant 's two Scottish tours were praised by critics , as were his natural history books . The Critical Review called the Tour in Scotland 1769 " the best itinerary which has hitherto been written on that country " . Pennant 's two Scottish tours made him the best known writer on Scotland , and stimulated the great literary figure of the age , Dr Johnson , to travel in Scotland and especially to the Hebrides , resulting in notable works by both Johnson ( A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland , 1775 ) and his friend and biographer James Boswell ( The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides , 1786 ) , According to the historian David Allan , all three of these " famous " texts were " deliberate attempts ... to educate their English readers about Scotland . The intention here was usually to instil both a genuine curiosity and a profound sympathy for their fellow Britons " in marked contrast , in Allan 's view , to the prevailing English ignorance and hostility to the people of Scotland ; and he cites evidence that readers found it " a beguiling vision that literally prescribed how they would now see and respond — positively , fondly , inquisitively — to Scotland and its culture " . With rare praise , Johnson said of Pennant " ... he 's the best traveller I ever read ; he observes more things than anyone else does . " And in 1777 , Johnson said to Boswell " Our ramble in the islands hangs upon my imagination . I can hardly help imagining that we shall go again . Pennant seems to have seen a great deal which we did not see . When we travel again let us look better about us . "
The Gentleman 's Magazine of 1797 reviewed The History of the Parishes of Whiteford and Holywell , commenting on his claim ( " Resurgam " , Latin for ' I shall rise ' ) to have returned from the dead ( having announced the end of his literary life back in 1791 ) , and continuing to joke about his excesses throughout . For example the review remarks that the portrait of " the late Pretender " to the throne " at a certain time , might have cost its possessor [ Pennant ] his seat on the bench of justices " .
= = Legacy = =
After Pennant 's death , the French zoologist and naturalist Georges Cuvier wrote of him " When the life of a man is entirely devoted to the sciences , it cannot be expected that it will present a variety of incident ; it will be found most truly in the analysis of his works . " Pennant is cited as an authority by Thomas Bewick throughout his pioneering field guide , A History of British Birds ( 2 volumes , 1797 and 1804 ) . For example , under " The Golden Eagle " , Bewick writes that " Pennant says there are instances , though rare , of their having bred in Snowdon Hills " . Bewick cites him for facts about rare species like " The Sclavonian Grebe " : " This species is not numerous in the British Isles . Pennant says , they inhabit and breed in the fens near Spalding , in Lincolnshire , and that the female makes a nest not unlike that of the Crested Grebe , and lays four or five white eggs . " On occasion , Pennant 's knowledge could be highly specific : for " The Great @-@ Crested Grebe " , Bewick records that the nest " is made of various kinds of dried fibres , stalks and leaves of water plants , and ( Pennant says ) of the roots of bugbane , stalks of water @-@ lily , pond @-@ weed and water @-@ violet ; when it happens to be blown from among the reeds , it floats about upon the surface of the water " .
The naturalist Richard Mabey wrote that Pennant was " a doughty and open @-@ minded traveller , and his various Tours were best @-@ sellers in their time " , adding Samuel Johnson 's comment that Pennant was " the best traveller I ever read " . Mabey however comments that he " had no great aptitude or instinct for field @-@ work and nothing approaching [ Gilbert ] White 's critical intelligence " , arguing that Pennant " was essentially an intellectual entrepreneur , a popularizer and compiler of other people 's observations and ideas , and was able to produce a large number of very readable guides as a result . " Mabey adds that Pennant had a " pushy and bombastic manner , and a reliance on second @-@ hand information that at times came close to plagiarism " but admits that he was an innovative author of books , in particular by seeking original reports " from a wide network of field observers " , meeting the fashion in the 1760s for natural history journalism .
Pennant 's exploration of the Western Isles of Scotland was revisited by Nicholas Crane in a television documentary programme first broadcast on BBC Two on 16 August 2007 , as part of the " Great British Journeys " series . Pennant was the subject of the first in the eight part series . The Thomas Pennant Society was formed in 2007 as a result of an initiative by an informal group , the Cymdeithas Thomas Pennant . It aims to foster his memory and arranges a programme of events connected with him including publishing leaflets and booklets , holding lectures and arranging walks in " Pennant Country " . It also holds an annual dinner . In 2013 , the society proposed to Flintshire County Council that " Holywell and the north Flintshire area " be designated ' Pennant Country ' . Some Holywell town councillors voiced reservations .
= = Species named after him = =
The following marine species were named with the epithets pennanti , pennantii and pennantiana :
Anchomasa pennantiana Leach in Gray , 1852 : synonym of Barnea parva ( Pennant , 1777 )
Arca pennantiana Leach in Gray , 1852 : synonym of Striarca lactea ( Linnaeus , 1758 )
Argentina pennanti Walbaum , 1792 : synonym of Maurolicus muelleri ( Gmelin , 1789 )
Blennius pennantii Yarrell , 1835 : synonym of Chirolophis ascanii ( Walbaum , 1792 )
Cardium pennanti Reeve , 1844 : synonym of Laevicardium crassum ( Gmelin , 1791 )
Cardium pennantii Reeve , 1844 : synonym of Laevicardium crassum ( Gmelin , 1791 )
Coregonus pennantii
Ebalia pennantii Leach , 1817 : synonym of Ebalia tuberosa ( Pennant , 1777 )
Funambulus pennantii
Gibbula pennanti ( Philippi , 1846 )
Lamna pennanti ( Walbaum , 1792 ) : synonym of Lamna nasus ( Bonnaterre , 1788 )
Maurolicus pennanti ( Walbaum , 1792 ) : synonym of Maurolicus muelleri ( Gmelin , 1789 )
Ovula pennantiana Leach , 1847 : synonym of Simnia patula ( Pennant , 1777 )
Pasiphaë pennantia Leach in Gray , 1852 : synonym of Timoclea ovata ( Pennant , 1777 )
Procolobus pennantii Waterhouse , 1838
Selachus pennantii Cornish , 1885 : synonym of Cetorhinus maximus ( Gunnerus , 1765 )
Squalus pennanti Walbaum , 1792 : synonym of Lamna nasus ( Bonnaterre , 1788 )
Tetrodon pennantii Yarrell , 1836 : synonym of Lagocephalus lagocephalus lagocephalus ( Linnaeus , 1758 )
Trochus pennanti Philippi , 1846 : synonym of Gibbula pennanti ( Philippi , 1846 )
Venus pennanti Forbes , 1838 : synonym of Chamelea striatula ( da Costa , 1778 )
Venus pennantii Forbes , 1838 : synonym of Chamelea striatula ( da Costa , 1778 )
Vermilia pennantii Quatrefages , 1866 : synonym of Pomatoceros triqueter ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) : synonym of Spirobranchus triqueter ( Linnaeus , 1758 )
= Smoothtooth blacktip shark =
The smoothtooth blacktip shark ( Carcharhinus leiodon ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae . It is known only from the type specimen caught from the Gulf of Aden , off eastern Yemen , and a handful of additional specimens caught from the Persian Gulf , off Kuwait . Reaching 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) in length , this species has a stocky greenish @-@ colored body , a short snout , and black @-@ tipped fins . It can be distinguished from similar species by its teeth , which are narrow , erect , and smooth @-@ edged .
Little is known of the smoothtooth blacktip shark 's natural history ; it likely inhabits shallow waters and feeds on small bony fishes . It is presumably viviparous like other members of its family . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) last assessed this species as Vulnerable , when only the sole type specimen was known . Although more specimens have since been discovered , the conservation status of this species remains precarious due to heavy fishing and habitat degradation within its range .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The first known specimen of the smoothtooth blacktip shark was a 75 cm ( 30 in ) long immature male caught by Wilhelm Hein in 1902 and deposited at the Naturhistorisches Museum in Vienna . The location was recorded as the Gulf of Aden near " Gischin " , which likely refers to the town of Qishn in eastern Yemen . In 1985 , the shark was examined and described as a new species by New Zealand ichthyologist Jack Garrick in a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Technical Report . He gave it the specific epithet leiodon , from the Greek leios meaning " smooth " , and odon meaning " tooth " . This species was known only by the single specimen until 2008 , when fishery surveys in Kuwait uncovered several more specimens .
Based on morphology , Leonard Compagno in 1988 tentatively grouped the smoothtooth blacktip shark with the spinner shark ( C. brevipinna ) , the blacktip shark ( C. limbatus ) , the graceful shark ( C. amblyrhynchoides ) , and the finetooth shark ( C. isodon ) . Using molecular phylogenetic techniques on mitochondrial DNA sequences , Alec Moore and colleagues reported in 2011 that this species is closely related to the graceful shark , the blacktip shark , and the Australian blacktip shark ( C. tilstoni ) .
= = Description = =
Superficially , the smoothtooth blacktip shark resembles the blacktip reef shark ( C. melanopterus ) . It is rather robust in build , with a short and blunt snout . The large nostrils are preceded by well @-@ developed , triangular flaps of skin . The small , circular eyes are equipped with nictitating membranes . The mouth forms a wide arch and has very short furrows at the corners . There are 16 upper and 14 – 15 lower tooth rows on either side , along with two to three small teeth at the symphysis ( center ) of either jaw . The teeth are distinctive in shape , having narrow , upright cusps without serrations ; finetooth sharks and juvenile spinner sharks are the only other members of Carcharhinus with similar teeth . The five pairs of gill slits are long .
The fairly long and pointed pectoral fins are slightly falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) and originate between the fourth and fifth gill slits . The first dorsal fin is medium @-@ sized and triangular with a pointed apex , and originates over the rear of the pectoral fin bases . The second dorsal fin is small and positioned opposite the anal fin . There is no ridge between the dorsal fins . The pelvic fins are triangular and larger than the anal fin , which has a deep notch in the trailing margin . A crescent @-@ shaped notch is present on the caudal peduncle at the upper caudal fin origin . The caudal fin is asymmetrical , with a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a longer upper lobe with a ventral notch near the tip . The dermal denticles are slightly overlapping and bear three prominent horizontal ridges leading to three or five marginal teeth . This species is greenish yellow to greenish gray above , sometimes with a scattering of tiny dark dots . The underside is white , which extends in a pale band onto the flanks . All the fins have sharply defined black tips , and there is a broad , dark midline stripe running from the second dorsal fin base to the tip of the upper caudal fin lobe . The largest recorded specimen is 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) long .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The smoothtooth blacktip shark has only been recorded from eastern Yemen and Kuwait , some 3 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 900 mi ) apart . These two locations differ markedly : the Gulf of Aden near Yemen is over 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) deep with a narrow continental shelf and no permanent riverine inputs , while the Persian Gulf near Kuwait is entirely shallower than 40 m ( 130 ft ) and receives abundant freshwater from the Tigris @-@ Euphrates @-@ Karun river system . The Kuwait specimens were obtained from fish markets ; given the practices of Kuwaiti speedboat fishers , this shark can be supposed to inhabit shallow , coastal waters . Still , these waters encompass a range of habitats from estuaries to coral reefs , and thus the habitat requirements of the smoothtooth blacktip shark remain largely unknown .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Considering its resemblance to the blacktip reef shark , the smoothtooth blacktip shark may play an equivalent shallow @-@ water ecological role within its range . It is known to feed on marine catfish , and its diet probably also includes other small bony fishes . This species is presumably viviparous like all other Carcharhinus species , with the developing young sustained to term by a placental connection to the mother . Judging from the available specimens , males reach sexual maturity at some point between 0 @.@ 9 and 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 0 and 3 @.@ 9 ft ) long .
= = Human interactions = =
Prior to the finding of additional specimens in Kuwait , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) assessed the smoothtooth blacktip shark as Vulnerable based on its presumed small range and population . Despite the discovery of a second subpopulation off Kuwait , this species likely still warrants a Vulnerable assessment ( or higher ) because the waters around the Arabian Peninsula are subject to heavy fishing pressure and habitat degradation . Gillnet and other fisheries off Kuwait are known to take the smoothtooth blacktip shark as bycatch , while intensive Yemeni and Somalian shark fisheries operate in the Gulf of Aden . The status of the Yemen subpopulation is uncertain because no further specimens have been recorded since the original over a century ago .
= Ariwara no Narihira =
Ariwara no Narihira ( 在原 業平 , 825 – 880 ) was a Japanese courtier and waka poet of the early Heian period . He was named one of both the Six Poetic Geniuses and the Thirty @-@ Six Poetic Geniuses , and one of his poems was included in the Ogura Hyakunin Isshu collection . He is also known as Zai Go @-@ Chūjō , Zai Go , Zai Chūjō or Mukashi @-@ Otoko .
There are 87 poems attributed to Narihira in court anthologies , though some attributions are dubious . Narihira 's poems are exceptionally ambiguous ; the compilers of the 10th @-@ century Kokin Wakashū thus treated them to relatively long headnotes .
Narihira 's many renowned love affairs have exerted a profound influence on later Japanese culture . Legends have held that he had affairs high priestess of the Ise Grand Shrine and the poet Ono no Komachi , and that he fathered Emperor Yōzei . His love affairs inspired The Tales of Ise , and he has ever since been a model of the handsome , amorous nobleman .
= = Biography = =
= = = Birth and ancestry = = =
Ariwara no Narihira was born in 825 . He was a grandson of two emperors : Emperor Heizei through his father , Prince Abo ; and Emperor Kanmu through his mother , Princess Ito . He was the fifth child of Prince Abo , but was supposedly the only child of Princess Ito , who lived in the former capital at Nagaoka . Some of Narihira 's poems are about his mother .
Abo was banished from the old capital Heijō @-@ kyō ( modern Nara ) to Tsukushi Province ( within modern Fukuoka ) in 824 due to his involvement in a failed coup d 'état known as the Kusuko Incident . Narihira was born during his father 's exile . After Abo 's return to Heijō , in 826 , Narihira and his brothers Yukihira , Nakahira and Morihira were made commoners and given the surname Ariwara . The scholar Ōe no Otondo was also a brother of Narihira 's .
= = = Political career = = =
Although he is remembered mainly for his poetry , Narihira was of high birth and served at court . In 841 he was appointed Lieutenant of the Right Division of Inner Palace Guards , before being promoted to Lieutenant of the Left Division of Inner Palace Guards and then Chamberlain . In 849 , he held the Junior Fifth Rank , Lower Grade .
Narihira rose to the positions of Provisional Assistant Master of the Left Military Guard , Assistant Chamberlain , Provisional Minor Captain of the Left Division of Inner Palace Guards , Captain of the Right Division of the Bureau of Horses , Provisional Middle Captain of the Right Division of Inner Palace Guards , Provisional Governor of Sagami , reaching the Junior Fourth Rank , Upper Grade . By the end of his life he had risen to Chamberlain and Provisional Governor of Mino .
Literary historian and critic Donald Keene observed in his description of Narihira as the protagonist of The Tales of Ise :
Narihira combined all the qualities most admired in a Heian courtier : he was of high birth ( a grandson of the Emperor Heizei ) , extremely handsome , a gifted poet , and an all @-@ conquering lover . He was probably also an expert horseman , adept in arms , and a competent official . These aspects of his life are not emphasized in The Tales of Ise , but they distinguish Narihira from other heroes of Heian literature , including Genji .
= = = Romantic affairs = = =
Narihira was known as a great lover ; a third of his poems included in the Kokin Wakashū ( Kokinshū ) describe his various romantic affairs , and after his death the national history Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku ( compiled 901 ) said of him : " Narihira was elegant and of handsome appearance , but he was unrestrained in his self @-@ indulgence . "
The Tales of Ise portrays Narihira as falling in love with Fujiwara no Takaiko , a consort of Emperor Seiwa , and it is hinted that this was one of the reasons for his leaving the capital and travelling east . It has been speculated that this romantic affair with the consort of the emperor was the reason why the Sandai Jitsuroku describes his rank as going down from Junior Fifth Rank , Lower Grade to Senior Sixth Rank , Upper Grade , before again rising to Junior Fifth Rank , Upper Grade the following year . However , it has also been speculated that this may be an error in the Sandai Jitsuroku as a result of binding changing the order of events . Furthermore , Fujiwara no Takaiko reputedly had an affair with the monk Zen 'yū ( 善祐 ) , which may have formed the core of the otherwise fictional legend that she also had an affair with Narihira . Whether the affair was historical or not , the Reizei family 's commentary on The Tales of Ise speculates that Emperor Yōzei was a product of this union , and not the previous emperor .
One of Narihira 's most famous affairs — the one that gave The Tales of Ise its name — was said to be with Yasuko , high priestess of the Ise Grand Shrine . The Tales of Ise describes the protagonist , presumed to be Narihira , visiting Ise on a hunt , and sleeping with the priestess . However , a passage in the Kokinshū describes the meeting ambiguously , in a manner that implies Narihira did not sleep with the priestess herself but rather another woman in her service . The 12th @-@ century work Gōshidai ( 江次第 ) and the 13th @-@ century work Kojidan claim that the product of this union was Takashina no Moronao ( 高階師尚 ) , who was later adopted by Takashina no Shigenori ( 高階茂範 ) . Japanlogist Helen Craig McCullough stated there was " no evidence " the affair between Narihira and Yasuko was " more than a romantic myth " .
A headnote to poems 784 and 785 in the Kokinshū connects Narihira to the daughter of Ki no Aritsune . Medieval commentaries call her Narihira 's wife , and some modern scholars , such as Katagiri , call her Narihira 's wife , although the only early source that explicitly names her is the note in the Kokinshū . In the classical Noh play Izutsu , an adaptation by Zeami Motokiyo of " Tsutsu @-@ Izutsu " from The Tales of Ise , portrays Narihira and Ki no Aritsune 's daughter as childhood playmates who eventually marry ; Narihira is unfaithful to his wife , and her pining spirit appears to a monk after their deaths .
It has been speculated , based in part on their being considered the most beautiful man and woman of their age , that Narihira and the poet Ono no Komachi may have been lovers , but there is little evidence for this . Scholars of the 20th century such as Makane Sekitani ( 関谷真可禰 , Sekitani Makane ) have held up this speculation , which can be traced back at least as far as the 14th @-@ century historian Kitabatake Chikafusa .
Chikafusa likely used Kamakura period Kokinshū commentaries such as the extant Bishamondō @-@ bon Kokinshū @-@ chū ( 毘沙門堂本古今集注 ) , which speculates that one of Komachi 's poems was left for Narihira after a tryst . The Bishamondō @-@ bon Kokinshū @-@ chū in turn likely worked from a then @-@ common belief that fictional Tales of Ise was a genuine historical work detailing the actual events in Narihira 's life ( see above ) . Kamakura period commentaries on The Tales of Ise therefore tried to insert the names of real women where the original text simply said " a woman " , and thus inserted Ono no Komachi into several passages of the text .
The literary scholar Yōichi Katagiri concluded , on the lack of surviving evidence , that , while it is possible that Narihira and Ono no Komachi knew each other and were lovers , there was no usable evidence to say conclusively either way .
= = = Journey to the east = = =
The Kokinshū , Tales of Ise and Tales of Yamato all describe Narihira leaving Kyoto to travel east through the Tōkaidō region and crossing the Sumida River , composing poems at famous places ( see utamakura ) along the way . The Tales of Ise implies this journey was the result of the scandalous affair between Narihira and Fujiwara no Takaiko . There are doubts as to whether this journey actually took place , from the point of view both that the number of surviving poems is quite small for having made such a trip and composing poems along the way , and in terms of the historical likelihood that a courtier could have gone wandering to the other end of the country with only one or two friends keeping him company .
= = = Death = = =
According to the Sandai Jitsuroku , Narihira died on 9 July 880 ( the 28th day of the fifth month of Tenchō 6 on the Japanese calendar ) . Poem 861 in the Kokinshū , Narihira 's last , expresses his shock and regret that his death should come so soon :
= = = Burial site = = =
The location of Narihira 's grave is uncertain . In the Middle Ages he was considered a deity ( kami ) or even an avatar of the Buddha Dainichi , and so it is possible that some what have been called graves of Narihira 's are in fact sacred sites consecrated to him rather than places where he was actually believed to have been buried . Kansai University professor and scholar of The Tales of Ise Tokurō Yamamoto ( 山本登朗 , Yamamoto Tokurō ) has speculated that the small stone grove on Mount Yoshida in eastern Kyoto known as " Narihira 's burial mound " ( 業平塚 , Narihira @-@ zuka ) may be such a site . He further speculated that the site became associated with Narihira because it was near the grave @-@ site of Emperor Yōzei , who in the Middle Ages was widely believed to have secretly been fathered by Narihira . Another site traditionally believed to house Narihira 's grave is Jūrin @-@ ji ( 十輪寺 ) in western Kyoto , which is also known as " Narihira Temple " ( なりひら寺 , Narihira @-@ dera ) .
= = = Descendants = = =
Among Narihira 's children were the waka poets Muneyana ( 在原棟梁 ) and Shigeharu ( 在原滋春 ) , and at least one daughter . Through Muneyama , he was also the grandfather of the poet Ariwara no Motokata . One of his granddaughters , whose name is not known , was married to Fujiwara no Kunitsune and engaged in a clandestine affair with Taira no Sadafun .
= = Names = =
Narihira is also known by the nicknames Zai Go @-@ Chūjō ( 在五中将 ) , Zai Go ( 在五 ) and Zai Chūjō ( 在中将 ) . Zai is the Sino @-@ Japanese reading of the first character of his surname Ariwara , and Go , meaning " five " , refers to him and his four brothers Yukihira , Nakahira , Morihira , and Ōe no Otondo . Chūjō ( " Middle Captain " ) is a reference to the post he held near the end of his life , Provisional Middle Captain of the Right Division of Inner Palace Guards . After the recurring use of the phrase in The Tales of Ise , he is also known as Mukashi @-@ Otoko ( 昔男 ) .
= = Poetry = =
Narihira left a private collection , the Narihira @-@ shū ( 業平集 ) , which was included in the Sanjūrokunin @-@ shū ( 三十六人集 ) . This was likely compiled by a later editor , after the compilation of the Gosen Wakashū in the mid @-@ 10th century .
Thirty poems attributed to Narihira were included in the early 10th @-@ century Kokinshū , and many more in later anthologies , but the attributions are dubious . Ki no Tsurayuki mentioned Narihira in his kana preface to the Kokinshū as one of the Six Poetic Geniuses — important poets of an earlier age . He was also included in Fujiwara no Kintō 's later Thirty @-@ Six Poetic Geniuses .
Of the eleven poems the Gosen Wakashū attributed to Narihira , several were really by others — for example , two were actually by Fujiwara no Nakahira and one by Ōshikōchi no Mitsune . The Shin Kokinshū and later court anthologies attribute more poems to Narihira , but many of these were likely misunderstood to have been written by him because of their appearance in The Tales of Ise . Some of these were probably composed after Narihira 's death . Combined , poems attributed to Narihira in court anthologies total 87 .
The following poem by Narihira was included as No. 17 in Fujiwara no Teika 's Ogura Hyakunin Isshu :
= = = Characteristic style = = =
Although at least some of the poems attributed to Narihira in imperial anthologies are dubious , there is a large enough body of his work contained in the relatively reliable Kokinshū for scholars to discuss Narihira 's poetic style . Narihira made use of engo ( related words ) and kakekotoba ( pivot words ) .
The following poem , number 618 in the Kokinshū , is cited by Keene as an example of Narihira 's use of engo related to water :
The " water " engo are nagame ( " brooding " , but a pun on naga @-@ ame " long rain " ) , namidagawa ( " a river of tears " ) and nurete ( " is soaked " ) .
Narihira 's poems are exceptionally ambiguous by Kokinshū standards , and so were treated by the anthology 's compilers to relatively long headnotes . He was the only poet in the collection to receive this treatment . An example of Narihira 's characteristic ambiguity that Keene cites is Kokinshū No. 747 :
Scholars have subjected this poem , Narihira 's most famous , to several conflicting interpretations in recent centuries . The Edo @-@ period kokugaku scholar Motoori Norinaga interpreted the first part of it as a pair of rhetorical questions , marked by the particle ya . He explained away the logical inconsistency with the latter part of the poem that his reading introduced by reading in an " implied " conclusion that though the poet remains the same as before , everything somehow feels different . The late @-@ Edo period waka poet Kagawa Kageki ( 香川景樹 , 1768 – 1843 ) took a different view , interpreting the ya as exclamatory : the moon and spring are not those of before , and only the poet himself remains unchanged .
A similar problem of interpretation has also plagued Narihira 's last poem ( quoted above ) . The fourth line , kinō kyō to wa , is most normally read as " ( I never thought ) that it might be yesterday or today " , but has been occasionally interpreted by scholars to mean " until yesterday I never thought it might be today " ; others take it as simply meaning " right about now " . But the emotion behind the poem is nonetheless clear : Narihira , who died in his fifties , always knew he must die someday , but is nonetheless shocked that his time has come so soon .
= = = Reception = = =
Tsurayuki 's preface to the Kokinshū describes Narihira 's poems as containing " too much feeling and insufficient words . They are like faded flowers whose colour has been lost but which retain a lingering fragrance " . Ki no Yoshimochi repeats this in his Chinese preface to the Kokinshū , though according to literary scholars Rodd and Henkenius , it may not be negative criticism , and may even " be seen as complimentary " . It likely refers to the subjective , emotional nature of his poetry ; they say that " ' insufficient ' may suggest that many of his poems are misleading or unintelligible without explanatory headnotes " , and perhaps indicates that " even though Narihira approached the art in an unconventional manner , his poetry succeeds " .
Keene pointed out that this criticism likely reflected a change in literary tastes in the decades between Narihira 's compositions and Tsurayuki 's criticisms . His history of Japanese literature , Seeds in the Heart concluded its discussion of Narihira with the following :
Narihira was not a profound poet . His surviving poems are mainly occasional , and even when the expression suggests deeply felt emotion , its worldly manner keeps his poetry from attaining the grandeur of the best Man 'yōshū poems in the same vein . He is nevertheless of historical importance as one who maintained the traditions of the waka during the long night of the dominance of poetry in Chinese .
Poet and translator Peter McMillan says the large number of Narihira 's poems included in the Kokinshū and later court anthologies is an indicator of the high regard in which his poetry was held .
= = Connection to The Tales of Ise = =
The Tales of Ise is a collection of narrative episodes , centred on Narihira , and presenting poems he had composed , along with narratives explaining what had inspired the poems .
Narihira was once widely considered the author of the work , but scholars have come to reject this attribution . Keene speculates that it is at least possible that Narihira originally composed the work from his and others ' poems as a kind of inventive autobiography , and some later author came across his manuscript after his death and expanded on it . The protagonist of the work was likely modelled on him . The work itself was likely put together in something resembling its present form by the middle of 10th century , and took several decades starting with Narihira 's death .
Three stages have been identified in the composition of the work . The first of these stages would have been based primarily on poems actually composed by Narihira , although the background details provided were not necessarily historical . The second saw poems added to the first layer that were not necessarily by Narihira , and had a higher proportion of fiction to fact . The third and final stage saw some later author adding the use of Narihira 's name , and treating him as a legendary figure of the past .
The late 11th @-@ century Tale of Sagoromo refers to Ise by the variant name Zaigo Chūjō no Nikki ( " Narihira 's diary " ) .
= = Influence on later Japanese culture = =
In later centuries Narihira has been considered the epitome of the amorous bel homme , and his romantic escapades have given rise to many later legends . He and his contemporary Ono no Komachi were considered the archetypes of the beautiful man and woman of the Heian court , and appear as such in many later literary works , particularly in Noh theatre .
It is believed Narihira was one of the men who inspired Murasaki Shikibu when she created Hikaru Genji , the protagonist of The Tale of Genji . Genji makes allusion to The Tales of Ise and draws parallels between their respective protagonists . Though not directly stated in the text , later commentators have interpreted The Tales of Ise as implying that Narihira 's illicit union with the empress Fujiwara no Takaiko made him the true father of Emperor Yōzei ; whether Murasaki interpreted the work this way is uncertain , but The Tale of Genji describes a very similar incident in which the protagonist , a former imperial prince made a commoner , has an affair with an empress and sires a son who ultimately becomes emperor as his true parentage is kept secret . Narihira appears in tales such as 35 and 36 of Book 24 of the late Haeian @-@ period Konjaku Monogatarishū .
Along with his contemporary Ono no Komachi and the protagonist of The Tale of Genji , Narihira figured prominently in Edo @-@ period ukiyo @-@ e prints and was alluded to in the ukiyo @-@ zōshi of Ihara Saikaku .
The 16th @-@ century warrior Ōtomo Yoshiaki used Narihira and the courtly world of The Tales of Ise as an ironic reference in a poem he composed about the severed head of his defeated enemy Tachibana Nagatoshi ( 立花 長俊 ) , the lord of Tachibana Castle in Chikuzen Province , whom he killed 10 March 1550 .
= = Gallery = =
Ariwara no Narihira image gallery
= Flywheel , Shyster , and Flywheel =
Flywheel , Shyster , and Flywheel is a situation comedy radio show starring two of the Marx Brothers , Groucho and Chico , and written primarily by Nat Perrin and Arthur Sheekman . The series was originally broadcast in the United States on the National Broadcasting Company 's Blue Network beginning November 28 , 1932 , and ended May 22 , 1933 . Sponsored by the Standard Oil Companies of New Jersey , Pennsylvania and Louisiana and the Colonial Beacon Oil Company , it was the Monday night installment of the Five @-@ Star Theater , an old @-@ time radio variety series that offered a different program each weeknight . Episodes were broadcast live from NBC 's WJZ station in New York City and later from a sound stage at RKO Pictures in Los Angeles , California , before returning to WJZ for the final episodes .
The program depicts the misadventures of a small law firm , with Groucho as attorney Waldorf T. Flywheel and Chico as Flywheel 's assistant , Emmanuel Ravelli . The series was originally titled Beagle , Shyster , and Beagle , with Groucho 's character named Waldorf T. Beagle , until a lawyer from New York named Beagle contacted NBC and threatened to file a lawsuit unless the name was dropped . Many of the episodes ' plots were drawn from Marx Brothers films .
The show garnered respectable ratings for its early evening time slot although a second season was not produced . It was thought that , like most radio shows of the time , the episodes had not been recorded and the episodes were thought lost until 1988 , when 25 of the 26 scripts were rediscovered in the Library of Congress storage and republished . Adaptations of the recovered scripts were performed and broadcast in the UK on BBC Radio 4 in 1990 . In 1996 , some recordings of the original show were discovered , including a complete recording of the last episode to air .
= = Early development = =
In 1932 Texaco introduced its " Fire Chief " gasoline to the public , so named because its octane rating was 66 , higher than the United States government 's requirements for fire engines . To advertise its new premium grade fuel , Texaco approached vaudeville comic Ed Wynn to star in a radio show titled Fire Chief . Wynn played the fire chief in front of an audience of 700 and the show was aired live over the NBC Red Network , beginning April 24 , 1932 . It immediately proved popular with over two million regular listeners and a Co @-@ Operative Analysis of Broadcasting ( CAB ) Rating of 44 @.@ 8 % .
Upon seeing the success of Wynn 's Fire Chief , the Standard Oils in New Jersey , Louisiana and Pennsylvania , and Colonial Beacon , decided to sponsor their own radio program to promote Esso Gasoline and Essolube Motor Oil . They turned to the advertising agency McCann Erickson , which developed Five @-@ Star Theater , a variety series that offered a different show each night of the week . Groucho and Chico Marx , one half of the popular vaudeville and film stars the Marx Brothers , were approached to appear in a comedy show . Harpo and Zeppo were not required , as their trademark shticks of mute and straight man did not work well on radio . Before this decision was officially reached , early drafts of the scripts featured guest appearances written for both absent brothers , with Harpo being represented through honks of his horn and other trademark sound effects .
Nat Perrin and Arthur Sheekman , who had contributed to the scripts of the Marx Brothers ' films Monkey Business ( 1931 ) and Horse Feathers ( 1932 ) , were enlisted to write the comedy show . It was titled Beagle , Shyster , and Beagle , and its premise involved an unethical lawyer / private detective and his bungling assistant .
= = Casting = =
Groucho Marx played Waldorf T. Beagle ( later renamed Waldorf T. Flywheel ) , and Chico played Emmanuel Ravelli , the same name as the Italian character he played in the film Animal Crackers ( 1930 ) . Mary McCoy played secretary Miss Dimple , and it is thought that Broderick Crawford also appeared as various characters . Groucho and Chico shared a weekly income of $ 6 @,@ 500 for appearing in the show . During the Great Depression , this was considered a high sum for 30 minutes ' work , especially since radio scripts required no memorization and only a few minutes were needed for costume , hair and makeup . By comparison , Greta Garbo 's weekly salary from Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer during the same period was also $ 6 @,@ 500 , though this was for a 40- or 50 @-@ hour week . Wynn was paid $ 5 @,@ 000 a week for Fire Chief . In contrast , almost two @-@ thirds of American families were living on fewer than $ 26 a week . In a classic Marxian twist , Harpo was paid a weekly salary for not appearing on the show , even though his mute character would have little to do in a radio program anyway .
= = Production = =
Five @-@ Star Theater was broadcast from NBC 's flagship station , WJZ in New York City . Because Groucho , Chico , Perrin , and Sheekman were living and working in Hollywood , they had to make a three @-@ day train journey from Pasadena each week , and then another three @-@ day trip back . The first episode was written as they took their first train ride to New York .
A number of Flywheel , Shyster , and Flywheel 's scripts reused plots from Marx Brothers films . The plot of Episode 17 was suggested by the stolen painting plot in Animal Crackers , though it was a " Beauregard " in the film , not a Rembrandt . The 23rd episode also reused scenes from Animal Crackers , including the stolen diamond plot and Groucho 's lines regarding the need for a seven @-@ cent nickel . Monkey Business influenced two skits in Episode 25 , and The Cocoanuts gave Episode 19 its plot . Many vaudeville acts of the 1920s based their routines on the assumption that all people were straight ; some episodes of Flywheel , Shyster , and Flywheel included relatively low @-@ key homosexual jokes taken from the Marx Brothers ' stage act .
Despite reusing scripts from other sources , Perrin said that he and Sheekman " had [ their ] hands full turning out a script each week " . They found help from Tom McKnight and George Oppenheimer , whose names were passed along to Groucho . Perrin explained , " [ Groucho ] was in the men 's room during a break , and he was complaining to the guy standing next to him , ' Geez , I wish we could find another writer or two to make life easier . ' Suddenly there 's a voice from one of the stalls : ' I 've got just the guys for you ! ' Having Tom and George did make life easier , although Arthur and I went over their scripts for a light polishing . "
After traveling to New York to perform the first seven episodes , the four men decided to broadcast from Los Angeles instead . NBC did not have a studio on the West Coast , so for the next thirteen weeks , between January 16 and April 24 , 1933 , the show was transmitted from a borrowed empty soundstage at RKO Radio Pictures . Folding chairs were brought in for the audience of around thirty or forty people – coming from vaudeville , Groucho and Chico preferred to perform to a crowd – and were quickly cleared out at the end of each performance so that the stage would be ready for any filming the following day . The last four episodes of the show were performed back at WJZ in New York .
Chico was often late to rehearsals , so Perrin would have to stand in for him on the read @-@ throughs . When Chico eventually made his appearance , Perrin remembers , " he 'd be reading Ravelli 's lines and Groucho would tell him to stop [ and make me ] ' show him how the line should be read . ' My Italian accent was better than Chico 's , you see . But Chico didn 't care . "
= = Episodes = =
Flywheel , Shyster , and Flywheel aired Monday nights at 7 : 30 p.m. on the NBC Blue Network to thirteen network affiliates in nine Eastern and Southern states . Twenty @-@ six episodes were made , which were broadcast between November 28 , 1932 and May 22 , 1933 . Each episode is introduced by the Blue Network announcer and features about fifteen minutes of drama and ten minutes of orchestral music between acts . The episodes end with Groucho and Chico – not in character , but as themselves – performing a 60 @-@ second skit promoting Esso and Essolube .
= = Reception = =
Flywheel , Shyster , and Flywheel was not a success for Standard Oil . Although the successful Marx films Monkey Business and Horse Feathers contained plots involving adultery , Variety did not appreciate them in the radio show :
That 's fine stuff for children ! Chances are that if the Marxes proceed with their law office continuity along lines like this they will never be able to hold a kid listener . Firstly because parents don 't want their children to hear about bad wives and divorces , and this isn 't an agreeable theme to kids . Which means that if the Marxes don 't look out , whatever kid following they have on the screen will be totally lost to them on the air . It 's quite likely the Marxes can make themselves on the air . But they will have to use more headwork than their first effort displayed .
Despite the content , Groucho 's 13 @-@ year @-@ old son Arthur found the show " extremely funny " , albeit conceding that he may have been " a very easy audience " .
Following the airing of the first episodes , a New York attorney named Morris Beagle filed a lawsuit for $ 300 @,@ 000 alleging his name had been slandered , and that its use was damaging his business and his health . He also claimed that people were calling his law firm and asking , " Is this Mr. Beagle ? " When he answered , " Yes " , the callers would say , " How 's your partner , Shyster ? " and hang up the phone . The sponsors and studio executives panicked , and from episode four the title of the show was changed to " Flywheel , Shyster , and Flywheel " , and Walter T. Beagle was renamed Waldorf T. Flywheel . It was explained in the episode that the character had divorced and reverted to his " maiden name " .
The CAB Rating for the show was 22 @.@ 1 % and placed 12th among the highest rated evening programs of the 1932 – 33 season . The CAB Rating was not disappointing – popular established shows such as The Shadow and The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes did not perform as well – but it was less than half of Texaco 's Fire Chief , which got a 44 @.@ 8 % CAB Rating and was the third highest @-@ rated program of the season . One reason for the lower ratings may be because of the time slot the show aired . In September 1932 , only 40 % of radio owners were listening to the radio at 7 : 00 p.m. , whereas 60 % listened at 9 : 00 p.m. The 1932 – 1933 season 's top @-@ rated shows , The Chase and Sanborn Hour , Jack Pearl 's Baron Münchhausen , and Fire Chief all aired after 9 : 00 p.m. Standard Oil decided it could not compete with Texaco in the ratings and Five @-@ Star Theater was not renewed for a second season .
In his 1959 autobiography , Groucho and Me , Groucho comments , " We thought we were doing pretty well as comic lawyers , but one day a few Middle East countries decided they wanted a bigger cut of the oil profits , or else . When this news broke , the price of gasoline nervously dropped two cents a gallon , and Chico and I , along with the other shows , were dropped from the network . " In his 1976 book , The Secret Word Is Groucho , he writes , " Company sales , as a result of our show , had risen precipitously . Profits doubled in that brief time , and Esso felt guilty taking the money . So Esso dropped us after twenty @-@ six weeks . Those were the days of guilt @-@ edged securities , which don 't exist today . "
However , the show was later praised by other comedians of the time . In 1988 , Steve Allen said , " when judged in relation to other radio comedy scripts of the early 30s , they hold up very well indeed and are , in fact , superior to the material that was produced for the Eddie Cantor , Rudy Vallee , Joe Penner school . The rapid @-@ fire jokes [ ... ] run the gamut from delightful to embarrassing . " George Burns also found it " funny " . Modern reviews of Flywheel , Shyster , and Flywheel have also been positive . The New York Times ' Herbert Mitgang described it as " one of the funniest [ ... ] radio shows of the early 1930s " , adding that " the radio dialogue was so witty and outrageous , [ an ] innocent form of original comedy – as well as serious drama " . Rob White of the British Film Institute said the show " glitter [ s ] with a thousand @-@ and @-@ one sockeroos . "
= = Rediscovery of the show = =
The episodes of Flywheel , Shyster , and Flywheel were recorded , but for many years it was thought the recordings had not been preserved . At the time of the broadcasts , pre @-@ recorded shows were frowned upon by advertisers and audiences . However , in 1988 , Michael Barson , who worked in the United States Copyright Office at the Library of Congress discovered that the scripts for twenty @-@ five of the twenty @-@ six episodes had been submitted to the Office , where they had been placed in storage . Nobody was aware that they still existed and their copyrights had not been renewed . This meant that Flywheel , Shyster , and Flywheel had fallen into the public domain . The scripts were published that same year by Pantheon in a book titled Flywheel , Shyster , and Flywheel : The Marx Brothers ' Lost Radio Show , edited by Michael Barson and with an interview with Perrin . In October 1988 , Flywheel , Shyster and Flywheel scenes were broadcast for the first time since the show went off the air in 1933 when National Public Radio , a non @-@ profit media organization that provides content to public radio stations around the United States , aired an 18 @-@ minute recreation of Flywheel , Shyster and Flywheel in markets such as Chicago , Illinois , Dallas , Texas , and Los Angeles , California , using Washington , D.C.-based Arena Stage actors to perform the Chico and Groucho lead roles from the published scripts . Years later , three recordings of Flywheel , Shyster , and Flywheel were found , including a five @-@ minute excerpt of Episode 24 and a fifteen @-@ minute recording of Episode 25 . A complete recording of Episode 26 exists and was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in 2005 .
= = BBC Radio adaptation = =
In 1990 the British Broadcasting Corporation 's Radio 4 aired a version of Flywheel , Shyster , and Flywheel . Michael Roberts and Frank Lazarus performed the lead roles of Flywheel and Ravelli , wearing make @-@ up and clothing similar to Groucho and Chico . The cast also included Lorelei King in all the female roles and guest @-@ starred Spike Milligan and Dick Vosburgh . The scripts for the BBC series were adapted for a modern British audience by Mark Brisenden and were produced and directed by Dirk Maggs . Each episode incorporated material from two or three different original episodes , and occasionally included additional jokes from Marx Brothers ' films .
Commenting on the series , Maggs has said it was his favorite among the comedies he had directed , and described how they were performed .
The great thing about audience shows is doing the effects live on stage . BBC Radio Light Entertainment tended to have the effects operator hidden away behind curtains so they wouldn 't distract the audience ! A few Light Entertainment Producers like me have reasoned over the years that the spot effects are part of the entertainment so we brought the operator out front . And in the case of Flywheel we dressed him or her up as Harpo ! Michael Roberts who played Groucho came out with such good ad libs that I was always happy to cut scripted gags to keep them . One great one was when he and Frank as Flywheel and Ravelli find themselves in a pigsty – the rest of the cast pushed in to make pig voices – and Mike ad libbed , " Imagine – two nice Jewish boys surrounded by ham " – it brought the house down .
Six episodes were performed and recorded at the Paris Theatre and aired weekly between June 2 and July 7 , 1990 . The success of the first series led to another two being commissioned . The second series aired from May 11 to June 15 , 1991 , and the third from July 11 to August 15 , 1992 . The first series was made available by BBC Enterprises on a two @-@ cassette release in 1991 , but the second and third series were not .
= Loring Air Force Base =
Loring Air Force Base ( IATA : LIZ , ICAO : KLIZ ) was a United States Air Force installation in northeastern Maine , near Limestone and Caribou in Aroostook County . It was one of the largest bases of the U.S. Air Force 's Strategic Air Command during its existence , and was transferred to the newly created Air Combat Command in 1992 .
The base 's origins began in 1947 with an order for construction of an airfield by the New England Division of the United States Army Corps of Engineers . The chosen site , in northeastern Maine within both Limestone Township and Caswell Plantation , was the closest point in the continental U.S. to Europe , providing high strategic value during the Cold War . The base was originally named Limestone Army Air Field , and was renamed Limestone Air Force Base following the establishment of the Air Force in 1947 . It was named in 1954 for Major Charles J. Loring , Jr . , USAF , a Medal of Honor recipient during the Korean War . From | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the batter to hit . The results of the play would be printed out onto paper as a verbose description , like a radio description of the game . Daglow went on to develop more sophisticated baseball games in 1983 with Intellivision World Series Baseball , and 1987 with Earl Weaver Baseball , as well as numerous other games .
= Thalaba the Destroyer =
Thalaba the Destroyer is an 1801 epic poem composed by Robert Southey . The origins of the poem can be traced to Southey 's school boy days , but he did not begin to write the poem until he finished composing Madoc at the age of 25 . Thalaba the Destroyer was completed while Southey travelled in Portugal . When the poem was finally published by the publisher Longman , it suffered from poor sales and only half of the copies were sold by 1804 .
The poem is divided into twelve " books " with irregular stanza structures and unrhymed lines of poetry . The story describes how a group of sorcerers work to destroy the Hodeirah family in an attempt to prevent a prophecy of their future doom from coming true . However , a young child named Thalaba is able to escape from the slaughter . After one of the sorcerers hunts down Thalaba to kill him , the sorcerer is defeated by a great storm and his powerful magical ring comes into Thalaba 's possession . With the ring , Thalaba travels across the Middle East to find a way to defeat the evil sorcerers . In the end , Thalaba is able to stay true to Allah and is guided by the prophet Mohammad in destroying the sorcerers .
Southey uses the poem to describe various superstitions and myths , with a heavy reliance on repetition of various themes that link the myths together . Although based in Islamic theology , most of the action is mechanical instead of emphasising possible moral truths that can be drawn from the plot . Though the main character is purported to be a Muslim , the story actually takes place thousands of years before Islam , in ancient Babylon . Critics gave the work mixed reviews , with some emphasising the strong morality within the work or the quality of the poetry . However , other critics felt that the lack of a strong lyrical structure and the use of Middle Eastern myths detracted from the poem .
= = Background = =
The basis for Southey wishing to write long poems came from his private reading of literature while attending Westminster School as a boy . In Summer 1799 , Southey completed writing Madoc and began working on Thalaba . He started to work with Coleridge , and both Coleridge 's " Kubla Khan " and Thalaba shared many sources . He then travelled to Burton where he continued to write the poem , which he called a romance at the time .
He soon after travelled to Portugal in April 1800 where he planned to finish Thalaba and send it back to England for publication . By July , he was able to complete the poem and in October the poem was edited and ready for publication . John Rickman served as Southey 's agent in selling the book . Although finished , Southey continued to work on fixing the end of the poem until January 1801 after receiving suggestions from his friends . After Portugal went to war with France and Spain , Southey left the country and he returned to England in June 1801 . The poem was published in 1801 by Longman with 1 @,@ 000 copies , but only sold half by 1804 . A revised edition was published in 1809 .
= = Poem = =
The poem is a twelve book work with irregular stanzas and lines that are not rhymed . The poem deals with Harun al @-@ Rashid and a group of sorcerers at Domdaniel that live under the sea . It was foretold that Thalaba , a Muslim , would be God 's champion and conquer the sorcerers . To pre @-@ empt the prophecy , the sorcerers kill the Hodeirah family . Unknown to them , Thalaba was able to escape from harm with his mother Zeinab . They flee through the desert and arrive at Irem , a ruined city . After Zeinab dies , Thalaba is raised by a leader of Irem named Moath . The sorcerers find out that Thalaba is still alive , and Abdaldar , one of their members , goes to find out Thalaba 's location . When Abdaldar arrives , he is stopped a simoom , a sand storm , and his magic ring is lost . Thalaba finds the ring , which grants him great power .
A demon comes to steal the ring from Thalaba , but he is stopped by the young boy . This allows Thalaba to demand information about the sorcerers and why his family was killed . Time passes and Thalaba settles into a pastoral life at Irem and plans to marry Moath 's daughter , Oneiza . However , Thalaba decides that his duty prohibits him from such actions , and he leaves to fulfill his destiny . However , the sorcerer Lobaba tricks Thalaba and tries to steal the ring . After many failed attempts , Lobaba tries to convince Thalaba to harness the ring 's magic power , which would bring Thalaba harm . Instead , Thalaba argues against the use of magic in general and realises that Lobaba is evil . Although Thalaba attempts to kill Lobaba and fails by the sorcerer 's magic , a storm comes and destroys the sorcerer .
Thalaba travels past Baghdad onto the ruins of Babylon to find Haruth and Maruth , two angels that know about magic . While searching for them , he runs across Mohareb , an evil warrior . Mohareb offers to take Thalaba through the city and they travel through the cave of Zohak . Zohak , an individual punished to have snakes constantly eat at his brain , tries to stop them before Mohareb distracts him . The two continue to travel into the dwelling of Haruth and Maruth and , when Mohareb finds out that Thalaba is not evil , attacks him . However , the ring protects Thalaba . After Mohareb claims that magic was the only reason why Thalaba lives , Thalaba decides to get rid of the ring into a pit before the two resume fighting . Soon after , Mohareb is also thrown into the pit and Thalaba is able to ask the angels what he needs to defeat his enemies . He is simply told " faith " .
Thalaba travels to the land of Aloadin , who owns a great garden paradise , and he is invited to feast with the people , but he is unwilling to imbibe alcohol or be taken in by the dancing women that seek to entice him . The temptations overwhelm him to the point where he can no longer tolerate them and he flees . Shortly after leaving , he discovers one of the women being attacked by a man wanting to have his way with her . It is revealed that the woman was Oneiza , who was captured , and that Aloadin was a sorcerer . After saving Oneiza , Thalaba is determined to stop the sorcerer and he ends up killing him . Following this , they are praised by a Sultan that Aloadin wanted to kill , and Thalaba decides to marry Oneiza . Before they can finish their marriage , she dies and Thalaba is left to mourn over her grave . While mourning , a spirit that appears to be Oneiza begins to haunt Thalaba and claim that God disapproves of the young warrior . However , Moath comes and is able to recognise the spirit as a vampire . After killing the vampire , the real Oneiza comes to guide Thalaba onwards .
Thalaba travels to look for Simorg , the Bird of Ages , on the mountain Kaf . While wandering , he meets an old woman , Maimuna , who is a sorceress . She casts a spell upon him and he is sent to the land of Mohareb , by now an evil Sultan . However , Maimuna 's sister , Khawla , knows that if Thalaba is killed that Mohareb would also be killed and she seeks to kill Thalaba to remove Mohareb . Finding this out , Mohareb joins with Thalaba and returns the ring . After telling Thalaba to turn to the darker powers , Thalaba leaves . Khawla attempts to user her magic to kill Thalaba , but the ring protects him . When Maimuna tries to user her own magic against Thalaba , she witnesses the goodness of the universe and represents her evil ways . She repays him by using her magic to bring him back to the mountain , and Thalaba is able to return to his search for Simorg . After wandering through snow , Thalaba comes across the Font of Fire with the sleeping Laila trapped inside . It turns out she was placed there by her father , the sorcerer Okba and one of the murderers of Thalaba 's family .
Okba , old and worn out , comes and asks Thalaba to simply kill him and end his misery . However , Thalaba denies the request . The angel of death , Azrael , tells Thalaba that either Okba or Laila must die . Okba uses this chance to try and stab Thalaba , but Laila steps in between them and is killed . Okba curses God for his fate but Thalaba can only feel pity over the scene . After leaving , he is able to come to Simorg 's valley . Simorg directs Thalaba to take a sled to continue on his way while the spirit of Laila asks Thalaba to end Okba 's misery . However , Thalaba refuses to commit vengeance and he travels onwards until he arrives at a small boat waiting for him . He is taken down a river to the sea where Thalaba tosses away his magic ring . He is then taken to a cave that would lead him to the domain of the sorcerers .
Thalaba travels down into the cave and meets the warrior Othatha chained to rocks . Thalaba frees Othatha before travelling further until he meets an Efreet that guards a gate to the Domdaniel . After shooting an arrow into an eye of the Efreet , he is able to proceed forward where he meets Khawla and Mohareb . He is able to knock them away from him and quickly moves forward to find the powerful sword of his father . The sword of flames covers Thalaba in flames which causes the area to be filled with light . This scares the sorcerers who then try to attack him . After Thalaba defeats Mohareb and the sorcerers , the voice of Mohammad asks Thalaba what he wishes . Thalaba simply gives his will up to the Prophet before destroying an evil idol , which destroys the cave .
= = Themes = =
The story depicts how suffering is essential to completing one 's destiny . Southey 's purpose in Thalaba , however , is to describe as many of the various myths and superstitions that he can , and this interferes with the resolving of moral problems within the story . Instead , the moral lessons are formulaic and the events focus on awards given to those who are obedient . Southey 's emphasis on the actual mythic incidents over the moral events are backed up with more than 80 pages of his own notes that describe the various references to traditional myths or mythic creatures that are incorporated into the story . In terms of structure , the unilateral plot keeps Thalaba does not allow for an easy flow into various mythic incidents . Instances of the plot being supplanted by the myths can be found during the descriptions of the story of Irem , Haruth and Maruth , or others .
There is reliance on repetition of themes within the plot of Thalaba . Three times he attained a paradise that turns out to be false , and this is followed by the death of a woman who are gone until the very end when Thalaba is awarded entrance into a true paradise . The seeking out of mythic figures to guide him onto the next part of the tale is equally repetitive and has little result for the plot . Various instances of the sorcerers and sorceresses are added to the story to emphasise the evil of magic along with tempting Thalaba with power . However , the emphasis on magic hides the moral within Thalaba 's temptations . Although Thalaba does achieve his goal through moral submission , many of the quests and actions are arbitrary and repetitive . As such , they take away from any Islamic truth that could be found within the actions .
Other images , such as Thalaba reclaiming his father 's magic sword , are symbols that effectively reinforce Southey 's moral themes . However , these events represent the minority of the plot and are rarely relied on early in the story . To the contrary , the heavily represented magic ring is used to protect Thalaba with little explanation as to how it works and there is no moral statements tied to its use . As a whole , the poem is able to portray scenery and events in strongly descriptive manners , but the manner in doing this takes away from their meaning and effect . In terms of religious imagery , Islam within the poem is more similar to Zoroastrian thought and morality . Other religious images lose their power as Southey removes any mystical aspects of them , including Simorgh being stripped of it being a symbol of harmony with life . In terms of the divine , there is a dual entity : Allah representing preservation and Eblis representing destruction . However , evil , though an opposite to good , is never explained but merely used to further the plot .
= = Critical response = =
Ernest Bernhard @-@ Kabisch pointed out that " Few readers have been as enthusiastic about it as Cardinal Newman who considered it the most ' morally sublime ' of English poems . But the young Shelley reckoned it his favorite poem , and both he and Keats followed its lead in some of their verse narratives . " An anonymous review in the September 1801 British Critic claimed , " A more complete monument of vile and depraved taste no man ever raised [ ... ] He has , therefore , given a rhapsody of Twelve Books in a sort of irregular lyric , so unlike verse or sense , that if it were worth while to present our readers with a tissue of so coarse a texture , we could fill whole pages with specimens of its absurdity . We will have mercy , and give only a single example , which may be taken at random , for no part seems to be better than the rest . "
This was followed by an October 1801 anonymous review in the Monthly Mirror that argued , " It is a matter to be lamented , that , in times like the present , a work of letters can rarely be reviewed upon the ground of its own proper merits ... In the consideration of this romance , the judicious critic cannot but feel that one rule of good writing has been studiously observed . His work will not incur the censure passed by the late Mr. Collins upon his Persian Eclogues , namely , that , from erroneous manners , they were ' Irish . ' " The review continued , " He tells us it is metrical ... He will excuse our ears , but we cannot agree with him . Among the sins of our youth , we , like him , have traded in desultory versification , but have long been brought back to lyrical rhyme , and heroic blank verse . The reasons are obvious ... We recommend his beauties to the esteem , and his faults to the forgetfulness , of every reader . Upon the whole , he has our thanks for much amusement , and some information . "
An anonymous review in the January 1802 Monthly Magazine stated , " The fable or story of Thalaba is perhaps too marvellous : every incident is a miracle ; every utensil , an amulet ; every speech , a spell ; every personage , a god ; or rather a talismanic statue ; of which destiny and magic overrule the movements , not human hopes and fears — not human desires and passions , which always must excite the vivid sympathy of men . It offers , however , scope beyond other metrical romances " . The review concluded , " Whatever loss of interest this poem may sustain , as a whole , by an apparent driftlessness of the vents and characters , is compensated by the busy variety , the picturesque imagery , and striking originality of the parts . "
Later in 1802 , Francis Jeffrey , editor of the Edinburgh Review , submitted a review on Thalaba . In the October 1802 edition , he claimed that Southey " belongs to a sect of poets , that has established itself in this country within these ten or twelve years , and is looked upon , we believe , as one of its chief champions and apostles ... As Mr Southey is the first author , of this persuasion , that has yet been brought before us for judgment , we cannot discharge our inquisitorial office conscientiously , without premising a few words upon the nature and tendency of the tenets he has helped to promulgate . The disciples of this school boast much of its originality . " This led to a discussion of Southey 's flaws : " Originality , however , we are persuaded , is rare than mere alteration ... That our new poets have abandoned the old models , may certainly be admitted ; but we have not been able to discover that they have yet created any model of their own . " He continued to discuss the flaws of the British Romantic poets before returning to Thalaba when he argued , " The subject of this poem is almost as ill chosen as the diction ; and the conduct of the fable as disorderly as the versification ... From this little sketch of the story , our readers will easily perceive , that it consists altogether of the most wild and extravagant fictions , and openly sets nature and probability at defiance . In its action it is not an imitation of anything ; and excludes all rational criticism , as to the choice and succession of its incidents . "
This was followed by a December 1803 review in the The Critical Review by William Taylor that said ,
Perhaps no work of art so imperfect ever announced such power in the artist — perhaps no artist so powerful ever rested his fame on so imperfect a production — as Thalaba . The author calls it a metrical romance ; he might have called it a lyrical one ; for the story is told , as in an ode , by implication ; not directly , as in an epopoeia . It is a gallery of successive pictures . Each is strikingly descriptive ... but the personages , like the figures of landscape @-@ painters , are often almost lost in the scene : they appear as the episodical or accessory objects .
The review concluded , " The style of Thalaba has a plasticity and variety , of which epic poetry offers no other example . The favourite formulas of every school of diction have been acquired , and are employed ... This stunning impression of the style gives pain , we believe , especially to mere English scholars , and to those whose comparison of art is narrow and confined , but falls within the limits of pleasure , and is even a cause of luxurious stimulation , to readers of a wider range and a more tolerant taste . "
In 1977 , Bernhardt @-@ Kabisch claimed that the poem was " probably the most influential and historically the most important of Southey 's long poems " and " What made Thalaba distinction as well as provocative was above all its flamboyant exoticism . " However , he pointed out that " The chief weakness is the diffuse and tortuous plot which eddies and meanders without any firm principle of progression as the hero posts from stage to mysterious stage . "
Sir Granville Bantock authored " Thalaba the Destroyer – Symphonic Poem " ( 1899 ) based on the poem .
= Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection =
Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection is a reissue of American singer Katy Perry 's third studio album Teenage Dream ( 2010 ) . It was released on March 23 , 2012 by Capitol Records , nearly two years after the original record . Perry collaborated with producers including Tricky Stewart to refine leftover material from the recording sessions at Playback Recording Studio for Teenage Dream . The final product features three newly recorded songs , which incorporate pop styles previously seen in the original album , an acoustic version of " The One That Got Away " and three additional official remixes .
Upon its release , Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection was met with generally mixed reviews from music critics , who were ambivalent towards the new songs ' production and questioned the decision to reissue Teenage Dream . The reissue boosted sales of the original Teenage Dream , reaching number seven on the U.S. Billboard 200 and at number six on the UK Albums Chart . In several international territories , the album charted moderately as an independent release , and has sold one million copies globally .
Two singles were released from Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection . The lead single " Part of Me " debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , and was eventually certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , while the second single " Wide Awake " peaked at number two in the country . The record was further promoted with live performances during the 54th Annual Grammy Awards and the 2012 Billboard Music Awards , in addition to the autobiographical documentary film Katy Perry : Part of Me ( 2012 ) .
= = Background = =
In August 2010 , Perry released her third studio album Teenage Dream . While recording the record in 2009 and 2010 , she collaborated with producers including Dr. Luke and Max Martin . Following its release , Teenage Dream became an worldwide commercial success ; it debuted at number one on both the U.S. Billboard 200 and the UK Albums Chart , and charted highly in several international territories . The project was met with generally mixed reviews from music critics , receiving an average score of 52 , based on 19 reviews on Metacritic , indicating " generally mixed or average reviews " . After its singles " California Gurls " , " Teenage Dream " , " Firework " , " E.T. " , and " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " each reached the top of the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , Teenage Dream became the second album in history to produce five number @-@ one singles on the chart after Michael Jackson 's Bad .
In October 2011 , producer Tricky Stewart confirmed that he was working with Perry to refine leftover material from Teenage Dream recording sessions for " something special she has going on " . Perry officially announced Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection in February 2012 , describing it as the " complete story " of the original album . She added that the expanded album would contain three newly recorded songs and four additional remixes to supplement the standard edition of the original album . " It was an incredible honor to tie [ Jackson 's ] Billboard Hot 100 record , but I 'm moving forward and had a few things left to get off my chest , " she said .
= = New material = =
Tricky Stewart stated that he and Perry " always knew that the records [ they ] created were special [ and ] at the time it was more contractual obligation [ that they did not make the album ] " . He elaborated that they were originally excluded from the project to balance the original record with tracks from other producers , in addition to Perry not needing more songs at the time . The expanded album begins with the twelve tracks included on the standard version of Teenage Dream . The newly recorded material for the reissue begins with an acoustic rendition of " The One That Got Away " as the thirteenth track . " Part of Me " is a power pop song that lyrically acts as an " emotional breakup anthem " . It was speculated that its concept was inspired by Perry 's relationship with her ex @-@ husband Russell Brand .
" Wide Awake " is a mid @-@ tempo pop ballad that sees inspiration from electronic and dance @-@ pop ; it lyrically discusses the end of a relationship , and was also reportedly influenced by Perry 's experience with Brand . " Dressin ' Up " is an uptempo , dance @-@ rock and techno song that sees the inclusion of " over @-@ sexualized " lyrical content . The seventeenth track is a remix of " E.T. " with new verses provided by Kanye West , while the eighteenth song is a remix of " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " featuring Missy Elliott . The nineteenth and final track " Tommie Sunshine 's Megasix Smash @-@ Up " incorporates elements of Perry 's earlier singles " California Gurls " , " Teenage Dream " , " Firework " , " E.T. " , " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " , and " The One That Got Away " .
= = Singles and promotion = =
" Part of Me " was serviced as the lead single from Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection on February 13 , 2012 . It was met with generally favorable reviews from music critics , and became the twentieth song in the history of Billboard to debut at number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , and was also certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for exceeding sales of two million copies . The track also peaked at number one in New Zealand , and performed moderately in other international territories . " Wide Awake " was released as the second and final single from The Complete Confection on May 22 , 2012 . It peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 , and charted moderately worldwide . The track was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 2013 ceremony , but lost to " Set Fire to the Rain " by Adele .
Perry performed " Part of Me " at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards on February 12 , 2012 , and sang " Wide Awake " at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards on May 20 . The Complete Confection was also promoted through the feature film Katy Perry : Part of Me ( 2012 ) , which followed Perry during her California Dreams Tour . A golden ticket to attend the premiere of the film was placed inside one American copy and one Canadian copy of the record .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly opined that the newly recorded material " runs stale " , but stated that the disc contained " some delectable musical snacks " including " Dressin ' Up " and the acoustic remix of " The One That Got Away " . Writing for PopMatters , Jesse Fox felt that the record is " obviously not perfect " , but suggested that its enjoyable nature helped Perry " [ pull ] it off like a bright , flamboyant , short @-@ lived , explosive , nearly abrasive , gasps @-@ inspiring firework . " A writer for Blogcritics appreciated The Complete Confection 's musical diversity , and thought that the lyrical content made the album a " journey in love , life and everything in between . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection boosted sales of the original Teenage Dream , which consequently re @-@ entered the top @-@ ten of the Billboard 200 at number seven with first @-@ week sales of 33 @,@ 000 copies . This resulted in a 190 % -increase from the previous tracking week , in which the original record stood at number 31 . A similar situation occurred on the UK Albums Chart , where The Complete Confection helped Teenage Dream rise from number 34 to number six after the former was released . The Complete Confection peaked at number two on the Official New Zealand Music Chart , aided by the combined sales of the two versions .
Elsewhere , The Complete Confection performed moderately as an independently charting release . In Europe , the record respectively peaked at numbers 14 and 29 on the Belgian Flanders and Wallonia charts , both managed by Ultratop . It also reached number four on the French Albums Chart and number 18 on The Official Finnish Charts . The project was less successful on the Dutch MegaCharts and the Swedish Sverigetopplistan , where it respectively peaked at numbers 44 and 48 . In Oceania , it peaked at number five on the Australian ARIA Charts . According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , the album has sold over 1 million copies worldwide as of 2013 .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection .
Notes )
^ [ a ] signifies a vocal producer
" Tommie Sunshine 's Megasix Smash @-@ Up " contains elements of " California Gurls " , " Teenage Dream " , " Firework " , " E.T. " , " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " and " The One That Got Away " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Dr Pepper Ballpark =
Dr Pepper Ballpark ( formerly Dr Pepper / Seven Up Ballpark ) is the home ballpark of the Frisco RoughRiders Class AA minor league baseball club . Located in Frisco , Texas in the United States , the stadium has a capacity of 10 @,@ 316 . The ballpark is host to numerous functions in addition to minor league baseball games , including corporate and charity events , wedding receptions , city of Frisco events , and church services . Local soft drink manufacturer Dr Pepper Snapple Group holds naming rights and exclusive non @-@ alcoholic beverage rights in the park .
Since its opening in 2003 , the Dr Pepper Ballpark has won awards and garnered praise for its unique design , feel , and numerous facilities . In his design , park architect David M. Schwarz desired the creation of a village @-@ like " park within a ( ball ) park " . Dr Pepper Ballpark received the 2003 Texas Construction award for Best Architectural Design and was named the best new ballpark in the country by BaseballParks.com.
= = History = =
In 2001 , Mandalay Sports Entertainment , owner of the Shreveport SwampDragons Class AA baseball team , reached an agreement with Southwest Sports Group to move the team to Frisco for the 2003 baseball season . As part of the deal , Southwest Sports Group assumed part @-@ ownership of both the team and the ballpark to be built following the 2002 season . The project , designed by David M. Schwarz Architectural Services and HKS Sports & Entertainment Group , broke ground on February 6 , 2002 .
The ballpark serves as the anchor for a 74 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 30 km2 ) $ 300 million development project near the intersection of State Highway 121 and the Dallas North Tollway . The project was jointly funded by the city of Frisco and Southwest Sports Group . Frisco put forth $ 67 million to build the complex , which was raised through special financing , unconnected to the city tax rate . On January 21 , 2003 , it was announced that local company Dr Pepper / Seven Up had purchased the naming rights for the new ballpark and retained exclusive non @-@ alcoholic beverage rights for an undisclosed amount .
The ballpark opened for its first game on April 3 , 2003 , a RoughRiders loss to the Tulsa Drillers . The RoughRiders earned their first victory in the ballpark the next day , with the RoughRiders ' Kurt Airoso hitting the park 's first home run .
Dr Pepper / Seven Up Ballpark was renamed Dr Pepper Ballpark on March 31 , 2006 . On that date , the RoughRiders ' Major League affiliate , the Texas Rangers , defeated the Florida Marlins in an exhibition game played at Dr Pepper Ballpark . The sold @-@ out game was the ballpark 's first major @-@ league game of any kind . Overall attendance ranked in the top 10 in all classes of minor league baseball during the RoughRiders ' first nine seasons . The stadium ranked first in all of Class AA for attendance from 2006 @-@ 2011 . Average attendance at RoughRiders games is 8 @,@ 000 . On average , there are 30 sell @-@ out games per season .
= = Other events at the ballpark = =
As baseball is not a year @-@ round event , Dr Pepper Ballpark is used for other functions throughout the year . The ballpark hosts corporate events , such as company softball games and movie nights , in addition to local charity events , such as 5K runs and bike races . Since 2004 , the park has hosted the " Tournament of Champions " high school baseball tournament . The Dr Pepper Ballpark was selected to host the 2005 and 2009 Texas League All @-@ Star Game . Beginning in January 2006 , Dr Pepper Ballpark has begun hosting the opening ceremonies of the annual TXU Energy Winter Games of Texas . The ballpark also hosts wedding receptions , the opening ceremonies for the Frisco Baseball and Softball Association , city of Frisco events , and church services .
= = Architecture = =
Following its construction in 2003 , the Dr Pepper Ballpark received the Texas Construction award for Best Architectural Design for 2003 and the surrounding sports complex received the Best Sports and Entertainment award for 2003 . It was named the best new ballpark in the country by BaseballParks.com. MinorLeagueNews.com has also named the park No. 2 on its top ten minor league ballparks for 2004 and No. 7 for 2005 .
The design of the Dr Pepper Ballpark was spearheaded by David M. Schwarz . Schwarz had a stated goal of creating a " park within a ( ball ) park " in the stadium . To achieve this effect , the nine interconnected pavilions , where concessions , restrooms , and luxury suites are located , are built separately from the main seating area . The space between these pavilions allows for improved air flow in the Texas heat ; the wind can move through the buildings and is not impeded by their presence . Constructed of James Hardie fiber cement siding , architectural critics have commented that their layout and material choice enhances the village @-@ like feel of the ballpark , giving it a " coastal Galveston aesthetic " . Others have commented that the design is very reminiscent of Churchill Downs in Kentucky .
The seating area is populated by just under 8 @,@ 000 open @-@ air fold @-@ down stadium seats . Combined with general admission for standing room @-@ only and grass berm seating , the stadium can hold a capacity crowd of over 10 @,@ 000 . The concourse area , between the pavilions and the seating area , wraps completely around the ballpark . Critics have commented positively on the 360 ° views afforded by this construction choice .
= = Facilities = =
In addition to fixed stadium seats , the ballpark also features 26 luxury suites located on the second level of the ballpark , which feature patio balconies from which to view the game and closed @-@ circuit television feeds of the game . Also unusual , the bullpens for each team are built into the stands behind the first and third base lines . This has received a mixed reaction from critics , with some calling it " contrived " and " pointless " . In the outfield , seating is available on the grass area . This area is branded " San Juan Hill " , after the Battle of San Juan Hill in which the team 's namesake Rough Riders fought .
The park features a pool built just past the wall in right field , level with the top of the outfield fence . Groups can rent out the pool during the game . Four exclusive members @-@ only areas have also been set up around the park . The most prominent of these " Founder 's Areas , " is the JCPenney Club , a private , air @-@ conditioned bar and restaurant situated below the press box behind home plate .
= = Non @-@ architectural critical reaction = =
Critics have taken issue with ticket prices at the ballpark , set at $ 7 , $ 15 , and $ 18 . While less expensive than ticket prices for major league ballparks , prices are among the highest in all minor league classes . However , the ballpark has seen strong attendance despite these ticket prices . The ballpark runs a number of specials throughout the year including " Friends & Family " where 4 tickets , 4 hats and 4 value meals to a restaurant cost less than $ 10 a ticket . It also has a " High 5 Plan " where a block of 5 games ( roughly one game each month ) start at $ 9 a game , or a $ 19 ticket that includes all you can eat food and drink . In its inaugural season , Dr Pepper Ballpark had an attendance of 675 @,@ 620 , ranking it fourth overall in minor league baseball attendance for the year . The ballpark sold out for 53 RoughRiders home games that season .
= = Ground rules = =
The following are the baseball ground rules for the Dr Pepper Ballpark .
A baseball hit above the yellow line in outfield is considered a home run .
A baseball that hits the yellow fair line below the fence is in play .
A baseball that hits the yellow fair line above the fence is a home run .
No player is allowed to climb the stairwell leading into the bullpens to catch a ball .
If a ball gets caught in one of the grates leading into the stands the ball is considered dead and the base runner is allowed one base .
A player is only allowed to catch a fly ball on the first step of the dugout . If the player has one foot on the first step and his other foot on the second step the ball is ruled non @-@ playable and the player is not allowed to catch it .
If a player catches a ball and falls into the dugout the batter is ruled out and the base runner is allowed one base .
If a baseball hits anywhere on the dugout it is considered out of play .
If a baseball hits the green fence the ball is in play .
A player is allowed to lean on the tarp to catch a fly ball , but not stand on the tarp .
On the backstop at the top left and right corners is a metal wire that holds the backstop up and if a ball hits it and deflects foul , then the ball is foul ; however , if a ball deflects into fair play , then it is in play .
= The Tempest =
The Tempest is a play by William Shakespeare , believed to have been written in 1610 – 11 , and thought by many critics to be the last play that Shakespeare wrote alone . It is set on a remote island , where the sorcerer Prospero , rightful Duke of Milan , plots to restore his daughter Miranda to her rightful place using illusion and skilful manipulation . He conjures up a storm , the eponymous tempest , to lure his usurping brother Antonio and the complicit King Alonso of Naples to the island . There , his machinations bring about the revelation of Antonio 's lowly nature , the redemption of the King , and the marriage of Miranda to Alonso 's son , Ferdinand .
There is no obvious single source for the plot of The Tempest , but researchers have seen parallels in Erasmus 's Naufragium , Peter Martyr 's De orbe novo , and eyewitness reports by William Strachey and Sylvester Jordain of the real @-@ life shipwreck of the Sea Venture on the islands of Bermuda , and the subsequent conflict between Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers . In addition , one of Gonzalo 's speeches is derived from Montaigne 's essay Of the Canibales , and much of Prospero 's renunciative speech is taken word for word from a speech by Medea in Ovid 's poem Metamorphoses . The masque in Act 4 may have been a later addition , possibly in honour of the wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V in 1613 . The play was first published in the First Folio of 1623 .
The story draws heavily on the tradition of the romance , and it was influenced by tragicomedy , the courtly masque and perhaps the commedia dell 'arte . It differs from Shakespeare 's other plays in its observation of a stricter , more organised neoclassical style . Critics see The Tempest as explicitly concerned with its own nature as a play , frequently drawing links between Prospero 's " art " and theatrical illusion , and early critics saw Prospero as a representation of Shakespeare , and his renunciation of magic as signalling Shakespeare 's farewell to the stage . The play portrays Prospero as a rational , and not an occultist , magician by providing a contrast to him in Sycorax : her magic is frequently described as destructive and terrible , where Prospero 's is said to be wondrous and beautiful . Beginning in about 1950 , with the publication of Psychology of Colonization by Octave Mannoni , The Tempest was viewed more and more through the lens of postcolonial theory — exemplified in adaptations like Aimé Césaire 's Une Tempête set in Haiti — and there is even a scholarly journal on post @-@ colonial criticism named after Caliban .
The Tempest did not attract a significant amount of attention before the ban on the performance of plays in 1642 , and only attained popularity after the Restoration , and then only in adapted versions . In the mid @-@ 19th century , theatre productions began to reinstate the original Shakespearean text , and in the 20th century , critics and scholars undertook a significant re @-@ appraisal of the play 's value , to the extent that it is now considered to be one of Shakespeare 's greatest works . It has been adapted numerous times in a variety of styles and formats : in music , at least 46 operas by composers such as Fromental Halévy , Zdeněk Fibich and Thomas Adès ; orchestral works by Tchaikovsky , Arthur Sullivan and Arthur Honegger ; and songs by such diverse artists as Ralph Vaughan Williams , Michael Nyman and Pete Seeger ; in literature , Percy Bysshe Shelley 's poem With a Guitar , To Jane and W. H. Auden 's The Sea and the Mirror ; novels by Aimé Césaire and The Diviners by Margaret Laurence ; in paintings by William Hogarth , Henry Fuseli , and John Everett Millais ; and on screen , ranging through a hand @-@ tinted version of Herbert Beerbohm Tree 's 1905 stage performance , the science fiction film Forbidden Planet in 1956 , Peter Greenaway 's 1991 Prospero 's Books featuring John Gielgud as Prospero , to Julie Taymor 's 2010 film version which changed Prospero to Prospera ( as played by Helen Mirren ) , and Des McAnuff 's 2010 Stratford Shakespeare Festival production which starred Christopher Plummer .
= = Characters = =
= = Plot = =
The magician , Prospero , rightful Duke of Milan , and his daughter , Miranda , have been stranded for twelve years on an island after Prospero 's jealous brother Antonio ( aided by Alonso , the King of Naples ) deposed him and set him adrift with the 3 @-@ year @-@ old Miranda . Gonzalo , Alonso 's counselor , had secretly supplied their boat with some food , fresh water , " rich garments , linens , stuffs and necessaries " , and " volumes " ( books ) that Prospero prizes . Possessing magic powers due to his great learning , Prospero is reluctantly served by a spirit , Ariel , whom Prospero had rescued from a tree in which he had been trapped by the cruel witch , Sycorax , after he had refused to obey her . Prospero maintains Ariel 's loyalty by repeatedly promising to release the " airy spirit " from servitude . Sycorax had been exiled from Algiers to the island for wreaking havoc with her magic , and had died before Prospero 's arrival and without releasing Ariel . Sycorax ' son , Caliban , a deformed monster and the only non @-@ spiritual inhabitant before the arrival of Prospero , was initially adopted and raised by him . He taught Prospero how to survive on the island , while Prospero and Miranda taught Caliban religion and their own language . In slavery , Caliban has come to view Prospero as a usurper and has grown to resent him and his daughter . Prospero and Miranda in turn view Caliban with disappointment , contempt and disgust . Prospero only performs one act of magic himself directly on stage : he disarms Ferdinand , causing his nerves to become " in their infancy again " . The rest of his magic is through controlling spirits ( or mentioned as happening previously ) , which is how magicians of the time were believed to operate .
Prospero , having divined that his brother Antonio is on a nearby ship , has raised a tempest that causes the passengers to believe they are shipwrecked and marooned . Also on the ship are Antonio 's friend and fellow conspirator , King Alonso of Naples , Alonso 's brother and son ( Sebastian and Ferdinand , respectively ) and Alonso 's " trusted counselor " , Gonzalo . All these passengers are returning from the wedding of Alonso 's daughter Claribel and the King of Tunis . Prospero contrives to separate the shipwreck survivors into several groups by his spells , and so Alonso and Ferdinand are separated , each believing the other to be dead .
Three plots then alternate through the play . In one , Caliban falls in with Stephano and Trinculo , two drunkards , believing Stephano to be a " brave god " who " bears celestial liquor " . They attempt to raise a coup against Prospero , which ultimately fails . In another , Prospero works to encourage a romantic relationship between Ferdinand and Miranda ; the two fall immediately in love , but Prospero worries that " too light winning [ may ] make the prize light " , and compels Ferdinand to become his servant , pretending that he regards him as a spy . In the third subplot , Antonio and Sebastian conspire to kill Alonso and Gonzalo so that Sebastian can become King . Ariel thwarts them , at Prospero 's command . Ariel appears to the " three men of sin " ( Alonso , Antonio and Sebastian ) as a harpy , reprimanding them for their betrayal of Prospero . Prospero , who has witnessed this , leaves to visit Ferdinand and Miranda . The three guilty nobles run off , distracted and in a frenzy , and Gonzalo and the attendant lords chase after to prevent them from doing " what this ecstasy may now provoke them to " .
Prospero then explains that he tested Ferdinand , and betroths a willing Miranda to him . He then asks Ariel to bring some other spirits and create a masque to entertain the young couple . These spirits present a blessing by Iris , Ceres , and Juno , followed by dancing . Prospero suddenly remembers the plot against his life , dismisses the spirits and Miranda and Ferdinand , and sets a trap for Caliban , Trinculo , and Stephano . They are chased offstage by goblins in the shape of hounds .
Prospero , all his enemies in his power , discovers that Ariel would pity them if he were " human " , and decides to forgive the people who tried to kill him . He tells Ariel to fetch the nobles while he breaks his charms .
In the conclusion , all the main characters are brought together before Prospero , who forgives Alonso , Antonio and Sebastian . Ariel is charged to prepare the proper sailing weather to guide the King 's ship back to the Royal fleet and then to Naples , where Ferdinand and Miranda will be married . After discharging this task , Ariel will finally be free . Prospero pardons Caliban , who is sent to prepare Prospero 's cell , to which Alonso and his party are invited for a final night before their departure . ( It is however not made clear whether , after their departure , Caliban will remain on the island or whether he will be taken to Naples ) . Prospero indicates that he intends to entertain them with the story of his life on the island . Prospero has resolved to break and bury his magic staff , and " drown " his book of magic , and in his epilogue , shorn of his magic powers , he invites the audience to set him free from the island with their applause .
= = Date and sources = =
= = = Date = = =
The Tempest is thought by most scholars to have been written in 1610 – 11 , and is generally accepted as the last play that Shakespeare wrote alone , although some have questioned either or both assertions . Scholars also note that it is impossible to determine if the play was written before , after , or at the same time as The Winter 's Tale , the dating of which has been equally problematic . Edward Blount entered The Tempest into the Stationers ' Register on 8 November 1623 . It was one of 16 Shakespearean plays that Blount registered on that date .
= = = Contemporary sources = = =
There is no obvious single origin for the plot of The Tempest ; it seems to have been created out of an amalgamation of sources . Since source scholarship began in the 18th century , researchers have suggested passages from Erasmus 's Naufragium ( 1523 ) , ( translated into English 1606 ) and Richard Eden 's 1555 translation of Peter Martyr 's De orbo novo ( 1530 ) . In addition , William Strachey 's A True Reportory of the Wracke and Redemption of Sir Thomas Gates , Knight , an eyewitness report of the real @-@ life shipwreck of the Sea Venture in 1609 on the island of Bermuda while sailing towards Virginia , is considered by most critics to be one of Shakespeare 's primary sources because of certain verbal , plot and thematic similarities . Although not published until 1625 , Strachey 's report , one of several describing the incident , is dated 15 July 1610 , and critics say that Shakespeare must have seen it in manuscript sometime during that year . E.K. Chambers identified the True Reportory as Shakespeare 's " main authority " for The Tempest , and the modern Arden editors say Shakespeare " surely drew " on Strachey and Montaigne for specific passages in the play . There has been , however , some scepticism about the alleged influence of Strachey in the play . Kenneth Muir argued that although " [ t ] here is little doubt that Shakespeare had read ... William Strachey 's True Reportory " and other accounts , " [ t ] he extent of the verbal echoes of [ the Bermuda ] pamphlets has , I think , been exaggerated . There is hardly a shipwreck in history or fiction which does not mention splitting , in which the ship is not lightened of its cargo , in which the passengers do not give themselves up for lost , in which north winds are not sharp , and in which no one gets to shore by clinging to wreckage " , and goes on to say that " Strachey 's account of the shipwreck is blended with memories of Saint Paul 's – in which too not a hair perished – and with Erasmus ' colloquy . "
Another Sea Venture survivor , Sylvester Jourdain , also published an account , A Discovery of The Barmudas dated 13 October 1610 , and Edmond Malone argued for the 1610 – 11 date on the account by Jourdain and the Virginia Council of London 's A True Declaration of the Estate of the Colonie in Virginia dated 8 November 1610 .
= = = Other sources = = =
The Tempest may take its overall structure from traditional Italian commedia dell 'arte , which sometimes featured a magus and his daughter , their supernatural attendants , and a number of rustics . The commedia often featured a clown known as Arlecchino ( or his predecessor , Zanni ) and his partner Brighella , who bear a striking resemblance to Stephano and Trinculo ; a lecherous Neapolitan hunchback who corresponds to Caliban ; and the clever and beautiful Isabella , whose wealthy and manipulative father , Pantalone , constantly seeks a suitor for her , thus mirroring the relationship between Miranda and Prospero .
Gonzalo 's description of his ideal society ( 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 148 – 157 , 160 – 165 ) thematically and verbally echoes Montaigne 's essay Of the Canibales , translated into English in a version published by John Florio in 1603 . Montaigne praises the society of the Caribbean natives : " It is a nation ... that hath no kinde of traffike , no knowledge of Letters , no intelligence of numbers , no name of magistrate , nor of politike superioritie ; no use of service , of riches , or of poverty ; no contracts , no successions , no dividences , no occupation but idle ; no respect of kinred , but common , no apparrell but natural , no manuring of lands , no use of wine , corne , or mettle . The very words that import lying , falsehood , treason , dissimulation , covetousnes , envie , detraction , and pardon , were never heard of amongst them . " In addition , much of Prospero 's renunciative speech ( 5 @.@ 1 @.@ 33 – 57 ) is taken word @-@ for @-@ word from a speech by Medea in Ovid 's poem Metamorphoses .
= = Text = =
The Tempest presents relatively few textual problems in comparison with many of Shakespeare 's other plays . First published in the First Folio in December 1623 , the play is first in the volume , leading the section of comedies . The play has more stage directions than any of Shakespeare 's other plays , though they appear to have been written for readers instead of actors . Scholars infer from this that the editors of the volume , John Heminges and Henry Condell , included the directions to aid readers , and they were not necessarily Shakespeare 's . Scholars have also wondered about the masque in Act 4 , which some think was an interpolated afterthought , possibly added for the wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V in 1613 . However , other scholars see this as unlikely , arguing that taking the masque out of the play creates more problems than it solves .
= = Themes and Motifs = =
= = = The Theatre = = =
The Tempest is explicitly concerned with its own nature as a play , frequently drawing links between Prospero 's art and theatrical illusion ; the shipwreck was a spectacle that Ariel performed , while Antonio and Sebastian are cast in a troop to act . Prospero may even refer to the Globe Theatre when he describes the whole world as an illusion : " the great globe ... shall dissolve ... like this insubstantial pageant " . Ariel frequently disguises himself as figures from Classical mythology , for example a nymph , a harpy , and Ceres , acting as the latter in a masque and anti @-@ masque that Prospero creates .
Early critics , such as Thomas Campbell in 1838 , saw this " constant " allusion to theatre as an indication that Prospero was meant to represent Shakespeare ; the character 's renunciation of magic thus signaling Shakespeare 's farewell to the stage . This theory persists among later critics , and remains solidly within the critical canon . Curious , however , since ( if familiar with Shakespeare 's entire body of work--as literary scholars must surely be ) , it can , then , be easily noted even to the layperson that this technique / comparison with the theatre is one Shakespeare employed often , and in many , if not all , of his writings . Among the many examples are these two noteworthy ones : " All the world 's a stage , and all of us--merely players ( actors , performers ) " is a phrase that begins the monologue from Shakespeare 's As You Like It , and is spoken by the melancholy Jacques in Scene VII of Act II . Another example is found during the final act of Macbeth , when the title character delivers his monologue that has come to be known as " The Tomorrow & Tomorrow Speech " . In it , toward the end of this monologue , Macbeth ruminates on the ( seeming ) futility of existence when declaring that " ... ( Life ) is like a poor player--one who struts and frets his hour upon the stage , and then is heard no more " . Shakespeare seems to be likening a hopeful performer 's " 15 @-@ minutes of fame " and ( usually ) subsequent decline into obscurity with how fleeting and how utterly fast ones life goes by ... proceeding at such a fast pace as to make both life and the accomplishments therein seem not only irrelevant and relatively trivial , but momentary as well . It would , then , seem as though the actual value in making such references would not be so the writer could compare his or her own writing with itself or even with himself ... or even to compare the stageplay with itself ... but would be , rather , to notice the similarities that life in itself has to the theatre in order to help people to compare the likeness of the ( individual ) play ( and / or theatre in general ) with life as a whole--with all its anti @-@ mimetic likenesses and parallels and dramas contained therein . After all , numerous literary figures have noted that , " Life imitates art " .
= = = Magic = = =
Magic was a controversial subject in Shakespeare 's day . In Italy in 1600 , Giordano Bruno , known for his occult interests , was burnt at the stake for heresy . Outside the Catholic world , in Protestant England where Shakespeare wrote The Tempest , magic was also taboo ; not all " magic " , however , was considered evil . Several thinkers took a more rational approach to the study of the supernatural , with the determination to discover the workings of unusual phenomena . The German Henricus Cornelius Agrippa was one such thinker , who published in De Occulta Philosophia ( 1531 , 1533 ) his observations of " divine " magic . Agrippa 's work influenced Dr. John Dee , an Englishman and student of supernatural phenomena . When King James took the throne , Dee found himself under attack for his beliefs , but was able to defend himself successfully by explaining the divine nature of his profession . However , he died in disgrace in 1608 .
Shakespeare is also careful to make the distinction that Prospero presents himself as a rational , and not an occultist , magician . He does this by providing a contrast to him in Sycorax . Sycorax is said to have worshipped the devil and been full of " earthy and abhored commands " . She was unable to control Ariel , who was " too delicate " for such dark tasks . Prospero 's rational goodness enables him to control Ariel where Sycorax can only trap him in a tree . Sycorax 's magic is frequently described as destructive and terrible , where Prospero 's is said to be wondrous and beautiful . Prospero seeks to set things right in his world through his magic , and once that is done , he renounces it , setting Ariel free . Of course , the problem is , Prospero never actually does any magical acts . Only Ariel does . The magic of Prospero is a matter of language alone .
= = = The soul = = =
The Tempest can be interpreted as Shakespeare 's last treatise on the human soul , in particular the Renaissance conception of the tripartite soul divided into vegetative , sensitive , and rational spheres , as described in Plato 's tripartite theory of soul and Christian Philosophy . This was later also described in Sigmund Freud 's id , ego and super @-@ ego which was first linked to The Tempest in the 1956 screenplay for Forbidden Planet by Cyril Hume , Irving Block , and Allen Adler . The film presents Caliban reinterpreted as the ' monster from the Id ' , although the theory is dismissed as ' obsolete ' in that imagined future , and was also dismissed by James E Phillips in 1964 . Prospero is exiled to an island with a symbol of his baser , ' vegetative ' nature – Caliban – and his higher , ' sensitive ' or supernatural side – Ariel . Some productions have seen the same actor play all three roles , making them symbols of the conflict within a fully actualised or awakened Prospero – that between crude selfish physicality and a higher , mystical side . In the screenplay for Forbidden Planet it is revealed that the id monster is an externalization of Dr Morbius ' psyche .
According to this theory — one of many — for as long as Prospero is battling with these qualities and lost in books , he is banished from Milan . As the play finds its conclusion , he is both able to accept his base , brutal nature ( " this thing of darkness I acknowledge mine " he says when taking responsibility for Caliban ) while letting go of his connection with higher , powerful forces ( " then to the elements be free , and fare thou well " he says , setting Ariel free ) . Abandoning magic and acknowledging the brutal potential of his nature , he is allowed to return to his rightful place as Duke , subject to agreement from the audience : " as you from crimes would pardon 'd be , let your indulgence set me free . "
= = Criticism and interpretation = =
= = = Genre = = =
The story draws heavily on the tradition of the romance , a fictitious narrative set far away from ordinary life . Romances were typically based around themes such as the supernatural , wandering , exploration and discovery . They were often set in coastal regions , and typically featured exotic , fantastical locations and themes of transgression and redemption , loss and retrieval , exile and reunion . As a result , while The Tempest was originally listed as a comedy in the First Folio of Shakespeare 's plays , subsequent editors have chosen to give it the more specific label of Shakespearean romance . Like the other romances , the play was influenced by the then @-@ new genre of tragicomedy , introduced by John Fletcher in the first decade of the 17th century and developed in the Beaumont and Fletcher collaborations , as well as by the explosion of development of the courtly masque form by such as Ben Jonson and Inigo Jones at the same time .
= = = Dramatic structure = = =
The Tempest differs from Shakespeare 's other plays in its observation of a stricter , more organised neoclassical style . The clearest indication of this is Shakespeare 's respect for the three unities in the play : the Unities of Time , Place , and Action . Shakespeare 's other plays rarely respected the three unities , taking place in separate locations miles apart and over several days or even years . The play 's events unfold in real time before the audience , Prospero even declaring in the last act that everything has happened in , more or less , three hours . All action is unified into one basic plot : Prospero 's struggle to regain his dukedom ; it is also confined to one place , a fictional island , which many scholars agree is meant to be located in the Mediterranean Sea . Another reading suggests that it takes place in the New World , as some parts read like records of English and Spanish conquest in the Americas . Still others argue that the Island can represent any land that has been colonised .
= = = Postcolonial = = =
In Shakespeare 's day , much of the world was still being colonized by European merchants and settlers , and stories were coming back from the Americas , with myths about the Cannibals of the Caribbean , faraway Edens , and distant tropical Utopias . With the character Caliban ( whose name is almost an anagram of Cannibal and also resembles " Cariban " , the term then used for natives in the West Indies ) , Shakespeare may be offering an in @-@ depth discussion into the morality of colonialism . Different views of this are found in the play , with examples including Gonzalo 's Utopia , Prospero 's enslavement of Caliban , and Caliban 's subsequent resentment . Caliban is also shown as one of the most natural characters in the play , being very much in touch with the natural world ( and modern audiences have come to view him as far nobler than his two Old World friends , Stephano and Trinculo , although the original intent of the author may have been different ) . There is evidence that Shakespeare drew on Montaigne 's essay Of Cannibals — which discusses the values of societies insulated from European influences — while writing The Tempest .
Beginning in about 1950 , with the publication of Psychology of Colonization by Octave Mannoni , The Tempest was viewed more and more through the lens of postcolonial theory . This new way of looking at the text explored the effect of the coloniser ( Prospero ) on the colonised ( Ariel and Caliban ) . Though Ariel is often overlooked in these debates in favour of the more intriguing Caliban , he is nonetheless an essential component of them . The French writer Aimé Césaire , in his play Une Tempête sets The Tempest in Haiti , portraying Ariel as a mulatto who , unlike the more rebellious Caliban , feels that negotiation and partnership is the way to freedom from the colonisers . Fernandez Retamar sets his version of the play in Cuba , and portrays Ariel as a wealthy Cuban ( in comparison to the lower @-@ class Caliban ) who also must choose between rebellion or negotiation . Although scholars have suggested that his dialogue with Caliban in Act two , Scene one , contains hints of a future alliance between the two when Prospero leaves , Ariel is generally viewed by scholars as the good servant , in comparison with the conniving Caliban — a view which Shakespeare 's audience may well have shared . Ariel is used by some postcolonial writers as a symbol of their efforts to overcome the effects of colonisation on their culture . For example , Michelle Cliff , a Jamaican author , has said that she tries to combine Caliban and Ariel within herself to create a way of writing that represents her culture better . Such use of Ariel in postcolonial thought is far from uncommon ; the spirit is even the namesake of a scholarly journal covering post @-@ colonial criticism .
= = = Feminist = = =
The Tempest has only one female character , Miranda . Other women , such as Caliban 's mother Sycorax , Miranda 's mother and Alonso 's daughter Claribel , are only mentioned . Because of the small role women play in the story in comparison to other Shakespeare plays , The Tempest has attracted much feminist criticism . Miranda is typically viewed as being completely deprived of freedom by her father . Her only duty in his eyes is to remain chaste . Ann Thompson argues that Miranda , in a manner typical of women in a colonial atmosphere , has completely internalised the patriarchal order of things , thinking of herself as subordinate to her father .
The less @-@ prominent women mentioned in the play are subordinated as well , as they are only described through the men of the play . Most of what is said about Sycorax , for example , is said by Prospero . Further , Stephen Orgel notes that Prospero has never met Sycorax – all he learned about her he learned from Ariel . According to Orgel , Prospero 's suspicion of women makes him an unreliable source of information . Orgel suggests that he is sceptical of female virtue in general , citing his ambiguous remark about his wife 's fidelity . However , certain goddesses such as Juno , Ceres , Iris , and sea nymphs are in one scene of the play .
= = Performance History = =
= = = Shakespeare 's day = = =
A record exists of a performance of The Tempest on 1 November 1611 by the King 's Men before James I and the English royal court at Whitehall Palace on Hallowmas night . The play was one of the six Shakespearean plays ( and eight others for a total of 14 ) acted at court during the winter of 1612 – 13 as part of the festivities surrounding the marriage of Princess Elizabeth with Frederick V , the Elector of the Palatinate of the Rhine . There is no further public performance recorded prior to the Restoration ; but in his 1669 preface to the Dryden / Davenant version , John Dryden states that The Tempest had been performed at the Blackfriars Theatre . Careful consideration of stage directions within the play supports this , strongly suggesting that the play was written with Blackfriars Theatre rather than the Globe Theatre in mind .
= = = Restoration and 18th century = = =
Adaptations of the play , not Shakespeare 's original , dominated the performance history of The Tempest from the English Restoration until the mid @-@ 19th century . All theatres were closed down by the puritan government during the Commonwealth . Upon the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , two patent companies — the King 's Company and the Duke 's Company — were established , and the existing theatrical repertoire divided between them . Sir William Davenant 's Duke 's Company had the rights to perform The Tempest . In 1667 Davenant and John Dryden made heavy cuts and adapted it as The Tempest or , The Enchanted Island . They tried to appeal to upper @-@ class audiences by emphasising royalist political and social ideals : monarchy is the natural form of government ; patriarchal authority decisive in education and marriage ; and patrilineality preeminent in inheritance and ownership of property . They also added characters and plotlines : Miranda has a sister , named Dorinda ; and Caliban a sister , also named Sycorax . As a parallel to Shakespeare 's Miranda / Ferdinand plot , Prospero has a foster @-@ son , Hippolito , who has never set eyes on a woman . Hippolito was a popular breeches role , a man played by a woman , popular with Restoration theatre management for the opportunity to reveal actresses ' legs . Scholar Michael Dobson has described Enchanted Island as " the most frequently revived play of the entire Restoration " and as establishing the importance of enhanced and additional roles for women .
In 1674 , Thomas Shadwell re @-@ adapted Dryden and Davenant 's Enchanted Island as an opera , usually meaning a play with sections that were to be sung and / or danced . Restoration playgoers appear to have regarded the Dryden / Davenant / Shadwell version as Shakespeare 's : Samuel Pepys , for example , described it as " an old play of Shakespeares " in his diary . The opera was extremely popular , and " full of so good variety , that I cannot be more pleased almost in a comedy " according to Pepys . The Prospero in this version is very different from Shakespeare 's : Eckhard Auberlen describes him as " reduced to the status of a Polonius @-@ like overbusy father , intent on protecting the chastity of his two sexually naive daughters while planning advantageous dynastic marriages for them . " Enchanted Island was successful enough to provoke a parody , The Mock Tempest , written by Thomas Duffett for the King 's Company in 1675 . It opened with what appeared to be a tempest , but turns out to be a riot in a brothel .
In the early 18th century , the Dryden / Davenant / Shadwell version dominated the stage . Ariel was — with two exceptions — played by a woman , and invariably by a graceful dancer and superb singer . Caliban was a comedian 's role , played by actors " known for their awkward figures " . In 1756 , David Garrick staged another operatic version , a " three @-@ act extravaganza " with music by John Christopher Smith .
The Tempest was one of the staples of the repertoire of Romantic Era theatres . John Philip Kemble produced an acting version which was closer to Shakespeare 's original , but nevertheless retained Dorinda and Hippolito . Kemble was much @-@ mocked for his insistence on archaic pronunciation of Shakespeare 's texts , including " aitches " for " aches " . It was said that spectators " packed the pit , just to enjoy hissing Kemble 's delivery of ' I 'll rack thee with old cramps , / Fill all they bones with aches ' . " The actor @-@ managers of the Romantic Era established the fashion for opulence in sets and costumes which would dominate Shakespeare performances until the late 19th century : Kemble 's Dorinda and Miranda , for example , were played " in white ornamented with spotted furs " .
In 1757 , a year after the debut of his operatic version , David Garrick produced a heavily cut performance of Shakespeare 's script at Drury Lane , and it was revived , profitably , throughout the century .
= = = 19th century = = =
It was not until William Charles Macready 's influential production in 1838 that Shakespeare 's text established its primacy over the adapted and operatic versions which had been popular for most of the previous two centuries . The performance was particularly admired for George Bennett 's performance as Caliban ; it was described by Patrick MacDonnell — in his An Essay on the Play of The Tempest published in 1840 — as " maintaining in his mind , a strong resistance to that tyranny , which held him in the thraldom of slavery " .
The Victorian era marked the height of the movement which would later be described as " pictorial " : based on lavish sets and visual spectacle , heavily cut texts making room for lengthy scene @-@ changes , and elaborate stage effects . In Charles Kean 's 1857 production of The Tempest , Ariel was several times seen to descend in a ball of fire . The hundred and forty stagehands supposedly employed on this production were described by the Literary Gazette as " unseen ... but alas never unheard " . Hans Christian Andersen also saw this production and described Ariel as " isolated by the electric ray " , referring to the effect of a carbon arc lamp directed at the actress playing the role . The next generation of producers , which included William Poel and Harley Granville @-@ Barker , returned to a leaner and more text @-@ based style .
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , Caliban , not Prospero , was perceived as the star act of The Tempest , and was the role which the actor @-@ managers chose for themselves . Frank Benson researched the role by viewing monkeys and baboons at the zoo ; on stage , he hung upside @-@ down from a tree and gibbered .
= = = 20th century and beyond = = =
Continuing the late @-@ 19th @-@ century tradition , in 1904 Herbert Beerbohm Tree wore fur and seaweed to play Caliban , with waist @-@ length hair and apelike bearing , suggestive of a primitive part @-@ animal part @-@ human stage of evolution . This " missing link " portrayal of Caliban became the norm in productions until Roger Livesey , in 1934 , was the first actor to play the role with black makeup . In 1945 Canada Lee played the role at the Theatre Guild in New York , establishing a tradition of black actors taking the role , including Earle Hyman in 1960 and James Earl Jones in 1962 .
In 1916 , Percy MacKaye presented a community masque , Caliban by the Yellow Sands , at the Lewisohn Stadium in New York . Amidst a huge cast of dancers and masquers , the pageant centres on the rebellious nature of Caliban but ends with his plea for more knowledge ( " I yearn to build , to be thine Artist / And ' stablish this thine Earth among the stars- / Beautiful ! " ) followed by Shakespeare , as a character , reciting Prospero 's " Our revels now are ended " speech .
John Gielgud played Prospero numerous times , and called it his favourite role . Douglas Brode describes him as " universally heralded as ... [ the 20th ] century 's greatest stage Prospero " . His first appearance in the role was in 1930 : he wore a turban , later confessing that he intended to look like Dante . He played the role in three more stage productions , lastly at the Royal National Theatre in 1974 . Derek Jacobi 's Prospero for The Old Vic in 2003 was praised for his portrayal of isolation and pain in ageing .
Peter Brook directed an experimental production at the Round House in 1968 , in which the text was " almost wholly abandoned " in favour of mime . According to Margaret Croydon 's review , Sycorax was " portrayed by an enormous woman able to expand her face and body to still larger proportions – a fantastic emblem of the grotesque ... [ who ] suddenly ... gives a horrendous yell , and Caliban , with black sweater over his head , emerges from between her legs : Evil is born . "
In spite of the existing tradition of a black actor playing Caliban opposite a white Prospero , colonial interpretations of the play did not find their way onto the stage until the 1970s . Performances in England directed by Jonathan Miller and by Clifford Williams explicitly portrayed Prospero as coloniser . Miller 's production was described , by David Hirst , as depicting " the tragic and inevitable disintegration of a more primitive culture as the result of European invasion and colonisation " . Miller developed this approach in his 1988 production at the Old Vic in London , starring Max von Sydow as Prospero . This used a mixed cast made up of white actors as the humans and black actors playing the spirits and creatures of the island . According to Michael Billington , " von Sydow 's Prospero became a white overlord manipulating a mutinous black Caliban and a collaborative Ariel keenly mimicking the gestures of the island 's invaders . The colonial metaphor was pushed through to its logical conclusion so that finally Ariel gathered up the pieces of Prospero 's abandoned staff and , watched by awe @-@ struck tribesmen , fitted them back together to hold his wand of office aloft before an immobilised Caliban . The Tempest suddenly acquired a new political dimension unforeseen by Shakespeare . "
Psychoanalytic interpretations have proved more difficult to depict on stage . Gerald Freedman 's production at the American Shakespeare Theatre in 1979 and Ron Daniels ' Royal Shakespeare Company production in 1982 both attempted to depict Ariel and Caliban as opposing aspects of Prospero 's psyche . However neither was regarded as wholly successful : Shakespeare Quarterly , reviewing Freedman 's production , commented , " Mr. Freedman did nothing on stage to make such a notion clear to any audience that had not heard of it before . "
In 1988 , John Wood played Prospero for the RSC , emphasising the character 's human complexity . The Financial Times reviewer described him as " a demented stage manager on a theatrical island suspended between smouldering rage at his usurpation and unbridled glee at his alternative ethereal power " .
Japanese theatre styles have been applied to The Tempest . In 1988 and again in 1992 Yukio Ninagawa brought his version of The Tempest to the UK . It was staged as a rehearsal of a Noh drama , with a traditional Noh theatre at the back of the stage , but also using elements which were at odds with Noh conventions . In 1992 , Minoru Fujita presented a Bunraku ( Japanese puppet ) version in Osaka and at the Tokyo Globe .
Sam Mendes directed a 1993 RSC production in which Simon Russell Beale 's Ariel was openly resentful of the control exercised by Alec McCowen 's Prospero . Controversially , in the early performances of the run , Ariel spat at Prospero , once granted his freedom . An entirely different effect was achieved by George C. Wolfe in the outdoor New York Shakespeare Festival production of 1995 , where the casting of Aunjanue Ellis as Ariel opposite Patrick Stewart 's Prospero charged the production with erotic tensions . Productions in the late 20th @-@ century have gradually increased the focus placed on sexual tensions between the characters , including Prospero / Miranda , Prospero / Ariel , Miranda / Caliban , Miranda / Ferdinand and Caliban / Trinculo .
The Tempest was performed at the Globe Theatre in 2000 with Vanessa Redgrave as Prospero , playing the role as neither male nor female , but with " authority , humanity and humour ... a watchful parent to both Miranda and Ariel . " While the audience respected Prospero , Jasper Britton 's Caliban " was their man " ( in Peter Thomson 's words ) , in spite of the fact that he spat fish at the groundlings , and singled some of them out for humiliating encounters . By the end of 2005 , BBC Radio had aired 21 productions of The Tempest , more than any other play by Shakespeare . Several critics feel that the play is autobiographical . Trevor Nunn , in the PBS miniseries Shakespeare Uncovered , states that he feels that Prospero is meant to represent Shakespeare himself , and that Prospero 's final farewell to magic is really Shakespeare 's final farewell to his audience .
The Cirque du Soleil touring production Amaluna is inspired by The Tempest .
= = = Music = = =
The Tempest has more music than any other Shakespeare play , and has proved more popular as a subject for composers than most of Shakespeare 's plays . Scholar Julie Sanders ascribes this to the " perceived ' musicality ' or lyricism " of the play .
Two settings of songs from The Tempest which may have been used in performances during Shakespeare 's lifetime have survived . These are " Full Fathom Five " and " Where The Bee Sucks There Suck I " in the 1659 publication Cheerful Ayres or Ballads , in which they are attributed to Robert Johnson , who regularly composed for the King 's Men . It has been common throughout the history of the play for the producers to commission contemporary settings of these two songs , and also of " Come Unto These Yellow Sands " .
The Tempest has also influenced songs written in the folk and hippie traditions : for example , versions of " Full Fathom Five " were recorded by Marianne Faithfull for Come My Way in 1965 and by Pete Seeger for Dangerous Songs ! ? in 1966 . The Decemberists ' song " The Island : Come and See / The Landlord 's Daughter / You 'll Not Feel The Drowning " is thought by many to be based on the story of Caliban and Miranda . Michael Nyman 's Ariel Songs are taken from his score for the film Prospero 's Books .
Among those who wrote incidental music to The Tempest were :
Arthur Sullivan : His graduation piece , completed in 1861 , was a set of incidental music to " The Tempest " . Revised and expanded , it was performed at The Crystal Palace in 1862 , a year after his return to London , and was an immediate sensation .
Ernest Chausson : in 1888 he wrote incidental music for La tempête , a French translation by Maurice Bouchor . This is believed to be the first orchestral work that made use of the celesta .
Jean Sibelius : his 1926 incidental music was written for a lavish production at the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen . An epilogue was added for a 1927 performance in Helsinki . He represented individual characters through instrumentation choices : particularly admired was his use of harps and percussion to represent Prospero , said to capture the " resonant ambiguity of the character " .
Malcolm Arnold , Lennox Berkeley , Arthur Bliss , Engelbert Humperdinck , Hector Berlioz , Willem Pijper and Henry Purcell .
At least forty @-@ six operas or semi @-@ operas based on The Tempest exist . In addition to the Dryden / Davenant and Garrick versions mentioned in the " Restoration and 18th century " section above , Frederic Reynolds produced an operatic version in 1821 , with music by Sir Henry Bishop . Other pre @-@ 20th @-@ century operas based on The Tempest include Fromental Halévy 's La Tempesta ( 1850 ) and Zdeněk Fibich 's Bouře ( 1894 ) .
In the 20th century , Kurt Atterberg 's Stormen premiered in 1948 and Frank Martin 's Der Sturm in 1955 . Michael Tippett 's 1971 opera The Knot Garden , contains various allusions to The Tempest . In Act 3 , a psychoanalyst , Mangus , pretends to be Prospero and uses situations from Shakespeare 's play in his therapy sessions . John Eaton , in 1985 , produced a fusion of live jazz with pre @-@ recorded electronic music , with a libretto by Andrew Porter . Michael Nyman 's 1991 opera Noises , Sounds & Sweet Airs was first performed as an opera @-@ ballet by Karine Saporta . This opera is unique in that the three vocalists , a soprano , contralto , and tenor , are voices rather than individual characters , with the tenor just as likely as the soprano to sing Miranda , or all three sing as one character .
The soprano who sings the part of Ariel in Thomas Adès ' 21st @-@ century opera is stretched at the higher end of the register , highlighting the androgyny of the role . Mike Silverman of the Associated Press commented , " Ades has made the role of the spirit Ariel a tour de force for coloratura soprano , giving her a vocal line that hovers much of the time well above high C. "
Luca Lombardi 's Prospero was premiered 2006 at Nuremberg Opera House . Ariel is sung by 4 female voices ( S , S , MS , A ) and has an instrumental alter ego on stage ( flute ) . There is an instrumental alter ego ( cello ) also for Prospero .
Choral settings of excerpts from The Tempest include Amy Beach 's Come Unto These Yellow Sands ( SSAA , from Three Shakespeare Songs ) , Matthew Harris ' Full Fathom Five , I Shall No More to Sea , and Where the Bee Sucks ( SATB , from Shakespeare Songs , Books I , V , VI ) , Ryan Kelly 's The Tempest ( SATB , a setting of the play 's Scene I ) , Jaakko Mäntyjärvi 's Full Fathom Five and A Scurvy Tune ( SATB , from Four Shakespeare Songs and More Shakespeare Songs ) , Frank Martin 's Songs of Ariel ( SATB ) , Ralph Vaughan Williams ' Full Fathom Five and The Cloud @-@ capp 'd Towers ( SATB , from Three Shakespeare Songs ) , and David Willcocks ' Full Fathom Five ( SSA ) .
Orchestral works for concert presentation include Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky 's fantasy The Tempest ( 1873 ) , Fibich 's symphonic poem Bouře ( 1880 ) , John Knowles Paine 's symphonic poem The Tempest ( 1876 ) , Benjamin Dale 's overture ( 1902 ) , Arthur Honegger 's orchestral prelude ( 1923 ) , and Egon Wellesz 's Prosperos Beschwörungen ( five works 1934 – 36 ) .
Ballet sequences have been used in many performances of the play since Restoration times . A one @-@ act ballet of The Tempest by choreographer Alexei Ratmansky was premiered by American Ballet Theatre set to the incidental music of Jean Sibelius on October 30 , 2013 in New York City .
Ludwig van Beethoven 's 1802 Piano Sonata No. 17 in D minor , Op. 31 , No. 2 , was given the subtitle " The Tempest " some time after Beethoven 's death because , when asked about the meaning of the sonata , Beethoven was alleged to have said " Read The Tempest " . But this story comes from his associate Anton Schindler , who is often not trustworthy .
Stage musicals derived from The Tempest have been produced . A production called The Tempest : A Musical was produced at the Cherry Lane Theatre in New York City in December 2006 , with a concept credited to Thomas Meehan and a script by Daniel Neiden ( who also wrote the songs ) and Ryan Knowles . Neiden had previously been connected with another musical , entitled Tempest Toss ’ d . In September 2013 , The Public Theater produced a new large @-@ scale stage musical at the Delacorte Theater in Central Park , directed by Lear deBessonet with a cast of more than 200 .
= = = Literature and art = = =
Percy Bysshe Shelley was one of the earliest poets to be influenced by The Tempest . His " With a Guitar , To Jane " identifies Ariel with the poet and his songs with poetry . The poem uses simple diction to convey Ariel 's closeness to nature and " imitates the straightforward beauty of Shakespeare 's original songs " . Following the publication of Darwin 's ideas on evolution , writers began to question mankind 's place in the world and its relationship with God . One writer who explored these ideas was Robert Browning , whose poem " Caliban upon Setebos " ( 1864 ) sets Shakespeare 's character pondering theological and philosophical questions . The French philosopher Ernest Renan wrote a closet drama , Caliban : Suite de La Tempête ( Caliban : Sequel to The Tempest ) , in 1878 . This features a female Ariel who follows Prospero back to Milan , and a Caliban who leads a coup against Prospero , after the success of which he actively imitates his former master 's virtues . W. H. Auden 's " long poem " The Sea and the Mirror takes the form of a reflection by each of the supporting characters of The Tempest on their experiences . The poem takes a Freudian viewpoint , seeing Caliban ( whose lengthy contribution is a prose poem ) as Prospero 's libido .
In 1968 Franco @-@ Caribbean writer Aimé Césaire published Une Tempête , a radical adaptation of the play based on its colonial and postcolonial interpretations , in which Caliban is a black rebel and Ariel is mixed @-@ race . The figure of Caliban influenced numerous works of African literature in the 1970s , including pieces by Taban Lo Liyong in Uganda , Lemuel Johnson in Sierra Leone , Ngũgĩ wa Thiong 'o in Kenya , and David Wallace of Zambia 's Do You Love Me , Master ? . A similar phenomenon occurred in late 20th @-@ century Canada , where several writers produced works inspired by Miranda , including The Diviners by Margaret Laurence , Prospero 's Daughter by Constance Beresford @-@ Howe and The Measure of Miranda by Sarah Murphy . Other writers have feminised Ariel ( as in Marina Warner 's novel Indigo ) or Caliban ( as in Suniti Namjoshi 's sequence of poems Snaphots of Caliban ) .
From the mid @-@ 18th century , Shakespeare 's plays , including The Tempest , began to appear as the subject of paintings . In around 1735 , William Hogarth produced his painting A Scene from The Tempest : " a baroque , sentimental fantasy costumed in the style of Van Dyck and Rembrandt " . The painting is based upon Shakespeare 's text , containing no representation of the stage , nor of the ( Davenant @-@ Dryden centred ) stage tradition of the time . Henry Fuseli , in a painting commissioned for the Boydell Shakespeare Gallery ( 1789 ) modelled his Prospero on Leonardo da Vinci . These two 18th @-@ century depictions of the play indicate that Prospero was regarded as its moral centre : viewers of Hogarth 's and Fuseli 's paintings would have accepted Prospero 's wisdom and authority . John Everett Millais 's Ferdinand Lured by Ariel ( 1851 ) is among the Pre @-@ Raphaelite paintings based on the play . In the late 19th century , artists tended to depict Caliban as a Darwinian " missing @-@ link " , with fish @-@ like or ape @-@ like features , as evidenced in Noel Paton 's Caliban .
Charles Knight produced the Pictorial Edition of the Works of Shakespeare in eight volumes ( 1838 – 43 ) . The work attempted to translate the contents of the plays into pictorial form . This extended not just to the action , but also to images and metaphors : Gonzalo 's line about " mountaineers dewlapped like bulls " is illustrated with a picture of a Swiss peasant with a goitre . In 1908 , Edmund Dulac produced an edition of Shakespeare 's Comedy of The Tempest with a scholarly plot summary and commentary by Arthur Quiller @-@ Couch , lavishly bound and illustrated with 40 watercolour illustrations . The illustrations highlight the fairy @-@ tale quality of the play , avoiding its dark side . Of the 40 , only 12 are direct depictions of the action of the play : the others are based on action before the play begins , or on images such as " full fathom five thy father lies " or " sounds and sweet airs that give delight and hurt not " .
Fantasy writer Neil Gaiman based a story on the play in one issue of his comics series The Sandman . The comic stands as a sequel to the earlier Midsummer Night 's Dream issue . This issue follows Shakespeare over a period of several months as he writes the play , which is named as his last solo project , as the final part of his bargain with the Dream King to write two plays celebrating dreams . The story draws many parallels between the characters and events in the play and Shakespeare 's life and family relationships at the time . It is hinted that he based Miranda on his daughter Judith Shakespeare and Caliban on her suitor Thomas Quiney .
In the comic Locke & Key , by writer Joe Hill and co @-@ creator and artist Gabriel Rodriguez , the main characters father , Rendell Locke and his groups of friends in the school , stage a production of Shakespeare 's The Tempest in 1988 , in which they used the Keys during the play 's performance to create a grand spectacle .
Ilium and its sequel Olympos by Dan Simmons are heavily influenced by The Tempest , a portion of the plot devoted to a re @-@ imagining of The Tempest 's characters in a distant sci @-@ fi future .
As part of Random House 's Hogarth Shakespeare series of contemporary reimaginings of Shakespeare plays by contemporary writers , Margaret Atwood 's 2016 novel Hag @-@ Seed is based on The Tempest .
= = = Screen = = =
The Tempest first appeared on the screen in 1905 . Charles Urban filmed the opening storm sequence of Herbert Beerbohm Tree 's version at Her Majesty 's Theatre for a 2 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ minute flicker , whose individual frames were hand @-@ tinted , long before the invention of colour film . In 1908 , Percy Stowe directed a Tempest running a little over ten minutes , which is now a part of the British Film Institute 's compilation Silent Shakespeare . Much of its action takes place on Prospero 's island before the storm which opens Shakespeare 's play . At least two other silent versions , one from 1911 by Edwin Thanhouser , are known to have existed , but have been lost . The plot was adapted for the Western Yellow Sky , directed by William A. Wellman , in 1946 .
The 1956 science fiction film Forbidden Planet set the story on a planet in space , Altair IV , instead of an island . Professor Morbius ( Walter Pidgeon ) and his daughter Altaira ( Anne Francis ) are the Prospero and Miranda figures ( both Prospero and Morbius having harnessed the mighty forces that inhabit their new homes ) . Ariel is represented by the helpful Robbie the Robot , while Sycorax is replaced with the powerful race of the Krell . Caliban is represented by the dangerous and invisible " monster from the id " , a projection of Morbius ' psyche born from the Krell technology instead of Sycorax 's womb .
In the opinion of Douglas Brode , there has only been one screen " performance " of The Tempest since the silent era , he describes all other versions as " variations " . That one performance is the Hallmark Hall of Fame version from 1960 , directed by George Schaefer , and starring Maurice Evans as Prospero , Richard Burton as Caliban , Lee Remick as Miranda and Roddy McDowall as Ariel . It cut the play to slightly less than ninety minutes . Critic Virginia Vaughan praised it as " light as a soufflé , but ... substantial enough for the main course . "
In 1979 , animator George Dunning , director of Yellow Submarine , planned an animated version of The Tempest ; but died while working on it .
Also in 1979 , Derek Jarman produced a homoerotic Tempest that used Shakespeare 's language , but was most notable for its deviations from Shakespeare . One scene shows a corpulent and naked Sycorax ( Claire Davenport ) breastfeeding her adult son Caliban ( Jack Birkett ) . The film reaches its climax with Elisabeth Welch belting out Stormy Weather . The central performances were Toyah Willcox ' Miranda and Heathcote Williams ' Prospero , a " dark brooding figure who takes pleasure in exploiting both his servants " .
Several other television versions of the play have been broadcast ; among the most notable is the 1980 BBC Shakespeare production , virtually complete , starring Michael Hordern as Prospero .
Paul Mazursky 's 1982 modern @-@ language adaptation of The Tempest , with Philip Dimitrius ( Prospero ) as a disillusioned New York architect who retreats to a lonely Greek island with his daughter Miranda after learning of his wife Antonia 's infidelity with Alonzo , dealt frankly with the sexual tensions of the characters ' isolated existence . The Caliban character , the goatherd Kalibanos , asks Philip which of them is going to have sex with Miranda . John Cassavetes played Philip , Raul Julia Kalibanos , Gena Rowlands Antonia and Molly Ringwald Miranda . Susan Sarandon plays the Ariel character , Philip 's frequently bored girlfriend Aretha . The film has been criticised as " overlong and rambling " , but also praised for its good humour , especially in a sequence in which Kalibanos ' and his goats dance to Kander and Ebb 's New York , New York .
John Gielgud has written that playing Prospero in a film of The Tempest was his life 's ambition . Over the years , he approached Alain Resnais , Ingmar Bergman , Akira Kurosawa , and Orson Welles to direct . Eventually , the project was taken on by Peter Greenaway , who directed Prospero 's Books ( 1991 ) featuring " an 87 @-@ year @-@ old John Gielgud and an impressive amount of nudity " . Prospero is reimagined as the author of The Tempest , speaking the lines of the other characters , as well as his own . Although the film was acknowledged as innovative in its use of Quantel Paintbox to create visual tableaux , resulting in " unprecedented visual complexity " , critical responses to the film were frequently negative : John Simon called it " contemptible and pretentious " .
The Swedish @-@ made animated film from 1989 called " Resan till Melonia " ( directed by Per Åhlin ) is an adaptation of the Shakespeare play , focusing on ecologial values . " Resan till Melonia " was critically acclaimed for its stunning visuals drawn by Åhlin and its at times quite dark and nightmare @-@ like sequences , even though the film was originally marketed for children .
Closer to the spirit of Shakespeare 's original , in the view of critics such as Brode , is Leon Garfield 's abridgement of the play for S4C 's 1992 Shakespeare : The Animated Tales series . The 29 @-@ minute production , directed by Stanislav Sokolov and featuring Timothy West as the voice of Prospero , used stop @-@ motion puppets to capture the fairy @-@ tale quality of the play . Disney 's animated feature Pocahontas has been described as a " politically corrected " Tempest . Another " offbeat variation " ( in Brode 's words ) was produced for NBC in 1998 : Jack Bender 's The Tempest featured Peter Fonda as Gideon Prosper , a Southern slave @-@ owner forced off his plantation by his brother shortly before the Civil War . A magician who has learned his art from one of his slaves , Prosper uses his magic to protect his teenage daughter and to assist the Union Army .
The PBS series Wishbone featured a television adaptation of " The Tempest " in its episode " Shakespaw " with Wishbone as Ariel .
In Julie Taymor 's 2010 film version of The Tempest , Prospero is a woman named Prospera , played by Helen Mirren .
South London was the setting for Rob Curry and Anthony Fletcher 's 2012 mockumentary version of " The Tempest " , which used the themes arising from Shakespeare 's connection with the discovery of the New World to explore contemporary multicultural Britain – particularly with regard to the London riots of 2011 .
The Stratford Shakespeare Festival of Canada presented a version in 2010 in which Christopher Plummer played Prospero . It was subsequently filmed in hi @-@ def and is now available on DVD .
The anime and manga series Blast of Tempest was heavily influenced by The Tempest and Hamlet . Where several dialogues and plot elements pays homage to the two works of Shakespeare , which are two stories of retribution , albeit with completely opposing outcome .
= Uniforms of the Confederate States military forces =
The Uniforms of the Confederate States military forces were the uniforms used by the Confederate Army and Navy during the American Civil War , from 1861 to 1865 . The uniform initially varied greatly due to a variety of reasons , such as location , limitations on the supply of cloth and other materials , State regulations that were different from the standard regulations , and the cost of materials during the war .
Texas units , for example , had access to massive stocks of Federal blue uniforms , which were acquired after Confederate forces captured a Federal supply depot in San Antonio in 1861 . These were worn as late as 1863 .
Early on , servicemen sometimes wore combinations of uniform pieces , making do with what they could get from captured Union soldiers , or from Union and Confederate dead , or just wear civilian clothing .
There are some controversies about some of the exact details of a few of the uniforms , since some of the records were lost or destroyed after the Civil War ended .
= = Overview = =
The original Confederate uniforms from all branches of the military closely followed the lines of the Union ’ s uniforms . This was until June 6 , 1861 , when the Confederate Council issued General Order 9 , the new regulations for the Confederate Infantry , Cavalry and Artillery .
The new uniforms were designed by Nicola Marschall , a German @-@ American artist who also designed the original Confederate flag . He was heavily influenced by the mid @-@ 1800s uniforms of the Austrian and French Armies .
Although the regular Confederate military had a paper strength of 6 @,@ 000 personnel , the first 100 @,@ 000 volunteers from all over the South participated in a variety of dress . Many were from state militia outfits , which had their own state @-@ issued uniforms . In the early battles , some Confederate units that wore dark blue uniforms were often mistaken on the field of battle for the enemy . Conversely , many Union units that were originally militia units went to war wearing gray .
It was not until the depot system was established in early 1862 by the Confederate Quartermaster in Richmond , Virginia , that uniforms were mass @-@ produced and supplied to troops . Until that time , the " commutation system " was in place ; this allowed soldiers to have their own uniforms made to the new CSA regulations and to be reimbursed by the CS government . The allowance for uniforms was $ 21 per six months .
Officers always had to buy their own uniforms until March 6 , 1864 , when General Order 28 was released ; this allowed Confederate officers to purchase uniforms from the same sources as the troops , and at cost price .
Following the Richmond Depot , other depots started up throughout the South to supply their respective regional forces . Major depots were in Columbus , Athens and Atlanta , Georgia for the Army of Tennessee and Houston , Texas and Shreveport , Louisiana for the Trans @-@ Mississippi forces . The use of the depot system meant that army @-@ wide uniformity was impossible , as different depots had unique uniforms ( Columbus Depot Jackets for instance , had breast pockets , whilst Richmond Depot Jackets did not ) . This resulted in a varied set of uniforms worn by different Confederate units .
As the war progressed , the image began to shift from the " ragged rebel " look to a well @-@ uniformed Army in the Eastern and Western theaters . In the last 12 months of fighting , these Confederate forces were well @-@ uniformed , the best they had ever appeared in terms of consistency , wearing clothing made of imported blue @-@ gray cloth , either manufactured locally or bought ready @-@ made under contract from British manufacturers , such as Peter Tait of Limerick , Ireland who became a major supplier of uniforms for the Confederacy .
Unfortunately , in the department of the Trans @-@ Mississippi , problems with the distribution of the plentiful uniforms made in Houston and Shreveport meant that the South Western forces went without proper uniforms for some part of the war .
Confederate headgear was to be the chasseur cap , or " kepi " , a French military cap . Often broad felt or straw hats or even slouch hats were worn instead . The Federal Army style forage cap was also popular . General Stonewall Jackson was famous for wearing the forage cap . Confederate Cavalry troops often wore Hardee hats , much like the Union Cavalry , which was a representative of the additional " flair " associated with the Cavalry troops . Two examples of CSA Cavalry officer 's famous for wearing these hats are Colonel John S. Mosby and General J.E.B. Stuart .
= = = Design = = =
The use of wool in the uniform meant that the uniforms were not suited to the warm climates that were common in the South . This contributed to many Confederate soldiers suffering from heatstroke on long marches . However , one understanding of the heavy woolen garments is that after the marching during the day time , when the soldiers would rest at night and cool themselves down , the thermal @-@ shock could render some men unable to function the next day . As such , the woolen garments would protect the soldiers from this , and keep them able to keep marching the next day to fulfill their duties . This was also the case with the better equipped U.S. Army . Many Confederate soldiers started the war with frock coats . However , cloth shortages and wartime wear insured that , by 1863 , waist @-@ length cadet gray or butternut shell jackets were generally worn by Confederates in the Eastern and Western Theater . Examples of frock coats being worn by enlisted men can be seen in photographs taken after the battles of Gettysburg , ( 1863 ) , and Spotsylvania , ( 1864 ) .
Gray was not chosen for camouflage , however , it did , at times , provide enough of a mask along tree lines during battle ; keeping the line of Infantry hidden long enough to strike effectively . At the time of the American Civil War , the usefulness of camouflage was not generally recognized . Gray was chosen for Confederate uniforms because gray dye could be made relatively cheaply and it was the standard uniform color of the various State Militias . The gray uniforms worn by early State volunteers was normally a shade of Cadet gray , which is not suitable for combat wear , as it gives away the position of the individual easily from its bright blue @-@ gray tones , and for this reason it was preserved by some men for dress @-@ parade functions . The gray mentioned is dull toned , often varying in color depending on the region and time during the conflict , resulting in a uniform that could blend in with the tree lines , or hide the men in the field wearing them .
Generally , the uniform jacket of the Confederate soldier was single breasted , made of gray or brown fabric , with a six to nine button front . The design of the garment featured several variations : a four to six piece body , and one or two piece sleeves , usually with lining , often of a cotton material . The fabric used in these jackets , ranged from the finer kerseys and broadcloths used early in the war , to the cotton / wool blends of jeans , satinette , and cassimere , to name several examples . The exact color of the fabric also ranged from the prewar bright cadet gray , similar to the fabric used by Virginia Military Institute , or West Point U.S. Military Academy dress uniforms , to the sumac and logwood dyed fabrics , that would eventually fade to the ragged butternut appearance . Epaulettes may have been used in the construction of the jacket , as was the case for the Richmond clothing bureau designed jackets , commonly called today , the Richmond Depot types I , II , and III . Belt loops were also in intermittent use , such as the Richmond and the Charleston clothing depots . Trimming on the jackets range from piped or taped collars , cuffs , and front lapel edges , to full facings on the collar and cuffs , commonly in light blue , dark blue , red , or black . Due to the difficulty in obtaining yellow dye ingredients as the war progressed , yellow was infrequently used by the Cavalry Corps throughout the conflict .
= = Confederate States Army uniforms = =
= = = General officers = = =
= = = = Rank insignias = = = =
= = = = Collar insignias and buttons = = = =
On the upright collar of full generals , lieutenant generals , major generals , and brigadier generals three stars were stitched within a wreath , all embroidered in gold coloring . The center star was slightly larger than the other stars . It was not possible to know which grade of general an officer was by his collar insignia . However , major generals and lieutenant generals wore two rows of nine buttons in groups of three down the front of the overcoat , and brigadier generals wore two rows of eight buttons in groups of two . However , Confederate Army Regulations had no distinction between the General Officer grades , and had only the insignia for Brigadier Generals recognized . At least three Generals officers did not wear the prescribed uniform : Robert E. Lee who wore the uniform of a Colonel , refusing to wear a generals insignia until the Confederate victory ; Joseph L. Hogg , who died of a fever ; and Benjamin McCulloch .
= = = Field and company officers = = =
= = = = Rank insignias = = = =
= = = = = Collar insignias = = = = =
Colonels wore three gold stars of the same size on their collar ; the same as generals , but without the wreath . While lieutenant colonels wore two stars on their collars , majors wore one star , which was placed in the middle of the collar . Captains had three gold horizontal bars , first lieutenants wore two bars , and second lieutenants wore one bar . However , the Confederate Congress often created new commissions , and did not always standardize rank insignia immediately .
= = = = Sleeve insignias , branch of service colors = = = =
Confederate Army officers indicated their military affiliation with different colored facing on their coats or jackets . The colors were red for artillery , yellow for cavalry , light blue for infantry , and black for medical . A very distinctive feature of the Confederate officers uniforms was the gold braid Austrian knots on their sleeves . More elaborate braiding indicated higher rank and some knots almost reached the shoulder . However , a general order , issued in 1862 , called for the Austrian knots not to be worn in the field , as this made officers conspicuous to enemy combatants .
= = = = Buttons = = = =
Field Grade officers , and Company Grade officers commonly wore two rows of seven equally spaced buttons each , despite regulations calling for the top two buttons to be spaced at four inches apart , coming closer together at the waist at 3 inches in distance .
= = = = Trousers = = = =
The Confederate trousers were very similar to those of the Union forces . Early on , the trousers were sky blue in color . They were most often made of wool , and were easily worn during long marches . If trousers did not arrive for the troops the soldiers would have to use their own pants to wear . Regimental and company officers wore the colors of their respective branch on the outer seam of their pants on one and one @-@ quarter inch stripes . Generals wore two and five @-@ eighths inch stripes on each pant leg . While the quartermasters , commissary , and engineer officers wore a single magenta , one and one @-@ quarter inch outer @-@ seam stripe . Non @-@ commissioned officers were to wear on their outer seams a one and one @-@ quarter inch cotton stripe or braid of colors appropriate to their army branch .
= = = = Kepis = = = =
The " French " pattern kepi was the standard issue headgear to all army personnel , with a dark blue band , sides & crown for generals , staff officers , and engineers . Kepis worn by commissioned officers and enlisted personnel had two patterns , specified by regulations in 1861 and 1862 , respectively . The first pattern was a colored band , denoting the branch of service , with the crown and sides to be made of Cadet Gray cloth . The second pattern had a dark blue band for all branches , with the crown and sides colored according to the branch of service . The branch of service colors were as follows , Red for artillery , yellow for cavalry , and light or sky blue for infantry .
= = = Army enlisted men = = =
= = = = Rank insignias = = = =
= = = = = Chevrons = = = = =
In the Confederate Army , chevrons were worn by sergeants ( three on each sleeve ) and corporals ( two on each sleeve )
= = = = = Sword and sash = = = = =
When in full dress and sometimes also in battle , all ranks above Corporal ( i.e. all Sergeants ) in non @-@ mounted service branches carried the M1840 NCO Sword ( when available ) suspending on a leather belt ( as did their counterparts in the Union Army , except Hospital Stewards who carried a special Sword Model ) . Additionally all CSA Sergeant ranks were permitted worsted waist sashes : red for Artillery and Infantry ( and all others Service branches ) , but yellow for Cavalry . ( For their counterparts in the Union Army crimson worsted waist sashes for all service branches were only allowed to NCOs above Sergeant ( i.e. First Sergeant , Ordnance Sergeant , Hospital Steward , Sergeant Major etc . ) )
= = = = Trousers = = = =
Army trousers were of similar pattern to the U.S. Army trousers , or civilian designs , depending on the area in which they were made . They were typically a shade of gray or brown , with a variety of medium blues also produced . The individual could also have them trimmed to reflect his militia un it , his Non @-@ commissioned officer status , or as a personal flare , to the ubiquitous service pants . Noncommissioned officers were to wear on their outer seams a one and one @-@ quarter inch cotton stripe or braid of colors appropriate to their army branch .
= = = = Belt = = = =
There were numerous types of belts produced for the Confederate Military during the Civil War . There were literally dozens of types of buckles used and produced by or for the Confederacy . The buckles ranged from single plates with hooks , to two piece interlocking buckles , to simple roller buckles and countless other variations . Many buckles use plates that bore the state seal or motto of their home states . The vast majority used simple roller buckle plates of the type found on a common dog collar . As the War progressed , more and more men used captured US belt plates , often wearing them upside down .
= = = Infantry uniforms = = =
= = = = Design = = = =
The Confederate Infantry , the largest Corps of the Army , had a large variety of uniforms , and the greater amount of records . The initial Confederate Army Uniform consisted of a Kepi , double @-@ breasted tunic , trousers , and Jefferson Bootees / Brogans . The Kepi was not specified until the 1862 Regulations , as a sky @-@ blue kepi , reflecting the Infantry Corps , with a dark blue band , and leather visor . The Tunic was to be of Cadet gray , with two rows of yellow @-@ metal ( brass or gold ) buttons , ' solid ' cuff and collar facings in sky @-@ blue , and lined with a lighter gray fabric . The coat was of the same pattern specified as regulation for the field and company officers , as well as for the artillery and cavalry enlisted men .
These designs for the uniform , however , did not prevail , as the complexity of the uniform proved to be difficult for mass @-@ production . The simpler uniform turned out to be the regulations dictated by Judah Benjamin . He stated that the uniform should be that of : a gray jacket ; a blue , gray , or brown pair of trousers ; any slouch hat or cap @-@ type of head cover ; and any kind of foot @-@ wear to be worn for Confederate service in mid @-@ 1861 . His regulations , however , were overruled by the subsequent set of regulations of June 1861 , stating the Franco @-@ Austrian styled uniform to be issued and purchased to all Corps and by all officers , respectively .
The guidelines set by Judah Benjamin in 1861 soon became the choice of the Clothing Depots across the south as the war went into its second year . This easier to produce jacket , with the loosened hat and trouser regulations , made it easier to clothe Confederate Infantrymen . The typical uniform by the end of 1861 and beginning of 1862 was a slouch hat or kepi , a shell @-@ jacket , and a pair of sky @-@ blue or gray cloth trousers , with brogans .
= = = = Jackets and coats = = = =
The jacket prescribed for Infantry use was of the same design for all service men . The design itself depended entirely on the region , time , and the source of fabrics . The Eastern Theater uniform jacket was the Richmond Depot design , with three primary types issued throughout the war . The jacket varied from a cadet gray , piped and trimmed jacket , looking much like a pre @-@ war militia jacket , to the jeans @-@ cloth jacket that was worn out in six months . The materials and uniforms imported from England were also issued to the troops through this facility . The Western and Deep Southern facilities manufactured similar uniforms , being jeans @-@ cloth , dyed with vegetable based grays , that would fade to brown or tan . The typical jackets issued had 5 @-@ 7 button fronts , with collar and cuff trim that varied from era , region and source , and an outside pocket on occasion .
The previous styles were the militia uniforms . These consisted of everything from the more sharp @-@ looking jackets and coats , which resembled the French or Northern Infantry uniforms , to the no @-@ flares " Battle @-@ Shirt " , meant for drilling and battles only . The uniform for these militia units varied by each company through a single county or parish , let alone the country itself . The militia uniforms were a menagerie of colors , from Cadet gray , dark blue , and hunter green , to Reds , buffs and gold tones . The other variety of CS Army uniform jackets and coats is the Zouave . This jacket was meant to be loose @-@ fitting and reflect the French @-@ African Zouave units . There were several units to consist of this uniform , including the " Richmond Zouaves " , in the 44th Virginia Infantry Regiment , the " Wheat 's Tigers " , of the 1st Louisiana Special Battalion , and " Coppen 's Zouaves " , of Louisiana .
= = = = Buttons = = = =
The buttons worn on the Infantryman 's clothing is not as minor a detail as it would sound . The average infantryman may have had his uniform made for him in Richmond , Virginia , however , the man enlisted in Georgia , and is now marching through the former state . In reflection to his loyalties to home , this man , for example , could have adorned his uniform with Georgia State buttons . This would indicate to his fellow soldiers his allegiance to both his state and his military unit . This was common practice during the war for both sides in the conflict .
The regulation infantry buttons for enlisted men described the button as to have a number on the front to reflect the unit designation ; for example , a soldier in the 1st Confederate Infantry Regiment would have a " 1 " on the buttons of his coat . These buttons are rare or non @-@ existent . However , the officer 's regulation button , consisting of the " block I " button , for Infantry , the A for Artillery , etc . ; was very common amongst soldiers , and replaced the efforts to produce the different , numbered buttons for each regiment in service .
As before , the uniform buttons could also reflect the state loyalties of an individual . All of the Confederate States made an effort to supply their respective State buttons to their troops . The states that did not join the Confederacy , but had men within its ranks , such as Maryland and Missouri , also made buttons , that have turned up on surviving uniforms .
The confederacy also implemented ready @-@ made supplies of button , consisting of the U.S. Government stockpiles throughout the war . These consisted of the Enlisted men 's coat button , ( an eagle with the shield of the U.S. , with the olive branch and arrows held in its talons , ) and the officer 's buttons , ( the same as before , but the shield is replaced by a blank shield , with the respective letter for each branch of service , I for infantry , A for artillery , C for cavalry , and D for dragoons ) .
= = = = Hats and kepis = = = =
The headgear of the typical Confederate Infantryman was the slouch hat , or the military Kepi . The Kepi is a short fatigue and dress cap that was easy to manufacture for the Army during the war . This type of hat had its drawbacks , however . It provided little weather protection , and was worn out easily after a few months of hard wear . The Infantryman design cap was sky @-@ blue with a dark blue band , but this was rarely seen outside of officer private @-@ purchase caps . More typical would be the plain gray / brown cap , with or without the branch of service trim . There are examples of deep @-@ south made caps that were trimmed in red cotton and wool , and issued to Infantry units , showing that any available clothing was issued to the troops as the war progressed .
The slouch hat was the preferred choice of many soldiers , including officers . The hat was normally a floppy , wide brimmed , woolen body head @-@ cover , meant to protect the individual from the sun , and inclement weather . It was normally a civilian hat , of brown , gray , or black wool . This simple hat saw widespread use throughout the Confederate Armies , and even with U.S. Army personnel . Occasionally , the hat was adorned with insignia of the wearer 's preference , and may have been pinned up for the drill in the use of the regular weapon of the time , the Rifled @-@ musket .
= = = Cavalry uniforms = = =
= = = = Design = = = =
The first of the Cavalry uniforms were made by the cavalrymen themselves . By 1862 , the Confederate regulations ordered the uniform to become organized , being cadet gray and lined with a thin layer around the sleeve . The pant legs were light blue with a yellow strip rising from the bottom of the leg to the top . Non @-@ commissioned officers of the cavalry wore either regular clothes from home or a variety of different types of uniforms. yellow was the prescribed branch of service color , but surviving uniforms show beyond a doubt that the vast majority of cavalrymen who used any branch of service color , used buff as yellow cloth was virtually non existent in the Confederacy .
= = = = Buttons = = = =
According to the June 1861 regulations , and later the 1862 and 1863 regulations , enlisted men were to wear a frock coat with the same button pattern as the Company and Field Grade officers .
= = = = Hats = = = =
A cap copying the French Kepi was the prescribed headgear for all three branches of the land service , adorned with the various branch of service colors , but Confederates preferred the slouch hat and surviving photographs show that as many or more men wore some type of slouch hat than wore the prescribed cap , especially as the War progressed .
The Troiani book says , " Although in some units hats seem dominate , the issuance of caps was widespread . For example , requisitions for the 19th Alabama Infantry throughout 1863 and early 1864 show a decided preference for hats , whereas those for the 17th Mississippi Infantry for the same period record only caps being received . One Confederate clothing facility in Charleston , South Carolina , was devoted entirely to the manufacture of caps . These were cut out by government employees at the depot and sent to 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 local " persons of a needy class " for assembly . "
= = = Artillery uniforms = = =
= = = = Design = = = =
The first of the Artillery uniforms were a variety of handmade and personally customized uniforms . By 1862 , the Confederate uniforms became organized . They became cadet gray and were to be lined with a layer of red around the sleeve . The pant legs were light blue . Even after the uniforms were organized many of the artillerymen wore regular clothes due to the heat and discomfort caused by the regular uniforms .
= = = = Buttons = = = =
In the Confederate Artillery , a normal junior officer had two rows of seven evenly spaced buttons , grouped into pairs , while a senior officer could have as many as eight buttons in two rows .
= = = = Hats = = = =
The kepi was also standard issue to the artillerymen , they were made red to match that of the rest of their uniforms . During the summer months they were also allowed to wear straw hats because of the heat .
= = Confederate States Navy uniforms = =
= = = Design = = =
The first of the Navy uniforms were made in dark blue , but with the Southern style of rank insignia for the officers . The 1862 Confederate regulations ordered the uniform to be steel gray and lined with a dark black silk serge . They were also made in medium gray and cadet gray . They were made of wool , and these uniforms were not fit for the heat of the lower decks of a ship . Non @-@ commissioned officers wore a variety of uniforms , or even regular clothing .
= = = Shoulder straps = = =
According to the dress code of the Confederate Navy , shoulder straps were to be worn differently by each rank .
Admirals wore a shoulder strap of sky @-@ blue cloth , edged with black , that was four inches long and one inch and three @-@ eighths wide embroidered with gold one @-@ quarter of an inch in width . They had five stars spaced equally , the two on the ends six @-@ tenths of an inch in diameter , and the three intermediate stars six @-@ eighths of an inch in diameter .
Flag officers wore a shoulder strap of sky @-@ blue cloth , edged with black , that was four inches long and one inch and three @-@ eighths wide embroidered with gold one @-@ quarter of an inch in width . They had four stars spaced equally , the two on the ends six @-@ tenths of an inch in diameter , and the two intermediate stars six @-@ eighths of an inch in diameter .
captains wore the same shoulder straps as the flag officers , but with three equally spaced stars , each six @-@ tenths of an inch in diameter .
Commanders also had the same shoulder straps , but with only two stars .
Lieutenants had the same shoulder straps , with a single , central , star .
The shoulder straps worn by masters had the same design , but without any stars .
Passed midshipmen wore a strip of gold lace four inches in length and a half an inch wide .
For a midshipman , no shoulder straps were to be worn .
= = = Caps = = =
Confederate Naval Caps were made of steel gray cloth . They were not to be less than three inches and a half , nor more than four inches in height . They were also not to be more than ten , or less than nine inches and a half , at the top , and had a patent leather visor , to be worn by all officers in their service dress .
For a flag officer , the cap had an anchor in an open wreath of oak leaves , with four stars above the anchor . They were to be embroidered in gold as per pattern .
For a captain , the same as a flag officer 's , except that there were only three stars above the anchor , and the gold band was one and one @-@ half inches wide .
For a commander it was to be the same as for a captain , except that there were only but two stars .
For a lieutenant , the same as that of a captain , except there was only one star .
For a master , the same as for a captain , except that there was no star .
For a passed midshipman , an anchor without a wreath .
For a midshipman , no caps were to be worn .
= = Confederate States Marine Corps uniforms = =
The uniform used by the Confederate States Marine Corps resembled that prescribed for the Confederate Army . However , there is controversy about some of the exact details of the uniform , since the CSMC was not as large , and many of its records were destroyed . In 1865 , right after the war 's end , Lloyd J. Beall , commander of the CSMC , had a fire at his home which destroyed most of the CSMC 's records . It is clear , however , that the Marines were often equipped out of the stores of whichever garrison was nearest their location . One description has the Marines dressed in frock coats of a particular ( and undetermined ) shade of gray , and dark blue or black trousers . It appears that Confederate Marines wore forage caps although it is unclear if there was any ornamentation on the cover . Much of the gear worn by the CSMC was imported from Russia , and from Great Britain and its empire , mainly Canada . This created a fairly unusual look .
= Nauru reed warbler =
The Nauru reed warbler ( Nauruan : itsirir ) , Acrocephalus rehsei , is a passerine bird endemic to the island of Nauru in the Pacific Ocean . It is one of only two native breeding land @-@ birds on Nauru , the other being the Micronesian pigeon , and it is the only passerine found on the island . It is related to other Micronesian reed warblers , all of which evolved from one of several radiations of the genus across the Pacific . Related warblers on nearby islands include the Carolinian reed warbler , with which the Nauru species was initially confused , and the nightingale reed warbler , which was formerly sometimes considered the same species .
A medium @-@ sized warbler , the Nauru reed warbler has dark brown upperparts , cream underparts and a long , thin beak . It makes a low , cup @-@ shaped nest into which it lays two or three white eggs , and it feeds on insects . However , details about its behavior and ecology are little known . It is found throughout Nauru , which has changed substantially in recent decades due to phosphate mining . The Nauru reed warbler is potentially threatened by introduced predators and habitat loss , and its small range means that it could be vulnerable to chance occurrences , such as tropical cyclones . Reports of a similar warbler from nearby islands suggest that it might previously have been found elsewhere , but was driven to local extinction by introduced cats .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
Otto Finsch was the first naturalist to visit the island of Nauru , stopping for six hours on 24 July 1880 while travelling from the Marshall Islands to the Solomon Islands . His 1881 report included a warbler he initially identified as the Carolinian reed warbler . By 1883 he considered it to be a new species , Calamoherpe rehsei . The generic name Calamoherpe is now recognised as a synonym of Acrocephalus , leading to the current binomial name . The generic name Acrocephalus derives from the Greek akros , meaning " topmost " , and kephale , meaning " head " . The akros part of the name may have been given through confusion with acutus , and taken to mean " sharp @-@ pointed " , referring to the angular head shape typical of this genus . The synonym Calamoherpe is from the Greek kalamos , meaning " reed " , and herpes , meaning " creeping thing " . Finsch named the species after Ernst Rehse , a German ornithologist and collector and one of Finsch 's travelling companions . Since the original descriptions , little has been written about the species , and details about its ecology and behaviour are poorly known .
Though the Nauru reed warbler is generally accepted as a species , some authorities , such as H. E. Wolters in Die Vogelarte der Erde ( 1980 ) and Howard and Moore in A Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World ( 1991 ) , have considered it a subspecies of Acrocephalus luscinius , the nightingale reed warbler . Recent DNA studies have affirmed its status as a separate species . It is considered monotypic , meaning there are no recognised subspecies . The species is known by the English common names Finsch 's reed @-@ warbler , Nauru warbler , pleasant warbler , the Nauru reed @-@ warbler , and the Nauru reed warbler . In the native Nauruan language , it is known as Itsirir .
A 2009 phylogenic study of the family Acrocephalidae did not include this species , and as recently as 2010 its relation with other members of the genus was unknown . A 2011 analysis of mitochondrial DNA showed that the Nauru reed warbler forms a clade with the Australian reed warbler , the bokikokiko , the southern Marquesan reed warbler and a now @-@ extinct species from Pagan Island in the Marianas . The closest relative of the Nauru reed warbler appears to be the extinct warbler from Pagan . This is currently named as a subspecies of the nightingale reed warbler , A. luscinius yamashinae , but that species is polyphyletic , and the Pagan form , which has been proposed as a new species , the Pagan reed warbler , is in a different clade to nightingale reed warblers from other islands .
The pattern of colonisation of the Pacific islands and eventually Australia by the Acrocephalus warblers from Asia was complex , with multiple colonisations of even remote archipelagos . Although the Hawaiian islands were colonised about 2 @.@ 3 million years ago , the other islands were reached much more recently , in the mid @-@ Pleistocene ( between 0 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 4 million years ago ) or even later . The nearest other warblers geographically to Nauru are the Carolinian reed warbler and the nightingale reed warbler .
= = Description = =
The Nauru reed warbler is a medium @-@ sized and warmly coloured reed warbler , with a relatively light build . The entirety of the upperparts are dark brown , with the rump and uppertail coverts slightly brighter than the tail and mantle . When closed , the wing is the same colour as the mantle , short and rounded . The wing does not reach the start of the tail feathers , which enhances the appearance of a long tail . Close inspection of the wing reveals darker centres to both the greater coverts and tertial feathers . Its face shows little contrast , as the ear coverts , crown , nape , chin and throat are all a similar shade of pale brown . The lores are a dark brown , and there is a pale , creamy supercilium , or " eyebrow " , extending from the beak to the ear coverts , which are a cinnamon @-@ brown , darkening and merging with the nape . The beak is long , thin and straight .
The underparts are much lighter , darkening towards the vent and undertail coverts . The chin is a dull cream , merging with the throat , which then browns towards the base . The centre of the breast is a dull brown @-@ yellow , while the sides are a reddish @-@ brown . The upper mandible of the beak is dark grey with pink edges , while the lower mandible is pink , darkening towards to the tip . The legs and feet are dark grey . The bird measures up to 15 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) , with a wingspan of 6 @.@ 7 to 7 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 8 in ) .
The species exhibits no sexual dimorphism , and characteristics of the young are unknown . As the only passerine on the island , there is no chance that this species may be confused with any other . The Nauru reed warbler is slightly smaller than the Carolinian reed warbler , which is also lighter in colour , with a more contrasting eyebrow . The nightingale reed warbler is substantially larger , and the Oriental reed warbler has a duller colouration , with whiter underparts .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Nauru reed warbler is endemic to the island of Nauru , in the Pacific Ocean . It is one of only two indigenous land birds which breed on the island , the other being the Micronesian pigeon . The warbler can be found throughout the island , thriving in the scrubland in areas previously used for phosphate mining , as well as the remaining patches of forest on the island 's central plateau . It is most common in the remains of forest found on the island 's steep slopes . It is also readily observed in gardens and ruderal areas on the island 's coast ; in 1881 , Finsch described the species as abundant , calling it " as common as the House @-@ Sparrow in England . " Biologist Donald Buden again found it widespread on the island in 2008 .
The species is sedentary , meaning that the birds do not naturally leave Nauru . Banaba is the nearest island , and despite being similar to Nauru , it lacks any warblers . However , it is possible that populations of the Nauru reed warbler existed on other islands until comparatively recently . On the Marshall Islands , traditional stories refer to a small bird , known variously as annañ , anang and annãng . This bird was considered the property of chieftains . Though no physical descriptions exist of the species , it has been described as butterfly @-@ sized , pleasant @-@ smelling and as living among rocks on the shores of north @-@ western islands . Ethnographers Krämer and Nevermann reported that the bird became extinct or extirpated around 1880 . Based on descriptions of birds seen on Jaluit , Paul Schnee hypothesised that the annañ may have been a Nauru reed warbler . The extinction of the annañ may have been due to hunting by cats , which were introduced to the Marshall Islands by the Russian Otto von Kotzebue in 1817 to hunt rats . They then multiplied before being spread by locals as pets , after which they started to become feral .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Nauru reed warbler nests are cup @-@ shaped and woven from grasses and twigs . They sometimes include Cassytha filiformis vine or Casuarina equisetifolia needles . The nests are bound to upright stems in a way typical of warblers . Buden reported that the warblers nest in trees and shrubs at a height of 2 to 8 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 to 26 @.@ 2 ft ) . The species may also nest on the ground ; the young in ground nests may be more vulnerable to predation by rats . Eggs have variously been reported in December and July , and ornithologist A. Pearson suggested that the species may nest all year round . The clutch size has been reported as two or three eggs . Incubation and fledgling periods are unknown . Pearson reported lower nesting than Buden , recording nests in bushes and undergrowth between 45 and 300 centimetres ( 18 and 118 in ) from the ground , especially in forked branches of hibiscus and lime . Buden reported that the birds were more vocal in December than in March and April . The song has been described as similar to that of a song thrush , common blackbird , or willie wagtail , and it is delivered both day and night .
Finsch described the warbler as insectivorous , feeding primarily on dragonflies . Six species of dragonfly have been observed on the island ; Ischnura aurora , Anax guttatus , Diplacodes bipunctata , Pantala flavescens , Tholymis tillarga and Tramea transmarina . Buden did not observe the species feeding on dragonflies , but did see three different feeding habits . Most frequently , the birds were seen moving through trees and shrubs , catching prey on the foliage . Other birds were seen perched close to the floor , darting to the ground , and returning to the perch with prey . In open areas , the birds were observed moving across the ground , " occasionally grasping a presumed prey item " . In coastal areas , they have been observed feeding in coconut trees . Potential predators for the birdlife of Nauru in general include feral cats and dogs , as well as the Polynesian rat and the Tanezumi rat . Feral cats and wild rats in particular are potential threats to the Nauru reed warbler .
= = Status = =
The IUCN lists the species as " Vulnerable " , because " its very small range leaves it susceptible to chance events , such as cyclones and the introduction of alien predators . " BirdLife International previously estimated that there were between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 Nauru reed warblers , based on 1993 data , but Buden 's 2006 estimate was 5 @,@ 000 birds of all ages led to a revised figure of 3 @,@ 000 mature individuals . In 2001 , it was observed that the removal of the phosphate deposits on the island meant that the vegetation was decreasing , presenting a potential threat to the species . In 2008 , however , Buden claimed that " habitat degradation and loss of native forest via mining operations has apparently had no major adverse effects on the population . " Nauru reed warblers were observed to be common on the island , and flourishing in the scrubland left by mining .
Unlike other birds on the island , the species is not hunted , and is protected under Schedule 1 of Nauru 's Wild Birds Preservation Ordinance 1937 . For conservation purposes , the IUCN recommends regular surveys of the population and the establishment of a monitoring programme through training local people . It also proposed raising conservation awareness by increasing the profile of the bird .
= Christine Chapel =
Christine Chapel is a fictional character who appears in all three seasons of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Original Series , as well as Star Trek : The Animated Series and the films Star Trek : The Motion Picture and Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home . Portrayed by Majel Barrett , she was the ship 's nurse on board the Starfleet starship USS Enterprise . Barrett had previously been cast under her real name as Number One in the first pilot for the series , " The Cage " , due in part to her romantic relationship with the series creator Gene Roddenberry . But following feedback from the Network executives , she was not in the cast for the second pilot .
The character made her first appearance in " The Naked Time " following a re @-@ write of the script by Roddenberry . He had been inspired after Barrett read a proposal for the episode " What Are Little Girls Made Of ? " and bleached her hair blonde to better fit a role in that episode . The change of color caused Roddenberry to believe that NBC executives might not notice that Barrett had returned against their wishes . The executives immediately recognized Barrett . The character was featured in several episodes covering several broad themes , such as showing her feelings for Spock ( Leonard Nimoy ) , and why she joined Starfleet . By the time of The Motion Picture , Chapel was a Doctor and during the events of The Voyage Home , she was stationed at Starfleet Command .
Executive producer Robert H. Justman was initially critical of Barrett ’ s performance as Chapel , but recanted this opinion after her appearance as Lwaxana Troi in the Star Trek : The Next Generation . Barrett herself was not fond of the character , and David Gerrold felt that she only served to demonstrate Spock 's emotionless behaviour . Critics saw the character as being a degradation for Barrett compared to her first character . While the position of nurse was seen as a stereotype , the character 's promotion to doctor was praised . Certain episodes featuring her were criticised , such as " Amok Time " where the plot prevented her from having a relationship with Spock , and " What Are Little Girls Made Of ? " were it was suggested she was featured to the detriment of other characters . Among fans , she was initially unpopular due to her feelings for Spock , but prior to the 2009 film Star Trek , there was a desire to see her return .
= = Concept and development = =
Prior to working on Star Trek , Gene Roddenberry had been developing a variety of television pilots for Screen Gems . One actress he auditioned saw was Majel Leigh Hudec , later to use the name Majel Barrett . Later when he created the drama series The Lieutenant , he cast her in the episode " In the Highest Tradition " . They quickly became friends , and entered into a romantic relationship although Roddenberry was married at the time . During the development of the first pilot for Star Trek : The Original Series ( " The Cage " ) , Roddenberry wrote the part of Number One ( the ship ’ s second in command ) specifically for Barrett . There was reluctance from the NBC executives to agree to an actress who was almost unknown . Roddenberry did see other actresses for the part , but no one else was considered .
Executive producer Herbert Franklin Solow attempted | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
lock in the Masterlock once more . Michaels tried to use the corners to break the hold , but Masters kept it locked on . Michaels then leaped over the top rope and landed on the ring apron , causing the referee to order Masters to break the hold . Michaels countered with a Sweet Chin Music , thus Michaels got the pinfall victory over Masters .
The main event was between John Cena and Kurt Angle for the WWE Championship . The match began with Angle and Cena locking up , leading to Angle taking Cena down with a headlock takeover . Cena countered many attacks by Angle and was able to reverse the ankle lock . Cena tried to lift Angle onto his shoulders to slam him down to the mat , but Angle reversed it and lifted Cena on his shoulders and spun 90 ° to slam him down . Eric Bischoff came down the ramp and cheered for Angle , who had the Ankle Lock applied on Cena . Cena rolled out of the move , grabbed the championship belt , which Bischoff had brought with him , and hit Angle with it . The referee saw this and called for the bell . As a result , Cena was disqualified for hitting Angle with the championship , ultimately resulting in him retaining his title .
= = Aftermath = =
The feud between John Cena and Kurt Angle , with the involvement of Eric Bischoff , continued . During Raw episodes , it saw Angle and Bischoff interfere in Cena 's matches , and even deciding the outcome of Cena 's matches . On the October 17 episode of Raw , Bischoff announced that a standard match involving three wrestlers , termed as the Triple Threat match , for the WWE Championship , would take place between Cena , Angle and the fans ' choice at Taboo Tuesday . Bischoff was scripted to promote three series of qualifying matches , in which the winner would receive a spot on the ballot as a potential challenger to join Cena and Angle . The winners were The Big Show , Shawn Michaels and Kane . The following week , a Triple Threat match was scheduled between Big Show , Michaels and Kane . Michaels won the match after he hit both Big Show and Kane with a superkick and pinned Big Show for the win . The following week , Bischoff announced a match between Cena and Michaels . Late in the match , Angle attacked both Cena and Michaels . Cena , however , retaliated and got Angle up for an FU , but Michaels managed to hit Cena with a superkick . At Taboo Tuesday , Michaels won the fans ' choice to join Cena and Angle in the championship match . Cena , however , defeated Michaels and Angle to retain the WWE Championship , after pinning Shawn Michaels .
Triple H returned on the October 3 episode of Raw , WWE Homecoming , after a four @-@ month hiatus . He took part in a match , teaming up with Ric Flair , who was a fan favorite during Triple H 's absence , to take on Chris Masters and Carlito . The duo defeated Masters and Carlito ; after the match , Triple H turned on Flair and hit him with a sledgehammer . This led to a rivalry between Triple H and Flair . At Taboo Tuesday , Triple H and Flair met in a steel cage match , a stipulation chosen by the fans , for the WWE Intercontinental Championship . The match saw Flair retain the Intercontinental Championship , after escaping through the cage door .
The rivalry between Matt Hardy and Edge continued and culminated in a " Loser Leaves Raw Ladder match " , where the objective was to reach a briefcase suspended in the air using a ladder , at WWE Homecoming , which Edge won . As a result , Hardy was moved to the SmackDown ! brand .
= = = Reception = = =
The Ford Center has a maximum capacity of 19 @,@ 599 . The event grossed over $ 485 @,@ 000 in ticket sales from an attendance of 8 @,@ 000 . The promotion 's pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue was $ 185 million . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the entire event a 6 out of 10 stars . The rating was lower than the Unforgiven event in 2006 , which rated 7 out of 10 stars . The steel cage match was rated a 7 out of 10 stars , as well as the Shawn Michaels and Chris Masters ' match . The divas tag team match and the singles match between Big Show and Snitsky , were rated 3 out of 10 stars each .
The event was released on DVD by Sony Music Entertainment on October 25 , 2005 . The DVD reached third on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreational sports during the week of November 19 , 2005 , although falling thereafter . It remained in the chart for two consecutive weeks , until the week of December 3 , 2005 , when it ranked seventh .
= = Results = =
= Fight for You =
" Fight for You " is a song performed by American recording artist Jason Derulo , released as the fourth single from his second studio album , Future History , on December 2 , 2011 . The song was written by Derulo , Stevie Hoang , David Paich and Jeff Porcaro , while production was handled by RedOne , BeatGeek and Geo Slam . Musically , " Fight for You " is an urban @-@ pop ballad , that samples the song " Africa " ( 1982 ) by American rock band Toto . The lyrics revolve around how Derulo , the protagonist , has " got a girl in his life he isn 't ready to let go of just yet " . Hoang had originally recorded " Fight for You " for his third independent album , Unsigned ( 2011 ) with his original track featuring Iyaz .
The song 's production and Derulo 's vocal performance garnered positive reviews from music critics , however , some criticized its lack of originality . " Fight for You " attained moderate chart success , peaking at number five in Australia , and reaching the top twenty in the United Kingdom . The accompanying music video portrays a fictional relationship between Derulo and his love interest . Derulo performed the song at KDWB @-@ FM 's annual Jingle Ball in 2011 .
= = Background and release = =
" Fight for You " was written by Jason Derulo , Stevie Hoang , David Paich and Jeff Porcaro , while production of the song was helmed by RedOne , BeatGeek and Geo Slam . " Fight for You " was originally recorded by Hoang , for his third independent album , Unsigned ( 2011 ) . His version of the song features British Virgin Island recording artist Iyaz .
Derulo 's version of " Fight for You " was recorded and engineered by Gelly Kusuma , Slam and Teddy Sky at Serenity West Recording Studio and Jim Henson Studios in Los Angeles , California . Derulo , RedOne , Laila Khayat , Samya Khayat and Sky performed background vocals on the song . The recordings were later mixed by Trevor Muzzy . All instruments and programming were provided by RedOne , BeatGeek and Slam . In a cover story for the Daily Star , Derulo stated that " Fight for You " was the first song he worked on with RedOne , saying " I 'm glad it turned out so dope " . On working with RedOne , he said : " Red first became hot when he produced the album The Fame with Lady Gaga . He is one of the nicest guys I 've ever met . ... RedOne was a nice , humble , down @-@ to @-@ earth , special person " .
" Fight for You " was added to mainstream radio playlists in the United Kingdom on November 9 , 2011 . A digital extended play , featuring four remixes of the song , was released in Ireland and the UK on December 2 , 2011 .
= = Composition = =
" Fight for You " is an urban @-@ pop ballad with a length of four minutes and two seconds . According to Meena Rupani of DesiHits , the song finds Derulo as the male protagonist singing " that he 's got a girl in his life he isn 't ready to let go of just yet " . The song 's hook contains a sample of the song " Africa " ( 1982 ) by American rock band Toto . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy noted that " Fight for You " features " airy synths and bouncy castle @-@ sized beats " . Scott Shelter of PopCrush described the song as a " world music flavored track " . During an interview with New ! magazine , Derulo explained the concept of " Fight for You " , saying : " It 's very relationship @-@ based and the line [ " fight for you " ] means so much , whatever you believe in you should go for . The song is based on a personal experience , I was in a relationship and I put myself in that place again where you would do anything to keep the relationship together so I went back to that place . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Fight for You " garnered positive reviews from music critics for its catchy production and Derulo 's vocal performance . David Griffiths of 4Music called it a " catchy little ditty " that " is guaranteed to be stuck in your head for the rest of the day " . Shawn Kitchener of Entertainment Wise described the song as " the kind of sweet @-@ as @-@ candy R & B fodder " that could have been featured on the High School Musical soundtrack . Meena Rupani of DesiHits noted that the song 's lyrical theme is similar to " It Girl " , and that Derulo 's " vocals are enough to put any girl into a trance " . However , " Fight for You " also received unfavorable reviews from critics because of its lack of originality . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy gave the song a three out of five star rating , calling Derulo " extremely lazy " for sampling " Africa " . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian described the song as " languid " , while writing that the sample gives it " a bit of bounce " . Although Jess Holton of The Music Network described " Fight for You " as a " touching ballad " , she added that sampling " Africa " does not do the latter " any form of justice " . In an album review of Future History , Michael Cragg of BBC Music noted that the songs " revolve around the joys of being in a relationship or the pain of not being in one " , however disapproved of the lyrical content and sample in " Fight for You " , calling it " perhaps the worst offender " on the album .
= = Commercial performance = =
After the release of Future History , " Fight for You " debuted and peaked on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 83 on the issue dated October 15 , 2011 , and on the UK Singles Chart at number 117 on October 22 , 2011 . Upon its release as a single in the latter country , " Fight for You " managed to peak at number 15 on the UK Singles Chart , and at number four on the UK R & B Singles Chart . In Ireland , the song debuted at number 31 on December 1 , 2011 , and peaked at number 28 the following week . On the Danish Singles Chart , " Fight for You " debuted and peaked at number 27 on January 20 , 2012 . In Australia , the song debuted at number 27 on the ARIA Singles Chart on February 20 , 2012 . " Fight for You " peaked at number five in its third week , and spent a total of seven consecutive weeks inside the top @-@ ten . It was eventually certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 140 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The video for " Fight for You " premiered online on November 25 , 2011 . It begins with Derulo walking on a bridge in a city at night , before the video cuts to scenes of Derulo and his love interest hugging and drinking alcohol , as well showing him standing alone atop a roof of a building in Manhattan . Another scene finds Derulo and his love interest sharing a shower . The video continues to show the pair spending time together , including dining in restaurants , riding the subway , and dancing on the subway platform . David Greenwald of MTV Buzzworthy called it Derulo 's " steamiest " video to date .
= = = Live performances and cover version = = =
On December 3 , 2011 , Derulo performed " Fight for You " at radio station KDWB @-@ FM 's annual Jingle Ball , which took place at the Target Center in Minneapolis , Minnesota . The song was part of a set list , which included " Whatcha Say " , " In My Head " , " Ridin ' Solo " , " Don 't Wanna Go Home " and " It Girl " . According to Jon Bream of the Star Tribune , Derulo " turned it out with sweet vocals and smooth dancing " . On May 21 , 2012 , Taga Paa performed a cover of " Fight for You " on The Voice Australia . Rosemarie Lentini of The Daily Telegraph called it a " moving rendition " , while Seanna Cronin of The Gympie Times noted that Paa 's performance " had a few pitch issues " .
= = Track listing = =
Digital EP
" Fight for You " – 4 : 02
" Fight for You " ( Suncycle Remix ) – 3 : 34
" Fight for You " ( Mync Edit ) – 3 : 25
" Fight for You " ( Mync Stadium Dub ) – 5 : 34
" Fight for You " ( Mync Stadium Mix ) – 5 : 34
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Future History .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Anarchy Online =
Anarchy Online is a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game ( MMORPG ) published and developed by Norwegian video game development company Funcom . Released in the summer of 2001 , the game was the first in the genre to include a science @-@ fiction setting , dynamic quests , instancing , free trials , and in @-@ game advertising . The game 's ongoing storyline revolves around the fictional desert planet " Rubi @-@ Ka " , the source of a valuable mineral known as " Notum " . Players assume the role of a new colonist to Rubi @-@ Ka . With no specific objective to win Anarchy Online , the player advances the game through the improvement of a character 's skills over time . After more than 15 years , Anarchy Online has become one of the oldest surviving games in the genre .
= = Plot = =
Fighting for military and political power on Rubi @-@ Ka are the Omni @-@ Tek corporation ( owners of the planet 's one thousand @-@ year lease ) , the Separatist Clans , Terrorist groups , extraterrestrial life , and ancient civilizations . The narrative was developed to be played out as a series of virtual " role @-@ play " events over the course of four years , influenced by the actions of those taking part in the game .
According to the game 's back story , the " Source " of all life deep inside the planet created the first forms of life , who called themselves the Xan . They began as a small , perfect , immortal civilization , living in peace and harmony . The Xans ' eventual discovery and research of the Source 's power lead them to create powerful technology . They built a great civilization , but this made them greedy and arrogant . Two factions formed within the Xan , calling themselves the Redeemed and the Unredeemed . These groups fought over how best to use the Source — now strained and unstable from their tampering . They tried in vain to fix the problem , but discovered it was too late - the Source would soon destroy the planet . Rubi @-@ Ka was ripped apart in a cataclysm , leaving it a barren rock . The Source , and small fragments of the Xans ' dead civilization , were thrown into another dimension known as the Shadowlands . The survivors left in search of other habitable planets , where they planted versions of their species ; they hoped that one would prosper and eventually return to Rubi @-@ Ka . Earth was one of their destinations .
In the year 28 @,@ 708 AD , a mining survey ship from the mega @-@ corporation Omni @-@ Tek rediscovered Rubi @-@ Ka . The Interstellar Confederation of Corporations ( ICC ) granted Omni @-@ Tek a one thousand @-@ year lease on the planet shortly after . It was a seemingly useless , arid landscape far from civilization , until the discovery of the mineral Notum , unique to Rubi @-@ Ka . Research of Notum and its properties led to major leaps forward in nanotechnology , making possible the creation of powerful new technology , as well as the resurrection of the dead . After terraforming a portion of Rubi @-@ Ka and constructing several cities , outposts , and transportation infrastructure , the company began importing colonists under contract as miners and other professions .
The first five hundred years of Omni @-@ Tek 's control of Rubi @-@ Ka were marked with an exemplary worker treatment record . However , as time passed , their policies degraded . Their scientists ' tinkering with the mutating effects of Notum on the colonists in a quest for efficiency lead to large numbers of failed experiments . Survivors of these experiments became the game 's four playable races , or Breeds , each designed by Omni @-@ Tek to specialize in a type of work . Together with the original " Solitus " race , the genetically engineered Herculean " Atrox , " the intelligent " Nanomages , " and the nimble " Opifexes , " they continued their labor in the midst of an increasingly hostile and totalitarian culture . This caused a significant number of workers to rebel , and begin to trade stolen Notum to a rival corporation . These rebel groups , collectively calling themselves the Clans , fought a series of wars with Omni @-@ Tek over the next several centuries .
= = = Player point of view = = =
Anarchy Online 's story , from the player 's point of view , began in 29 @,@ 475 , after the most recent peace treaty had been signed between Omni @-@ Tek and the Clans . ICC peacekeeping troops later moved into some cities to protect neutral observers of the war who had rejected their contractual obligations with Omni @-@ Tek , but did not align themselves with the Clans . Omni @-@ Tek , the Clans , and the neutral observers make up the game 's three playable factions and control much of Rubi @-@ Ka 's terraformed surface .
After scientists opened a portal to the Shadowlands , players found the Source , killing the guardian the Xan had left there to protect it . This prompted an alien race known as the Kyr 'ozch to begin attacking Rubi @-@ Ka . The story 's current plots revolve around the fight by all sides for control of the planet .
= = Gameplay = =
Players assume the roles of new colonists to Rubi @-@ Ka or the Shadowlands . The game world is occupied by human players and computer @-@ controlled characters , both friendly and hostile . The game begins with the player creating a unique character , choosing its name , gender , height , weight , and facial features . Each character is also one of the four humanoid " breeds " . The final choice is that of the character 's profession , similar to the character classes of other role @-@ playing games .
The game 's multiplayer nature and " free @-@ form " gameplay encourage creating personal networks , and cooperating and fighting with other players . Players interact with Anarchy Online 's interface via a keyboard and mouse . The game 's heads @-@ up display consists of a series of windows , menus and buttons located on the periphery of the screen . Players communicate with each other by typing text in chat windows , and occasionally through emotive character animations . Communication with computer @-@ controlled characters is executed via text windows , in which players chose from a menu of possible responses to the conversation being shown . Like most role playing games , Anarchy Online provides structure for role @-@ playing events . Most major cities include night clubs and other venues specifically for this . Events are organized either by players , or officially by Funcom staff .
Groups of players , large or small , are often required to complete objectives . In addition to forming teams and informal chat groups , joining a player organization is encouraged . These are , like guilds in similar games , officially recognized groups bound together for technical and social benefits . Organizations are able to build their own cities across the game world , control areas of land , run player markets , and access other special content .
Among the most distinct gameplay elements of Anarchy Online are dynamic missions . Missions , or quests , are a traditional gameplay element in the role playing genre . The player or team is given a set of tasks — usually related to the story — to complete somewhere in the game world ; in return , they are rewarded with experience points , items , and money . Dynamic missions are similar to traditional missions in purpose , but are created at the player 's request . Once they choose its difficulty and other options , the game generates a new indoor area filled with computer @-@ controlled enemies . The player or team are told to go to its location , and finish some task inside for their reward . Dynamic missions , like many other encounters in Anarchy Online , are " instanced " : each mission area is available only to the owners of the mission .
= = = Breeds or alien species = = =
All of the humanoid breeds in Anarchy Online follow traditional RPG archetypes .
= = = = Atrox = = = =
The Atrox is a warrior / tank archetype that have excellent strength and stamina but poor intelligence and psychic .
= = = = Nanomage = = = =
The Nanomage follows a caster archetype and possess poor strength and stamina , but high intelligence and psychic .
= = = = Opifex = = = =
The Opifex follows a traditional thief / rogue archetype and possess poor stamina and psychic but high agility and sense .
= = = = Solitus = = = =
Finally , the Solitus follows the typical human archetype and possesses average breed statistics of all choices .
Note that there is no limitations in breed @-@ profession combinations , although some breeds will encounter maximum statistic possible for certain traits earlier than others .
= = = Skill system = = =
Much of what characters can do , and how well they do it , is determined by the game 's eighty @-@ three distinct character skills . A skill is a numerical representation of a character 's proficiency in an area of skill , starting at zero . As players kill computer @-@ controlled enemies , they gain experience points for their character . After gaining enough points , the character levels up . The current maximum level is 220 . At each new level , the character is given some " skill points " , which are used to increase any combination of the eighty @-@ three skills that they choose .
Any character can access and increase any skill . The character 's profession , however , provides unique resources — " perks " , " alien perks " , " research " , and " nano programs " — that increase specific skill further . This makes each profession more adept at elements of gameplay than others . Doctors , for instance , can increase skills related to healing much higher than a Soldier because of these additional resources . Perks are chosen from a menu when the character reaches certain levels . Alien perks are gained when the player kills enough of a specific type of alien enemy . Research is gained by diverting a percentage of earned experience points toward personal or faction @-@ specific research projects , instead of new levels . Nano programs give temporary increases to certain skills .
= = = Combat = = =
After targeting another character and initiating combat , the player and his opponent will damage each other automatically with their weapons . This continues until the player stops or the target is dead . Each profession 's unique nano programs , perks and research also provide combat abilities used by the player during the fight . These can heal the owner , cause additional damage , lower the skills of the enemy , blind them or otherwise hinder the enemy 's ability to fight . Once the target is dead , the player is able to loot money and items from the enemy 's body . After death , the character 's skills are reduced for several minutes , making them much less powerful in combat during that period .
Combat between two or more human players , known as " player vs player " , or " PvP " is encouraged by both the reward of special equipment , and the social nature of the game . Killing other players also rewards characters with a " PvP ranking " , permanently shown beside the player 's name , which represent how many other human players they have killed . Player versus player combat is controlled by the percentage of " suppression gas " in the area that dictates whether a player can start combat unprovoked with another player . Generally , this percentage approaches 100 % in major cities , providing safe havens , and decreases while moving to more remote areas .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
Preliminary development for Anarchy Online began in 1995 at Funcom 's Oslo , Norway studios . Up until that point , the company had only developed offline video games for consoles , including the critically successful Speed Punks for the PlayStation . In a 2007 interview , former project leader Gaute Godager said Funcom 's management wanted to put substantial resources into developing a new MMORPG ; they believed the genre 's user base would expand in the coming years . Unlike most other games in the genre , which had traditional role @-@ playing fantasy themes , Anarchy Online featured a science @-@ fiction theme . The game would also feature a relatively large playable area , and graphics that were , at the time , more advanced than existing MMORPGs . Godager said he and many other developers saw the idea as " crazy , " describing the project as " very ambitious " . The project 's team grew steadily between 1995 and 2001 to include at least 70 developers .
In a 2001 interview , gameworld designer Morten Byom said that the process of creating Rubi @-@ Ka 's virtual world had " taken more time and effort than anyone imagined when we first started . " The team took inspiration from a number of sources including science @-@ fiction books , movies , architecture in Oslo , and other games in the genre . They stated one of the biggest challenges as finding ways to encourage players to use the entire game world as they play , not to " gather in one corner " . Byom said he wanted to give the world as much detail as possible to make the game " convincing " to the player .
Composers Morten Sørlie , Tor Linløkken , and Bjørn Arve Lagim created the soundtrack and music of Anarchy Online . Using a system they call " Sample @-@ based Interactive Music " , the game mixes numerous music samples to create dynamic music . By starting , stopping , fading , and layering samples based on where the player is , and what they are doing , the game creates a continuous stream of background music . Bjørn Arve Lagim stated the music is inspired by the " traditional sound " of a film score , using both orchestral and electronic instruments . Longer full @-@ length versions of some songs were later released on compact disc with a special edition of the game in 2002 .
Anarchy Online was officially announced at the 2000 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) . GameSpot , and other online sites , published articles tracking the game 's development over the next year . It made its second appearance at E3 in May 2001 , one month before launch . Based on the beta version shown there , GameSpot stated they were " confident in the game 's progress , given what we 've seen " . At the European Computer Trade Show in 2001 it was awarded Multiplayer Game of Show . A public beta test began two weeks before launch , during which 100 @,@ 000 players downloaded and played pre @-@ release versions of the game , helping the company find bugs and other technical problems with the software .
= = = Release = = =
Anarchy Online officially launched to the public on June 27 , 2001 in the United States and Norway and on September 28 of the same year in the rest of Europe . In addition to being distributed as a retail box from physical and online stores , Anarchy Online was one of the first MMORPGs available via online digital distribution .
During its first month of release many stability , registration , and billing issues hurt public perception of the game . Some gaming reporters claimed it was the worst launch of an MMO in the history of the genre . Funcom spent about 6 months fixing the game , particularly the beginning experience . The company then took the " fixed game " on a press tour to convince reporters to give it another try , even though reviews and scores had been printed months before . At the same time , the company needed to build subscribers , which was very difficult given the reputation of the game . Funcom introduced the first " free trial " of the game and gave out returned boxed copies for free at the 2002 Game Developer 's Conference . Some gaming publications informed their readers of the improved game , although they did not change their original scores . By the end of that year , Anarchy Online had recovered from the launch woes and won the MMO of the Year award from PC Gamer . The company went on to create expansions , including the Shadowlands expansion in 2003 that earned several Editor 's Choice awards .
Two months after its release in August 2001 , Funcom began offering free trial subscriptions , now common practice for other games in the MMOG genre . New players were able to sign up for accounts that remained free for a limited number of days . This required them to supply some personal information , including a credit card number . After their trial period , players could either cancel their accounts , or keep them to continue playing the game at the cost of the monthly subscription fee .
= = = Expansions = = =
Periodic free updates are released as content patches on an average of three per month since the game 's release . These fix bugs , and add relatively small amounts of new content . The patches are downloaded and installed automatically when players start the game software . Larger updates , called expansion packs and booster packs , are available for purchase to further extend the game , typically adding new playable areas , creatures , equipment , and story progression . Expansions tend to introduce large amounts of new content ; boosters are considered " too large " for a patch , but " not large enough " to warrant a full expansion .
= = = Free Play program = = =
On December 15 , 2004 , Funcom replaced trial subscriptions with a business model supported by in @-@ game advertising called the " Free Play " program . Under this program , new players are allowed indefinite access to the full original game without supplying a credit card number . With the exception of the first booster pack Notum Wars , the offer does not include access to content added with expansion or booster packs . Free subscribers are shown advertisements provided by Massive Incorporated , a company that supplies in @-@ game advertising . The ads appear on virtual billboards placed in high traffic areas of the game world . Paying customers have the option to replace these ads with ones for fictitious products related to the game . Free subscribers may also purchase paid points to participate in micro @-@ transactions and purchase in @-@ game items that do not directly impact combat related gameplay .
The Free Play program was originally set to last one year , but its length has been extended every year since its creation . As of June 2013 , the free to play program still exists . Former game director Craig Morrison stated in a 2008 interview that the program has " been a vital part of the success of the game . " In January 2008 , Funcom rebranded their subscription model as a " tier subscription system " , adding a third options for customers to access to the game . Customers can access the original game and Notum Wars booster pack for free via the Free Play program , pay the full monthly subscription fee for access to all expansion and booster packs , or pay a reduced monthly fee for access to only the Shadowlands expansion pack .
= = = Present = = =
The " Free Play " program , started in 2004 , allows new players indefinite access to the original game in return for viewing in @-@ game advertisements . Vital to the game 's continued operation , the program created 400 @,@ 000 new subscriptions in its first ten months , and had generated US $ 1 million in advertising revenue by 2006 .
Funcom announced in June 2007 that they would be updating the game 's 3D rendering engine . While the current engine — Funcom 's proprietary Dreamworld — had received incremental improvements with the Notum Wars booster in 2002 and Shadowlands expansion in 2003 , the 2008 announcement stated it would be completely replaced with more modern software to " release the game fresh " . Originally , a modified version of the open source rendering engine OGRE was used . Funcom released a short video demonstrating an early version of its implementation , and stated it would be completed by the end of 2008 . OGRE was dropped in May 2009 because it did not provide " the full featureset " they had anticipated . Current game director Colin Cragg stated Anarchy Online 's " small development team " could not afford the " growing [ cost ] estimates " involved in making the necessary modifications to it .
Funcom decided to instead use a recent version of the Dreamworld engine , the same version used for their 2008 MMORPG Age of Conan . This new engine features improved water rendering , particle effects , and character animation . It also includes incremental improvements to technologies already used in Anarchy Online , such as the dynamic weather system . No new release date has been announced , although periodic status updates are published in the game 's official weekly development blog Friday With Means .
Also introduced in 2008 , Funcom added micro @-@ transactions to the game called paid points . Paid points may be acquired through several ways . First , players may purchase them outright via their account management page , which then becomes available to their characters in game . Alternatively , players are also awarded bonus paid points based on number of months of subscription purchased . These paid points may be used to purchase items that were given as pre @-@ order bonuses such as a fully decor @-@ able apartment in game , or newly created vehicles that are otherwise not available through in @-@ game currency called credits . All items available for purchase with paid points are strictly cosmetic in nature , with the exception of a Personal Scout Mech , a combat vehicle that was a pre @-@ order bonus for the Lost Eden expansion .
In 2010 , the player community became involved in development of the game , with community @-@ created inventory icons and planet map being accepted into the official game .
A game engine upgrade was originally slated for release in 2013 . The new engine , also used for Age of Conan and The Secret World , was planned to be supported concurrently with the previous engine .
This new ' dreamworld ' engine was successfully released to the public for use on the live servers on June 25 , 2015 . While the engine is still in a ' beta ' state , it is available for use with the ' live ' production servers .
= = = Server mergers = = =
For much of its existence , Anarchy Online featured two game servers for English @-@ speaking players , Atlantean and Rimor , and one for German @-@ speaking players , Die Neue Welt . In 2010 , Die Neue Welt was brought offline with most of its player population distributed between the two English @-@ speaking servers . In 2013 , the two remaining English servers , Atlantean and Rimor merged to form a single unifying server to host remaining Anarchy Online players .
= = Reception = =
After the launch of Anarchy Online and the subsequent technical problems , Funcom issued a statement to reviewers asking them to " hold back on a full review until we have solved these problems . " Some video game reviewers , such as Computer Games Magazine , published reviews anyway ; others , such as GameSpy who described the game as " nearly unplayable " , chose to wait one month before publishing a formal review . The troubled release has had a lasting effect on the game 's reputation , and is nearly always mentioned in the generally positive reviews of later expansion packs as a juxtaposition .
While Anarchy Online 's launch problems had a negative effect on initial critics , the game itself was generally reviewed favorably ; it scored an average of 7 @.@ 6 out of 10 from GameSpy , GameSpot , and IGN . GameSpy later described it as " a promising game with some big technical flaws . " IGN called it a " brilliant , engaging , profound MMORPG , " but added it came with " atrocious technical problems . " PC Gamer magazine said that it " will be [ ... ] the next great MMORPG , " but that the game needed " some serious work " before it would reach its potential ; they would award the game with Best Massively Multiplayer Game the next year .
Computer Games Magazine described Anarchy Online as a " ' science @-@ fiction ' Everquest " — EverQuest was a popular fantasy MMORPG at the time — in that it took the traditional fantasy elements of the genre and gave them " science @-@ y sounding " words . They went on to praise the game 's large , detailed game world , and its " evolutionary " user interface . GameSpy said the game 's soundtrack was " grand , cinematic , and very appropriate " in their review . PC Gamer magazine said that the intricate skill system gave the game " incredible character depth " .
The dynamic mission system was met with mixed reviews . PC Gamer called it a " brilliant " solution to camping — the practice of waiting for a computer - controlled character in the outdoor game world to appear so that it can be killed and items looted . Computer Games Magazine said that while the missions were a good idea in theory , they are " too simple and similar " , claiming that this caused players to become bored and camp for items outside anyway . Visually , they called the missions " cramped , boxy , and generally unappealing , " compared to the rest of the game .
The first booster pack Notum Wars was released in 2002 ; at that time , the first expansion pack Shadowlands had already been announced . Staci Krause of IGN noted the new character creation interface made the game 's introduction to new players easier . The " land control " areas , one of the major additions in Notum Wars , were described by Krause as " not only interesting , but fun . " She also said that the new additions to the game world , and improvements to the 3D rendering engine , " add to the sense that Rubi @-@ Ka is a busy planet . " Yahoo ! criticized the land control areas as being complicated and expensive , and said that participation in battles was difficult for players not in an organization .
The Shadowlands expansion was the most critically acclaimed by far , winning several Editor 's Choice Awards from IGN , CNet , GameSpot , GameSpy and others in 2003 . Critics applauded the size and scope of it , such as Andrew Park of GameSpot who called it " absolutely enormous . " Tom Chick of GameSpy praised the " distinctive and exotic " art direction of the new areas . Critics of Shadowlands noted that the expansion 's design was too " fantasy oriented " , as compared to the original game .
Alien Invasion , released in 2004 , did not receive the same abundance of praise as its predecessor , although most scores were above 7 out of 10 . The new content it introduced , in critics ' eyes , was not designed for new players . G4 TV wrote that it would be a " tough sell to new players " , but added it " offer [ s ] existing players a solid reason to keep playing . " GameSpy wrote that the expansion 's new features , such as improved user interface and chat system , " make the game more enjoyable to play . "
After twelve years , Anarchy Online has become one of the longest @-@ running MMORPGs in operation . Publications who had reviewed the game 's previous additions did not review the Lost Eden expansion in 2006 , or the Legacy of The Xan booster in 2009 . Games Radar 's Sarah Borger wrote of Lost Eden that the game 's aging graphics and user interface " make the world hard to interact with , " but she went on to acclaim the new player versus player content it added .
= = = Sales and subscriptions = = =
Five days after the game 's launch , public relations director Marit Lund announced that " 35 @,@ 000 registered accounts " had been created . By 2002 , the total number of subscriptions created since launch was stated as 150 @,@ 000 . After the release of the Shadowlands and Alien Invasion expansion packs , total subscriptions had risen to 700 @,@ 000 in late 2004 . Sales of the game , its expansion packs , and monthly customer subscriptions had generated US $ 28 million dollars by 2005 .
The " free play " program , started in 2004 , has had the most significant effect on subscriptions to date . ” More than 400 @,@ 000 new players " signed up for free subscriptions in the program 's first ten months according to Funcom CEO Trond Arne Aas . The next year , the number of free subscriptions created , independent of paid subscriptions , was stated as one million . The income from the program — which had generated $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 by its second year — supplements revenue from paid accounts .
Funcom attributed " higher than expected " company profits in 2006 to Lost Eden 's release in December of that year . Subscription revenue during this time was described as " steady " and " profitable " . Subscription revenue remained " steady " for the next three years , until 2009 when they were described as " slowly declining " . It was stated that close to two million subscriptions , both free and paid , had been created by July 2008 .
= George Kenney =
George Churchill Kenney ( 6 August 1889 – 9 August 1977 ) was a United States Army Air Forces general during World War II . He is best known as the commander of the Allied Air Forces in the Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , a position he held from August 1942 until 1945 .
Kenney enlisted as a flying cadet in the Aviation Section , U.S. Signal Corps in 1917 , and served on the Western Front with the 91st Aero Squadron . He was awarded a Silver Star and the Distinguished Service Cross for actions in which he fought off German fighters and shot two down . After hostilities ended he participated in the Occupation of the Rhineland . Returning to the United States , he flew reconnaissance missions along the border between the US and Mexico during the Mexican Revolution . Commissioned into the Regular Army in 1920 , he attended the Air Corps Tactical School , and later became an instructor there . He was responsible for the acceptance of Martin NBS @-@ 1 bombers built by Curtis , and test flew them . He also developed techniques for mounting .30 caliber machine guns on the wings of an Airco DH.4 aircraft .
In early 1940 , Kenney became Assistant Military Attaché for Air in France . As a result of his observations of German and Allied air operations during the early stages of World War II , he recommended significant changes to Air Corps equipment and tactics . In July 1942 , he assumed command of the Allied Air Forces and Fifth Air Force in General Douglas MacArthur 's Southwest Pacific Area . Under Kenney 's command , the Allied Air Forces developed innovative command structures , weapons , and tactics that reflected Kenney 's orientation towards attack aviation . The new weapons and tactics won perhaps his greatest victory , the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , in March 1943 . In June 1944 he was appointed commander of the Far East Air Forces ( FEAF ) , which came to include the Fifth , Thirteenth , and Seventh Air Forces .
In April 1946 , Kenney became the first commander of the newly formed Strategic Air Command ( SAC ) , but his performance in the role was criticized , and he was shifted to become commander of the Air University , a position he held from October 1948 until his retirement from the Air Force in September 1951 .
= = Early life = =
George Churchill Kenney was born in Yarmouth , Nova Scotia , Canada , on 6 August 1889 , during a summer vacation taken by his parents to avoid the humidity of the Boston area . The oldest of four children of carpenter Joseph Atwood Kenney and his wife Anne Louise Kenney , née Churchill , Kenney grew up in Brookline , Massachusetts . He graduated from Brookline High School in 1907 and later that year he entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , where he pursued a course in civil engineering . After his father left his family , Kenney quit MIT and took various jobs before becoming a surveyor for the Quebec Saguenay Railroad .
His mother died in 1913 and Kenney returned to Boston , where he took a job with Stone & Webster . In 1914 he joined the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad as a civil engineer , building a bridge in New London , Connecticut . After this was completed , he formed a partnership , the Beaver Contracting and Engineering Corporation , with a high school classmate , Gordon Glazier . The firm became involved in a number of projects , including the construction of a seawall at Winthrop , Massachusetts , and a bridge over the Squannacook River .
= = World War I = =
The United States entered World War I in April 1917 , and Kenney enlisted as a flying cadet in the Aviation Section , U.S. Signal Corps on 2 June 1917 . He attended ground school at MIT in June and July , and received primary flight training at Hazelhurst Field in Mineola , New York , from Bert Acosta . He was commissioned as a first lieutenant on 5 November 1917 , and departed for France soon after . There , he received further flight training at Issoudun . This ended in February 1918 , when he was assigned to the 91st Aero Squadron .
The 91st Aero Squadron flew the Salmson 2A2 , a reconnaissance biplane . Kenney crashed one on takeoff on 22 March 1918 . He broke an ankle and a hand , and earned himself the nickname " Bust ' em up George " . His injuries soon healed , and he recorded his first mission on 3 June . Kenney flew one of four aircraft on a mission near Gorze on 15 September 1918 that was attacked by six German Pfalz D.III scouts . His observer shot one of them down , and Kenney was credited with his first aerial victory . For this he was awarded a Silver Star . A second victory followed in similar circumstances on 9 October while he was flying near Jametz in support of the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive . Once again , the formation he was flying with was attacked by German fighters . This time he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross , which was presented by Brigadier General Billy Mitchell on 10 January 1919 . Kenney 's citation read :
For extraordinary heroism in action near Jametz , France , October 9 , 1918 . This officer gave proof of his bravery and devotion to duty when he was attacked by a superior number of aircraft . He accepted combat , destroyed one plane and drove the others off . Notwithstanding that the enemy returned and attacked again in strong numbers , he continued his mission and enabled his observer to secure information of great military value .
Kenney remained for a time with the Allied occupation forces in Germany , and was promoted to captain on 18 March 1919 . He returned to the United States in June 1919 . He was sent to Kelly Field , near San Antonio , Texas , and then to McAllen , Texas . As commander of the 8th Aero Squadron , he flew reconnaissance missions along the border with Mexico during the Mexican Revolution . Poor aircraft maintenance , rough landing strips and bad weather led to the squadron losing 22 of its 24 Airco DH.4 aircraft in just one year .
= = Between the wars = =
Kenney applied for one of a number of Regular Army commissions offered to reservists after the war , and was commissioned as a captain in the Air Service on 1 July 1920 . While he was in hospital in Texas recovering from an aviation accident , he met a nurse , Helen " Hazel " Dell Richardson , the daughter of a Mobile , Alabama , contractor , George W. Richardson . They were married in Mobile on 6 October 1920 . Hazel miscarried twins , and was warned by her doctor of the danger of another pregnancy , but she strongly wished to have a child . In 1922 , while the couple was living on Long Island , New York , a son , William Richardson Kenney , was born to them , but Hazel died soon afterward from complications . Kenney arranged to have the infant cared for by his neighbor , Alice Steward Maxey , another nurse . On 5 June 1923 Kenney married Maxey in her home town of Gardiner , Maine .
From July to November 1920 , Kenney was air detachment commander at Camp Knox , Kentucky . He then became a student at the Air Service Engineering School at McCook Field , near Dayton Ohio . He was the Air Service Inspector at the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company in Garden City , New York , where he was responsible for the acceptance of the fifty Martin NBS @-@ 1 bombers that the Air Service had ordered from Curtis between 1921 and 1923 . Kenney inspected the aircraft , and test flew them . While there , he was reduced in rank from captain to first lieutenant on 18 November 1922 , a common occurrence in the aftermath of World War I when the wartime army was demobilized . He returned to McCook in 1923 , and developed techniques for mounting .30 caliber machine guns on the wings of a DH.4. He was promoted to captain again on 3 November 1923 . His daughter , Julia Churchill Kenney , was born in Dayton in June 1926 .
In 1926 , Kenney became a student at the Air Corps Tactical School , at Langley Field , Virginia , the Air Corps ' advanced training school . He then attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , the Army 's advanced school where officers were taught how to handle large formations as commanders or staff officers . Most Air Corps officers , including Kenney , considered the course largely irrelevant to them , and therefore a waste of time , but nonetheless a prerequisite for promotion in a ground @-@ oriented Army . Afterwards , he returned to the Air Corps Tactical School as an instructor . He taught classes of attack aviation . He was particularly interested in low @-@ level attacks , as a means of improving accuracy . There were tactical problems with this , as low @-@ flying aircraft were vulnerable to ground fire . There were also technical problems to be solved , as an aircraft could be struck by its own bomb fragments . His interest in attack aviation would ultimately set him apart in an Air Corps where strategic bombardment came to dominate thinking .
Kenney reached the pinnacle of his professional education in September 1932 , when he entered the Army War College in Washington , D.C .. At the war college , committees of students studied a number of World War I battles ; Kenney 's committee examined the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes . They updated actual war plans , Kenney 's study group working on War Plan Orange . They also had to write an individual paper ; Kenney wrote his on " The Proper Composition of the Air Force " . One benefit of the Army War College was that it brought Air Corps officers into contact with ground officers that they would later have to work closely with . Members of Kenney 's class included Richard Sutherland and Stephen Chamberlain , both of whom worked with him on committees .
Graduation from the Army War College was normally followed by a staff posting , and on graduation in June 1933 Kenney became an assistant to Major James E. Chaney in the Plans Division of the Office of the Chief of the Air Corps , Major General Benjamin Foulois . He performed various duties , including translating an article by the Italian air power theorist Giulio Douhet into English . In 1934 , he was involved with drafting legislation that granted the Air Corps a greater degree of independence . This legislation prompted the Army to create GHQ Air Force , a centralized , air force @-@ level command headed by an aviator answering directly to the Army Chief of Staff . Lieutenant Colonel Frank M. Andrews was chosen to command it , and selected Kenney as his Assistant Chief of Staff for Plans and Training .
In this role , Kenney was promoted to the temporary rank of lieutenant colonel on 2 March 1935 , skipping that of major . He became involved in an acrimonious debate with the Army General Staff over the Air Corps ' desire to purchase more Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bombers . He also became caught up in a bureaucratic battle between Andrews and Major General Oscar Westover over whether the Chief of the Air Corps should control GHQ Air Force . As a result , Kenney was transferred to the Infantry School at Fort Benning , Georgia , on 16 June 1936 , with the temporary rank of major , to teach tactics to young infantry officers . He was promoted to the substantive rank of major on 1 October 1937 , but the assignment was hardly a choice one for an Air Corps officer . In September 1938 he accepted an offer to command the 97th Observation Squadron at Mitchell Field , New York .
= = World War II = =
In 1939 , Kenney was made Chief of the Production Engineering Section at Wright Field , Ohio . He was sent to France in early 1940 , once again with the temporary rank of lieutenant colonel , as Assistant Military Attaché for Air . His mission was to observe Allied air operations during the early stages of World War II . As a result of his observations , he recommended many important changes to Air Corps equipment and tactics , including upgrading armament from .30 caliber to .50 caliber machine guns , and installing leak @-@ proof fuel tanks , but his scathing comparisons of the German Luftwaffe with the Air Corps upset many officers . This resulted in his being sent back to Wright Field . In January 1941 , he became commander of the Air Corps Experimental Depot and Engineering School there , with the rank of brigadier general . He was promoted to major general on 26 March 1942 , when he became commander of the Fourth Air Force , an air defense and training organization based in San Francisco . Kenney personally instructed pilots on how to handle the Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning and A @-@ 29 Hudson .
= = = Southwest Pacific Area = = =
In July 1942 , Kenney received orders to take over the Allied Air Forces and Fifth Air Force in General Douglas MacArthur 's Southwest Pacific Area . MacArthur had been dissatisfied with the performance of his air commander , Lieutenant General George Brett . Andrews , by then a major general , turned down the job , and , offered a choice between Kenney and Major General James Doolittle , MacArthur chose Kenney . Kenney reported to MacArthur in Brisbane on 28 July 1942 , and was treated to " a lecture for approximately an hour on the shortcomings of the Air Force in general , and the Allied Air Forces in the Southwest Pacific in particular . " Kenney felt that MacArthur did not understand air operations , but recognized that he somehow needed to establish a good working relationship with him . When he asked MacArthur for authority to send people he considered " deadwood " home , something that his superiors in Washington , D.C. had refused to give , MacArthur enthusiastically approved .
Building a good relationship with MacArthur meant getting past Sutherland , MacArthur 's chief of staff . Brett advised Kenney that " a showdown early in the game with Sutherland might clarify the entire atmosphere . " Sutherland , who had a civil pilot 's license , had taken to issuing detailed instructions to the Allied Air Forces . This was more than simply a turf battle ; to many airmen , it was a part of the ongoing battle for an independent air force that they had long been advocating . At one point , Kenney drew a dot on a plain page of paper and told Sutherland , " the dot represents what you know about air operations , the entire rest of the paper what I know . " Sutherland backed down , and would henceforth let Kenney run the Allied Air Forces without interference . It did not follow , however , that MacArthur would invariably accept Kenney 's advice .
Kenney sent home Major General Ralph Royce , Brigadier Generals Edwin S. Perrin , Albert Sneed and Martin Scanlon , and about forty colonels . In Australia , he found two talented , recently arrived brigadier generals , Ennis Whitehead and Kenneth Walker . Kenney reorganized his command in August , appointed Whitehead as commander of the V Fighter Command and Walker as commander of the V Bomber Command . The Allied Air Forces was composed of both United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) and Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) personnel . Kenney moved to separate them . Brigadier General Donald Wilson arrived in September and replaced Air Vice Marshal William Bostock as Kenney 's chief of staff . Bostock took over the newly created RAAF Command .
This brought Kenney into conflict with the Chief of the Air Staff of the RAAF , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , who felt that an opportunity had been lost to simplify the administration of the RAAF . Kenney preferred to have Bostock in command , and while he regarded the antipathy between Jones and Bostock as a nuisance , was happy to leave arrangements the way they were . However , Kenney deviated from the normal structure of an air force by creating the Advanced Echelon ( ADVON ) under Whitehead . The new headquarters had the authority to change the assignments of aircraft in the forward area , where fast @-@ changing weather and enemy action could overtake orders drawn up in Australia . Kenney was promoted to lieutenant general on 21 October 1942 .
Perhaps because of his experience in World War I , Kenney had a great deal of respect for Japanese fighters . He decided to conserve his bombers , and concentrate on attaining air superiority over New Guinea . Kenney switched the bombers to attacking by night unless fighter escorts could be provided . SWPA had a low priority , and simply could not afford to replace losses from costly daylight missions . What he needed was an effective long @-@ range fighter , and Kenney hoped that the Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning would fit the bill , but the first ones delivered to SWPA were plagued with technical problems . Kenney had Charles Lindbergh teach his P @-@ 38 pilots how to extend the range of their aircraft .
The Southwest Pacific was not a promising theater of war for the strategic bomber . The bombers of the day did not have the range to reach Japan from Australia , and there were no typical strategic targets in the theater other than a few oil refineries . This set up a doctrinal clash between Kenney , an attack aviator , and Walker , the bomber advocate . The long @-@ standing Air Corps tactic for attacking shipping called for large formations of high @-@ altitude bombers . With sufficient mass , so the theory went , bombers could bracket any ship with walls of bombs , and do so from above the effective range of the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft fire . However the theoretical mass required was two orders of magnitude greater than what was available in the Southwest Pacific . A dozen or so bombers was the most that could be put together , owing to the small number of aircraft in the theater and the difficulties of keeping them serviceable . The results were therefore generally ineffective , and operations incurred heavy casualties .
Walker resisted Kenney 's proposals that the bombers conduct attacks from low level using bombs armed with instantaneous fuses . Kenney ordered Walker to try the fuses for a couple of months , so that data could be gained about their effectiveness ; a few weeks later Kenney discovered that Walker had discontinued their use . In November , Kenney arranged for a demonstration attack on the SS Pruth , a ship that had sunk off Port Moresby in 1924 and was often used for target practice . After the attack Walker and Kenney took a boat out to the wreck to inspect the damage . As expected , none of the four bombs dropped had hit the stationary wreck , but the instantaneous fuses had detonated the bombs when they struck the water , so bomb fragments had torn holes in the sides of the ship . Walker reluctantly conceded the point . A few weeks later , Walker was shot down leading a daylight raid over Rabaul , an attack that Kenney had ordered to be conducted at night .
In addition to trying different types of ordnance , the Allied Air Forces experimented with modifications to the aircraft themselves. the Major Paul I. " Pappy " Gunn modified some USAAF Douglas A @-@ 20 Havoc light bombers by installing four .50 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) machine guns in their noses , and two 450 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 1 @,@ 700 l ; 370 imp gal ) fuel tanks were added to give the aircraft more range . This was successful , and an attempt was then made to create a longer range attack aircraft by doing the same thing to a B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bomber , to operate as a " commerce destroyer " . This proved to be somewhat more difficult . The resulting aircraft was obviously nose heavy despite adding lead ballast to the tail , and the vibrations caused by firing the machine guns were enough to make rivets pop out of the skin of the aircraft . The tail guns and belly turrets were removed , the latter being of little use if the aircraft was flying low .
The Allied Air Forces also adopted innovative tactics . In February 1942 , the RAAF began experimenting with skip bombing , an anti @-@ shipping technique used by the British and Germans . Flying only a few dozen feet above the sea toward their targets , aircraft would release their bombs , which would then , ideally , ricochet across the surface of the water and explode at the side of the target ship , under it , or just over it . A similar technique was mast @-@ height bombing , in which bombers would approach the target at low altitude , 200 to 500 feet ( 61 to 152 m ) , at about 265 to 275 miles per hour ( 426 to 443 km / h ) , and then drop down to mast height , 10 to 15 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) about 600 yards ( 550 m ) from the target . They would release their bombs at around 300 yards ( 270 m ) , aiming directly at the side of the ship . The two techniques were not mutually exclusive . A bomber could drop two bombs , skipping the first and launching the second at mast height . The Battle of the Bismarck Sea demonstrated the effectiveness of low @-@ level attacks on shipping .
Another form of airpower employed by Kenney was air transport . This started in September 1942 when troops of the 32nd Infantry Division were airlifted from Australia to Port Moresby . Later in the campaign , C @-@ 47 Dakotas landed Australian troops at Wanigela . A year later , American paratroops landed at Nadzab , enabling the Australian 7th Division to be flown in .
The ultimate challenge was to integrate air power with MacArthur 's strategy . Kenney described the process this way in 1944 :
The first step in this advancement of the bomber line is to gain and maintain air control as far into enemy territory as our longest range fighters can reach . Then we put an air blockade around the Jap positions or section of the coast which we want in order to stop him from getting supplies or reinforcements . The bombers then go to work and pulverize his defensive system , methodically taking out artillery positions , stores , bivouac areas and so on . Finally comes the air cover escorting the amphibious expedition to the landing beach , a last minute blasting and smoking of the enemy beach defenses and the maintenance of strafers and fighters overhead , on call from the surface forces until their beachhead is secured . If emergency supplies are needed we drop them by parachute . The ground troops get a transport field ready as fast as possible so that we can supplement boat supply by cargo carrying airplanes . When necessary , we evacuate the wounded and sick and bring in reinforcements in a hurry . The transport field becomes a fighter field , the strafers and finally the heavies arrive and it is time to move forward again .
= = = Far East Air Forces = = =
In June 1944 , Kenney was appointed commander of the Far East Air Forces ( FEAF ) , which came to include the Fifth , Thirteenth , and Seventh Air Forces . He created the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Air Task Forces to control air operations in forward areas , each for a specific mission , another departure from doctrine . While Kenney was enthusiastic about this innovation , Washington did not like it and , over Kenney 's objections , converted the three air task forces into the 308th , 309th and 310th Bombardment Wings . He was promoted to general on 9 March 1945 .
Kenney hoped to get Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortresses assigned to the Far East Air Forces so that , based from airfields near Darwin , they could destroy the Japanese oilfields at Balikpapan . His agitation for the B @-@ 29s did not endear him to the USAAF staff in Washington , D.C. After the war , the Strategic Bombing Survey concluded that this would have been far more productive than Operation Matterhorn , which saw B @-@ 29s based in China to bomb steel plants in Japan , as oil was more critical to the Japanese war effort than steel .
= = = War crimes accusation = = =
On 4 March 1943 , during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , General George Kenney ordered Allied patrol boats and aircraft to attack Japanese rescue vessels , as well as the survivors from the sunken vessels on life rafts and swimming or floating in the sea . This was later justified on the grounds that rescued servicemen would have been rapidly landed at their military destination and promptly returned to active service . These orders violated the Hague Convention of 1907 , which banned the killing of shipwreck survivors under any circumstances .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
In April 1946 , Kenney became the first commander of the newly formed Strategic Air Command ( SAC ) . He was encouraged by Secretary of the Air Force Stuart Symington to join him in the political battle surrounding the establishment of an independent United States Air Force . Separately , the two men gave promotional speeches around the country . As a result , SAC 's efficiency suffered . On 8 May 1946 , Kenney publicly presented the Medal of Honor to the family of Thomas B. McGuire , Jr , the second @-@ highest scoring US fighter pilot , who had been killed in action .
Kenney left day @-@ to @-@ day operations at SAC in the hands of his deputy commander , Major General St. Clair Streett . Part of the reason for Kenney 's lack of focus on SAC was also his assignment as U.S. representative to the United Nations Military Staff Committee , which appeared at that time to be potentially an important assignment . In January 1947 , Streett was replaced by Major General Clements McMullen . With McMullen serving officially as Kenney 's deputy but actually in command , a cross @-@ training program was implemented in early 1948 to teach bomber crew members each other 's tasks , the goal being to reduce each bomber 's contingent of officers from five to three . Morale suffered as a result . Major General Lauris Norstad , responsible for reporting the readiness of American airpower to the U.S. Secretary of Defense , James Forrestal , heard from unhappy airmen that the SAC was in a poor state of readiness , and he initiated an investigation . He selected Charles Lindbergh and Paul Tibbets to perform the inquiry . Tibbets told Norstad that he found nobody at SAC knew their job . Lindbergh said that McMullen 's cross @-@ training program " seriously interfered with training the primary mission . "
On 6 May 1948 , Kenney spoke to a crowd in Bangor , Maine , telling them that the US was likely to be attacked by the Soviet Union as soon as the latter had enough atomic bombs . In Washington , D.C. , a group of senators including Henry Cabot Lodge , Jr. complained of Kenney 's " belligerent " speech , and previous ones in the same vein by Symington , saying that matters of foreign policy should be left to the president and the secretary of state , not to leaders of the United States Air Force ( USAF ) . Another controversy that Kenney became embroiled in concerned the Convair B @-@ 36 Peacemaker . He was less than impressed with this expensive and under @-@ performing aircraft , preferring the Boeing B @-@ 50 Superfortress , an upgraded version of the B @-@ 29 instead . The USAF , however , had staked much of its credibility on the B @-@ 36 , something that Kenney did not seem to appreciate .
In the context of the Berlin Blockade in June 1948 , the Air Force Chief of Staff , General Hoyt S. Vandenberg met with Forrestal to report the poor state of SAC . Following this meeting , Norstad recommended that Vandenberg replace Kenney , and Vandenberg quickly agreed , choosing Lieutenant General Curtis LeMay as the man he would prefer to lead the strategic bombing arm in case of war with the USSR . LeMay was made leader of SAC , and Kenney became commander of the Air University , a position he held from October 1948 until his retirement from the Air Force in September 1951 .
= = Retirement = =
After his retirement , he lived in Bay Harbor Islands , Florida . In 1958 he appeared as the host of the TV anthology series Flight . He died on 9 August 1977 .
= = Books = =
Kenney wrote three books about the SWPA air campaigns he led during World War II . His major work was General Kenney Reports ( 1949 ) , a personal history of the air war he led from 1942 to 1945 . He also wrote The Saga of Pappy Gunn ( 1959 ) and Dick Bong : Ace of Aces ( 1960 ) , which described the careers of Paul Gunn and Richard Bong , two of the most prominent airmen under his command .
= = Family = =
He was survived by his two children , five grandsons and one granddaughter . His stepson , William " Bill " R. Kenney , rose to the rank of colonel in the USAF . His daughter , Julia , earned a B.A. in English at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1947 . In 1948 she married Edward C. Hoagland Jr . , a fighter pilot in World War II and later in Korea , who eventually retired from the USAF at the rank of lieutenant colonel .
= = Awards = =
During a career that spanned over 30 years , Kenney was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross with one oak leaf cluster , the Distinguished Service Medal with one oak leaf cluster , the Silver Star Medal , the Distinguished Flying Cross , the Bronze Star Medal , the Purple Heart and several foreign decorations .
= Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and The Five =
In mid- to late @-@ 19th @-@ century Russia , Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and a group of composers known as The Five had differing opinions as to whether Russian classical music should be composed following Western or native practices . Tchaikovsky wanted to write professional compositions of such quality that they would stand up to Western scrutiny and thus transcend national barriers , yet remain distinctively Russian in melody , rhythm and other compositional characteristics . The Five , made up of composers Mily Balakirev , Alexander Borodin , César Cui , Modest Mussorgsky , and Nikolai Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , sought to produce a specifically Russian kind of art music , rather than one that imitated older European music or relied on European @-@ style conservatory training . While Tchaikovsky himself used folk songs in some of his works , for the most part he tried to follow Western practices of composition , especially in terms of tonality and tonal progression . Also , unlike Tchaikovsky , none of The Five was academically trained in composition ; in fact , their leader , Balakirev , considered academicism a threat to musical imagination . Along with critic Vladimir Stasov , who supported The Five , Balakirev attacked relentlessly both the Saint Petersburg Conservatory , from which Tchaikovsky had graduated , and its founder Anton Rubinstein , orally and in print .
As Tchaikovsky had become Rubinstein 's best @-@ known student , he was initially considered by association as a natural target for attack , especially as fodder for Cui 's printed critical reviews . This attitude changed slightly when Rubinstein left the Saint Petersburg musical scene in 1867 . In 1869 Tchaikovsky entered into a working relationship with Balakirev ; the result was Tchaikovsky 's first recognized masterpiece , the fantasy @-@ overture Romeo and Juliet , a work which The Five wholeheartedly embraced . When Tchaikovsky wrote a positive review of Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's Fantasy on Serbian Themes he was welcomed into the circle , despite concerns about the academic nature of his musical background . The finale of his Second Symphony , nicknamed the Little Russian , was also received enthusiastically by the group on its first performance in 1872 .
Tchaikovsky remained friendly but never intimate with most of The Five , ambivalent about their music ; their goals and aesthetics did not match his . He took pains to ensure his musical independence from them as well as from the conservative faction at the Conservatory — an outcome facilitated by his acceptance of a professorship at the Moscow Conservatory offered to him by Nikolai Rubinstein , Anton 's brother . When Rimsky @-@ Korsakov was offered a professorship at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory , it was to Tchaikovsky that he turned for advice and guidance . Later , when Rimsky @-@ Korsakov was under pressure from his fellow nationalists for his change in attitude on music education and his own intensive studies in music , Tchaikovsky continued to support him morally , told him that he fully applauded what he was doing and admired both his artistic modesty and his strength of character . In the 1880s , long after the members of The Five had gone their separate ways , another group called the Belyayev circle took up where they left off . Tchaikovsky enjoyed close relations with the leading members of this group — Alexander Glazunov , Anatoly Lyadov and , by then , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov .
= = Prologue : growing debate = =
With the exception of Mikhail Glinka , who became the first " truly Russian " composer , the only music indigenous to Russia before Tchaikovsky 's birthday in 1840 were folk and sacred music ; the Russian Orthodox Church 's proscription of secular music had effectively stifled its development . Beginning in the 1830s , Russian intelligentsia debated the issue of whether artists negated their Russianness when they borrowed from European culture or took vital steps toward renewing and developing Russian culture . Two groups sought to answer this question . Slavophiles idealized Russian history before Peter the Great and claimed the country possessed a distinct culture , rooted in Byzantium and spread by the Russian Orthodox Church . The Zapadniki ( " Westernizers " ) , on the other hand , lauded Peter as a patriot who wanted to reform his country and bring it on a par with Europe . Looking forward instead of backward , they saw Russia as a youthful and inexperienced but with the potential of becoming the most advanced European civilization by borrowing from Europe and turning its liabilities into assets .
In 1836 , Glinka 's opera A Life for the Tsar was premiered in Saint Petersburg . This was an event long @-@ awaited by the intelligentsia . The opera was the first conceived by a Russian composer on a grand scale , set to a Russian text and patriotic in its appeal . Its plot fit neatly into the doctrine of Official Nationality being promulgated by Nicholas I , thus assuring Imperial approval . In formal and stylistic terms , A Life was very much an Italian opera but also showed a sophisticated thematic structure and a boldness in orchestral scoring . It was the first tragic opera to enter the Russian repertoire , with Ivan Susanin 's death at the end underlining and adding gravitas to the patriotism running through the whole opera . ( In Cavos 's version , Ivan is spared at the last minute . ) It was also the first Russian opera where the music continued throughout , uninterrupted by spoken dialogue . Moreover — and this is what amazed contemporaries about the work — the music included folk songs and Russian national idioms , incorporating them into the drama . Glinka meant his use of folk songs to reflect the presence of popular characters in the opera , rather than an overt attempt at nationalism . Nor do they play a major part in the opera . Nevertheless , despite a few derogatory comments about Glinka 's use of " coachman 's music , " A Life became popular enough to earn obtain permanent repertory status , the first Russian opera to do so in that country .
Ironically , the success of Rossini 's Semiramide earlier the same season was what allowed A Life to be staged at all , with virtually all the cast from Semiramide retained for A Life . Despite A Life 's success , the furor over Semiramide aroused an overwhelming demand for Italian opera . This proved a setback for Russian opera in general and particularly for Glinka 's next opera , Ruslan and Lyudmila when it was produced in 1842 . Its failure prompted Glinka to leave Russia ; he died in exile .
= = Drawing sides = =
Despite Glinka 's international attention , which included the admiration of Liszt and Berlioz for his music and his heralding by the latter as " among the outstanding composers of his time " , Russian aristocrats remained focused exclusively on foreign music . Music itself was bound by class structure , and except for a modest role in public life was still considered a privilege of the aristocracy . Nobles spent enormous sums on musical performances for their exclusive enjoyment and hosted visiting artists such as Clara Schumann and Franz Liszt but there were no ongoing concert societies , no critical press and no public eagerly anticipating new works . No competent level of music education existed . Private tutors were available in some cities but tended to be badly trained . Anyone desiring a quality education had to travel abroad . Composer and pianist Anton Rubinstein 's founding of the Russian Musical Society in 1859 and the Saint Petersburg Conservatory three years later were giant steps toward remedying this situation but also proved highly controversial ones . Among this group was a young legal clerk named Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky .
= = = Tchaikovsky = = =
Tchaikovsky was born in 1840 in Votkinsk , a small town in present @-@ day Udmurtia , formerly the Imperial Russian province of Vyatka . A precocious pupil , he began piano lessons at the age of five , and could read music as adeptly as his teacher within three years . However , his parents ' passion for his musical talent soon cooled . In 1850 , the family decided to send Tchaikovsky to the Imperial School of Jurisprudence in Saint Petersburg . This establishment mainly served the lesser nobility or gentry , and would prepare him for a career as a civil servant . As the minimum age for acceptance was 12 , Tchaikovsky was sent by his family to board at the Imperial School of Jurisprudence 's preparatory school in Saint Petersburg , 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) from his family home in Alapayevsk . Once Tchaikovsky came of age for acceptance , he was transferred to the Imperial School of Jurisprudence to begin a seven @-@ year course of studies .
Music was not a priority at the School , but Tchaikovsky regularly attended the theater and the opera with other students . He was fond of works by Rossini , Bellini , Verdi and Mozart . Piano manufacturer Franz Becker made occasional visits to the School as a token music teacher . This was the only formal music instruction Tchaikovsky received there . From 1855 the composer 's father , Ilya Tchaikovsky , funded private lessons with Rudolph Kündinger , a well @-@ known piano teacher from Nuremberg , and questioned Kündinger about a musical career for his son . Kündinger replied that nothing suggested a potential composer or even a fine performer . Tchaikovsky was told to finish his course and then try for a post in the Ministry of Justice .
Tchaikovsky graduated on May 25 , 1859 with the rank of titular counselor , a low rung on the civil service ladder . On June 15 , he was appointed to the Ministry of Justice in Saint Petersburg . Six months later he became a junior assistant and two months after that , a senior assistant . Tchaikovsky remained there for the rest of his three @-@ year civil service career .
In 1861 , Tchaikovsky attended classes in music theory organized by the Russian Musical Society and taught by Nikolai Zaremba . A year later he followed Zaremba to the Saint Petersburg Conservatory . Tchaikovsky would not give up his Ministry post " until I am quite certain that I am destined to be a musician rather than a civil servant . " From 1862 to 1865 he studied harmony , counterpoint and fugue with Zaremba , while Rubinstein taught him instrumentation and composition . In 1863 he abandoned his civil service career and studied music full @-@ time , graduating in December 1865 .
= = = The Five = = =
Around Christmas 1855 , Glinka was visited by Alexander Ulybyshev , a rich Russian amateur critic , and his 18 @-@ year @-@ old protégé Mily Balakirev , who was reportedly on his way to becoming a great pianist . Balakirev played his fantasy based on themes from A Life for the Tsar for Glinka . Glinka , pleasantly surprised , praised Balakirev as a musician with a bright future .
In 1856 , Balakirev and critic Vladimir Stasov , who publicly espoused a nationalist agenda for Russian arts , started gathering young composers through whom to spread ideas and gain a following . First to meet with them that year was César Cui , an army officer who specialized in the science of fortifications . Modest Mussorgsky , a Preobrazhensky Lifeguard officer , joined them in 1857 ; Nikolai Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , a naval cadet , in 1861 ; and Alexander Borodin , a chemist , in 1862 . Balakirev , Borodin , Cui , Mussorgsky and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov composed in their spare time , and all five of them were young men in 1862 , with Rimsky @-@ Korsakov at just 18 the youngest and Borodin the oldest at 28 . All five were essentially self @-@ taught and eschewed conservative and " routine " musical techniques . They became known as the kuchka , variously translated as The Five , The Russian Five and The Mighty Handful after a review written by Stasov about their music . Stasov wrote , " May God grant that [ the audience retains ] for ever a memory of how much poetry , feeling , talent and ability is possessed by the small but already mighty handful [ moguchaya kuchka ] of Russian musicians " . The term moguchaya kuchka , which literally means " mighty little heap " , stuck , although Stasov referred to them in print generally as the " New Russian School . "
The aim of this group was to create an independent Russian school of music in the footsteps of Glinka . They were to strive for " national character , " gravitate toward " Oriental " ( by that they meant near @-@ Eastern ) melodies and favor program music over absolute — in other words , symphonic poems and related music over symphonies , concertos and chamber music . To create this Russian style of classical music , Stasov wrote that the group incorporated four characteristics . The first was a rejection of academicism and fixed Western forms of composition . The second was the incorporation of musical elements from eastern nations inside the Russian empire ; this was a quality that would later become known as musical orientalism . The third was a progressive and anti @-@ academic approach to music . The fourth was the incorporation of compositional devices linked with folk music . These four points would distinguish the Five from its contemporaries in the cosmopolitan camp of composition .
= = = Rubinstein and the Saint Petersburg Conservatory = = =
Anton Rubinstein was a famous Russian pianist who had lived , performed and composed in Western and Central Europe before he returned to Russia in 1858 . He saw Russia as a musical desert compared to Paris , Berlin and Leipzig , whose music conservatories he had visited . Musical life flourished in those places ; composers were held in high regard , and musicians were wholeheartedly devoted to their art . With a similar ideal in mind for Russia , he had conceived an idea for a conservatory in Russia years before his 1858 return , and had finally aroused the interest of influential people to help him realize the idea .
Rubinstein 's first step was to found the Russian Musical Society ( RMS ) in 1859 . Its objectives were to educate people in music , cultivate their musical tastes and develop their talents in that area of their lives . The first priority of the RMS acted was to expose to the public the music of native composers . In addition to a considerable amount of Western European music , works by Mussorgsky and Cui were premiered by the RMS under Rubinstein 's baton . A few weeks after the Society 's premiere concert , Rubinstein started organizing music classes , which were open to everyone . Interest in these classes grew until Rubinstein founded the Saint Petersburg Conservatory in 1862 .
According to musicologist Francis Maes , Rubinstein could not be accused of any lack of artistic integrity . He fought for change and progress in musical life in Russia . Only his musical tastes were conservative — from Haydn , Mozart and Beethoven to the early Romantics up to Chopin . Liszt and Wagner were not included . Neither did he welcome many ideas then new about music , including the role of nationalism in classical music . For Rubinstein , national music existed only in folk song and folk dance . There was no place for national music in larger works , especially not in opera . Rubinstein 's public reaction to the attacks was simply not to react . His classes and concerts were well attended , so he felt no reply was actually necessary . He even forbade his students to take sides .
= = With The Five = =
As The Five 's campaign against Rubinstein continued in the press , Tchaikovsky found himself almost as much a target as his former teacher . Cui reviewed the performance of Tchaikovsky 's graduation cantata and lambasted the composer as " utterly feeble .... If he had any talent at all ... it would surely at some point in the piece have broken free of the chains imposed by the Conservatory . " The review 's effect on the sensitive composer was devastating . Eventually , an uneasy truce developed as Tchaikovsky became friendly with Balakirev and eventually with the other four composers of the group . A working relationship between Balakirev and Tchaikovsky resulted in Romeo and Juliet . The Five 's approval of this work was further was followed by their enthusiasm for Tchaikovsky 's Second Symphony . Subtitled the Little Russian ( Little Russia was the term at that time for what is now called the Ukraine ) for its use of Ukrainian folk songs , the symphony in its initial version also used several compositional devices similar to those used by the Five in their work . Stasov suggested the subject of Shakespeare 's The Tempest to Tchaikovsky , who wrote a tone poem based on this subject . After a lapse of several years , Balakirev reentered Tchaikovsky 's creative life ; the result was Tchaikovsky 's Manfred Symphony , composed to a program after Lord Byron originally written by Stasov and supplied by Balakirev . Overall , however , Tchaikovsky continued down an independent creative path , traveling a middle course between those of his nationalistic peers and the traditionalists .
= = = Balakirev = = =
= = = = Initial correspondence = = = =
In 1867 , Rubinstein handed over the directorship of the Conservatory to Zaremba . Later that year he resigned his conductorship of the Russian Music Society orchestra , to be replaced by Balakirev . Tchaikovsky had already promised his Characteristic Dances ( then called Dances of the Hay Maidens ) from his opera The Voyevoda to the society . In submitting the manuscript ( and perhaps mindful of Cui 's review of the cantata ) , Tchaikovsky included a note to Balakirev that ended with a request for a word of encouragement should the Dances not be performed .
At this point The Five as a unit was dispersing . Mussorgsky and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wanted to remove themselves from Balakirev 's influence , which they now found stifling , and go in their individual directions as composers . Balakirev might have sensed a potential new disciple in Tchaikovsky . He explained in his reply from Saint Petersburg that while he preferred to give his opinions in person and at length to press his points home , he was couching his reply " with complete frankness " , adding , with a deft touch of flattery , that he felt that Tchaikovsky was " a fully fledged artist " and that he looked forward to discussing the piece with him on an upcoming trip to Moscow .
These letters set the tone for Tchaikovsky 's relationship with Balakirev over the next two years . At the end of this period , in 1869 , Tchaikovsky was a 28 @-@ year @-@ old professor at the Moscow Conservatory . Having written his first symphony and an opera , he next composed a symphonic poem entitled Fatum . Initially pleased with the piece when Nikolai Rubinstein conducted it in Moscow , Tchaikovsky dedicated it to Balakirev and sent it to him to conduct in Saint Petersburg . Fatum received only a lukewarm reception there . Balakirev wrote a detailed letter to Tchaikovsky in which he explained what he felt were defects in Fatum but also gave some encouragement . He added that he considered the dedication of the music to him as " precious to me as a sign of your sympathy towards me — and I feel a great weakness for you " . Tchaikovsky was too self @-@ critical not to see the truth behind these comments . He accepted Balakirev 's criticism , and the two continued to correspond . Tchaikovsky would later destroy the score of Fatum . ( The score would be reconstructed posthumously by using the orchestral parts . )
= = = = Writing Romeo and Juliet = = = =
Balakirev 's despotism strained the relationship between him and Tchaikovsky but both men still appreciated each other 's abilities . Despite their friction , Balakirev proved the only man to persuade Tchaikovsky to rewrite a work several times , as he would with Romeo and Juliet . At Balakirev 's suggestion , Tchaikovsky based the work on Balakirev 's King Lear , a tragic overture in sonata form after the example of Beethoven 's concert overtures . It was Tchaikovsky 's idea to reduce the plot to one central conflict and represent it musically with the binary structure of sonata form . However , the execution of that plot in the music we know today came only after two radical revisions . Balakirev discarded many of the early drafts Tchaikovsky sent him and , with the flurry of suggestions between the two men , the piece was constantly in the mail between Moscow and Saint Petersburg .
Tchaikovsky allowed the first version to be premiered by Nikolai Rubinstein on March 16 , 1870 , after the composer had incorporated only some of Balakirev 's suggestions . The premiere was a disaster . Stung by this rejection , Tchaikovsky took Balakirev 's strictures to heart . He forced himself to reach beyond his musical training and rewrote much of the music into the form we know it today . Romeo would bring Tchaikovsky his first national and international acclaim and become a work the kuchka lauded unconditionally . On hearing the love theme from Romeo , Stasov told the group , " There were five of you ; now there are six " . Such was the enthusiasm of the Five for Romeo that at their gatherings Balakirev was always asked to play it through at the piano . He did this so many times that he learned to perform it from memory .
Some critics , among them Tchaikovsky biographers Lawrence and Elisabeth Hanson , have wondered what would have happened if Tchaikovsky had joined Balakirev in 1862 instead of attending the Conservatory . They suggest that he might have developed much more quickly as an independent composer , and offer as proof the fact that Tchaikovsky did not write his first wholly distinct work until Balakirev goaded and inspired him to write Romeo . How well Tchaikovsky might have developed in the long run is another matter . He owed much of his musical ability , including his skill at orchestration , to the thorough grounding in counterpoint , harmony and musical theory he received at the Conservatory . Without that grounding , Tchaikovsky might not have been able to write what would become his greatest works .
= = = Rimsky @-@ Korsakov = = =
In 1871 , Nikolai Zaremba resigned from the directorship of the Saint Petersburg Conservatory . His successor , Mikhaíl Azanchevsky , was more progressive @-@ minded musically and wanted new blood to freshen up teaching in the Conservatory . He offered Rimsky @-@ Korsakov a professorship in Practical Composition and Instrumentation ( orchestration ) , as well as leadership of the Orchestra Class . Balakirev , who had formerly opposed academicism with tremendous vigor , encouraged him to assume the post , thinking it might be useful having one of his own in the midst of the enemy camp .
Nevertheless , by the time of his appointment , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov had become painfully aware of his technical shortcomings as a composer ; he later wrote , " I was a dilettante and knew nothing " . Moreover , he had come to a creative dead @-@ end upon completing his opera The Maid of Pskov and realized that developing a solid musical technique was the only way he could continue composing . He turned to Tchaikovsky for advice and guidance . When Rimsky @-@ Korsakov underwent a change in attitude on music education and began his own intensive studies privately , his fellow nationalists accused him of throwing away his Russian heritage to compose fugues and sonatas . Tchaikovsky continued to support him morally . He told Rimsky @-@ Korsakov that he fully applauded what he was doing and admired both his artistic modesty and his strength of character .
Before Rimsky @-@ Korsakov went to the Conservatory , in March 1868 , Tchaikovsky wrote a review of his Fantasia on Serbian Themes . In discussing this work , Tchaikovsky compared it to the only other Rimsky @-@ Korsakov piece he had heard so far , the First Symphony , mentioning " its charming orchestration ... its structural novelty , and most of all ... the freshness of its purely Russian harmonic turns ... immediately [ showing ] Mr. Rimsky @-@ Korsakov to be a remarkable symphonic talent " . Tchaikovsky 's notice , worded in precisely a way to find favor within the Balakirev circle , did exactly that . He met the rest of The Five on a visit to Balakirev 's house in Saint Petersburg the following month . The meeting went well . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov later wrote ,
As a product of the Conservatory , Tchaikovsky was viewed rather negligently if not haughtily by our circle , and , owing to his being away from St. Petersburg , personal acquaintanceship was impossible .... [ Tchaikovsky ] proved to be a pleasing and sympathetic man to talk with , one who knew how to be simple of manner and always speak with evident sincerity and heartiness . The evening of our first meeting [ Tchaikovsky ] played for us , at Balakirev 's request , the first movement of his Symphony in G minor [ Tchaikovsky 's First Symphony ] ; it proved quite to our liking ; and our former opinion of him changed and gave way to a more sympathetic one , although Tchaikovsky 's Conservatory training still constituted a considerable barrier between him and us .
Rimsky @-@ Korsakov added that " during the following years , when visiting St. Petersburg , [ Tchaikovsky ] usually came to Balakirev 's , and we saw him . " Nevertheless , as much as Tchaikovsky may have desired acceptance from both The Five and the traditionalists , he needed the independence that Moscow afforded to find his own direction , away from both parties . This was especially true in light of Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's comment about the " considerable barrier " of Tchaikovsky 's Conservatory training , as well as Anton Rubinstein 's opinion that Tchaikovsky had strayed too far from the examples of the great Western masters . Tchaikovsky was ready for the nourishment of new attitudes and styles so he could continue growing as a composer , and his brother Modest writes that he was impressed by the " force and vitality " in some of the Five 's work . However , he was too balanced an individual to totally reject the best in the music and values that Zaremba and Rubinstein had cherished . In his brother Modest 's opinion , Tchaikovsky 's relations with the Saint Petersburg group resembled " those between two friendly neighboring states ... cautiously prepared to meet on common ground , but jealously guarding their separate interests " .
= = = Stasov , The Tempest and the Little Russian symphony = = =
Tchaikovsky played the finale of his Second Symphony , subtitled the Little Russian , at a gathering at Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's house in Saint Petersburg on January 7 , 1873 , before the official premiere of the entire work . To his brother Modest , he wrote , " [ T ] he whole company almost tore me to pieces with rapture — and Madame Rimskaya @-@ Korsakova begged me in tears to let her arrange it for piano duet " . Rimskaya @-@ Korsakova was a noted pianist , composer and arranger in her own right , transcribing works by other members of the kuchka as well as those of her husband and Tchaikovsky 's Romeo and Juliet . Borodin was present and may have approved of the work himself . Also present was Vladimir Stasov . Impressed by what he had heard , Stasov asked Tchaikovsky what he would consider writing next , and would soon influence the composer in writing the symphonic poem The Tempest .
Tchaikovsky wanted to focus his tone poem The Tempest primarily on her . What endeared the Little Russian to the kuchka was not simply that Tchaikovsky had used Ukrainian folk songs as melodic material . It was how , especially in the outer movements , he allowed the unique characteristics of Russian folk song to dictate symphonic form . This was a goal toward which the kuchka strived , both collectively and individually . Tchaikovsky , with his Conservatory grounding , could sustain such development longer and more cohesively than his colleagues in the kuchka . ( Though the comparison may seem unfair , Tchaikovsky authority David Brown has pointed out that , because of their similar time @-@ frames , the finale of the Little Russian shows what Mussorgsky could have done with " The Great Gate of Kiev " from Pictures at an Exhibition had he possessed academic training comparable to that of Tchaikovsky . )
= = = Tchaikovsky 's private concerns about The Five = = =
The Five was among the myriad of subjects Tchaikovsky discussed with his benefactress , Nadezhda von Meck . By January 1878 , when he wrote to Mrs. von Meck about its members , he had drifted far from their musical world and ideals . In addition , The Five 's finest days had long passed . Despite considerable effort in writing operas and songs , Cui had become better known as a critic than as a composer , and even his critical efforts competed for time with his career as an army engineer and expert in the science of fortification . Balakirev had withdrawn completely from the musical scene , Mussorgsky was sinking ever deeper into alcoholism , and Borodin 's creative activities increasingly took a back seat to his official duties as a professor of chemistry .
Only Rimsky @-@ Korsakov actively pursued a full @-@ time musical career , and he was under increasing fire from his fellow nationalists for much the same reason as Tchaikovsky had been . Like Tchaikovsky , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov had found that , for his own artistic growth to continue unabated , he had to study and master Western classical forms and techniques . Borodin called it " apostasy " , adding , " Many are grieved at present by the fact that Korsakov has turned back , has thrown himself into a study of musical antiquity . I do not bemoan it . It is understandable .... " Mussorgsky was harsher : " [ T ] he mighty kuchka had degenerated into soulless traitors . "
Tchaikovsky 's analysis of each of The Five was unsparing . While at least some of his observations may seem distorted and prejudiced , he also mentions some details which ring clear and true . His diagnosis of Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's creative crisis is very accurate . He also calls Mussorgsky the most gifted musically of the Five , though Tchaikovsky could not appreciate the forms Mussorgsky 's originality took . Nonetheless , he badly underestimates Borodin 's technique and gives Balakirev far less than his full due — all the more telling in light of Balakirev 's help in conceiving and shaping Romeo and Juliet .
Tchaikovsky wrote to Nadezhda von Meck that all of the kuchka were talented but also " infected to the core " with conceit and " a purely dilettantish confidence in their superiority . " He went into some detail about Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's epiphany and turnaround regarding musical training , and his efforts to remedy this situation for himself . Tchaikovsky then called Cui " a talented dilettante " whose music " has no originality , but is clever and graceful " ; Borodin a man who " has talent , even a strong one , but it has perished through neglect ... and his technique is so weak that he cannot write a single line [ of music ] without outside help " ; Mussorgsky " a hopeless case " , superior in talent but " narrow @-@ minded , devoid of any urge towards self @-@ perfection " ; and Balakirev as one with " enormous talent " yet who had also " done much harm " as " the general inventor of all the theories of this strange group " .
= = = Balakirev returns = = =
Tchaikovsky finished his final revision of Romeo and Juliet in 1880 , and felt it a courtesy to send a copy of the score to Balakirev . Balakirev , however , had dropped out of the music scene in the early 1870s and Tchaikovsky had lost touch with him . He asked the publisher Bessel to forward a copy to Balakirev . A year later Balakirev replied . In the same letter that he thanked Tchaikovsky profusely for the score , Balakirev suggested " the programme for a symphony which you would handle wonderfully well " , a detailed plan for a symphony based on Lord Byron 's Manfred . Originally drafted by Stasov in 1868 for Hector Berlioz as a sequel to that composer 's Harold en Italie , the program had since been in Balakirev 's care .
Tchaikovsky declined the project at first , saying the subject left him cold . Balakirev persisted . " You must , of course , make an effort " , Balakirev exhorted , " take a more self @-@ critical approach , don 't hurry things " . Tchaikovsky 's mind was changed two years later , in the Swiss Alps , while tending to his friend Iosef Kotek and after he had re @-@ read Manfred in the milieu in which the poem is set . Once he returned home , Tchaikovsky revised the draft Balakirev had made from Stasov 's program and began sketching the first movement .
The Manfred Symphony would cost Tchaikovsky more time , effort and soul @-@ searching than anything else he would write , even the Pathetique Symphony . It also became the longest , most complex work he had written up to that point , and though it owes an obvious debt to Berlioz due to its program , Tchaikovsky was still able to make the theme of Manfred his own . Near the end of seven months of intensive effort , in late September 1885 , he wrote Balakirev , " Never in my life , believe me , have I labored so long and hard , and felt so drained by my efforts . The Symphony is written in four movements , as per your program , although — forgive me — as much as I wanted to , I have not been able to keep all the keys and modulations you suggested ... It is of course dedicated to you " .
Once he had finished the symphony , Tchaikovsky was reluctant to further tolerate Balakirev 's interference , and severed all contact ; he told his publisher P. Jurgenson that he considered Balakirev a " madman " . Tchaikovsky and Balakirev exchanged only a few formal , not overly friendly letters after this breach .
= = Belyayev circle = =
In November 1887 , Tchaikovsky arrived in Saint Petersburg in time to hear several of the Russian Symphony Concerts , one of which included the first complete performance of the final version of his First Symphony and another the premiere of the revised version of Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's Third Symphony . Before this visit he had spent much time keeping in touch with Rimsky @-@ Korsakov and those around him . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , along with Alexander Glazunov , Anatol Lyadov and several other nationalistically @-@ minded composers and musicians , had formed a group called the Belyayev circle . This group was named after timber merchant Mitrofan Belyayev , an amateur musician who became an influential music patron and publisher after he had taken an interest in Glazunov 's work . During Tchaikovsky 's visit , he spent much time in the company of these men , and his somewhat fraught relationship with The Five would meld into a more harmonious one with the Belyayev circle . This relationship would last until his death in late 1893 .
As for The Five , the group had long since dispersed , Mussorgsky had died in 1881 and Borodin had followed in 1887 . Cui continued to write negative reviews of Tchaikovsky 's music but was seen by the composer as merely a critical irritant . Balakirev lived in isolation and was confined to the musical sidelines . Only Rimsky @-@ Korsakov remained fully active as a composer .
A side benefit of Tchaikovsky 's friendship with Glazunov , Lyadov and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov was an increased confidence in his own abilities as a composer , along with a willingness to let his musical works stand alongside those of his contemporaries . Tchaikovsky wrote to von Meck in January 1889 , after being once again well represented in Belyayev 's concerts , that he had " always tried to place myself outside all parties and to show in every way possible that I love and respect every honorable and gifted public figure in music , whatever his tendency " , and that he considered himself " flattered to appear on the concert platform " beside composers in the Belyayev circle . This was an acknowledgment of wholehearted readiness for his music to be heard with that of these composers , delivered in a tone of implicit confidence that there were no comparisons from which to fear .
= = Legacy = =
The initial hostility of The Five against Tchaikovsky was mitigated by Tchaikovsky 's improved relationships , first with Balakirev and then with Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . The latter substantially embraced the cosmopolitan conservatory @-@ based approach , as distinct from pure Russian nationalism . The Five dispersed as a unit , but were replaced by the Belyayev circle of younger composers that grew around Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . This group , while writing in a nationalistic style pioneered by Rimsky @-@ Korsakov and Balakirev , was much more accommodating of Western compositional practices as personified by the music of Tchaikovsky . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote about this tendency :
At this time [ approximately 1892 ] there begins to be noticeable a considerable cooling off and even somewhat inimical attitude toward the memory of the " mighty kuchka " of Balakirev 's period . On the contrary a worship of Tchaikovsky and a tendency toward eclecticism grow even stronger . Nor could one help noticing the predilection ( that sprang up then in our circle ) for Italian @-@ French music of the time of wig and farthingale [ that is , the eighteenth century ] , music introduced by Tchaikovsky in his Queen of Spades and Iolanthe . By this time quite an accretion of new elements and young blood had accumulated in Belyayev 's circle . New times , new birds , new songs .
As a result of this influence plus their academic training from Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , especially in the cases of Anton Arensky and Glazunov , these composers combined the best compositional techniques of The Five and Tchaikovsky in their music . Often , however , composers in this group fell back on two sources — musical clichés and mannerisms handed down from The Five , and academic compositional techniques learned at the Conservatory . Also , the eclecticism about which Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote tended to overpower originality in many works , including those of Glazunov . Nevertheless , the Belyayev circle continued to influence the development of Russian music well into the 20th century .
= Ben Daniels =
Ben Daniels ( born 10 June 1964 ) is an English actor . Initially a celebrated stage actor , Daniels was nominated for Best Actor at the Evening Standard Awards for Best Supporting Actor in the Laurence Olivier Awards for Never the Sinner ( 1991 ) , 900 Oneonta ( 1994 ) , Best Actor in the M.E.N. Theatre Awards for Martin Yesterday ( 1998 ) , and won the Olivier award in 2001 for his performance in the Arthur Miller play All My Sons .
In 2008 , Daniels made his Broadway début in a revival of Les Liaisons Dangereuses , for which he was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play . In more recent years , Daniels has appeared on popular television series including Cutting It ( 2002 – 05 ) , The Virgin Queen ( 2005 ) , Law & Order : UK ( 2009 – 11 ) , The Paradise ( 2013 ) and House of Cards ( 2013 – 14 ) .
= = Early life = =
Daniels was born in Nuneaton , Warwickshire . His father was an engineer at Rolls @-@ Royce and later a grocer , while his mother owned a children 's clothes shop . He has recalled : " I was quite a shy child , but quite disruptive as well . I was very sneaky and underhanded . "
= = Education = =
Daniels was educated at Manor Park School , a state comprehensive school in Nuneaton , near Coventry , in the English Midlands ( since closed ) . According to Daniels , drama lessons at O @-@ levels gave him a voice , and when he attended sixth form studies at Stratford College between 1 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
980 and 1982 , doing A @-@ levels in theatre studies and English literature , he attended Royal Shakespeare Company performances . A fellow student recalled that Daniels , whom he knew as Dave , " was very serious about his work , and struck me as incredibly intelligent ... you got the sense his mind was working ; the cogs were ticking over " . Daniels subsequently trained at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art ( LAMDA ) for three years .
= = Career = =
One of Daniels ' earliest roles was as Justin Hayward , the lead singer of the Moody Blues , as a teenager in two of the band 's music videos , " Your Wildest Dreams " ( 1986 ) and " I Know You 're Out There Somewhere " ( 1988 ) . In 1992 , he made an appearance in the infamous plane crash episode " Cascade " of the television show Casualty , playing the co @-@ pilot of the doomed plane . He has taken on parts in many British television dramas , such as Robin in The Lost Language of Cranes ( 1991 ) , the Biblical character Jonathan in the 1997 Emmy @-@ nominated TV film David , the philandering Finn Bevan in Cutting It ( 2002 – 2005 ) , and Nicholas Brocklehurst in the BBC television miniseries The State Within ( 2006 ) . The latter role was notable for an unexpected same @-@ sex kiss between Daniels ' character and another person . In 2008 he appeared in Lark Rise to Candleford , a BBC production based on three semi @-@ autobiographical novels about the English countryside written by Flora Thompson .
Daniel has also played a number of real @-@ life characters , such as German State Secretary Dr. Josef Bühler in Conspiracy , a 2001 dramatisation of the Wannsee Conference at which the Final Solution was endorsed . He also played the English author and journalist Ian Fleming , creator of James Bond , in Ian Fleming : Bondmaker ( 2005 ) , as well as Sir Francis Walsingham in The Virgin Queen ( 2005 ) and English writer Saki in Who Killed Mrs De Ropp ? ( 2007 ) . In addition , he has made guest appearances in a number of British TV drama series , including Soldier Soldier ( 1992 ) , A Touch of Frost ( 1992 ) , Outside Edge ( 1994 ) , and Spooks ( 2005 ) .
Daniels may be most recognisable to American audiences for appearing in the 1996 gay film Beautiful Thing . Daniels portrayed Tony , boyfriend of Sandra , the protagonist Jamie 's mother . In an independent film directed by Lavinia Currier titled Passion in the Desert ( 1997 ) , Daniels played a French soldier named Augustin Robert . The film was nominated for a Golden Seashell award . Other feature films that Daniels has starred in are The Bridge ( 1992 ) , I Want You ( 1998 ) , Madeline ( 1998 ) , and Doom ( 2005 ) . He was offered roles in the 2000 releases The Patriot and Vertical Limit , but turned them down and stated that " the money was good , but it wasn 't for me " . On his Twitter account , Daniels confirms his brief appearance as a Resistance pilot in the upcoming Star Wars film Rogue One : A Star Wars Story .
Daniels has said that he loves acting on stage because " it 's tough and keeps you on your toes as an actor " . He appeared in All 's Well That Ends Well and As You Like It ( 1999 – 2000 ) , and played Mercutio in a 1994 TV adaptation of Romeo and Juliet . Other theatre credits include Waiting for Godot ( 1994 ) and 900 Oneonta ( 1994 ) , which earned him a nomination for Best Actor at the Evening Standard Awards . He also acted in Martin Yesterday ( 1998 ) , for which he was nominated as Best Actor in the Manchester Evening News Theatre Awards , Naked ( 1998 ) , Tales From Hollywood ( 2001 ) , Three Sisters ( 2003 ) , Iphigenia at Aulis ( 2004 ) , The God of Hell ( 2005 ) , and The Wild Duck ( 2005 – 2006 ) . In 2006 , Daniels appeared in Thérèse Raquin as Laurent , for which a reviewer labelled his performance " riveting " .
Daniels won the Best Supporting Actor award at the Whatsonstage.com Theatregoers ' Choice Theatre Awards and the 25th Laurence Olivier Awards in 2001 for his performance in the Arthur Miller play All My Sons . He was first nominated for the latter award earlier in his career , in 1991 , for his performance as murderer Richard Loeb in the play Never the Sinner at the Playhouse Theatre . In 2008 , Daniels fulfilled a lifetime ambition when he made his Broadway début , headlining as the Vicomte de Valmont in a revival of Les Liaisons Dangereuses . The show opened on 1 May 2008 . Daniels was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play for his role .
= = Personal life = =
Daniels is openly gay and lives in south London . He remarked : " Out ? I 've never been in . " He lives with actor Ian Gelder . They began seeing each other during a 1993 production of Joe Orton 's Entertaining Mr Sloane . Daniels was already sure of his sexuality in his teens , although he did not discuss the matter with his parents because they did not have a very close emotional relationship . He was " cautious about mentioning it when I left drama school , because AIDS was terrifying everyone and there was a huge homophobic backlash " . He decided to come out at the age of 24 , while appearing in an all @-@ star benefit performance of Martin Sherman 's Bent .
Daniels said in an interview : " Homophobia is still shockingly prevalent in film and TV . I know I 've lost work because of being gay , and it is always an issue . Even on a serious BBC Two drama , there will be some suit in some office going , " Hmmm , isn 't he a poof ? " I don 't consider myself politically gay , but whenever I catch a whiff of that now , I 'm on it like a ton of bricks . " In 2007 , Daniels was ranked number 79 in the annual Pink List of 100 influential gay and lesbian people in Britain published by The Independent on Sunday , down from number 47 in 2006 .
In his spare time , he is an amateur painter and a practitioner of Ashtanga yoga .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Theatre = = =
= Newton 's parakeet =
Newton 's parakeet or the Rodrigues parakeet ( Psittacula exsul ) is an extinct species of parrot that was endemic to the Mascarene island of Rodrigues in the western Indian Ocean . Several of its features diverged from related species , indicating long @-@ term isolation on Rodrigues and subsequent adaptation . The rose @-@ ringed parakeet of the same genus is a close relative and probable ancestor . Newton 's parakeet may itself have been ancestral to the endemic parakeets of nearby Mauritius and Réunion .
Around 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) long , Newton 's parakeet was roughly the size of a rose @-@ ringed parakeet . Its plumage was mostly greyish or slate blue in colour , which is unusual in Psittacula , a genus containing mostly green species . The male had stronger colours than the female and possessed a reddish instead of black beak , but details of a mature male 's appearance are uncertain ; only one male specimen is known , and it is believed to be immature . Mature males might have possessed red patches on the wing like the related Alexandrine parakeet . Both sexes had a black collar running from the chin to the nape , but this was clearer in the male . The legs were grey and the iris yellow . 17th @-@ century accounts indicate that some members of the species were green , which would suggest that there were both blue and green colour morphs , but there is no definitive explanation for these reports . Little is known about its behaviour in life , but it may have fed on the nuts of the bois d ’ olive tree , along with leaves . It was very tame , and was able to mimic speech .
Newton 's parakeet was first written about by the French Huguenot François Leguat in 1708 , and was only mentioned a few times by other writers afterwards . The specific name " exsul " is a reference to Leguat , who was exiled from France . Only two life drawings exist , both of a single specimen held in captivity in the 1770s . The first specimen known to science , a female , became the holotype when the species was described in 1872 . A male , the last specimen recorded , was collected in 1874 , and these two specimens are the only ones that exist today . It became scarce due to deforestation and perhaps hunting , but it is thought that it was finally wiped out by a series of cyclones and storms that hit Rodrigues in the late 19th century . There was unfounded speculation about the possible survival of the species as late as 1967 .
= = Taxonomy = =
Newton 's parakeet was first recorded by François Leguat in his 1708 memoir , A New Voyage to the East Indies . Leguat was the leader of a group of nine French Huguenot refugees who colonised Rodrigues between 1691 and 1693 after they were marooned there . Subsequent accounts are by Julien Tafforet , who was also marooned on the island in 1726 , and then by the French mathematician Alexandre Pingré , who travelled to Rodrigues to view the 1761 transit of Venus .
The first specimen known to science was a female collected by George Jenner , then the magistrate of Rodrigues , in 1871 . The specimen was preserved in alcohol and given to Edward Newton , a colonial administrator in Mauritius , who sent it to his brother , the British ornithologist Alfred Newton . Alfred Newton scientifically described the bird in 1872 and gave it the scientific name Palaeornis exsul . " Exsul " ( " exiled " ) refers to François Leguat , in that he was exiled from France when he gave the first description of the bird . Newton had tried to find a more descriptive name , perhaps based on colouration , but found it difficult . He refrained from publishing a figure of the female in his original description , though the journal Ibis had offered him the space . He instead wanted to wait until a male specimen could be procured , since he imagined it would be more attractive . The female , which is the holotype specimen of the species , is housed in the Cambridge University Museum as specimen UMZC 18 / Psi / 67 / h / 1 .
Alfred Newton requested further specimens , especially males , but in 1875 he finally published a plate of the female , lamenting that no male specimens could be found . Tafforet 's 1726 account had been rediscovered the previous year , and Alfred Newton noted that it confirmed his assumption that the male would turn out be much more colourful than the female . Newton 's collector , Henry H. Slater , had seen a live Newton 's parakeet the year before , but was not carrying a gun at the time . On 14 August 1874 , William Vandorous shot a male specimen . It may have been the same specimen Slater had observed . It was subsequently sent to Edward Newton by William J. Caldwell . This is the paratype of the species , numbered UMZC 18 / Psi / 67 / h / 2 and housed in the Cambridge Museum .
Edward Newton noted that he had expected the male would be adorned with a red patch on the wing , but that the absence of this indicated it was immature . He still found it more beautiful than the female . These two specimens are the only preserved individuals of the species . The mandible and sternum were extracted from the female specimen , and subfossil remains have since been found in the Plaine Corail caverns on Rodrigues . The genus Palaeornis was later declared a junior synonym of Psittacula , and all species within the former were transferred to the latter .
= = = Evolution = = =
Based on morphological features , the Alexandrine parakeet ( Psittacula eupatria ) has been proposed as the founder population for all Psittacula species on Indian Ocean islands , with new populations settling during the species 's southwards colonisation from its native South Asia . Features of that species gradually disappear in species further away from its range . Subfossil remains of Newton 's parakeet show that it differed from other Mascarene Psittacula species in some osteological features , but also had similarities , such as a reduced sternum , which suggests a close relationship . Skeletal features indicate an especially close relationship with the Alexandrine parakeet and the rose @-@ ringed parakeet ( Psittacula krameri ) , but the many derived features of Newton 's parakeet indicates it had long been isolated on Rodrigues .
Many endemic Mascarene birds , including the dodo , are descended from South Asian ancestors , and the English palaeontologist Julian Hume has proposed that this may also be the case for all parrots there . Sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene , so it was possible for species to colonise some of these less isolated islands . Although most extinct parrot species of the Mascarenes are poorly known , subfossil remains show that they shared common features such as enlarged heads and jaws , reduced pectoral bones , and robust leg bones . Hume has suggested that they all have a common origin in the radiation of the Psittaculini tribe , members of which are known as Psittaculines , basing this theory on morphological features and the fact that Psittacula parrots have managed to colonise many isolated islands in the Indian Ocean . The Psittaculini could have invaded the area several times , as many of the species were so specialised that they may have evolved significantly on hotspot islands before the Mascarenes emerged from the sea . Other members of the Psittacula genus from the Mascarenes include the extant echo parakeet ( Psittacula eques echo ) of Mauritius , as well as the extinct Réunion parakeet ( Psittacula eques eques ) , and Mascarene grey parakeet ( Psittacula bensoni ) of both Mauritius and Réunion .
A 2011 genetic study of parrot phylogeny was unable to include Newton 's parakeet , as no viable DNA could be extracted . The same paper found that the Mascarene parrot ( Mascarinus mascarinus ) of nearby Réunion was most closely related to the lesser vasa parrot from Madagascar and nearby islands , and therefore unrelated to the Psittacula parrots , undermining the theory of their common origin . A 2015 genetic study by Jackson et al. included viable DNA from the toe @-@ pad of the female Newton 's parakeet specimen . It was found to group within a clade of rose @-@ ringed parakeet subspecies ( from Asia and Africa ) , which it had diverged from 3 @.@ 82 million years ago . Furthermore , Newton 's parakeet appeared to be ancestral to the parakeets of Mauritius and Réunion . The cladogram accompanying the study is shown below :
= = Description = =
Newton 's parakeet was about 40 cm ( 16 in ) long - roughly the size of the rose @-@ ringed parakeet . The wing of the male specimen was 198 mm ( 7 @.@ 8 in ) , the tail 206 mm ( 8 @.@ 1 in ) , the culmen 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) , and the tarsus was 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) . The wing of the female specimen was 191 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) , the tail 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) , the culmen 24 mm ( 0 @.@ 94 in ) , and the tarsus was 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) . The male specimen was greyish blue ( also described as " slatey blue " ) tinged with green , and darker above . The head was bluer , with a dark line running from the eye to the cere . It had a broad black collar running from the chin to the nape , where it became gradually narrower . The underside of the tail was greyish , the upper beak was dark reddish brown , and the mandible was black . The legs were grey and the iris yellow . The female was similar , but had a greyer head and a black beak . The black collar was not so prominent as that of the male , and did not extend to the back of the neck . The general appearance of Newton 's parakeet was similar to the extant Psittacula species , including the black collar , but the bluish grey colouration set it apart from other members of its genus , which are mostly green .
Philibert Commerson received a live specimen on Mauritius in the 1770s and described it as " greyish blue " . Paul Jossigny made two illustrations of this specimen , the only known depictions of Newton 's parakeet in life , unpublished until 2007 . Though both existing specimens are blue , some early accounts from Rodrigues have caused confusion over the colouration of the plumage . One of these is Leguat 's following statement :
There are abundance of green and blew Parrets , they are of a midling and equal bigness ; when they are young , their Flesh is as good as young Pigeons .
If the green parrots Leguat referred to were not the Rodrigues parrot ( Necropsittacus rodericanus ) , they may perhaps have been a green colour morph of Newton 's parakeet , as Julian Hume has suggested . As Alfred Newton observed in his original description , some feathers of the female specimen display both blue and green tinges , depending on the light . This may explain some of the discrepancies . The green parrots mentioned could also instead have been storm @-@ blown members of Psittacula species from other islands , that survived on Rodrigues for a short time .
The two existing specimens were originally preserved in alcohol , but though this can discolour specimens , it is not probable that it could turn green to blue . Hume and Hein van Grouw have also suggested that due to an inheritable mutation , some Newton 's parakeets may have lacked psittacin , a pigment that together with eumalanin produces green colouration in parrot feathers . Complete lack of psittacin produces blue colouration , whereas reduced psittacin can produce a colour between green and blue called parblue , which corresponds to the colour of the two preserved Newton 's parakeet specimens .
Julien Tafforet also described what appears to be green Newton 's parakeets in his 1726 Relation de l 'Île Rodrigue , but the issue of colouration was further complicated :
The parrots are of three kinds , and in quantity ... The second species [ mature male Newton 's parakeet ? ] is slightly smaller and more beautiful , because they have their plumage green like the preceding [ Rodrigues Parrot ] , a little more blue , and above the wings a little red as well as their beak . The third species [ Newton 's parakeet ] is small and altogether green , and the beak black .
It has been proposed that the last two types mentioned were male and female Newton 's parakeets , and that the differences between them were due to sexual dimorphism . Alexandre Pingré also mentioned green birds , perhaps with some red colours , but his account is partially unintelligible and therefore ambiguous . A red shoulder patch is also present on the related Alexandrine parakeet . None of the existing Newton 's parakeet specimens have red patches . The single @-@ known male specimen may have been immature , judged on the colour of its beak , and this may also explain the absence of the red patch . When Psittacula are bred by aviculturalists , blue is easily produced from green ; the production of blue may suppress red colouration , so blue morphs may have lacked the red patch .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Almost nothing is known about the behaviour of Newton 's parakeet , but it is probable that it was similar to that of other members of its genus . Leguat mentioned that the parrots of the island mainly ate the nuts of the bois d ’ olive tree ( Cassine orientale ) . It may have fed on leaves as the related echo parakeet does . The fact that Newton 's parakeet survived long after Rodrigues had been heavily deforested shows that its ecology was less vulnerable than that of , for example , the Rodrigues parrot .
Leguat and his men were hesitant to hunt the parrots because they were so tame and easy to catch . Leguat 's group took a parrot as a pet and were able to teach it to speak :
Hunting and Fishing were so easie to us , that it took away from the Pleasure . We often delighted ourselves in teaching the Parrots to speak , there being vast numbers of them . We carried one to Maurice Isle [ Mauritius ] , which talk ’ d French and Flemish .
As the kind of parrot mentioned here by Leguat is not specified , some sources attribute it to Newton 's parakeet , and others to the Rodrigues parrot .
Many other species endemic to Rodrigues became extinct after humans arrived , and the island 's ecosystem remains heavily damaged . Forests covered the entire island before humans arrived , but very little forestation can be seen today . Newton 's parakeet lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the Rodrigues solitaire , the Rodrigues parrot , the Rodrigues rail , the Rodrigues starling , the Rodrigues owl , the Rodrigues night heron , and the Rodrigues pigeon . Extinct reptiles include the domed Rodrigues giant tortoise , the saddle @-@ backed Rodrigues giant tortoise , and the Rodrigues day gecko .
The authors of the 2015 study which resolved the phylogenetic placement of the Mascarene island parakeets suggested that the echo parakeet of Mauritius would be a suitable ecological replacement for the Réunion parakeet and Newton 's parakeet , due to their close evolutionary relationship . The echo parakeet was itself close to extinction in the 1980s , numbering only twenty individuals , but has since recovered , so introducing it to the nearby islands could also help secure the survival of this species .
= = Extinction = =
Of the roughly eight parrot species endemic to the Mascarenes , only the echo parakeet has survived . The others were likely all made extinct by a combination of excessive hunting and deforestation . Leguat stated that Newton 's parakeet was abundant during his stay . It was still common when Tafforet visited in 1726 , but when Alexandre Pingré mentioned it in 1761 , he noted that the bird had become scarce . It was still present on southern islets off Rodrigues ( Isle Gombrani ) , along with the Rodrigues parrot . After this point , much of Rodrigues was severely deforested and used for livestock .
According to early accounts praising its flavour , it appears Newton 's parakeet was commonly eaten by visitors . Several individuals would likely be needed to provide a single meal , owing to the bird 's small size . Pingré stated :
The perruche [ Newton 's parakeet ] seemed to me much more delicate [ than the flying @-@ fox ] . I would not have missed any game from France if this one had been commoner in Rodrigues ; but it begins to become rare . There are even fewer perroquets [ Rodrigues parrots ] , although there were once a big enough quantity according to François Leguat ; indeed a little islet south of Rodrigues still retains the name Isle of Parrots [ Isle Pierrot ] .
According to government surveyor Thomas Corby , Newton 's parakeet may still have been fairly common in 1843 . Henry H. Slater reported that he saw a single specimen in south western Rodrigues during his three @-@ month stay to observe the 1874 Transit of Venus , and assistant colonial secretary William J. Caldwell saw several specimens in 1875 during his own three @-@ month visit . The male that he received in 1875 and gave to Newton is the last recorded member of the species . A series of cyclones struck the following year and may have devastated the remaining population . Further severe storms hit in 1878 and 1886 , and since few forested areas were left by this time , there was little cover to protect any remaining birds . The male could therefore have been the last of the species alive .
There were unfounded rumours of its continued existence until the beginning of the 20th century . In 1967 James Greenway stated that an extremely small population might still survive on small offshore islets , since this is often the last refuge of endangered birds . Hume countered that these islets were probably too small to sustain a population .
= Hush ( Buffy the Vampire Slayer ) =
" Hush " is the tenth episode in the fourth season of the supernatural drama television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer ( 1997 – 2003 ) . It was written and directed by series creator Joss Whedon and originally aired in the United States on December 14 , 1999 on The WB Television Network . After reading critical response to the series in which the dialogue was praised as the most successful aspect of the show , Whedon set out to write an episode almost completely devoid of speech . Only about 17 minutes of dialogue is presented in the entire 44 minutes of " Hush " .
In " Hush " , a group of fairy tale ghouls named " The Gentlemen " come to town and steal everyone 's voices , leaving them unable to scream when The Gentlemen cut out their hearts . Buffy and her friends must communicate with one another silently as they try to discover why no one can speak and find whoever is murdering the townspeople . They must also find ways to express their feelings about each other and keep some semblance of control as the town descends into chaos .
The episode was highly praised when it aired and was the only episode in the entire series to be nominated for an Emmy Award in Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series ; it also received a nomination for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single Camera Series ( Michael Gershman ) . " Hush " addresses the limits and assets of language and communication and the disruption to society when communication breaks down . The Gentlemen are often counted as some of the series ' most frightening villains , and the episode is frequently included on lists of the best of Buffy the Vampire Slayer .
= = Plot = =
During a college lecture where Dr. Maggie Walsh is discussing the difference between language and communication , Buffy has a dream in which Riley kisses her . They are interrupted by a young girl holding a distinctive box , singing a cryptic rhyme about " The Gentlemen " . Riley and Buffy speak after class and they almost kiss , but are unable to stop talking . They leave when it becomes awkward . Buffy calls Giles to tell him of her dream and the details of the little girl 's rhyme .
At Giles ' apartment Xander and Anya argue , as Anya is trying to get Xander to tell her what she means to him . He is unable to answer her . Willow attends a meeting of the campus Wicca group , hoping to meet others who share her interest in studying witchcraft , but is disappointed when they only talk about bake sales . Willow raises the subject of spells but is chastised for pandering to the stereotype about witches performing magic . A shy woman in the group , Tara Maclay , starts to speak up to support Willow 's suggestion , but falls silent when the attention turns to her .
That night , as Sunnydale sleeps , white wisps float from each person 's mouth to a belfry , where they settle in the box from Buffy 's dream as ghoulish skeletal figures , with metal @-@ toothed grins and impeccable black suits , look on . In the morning , Buffy and Willow discover they are unable to speak and become visibly distressed ; they soon discover that everybody is unable to speak . The group gathers at Giles ' where they see that the news is reporting that Sunnydale is suffering from an epidemic of laryngitis . Buffy and Riley , each concerned that chaos will ensue , find each other attempting to keep order on the streets . For the first time , Buffy sees Riley in his paramilitary role as an agent of The Initiative ; he in turn is unaware that she is the Slayer . They exchange a look and then their first kiss , before parting to continue their efforts .
The next night , the ghouls leave the belfry and float into town accompanied by their straitjacketed , deformed minions . They knock on the door of a student . When he opens it , aroused from sleeping , they hold him down and carve out his heart while he tries in vain to scream . At Giles ' apartment his visiting girlfriend , Olivia , is frightened by one of The Gentlemen outside Giles ' window . The following morning in a campus classroom , Giles uses a series of overhead transparencies to explain to the others that The Gentlemen steal the townspeople 's voices so no one can scream as they gather the hearts they need , and that folklore indicates that they have been vanquished before when a princess screamed : the only thing that will kill them is a live human voice .
That evening , Anya falls asleep on Giles ' sofa while Spike takes a mugful of blood from the refrigerator . Xander enters Giles ' apartment as Spike , his mouth wet with blood , bends down to pick up something that he dropped in front of the sofa where Anya sleeps . Inferring that Spike bit and drank from Anya , Xander pummels him ferociously until Anya wakes and stops him ; excited that he fought to defend her , Anya gestures that they go have sex .
On her own Tara finds a spell to help the town get its voices back , and goes out to show it to Willow . On the way to Willow 's dorm she trips , turns around and sees The Gentlemen floating toward her . In Willow 's dorm she frantically knocks on doors which no one will open ; The Gentlemen steadily pursue her . Willow hears Tara 's panicked knocking down the hall and exits her room as Tara sprints into her , sending them both tumbling . They lock themselves into a laundry room and try to barricade the door with a vending machine , but it is too heavy for them to move . Willow , injured , sits and concentrates on moving the machine with telekinesis ; she fails , but Tara sees what she is doing . They clasp hands and the machine moves swiftly across the room , blocking the door .
On patrol , Riley notices shadows in the belfry and goes to investigate . Buffy finds two of The Gentlemen 's minions , kills one and runs after the other . Riley fights his way into the belfry and while he 's embattled , Buffy crashes through a window , fighting . He turns to attack and finds himself face to face with Buffy . She fights while he stares , unmoving . When a minion pins her down she sees and recognizes the box from her dream and gesticulates wildly for Riley to destroy it . When he does so , the stolen voices escape . Buffy screams until the heads of The Gentlemen and their minions explode .
The next day , Tara tells Willow she is special and has significant power . Riley comes to visit Buffy in her dorm room and they sit facing each other , saying nothing .
= = Production and writing = =
Joss Whedon 's impetus to create " Hush " was his reaction to hearing that the primary reason behind Buffy 's success was the dialogue . He felt that he was stagnating as a director , turning into a " hack " by making formulaic episodes . Whedon tended to concentrate so much on the visual aspects of the series ' production that he was chastised by Fox executives in earlier seasons . Thus , writing and producing " Hush " depended almost solely on visuals and not on dialogue , a prospect that Whedon found terrifying , worried that viewers would find the episode boring . Much like the fourth season finale " Restless " — which consisted almost entirely of dream sequences — and the sixth season musical " Once More , with Feeling " , Whedon was certain he would fail at attempting to present the show in such a novel way . Initially , this was to be the episode where Riley and Buffy have sex , and Whedon took comfort in that plan because he knew people would not mind the silence , but ultimately he decided it was too early for the characters to sleep together , and he scrapped the idea .
The Gentlemen , called the " creepiest villains we 've ever done " by series writer Doug Petrie , were inspired by a nightmare Whedon had as a child , specifically one in which he was in bed and approached by a floating monster . Whedon fashioned The Gentlemen as something from a Brothers Grimm fairy tale , intending them to be frightening to children — monsters who carve out people 's hearts , smiling as they do so . Nosferatu , Pinhead from Hellraiser , and Mr. Burns from The Simpsons all served as physical models for The Gentlemen . Elegantly Victorian in costume and demeanor , Whedon found their politeness and grace especially unsettling . Their metallic teeth were inspired by the intersection of Victorian culture with the height of the Industrial age , an era that Whedon considers " classically creepy " . For Buffy studies scholar Rhonda Wilcox , The Gentlemen and their straitjacket @-@ wearing minions , who clumsily flap , gyrate , and crouch as they move , are representative of class disparity and patriarchy : The Gentlemen , with their Victorian suits , move effortlessly to accomplish what they set out to do while their minions , whom Whedon called " footmen " , do the " dirty work " .
Doug Jones and the other actors who played The Gentlemen had previous experience performing as monsters and were professional mimes as well . This gave them an elegant grace , especially in their hand movements . Their floating effect was accomplished by suspending them from cranes with wires ( digitally removed in post @-@ production ) , or by pulling them on dollies . The cast found the actors in make @-@ up and costume to be terrifying in broad daylight , and Whedon was so impressed with the physical movements of The Gentlemen that he admitted on the DVD commentary that his mocking of mimes in general " went down about 40 % " after the episode was filmed .
As newcomers to the Scooby Gang , Tara Maclay and Giles ' girlfriend Olivia ( Phina Oruche ) are inexperienced with monsters , and were brought in to express " real childlike terror " . Willow had , after three seasons , grown considerably more confident , having found her intellectual and emotional niche at college , and therefore was no longer evincing the terror she once had ; Tara , shy , unsure of herself , and unaccustomed to such experiences , served to fill the gap that Willow 's maturing had created . According to Buffy essayist Patrick Shade , Tara 's and Olivia 's fear " heighten ( s ) our sense of vulnerability and so make these scenes more frightening " . Joss Whedon has said that one of his favorite shots in the episode is of Olivia 's frightened reaction to a Gentlemen floating by her window , leering in at her .
Tara became a regularly recurring character throughout the fourth , fifth and sixth seasons , eventually becoming Willow 's girlfriend in what would be the first long @-@ term lesbian relationship in U.S. television . The writers decided to replace Seth Green , who played Oz , Willow 's lycanthropic boyfriend , after he announced that he would be leaving early in the fourth season . They were unaware at the time that the relationship between Willow and Tara would become romantic , but Benson 's performance and demeanor " made up our minds for us " , according to Whedon . The writers wanted to make the scene in which Tara and Willow move the vending machine by working together " sensual and powerful " , and " a very empowering statement about love ; that two people together can accomplish more than when they 're alone " . Whedon considers the scene one of the " most romantic images we 've put on film " in the course of the series . Benson and Hannigan 's chemistry was impressive enough that two episodes into Tara and Willow 's friendship Whedon took the actors aside and informed them the relationship would be turning romantic .
The episode is a tribute to the silent films that were played in theaters with musical accompaniment , and 27 minutes of it are entirely dialogue @-@ free . Several types of music are used to express what is not being said ; music acts as the narrator . During Giles ' overhead presentation he plays a recorded version of Camille Saint @-@ Saëns ' Danse Macabre . Buffy and Riley 's love theme is presented for the first time when they kiss in this episode . This composition by Christophe Beck — who composed scores for Buffy regularly — pleased Joss Whedon more than the Buffy and Angel love theme . He considered the Buffy @-@ Riley theme more adult , but a bit more strange and blue than the Buffy @-@ Angel theme : a prediction of where the relationship between Buffy and Riley would go .
= = Themes = =
= = = Language = = =
" Hush " explores issues relating to the limits and benefits of language and communication . During the first act of the episode , the characters are presented as being overwhelmed by language that is misused , used as white noise , and employed as a means of avoiding truth . Many of the conversations between characters , even those that are seemingly insignificant to the episode 's plot or to the show 's overall history , deal in some way with various aspects or forms of communication . Whedon stated that he was unaware of how " inevitably coherent " this theme was until after the script was completed . Buffy and Riley are unable to act upon their attraction because they cannot stop babbling , primarily to keep their true identities concealed from each other , but also to avoid becoming closer emotionally . Xander is unable or unwilling to express what Anya means to him , and Anya , still new at interacting with humans , uses blunt , often rude language that distances herself from all the other characters . Giles desperately wants the others to stop talking . Willow considers the women in the Wicca group to be nonsensical , later complaining to Buffy " Talk , all talk . Blah blah Gaia . Blah blah moon , menstrual lifeforce power thingy . You know after a couple sessions I was hoping we would get into something real , but ... " These pseudo conversations are what Buffy essayists Alice Jenkins and Susan Stuart refer to as " locutionary acts " : language that is formed to have meaning but does not engage the listener .
When finally faced with the loss of speech , the characters readily express what they feel . Buffy and Riley , after a series of eyebrow movements and simply mouthed questions , are able to kiss spontaneously . Xander 's actions are very clearly directed toward protecting Anya and punishing Spike for harming her , and likewise , within a matter of moments Anya 's doubts about how Xander feels about her have disappeared and she becomes instantly affectionate towards him again . Tara , who was overcome with shyness while speaking during the Wicca meeting , easily expresses courage when touching Willow , and Willow realizes she has finally found someone who understands and shares what she is seeking .
Without speech , the Scoobies resort to gestures or writing . Humorous misperceptions arise from this gesturing when , for example , Buffy mimes driving in a stake — as though killing a vampire — too close to her pelvis , causing the Scoobies to think she is suggesting masturbating to rid the town of The Gentlemen . In the belfry , while Buffy and Riley are fighting The Gentlemen , Buffy indicates that Riley should smash the box from her dream . He misunderstands and breaks a jar beside it , looks up and grins , awaiting Buffy 's approval . The clumsiness of the characters ' gesturing is in direct contrast to the grace of The Gentlemen , who communicate easily through gestures and other visual signals . Their communication is simple and direct ; nods , head tilts , and hand movements , achieve exactly what they want it to . The Scoobies , however , are confused and accomplish the opposite of what they intend . When they are rendered silent they are also rendered useless , unsure of how to fight The Gentlemen . According to two Buffy essayists , part of the horror stemming from the arrival of The Gentlemen is the silence that makes the people of Sunnydale helpless , easy victims .
Jenkins and Stuart assert that through the loss of speech , the communication in " Hush " is transformed from the senseless locutionary to the perlocutionary : acts upon which ideas are conveyed into instant meaning and action . The scream uttered by Buffy to destroy The Gentlemen has severe implications for them although it has no real meaning . Even Tara 's writing down Willow 's room number before going to her dorm communicates that she has been thinking of Willow and wishes to find her . This act confirms to both Tara and the audience that she is interested in Willow .
= = = Community = = =
Although Sunnydale has long been familiar with demons and monsters who have inhabited the town and fed off its residents , in this episode the conventions by which societal functions are so disrupted by the unexplained silence that significant chaos results , enough to warrant both Riley and Buffy going on patrol to keep order . Buffy and Willow walk down a familiar street , arm @-@ in @-@ arm and easily startled , and see a bank closed and patrons running into a liquor store that is obviously open . The breakdown of order also causes sudden religious fervor ; a group of people have gathered on the street to read the Bible ( Revelation 15 : 1 is written on a signboard — an allusion to the seven angels with seven plagues as there are seven Gentlemen , according to author Nikki Stafford ) . Opportunistic capitalist fervor results in a man selling overpriced dry erase boards . Community , notes Patrick Shade ( citing sociologist George Herbert Mead ) , consists of institutions such as language , religion , and economics . When one institution disappears , Sunnydale residents begin to depend more heavily on the others . Mostly , however , individuals are isolated from one another during the silence . Even the Scoobies find their bonds shaken , as they are unable to use the witty banter that has marked them as a group thus far . ( This awkwardness extended even to the actors : the first silent scene the entire cast attempted was the Scoobies gathering in Giles ' apartment following the discovery that all of Sunnydale 's denizens had lost their voices . It took several rehearsals as the scene came out mistimed , with all of the actors having trouble playing off one another without the use of verbal cues , or all pantomiming over one another . ) Without a common language to fall back upon the Scoobies are forced to depend on their shared history to help them recover well enough to be able to take action .
The resolution to this isolation and ineffectiveness is speaking out : restoring the voices of the people of Sunnydale . Shade states that this facet of the episode gives it a political overtone . Noel Murray from The A.V. Club writes that the silence imposed by The Gentlemen is a metaphor for how evil spreads : " When dissent is stifled , or people fail to tell the truth , or when we ’ re just distracted by other concerns , things can get out of hand . " Authority figures in the series , such as the school principal , the mayor 's office , and the Sunnydale Police Department , repeatedly either abet the town 's endemic evil or choose not to hear about it . During " Hush " , at Giles ' apartment the Scoobies listen to a newscaster reporting that authorities in the town attribute the silence to a flu vaccine gone awry , causing mass laryngitis . Wilcox writes , " [ H ] ow many times will we see those in power maintain such a silence while evil proceeds ? It is not surprising that [ The Gentlemen 's ] attendants wear straitjackets ; their garb suggests the insanity of such behavior — the pretense of civilized politeness while killing is accepted is a matter of course . "
= = = Fairy tales = = =
Two other episodes in the Buffy canon are also based on , or have elements of , fairy tales : " Killed by Death " , where only sick children can see a demon who sucks away their lives , and " Gingerbread " , where a demon takes on the forms of Hansel and Gretel to create a moral panic in Sunnydale . " Hush " is often compared to these episodes because they contain similar elements . Whedon intended The Gentlemen to be Brothers Grimm @-@ like monsters , with Giles playing the role of the wise man , Buffy the princess , and Tara the " little girl wandering through the woods " . In this incarnation , however , Buffy is a swashbuckling princess whose scream saves the town . Instead of being the damsel in distress she is the hero , breaking through a boarded @-@ up window in the belfry , then grabbing a rope and swinging across the room to kill one of The Gentlemen 's footmen by smashing her feet into his chest .
In many Buffy episodes , understanding why evil has appeared is important in knowing how to fight it , but the reasons for The Gentlemen 's arrival and their need to take seven human hearts are never made explicit ; they are simply there . According to Giles ' overhead transparencies , they can appear in any town . Several Buffy scholars assert that a sexual element similar to what is presented in classic fairy tales is evident in " Hush " . Buffy often has prophetic dreams , and it is in a dream that she first sees one of The Gentlemen ; she sees a flash of his face just as Riley touches her shoulder . Buffy has only been sexually intimate twice before : with the vampire Angel , whose lovemaking cost him his soul , and with the womanizing Parker Abrams . Riley is notably different from both and Buffy 's anxiety about becoming intimate with him , according to scholars , either calls The Gentlemen to Sunnydale or is represented by them . The Gentlemen murder by cutting chests open and removing hearts , penetrative acts . In Buffy 's dream Riley says , " If I kiss you , it 'll make the sun go down " and when he does so , it instantly becomes night , as if Buffy has crossed over a threshold . Riley 's kiss creates physical and emotional intimacy , but initiates mental , intuitive knowledge as well : in this episode Buffy learns of Riley 's secret role as a member of The Initiative . Threshold imagery is again used when Tara and Willow block the door with their combined efforts , shutting The Gentlemen out .
= = Reception = =
When the episode was originally broadcast in the United States on December 14 , 1999 , it received a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 1 and a share of 7 , meaning that roughly 4 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 7 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . The episode placed fifth in its timeslot and 93rd among broadcast television for the week of December 13 – 19 , 2001 . It was the most watched program on WB that night , and the second most watched program that week , trailing 7th Heaven .
" Hush " was highly praised when it aired , not only for its riskiness in presenting viewers with extended silence , but for the frightening qualities of The Gentlemen . Robert Bianco from USA Today comments , " ( i ) n a medium in which producers tend to grow bored with their own creations , either trashing them or taking them in increasingly bizarre directions , Whedon continues to find new ways to make his fabulously entertaining series richer and more compelling . With or without words , he 's a TV treasure . " In the Ottawa Citizen , Chuck Barney writes , " I wondered if this enormously entertaining cult favourite would lose some starch once our favourite little slayer moved on to college . But happily , it continues to win us over with the way it deftly bounces between the genres of comedy , horror and romance . The recent silent episode ( Hush ) was brilliant . " Alan Sepinwall in The Star @-@ Ledger calls it a " magnificently daring episode " , explaining " ( w ) hat makes it particularly brave is that , even when Buffy has been failing to click dramatically this year , the show has still been able to get by on the witty dialogue , which is all but absent after the first few scenes . Whedon finds ways to get around that , with several cast members — particularly Anthony Head as the scholarly Giles and Alyson Hannigan as nervous witch Willow — proving to be wonderfully expressive silent comedians . "
Likewise , in the New York Daily News , David Bianculli states that the episode is " a true tour de force , and another inventive triumph for this vastly underrated series " Brian Courtis in Australia 's Sunday Age agrees , and writes that " Hush " is " ( c ) lever , well @-@ written and brightly directed ... Buffy at its best . " Robert Hanks from The Independent in the UK writes that " Buffy the Vampire Slayer , in most weeks the funniest and cleverest programme on TV , reached new heights " with " Hush " . Noel Murray in The A.V. Club calls it an " episode unlike any other , with a lusher score and some of the most genuinely disturbing imagery I 've yet seen on Buffy . " The episode was included among 13 of the scariest films or television shows by Salon.com , and justified by Stephanie Zacharek , who states it " scans just like one of those listless dreams in which you try to scream , and can 't . Everybody 's had ' em — and yet the way the eerie quiet of ' Hush ' sucks you in , you feel as if the experience is privately , and unequivocally , your own . "
" Hush " was the only episode of the entire Buffy series to be nominated for an Emmy Award in the Writing in a Drama Series category . It also received a Writers Guild of America Award nomination . Following the series finale in 2003 , " Hush " continued to receive praise . Lisa Rosen in the Los Angeles Times states that the episode is " one of TV 's most terrifying hours " . Smashing Magazine counted " Hush " as one of the top ten television episodes that inspire creativity . Keith McDuffee of TV Squad named it the best Buffy episode in the series , writing " ( i ) f someone who had never seen Buffy ( blasphemy ! ) asked me to show them just one episode of the show to get them hooked , this would be it " . TV.com named it as the fourth most frightening episode in television history .
Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post listed the scene in which Buffy mimes staking The Gentlemen and its humorous misunderstandings by the other characters among the top five best Buffy moments , especially praising Sarah Michelle Gellar 's ( Buffy ) comedic acting . Nikki Stafford , author of Bite Me ! The Unofficial Guide to Buffy the Vampire Slayer writes " Hush " is " mind @-@ blowing " and " one of the best hours of television ever " . For Buffy studies scholar Roz Kaveney , the primary reason " Hush " was successful was the acting strengths of the central cast . " Hush " is Alyson Hannigan 's ( Willow ) favorite episode of the Buffy series , and the one Nicholas Brendon ( Xander ) considers the most frightening . Series writer Jane Espenson stated the episode " redefined what an episode of television could do " .
= SM UB @-@ 14 =
SM UB @-@ 14 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. The submarine was also known by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy designation of SM U @-@ 26 .
UB @-@ 14 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in November . UB @-@ 14 was a little under 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 141 tonnes ( 125 and 139 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . UB @-@ 14 was broken into sections and shipped by rail to the Austrian port Pola for reassembly . She was launched and commissioned in March 1915 as SM UB @-@ 14 in the German Imperial Navy under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Heino von Heimburg .
Because Germany and Italy were not yet at war when UB @-@ 14 entered service , she was transferred in name only to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . The submarine retained her German captain and crew , and remained under German command as a part of the Kaiserliche Marine 's Pola Flotilla . During her first patrol in the Adriatic , UB @-@ 14 torpedoed and sank the Italian armored cruiser Amalfi . While traveling to Constantinople ( present @-@ day Istanbul ) to join the Constantinople Flotilla , UB @-@ 14 attacked two British troopships , sinking Royal Edward with heavy loss of life , and seriously damaging Southland . All three of UB @-@ 14 's first victims were among the largest ships attacked by U @-@ boats during the war .
Although UB @-@ 14 sank the British submarine E20 in the Sea of Marmara in November 1915 , she spent most of the rest of her career patrolling in the Black Sea . The U @-@ boat had only limited success there , sinking only three ships through the end of the war . After the war ended , the submarine was disarmed at Sevastopol and surrendered at Malta in November 1918 . UB @-@ 14 was broken up in 1920 .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes .
UB @-@ 14 was part of the initial allotment of seven submarines — numbered UB @-@ 9 to UB @-@ 15 — ordered on 15 October from AG Weser of Bremen , just shy of two months after planning for the class began . UB @-@ 14 was laid down by Weser in Bremen on 9 November . As built , UB @-@ 14 was 27 @.@ 88 metres ( 91 ft 6 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Körting 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 7 @.@ 45 knots ( 13 @.@ 80 km / h ; 8 @.@ 57 mph ) , surfaced , and 6 @.@ 24 knots ( 11 @.@ 56 km / h ; 7 @.@ 18 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 14 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 14 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 14 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .
= = Launching and commissioning = =
Most of the UB I boats were shipped to their port of operations by rail , where they were assembled , launched , tested , and commissioned . Information on UB @-@ 14 suggests that she may not have followed that pattern as closely as most other boats . According to several sources , UB @-@ 14 was launched on 23 March 1915 , and commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 14 on 25 March under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Heino von Heimburg a 25 @-@ year @-@ old first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander . Those same sources are silent on UB @-@ 14 's whereabouts at the time , but information on UB @-@ 14 ' later shipment and arrival in the Mediterranean suggest that her initial launch and commissioning may have occurred in Germany .
UB @-@ 14 was shipped by rail in June to the main Austrian naval base at Pola , with an arrival date on the 12th . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . German engineers and technicians that accompanied earlier UB I boats to Pola worked under the supervision of Kapitänleutnant Hans Adam , head of the U @-@ boat special command ( German : Sonderkommando ) . Typically , the UB I assembly process took about two to three weeks .
While UB @-@ 14 made her way to Austria @-@ Hungary , von Heimburg and his German crew were assigned to UB @-@ 15 at Pola . The submarine was temporarily commissioned into the German Imperial Navy before a subsequent transfer to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as its U @-@ 11 . Von Heimburg and his German crew , with one Austrian officer aboard , gained valuable experience in UB @-@ 15 / U @-@ 11 , sinking the Italian submarine Medusa on that U @-@ boat 's first patrol . UB @-@ 15 / U @-@ 11 was handed over to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 16 June , and von Heimburg and his crew were transferred intact on 21 June to UB @-@ 14 , which was still a few days from completion .
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Italy had declined to join its Triple Alliance partners — Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary — in declaring war against the Entente Powers , and opted to remain neutral . Pressure from the United Kingdom and France swayed Italy to sign the secret 1915 Treaty of London on 26 April , in which Italy promised to leave the Triple Alliance and declare war against its former allies within a month in return for territorial gains after the end of the war . Because Italy initially declared war only on Austria @-@ Hungary , Germany and Italy were not officially at war . As a consequence , German submarines operating in the Adriatic and the Mediterranean were all assigned Austrian numbers and flew the flag of Austria @-@ Hungary when making attacks on Italian vessels ; UB @-@ 14 was assigned the designation of U @-@ 26 and entered onto the rolls of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , despite the fact that she remained completely under German control . According to historian Lawrence Sondhaus , this dual numbering system reflected the close submarine cooperation between the two countries and still makes it difficult to distinguish between submarines of the two navies .
On 1 July , UB @-@ 14 joined the Pola Flotilla ( German : Deutsche U @-@ Halbflotille Pola ) , and departed soon thereafter on her first patrol . On the night of 6 / 7 July , Italian armored cruisers that had recently been deployed at Venice undertook a " reconnaissance in force " off Pola in an attempt to discourage future Austrian sorties against the Italian coast . When the Italian ships retired in the early morning hours of the 7th , UB @-@ 14 was about 20 nautical miles ( 37 km ; 23 mi ) off Venice . At dawn , the armored cruiser Amalfi crossed paths with UB @-@ 14 and was torpedoed . Amalfi quickly began listing to port and sank within 30 minutes with the loss of 67 men . At 10 @,@ 118 tonnes ( 9 @,@ 958 long tons ) displacement , Amalfi was one of the largest ships sunk by U @-@ boats during the war . UB @-@ 14 escaped the scene without damage .
= = Aegean Sea = =
Enver Pasha and other Turkish leaders had been pleading with their German and Austrian allies to send submarines to the Dardanelles to help attack the British and French fleet pounding Turkish positions . As part of the German response , UB @-@ 14 was ordered to Constantinople ( present @-@ day Istanbul ) to join U @-@ 21 ; sister boats UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 ; and the UC I boats UC @-@ 14 and UC @-@ 15 in the Constantinople Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote der Mittelmeer division in Konstantinopel ) . Since her intermediate refueling stop at Bodrum was beyond her limited range , UB @-@ 14 departed Pola under tow from an Austrian destroyer on 15 July 1915 . UB @-@ 14 's engine and gyrocompass broke down while off Crete , leaving the boat dead in the water for a time , but temporary repairs by the crew enabled the boat to make Bodrum on the 24th . A repair crew from Constantinople was dispatched — having to travel by train and camel just to reach UB @-@ 14 — and the ship was ready to resume her journey on 13 August .
Shortly after departing Bodrum , UB @-@ 14 had just cleared the Greek island of Kos and was off the nearby island of Kandeloussa when von Heimburg sighted several potential victims . The first ship seen was the British hospital ship Soudan , headed to Alexandria from the Dardanelles . Von Heimburg , seeing the properly identified hospital ship , allowed Soudan to pass unmolested . The next ship was not so lucky , however . It was the unescorted Royal Edward , a Canadian ocean liner pressed into troopship duties . Royal Edward was headed in the opposite direction from Soudan : from Alexandria to the Dardanelles with reinforcements for the British 29th Infantry and a small group with the Royal Army Medical Corps , all of whom were destined for Gallipoli . Von Heimburg launched one of his two torpedoes from about a mile ( 2 km ) away and hit Royal Edward in the stern ; the ship sank stern @-@ first in six minutes , with a large loss of life . Soudan and several other ships were able to rescue nearly 700 men , but over 900 died . Royal Edward , at 11 @,@ 117 gross register tons ( GRT ) , was also among the largest ships hit by U @-@ boats during the war . While evading the rescue ships , which included two French destroyers , UB @-@ 14 's compass broke down again , forcing a return to Bodrum on the morning of the 15th .
After repairs were completed at Bodrum , UB @-@ 14 continued on her way with a passenger , Prince Heinrich XXXVII Reuss of Köstritz ( of the Reuss Junior Line ) who needed passage to Constantinople . During the journey north , UB @-@ 14 came upon another fully loaded troopship near the island of Efstratis , about 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) from Lemnos . At 09 : 51 on 2 September , von Heimburg launched a single torpedo at the British troopship Southland , which was carrying mostly Australian troops headed for Gallipoli . The torpedo scored a hit on the starboard bow of the liner , which immediately began to list in that direction . As the men boarded lifeboats to abandon ship , another torpedo narrowly missed the stricken ship . The British seaplane carrier Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree sped to the scene of the attack , and rescued nearly 700 men from the water . The hospital ship Neuralia was also on the scene and rescued a sizable number . A group of about 40 volunteers stayed on board Southland to help the crew , and with some towing assistance from Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree , were able to beach the ship on Lemnos . In all , fewer than 40 men died in the attack ; among Southland 's survivors was James Martin , who , upon his death less than two months later , became the youngest Australian known to have died in the war . The stricken ship had received serious damage , but was later repaired and returned to service . As with UB @-@ 14 's first two targets , Southland was also the largest ships hit by U @-@ boats , giving von Heimburg and UB @-@ 14 three victims from the list of the largest in their first three attacks .
After the attack on Southland , UB @-@ 14 broke down again and put in at Chanak to await repairs . While there on 4 September , word came of the British submarine E7 entangled in Turkish antisubmarine nets off Nagara Point . Von Heimburg , Prince Heinrich , and UB @-@ 14 's cook , a man by the name of Herzig , set out in a rowboat to observe the Turkish attempts to destroy E7 . After several mines that formed part of the net had been detonated to no avail , von Heimburg and his group rowed out and repeatedly dropped a plumb line until it contacted metal . Then , von Heimburg dropped a Turkish sinker mine with a shortened fuse right on top of E7 . After the hand @-@ dropped mine detonated too close for the British submarine 's captain 's comfort , he ordered his boat surfaced , abandoned , and scuttled . Between shellfire from the Turkish shore batteries and E7 's scuttling charges , von Heimburg and company narrowly escaped harm . While most sources credit E7 's sinking to the Turkish efforts , author Robert Stern contends that von Heimburg and UB @-@ 14 deserve partial credit for the demise of E7 .
= = Gallery = =
= = Black Sea = =
After UB @-@ 14 's repairs were completed , she continued on to Constantinople and , from there , began a patrol in the Black Sea on 3 October . During this patrol , von Heimburg torpedoed the 474 @-@ ton Russian steamer Katja about 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) northwest of Sevastopol on the 7th , and Apscheron , a Belgian steamer expropriated by the Imperial Russian Navy , 24 nautical miles ( 44 km ; 28 mi ) south of Cape Chersonesos on the 8th . After her return to Constantinople on the 19th , UB @-@ 14 was prepared for another patrol in the Black Sea . Just before her scheduled departure , however , the U @-@ boat 's destination was changed from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara and von Heimburg and UB @-@ 14 headed south on 5 November . While UB @-@ 14 had been in port on 30 November , Turkish forces had captured the French submarine Turquoise before the submarine or any of the confidential papers on board could be destroyed . When Turquoise was caught , her commander had not signaled her predicament to anyone , so a scheduled rendezvous with the British submarine E20 — as far as anyone other than Turquoise or the Germans and Turks knew — was still on . UB @-@ 14 had been sent to keep the rendezvous , reportedly going so far as to radio messages in the latest British code . Upon arriving at the designated location , UB @-@ 14 surfaced and fired a torpedo at E20 from a distance of 500 metres ( 550 yd ) . Only when E20 's crew saw the torpedo did they realize something was amiss , but it was too late to avoid the weapon . The torpedo hit E20 's conning tower and sank the submarine with the loss of 21 men . UB @-@ 14 rescued nine men , including E20 's captain who , reportedly , had been brushing his teeth at the time of the attack .
In December , von Heimburg was replaced as UB @-@ 14 's commander by Kapitänleutnant Albrecht von Dewitz , but in early February 1916 , von Heimburg resumed command . UB @-@ 14 's activities between November and May are not reported in sources , but Paul Halpern reports that UB @-@ 14 patrolled in the Black Sea off Trebizond from late May to early June , returning to Constantinople without success .
On 17 June , von Heimburg was recalled to Germany to command the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ commissioned UC @-@ 22 , and was replaced on UB @-@ 14 by Kapitänleutnant Kurt Schwarz , a first time U @-@ boat commander . Soon after Schwarz assumed command , UB @-@ 14 was in the Black Sea in support of a July sortie by the German battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau in the eastern Black Sea . Because the Russian fleet , headquartered at Sevastopol , might have an opportunity to cut off the German warships on the mission , UB @-@ 14 was sent on station off Sevastopol . When the Russian fleet did sortie , Schwarz attempted to torpedo the Imperatritsa Mariya , but was seen and driven off by Russian dreadnought 's screen of destroyers .
After Romania joined the war on the side of the Triple Entente in August and was quickly overrun by the Central Powers , the Russian efforts in the Black Sea in the second half of 1916 were focused in the west . Because German submarines never really accomplished all that much in the Black Sea , the February 1917 resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare led the Germans to temporarily abandon the Black Sea in lieu of the more target @-@ rich Mediterranean . UB @-@ 14 's whereabouts and activities during the latter half of 1916 and the first few months of 1917 are unreported in sources .
On 28 May 1917 , Oberleutnant zur See Ernst Ulrich replaced Schwarz , and , soon after , UB @-@ 14 sailed on the first German patrol of the year in the Black Sea . On 5 June , UB @-@ 14 sank the 155 @-@ ton Russian sailing vessel Karasunda north of Poti ; Karasunda was the last ship credited to UB @-@ 14 . Other than to note that Oberleutnant zur See Bodo Elleke succeeded Ulrich in March 1918 , there is no mention in sources of UB @-@ 14 's activities between June 1917 and November 1918 .
After the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic signed the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk with the Central Powers on 3 March 1918 , exiting the war , forces of the Central Powers surrounded and later seized the port of Sevastopol . UB @-@ 14 was at Sevastopol after the Germany signed the armistice treaty that ended all fighting on 11 November . UB @-@ 14 and the three other surviving Constantinople Flotilla boats were disarmed on 25 November . UB @-@ 14 was scuttled in the Black Sea off Sevastopol in the early months of 1919 .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
= Ryan Leaf =
Ryan David Leaf ( born May 15 , 1976 ) is a former American football player who was a quarterback in the National Football League ( NFL ) for four seasons . He played for the San Diego Chargers and the Dallas Cowboys between 1998 and 2001 , and also spent time with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and the Seattle Seahawks .
Leaf had a successful college career for the Washington State Cougars of Washington State University , where he was a finalist for the Heisman Trophy after his junior year . He was selected as the second overall pick in the 1998 NFL Draft , but his career was short and interrupted by poor play , bad behavior , and injuries . He struggled to stay focused . An episode of NFL Top 10 ranked him as the No. 1 " draft bust " in NFL history .
After his NFL career ended , Leaf completed his degree at Washington State . He would later have legal troubles involving drugs beginning in 2010 , after a Texas judge sentenced him to 10 years ' probation . Two years later , Leaf pleaded guilty to felony burglary and drug possession in Montana . After a suspended sentence with a stint in drug rehabilitation , Leaf began serving a seven @-@ year sentence in state prison in December 2012 . In 2014 , Leaf was sentenced to five years in prison for breaking into a home in Montana to steal prescription drugs , which violated his Texas probation . He was released from prison on December 3 , 2014 .
= = College career = =
After leading Charles M. Russell High School in Great Falls , Montana to the 1992 Montana state title , he considered playing college football as a linebacker at the University of Miami . He chose to be a quarterback for the Washington State Cougars instead after head coach Mike Price , who had coached longtime New England Patriots starting quarterback Drew Bledsoe , called him on the phone while Leaf was watching the Rose Bowl , and told him " If you come here , we 're going there " even though Washington State had not reached the Rose Bowl since 1931 . Leaf told Sports Illustrated that he immediately knew he wanted to accept a scholarship and play for Price .
He played in 32 games for Washington State , starting 24 of them . In his junior year , he averaged 330 @.@ 6 yards passing per game and threw for a then Pacific @-@ 10 Conference ( Pac @-@ 10 ) record 33 touchdowns . He also led the Cougars to their first Pac @-@ 10 championship in school history . Despite his strong early showing in the 1998 Rose Bowl , Washington State was defeated 21 – 16 by the eventual Associated Press national champion Michigan Wolverines .
Leaf was a finalist in balloting for the Heisman Trophy that year , which is given annually to the " most outstanding " player in American college football voted in by media figures and former players . He finished third behind the winner , defensive back Charles Woodson of Michigan , and fellow quarterback Peyton Manning of Tennessee . He was named Pac @-@ 10 Offensive Player of the Year , was named first @-@ team All @-@ American by The Sporting News , and finished second in the nation in passer rating . The Rose Bowl helped make him a possible first overall selection in the NFL Draft , and Leaf decided to forgo his senior year at Washington State and enter the 1998 draft .
= = NFL career = =
= = = 1998 Draft = = =
Peyton Manning and Leaf were widely considered the two best players available in the 1998 draft , and scouts and analysts debated who should be selected first . Many favored Leaf 's stronger arm and greater potential , while others deemed Manning the more mature player and the safer pick . Most observers , however , believed that it would not greatly matter whether Manning or Leaf was drafted first because either would greatly benefit his team .
The Indianapolis Colts owned the first draft pick that year . Team scouts favored Leaf , but Colts president Bill Polian and coaching staff preferred Manning , especially after discovering during individual workouts that he could throw harder than Leaf . Manning also impressed the team during his interview , while Leaf missed his . Leaf 's draft prospect profile described the player as " self @-@ confident to the point where some people view him as being arrogant and almost obnoxious " . Leaf gained about 20 pounds between the end of his junior season and the NFL Combine in February , which Jerry Angelo , one of six experts Sports Illustrated consulted on the choice , described as " a [ negative ] signal " about his self @-@ discipline . All six believed that Manning was the better choice , but the magazine concluded " What does seem reasonably certain is that ... both Manning and Leaf should develop into at least good NFL starters " .
The San Diego Chargers needed a new quarterback after having scored the fewest touchdowns in the league in the previous season . To obtain the second draft pick , the team traded its third overall pick , a future first round pick , a second round pick , and three @-@ time Pro Bowler Eric Metcalf to the Arizona Cardinals , guaranteeing the Chargers the right to draft whichever of the two quarterbacks Indianapolis did not take first . Manning was drafted first by the Colts and Leaf second by the Chargers , who signed him to a four @-@ year contract worth $ 31 @.@ 25 million , including a guaranteed $ 11 @.@ 25 million signing bonus , the largest ever paid to a rookie at the time . Leaf said , " I 'm looking forward to a 15 @-@ year career , a couple of trips to the Super Bowl , and a parade through downtown San Diego . " The night after the draft , Leaf flew to Las Vegas , Nevada on the jet of Chargers owner Alex Spanos and partied all night ; the following day Leaf yawned during his first news conference .
= = = San Diego Chargers ( 1998 – 2000 ) = = =
= = = = 1998 season = = = =
San Diego 's high hopes for Leaf were soon dashed , as his rookie season was marred by poor behavior . Before the season started , he skipped the final day of a symposium mandatory for all NFL draftees and was fined $ 10 @,@ 000 .
Leaf did well in the preseason and led the Chargers to victory in the first two regular @-@ season games . The Chargers won the season opener on September 6 , 1998 , 16 – 14 over the Buffalo Bills despite mistakes from Leaf such as fumbling his first snap and throwing two interceptions ; Buffalo penalties voided two would @-@ be interceptions from Leaf . In the game , Leaf 's 6 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Bryan Still that followed a 67 @-@ yard pass to Still gave San Diego a 10 – 0 lead . However , late in the game , San Diego fell behind 14 – 13 after a Leaf interception . Leaf completed 16 of 31 passes for 192 yards in the opener and 13 of 24 passes for 179 yards ( with 31 rushing yards in 7 carries ) in the second game , a 13 – 7 win over the Tennessee Oilers . In the third game of the season on September 20 , Leaf completed only one of 15 passes for four yards , threw two interceptions and fumbled four times ( losing three ) in a loss to the Kansas City Chiefs . The Thursday before that game , Leaf was hospitalized for a viral infection . Leaf later said that infected turf fibers entered his skin and lymph glands .
After Leaf threw four interceptions in the first half against the New York Giants in the Week 4 game ( September 28 ) , coach Kevin Gilbride benched Leaf in favor of Craig Whelihan . The following game on October 4 against the Indianapolis Colts matched Leaf against the number one 1998 draft pick Peyton Manning . Indianapolis won 17 – 12 , as both quarterbacks completed 12 of 23 passes with an interception each , but Leaf threw for 160 yards ( 23 more than Manning ) , and only Manning threw a touchdown . Manning was never sacked ; Leaf was sacked four times . Inside the final two minutes and San Diego down 14 – 6 , Leaf 's 56 @-@ yard pass to Charlie Jones set up a one @-@ yard Natrone Means touchdown run , but Leaf 's potential tying two @-@ point conversion pass to Webster Slaughter was incomplete .
Whelihan replaced Leaf on November 8 after Leaf completed only 4 of 15 passes and became starter on a permanent basis afterwards . Leaf finished the season having played 10 games with 1 @,@ 289 passing yards , 45 @.@ 3 % completed passes , 2 touchdowns , and 15 interceptions , with an abysmally poor quarterback rating of 39 @.@ 0 .
Leaf related poorly to both the media and his teammates , whom he tended to blame for his poor play . In a locker @-@ room incident during Leaf 's rookie year , he was caught on camera screaming at San Diego Union Tribune reporter Jay Posner , and was physically restrained by Junior Seau . He soon developed a reputation for a poor work ethic to the point of occasionally being found on the golf course while the other quarterbacks were studying film . After Leaf 's rookie season ended , Charger safety Rodney Harrison described it as " a nightmare you can 't even imagine , " adding : " If I had to go through another year like that , I 'd probably quit playing . "
= = = = 1999 season = = = =
Leaf missed his second season due to a shoulder injury suffered 20 minutes into the Chargers ' first training camp workout on July 23 , 1999 . Leaf had surgery to fix a labral tear in his throwing shoulder . During an August training camp , a fan heckled Leaf : " Hey , Ryan , you 're the worst draft choice in NFL history . You make Heath Shuler look like an All @-@ Star . " Leaf , accompanied by a coach and security guards , walked towards the fan and asked a question . The fan began walking closer to Leaf , and two coaches restrained Leaf , with another Chargers employee saying " No , don 't do it , Ryan . Don 't do it . " Leaf later explained the incident : " ... what I wanted to do was say , ' Hey , look , I 've grown up , I 'm calm about it , I would like to understand why you would say that about me . ' "
He was placed on injured reserve but made headlines in early November when he got into a shouting match with GM Bobby Beathard and one of the coaches , resulting in a fine , a suspension without pay and an apology by Leaf ( four weeks later ) . During his suspension , he was caught on video playing flag football at a San Diego park , a violation of his contract according to Charger management .
= = = = 2000 season = = = =
In the final game of the 2000 preseason , Leaf completed a pass to Trevor Gaylor to seal a 24 – 20 win over the Arizona Cardinals . After the game , he appeared on the cover of the September 4 , 2000 issue of Sports Illustrated along with headline " Back from the Brink " . The cover story characterized his comeback as " an ascent from pariah to possible standout pro passer " . He started the first two games of the 2000 season but completed less than half of his pass attempts and threw five interceptions but only one touchdown . In the season opener on September 4 , a 9 – 6 loss to the Oakland Raiders , Leaf completed 17 of 39 passes for 180 yards and threw three interceptions , including one on a 4th @-@ and @-@ inches play with 1 : 37 left and sealing the Raiders victory . After the game , Leaf 's left hand was swollen , and a late hit from Regan Upshaw gave Leaf a chin gash that required seven or eight stitches . The following game , a 28 – 27 loss to the New Orleans Saints , Leaf completed 12 of 24 passes for 134 yards and threw his first touchdown pass since his rookie season , a 20 @-@ yard pass to Curtis Conway ; however , Leaf threw two interceptions , including one that ended the Chargers ' final drive .
Coach Mike Riley started Moses Moreno for the Week 3 game , but Leaf took over after Moreno went down with a shoulder injury . Leaf injured his wrist when he threw an interception in the Week 4 game and next played in Week 11 . By October , Leaf speculated that the Chargers would release him after the season . Late that month , reports suggested that Leaf lied about a hand injury to get out of practice and play golf instead .
In the Week 11 game on November 12 against the Miami Dolphins , Leaf replaced Moreno mid @-@ game . Leaf threw an interception on his fourth snap , led a touchdown drive in the Chargers ' next series , and left the game with nearly a minute to go after straining a hamstring on a scramble . This game was the first since 1993 where three quarterbacks for a team - in this case Leaf , Moreno , and Jim Harbaugh - threw interceptions in one game . On November 19 against the Denver Broncos , Leaf completed 13 of 27 passes and reached career single @-@ game highs in quarterback rating ( 111 @.@ 8 ) , passing yards ( 311 ) , and passing touchdowns ( 3 ) , but the Chargers lost the game 38 – 37 . After a 0 – 11 start , the Chargers got their first win on November 26 , 17 – 16 over the Kansas City Chiefs . San Diego took a 14 – 3 lead early in the second quarter after Leaf made two touchdown passes to Freddie Jones , but the offense struggled later in the game , and Leaf threw two interceptions , one of which was returned for a touchdown .
Leaf would again play poorly , as he threw four interceptions on December 3 against the San Francisco 49ers and completed only 9 of 23 passes on December 10 against the eventual Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens . He improved on December 17 , completing 23 of 43 passes for 259 yards , 2 touchdowns , and 1 interception , but San Diego lost to the Carolina Panthers 30 – 22 . In the Chargers ' final drive , with nearly two minutes remaining in the game , Leaf completed a 10 @-@ yard pass to Curtis Conway that referees ruled was six inches short of the end zone . On first down , however , miscommunication between Leaf and running back Jermaine Fazande resulted in a f | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
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